2 ti i AA Dan : fi es Na i rr 4 i : HT xi , i ; ee p . yi oa f Fe) ene et: \ 4 4 ae 4 3 \ 7 A ay ae : r . aa ‘4 7 5 eae : ee ; ‘ ae a 5 a | nN y em ‘ 2 Fi A 7 ht H iq He ae ee eee eee ee — a 5 ae : pe AOL AS naa Sree oe as wy ie ( 7, rs poh a SR ay RAs AON Rock : Bees % aS 3 Lea ie 4 ‘i 3 . oh * AGS ree ‘2 Btn Re 3 bh SAEs Soave ‘ Ne A ae Tu , vr iy Mi / / & : ? i 7 ae SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS “EVERY MAN IS A VALUABLE MEMBER OF SOCIETY WHO, BY HIS OBSERVATIONS, RESEARCHES, AND EXPERIMENTS, PROCURES KNOWLEDGE FOR MEN ’’—SMITHSON (PUBLICATION 3332) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 1935 The Lord Baltimore (Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. Ae ADVERTISEMENT The present series, entitled “ Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collec- tions,” is intended to embrace all the octavo publications of the Institution, except the Annual Report. Its scope is not limited, and the volumes thus far issued relate to nearly every branch of science. Among these various subjects zoology, bibliography, geology, mineralogy, anthropology, and astrophysics have predominated. The Institution also publishes a quarto series entitled “ Smith- sonian Contributions to Knowledge.” It consists of memoirs based on extended original investigations, which have resulted in important additions to knowledge. C. G. ABBOT, Secretary of the Snuthsonian Institution. (111) vec) Pelt oeheue is JT Wee is e le -, ho N CONTENTS Hroiicka, Ares. The hypotrochanteric fossa of the femur. 49 pp, 64 pls: Aug. 4, 1934. (Publ. 3250.) Moztey, ALAN. New fresh-water mollusks from northern Asia. Zippel ple eis: oO. TO34.. (Publ 3253.) Merer, Frorence E. Lethal response of the alga Chlorella vulgaris to ultraviolet rays. 12 pp., 3 pls., Aug. 6, 1934. ( Puble) 3254.) Harrincton, Joun P. A new original version of Boscana’s historical account of the San Juan Capistrano Indians of southern Calitornia. 62) pp. 2 pls. June 27, 1934. (Publ. 3255:) Meter, Florence E. Colonial formation of unicellular algae under various light conditions. 14° pp., 3 pls., Oct. 8, 1934. (Publ. 3256.) MereR, FLoRENCE E. Effects of intensities and wave lengths of light on unicellular green algae. 27 pp., 3 pls., Oct. 11, 1934. (Publ. 3257.) CocHRAN, Doris M. Herpetological collections from the West Indies made by Dr. Paul Bartsch under the Walter Rathbone Bacon Scholarship, 1928-30. 48 pp., Oct. 15, 1934. (Publ. 3259. ) Assot, C.G. Samuel Pierpont Langley. 57 pp., 6 pls., Aug. 22, 1934. (Publ. 3281.) Cocuran, Doris M, The skeletal musculature of the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus Rathbun. 76 pp., Jan. 22, 1935. (Publ. 3282.) RESSER, CHARLES ELMER. Recent discoveries of Cambrian beds in the northwestern United States. 10 pp., Nov. 6, 1934. (Publ. 3284.) Jounston, Eart S. Phototropic sensitivity in relation to wave lensth) 917 pp) 2 pls.,.4hgs,, Deco, 1934—, (Publ, 3285)) Assot, C. G. Remarkable lightning photographs. 3 pp., 1 pl., Nov. 2, 1934. (Publ. 3287.) Assot, C. G. and Atpricu, L. B. The standard scale of radiation. 2 pp, Nov..2) 1934. 1( Publ. 3288.) Stronc, Witt1AmM Duncan. Archeological investigations in the Bay Islands, Spanish Honduras. 176 pp., 33 pls., 38 figs., Rebs 2.1935. “( Publ. 3200: ) (v) C a a i ; SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 92, NUMBER 1 THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC: FOSSA OF THE FEMUR (WirTH 14 PLates) BY ALES HRDLIGKA Curator, Division of Physical Anthropology, U.S. National Museum (PUBLICATION 3250) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION AUGUST 4, 1934 Tbe Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A. i at Cae THE, HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA OF THE FEMUR By ALES HRDLICKA Curator, Division of Physical Anthropology, U.S. National Museum (WitH 14 PLatEs) CONTENTS PAGE tt errdataaOnnthestOSSdee ois ances oracles cic reretaicerac rece crseane fares otainians site hers I Summary of observations from the literature..............--.-..+-...--- 13 iNew DSerVaAtlOns On themlOSSar a crevcrs ie misisieteisicio a cyelscieicterstorsy sicieretniel a eetel reveals 160 PIE Foc ce ATMA ONIIUITS 3 ere ca Wie saree dahsscgelraics = “ote rays|el sofa: anenoys folayate tans yavera a9. sie ouniars 17 APS GOS sim INE WWiGelkel sino Godegoooasscousaagap paoteossocsaca souls 17 ahearosca ine Olde vWioridmemonkceys vere cer mals ote eitees aoe istsl acer 18 Pie tOSsa UM eATIELOPOIG APES =. cocussoyey ce ae Shae ccna wre ore ay ayc cher eee! ora) wha ale\ als foxes 19 Summary OL Observations on, anthropoidy apes «pce cases cers wal ss 22 MM emrOSSarmimMmeatel Vantin Atlee verierc te sarc crate minal eu -veicietnore erercistardet ae cere steyaserst ayes 23 lihemossauin laters andemoGdernumant asc icseeiecia tlaaie olctanericio til cieae 23 Mhe xossa before and about time or bitth..4:2. 20s. aes ce se aes eee © 24 The fossa in children, adolescents, and subadults..................... 26 USS RWW les ergs erensiere ore noses ceever ctu cee cle rea haten aul UN rar alate totaly aN 2 USS SINE CROSS HI ree sate ole corsichoetiacer actrees ie ensuere aa oT anero eriareuene meron sere tsalS 27 NOM Dynasty ey ptiaiiss s,s aes cio hore npcisslat sic cheng, se Seeley S Tels. etalon 28 Re lIIS TOI Chee CL UVa Siels sce ceoncl bes tone = craic oe epevesar nee MoS nthe total cieece 28 INorthaeNmenicatlalndiansiweccaaceec icc Oe eee onl 2 SUM ES SALTON ie, PAS rai adel cents dre) ata tes be ciate Gieectere ciletetav ele yels eye ditiaee apsieus te 30 Sexpandnsid euinee vent eabOones wn sank eer eee se eee eine: 2 Be mrOsSapitwal clu ltsiye er yet cea wai wn aua reledco Pa earant uni aeceMie au tou, WG ey Matai 32 MINES TOSSA AN Capa tyme ray: aap cen scape y crane cueyeeh ene aca ae vas eeye cata en ate 35 NC OLESCEILSE COMpPaLedmawatheadmltSeee cere ere erro cies 36 Ditkerencesmm, adultseinmthestwOrsexesun) jee cence aoe rcie cia cielsie 40 Ditterencesmineadults)astto: siden ease ee eee eee ee eee Le eee 4I He CLOSSAMIN AEE ap OUt, satrvehya ee stekeyay ae becakee lereeyatilapalenke bac ee oustamiveus Mimnteiare 43 SIZE BO Pa ted HOSS Ay peta! TdepriN Sneak atom eh Ste Meee ee creatures Kota aR Ge 44 fem histonyaoti the iOssdsee yan We emia oui wane cds omnes ie eae 45 eilientossav in lowersimaminals +(e aeirasenbanl nto te teas ee alte aes ora ea 45 SSRIS itoes hoy aerial eaten are armen E pte OL tee acaba MRR a pa cya ge dy 46 EARLIER DATA ON THE FOSSA Under the name of “ la fosse hypotrochantérienne ”’, Emile Houzé * in 1883 described a hollow located in the superior posterior and ex- *Houzé, E., Sur la présence du troisiéme trochanter chez homme. Bull. Soc. Anthrop. Bruxelles, vol. 2, pp. 21-52, 1883-84. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 92, No. i 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 ternal part of the femoral diaphysis and running parallel to the long axis of the same. The borders of this hollow, as well as the rough surface of its floor, served, he thought, for the attachment of the terminal fibers of the great gluteal muscle.* The fossa, he said further, may exist alone or be associated with a third trochanter. He found it to be “a constant character ”’ of the femora of the upper paleolithic of Furfooz, Belgium, and frequent in those of similar age of France ; but it was less frequent in the neolithic age, and “ positively rare in pronounced form in modern man.” * The data of Houzé (imperfectly summed up later by Pearson and Bell*), were as follows: With Femora hypotrochanteric examined fossa (341) Percent ai lveamaanice iMtelOOz sa: screen ceases 20 100.- Grenelen ceria 2 sey etree 21 57-- Cro-Macnonm Uy.senn eee 2 (100) Madeleine fe. c sees aes eee I (100) Neolithic of Belgium and France....... TIO 44.- NFER OVINE TAM ric)er5,- = I KOLA MENS el cwn rele aay sleaele sax’ aisha 53 2 a Several varieties. In all these American monkeys the gluteal ridge, generally rather distinct, is marginal or nearly so; and in the Alouattas and the Ateles there is frequently on the upper part of the ridge a trace to fair development of a third trochanter, but not of the lemuroid form— 18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 more of an anthropoid nature. In none, however, barring one adoles- cent Ateles, is there any trace of the hypotrochanteric fossa. The exceptional specimen (skeleton no. 984, U.S.N.M.) is, accord- ing to Gerrit S. Miller, Jr., a true Ateles, and from Brazil, and the only specimen from that region in the Museum collections. Both its femora, and particularly the right, show the hypotrochanteric fossa well developed, unmistakable, and very similar to that in human sub- jects. The gluteal ridge is plainly discernible, and there is no third trochanter. The proximal fourth of the shaft is stout and approaches the quadrilateral. The fossa on the right femur measures IT by 2.5, on the left 10 by 2.5, millimeters. It is situated on the posterior part of what here is the lateral surface and is as usual directly adjacent to the gluteal ridge. Except for the conformation of the shaft at this level the fossa is exactly in location, form, and character as in a human femur. It is strange that this should be the only specimen with the fossa among all the Ateles and the other American monkeys examined, but such is the case. THE FOSSA IN OLD WORLD MONKEYS Hypotrochanteric Fossa in Old World Monkeys No. of femora Fossa in Baboonsys young. ese ianie cists water eeters 2 Adu each oO ete 12 Dheropitheci; adolescent 22.42.32 .505-. adults fois.cscnisceecmares 2 INasalisura cli sc een sro secreress crsrersenanel reel 2 Cynopitheci, adolescent <....-......¢.. 2 ACULE: Herve wia/eroisysieverel s.erae eis 4 Erythrocebi, subadult) e]]II0) gt C6 9° 8z Caee Out c°6 iho (z) (2) (Z1) (¥1) (S) (+) (1) wiyatisd falkevesite/ ke “oie Aetieiiey ‘si ay plian atte) le tjellis! aula) s/ pew sinatis, (zr) Wpy +6 6°9+ 9° SI 9 SI +6 Tae: (£) (¢1) (S) (S) (£) (1) Geet c eecuicie Ms ltos, et ahelel tence bicwilaltalrbale) el \< slek> (ze) ayruaan [ :ssuei() (6°Z) 6°c Orig ie O59 L:Sg ( 1) (1) ( 1) | (£) (of) RiMGdcickis edirlipine debe (hale .¢)retel 6isrelia) ».ce/nee ce cenai., (Sf) yOpy go Ones eiipige re oiAal ie | aie, ce: te Pe cfer ion mil iceiry ch 0 Ad OntieO MY awry Ott Oey Ce eC OES OC y (Z) uarpyiyy) | :ssuewivis pue suoqd!*) 9A0015 yoursip -BSsOj B aqnog peounou | winipeut | umipeyy | 9e1epoyy qynq aovlyL quasqy PIOW 9} JO ‘ON YoTYA. JO -O1d aaoqy ews CUM PUD NSA) sady prodosyyup ur Dssoy I1AdJUDYIOA OG K FT NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—-HRDLICKA Zl (moderate), the juveniles a larger proportion of the medium forms, which means that on the whole the fossa is better represented before than in the adult stage. Some interesting conditions bearing on this point will appear later in this paper. We find in the gorillas the hypotrochanteric fossa differing con- siderably from that in the other anthropoid apes and especially from that in man. It is generally spacious, oblique, at least partly marginal (in the lateral border), situated low on the shaft—reaching in some instances nearly to the middle—often shallow, and very decidedly rougher than in man. There was found no marked extension of the fossa over the lateral border onto the anterior surface. In four of the pronounced cases the ‘‘ fossa”? was a marked groove. The frequency of the occurrence of the fossa in the older gorillas is nearly the same as in the chimpanzees, but is less than in the orangs. The age differences are not so marked as they are in the orangs. There is a mild diminution during the growth period of the “ absents ” and “traces”, and but a slight increase in the more pronounced forms of the fossa from adolescents to adults. On the whole, it may be said that the fossa in the lowland gorilla increases moderately in frequency as well as in development from childhood to adult life. In one adolescent left gorilla femur the hypotrochanteric fossa con- sists of two superimposed hollows, the upper of medium, the lower of submedium dimensions. There is no mistaking the second hollow for Appleton’s pectineal fossa or accessory adductor groove. The hypotrochanteric fossa in the gorilla, according to all the indi- cations of its large rugose surface, gives attachment to a powerful muscle—doubtless the gluteus maximus; and the same must be true, it would seem, of at least the more pronounced fossae in the orang and the chimpanzee. In none of these forms is the gluteal ridge, even when most distinct, of the human character and development. Furthermore, neither in the gorillas nor in the orangs have I seen any trace of a third trochanter; in the chimpanzees, though this feature occurs in roughly 9 percent of the femora, it is never as markedly developed as in some humans. It would seem to follow from all this that the fossa plays a more important functional part in these apes than it does in man; in man, on the other hand, the gluteal ridge and tuberosity (third trochanter) play the greater role. All this will be considered further under the human materials. In the chimpanzees, the frequency of the fossa in children is much less, in older subjects slightly less, than in the orang, and its charac- teristics are slightly more like those in the human femur. None of the 22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 fossae in this genus was of the nature of a groove. In location they were in general more or less marginal and not infrequently rather low. In the two femora of one adult, each with a pronounced oblique fossa, the latter, after hollowing markedly the lateral border, extends on the right bone largely, on the left partly, onto the anterior surface of the shaft. The age differences in the incidence and development of the fossa in the chimpanzees are very noticeable. There is a steady and marked decrease from childhood to adult life in the “absent” and “trace” records, which indicates that the fossa continues to originate and develop during the growth period. Its greatest frequency as well as its optimum development are evidently not reached in this genus until within the adult period. The fossa occurs with strikingly less frequency in the children than in the adults. SUMMARY OF OBSERVATIONS ON ANTHROPOID APES The gibbons and siamangs, so far as the hypotrochanteric fossa is concerned, show conditions more like those of the lower apes than those of the larger anthropoids. A distinct form is rare, occurring in roughly 5 percent of the femora. In the three large anthropoid apes the fossa is frequent—as a distinct to pronounced depression—in the adolescent and adult femora, being present in 73.8 percent of the gorillas, 75.8 percent of the chimpanzees, and 80.4 percent of the orangs. In most gorillas, and not infrequently in the chimpanzees, the fossa is situated low on the shaft—decidedly lower than in humans; in the orangs the level of the hollow is nearly the same as that in man. In all the orangs and generally in the gorillas and chimpanzees the fossa is partly to wholly marginal, involving the lateral border of the shaft. Occasionally, the fossa will encroach on the anterior sur- face, and in four orang femora it was completely displaced to this surface. In one gibbon and four gorilla femora, instead of a circumscribed fossa, there was a marked groove without any lower (distal) boundary. In many of the gorillas, less commonly in the chimpanzees, and occasionally in the orang, the fossa is spacious and rough and has plainly served for the attachment of a powerful muscle, doubtless the gluteus maximus. NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—-HRDLICKA 2 wn THE FOSSA IN EARLY MAN The hypotrochanteric fossa, according to Boule (“ L’homme fos- sile”’, p. 248, 1913), is present in a rudimentary form in the casts of the femora of Neanderthal and Spy, and clearly in the two femora of La Ferrassie I; but it is wanting in those of La Chapelle, and in La Ferrassie II the bones are too damaged to permit of the deter- mination. Pearson and Bell, who also doubtless examined only casts, make some erroneous assertions. We may repeat here what they say Cp. 453)! The fossa hypotrochanterica is well marked in Neanderthal R., and is quite definite in Neanderthal L. and in Spy I and Spy Il..... Galley Hill has a slight hypotrochanteric fossa on the mesial side of the ridge preceding the third trochanter. The fossa also appears in all Verneau’s femora whether of Cromag- non or Negroid type. Homo mousteriensis (Hauseri) is defective at this point. We may conclude that the fossa hypotrochanterica is usual in all types of Primo- genial Man. The writer, who has examined all the originals and has, moreover, first-hand casts at his disposal, finds the following conditions: Pitheeanthnopus femur. 2... 6.5205. 36: Fossa existed, now almost filled with secondary deposits of the bone, so that only a trace remains. Neanderthal, right femur 22:5. 05--...- Moderate fossa. left oT a Mle Rte arctan acsyaiers No definite trace. Spy. Sutiale MemmOLa). clei. ae tala ee ieieres) at Moderate fossa present on each. Degcrea itr mtmicles Let ects) ceetansesya «eee clteh sl Traces of a fossa. ar @uiniaectult. Lene en brcmyite sane lsia ste No fossa. The Galley Hill femur does not belong in this cofmpany; and the hypotrochanteric fossa is never located mesially to the gluteal ridge. The above conditions of the fossa in the adults of early man do not differ substantially from those in man of today. THE FOSSA IN LATER AND MODERN MAN As already mentioned in connection with the anthropoid apes, the whole of what may be called the gluteal region on the posterior aspect of the proximal part of the shaft of the femur differs in man in important ways from that in the anthropoid and lower apes. Adult man, in general, has a more pronounced and especially more rugged gluteal ridge; this ridge is only exceptionally, and then usually but partly, marginal; the gluteal tuberosity (third trochanter) is much 24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 more common and more developed ; the hypotrochanteric fossa is as a rule relatively high on the shaft and is hollowed in the lateral part of the posterior surface, rarely approaching, and never embedded in, the lateral border of the bone. And there are other differences, which will be brought out in our detailed studies. All of this implies that there must exist, between man and the rest of the primates, important differences in muscular attachments and in other soft parts of the region in question. In comparing the features of this region in man with those of the other primates, we are comparing, therefore, what basically are homologous formations, but formations that in their ultimate development in man and the other genera are no longer necessarily fully equivalent morphologically or functionally. The hypotrochanteric fossa, which is here more especially considered, al- though present and even frequent in man, may thus be in him an “ emerited ” survival, a still frequent but no longer functionally im- portant memento of his past, rather than a still fully active cog of his mechanism. It may be useful to bear these reflections in mind when confronted with some of the curious results of this study. THE FOSSA BEFORE AND ABOUT TIME OF BIRTH Material Examined Femora Ws Se aWihites: (miscellaneous) cemiele irae sitet 161 U.S. Negroes (fullblood and mixed-blood)..... 262 The first traces of the fossa may be discerned occasionally as early as the fifth month of the intrauterine life; their detection is made easier by the use of a magnifying glass of medium power. Its first plain representation is a well-démarked, not depressed, evenly reticu- lated roughness. As the age of the bones advances, this area assumes slowly the character of a hollow, and the reticulation of its floor diminishes until, in a fully formed fossa, the floor is generally fairly smooth and uniform. The formation of the first distinct stages of the fossa is mostly associated with the appearance on its mesial border of the first traces of the gluteal ridge, but the fossa may antedate the ridge, or it may begin to develop later. We shall return to this discussion. NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—-HRDLICKA 25 The data on the fossa in fetal life and infancy follow : Hypotrochanteric Fossa in Fetal and Infantile Femora of U.S. Whites er Slight Dee Obl length of f Mod- . Above Pro- tah cadlagenye P None Trace pea erate Medium medints Ec eieda cm Percent|Percent | Percent Popeent | Percent percent Porcens if towig5 Gifemora))..’.:. govg))||) 9)? | BetOrs O59 (hs plemOra))l sew qaee 5 S)13 | 2Onanl ee Ol 7 Ato 4-95) (1oifemora)e 2. >. = 57-9 | 20.1) 25.1 5 tor5.95)(14 femora));......2| 35.7 | 28:6" | 28.6 Falk Gita OO hu Golmemora)).. a0 --|-30-— -113353.\-30.— | 6627 tO 7.05 (38 temora yen...) 18.4 ly 34). 2) || 31).6)\| 10.5 2.6 256) | Sites o5(28ifemora) 2 221729 42.0 20 4) 14 3h 356 9.4 to 10.3 (6 femora)...... (In|sufficie|nt) a As extracted from the body; all measurements by the writer. 6 Ina femur of 2.2 cm. Hy potrochanteric Fossa in Fetal and Infantile Femora of U. S. Negroes pi Slight Oblique length of femur Mod- * Above Pro- (with cartilages) None | Trace pee ere Medium recites nounced em Percent| Percent] Percent} Percent} Percent| Percent} Percent 1.7 to 2.95 (9 femora)...... 88.9 Tita 2 Bacons.O5) (isi teniora)eae GOR2N ers e455 44! Ato4-95 (20 femora). .¢. s..|| 50-— ) 40.— | 10.— 5 to 5.95 (42 femora).......| 47.6 | 26.2 | 26.2 | 6) £01695) (40;femora) ea.) - 2725) | 3255 |) $255 7 itor 7.5, (7/0 femora)... 27% -(6302— | 35-7 1 25e7, Tol I.4 Ritors Oo (Si temora)! 6,2 12 6) | 20n4 IN 3e 3h) (O. Ou) 4a U2a— Oto los/5 (a7 femora) e-2 2|e EDS) |) 2024) 920.40) 023.15 5.9 a As extracted from the body; all measurements by the writer. + In a femur of 2.95. The American Negro series, regrettably, includes admixture of white blood and cannot therefore be fully representative. At it is, the two racial groups show no great differences, and some of those that do appear are doubtless due largely to insufficiency in number. Shortly before term (femur length 6 to 6.95 cm), when the numbers 26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 of specimens become more adequate, the conditions in the two groups are seen to be closely alike. About and for a brief time after birth (femur length 7 to 8.95 cm) the relations are as follows: Comparison of the Fossa in Fetal and Infantile Femora of U. S. Whites and Negroes | | | | Oblique length of femur oneon suet Moderate | Medium Above (with cartilages) Ree aistinice medium 7 to 8.95 cm Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent U. S. Whites (66 femora)...... | 56.1 278 Teal oe Tea U.S. Negroes (121 femora)... | 59.4 28.9 8.3 Das 0.8 The differences are still small but apparently significant. In the white femora the fossa shows throughout a slight advantage. At and shortly after birth the fossa may therefore be said to tend to be slightly more frequent and more commonly slightly better developed in the U. S. White than it is in the U. S. Negro. The main point, however, shown by the above records is the gradual appearance and growth of the fossa during those early stages. As the age of the fetus and later that of the infant advances, the fossa be- comes steadily more frequent and more substantial. In view of these data it is evident that the formation of the hypotrochanteric fossa, initiated in rare instances as early as the fifth month of intrauterine life, begins in different femora at different periods before and even after birth. THE FOSSA IN CHILDREN, ADOLESCENTS, AND SUBADULTS The available juvenile femora, although collectively considerable in number, when divided into the more obvious ontogenetic periods are still not always sufficient for our purposes. The inadequacy applies particularly to the bones of the children and adolescents of Whites, which are scarce in all our collections. On the other hand, however, there are excellent series from racial groups that were not represented in the fetal material, and altogether there is enough to bring out the most salient facts about the feature under scrutiny. The subdivisions to be used are: 1, The earlier childhood (up to approximately 6 years of age); 2, later childhood (approximately 7 to 13 years) and earlier adolescence (both upper and lower epiphyses still detached) ; 3, later adolescence (lower epiphyses alone detached) ; and 4, subadult (approximately 19 to 21 years; all epiphyses attached but lower still imperfectly so or but recently). NO: 2 THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—HRDLICKA 27 In view of the inequalities of the series it will be best to give each racial group a brief separate consideration. U. S. WHITES Hypotrochanteric Fossa in U. S. Whites, Children, Adolescents, and Subadults Of Small which Mod- : Above | _ Pro- No. of femora None | Trace ete aera Mech | Raraer eee er reael ae groove About term and Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent |/Percent shortly after (66)*.| 18.2 | 37.9 | 27.3 | 12.1 3.- 15 Adolescents and Subadults (26)... E504 (1 E54 | 1524) 1034-6 |) 11.5) |) 3.8 | 3-8 « From data given in preceding section. Though the number of specimens in the adolescent and subadult class is small, they nevertheless show that remarkable changes in the fossa have been effected during the growth period. The proportion of the “absent”, “ trace ”, and “ small”? have markedly diminished, and the proportions of the “moderate” to “pronounced” cases have correspondingly increased. The fossa plainly has continued to de- velop, and in a few instances has probably even originated, during the adolescent period. U. S. NEGROES Hypotrochanteric Fossa in U. S. Negroes, Children, Adolescents, and Subadults Of Small which Mod- ‘ Above | Pro- No. of femora None | Trace te See Medium) ediumlncunced man groove About term and Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent ||Percent shortly after (121).] 26.4 | 33.— | 28.9 8.3 2.5 0.8 Childrenks(6)see eee (Insu/fficient| for co}/mparis|on) Adolescent and _ Subacdultn(lOO) mee) shee elon Ft E OR 3G ea N lei a nates |i cAree) 4 One a groove. The “absents”’ in these series have probably remained much the same and would seem to indicate that in this racial group no new fossae have originated after infancy. For the rest there are seen the same phenomena as in the Whites, but still more pronounced: the “traces” and the “ small’’ fossae have diminished, the “ moderate ”’ to “ pronounced” have very markedly increased. The fossa has kept on growing during the adolescent to subadult period. 28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 XII DYNASTY EGYPTIANS This material is from the deep rock shafts just to the south of the pyramid of Lisht and is identified as of about 2000 B. C. It includes 135 juvenile femora, which, as to the hypotrochanteric fossa, show the following conditions : Hypotrochanteric Fossa in XII Dynasty Egyptians, Children and Adolescents Of Small which r . Mod- . Above Pro- No. of femora None | Trace Bee mete Medium) eciiminounced a groove | ae Younger children Percent! Percent} Percent| Percent) Percent} Percent] Percent|| Percent (up to about 6 VEAES) (55) is cee ase 22\°6) ||. BOn4: | 729 un 4|u Geer 1.8 Older children (approx. 7 to 13 years) "(4'5)e.s. 254) S29) tity | 228.0) 2252 2a 2.2 22 Adolescents (all) (5) ei reine Coie abe QGhl sca |, T4e gil Ta. 34) 280m 22.0) Mize Tell Geers) The above data show the same progressive appearance and de- velopment of the fossa as did the U. S. Whites and Negroes, but still more strikingly. In the adolescents the fossa is nearly universal, and in 40 percent of the femora of this stage of life it is markedly developed. In 6 (17.1 percent) of the adolescent bones the fossa is a marked groove. This feature evidently is also one of later development, for it is absent in the earlier stages of the growth period. PREHISTORIC PERUVIANS There are 114 pre-Columbian juvenile femora from Pachacamac and Chicama, on the coast of Peru. They register thus: Hypotrochanteric Fossa in Prehistoric Peruvians, Children and Adolescents = noe | Of Small | which No. of femora | None | Trace but Moe Medium pore Eun al a aistinict mediumjnounced|| ¢,<.4- groove Children (all, mostly Percent} Percent| Percent| Percent} Percent} Percent} Percent|| Percent older) (@5)5 a2 a2: PAsya(yel| Mite e || auiigrh, | PXOn— | 29%) 2.9 2.9 || (2.9) Younger adolescents (4S) heen eter iets 8E3 4.2 853) | DORA 3base|2One | Onna (Ge2)) Older adolescents (Bi) eee ete ne BD AIR ace OS 75|| U2 35511 22400) oO) alin || n(GniS)) NOL THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—HRDLICKA 29 In the main the conditions are much like those in the previous groups, the only exception being that one of the rather pronounced fossae in an older child is a groove. There is also a sensible propor- tion of fossa-grooves in both the adolescent groups. In the older adolescents, it may be noted, the fossa is again almost universal, and in nearly 40 percent—practically the same as in the Egyptians—it is above medium to pronounced in development. NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS This group includes tribes from many parts of the continent, and the bones range from pre-Columbian (the majority) to fairly recent but probably free from white admixture. The number of juvenile femora in this group is very respectable, reaching a total of 626 specimens, and ranging from preterm to subadult. There were no indications of any material tribal or regional differences, and so all the data may be dealt with as a unit. The conditions it shows are as follows: Hypotrochanteric Fossa in North American Indians, Children and Adolescents Of Small yhich Mod- + | Above | Pro- || No. of femora None | Trace pon Bee Medium Sen a en groove Younger children Percent| Percent} Percent} Percent] Percent! Percent) Percent Percent (to approx. 6 VATS) ie (2O3)e ese B4EOnn 24a 72s n7a leone One Onde heer (0.7) Older children (approx. 7 to 13 years) (64)....... 15.6 Fao 2L49) |) 2626) || 25.— ees Weer e (4.7) Younger adolescents | CET) reseria ee bcote Be4ee4es 2) POO" 2oen 22 27 eTor aul ata) Older adolescents (G2 Ste iews nea 2.5 Tee Hey | ek Ol aul OR |e rae On| (ete) The above results conform with those seen in the other groups of femora. As age advances, during the growth period, the “none ”, with the “trace” and “small” grades of the fossa, diminish, the “medium” to “ pronounced” increase. From birth to later adoles- cence there is a steady and marked increase in the incidence of the fossa, with a progressive marked diminution in its “ trace”’ and “small” grades, together with an equally progressive and marked increase in large fossae. The “ above-medium” to “ pronounced ” 30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 grades reach in the older adolescents nearly 40 percent, which is strikingly similar to what has been shown by the femora of preceding racial groups. The fossa-groove, one example of which occurs in this group in one of the older subjects among the younger children, progresses also to reach its maximum frequency in the older adolescents. This form also, therefore, appears more frequently as age advances. THE ESKIMO The last racial group from which there is a fair representation of juvenile femora, is that of the Alaskan Eskimo. The material con- sists of 224 specimens, probably all fullblood. They furnish the following data: Hypotrochanteric Fossa in Eskimo, Children and Adolescents Of Small | Mod- Above Pro- which No. of femora None Trace but erate |Medium|medium|nounced a distinct fossa - groove Younger children | Percent| Percent] Percent Percent] Percent} Percent] Percent]} Percent (up to about 6 EATS) 1(7O) «sss Sieg £29249 1:4 Older children (about 7 to 13 Ears) C55) sere Out 125-4) |) 3654. (205— Tee 1.8 Adolescents (CID) (GO) Ere ieee eS aan Si tO | LS.2) | B5e4h | 20-25 rors Hie(5.m) Once more, though somewhat less regularly (owing probably to in- sufficient numbers), there is seen the gradual increase with age in frequency as well as in the size of the fossa. On the whole, however, this group shows somewhat less tendency toward the formation of the hollow, and also of the fossa-groove, than did the preceding ones. It will now be possible to make some brief and necessarily rough comparisons of the conditions shown by the juvenile bones of the several racial groups; comparisons that must suffer more or less not only from the unequal and in instances insufficient numbers, but also from the unequal age distribution within the different series. For the purpose of these comparisons it will be of advantage to combine the seven grades of the fossa into four larger subdivisions : NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—HRDLICKA 31 Hypotrochanteric Fossa in the Young Younger Children (about term to 6 years) Trace Submedium Above Group and no. of femora None to to medium to small medium pronounced Percent Percent Percent Percent Old Egyptians (§5)io. 6 0.) (2/5. 23.6 65.5 10.9 ING Aaiindians:(283)er ween se 34.6 48.4 NOn7, 0.4 EiskimoG7O) eam ren pe nerttsse sor. 51.4 BTeo 1.4 Older Chiidren (approximately 7 to 13 years) OldtHeyvptiansi(45) esa 456 12-4 | 8.9 | 40.— 46.6 | 4.4 Ne AL Mndians (G4). th. ste | 1556 | 29.7 556 3.1 ska on (55) cote psa cence toe | 9.1 | 61.8 Dae 1.8 | | Adolescents (approximately 14 to 21 years) WA SeWihites"(26))he aera ELA. ol 30.8 46.1 7.6 Wass Nesroess(i00) seer a asta 31.- | 23.- 35.= II .— OldiBeyptiansi(35) eee ee: 2 O Ma eA es, 42.9 40.— OldiEeruvians: (79) 2. 25 | 623 II .4 44.3 38.- INE Ate indians (270) se 5 a | 2.9 | 8.6 53-4 ae Feskinm Op (QO) pee enw terses Weir 3 ES er 53-5 2On3 The main facts brought out by the above figures are obvious. There are marked racial differences from early childhood onward. The Whites and the Negroes among the adolescents, and the Eskimos during childhood, show the least incidence and development of the fossa, the Old Egyptians from later childhood on and the North American Indians throughout, the most. In adolescents, outside of those of the U. S. Whites and Negroes, conditions show remarkable similarity. The fossa is very common, and in from 30 to 40 percent of the femora it is at this stage a very marked feature of the proximal third of the shaft of the femur. This showing, it will be seen later, is of exceptional interest in the generic history of the fossa. 3 32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 SEX AND SIDE IN JUVENILE BONES Differences during the growth period in the incidence and develop- ment of the hypotrochanteric fossa in the two sexes may exist, but our body-sexed material is very inadequate, and reliable sexing of juvenile bones themselves, except in the later stages of adolescence, is impossible. As to the right and left bones, some differences in the fossa appear, but not with sufficient preponderance to have any definite significance. The most suitable group for showing the conditions is that of the North American Indians. In condensed form, the group shows the following: Hypotrochanteric Fossa on the Two Sides in Juvenile North American Indians Trace Moderate Above Age group and no. of femora None to to medium to small medium pronounced Younger children:* Percent Percent Percent Percent Rucht(r45) ems rece Aes 2am 50.3 15.9 0.7 Wefts 3S) ae het bee 36.2 46.4 17.4 rae Older children: Ra ghitn Gin) ete eters ae 16.1 22°23 45.2 6.5 Meehta(3 >) here pec eee 15.2 27143 57.6 Peis Younger adolescents: Rody (GO) yew. ccrar ce eres aoe) 20.- 48.3 28.3 CLEA (5 7) Retreat ete ees Be 5 Ui me 2a3 47-4 36.8 Older adolescents: Righite(Si) thepae nse an see 2.5 122 50.8 39.5 Welti(Sin) acer scm a 25 4-9 58.- | 34.6 * In all the series here the bones are largely pairs. There are, it is seen, differences, but they are so irregular that it is hard to recognize any definite tendencies. Elimination of the unpaired bones does not materially change the picture. THE FOSSA IN ADULTS To learn the full life history of the fossa, in view of what has been seen hitherto it would be desirable to segregate the adult ma- terial into at least three categories, namely, the young adults, the middle-aged, and the old; but such a division with most of our series would be impossible. It will be feasible, however, to subdivide adults of each racial group on the basis of sex and side. To render the data as intelligible as possible, the total number of specimens in each group will first be dealt with as a unit. The results follow: NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—HRDLICKA 33 Hypotrochanteric Fossa and Race, Both Sexes and Both Sides, Adults Of Small rhicl Group and no. of femora | None | Trace ett od: Medium pabaves eaerOn Aan groove U. S. Whites Percent] Percent| Percent] Percent] Percent] Percent| Percent eae (GEOOO) Peas ete BIE ene | 220n— | L526. M2 PyelS) | Coys ||| (Gusts) U. S. Negroes OO) Saeko Sel Og | eae aM | Ly Dice\| 2 ae Alaa) Old Egyptians (BOO) eeshnsrcerrrt hay ale A765) TAs | Bx | ua) Leo 3.- 4.— || (5.-) Old Peruvians (SOS) ee riotnies cicher: 2A Ay |eO\. 7. | 30n5 | ahOvO 7G 029m | Oe || (Ozh) N. A. Indians KB°SGO)tnrie ase E2224 LO. 5.432.220.7403 3 TSh | 2 On: | (ia) Kodiaks, pre-Aleut CHS) cence eee THRG NZOn2 eer da 2 ae ae Sule aie 1.3 || (0.6) NI SUESM(T 37) sera on: Die OL Ser QiilmeL Orrin ory met ae grea 1.5 es Eskimos (718)...... LOR Ong ee at 22e sa lets miu ga5 Te Zul Gee) | | Chinese (Canton) | | CNS 2 iene re Soc S eee ene Mal ae Sul | 769 Helen allo) There are, it is seen, numerous and in some cases marked differ- ences both in the frequency and the development of the fossa. To render these still more obvious, the data may be condensed, as has been done for adolescents, and arranged on the basis of the combined weight of the last two columns: Hypotrochanteric Fossa and Race, Both Sexes, Both Sides, Adults (Condensed) Group and no. of femora None or Mote tet immediate small medium | pronounced [ Percent Percent Percent Percent Ghimesen(@iS 2) aise c aeieack 38.8 38.2 2127, 1g Old Peruvians (868)... 2-2... 24.4 50.2 Dee I. We Ss Wihttes) (1000)... ates «ai: 320 38.2 27 .— 2.8 UE SaNegroes) (100) .2 src. eyes 31.- 39 .— 28 .— 2.- Kodiaks, pre-Aleut (154)....... Uso 50.6 2ON2 Arts ING Ae eGtans (41S00)..c)scey oe L202 ea 34.- Den Old Egyptians, 00), 62)00 sah: 20.5 B75 35.- 7. Slim Osim (7A) awe ene tense en ae 10.4 42.8 41.8 Aas AGUESHK (IGS Seas ola oskree Lie 7) 31.4 54.- 3.- 34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 The group differences may now be seen very plainly. The lowest incidence as well as the lowest development of the fossa is shown by the Cantonese Chinese, and the next lowest by the Old Peruvians ; the highest occurs in the Eskimos, Aleuts, and the Old Egyptians. The U. S. Whites and Negroes—the latter, as far as the adult bones are concerned, all fullblood or very nearly so—are as remarkably close in the adults as they were in the young, and in both the well- marked fossa is rather infrequent. The North American Indians and the pre-Aleut Kodiak Islanders, much alike, occupy a medium position. It is evident that matters in some of the instances do, in others do not, follow racial affinities. There is a close similarity in conditions in the racially widely apart Whites and Negroes, and a dissimilarity between the fundamentally related Whites and the Old Egyptians. The Old Peruvians differ, as they do in other respects, from the com- bined contingents of the same race in North America, but are near the Chinese, with whom the racial affinity is considerably less. The frequency and prevalent development of the fossa are plainly, there- fore, manifestations of no great value as racial criteria. In groping for other possible causes of the above differences it is soon appreciated that the subject, as is usual with biological prob- lems, is not simple. There are doubtless involved old chance segrega- tions and consequently differing hereditary influences, and there may be ontogenetic factors. One of the latter that would seem to deserve especial consideration is the general development of the bone. Looking at the above data from this point of view we detect some concordance —but also some disharmonies. The Canton Chinese have on the average relatively short and weak femora, and so have the old Peruvians—and these two groups stand together at the lowest inci- dence of the fossa; on the other hand, very strong, though not the largest, femora are common to the Eskimos and the Aleuts, while strong as well as large bones are shown by the Egyptians, and these three groups stand at or near the maximum end of our series. But the pre-Aleut Kodiaks have also relatively short and weak, the North American Indians prevalently large and strong, bones, yet the two stand side by side in the middle of the groups; and both the U. S. Whites and Negroes have relatively large and often powerful femora, yet they stand in the scale of frequency and development of the fossa next to the weak Peruvians. Thus here too, although some probability of a correlation between the fossa and the mass of the femur cannot be denied, the conditions are not definite and regular enough for any clear deductions. NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—HRDLICKA 35 Another feature that since Houzé’s initial report has been believed by many to stand in correlation with the fossa is platymery, and the concomitant lipping of the lateral border, of the subtrochanteric part of the femur. Pearson and Bell, who tested the matter mathematically, found (p. 79) that there was only “a small but just sensible correla- tion between platymery and the presence of the fossa”. How small the correlation is may be seen from the two columns below: THE FOSSA AND PLATYMERY Same nine racial groups arranged on the basis of incidence and development of hypotrochanteric Our nine racial groups arranged on a basis of platymery, from its maximum (lowest index) to its minimum (highest index) : Old Peruvians Aleuts N. A. Indians Pre-Aleut Kodiaks Eskimos Old Egyptians Chinese U. S. Whites U. S. Negroes fossa, from highest to lowest : Aleuts Eskimos Old Egyptians N. A. Indians Pre-Aleut Kodiaks U. S. Negroes U. S. Whites Old Peruvians Chinese The first column is probably not absolutely stable. Larger num- bers of specimens in such groups as the Aleuts, Kodiaks, Chinese, and Negroes, or the addition of a sufficient number of females to the latter two groups, which include males only, might change the exact position in the row of some or even all of them, but such changes would in all likelihood be small. They would not substantially alter the obvious fact that there can at best be but little correlation between the two features in question. Nor are these the only facts that speak against such an interde- pendence of the fossa and platymery, and also between the fossa and the lip of the lateral border. There are highly platymeric and lipped femora with but moderate or small fossae, and there are large fossae with but moderate platymery lipping. And the conditions in the anthropoid apes, so far as they apply to the question, do certainly not testify for any clear correlation. In view of all this, in the rare cases where a pronounced fossa co- exists with marked platymery and lipping, it seems legitimate to doubt their causal connection. These considerations, however, con- nect directly with the subject of the etiology of the fossa, a detailed discussion of which will be left for another paper. 36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 x ADOLESCENTS COMPARED WITH ADULTS We shall at this point present facts which are of the utmost interest, and to which thus far there are no close parallels in anatomy and anthropology. In dealing with the fetal and juvenile femora it was seen that the hypotrochanteric fossa began to form in some bones as early as the fifth month of the fetal life and that thenceforth it gradually in- creased, both in incidence and development, throughout the growth period. The long stretch of time during which it continued to originate, as well as to enlarge, is in itself a phenomenon of no small interest. By the latter part of adolescence, in all the groups whose bones were available for the study, traces of the fossa to a pronounced hol- low, were seen to have become almost universal. We now pass to the adult material, where we encounter a distinct surprise. The records of the frequency and spaciousness of the fossa in the adults show radical differences from those in the preadult life. These differences, moreover, are found in all the groups, and they cannot possibly be due either to chance or error. They are shown in the next table: Hypotrochanteric Fossa in Adolescents and in Adults Compared (Both Sexes, Both Sides) | Small Mod- Group and no. of femora None | Trace but erate distinct are Above Pro- Medium 2 diu medium}/nounced — 7 \- U. S. Whites: | Percent} Percent! Percent Percent Percent Percent! Percent Adolescent (26)........-| 15-4] 15-4 | 15-4 | 34-6 | 11.5 3.8 3.8 Adult G@kOoO). se 5.) G2c— || L822 20). =| 5.8 cern.2 246 0.2 U. S. Negroes:? Adolescent (100)... ...| 31.— | 16.— }) 7:= || 16.— | 19:— |) Fe= ee Adult (oo)he 4.22 Bie we One 2S yew | TT |e te 2.- Old Egyptians: WNdolescent (35) iirc || 1259) ||) nes | 8463] 14-3.) 2856) | e2e05 eae INdults (200) e.2e oo: Se ZOnSe lea 5ale25e— lS ey sle7e— 2.= Ae Old Peruvians: | Adolescent(70)2-- =...) (6-3 DES $59) | EE I4 (3220) 2. Sel Sroes A culte(SGS) ees. ak = ZAP ANI e 73) 3045) || sLOuo 750 9 0.2 N. A. Indians: | Adolescent (279).......| 2.9 25 650 07-6) | 2529250 aoe Adult (3,890)....--..-.| 1 rd Ato Gy | eee 2027, 1353 Tas 0.6 Eskimos: | ; Adolescent: (99)........-|' 3.= | 3.— | 10.1 | 18.2 | 35.4 ) 20.29) oem CUES C718) eles ee | 10.4 | 18.7 | 24.1 | 22E 3 TOs BE Loy: « Series least satisfactory: among adolescents a very large proportion of subadults (19-21 years) and a good many mixed-bloods; adults practically all full-blood. if NO: I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—HRDLICKA 37 The above data are striking enough, but they will be even more so if we condense them thus: Hypotrochanteric Fossa in Adolescents and in Adults Compared, Both Sexes, Both Sides (Condensed) Trace Submedium Above Group | None | to to | medium to small medium pronounced U. S. Whites: Percent | Percent Percent | Percent INGOLESCENER a iar 2rd ie) .ces 2 15.4 g0:8 | “46.5 | 7.6 Wate ee a ae 32'):— BoE 27.-—— || 2.8 U. S. Negroes: i Adolescente: Sara. 28> 5 fas: re) he 2a 35.— 1 A Eee a eee ee a: yy ans 39.- 28.— | 2.- Old Egyptians: | Wdolescents.r-c.42)-)2.<2)-2-| 2.9 PAS eee a ae GGA sce Cys sets ee] 20.5 27s esha, (fe Old Peruvians: | ING OIESCERE. Ge econ Neate) aoe 6.3 11.4 | 44.3 38.— Ad npeeee ee rarer nes cee i, egg: sore) |) 2422 per N. A. Indians: Wdolescenti: eee ee hee 2.9 8.6 53-4 35-1 NIA fey ie eg EOE eae ee ip 22 ee 34 .— Fe Eskimos: Adolescente: S08 Vee tack ae 3-1} 1) 153-5 30.3 NAW ES a ame eye a cape 10.4 2.8 ~| 40-8 i= General approximate means: AG OlESCent =a 55.45 hs ee ce Guat 16.9 45-0'=. 2 7-— ACE ee a) hon es oe eee 21.7 | 43-2 | 31-7 Beg 2 Omitting the Negroes. +’ With the Negroes—10.2. The above figures mean that in advancing through the adult life the human femur loses a large proportion of the more marked grades of the hypotrochanteric fossa, gains largely in the “ trace” to “ small” grades, and to a considerable degree loses the fossa entirely. This is a highly interesting and, in its definiteness, so far a unique phenomenon in anatomy and anthropology. It is known, of course, though only very generally, that structural changes proceed in prob- ably. all parts of the body as age advances, but there is as yet no parallel to such a peculiar and clear-cut range of manifestations as offered by the hypotrochanteric fossa. Here is a formation of some note which, it has been seen, advances steadily in both its incidence and its development during a very large part of the growing period but which, once the adult life is reached, enters upon a retrogressive path tending toward its disappearance. The strange phenomenon presents two problems. The first of these is, what causes the long sustained development of the fossa during 38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 the growth period; and the second, what causes its regression during adult life. The first question cannot be fully solved until we know precisely what the fossa in man serves for. A portion of the development of the fossa in size is possibly conditioned simply by the general growth of the bone, though with a feature of this nature such a process may not be as simple as it would seem at first thought. A more plausible and appealing theory is that the fossa, during the growth period and especially in adolescence, is functional but that it loses its value in this respect during adult life. No definite conclusions on these points are now possible; they can be reached only by extended observations on suitable dissecting-room materials which thus far, notwithstanding my efforts in this direction, could not be realized. The second problem, or what causes the curious regression of the fossa during adult life, is also an involved one. There is the weakening functional cause, of which very little can now be said; and there is the actual process of diminution-to-disappearance of the fossa in many cases, which ought to be subject to observation. As a matter of fact, all the stages of a gradual occlusion of the fossa may be witnessed in human femora, and in some cases such an occlusion starts far ahead of the adult life. Occasionally as early as the later childhood a more or less noticeable ‘“‘ deposit’ of bone may be observed in the upper part of the fossa. The process begins as a rule in this upper part of the hollow and often in the form of one or two isolated narrow vertical patches. Where it is larger, such a “deposit ” looks not osteophytic, but like a flow of some originally viscid substance, or as if made by the pastry-makers’ cone. As age progresses, such “deposits” in the hypotrochanteric fossa become slowly more frequent and more pronounced, and some of them may clearly be seen to connect with and augment the gluteal ridge, whereas in other cases they come to represent a gluteal tuberosity or third trochanter. As the process is followed into the adult life, it is possible to note all stages of obliteration of the fossa by these secon- dary bony deposits, until in many instances only a small groove or mere trace remains of the once well-marked hollow, and not infre- quently the hollow disappears altogether, being traceable only by the new bone formation. The fossa is thus encroached upon and more or less assimilated by the progressive development of the gluteal ridge and the need for a larger basis for the gluteal insertion. Before this peculiar encroachment and assimilation begin, the fossa in the human femur is in general free from excrescences or irregu- larities that would denote the attachment of a powerful muscle. It is fusiform, symmetrical, and fairly smooth, with few exceptions in NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—HRDLICKA 39 each of these characters. If any part of the gluteus maximus inserts within the fossa before the secondary bone deposits begin, it can only be the weaker fibers or the muscle sheath. But later the fossa is certainly invaded by powerful strands of the muscle, or the weak original strands develop in power. The same processes here described occur in all the races and may readily be studied from their inception. But nothing of this nature is found in the anthropoid apes, where, in general, the fossa from the start is seen to serve for a strong muscular insertion and is plainly formed by this insertion. It appears that the conditions in these apes, where the fossa is often of primary, the adjacent gluteal ridge of secondary importance, and the gluteal tuberosity (third trochanter ) is absent or moderate, have become reversed in man, where the gluteal ridge and tuberosity have assumed the primary position, and the fossa, though it persists, seems to be a sort of left-over, of only secon- dary significance. These observationggwould not hold good, however, if the human fossa during the growth period should be found to exercise some special function. It is tantalizing that, with all these fine skeletal series now at our command, the last point cannot be settled for the want of suitable dissection materials. A few additional observations may be recorded. In examining the adult femora it seemed in some bones that the fossa may have regressed, both in depth and size, even without any discernible secondary bone formation. This would imply interstitial growth of bone underneath and about the fossa. The oblong or rounded gluteal tuberosity (third trochanter) was seen in some bones to be located completely above and well separated from the fossa, not affecting this in any way; or to involve its upper end; or to be lying sometimes completely within the hollow. In one femur the tuberosity was situated as low down as the middle of the fossa ; in none was it below the middle. In not a few adult specimens a large tuberosity (third trochanter) alone so filled the fossa that only a bare trace of it, perhaps only a part of its old outline, remained perceptible. The tuberosity, when it is in the fossa, may be said to have an even greater effect on the regression or disappearance of the hollow than the gluteal ridge; but as the tuberosity in many cases is a constituent part of the ridge, exact statements are difficult in this connection. The matter of the relation of the gluteal ridge to the gluteal tuber- osity and the fossa will be dealt with further in another paper. The main points that may succinctly be repeated are that in man, from later childhood onward, the fossa in increasing numbers of cases 40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 suffers through more or less extensive deposits of new bone in its lu- men; that this new bone becomes assimilated by the gluteal ridge, or forms a gluteal tuberosity (third trochanter), or both; and that the diminution in the fossa progresses from above downward and from the gluteal ridge outward until but a lateral or lateral-inferior rem- nant of the hollow is left, or all traces of it are lost ; but that in some — cases the fossa appears to diminish also by interstitial growth of the bone underlying and surrounding it. DIFFERENCES IN ADULTS IN THE TWO SEXES Owing to the availability of good series of material, it is possible to give here reliable data as to the sex differences in the hypotro- chanteric fossa. The White and Negro bones were sexed from the bodies; in a large proportion of the other specimens the sexing was supported by the rest of the skeleton (with occasionally significant articles found in the grave), and the rest were sexed simply on the basis of ample experience. The data will best be given together: Hypotrochanteric Fossa and Sex, in Adult Femora Of Small i Group and no. of femora | None Trace att Mod Medium eee ned an groove U. S. Whites: Percent] Percent} Percent] Percent] Percent] Percent] Percent}]} Percent Male (600).....| 32.3 | 16.3 | 19-7 | 16-7 | I1.5 2a3 0.2 || (1.8) Female (400)...| 31.5 | 21.— | 20.5 | 14.5 | 10.7 T5 0.3) || (ra7) U. S. Negro: Male (64)...... 230An| L722 |220-0)-| 15-65) 1358 Zhai Gap) Female (26)cu 44-4) 13-90, 254—)), 12-85 l,05- Once s. (2.8) Old Egyptians: Male (120)..... 2ORSa| te 7) |) 2422 LON 7s roe 2.5 5.8) || (nz) Female! (80)! 4..|| 20:— |) 13.8" | 26.37/20: >5) 15.— 327, D2) (ees) Old Peruvians: Male (268)..... 30.3. E721 || 36-0 10.5 4.5 0.8 ee ants Female (600) ..-.| 20-8 | 12.2 | 36-3 | 19.3 9.- I.- 0.3))||(Osn) N. A. Indians: Male (1,749). .-.| 13-8 | 20.— | 31.3 | 20.— | 12.9 [4 | 0265 (z=) Female (2,141)..| 10.9 | 19.2 | 32.9 | 21.3 | 13-5 .6 0.6 || (3.-) Eskimos: Male (369)..... 1O.=-| 18.2. 1726268) 2.0) 11726 1) 330 a 2 aeRO) Female (349)...| 10-9 | 19.2 | 21.5 | 22.6 | 21.5 3.4 OO) Ge Condensed and rough means of all: Male (U7O)er el 2ha6 43.5 30.8 3.9 Female (3,606)..| 24.9 43.6 B0e7 2A NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—-HRDLICKA 4l The sex differences in the incidence and development of the hypo- trochanteric fossa on the whole are, it is seen, rather insignificant. The males have a slight excess of the large fossae and also of the fossa- grooves, but in the American Indians, both North American and of old Peru, it is the females that predominate slightly in this respect, as they do also in the total frequency of the fossa. More in detail, the Indians, both North American and those of Peru, stand somewhat apart in this respect from the rest of the groups. They show a larger proportion of the “ absent”’ and “ trace” in the males, with a slightly larger proportion of the “ pronounced” forms and of the fossa-groove in the females. The females here in this respect, as in so many others, show more juvenile character. In the rest of the groups, except the Negroes, where the numbers are in- sufficient, the “ absent ” are nearly alike in the two sexes, the ry tRaAcey: to “above medium” grades differ moderately and irregularly, and the “ pronounced ” forms of the fossa and the fossa-grooves, equal in the two sexes in the Whites, predominate in the males in the Egyptians and the Eskimos. The conclusion of Von Torok, Evangeli-Tramond, and Pearson and Bell, that the fossa was more frequent in the males, is thus subject to corrections. The important age factor, it may be said, is presumably much alike in the two Indian and the Eskimo series, but differs in the rest, which doubtless has had some effect on the records. DIFFERENCES IN ADULTS AS TO SIDE The large adult series of human femora at our disposal make it possible to learn something definite on the differences in the incidence and development of the hypotrochanteric fossa on the two sides of the body. Pearson and. Bell’s results on this point were, it will be recalled, contradictory, and nothing decisive was observed in this respect on our North American Indian juveniles. The data, to start with, may most conveniently be presented without regard to sex. A very large proportion of the femora involved in the study are paired. Some appreciable side differences evidently exist, but they are not large. On the whole, the rights show more “absent” and “ trace ”— meaning probably more obliteration; somewhat less of “small” to “ medium ”’; about the same of the “ pronounced ”; and rather notably more of the fossa-grooves. Group differences are small except in the old Egyptians, where the right bones show decidedly more on one hand of the “absent” and “ trace” and on the other of the “above medium ” and “ pronounced,” as well as a much larger proportion of the fossa-grooves. ‘ 42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 Hypotrochanteric Fossa and Side in Adult Femora Of Small | i which Mod- Wrediim Above Pro- Ai Group and no. of femora None Trace ened cate niediim\nouticed poets groove U.S. Whites: _ % Percent Percent "Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent]| Percent Right (500)....| 35-— | 18.4 | 20.— | 14.6) 9.—| 2-4] .-... (1.6) ett (500); 221. 28)4 | 18. | 20:— | I7es | 13.4 2.8 0.4 || (2.-) U.S. Negroes: Right. (Si) o..4 4) 350) | 276. | T5a7 chetes |) Pte 2.- (5.9) Left (49).......| 26.5 | 14.3 | 30-6 | 14.3 | 12.2 2.— Rp Old Egyptians: Rught(95))....... 24.2 | 17.9 | 22.0. | 12.6") 14.7 Ave 4.2 || (9.5) ett(loOs\nereaaa| a7 46 |) 2726. | 22704) 19-1] F310) 3-Sull (te) Old Peruvians: Right:(457)-... -|| 24:5, | 13-8 1937-2) |) 15-5 SiS On 7/0) enol Reser Deft G4it)socs0| 24-3 | 1357: B5r8q|| 278 |) 8 Tn 2) |), ORS KOe2) N. A. Indians: Right (1944). ..| 1327 |°20-— |) BPa9s\16c7 |) 1385 Ley, 0.6 || (2.5) Left (1;946)....| 10.7 | 19.1 | 32.5 | 22:7 | 13.1 3 0.6 || (1.7) Eskimos: Right.(367).~: «.|/ 10.9) || 20.7) 2725.) 212 | 2575 on) 1.6 || (3.8) Left (351)......| 10.— | 16.5 | 20.5 | 23-6 | 23-6) 4.— 17) Gee) Rough means of all: Right (at 4) nes e239.) Sul 25.91 il Woaaa| oe 2:3 153) I (39) ett (3-362)s... 19.5: | 14.0) | 27-38) |) 10-79) stay 2.2 TAG |G) That, however, side differences of distinct nature may occur in some racial groups will be seen in the following records obtained on the femora of male Canton Chinese: Hypotrochanteric Fossa and Side in Chinese Femora Of Small which Side and no. of femora None Trace ape Be Medium peas ithe pees groove ; Percent) Percent} Percent} Percent) Percent| Percent] Percent]| Percent Richt (77) reese seen 26.4 | 1925) |. 16.9 |) 15.6 | 10.4 easy Wnto re Nos) BehtnG7/S) veecraseotuser- Ansa) 2247 |) i geasnl eee Si Tau lh eave | (Nes) Conditions here in the first five grades (“‘none”’ to “ medium ”’) are the reverse of those in all the preceding series, but the “above medium” and “ fossa-groove” hold true to the general tendencies. Differences such as these are, however, probably due less to race than to localized group peculiarities. INO THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—-HRDLICKA 43 The exceptional showing of the Cantonese, who were all males, raises the question as to possible differences in the relations of the fossa on the two sides in the two sexes. This query may best be answered by our two largest and racially well distinct groups, the U. S. Whites and the North American Indians: Hypotrochanteric Fossa According to Side in the Two Sexes Of Small which 5 I ts Mod- ; Ab Pro- 7 Group and no. of femora None Trace ane ae Medium| ieaiuetealiiced Noe groove U. S. Whites: Percent| Percent] Percent| Percent} Percent] Percent) Percent|| Percent Male: Right (300). .| 35-3 | 16:7 | 20.3 | 14.7 | 10.3 Di aa | Giese) Beit (300) ..49200 3.) LO.— | 19 — | rS.7 1257 An |i (Ons ||n(2e3)) Female: Right (200). | 36.—"|20.— | 1915) ) 1455 ye oT Eee ee) SEN COE geal ye || Bie |) AC eG |p iets) lag ita || esl (Gea) N. A. Indians: Male: Right (857))0) 53) eO. al Shay 10L7- 4: 13.7, TAS Pe CO Sil Eras) ett (892)... 2. 1243) |) 192.8) |) 30-9: 22.6 | 12.2 es 0.7 || (0.9) Female: Right (1,087)).| 12.41) 19.9) 32)— ||| 191-87" 13:3 1.9 0.6 || (3.6) Weft! (1,054)2 41> 9:4) 18:5 1.33.9 | 22-8. 13.8 es 0.5 || (2.5) The data, it is plain, do not indicate any material influence of the sexes on the incidence or development of the fossa on the two sides of the body, and the exceptional showing of the Chinese cannot therefore be attributed to sex alone. The only moderate general influence of sex and side on the hypo- trochanteric fossa in man can only mean, it seems, that the feature in the human species is a well ingrained old character. THE FOSSA IN THE AGED The extensive collection of the skeletal remains of known Whites now in the United States National Museum permits of an inquiry as to the effects of advancing age on the hypotrochanteric fossa. The material selected for this test consisted of the paired femora of 100 males of 60 years and over. The results are instructive. There is found a greater mean development of the gluteal ridge in these senile bones than in the adults of lower ages, and a decidedly greater retro- gression of the fossa. The latter will be clearly seen in the next table. Although the above general series includes many elderly individuals, nevertheless the differences between it and the aged group is very notable. The “ absent ”’ in the aged are over one third more numerous, 44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 Hypotrochanteric Fossa in the Aged Of Small which No. of femora . Mod- : Above Pro- (all paired) None | Trace ee erate Medium medium|nounced fece groove Old Males: Percent| Percent] Percent] Percent} Percent} Percent} Percent|| Percent Righti(TOo) ee 5 5G lO lee 7,= | 4.- Wettoo)nes. a) 4oe— 4 Gr — a Ok |e |e ENUIN(@50/0) Vivre oes a I OW malt liao) ml a5) Ona est All white adult Mmales(600)%....1 92.G |2On3 | Doar | Ose | res Be 0.2 || (1.8) 2 The majority from elderly subjects. the “moderate” to “ medium” have markedly diminished, and the “pronounced ” forms are now wholly absent. The representation of the fossa in the aged, in comparison to the general adult quantum, 1s decidedly lessened. The regression of the hollow has therefore con- tinued throughout adult life, and that in favor of the gluteal ridge, which kept on developing. Thus by the time senility is reached, the hypotrochanteric fossa has been largely, and in many cases entirely, assimilated or replaced by the gluteal ridge. SIZE OF THE FOSSA Evangeli-Tramond, it was seen, reported fossae up to 4 to 5 cen- timeters in length, I centimeter in breadth, and several millimeters in depth. Measurements of 20 of the largest fossae I encountered gave the following values: Length Breadth Depth Femora (max.) (max.) (max.) mm 12 10 12.5 Tel 9 9 II et II 12 I2 1O 10 10 Io 12 10 IO 9-5 + 3 ~~ 5 AG olescent peruse casio ie tien “e ae ch “a ve ae ae Child, yeh ect aol ge tice: NColescenltanechee er Cet ene lum |ntin | “ SHI alee RPGks we Suede Subadult, Aleut iE eBay eae Sault Adal Reribeny creche cesacrck sey anneal veya PRE CV DU eet citer cor. Adolescent WRerurte cy scctres eects aces ts a @hiowya va wot nkosi cer Egypt ......-..ssseeeeee Subadult; Bskimoiese «ctcecmncieien ¢ Adult wleouistanausaqccammeek mci amet ae ae © DWM ONINNNNNN DDADMIN 6 PoOdDKOnNUheH | | and | CON DnaZ NNW NWWHLHWOWWHWNHHENHNE | ay taiciehe rie sey eccrory any. NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—-HRDLICKA 45 It is obvious that in some femora the hypotrochanteric fossa is no negligible feature. LIFE HISTORY OF THE FOSSA Thanks to the data it has been possible to present here, it 1s prac- ticable, for the first time, it seems, in anatomy and anthropology, to view—grossly at least—the whole ontogeny, the full life history, of a definite feature of human morphology. The life history of the hypotrochanteric fossa could be presented graphically in the form of a curve of long but steady ascension, a mildly rounded or flat summit, and then a prolonged descent to about or even below one half of the height of the earlier rise. In other words, we see first a gradual long rise of the fossa on a phylogenetic basis toward the condition of a fullfledged character, and then its slow, irresistible assimilation by a vigorous neighboring feature. And there are indications—in some instances, or to some degree, definite proofs—that every single separate organ or part of the human body, and every human function, too, has its own extensive and highly interesting life history, a history connected in its origins with human derivations and antiquity, and ending in advancing regression and apparent preparation for disappearance; or in seeming tranquility, stability ; or in some degree of progressiveness toward a greater repre- sentation. The realization of these conditions opens a vast and in- tensely attractive field for coming researches. The studies of human variation and those of the life histories—or perhaps they should be called existence histories—of the innumerable components of human structure and functions are the most alluring realms of human anatomy, physiology, and anthropology of the future. THE FOSSA IN LOWER MAMMALS Thanks to the aid of the division of mammals of the United States National Museum, I have been able to examine for the fossa a series of femora representing the principal mammalian forms, with the following results: Carnivores : TET COT Pree Rel Tac Tete eS ic psi bay s eirdens cael No hypotrochanteric fossa RIES ERG fy bea tsectscsys tac a cones isles ah Mere taukAthan cote teyel Sac u = ‘ TaTTdAaeere ee I EN Ge ee cee Siad rel ane CR Meese oa orca on air “ ry 46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 Insectivores : Galeapithectis. mince ak See moter et melshn bacetels No hypotrochanteric fossa a“ “ TE RIMACETIS ee ee ee Poo ee er oe ens nT Cetaceans : IMeroungal Was ees satis cers crac om aiibitete mcrae sia < Rodents : ELVGTOCHOCHUS tj ein -/4cslo elo eie sca aie helsAsy eles : RGA VC TM Sst Ree rere er aus aca heh oh ego lon arene ven eohceelC TTBS tee eee weer POS alGuniinnce enio eieretanaRToIC : Ungulates : (Garnie le haesesercrs terre ae eal tite ec Pro eecrare 2 SES OF) MCS CECT AUS!) bts os so rope as: cease ee) soil Pl ebae) ss erweayte ke : EGOS Cai tee orc oR orci toro Reemetoney ocr st ans TD OTe ee eke ee eRe EP ene OC Reuse aaa TeeteNce (AmtelOpe: cached Bee Set bh sre toisdagine let setae olergeieeaie Marsupials, Edentates, Monotremata, Chiroptera : IMG GROpusie ec crsicitie ce aiuare ery aetemnat care PNR GAC OE oe ith de c Teco fue one Poe SHE a NO en CHeVeR ToS en eee ; DOVE Suv [VILS Poesia Sa tena yah cack act pacaras oi atcha ate ve anotevecetota Dick bile eke eas dora cca eters ort eio alors xen vorats : s PECKOPUS Lae incic ese conte laa ater cee hyeiel cromoin eyockistoneas None of the above mammals below the primates, it is seen, shows the hollow under consideration, though a fossa or groove mesially to the generally marginal gluteal ridge, serving possibly to the ad- ductor muscle, is not uncommon. However, the bones of but one individual of each kind were examined, and many forms are not represented at all. Yet the uniformity of the showing, together with the fact that the gluteal ridge, usually sharp and mostly inconspicuous, forms in these mammals a portion of the lateral border and thus leaves no room for the fossa, speak for the probability that the hypo- trochanteric fossa is essentially or even entirely a primate character. Furthermore, it has been shown previously in this paper that among the primates the hollow belongs almost exclusively to the anthropoid apes, particularly the three large genera, and to man. There is surely something of interest in this distribution. SUMMARY The present study has thrown light on many details of the feature under consideration, some of which are quite new; but, as usually happens, while clearing some problems, the inquiry has raised others which call for further research, particularly that on the musculature and other soft parts of the region in question. The points of paramount interest that issue from the work are in brief these: NO> I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—HRDLICKA 47 The hypotrochanteric fossa in man is a well-established phyletic feature passed on from the common ancestry of man and of the larger anthropoid apes. It is a feature the old function of which, apparently, was that of a place for the attachment of the gluteus maximus; but in man this function has it seems become largely, if not entirely, obsolete, and in part perhaps changed. Ontogenetically, the fossa begins to appear from the fifth month of the intrauterine life; but because of its lost importance, in all probability, there is much retardation, so that the period during which it may originate is greatly prolonged, extending over practically the entire growth period. Doubtless for the same reason, i.e., the obsolescence of the fossa in the human femur, there are cases in which the hollow does not appear at all, and there are many in which it develops only in a more or less rudimentary form. And from the same cause, basically, the fossa is not permanent. On the whole, it reaches its optimum dimensions during adolescence, but in individual instances even in childhood, it begins to show already signs of obliteration. This obliteration is due to secondary bone deposits or growths beginning in and extending from the upper part of the fossa. It is a slowly progressive osteoblastic process that finally involves and occludes most or all of the fossa and thus leads to its partial or total disappearance. This regressive course, although it may begin early, is essentially a phenomenon of the sub- adult and adult periods and proceeds to old age. The active cause of this regression or obliteration is the gluteal insertion adjacent to the fossa. This insertion in man has become confined mainly or entirely to the gluteal ridge; and in active in- dividuals, as the need for a greater insertion grows, new bone that eventually becomes assimilated into the enlarging gluteal ridge is deposited, and this deposit is always realized in and at the expense of the hypotrochanteric fossa. Thus the gluteal ridge during subadult and adult life may be said to more or less assimilate the fossa. The hypotrochanteric fossa possesses some interesting physical characteristics. From the start, when it is a mere imprint on the bone rather than a hollow, it presents a well-demarked fusiform outline, with the long axis vertical and always longer than the transverse. The floor of the fossa, reticulated at first, becomes in general sym- metrical and fairly smooth later on. In a small proportion of femora the lower boundary of the fossa is wanting, and the hollow then forms a marked smooth groove, which descends parallel with the 48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 crista aspera and which in instances may be traced to near the middle of the shaft; the meaning of this condition is not as yet understood. The mesial border of the fossa constitutes invariably the gluteal ridge or a part of it, and the lateral border is never conspicuous. The size of the fossa may reach very considerable proportions; it has little, if any, relation to the size of the bone. In location the fossa in man is generally postero-lateral, but in some femora it may be displaced close to, or rarely even into, the lateral border, as is common in the larger anthropoids. It has no basic or causative relation to the subtrochanteric flattening of the femur. It is a formation sui generis, not a by-product of any of its neighboring structures. It is allied to other fossae or grooves that serve for muscular insertions and which can be seen to advantage in other—especially the anthropoid—femora ; but the hypotrochanteric fossa in man, as seen at its. optimum in the adolescents, has much more of definiteness and individuality, is much more of a well evolved and differentiated character, than any of the other hollows. Precisely what the fossa in man contains or serves for before its “ olutealization ” is still uncertain, an appeal to several of the dissect- ing rooms having thus far proved unsuccessful owing to the dearth of adolescent cadavers. As further points of interest, there may be mentioned the follow- ing: The fossa in a distinguishable form may appear before or after the first stages of the gluteal ridge; it may remain completely absent while the ridge develops; and it may persist throughout life without any marked gluteal ridge or with any degree of this ridge, though the more developed the ridge, the more likely is its encroachment upon the fossa. Finally, the hollow is earlier than, as well as wholly inde- pendent of, the third trochanter, though this may extend over, or even develop within, the upper-to-middle reaches of the hollow and dimin- ish its lumen accordingly. Notwithstanding the seeming—and prob- ably largely real—independence of the fossa and the gluteal ridge, a certain amount of reciprocity appears to exist during life, between the fossa and the ridge: where the fossa is absent, the ridge in general will be found to be more distinct than where the fossa exists. The incidence of the hypotrochanteric fossa differs in various human races and other groups, but these differences are neither great nor always conformable to general racial affinities. Moreover, the ordinary comparative data, it is now plain, are not pure enough, em- bracing as they do adults of all ages and not presenting in all the groups the same age distribution. They are biased, in other words, by irremediable differences in the important age factor. NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—HRDLICKA 49 The incidence and development of the fossa shows also some sex and side differences, but these are neither very marked nor of great importance. The future of the hypotrochanteric fossa in man probably will be, in general, a gradual further diminution in both its incidence and development. Sey An Me tr aM 1M in Wt ee ane ‘i } — 9 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLES 24) INOe ti amis HY POTROCHANTERIC FOSSA, LARGE, ROUGH, MARGINAL Femora of two gorillas, U.S.N.M. nos. 239,883 and 174,723. ~ a Re _ ee SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 925 NOe TiaiRE 2 HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA, DEEP MARGINAL Orang, male, U.S.N.M. no. 49,8509. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOUS OZ NO je din eens MARKED HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA, PARTLY MARGINAL, PARTLY (THE LEFT LARGELY) DISPLACED TO THE ANTERIOR SURFACE Chimpanzee, U.S.N.M. no. 220,327. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 1925 INOw Wy PE 4, 0 HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA, DISPLACED ENTIRELY TO THE ANTERIOR SURFACE (BILATERALLY) Orang, male, U,S.N.M. no. 49,860. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOUT 925 NOs 1, Pens MARKED HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA, MARGINAL Marked acc. adductor fossa (ant.-sup.). Mild pectineal fossa (indistinct on photograph). Chimpanzee, U.S.N.M. no. 176,226. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. ‘92; NO® 1 PEs 7e: HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA, TYPICAL IN MAN Left to right: Male, Egypt, older adolescent; U. adolescent; Lisht, y Ss .N.M. no. 268,356—2218, Pachacamac, older oung adolescent. "r1g0‘'6cf ‘ou WN'S'D ‘ojo ‘oeur fSze‘1pe ‘ou “FWN'S'’) ‘eueisinoTy ‘oleur SggS‘EgF ‘ou “FWN'S'A ‘ylAeq ‘IPI 334811 03 YJoT aD9uV71 ‘vSSO4 DIYSLNVHOOYLOdAH We) NL COIN) Seals PaKeya SNOILOS1100 SNOANV1IISOSIN NVINOSHLIWS 8 “Id AYSV] ‘oem ‘2Og*soe ‘ow WN Si MoteE yUlog ‘apeumey- fgfe‘Zez “OU “TAN'S'f) “SIOUNIT “eeu Syst 0} FfoT SSAOOUD-VSSO4 DINSLNVHOONLOdAH ‘ee L ‘ON ‘26 “1OA SNOILOAI100 SNOSNVITZ0SIN NVINOSHLIWS SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS WES HAG IOs a Tabs @ HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA-GROOVES, PRONOUNCED Left to right: Male, Egypt, Lisht; male. Eskimo, Yukon, U.S.N.M. no. 345.736; male, Lisht. OL “Id zk ‘yySua] ‘xew g°Z1 “yystt ‘opmmBoRyoR | ‘zizc—oSiggz ‘OU “WN'S'A ‘yu, “NeW z°gT “WYSII “OIYO ‘Iz1°6ze ‘OU “JAN'S'() ‘aleq 3 34RBIt 0} 23oT ac NSaYGTIHD 4O VYOWNSS NI (YSLNVHOOYL GHIHL) ALISOMYSSNL WALN1ID AO SONINNISAG “ON ‘26 “10A SNOILO31100 SNOANVTISOSINW NVINOSHLIWS ‘chzz~—Sf'ggz ‘ou “JW'N'S'() ‘SowweoRyoR ‘JUsosaTope aasunod fELo‘06z ‘ou TWN'S'() ‘Ayonquay ‘y[npe Sunod ‘ayemay $4Sz~—gs€'goz ‘ou “J'N'Sf) ‘oeWeoRyoeg “JUsoSafOpe Jepjo ‘aR :4Y4SII 0} Fo] (A10”G0IW) 3AACOYS-vVSSO4 VY GNV VSSO4 DIYSLNVHOOYNLOdAH NI ANOG AO SLISOdAGQ AYVAGNODAS BE wad SE TONE sag) 210K SNOILO3A1100 SNOANVTISOSIN NVINOSHLIWS *6fcc—QSE*ggz ‘OU “JWN'S' ‘oRWRoBYyoRg ‘JUsOSe[Ope Japlo ‘seu ‘TEsSoz ‘OU “JWIN'S'() ‘eweolyd “JUsosejopepim “opeut Tgozz—gSf'ggz “OU ‘JW'N'S'() ‘ovmBoRyoRg ‘JUIOSa[OpeplyT :YStt OF Fo] VSSO4 DIMA LNVHOOYULOdAH NI 3ANOG AO SLISOd3AG AYVAGNOOAS SNOILO31I100 SNOANVIISOSINW NVINOSHLIWS SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOE mo 2h NOt PEssts) SECONDARY DEPOSITS OF BONE IN HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA; FROM LEFT TO RIGHT—TRACES, MODERATE, PRONOUNCED DEPOSITS Left to right: Young adolescent, Pachacamac, U.S.N.M. no. 268,356; older adoles- cent, Pachacamac, U.S.N.M. no. 268,356; young adolescent, Pachacamac, U.S.N.M: no. 268,356—2230. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS MARGINAL FOSSA Left to right: Orang, male, U.S.N.M. no. 49,859; U.S.N.M. no. 339,235. VOL 92, NON 1) BEl4 midadolescent, Eskimo, Nunivak, lew 2 me . oe: 7 i . : eri ete au . a , 1 ° py 7 ' a ff? on) ~ >. Set yee gn te x ; 2 Tite SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 92, NUMBER 2 NEW FRESH-WATER MOLLUSKS FROM NORTHERN ASIA (WitH ONE PLATE) BY ALAN MOZLEY Walter Rathbone Bacon Scholar, Smithsonian Institution (PUBLICATION 3253) GITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION AUGUST 8, 1934 : hse The Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 5. A. NEW FRESH-WATER MOLLUSKS FROM NORTHERN ASIA By ALAN MOZLEY Walter Rathbone Bacon Scholar, Smithsonian Institution (WitTH ONE PLATE) During the years 1932 and 1933 a journey was made through cer- tain parts of Siberia and northern Kazakstan, under the grant of the Walter Rathbone Bacon Scholarship * of the Smithsonian Institution. The object of this expedition was to investigate the molluscan fauna of the region, and in the course of working up the material collected, several forms have been discovered which appear to be undescribed. A report on the fauna as a whole will appear at a later date, but in the meantime it appears to be desirable to place on record a brief descrip- tion of the new forms, which is given below. VALVATA ANTIQUILINA, n. sp. Plate 1, fig. 4 Shell of moderate size for members of this genus, length 6.4 mm, broadly conical ; surface smooth, with minute crowded lines of growth ; whorls four and seven-eighths, convex, very slightly flattened ; aperture subcircular, very slightly angulated along the superior margin, lip con- tinuous, attached to the preceding whorl for about 0.6 mm. The dimen- sions of the type are as follows: Length 6.4 mm, greater diameter 5.9 mm, lesser diameter 5.2 mm, aperture length 3.1 mm, aperture width 2.5 mm. Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 469212, collected at Lake Khomotenoye, Aj- Bulat drainage basin, Siberia. This is approximately 370 kilometers southeast of Omsk. This species has some resemblance to both V. piscinalis (Muller), and V’. antiqua Morris, and in many respects is intermediate between these two species. It differs from most forms of I’. piscinalis in having ‘Created through a bequest to the Institution by Mrs. Virginia Purdy Bacon “to be used in establishing a traveling scholarship, to be called the Walter Rath- bone Bacon scholarship for the study of the fauna of countries other than the United States of America.” SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 92, No. 2 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 the shell as a whole more solidly built, the spire more bluntly conical, and the whorls less broadly rounded, those in the new species being a little flattened, and turning sharply into the suture. V’. antiquilina differs from V’. antiqua Morris (pl. 1, fig. 5) in the proportions of the shell (see measurements below), the new form being shghtly more broadly built, in having the suture a little deeper, and in the whorls being regularly rounded and slightly flattened, rather than rounded and projecting downward as in |’. antiqua. No living specimens were found, all the shells being empty and bleached. Apparently this species lived in Lake Khomotenoye at some former time when the water level stood considerably higher than at present. Measurements of the Shells of Valvata antiquilina, n. sp., from the Shore of Lake Khomotenoye, Siberia Greater Lesser Aperture Aperture No. of whorls Length diameter diameter length width mm mm mm mm mm 4 3/4 6.4 6.0 5.5 277 25 4 3/4 6.0 5.1 4.7 2.8 2.4 4 5/8 iy) 4.8 4.6 212 2 4 5/8 5.5 4.9 4.7 2.4 2.4 Av 1/2 5.6 5.4 4.8 2.5 2.4 4 1/2 5.4 4.9 4.7 2.5 2.3 4 1/2 5.3 4.8 4.5 27. 2.1 4 1/4 5.3 4.8 4.5 2.6 1.9 4 1/4 4.7 4.5 4.1 1.9 1.8 4 1/8 4.9 5.1 4.6 27, 2.2 Measurements of the Shells of Valvata antiqua Morris from Grays, Essex (Type Locality ) Greater Lesser Aperture Aperture No. of whorls Length diameter diameter length width mm mm mm mm mm 47/8 73 6.1 hey 2.8 2.6 47/8 6.4 5.2 4.5 2.8 2.3 4 3/4 6.3 Bas 5.0 2.8 2.3 4 5/8 0.4 6.0 5.6 3.2 2.9 4 5/8 6.3 5.2 4.9 2.4 2.3 LYMNAEA (GALBA) PALUSTRIS SARIDALENSIS, n. subsp. Plate a, figs 2 Shell of moderate size, length 23.9 mm, elongate, and much nar- rower in proportion to the length than in the usual forms of palustris; light horn-colored, thin, surface smooth, minutely wrinkled, lines of growth not prominent, crossed by impressed spiral lines; whorls INO 2 NEW MOLLUSKS FROM ASIA—MOZLEY 3 seven and one-half, regularly convex ; spire long and narrow, more than half the length of the shell ; suture moderately deep ; aperture elongate- elliptical ; outer lip gently rounded, periphery sharp and thin ; columella somewhat twisted ; umbilical chink a minute elongated slit. Type-—U.S.N.M. no. 469734. It comes from a small, somewhat saline lake on the Steppe Sari Dala, 15 kilometers southwest of Pavlo- dar, northern Kazakstan. This species is known only from the type locality, which is about 400 kilometers southeast of Omsk, and 600 kilometers north of Lake Balkhash. Some idea of the geographical position may be given by stating that Pavlodar is situated approximately midway between Delhi, British India, and the Arctic Ocean. Measurements of the Shells of Lymnaea palustris saridalensis, n. subsp., from the Steppe Sari Dala 15 Kilometers Southwest of Pavlodar, Kazakstan Greater Lesser Aperture Aperture Length diameter diameter length width mm mm mm mm mm 25.7 0.5 9.0 10.7 5.4 25.0 9.0 8.7 10.4 5.0 24.0 9.9 9.1 10.8 5.9 24.8 8.9 8.2 0.5 4.8 24.7 0.4 8.6 10.3 5.5 24.5 9.5 8.4 9.9 4.9 24.2 0.5 8.8 10.0 5.6 24.1 9.8 9.2 11.0 5.9 23.9 9.7 8.8 10.4 5.8 23.9 9.5 8.9 TOYA 5.3 23.9 9.5 8.8 10.2 5.5 Ber 8.5 ei 9.5 5.0 21.0 7.9 7.4 8.7 5.1 19.0 7.4 ae. 7.7 4.0 18.0 Tei Gaal 8.0 4.7 LYMNAEA (GALBA) PALUSTRIS KAZAKENSIS, n. subsp. Plate 1, fig. 7 This resembles L. palustris saridalensis but has eight whorls, which are somewhat shouldered; the suture is very deeply impressed, the lower side of the whorls slopes into the suture in a plane not far from the vertical, the superior margin of each whorl, however, while at first gently curved, finally turns abruptly into the suture; the spire is very long, forming nearly three-fifths of the length of the shell as a whole, and has a somewhat turreted appearance. Type—uvU.S.N.M. no. 470457, from a small dry lake bottom near the village of Novo Troetskaya, northern Kazakstan. 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 Measurements of the Shells of Lymnaea palustris kazakensis, n. subsp., from near Novo Troetskaya, Kazakstan Greater Lesser Aperture Aperture Length diameter diameter length width mm mm mm mm mm Type 30.0 Tey, 10.9 T1253 7.4 26.5 10.9 10.4 Tiles 6.3 25.7 10.7 9.9 11.0 6.5 25.1 9.9 10.0 11.3 6.6 24.9 10.5 9.8 10.8 6.3 24.8 10.2 0.5 10.5 Be 24.6 10.2 9.6 10.4 6.1 23.8 9.9 9.0 10.4 5.9 23.4 10.0 9.2 9.8 6.3 21.2 8.9 8.5 8.9 G3 20.4 8.5 7.8 78 4.8 LYMNAEA (GALBA) PALUSTRIS DRAVERTI, n. subsp. Plate 1, fe. 0 Shell somewhat resembling that of L. palustris kazakensis but having a more broadly conical spire ; whorls seven and a half, convex, gently rounded, turning gradually into the suture, which is deep; aperture small and subovate, oval by comparison with that of kazakensis, columella not twisted, umbilical chink of large size. Type—uvU.S.N.M. no. 469681, from the River Om, near Omsk, Siberia. This species is known only from the type locality. Collected by Prof. Pierre Dravert, after whom it is named. Measurements of the Shells of Lymnaea palustris draverti, n. subsp., from the River Om, near Omsk, Siberia Greater Lesser Aperture Aperture Length diameter diameter length width mm mn mm mm mm Type 19.6 8.8 8.2 7, 4.8 19.2 9.1 8.7 8.9 5.4 18.5 8.4 7.60 TG 4.6 17.9 9.2 8.1 8.3 5.5 L727, 8.3 7.0 7.8 4.8 16.3 7-9 Fax 73 4.4 16.0 8.2 7.4 7.5 4.7 15.8 7.8 Fae. FD 4.7 15.2 7.4 6.8 7.0 4.4 14.1 7.0 6.4 6.2 Sez. 13.4 7.0 0.3 6.0 3.5 NO. to NEW MOLLUSKS FROM ASIA——-MOZLEY 5 LYMNAEA (GALBA) PALUSTRIS BOLOTENSIS, n. subsp. Plate 1, fig. 3 Shell somewhat smaller than in all the subspecies here described (length 22.7 mm) but of greater thickness; the general appearance somewhat barrel-shaped in comparison with kazakensis and the others, as a result of the shallowness of the suture, and the relatively large size of the last three whorls; the aperture is small and roundly auriform, the columella thin and only slightly twisted, and the outer lip thin, sharp and without any tendency toward flaring. Type—U.S.N.M. no. 469821, from flooded area between the Rivers Chaganak and Chederti, Djarla-Ul drainage basin, northern Kazakstan. Measurements of the Shells of Lymnaea palustris bolotensis, n. subsp., from several localities in Kazakstan Greater Lesser Aperture Aperture Length diameter diameter length width mm mm mm mm mm Locality Type 22.7 8.9 8.5 8.1 5.4 Flooded area between the Rivers Chederti and Chaganak. 21.4 9.1 8.7 0.3 6.8 Same. 21.4 8.4 7.0 0.5 5.4 River Chaganak. 21K 8.9 8.1 8.7 5.7. Small lake (No. 6) near Novo Troetskaya. 2iet 8.5 8.3 8.4 5.3 Same. 20.8 9.0 8.1 8.7 5.9 River Chaganak. 20.7 8.1 7.8 8.8 4.8 Lake No. 6, as above. 20.4 8.1 7.8 7.6 alae oarn es 20.4 8.1 ay 8.6 5.3 Chederti-Chaganak, as above. 20.1 8.4 AY, 8.7 5.6 River Chaganak. 20.1 8.3 7.9 8.1 5-30) Same: 10.5 8.0 7.4 8.2 53) Saine: 18.5 8.5 7.0 8.8 5.2 Same. 17.6 7.6 7X 8.7 4.8 Chederti-Chaganak, as above. 13.6 6.9 6.5 7.0 Al) yoame: The four subspecies of Lymnaea palustris here described are all closely similar, but in any moderately large series it is possible to dis- tinguish the different forms without difficulty. Lymnaea palustris saridalensis is characterized by the tall spire, slightly convex whorls, and moderately impressed suture ; kazakensis is distinguished by even higher spire, slightly convex whorls turning sharply into a deep suture ; draverti by its shorter and broader, though still acute, spire, more con- 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 vex whorls, and smaller subovate aperture and very gently curved columella; while bolotensis has a shorter spire with fat whorls, and shallower suture. LYMNAEA (RADIX) ZAZURNENSIS, n. sp. Plate 1; fig. 2 Shell of fairly large size, length 18.5 mm, broad relative to the length, horn-colored ; surface bright, glossy, crossed by many regularly spaced lines of growth which give the shell a slightly ribbed appear- ance, and by many microscopic spiral impressed lines ; whorls five, con- vex, protruding and well rounded in all cases ; the body whorl nearly semicircular in outline on the left side; having a slightly shouldered appearance at the junction with the preceding whorl, but actually having a small V-shaped depression intervening and continuing around the shell for at least one whorl above the aperture; aperture ovate- ellipsoidal; outer lip thin, sharp; inner lip gradually curving, colu- mella nearly flat, not twisted, spreading out to some extent over the umbilical region, which is seen from the side and below to be fairly wide open. Type —vU.S.N.M. no. 470709, collected at Lake Zazurnia, in the mountain range known as Khamar Daban, eastern shore of Lake Baikal. The species is known only from the type locality. Measurements of the Shells of Lymnaea sasurnensis from Lake Zazurnia, Khamar Daban, Siberia Greater Lesser Aperture Aperture Length diameter diameter length width mm mm mm mm mm Type 18.9 12.5 11.0 11.9 ZO 18.8 13:3 ite ley) 7.8 18.5 12.8 10.9 12.4 7.8 18.2 12.4 Tiber E22 TG, 18.2 12.4 10.1 12.0 7.8 17.2 12.1 10.3 LD. 1 TT, 16.6 11.8 8.9 Tne 7.0 15.9 II.1 0.9 Ln, 7.9 15:2 10.0 8.8 10.1 6.3 PLANORBIS (SPIRALINA) JOHANSENI, n. sp. Plates, fos 8 Shell of moderate size, greater diameter 7.5 mm, discoidal, very thin (height 1.2 mm) slightly concave above and below, closely resembling P. compressus ; surface bright and shining, with many fine but distinct NO. 2 NEW MOLLUSKS FROM ASTA—MOZLEY 7 lines of growth; whorls five and a quarter, gradually increasing in size, carinate on the upper side; the upper side of the carina of all or nearly all the whorls being visible on the dorsal side of the shell; aperture inclined and oblique, ellipsoidal ; lip sharp and thin. Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 470515, collected at Kotur Kulb near Boro- voye, Kazakstan. The dimensions of the type are as follows: Height 1.2 mm, greater diameter 7.4 mm, lesser diameter 6.6 mm, aperture height 1.0 mm, aperture width 1.8 mm. Named after Mr. Bodo Johansen, of Tomsk, who has made a study of the fresh-water mollusks of that neighborhood. PHYSA SARTLANDINENSIS, n. sp. Plate 1, fig. 6 Shell resembling that of Physa fontinalis but of larger size, length 12.6 mm; the aperture shorter than in that species and the spire much higher and more conspicuous; the suture more deeply impressed ; whorls four and three-quarters, surface smooth, lines of growth micro- scopic, crossed by larger, regular, impressed spiral lines. Type—vU.S.N.M. no. 469613, collected in Lake Sartlan, Barabinsk Steppe, Siberia. It is known only from the type locality. In this new species the length of the aperture is approximately two- thirds of the length of the entire shell, while in P. fontinalis it is three- quarters of the shell length. Measurements of the Shells of Physa sartlandinensis from Lake Sartlan, Siberia Greater Lesser Aperture Aperture Length diameter diameter length width mm mm mm mm mm Type 12.6 a 5.7 8.7 4.1 11.4 6.2 a2 8.0 3.4 10.6 6.0 4.8 7.4 3.1 10.3 5.4 4.6 6.4 2.9 10.2 5.3 4.6 6.6 3.2 0.7 53 4.0 6.4 3.0 9.5 4.9 4.1 5.6 2.3 9.3 5.4 5.7 5.9 2.8 0.2 5.7 4.4 6.0 2.2 9.1 5.3 4.0 6.1 3.0 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS Wolls ie ios 745 [be 4 NEW FRESH-WATER MOLLUSKS FROM NORTHERN ASIA 1. Lymnaea (Galba) palustris saridalensis. 6. Physa sartlandinensis. 2. Lymnaea (Radix) zazurnensis. 7. Lymnaea (Galba) palustris kazakensis. 3. Lymnaea (Galba) palustris bolotensis. 8. Planorbis (Spiralina) johansent. 4. Valvata antiquilina. 9. Lymnaea (Galba) palustris draverti. 5. Valvata antiqua Morris. oy, I} if Cas aaa eal Mae SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 92, NUMBER 3 Krthur jFund Prenat RESPONSES OF THEVALG:? CHEORELEA VULGARIS 1 UETRAVIOLET RAYS (WitH THREE PLATES) BY FLORENCE E. MEIER Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution (PUBLICATION 3254) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION AUGUST 6, 1934 The Lord Galtimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A. Arthur Fund LETHAL RESPONSE OF THE ALGA CHLORELLA VULGARISHLO© ULTRAVIOLET RAYS By FLORENCE E. MEIER Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution (Wirn THREE PLATES) INTRODUCTION In a previous paper Meier (1932) reported a quantitative study of the lethal effect of the wave lengths 3022, 2967, 2894, 2804, 2753, 2699, 2652, and 2536 A on the unicellular green alga Chlorella vulgaris. Wave lengths longer than 3022 A, which is the approximate short-wave limit of ultraviolet irradiation in nature—that is, the wave lengths 3130, 3341, and 3650 A—had no lethal effect on the green cells, although two of them, 3130 and 3650 A, were of greater in- tensity than the shorter lethal ones. The present paper gives the results of further study on the lethal response of the alga Chlorella vulgaris to the same ultraviolet wave lengths with special reference to the radiotoxic spectral sensitivity and the radiotoxic virulence. This work was done with the cooperation of Dr. E. D. McAlister, of the Division of Radiation and Organisms, who carried out the spectroscopic manipulations and physical measurements. I wish to express my appreciation to Dr. C. G. Abbot, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, for his assistance in the interpretation of the results of these experiments and for suggesting the new terms here used. I am also grateful to Dr. E. S. Johnston, Assistant Director of the Division of Radiation and Organisms, for his help in the ac- complishment of this piece of research. RECENT INVESTIGATIONS Striking work requiring nice technique on the lethal action of ultra- violet irradiation on certain living Protozoa has been done recently by the Cancer Research Laboratory at the University of Pennsylvania. ‘This paper reports investigations made under a grant from the National Research Council to the author as National Research Fellow in the Biological Sciences. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 92, No. 3 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 The micro-moving-pictures and microphotographs made by Franklin, Allen, and McDonald (1933) show how ultraviolet irradiation below 2900 A causes immediate cessation of all motion of the unicellular organisms followed by marked internal changes and in some cases a complete breakdown of the cellular structure. Swann and del Rosario (1932) noted that the death rate of the cells was not related to the intensity of the light nor to the number of the cells present, but to the length of exposure. Furthermore, cells continued to die even after the light was removed. In the work here reported it was similarly observed with algae that certain ultraviolet rays injured the cells but that death followed some time later. Swann and del Rosario found that the total number of Euglena cells that died subsequently as the result of irradiation was proportional to the total quantity of radiant energy in question, within the limits of intensity and concentration investigated. The algal cells did not begin to die as soon after irradiation as did the Euglena cells. This may be due to a difference in the irradia- tion intensity. Tanner and Ryder (1923) found in their irradiation experiments that pigmented yeasts are more resistant than white yeasts and also that yeasts live a little longer than bacteria, a fact that they explain as due to the difference in size. The work of Beauverie and Cornet (1929) on the leaf and bud of Elodea canadensis shows that the chloroplastids in the cell with- stood continued irradiation much better than did the cytoplasm, mitochondries, and chondriocontes. Noethling and Rochlin (1931) also irradiated Elodea with ultra- violet rays less than 3000 A in wave length and found a cessation of plasma streaming, also the appearance of oxalate crystals, and necrosis. Gibbs (1926) noted that a latent period occurred before death in irradiated filaments of Spirogyra nitida aftinis. The limits of the toxic action were the wave lengths 3126 and 2378 A. The chloroplasts were observed to clump characteristically, owing to the great difference in intensity of radiation reaching the “ near” and “far” sides of the filament. The behavior of the filaments was variable. Some died while apparently perfectly normal in appearance. Coagulation of the protoplasm was noted, also a brown precipitate that exhibited Brown- lan movement. Martin and Westbrook (1930) .reported browning of the cells of the leaves of Voandzeia, Pelargonium, and other plants by ultra- violet irradiation. The browning was compared to the reddening or NO. 3 RESPONSE OF ALGAE TO ULTRAVIOLET—-MEIER 3 erythema and subsequent browning induced by ultraviolet in the human skin. Generally there is a latent period from 3 to 24 hours’ duration before erythema makes itself evident. Martin and West- brook define as the latent period the time elapsing between the irra- “latent period ” is in a sense comparable with its application to the appear- diation and the visible culmination in browning. The term ance during development of the latent image on a photographic plate. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The technique, methods, and apparatus used in this work are similar to those described for the exposure of the second plate of Chlorella vulgaris by Meier (1932) and by Brackett and McAlister (1932). In August 1932 three separate portions of each of 10 plates cov- ered with Detmer 4-agar 1.5 percent about 4 to 5 mm thick, the entire surfaces of which were uniformly green with cells of Chlorella vulgaris, were irradiated in the quartz spectrograph using a quartz mercury lamp as the source. Data regarding their inoculation and irradiation dates together with the exposure times are listed in table 1. In April 1933 nine additional plates (plates 14 to 17 and 19 to 23) that had been prepared in a similar fashion were also irradiated as noted in table 2. The intensity data are given in table 3. EFFECT OF ULTRAVIOLET RAYS ON AGAR PLATES Two blank agar plates (plates 18 and 24) that had been made at the same time as plates 14 to 17 and 1g to 23 and left under similar conditions but not inoculated with algae were also irradiated in April 1933. Separate portions of plate 18 were irradiated for 64, 16, and 32 minutes, and separate portions of plate 24 were irradiated for 16, 4, and 8 minutes. When the plates were finally examined 2 months after inoculation, there was no evidence of any differentiated regions. On June 24 a freshly inoculated Detmer § solution of Chlorella vulgaris was poured over plate 18, and after a short interval the excess was removed. The plate was then placed in a north window. Within 3 weeks’ time the plate was covered with a uniform green growth of the algal cells. This experiment seems to indicate that the wave lengths which prove lethal to the green cells of the algae do not affect the culture medium which covers the glass plate in any way that will accelerate or retard the subsequent growth of the algae. 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The regions of decolorized cells that appeared in the green plates where the wave lengths of ultra- violet proved to be lethal or radiotoxic are tabulated with the initial dates of their appearances. The experiment was brought to an end October 30, an arbitrary date, 2 months after the irradiation date, but the plates remained in good condition until November 30 and showed no further marked differences in appearance. The total number of radiotoxic regions for each exposure was listed at this time. See plates 2 and 3. The results of the second experiment, in which 11 plates including the uninoculated agar plates were irradiated, are given in table 4. The radiotoxicity as shown by the colorless algal regions which were present on the plates June 24, 1933, 2 months after the irradiation date, is indicated here with the exposure times. (See pl. 1.) As indicated in tables 1 and 2, the inoculations were made from 2 to 5 months previous to the dates of irradiation. This difference in the age of the cultures had no apparent effect on the response of the algae to the ultraviolet irradiation. THE LETHAL RADIOTOXIC THRESHOLD A study of tables 1 and 4 shows that the lethal radiotoxic threshold, or minimum amount of radiotoxicity required to produce lethal effect, for wave lengths 2652 and 2804 A lies between 100 and 120 seconds and probably midway between 105 and 120 seconds (the 100-second exposure being with light of greater intensity) for intensities 1,960 and 1,840 ergs/sec. cm? respectively. If it is assumed that the radio- toxic effect is proportional to the intensity and the duration of ir- radiation, then for 1,000 ergs/sec. cm? the exposures required for 26052 and 2804 A may be set as 1.96X 112=220 seconds and 1.84 x 112=206 seconds respectively. For 2699 and 2753 A, 8 minutes or 480 seconds did not always suffice for killing the cells but usually did, so it is near the threshold. Then for 1,000 ergs/sec. cm’, the required time would be 0.64 x 480= 307 seconds and 0.54 x 480=259 seconds. Also, 2894 and 2967 A occur once or twice at 480 seconds. Hence for 1,000 ergs/sec. cm’, the required time would be 0.93 x 480=446 seconds and 2.45 x 480=1,176 seconds. Also, injury at 2925 and 3022 A first appears at 1,920 seconds and then not always, therefore similarly we find required times of 0.44 1,920=845 seconds and IN TO ULTRAVIOLET——MEIER ALGAE ~ ‘ SPONSE OI 4 RE 3 NO. 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From the above rough determinations and the computation of the lethal factors for each wave length as compared with 3022 A, table 5 has been compiled and the smooth curve in figure 1 has been drawn. TaBLE 5.—Lethal Radiotoxic Threshold and Radiotoxic Spectral Sensitivity (Based on Table 4) Lethal radiotoxic threshold For given For 1000 Radiotoxic Intensity intensity ergs/sec. cm? spectral Smooth A ergs/sec. cm? sec. sec. sensitivity curve 2652 1960 112 220 46.3 45 2609 640 480 307 33-0 43 2753 540 480 259 39.3 38 2804 1840 112 206 48.9 34 2804 930 480 446 22.8 22 2925 440 1920 845 12.0 16 2067 2450 480 1176 8.7 3022 5300 1920 10176 ie I RADIOTOXIC SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY AND RADIOTOXIC VIRULENCE The lethal response of the algae to the ultraviolet rays may be considered from two points of view, as to the radiotoxic spectral sensitivity and the radiotoxic virulence. The term “ radiotoxic spectral sensitivity” relates to the certainty of the lethal action, while the term “ radiotoxic virulence”? may be used to describe the quickness of the attack. To make the matter clearer by analogy, let the behavior of algae with respect to three different ultraviolet rays be compared to the behavior of a human being toward three poisons, namely, radium in watch-face paint, cyanide of potassium, and rattlesnake venom. With respect to sensitivity, each one of the three poisons is fatal if administered in a sufficient dose. Probably in order of minimum lethal dosage or sensitivity, they would rank: radium, cyanide, snake venom. But in order of toxic virulence, or the time required for lethal effect, they would rank very differently, probably: cyanide, snake venom, radium. Applying this analogy to the selected ultraviolet rays, the deter- mination of the radiotoxic spectral sensitivity, that is, the relative radiotoxicity of rays of different wave lengths when applied with equal intensity and duration, has been measured as described in the preceding section. The determinations for each of the eight ultra- violet rays when plotted against wave lengths gives a curve of radio- toxic spectral sensitivity. (See table 5 and fig. 1.) NOS RESPONSE OF ALGAE TO ULTRAVIOLET—-MEIER 9 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 2500 2600 27100 2800 2900 3000 3100 Fic. 1—Radiotoxic spectral sensitivity of Chlorella vulgaris to ultraviolet rays. The abscissae are wave lengths in angstroms. The ordinates are relative lethal effectiveness in arbitrary units. Black line, smooth curve; dash line, actual values; dot line, curve obtained by Meier (1932). 2500 2600 2700 2800 2900 3000 3100 Fic. 2—Radiotoxic virulence determined from Chlorella vulgaris. The ab- scissae are wave lengths in angstroms. The ordinates are radiotoxic virulence in arbitrary units. 10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 Applying the analogy to the consideration of radiotoxic virulence, the determination of the speed with which the toxic doses of the several rays produce lethal effects has been ‘made by computing the brevity of time required to produce lethal effect for a standard radiotoxic quotum exceeding the lethal radiotoxic threshold. The radiotoxic quotum is the amount of radiotoxicity applied, and it is apparently proportional (1) to the time during which the algae are exposed to it, (2) to the intensity of the ray, and (3) to the radiotoxic spectral sensitivity. The radiotoxic virulence is evidently inversely proportional (1) to the radiotoxic quotum applied and (2) to the time required to produce a toxic effect. The determination has been made for eight ultraviolet rays, and as plotted against wave length gives a curve of radiotoxic virulence (the reciprocal of the product of the radiotoxie quotum for each ray by the time’ of re- sponse). (See table 6 and fig. 2.) DISCUSSION The curve in figure 1 does not disagree beyond reasonable error with the one shown in figure 1 of Meier (1932), although the earlier curve was determined by a different method. It is questionable whether the wave length for the maximum radiotoxic effect has yet been determined, since effects at 2600 A and shorter wave lengths have not been sufficiently studied in these experiments. [Experi- ments including regions 2300 to 2700 A should be made for the pur- pose of finding further information on this subject. Additional experiments should also be performed to check the assumption made that the radiotoxic effect is proportional to the intensity of irradiation and to the time of irradiation jointly. It is also possible that weaker irradiations would produce a stimulation of growth which is not apparent in these plates because of the luxuriant green growth covering the entire surface of each culture before irradiation. Further experiments are being planned to investigate this point. SUMMARY The radiotoxic spectral sensitivity has been determined for eight wave lengths in the ultraviolet ranging from 2652 to 3022 A as applied to a unicellular green alga, Chlorella vulgaris. Although all the rays from 2652 to 3022 A killed the algae eventually, death ensued much more quickly in some of the regions than in others. The radiotoxic virulence or speed of effectiveness of each lethal ray in killing the algal cells for a radiotoxic quotum at eight wave lengths ranging from 2652 to 3022 A has been calculated. Lt R N H WwW Cc N Lol ol MEI N iS 4 ULTRAVIOLET wn ° OV WwW TO wn oO oe IN So 9 ine) = 69° ALGAE Or \o N HH £6" (SPONSE Nn oO xt Ww RE DN oO! 5 9 3 ‘oO OV ONN DAW MN MOMNnMNMO HH ANOAONNDA ‘cL6 Zz sjeoo1d19a yy oor s[PoOI1d 193 qonpoig — sAeq = q VDUI[NILA = 5 NO. x ocre o'zS0z 9 OLF1 9° 429g ‘TeV ‘20Sze g roz Q'roz g'toz g Lez1 zSoeL z'9S9 z'9S9 Z'959 za ZE6e z¢cgte g'gle g'Ole g'gle g'60z1 g 4622 v'z6z v'z6z 207 VVSZI V'gzSOr “009 “000 006 “ooFS ‘ooree i) umnjyonb { dIxojOIpey + “Q[BOS JUSIUBAUOD IO4 peaAleH q Sv Sv SV A}ATWISUaS [etjoeds OIXOJOIPRY } x LS 09 LS ogt bL~e 09 vL~ og cv 0g Sv age £6" Oi £6° 09 £6" oge cO'1 ol £61 09 C61 age Ls Ol LS 09 £5: age 89° Ol 89° 09 89° ogt E ol ic 09 % ogt “UTur Ayisuayuy x ew oinsodxq (S$ pup I sajqv], uo paspg) aauanuA Ix0JOIpPVY— ) AAV L *yonpoid ysa[[euUs x ecor FOgz bogz 6692 z°lgz 12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 LITBRATURE CITED BEAUVERIE, J., and Cornet, P. 1929. Action des rayons ultra-violets sur la structure cellulaire dans la feuille et le bourgeon d’Elodea canadensis. C. R. Soc. Biol., Tome 102, PP. 775-777- Brackett, F. S., and McA ister, E. D. 1932. A spectrophotometric development for biological and photochemical investigations. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 87, no. 12, pp. 1-7. FRANKLIN, RACHEL, ALLEN, A. J., and McDonatp, ELtice. 1933. Some micro-moving-pictures showing the lethal effects of ultra- violet radiation on certain living Protozoa. Bull. Amer. Phys. Soc., vol. 8, no. 2, p. 5. Gisss, R. D. 1926. The action of ultra-violet light on Spirogyra. Proc. and Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, vol. 20, pp. 419-425. Martin, M. T., and WestBroox, M. A. 1930. Influence of ultra-violet radiation upon some plant cells. Journ. Exper. Biol., vol. 7, pp. 293-307. Meter, FLORENCE E. 1932. Lethal action of ultra-violet light on a unicellular green alga. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 87, no. 10, pp. I-II. NoETHLING, W., and Rocu iin, E. 1931. Uber Photodinese im Kurzwelligen Ultraviolet. Planta, vol. 14, pp. 112-131. Swann, W. F. G., and pet Rosario, C. 1932. The effect of certain monochromatic ultra-violet radiation on Euglena cells. Journ. Franklin Inst., vol. 213, pp. 549-560. TANNER, FRED W., and RypeEr, EArt. 1923. Action of ultraviolet light on yeast-like fungi. II. Bot. Gaz., vol. 75. PP. 309-317. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS Woks Ee INhole sha Lethe. NX oO Tt TiOonR WN O DD PO Onon BQ t CORO S00 Onno O — ™) NI QI ANA O&O ~ ”) AN ALGAL SPECTROGRAM, OBTAINED BY EXPOSING PLATE 23 OF CHLORELLA VULGARIS TO ULTRAVIOLET RAYS FOR 4440 SECONDS, SUPER- IMPOSED ON A DIAGRAM OF THE INTENSITIES OF THE WAVE LENGTHS. The abscissae are wave lengths in angstroms. The ordinates are intensities in ergs/sec.cm?”. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92, NO. 3, PL. 2 IRRADIATION TIME IN TIME AFTER IRRADIATION SECONDS 8 DAYS G@=100 b= Ne C-600 12 DAYS | 2652A 2894A GRADUAL APPEARANCE OF RADIOTOXIC REGIONS IN PLATE 5 OF CHLORELLA VULGARIS AFTER EXPOSURE OF 600 SECONDS TO ULTRAVIOLET RAYS. | No radiotoxic effect was noted for exposures of 100 seconds and 16 seconds. | | SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOETI2NOm cri S IRRADIATION TIME IN TIME AFTER IRRADIATION SECONDS 9 DAYS G= GOO 6 =- 100 C- 3600 24 DAYS RADIOTOXIC REGIONS IN PEATE 1 OF CHLORELLA VULGARIS AFTER EXPOSURES OF 600. SECONDS AND 3600 SECONDS TO ULTRAVIOLET RAYS. No radiotoxicity was noted for the exposure of roo seconds. ik 4s Pin Pe eg oe. ce ¥ ® — jt AES Bird ees S SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOES 92; \NO= 4), IPED a ee Viva Jesus. Re laam Ay SfINI Gp, la, meena Ufes, (At pumrbret y tahara - sancial 30 le drcrcs De.elha JiihiyceS Juan laptthanc Yamada. hs 24 StLOn, cAcsig ches hd. . : Jn)ne Ouccaen. / h aviemme cef Cm rac’ a of Cnr An hihoutia fob udefa ev hy ven tp ane tonbend:, pead verthtena acipeir effas sows ha, A 2e Pun caawenly pana Perer Dar ws alge compliers Ende a rut othpa - dere Pe diborane up sbehio, tenve/cle Sempae presente, y lar mang, Oing 2h tn Dyan. a mal venstnds tnifrucaon y laces far. Kayun pusdon sovernamnse Jinan rabese come «7 me fray cas bade, prs range Por thes moves, enpleody todo in mesa posibees adguiain, of onarimento Be. la. meenin, user y cothum bres gue eapian elie nabwaales en 1 _gentlidad y pa be mitenscorda, Ge, a me $2 con rraboje yn ota tn ef eppasio 2e- mas Spaz, anor, be, pode oveniUar WIELD sana mored ceahcumnbab- Poly quant tn elprtiente elonsio 18 ef bae, estar pertncdido Le gcse ignonaane fy, cnztrua. gite Henen hy Indias, 009 ut wtos, 4 corteim bres, Of ay WPrell Jacarles Wl enn 07 Gel viven, y Daalel a entender la, Verdadeae Relipion,y enietiaxle el verSa- Qers camino Pare te salad. Conpere gue e/a jja/ Peder. pentham sus secretes, porgut lyprificaSd Se tut Ulery (dumm bref 124 lo laben Wey Moe alo porn los Lipstanes y alevnes JSahapal, que hauasy el opus be- Jaseravotel yf Ae? ears, ey gi elhes Lo onsen con a fe Ayeoxfy blo Lap | alt 9 ue tes hay 01 Se Sucecer. jonas empre, con la adverten tor gue nb maniteltaran o Nahe, POR UE bt lp Qeeiot 2 marifelirvan CD ici pede chal Delonacial, ¥ gutiJe mourtan Ov uyfurdresdchy muche tem or ymidby JP ™ lonke fe Jahe tanpotw de tut cere, Pongue, Ly pied gut L Jaber x thts enden ty hewin reledy ade paren fi. REPRODUCTION OF PAGE 1 OF THE NEWLY DISCOVERED MANUSCRIPT SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 92, NUMBER 4 A NEW ORIGINAL VERSION OF BOSCANA’S HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF THE SAN JUAN CAPISTRANO INDIANS OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA (WitH Two PLates) BY JOHN P. HARRINGTON Ethnologist, Bureau of American Ethnology (PUBLICATION 3255) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION JUNE 27, 1934 The Lord Baltimore Prees BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A. A NEW ORIGINAL VERSION OF BOSCANA’S HISTORI- CAL ACCOUNT OF THE SAN JUAN CAPISTRANO INDIANS OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA By JOHN P. HARRINGTON, Ethnologist, Bureau of American Ethnology (WitH Two PLates) When I first started to study the California Indians, I looked about to see what had been recorded concerning them in early times, that is, during the period of Spanish occupation. I found that only one ac- count of California Indians, or indeed of Indians of the Southwest, worthy of being called an ethnological treatise had survived from that period, namely Father Jeronimo Boscana’s ‘“‘ Chinigchinich ”, which tells in several penetrating but all too short chapters of the life of the Indians of the San Juan Capistrano Mission on the coast of southern California. There was comparatively rich Spanish archival material to be found, consisting of chronicles of voyages and land expeditions, church records, etc., but no other good description of a tribe and its customs, although certain writings on Lower California Indians con- stituted the nearest second to the Boscana. And the Boscana treatise was accessible only in a rather inadequate English translation published by Alfred Robinson as an appendix to his Life in California.’ Persis- tent attempts made in this country and abroad toward locating the all- important Spanish original all resulted in failure. It was therefore a gala day in my life, unparalleled by any other, when I recently dis- covered the long lost Boscana original. The manuscript proves to be even more valuable than was expected, since it is an 1822 variant version of the Historical Account that Rob- inson translated, each version containing certain important data that the other omits. It consists of 58 octavo pages written in a rather neat * Chinigchinich: a historical account of the origin, customs, and traditions of the Indians at the missionary establishment of St. Juan Capistrano, Alta California; called the Acagchemem nation ..., by the Reverend Father Friar Geronimo Boscana... New York, 1846. For a reprint of this work see Boscana, Geronimo, 1776-1831, Chinigchinich (Chi-fii’ch-fiich), a revised and annotated version of Alfred Robinson’s translation of Father Gerénimo Bos- cana’s historical account, edited by Phil Townsend Hanna, annotations by John P. Harrington, foreword by Frederick Webb Hodge, Santa Ana, Calif., 1033. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92, No. 4 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 hand, the hand already familiar to me through working with the church records at San Juan Capistrano. An introduction, written in very fervent tone, is followed by 15 chapters devoted respectively to the subjects of origin, creation tradition, history of the traditional leaders Ouiot and Chinigchinix, instruction of children, marriage, general manner of life, chieftainship, description of the native temples, feasts and dances, calendar, extravagancies, burials and funerals, beliefs of immortality, origin of the inhabitants of San Juan Capistrano Mission, and list with etymologies of 15 rancherias inhabited by these Indians. A halftone reproduction of page 1 of the manuscript is shown in plate 1 (frontispiece). Boscana was born May 23, 1776, at the country town of Llumayor on the island of Mallorca off the coast of eastern Spain. His native tongue was, of course, the Catalonian language, very different from Spanish. He was ordained at a Franciscan college at Palma, capital of the island, and was sent as a missionary to Mexico, and thence to Alta California, now the California of Americans. He was missionary at San Juan Capistrano from 1812 to 1826, a period of 14 years, and died, still a middle-aged man, at the nearby mission of San Gabriel, Calif., in 1831. The only picture of Father Boscana known to be extant is the reproduction of what was evidently a pencil drawing published in Robinson’s book, here republished as plate 2. It shows the father in the latter years of his life, probably when he was stationed at San Gabriel. The San Juan Capistrano Indians which the Historical Account describes are a northwestern subdivision of the so-called Payom- kawish or San Luisefio Indians of San Luis Rey Mission, who occupy the San Luis Rey River drainage in northern San Diego County, Calif., and adjacent regions. The dialect which they speak belongs to the great Aztecan family of languages. The religion of the Indians described by Boscana centers about the revelations of a prophet named Chinigchinix, as it is spelled in this version, the x being pronounced as in Catalonian, that is, equal to English sh. The prophet was known by three sacred names: Saor, meaning common person, noninitiate ; Tobet, medicine man, initiate ; and Quoar, a name too sacred to pronounce aloud. These three names apply to three successive periods in the prophet’s revelatory life. The prophet was born at the rancheria of Pubu in Los Angeles County, Calif., only a couple of miles inland from Alamitos Bay, there accom- plished his principal teaching, and when he died, was from there merely translated to the heaven of the stars, leaving no. earthly bodily remains. From above and everywhere he watches our deeds and SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOES 92; INOZ 4, PES 2 FATHER GERONIMO BOSCANA, MISSIONARY Al SY JUAN CAPISTRANO. ONLY EXTANT PICTURE OF REV. JERONIMO BOSCANA, REPRODUCED FROM LITHOGRAPH FRONTISPIECE IN ALFRED ROBINSON, LIFE IN CALIFORNIA, NEW YORK, 1846 NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—HARRINGTON 3 thoughts, and sends poisonous medicine animals, known as Chinigchi- nix animals, also calamities and death, to punish those who mock his dances and disobey his commandments. So much does this deity prophet command our central-attention throughout the essay that Robinson calls his translation outright: Chinigchinich. A very literal and careful translation of the newly found manuscript, following all the minutiae of its style, is here presented. Exhaustive notes have been prepared and will constitute a separate publication. 4. VIVA JESUS. A historical account of the belief, usages, customs, and extravagancies of the Indians of this Mission of San Juan Capistrano, called the Acagchemem tribe. INTRODUCTION My having resolved to write this history, fabulous in itself, or in its subject matter, but true as far as these Indians are concerned, has been primarily with the aim of being able to fulfill to some degree my duties as Apostolic Missionary, having their fulfillment ever present and near at hand, as well as also of leaving to those who come after me instruction and lights in order that they may be guided without such labor as it has cost me, trying in every way, using all possible means, to gain knowledge of the belief, usages, and customs which these na- tives had in their gentile state. And by the mercy of God, through labor and cunning during a period of more than ten years [marginal annotation: from 1812 to 1822], I have been able to investigate to a moral certainty everything that is related in the present book. Since I am of the persuasion that if we are ignorant of the belief held by the Indians, of their usages and customs, it is very difficult to take them out of the error in which they live and to give them to understand the true religion, and to teach them the true way to their salvation. I confess that it is difficult to be able to penetrate their secrets, because the signification of their usages and customs is not known to all of them. This [signification] is only for the chiefs and certain satraps, who performed the work of priests, and [certain] criers, and when these taught it to their sons (and that only to those who were to succeed them), it was always with the admonition that they should not divulge it to anyone, for if they told or divulged it, they would have many misfortunes, and would die, etc., instilling into them much dread and fear ; and for that reason so little is known about their affairs, since those few who know and understand keep it to themselves. Since these Indians did not use writings, letters, or any characters, nor do they use them, all their knowledge is by tradition, which they preserve in songs for the dances which they held at their great feasts. But since these songs have their form or are in a language distinct 5 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 from that which is spoken at the present time, no one, except those mentioned above, understands the meaning of the song and dance; the others sing and dance but without knowing either what they are saying or what they are doing. I imagine that such songs are in a primitive language, and they preserve them in their feasts, and these songs and dances contain all their religion, usages and customs, and for this reason these songs are not used or sung except in their feasts. They also have common songs and dances in their own language, which latter are sung and danced daily, and are understood by all, but these are nothing more than for the purpose of amusing themselves and idling about with one another. What I have said above seems to me sufficient for understanding the purpose which has led me to write this little work about the belief, usages and customs of these Indians, and if it may seem to some that my bravery has been great, attributing it to arrogance and presumption, since [ am a pigmy beside my brethren, they being more illustrious and of greater experience, let it be borne in mind that I have not written it to show myself to be anything more than what I am, but that my pur- pose is that I may free from delusion those who have confided to me their errors, as well as that certain ones may be incited to make public the secrets of the Indians which they have encountered, with the result that with information on record as regards their belief, usages and customs, they can be told what they may follow and what they should put aside; and for this reason I hope that he who reads this com- position may be pleased to see such information, and if he should find anything which may disagree with the truth which I have proposed to set forth, or any defect to correct, I shall give boundless thanks to him who may show it to me, so that the error may be perceived and cor- rected. And withal I am beseeching God that he grant us his holy erace and benediction. Amen. CHAPTER I FROM WHAT RACE OF PEOPLE MAY THESE INDIANS COME? [1.] Since no information is found as to where these people of California may have come from, neither the natives of this Mission nor of the rest of the country being able to give an account of their origin or race, not even having it by tradition, it is necessary [for us] to walk blindly, traveling to and fro with closed eyes after the truth, and perchance not knocking at her door for a long interval, or perhaps departing further from the truth—inasmuch as this chapter is all by way of conjecture, if I err in this undertaking, it is not through will and caprice, but because of not being able to discover the light in a place so dark, going along groping blindly. 2. Without pausing over what the authors relate as to whether they are descended from Jews, as some think, or from Carthaginians or Phenicians, as others think, I for my part, without involving myself in times so remote, shall give attention to the kinds of people who came to settle the Mexican kingdom. 3. The kinds of people who settled the Mexican kingdom, accord- ing to what Fr. Torquemada tells us in his Monarquia Indiana [mar- ginal annotation: book 1, chapter 14], were four, he says, namely: Tultecas, Chichimecas, Aculnas, and Mexicans. Among these above mentioned different kinds of people, it is my feeling that the Indians of California here are of the Chichimeca race, because they are simi- lar [to them] in every respect, according to what the above mentioned Torquemada relates to us [marginal annotation: same book, chapter 15], when he says: that toward the regions of the north (away from the City of Mexico, and at a great distance) there were certain prov- inces, the principal city of which was called Amaqueme, and the inhabi- tants Chichimecas, people naked of clothes, fierce of appearance, and great warriors, their arms bows and arrows, their ordinary subsistence is game and wild fruits, and their habitation in cavernous places or straw huts, for since the principal exercise of their life was hunting, they did not amuse themselves with building palaces. 4. Although the said Chichimecas lived in towns or rancherias, they had very few police, for they did not recognize any king or lord, but let themselves be governed by a chief, though not by one greater, as we 7 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 shall see in the proper place, or by one more esteemed, than any other man of those of the rancheria, with the result that in treatment and life all were equal. 5. This name Chichimeca means sucker or one who nurses, and since the principal and usual food of these was animals which they hunted, the meat of which they ate raw, and since they first sucked the blood of the animal, from this they got the name Chichimeca. Perhaps among themselves they may have had another distinct name which I do not know. These Chichimeca people did not live stationary at a single place, but from time to time moved from one place to another. They were ignorant of medicine for curing their diseases, and they did not bury the dead, but burned them. They did not use many idolatries, or venerate many Gods, and for this reason they did not have sacrifices. 6. Comparing then these Indians of California with the above mentioned Chichimecas, we find them absolutely similar: For their life was the same, because although they lived in towns and rancherias having a chief, which these [Indians] called Not, he was without police or laws, and to him they held very little obedience, as we shall see, Their dress was the natural one, which is to go about in their bare skins; their subsistence animals and wild seeds; their medicines almost none; and they also burned the dead. And in a word I find them similar in every way; I speak of those whom I have [here] treated and whom I have observed, who are the people of this Mission and its environs. And I think that through all the Province they are the same; I only find a difference in the Canalefios, who in many things differed from these Indians [here], for one perceives in them greater industry, a different bearing, and they buried the dead and did not burn them. 7. Only the diversity of languages which we find in the Province causes me much difficulty for assuming that the entire Province comes from that Chichimeca race, for each tribe appears to be of a distinct language. For we should suppose that the Chichimeca tribe would speak a single language, although from place to place there would be certain different [terms], such as provincialisms, but in general it would be the same [language | and all would have under- stood each other ; but we find it so different that the Dieguino language and that of this Mission neither in terms nor accents resemble each other, nor can a single word be understood mutually. And I say the same of the Canalefio language and the others of the north. If Iam told that certain tribes may have corrupted the primitive language, | say that it may well be, but that there would always be a connection, NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA——-HARRINGTON 9 such as we see between Old Castilian and that which is spoken at present. 8. [The matter set forth in] this paragraph above is what confuses me without being able to discern what may be the cause; if anyone of my brethren or others who may see this could make it clear, I would be boundlessly grateful to him, it being a matter useful to all and especially to us. Let what has been said be sufficient, and may others enlarge upon the above chapter. CHAPTER 2 ABOUT THE CREATION OF THE WORLD. Do not let the reader think that I wish to give here an account of that which Moses relates in the first chapter of Genesis. I do not intend any such thing, but to set forth the belief which these Indians had in their gentile state about the beginning of the world. And although one encounters in the narration many contradictions, we should not be surprised that certain crude Indians, without knowledge of the true God, without faith, without law or king, governed so long by the Father of Lies, without writings or characters, but having everything by mere tradition—we should not be surprised, I repeat, at their extravagancies and the little discernment in their acts, for since they were so ignorant, without being able to distinguish the true from the false, they did not know the path of light, and con- tinually walked in darkness. The belief which these Indians had concerning the origin of the world was thus: they relate that formerly there was nothing, only one above and another below; these two were brother and sister, man and woman, the one above, a man, which is properly the Heaven, and the one below, a woman, which is the Earth, but it was not the Heaven and the Earth as they are seen now, but of another nature which they do not know how to explain, and it was continually very dark night, without sun, moon, or stars. The brother came to the sister, and brought the light, which is the sun, telling her that he wanted to do many things with her; it meant that he wanted to cohabit with her. But the sister resisted declaring to him that they were brother and sister, and that therefore it was impossible to consent to what he desired, and that for that reason he should go back and leave her in peace. Note: And the Indians of these parts pay such faithful observance to the first degree of consanguinity that I have never heard that brothers with sisters, or fathers with daughters, or sons with mothers, have been seen at all, nor even with first cousins, for being first cousins they are treated the same as brothers; but not so with the relatives by affinity, for there were many married to two sisters, as they also had the custom that if a woman died and she had a sister, the latter entered as a wife in place of the deceased woman. Here is seen the Mosaic law. But at last in spite of all the resistance that she made, the sister became pregnant, and what she brought forth was earth and sand, 10 NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—HARRINGTON Tet but a small quantity, after the shape and manner of a little plot of ground ; this was the first childbirth. She again found herself preg- nant, and in this second childbirth she brought forth rocks of all kinds, sorts and sizes, and principally flint for the arrows. She again found herself pregnant, and in this third childbirth, she brought forth trees, and shrubs or chamize. In a word, after having given birth to all the things which are seen on the earth, such as plants, herbs, and the rest, she brought forth as her last childbirth one whom they call Oiiiot. This was an animate being, but different from the rational kind, and irrational. But the father and mother of the said Ouiot were not people, but something else, and they do not know how to explain or to give to understand how they imagined them. The above mentioned Oiot had children, and was the king or great chief of all that family. This Oiot and his children constituted, according to what I have understood, a species of animals distinct from those of the present day. Asking them how Chief Oiot had sons, or who was his wife and what she was called, they do not know how to answer this question, but say that he had many children, but how they do not know, nor whether all were males or whether there were females, they do not know this either, but conjecture that there were both, because women give birth that way. The dis- cussion of the above I leave to philosophers, for my intention is noth- ing more than to make a succinct account. CHAPTER 3 THE LIFE OF CHIEF OUIOT AND THE ORIGIN OF THESE INDIANS. While Chief Ouiot was with his people, as they say, which he kept procreating, that first ground, which his mother had given birth to, kept increasing and widening, always from the north to the south (it is to be noted that all these Indians believe that they come from the region of the north), and as they kept on increasing, the earth kept growing all the time. Oiot already being very old, the eldest of his vassals, whether it may have been because of envy or because of the desire of governing, determined to kill their chief, alleging that he was not governing them well, and that he already was too old to govern ; they held their conference as to what manner of death they should put him to, and the decision was rendered that he should be herbed or poisoned. They made the mixture, and giving him to drink that beverage which they had prepared for the purpose of killing him, immediately he felt sick, and finding this to be his fate he descended from the hills or mountains where he was making his home, and he came to where the beach now is (for at that time there was no sea yet). His mother knowing the danger in which her son, Oiot, found himself, prepared a remedy for curing him, which was in this manner: she urinated in a large abalone shell, placed in the urine some worms and certain herbs, put it in the sun, but while she had it fermenting, the Coyote came along, gave the shell a kick, and spilled all the medicinal preparation, and by this accident were frus- trated all the desires and hopes of the mother of Chief Oiot. Note: These Indians were of the belief that from this urine which the Coyote spilled, the sea was formed, that from the worms which were in the shell the fish were created, and that from the herbs were born the Giant Kelp and other plants which there are in the sea, and for this reason, they say, that the water of the sea has the taste or flavor of urine, because it is salty and bitter. At last Chief Oiot died, and although before he died he had told them that in a short time he would return to live with them, from that time on they never saw him more. It is to be noted, that at that time there were no seeds or game, their food was earth, (which according as they explained and as I understand) is a kind of white clay or fine argil, with which they plaster their heads. Finding them- selves thus situated after the death of Oiot, they discussed the IZ NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—HARRINGTON 13 matter of giving him burial. It was deliberated whether he should be buried or burned, and all the votes were that he should be burned. They prepared the hearth with wood and with the dead Oiot on top of it, and fearing that the Coyote might eat him, they sent him away to hunt for fire. And what the said Coyote did was to with- draw to a short distance and hide, spying on what they were doing, and on one occasion when he was some distance off they lighted the pyre, and the Coyote seeing it, behold he comes back at full speed, and although they did not allow him to approach, he saying that he wanted to burn himself up and die with his chief, he jumps over them into the flames, and seized a piece of the shoulderblade and shoulder of Ouiot, ate it up, and he did not get any more because the rest had been consumed by the flames. This Coyote was called Eyacqiie, which is the same as second chief, and at that time they changed the name Eyacque to the name of Endo, which means thief and eater of people, and thus they call coyotes at the present time: Eno. After concluding the functions and ceremonies of the burial of their Chief Oiot, that is, after having burned him, they all assembled for a great council, at which they discussed in what way they could have wild seeds to eat, such as acorns, Wild Amaranth, chia, etc., and also game such as deer, cottontail rabbits, jackrabbits, quails, ground- squirrels, rats, etc. While all were at the above mentioned meeting, they saw on various days and many times one like a phantom, differ- ent from themselves, who kept appearing to them and disappearing, sometimes in one direction, sometimes in another, and finding them- selves in suspense and fear at what they were seeing, they decided to call him to them. They called him, he came to them and they asked him if he was their Chief Ouiot. “I am not Chief Oiot,’” he answered them, “ but a greater chief, and I am called Chinigchinix.” They asked him where he lived, and he answered: “ My habitation is above.”” He asked them what matter they were discussing at the meeting and why they were all gathered there. They answered him that it being that their Chief Oiot had died, they were disussing how they could support themselves with wild seeds and game, and not have to subsist any longer on the clay that they were eating. In consideration of these motives Chinigchinix answered them and told them: “TI make all things, and I shall create people for you people, distinct from yourselves, whom you soon shall see. And now, from this moment on I give unto you power and faculty, to each one of you, that one shall make it rain, that another shall make the weather clear up, that another shall produce acorns, that 14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 another shall produce chia, that another shall produce Wild Amaranth, etc.; likewise that another shall produce cottontail rabbits, that an- other shall produce ducks, that another shall produce geese, that another shall produce deer, etc. To each one he gave the power, now to produce seeds, now animals, of the kind that they eat. And still at the present time, those who pretend to be their descendants, claim to have this power, and the [other] Indians consult them, asking that they produce many seeds, that they make the ducks tame, and they pay them well, so that they will be pleased, for they believe that if they do not pay them, there will be no seeds, nor will they get game. After Chinigchinix had given the power, as we have said, to the descendants of Oiot, which must have been the time of dixit et factum est, he created the people that he had told them about, and Chinigchinix made these people from a little mud of the shore of a lake, and these are the Indians that now exist, and he did not make merely one but a number of men and women, and he told them: ‘He who obeys me not or believes not in what I teach him, him shall I punish, to him shall I send bears to bite, rattlesnakes to sting, and other misfortunes.”” And he taught them the law which they should observe henceforth with its rites and ceremonies. The first commandment which he gave them was that they should build him a temple in which they were to worship him, offer him sacri- fices, veneration, and cult, this same Chinigchinix furnishing the de- sign or model of how the temple was to be built. This Chinigchinix, whom from that time on they considered as God, the Indians say had no father or mother, and all are ignorant of his origin. I have not been able to obtain the etymology of the name Chinigchinix, nor do the Indians know what it means or its significance, as is also the case with the name Quiot. It is true that they are proper names, and for that reason must have and should have their origin, but so far I am ignorant of it. They believed that the God Chinigchinix was everywhere present, that he saw everything, though it were dark night, but that no one could see him; that he was a friend of the good and punished the wicked much. This God Chinigchinix has three distinct names, namely: Saor, Quoar, and Tobet. Each name has its own meaning, for Saor signifies or means the time when the said Chinigchinix did not yet know how to dance. Quoar when he already knew how to dance. And Tobet when he danced wearing a little skirt or apron of feathers, adorned with feathers like a crown on his head, and painted up. And they say that this Chinigchinix went away dancing to Heaven. And this kind of dress their God Chinigchinix commanded them to use in their feasts, and they use it in the special dances of their great feasts. NODA NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—HARRINGTON 15 This is the belief which these: Indians had about the creation of the world and their origin; and in the narration of this fable alone we see included and comprised all the usages, customs and ceremonies of the Indians of this Mission and vicinity with slight variation. I consider that the reader is in suspense after reading the above ac- count and that he is desirous of learning what became of the children and descendants of Ouiot, after Chinigchinix created the Indians from the mud of the lake, since we have made no further mention of them. According as some relate, the God Chinigchinix after making the In- dians, transformed them|the race of Ouiot |into people or Indians like themselves, and to this account I adhere as being the one more reason- able and congruous, because of what we have said above about the power and faculty which Chinigchinix gave them [the race of Ouiot| of producing seeds and game, and about those who hold themselves to be their descendants claiming to have that power yet. Others tell that when they [the race of Ouiot] saw the Indians which Chinigchinix had made, they [the race of Ouiot] departed to another region, and it is not known where, and that they have not been seen more. Others tell other things which I am not taking time to write, considering them the forgings of their crude brains. to CHAPTER 4 ABOUT THE TEACHING OR INSTRUCTION WHICH THEY GAVE TO THEIR CHILDREN. One of the matters in which the Ancients experienced the greatest difficulty and which gave them considerable care was the bringing up of the children, because on this being good or bad depends the goodness or badness of the child. Since these Indians did not know either the mechanic arts, or the liberal ones, or did they need them because of the manner of life which they led, but only those neces- sary for their own preservation, they therefore were not able to teach their children anything useful to rid them of their idleness. They merely instructed them in the handling of the bow and arrow, and this in order that they might learn to hunt for food and defend themselves from their enemies. Although these Indians were ignorant of the true path, and the be- ginning of wisdom is the fear of the true God, and this fear the begin- ning of the instruction of children, nevertheless the instructions which the parents gave their children had their moral virtues, for the parents and grandparents took care very earnestly that their children be well brought up and good [children], because if one of them turned out perverse, although they quickly removed him from their midst, they were disgraced. And for this reason from the time they were small they admonished them (and this by showing them beforehand many misfortunes and punishments, if they did not follow carefully what was being taught them), telling them that they should not be thieves, or liars, that they should not injure people, should not fight with one another, and should not use bad words, and above all that they should not make fun of the old people, but should respect and fear them ; and that if they did not give heed to these instructions which their parents gave them, even though they might kill him [the perverse child], the God Chinigchinix would punish him much. And this was the daily harangue. These Indians did not punish the faults of their children, they merely gave them certain admonishments to correct them, but in reality very few offences were committed and the reason was the much fear and great dread which they felt. When the males were at the age of about 6 or 7 years, they gave them a kind of God as a protector, and it was the animal in which they should put all their faith in times of need, and it would defend them in 16 NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—HARRINGTON 7, all dangers, especially in the wars against their enemies ; and it was never the principal [God], for they knew that he was hidden, and that if at any time he appeared to them and spoke to them, it was always in the form of animals, and of these the most abominable, ugly, and hide- ous. Indeed, in order that the boy might know which one the God Chinigchinix destined for him, and in which he was to place confidence, they gave him a drink, which is prepared froma kind of tobacco (I do not know the [Spanish] name of this herb) which they call Pibat (they apply this term to all tobacco which is smoked), this they pre- pare by grinding it up, and when it is pulverized they make a cake, mixed with other ingredients, which according to what they have told me are lime and urine. To others they gave another [kind of a] drink [prepared] from a plant which is called Toludche, and which they call Mani, and drunken- ness is produced by one of these as much as by the other, in drinking which they shortly lose their senses, and finding themselves deprived of their senses by their drunkenness, they were made to fast 3 or 4 days or more (and it is to be noted that their fasts were natural ones, they being given nothing to eat or drink during the entire time that the fast lasted). During this period they continually had by their heads some old men or old women who were preaching to them without letting them rest either day or night, telling them that he [the boy] should take good notice and be watchful, and therefore should not go to sleep, that he might see if the bear, the coyote, the raven, the rattle- snake, etc., were to come, naming over a great many; if they were to come gentle or angry; and that from the first animal whom he might see he should ask for what he wanted. The poor unfortunate, in his drunkenness, and without having eaten or drunk for many days, had a thousand visions and deliriums and when he said that he saw this or that one and explained what he had manifested to him, that is, what he was to do for him, he was then given. something to eat, so that he would come to himself, and when he was somewhat stronger they be- gan a great dance feast, according to their custom, exhorting him to be very careful not to make angry the one who had appeared to him, and to carry out exactly what he had commanded. There were others who did not drink these drinks, and what was done with them was that first they feathered them and painted them well with a kind of soot between black and red color, and adorned in this manner, they carried them to the temple called Vanquex, with many ceremonies. On reaching there, the satraps put him [the boy] at one side of Chinigchinix and in front of him on the ground they painted a figure, the most ridiculous which can be imagined, for it consisted of 18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 nothing more than streaks or lines, horizontal and transverse, circular and semicircular, all poorly made without order or arrangement. There they left the boy, forbidding him to leave there until the penance of fasting was concluded (which was wont to last 3 entire days), telling him that should he feel hunger or thirst he must have patience and bear it, for if he ate or drank, though it were alone at night in secret, the evil figure which was painted in front of him would make it known, and that Chinigchinix was looking at him and would punish him, sending diseases upon him so that he would die, and other similar nonsense. And these poor boys believed it all infallibly, and observed it to the very letter. I was told of a case that had happened in the time of their gentile con- dition, and it was that a boy being in the Vanquex during the penance of fasting, on the second day found himself with considerable hunger and thirst, and he went in secret to a nearby house at which there were no people home at this time, found something to eat, ate and drank, and immediately returned to his place, without anyone having seen him. And after the period of penance was finished, finding himself one day with his companions, he told them of what he had done at the time of his penance in that he had eaten and drunk, and having found that the evil figure said nothing, and that nothing happened to him, he stated that everything which the Puplem, that is, the wizards or soothsayers, told was lies and deceit, for having eaten and drunk and even rubbed out part of the figure with his feet, nothing had happened to him, for which reason one should not believe the Puplem. But his companions, instead of opening their eyes and perceiving the error and the deceit, so great was their resentment and fury which they felt against him, because of the disrespect which he had shown the old men, that when the matter was divulged he was shot to death with arrows. Note: The drinks Pibat and Toludche, of which we have spoken above, outside their use for the boys, were also employed by the men, and still are, for the purpose of winning in their games, for obtaining the women whom they covet, and for procuring any evil thing that they may think of. It is to be noted that at the time of their drunkenness they also have to observe a fast, for at least some 3 days, and that when this is over they are said to be cured, and that when they are cured in this manner, they believe, and this without having the slightest doubt enter their minds, that they will be able to attain any evil thing which they crave; but if they are not successful and their luck is reversed, as frequently happens, they attribute it to being poorly cured, that is, that they did not drink sufficient medicine, or did not keep the fast well; or to other similar causes. After the boys had been put through everything that we have related, they put on them their mark, which is properly speaking a NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—ILARRINGTON 19 brand—for it is obvious that the Devil, entering into the use of reason, wished to have them marked like slaves, which was accom- plished in this manner: They took a species of herb or grass, this they pounded and crushed until it became like tinder, and put it on the piace where they were to be branded (which was on their arms and thighs) in the figure which he [the boy] was to have, lighted it, and let it burn until it was consumed. We must consider that the burn soon raised a blister and made a sore. This they left until it healed, without putting any remedy on, and the place remained scarred permanently. Others instead of the grass used dry tule, and others the dung or manure of jackrabbits or cottontail rabbits. The cause or reason which they allege for branding themselves thus was that they believed that with this mark they have more strength in the arm and better pulse for handling the bow, and that Chinigchinix wished it thus and so commanded, in order that they might conquer their enemies, and that he who was not branded with this sign, which they called poteuse, would always be unfortunate and beaten, like a despicable man and one having little strength. The boys, in addition to what has been mentioned, had to suffer still other martyrdoms in order to become men and be able to present themselves among the rest. It was their custom, after the mark had been put on them, when they were bigger boys, to whip them with nettles and to put ants on them, and this was done in order to make them more robust and stronger, and it was done as follows: In the summer time at about the months of July and August when the nettles are in season and the fiercest they took some bunches of them and with these began to whip the boys on their legs, thighs, butts, shoulders and arms. After this sacrifice, having been well lashed with nettles, they placed the patient on a nest of fierce ants, and another one was stirring them up to make them still fiercer, and since the patient had no more clothes on than what he brought from the belly of his mother, we can imagine in what condition he must have been, after having been thoroughly lashed with nettles, as a result of those fierce ants, which even cause fever. And so great was their patience, that they seemed like dead, without a groan or movement. These were the ones called cured. There were some who suffered this torture several times over, and many went through it alone or with some companion, for they believed that when thus cured, they were from that time on more agile, and that the arrows of their enemies could not harm them. They also deprived the youths from getting close to the fire, in order that they might learn to suffer and to harden themselves to the in- 20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 clemency of the weather, and also from eating certain foods, such as acorns, Islay, Chia, etc., as well as the meat of certain animals, such as deer, cottontail rabbit, jackrabbit, etc., in a word, all the best foods that they had, telling them that these foods were for the old people only, and that until they had 2 or 3 children they could not eat of them, and that if they ate of them before that time in secret, the Toux, which is the Devil, would make it known and would punish them, causing them many injuries, such as: stumbling over rocks, tripping over burrows, that mountain lions, bears, rattlesnakes, etc., would bite them, and that their Chinigchinix would be very angry and that they would die. And they had such faith and belief in these fabulous stories, and so great was their dread and fear, that they would sooner perish than transgress to the slightest extent. In the instructions that they gave to the girls, in addition to the general admonishments which they gave to the boys, they added that they should not be run-abouts, but remain in retirement, nor should they be sleepy-heads or lazy, but always ready and obedient, so that when they were grown up they would know how to work at their chores, which are the hunting and cleaning of seeds, the preparation of acorn mush and pinole, these being the foods which they use. And for this reason from the time they were little girls they would make a traybasket for them suitable to their size, and would teach them to do this work, as well as to grind or to pound up the seeds, telling them that knowing how to work and not being lazy, they would have, when they grew up, many men who would seek them, and that they would be very much liked. In this region, toward the south, the custom prevailed of tattooing the women, and from the time they were little girls they began to tattoo them, commencing in the case of some between the eyebrows, in that of others on the chin, extending it as they kept growing over almost the entire face, breasts, and arms, which tattoo was generally lattice pattern, [but] there were other women who had lines and other figures. This tattooing was done as follows: With some thorns from an Opuntia Cactus thicket they pricked the place until it bled. Then they rubbed it with a kind of charcoal, and that place remained with a blue color which never disappears. The principal reason why they tattooed women, according to what I have been able to investigate, is because they say that when tattoed thus they are prettier and better liked and will have many suitors. But I fancy and believe another thing, and it is that just as the Devil put the burn on the men as a brand, in the case of the women it must be the tattoo, and thus he had both men and women marked. NOTA! NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—HARRINGTON 21 What these Indians had rare and special was that the fathers and mothers advised their daughters when they were grown up, telling them that if while gathering seeds for pinole or traveling to some other place they met with one of the eaters of human flesh or one of the wizards, and these wanted to use them, they should not resist, but should agreeably comply with their desires, and this though they might be going along with their own mothers, or if married they might be going along with their husbands, for these latter at the first insinuation yielded their right. And this was because they told the women that if they resisted and did not willingly comply, they would poison them with herbs and make their bodies rot, along with other similar nonsense, and the poor wretched women believed it infallibly, and full of fear they submitted to everything, although it was against their wishes. At the first menstruation, or at the time of the first monthly, as they say, they used to hold some big feasts with many ceremonies, which began in the following manner: They made, and still do make, a hole about a half yard in depth, not round but long, after the fashion of a grave, they fill it with fire with some rocks in it, and when it is good and hot they clean the hot coals out of it, leaving in it the rocks, good and hot, they lay on top of them a bedding, as it were, of California Mugwort (which is a species of Wormwood), called Pacsil. On top of the California Mugwort the girl lies, covered up well, without being given anything to eat or drink for 2 or 3 days, or at least very little, and thus they keep her until she has become clean. In there, the girl patient, in her hot pit, is bedecked all about the pit with the feathers of various birds, shell beads, and many things which they have, and with some old women, who have that task, singing without letting her rest either day or night, a song so tiresome that one does not know if they are crying or laughing, a black glue or bitumen on their faces so that they look like devils. I have not been able to determine what they say in their song, because I can never understand them [the old women], and when I asked others about it, they all answered that they did not understand them, while unmarried women dance around the girl patient at certain designated hours during every day of the roasting. Since these days were feast days, many people, men and women, went there, some to dance and others to watch the dancing and to get something of what was being distributed, be it pinole, shell beads, or whatever it was. The above described was the general method, with exception of some poor [girls] who bo SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 bo got fixed up with their mothers and grandmothers alone, without so much witchcraft. In their present status of being Christians they use the same procedure, with the witchcraft removed, which they used in their gentility, of feathers, dances and songs. The most peculiar custom which these Indians had was that there were a few [girls] although very few, daughters of chiefs, and among these principally the first born, in the case of whom, after the catamenia had come to an end and the girls had come forth from the roasting, an old man, one of the wizards, designated for the purpose, made with a flint a little cut in the girl’s private parts, and after the operation started preaching before all the people, saying that that girl was already a woman, that she was good, that she would have many children, and other similar nonsense. CHAPTER 5 ABOUT THEIR MARRIAGES. One of the things necessary for the conservation of the life of man was company, for which reason God ordained that man should have woman, with whose company he should pursue two ends, one, the intercourse, of which he was capable, and the other, that from the union of the two would be born children who would follow in the propagation and increase of the race. Although it has been an ancient custom among all nations to give the women to their husbands, it has not been everywhere in the same manner or with the same ceremonies, and for that reason I shall set forth those which these Indians employed. The general custom which they employed for seeking a woman for the purpose of marriage was that the man who wanted to be married went for several days to and fro about the house of the woman that he desired, but without entering it, waiting for an occasion to speak to her, and when he found her all alone he told her: J want to marry you, or We should get married. There were others who sent a third [party] to talk to her in private, and if the girl said yes, she notified her parents, and if they agreed, the bride- groom was notified that he could come into the house and talk with them and with the girl. There were also certain ones whose mar- riage was fixed up by the old people, and it was that after the parents of the girl had been notified these same old people notified her telling her: You have to marry such a one, and you will live well, and you will have many things, for he knows how to kill deer, cottontail rabbits—and [telling her] other similar things. The first time that the bridegroom entered the house of the bride he brought his little present, now a deer skin, otter skin or seeds, or shell beads, in fact, whatever he could, and from that day on he was considered bridegroom of the house, tending to the bringing of something to eat, for he ate and in most cases also slept there, but without cohabiting with the bride, or having the least indecency with her either in words or actions, and they were very scrupulous about this. During this period, which we may call the period of betrothal, the obligations of the bridegroom were to bring wood to the house 23 24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 every day, and to hunt cottontail rabbits, groundsquirrels, mice, etc., to eat. And the girl had the obligation of working at the chores and duties of the house. The first thing that she did was that at the first streak of dawn she arose, went to the water and bathed herself, brought water for the house, sprinkled it, swept it, and this with much promptness and care; then she prepared the food of various kinds of mush, pinoles or of whatever they had, and [did] the other chores of the house, and she had to do all of it alone, without the help of anybody. Sometimes also the parents of the bridegroom went to eat [there]. Note: Having the bride perform all the tasks of the house was in order that the bridegroom might observe whether the girl was lazy, and whether she knew how to prepare food and to do the other necessary work of the house, and whether she would serve him well, and for this reason he lived in the house of the bride. When they determined the day of the wedding, after having spent some 15 days, in some cases a longer and in some a shorter time, dur- ing which the above mentioned manner of living lasted, they notified the relatives and friends, or we might better say the whole rancheria, of the wedding feast, which lasted from 3 to 4 days. When the day arrived, certain old men called Puplem (who are those of the Sanhe- drim) took the girl and in public took off of her all the jewels and adornments which she was wearing (these were a kind of earrings [made] of shells and long bones) in her ears, and on her throat and arms, they decorated her head with feathers, but not like the crown of the dancers, but with the feathers spread out—her hair, arms and bosom, and decked thus with feathers they presented her to all the people, and then seated her beside the bridegroom on a tule mat, certain old men dancing in front of them and singing to them, and with the other people also dancing and eating all the time that the feast lasted. The instructions which the parents gave to their daughter before they parted were very good ones, for they told her that she should always remember that she was the daughter of some good parents, and that therefore she should not disgrace them, that she should serve her husband well whom Chinigchinix had given to her, that she should not be with another man, for even though she were executed they would remain disgraced, and other similar things, and at the end they added: and if your husband does not treat you well, let us know, and you shall return to our house. There were others who went themselves straight to ask the parents for the girl, and if they yielded her, gave them a present of shell beads NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA——-HARRINGTON 25 or of something else (which I consider to be like a promise or pledge). These notified their daughter telling her: Daughter, you are to marry such a one, for we have already given you to him. And the poor girl, whether it were her pleasure or against her will, or however it might be, had to marry the man who had asked for her. There were also certain ones who were given in marriage from the time they were small [children], and it was in this way: The children being of tender age, the fathers and mothers on both sides being to- gether, either with a feast or without one, would say: These 2 little children are to be married, and without further ceremony they were already married, and from that time on the 2 little children played together, ate, and slept together, and the 2 houses were one and the same for both of them; until on reaching competent age they gave their feast as we described above, and they cohabited together. The marriages celebrated thus were mostly those of relatives by affinity, for among them relationship by affinity was not held to be an impedi- ment. In the year 1821 at this Mission I married in the face of the church a couple whose marriage had been contracted since the time they were children, for the girl must have been about 6 months old, and the boy about 2 years when their parents already married them. There were also among these Indians marriages by rape, and it was that when a captain or his son fell in love with a certain girl of another rancheria, what he did was to send to that rancheria 3 or 4 or more Indians, well armed. On reaching that rancheria, they went directly to the house of the girl and laid before her father and mother the commission which they had brought from their chief, that therefore they should give their daughter to be taken to the chief, and that otherwise they would kill them. The poor wretches, full of fear and dread from the threats that were made them, delivered their daughter, though it might be against their will, and she was taken and led to their lord, and they were already married without performing the ceremonies which we have described above. What we should search out is whether these marriages of the Indians were true marriage contracts or not. There is no doubt that according to what we have seen they were apparently true marriage contracts (except the rapes, and the unwilling ones, which were null and void), but the rest it seems were true matrimonial contracts, and should therefore be perpetual ones. Yet among these Indians in many cases they were not so, or better stated, it was their belief that they could get divorced whenever it pleased them and they felt inclined, and it was a custom current among them, for if after being married 26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 they did not suit each other, be it for whatever reason it might be and after whatever period of time might have elapsed, if they did not suit each other, as I said, they got divorced at once and each one took his [own] road, and they got married again to others. My way of thinking is, and I believe I am right, that their marriage contracts were not absolute, but conditional ones, that although at the time of getting married this was not explained verbally, tacitly it was understood, for the reason that it was their custom. This is my way of feeling, Salvo meliori, it is obvious to us through experience, and it is confirmed by the exhortation which the parents gave to their daughter when she departed with her husband: That if the husband did not treat her well, she should return to her home. Theretore they were not true marriage contracts, for conjugium is to unite two together, under a perpetual yoke. They had the custom that the first time that the woman found her- self pregnant, all the people of the rancheria held a feast, eating and dancing, and this for one night only. This feast was held with the re- joicing that another one was coming to them, and in the song of the dance they asked their God Chinigchinix to guard for them that child, the mother being a good woman, since she was about to give them children, for they considered a sterile woman to be a bad omen. When the time of childbirth arrived, they did not do anything special, but after she had brought forth and the baby had been cleaned off, they showed it to the people, and if it was a male the grandfathers named it saying: N., thus this child will be called, and if it was a female the grandmothers named it; and it was always the name of themselves [the grandfathers or grandmothers], of their parents, or of their ancestors, unless at the time of the birth something rare and peculiar might have happened, from the significance of which they gave the name. The oddest custom of these Indians (although the Ancients [the ancient Mediterranean peoples] also had it) was that at every child- birth, from the time the woman brought forth, the husband had to go on diet like the woman herself, and this consists mainly in his not being able to leave the house except to bring wood and water, [and] in not eating meat or fish or other foods forbidden by them. This diet usually lasted for some 15 days, although in many cases it lasted during the entire period of the lochia of the mother, in the case of others a shorter time, according to the love which they had for the child, and now that they are Christians they still observe it, for they are of the belief that if they break or do not observe this diet, chiefly by eating meat or fish, the baby will die, and it is to be noted that in order for the child to NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—HARRINGTON 27 die the father had to be at home; if at the time of the childbirth he is away from home, though he knows about it and does observe the diet, there is no danger. And in confirmation of the above I shall relate a case which happened in the year 1819 at the Mission of N. [marginal annotation: San Diego]. The wife of an Indian who was cook for the priests at the said mission, gave birth before the proper time to a baby, very weak and sickly. The husband after it was born began his diet, and on the second day, the priest seeing that the Indian ate nothing more than a little bread asked him the reason why he did not eat meat and other things as usual. The Indian answered him that he was not eating meat because he did not want to kill his child. The priest began to exhort him telling him that he should abandon these gentile ideas that his child would not die though he [the father] ate meat. The Indian was reluctant, but seeing the persistence of the priest (and he was doing it in order to disimpress him of those ideas), he ate like the rest, and in the evening the child died. Of course it is to be reflected that the death of the child did not come from the eating of meat, but from the child’s sickness and weakness and premature birth, but all the Indians and he himself attributed it to the eating of meat. Entre las barbaridades, que pueden contarse de estos Indios, (aunque el P. Torquemada [marginal annotation: lib. 13. c.9.] ya habla de unos semejantes, y quizas seran de una misma rasa) una es y no poco pesima, sino de las mas abominables, el casarse hombres con hombres, estos son unos hombres, que aunque sean varones desde chiquitos les ensefan todos los oficios y trabajos de mugeres, y su modo de vestir es el de las mugeres, hasta en sus brutalidades usan de ellos como de mugeres: Estos tales servian, tanto en su Rancheria como en otras que fueran, como publicas rameras, y este mal trato sodomitico, les era permitido, entregandose a aquel que queria usar de ellos. De estos havia algunos Capitanes, U otros que se casavan con ellos, y estos los tenian que a mas de usar de ellos en sus brutalidades, para hacerles sus comidas, y servicio de la casa, que como hombres siempre tenian mas fuerza. Estas especies de hombres todos tenian un mismo nombre que era generico: en las Rancherias de este contorno los llamavan Cutt, y un poco mas tierra adentro Uluqui, y por la canal Coyas. Estos de esta Provincia, no eran como los que refiere Torquemada, pues dice: que aquellos eran unos hombres mariones impotentes, corpulentos, y membrudos. Los que Yo he visto, son hombres usuales como los demas, y no padecen tal impotencia, pues conosi a uno casado con muger de Christiano y tenia dos hijos. Lo mas particular que havia entre estos a a eee 28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 dichos era: que como ellos, servian de mugeres a los que los querian, tenian estos la facultad y licencia de cohabitar con la muger que les quadrava, si ellas consentian, y los maridos no decian nada por ello, porque como ellos decian era hombre muger, podia jugar y divertirse con las mugeres, pues con ellas iva 4 pinolear, y hacer todos sus trabajos, y nunca usava de arco y flecha, advirtiendo que eran la gente mas despreciable de los demas. CHAPTER 6 ABOUT THE MANNER OF LIFE WHICH THESE INDIANS LED. The mode of living or of life which these Indians had is not of great moment, for they led an idle and lazy life, more like that of brutes than that of rational beings, and being ignorant of the arts, they had no employment and profit with which to busy themselves for using up their time, for they did not cultivate the ground or sow any kind of seed, inasmuch as they subsisted on the wild seeds of various plants which the earth produces, and on the fruits of trees, and on game; and therefore their tasks and labors were confined to the making of bows and arrows (nor did all of them do this, for the youths did not wish to work at anything, but the old men and the poor men), the hunting of deer, cottontail rabbits, groundsquirrels, rats, etc., in order to eat and dress, if going about in their bare skins, as they used to go, can be called dress. For the clothing of the men consisted generally of nothing but their naked skins, but some of them put a deer skin or coyote skin over their shoulders, after the fashion of a cape. The women prepared from the skins of cottontails and jackrabbits a kind of cloak after the fashion of a choir-cope; this they made as follows: they kept twisting the skins, making a cord or string of them, long, and about an inch thick; this cord they sewed together turn on turn making the cape, as I said. In front of their private parts they [the women] wore certain little nets, or a kind of fringe made of grass which reached nearly to their knees; and nothing else except the decorations of shells and bones in their ears and on their necks. Their way of spending their time was in playing games, taking trips about, sleeping and dancing. The whole life of the men was confined to this, except the old men and the poor men, who also busied them- selves in making certain household utensils ; or again instruments for working the bows and arrows, such as little saws, punches or awls, and other similar things (the little saws they made from the shoulder- blades of deer; and the borers or punches from their shin bones, as well as from the bones of fish) ; in making nets for various uses: now for fishing ; or again those which they use for carrying their utensils, the women the babies ; for catching quails ; and for other uses. Among the women the mode of life followed was very different, for they in addition to making the household utensils had to seek all the things necessary for a livelihood, which are the wild seeds of the country ; after gathering them [they had] to clean them, to grind them or toast them for making their pinoles and various kinds of mush, 29 30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 which were the foods on which they subsisted. It was pitiful and caused compassion to see a poor woman with the baby on her shoulders about the country, suffering cold, and again heat, hunting certain herbs or seeds ; [to see her] arrive home without finding either fire or water, and most times not even wood; [to see her] clean them, grind them and cook them, and after they were prepared [to behold] her idler coming now from the game or dance, or getting up from sleep, [to watch him] consume [the fruits of] the toil and fatigue of the poor woman, while if he ate everything up, she had to go without food, not being able to say a word. The women in their gentile condition were worse off than slaves, for one cannot realize the subjection in which they found themselves ; it was sufficient [reason] if her husband be- came angry with her either because she answered harshly or because she did not have what he wanted, for him to leave her, or to slay her, and most times the quarrels came from the husband gambling away the utensils of the poor woman. But thank God, since the light of the faith entered these lands, since the holy gospel has been preached, the women have gained the Christian liberty which Jesus Christ won for us through his passion and death. The woman could not be idle at her home, for after the food had been sought and prepared and all the chores of the house had been done, she had to make all the utensils needed for her work: such as large and small baskets, which serve as plates and cups for eating, and for other uses; traybaskets for cleaning and toasting seeds; and other similar things. What is wonderful and for which we should bless God, as regards these women, was the facility and happiness which they had in the bringing forth of children; it can be stated that they scarcely felt at all the pains of childbirth, which did not last half an hour, and many times the woman was alone, and she herself after having given birth cleaned the baby, and after passing the afterbirth washed herself of all the mess of the childbirth, and we are to note that they did not give birth to children inside the house, but outdoors, and this though they might be in the house, for upon feeling [that they were about to give birth] they would go outside, turn the face in the direction that the wind was coming from—and shortly afterwards would set them- selves to working at whatever was necessary to be done about the house, that was, if there was no one else to doit. In their present state of being Christians, the Creole women of the Mission no longer have this facility, which they had in their gentile condition ; I attribute it to the exercise which they used to have when they were gentiles, since many of them now have more idleness, for finding herself pregnant, she no longer works at anything unless it be something short and easy. CHAPTER 7 ABOUT THEIR OBEDIENCE AND SUBJECTION TO THEIR CHIEFS. Before speaking of the obedience which these Indians had for their chiefs, we shall set forth the method and ceremonies which they employed in their election or proclamation. When the chief was already old or because of some incapacity desired to retire from governing, he prepared a great feast, and invited the neighboring chiefs and friends. On the arrival of these, all being together, he declared to them that his purpose in inviting them to that great feast was to elect his son as chief, since he already found himself quite old, and afflicted (this amounts to a sort of acknowledgment ). On the following day in the morning the crier came forth shouting through all the rancheria, declaring that the chief was making his son a chief, and that they should come to the feast of the new chief. Everything necessary having been arranged for the function, the new chief put on himself the imperial insignia or robes, which consisted of his hair being tied around his head by means of its cord, and a slender stick about half a yard long, shaped like the blade of a knife, stuck in his hair, the little skirt of feathers, and the crown, [he being] well painted up and reddened, and dressed in this manner, he began to dance alone for a while, and then the other chiefs came out and putting him in the middle danced together with the new chief, and it is to be noted that they also were dressed with all the insignia of chiefs. This feast lasted for at least 3 days including the nights. The old chief saw to it that there were many kinds of food in the line of pinole and meat for the invited ones and for all the people of his town, and without further ceremonies than the ones above men- tioned he was already recognized as chief; but it is to be noted that he did not take up the reins of government immediately, but when his father determined, or upon the death of the latter, and then they did not do anything special, but from that time on he already performed the functions of chief. In the succession of these chieftainships, women also entered, when males were lacking. She could marry whoever she pleased, though he were not of the race or lineage of chiefs; but the husband, be who he might, though he were the son of another chief, was never 3 31 32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 recognized as such nor did he have command, but they only recognized the woman. But she did not govern or perform the functions of chief, but the government was exercised by another, an uncle or a grandfather, the nearest of blood. But the first male whom she bore, immediately was declared chief, and from that time on all of them already recognized him as such, although the other one was ruling during the entire period of his minority, which was up to such time as he could perform alone the functions of chief. On the day when the command was delivered to him, they invited the neighboring chiefs and friends, the crier called together the town, and they made their great feast as we have mentioned above. It is to be noted that whenever a feast was held all those invited brought their present for the chief who was inviting them, but he had the obligation to return it when they invited him, and in the same kind which they had given him. As regards the obedience and subjection which these Indians had to their chiefs, what I have been able to investigate is that in as far as his mode of living was concerned, they did not recognize him at all; nor did he mix [that is, interfere] with his people, as they say: they [the people] had a free life, without subjection or subordination to anyone, without laws of government, or police, without punishments for wicked doers, as also without rewards for the well deserving; and in a word everyone lived as he pleased without anyone interfering with him, do what he might. Since the knowledge of the true God was lacking among these Indians, they lived without faith, without law or king, and therefore a life more that of brutes than of rational beings. What causes wonder is how these towns could keep in peace and quiet without laws of govern- ment or police. And indeed in the gentile period there were very few fights and quarrels between them, for since all the rancherias were composed of a single relationship, I believe that it was for that reason that all lived in peace, the parents continually exhorting their children to be good; for if someone committed some crime, if the offended person was able to revenge himself, the revenge, which was almost invariably death, was the punishment for the crime, but the chief did not intervene in the matter at all. Although the chief did not exercise any authority so to speak in the administration of justice, nevertheless they had for him great respect and veneration, and especially so the youths on account of the great fear and dread with which they were imbued from the time they were small, and likewise for the elders, this being the daily NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA— HARRINGTON 33 harangue as we have said above. And because of the fear and dread which had been impressed on them, they did not dare to commit any incivility, for if some bold [youth] presumed to maltreat or to injure them either by deeds or words, at once they ordered him slain, and it was in the following manner: an old man, one of those who had been appointed for the purpose, began to shout through the rancheria weeping bitterly, saying that such a one had done or said this or that to the chief, and because of this crime the God Chinigchinix is very angry with us, and wants to send a great sick- ness upon us; and therefore, young men, arm yourselves for killing such a one, that by presenting him dead to Chinigchinix, he may lay aside his wrath and not kill all of us. Since the Indians believed these deceivers like infallible truths, immediately the men went forth armed with bow and arrow, and wherever they found him, there they killed him, and together with the arrows that they had shot at him they presented him to Chinigchinix. Afterwards the relatives of the dead man took him and carried him to the pyre to burn him. The authority which the chief exercised in his rancheria was: that he was the one who had to tend to and handle all matters which came up with other rancherias; to call together for war, defensive as well as offensive, and also for [making] peace; to announce the day of all the feasts which they celebrated, which were many; to set the general days for hunting and seed gathering, for the old women and the women also went privately whenever they wanted to and needed them [the seeds] for their subsistence without the permission of the chief or of anyone. These general expeditions were for the purpose of [obtaining food for] celebrating their feasts, and in them all those of the rancheria, men and women, participated. The men killed the game, such as ducks, geese, cottontail rabbits, rats, etc., and the women gathered and carried them; having returned to their rancheria they all of them delivered the greater part of what they brought, both of the animals which they had killed as well as of the seeds of all kinds which they had gathered to the chief, (and that night a great feast was begun). But do not imagine that these seeds and animals which they delivered to the chief were a kind of tribute, that as such they owed it to him. Not so, for these seeds which they delivered to the chief were for the purpose of cele- brating the feasts, and the chief had to keep them like a deposit, being deprived of eating or using the least part of them, not having any more of them than what was left over in the feasts. And if any chief ate the said seeds or sold them, or gave them out squandering them, what they did was to kill him, alleging that 34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 he was a bad chief and did not take good care of his people. It was the old men, wizards, or soothsayers who proposed the death of their chief to the youths, the latter armed themselves for killing their chief, and not hastily and guardedly, but with a day designated for the execution. The same fate befell the first chief, Oiot, as we have stated above. The chief, if he wanted anything to eat, had to seek it the same as the rest, although there were some who made him their little gifts; this was not because of obligation, but through good will; and for this reason I believe, and they have assured me, many of them had 2 or 3 wives for the purpose of hunting seeds and having them in abundance, so that those who came to visit could be invited to eat. Of the wives which he had, one was the principal one, and the others were like concubines, and the children of the latter did not come into the right of the crown, unless legitimate children were lacking. These princedoms or chieftainships were by succession and not by election. CHAPTER 8 DESCRIPTION OF THE TEMPLE CALLED V/V ANQUEX AND ABOUT ITS IMMUNITY. The temple which these Indians had, called Vanquex, ordained by their God Chinigchinit at the time of its formation, was built at all the rancherias near the house of the chief, which house was always the biggest and tallest one. Although the town or rancheria was built without order or symmetry, since everyone placed his house where was most convenient for him, nevertheless the house of the chief got to be located at about the middle of the town, and adjacent to the house they built the Vanquex in the following shape: they made a circle about 3 or 4 yards in diameter, not round but oval. Of this they took half of the circle, and in this half circle they built a fence or stakework of brush or tule mats about 2 yards or more high. At the other half circle they built another little stakework of small sticks, which did not project from the ground but 2 or 3 fingerwidths: inside this oval circle they had the figure of their God Chinigchinix, on top of a framework, which consisted of a bundle, in a coyote skin, of feathers, deer horns, mountain lion’s claws, and other small things of this sort; the beaks and claws of the hawk were not lacking there, especially those of a kind called Pames, with the feathers of which they dressed the Chinig- chinix [figure] and made the little skirt for dancing, but this [little skirt] could not be worn by all, but only the chiefs and satraps or wizards called Puplem. When the chief gave notice’ by means of the crier of the general expeditions for going to hunt game or for gathering seeds, the Puplem, which means soothsayer, or he who knows all things, and for this reason they are called wizards (Note: I consider them as priests, since all the functions in which the people had to assemble at the temple were directed by them; and the chief and crier were of their number and were the principal ones), the said Puplem painted a figure on the ground inside the Vanquex, very ridiculous and odd, like the one which we mentioned in con- nection with the penance of the boys, and before leaving the rancheria the crier announced to all the people that they should venerate it, and all should go to worship it. Their manner of worshipping this evil painting was that when all the people were assembled, all the men being armed with their 35 36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 quiver, bow, and arrows, and well painted up, the chief and the Puplem being dressed in their vestments, which were the little skirt of feathers and the crown on the head, and with the rest of the body painted with a dye of hematite and black, and the rest of them being in their natural dress, which was in their bare skins, but well sooted up so that they resembled devils more than men, all went one behind another, commencing with the chief and following in order, running, and as each one arrived in front of the Vanquex, before the Chinigchinix [figure] and the figure which was on the ground, he gave a jump with a half turn, like a kind of a skip, and a loud cry, raising his bow and arrow as if shooting in the air, and in this manner all of them passed by, performing the same ceremony. The most amazing thing about it was that when they gave the half turn they turned their backs to the Chinigchinix [figure], or better said their butts, surely a ridiculous thing, and the subject which they venerated merited nothing less. The women after the men had passed by also went one behind another, but slowly, and on arriving [at the place] each of them made an obeisance like a half bow with her body, showing the traybasket or tools which she was carry- ing. And this ceremony they performed in order that that horrible painting might preserve them from all ill, notably from stumbling over rocks, tripping over burrows, so that the limbs of trees would not fall upon them, and from other similar accidents. Great was the veneration and respect which these Indians had for their temple, for rather than have the slightest irreverence be committed in it, no one save the chiefs and Puplem, or elders, entered within it (that is, on the feast days) ; the other people re- mained outside of the stakework, and the boys and girls did not even approach it. They did not speak inside it, except what was very necessary and that in a low voice, and also those who were outside observed silence. Inside the temple there was dancing, but only by the chief and some other one of the Puplem, and this in the dress of Chinigchinix, making in front of him a thousand odd and ridiculous maneuvers. The position which they assumed when before the Chinigchinix [figure] inside the Vanquex was sitting on the ground with their buttocks on or to one side of their heels (this position has always caused me much wonder—for the Devil, who wishes to be honored and venerated like the true God, taught them the ugliest, most indecent and ridiculous way of worshipping him which can be imagined—to be in a squatting position some Indians whose dress ‘was to go naked), and in this fashion they re- NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—HARRINGTON 37 mained without moving for 2, 3 or more hours until the function was concluded. The immunity which these temples or Vanquex possessed was so great that whatever the crime, be it what it might be, homicide, adultery, theft, etc., if the delinquent had the fortune to be able to take refuge at the temple before his opponents encountered him, and those whom he had aggrieved knew that he had taken asylum, he was already free and could go where he pleased without ever being molested or the least mention being made of what had happened ; they merely told him if they met him: You went to the God Chinig- chinix, and had you not gone we would have’ slain you, but he will punish you because you are wicked. They believed that Chinig- chinix was a friend of the good, and punished the wicked, as we have said above, and they also believed that Chinigchinix did not wish when once refuge had been taken with him in the Vanquex that they should take vengeance or justice with their own hands, and for this reason they let him [the delinquent] go free. It is to be noted that although the delinquent remained free, the crime did not remain exempt from punishment, for although the evil doer might not be molested in any way, either his children or grandchildren or relatives came to pay for it, which happened when the grievance was the occasion for vengeance, and this hatred or grudge with desires for revenge ran on, being handed down from parents to children until they were able to fulfill their desires. In this same way the chief could save his life and escape from death when they accused him of squandering the seeds which he had on deposit, if he had the fortune to be able to take refuge at the temple, and when they went to look for him for the purpose of slaying him to be found there; indeed no one entered or dared to shoot an arrow, for if anyone had dared the least profanation and irreverence they would immediately have taken his life. And from that time on the chief could go about during his entire lifetime free, as a private and not public man, without anyone daring to make to him the slightest mention of what had happened ; but he lost forever the diadem of chief, and immediately they elected one of his sons, to whom it fell by right, admonishing the new chief that he should behold the example of his father, that if he was not a good chief they would do the same with him. CHAPTER Q ABOUT CERTAIN OF THEIR PRINCIPAL FEASTS AND DANCES. Since the feasts of these Indians all consisted of dances, I shall therefore treat certain ceremonies of their feasts, and especially cer- tain dances on account of the rarities and oddities which they contain. Although they enumerate many different dances, most of them amount to being of the same kind, merely differing in the words of the song, while the song and manner of dancing is the same. And so great is the affection which they have for their dances that they will spend days, nights and whole weeks dancing, and it can be said that all their passion is given to dancing, for few days pass that they do not have a dance, without becoming tired of a thing that is continually of the same sort, the most insipid that one can imagine. Note: That these Indians are so fond of the dance is in memory of their God Chinigchinix who as we have said above went away dancing to Heaven, and they were of the belief that those who did not dance (that is, of the dancers, who are only the chiefs, and Puplem or wizards), and those who did not attend the dances, were to be punished and hated by their God Chinigchinix. The manner of fix-up or dress for their dances we already men- tioned in treating the proclaiming of the [new| chief, it being a feather ornament made like a crown from various feathers of birds, placed on the head; and the little skirt or apron, also of feathers, made in the form of fringe which reaches half way down the thigh, which skirt they call Pdelt; and the rest of the body painted black and red, and some of them with some white, and fixed up in this way they dance their dances. The women do not paint more than their faces, arms, and breasts, with a kind of varnish between black and red color, very shiny and sticky. It is to be noted that they never dance men and women mixed, but the men alone, and the women alone, though they all dance together, the men always apart and separate from the women, but indeed all sing in the same tempo and the same song. Many of their dances are very decent and for a time entertaining on account of the many maneuvers which they perform in them. There are certain men and also women who are the singers, appointed for leading in the song, who have some little shells of small turtles, a couple of them stuck together, and with some little stones inside, called Pdail. This is the instrument which they used and still employ in their dances. Since this instrument is made of some shells of small 38 NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—ILARRINGTON 39 turtles with some little stones inside, they call it Pdail, because the turtle is called thus. It was made like the following figure | drawing of two- shell turtle rattle follows this word and another with grasping hand is given in left margin]; they also used, when the paail was lacking, some reeds open down the middle, and the singers sound them and sing, and when the couplet is finished it is repeated by the men and women who are dancing. Many of their dances do not contain any- thing more than a mocking of certain animats. Among all the feasts which they celebrated every year, among the principal and most solemn ones was one which they called the feast of the Pames, which means the feast of the bird, for they gave a kind of worship and veneration to a bird which has the same form and size as a kite, although somewhat larger. It is a kind of carnivorous hawk, but very sluggish and stupid. The day set for the great feast of the Pames, which feast consisted of many extravagancies, was spent as follows. The night before, the crier, crying throughout the town, in- vited all to the great feast which began the following morning. First they made outside the town or rancheria a kind of temple. To this temple, which was not used for anything more than for that function, the elders or Puplem carried the said Pames or bird in silence. Note: The construction of this temple consisted in cleaning off a piece of ground from 14 to 2 yards in diameter, of round shape, and around the edge they set some brush of willow, cottonwood, or other brush, and sometimes they did not set anything, but very clear of any litter. The Pames having arrived at the said temple, immediately the un- married girls, and the married ones, but young, who had not yet given birth to a child, began to run like crazy women, some in one direction, some in another, without order or arrangement, whose running lasted for about an hour, more or less. While they were running all the rest of the people were looking at them, and with the old men or elders daubed up with black, uglier than the very Devil, dancing around the bird. When all that we have mentioned above was concluded, they took the Pames and with all the people in procession they carried it to the principal temple, the Puplem dancing and singing in front of the bird all the way. Arriving at the Vanquex, they killed it, without drawing blood, they stripped off and dried the skin with the feathers on, which latter they kept as a relic, for from these feathers they made the little skirt or pdelt, as they call it, for dressing the Chinigchinix [figure], and for dancing. Then they buried it [the body of the Pames] in a hole which they had made inside the Vanquex, the old women immediately rushing to the spot crying and well stained up with black gum, throwing to it [to the Pames] seeds, pinole and 40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 whatever food they had, saying a thousand foolish things to it, such as: Why did you run away? Were you not better off among us? If you had not run away, you would not have turned into a bird, and other expressions of this sort. When the whole function was over, the dance began, which lasted at least 3 days including the nights, in which they committed a thousand brutal actions. I have not been able to learn what was the meaning of so great a ceremony, neither have I been able to determine what may have been the particular signification of the running of the single and married girls at the beginning of the feast of the Pames while all the people, men and women, watched them run, for it must contain its peculiar mystery. What I conjecture in it is that as the Pames according to their way of thinking was a girl who ran away from them, these [girls], imitating her, run as if fleeing away, and therefore they run without order, and watching them run must be for the purpose of per- ceiving the girls who run swiftest and with least embarrassment—that they may spend with them the days of the feast, for as they say, on these days all intercourse was free. The Indians relate that the said Pames or bird was a girl who ran away from a rancheria and went to the mountains, and that the God Chinigchinix made her into Pames, or turned her into a bird, and this is their belief ; and that every year although they kill her, she is born again, and the nonsense does not stop here, but they believe that she multiplies herself, for every year 3 or 4 or more birds were seen, for all the chiefs gave the feast of the Pames, and since it was only one girl who fled away from them, they believe that all these birds are the same girl. This feast of the Pames or bird which they celebrated every year was ordained by their God Chinigchinix. These Indians had in their gentility a dance for the commencing of which they lighted first a great fire of chamize or of straw, and when it was well lighted the men began to jump upon it and into the middle of it until they put it out, while the women remained at some distance crying, and when this bonfire was entirely extinguished the crying of the women ceased and the dance began, and if it happened that it was not thoroughly extinguished or that some sparks appeared, they re- mained sad for a considerable time, for they held it to be a bad omen and feared some mishappening. These dances were always at night. If this dance was executed on the day of some great feast to which they invited the neighboring rancherias, in addition to what has been related they added [the following]: Before they began they sent someone to bring water from a designated place, and it was always somewhat distant. This water they put in its little well or hole, which NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—I ARRINGTON Al they had already made inside the Vanquex, all the chiefs and Puplem in their proper order went over to blow to it and to make certain imprecations to it, which was like blessing it, although one might better say cursing it, and after all the ceremonies were concluded all the men went, beginning with the chief, in their proper order, to sprinkle their faces with that water, and when this ceremony was finished the putting out of the fire followed, and after that the dance, as we have said. They had another kind of dance in which after the men had danced for a time they formed themselves in a file, and a woman would come out alone with her hands under her breasts as if to hold them up, dancing in front of the file of men for 3 or 4 turns (dressed accord- ing to their custom which was: the little strings in front for covering up her private parts, and a skin of a coyote, wild cat, or some other animal for covering her butt, and nothing else), and would then retire. The men resumed their dance the same as before, and the woman fol- lowed again, they continuing in this way until the dance was con- cluded. The woman did not sing, but only the men, without there being in this dance the customary singers, but they had the Paail instrument. There was another dance which they called Aputs, which signifies naked or in one’s bare skin. This dance was danced by one woman alone, and it was in this manner: just one woman stripped herself naked (although she had very little to take off), and this had to be a girl, and the other people all around in a circle, men and women, big and little, and she in the middle, her hands placed underneath her breasts as if holding them up, dancing in the middle of that circle, and all watching her dance and observing her movements and actions. She herself sang, but her song was confined to naming her private parts and those of the men, an infamous thing and a diabolical invention. They had another dance similar as it were to the one above described which they executed when some son of a chief or of the Puplem was to dance for the first time in public, and this day was one of great festivity, and it was in this manner: When the little boy was about 2 or 3 years of age, or a little more or less, he who was to be a dancing man, danced for the first time in public, they dressed the boy with the little skirt of Chinigchinix made of the feathers of the Pames, they placed the crown of feathers on his head, the rest of his body painted black and red, and in this way he danced alone for a while, the musi- cians and singers playing the rattle and singing, nothing being lacking on this occasion, until he became tired, and if the child was no longer able to dance alone, one of the Puplem, dressed in the same vestments, carried him on top of his shoulders and danced with him, and with all the rest of the people watching them. When this dance was con- 42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 cluded, a sister or aunt or some other one of his closest female relatives, single or married as long as she was a young woman, got up, stripped herself naked before all those assembled, who were always many, without exceptions of persons, and naked thus with her hands under- neath her breasts she began to dance, giving turns back and forth in front of all, offering herself to anyone that desired her. She alone sang, and her song was confined to saying, that she was well, healthy, that she was already a woman, and many brutal things. This dance was danced inside the Vanquex, but the preceding one was danced outside in another place. They had other dances and similar songs. But through the mercy of God since they have become Christians they are already abandoning them, or at least they do not execute them in public as they were accustomed to in time of their gentility. CHAPTER 10 ABOUT THE CALENDAR OF THESE INDIANS. It can not be doubted but that the calendar is one of the most curious and useful of things and even to some extent necessary to man in order to distinguish him from the brutes and enable him to divide times and ages, and know past happenings, the time which has elapsed since they occurred. The calendar of these Indians, if it can be called a calendar, differs very little or not at all from the natural instinct of brutes. These latter know the times, with their seasons, for their food and procreation, we see many animals at the prescribed time move to another place or even to another climate because of inclemency of weather and lack of food, and when the season arrives return to the same place. These Indians had this same way of doing that the animals had or something very similar, for they had nothing more than the name of the months, which denoted the time or season for gathering the various seeds for their maintenance and the preservation of life. And this matter of the names of the months, all of them did not know, [but] only certain ones of them and these were few. What causes wonderment, compassion, and pity is to see creatures endowed like the rest with spiritual souls, created in the image and likeness of God, so rude and so slow that all their activities appear to be mere natural instinct like the brutes, for all their activities are those of cunning for the purpose of deceit, theft, fornication, and other wicked things, but they fall short of attaining to the cunning of the cat, female fox, and female monkey, etc. These Indians lacked in the first place a chronology and starting point whereby they could reckon the dates of past years, nor did they have this either in figures or in signs, and therefore their calendar was confined to the months of the year from tropic to tropic, or to the re- turn of the sun, and since their months followed the course of the moon or were counted by the lunations, all their years were lunar, and since lunar years are different from solar years, all the years had vacant days, some years [having] more and others fewer, for when the moon of December was finished, they waited for the return of the sun from the tropic of Capricorn, and began another new year, without remembering what had passed by, and for this reason they did not 43 a vEwcem ———— OS er eS SEP - a eS a OS a 44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. Q2 know (and this [included] those best instructed in their antiquities ) how much time had elapsed since this or that thing had happenel, etc., and therefore they did not know anything more than the present time, putting their reason to use [only] with natural instinct, as it were, like so many animals. Names of months according to the natives. Aaxcomil December and January. Peret February. Yamar March. Alasoguil April. Tocoboaix May. Siutecar June and July. Cucuat August. Lalavaix September. Aguitscomil October. Auquit November. In order to comprehend the method or manner in which these Indians counted the months of the year, it must be understood that their year always began the 21st of December, and thus those days which elapsed between the last conjunction and the 2Ist were vacant [days], and according to their way of expressing it they said: there are no days, and on the 21st, whatever number of days old the moon might be, they began to reckon the month of Aaxcomil, which lasted during all of the following moon, and the new year began; therefore this month alone comprised 2 moons, that of De-_ cember, though only in part, yet some years in its entirety, which happened when the conjunction passed the 21st, and that of January. The same thing happened in the month of Siutecar, which corresponds to the month of June, with the only difference that if the 21st of June fell in the full of the moon, the days before the full of the moon were not vacant [days], but were added to the preceding month, Tocoboaix, and on the 21st the other month started, but if it fell before the full of the moon, the month began the day of the full of the moon, and the other ensuing month followed. All the other months began with the conjunctions of the moon; for that reason they never or scarcely ever agreed with ours. What is described above is all that these Indians had in their calendar, which served them for gathering their seeds, as we have said, and for celebrating their feasts. They were ignorant of the number of days of which the months were composed, and much more so the years, and were only governed by the phases of the moon: this latter indicated to them the days on which they were to NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—HARRINGTON 45 celebrate their feasts and also for the anniversaries of their dead, though these latter did not fall on the same day on which the person had died in any year. With this end in view the Puplem when the deceased died observed the aspect of the moon, and in what month it was, and the next year, the month having arrived and the aspect of the moon being the same as when he died, they then celebrated the anniversary. And we are to understand that the same method ap- plied for the celebrating of their feasts. CHAPTER II SOME OF THEIR MANY EXTRAVAGANCIES. Many were the rare, extravagant, and ridiculous practices which these Indians had, and therefore in addition to those mentioned in the proper place, I shall relate some of these which appear especially ridiculous and singular, everything being derived from the stories and fables with which they are imbued from the time they are small children, so that they are brought up full of fear, and for this reason anything whatsoever fills them with dread, and since they were so rude with such sluggish understanding, they were not able to distinguish or deduce that which is true from that which is false, but continually ad- hered to that which the old people told them, and for this reason are seen so many extravagant and ridiculous things among them. They had the notion when buzzards were flying about, if the shadow of the buzzard passed close by, of immediately covering themselves, and they still cover their heads, chiefly the young women do, for they believe that if the shadow of the buzzard would touch their heads, sores would come out on them, such as scalled-head and other similar [sores]. There was another rare and singular practice among these Indians, and it was that the deer hunters or hunters of deer could not eat of the deer which they killed, for they were of the belief that if they ate of the game which they themselves killed, they would not kill any more, and the fishermen had this same idea and never ate of the fish which they themselves caught. But the most singular practice was that in the case of the youths, when they went to hunt cottontail rabbits, groundsquirrels, or deer, one of them could not go alone, and there- fore at least 2 of them went [together], for he who killed the game could not eat of it, but this was not for the above mentioned reason [that the eater will not be able to kill any more game], but for another reason [that the eater will sicken], which was that 1f one of the un- married men were to get a cottontail rabbit or some other animal and were to eat it by himself hiddenly, in a few days he would start feeling pains in his body and start wasting away, getting thin like a hectic person, and for this reason they always went in company, and what one killed the other one ate, swapping their game ; but it is to be noted that in order that this effect be produced, the eating has to be in secret, for if it was in public on the general [expeditions] when all the people went along, though they ate of the same game that they had killed, 46 NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—HARRINGTON 47 there was no such sickness. They had for this sickness their healers, who with 2 incantations of blowings and feathers, made them well in short order. Nowadays since they are Christians nothing of what we have mentioned happens to them, nor do I believe that it would happen to them in their gentility, and that if any boy at any time was seen to be sick, it must have come from other causes, or else from mere imagination, for this was also a daily harangue which they gave them. And it was for the purpose that if they found cottontail rabbits, jackrabbits, or others in the country they should bring them to the house and should not eat them. When they discover any eclipse of the sun or of the moon they start great shouts, cries, and bitter, weeping, and this all of them, big and little, throwing dirt into the air, beating on skins, [and] tule mats with great noise. And this they do because they are of the belief that a hideous animal eats the sun or the moon, and they make such exer- tions in order to scare it away, and they think that if that animal would eat up all the sun or the moon, that is, if it would be a total eclipse, they would all have to die and the world would have to come to an end. I believe that at the time of the eclipse when they make such a noise, they are making their supplications to the God Chinigchinix, because I saw (at one which there was in the year 1813 and at another in 1822), of the sun, that when the eclipse was over the old men began their dance like giving him thanks for having delivered them from that animal. They also had the custom at the time of the new moon, the first day that the new moon appeared, [that] some old men began to shout, saying: boys, start your moon running! And immediately the youths began to run like crazy men without order or arrangement, and the old men to dance as a sign of joy, saying in their song that even as the moon died and lived again, even so, though they also were to die, they were to live again (this very clearly manifests the resurrection of the flesh), but how they understood it I have not been able to determine. The rarest thing that I have found among these Indians is that there were certain ones who claimed to be descendants of the Coyote, and these ate human flesh, but not like the Caribs, Mexicans and others, but in another manner, the dirtiest thing that can be imagined, and it was in this way: when the chief or another of the satraps died (for the function was performed for all of these), they summoned the Eno, Tacue, for thus he was called, and after the death of the person, with a flint, the said Eno cut a little piece of meat from the shoulder near the neck of the deceased, and before all the people who were present there, he ate it raw. (This was in imitation of what the 4 48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 Coyote did to his Chief, Oiot, as we have related above.) And for the above mentioned function they paid him well, and all the people gave him of what they had. The people were in great fear and dread of these | Tacue], because they held them to be poisoners and wizards, and therefore they used great caution as regards them. These Indians had also an account of the universal flood. I do not know, nor can I understand, from where such an account comes to them. And this I have learned from certain songs which I heard sung on a certain occasion, it being a little story which I shall give later. These Indians believe and say that at a remote time the sea began to fill up so that it came in over the valleys, and the water rose over the mountains, and all the people and animals died, except some who went to a very high mountain, and the water did not reach there. The ac- count that they give extends only thus far, but the [little] story which I heard, gives it more clearly and extensively, and is as follows. It is to be noted first of all that the Indian is very rancorous and nurses hatred to the third or fourth generation, and grievance being handed down from parents to children as we have mentioned, and when they were not able to take revenge, they contented themselves with singing the following little story, which is as follows: They were of the belief that one of the descendants of Oiot, whom they poisoned, begged of Chinigchinix the avenging of Chief Oiot. Chinigchinix answered him: You are the one who makes rain, therefore you can make so much water rain down that you will drown everyone, and thus you will be revenged. And indeed it began to rain and the sea [began] to get rough and to fill up, and with the water that was raining down it came in over the valleys and canyadas, the water continued rising over the hills and mountains, and rose to such an extent that it covered all of them, all the people and animals dying with exception of a few who went with the one who was making it rain to a very high mountain, the top of which the water did not reach, and these alone saved them- selves. Thus one who I believe must have been removed from Oviot further than the 6th generation took his revenge. And this is what they ask of Chinigchinix: that he drown their enemies and save themselves. If their adversaries heard or learned that they were singing this ballad against them, they answered with another one which amounts | to saying: We now have no fear because Chinigchinix does not wish it, nor will there be another flood. There is no doubt but that all the above account has some correlation to the universal deluge, and the promise which God made to us that there would not be another one. CHAPTER I2 ABOUT THEIR BURIALS AND FUNERALS. Before I deal with the method that they employed in their burials, it will be convenient to treat first the remedies which they used in their diseases. These Indians did not lack the use of certain crude remedies in their diseases or the knowledge of certain herbs, that is, for external diseases, for in the case of internal ones, such as fevers, no matter what kind they might be, I have not known them to use any remedy at all; just bathing with cold water was all the remedy they had, and therefore when they felt a headache at once the first remedy was to wash the head with cold water. In external diseases, such as tumors, swellings, sores, and vagrant pains they used certain herbs such as sage, California Sagebrush, and _ others, putting them on pounded up, as a poultice; and if they felt a bellyache, they inhaled the smoke of the above mentioned herbs through the mouth; but the most frequent and commonest practice, especially when in pain, was to whip the place where the pain was with nettles, and to put them right on the place of the pain, and likewise ants, and these latter especially on sores, and in this manner they cured them- selves. In internal diseases such as fevers, pains in the side, burning fevers, I do not know if they may have used special remedies other than bathing ; what they did was to lie down naked on top of a pile of sand or ashes, the little fire in front of them being in whatever condition it might be, and a basket or pot of water at the head of the person; they were also accustomed to set for the person a little basket of acorn mush, but the sick person, if he wanted to eat, ate, and if not, he left it, and without anyone importuning him to take food, and it is to be noted that he always had someone or other at his side day and night, and thus he remained until either nature conquered or the disease conquered. When they felt themselves attacked with some kind of fever im- mediately they called their healers, who are the Puplem, of whom we have spoken above, and (into their profession not all entered, but those to whom it fell by succession). These on seeing the sick person gave a great discourse, mentioning to them many kinds of diseases, but in the case of all of these, that they came from foreign substances which they had in their bodies, such as the hairs of certain animals, sticks, 49 50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 little stones, thorns, etc., and that these foreign bodies were the disease, and these imposters for the purpose of effecting a cure made ready with many ceremonies, putting feathers on them, and other things, blowing in the 4 directions, saying certain words without anybody or anyone understanding them; and then sucking the place where the pain was they pretended that they were extracting the bodies such as they had mentioned—but in reality after their sucking they extracted from their [own] mouths some of these bodies, such as little stones, sticks, thorns, similar to or the same as those which they had told them previously that they had; and these bodies they showed to those standing about, and all believed it without having the slightest doubt, and the sick person [being] very well satisfied whether he got well or died. They told some that the disease had been sent to them by their God Chinigchinix as a penalty or punishment for some delinquency which had been committed. There are many of these charlatans and deceivers everywhere, who ‘after they have been well paid and have filled their bellies laugh at and make fun of the poor innocents, or better said, of their credulity. After the deceit of the wizards, they having used all their diabolic art, if the sick person died they tended to giving him burial, that is, to burning him, (in these regions they burned them). After the sick person died they allowed the interval of 10 or 12 hours to pass, watch- ing if he would come to life again, as they said. In the meantime they prepared the pyre, and having seen that he was really dead, they sum- moned the cremator (it is to be noted that in these regions there were certain ones assigned to this work, and it went according to family succession). Everything being ready, they carried the corpse to the pyre, leaving it there. All the people withdrew to a little distance, the cremator alone remaining. He lighted the pyre, and he could not stir from the place until the dead person was entirely consumed. And when it was over they gave him something to eat, and paid him well, and after that he retired to his lodging place. All the things and utensils which the dead person had used, such as bow, arrows, feathers, and the rest, were all burned with him, serving as food for the pyre. They did not have special ceremonies at the time of burning him, but after he was entirely consumed, they retired to a little distance from the rancheria to cry over the death of the deceased. CHAPTER 13 ABOUT THE IMMORTALITY OF “THE SOUL. In this chapter it seems that we have a somewhat difficult one, since it deals with a substance imperceptible to the bodily senses, because it is incorporeal and spiritual, nevertheless it has been possible to set forth with concise words and briefly the belief which these Indians held concerning the rational soul and how they imagined it, for the purpose of observing something about its immortality ; but since there are arguments pro and con, I shall expand somewhat more than I have been accustomed to in the other chapters, in order that the reader may be acquainted with the validity of both sides [of the argument], and may be able to choose that which seems to him best, presenting first my way of feeling and my opinion, according as I have been able to understand and grasp, following their explanation. These Indians were materialists, for they imagined the soul to be the spirit of life, which is taken in through the air that we breathe, without their knowing or believing that within ourselves there is supposed to be another substance distinct from the material body ; that is, that we are no more than bones, flesh and blood, which constitute what com- poses the body, which they call Petdcau. A name for distinguishing the soul from the body they do not have ; they merely use the name pusiin, which is the generic term that means thing which is inside, and this name they apply to the heart, since it is the principal place in man. Since these Indians do not penetrate further than what they perceive or can perceive with their senses, they do not attain to understand the spirituality of our soul, but merely the materiality of our body, and therefore are materialists, for they say that dead and with body burned, nothing remained and everything was already ended. Also, as we have mentioned in the preceding chapters the punishments which they feared from their God Chinigchinix, were all bodily, such as stumbling over rocks, falling down on the ground, being bitten by rattlesnakes, [and] bears, and diseases, all of them ills of the body, and lastly death, which was their final end—without ever talking or thinking of penalties, punishments or glory after they were dead. What has been said seems to me sufficient for perceiving that they were materialists. But since they tell a thousand little stories, originating indeed in dreams and deliriums, which manifest the immortality of the soul, and I promised to relate everything that I have acquired on the 51 52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 matter which we are treating, I shall set forth ingenuously all their accounts. | Since it has been proven therefore that they are materialists by the arguments given above, not to add others which are also convincing, the great insensibility which they manifest at the hour of death, their little affection for and little inclination toward divine things, their having all their desire set in brutal things, and other congruent argu- ments which I could adduce, show very clearly the little or no percep- tion which they had of the rationality of the soul, and therefore of their immortality. Nevertheless there appears to be validity of argu- ment, in what we have mentioned in chapter Ir in connection with their moon running, at which they mentioned in their song that even as the moon died and lived again, so also though they were to die, they were to live again. But as I said, I have not been able to comprehend how they understood this, if it was that as the moon shows itself the same, they were to resurrect the same, which is what the Catholic faith teaches us, or if they understood transmigration. I think that they did not believe either one way or the other, for what they say is that thus the ancients did, and that they they are doing the same as they learned from their ancestors, without giving further notice or account of what has been given above. Let us examine their little anecdotes which deal with the immortality of the soul, which though they all of them are nothing more than mere fables, framed from dreams and deliriums both of men and women, will serve at least in their narration to amuse the reader. Some of them narrate that all the Indians when they die go to Heaven to their God Chinigchinix (this Heaven they imagine as a terrestrial paradise), that they have much to eat there, and to wear, that they dance much and play many games, that they do not work, that no one is sad, but that all are happy and glad, and everyone does what he wants to, and they have all the women that they please. Let the reader compare this paragraph with [their belief as regards] the immortality of the soul. This account has been invented by Christians, for the old people have no such idea, and in confirmation of this I shall recount a little tale which was related to me by a woman. At the Mission of N. [marginal annotation ; San Juan Capistrano | in the year of 1817 a woman who was convalescing from a burning fever related to me the following: When she was in the most violent part of the fever she had a great paroxysm, and she told me that she had died and that certain Indian relatives of hers had taken her to the God Chinigchinix. Before entering the rancheria (which was very large and beautiful, and we are to note that the houses were not of the NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA-—HARRINGTON 53 form and figure such as they use, but of another form, she being unable to give the design), she beheld there a great number of people, men and women (but all of them Indians), some of them playing games, others dancing, the same games and dances that they have, and others bathing in a great arroyo of very crystalline water. They arrived at the house or palace of Chinigchinix, but he did not permit them to enter, telling them that the woman could not live with them yet, that they would give her something to eat and that she should return to her country. They gave her to eat a very savory and good acorn mush such as she had never tasted, and much of it, and after she had eaten well, she returned to her rancheria, without having seen Chinigchinix. This is her account. It is at once seen to be nothing more than a mere delirium. Note: I went to visit this woman when she was in her paroxysm and in the most violent part of her fever, and seeing that she was shaking and gnashing her teeth very much, and with her mouth very dry, I gave her with my own hand a glass of warm water with sugar, and she drank it all up. This water perhaps may have been the acorn mush that was so good, which they gave her at the house of Chinigchinix. She began to perspire and came to herself, the fever letting loose of her, from which she recovered in a short time. The other accounts that they relate are about the same as what has been related above. Others relate, and this is handed down from antiquity, that when the Indians died, although they burned them after death, the heart did not burn, that is, the spirit or soul (for the heart of flesh of course had to be consumed like the rest of the body), and that this spirit or soul went to stay at another place, where Chinigchinix destined it, but it is to be noted that if it was a chief or satrap, they went to Heaven, and were placed among the stars, and therefore they say that especially the planets and those large stars which are very brilliant, are the souls of chiefs or Puplem. Note: The reason that they give why only these latter should go to Heaven and become stars is that Eno, who was the eater of [human] flesh, before they were cremated ate his piece [of flesh] from them, but if it happened that the Eno did not eat of their flesh, as in case by drowning or [of death] at the hands of their enemies, etc.. he [the chief or satrap] did not then go to Heaven, but to another place where Chinigchinix destined him. Others Chinigchinix stationed along the ocean shore or through the hills, ranges, valleys or mountains, and there they remained without the period of time being designated, but such time as Chinigchinix de- sired, but what they became later, if they returned to their bodies or went to another place, this they do not know. And if the Indians, when going from one place to another, see or imagine [they see] something extraordinary, they say that that is the soul of some dead person, and they hold it a bad omen, fearing some misfortune, for 54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 they are of the belief that if a dead person shows himself to someone, it is to do injury to him, and particularly to the women, and there are some imposters who pass themselves off as these ghosts, in order thus to attain their desires. And this has happened many times, not only when they were gentiles but even since they have become Christians. And lastly others, and these the most pitiable and unhappy of all, remained near their homes and those of their relatives, filling them with dread and doing them certain injuries, and these are the ones for whom their relatives did not lay on the pyre many feathers and other things of the kind that they were accustomed to lay. And as confirma- tion of this last point I shall relate a case which I myself witnessed in part, and it was as follows: Inthe year of 1813, at the Mission of N. [marginal annotation: San Luis Rey], there died a Christian Indian, and the Indians said that another Indian, also a Christian of the same Mission, had poisoned or bewitched him, whose death all believed came from witchery. That dead man used to make every year his little garden patch of corn, pumpkins, and watermelons. This same garden patch he left to one of his relatives; and at the time when the plants were in blossom, the said garden patch all got spoiled and dried up without being able to harvest even a single fruit or grain, while it is to be noted that when the plants were tender they were very luxuriant like the neighboring ones and [those of] all the vicinity, but upon blooming the plants died, and the Indians said (this they learned from an old woman who had also told me about it), that the dead man was walking all about through the plot and that he was killing all of it little by little, which was whatever he touched. With this news I went to see the prodigy and saw certain dead plants, but many of them very luxuriant and fresh. The next day I returned to assure myself of the truth, and I found 7 plants, some of them corn, some pumpkin, some watermelon, dry and burnt to the roots, and it is to be noted that I had myself pointed these out as being the most luxuriant ones. And in this manner all of them dried up without harvesting a grain. There is no doubt but that this is a little fable, but thus it happened. The dead man had died of dysentery which had come from syphilis, and therefore through the path of tuberculosis, without suffering any bewitching or poisoning such as they said. That the dead man should be walking through the plot killing the plants we see to be the story of an old woman, because nobody saw him except the old woman. What causes me confusion and difficulty is how such a catastrophe may have originated, for it was not through lack of care, nor through an epidemic of certain animals such as worms, gophers, etc., for in addition to the fact that such were not seen, if the plant had been cut, it would have NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA——HARRINGTON 55 been withered, and not dry as if burned. The above, I believe, will cause the reader astonishment. I exercised all possible diligence, be- lieving that I could discover the cause, but I could not discover it through natural means. Therefore I believe that it was performed by the Devil, lest many escape from his hands. Concerning the above let everyone deduce what seems to him best. With what we have related it is easily recognized that their reports on the immortality of the soul are nothing more than fabulous stories and lies for deceiving the simple, causing them to believe that which does not exist, and how slight must be their belief in the spiritual sub- stance with which we are adorned, and this not only on the part of the rudest and most ignorant ones of them, but on the part of those most versed and best instructed in our holy religion. And lest anyone doubt what has been said above and attribute it to my odd ideas, I shall re- late 2 cases which happened in my time and at the very places where I was residing. In the year of 1808, if I am not mistaken, finding myself a mission- ary at the Mission of N. [marginal annotation: La Purisima], a youth about 23 years of age, raised with the priests from the time he was a child, very well instructed in matters of religion, and a good speaker of Spanish (for he served as interpreter for the priests), finding him- self in a grave sickness, did not wish to subject to taking any medica- ment or to receiving any of the advice which the priest gave him, but the first thing that he did was to call one of their healers, who executed with him all his diabolical art. Seeing that he was becoming continually worse the priests exhorted him daily that he should confess and should prepare himself for dying as a Christian, but the sick man intractably was never willing to do so, arguing exemption from examination [on the grounds] that he was still strong, and finally, that he did not ex- pect to die since he had hope in his healer. The latter, seeing that his lies were bringing no benefit, gave him up telling him that because he had always believed the priests, his God, or better said the Devil, was angry and for that reason was sending death upon him, and that he was not able to cure him. When the poor fellow saw that there was no remedy, he yielded to confess himself, but he did not confess with that satisfaction which the priest desired, and he died shortly afterward. In the year of 1817 an Indian at the Mission of N. [marginal anno- tation: San Juan Capistrano], like the preceding a speaker of Spanish and well instructed, fell ill with a serious sickness, of which he died, and though the priests, relatives and friends exhorted him much indeed to confess and receive as a Christian the holy sacraments, he could not be reduced, becoming when this matter was mentioned to 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 on him like one frantic and desperate,. bursting forth in blasphemies and expressions of despair. A little before he died I went for the purpose that he should confess and beg God’s pardon, exhorting him toward His great mercy, in order that he might receive the sacrament of ex- treme unction, but all was in vain, for he manifested such extreme grief and displeasure, foaming at the mouth, his eyes glittering, that he seemed to be truly condemned to hell, 3 men not being sufficient to hold him in check. I indeed attributed all these extreme actions to the violence of the disease, but when I had remained silent for a time, he became calm, and someone asked him, saying: Why do you not con- fess? And he answered in a tone of fury: Because I do not want to; having lived deceived, I do not want to die deceived. And in a short time he expired, his body remaining so ugly and horrible that it caused fright. Let the reader imagine my feelings on beholding in my pres- ence that sight in which I observed to the very letter that which David tells us [marginal annotation: Psalm 111, last verse|: Peccator videbit et irascetur dentibus suis fremet et tabecet [sic], desiderium peccatorum peribit. I reflect that some will probably tell me that in spite of the occur- rence of the cases given above, they do not prove little faith and belief on the part of all [the Indians], since everywhere rare and prodigious cases occur which God permits through his inscrutable secrets, and as a warning to others. This I admit and confess, but this I state : that those [believing Indians] who form the exception are very few and cases worthy of note, while in the general run all of them seem to me to be the same, and I believe that anyone who has observed them will agree with me; and the fact is that those [Indians] who appear to us to be more intelligent are the very ones who leave us more deceived, for since they conduct all their activities with malice [against us] while we with simplicity show them trust in every matter, they deceive us at every step. And this needs no proof, because we have all come into con- tact with it through experience, and I believe that there is not a priest in this Province who will not flatly confess the fact. CHAPTER I4 THE ORIGIN OF THE INHABITANTS OF THIS MISSION. Since all the knowledge of these Indians about their antiquities is entirely fabulous, the present chapter, which deals with the first popu- lators of this Mission and its environs, will not contain less that is fabulous and ridiculous than the preceding ones. I write it merely in order that we may know from what region they came and by what per- sons they were chieftained, and also because it is a very strange and curious account. The place from which those who populated this Mission and its environs came was a land or place called Sejat, at which place or rancheria the inhabitants were called Pubuiem, which signifies : people of the land or place Sejat (this place Sejat is distant from this Mission about 7 or or 8 leagues, and it is in the valley which they call Los Nietos Ranch). This city or rancheria of Sejat had many inhabitants. The chief, named Oyaison, which means wise, and his wife, named Sirorum, had 3 daughters, named Coronne, Uuinagram, and Uiuiojam. Chief Oyaison after the death of his wife, seeing the multitude of people at his rancheria and that the seeds which that country produced were not sufficient for supporting that multitude, separated from the rest many families of his rancheria, all those [families] which wished to follow him, and with his oldest daughter, Coronne, they took trail in a southerly direction in search of good sites for settling. They came to a place about a quarter of a league before reaching this Mission (I have not been able to determine, because the Indians do not know, how many days or journeys they spent from the land of Sejat to this place), where there is a spring of water. There they halted and made a camp, since it appeared to them to be a place suitable for living. When all of them had already settled at this place, having built their houses and established their town, Chief Oyaison returned to his country of Sejat, leaving with these new settlers as chieftainess his daughter Coronne. The said Coronne was an unmarried girl, but already grown up, ard to this place they gave the name of Putuidem, which means navel sticking out, because the said Coronne had a lump at her navel. Note:—The Indians do not know if she had this lump which she had at her navel from the time she was born or if it came out on her while they were staying at this place. It is very likely that the said lump appeared while at this place, for if she had had it since her birth, they would have named her Putuidem and not Coronne. Be the matter as it may, 57 58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 from that time on she was always called Putuidem, and this same place or rancheria they named and now call Putuidem. Seeing that the land was scant for so many people as were multiply- ing and that they were having to go quite a distance from their ran- cheria to hunt their seeds, some families began to remain at the same places where they gathered, some of them building their houses at one place, others at another, and thus were settled all the rancherias which there were in this canyada of San Juan Capistrano. But it is to be noted that all these families separated with the approval of Chieftainess Putuidem. At all the new settlements the oldest man of the family became chief, and they called him Nu, and his second [they called] Eyacque, and as regards their wives, the wife of Nu they called Coronne, and the wite of the Eyacqtie [they called] Tepi. The name Coronne was in mem- ory of Putuidem. And as regards Tepi, I do not know what ground they may have had for giving her the name Tepi. The names Coronne and Tepi signify those little animals which fly about, called ladybugs, which live in the garden plots and fields. The red ladybugs they call Coronne, and those yellow ones, gilt colored as it were, they call Tepi, and these are the lineages of most noble blood, and they are all of this great descent and race. The said Putuidem gave a great feast, inviting all the new settlers, it being that they were her people, the feast began with great rejoicing and contentment of all of them dancing, eating and making merry, but since there is no complete pleasure in this world, or true joy, it befell that as the said Putuidem lay down on the ground, as was her custom, on her back, the lump at her navel swelled up and she turned into earth (and at the said place where the rancheria called Putuidem was, amid some willows, there is a pile of earth, and the Indians say that this pile of earth is the body of Puttidem). With this event the feast came to an end, and the new settlers as well as some of the inhabitants of the rancheria of Putuidem itself left for their new settlements, and that night they put up at a place which is about a hundred paces before reaching the Mission, and they called the said [place] Acagchemem, the name of which the new settlers of this canyada, or the entire tribe, took as their name. This name Acagchemem signifies heaped up pile of something that moves, such as an ant nest, nest of worms, or of other animals together in a heap. Others apply the name Acagchemem also to inanimate things, but it seems that the proper meaning applies to animate things. The reason or cause which these Indians may have had for calling themselves, and their entire tribe, Acagchemem, I have not been able NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—HARRINGTON 59 to determine, for it seems that they ought rather to be called Pubuiem, since they came from the land Sejat, whose people were called Pu- buiem, and they also were called thus until they came to settle these lands [here]. The reason that these Indians had for taking the name Acagchemem and abandoning that of Pubuiem I conjecture may have been, inasmuch as Acagchemem signifies heaped up pile of some- thing alive, because they may have slept that night which they spent at the place mentioned above all heaped together, men, women, boys and girls, and the next day when they got up they may have said Acagchemem, as if to say: we have all been together in a heap, and from this their name may have followed: those who were heaped together ; this is my way of thinking. It may also have happened that they found at that place some kind of a pile of animals and called them Acagchemem; but if that had been the case, the place only would have been called Acagchemem, and not the people or tribe. I incline to what I have suggested above, and it seems very probable, because it is the custom of the Indians that when they get together they pile up some on top of the rest. It is to be noted that before they came to settle this canyada of San Juan Capistrano, they spoke somewhat differently from the language which they now speak. What was spoken at Sejat appears to have been the Gabrielino language, and these [people here] have it very much corrupted, but nevertheless it can be recognized as having been the same, for among their common and general terms they use some of the same ones, except for the accent and a few letters more or less. The reason that they speak the language which they use today is that Chief Oyaison when they came to these lands taught them while on the way the language which they at present speak, telling them that since they were changing country they had to change language, and this is the reason why they are different from their relatives of Sejat. The name Sejat signifies place of wild bees, or jicotes as the California Spanish people call them, for Seja in the language of the natives is jicote, and seja pepau is the honey of the jicotes, and in these regions there are many of these swarms or hives underground. eee Ee CHAPTER 15 ABOUT THE RANCHERIAS INHABITED BY THESE INDIANS. Since the preceding chapter deals with the first settlers of this canyada of San Juan Capistrano and its environs, it will be fitting to give the towns or rancherias that were founded by the above mentioned new comers from the territory of Sejat and their de- scendants, giving in detail the names of the rancherias with their meanings and the name of the first chief of each of them. 1. The first rancheria or town which was founded in this canyada was the one called Putuidem, as we gave in the preceding chapter together with what the name Putuidem signifies. This was founded by Chief Oyaison and his daughter Coronne, or Putuidem. After what happened to the said Putuidem there entered into rule as chief one named Choqual, which means lift it wp! He was a very near relative of Chief Oyaison. 2. The second was called Atoum-pumcaxque [or i for c| (which is the place where the Mission is located). This name signifies a kind of little animals which according to what they have told me are similar to yellowjackets, but small, like big ants, which came out from underneath the ground. I have not seen these animals, nor are they seen at present anywhere around, for they say that from the time the Mission was established at this place they disappeared and they have not been seen any more. The reason that these insects came to an end I attribute to this canyada having been a thick growth of willows, cottonwoods, sycamores, fuchsias, beds of reeds, all of it being a marsh of water, and when after the establishment of the Mission the ground was begun to be cleared off for cultivation, these animals may have found themselves deprived of a breeding place and with the cultivation of the ground they may have come to an end. The chief of this rancheria was the same Choqual, [also chief] of the preceding one. 3. The third was called Ulbe, which signifies California Sage- brush. This is a kind of chamizo similar to rosemary and it has almost the same virtues. The Indians do not fail to use it in certain of their diseases. The chief of this rancheria was called Temiachocot, which signifies place or locality where much willow grows. 4. The fourth was called Tébone, which signifies an herb which grows in the seashore lagoon at the mouth of the creek estuary at 60 NO. A! NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—HARRINGTON OI the beach at the port of this Mission, and the Indians used it among their foods. Its chief was named Tobalauc, which means very much wrinkled old man. 5. The fifth was called Efe. This name signifies a plant which grows in these environs and along the ocean shore, which plant produces on the surface of its leaves a salt which the Indians used with some of their foods, especially with chia. This salt seems to me a very good purgative, since it is milder than sea salt and other purgative salts. The chief of this rancheria was named Sidoc, which means a jet of water which issues from a place that is dammed up; and at the said place in a gulch there is a lake of water and at one side there runs out a little jet of water. 6. The sixth was named Panga, which signifies canyada. This is the place which since the time of the arrival of the discoverers has been called San Mateo. Its chief was named Seqitilqitix, which means plant which dries up. 7. The seventh was called Souche, which signifies little canyada or gulch. This was located near the preceding. Its chief was named Toroc, which means to limp or to sprain one’s foot. 8. The eighth was called Tobe, which signifies a kind of clay or fine argil, white, similar to white lead, with which the women painted themselves. Its chief was named Quapchocops, which means care taker, or watchful. g. The ninth was called Tumume, which means a flat place, better said, a bench on a hill. Its chief was named Temex, which means stumbler. 10. The tenth was called Tepipche, which signifies a kind of bush or chamizo (I am not acquainted with it, nor do I know its proper name), which the natives call Tapipche [sic]. Its chief was named Paat, which means mountain sheep. 11. The eleventh was called Ecjeline, which signifies a kind of seed, of the plant which is called Wild Amaranth, and it is one of their particular foods. Its chief was named Taclet, which means hump- backed or crook-backed. 12. The twelfth was called Tajé, which signifies flint arrowhead. Its chief was named Gualua, which means drag it. 13. The thirteenth was called Usit, which signifies the little stick [foreshaft] which they put on their arrows. It is to be noted that it is a special kind of bush. Its chief was named Uchat, which means all unanimous. 62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 14. The fourteenth was called Alume, which signifies to raise the head in looking upward. This alludes to this rancheria having been located at the foot of a very high mountain which today is called El Trabuco. Its chief was named Cusuol, which means severed, or cut. 15. The fifteenth was called Usxme, which signifies rose, and in this country there are many of these roses. They are small, having 5 or 6 petals, very odoriferous, and bear a fruit shaped like a pear, but tiny or small, which also served the Indians as food. Its chief was named Chululeck, which means hair tied up on top of the head, or insignium of a chief. These are the 15 rancherias or towns which were founded by the first settlers of this Canyada of San Juan Capistrano and its en- virons. It is to be reflected that they must have been settled not all at a single time, but little by little, some later than others, according as was found more convenient and to the purpose. It also should be noted that since these Indians never lived fixed in a single place, but moved from time to time from one place to another depending on the seeds, there were always some unoccupied rancherias. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 92, NUMBER 5 Arthur jfund COLONIAL FORMATION OF UNICELLULAR GREEN ALGAE UNDER VARIOUS LIGHT CONDITIONS (WitH THREE PLATES) BY FLORENCE E. MEIER Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution (PUBLICATION 3256) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION OCTOBER 8, 1934 The Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A. Arthur Fund - COLONIAL FORMATION OF UNICELLULAR GREEN ALGAE, UNDER VARIOUS LIGHT CONDITIONS: By FLORENCE E. MEIER Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution (WirH THREE PLATES) INTRODUCTION Light of certain ranges of wave lengths and intensity is generally considered essential for the formation of chlorophyll in green plants. A number of green algae, mosses, and pine seedlings prove to be exceptions to this generalization. For example, Scenedesmus ob- tusiusculus Chodat and Scenedesmus chlorelloides Chodat develop and maintain their green chlorophyll better in darkness than in light. Different green algae, however, vary in their reactions to light con- ditions just as different higher plants vary in their reactions to temperature and other environmental conditions. Chlorella rubescens Chodat forms chlorophyll in the dark but not so vigorously as in the light, while the cells of Scenedesmus quadricauda are dark green in diffuse light and pale green in direct light. The ability of these plants to form chlorophyll without the aid of natural or artificial light is generally attributed to the presence of assimilable carbohydrates in the nutrient solution in which they are growing. Chodat (1913) has shown in the case of Stichococcus bacil- laris that when a carbohydrate is assimilated with difficulty or not assimilated at all by an alga in the dark as demonstrated by its de- coloration or complete lack of growth, the growth and development of chlorophyll by the same alga in the light is not prevented in the slightest degree. Chodat carried on a long series of experiments to determine the type of sugar best assimilated by certain algae growing in darkness. For that reason, further discussion of the necessary nutriments will not be treated here. 1 This paper reports investigations made under a grant from the National Research Council to the author as National Research Fellow in the Biological Sciences from July 1931 to 1933. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 92, No. 5 tO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 The experiment described below is one carried out preliminary to an elaborate piece of research under definitely controlled conditions on the effect of light intensity and wave length on algae. A number of different algae from my collection in pure culture were studied to determine their general reaction to natural and artificial light and to total absence of light. I wish to express my appreciation to Dr. Earl S. Johnston, As- sistant Director of the Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smith- sonian Institution, for his aid and suggestions. I am also very grateful to Dr. W. T. Swingle, of the United States Department of Agricul- ture, for his cooperation in obtaining the excellent color plates of the algal cultures made by Marcel L. F. Foubert, of the Photographic Division of the Department of Agriculture. DISCUSSION OF LITERATURE Numerous workers have studied the effect of varying day lengths on higher plants. The recent work by Arthur (1930), Garner and Allard (1925), and Shirley (1929) covers the field very well, and their long lists of literature references are an indication of the work done on this subject from the time of Hervé Mangon (1861), who found that grain planted in darkness turned yellow while that in electric light was green and thriving, up to the present when the beneficial amount of artificial light that should supplement winter daylight has been ascertained for various plants. References to the effect of light and darkness on lower plants are not as abundant. Klebs (1896) studied the effect of light and darkness on gamete formation in Chlamydomonas media Klebs and demonstrated that only vegetative division takes place in darkness. A 2 percent sugar solution aided growth but did not entirely replace the light. Etard and Bouilhac (1898) recorded the presence of chlorophyll in a Nostoc cultivated in the dark in a nutrient solution to which glucose had been added. They extracted the chlorophyll with alcohol and found the resulting yellow-green solution showed a red fluores- cence and had the following absorption bands: 6900 to 6500 A, 6310 to 6060 A, 5890 to 5680 A, and 5480 to 5360 A. Artari (1899, 1900, 1902) studied Pleurococcus and Scenedesmus in media containing peptone, glucose, maltose, beet sugar, or mannite and found growth in conjunction with chlorophyll formation taking place not only in the light without carbon dioxide but also in absolute darkness. He also reported chlorophyll formation in the dark for NO: 5 COLONIAL FORMATION OF GREEN ALGAE—MEIER 3 Stichococcus bacillaris, Chlorococcum infusionum, Chlorella vulgaris, Raphidium polymorphum, and the gonidia of certain lichens. He showed that the formation and quantity of chlorophyll was de- pendent on nitrogenous conditions and carbon sources in the solution. However, different algae vary in this respect. Radais (1900) grew Chlorella vulgaris on steamed potato slices and malt extract in light and darkness between 12° and 38° C. (25°C. optimum). The multiplication of the alga was similar in light and in darkness, and when both sets of cultures were dissolved in alcohol and examined spectroscopically, their absorption spectrum at 1/500 concentration was found to be 6910 to 6450 A, 6280 to 6040 A, and 5920 to 5670 A. A carbon bisulphide solution of the chlorophyll gave the same absorption spectrum but with a shift toward the red and very slight differences in the borders of the bands. Both dark and light cultures gave identical absorption bands. By dilution, the two bands of shorter wave lengths disappeared, but the band 6910 to 6450 A was still visible at a concentration of 1/100000. Matruchot and Molliard (1902) reported green cells in Stichococ- cus bacillaris major Naegeli growing in darkness. Grintzesco (1903), experimenting with Chlorella vulgaris Beyer- inck, found that too much light—that is, direct sunlight—is unfavor- able and injures the cell membrane. The algae developed well in electric light, but no intensity data are given. The cultures growing in darkness on agar with an addition of 2 percent glucose were a beautiful green and presented a better growth than those in flasks placed in light. His cultures of Scenedesmus acutus Meyen were 3 to 4 times smaller in darkness than in light, but they were green. Muenscher (1923) grew a Chlorella in diffuse light and in total absence of light for 105 and 235 days in a nutrient solution to which nitrogen was supplied either as calcium nitrate or ammonium sul- phate. He states that Chlorella can synthesize proteins in total dark- ness when nitrogen is supplied in inorganic combination. Colla (1930) found that the chloroplasts of Chlorella were dis- colored when grown on flint stone in a petri dish of Detmer solution for 35 days. He does not mention the presence of glucose in his solution. He then irradiated the alga for 2 hours daily, and the chloroplastids became intensely green the third day. He repeated the experiment with Elodea canadensis which had become etiolated after growing for 1 month in darkness on dampened cotton. After 2 days of irradiation of 7 hours daily the chlorophyll reappeared in the cells of the plant. He found very little variation in the chlorophyll ab- sorption bands of the normal and the irradiated plants. 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 Meier (1929) proved that light is not necessary for the formation of chlorophyll and carotin in the cells of Chlorella rubescens Chodat, Scenedesmus obtusiusculus Chodat, and Scenedesmus chlorelloides Chodat when an abundant quantity of nitrate and glucose are present in the medium upon which they are growing. METHOD The medium on which the algae were grown for these experiments was Detmer solution made up in the following proportions : Grams Ealeiunianitrate te tk seiner ee eee oe cer meee ere 1s Potassiummchlorides seas Meee ee eeer oer 0.25 Magnesiumeasulphate ci: o.) 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(X approx. }) grown on Detmer 4-agar 2 percent- dextrose 2 percent in intermittent light for one month. The algae in plates 2 and 3 were cultured in a similar manner. PLATE 2 Chlorella vulgaris, X approx. Nie PLATE 3 Chlorococcum viscosum, < approx. 5. (Figure numbers refer to both plates.) Fic. 1. Intermittent light for 3 months. 2. Intermittent light for 1 month, continuous light for 2 months. 3. Intermittent light for 1 month, continuous darkness for 2 months. 4. Continuous darkness for 3 months. 5. Continuous darkness for 1 month, intermittent light for 2 months. 6. Continuous darkness for 1 month, continuous light for 2 months. 7. Continuous light for 3 months. 8. Continuous light for 1 month, intermittent light for 2 months. g. Continuous light for 1 month, continuous darkness for 2 months. 10. Continuous darkness for 3 months. It. Continuous light for 3 months. Fic. 1-9. Colonies on Detmer }-agar 2 percent-dextrose 2 percent. Fics. 10-11. Colonies on Detmer 4-agar 2 percent. TERA TURE CELE) ARTARI, ALEXANDER 1899. Ueber die Entwicklung der griinen Algen unter Ausschluss der Be- dingungen der Kohlensaure-Assimilation. Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, pp. 39-47. 1900. Ueber die Entwicklung der griinen Algen unter Ausschluss der Be- dingungen der Kohlensaure-Assimilation. Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, pp. 37-47. 1902. Ueber die Bildung des Chlorophyls durch grtine Algen. Ber. Deutsch. bot. Ges., Bund 20, pp. 201-207. ARTHUR, JOHN M. 1930. Light and the green plant. Scientific Monthly, vol. 31, pp. 343-346. Cuopat, R. 1913. Monographies d’algues en culture pure. Matériaux pour la Flore Cryptogamique Suisse, vol. 4, fasc. 2, Berne. CoLtLa, SILVIA 1930. Formazione della clorofilla nelle piante exposte alla luce de Wood. Annali di Botanica, vol. 18, pp. 329-340. Erarp, A., AND BouILHac 1898. Présence des chlorophylles dans un Nostoc cultivé a l’abri de la lumiére. C. R. Acad. Sci., tome 127, pp. 119-121. I4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 GARNER, W. W., AND ALLARD, H. A. 1920. Effect of the relative length of day and night and other factors of the environment on growth and reproduction in plants. Journ. Agric. Res., vol. 18, pp. 553-600. GRINTZESCO, JEAN 1903. Contribution a l’étude des Protococcacées. Chlorella vulgaris, Beyer- inck. Rev. Géné. Bot., tome 15, pp. 5-19, 67-82. Kress, GEORG 1896. Die Bedingungen der Fortpflanzung bei einigen Algen und Pilzen, PP. 431-432, Jena. Mancon, HERVE 1861. Production de la matiére verte des feuilles sous l’influence de la lumiére électrique. C. R. Acad. Sci., tome 53, pp. 243-244. MartrucnHot, L., anp MoiirArp, M. 1902. Variations de structure d’une algue verte sous l’influence du milieu nutritif. Rév. Géné. Bot., tome 40, pp. 114-130, 254-268. Meter, FLORENCE E. 1929. Recherches expérimentales sur la formation de la carotine chez les Algues vertes unicellulaires et sur la production de la gelée chez un Stichococcus (S. mesenteroides). Bull. Soc. Bot. Geneve, vol. 21(1), pp. 161-197. 1933. Cultivating algae for scientific research. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for 1932, pp. 373-383. MUuENSCHER, W. C. 1923. Protein synthesis in Chlorella. Bot. Gaz., vol. 75, pp. 249-267. RADAIS 1900. Sur la culture pure d’une algue verte; formation de chlorophylle a lobscurité. C. R. Acad. Sci., tome 130, pp. 793-796. SHIRLEY, H. L. 1929. Influence of light intensity and light quality upon the growth of plants. Contr. Boyce Thompson Inst. Plant Res., Inc., vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 159-104. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOCE OAT NG Si le lsed CYSTOCOCCUS COHAERENS VAR., X APPROX. 34 (For explanation, see page 13.) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLAN EOUS COLLECTIONS CHLORELLA VULGARIS, X APPROX. 4 (For explanation, see page 13") VO. 92%) NO Sy Rese SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92. NO. 5, PL. Kho nN co | 10 I CHLOROCOCCUM VISCOSUM, X APPROX. 1, (For explanation, see page 13.) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 92, NUMBER 6 Frthur jFund Bree els OF INTENSITIES AND* WAVE LENGTHS OF LIGHT ON UNICELLULAR GREEN ALGAE (WitH THREE PLATES) BY FLORENGE E. MEIER Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution (PUBLICATION 3257) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION OCTOBER 11, 1934 The Lord Baltimore (Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A. Arthur jJFund HRPECTS OF INPENSITIES AND WAVE LENGTHS OF BIGHT ON UNICELEULAR GREEN ALGAE + By FLORENCE E. MEIER Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution (With THREE PLATES) INTRODUCTION Unicellular green algae are admirably adapted to the study of the effectiveness of light intensity and light of different wave lengths on chlorophyll formation and on growth as defined by multiplication of cells. Their chief advantages as subjects of experimentation are: (1) their small size, the mechanism of photosynthesis being complete in the microscopic individual with its green chloroplast ; (2) the uni- formity of their surfaces, since each cell in those varieties that do not form zoospores may be considered comparable to every other one placed in a symmetrical environment; (3) their mode of growth in nutrient solution; and (4) the comparative ease of controlling the temperature and humidity conditions. Control of the environment of algae as regards culture medium, temperature, and illumination was made the primary consideration in these experiments conducted in an effort to determine the reaction of algae to light. The importance of controlled conditions especially in matters of light intensity and wave length is easily seen when one reads through the literature. A few results of other investigators are reviewed. I wish to express my deep appreciation to Dr. C. G. Abbot, Secre- tary of the Smithsonian Institution, and to Dr. Earl S. Johnston, Assistant Director of the Division of Radiation and Organisms, for their assistance in the completion of this piece of research. [ am also very grateful to the other members of the Division of Radiation and Organisms, whose united efforts have made possible these experiments. 1 This paper reports investigations made under a grant from the National Research Council to the author as National Research Fellow in the Biological Sciences from July 19031 to July 1033. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 92, No. 6 tN SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 RESULTS OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS As early as 1861 Sachs (1864) originated the well-known method of growing plants in double-walled glass cylinders to determine the effects of colored lights. The cylinders contained respectively solu- tions of ammoniacal copper oxide for blue light, and potassium di- chromate for orange light. No coloring solution was used with the third cylinder. He reported that plants needed from 4 to 6 days more in blue light than in orange light to unfold their leaflike cotyledons which remained smaller in the former so that the lamina in orange light was 2 to 3 times larger than in blue light, but largest of all in white light. Regarding leaf formation, the orange light acted as a lesser, the blue as a higher, degree of darkness. There was no for- mation of organic substance in the blue light, while a small amount was ‘formed in orange light. Pfeffer (1871) also working with double-walled cylinders of solu- tions found the following percentages of growth under the filters: 46.1 percent, yellow; 32.1 percent, red and orange; 15.0 percent, green; and 7.6 percent, blue, violet, and indigo. Later,.in 1872, work- ing with a prism he again found the maximum growth in the yellow. Weber (1875) working with colored glasses as filters obtained similar results but in the following different percentages: 82.6 per- cent, yellow; 35.5 percent, red; 22.4 percent, blue; and 14.5 percent, violet. Wiesner (1877) used a filter of potassium dichromate which trans- mitted the less refrangible half of the spectrum: red, orange, yellow, and a part of green; and also ammoniacal copper oxide which allows the passage of the remainder of the visible rays, the rest of the green and all of the blue and violet. He observed that the plants in weak light became greener sooner under yellow but in strong light sooner under blue. He believed rapid destruction accompanies chlorophyll formation in strong yellow or strong blue light which might not act directly upon the chlorophyll already formed but might have a harm- ful effect upon some process antecedent to chlorophyll formation. Zachariewicz (1895), Flammarion (1897), and Strohmer and Stift (1905) agree that the maximum chlorophyll production is in the yellow rays. Artari (1899) observed that blue-violet light accelerated the de- velopment of Chlamydomonas ehrenbergii. Teodoresco (1899) using filters made up of chemical solutions studied the growth of corn in regions of the spectrum corresponding to the general chlorophyll absorption bands. Growth was found to be NO. 6 EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON ALGAE—MEIER 3 best in the blue and violet, 5220 to 4260 A; less favorable in the red and a small part of the orange, to 6130 A; and poorest in the green, 5680 to 5240 A. Chlorophyll was present in all the regions of the spectrum studied separately. Thirty years later Teodoresco (1929) reports about 170 experi- ments in which he investigated two main regions of the visible spec- trum, using both colored solutions and glass filters. He measured the energy transmitted through both sets of filters by means of a thermopile and a galvanometer and equalized the intensities. In mea- suring the light intensity he used a screen of water and copper acetate to eliminate the effect of the infrared radiation. Using a variety of hepatics, vascular cryptogams, and phanerogams, Teodoresco found that in the red-orange, 7750 to 6440 A, the general configuration of the plant was abnormal, while in the blue, 5090 to 3660 A, the general ap- pearance of the plant was normal and similar to plants grown in the shade or in white light. Fern germination was retarded in the blue light. Nadson (1910) grew Stichococcus bacillaris Naegeli under bell jars of colored solutions and found that red-yellow light caused ab- normally shaped cells and disorganized chromatophores of a pale yellow-green color. Cultures, 3 to 6 months old, grown in blue light finally attained a stage of development similar to the cultures in white light which were more normal in color and morphology. Otto Thelen (1910), growing oats, beans, and other plants under light filters, obtained maximum production in the bright yellow and yellow-red light ; the bright red light gave more than a third less dry weight, the blue still less, and the red and dark red, the least. The plants grown in white light produced almost as much dry weight as those grown under the yellow-red filter. Dangeard (1912) immersed a piece of white blotting paper into a culture flask of Chlorella vulgaris growing in Knop solution, stretched it on the wall of a culture dish, and radiated it in a quartz spectrograph. The maximum action of the rays as indicated by the differences of vegetation was in the chlorophyll absorption bands. The algae grew best in the region 6700 to 6600 A, less in regions 6800 to 6700 A and 6600 to 6300 A, with a feebler growth in 6300 to 6000 A, and a very feeble growth in the range 6000 to 5700 A. No trace of the alga was visible from 5200 to 4000 A. Klebs (1916-1917) showed that very striking formative changes can be induced in prothallia placed in different regions of the visible spectrum. He indicated that intensity and duration of light as well 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 as other environmental factors may bring about similar effects. This demonstrates the importance of measuring or recording all these factors in any study of the effect of light on plants. Schanz (1919) grew higher plants in eight beds covered with various kinds of glass. In the first five beds the range of wave lengths of light transmitted was gradually decreased from the violet end of the spectrum toward the red, thus making possible the study of the effect of light from which greater and greater regions of the spectrum were eliminated in the blue-violet end. Combinations of colored glasses which gave predominating colors of yellow, green, and blue- violet were used in the last three beds. He found that chlorophyll development in beans, soybeans, and potatoes was more rapid the more the short rays were cut off, being most rapid under red light. In lettuce, chlorophyll developed fully under blue-violet rays but not in normal quantity in yellow or green light. Schanz did not mea- sure the light intensity, nor does he give accurate information con- cerning temperature and other factors that possibly varied under the different types of glass. Popp (1926) grew a number of higher plants in greenhouses under glasses transmitting only definite regions of the spectrum. The plants receiving no wave lengths shorter than 5290 A or 4720 A had a good development of chlorophyll and were somewhat similar to those grown under reduced light intensity. There was very little difference between plants that received all the rays of the spectrum of daylight and those from which only ultraviolet rays were eliminated. Popp claims that light intensity was not an important factor in his experi- ment for the following reason: The plants grew normally and vigor- ously in the full spectrum of daylight at an intensity that was at all times lower than that of the house in which all wave lengths shorter than 4720 A were removed and only slightly greater than that of the house in which wave lengths shorter than 5290 A were eliminated. Sayre (1928) investigated the development of chlorophyll in seed- lings under Corning glass ray filters and found that wave lengths of radiant energy longer than 6800 A are not effective in the formation of chlorophyll in corn, wheat, oats, barley, beans, sunflowers, and radishes, but that all other regions of the remaining visible and ultra- violet spectrum to 3000 A are effective provided the energy value is sufficient. For approximately equal energy values in these regions the red rays are more effective than the green and the green than the blue. The effectiveness of radiant energy seems to increase with the wave length to about 6800 A, where it ends abruptly. NO. 6 EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON ALGAE—MEIER 5 Meier (1929), while working in Professor Chodat’s laboratory, conducted a preliminary light experiment in conjunction with an ex- periment relating to the formation of carotin in green algae. Three series of cultures of Chlorella rubescens planted on solid media, Detmer 4 plus glucose 2 percent with agar 1.5 percent, were placed at a north window; one in the modified diffused light, the second in violet light in a Senebier jar containing copper sulphate, and the third in yellow-orange light, in a Senebier jar containing potassium di- chromate. Chlorophyll production followed by formation of carotin, and growth of the cells progressed most rapidly in natural light and least rapidly in the violet light. These results agree with those re- ported by Sachs on higher plants. Arthur (1930) observed that plants grown under a red glass filter transmitting no blue light resembled those grown in a dark basement except that chlorophyll developed. The plants under a blue glass filter transmitting no red were dwarfed but otherwise normal. I. EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT INTENSITIES DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS To determine simultaneously the effect of different light intensities on algae under exactly similar conditions of medium and temperature, a large metal tablé similar to the one pictured in plate 1, figure 1, was constructed with four glass-bottomed water baths, each holding eighteen 300-cc Erlenmeyer flasks. The four water baths are con- nected to a centrally located thermostated mixing chamber which kept the temperature for these experiments at 21° C. In order to insure uniform dispersion of the algae, a common driving mechanism continuously agitates the Erlenmeyer flasks. The cultures are il- luminated from below by artificial light from Mazda daylight lamps. PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENT A preliminary experiment was conducted to determine the best growing conditions and the nutrient solution best suited to the algae in this apparatus. The following solutions were prepared: 1. Detmer (Modified Koch Solution) alc MitKate 2. ei si. abies ds,0.8 Wi gram Hotassinm) chlorides cn .c-e 0.25 Magnesium sulphate .......... 0.25 e Potassium acid phosphate...... 0.25 es MO simran sec evarsSiae ares Mahalo ete 0.002) 5 Distillledtwatet wepec:<.c1)o crete eric: 1 liter This solution made up in the above proportions was diluted to one-third. 0 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 2. Emerson’s (1929) Solution Magnesium sulphate .........-. 0.01 molar Potassiumimnitnates ere. cise 0.012 4 Potassium acid phosphate..... 0.0090“ Galciummcarbonate) ass e 0.0001 s Tron 3. Johnston’s (1929, 1932) Solution Calciumipnitrate yay ciaciecieesie 0.005 volume molecular concentration Magnesium sulphate .......... 0/002) 7h ; a Potassium acid phosphate..... 0:002° 7 if os Distilled water made up to I liter Tron @ 4. Detmer 4 solution in which potassium chloride is replaced by .33 grams of potassium acid carbonate which supplies the same amount of potassium. 5. Detmer 4 solution in which potassium chloride is replaced by .6 grams of potassium acid carbonate. 6. Detmer 4 solution in which potassium chloride is replaced by 1.2 grams of potassium acid carbonate. 7s Detmer 4 solution in which potassium chloride is replaced by 2.4 grams of potassium acid carbonate. 8. Similar to 1 but with cotton plugs. 0. Similar to 2 but with cotton plugs. a An equal quantity of iron was added to all the solutions. Rubber stoppers were used for all the Erlenmeyer flasks except in 8 and 9, duplicate cultures of Detmer 4 and Emerson respectively, which were plugged with cotton. The excess sulphur was removed from the rubber stoppers with petroleum ether before they were sterilized. One hundred cc of nutrient solutions was placed in each 300-cc Erlenmeyer flask and sterilized in an autoclave at 20 pounds pressure for 20 minutes. Five cultures of each of the above solutions were inoculated with Stichococcus bacillaris Naegeli. A similar number of cultures was inoculated with Chlorella vulgaris var. Four sets of each alga were placed in the water baths, the fifth in a north window of the Smith- sonian flag tower. NO. 6 EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON ALGAE—MEIER 7, For this experiment, a 300-watt Mazda daylight lamp was placed under each of the four water baths. Under baths 1, 2, and 3 the bulb — was placed so that the filament was 20 centimeters from the glass bottom of the bath. For bath 4 the distance was 4o centimeters. In bath 1 the cultures were stationary; the cultures in the other three baths were continuously agitated so that the cells were more evenly dispersed in the culture media. Cultures in baths 1, 3, and 4 were lighted continuously throughout the experiment, but those in bath 2 were illuminated for 6 hours daily from 1 a.m. to 7 a.m. This experiment was of one month’s duration from June 19, 1931, to July 17, 1931. RESULTS A. As regards growing conditions — 1. The best development took place in those cultures grown under natural conditions of light and darkness in a north window of the tower. ‘ 2. Of the cultures grown under artificial conditions in the baths, the best ones were those grown in intermittent light at about a distance of 20 centimeters from the light. 3. The next best Detmer cultures were those grown in bath 4 at a distance of about 40 centimeters from the light. 4. The cultures in baths 1 and 3 gave the poorest results. There was continuous illumination at a distance of about 20 centimeters in both of these baths and in one set the cultures were stationary and in the other, continually shaking. B. As regards solutions — 1. The cultures of Detmer 4 both with rubber stoppers and cotton plugs showed the best growth and most normal cells under all the different conditions. 2. All the other cultures showed poor growth under continuous light at 20 centimeters distance from the light in baths 1 and 3. 3. The cultures in which the potassium chloride of the Detmer solution was replaced by potassium acid carbonate did not give as good results as the Detmer 4 solution. 4. The algae in the Johnston solution were a brighter green than the algae in the Detmer solution in the tower cultures. 5. The most normal algal cells occurred in the Emerson, Johnston, and Detmer solutions in the tower and in intermittent light, bath 2. 6. The cells of the stationary cultures were irregularly shaped and showed abnormally cut plastids. 7. The cells in the cultures 20 centimeters from the light, con- tinuously illuminated, were very tiny. 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 . CONCLUSIONS 1. Intermittent light gives more favorable results than continuous light. 2. In continuous illumination better results were obtained by the weaker light (at a distance of 40 centimeters). 3. Agitation is favorable to a more equal distribution of cells and hence a more uniform lighting condition. It also favors multiplica- tion, as the cells do not collect in large masses. 4. Detmer } is a favorable solution for the growth of the algae under the controlled conditions described above. 5. Rubber stoppers serve as well as cotton plugs in 300-cc flasks containing 100 cc of solution for an experimental period of a month. SECOND EXPERIMENT A second experiment was carried out with cultures of the follow- ing 15 algae: Coccomyxa simplex, Chlorella viscosa, Scenedesmus flavescens, Chlorella vulgaris, Stichococcus bacillaris, Palmellococcus protothecoides, Oocystis naegeli, Cystococcus trregularis, Chlamvy- domonas intermedia, Palmelococcus variegatus, Chlorococcum vis- cosum, Scenedesmus chlorelloides var., Chlorella vulgaris var., Cysto- coccus cohaerens, and Heterococcus viridis. Three sets of the cul- tures were illuminated each by a 300-watt Mazda daylight lamp at a distance of 40 centimeters from the glass bottom of the bath to the top of the filament of the lamp. The fourth was kept in darkness. Of the three illuminated culture sets, one received intermittent light for 6 hours. All the cultures were constantly agitated with the exception of one of the two receiving continuous illumination. The experiment was in progress from July 28 to August 18, 1931. Detmer 4 solution was used for each alga. The cultures that were agitated continuously and lighted intermit- tently and the cultures that were stationary and lighted continuously produced the most satisfactory results at the end of the experimental period. In the stationary cultures, the algae had formed a film on the bottom of the glass flasks that shielded those in the solution from the intense light. The first seven algae listed above were green- est and in the best condition. The next six listed were less green probably because the light was too intense, while the last two listed, that is, Cystococcus cohaerens and Heterococcus viridis, were killed by the intense light in all three of the baths. The cultures which were continually agitated and kept as closely as possible in continuous darkness gave the following results: all No. 6 EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON ALGAE—MEIER Q the algal suspensions were practically colorless in appearance, but by microscopic examination some green cells mixed with numerous colorless cells were found for the following eight varieties: Sticho- coccus bacillaris, Chlorella vulgaris, Scenedesmus chlorelloides var., Oocystis naegelii, Chlorella viscosa, Scenedesmus flavescens, Cysto- coccus irregularis and Palmellococcus variegatus. All colorless cells were found in the following four varieties: Palmellococcus proto- thecoides, Coccomyxa simplex, Chlorella vulgaris var., and Chlamy- domonas intermedia. THIRD EXPERIMENT In the third experiment, which was in progress from October 10 to November 9, 1931, all the cultures in the four baths were con- stantly agitated and lighted continuously. Mazda daylight lamps were used and were so placed that the ratios of intensities in the four baths Mele baa O. 27. Intensity » Bath Wattage Distance * microwatts/mm ” Ratio I 60 (frosted ) 5.05 3.76 1.00 2 200 36.7 11.5 3.06 3 300 35-9 34.1 9.06 4 300 18.8 102.0 27.0 aa was measured from the glass bottom of the bath to the top of the filament b As measured with a thermocouple. In addition to the algae listed in the second experiment, cultures of Haematococcus pluvialis and Palmellococcus miniatus were used. Microscopic counts were made of each culture at the beginning and at.the end of the experiment. The increase in number of cells was roughly proportional to the increase in light intensity insthe cultures of Oocystis naegelii, Palmel- lococcus protothecoides, Chlorella vulgaris, Palmellococcus miniatus, Chlamydomonas intermedia, Scenedesmus chlorelloides var., Hetero- coccus viridis, Chlorella viscosa, Cystococcus irregularis, Cystococcus cohaerens, Coccomy.va simplex, and Palinellococcus variegatus. Four algae behaved differently. The most intense light caused the poorest development of Stichococcus bacillaris and Scenedesmus flavescens, although for the three other intensities the growth was proportional. The growth was inversely proportional to the light intensity in Chlorella vulgaris var. Chlorococcum viscosum grew very little in all four light intensities. Cells with green chloroplasts were present in all the cultures of the algae listed above. Hematococcus pluvialis had a few gray-green cells in the lowest light intensity, more green cells IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. Q2 in the next two light intensities, and numerous green cells with red eye spots and a number of completely orange-red cells in the highest light intensity. Il. EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT WAVE LENGTHS THE PLANT USED Stichococcus bacillaris Naegeli, the green alga used in this experi- ment, consists of a single cylindrical cell with rounded ends usually partially filled with the chloroplast. The dimensions of the cell vary from 2 to 2.5 » in diameter and from 4 to-8 » in length. Multiplica- tion takes place by transverse division of the protoplast and the formation of cross walls. The nucleus usually lies near the center of the cell. (See pl. 2.) Filaments of cells were rarely observed in my cultures. The alga develops rapidly, soon forming a green deposit in Detmer 4 containing 0.005 percent to 0.02 percent ferric chloride. The cells multiply very slowly on a solid medium such as Detmer } agar, and after two months’ time small green buttons about 4 to 7 millimeters in diameter are present on the agar. If dextrose from 1.5 to 2 percent is added to the medium, the flat regular dark green disks may grow to over I centimeter in diameter. This alga does not liquefy gelatine but forms a slight dark green growth on the surface of the culture medium. My cultures have remained green in the dark for two months on Detmer 4 agar plus 2 percent dextrose. The colonial formations, al- though greener, are smaller when grown in darkness than correspond- ing cultures in the light, owing to the less rapid development and exhaustion of the nutrient medium. Artari (1899), Radais (1900), Matruchot and Molliard (1902), and Chodat (1913), have also grown green cultures of Stichococcus bacillaris in darkness. Cultures illuminated continuously by electric light for two months were a -brownish-gray color and the individual cells were abnormally shaped. Corresponding cultures in sky illumination showed normal cells but were beginning to discolor at the center of each colonial disk. APPARATUS A metal table somewhat similar to the one used for experimenting on the effects of light intensity was constructed for experimental work on the effect of light of different wave lengths on one variety of aleas See ply tigate) NO. 6 EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON ALGAE—MEIER Il This table was constructed with four glass-bottomed water baths each holding six 300-cc Erlenmeyer flasks. Each flask is enclosed in a container with a light filter on the bottom. (See pl. 3, fig. 2.) The holders containing the flasks are maintained in continuous agitation. Each filter is one of a duplicate series of 12 short wave length cut-off filters, that is, a set which transmits progressively shorter and shorter TABLE 1.— Short Wave Length Cut-off Filters a Cut-off Name of filter A Heat resisting pyrometer red, 62 percent................ 6000 PleatwEesisting, red. al 3G) pEercentrs sic lester ae eile «ore: 5900 Eleat resisting’ fed. V2A4G Mercenlteparsciecven’s vie) Aeusyauentieksiere oie 5800 Heat resisting lighthouse red, 100 percent............... 5600 leataresistine ayellows ned shade. meee eee emer 5200 Heat resisting yellow, medium shade .!................. 5000 eat mesisting’ yellow, yellow shadeyy....2+2.2..0.teccen 4800 Fea trresistings Nioviolia. Jct win aetcoctutsas sae cates evaerueretate ois 4600 Otte AG oe sears eis te, Wahan es saat tigi aom eS poset aie ra alee au oreS 4500 INOS Oi nate ayn eee Ue ut cee Lela th Ge aU Meter aE a 4000 Nulttan cee Fa cas velcnanegche: 6000 5900 5200 5000 4500 4000 3700 Fourth experiment North side 40% 7, 3% 57% green and pale green with yellow granules colorless green and pale green © with yellow granules colorless green colorless green colorless green and pale green with yellow granules discolored and disinte- grated green and pale green with yellow granules colorless green with yellow granules colorless green % colorless green, most normal cul- ture in this series green and pale green % with yellow granules colorless green and % colorless South side 48% green and pale green greenish yellow colorless % green and pale green with yellow granules > colorless green and pale green with yellow granules colorless o pale green © with yellow granules colorless green and pale green with yellow granules green and pale green with yellow granules colorless green and pale green with yellow granules colorless green and pale green 7 colorless green with yellow granules colorless green with yellow granules colorless grass green colorless N 68% 32% 84% 68% 20% 12% Fifth experiment North side olive-green and greenish yellow colorless, dark spots in some cells green with yellow gran- ules very faded » colorless pale sickly green green with yellow gran- ules very faded olive green bright orange colorless green grass-green a few yellow- green green and pale green grass-green and dark green very pale green normal green South side green and faded blue-green bright green sickly green disintegrated green with yellow granules green green lumps with yellow granules green lumps 76% bright green 24% colorless green green, a few discolored green with yellow granules 18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 studying these tables, it should be borne in mind that the fourth ex- periment was in progress for a period of 45 days, whereas the fifth experiment was of 16 days’ duration. The difference in time probably accounts for the greater number of colorless cells and cells in which carotin had begun to appear in the fourth experiment. It should be noted that cultures growing in light where the wave lengths were cut off at 3700, 4000, 4500, 4600, 4800, and 5000 A were in especially good condition. The cultures that showed the most disintegration of the chloroplasts were those where the light was cut off at 5200 A in the fourth experi- ment, 5600, 5800, and 5900 A, with the exception of one culture in the fifth experiment, and 6000 A. GROWTH AS INDICATED BY MULTIPLICATION OF CELLS The results show that cell multiplication ranging from twofold to fourfold occurred in all the complex beams of radiation. The third intensity experiment indicated that within the limits of intensity here employed multiplication is proportional to the intensity of illumination. If it be assumed that this law holds for each of the complex beams employed, means are found for separating the propagating influences of different wave lengths. For if in the energy curves of two com- plexes whose included areas are equal a part P is common, then if Q be the total area of either curve and M the growth ratio due to the complex of longer wave lengths, Cree M would be the growth Q ratio due to the part of the long-wave complex remaining in the shorter-wave complex. If N be the observed growth ratio of the shorter-wave complex, NV — aa M will be the growth ratio due to the shorter wave lengths not found in the longer-wave complex. Working on this plan, growth ratios have been computed for many narrow ranges of wave lengths, and by inspection of the overlapped energy curves, approximate values of their effective wave lengths have been estimated. (See tables 4-9.) In this way it is found that a wide red and tmfrared complex of wave lengths from 0.6 to I.4 microns is moderately effective in pro- moting multiplication of algae. It is impossible to know from these experiments which of its wave lengths are the most effective. The NO. 6 EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON ALGAE—MEIER 19g other ranges of wave lengths show different results. Some appear to inhibit multiplication, while others seem greatly to enhance it. Inasmuch as the results depend on difference computations as be- tween determinations themselves of considerable probable error, these estimates of the effectiveness of different narrow ranges of wave lengths to promote algal multiplication are very uncertain, but are given for what they may be worth. Growth experiments made with definite narrow ranges of wave lengths by the aid of Christiansen filters should give more conclusive results. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS Multiplication of the unicellular green alga, Stichococcus bacillaris Naegeli, is proportional to the intensity of illumination ranging from 3.76 to 34.1 microwatts/mm ”. A higher intensity than 34.1 micro- watts/mm ° such as 102.0 microwatts/mm ? checks the growth of this alga. Complex beams of radiation from 11 short wave length cut-off filters were used to transmit progressively shorter and shorter wave lengths from one transmitting only deep red, 6000 A, to the other extreme, 3700 A, where most of the visible region is included. Chlorophyll was formed under all the filters, but in best condition when the wave lengths of the blue-violet region were included. A multiplication of algae ranging from twofold to fourfold was obtained in the cultures. By computing growth ratios for many nar- row ranges of wave lengths and by estimating approximate values under the energy curves of the effective wave lengths it is found that a wide red and infrared complex of waves from 0.6 to 1.4 microns is moderately effective for the multiplication of the algal cells. Some ranges of wave lengths appear to inhibit cell multiplication and chlorophyll formation. Some appear to favor them. Only by means of experimentation with isolated narrow ranges of light can the effectiveness of. all the wave lengths be determined. A similar experiment with Christiansen filters instead of the glass ones is now in progress and should give more conclusive results. 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Ueber die Entwicklung grtinen Algen unter Ausschluss der Beding- ungen der Kohlensaure-Assimilation. Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, PP. 39-47. ArtHuR, JoHN M., GUTHRIE, JOHN D., AND NEWELL, JoHN M. 1930. Some effects of artificial climates on the growth and chemical com- position of plants. Amer. Journ. Bot., vol. 17, pp. 416-482. DANGEARD, A. 1912. La determination des rayons actifs dans la synthese .chlorophylliene. Le Botaniste, vol. 12, pp. 22-26. EMERSON, ROBERT 1929. Relation between maximum rate of photosynthesis and concentration of chlorophyll. Journ. Gen. Phys., vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 609-622. FLAMMARION, VON CAMILLE 1897. Ueber die Wirkung der verschiedenen Strahlen des Sonnenspektrums auf die Vegetation. Biedermanns Central-Blatt, vol. 26, pp. 171- 173. Jounston, Earu S., AND Dorr, W. H. 1929. The influence of boron on the chemical composition and growth of the tomato plant. Plant Phys., vol. 4, pp. 31-62. 1932. The functions of radiation in the physiology of plants. II. Some effects of near infra-red radiation on plants. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 87, no. 14, pp. 1-15. KLEBS, GEORG. 1916. Zur Entwickelungs-Physiologie der Farnprothallien. Sitz. Heidel- berger Akad. Wiss., Math.-nat. 4 Abh., pp. 1-82. 1917. Zur Entwickelungs-Physiologie der Farnprothallien, Zweiter Teil. Sitz. Heidelberger Akad. Wiss., Math.-nat. 3 Abh., pp. 1-138. KostycHey, S. 1931. Kostychev’s chemical plant physiology. Translated by Charles J. Lyon. Pp. 55-60. Philadelphia, P. Blakiston’s Sons & Co., Inc. Meter, FLorENCE FE. 1929. Recherches expérimentales sur la formation de la carotine chez les Algues vertes unicellulaires et sur la production de la gelée chez un Stichococcus (S. mesenteroides). Bull. Soc. Bot. Genéve, vol. 21 (1), pp. 161-107. Napson, G. A. roto. Uber den Einfluss des farbigen Lichtes auf die Entwickelung des Stichococcus bacillaris Nag. in Reinkulturen. Bull. Jardin Imp. Bot. St.-Pétersbourg, Tome 10, pp. 137-150. PFEFFER, W. 1871. Die Wirkung farbigen Lichtes auf die Zersetzung der Kohlensaure in Pflanzen. Arb. Bot. Inst. Wiirzburg, Band 1, pp. 1-76. No. 6 EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON ALGAE—MEIER tN N Popp, HENRY WILLIAM 1926. A physiological study of the effect of light of various ranges of wave length on the growth of plants. Amer. Journ. Bot., vol. 13, pp. 706- 736. SACHS, JULIUS 1894. Wirkungen farbigen Lichts auf Pflanzen. Bot. Zeit., vol. 22, pp. 301-372. SAYRE, J. D. 1928. The development of chlorophyll in seedlings in different ranges of wave lengths of light. Plant Phys., vol. 3, pp. 71-77. ScHANZ, F. 1919. Wirkungen des Lichts verschiedener Wellenlange auf die Pflanzen. 3er. Deutschen bot. Ges., Band 37, pp. 430-442. STROHMER, FRIEDR. UND StiFt, A. 1905. Uber den Einfluss der Lichtfarbe auf das Wachstum der Zuckerribe. Biedermanns Central-Blatt, vol. 34, pp. 229-233. TEODORESCO, E. C. 1899. Influence des diverses radiations lumineuses sur la forme et la struc- ture des plantes. Ann. Sci. Nat. Sér. Bot., 8¢ série, tome 10, pp. 141-262. 1929. Observations sur la croissance des plantes aux lumieres de diverses longueurs d’onde. Ann, Sci. Nat. Sér. Bot., tome 11, pp. 201-336. THELEN, Orro 1910. Nattirliches kiinstliches und monochromatisches Licht in seiner Be- deutung ftir Entwickelung und die Stoffproduktion einiger Kul- turpflanzen. Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktor- wurde der hohen philosophischen. Fakultat der Universitat Rostock. pp. 1-59. WEBER, RUDOLF 1875. Ueber den Einfluss farbigen Lichtes auf die Assimilation und die damit zusammenhangende Vermehrung der Aschenbestandtheile in Erbsen-Keimlingen. Die landwirthschaftlichen Versuchs-Stationen, Band 18, pp. 18-48. WIESNER, JULIUS 1874. Untersuchungen tiber die Beziehungen des Lichtes zum Chlorophyll. Sitz. Math. nat. K. K. Akad. Wiss., Band 69, Abtheilung 1, pp. 327-385. Yor, JoHN H. 1929. Photometric chemical analysis, vol. 2, pp. 1-66. New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ZACHAREWICZ, Ep. 1895. Ueber den Einfluss der farbigen Lichtstrahlen auf die Kultur der Erdbeere. Biedermanns Central-Blatt, vol. 24, p. 405. , iid ul et i's, / Hig hy Bt Ln Mapa Gal, ae ’ SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92; NO.'6, PE. 4 1. WATER BATHS IN WHICH THE FLASKS OF ALGAE ARE IMMERSED Each flask of algae is enclosed in a container with a light filter on the bottom. Conditions of light, temperature, and humidity are controlled alike in all four baths. 2. NEPHELOMETER EMPLOYED FOR QUANTITATIVE TRANSMISSION MEASUREMENTS TO DETERMINE THE COMPARATIVE AMOUNTS OF GROWTH OF ALGAE SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLES 9'25) NON 16, RE se2 A PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF A TYPICAL DROP FROM A DETMER }3 CULTURE OF STICHOCOCCUS BACILLARIS NAEGELI THAT HAS BEEN GROWING IN A NORTH WINDOW FOR ONE MONTH. X 250 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOET 92, NOS 6, PE 3 1. FLASK IN WHICH THE CULTURE MEDIUM FOR ALL THE CULTURES WAS STERILIZED AND INOCULATED The sterilized pipette was adjusted to the large container immediately before the culture was poured into the small Erlenmeyer flasks. 2. TWO CULTURE FLASKS READY TO BE INSERTED IN THE METAL CONTAINERS, EACH OF WHICH HAS A DIFFERENT COLOR FILTER ON THE BOTTOM i ' if Mh / 2 a = - ] hi . oe a =H =a f wr \ Or Hi | SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 92, NUMBER 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS FROM THE WEST INDIES MADE BY DR. PAUL BARTSCH UNDER THE WALTER RATHBONE BACON SCHOLARSHIP, 1928-19380 BY DORIS M. GOCHRAN Assistant Curator, Division of Reptiles and Batrachians, .S. National Museum (PUBLICATION 3259) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION OCTOBER 15, 1934 The Lord GWaltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. & a. Mowe hE nOLOGICAL’COLEECTIONS FROM THE: WEST INDIES MADE BY DR, PAUMBART SCE UNDER THE WALTER RATHBONE BACON SCHOLARSHIP, 1928- 1930 By DORIS M. COCHRAN Assistant Curator, Division of Reptiles and Batrachians, U.S. National Museum During 3 successive years, from 1928 to 1930, the Walter Rath- bone Bacon Scholarship of the Smithsonian Institution was awarded to Dr. Paul Bartsch, of the United States National Museum, primarily for the extension of his studies of West Indian mollusks. In addition to obtaining vast series of mollusks, he was able to make valuable collections in many vertebrate groups, the lizards being of especial interest scientifically, as diagnoses of five new species and subspecies from his collection have already been published, and three other new species are being described in the present report. In the first excursion Cuba was thoroughly worked for mollusks, and in addition nearly 100 amphibians and reptiles were obtained. On the second trip, in 1929, the party touched at Cuba and Puerto Rico, then continued eastward to the Virgin Islands and down the chain of the Lesser Antilles to Margarita and Orchilla and the Dutch Leeward Islands just north of Venezuela. Over 400 amphibians and reptiles were collected, many of them considerably extending the ranges of known species. The last expedition, in 1930, yielded nearly 600 speci- mens taken in the Bahamas, Cuba, and the Cayman Islands. Seven of the eight forms new to science came from this collection of 1930. Class AMPHIBIA Order SALIENTIA Suborder Lincuata Family HYLIDAE HYLA SEPTENTRIONALIS Boulenger Hyla septentrionalis Boulenger, Cat. Batr. Sal., p. 368, 1882. The only species of amphibian taken in the Bahamas by Dr. Bartsch is Hyla septentrionalis. It is exceedingly common in Acklins Island, SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 92, No. 7 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 79 specimens, now U.S.N.M. nos. 81570-648, having been taken on Pinnacle Hill on July 9, 1930, and two others, nos. 81650-1 from Indian Wells on the same date. From Crooked Island we have two examples, no. 81490 from Land Rail Point, July 14, 1930, and no. 81491 from Pitch Point on the same date. Pinnacle Point, Acklins Island—While hunting for mollusks among the huge bromeliads I discovered a small frog. With careful searching of many plants we secured about 50 frogs of this species tucked away in the moist appressed basal portion of the leaves .... Our next stop was at Pinnacle Hill, where we made a careful search through the brush but found only a few specimens of a little brown Cerion,.... also two frogs. Several examples were obtained in Cuba, as follows: U.S.N.M. nos. 75751-2 from one-half mile south of La Guira Mansion, near San Diego de los Bafios, Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba, June 16, 1928; nos. 75791-2 from Bafios San Vicente, Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba, June 26-27, 1928; nos. 75817-24 from one-fourth mile northwest of Vega Alta, Santa Clara Province, Cuba, August 12, 1928; no. 75841 from Jumagua Hills, west of Sagua La Grande, Santa Clara Province, Cuba, August I, 1928. Jumagua Hills. At station 2 we caught a huge tree toad nestling in a cavity in a small tree which he completely filled and which he rendered flush, matching beautifully the color scheme. Family BUFONIDAE BUFO EMPUSUS (Cope) Peltaphryne empusa Cope, Proc. Acad. Sci. Philadelphia, 1862, p. 344. U.S.N.M. no. 75864 from Remedio, Santa Clara Province, Cuba, August 11, 1928. BUFO MARINUS (Linnaeus) Rana marina Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, vol. 1, p. 211, 1758. U.S.N.M. nos. 78995-7 from Monserrat, July 28, 1929 ; nos. 79032-7 from Grand Terre, Guadeloupe, on July 30-31, 1929; nos. 79198-202 from Mineral Springs, northeast Grenada, August 27, 1929. Family LEPTODACTYLIDAE ELEUTHERODACTYLUS JOHNSTONEI Barbour Eleutherodactylus johnstonei Barbour, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 44, no. 2, p. 249, 1914. U.S.N.M. no. 79192 from the Annandale Estate, Grenada, August NOS 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN 3 ELEUTHERODACTYLUS LOCUSTUS Schmidt Eleutherodactylus locustus Schmidt, Ann. New York Acad. Sci., vol. 28, p. 174, 1920. U.S.N.M. no. 78925 from El Yunque, Puerto Rico, June 27, 1929, I assign with some hesitation to the above species, the type of which I have not seen. The specimen in hand agrees with Schmidt’s descrip- tion except for the tympanum, which in the type is said to be “ scarcely distinct, one-fourth the diameter of the eye’’, while in the present specimen it is quite distinct and is over one-third the eye diameter. My specimen measures 21 mm from snout to vent. It is dark brown, with only faint traces of the dark interorbital band and some dark rhombic markings on the labial regions. ELEUTHERODACTYLUS PORTORICENSIS Schmidt Eleutherodactylus portoricensis Schmidt, Amer. Mus. Novit., no. 279, p. 2, 10927. U.S.N.M. nos. 78923-4, an adult female with a number of hatching eggs taken at EK] Yunque, Puerto Rico, June 27, 1929: .... The strangest find was a frog—treetoad—with a mass of eggs in a rolled-up palm leaf, which she seemed to guard. The eggs were on the point of hatching and began at once, on being exposed, to vibrate, and yielded their young, which turned out to be not tadpoles but small jumping frogs. I gathered a number of these, as well as the parent. This observation as to the egg mass being guarded by the female has been made by two collectors—by Gundlach (Peters, Monatsb. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1876(1877), p. 709) and by Bello y Espinosa (Martens, Zool. Garten, vol. 12, p. 351, 1871 )—and the dates on which they found the developing eggs, May 24 and July 8, are borne out by the date of the present find, June 27. LEPTODACTYLUS VALIDUS Garman Leptodactylus validus Garman, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 10, p. 14, 1887. U.S.N.M. nos. 79068-75 from Brighton, St. Vincent, August 14, 1929 ; nos. 79076-7 from Mount St. Andrews, St. Vincent, August 15, 1920. Family BRACHYCEPHALIDAE PHYLLOBATES TRINITATIS Garman Phyllobates trinitatis Garman, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 19, p. 13, 1887. U.S.N.M. nos. 79203-4, a half-grown specimen and tadpoles from the summit of a road leading north from Arima, Trinidad, Septem- ber 1, 1929. 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 Class REPU MEA Subclass DIAPSIDA Order SQUAMATA Suborder Sauria Family GEKKONIDAE GYMNODACTYLUS ANTILLENSIS Lidth de Jeude Gymnodactylus antillensis Lidth de Jeude, Notes Leyden Mus., vol. 9, p. 129, 1887. U.S.N.M. no. 79225 from Bonaire Island, September 12, 1929; no. 79231 from Orchilla Island, September 10, 1929. The latter appears to be the first specimen of this species taken on Orchilla Island. GONATODES ALBOGULARIS (Duméril and Bibron) Gymnodactylus albogularis Duméril and Bibron, Erpét. Gén., vol. 3, p. 415, 1836. U.S.N.M. no. 79952, a very young and somewhat damaged specimen from Otra Banda, near Red Sark, Curacao, taken on September 17, 1929, shows a body pattern of four narrow white bands edged an- teriorly with deep brown. The back of the head bears a broad U- shaped light mark, edged anteriorly and on the sides with brown. A few white dots appear on the upper labials. PHYLLODACTYLUS PULCHER Gray Phyilodactylus pulcher Gray, Spic. Zool., p. 3, 1830. U.S.N.M. nos. 79256-7, two very young specimens from Bonaire Island, September 12, 1929; nos. 79315-6, two adults from Aruba Island, September 17, 1929. HEMIDACTYLUS MABOUIA (Moreau de Jonnés) Gecko mabouia Moreau de Jonnés, Bull. Soc. Philom., 1818, p. 138. U.S.N.M. no. 75843 from Havana, Cuba, July 18, 1928. THECADACTYLUS RAPICAUDUS (Houttuyn) Gekko rapicauda Houttuyn, Verhandl. Zeeuwsch. Genoot. Wet. Vlissingen, vol. 9, p. 323, 1782. U.S.N.M. no. 79132 from Carriacou Island, Grenadines, August 21, 1929. INO 9/7, HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN 5 ARISTELLIGER PRAESIGNIS (Hallowell) Hemidactylus praesignis Hallowell, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1856, peer Three geckos of this species were taken on Six Hill Cay off South Caicos on August 3, 1930, now U.S.N.M. nos. 81444-6. They do not differ essentially from the 16 Jamaican praesignis in the national collection. All the Caicos lizards have eight upper labials and seven lower labials. Their subdigital lamellae are really 20 to 21 in number, although only 13 to 16 of these are enlarged beyond the width of the surrounding granules. The largest specimen measures 72 mm from snout to beginning of tail; the tail itself has been partly reproduced, but now measures 86 mm. These lizards were found by turning over rocks. TARENTOLA CUBANA Gundlach and Peters Tarentola cubana Gundlach and Peters, Monatsb. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1864, p. 384. A young individual, U.S.N.M. no. 81721, was taken on Cachiboca Cay, Doce Leguas, Province of Camagiiey, Cuba, on September 8, 1930 and a larger specimen, no. 81826, came from Puerto Portillo in the Province of Oriente, Cuba, on August 29, 1930. SPHAERODACTYLUS ARGIVUS Garman Sphaerodactylus argivus Garman, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 20, p. 3, 1888. U.S.N.M. nos. 81754-5 from Cayman Brac, September II, 1930. SPHAERODACTYLUS BARTSCHI, n. sp. Diagnosis—Dorsals keeled, imbricate, no differentiated middorsal zone ; about nine dorsals in the standard distance between center of eye and tip of snout ; lateral grooves more or less apparent on the rostral ; faintly or distinctly spotted on the posterior part of body and on tail; sometimes a light dark-bordered stripe on each flank extending onto the tail; adult size rather small. Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 81759, an adult male from Little Cayman Island, taken September 12-13, 1930. Description of the type-——Snout moderately long but not very acutely pointed, its length two and one-half times the diameter of the eye ; eye slightly nearer ear than tip of snout ; rostral moderate, with a long median cleft behind, with merely a trace of lateral crescentic grooves ; nostril between rostral, first supralabial, two postnasals (the upper the smaller) and a large supranasal which is separated from its 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 fellow by a single small scale followed by another of about the same size ; superciliary spine moderate in size; three large supralabials to a point below the center of the eye; a very large anterior infralabial, a smaller second and part of a third infralabial to the same point ; top of head covered with granules which are relatively large, hexagonal, and very faintly keeled or smooth on the snout, more elongate and heavily keeled between the eyes, and much smaller but still distinctly keeled on the occiput ; scales of back keeled, imbricate, nine in the distance be- tween tip of snout and center of eye; no middorsal granular zone ; laterals irregular, only slightly larger than dorsals, about seven to seven and a half lateral scales in the standard distance ; mental a trifle longer than rostral, followed by two enlarged postmentals; scales of gular region small, slightly tubercular and indistinctly keeled only at the level of the commissure of the jaws, becoming smooth and imbri- cate on the throat ; scales of chest and belly smooth, rounded, imbricate, about seven ventral scales to the standard distance, not perfectly regular in size; scales of limbs anteriorly and below like those of the belly, much smaller and granular posteriorly; 14 smooth lamellae under the fourth toe; scales of tail (reproduced) above keeled, imbricating, below smooth, enlarged transversely into a series of wide, rather irregular plates. A triangular “escutcheon” of differentiated scales about five scales long by nine wide, which projects only for a distance of one or two scales on the femur. Dimensions.—Head and body, 25 mm; tail (reproduced), 21 mm; width of head, 5 mm; tip of snout to ear, 6.5 mm; foreleg, 7 mm; hind leg, 10 mm. Coloration in alcohol—Head drab, upper part of body mouse-gray, tail pale olive-buff ; numerous sepia spots one scale in width beginning between the shoulders, indistinct on the anterior half of the back but becoming very apparent on the tail. Lower parts pale olive-buff, with very minute dark punctulations on the belly and on the posterior edges of the transversely enlarged plates beneath the tail. Fore limbs very indistinctly, hind limbs rather distinctly spotted above. Paratypes—Five specimens, a female (U.S.N.M. no. 81758), three males (nos. 81757, 81760, 81761) and a very young one (no. 81756) were taken at the same place and time as the type. Variation.—In size of scales there is little variation, all of the adults having nine dorsals in the standard distance. The keels on the scales of the throat below the corner of the mouth are as distinct in two adults as they are in the type, but are less distinct in the other two examples. The crescentic grooves on the rostral are fairly well de- veloped in two specimens, but are scarcely apparent in the others. In NO. 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN Wi coloration, one male (no. 81760) most nearly resembles the type, although the spots are much less apparent. The other three specimens, including the female, have scarcely a trace of spotting, but there is a distinct dark-bordered light stripe on the flank beginning just anterior to the groin and continuing for some distance onto the tail. The very young specimen, unfortunately too mutilated to be of use in scale comparison, nevertheless shows these posterolateral light lines very plainly, as its body color tends toward sepia, instead of the pale drab or gray characteristic of the adults. Relationships——The new species agrees with argus and caicosensis in general in scalation as well as in having at least the traces of crescentic grooves on the rostral. It differs from caicosensis in having the throat scales entirely smooth, and from argus in having three instead of four supralabials to a point below the center of the eye, and from both these species in its much reduced pattern. It is in- teresting to note that the new species is not closely related to argivus, the only Sphaerodactyl heretofore known from the Cayman group, and which is apparently confined to Cayman Brac. SPHAERODACTYLUS CAICOSENSIS, n. sp. Diagnosis —Dorsals imbricate, very heavily keeled, about 11 to the standard distance between tip of snout and eye; no differentiated middorsal zone; lateral crescentic grooves on rostral more or less apparent; throat scales keeled, at least laterally; female with dark stripes on head ; body with dark irregular spots arranged transversely ; flanks and tail with a dark light-edged stripe. Coloration of male unknown. Type —vU.S.N.M. no. 81443, an adult female from South Caicos Island, Bahama Islands, July 29, 1930. Description of the type-——Snout moderately short and broad, its length twice the diameter of the eye; eye slightly nearer ear than tip of snout; rostral large, with a median groove behind, bordered by faintly indicated crescentic grooves; nostril between rostral, an en- larged supranasal, a pair of postnasals of which the upper is the smaller, and the first supralabial; supranasals separated from each other by a single small scale; superciliary spine rather small; three subequal supralabials to a point below the center of the eye; a very large first infralabial and a much smaller second and third infralabial to the same point ; top of head covered with keeled scales, larger and hexagonal on the snout, smaller and more elongate between the eyes, very small and nearly round on the occiput ; scales of back small, very 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 heavily keeled, imbricate, about 11 equalling the standard distance from snout to center of eye ; no middorsal differentiated zone ; laterals like the dorsals, 11 in the standard distance ; mental moderately large, followed by two enlarged postmentals; scales of gular region small, smooth, not imbricate anteriorly, but becoming imbricate and decidedly keeled on the throat; scales of chest and belly smooth, rounded, im- bricate, about 9 ventral scales to the standard distance, not perfectly regular in size; scales of limbs anteriorly and below like those of the belly, much smaller and granular posteriorly; 10 smooth lamellae under the fourth toe; scales of proximal part of tail above keeled, regular and obtusely pointed, on reproduced part smooth, irregular and rounded ; below on the proximal part with a larger median and two smaller bordering rows of enlarged hexagonal scales, on the reproduced part with a median series of transversely enlarged plates, rather irregularly arranged. Dimensions.—Head and body, 26 mm; tail (reproduced) 20 mm; width of head, 5 mm; tip of snout to ear, 7 mm; fore leg, 7 mm; hind leg, 9 mm. Coloration in alcohol—Female: body color above pinkish buff ; head with a lateral sepia stripe beginning at the nostril, passing through the eye, widening behind the eye and passing upward to meet its fellow in a pair of diamond-shaped spots on the occiput; a dark median stripe beginning on the rostral, narrowing between the eyes, widening again and ending in a diamond-shaped spot on the posterior part of the head ; traces of a dark stripe leading from the corner of the mouth onto the sides of the neck and then dorsally; back with numerous wide, dark, wavy crossbands which tend to break up posteriorly into very irregular transversely arranged spots; tail with a continuation of the posterior dorsal coloration ; a wide, dark, light-edged stripe beginning on the flanks just anterior to the groin and continued onto the tail where there are traces of a dark line bordering it below; ventral surfaces pale olive-gray, suffused with very minute gray punctulations which are especially numerous on the posterior part of the belly and beneath the legs and tail; upper surfaces of limbs with alternating light and dark crossbars. The coloration of the male is not known. Paratype-—A single paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 81447, also a female, was taken on Long Cay, off South Caicos, on the same day as the type. It is essentially the same in scalation, having 11 dorsals to the standard distance. Only the lateral scales of the throat of the paratype appear to be keeled ; the central ones are smooth, like the gulars which precede them. There are nine lamellae on the fourth toe. The color pattern on the head is very similar to that of the type; the body however, is NO. 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—-COCHRAN 9 much paler because of the great reduction in the size and intensity of the spots. The lateral stripe on the flanks and tail is quite prominent. Relationships —-This species falls in the key near to corticolus and argus. It differs from corticolus, however, in having the traces of crescentic grooves on the rostral, while its keeled throat scales serve to distinguish it from argus, as well as from bartschi, one of the other new forms described in this paper. SPHAERODACTYLUS CINEREUS Wagler Sphaerodactylus cinereus Wagler, Syst. Amph., p. 143, 1830. U.S.N.M. nos. 81722-5 from the Cayo east of Boca Juan Gria, Camagtiey Province, Cuba, September 8, 1930; nos. 81726-7 from Grande Cay, Doce Leguas, Camagtiey, Cuba, September 9, 1930. SPHAERODACTYLUS FESTUS Barbour Sphaerodactylus festus Barbour, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 28, p. 13, IQI5. A young individual, apparently a female, U.S.N.M. no. 79061 from Diamond Hill, South Martinique, taken August 9, 1929, shows a characteristic pattern of light chevron-shaped markings across the back. I shot 16 lizards, mostly tree-climbing, but I got a small dark fellow under the muck and rubbish, probably a young one..... Diamond Hill is a coni- cal eminence rising quite abruptly to an elevation of 1,568 feet. It is rough and rocky near the summit, and in spots carries still a bit of woods. Very little of living stuff was found but we did get a splendid lot of muck and rubbish adding many things to our catch of yesterday. SPHAERODACTYLUS MARIGUANAE, n. sp. Diagnosis.—Dorsals imbricate, elongate, keeled; no differentiated middorsal zone; scales of middorsal region very slightly smaller than those of flanks, about 13 middorsals and about 11 dorsolateral scales in the standard distance between tip of snout and center of eye ; supra- nasals large, normal, separated by one small scale; a more or less distinct crescentic groove on each side of median rostral groove ; ven- trals smooth; anterior gular scales faintly keeled ; head relatively short and broad, body heavily built, size relatively large. Sexual dichroma- tism scarcely evident; males usually rather faintly spotted above, females somewhat more heavily spotted, both sexes with a more or less distinct light-centered, dark-edged nuchal crescent and several chevron-shaped bars across the tail. IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 Type —U.S.N.M. no. 81381, an adult male from Booby Island, east of Mariguana Cay, Bahama Islands, taken July 21, 1930. Snout relatively short, its length only twice the diameter of the eye; eye slightly nearer ear than tip of snout; rostral large, with a median groove and a more or less distinct crescentic lateral groove ; nostril between rostral, one large supranasal, two postnasals and the first supralabial ; supranasals separated from each other by a single scale ; superciliary spine moderate in size ; three large supralabials to a point below the center of the eye, with a very small fourth one terminating the series; three infralabials to the same point, the first one very greatly enlarged, this series terminated likewise by a very small fourth scale ; top of snout covered with keeled polygonal scales which decrease considerably in size between the eyes and become almost granular on the occiput, about 25 in a straight line across the head just anterior to the superciliary spine ; scales of back small, keeled, imbricate, the mid- dorsals slightly smaller than those of flanks ; about 13 middorsals and about 11 dorsolaterals equalling the standard distance from tip of snout to center of eye ; no middorsal granular zone ; mental large, followed by two postmentals which are only slightly enlarged; scales of anterior gular region small, very faintly keeled, very slightly imbricate ; scales of chest and belly smooth, rounded, imbricate ; about 13 ventral scales to the standard distance, fairly regular in size; scales of limbs keeled above, smooth below, almost granular posteriorly ; 14 smooth lamellae under the fourth toe ; scales of tail above keeled, imbricating, below on the median line enlarged transversely into a series of irregular hex- agonal plates ; “‘ escutcheon ” of male prominent and wide, extending on the femur two-thirds of the distance to the knee, composed of thickened white scales in which traces of pigment appear only at the extreme posterior borders of those on the femur. Dimensions —Head and body, 38 mm; tail, 48 mm; width of head, 7 mim; tip of snout to ear, 9 mm; fore leg, 8.5 mm; hind leg, 11 mm. Coloration in alcohol—Upper parts fawn color with indistinct dorsal punctulations of sepia; a trace of a sepia-edged nuchal cres- centic marking ; tail with pronounced light chevrons edged with sepia, and with an interrupted lateral sepia stripe; top and side of head pale drab, immaculate; underparts pale olive-buff with very minute eray dots on the throat, and heavier dots below the thighs and on the edges of the enlarged plates beneath the tail; limbs immaculate, drab above, pale drab below. Paratypes—Seven specimens—three adult males (U.S.N.M. nos. 81379, 81380, and 81382), three females (nos. 81376-8) and a half- NOD 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN iE grown individual (no. 81383) were collected at the same time as the type. A field note follows: One of the interesting finds of the day was a small, very dark brown, finely spotted lizard, probably a Sphaerodactylus of which we obtained eight specimens by quick work in turning over rocks and grabbing them before they could again slip under cover. Variation—The head scalation is similar in all the specimens, except in no. 81378, in which both supranasals are abnormally divided longitudinally, so that there are five subequal scales bordering the rostral between the nostrils, instead of an enlarged pair separated ‘by a small scale, as in normal cases. The keels on the anterior gular region are faint but definite in all but one specimen, no. 81377; in this individual they are present on one or two transverse series of scales at the middle of the throat and must be looked for carefully even at that point. The crescentic grooves on the rostral plate are well marked in all the specimens but one (no. 81380). The number of dorsal scales in the standard distance varies between t1 and 13 depending on where the count is made; the middorsal scales are slightly smaller than those on the flanks, but not otherwise differentiated in any way. The ventral scales are likewise 11 to 13 in the standard distance, but are more irregular in size than the dorsals, so that different counts may be obtained by shifting a single scale-row in any direction. As to color variation it appears that little if any sexual dichroma- tism appears in this species. Except for the nuchal crescent, three of the males are almost devoid of pattern, but so is the largest fe- male. The fourth male has a definitely spotted and reticulated dorsum, intermediate between the remaining two females. The pattern is most highly developed in one of these females, no. 81377—there is a dark stripe beginning at the nostrils, passing through the eye and merging. with the crescentic nuchal marks, here greatly elabo- rated. An anastomosing pattern of sepia lines covers the top of the head, and this is broken up on the body into an irregular series of spots and bars, which becomes more definite on the tail, where the crossbars have acquired light centers. The nuchal marking on some of the other specimens is not a true crescent ; it may be represented by a pair of dark spots surrounded by an irregular indented parallelogram of dark lines. The dark stripe on the side of the head is apparent only in those specimens in which the pattern is well developed. Relationships—tIn the key this species falls near oxyrhinus and argivus, but differs from both of them in having the anterior gular scales faintly keeled, and even more radically in size and in color pattern. In fact, it cannot be said to be very close to any of the known species of the genus. I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 SPHAERODACTYLUS NOTATUS Baird Sphaerodactylus notatus Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1858, p. 254. A well-preserved male, U.S.N.M. no. 81270, from Mathewtown, Great Inagua, was collected on August 9, 1930. While Mathewtown is the type locality of the indigenous Sphaerodactylus inaguae Noble and Klingel, it is a port for West Indian shipping as well, and hence the occurrence of a form like notatus, known to be an inveterate traveler, is to be expected occasionally. , Another male, no. 81471, came from the cays adjacent to the South Channel cays of the Ragged Island group, collected on June 28, 1930. In Cuba the species is rather common, as the following list will show :—U.S.N.M. nos. 81764-5 from the cay west of Channel, Havana Province, Cuba, September 20, 1930; nos. 81767-74 from Cayo Avillon, near Canapachi, Havana Province, Cuba, September 21, 1930; no. 81775 from the balconies of Cayo Contelos, Havana Province, Cuba, on the same date. SPHAERODACTYLUS TORREI Barbour Sphaerodactylus torrei Barbour, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 44, p. 260, 1914. A banded female apparently referable to this species was collected at Rio Puerco in the Province of Oriente, Cuba, on August 29, 1930 (U.S.N.M. no. 81670). A pair (U.S.N.M. nos. 81822-3) from Boqueron, Cuba, August 19, 1930, shows very well the sexual dichromatism occurring in this species. Unlike most vertebrates, in which the male shows the brilliant and spectacular coloring if such coloring is to appear at all in the species, it is the female of Sphaerodactylus torre: which is charac- terized by the brilliantly contrasting crossbands of black and yellow or red, while the male is without any trace of any such crossbands when fully adult, having at most only a spotting of irregular brown dots. In the case of the Boqueron male, the dorsal surfaces are a uniform dull drab without punctulations of any kind. Another pair, U.S.N.M. nos. 81827-8, came from Puerto Portillo in Oriente Province, Cuba, August 29, 1930. In the female the char- acteristic pattern of bands appears as usual, but the male has a heavy spotting of coarse brown dots covering the entire dorsal surface from between the eyes to the beginning of the reproduced tail. Two mutilated females, U.S.N.M. nos. 78921-2, from Rio Yaleritas, Oriente Province, are referred to this species also. They both are heavily crossbanded. NOS 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—-COCHRAN 13 SPHAERODACTYLUS VINCENTI Boulenger Sphaerodactylus vincenti Boulenger, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1891, p. 354. A-male, U.S.N.M. no. 79067, from Brighton, St. Vincent, August 14, 1929, measures 22 mm from snout to vent. It has a very distinct escutcheon of differentiated scales on the posterior surface of the abdo- men. The epidermis covering this patch of differentiated scales in Sphaerodactyli is more opaque when drying than is the epidermis of the surrounding ventral parts. When the epidermis is removed, the differentiated scales appear coarser and thicker than do the ordinary ventral scales, and they are unpigmented and hence usually lighter in color than the other ventral scales. Family IGUANIDAE IGUANA IGUANA (Linnaeus) Lacerta iguana Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. ed. 10, vol. 1, p. 206, 1758. U.S.N.M. nos. 79211-6 from Los Robles, Margarita Island, Sep- tember 8, 1929; no. 79229 from Orchilla Island, September 10, 1929 ; nos. 79321-2 from Aruba Island, September 17, 1929. In these examples there is a range of 46 to 58 in the number of enlarged scales in the dorsal crest, and the femoral pores are between 13 and17. None of the individuals shows a tendency to have any of the median snout scales enlarged into the conical, soft tubercles which supposedly characterize the variety rhinolopha. The following color notes were made from living examples from Los Robles, Margarita Island, by Dr. Bartsch: Head most intense green with a dark brown, almost black, spot on the middle of the top, another below and a third behind the eye, typanum gray. Neck green gold and striped with dark brown. Body green gold, marbled with white and almost black spotted. Comb warm red on neck, tending gradually toward green on the back. Underside of belly pale green spotted with various shades of brown. Dewlap faintly rose, edged with green and dotted and dashed with dark brown. Sides of body with zigzag, oblique bands of green, brown and white in the order mentioned, from the back forward. Scales of front legs green and brown, greener inside, with a whitish, greenish band on the shoulder, edged by dark dorsally. Hind legs like the front, whitish below. Tail green with broad bands of brown, usually edged with whitish or light brown on the posterior part, the light area being on the outer parts of the bands. The posterior half of the tail has alternating broad bands of light and dark brown. DEIROPTYX BARTSCHI Cochran Deiroptyx bartschi Cochran, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 41, p. 169, Oct. 15, 1928. U.S.N.M. nos. 75797-806 from Bafios San Vicente, Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba, June 25, 1928; no. 75805 is the type of this species. I4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 ANOLIS ACUTUS Hallowell Anolis acutus Hallowell, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1856, p. 228. U.S.N.M. nos. 78929-39 from St. Croix, July 15, 1929. ANOLIS ALLIACEUS Cope Anolis alliaceus Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1864, p. 175. U.S.N.M. nos. 79004-21 from Danes, east of Portsmouth, Do- minica, August 4, 1929; nos. 79026-9 from East Cabrite Island, Dominica, taken on the same day. ANOLIS ANGUSTICEPS Hallowell Anolis augusticeps Hallowell, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1856, p. 228. U.S.N.M. no. 75816 from Sitio Perdido, Havana Province, Cuba, July 28, 1928. ANOLIS ARGENTEOLUS Cope Anolis (Gastrotropis) argenteolus Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1861, p. 213. U.S.N.M. no. 81679 from the mouth of the Magdalena River, Oriente Province, Cuba, August 29, 1930; no. 81825 from Puerto Portillo, Province of Oriente, on the same date. ANOLIS BIMACULATA Sparrman Anolis (Lacerta) bimaculata Sparrman, Nya Handl. Sy. Vet. Akad. Stockholm, vol. 5, p. 169, 1874. U.S.N.M. nos. 78981-7 from Mount Nevis, Nevis, July 27, 1929; nos. 78988-94 from St. Eustacius, July 25, 1929. Regarding the living coloration of this lizard on St. Eustacius the following color note has been drawn up from Dr. Bartsch’s description: The top of the head in front of the eyes is peacock-blue, the larger scales with a pinkish flush that becomes intensified behind the eyes and on the temporal region. The pineal eye is gray brown. The side of the head anterior to the eyes is peacock-blue. The area about the eyes is intense, bril- liant green. The top of the nape is blue with a pinkish flush. The main dorsal part of the body is yellowish green from the nape to the tail. This color extends from the base of the tail over the fore and hind legs, but these have a yellowish pink superimposed, which gradually fades into yellow-green on the belly. On the throat, and from there to the fore leg, are irregularly distributed spots of orange, the posterior portion being uniform in color. The inside of the legs corresponds in NO. 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—-COCHRAN nS color with the belly. The posterior half of the upper side and the outside of the hind legs are marked with obscure spots of blue. An inch behind the base of the tail the same peacock-blue seen on the forehead reappears, slowly grading from the general dorsal color. The last 2 inches of the tail is pale brown. Here spots and splashes of dark brown, blue, and various shades of rose are irregularly scattered about. The median under part of the tail is a little paler than the ground color of the rest, and free from spots on the outer half, the posterior inch of the coarse, scaled portion being brown. It may be noted here that the seven St. Eustacius lizards have a dark brown spot just above the white shoulder stripe. This is lacking in the 7 lizards from Nevis, but is slightly apparent in 12 from St. Kitts, according to the alcoholic specimens that I have examined. Color differences between the Nevis and St. Eustacius lizards were observed by Dr. Bartsch in the living animals, for in his field notes written after his excursion to Mount Nevis on July 27, he writes: “ ie on the return I shot . . . a bunch of lizards—two kinds. The blue- green one is not so beautiful here as on St. Eustacius. I got one with two tails”. ANOLIS BONAIRENSIS Ruthven Anolis bonairensis Ruthven, Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, no. 143, p. 4, July 9, 1923. U.S.N.M. nos. 79258-70 from Bonaire Island, September 12-13, 1934. The gular fan of no. 79267 was primrose-yellow after having been preserved for 2 months. ANOLIS BRUNNEUS (Cope) Anolis principalis brunneus Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1864, p. 432. Some scattered examples of this much disputed species were taken at the following places: U.S.N.M. nos. 81449-50 from Flamingo Cays of the Ragged Island Group on June 25, 1930; no. 81561 from Castle Island, south of Acklins Island, on July 8, 1930; no. 81649 from Pinnacle Hill, Acklins Island, on July 9, 1930; nos. 81525-27 from Cay Sal on June 17, 1930; nos. 81558-9 from Cotton Cay of the Cay Sal Group on June 23, 1930. The lizards from the Cay Sal group have distinctly larger dorsal granules than do the others listed above. In other respects they seem to be very similar. An examination of the type of Anolis brunneus, or, lacking that, the careful study of topotypic material from Crooked Island must be made before a positive statement regarding the actual status of the species can be issued. 16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 ANOLIS CONSPERSUS Garman Anolis conspersus Garman, Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., vol. 24, p. 273, 1887. A good series, U.S.N.M. nos. 81732-41, was secured on Grand Cay- man, September 15-16, 1930. ANOLIS CRISTATELLUS Duméril and Bibron Anolis cristatellus Duméril and Bibron, Erpét. Gén., vol. 4, p. 143, 1837. U.S.N.M. nos. 78926-7 from Bordeaux Hill, St. John’s, July 13, 1929, elevation 1,277 ft.; nos. 78940-8 from Bellevue Hill, Road Harbor, Tortola, July 17, 1929; nos. 78949-56 from Virgin Gorda, July 19, 1929. ANOLIS EQUESTRIS Merrem Anolis equestris Merrem, Syst. Amph., p. 45, 1820. U.S.N.M. nos. 75811-5 from San Diego de los Bafios, Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba, June, 1928. ANOLIS GENTILIS Garman Anolis gentilis Garman, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 10, p. 35, 1888. U.S.N.M. nos. 79094-6 from Quatres Island, Grenadines, August 17, 1929; nos. 79106-7 from Mustique Island, Grenadines, same date ; no. 79108 from Petit Nevis, same date; nos. 79109-10 from Petit Mustique, August 18, 1929; nos. 79113-7 from Baliceaux Island, August 18, 1929; nos. 79118-30 from Petit Martinique, August 21, 1929; nos. 79133-4 from Carriacou Island, same date; nos. 79150-1 from Frigate Island, August 22, 1929; nos. 79152-8 from Ronde Island, August 22, 1929; nos. 79159-60 from Caille Island, August 24, 1929; nos. 79162-5 from Diamond Island, August 23, 1929; no. 79196 from Mineral Springs, northeast Grenada, August 27, 1929. A careful comparison of all these specimens with one of Garman’s cotypes from Petit Martinique does not reveal any characters on which a different species could be based, and lizards from rather widely separated islands, such as Ronde and Mustique, appear to be identical in scalation. ANOLIS GINGIVINUS Cope Anolis gingivinus Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1864, p. 170. U.S.N.M. nos. 78958-73 from St. Martin, July 22, 1929; nos. 78978-80 from St. Bartholomew, July 25, 1929. ISKO, V/ HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN W7, ANOLIS HOMOLECHIS Boulenger Anolis homolechis Boulenger, Cat. Lizards Brit. Mus., vol. 2, p. 28, 1885. U.S.N.M. nos. 75766-70 from one-fourth mile south of La Guira Mansion near San Diego de los Bafios, Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba, June 16, 1928; nos. 75794-5 from Bafios San Vicente, Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba, June 25, 1928; no. 81655 from the north side of Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, August 14, 1930; nos. 81660-4 from Cusco Valley, Province of Guantanamo, Cuba, August 16, 1930; nos. 81675-7 from Rio Puerco, Province of Oriente, Cuba, August 29, 1930; no. 81686 from Cabo Cruz, Province of Oriente, Cuba, August 31, 1920; nos. 81817-20 from Boqueron, Oriente Province, Cuba, August 19, 1930. ANOLIS LEACHII Duméril and Bibron Anolis leachit Duméril and Bibron, Erpét. Gén., vol. 4, p. 153, 1837. U.S.N.M. nos. 79030-1 from Grande Terre, Guadeloupe, July 30- 31, 1929. This species differs noticeably from its relative A. bimaculata in having coarse scales on the occipital and temporal regions and coarser granules on the body. The weak ventral keels often seen in half grown examples of A. leachii are not found at any age in A. bimaculata. ANOLIS LEUCOPHAEUS LEUCOPHAEUS (Garman) Anolis leucophaeus Garman, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 20, p. 109, 1888. Between August 7 and 9, 1930, an excellent series of lizards of this species was collected on Great Inagua Island; U.S.N.M. nos. 81246-9 from a small islet in the center of Ocean Bight Bay, no. 81250 from Man of War Bay, nos. 81251-6 from Carmichael Point, nos. 81257-68 ‘from Northwest Point, and no. 81269 from the vicinity of Mathew- town. The ground color of the entire ventral surface of no. 81251 is canary-yellow, most intense on the hind legs and beginning of the tail, lightest on the chin. The skin of the gular fan is grayish wax-yellow, the scales on it being canary-yellow. The top of the head is lavender- gray, and the dorsal region is olive-buff, but the canary-yellow tone is found intermingled with the gray, especially on the limbs and tail, which are yellow above. The numerous black dots and splotches which are present all over the body excepting on the chin and on the lumbar region make a vivid and beautiful contrast to the soft yellowish tones of the ground color. The variation in pattern is great, however, and led Cope to give two names, cinnamoneus and moorei, to this Great Inagua lizard. There are sometimes pale brown stripes in the younger 18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 specimens, interspersed with a darker hue, the whole being overlaid with a fine dark reticulation. The underparts are olive-drab, and there are several longitudinal series of dark dots beginning on the labials and chin, and leading backwards to the sides of the neck. The number of subdigital lamellae on the third and fourth phalanges of the fourth toe vary from 19 to 25 in number. The supraorbitals are always in contact. The supraocular plates may be large or small, keeled or smooth. When large there are five or six. When small there may be as many as 11, of which 2 or 3 are conspicuously greater than the rest. The largest male, no. 81269, is 70 mm in length from snout to begin- ning of tail. One example of Anolis leucophaeus Garman, now U.S.N.M. no. 81245, was collected on August 5, 1930, on Little Inagua Island. It is a half-grown male and cannot be distinguished from those on the larger neighboring island. ANOLIS LEUCOPHAEUS ALBIPALPEBRALIS (Barbour) Anolis albipalpebralis Barbour, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 29, p. 215, 1916. From the Turks Island Group on July 31 and August I, 1930, came a series of lizards, belonging to a species which Dr. Thomas Barbour described as Anolis albipalpebralis in 1916, but which he recently synonymized with leucophaeus,—U.S.N.M. no. 81285-9 from Long Cay ; nos. 81290-8 (topotypes) from Grand Turks Island ; nos. 81299- 301 from Salt Cay; and no. 81302 from Cotton Cay of the Salt Cay group. None of the adults are as heavily spotted with black as are the adults from Great Inagua. The largest male, no. 81285, measures 74 mm from snout to beginning of tail. The skin and scales of the dewlap are olive-yellow posteriorly, becoming olive-gray anteriorly, where a small patch of the fan scales on either side is heavily dotted with slate color. The center of the throat and the malar region are ochraceous buff. The remainder of the ventral surface is olive-buff. The top of the head is light clay color and the upper surface of back, limbs, and tail are drab-gray, with a few indistinct sepia vermiculations on the nuchal region and behind the axilla. Some of the young and half-grown lizards show a distinct longitudinal striping of the back, consisting of a pale middorsal area and a double line of sepia on each side. Some show a light lateral stripe, which puts an abrupt termination to the clay color characteristic of the upper surfaces of the young lizards. Sometimes there are widely spaced square sepia spots down this middorsal light area, about six of them between occiput and tail, a suggestion of which we sometimes find in the young leucophacus from Great Inagua. iN Ota/, HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN 19 The same subspecies appears again in the Caicos group, where the following localities are represented by lizards obtained from July 24 to August 4, 1930: U.S.N.M. nos. 81413-4 from French Cay; nos. 81415-28 from South Caicos; no. 81429 from Fort George Cay ; nos. 81430-1 from Step Guano Cave on Cape Comete on East Caicos; no. 81432 from Pine Cay ; 81433-7 from West Caicos ; and nos. 81438-42 from Lorimer Creek on Grand Caicos. The largest male, no. 81419, measures 63 mm from snout to beginning of tail. The coloration of these Caicos lizards agrees with that of the neighboring Turks Island form, both being much paler than many of the Mariguana lizards, and much less spotted than the typical Inaguan form. ANOLIS LEUCOPHAEUS MARIGUANAE Cochran Anolis leucophaeus mariguanae Cochran, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci., vol. 21, no. 3, p. 40, Feb. 4, 1931. Diagnosis —Similar in form to Anolis leucophaeus leucophaeus (Garman), but differing from it in coloration. Ground color drab- gray above, lavender-gray beneath, often with a wide clove-brown lateral band which originates on the loreal region, passes through the eye and above the ear, and widens above the shoulder, continuing onto the base of the tail and gradually fading out; a light area usually bounding its lower border; a second dark lateral stripe beginning on the malar region just behind the mental, continuing back beneath the ear and merging in front of the shoulder with the upper lateral stripe in some cases, in other cases widening and suffusing the entire side of the throat and upper arm region with a dusky mottling; skin of gular fan lavender-gray, the scales white or olive-yellow. The young have dark latero-ventral reticulations, and the throat usually has a series of dark longitudinal lines. In adult males the tail fin is large and its upper edge is indistinctly mottled with dark in the region of the rays. Limbs sometimes unmarked, sometimes with wide, irregular dark bars. Scales on limbs a little smaller than in Jeucophacus proper ; scales of tail a little larger. Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 81346, an adult male from Mariguana Cay, July 18, 1930. Description of the type-——Top of head with two curving frontal ridges which enclose a shallow median depression; head scales very unequal in size, the small ones flat, the larger ones with a very in- distinct ridge or keel; rostral low, much narrower than the mentals ; four scales in a series between the nostrils; a median row of four or five transversely elongate scales on the prefrontal region, the 2 “ 20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. Q2 last of which is in contact with the first scale of the supraorbital semi- circle ; supraocular disks composed of seven enlarged scales, the inner ones either in contact with the scales of the supraorbital semicircles or separated from them by an incomplete series of granular scales ; supraorbital semicircles broadly in contact with each other, separated from the occipital by two very irregular series of scales; occipital a little smaller than the ear-opening ; the scales of the occipital region considerably larger than the dorsals; canthus rostralis sharp, consist- ing of four elongated scales, the anterior small; superciliary ridge consisting of one long anterior scale followed by a double series of very small scales ; three or four rows of granules separating the super- ciliaries from the supraocular disk; two medium-sized scales on the inner border of the elongate superciliary and just in front of the granules; loreal rows four, the scales keeled; subocular semicircles keeled, broadly in contact with the supralabials ; supralabials eight or nine, the suture between the sixth and seventh being under the center of the eye; seven infralabials ; temporals granular, with a bare indi- cation of a supratemporal line ; dorsals granular, keeled, with a median double series of slightly larger ones; ventrals imbricate, small pos- teriorly and with a very faint indication of a keel, larger anteriorly and with a somewhat more pronounced keel especially on the chest scales ; those on the throat very small, rounded and elongate ; fore legs above covered with sharply keeled scales, those on the upper arm as large as the posterior ventrals, those on the lower arm a little larger than the anterior ventrals; anterior face of femur and underside of tibia similarly covered, the scales of the former gradually decreasing on the underside, the upper side of both being covered with granules like those on the back; scales on fingers and toes sharply carinate ; digital expansion moderate, about 22 lamellae on the second and third phalanges of the fourth toe; tail long, compressed, the proximal halt with a high fin supported by about 14 bony rays; caudal verticils distinctly indicated by a vertical series of scales a little wider than those surrounding them and with straighter posterior margins, those between being pointed and narrower, in about seven irregular series, all imbri- cate and keeled ; the scales covering the upper edge of the tail raised and slightly spinous, forming a serrated ridge, about five spines cor- responding to each verticil in the basal portion; dewlap large, with distant series of scales, the anterior edge thickened; postanal scales well developed ; a distinct nuchal and dorsal skin fold. Dimensions.—Snout to beginning of tail, 54 mm; tail, 103 mm; snout to posterior border of ear, 18 mm; width of head, 11 mm; fore leg, 25 mm; hind leg, 48 mm. NON 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—-COCHRAN 21 Color (in alcohol) —Drab-gray above, lighter beneath; traces of a clove-brown lateral stripe beginning on the loreal region, continuing behind the eye over the ear to the shoulder region where it intensifies in hue, then widening and gradually fading out posteriorly ; a second clove-brown stripe beginning on the malar region, continuing back- ward below the ear, and joining the upper stripe in front of the shoulder; upper parts of limbs and base of tail irregularly mottled with large clove-brown blotches ; skin of gular fan lavender-gray, the scales white with a very fine powdering of minute black dots. Eyelid white, the inner edge dark clove-brown. Paratypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 81344-5 and 81347-50 from Mariguana Cay collected on July 18, 1930; nos. 81351-72 from Betsy Bay, Mariguana Cay, July 18-20, 1930; nos. 81373-5 from Booby Island, east of Mariguana Cay, July 21, 1930. Variations —Like its near relative Anolis leucophacus leucophaeus from Inagua, and its more distant relative A. cristatellus from Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, the new subspecies is subject to consider- able variation in the minor details of the head-plate arrangement, as well as in coloration. There may be only four scales between the nostrils, or twice that number. The supraocular disk may be in contact with the supraorbital semicircles, or separated by one or two rows of granules. The occipital may be set off from the supraorbital semi- circles by two to four very irregular scales. The median transversely enlarged scales on the snout are often subdivided and scarcely enlarged, and may or may not touch the anterior supraorbitals. The color pattern is often much more distinct than it is in the type, especially in half-grown specimens. On the other hand, it may be obscured by a highly melanistic condition, in which the whole upper surface is suffused with blackish brown, extending even onto the ventral regions. Very rarely the whole body is pale drab. Relationships——The subspecies from Mariguana Island is more closely related to leucophacus albipalpebralis than to the typical Inaguan leucophaeus, since the first two forms are without the leopard spots so characteristic of the last-named. The two previously described forms seem to attain a larger size than the new subspecies, the largest individual of which is only 65 mm long from snout to vent, out of 33 examples. Several of the Inaguan and Turks Island lizards measure at least 70 mm, and appear to be heavier in structure, although the difference here is scarcely measur- able. The Turks Island form is very light in color and does not have the broad dark lateral stripe which almost always appears on Mari- guanan lizards. LS) 0 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 The young of leucophacus mariquanae are very similar to the adults, except that their colors are intensified. They have a very broad lateral stripe of black, set off at its lower margin by a narrow sepia lateral band. The middorsal area is chocolate-brown, with very few reticula- tions. The young of leucophacus albipalpebralis have on the neck a few large light blotches edged with a fine dark line. A pale dorsal stripe is in some instances crossed by three or four large squarish blotches ; in other cases these are much lightened, and the dark pigment is con- centrated at the edges of the light stripe as two or more narrow lines. The young of typical leucophaeus are distinct from either of the others in having a very fine pattern of dark reticulations and spots all over the body and sides, which now have a light sepia tone, but which later in life fade to pale drab or olive-buff and leave the black spots stand- ing out very markedly. Some of them have traces of four longitudinal light stripes separating slightly darker areas, and some have faintly delineated transverse dorsal blotches, but these are never so prominent as they are in the young from Turks Island. ANOLIS LINEATUS Daudin Anolis lineatus Daudin, Hist. Nat. Rept., vol. 4, p. 66, 1802. U.S.N.M. nos. 79317-20 from Aruba Island, September 17, 1929. Two months afterward the gular fold of no. 79318, having retained its color in preserving fluid, was cadmium orange on the edges, turning to wax-yellow toward the throat, with several heavy black longitudinal stripes. ANOLIS LUCIAE Garman Anolis luciae Garman, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 19, p. 44, 1887. U.S.N.M. nos. 79062-5 from Mount Grenier, Santa Lucia, August 10, 1920. ANOLIS LUCIUS Duméril and Bibron Anolis lucius Duméril and Bibron, Erpét. Gén. vol. 4, p. 105, 1837. U.S.N.M. nos. 75834-5 from El Salto de la Tinaga, Camaguey Province, Cuba, August 28, 1828; no. 75842 from Jumagua Hills, west of Sagua La Grande, Santa Clara Province, Cuba, August 2, 1928. ANOLIS LUTEOSIGNIFER Garman Anolis luteostguifer Garman, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 20, p. 4, 1888. One example, U.S.N.M. no. 81728, was taken on Cayman Brac, September 10, 1930. NO. 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—-COCHRAN 23 ANOLIS MAYNARDII Garman Anolis maynardiu Garman, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 20, p. 7, 1888. Three lizards, U.S.N.M. nos. 81729-31 are from Little Cayman, taken September 12-13, 1930. ANOLIS MESTREI Barbour and Ramsden Anolis mestrei Barbour and Ramsden, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 209, p. 19, 1916. U.S.N.M. no. 75796 from Bafios San Vicente, Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba, June 25, 1928; no. 75829 from El Rinconada, Sierra Camagua, Camagtiey Province, Cuba, August 27, 1928; nos. 75832-3 and nos. 75836-7 from El Salto de la Tinaga, Camagiiey Province, Cuba, August 28, 1928; no. 75838 from the Santa Cruz Mountains, Camaguey Province, Cuba, September 1, 1928. ANOLIS ORDINATUS Cope Anolis ordinatus Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1864, p. 175. This species may be represented by the following examples: U.S.N.M. nos. 81528-32 from Cay Sal on June 17, 1930; nos. 81533-5 from Elbow Cay of the Cay Sal Group on June 19, 1930; nos. 81537-57 from Cotton Cay of the Cay Sal Group on June 23, 1930; no. 81474 from Knife Cay of the Ragged Island Group on June 28, 1930; no. 81480 from Margaret Island of the Ragged Island Group on July 2, 1930; nos. 81499-501 from Crooked Island on July 14, 1930. The true status of this species is very doubtful and this identification is to be considered as provisional until specimens from ail the places from which it is now recorded have been minutely compared. ANOLIS PORCATUS Gray Anolis porcatus Gray, Ann. Nat. Hist., vol. 5, p. 112, 1840. U.S.N.M. nos. 75753-8 from one-fourth mile south of La Guira Mansion, near San Diego de los Bafios, Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba, June 16, 1928; no. 75825 from one-quarter mile northwest of Vega Alta, Cuba, August 12, 1928. To the last named specimen the follow- ing field note applies: A heavy rain fell about 3: 30 so we went under a cow shelter near a farm- house. While waiting for the rain to stop we collected eight frogs [see 75817-24 Hyla septentrionalis| and one lizard under the eaves of this shelter. 24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOES 92 ANOLIS PULCHELLUS Duméril and Bibron Anolis pulchellus Duméril and Bibron, Erpét. Gén., vol. 4, p. 97, 1837. U.S.N.M. no. 78957 from Virgin Gorda, July 19, 1929. ANOLIS RICHARDII Duméril and Bibron Anolis richardii Duméril and Bibron, Erpét. Gén., vol. 4, p. 141, 1837. U.S.N.M. nos. 79090-3 from Admiralty Bay, Bequia Island, August 16, 1929; nos. 79135-8 from Carriacou Island, August 21, 1929; nos. 79139-46 from High Hill, about 2 miles east of Hillsborough, Big Carriacou Island, August 21, 1929 ; nos. 79167-89 from the Annandale Estate, Grenada, August 25, 1929; no. 79197, a young one taken at Mineral Springs, northeast Grenada, August 27, 1929. A detailed comparison of the lizards from Bequia and Carriacou with specimens from Grenada, including one of the cotypes of Anolis trossulus Garman, makes it apparent that they are alike in every essential of scalation. If any valid color differences exist, they are not apparent in the material at hand. ANOLIS ROQUET (Lacépéde) Lacerta roquet Lacépéde, Hist. Nat. Quad. Ovip. Serp. vol. 1 (synopsis-méthod., div. 4), 1778. U.S.N.M. nos. 79038-9 from High Mountains, Martinique, August 8, 1929; nos. 79040-55 from Diamond Hill, South Martinique, August 9, 1929; nos. 79056-9 from the north shore of Fort de France Harbor, Martinique, August 7, 1934. “ Tree-climbing lizards ”. ANOLIS SAGREI Duméril and Bibron Anolis sagret Duméril and Bibron, Erpét. Gén., vol. 4, p. 149, 1837. U.S.N.M. nos. 75759-65 and nos. 75771-89 from one-fourth mile south of La Guira Mansion near San Diego de los Banos, Pinar del Rio, Cuba, June 16, 1928; nos. 81690-4 from Palomito Cay, Oriente Province, Cuba, September 1, 1930; nos. 81695-6 from Blanco Cay, Camagtiey Province, Cuba, September 6, 1930; nos. 81697-8 from Doce Leguas in Camagtiey Province, Cuba, September 7, 1930; no. 81699 from Cachiboca Cay, Camagtiey Province, Cuba, September 8, 1930; nos. 81762-3 from Sandy Cay, Cuba, September 19, 1930; no. 81824 from Puerto Portillo, Oriente Province, Cuba, August 29, 1930; no. 81891 from East Point, Second Cay, Cuba, September 19, 1930. A few weeks after being preserved, the gular skin of no. 75765 was burnt sienna, and the gular scales were light chrome-yellow; the ~ NOS HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS——-COCHRAN Z wm dorsal light stripe was vinaceous-cinnamon, while the head, nuchal region, and shoulders were clove-brown. The sides of the body, as well as the limbs, were drab. The ventral surfaces were palely irides- cent with blue, pink and green. In no. 75762, only the scales on the edge of the dewlap were chrome-yellow, the other gular scales being clove-brown like the gular skin itself. ANOLIS STRATULUS Cope Anolis stratulus Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 200, 1861. U.S.N.M. no. 78928 from Bordeaux Hill, St. John’s, July 13, 1929; elevation 1,277 feet. ANOLIS TERRAE-ALTAE Barbour Anolis terrae-altae Barbour, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 28, p. 76, 1915. U.S.N.M. nos. 78998-79001 from St. George (= Cabritt Island), Saints Islands, August I, 1929; nos. 79002-3 from Mount Chameau, St. Peter, same date. A note with the St. George specimens states the dewlap was pale orange in life. Since not all scientific collections may have examples of Anolis leachii (=ferreus) from Gaudeloupe, to which Barbour compared the Saints Island A. terrae-altae in his original diagnosis, it will not be amiss to include here a more detailed description of one of the six specimens of A. terrae-altae listed above : An adult male, U.S.N.M. no. 79002, has the top of the head with two low diverging frontal ridges, disappearing before they reach the level of the nostrils and enclosing a feebly pronounced frontal hollow ; head scales smooth, only the scales of the supraorbital disk showing faint keels; the distance between the anterior parts of the orbits very nearly equalling that from the orbit to the end of the snout; rostral low, slightly narrower than the mentals ; four scales in a row between the narrow scales bordering each nostril above, the median pair some- what enlarged; the median snout scales immediately behind these internasal scales in a single series, transversely enlarged ; supraorbital semicircles composed of six or seven enlarged scales, the third the largest, the fourth and fifth separated from their fellows by a single row of small scales; occipital about two-thirds the size of the ear opening, separated from the supraorbital semicircles by two rows of scales rather irregular in shape; those posterior to the occipital more regular in shape and smaller than those in front of it; supraorbital disk composed of five polygonal, faintly keeled scales, narrowly 26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 separated from the semicircle by one row of granules, which in front of the disk form a patch of granules; canthus rostralis very sharp, consisting of three subequal elongated shields, merging with the super- ciliary ridge which also has three scales, of which the middle one is much the longest, the posterior one followed in turn by a double row of granules; five loreal rows; subocular semicircles keeled, widely in contact with the posterior supralabials; seven enlarged supralabials, the seventh under the center of the eye, followed by three or four granular labial scales ; temporal granules a little larger than the dorso- laterals ;a well-marked double series of small scales forming the supra- temporal line ; dorsal and lateral granules minute, tubercular ; four or five median rows of slightly enlarged, keeled scales down the center of the back beginning on the nuchal region, continuing on the tail as a crest of considerably enlarged scales; ventral scales medium-sized, smooth, rectangular, those on the throat small and bluntly tuberculate ; anterior face of fore and hind legs covered with large, weakly keeled scales much larger than the ventrals; scales covering the hands and feet above very faintly unicarinate ; digital expansion wide, with about 24 lamellae under the second and third phalanges of the fourth toe, 39 under the entire toe ; tail long, compressed, with very poorly-marked verticils of aligned scales; those between similar in size but not in alignment, in about five or six irregular rows, all imbricate, keeled and distinctly mucronate at the tips, surmounted by a strongly serrate edge of enlarged, keeled scales triangular in profile, four (sometimes three) to every verticil, the last of each group distinctly enlarged ; dewlap with many closely set series of scales, whose posterior borders are projecting and mucronate; postanal plates large and well de- veloped ; a slight skin fold along the neck and back. Dimensions.—Snout to vent, 59 mm; tail, 114 mm; orbit to tip of snout, 9.5 mm; orbit to orbit, 7 mm; snout to posterior ear, 19 mm, snout to center of eye, 12 mm; width of head, 11.5 mm; fore leg, 26 mm; hind leg, 42 mm; tibia, 15 mm. Color in alcohol.—Entire head olive-buff ; upper parts of body and limbs very pale immaculate glaucous-blue; lower surfaces and tail ecru-drab. Variation—The other specimen from St. Peter, U.S.N.M. no. 79003, a young female, differs slightly from the described specimen in having even weaker indications of keels on the supraocular disk, the supraocular semicircles mutually in contact for a short distance, larger preoccipital scales, and only one scale between the occipital and the semicircles. NO. 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN 27 ‘The four specimens from St. George (= Cabritt Island), U.S.N.M. nos. 78998-79001, an adult male and three young females, show a much browner cast of coloring. The male ranges from a wood-brown on the head to burnt umber and seal-brown on the back and sides, the tail dark fawn color, the throat and chest drab, the posterior underparts pale ecru-drab. One female, no. 79000, is almost the same in tone, while the other two are lighter. There is a faint suggestion of latero- ventral mottling on two of the females, but otherwise the lizards are immaculate. ANOLIS VINCENTII Garman Anolis vincentii Garman, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 19, p. 46, 1887. U.S.N.M. no. 79066 from Brighton, St. Vincent, August 14, 1929; nos. 79078-89 from Mount St. Andrews, St. Vincent, August 15, 1929. NOROPS OPHIOLEPIS (Cope) Anolis (Dracontura) ophiolepis Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 211, 1861. U.S.N.M. no. 75790 from one-fourth mile south of La Guira Mansion, near San Diego de los Banos, Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba, June 16, 1928. CYCLURA CARINATA CARINATA (Harlan) Cyclura carinata Harlan, Journ. Acad. Philadelphia, vol. 4, p. 242, 1824. An excellent series of nine lizards, U.S.N.M. nos. 81785-93, was collected on Long Cay of the Turks Island Group, on July 28, 1930; two more, nos. 81781-2, came from Long Cay south of South Caicos, July 29, 1930; another, no. 81783, from the west end of East Caicos on July 29, 1930; another, no. 81218, from Water Cay of the Fort George isles in the Caicos group on July 25, 1930; a series of 20, nos. 81219-33, nos. 81776-80, of allages from Big Iguana Cay, East Caicos, July 28, 1930. CYCLURA CARINATA BARTSCHI Cochran Cyclura carinata bartschi Cochran, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci., vol. 21, no. 3, p: 30; Heb: 4, 1o31. Diagnosis —Nasals broadly in contact with the rostral and with each other; a pair of supranasals also closely in contact with each other ; the scales of the prefrontal region rather uniform in size and shape, and grading into the smaller frontal and parietal scales ; supra- 28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 orbital semicircles barely differentiated by an occasional somewhat enlarged scale ; scales of the supraocular region distinctly smaller than the other upper head scutes; two to four enlarged vertical canthals on each side of the head; nuchal and caudal crests widely separated from the dorsal crest, which is 12 mm high (in adult males) and is composed of 60 to 73 spines (average in 6 specimens, 63.5) ; nuchal crest composed of 16 to 20 spines (average 17.1), the highest of which measures 15 mm; four vertical rows of small scales between the fifth and sixth verticils of the tail; eight supralabials (rarely nine) to a point below the center of the eye ; rostral wider than the mental ; three to four enlarged tibial scales equaling the vertical diameter of the tympanic membrane. Type-—U.S.N.M. no. 81212 (collector’s number 172), an adult male from Booby Cay, east of Mariguana Island, Bahamas, collected on July 21, 1930. Description of the type-—Rostral wider than the mental and broadly in contact with the nasals, which are broadly in contact with each other; a pair of slightly enlarged triangular supranasals likewise in contact with each other, and lying in the angle behind the two nasals ; no enlarged prefrontal, frontal or parietal scales ; supraorbital semi- circles barely differentiated by an occasional somewhat enlarged scale: scales of the supraocular region distinctly smaller than the other upper head scutes, with a very slight indication of a supra- ocular disk; occipital rather large and located well forward, sur- rounded by irregular scales which are smallest behind it and a little larger to the right and the left; all the scales of the head, except those on the snout, keeled but not tubercular ; two or three enlarged, vertical canthals on each side of the head; a well-developed series of slightly keeled supraoculars carried back a little beyond the orbit; eight upper and nine lower labials to a point directly below the center of the eye; three or four rows of small scales separating the supra- labials from the suboculars ; no swollen scales in the temporal region, only a few slightly enlarged and spinose scales in front of the ear, and some enlarged smooth scales below the angle of the mouth; about two rows of faintly keeled scales separating the infralabials from the three or four rows of more heavily keeled malar scales ; dorsal scales small, ventrals slightly larger; a nuchal crest com- posed of 16 spines, the longest of which measures 15 mm; a dorsal crest, completely separated from both nuchal and caudal crests, com- posed of 60 spines which are conspicuously uneven in basal width and in height, the longest of which measures 12 mm; the caudal crest low, the highest spine only 6 mm in length, every third spine being enlarged NOW HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN 29 to correspond to the verticils of enlarged and highly spinose scales ; four rows of small rectangular scales between the fifth and sixth verti- cils ; upper surface of limbs with slightly imbricated, keeled, posteriorly pointed scales which are considerably larger than the body scales ; on the upper arm about 9, on the lower arm about 7 of these scales to the vertical diameter of the tympanum; the scales on the outer tibia the largest, spinose, hexagonal, about four to the vertical diameter of the tympanic membrane; 18 and 20 femoral pores arranged in a single row; inner side of second toe with one comb, of third toe with two combs each consisting of three prominent and two small lobes; tail slightly compressed. Color (in alcohol).—Head and scales of crest dull pea-green ; skin of upper parts mouse-gray to dull olive-green with a very indistinct fine reticulation of lighter hue; skin of lower parts dull sage-green ; under surfaces of feet and tail dark olive-buff. Dimensions.—Head to posterior border of ear, 64 mm; width of head, 44 mm; vertical diameter of tympanum, 11 mm; head and body, 300 mm; tail (reproduced), 260 mm. Variation There are five paratypes (U.S.N.M. nos. 87213-17), four of them adult females, and the fifth a very young one of in- determinate sex, all taken at the same time and place as the type specimen. The extreme variations are given in the specific diagnosis. In only one specimen do the nasals fail to touch; in this animal the inner border of each nasal plate is cut off by a suture, so that there are two small internasals abnormally formed. The femoral pores are rather low in number ranging between 16 and 20 in the present series, and averaging 17.9 for all. The only lizard with an approximately complete tail has a head and body length of 250 mm, the tail with tip missing measures 320 mm. The coloration in the adult females is much like that of the type. The young has a few light transverse dorsal saddles outlined with a darker tone. Relationships——The subspecies from Booby Cay is obviously a link between the typical carinata from Turks Island and nuchalis from Fortune Island. Booby Cay, east of Mariguana Cay, from which the new subspecies was collected, is just about midway between the other two type localities. Cyclura carinata proper may be readily distinguished from C. carin- ata bartschi by a combination of several characters. True carinata has the nasals separated by a good-sized wedge-shaped scale; in bartschi the nasals are ordinarily in contact, agreeing in this respect with nuchalis. The new subspecies has as a rule more scale-rows between the caudal verticils, as well as larger tibial scales, more scales in the 30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 dorsal crest, and fewer supralabials than does the Turks Island form. Nevertheless, it is much closer to carinata than it is to nuchalis which has swollen enlarged scales on the snout and hence is at once separable from the other two forms under discussion. We had been told upon inquiry all along Mariguana Cay that Booby Cay had iguanas upon it, and this information was confirmed, for shortly after our arrival we started off a huge fellow who went crashing through the brush and took refuge in a hole, for these iguanas den like rabbits and when pursued slip underground. We had made nooses of wire and tried to catch some of them alive, but the heavy weight of the animals quickly caused my copper wire to untwist at the loop and the old fellow went crashing through the brush scared by this new experience. Nye had a similar experience, only his wire parted at the stick and the iguana carried it off. I am afraid this will be a dead iguana, for I saw him choking. Further efforts to obtain these animals alive resulted in a waste of a great amount of time, and caused us to decide to give up this achievement. Later in the afternoon Chittick and Nye went iguana-hunting and secured four. I had shot one in the morning and we had caught a baby alive, which will give us six specimens for scientific study. CYCLURA MACLEAYII Gray Cyclura MacLeayii Gray, Cat. Lizards Brit. Mus., p. 190, 1845. Examples of this handsome species are still fairly common on some of the cays, judging by the numbers brought back in recent collections. It is represented in the present collection by U.S.N.M. no, 81784 from Savilla Cay, Oriente Province, Cuba, September 4, 1930; nos. 81794-8 from Cabeza del Este, Caya Blanca, Doce Leguas, Cuba, September 8, 1930; nos. 81799-805 from Cachiboca Bay, Cuba, same date ; no. 81 806 from the cay east of Anclitos Cay, Cuba, September 8, 1930; no. 81810 from Cantilles Cay, Cuba, September 21, 1930, and no. 81811 from Mathias Cay, Cuba, September 22, 1930. CYCLURA NUCHALIS Barbour and Noble Cyclura nuchalis Barbour and Noble, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 60, p. 156, 1916. Eleven examples of this interesting species (U.S.N.M. nos. 81234- 44) were taken on Fish Cay of the Fortune Island Group on July 11, 1930. The number of spines in the dorsal crest ranges between 62 and 72, averaging 67.7. The nuchal crest has 15 to IQ spines, averaging 16.7, and these are irregular both in length and in basal width, as 3arbour and Noble indicated. The femoral pores are numerous, run- ning from 21 to 28, and averaging 24.7. On the distal part of the tail the verticils are not very distinct, but when they can be seen there are five rows of small scales separating them. The coloration of the adult NO. 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN 31 male, U.S.N.M. no. 81239, is as follows: Ground color dull indigo-blue above lightening to glaucous blue beneath, with coarse reticulations of brick-red on the sides and back; posterior part of head indigo-blue, with the snout and frontal portions coral-red to rufous ; the malar and labial scales orange chrome to coral-red, with a suggestion of these colors on the chin, which is mostly dull china-blue ; nuchal spines pale olive-buff slightly tinged with flesh color; dorsal spines mostly light coral-red, with occasionally a dull china-blue one; tail light indigo, a few of the anterior caudal spines tinged with pink ; upper surfaces of fore and hind feet black. The other adult specimens are similar in coloration, although they are not so bright in hue. A young specimen, no. 81242, is uniformly dull indigo, without any dorsal crossbands whatever or any indication of a reticulated pattern. The largest specimen, no. 81239, measures 270 mm from snout to end of body; unfortunately its tail is reproduced. A smaller lizard measuring 215 mm in head and body has a complete tail 360 mm long. The young specimen already referred to is 140 mm from snout to vent. We have been told repeatedly upon inquiring about iguanas that we would find them on Fish Cay, and so we did. We obtained a dozen good-sized speci- mens among the bushes by snaring them with string ncoses on the end of a stick. We were considerably surprised, however, when we took them from our bag on board the ship to find that four of them were dead; evidently they have a way of committing suicide, similar to the ones we collected in the Gulf of California on Angel de la Guardia Island (Sauromalus hispidus now in the American Museum of Natural History). We have saved the eight remaining and hope to carry them through alive to Washington. Peters shot four more. The dead specimens I have injected with strong formalin-alcohol mixture and they have been put in alcohol. These iguanas are vegetable feeders. They are fairly tame and persisted in chasing the noose on the end of our sticks, instead of running their heads through them, or letting us place it around their necks. When hard pressed they finally dash into holes that look like huge sand crab burrows, or when near the coast, where there is a hurricane rampart, they seek refuge in the crevices of the rocks. LEIOCEPHALUS CARINATUS CARINATUS (Gray) Letocephalus carinatus Gray, Philos. Mag., vol. 2, p. 208, 1837. U.S.N.M. no. 75793 from Bafios San Vicente, Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba, June 21, 1928; no. 75810 from Puerta del Ancon, Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba, June 29, 1928; no. 81658 from Macola Hill, Province of Guantanamo, Cuba, August 15, 1930; no. 81673 from Rio Puerco, Province of Oriente, August 30, 1930; no. 81687 from Cabo Cruz, Oriente, Cuba, August 31, 1930; nos. 81708-9 from 32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 Doce Leguas, Camagtiey Province, Cuba, September 7, 1930; no. 81710 from Grenada Cay, Doce Leguas, Cuba, September 9, 1930; nos. 81711-2 from Caballones, Doce Leguas, collected on the same day ; nos. 81715-7 from Grande Cay, Doce Leguas, also on September 9, 1930; nos. 81742-9 from Cayman Brac, September 10 and 11, 1930. At the present time it is not practicable to distinguish between the Cuban carinatus and the specimens listed below. A very detailed study of the variations of carinatus in Cuba will be necessary for an under- standing of the status of the forms on some of the outlying islands. These lizards came from cays in the Ragged Island Group as follows: U.S.N.M. nos. 81455-63 from Flamingo Cays on June 25, 1930; nos. 81465-70 from cays adjacent to South Channel Cays on June 28, 1930; nos. 81472-73 from Knife Cay on June 28, 1930; nos. 81476-78 from Johnson’s Cay on July 2, 1930; no. 81479 from Double Breasted Cay on July 2, 1930. Johnson's Cay—We took a couple of lizards of the curled tailed type but the tail seems to be more spiny on the back than the previous type, but this may be pure imagination on my part. As a matter of fact, the tail is very spiny in every adult specimen from all of the cays mentioned above. Those from Johnson’s Cay, three in number, have an unusually enlarged middle supraocular, which appears to have come through the fusion of the third and fourth, or the second and third, as there is one less than the usual number of supraocular scales (six) found in specimens from the surrounding cays. A great many specimens from every cay will have to be studied before a definite decision as to the stability of this character can be made. LEIOCEPHALUS CARINATUS PUNCTATUS Cochran Leiocephalus carinatus punctatus Cochran, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci., vol. 21, NO. 3, P. 39; /Feb. 4, TO3T. Diagnosis —Closely resembling the Cuban Leiocephalus carinatus, but differing from it in having a larger scale at the upper anterior region of the ear, as well as in possessing a more vivid color pattern with a somewhat different arrangement of light and dark pigment especially on the head. Type—vU.S.N.M. no. 81560 (collector’s no. 135) a male from the north shore of the bay at Jamaica Wells, Acklins Island, July 6, 1930. Description of the Type—Head shields large, the anterior smooth, the posterior very faintly ridged; four scales (an internasal and three prefrontals) in a line between the rostral and the beginning of the supraorbital ring; prefrontals and internasals embracing a_ partly INO 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN 33 discontinuous medial series of three scales, the first small and touching the rostral ; the second prefrontal the largest, in contact with its fellow, separated from the canthals by a series of scales; two canthal scales, the second the larger, followed by five elongate superciliaries, the last one the smallest ; six slightly ridged supraoculars, partially separated from the frontals by an incomplete series of small scales and from the superciliaries by two series except posteriorly where there is a single row; frontals moderate in size, mutually in contact along their entire inner borders ; occipital small, with a small scale immediately following it, the two scales bordered on each side by two distinct parietals, the inner about half the size of the outer, which is about five times the area of the anterior occipital ; an enlarged, heavily ridged scale at the outer posterior margin of the outer parietal; no other conspicuously enlarged post-parietals ; five upper and five lower labials to a point below the center of the eye; malar scales large and conspicuous, the first two subequal and separated from the infralabials by a single row of scales ; temporal scales small and mostly uniform in size, those just in front of the ear gradually enlarging, the upper one about three times as large as the surrounding scales; anterior border of the ear with five or six unequal projecting scales, the longest reaching one- third of the distance across the tympanum. Dorsal scales moderately large, imbricate, very slightly mucronate; laterals smaller than the dorsals, the gradation in size being very gradual; ventrals slightly smaller than the dorsals, smooth, their posterior borders slightly den- ticulate ; about 61 dorsal scales from the occiput to a point directly above the vent ; about 14 dorsal scales equivalent to the distance from snout to occiput ; nuchal scales moderately small, those behind the ear and in the shoulder folds like the dorsals but very small; no lateral fold. The adpressed hind limb reaches to the center of the eye. Digits compressed, the fourth toe with 24 tricarinate lamellae, the scales on the upper surfaces of the limbs relatively small; a very distinct but low dorsal crest beginning at the occiput and continuing without inter- ruption to the end of the tail, increasing on the posterior part of the body and becoming much higher on the tail; the caudal scales keeled and highly mucronate ; no verticils ; tail slightly compressed. The keels of the dorsals and laterals converge posteriorly. A pair of widely- separated and very inconspicuous postanals in the male. Dimensions.—Snout to vent, 72 mm; head to posterior ear, 20 mm; tail (reproduced), 112 mm; fore leg, 28 mm; hind leg, 60 mm; width of head, 15 mm. Color (in alcohol ).—Body and limbs dull bottle green above, highly iridescent ; top of head sepia, the supraocular region deep clove- brown ; 34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 a brilliant pattern of white spots on the prefrontals and frontals and a large white spot on the occipital ; a white line beginning in front of the first supraocular and continuing backward on the outer edges of the supraoculars to the outer parietals, behind which the line widens and turns to an iridescent olive-green dorsolateral stripe, much invaded by darker pigment until it finally vanishes on the side of the tail; a similar much interrupted median dorsal line along the crest; a sepia lateral stripe beginning behind the eye, and widening and gradually losing itself about midbody; loreal region, lips, and anterior lower surfaces pea-green to sage-green; a faint sepia mottling on the throat; the posterior part of the body and under surfaces of hind legs lightening to olive-buff ; some indistinct, transverse, lateroventral bars of pale china-blue, and a few small light spots of the same hue on the upper surfaces of the limbs; tail with alternate rings of sepia and white, widening distally. Paratypes—An excellent series of lizards of all sizes and ages was obtained on Acklins Island, U.S.N.M. nos. 81482-9 from the hills near Cornucopia taken on July 7, 1930, and no. 81481 from Jamaica Bay. From Castle Island, just south of Acklins came U.S.N.M. nos. 81562-9, taken July 8, 1930. The same form occurs on Crooked Island, for U.S.N.M. nos. 81492-6 were taken there on July 14, 1930. V ariation.—About the usual amount of variation is seen in the head plates of this new form. The second pair of prefrontals is usually larger than the others, and in broad contact, although sometimes the presence of an unusually large median snout scale prevents much contact. The frontals and supraoculars may be fully separated by a complete series of small scales, or this series may be much reduced and interrupted. As to coloration, the light longitudinal stripes are usually in evidence, while the dark head with the contrasting brillance of the light markings is an almost invariable condition. The females resemble the males in color. The very young ones, however, do not show such a definite pattern. U.S.N.M. nos. 81488 and 81489, respectively 36 mm and 32 mm snout to anus, have the top of the head drab-gray, with small sepia dots scattered uniformly over the head plates. The body likewise is drab-gray, with the light longitudinal lines plainly showing, and the dorsal region and upper limb surfaces are spotted with sepia, like the head. The throats of most of the adults have dark narrow lines converging anteriorly ; in the type this pattern is greatly obscured and interrupted by the numerous very light-colored scales, which tend to form short transverse groups of three or four scales all over the throat and chest regions. One very old male, no. 81481 measuring 105 mm, has lost practically all traces of color pattern. Its NOE 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS——-COCHRAN 35 scales are much more mucronate than is the case in other smaller ones, even the ventrals being angulate and bristling. Relationships——As one might expect, the new form is very closely related to the Cuban carinatus. The coloration is the most obvious distinguishing feature, but close examination reveals the fact that the scale above the ear is usually prominent in the Acklins and Crooked Island forms, while in the Cuban lizard it is seldom enlarged at all. The malar scales of the new subspecies are larger also, while the first two pairs are especially well marked and nearly square in shape. The Cuban form has shorter anterior malars. The scales on the upper surfaces of the limbs in the new form seem to be slightly smaller and less continuously keeled than in the Cuban lizard, although this feature is very difficult to express by scale counts. The similarities of the two forms outweigh these minor differences, and it is perferable to bestow only a trinomial on the new lizard until further study can be made of the typical carinatus from Cuba. LEIOCEPHALUS CUBENSIS (Gray) Tropidurus (Leiolaemus) cubensis Gray, Ann. Nat. Hist., vol. 5, p. 110, Apr., 1840. U.S.N.M. no. 75831 from El Salto de la Tinaga, Camagttey Pro- vince, Cuba, August 28, 1928. LEIOCEPHALUS INAGUAE Cochran Liocephalus schreibersii (not of Gravenhorst) Garman, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 20, p. 110, 1888; extr. p. 10 (Inagua, Bahamas).—Barbour, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 44, no. 2, p. 301 (part), 1914. Liocephalus sp. Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1894 (1895), p. 436 (probably L. schreibersii Great Inagua). Leiocephalus inaguae Cochran, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci., vol. 21, no. 3, p. 38, Feb. 4, 1931.—Noble, Amer. Mus. Novit., 549, p. 18, Aug. 11, 1932. Sinee Garman concluded that the lizards from Inagua Island were identical with those from Hispaniola described by Gravenhorst as Pristinotus schreibersii, no fresh material had come under the ob- servation of a student of West Indian herpetology until Dr. Bartsch brought back a large and well-preserved collection of Leiocephali from Inagua, an examination of which left no doubt whatever that the species merits full recognition and separation from the neighboring forms found on Hispaniola, Cuba, and the Bahama Islands. Diagnosis ——A distinct lateral fold; four scales (an internasal and three prefrontals) between the rostral and the supraorbital ring ; the second prefrontal large and in contact with its fellow; body scales 3 36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 moderately large, 70 to 82 dorsals between occiput and beginning of tail, 16 to 20 in the distance between end of snout and occiput ; males with a row of large squarish black blotches on the shoulder region con- tinuing down the sides and fading out rapidly; faint traces of two more rows of squarish blotches on the back. Type—U.S.N.M. no. 81277, an adult male from Man of War Bay, Great Inagua Island, collected on August 8, 1930. Description of the type-—Head shields large, slightly ridged ex- cepting those which border the rostral; four scales (an internasal and three prefrontals) in a line between the rostral and the beginning of the supraorbital ring ; prefrontals and internasals embracing a partly discontinuous medial series of three scales, the first small and not touching the rostral; prefrontals separated from the canthals by a series of rather small scales ; two canthal scales, the second much the larger, followed by four superciliaries, the third the longest, the last two rather small ; seven bluntly ridged supraoculars, separated from the frontals by a single row of keeled scales and from the superciliaries by two rows of scales except posteriorly where there is a single row ; frontals moderate in size, mutually in contact along their entire inner borders ; occipital small, bordered on each side by two distinct parietals, the inner about half the size of the outer, which is about three times the size of the occipital ; a transverse series of about eight postparietal scales, smallest at the nape, enlarging and becoming ridged and tuber- cular laterally, the outermost one lying along the posterior border of the outer parietal and nearly as large as the occipital ; four upper and five lower labials to a point below the center of the eye; temporal scales rather uniform in size, those above the ear not enlarged; anterior border of the ear with three unequal projecting scales, the longest reaching one-third of the distance across the tympanum ; dorsal scales moderately large, imbricate, mucronate; laterals very much smaller than the dorsals, the gradation in size being rather rapid; ventrals very slightly smaller than the dorsals, smooth, their posterior borders scarcely denticulate ; about 70 dorsal scales from the occiput to a point directly above the vent ; about 16 dorsal scales equivalent to the distance from snout to occiput; nuchal scales moderately small, those behind the ear very minute and sharply tubercular; those in the shoulder folds keeled like the dorsals but small; a distinct lateral fold present. The adpressed hind limb reaches to the anterior corner of the eye. Digits compressed, the fourth toe with 25 tricarinate lamellae. A very distinct dorsal crest beginning at the occiput and continuing unbroken to the end of the tail, increasing slightly on the posterior part of the body and highest on the distal half of the tail; the caudal scales keeled NOS 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN oY, and mucronate ; no verticils ; tail compressed. The keels of the dorsals and of the laterals are directed backward and slightly upward, so that the rows of scales converge slightly. There are about 20 longitudinal rows of dorsals across the back. A transverse series of six con- spicuously enlarged postanals in the male. Dimensions.—Snout to vent, 83 mm; head to posterior ear, 22 mm; tail, 142 mm; fore leg, 37 mm; hind leg, 75 mm; width of head, 15 mm. Color (in alcohol). —Body color olive-buff, the dorsal scales with a metallic greenish iridescence; a lateral series of about nine large, rectangular black spots, beginning behind the ear and continuing to above the groin, the posterior ones becoming much lighter ; those behind the arm bordered above by traces of a scarlet vermilion stripe; from the lower borders of these spots issue narrow transverse bands of scar- let vermilion with pale blue scales scattered regularly in them; these transverse bands becoming very light towards the center of the belly and finally fading out; traces of paired dark spots down the back ; head immaculate above; upper and lower labials with vertical pearl- gray markings on the sutures of the scales; throat with longitudinal pearl-gray broken stripes, which become much darker on the sides of the neck and are nearly black beneath the ear ; fore legs faintly barred with pearl-gray; hind legs irregularly barred with scarlet vermilion, pale blue and olive-buff; tail with faint widely spaced bars of pale gray above, immaculate below. Posterior femur with a broad white stripe bordered by scarlet vermilion above and below. Paratypes.—In addition to the specimen designated as the type, | have examined 13 paratypes from Great Inagua Island, as follows :— U.S.N.M. no. 81278, an adult female from Carmichael Point, August 7, 1930; no. 81256, a very young male from the same locality ; no. 81279, an adult male from the center of Ocean Bight Bay; no. 81280, an adult male from the northeast peninsula, August 6, 1930; no. 81281, a young female from Northwest Point, August 8, 1930; and nos. 81282-4, an adult male and two young females from Mathew- town, August 9-10, 1930. I have likewise examined a fine series of five males, Mus. Comp. Zool. no. 6234 labeled simply “ Inagua’”’. These are the specimens to which Garman erroneously applied the name schreibersit. Variations —In the series of 14 specimens, the canthals and pre- frontals do not touch in any instance. The supraocular plates vary from six to eight in number, six being unusual, eight fairly frequent, and seven the most frequent. There are always three prefrontals, the second of which is usually the largest. In one case the internasals are transversely divided. The median snout scales are three to six in 38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 number ; when more than three are present, it is usually because one or more of the original series has longitudinally divided. The first of the series are usually in contact, but the third is usually separated from the second by the second prefrontals which are in contact. There are 70 to 82 dorsal scales between the occiput and the beginning of the tail, and from 16 to 20 dorsals in the distance from snout to the occiput. The adpressed hind leg reaches to the center of the eye or to its anterior corner in adults; in the very young male it reaches nearly to the nostril. The subdigital lamellae of the fourth toe number from 25 to 29. The tail when perfect is about one and three-quarters times the length of the head and body. In coloration the variation between the sexes is at once apparent. The males have the very distinct square black patches on the shoulder region, with a sudden diminution in the intensity of these blotches both dorsally and posteriorly, so that they can hardly be discerned. The females, on the contrary, lack the black color entirely, the four rows of quadrangular blotches on back and sides being uniformly sepia, as are the transverse latero-ventral stripes, which in the males are so hand- somely edged with scarlet vermilion. The very young male has a brilliant pattern of black blotches which appears even on the tail as widely spaced bars; on the middle of the back, however, the blotches are already beginning to lose their intensity and fade out gradually. Dr. Noble has given additional notes on color and habits in his recent paper. Relationships—From the West Indian islands five species of Leiocephalus with a lateral fold have been described up to the present time. They are schreibersii and melanochlorus from Hispaniola, raviceps and macropus from Cuba, and loxogrammus from Rum Cay in the Bahamas. The new species from Great Inagua Island makes the sixth belonging to this group. It is intermediate in the size of its scales between melanochlorus, the largest-scaled species, and the other four known species, all of which have rather small scales. In color- ation it suggests loxogrammus somewhat in the presence of the black blotches on the sides of the neck, but otherwise the patterns are not alike. It is true that melanochlorus has four sets of blotches on back and sides, as does inaguae, but in adult males of the former species those above the shoulder are not more prominent than those elsewhere on the body. The prefrontals of loxogrammus are vastly different from those of the new species—the prefrontals of loxogrammus being only two in number, the posterior ones very large and elongate. Practically this saine arrangement is found in raviceps of Cuba. In macropus of NO. I HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS——-COCHRAN 39 Cuba, and schreibersii and melanochlorus of Hispaniola, the pre- frontals, while three in number, are relatively small and uniform in size and as a rule are completely, or nearly completely, separated by the median series of scales on the snout. In inaguae, the second pre- frontals are prominent, fairly large and usually in contact with each other. LEIOCEPHALUS MACROPUS Cope Liocephalus macropus Cope, Proc. Acad. Sci. Philadelphia, 1862, p. 184. U.S.N.M. nos. 81671-2 and no. 81674 were collected at Rio Puerco, Province of Oriente, Cuba, on August 29 and 30, 1930; no. 81680 at the mouth of the Magdalena River in Oriente on August 29, 1930; nos. 81681-4 from Punta Icacos, Oriente Province, on August 30, 1930; nos. 81688-9 from Cabo Cruz on August 31, 1930. LEIOCEPHALUS PSAMMODROMUS Barbour Leiocephalus psammodromus Barbour, Copeia, vol. 85, p. 73, 1920. Two series of almost topotypic lizards were collected in the Turks Island Group—U.S.N.M. nos. 81303-28 from Long Cay, August 1, 1930 and nos. 81329-43 from Sand Cay, August 2, 1930. Several localities from the neighboring Caicos Group yielded the following specimens: U.S.N.M. nos. 81384-7 from Fort George Cay on July 24, 1930; nos. 81388-92 from Stubb Cay, Fort George Group, on July 25, 1930; nos. 81393-6 from Water Cay, Fort George Group, on July 24, 1930; nos. 81397-8 from Pine Cay on July 24, 1930; nos. 81399-409 from Long Cay near South Caicos on July 29, 1930; nos. 81410-11 from Lorimer Creek on Grand Caicos on July 26, 1930; no. 81412 from Sugar Loaf Island of the Providentiales Group on August 4, 1930. On all the cays (Pine Cay, Water Cay, Fort George Cay) we found lizards and wherever possible secured specimens. There is a ground species that partly curls its tail, probably a relative of the curled tail lizard. LEIOCEPHALUS RAVICEPS Cope Liocephalus raviceps Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1862, p. 183. As late as the publication of Barbour’s “ Herpetology of Cuba” in 1919, the scarcity of this species in collections made its distribution in Cuba a matter of uncertainty. Since that date, however, the species has been collected rather abundantly, and the following records of it 40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 for this particular collection are: U.S.N.M. nos. 81652-3 from the north side of Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, August 14, 1930; nos. 81656-7 from Macola Hill in Guantanamo Province, Cuba, August 15, 1930; no. 81659 from Cusco Valley in Guantanamo Province, Cuba, August 16, 1930; nos. 81713-4 from Cayo west of Cachiboca, Doce Leguas, Province of Camagiiey, Cuba, September 8, 1930; and 81812-6 from Boqueron, Cuba, August 19, 1930. The examination of the prefrontal scales makes this species rather easy to tell apart from the other three members of the genus likewise occurring on Cuba. Leiocephalus raviceps has two prefrontals be- tween the internasal and the supraorbital semicircle—the anterior prefrontal small, the posterior considerably enlarged— while the other Cuban species have three more or less subequal prefrontals. LEIOCEPHALUS VARIUS Garman Liocephalus varius Garman, Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., vol. 24, p. 274, 1887. U.S.N.M. nos. 81750-3 from Grand Cayman, September 15 and 16, 1930. TROPIDURUS TORQUATUS HISPIDUS (Spix) Agama hispida Spix, Spec. Novae Lacert. Bras., p. 12, 1825. U.S.N.M. nos. 79205-10 from the hill east of Pampater, Margarita Island, September 8, 1929; no. 79228 from Los Robles, Margarita Island, same day. The scales of the hands and feet appear to be elongated into spines to a much greater extent in the Margarita Island lizards than is the case in Venezuelan representatives, supposedly of the same subspecies. A very thorough generic revision is necessary before deciding how much weight can be attached to such a character in a genus subject to considerable specific variations as to structure of scales. TROPIDODACTYLUS ONCA (0’Shaughnessy) Norops onca O'Shaughnessy, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 4, vol. 15 p. 280, 1875. U.S.N.M. nos. 79226-7 from Los Robles, Margarita Island, Sep- tember 8, 1929. The larger of these two specimens has been compared with the types in the British Museum by H. W. Parker. He thinks that they are the same, although he notes that in both type specimens the scales of the sides are subimbricate and rather more lanceolate than in the United States National Museum example. NO. 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN 41 Family ANGUIDAE CELESTUS SAGRAEI (Cocteau) Diploglossus sagrae Cocteau, in R. de la Sagra, Hist. Cuba, Rept., p. 180, 1838. U.S N.M. no. 75840 from Senado, Camagiiey Province, Cuba, September 2, 1928. Family TEIIDAE AMEIVA AQUILINA Garman Ameiva aquilina Garman, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 10, p. 3, 1887. U.S.N.M. nos. 79111-2 from Petit Mustique Island, Grenadines, August 18, 1929; nos. 79147-9 from Frigate Island, Grenadines, August 22, 1929; nos. 79194-5 from Mineral Springs, northeast Grenada, August 27, 1929. In their “ Revision of the Lizards of the Genus Ameiva ” in 1915, Barbour and Noble say regarding this species that “it is probable that it also occurs in some of the Grenadines ”’. This prediction is justified by the first two records given above. Comparative measurements and scale counts of all these specimens, including three additional Grenada specimens in the national collection, have been made as follows: Ventrals Tail Lamel- U.S. : Head a = Femoral at lae Ny ae ee ay Trans Longitu pores 15th vane i ao eee dina | verticil toe mm Rows Rows Se iw | Ago mlm Grenada. maces seas - 88 32 10+2 20-20 40 By 43223 Pde etek ake 73 22 MO}q-2 || atti 4I a7, 67234 Rebar Geto ee onary: 62 33 10+2 18-18 41 36 79194 Bey i Maccayeeite re dala: Tif 32 10-2) Sho 38 36 79195 | Has rere ioe tua abo heabs ns2 32 aed Oia 7 41 35 79111 | Petit Mustique Island 138 35 12 19-20 46 36 79112 - 129 AG |) WOarZ 20-21 42 Bi 79147 | Frigate Island....... 139 33 10+2 20-21 43 33 79148 PRN e Perse oS mag 32 10+2 20-21 45 35 79149 ith on fo Oa cet 150 33 10+2 21 44 34 The two adults from Petit Mustique Island show a pattern of relatively large pale dorsal spots surrounded by a heavy black reticu- lation, while the adults from Frigate Islands have the pale spots some- what smaller and more sparsely scattered, and the black pigment is reduced to a narrow rim around the light spots and to some small patches between them and along the middle of the back. Although the number of transverse rows of ventrals was given as 14 by Garman, and this count was later repeated by Barbour and Noble, 42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 I find only 10 rows of uniform-sized scales flanked by a row of much smaller scales at each side in most of the specimens before me. Dr. Bartsch gives the following note on living coloration of the Petit Mustique lizards: Punctations on sides greenish yellow; head, etc., marbled with brown streaks. Throat gray. Belly bright peacock-blue, most intense on the under side of tail. Upper side of tail dark, variegated. AMEIVA AUBERI Cocteau Ameiva auberi Cocteau, in R. de la Sagra, Hist. Cuba, Rept., p. 74, 1838. Examples of this lizard are U.S.N.M. no. 81654 from the north side of Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, obtained August 14, 1930; nos. 81665-7 from Cusco Valley in the province of Guantanamo, Cuba, August 16, 1930; no. 81678 from Rio Puerco in Oriente, Cuba, August 29, 1930; no. 81700 from Doce Leguas, cay at longitude 78° 33’ W. on Sep- tember 7, 1930; nos. 81701-3 from the southeast end of Doce Leguas, Cuba, on the same date; 81704 from Doce Leguas on September 8, 1930; nos. 81705-6 from Pilot Point on Anclitos Bay, Doce Leguas, on September 9, 1930; no. 81707 from Caballones, Doce Leguas, on the same day; nos. 81718-9 from Mathias Cays on September 22, 1930; no. 81766 from Cayo Avillon near Canapachi on September 21, 1930; no. 81821 from Boqueron, Cuba, on August 19, 1930. AMEIVA FUSCATA Garman Ameiva fuscata Garman, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zodl., vol. 19, p. 5, 1887. U.S.N.M. no. 79023 from Danes, east of Portsmouth, Dominica, August 4, 1929; no. 79024 from the Botanic Gardens in Rousseau, Dominica, August 6, 19209. AMEIVA MAYNARDII MAYNARDII (Garman) Ameiva maynardii Garman, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 20, p. 10, 1888. Four lizards belonging to this species were taken from August 7 to 10, 1930, on Great Inagua Island,—U.S.N.M. nos. 81271-2 from Mathewtown, and 81275-6 from Man of War Bay. The scale formulae for these lizards are very similar. The femoral pores vary between ro and 14; the subdigital lamellae are 34 to 39; the tail at the fifteenth verticil has in every case 23 rows of scales ; the transverse rows of ventrals number 33 to 35, and the longitudinal rows are 8 in all cases. NOD 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN 43 AMEIVA MAYNARDII UNIFORMIS Noble and Klingel. Ameiva maynard uniformis Noble and Klingel, Amer. Mus. Novit. no. 540, p. 23, 1932. U.S.N.M. nos. 81373-4 from the center of Ocean Bight Bay, August 7, 1930, are referred to this subspecies. They are a uniform drab-gray above, slightly bluer on the limbs, and lightening to immaculate pearl- gray on the under parts. There are absolutely no traces of the three wide black stripes which characterize Garman’s Ameiva maynardii. There are 12 femoral pores in both specimens of A. m. uniformis ; sub- digital lamellae 36; the tail at the 15th verticil with 20 and 22 scales re- spectively; the transverse rows of ventrals 31 and 35, and the longitudinal rows 8. AMEIVA PLEI Duméril and Bibron Ameiva plei Duméril and Bibron, Erpét. Gén., vol. 5, p. 114, 1839. U.S.N.M. nos. 78974-7 from St. Martin, July 22, 1929. AMEIVA THORACICA Cope Ameiva thoracica Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1862, p. 64. This lizard is represented by examples from the following places: U.S.N.M. nos. 81451-4 from Flamingo Cays of the Ragged Island Group, June 25, 1930; no. 81475 from Raccoon Cay of the Ragged Island Group, June 30, 1930; nos. 81497-8 from Crooked Island, July 14, 1930. The three from Flamingo Cays are much lighter in color- ation than is the usual case, the black dorsolateral line being barely in evidence on the posterior part of the body, and not present at all anteriorly. Since the lizard from the not-far-distant Raccoon Cay presents an entirely normal style of coloration, and since there seems to be no urgent reason for describing a subspecies from so few specimens, which likewise are considerably mutilated by the small shot used to obtain them, it is best to consider them as aberrant individuals. SCOLECOSAURUS ALLENI Barbour Scolecosaurus allen’ Barbour, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 44, p. 315, 1914. U.S.N.M. no. 79190 from the Annandale Estate, Grenada, August 25, 1929. CHEMIDOPHORUS MURINUS ARUBENSIS (Lidth de Jeude) Cnemidophorus arubensis Lidth de Jeude, Notes Leyden Mus., vol. 9, p. 132, 1887. U.S.N.M. nos. 79323-5, 79327-31 from Aruba Island, September 17, 1929. One of the original series, no. 79326, was sent to the Museum of Comparative Zoology as an exchange. 44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS - VOL. 92 CNEMIDOPHORUS MURINUS MURINUS (Laurenti) Seps murinus Laurenti, Synops. Rept., p. 63, 1768. U.S.N.M. nos. 79271-2 from a hill 14 miles west of Kralendijk, Bonaire Island, September 12; 79273-303 from Bonaire Island, Sep- tember 13-14, 1929; nos. 79304-14 from Curacao, September 16, 1929. CNEMIDOPHORUS LEMNISCATUS LEMNISCATUS (Linnaeus) Lacerta lemniscata Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, p. 200, 1758. U.S.N.M. nos. 79219-23 from Los Robles, Margarita Island, Sep- tember 8, 1929. CNEMIDOPHORUS LEMNISCATUS NIGRICOLOR (Peters) Cnemidophorus nigricolor Peters, Sitz. Ber. Ges. Nat. Freunde Berlin, p. 76, 1873. U.S.N.M. no. 79230 from Orchilla Island, September 10, 1929; nos. 79232-54 from El Roque, September 11, 1929. Most of the adults of the latter series are dull black in color, either uniform or with minute white dots. The low trailing shrubbery on the beach south of the village [on the leeward side of El Roque Island] had many lizards of two kinds, or probably three: one sooty, one plain brownish, and one spotted. These, when followed, would dive in the crab burrows for shelter and thus elude the pursuer. Family AMPHISBAENIDAE AMPHISBAENA CUBANA Peters Amphisbaena cubana Peters, Mon. Berlin Acad. Wiss., p. 780, 1878. U.S.N.M. no. 75861 from Santa Cruz Mountains in Camagtiey Province, Cuba, September 1, 1928. Family SCINCIDAE MABUYA AENEA (Gray) Tiliqua aenea Gray, Griffth’s Cuvier’s Animal Kingdom, vol. 9, Synops. Rept., p. 70, 1831. U.S.N.M. no. 79131, from Petit Martinique, Grenadines, August 21, 1929. This handsome specimen has the supranasals separated, 28 scale rows, and 54 scales from vent to chin. NO. 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN AS MABUYA SLOANII (Daudin) Scincus sloanet Daudin, Hist. Nat. Rept., vol. 4, p. 287, 1803. A much mutilated lizard, U.S.N.M. no. 81448, apparently of this species was taken on West Caicos on August 4, 1930. Its coloration is much like that of the type of nitida from San Domingo described by Garman. The supranasals in nitida are barely in contact ; in the lizard from West Caicos they are slightly separated; in the Puerto Rican examples of sloanii they are very broadly in contact. In the Puerto Rican and Hispaniolan forms the first supraocular is very minute, while the second is very large indeed. The specimen from West Caicos, although badly damaged about the head, nevertheless shows a fairly large first supraocular and a correspondingly reduced second supra- ocular. In this specimen one pair of enlarged nuchal scales is present, with a trace of a second pair in some fused scales on one side of the neck. With so little material from Hispaniola, and with this single injured specimen from the Bahamas, it is best to let the name Mabuya sloanti cover these forms until more material has given a conclusive decision about their status. Suborder SerPeNTEs Family BOIDAE EPICRATES ANGULIFER Bibron Epicrates angulifer Bibron in R. de la Sagra’s Hist. Cuba, Rept., p. 215, 1843. U.S.N.M. no. 75865, a shed skin of a snake of this species, was found at La Caridad de Mendoza, Senado, Camagtiey Province, Cuba, on September 2, 1928. BOA HORTULANA COOKII (Gray) Corallus cookit Gray, Zool. Misc., p. 42, 1842. For the two specimens, U.S.N.M. nos. 79097-8 from Quatres Island, Grenadines, taken August 17, 1929, I adopt the name proposed by Amaral (Mem. Inst. Butantan, vol. 4, p. 143, 1929). A careful inspection of scale counts of 29 West Indian examples of Boa appears to establish the fact that the number of scale rows in this region lies between 39 and 47, with over half of the specimens having either 41 or 43 scale rows. Those from the mainland appear to fall into two groups, one having 43 to 47 scale rows, the other 51 to 55. These two groups are found in separate geographical ranges, the first group occurring in Venezuela, British Guiana and Colombia, the second in Surinam, Brazil and Peru. As an intergrading probably occurs where the ranges come together in the Guianas, subspecific names are desir- 40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 able for both forms. The name of the northern mainland form appears to be applicable to the island species as well, since they do not seem to be separable by any valid characteristic. No. 79097, a male, has 39 scale rows, 260 ventrals, and 107 subcaudals ; no. 79098, a half-grown specimen, has 39 scale rows, 258 ventrals, and 108 subcaudals. .... The surprise, however, came when Pasqual came to me in consterna- tion, saying that he had seen a snake, so I hastened to the place and sure enough there was a slender black snake [see Drymobius boddaertti, U.S.N.M. no. 79099]. Later I asked Pasqual to get me an orchid in a large tree some distance above ground, and he almost fell off when he discovered another snake in the bunch of orchids. I could scarcely believe him, but handing him a stick had him poke it out and sure enough a slender, beautifully colored animal slipped out and sped along the branch. My .22 game-getter stopped him, but his tail was wound so tightly about a small limb that we had considerable trouble unwinding it. This species is evidently a splendid climber. Not 10 minutes later Pasqual, peeping into a broken-off limb hollowed out by decay, came near a second tumble as he bounced back with an “Ave Maria—una utra calebra.” He again poked him out and a shot from the .22 also dropped him, I hope we have a pair. TROPIDOPHIS MACULATUS MACULATUS (Bibron) Leionotus maculatus Bibron, in R. de la Sagra’s Hist. Cuba, Rept., p. 212, 1840. U.S.N.M. no. 75826 from La Sierra, north of Vega Alta, Santa Clara Province, August 14, 1928. TROPIDOPHIS MELANURUS (Schlegel) Boa melanura Schlegel, Ess. Phys. Serp., vol. 2, p. 399, 1837. U.S.N.M. no. 75828 from El Rinconada, Sierra Camagua, Cuba, August 27, 1928; no. 75839 from the Cubitas Mountains near Senado, Cuba, September 5, 1928; no. 76879 from Central Senado, Camaguey Province, Cuba, September 6, 1928. TROPIDOPHIS PARDALIS PARDALIS (Gundlach) Boa pardalis (part) Gundlach, Arch. Naturg., 1840, p. 359. A young snake attributed to this species is now U.S.N.M. no. 81536, from Double Headed Shot Cay of the Cay Sal Group taken on June 20, 1930. There are 23 scales around the middle of the body, 157 ventrals, a single anal, and 32 subcaudals. Family COLUBRIDAE TRETANORHINUS VARIABILIS Duméril and Bibron Tretanorhinus variabilis Duméril and Bibron, Erpét. Gén., vol. 7, p. 340, 1854. U.S.N.M. no. 75807 from Bafios San Vicente, Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba, June 21, 1928. NO. 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—-COCHRAN 47 DRYMOBIUS BODDAERTII BODDAERTII (Sentzen) Coluber boddaertii Sentzen, Meyer’s Zool. Arch., vol. 2, p. 50, 1796. U.S.N.M. no. 79225 from Los Robles, Margarita Island, September 8, 1929, has 17 scale rows, 181 ventrals, a divided anal, 82 subcaudals, g supralabials, oculars 1+ 2, temporals 2+4 2. DRYMOBIUS BODDAERTII BRUESI (Barbour) Alsophis bruesi Barbour, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 44, no. 2, p. 337, 1914. U.S.N.M. no. 79099, a female from Quatres Island, Grenadines, August 17, 1929; scales 17, ventrals 201, anal divided, caudals 125, supralabials 8, oculars 1+ 2, temporals I + 2. U.S.N.M. no. 79166, a male from Union Island, Grenadines, August 20, 1929; scales 17, ventrals 201, anal divided, caudals 125+tip, supralabials 9, oculars 1+ 2, temporals 1+4. U.S.N.M. no. 79161, a male from Caille Island, Grenadines, August 24, 1929; scales 17, ventrals 197, anal divided, caudals 128, supra- labials 9, oculars 1+2; temporals 1+ 2. U.S.N.M. no. 79191, a female from the Annandale Estate, Gren- ada, August 25, 1929; scales 17, ventrals 199, anal divided, caudals 115, supralabials 9, oculars 1+ 2, temporals 1 +2. U.S.N.M. no. 79193, a female from Baltazar, near the east coast of Grenada, August 25, 1929; scales 17, ventrals 204, anal divided, caudals 122, supralabials 9, oculars 1+ 2, temporals 142. This species, when found on the mainland, ordinarily has two anterior temporals, and Barbour’s original series of Alsophis bruesi from near St. George’s, Grenada, had “a large anterior temporal with almost always a small scale intercalated above it, anteriorly eeilta all of the National Museum specimens listed above—three of them from the Grenadines and two from Grenada—there is but one anterior temporal, and the intercalated small scale is lacking in every instance. ALSOPHIS ANGULIFER Bibron Alsophis angulifer Bibron, in R. de la Sagra’s Hist. Cuba, Rept., p. 222, 1840. U.S.N.M. no. 75830 from El Salto de la Tinaga, Camagtiey Prov- ince, Cuba, August 28, 1928. ALSOPHIS VUDII Cope Alsophis vudii Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1862, p. 74. On Flamingo Cays of the Ragged Island Group a snake of this species was collected on June 27, 1930, U.S.N.M. no. 81464. It has 17 scale rows, 164 ventrals, a divided anal, 128 caudals, 8 upper labials, oculars 1+2, temporals 1+3. It seems to be a normal individual in every way. 48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. Q2 LEIMADOPHIS ANDREAE Reinhardt and Liitken Leimadophis andreae Reinhardt and Litken, Vid. Med. Nat. For. Kjobenhavn, p. 214, 1862, (1863). U.S.N.M. no. 75808 from Bafios San Vicente, Pinar del Rio Prov- ince, Cuba, June 1, 1928; no. 75809 from Puerta del Ancon, Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba, June 29, 1928; no. 75827 from Macomento del Rio, Cuba, August 7, 1928 ; nos. 75844-5 from Rio San Juan, Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba, June 9, 1928. LEIMADOPHIS JULIAE (Cope) Aporophis juliae Cope, Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., vol. 18, p. 274, 1879. A young individual, U.S.N.M. no. 79022 from Danes, east of Ports- mouth, Dominica, August 4, 1929. Its scale formula is: Scales 17, ventrals 156, anal divided, caudals 82, supralabials 8, oculars 1+ 2, temporals 1+4. A female, no. 79025 from the Botanic Gardens in Rousseau, Dominica, August 6, 1929, has the following scale count: Scales 17, ventrals 159, anal divided, caudals 78, supralabials 8, oculars I + 2, temporals 1+ 2. RHINOSTOMA GUIANENSE (Troschel) Heterodon guianensis Troschel in Schomb. Reise Brit. Guiana, vol. 3, p. 653, 1848. U.S.N.M. no. 79224 from Los Robles, Margarita Island, September 8, 1929. This appears to be the first insular record for this species. The specimen in hand has 19 scale rows ; 191 ventrals ; anal undivided ; subcaudals 51+, the tail tip being defective ; temporals 2+ 3. Subclass SYNAPSIDA Order TESTUDINATA Family TESTUDINIDAE TESTUDO TABULATA Walbaum Testudo tabulata Walbaum, Chelonogr., p. 122, 1782. Unfortunately no example of this species reached the United States National Museum. As to its occurrence on two of the Grenadines, I quote the field notes made by Dr. Bartsch: Aug. 17,1929. Quatres Id., off Cheltenham. .... On returning, the pilot told us that there were land tortoises here and an enquiry brought three to me on our return, large clumsy beasts, for which I paid 50 cents..... Aug. 18, 1920. West side of Baliceaux Id..... I was greatly surprised to find here many of the land tortoises. I turned over half a dozen large ones, hoping to find them upon our downward trip, but we didn’t. They had righted themselves and taken shelter in the grass tufts or shrubbery. As it was, we carried five aboard. wn Pie SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 92, NUMBER 8 Santoro MERPON T LANGLEY (WiTH Six PLATEs) BY C. G. ABBOT Secretary, Smithsonian Institution (PUBLICATION 3281) GITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION AUGUST 22, 1934 The Lord Waltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U, 8 A. SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY By C. G. ABBOT Secretary, Smithsonian Institution (WitTH S1x PLateEs) August 22, 1934, marks the centenary of the birth of the third Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Samuel Pierpont Langley was born at Roxbury, near Boston, Massachusetts, August 22, 1834, and died at Washington, February 27, 1906. After his graduation from the Boston High School in 1851, he studied and practiced civil engineering and architecture until 1864. Then he traveled extensively in Europe, frequently visiting observatories and learned societies there. He and his brother, afterward Prof. John W. Langley, had long been ardent amateur astronomers, and being of mechanical tastes, they had constructed a small reflecting telescope. Returning from his European trip, the future Secretary devoted himself to astronomy. After a short assistantship at Harvard College Observatory and a very brief tenure as assistant professor of mathematics and director of the observatory at the Naval Academy at Annapolis, Md., he was in 1866 appointed director of the Allegheny Observatory, near Pittsburgh, and professor of physics in the Western University of Pennsylvania. He remained there for more than 20 years, during which his remark- able pioneering astronomical work along several different lines gave him a foremost standing in astronomy, along with that triumvirate of distinguished American astronomers of those days, Simon Newcomb, Edward C. Pickering, and Charles E. Young. He raised considerable revenue for the Allegheny Observatory by the then novel device of furnishing astronomical time to the Pennsylvania Railroad. The wealthy Pittsburgh philanthropist, William Thaw, was his helpful friend. By Langley’s encouraging advice, John A. Brashear, a steel worker, was transformed from a timid amateur mirror-grinder to the founder of that great optical concern, the John A. Brashear Optical Company, of Allegheny, Pa., and was ever his grateful friend and helper in preparing novel apparatus for his pioneering experiments. Owing to the failing health of the distinguished naturalist, Spen- cer F. Baird, second Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Langley SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 92, No. 8 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 was appointed Assistant Secretary in 1887. After Baird’s death, he was elected by the Board of Regents to be Secretary on November 18, 1887. He retained this position until his death, February 27, 1906. During his tenure, Secretary Langley founded the Astrophysical Ob- servatory, the National Zoological Park, the Regional Bureau for the United States of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, and the National Gallery of Art. He broke ground for the beautiful Natural History Building of the National Museum. His strong inter- est in children led him to set aside and beautify a special room for them in the Smithsonian Building, where the choicest specimens in zoology and geology were assembled to rouse their admiration and wonder. Several bequests came to the endowment of the Institution, notably the Hodgkins Fund for the study of atmospheric air. By annual journeys to Europe, Langley kept the Institution prominently before the eyes of Old World scientists and kept them informed at first hand of his notable researches in astrophysics and aviation. Langley was a man of varied and discriminating tastes in art and literature. As an author he showed great clarity of expression and delightful rhythm and choice in words. He could never satisfy his fastidious taste in composition, but continually altered and polished his writings up to the very last stage. Only in bound form could they elude his further alterations. Having a generous sense of humor, he found a special pleasure in reading the works of George Borrow. The novelist, William Dean Howells, was a valued friend, from whom he even took lessons in composition, so much did Langley admire the polished style of Howells’ writing. Though unmarried, Langley was a great favorite with children. T have seen him at the resort, Marshall Hall, swinging with two little girls, one on either knee, While he told them fairy stories. He was afflicted by great shyness, and like some others thus handicapped, he carried for the outer world a shell of hauteur, very unrepresentative of the warm heart within. A man of great accomplishment himself, he was often unfairly impatient with assistants, and would betray irascibility by unduly raising his voice when things did not get on to suit him. For these reasons many failed to understand the innate kindliness of the man, so well known to those in closest association with him. The older men of the Smithsonian Institution still remember many incidents illustrative of Langley’s character that would make delight- ful reading if they could be written without loss of flavor. He often told witty stories, or used bon mots to impress indelibly some point in no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 3 conversation. He was fond, for instance, of the expressions: “ Let sleeping dogs lie”’; “‘ The written word remains ” ; “ What has pos- terity done for us that we should care so much for the opinion of posterity? ’’ One day when he was going to some function he came hurriedly out of his room and said “ William, my hat.” The colored man ran and got his derby. “I said a HAT!” shouted Langley, as he threw the derby down the hall. He used always to have a messenger boy accompany him when he walked to outlying offices. As befitted his chief’s dignity, the boy always walked two paces behind, perhaps carrying an overcoat or a portfolio. In his youthful exuberance, and especially if some crony was looking on, the boy might cut some slightly disrespectful capers. But if so, he reckoned without his chief’s knowledge of optics. For observing the boy indistinctly by reflection from the rear of his glasses, Langley would turn around suddenly at a critical moment, to the boy’s great discomfiture. These little idiosyncrasies were a spice to us at the time, and endear the memory of our great chief as we look back over more than a quarter century. In the remainder of this memoir I propose to let Langley tell in his own words of some of his leading pioneer investigations. A list of the exact references to these articles will be found at the end of this paper. “ON THE MINUTE STRUCTURE OF THE SOLAR PHOTOSPHERE” ‘“ Before we turn with these aids to the study of the photosphere, it will be well to describe briefly appearances presented by the solar surface in telescopes of moderate size. “Here we see a disk of nearly uniform brightness, which is yet sensibly darker near the circumference than at the center. Usually seen relieved against this gray and near the edges, are elongated and irregular white patches (faculae), and at certain epochs trains of spots are scattered across the disk in two principal zones equidistant from the solar equator. On attentive examination it is further seen that the surface of the sun everywhere—even near the center and where commonly neither faculae nor spots are visible—is not absolutely uniform, but is made up of fleecy clouds, whose outlines are all but indistinguishable. The appearance of snow flakes which have fallen sparsely upon a white cloth, partly renders the impression, but no strictly adequate comparison can perhaps be found, as under more painstaking scrutiny, we discern numerous faint dots on the white ground, which seem to aid in producing the impression of a moss- 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 like structure in the clouds, still more delicate, and whose faint intri- cate outlines tease the eye, which can neither definitely follow them, nor analyze the source of its impression of their existence. ‘These appearances have been mentioned, lest they should be con- founded in any way with the far minuter structure now to be described. “Under high powers used in favorable moments, the surface of any one of the fleecy patches is resolved into a congeries of small, intensely bright bodies, irregularly distributed, which seem to be suspended in a comparatively dark medium, and whose definiteness of size and out- line, although not absolute, is yet striking by contrast with the vague- ness of the cloud-forms seen before, and which we now perceive to be due to their aggregation. The ‘dots’ seen before are considerable openings caused by the absence of the white nodules at certain points, and the consequent exposure of the gray medium which forms the general background. These openings have been called pores; their variety of size makes any measurements nearly valueless, though we may estimate in a very rough way the diameter of the more conspicu- ous at from 2” to 4”. The bright nodules are themselves not uni- formly bright (some being notably more brilliant than their fellows and even unequally bright in portions, of the same nodule), neither are they uniform in shape. They have just been spoken of as rela- tively definite in outline, but this outline is commonly found to be irregular on minute study, while it yet affects, as a whole, an elongated or oval contour. Mr. Stone has called them rice-grains, a term only descriptive of their appearance with an aperture of three to four inches, but which I will use provisionally. It depicts their whiteness, their relative individuality, and their approximate form, but not their irregular outline, nor a certain tendency to foliate structure which is characteristic of them, and which has not been sufficiently remarked upon. This irregularity and diversity of outline have been already observed by Mr. Huggins. Estimates of the mean size of these bodies vary very widely. Probably Mr. Huggins has taken a judicious mean in averaging their longer diameter at 1”.5, and their shorter at 1”, while remarking that they are occasionally between 2” and 3” and sometimes less than 1” in length. .... “Tn moments of rarest definition I have resolved these ‘ rice- grains’ into minuter components, sensibly round, which are seen singly as points of light, and whose aggregation produces the ‘ rice- grain’ structure. These minutest bodies, which I will call granules,’ 1 As this word is already in use, with another meaning, attention should be given to the restricted and definite significance which is here assigned to it. no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 5 it will appear subsequently can hardy equal 0”.3 in diameter, and are probably less. (Secchi is the only observer, as far as I know, who appears to have seen and measured them. He observed them in the edges of the pores, and reckons their size at ”.4 to "4, but does not estimate their number or point out their relations to the ‘ rice-grains.’ ) They are irregularly distributed, with a tendency to aggregation in little clusters (the clusters being the rice-grains), and their existence accounts for the diversity and irregularity in the outline of the latter, Mr. Huggins has acutely remarked upon, while it of course makes clear the reason of the apparent increase in the number of ‘ rice- grains ’ with increasing telescopic power. ‘We are now prepared to study the minute structure of the photo- sphere under another aspect, as it appears in the spots. It is impos- sible to make such a drawing as that here given from any single de- lineation, owing to the rapidity with which spots change their form. I have accordingly, while taking the general contour and many details from drawings of the great spot of March 5 and 6, 1873, added the results of numerous studies of detail in other spots, made during the past two years..... “To represent the gradations of light from the intensest splendor to the darkness of the nuclei, we have here only the limited range between a white and a black pigment. This almost compels partial falsity in the degrees of shade, and there is, for instance, in the draw- ing, a relative exaggeration of the shade which marks the outer boundary of the penumbra, and without which the important details - would be hardly visible. “Tt is practically impossible, in the brief intervals of perfect defint- tion during which such work can be carried on, to so multiply mi- crometric measurements, that from their concordance any idea of their probable error is obtainable by the usual treatment. Measure- ments taken at different times, and on different parts of the penumbra, by counting the number of filaments in a given space, give from o”.7 to 1”.0 as the average distance from center to center of parallel filaments separated by scarcely measurable intervals ; at the same time that the distance in some parts is greater, it is in others much less. “ Solar cyclones, which, even without the aid of the spectroscope, we see are incomparably more violent than our own tropical tornados, act on the filaments without destroying their identity. It is probable 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 that both the filaments and the granules I have so minutely described, may hereafter be resolved into smaller components still, but their per- sistent individuality as a whole under such disturbance, impresses me as a most striking feature, and one for which, under similar circum- stances, we have no exact analogy in our own meteorology. “Are these round, nearly central openings, so that looking into one we are looking into the axis of the cyclone to which the spot is due— into the vortex of the great whirl down which the chromospheric vapors are being sucked by mechanical action? Are they ragged aper- tures—the craters as it were of eruptions whence metallic vapors are being forced up? The answer to this question, were there but these two alternatives, would be definitive as to our choice between the prin- cipal theories of solar circulation.” Dr. George E. Hale has told me that the better he perceives by photography or vision with the great outfits at Pasadena and Mount Wilson the features of sun spots and the photosphere, the more do they approach Langley’s drawings and descriptions of them. It is interesting to add that photography has plainly shown that high-lying solar clouds of matter are indeed sucked into the umbrae of sun spots just as Langley suggested. * THE TOTAL “SOLAR: -ECLIPSE (OF SJULY 229 e878: OBSERVATIONS AT PIKE’S PEAK, COLORADO” “Upon the 22d Prof. John W. Langley arrived, and, as the rain poured freely through the roof upon the boxes which lay in the wet, as the best means of protecting the telescope, we mounted it in the open air on a partly level spot of a few feet square some yards from the hut. Procuring some lard from the kitchen, I covered every part of the steel-work with it, and wrapped the.instrument in a piece of canvas. Upon the 23d Prof. Cleveland Abbe, of the Signal Service, arrived, and on the same evening two tents were pitched, which had been sent by the order of General Myer. There was no piece of level ground or rock large enough to lie upon; but we procured some logs which had been brought up for fire-wood, and, laying these between the bowlders, spread on them a sack of hay for each, and blankets which had been brought up in the rain; these were all damp, and our first night under canvas in a cold and high wind was not agreeable, particularly as the difficulty of breathing decidedly increased rather than diminished. In the morning all of the party were ill. The day was passed in fruitless attempts to adjust the equatorial. In the morn- €Z8L ‘AYOLVAYSSEO ANFAHD3AT11V LV ASISONV I ‘d ‘S AS AGVYW LOdS NNS 430 ONIMVAG ee) ae > PS ed Awe. @ “Id ‘8 “ON ‘26 “10A SNOILOA1100 SNOANVIISOSIN NVINOSHLINS no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 7 ing the canvas which covered it was frozen and loaded with hail. A little later the sun shone out suddenly and with surprising warmth, turning the hail to water. I commenced unwrapping the canvas, and was lifting it off, when the sun disappeared as suddenly as it came out, and, before I could put the cover on again, it was hailing once more, and we were involved in dense cloud. This cloud was continu- ous, except for several brief moments of sunshine, during which I uncovered the instrument several times to no purpose. I may say briefly that this was nearly the history of the weather for the ensuing week, during which we had several clear sunrises and sunsets, but in the course of which neither Professor Abbe nor myself got so much as the requisite observations for adjusting our equatorials, which re- mained on the day of the eclipse in the position in which they were first set up. During the first days, our illness increased, and, with a great difficulty of breathing and greatly increased action of the heart, we felt constant and severe headache, and nearly every symptom which attends sea-sickness. Exertion was extremely difficult, and that of building the stone piers for the heliostat, photometer, and other instruments for which we had at first no assistance, was carried on only by a very strong effort of will as well as of strength. “Not to enlarge on the personal discomforts of a week which we all had reason to wish over, I may add that towards its close Pro- fessor Abbe’s condition gave us cause for alarm. His symptoms were the same as my brother’s and my own, but much aggravated, and while we grew rather better, he grew worse, and upon Sunday morning he was unable to rise. At this time the tents were not the place for an invalid. The snow, which had blown into one during the night and spread thickly over one of the sleepers, I remember finding ten inches deep beside me when I woke. Professor Abbe’s own resolution to stay, if possible, was unaltered; but one of our party, a physician, pro- nouncing his life endangered by another day, he was, on the evening of the 28th, put into a litter and carried down to a lower altitude, where his recovery was rapid. “ The morning of the 29th was clear, and the whole of the impor- tant day was a complete contrast to its predecessors, the sky being almost cloudless and of a deep and transparent blue never seen near the Atlantic coast... .. “I pass over phenomena preceding totality, observed by myself, as of little value, with a reference to the letters of Messrs. Shields and Manning, given below. At the moment of totality I removed the dark glass. 2 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 “As original records of an observation are trustworthy in propor- tion as they have been presented in their first crude state, I endeavor to give the impressions as they rose in my mind, and will comment on them later. My first impression, then, of the corona was, ‘It is not so bright as those I have seen before’; my second, * but it is far more extended.’ I had before me a sheet of drawing-paper with a 8-inch circle on it to represent the sun, and on this I traced an out- line (Plate 3, Fig. 1) of what I then saw, before the eye had recov- ered its sensibility. The sun was surrounded by a narrow ring— hardly more than a line—of vivid light, presenting to the naked eye no trace of structure ; which faded with great suddenness into a nebu- lous luminosity that at first appeared to extend to a distance of about two and one-half solar diameters all around. ... . “There were but a few moments left when I turned to the telescope. It happened to be directed toward the northern part of the sun. I adjusted the eye-piece for distinct vision, which appeared excellent, but the view after this lasted, I think, not more than four or five seconds before totality was over. What I saw thus momentarily was not in the least what I expected. If there were any structure in the very inner corona, it had escaped me when I had searched for it in a previous eclipse (Jeres, in 1870). It is true that the sky was hazy on that occasion, and that on this it was exquisitely clear. Now what I saw in this brief view was a surprisingly definite filamentary struc- ture * somewhat coarser and decidedly more sharply defined than I have ever seen filaments in the photosphere, not disposed radially, or only so in the rudest sense, sharpest and much the brightest close to the disc, fading rapidly away into invisibility at a distance of five minutes of arc or more (possibly in some cases of ten). The salient point to me was this very remarkable definiteness and precision of these forms, and this impression, made on my mind in that too brief moment, is reproduced in this sketch (Plate 3, Fig. 3), taken from one made within ten minutes of the event. It is in no way a ‘ picture’ but a reproduction of the original memorandum of the first impres- * The action which produces these definite forms goes on over the surface of a sphere, in reality, and not a disc, and they are doubtless presented to us under all possible foreshortenings, and, questionless, lie one behind and across another, so that, a priori one would expect they would obscure one another, and that such definiteness would not, in fact, exist. But, to me, the actual appearance was very much like that which we might have if the sun were not a globe at all, but a flat disc, fringed with such threads. Doubtless, there was really an intricate cross- hatching of them, and various obscurer forms might have been made out with time for study. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOE. 92, NO. 8, PEs TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, JULY 29TH, 1878, PIKE’S PEAK, COLORADO Drawings by S. P. Langley No. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 9 sion of the features of the (telescopic) inner corona, which were, to repeat: (1) Extraordinary sharpness of filamentary structure ; (2) arrangement not radial, or only so in the rudest sense; (3) gen- erally curved, not straight lines; (4) curved in different directions ; (5) very bright close to the edge, and fading very rapidly—fading out wholly at from 5 to 10 minutes from it.” “THE BOLOMETER AND RADIANT ENERGY” “ Our knowledge of the distribution of heat in the solar spectrum really begins with this century and the elder Herschel, . . . “ No one, so far as I know, has hitherto succeeded in measuring the heat from a diffraction grating except in the gross, . . “ T have tried at intervals for the past four years to do this, and having long familiarity with the many precautions to be used in deli- cate measures with the thermopile, and a variety of specially sensitive piles, had flattered myself with the hope of succeeding better than my predecessors. I found, however, that though I got results, they were too obscure to be of any great value, and that science possessed no instrument which could deal successfully with quantities of radiant heat so minute. ‘“‘T have entered into these preliminary remarks as an explanation of the necessity for such an instrument as that which I have called the Bolometer (BoaAn, perpov), or Actinic Balance, to the cost of whose experimental construction I have meant to devote the sum the Rum- ford Committee did me the honor of proposing that the Academy should appropriate. ‘“Tmpelled by the pressure of this actual necessity, I therefore tried to invent something more sensitive than the thermopile, which should be at the same time equally accurate—which should, I mean, be es- sentially a ‘ meter’ and not a mere indicator of the presence of feeble radiation. This distinction is a radical one. It is not difficult to make an instrument far more sensitive to radiation than the present, if it is for use as an indicator only; but what the physicist wants, and what I have consumed nearly a year of experiment in trying to supply, is something more than an indicator—a measurer of radiant energy. “ The earliest design was to have two strips of thin metal, vir- tually forming arms of a Wheatstone’s Bridge, placed side by side in as nearly as possible identical conditions as to environment, of which one could be exposed at pleasure to the source of radiation. As it was warmed by this radiation and its electric resistance proportionally increased over that of the other, this increased resistance to the flow IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 of the current from a battery would be measured (by the disturbance of the equality of the ‘ bridge’ currents) by means of a galvanometer. “This promptness in the action of the metal strip gives it a great advantage over the thermopile for measures of precision. But, beside this, the deflection produced by the single strip and bridge is greater than that from the thermopile, if the element of time enter into the comparison, and still more if the relative areas exposed to radiation be considered. “Although (for the reasons just cited) far from as sensitive as we can make it, such a strip then is yet more sensitive than the pile. A number of thermopiles, selected as the most sensitive in the writer’s collection, have been exposed to the same source of radiation, placed at the same distance as in the previous experiments. They were . as follows: “A. Large thermopile, by Elliott (Tyndall-lecture pattern), com- posed of sixty-three couples, .... “B. Very sensitive thermopile of extra small elements (16 couples) ¥2 295, “C. Delicate linear thermopile (7 couples). Working face about I mm. by 10 mm. =10 sq. mm “S. The iron strip, which was about 7 mm. by .176 mm. and whose working face was therefore about I sq. mm.... . “ The time of exposure was about five seconds for the thermopiles and about one-half this for the strip, the latter time corresponding to the rapid swing of the (designedly) insensitive galvanometer. “Tn the table, the first column gives the name of instrument; the second, the cross-section of the beam of radiant heat which is received upon it; the third is the actual deflection in galvanometer divisions ; and the fourth the deflection for each square millimetre of exposed SUrlaCes che. 4. Area Deflection Instrument sq. mm. div. Sensitiveness Pe retention 240 211 Oo Bie reich eter ete 34 125 E77, Ci ae kere 10 147 14.7 STR aetececastereire resaaeheie rele I 204 204.0 “After nearly a year’s labor (I began these researches systemati- cally in December 1879), I have procured a trustworthy instrument. It aims, as will have been inferred from the preceding remarks, to use the radiant energy, not to develop force directly as in the case of the no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 11 pile, but indirectly, by causing the feeble energy of the ray to modulate the distribution of power from a practically unlimited source. “To do this I roll*® steel, platinum, or palladium into sheets of from 1/100 to 1/500 of a millimetre thickness ; cut from these sheets strips one millimetre wide and one centimetre long, or less ; and unite these strips so that the current from a battery of one or more Daniell’s cells passes through them. The strips are in two systems, arranged somewhat like a grating; and the current divides, one half passing through each, each being virtually one of the arms of a Wheatstone’s Bridge. The needle of a delicate galvanometer remains motionless when the two currents are equal. But when radiant heat (energy ) falls on one of the systems of strips, and not on the other, the cur- rent passing through the first is diminished by the increased resis- tance; and, the other current remaining unaltered, the needle is deflected by a force due to the battery directly, and mediately to the feeble radiant heat, which, by warming the strips by so little as 1/10o00 of a degree Centigrade, is found to produce a measurable deflection. A change in their temperature of I/100000 degree can, I believe, be thus noted; and it is evident that from the excessive thin- ness of the strips (in English measure from 1/2000 to 1/12500 inches thick) they take up and part with the heat almost instantly. The instrument is thus far more prompt than the thermopile; and it is also, I believe, more accurate, as under favorable circumstances the probable error of a single measure with it is less than one percent. When the galvanometer is adjusted to extreme instability, the prob- able error of course is larger; but I have repeated a number of Melloni’s measurements with the former result. “T call the instrument provisionally the ‘ Bolometer,’ or ‘Actinic Balance,’ because it measures radiations and acts by the method of the ‘ bridge’ or ‘balance,’ there being always two arms, usually in juxtaposition, and exposed alike to every similar change of tempera- ture arising from surrounding objects, air-currents, etc., so that the needle is (in theory at least) only affected when radiant heat, from which one balance-arm is shielded, falls on the other. “The first measures, on nearly homogeneous rays in the diffrac- tion (reflection) spectrum, ever taken by any one that I know of, were * Experiments are now in progress with still thinner films of metal produced by electrical or by chemical deposition. I have had the good fortune in experi- ments now making in this direction, to secure the aid of Professor A. W. Wright of Yale College, and of Mr. Outerbridge of the United States Mint at Philadelphia. 12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 taken by this instrument on Oct. 7, 1880, used with an extremely delicate reflecting galvanometer by Elliot, of about 20 ohms resistance and a reflecting grating on speculum metal by Mr. Rutherford of 681 ° lines to the millimetre. Measures have been taken every fair day since, the source of energy being the sun. .... The ‘ Balance’ then, whose acting face is only about 1/30 the length of the visible spectrum, and less than 1/1oo the length within which energy is found in a degree sufficient for it to measure, receives nearly homogeneous rays (which have passed through no absorbing medium whatever except the solar and terrestrial atmos- pheres), and this extremely minute amount of heat is found to give a galvanometer deflection of some hundred divisions, where thermo- piles have hitherto failed to register any (on homogeneous rays). “". . . They are hitherto unpublished, and they at least, though as yet approximate, show that the heat maximum in a normal spectrum is not im the ultra-red, but is at least as far up the spectrum as the orange near D; and this result may be relied on, any smaller values below A=.0007, as well as all favorable atmospheric circumstances (high sun, blue sky, etc.), rather tending to move it toward the violet.” “ON THE AMOUNT OF THE ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION ” ‘Let us first suppose the radiation of the heavenly body to be really composed before absorption of two portions, A and B. Let A have a special coefficient of transmission (a), and B another, special to itself (b). Then, if we assume (still for considerations of con- venience only) that each of these portions, is, separately considered, homogeneous, we may write down the results in the form of two geo- metrical progressions, thus: TABLE I Radiation received after ne absorption By four Original by one By two By three strata, radiation Ratio stratum strata strata etc. A a Aa Aad Aad Aa* B b Bb Bb? Bb Bb* A+B Aa + Bb Ad@ + BB? Aa’ + Bb? Aa* + Bb* = (M) =(N) = (O) = (P) no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 13 “ Then will Aa+ Bb Aa?+Bb2 . Aa?+Bb? ~ Aat+Bb* ASB Aa+ Bb Aa?+ Bb? ~ Aa*?+Bb° and <2ab. 14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 Moreover since a2+b2—2ab=(a—b)?*, the error increases with the difference between the coefficients. “Now, in the general case, if we suppose the original radiation L to be composed before absorption, of any number of parts Ay, A» 2) As, +... . having respectively the coefficients of absorption ay, ds, a3, + .... the true value of L is given by a series of fractions which may be written in the form = (Aa)? he ee =A Aa? whereas the value of the original energy by the customary formula would be _ 3(Aa)? 7 SAG? so that, all the quantities being positive, by a known theorem, IL >Ly, and for the'same walues'of Ay, Ag; As, fi. « this inequality is greater, the greater the difference in the values of the coefficients C1, Ge, As, . “ But this is stating in other words that the true values, found by observing separate coefficients of transmission, are always greater than those found when we do not distinguish between the radiations of which the light (or heat) of the star or sun is composed, and also that the amount by which the true values are greater, increases with the difference between the coefficients. “We have stated above that the usual hypothesis makes the coef- ficient of transmission a constant. It will be seen from the above table, however, that it varies from one stratum to the next; that it is least when obtained by observations near the zenith; and that it increases progressively as we approach the horizon.” “RESEARCHES ON SOLAR HEAT AND ITS ABSORPTION BY THE. EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE. A REPORT OF THE MOUNT WHITNEY EXPEDITION.” “Tf the observation of the amount of heat the sun sends the earth is among the most important and difficult in astronomical physics, it may also be termed the fundamental problem of meteorology, nearly all whose phenomena would become predictable, if we knew both the original quantity and kind of this heat ; how it affects the constituents of the atmosphere on its passage earthward ; how much of it reaches the soil; how, through the aid of the atmosphere, it maintains the no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY ABBOT I5 surface temperature of this planet; and how, in diminished quantity and altered kind, it is finally returned to outer space. “. ... Weare trying to estimate the amount of solar heat before absorption (the solar constant). “Could we ascend above the atmosphere, this heat might be directly measured. Evidently, since this is impossible, and since we can only observe the portion which filters down to us after absorption, we must add to this observed remnant a quantity equal to that which the atmosphere has taken out, in order to reproduce the original amount. “ To find what it has taken out, we must study the action in detail, and, from the knowledge thus gained frame a rule or formula which shall enable us to infer the loss since we cannot directly determine it. “Tt is because the exact determination of the solar constant thus presupposes a minute knowledge of the way in which the sun’s heat is affected by the earth’s atmosphere; and because every change in our atmosphere comes from this same heat, that the solution of the problem interests meteorology as well as astronomical physics. “.. . . Let us consider what the problem appears to be at a first glance, and what the first suggestion is for solving it. If a beam of sunlight enters through a crevice in a dark room, the light is partly interrupted by the dust particles in the air, the apartment is visibly illuminated by the light reflected from them, and the direct beam having lost something by this process, is not so bright after it has crossed the room as before it entered it. If a quarter of the light was thus scattered, and the beam after it crossed the room would be but three-fourths as bright as when it entered it, and if we were to trace the now diminished beam through a second apartment alto- gether like the other, it seems at first reasonable to suppose that the same proportion, or three-fourths of the remainder, would be trans- mitted, and so on, and that the light would be the same kind of light as before, and only diminished in amount. The assumption originally made by Bouguer * and followed by Herschel and Pouillet was that it was in this manner that the solar heat was interrupted by our atmos- phere, and that by using such a simple progression the original heat could be calculated. “ Now, it is no doubt true that a very sensible portion of light and heat are scattered by an analogous process in our atmosphere ; but we have in our present knowledge to consider that heat is not a simple emanation, but a compound of an infinite number of radiations, and that these are affected in an infinite diversity of ways by the different “Bouguer, Traité de la lumiére. Paris, 1760. 16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 atmospheric agents, the grosser dust particles affecting them nearly all alike, or with a general absorption; the minuter ones beginning to act selectively, or, on the whole, more at one end of the spectrum than another ; smaller particles, whether of dust or mist, and smaller still, forming a probably continuous sequence of more and more selective action down almost to the actual molecule, whose action is felt in the purely selective absorption of some single ray. “ The effect of the action of the grosser particles then is to pro- duce a general and comparatively indifferent absorption of all rays, so that the spectrum after such an absorption would simply seem less bright or less hot. The effect of the smaller ones is, as has just been said, to act more at one end of the spectrum than another, with a pro- gressive absorption, so that the quality of the radiation is sensibly affected as well as its quantity. The effect of the molecular absorption is to fill the spectrum with evidences of the selective action in the form of the dark telluric lines, taking out some kinds of light and heat and not others, so that after absorption what remains is not only less in amount but quite altered in kind. ... . “The writer has demonstrated that in neglecting to observe ap- proximately homogeneous rays we not only commit an error, but an error which always has the same sign, and that the absorption thus found is always too small. He accordingly devoted much time to the construction of an instrument (the bolometer, which will be described in its place) for the special study of such heat rays, and, with this, observations were carried on in the years 1880 and 1881 at Allegheny, with the conclusions which have just been stated. With this instru- ment the heat in some approximately homogeneous ray (that is in some separate pencil of rays of nearly the same wave-length) is mea- sured in the pure and normal spectrum at successive hours of the day, and the calculation of the absorption on Bouguer’s principle (justly applicable to strictly homogeneous waves) gives the heat out- side the atmosphere in this approximately homogeneous portion with a degree of approximation, depending on the actual minuteness of the part examined. The process is then repeated on another limited set of rays, and another, until the separate percentage and the separate original heat is found for each heat pencil directly or by interpolation, and then finally the whole heat, by the summing of its parts, the result being that the solar constant is much greater than it was believed to be, and the absorption of the atmosphere much greater. ‘Toward the close of 1880 it had already become clear that the gain in our knowledge by repeating the observations then in prog- SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL Oo 2 INOS 8 apes 4: MOUNTAIN CAMP, MOUNT WHITNEY From a sketch by T. Moran ; Of ena oe Ea en ae 7 a a a a ee a ee a ee ee Ne Pe eae no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT WwW, ress at the Allegheny Observatory, at the base and at the summit of a lofty mountain, would justify the labor and expense of such an undertaking. There would have been little probability, however, of such a plan being carried out by the Observatory, were it not for the generosity of a citizen of Pittsburgh [William Thaw], who placed at its disposal the considerable means demanded for the outfit of an expedition for this purpose. “Upon the objects of the expedition and their bearings upon meteorology becoming known to the Chief Signal Officer of the United States Army, he consented to give it the advantage of his official direction and the aid of Signal Service Observers, and upon the reasons which made the choice of its objective point in a remote part of the United States territory being approved by him, he con- tributed further material aid in transportation. ... . Finally, upon the advice of Mr. Clarence King, and with the concurrently fav- orable opinion of officers of the Coast Survey and others familiar with that region, Mount Whitney, in the Sierra Nevada Range of Southern California—approximate longitude, 118°30'(7h.54m.) ; lati- tude, 36°35’—was found to be, on the whole, most desirable. Its height was known to be between 14,000 and 15,000 feet. Its eastern slopes are so precipitous that two stations can be found within 12 miles, visible from each other, and whose difference of elevation is 11,000 feet, and it rises from and overlooks one of the most desert regions of the continent, while its summit is almost perpetually clear during June, July, August, and September.” On account of limitations of space, it is impossible to give by quota- tions a fair idea of this extraordinary expedition. Space even for- bids that we should quote from the inspiring description Langley gives of the expedition, its guard of soldiers, the desert journey, the insuf- ferable heat under which observations were nevertheless made at Lone Pine, the ascent of the mountain, its grandeur, the dark blue of its cloudless sky, the long delays waiting for the mule train and instru- ments, and the observations at Mountain Camp. Many kinds of observations were carried through. Measurements of total radiation of the solar beam by the globe and the Violle actinometers ; measurements of homogeneous solar rays by the linear spectrobolometer ; measurements of the brightness of the sky by day and by night ; measurements of the temperature and humidity of the air at frequent intervals; barometric measurements for determining the then only approximately known elevation of Mount Whitney ; 18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 measurements of the percentage of carbonic acid in the atmosphere. Besides all these, even other types of measurements were made in profusion at Lone Pine, at Mountain Camp, and to some extent on the peak of Mount Whitney. The reduction of this immense mass of evidence was a task which occupied Langley’s small force for two years, though it included the immortal Keeler and the assiduous Very. The great object was to determine the transparency of the atmosphere with such certainty, by these operations in one of the purest atmos- pheres of the world, as to fix the value of the solar constant of radia- tion. Langley thought to check the determination by computing from the results at Lone Pine what ought to be found on Mount Whitney. No less than a fifth of the atmosphere lay between these observing stations. Unfortunately Langley was misled by this apparently rea- sonable idea. For at Lone Pine he measured the average transparency for all atmospheric layers to the limit of the atmosphere, a trans- parency obviously greater than that of the more humid and dusty layers between him and Mountain Camp. He could not fairly use his average results at Lone Pine to compute, as he did, what ought to be observed at Mountain Camp. By this error of logic, aggravated by a moderate plus error in the absolute readings of his actinometers, | Langley persuaded himself that the Mount Whitney Expedition indi- cated 3.07 calories per square centimeter per minute as the solar con- stant of radiation, a value more than 50 percent too high. His justly great authority maintained this erroneous value for more than 20 years. But it is not this unfortunate aspect of the reduction of Mount Whitney observations, but the tremendous driving power and fertility of invention of this astonishing pioneer that should fix our attention. He practiced for the first time what the problem demanded, namely: occupation of a high-level desert station, observations of both total radiation and homogeneous rays, and their combination after a definite method. These essentials are still the basis of solar-constant work. He traced and accurately outlined the energy spectrum of the sun far beyond all previous observers. He obtained for the first time accurate transmission coefficients for homogeneous rays. In short, Langley by the Mount Whitney Expedition set up the ideal toward which all later observers strive to approximate. “THE TEMPERATURE OF THEMOON | “That the moon gives light, but no sensible heat, has been a matter of observation even by the unaided senses of the primitive man, no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT Ig and the idea that we should expect heat to be associated with the light seems to be essentially a modern one. This modern view, until very recently, has been that the light of the moon penetrated to us, while the rays which give only heat were kept back by our own atmosphere. Melloni, the most conspicuous early asserter of our present doctrine that radiant heat and light are but different manifestations of the same energy, was led to pursue his lunar heat work on Mount Vesu- vius by these a priori considerations, and his perseverance was justi- fied by obtaining finally most minute yet real indications of heat. Save the observations of Piassi Smyth on the Peak of Teneriffe, and of M. Marie-Davy in France, we shall find, however, that with the excep- tion of Lord Rosse, of the persons who have sought to observe the heated moon, nearly all have left only records of failure or of purely imaginary and therefore misleading, successes. “Lord Rosse’s work excels greatly in importance that of his prede- cessors, as he not only obtained unquestionable evidence of lunar heat, but was able to make the important generalization that since a con- siderable part of this is intercepted by glass, a great deal of the moon’s heat is probably radiated from her soil. As regards the temperature of the sunlit surface of the moon, Lord Rosse determined in his first paper that it ranges through 500° of the Fahrenheit scale; but in a subsequent memoir in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society for 1873, this range is stated to be more nearly 200° Fahren- heit, a large error having crept into the previous work. The assiduous labor of observation and the instrumental means employed in these researches have acquired great and deserved repute; but few per- haps have noticed minutely that in the computation of the ratio of solar to lunar radiation, the error of assumption is made that all, or nearly all, of the invisible heat is stopped by glass, with other postu- lates equally inadmissible in the light of our present knowledge. We must, then, while rendering a tribute of respect and even admiration to the conscientious labors of observation and reduction point out that some of the values derived from them by their author must be revised, as resting on assumptions which the progress of science has contradicted. “In a previous memoir” we have given the results of various experiments in regard to the distribution of light in the lunar spectrum °On the Temperature of the Surface of the Moon, Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. III. 3 20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 together with bolometric measurements of the total lunar radiation and its transmission, which we here briefly summarize. “Experiment showed that the moon sends us a little more than 1/100000 part of the heat which we receive from the sun. Of this lunar radiation we found at the beginning of December only 14 per- cent transmitted by a specimen of glass which allowed over 75 percent of the solar rays to pass. An ebonite disk, which was almost com- pletely opaque to light, transmitted 32 percent of the solar and only 7 percent of the lunar radiation. Very little difference was found in the apparent transmission of the solar and of the lunar beam by the earth’s atmosphere as inferred from comparisons at high and low altitudes above the horizon. ‘Photometric spectral comparisons showed that sunlight is much richer in the violet rays than moonlight, indicating a selective reflec- tion by the lunar surface, which, however, becomes less marked as the red end of the spectrum is approached. “Comparisons, made in the month of December, 1884, between the total radiation of the moon and that from a blackened vessel of hot water, subtending the same angle, showed that the heating effect of the moon (as received through our absorbing atmosphere) could be replaced by the (unabsorbed) heat of a lamp-blacked surface at about +80°C., or 353°C. above absolute zero. A part of the lunar radia- tion is reflected from the sun and a part never reaches us, being absorbed by the atmosphere. Due allowance for the former would diminish, and for the latter would increase, the indicated lunar tem- perature; but owing to the selective character of the reflection to which we have already alluded, to our ignorance of the moon's emis- sive power, and to the fact that the radiations of our atmosphere itself are of a wave-length similar to a considerable part of those we now study, no precise deduction can be made... . . “We have in the last three years pursued these researches with constantly improving instrumental means, and the following pages are a description of them and of the results. It will be seen that the great labor bestowed on them has been given, not to determine a point of abstract or merely theoretical interest, but that it is justified by the fact that the whole subject of terrestrial radiation, the temperature of the surface of our planet, and the conditions of organic life upon it are intimately related to that of our present research. The entire radiation of the soil of our earth towards space goes on in a spectral region of which we have hitherto known nothing. These observations, in connection with those recently published on invisible spectra and no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 21 the wave-lengths of extreme infra-red rays° give us our first knowl- edge of this terra incognita. I say ‘knowledge,’ with the admission that this knowledge is as yet alloyed with those imperfections which are inherent in the most painstaking work in an utterly new field. All here is so new that the difficulties themselves are of a quite unfamiliar kind ; for it is well to bear in mind that though all our observations, from first to last, are made on an amount of heat which may be well called infinitesimal, it is still the kind of radiations which produce this heat rather than the amount which forms the greatest difficulty. This, as we shall see, is because this heat seems to be largely that absorbed and reradiated from the substance of the lunar soil, and whose temperature is consequently so low as to be in constant danger of being confused with the heat from the terrestrial media it has passed and from the different parts of the apparatus itself—a difficulty which, when the thing in question is to ordinary sense both invisible and inappreciable, constitutes an obstacle almost insurmountable, when we design to go beyond those features which Lord Rosse succeeded in noting. We notice, in particular, that however successfully we may protect our apparatus from the radiations of surrounding objects, we must always, in the nature of the case, either actually or virtually, interpose a screen at intervals to interrupt the heat we are measuring. In ordinary spectrothermal work, as in that on the sun, the radiations of this screen are perfectly negligible, and would be so if the sun’s heat, while the same in kind as now, were no greater in amount than the moon’s. Here, on the contrary, because they are of the same hind as those radiated from the moon’s cold surface, they become of the first importance, so that a special study of the radiation of the screen becomes a necessity. “ There are three principal methods of investigation: First, the measurement of the total heat of the moon with a concave mirror of short focus, concentrating it as much as possible and admitting the interposition of a sheet of glass to rudely indicate the quality of lunar rays as compared with those of the sun. This method, which was that employed by Lord Rosse, has been very thoroughly practiced here with results which have been partly given in the previous memoir. The sec- ond method has been to form, usually with this same mirror, an image of the moon, but this now falls upon the slit of a special spectroscope *See Am. Journ. of Sci., XXXII, August, 1886, ‘On Hitherto Unrecognized Wave-Lengths’; also an article in Annales de Chim. et de Phys:, 6:ser., 1. EX; December, 1886, ‘Sur les spectres invisibles.’ 22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 provided with a train of rock-salt lenses and a salt prism of excep- tional size and purity; and after expanding this excessively minute heat in this way it has been found possible, with late improvements in the apparatus, to measure by the bolometer the different degrees of heat in the different parts of this lunar spectrum; and the doing of this, with its results, forms the principal subject of the present memoir. _.. Third. Since such a mirror as that just mentioned, owing to its short focus, forms an extremely small lunar image, in certain observations, carried on, however, only during a limited time, we have taken advantage of the sensitiveness of our apparatus to explore a large lunar image with the bolometer in spite of the diminished heat in such a one. For this purpose a special mirror 303 mm in diameter and 3,137 mm focus, giving a lunar image of about 30 mm diameter, has been employed.’ On the special occasion of a lunar eclipse the last-named apparatus has also been used. . . . . . . . . . “ Tet it be remembered that every observation on radiant heat, how- ever conducted, whether by the thermometer, the bolometer or thermo- pile, on the sun or moon, or on a neighboring candle—every observa- tion in radiant heat, we repeat, involves the use of a screen at some stage in the process ; since its use is inherent from the very nature of the observation. Again, let it be remembered that, in this peculiar case, the screen itself not only intercepts other rays, but contributes radiations of its own of like quality and amount to those which we would study, and the importance of the investigation to be shortly given on its theory becomes manifest. It will be seen later that the screen is used as little as possible, and that to this end every observa- tion on the moon is preceded by one on the adjacent sky to the east and followed by one on the adjacent sky to the west; and that the lunar radiation is compared in every case immediately with the mean of the last two and only mediately with that of the screen, whose use we might here appear to be able to dispense with, but which is in fact imposed upon us, we repeat, at some time in the course of the observa- tions by conditions inherent in the nature of the observations themselves. . . . . . . . . . . . . “ The conclusion of the whole matter is, that we have been dealing with a subject almost on the limit of our power of investigation with ™ This special mirror has been kindly loaned to us by Mr. J. A. Brashear, of Allegheny. no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 23 the present means of science, and have reached no conclusions which we are absolutely sure of. As regards the main point, concerning the radiant heat of the moon, we know that it is divided into two salient kinds, reflected and emitted heat, and that the latter overlaps the former and extends probably between the deviation 40° of a rock-salt 60° prism (corresponding to A=1“.03) and a deviation of over 33° in the extreme infra-red (A=perhaps 50“). Contrary to all previous expectations, it nevertheless reaches us, thus bringing evidence of the partial transparency of our terrestrial atmosphere even to such rays as are emitted by the soil of our planet. It is probable, as remarked elsewhere, that even of the heat of arctic ice some minute portion escapes by direct radiation into space. “Tf beyond this we can be said to be sure of anything, it is that the actual temperature of the lunar soil is far lower than it is believed to be; but the evidence does not warrant us in fixing its maximum temperature more nearly than to say it is little above 0° centigrade ; but, it will be seen, the writer is sensible that this conclusion mili- tates against one drawn by him from the Mount Whitney observa- tions, according to which the soil of an airless planet at the moon’s distance would have a temperature not greatly above —225°C. Great experimental labor on this expedition was expended in ascertaining the excess of temperature which a thermometer-bulb would attain in space at the earth’s distance from the sun, which was found to be approximately 48° centigrade. From this observation, which appears to be quite trustworthy, the writer drew the inference that the sunward surface of an airless planet would be very greatly below the zero of the centigrade thermometer, and materially colder than the moon’s surface appears by these observations to be. As between my obser- vations and my inferences, I hold to the former; and since later and long-continued observations, of the character detailed in this volume, show that the temperature of the sunward surface of the moon (which is certainly nearly airless) is almost as certainly not greatly below zero, I have been led to believe myself mistaken in one of the infer- ences drawn from former experiments, in themselves exact, where this inference is not supported by these later observations. “ Several methods have been tried for obtaining the ratio of the total radiation of the full moon to that of the sun, with results rang- ing from 1/70000 to 1/110000. The liability to error in the compari- son of such diverse quantities is obvious; but a portion of the dis- 24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 crepancy is undoubtedly due to variation in the transmissibility of our atmosphere to the peculiar rays emitted by the moon. “ From measures in different parts of the lunar image, we find that the rays absorbed by glass are present in greater proportion in the radiation coming from the dark areas, or so-called “seas”. . : The smaller radiation of the dark regions is presumably due to the presence of a larger proportion of those longer waves to which our atmosphere is partially opaque. “ Measurements in the lunar image during an eclipse of the moon showed a very rapid diminution of the heat as the eclipse progressed, a small amount (not over 2 percent, however) remaining in the umbra, of a quality to which glass was entirely opaque. The incre- ment of the lunar radiation on the passing of the eclipse was appar- ently almost as rapid as its previous decrease. “Tess rapid than the change during an eclipse, but still strongly marked, is the transposition which occurs in the degree of heat observable at the east and west limbs, respectively, a few hours before and after the full. Thirty-six hours before the full the radiation of the west limb in terms of that from the central region of the moon was 0.958, that of the east limb being 0.574; while thirteen hours after the full the order was reversed, the west limb giving 0.611 and the east 0.727. “We next give the observations reduced to the full and to a mean distance, but uncorrected for atmospheric absorption, arranged ac- cording to the season in two groups, the object of this arrangement being to compare any systematic variation of the atmospheric absorp- tion with the change of season. [Only the mean values given here. ] Lunar Spectrum—W inter Observations (November to April), Reduced to Full Moon and Mean Distance No. .. 40°00’ 39°45’ 39°30’ 39°15’ 39°00’ 38°45’ 38°30’ 38°15’ 38°00" 37°45’ 37°30 Mean.. 16.9 15.6 17.4 16.1 15.3 14.1 11.4 12.4 24.1 39.2 48. INOS pith cccrererelole 37°15’ 37°00’ 36°45 36°30’ 36°15’ 36°00 35°45° B5°200 | 35 .705.0 .3500 Mean vrs srrmicteirele 43.0 36.0 38.4 32.2 25.9 25.6 21.8 18.3 17.4 11.6 Lunar Spectrum—Summer Observations (May to October), Reduced to Full Moon and Mean Distance Mean.. 15.7 22.5 19.9 17.8 15.0 6.5 4.8 4.2 10.1 30.5 35-7 Meant ‘isterjecctcle 41.0 3701 33-9 20.4 27.4 15.5 E72 13.0 10.7 9-7 “Tt will be seen from the above table and from the curves in Plate r1 that there is on the whole a slight increase in the atmospheric no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 25 absorption in the summer. This increase would be still more marked if only the coldest and driest days of winter had been compared with the most humid of summer. .... “. . . The most reliable spectrum comparisons with a blackened screen show an average ‘effective lunar temperature’ of +45.°C. near the time of full moon. *. -.. A-measurement.. .-. ..gives for the ratio of reflected radiation _ emitted radiation This, it is to be remembered, is the ratio after absorption by the earth’s atmosphere; but the extreme infra-red rays may have suf- fered unduly in passing this barrier... . . These researches on the temperature and spectrum of the moon entailed observations at Allegheny on more than 50 nights spread over the coldest of winter and the hottest of summer, as well as in months less trying to the observers, from October 1884 to February 1887. The spectrum observations alone, absolutely pioneering in character, of which only mean values are quoted here, occupied 22 nights, besides the preparation for them on uncounted days. In order to avoid errors from the scattering of the more abundant rays of other wave lengths into the weaker regions observed in the lunar spectrum, Langley was obliged to use two spectroscopes in tandem, each employing a rock-salt prism because glass is opaque to such rays as are emitted by cool bodies like the moon. The common experience of the salt shaker at the dinner table has taught us how readily rock salt absorbs water. The slightest cloud of mist upon a rock-salt prism is prejudicial to its optical performance. It is easy to imagine, therefore, how often in summer the spectral observations of the moon were interrupted, and Dr. Langley’s good friend Mr. Brashear came to the rescue by resurfacing the prisms. “ON HITHERTO UNRECOGNIZED WAVE-LENGTHS” “We are led to take this labor, not primarily to settle the theo- retical questions involved in determining the relation between dis- persion and wave-length (though these are most interesting), but with the object of providing a way which will hereafter enable any observer to determine the visible or invisible wave-lengths of any heat, whether from a celestial or terrestrial source, observed in any prism; and thus to gain that knowledge of the intimate constitution of radiant bodies which an acquaintance with the vibratory period of their molecules can usually alone afford us. It is this considerable 26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 end—the opening up to research of the whole unexplored region of infra-red energy, not only from celestial but from terrestrial sources— which will, we trust, justify the labor devoted to the following determinations.” He describes the arrangement of his apparatus, which includes a diffraction grating and a prism in tandem. A beam of radiation from the sun or the electric arc first traverses the diffraction grating spectro- scope, whereby a group of rays of even multiples of the wave length of a certain selected visible ray are all concentrated upon the slit of the prismatic spectroscope. In the latter, the prismatic deviations are measured, and from them are readily computed the indices of refrac- tion of each of these rays of selected wave lengths. “ There are in fact, passing through the same slit and lying super- posed on one another by an unavoidable property of the grating, an infinite number of spectra in theory, of which in this case nearly twenty are actually recognizable, by photography, by the eye, or by the bolometer, and of which, to consider only those where the wave length is equal to or greater than that of the sodium line D.° we have six spectra as follows: Wave length a. (visible) 6th spectrum Das eye leer rerteahe ee one A = o#.5890 b. ‘s sth s Oyise Mas ye eateries cise 0 .7068 c. (invisible) 4th is G/AS Datik etnies on riers 0 .8835 d. He 3d 2 6/3 se baad see eee I .1780 é. 7 2d $ 6/2 Desc hecjeaeecotunion I .7670 fe * Ist * 6) 0) Wa erste opera 2.5340 “Tt is in this invisible underlying first spectrum, buried, so to speak, beneath five others, of which three are themselves invisible also, that lies the wave-length we are seeking ; consequently, there are (to consider no others) at least six qualities of heat, of six distinct refrangibilities, whose wave-lengths are equal to or greater than that of Ds, which pass simultaneously through the slit S,. They pass through the prism, and on looking through a telescope occupying the position of the bolometer tube, we shall by suitably directing the arm of the spectroscope see the light from the sixth one at a. Its wave- length will be o”.5890, corresponding to a measured deviation (in the case of the rock-salt prism, of an angle of 60°00'00” and a tempera- ture of 20°C.) of 41°05’40”. Now on replacing the telescope by the 8We have heretofore adopted Angstrém’s notation in calling the more refrangible sodium line ‘D,’. We shall hereafter, however, in conformity with the now more general usage, call this line, whose wave-length in Angstr6m is 5880, ‘D.’. The corrections to Angstrom are due to the researches of Messrs. Peirce and Rowland. no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 27 bolometer, the bolometer wire will feel this same ray which the eye has just recognized by its light, and, if the galvanometer be in a sensitive condition, the image will be thrown by the heat off the scale, while a little on either side of this position no indication will be given. The beam and the slit S, remaining in the same position, let us next suppose that the bolometer arm is carried toward J, in the direction of B. There will be no sensible deflection until it reaches the position b in the red, corresponding to a wave-length of 0“.7068, and in the prism to an angle of 40°33’ nearly, for there is no sensible heat except in the successive images of slit S, formed by the prism P in the line PB. Passing farther toward B we come into the heat in c, and next to the heat in d which is less than 1/100 that in the direct prismatic image, when no grating is employed. © This was the utmost limit of our power of measurement in 1883, beyond this point radiations from the grating being then absolutely insensible, and the radiation at the point d itself being excessively minute, even in the solar spectrum, where the heat, so far as any is found, is as a rule far greater than that in the spectrum of the arc. Accordingly I have elsewhere observed that these measures could be carried on as well by a large electric arc as by the sun; but in fact, owing to the difficulties attendant on bringing the arc, which must be of immense heat, close to slit S,;, and to other causes, the sunlight would be preferable wherever it could be used. “ Our observation of June 7, 1882, gave the value of the index of refraction corresponding to A= 2.356, which was the lowest possibly attainable by our then apparatus. Incessant practice and study, result- ing in improvements already referred to, have enabled us finally to measure down to a wave-length of 9xXAD,z corresponding to a posi- tion much below f. We may add that in doing so, it is sometimes con- venient to employ a bolometer wide enough to overlap the images in the other adjacent spectra of the higher orders, which we may usually do without confusing them, owing to their feebleness compared with that of the first spectrum in which we are searching. “ We usually, however, employ a bolometer of not more than I mm aperture, and this demands excessive delicacy in the heat-measuring apparatus, since the heat here is, approximately speaking, about 1/too0o of that in the region between the sodium lines in the direct spectrum of a rock-salt prism. This is near the limit of our present measuring powers with the grating, even when every possible device is used to increase the extremely feeble heat in this part of the spectrum. 28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 “We commenced by using an electric arc with carbons 12 mm in diameter in the position indicated. These were supplied by an engine of three horse-power; but even in this case the pit of the crater did not nearly cover the very short slit (its length is 8 mm). For these last and most difficult measurements, we have been obliged to pro- cure the use of an engine of twelve horse-power and carbons 25 mm (one inch) in diameter. With this enormous current the hottest part is not easily maintained in place. To keep it directly in front of the slit we have tried various plans, such as boring out the carbons length- wise, so as to form hollow cylinders of them, and filling the core with a very pure carbon tempered to the requisite solidity. Ordinarily it will be sufficient however to first form the central crater by a drill. This gives us a persistent crater, whose light, in the position shown in the engraving, filled a slit whose vertical height is 8 mm. It is prob- ably the intensest artificial heat ever subjected to analysis. “Tn the following brief table we have summarized the results of all this labor. Our working method gave the index in terms of the wave-length, but since ordinarily the former is the known, and the latter the unknown quantity, we here give the mean probable error as finally corrected as a function of the latter. Given indices of refraction in Wave-lengths from direct observation rock-salt (a) by the eye (b) by the prism bolometer TESAUD® erase oer res ce etatatenieteveeleter> AD: = o#.5890 = 0.000 (a) Te 53 OMieevercetciere crsterse chats stole svenecels 2 XDz= 1.1780 ==/0:0025(0)) TAG 272. ovo nic eutekyelesrermiele elated: 3 X AD2= I .7670 + 0.005 (b) TG 254s ober kt scr toto eel 4 X AD2= 2 .3560 + 0.009 (b) TAG DAG Vey atysists fet-Ncyelerskeren yori etek-|= 5 X AD. = 2 .9451 + 0.013 (0D) TRG 22 ar eyenerociistsnotoesis ote teievel eles 6 54. Ee SF a Accordingly if, as supposed, S» is 9/10 Sy, fi >oo974i,- elie 200 sthenwls>>282:-5 cand: iy— laze 5G, “It may then be stated that if the solar radiation remained for a long period of time at a value which would maintain the Earth’s sur- face at a mean temperature of 17°C., and then fell 10 percent, and so remained indefinitely, the fall of temperature of the Earth’s surface would be less than 7°.5C. “ But if the solar radiation fluctuated between limits separated by 10 percent, the fluctuation of terrestrial temperature would be less, according to the frequency of the fluctuations of solar radiation. Again, parts of the Earth’s surface most closely associated with the oceans by the influences of winds, ocean currents, and rainfall would be least affected by such solar fluctuations, and would respond most slowly to a permanent alteration of solar radiation. “From the foregoing considerations we may then infer that the effect of a fall of 10 percent in the solar radiation should diminish the mean temperature of the Earth not more than 7°.5C., and indefinitely less according to the shortness of the time elapsing before the radia- tion regained its former value. Stations near the sea, or subject to ocean currents and winds, or to heavy rainfall, would lag far behind stations in the interior of great continents in their temperature fluctuations. “When we come to the study of actual temperatures over the Earth’s surface, we find that all collections of temperature data for single stations in the interior of great continents, covering long periods “O. Lummer, Rapports Présentés au Congrés International de Physique, 2 78-81, 1900. * H. Kayser, Handbuch der Spectroscopie, 2, 77-82. 4 ’ 36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 of time, exhibit nearly every year such considerable irregular varia- tions from the normal temperatures that we are at no loss to find varia- tions comparable in dimensions with those we are supposing to be caused by a fluctuating solar radiation. But it is only within the last year that we have the series of radiation measures with which to com- pare temperatures, and we now turn to recent temperatures as pub- lished in the Internationaler Dekadenberichte of the Deutsche Seewarte for nearly one hundred stations, for each ten-day period of 1903, and accompanied by normal temperatures representing the mean for the same ten-day periods of many former years.” ... . “On comparing the observed temperatures of 89 stations, distrib- uted over the North Temperate Zone, with the mean temperatures of the same stations for many previous years, it is found that an average decrease of temperature of over 2°C. actually did follow the possible fall of the solar radiation, while the temperature continued low dur- ing the remainder of the year. Stations remote from the retarding influence of the oceans show a much greater variation than that of the general mean. “ While it is difficult to conceive what influence, not solar, could have produced this rapid and simultaneous reduction of temperatures over the whole North Temperate Zone, and continued operative for so long a period, the evidence of solar variation cannot be said to be conclusive. Nevertheless, such a conclusion seems not an unreason- able inference from the data now at hand, and a continuation of these bolographic studies of solar radiation is of increasing interest, in view of their possible aid in forecasting terrestrial climatic changes, con- ceivably due to solar ones.” “EXPERIMENTS IN AERODYNAMICS” We now turn from astronomy, Langley’s primary field, to aviation, a subject which intrigued him from boyhood’s days, and in which in his later years he made advances so great that he barely missed the goal of achieving human flight in heavier-than-air machines. While still at the Allegheny Observatory, he began experiments on the lift and resistance of rapidly moving surfaces in air, employing a whirling arm to carry them, and ingenious automatic instruments of his own design to record the results. This work he continued at Washington, resulting in a publication “ Experiments in Aerodynamics.” * The writer is indebted to Professor Cleveland Abbe and to Dr. W. F. R. Phillips, librarian of the U. S. Weather Bureau, for their aid in making accessible the publications of temperature data in possession of the Weather Bureau. no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 37 “Schemes for mechanical flight have been so generally associated in the past with other methods than those of science, that it is com- monly supposed the long record of failures has left such practical demonstration of the futility of all such hopes for the future that no one of scientific training will be found to give them countenance. While recognizing that this view is a natural one, I have, however, during some years, devoted nearly all the time at my command for research, if not directly to this purpose, yet to one cognate to it, with a result which I feel ought now to be made public. ‘Further than this, these new experiments, (and theory also when reviewed in their light,) show that if in such aerial motion, there be given a plane of fixed size and weight, inclined at such an angle, and moved forward at such a speed, that it shall be sustained in horizontal tight, then the more rapid the motion is, the less will be the power required to support and advance it. This statement may, I am aware, present an appearance so paradoxical that the reader may ask himseli if he has rightly understood it. To make the meaning quite indubi- table, let me repeat it in another form, and say that these experiments show that a definite amount of power so expended at any constant rate, will attain more economical results at high speeds than at low . ones—e. g., one horse-power thus employed, will transport a larger weight at 20 miles an hour than at Io, a still larger at 40 miles than at 20, and so on, with an increasing economy of power with each higher speed, up to some remote limit not yet attained in experiment, but probably represented by higher speeds than have as yet been reached in any other mode of transport—a statement which demands and will receive the amplest confirmation later in these pages. “The reader, especially if he be himself skilled in observation, may perhaps be willing to agree that since there is here so little yet established, so great a variety of tentative experiments must be made, that it is impossible to give each of them at the outset all the degree of accuracy which is ultimately desirable, and that he may yet find all trustworthy within the limits of their present application. “ T do not, then, offer here a treatise on aerodynamics, but an experi- mental demonstration that we already possess in the steam-engine as now constructed, or in other heat engines, more than the requisite power to urge a system of rigid planes through the air at a great velocity, making them not only self-sustaining, but capable of carrying other than their own weight. This is not asserting that they can be 38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 steadily and securely guided through the air, or safely brought to the ground without shock, or even that the plane itself is the best form of surface for support ; all these are practical considerations of quite another order, belonging to the yet inchoate art of constructing suit- able mechanisms for guiding heavy bodies through the air on the principles indicated, and which art (to refer to it by some title dis- tinct from any associated with ballooning) I will provisionally call aerodromics.“ With respect to this inchoate art, I desire to be under- stood as not here offering any direct evidence, or expressing any opin- ion other than may be implied in the very description of these experi- ments themselves. “The experiments in question, for obtaining first approximations to the power and velocities needed to sustain in the air such heavy inclined planes or other models in rapid movement, have been prin- cipally made with a very large whirling table, located on the grounds of the Allegheny Observatory, Allegheny, Pa. (lat. 40°27'41.6” ; long. 5"20"2.93°; height above the sea-level, 1,145 feet). . “The site is a hill on the north of the valley of the Ohio and rising about 400 feet above it. At the time of these observations the hill-top was bare of trees and of buildings, except those of the obser- vatory itself: 102 4 “The whirling table consists essentially of two symmetrical wooden arms, each 30 feet (9.15 meters) long, revolving in a plane eight feet above the ground... .. The whirling table was driven first by a gas- engine of about 13 horse-power, but it was found inadequate to do the work required, and, after October 20, 1888, a steam-engine giving 10 horse-power was used in its stead... . . “ This system gives for 120 revolutions of the steam-engine per minute, driving— 18 in. pulley, 48 revolutions of turn-table per minute = 100 + miles per hour at end of arm. 253 in. pulley, 24 revolutions of turn-table per minute = 50 + miles per hours at end of arm. 36 in. pulley, 12 revolutions of turn-table per minute = 25 + miles per hour at end of arm. “ By regulating the speed of the engine any intermediate velocities can be obtained, and thus the equipment should be susceptible of furnishing speeds from 10 to 100 miles per hour (4.5 to 45 meters per second) ; but owing to the slipping of belts the number of turn- “From depodpouéw, to traverse the air; depodpouos, an air-runner. No. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 39 table revolutions was less than this for the higher velocities, so that the highest attained in the experiments did not reach this upper limit, but was a little over 100 feet (30 meters) per second, or about seventy miles per hour. The precise velocity actually attained by the turn- table is determined, quite independently of the speed of the engine, by an electrical registration on the standard chronograph in the observatory.” Langley devised ingenious recording instruments called the “ sus- pended plane,” the “ resultant pressure recorder,” the “ plane drop- per,” the “ component pressure recorder,” the “ dynamometer chrono- graph,” the “ counterpoised eccentric plane,” and the “ rolling car- riage,” all illustrated in the paper under discussion, and with these made many experiments. “The most important general inference from these experiments, as a whole, is that, so far as the mere power to sustain heavy bodies in the air by mechanical flight goes, such mechanical flight is possible with engines we now possess, since effective steam-engines have lately been built weighing less than 10 pounds to one horse-power, and the experi- ments show that if we multiply the small planes which have been actually used, or assume a larger plane to have approximately the properties of similar small ones, one horse-power rightly applied, can sustaill Over 200 pounds in the air at a horizontal velocity of over 20 meters per second (about 45 miles an hour), and still more at still higher velocities. These numerical values are contained in the fol- lowing table, repeated from p. 66. It is scarcely necessary to observe that the planes have been designedly loaded, till they weighed 500 grammes each, and that such a system, if used for actual flight, need weigh but a small fraction of this amount, leaving the rest of the sus- tainable weight indicated, disposable for engines and other purposes. I have found in experiment that surfaces approximately plane and of 1/to this weight are sufficiently strong for all necessary purposes of support. € ‘ “Data for soaring of 30 X 4.8 inch planes; weight, 500 grammes Weight with planes of like form that 1 horse-power will drive Soaring speed V : Work expended through the air at Angle I per minute velocity V with Meters Feet aoe eS horizon per per Kilogram- Foot- Kilo- a second second meters pounds grammes Pounds 45 D2 26.7 336 2,434 6.8 15 30 10.6 34.8 175 1,268 13.0 29 15 ee? 30.7 86 623 20.5 58 10 12.4 40.7 65 474 34.8 77 5 15.2 49.8 41 207 55.5 122 2 20.0 65.6 24 174 95.0 209 40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 ‘“T am not prepared to say that the relations of power, area, weight, and speed, here experimentally established for planes of small area, will hold for indefinitely large ones ; but from all the circumstances of experiment, I can entertain no doubt that they do so hold far enough to afford assurance that we can transport (with fuel for a considerable journey and at speeds high enough to make us independent of ordinary winds), weights many times greater than that of a man. ‘In this mode of supporting a body in the air, its specific gravity, instead of being as heretofore a matter of primary impor- tance, is a matter of indifference, the support being derived essen- tially from the inertia and elasticity of the air on which the body is made to rapidly run. The most important and it is believed novel truth, already announced, immediately follows from what has been shown, that whereas in land or marine transport increased speed is maintained only by a disproportionate expenditure of power, within the limits of experiment in such aerial horizontal transport, the higher speeds are more economical of power than the lower ones. ‘While calling attention to these important and as yet little known truths, I desire to add as a final caution, that I have not asserted that planes such as are here employed in experiment, or even that planes of any kind, are the best forms to use in mechanical flight, and that I have also not asserted, without qualification, that mechanical flight is practically possible, since this involves questions as to the method of constructing the mechanism, of securing its safe ascent and descent, and also of securing the indispensable condition for the eco- nomic use of the power I have shown to be at our disposal—the con- dition, I mean, of our ability to guide it in the desired horizontal direction during transport—questions which, in my opinion, are only to be answered by further experiment and which belong to the in- choate art or science of aerodromics on which I do not enter. ““T wish, however, to put on record my belief that the time has come for these questions to engage the serious attention, not only of engineers, but of all interested in the possibly near practical solution of a problem, one of the most important in its consequences, of any which has ever presented itself in mechanics; for this solution, it is here shown, cannot longer be considered beyond our capacity to reach.” The data secured by these experiments have long since been super- seded by more accurate observations in modern wind tunnels. Even the conclusions would not now all be considered sound. For instance, “Langley’s law,” that the more rapid the horizontal flight the less is the power required for support and advance, does not hold for speeds no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT Al much higher than those he tried. His assumption that skin friction is negligible is also invalid at higher speeds. But a great impetus to aviation was given by the fact that so great a scientist as Langley had devoted himself to a subject which was generally regarded then as the refuge of cranks, nearly in the same class with perpetual motion. Langley’s meditations on soaring flight of birds led in 1893 to his brilliant paper : “THE INTERNAL WORK OF THE WIND” “Tt has long been observed that certain species of birds maintain themselves indefinitely in the air by ‘ soaring,’ without any flapping of the wing, or any motion other than a slight rocking of the body; and this, although the body in question is many hundred times denser than the air in which it seems to float with an undulating movement, as on the waves of an invisible stream. “No satisfactory mechanical explanation of this anomaly has been given, and none would be offered in this connection by the writer, were he not satisfied that it involves much more than an ornithological problem, and that it points to novel conclusions of mechanical and utilitarian importance. They are paradoxical at first sight, since they imply that, under certain specified conditions, very heavy bodies en- tirely detached from the earth, immersed in, and free to move in, the air, can be sustained there indefinitely, without any expenditure of energy from within. “ These bodies may be entirely of mechanical construction, as will be seen later, but for the present we will continue to consider the character of the invisible support of the soaring bird, and to study its motions, though only as a pregnant instance offered by Nature to show that a rational solution of the mechanical problem is possible. “Recurring, then, to the illustration just referred to, we may ob- serve that the flow of an ordinary river would afford no explanation of the fact that nearly inert creatures, while free to move, although greatly denser than the fluid, yet float upon it; which is what we actualiy behold in the aerial stream, since the writer, like others, has satisfied himself, by repeated observation, that the soaring vultures and other birds appear as if sustained by some invisible support, in the stream of air, sometimes for at least a considerable fraction of an hour. It is frequently suggested by those who know these facts only from books, that there must be some quivering of the wings, so rapid as to escape observation. Those who do know them from obser- vation, are aware that it is absolutely certain that nothing of the kind 42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 takes place, and that the birds sustain themselves on pinions which are quite rigid and motionless, except for a rocking or balancing move- ment involving little energy. “The writer desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to that most conscientious observer, M. Mouillard,” who has described these ac- tions of the soaring birds with incomparable vividness and minute- ness, and who asserts that they, under certain circumstances, without flapping their wings, rise and actually advance against the wind. “To the writer, who has himself been attracted from his earliest years to the mystery which has surrounded this action of the soaring bird, it has been a subject of continual surprise that it has attracted so little attention from physicists. That nearly inert bodies, weighing from 5 to 10, or even more, pounds, and many hundred times denser than the air, should be visibly suspended in it above our heads, some- times for hours at a time, and without falling—this, it might seem, is, without misuse of language to be called a physical miracle ; and yet, the fact that those whose province it is to investigate nature, have hitherto seldom thought it deserving attention, is perhaps the greater wonder. “| The common ‘Turkey Buzzard’ (Cathartes aura) 1s so plenty around the environs of Washington that there is rarely a time when some of them may not be seen in the sky, gliding in curves over some attractive point, or, more rarely moving in nearly straight lines on rigid wings, if there be a moderate wind. On the only occasion when the motion of one near at hand could be studied in a very high wind, the author was crossing the long ‘Aqueduct Bridge ’ over the Potomac, in an unusually violent November gale, the velocity of the wind being probably over 35 miles an hour. About one-third of the distance from the right bank of the river, and immediately over the right parapet of the bridge, at a height of not over 20 yards, was one of these buzzards, which, for some object which was not evident, chose to keep over this spot, where the gale, undisturbed by any surface irregu- larities swept directly up the river with unchecked violence. In this aerial torrent, and apparently indifferent to it, the bird hung, gliding, in the usual manner of its species, round and round in a small oval curve whose major axis (which seemed toward the wind) was not longer than twice its height from the water. The bird was therefore at all times in close view. It swung around repeatedly, rising and fall- ing slightly in its course, while keeping, as a whole, on one level, and over the same place, moving with a slight swaying both in front and *L. P. Mouillard, L’Empire de 1’Air, Paris: 6. Masson. No. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 43 lateral direction but in such an effortless way as suggested a lazy yield- ing of itself to the rocking of some invisible wave. “Tt may be asserted that there was not only no flap of the wing, but not the quiver of a wing feather visible to the closest scrutiny, during the considerable time the bird was under observation, and dur- ing which the gale continued. A record of this time was not kept, but it at any rate lasted until the writer, chilled by the cold blast, gave up watching and moved away, leaving the bird still floating, about at the same height in the torrent of air, in nearly the same circle, and with the same aspect of indolent repose. “Light came to him through one of those accidents which are commonly found to occur when the mind is intent on a particular sub- ject, and looking everywhere for a clue to its solution. “Tn 1887, while engaged with the ‘whirling-table’ in the open air at the Allegheny Observatory, he had chosen a quiet afternoon for certain experiments, but in the absence of the entire calm which is almost never realized, had placed one of the very small and light anemometers made for hospital use, in the open air, with the object of determining and allowing for the velocity of what feeble breeze existed. His attention was called to the extreme irregularity of this register, and he assumed at first that the day was more unfavorable than he had supposed. Subsequent observations, however, showed that when the anemometer was sufficiently light and devoid of inertia, the register always showed great irregularity, especially when its movements were noted, not from minute to minute, but from second to second. “ His attention once aroused to these anomalies, he was led to reflect upon their extraordinary importance in a possible mechanical applica- tion. He then designed certain special apparatus hereafter described, and made observations with it which showed that ‘ wind’ in general was not what it is commonly assumed to be, that is, air put in motion with an approximately uniform velocity in the same strata; but that, considered in the narrowest practicable sections, wind was always not only not approximately uniform, but variable and irregular in its movements beyond anything which had been anticipated, so that it seemed probable that the very smallest part observable could not be treated as approximately homogeneous, but that even here, there was an internal motion to be considered, distinct both from that of the whole body, and from its immediate surroundings. It seemed to the 5 44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 writer to follow as a necessary consequence, that there might be a potentiality of what may be called ‘internal work’ ” in the wind. “On further study it seemed to him that this internal work might conceivably be so utilized as to furnish a power which should not only keep an inert body from falling, but cause it to rise, and that while this power was the probable cause of the action of tle soaring bird, it might be possible through its means to cause any suitably dis- posed body, animate or inanimate, wholly immersed in the wind, and wholly free to move, to advance against the direction of the wind itself. By this it is not meant that the writer then devised means for doing this but that he then attained the conviction both that such an action involved no contradiction of the laws of motion, and that it was mechanically possible (however difficult it might be to realize the exact mechanism by which this might be accomplished ).” He then goes on with experiments made with extremely light and sensitive anemometers to show that the apparently continuous flow of a wind is in reality made up of an extreme contrariety of gusts, capable, if they could be taken advantage of, not only of supporting a body in air, but even of causing it to rise and advance against the general direction of the wind. “From this, then, we may now at least see that it is plainly within the capacity of an intelligence like that suggested by Maxwell, and which Lord Kelvin has called the ‘ Sorting Demon,’ to pick out from the internal motions those whose direction is opposed to the main cur- rent, and to omit those which are not so, and thus without the expen- diture of energy to construct a force which will act against the main current itself. “ But we may go materially further, and not only admit that it is not necessary to invoke here, as Maxwell has done in the case of thermodynamics, a being having a power and rapidity of action far above ours, but that, in actual fact, a being of a lower order than ourselves, guided only by instinct may so utilize these internal motions. “We might not indeed have conceived this possible, were it not that nature has already, to a large extent, exhibited it before our eyes in the soaring bird, which sustains itself endlessly in the air with nearly ‘ * Since the term “internal work” is often used in thermo-dynamics to signify molecular action, it may be well to observe that it here refers not to molecular movements, but to pulsations of sensible magnitude, always existing in the wind, as will be shown later, and whose extent and extraordinary possible mechanical importance it is the object of this research to illustrate. The term is so significant of the author’s meaning that he permits himself the use of it here, in spite of the possible ambiguity. No. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 45 motionless wings, for without this evidence of the possibility of action which now ceases to approach the inconceivable, we are not likely, even if admitted its theoretical possibility, to have thought the mecha- nism solution of this problem possible. But although to show how this physical miracle of nature is to be imitated, completely and in detail, may be found to transcend any power of analysis, I hope to show, that this may be possible without invoking the asserted power of ‘Aspiration’ relative to curved surfaces, or the trend of upward cur- rents, and even to indicate the probability that the mechanical solu- tion of this problem may not be beyond human skill. “ Let me resume the leading points of the present memoir in the statement that it has been shown: “(1) That the wind is not even an approximately uniform moving mass of air, but consists of a succession of very brief pulsations of varying amplitude, and that, relatively to the mean movement of the wind, these are of varying direction. “(2) That it is pointed out that hence there is a potentiality of ‘internal work’ in the wind, and probably of a very great amount. “(3) That it involves no contradiction of known principles to de- clare that an inclined plane or suitably curved surface, heavier than the air, freely immersed in, and moving with the velocity of the mean wind, can, if the wind pulsations here described are of sufficient ampli- tude and frequency, be sustained or even raised indefinitely without expenditure of internal energy, other than that which is involved in changing the aspect of its inclination at each pulsation. (4) That since (A) such a surface, having also power to change its inclination, must gain energy through falling during the slower, and expend energy by rising during the higher, velocities; and that (B) since it has been shown that there is no contradiction of known mechanical laws in assuming that the surface may be sustained or may continue to rise indefinitely, the mechanical possibility of some advance against the direction of the wind follows immediately from this capacity of rising. It is further seen that it is at least possible that this advance against the wind may not only be attained relatively to the position of a body moving with the speed of the mean wind, but absolutely, and with reference to a fixed point in space. “ (5) The statement is made that this is not only mechanically possible; but that, in the writer’s opinion, it is realizable in practice. ‘The final application of these principles to the art of aerodromics seems then to be that, while it is not likely that the perfected aerodrome 46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 will ever be able to dispense altogether with the ability to rely at inter- vals on some internal source of power, it will not be indispensable that this aerodrome of the future shall, in order to go any distance— even to circumnavigate the globe without alighting,—need to carry a weight of fuel which would enable it to perform this journey under conditions analogous to those of a steamship, but that the fuel and weight need only be such as to enable it to take care of itself in exceptional moments of calm.” How plainly here does Langley foreshadow the achievements of gliding a third of a century later. After completing the two papers just referred to, Langley pro- ceeded to use the data gained in a serious attempt to obtain mechanical flight with large heavier-than-air machines. After several years of experimentation in which not only the difficulties of light construc- tion and automatic balance but also of the invention of a very light steam engine were overcome, Langley on May 6, 1806, in the presence of Alexander Graham Bell and others, successfully catapulted from a houseboat on the Potomac a 13-foot steam-powered model which flew over one-half mile and landed softly unharmed upon the water. In November of the same year, another large model made an even longer flight of three-quarters of a mile. Of these experiments Langley said 2": “T have thus far had only a purely scientific interest in the results of these labors. Perhaps if it could have been foreseen at the outset how much labor there was to be, how much of life would be given to it, and how much care, I might have hesitated to enter upon it at all. And now reward must be looked for, if reward there be, in the knowl- edge that I have done the best I could in a difficult task, with results which it may be hoped will be useful to others. I have brought to a close the portion of the work which seemed to be specially mine— the demonstration of the practicability of mechanical flight—and for the next stage, which is the commercial and practical development of the idea, it is probable that the world may look to others. The world, indeed, will be supine if it do not realize that a new possibility has come to it, and that the great universal highway overhead is now soon to be opened.” “EXPERIMENTS WITH THE LANGLEY AERODROME” ‘The experiments undertaken by the Smithsonian Institution upon an aerodrome, or flying machine, capable of carrying a man have been The Langley Aerodrome, Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1900, p. 197, 1901. 9681 °*9 AVW ‘LHDITA NI G ‘ON TSGOW ASZISNV G “Id ‘8 "ON ‘26 “10A SNOILO31100 SNOANVIIFOSIN NVINOSHLIWS no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 47 suspended from lack of funds to repair defects in the launching apparatus without the machine ever having been in the air at all. As these experiments have been popularly, and of late repeatedly, rep- resented as having failed on the contrary, because the aerodrome could not sustain itself in the air I have decided to give this brief though late account, which may be accepted as the first authoritative state- ment of them. “Tt will be remembered that in 1896 wholly successful flights of between one-half and one mile by large steam-driven models, unsup- ported except by the mechanical effects of steam engines, had been made by me. In all these the machine was first launched into the air from ‘ways,’ somewhat as a ship is launched into the water, the machine resting on a car that ran forward on these ways, which fell down at the extremity of the car’s motion, releasing the aero- drome for its free flight. I mention these details because they are essential to an understanding of what follows, and partly because their success led me to undertake the experiments on a much larger scale I now describe. “In the early part of 1898 a board, composed of officers of the Army and Navy, was appointed to investigate these past experi- ments with a view to determining just what had been accomplished and what the possibilities were of developing a large-size man-carrying machine for war purposes. The report of this board being fav- orable, the Board of Ordnance and Fortification of the War Depart- ment decided to take up the matter, and I having agreed to give without compensation what time I could spare from official duties, the Board allotted $50,000 for the development, construction, and test of a large aerodrome, half of which sum was to be available immediately and the remainder when required. The whole matter had previously been laid before the Board of Regents of the Smith- sonian Institution who had authorized me to take up the work and to use in connection with it such facilities of the Institution as were available. “ Before consenting to undertake the construction of this large machine, I had fully appreciated that owing to theoretical considera- tions, into which I do not enter, it would need to be relatively lighter than the smaller one; and later it was so constructed, each foot of sustaining surface in the large machine carrying nearly the same weight as each foot in the model. The difficulties subsequently experienced with the larger machine were, then, due not to this cause, but to practical obstacles connected with the launching, and the like. 48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 “ T had also fully appreciated the fact that one of the chief difficul- ties in its construction would lie in the procuring of a suitable engine of sufficient power and, at the same time, one which was light enough. (The models had been driven by steam engines whose water supply weighed too much for very long flights.) The construction of the steam engine is well understood, but now it would become necessary to replace this by gas engines, which for this purpose involve novel difficulties. I resolved not to attempt the task of constructing the engine myself, and had accordingly entered into negotiations with the best engine builders in this country, and after long delay had finally secured a contract with a builder who, of all persons engaged in such work, seemed most likely to achieve success. It was only after this contract for the engine had been signed that I felt willing to formally undertake the work of building the aerodrome. “ The contract with the engine builder called for an engine develop- ing 12 brake horsepower, and weighing not more than 100 pounds, including cooling water and all other accessories, and with the proviso that a second engine, exactly like this first one, would be furnished on the same terms. The first engine was to be delivered before the close of February, 1899, and the frame of the aerodrome with sustaining surfaces, propellers, shafting, rudders, etc., was immediately planned, and now that the engine was believed to be secured, their actual con- struction was pushed with the utmost speed. The previous experi- ments with steam-driven models which had been so successful, had been conducted over the water, using a small houseboat having a cabin for storing the machine, appliances and tools, on top of which was mounted a track and car for use in launching. As full success in launching these working models had been achieved after several years spent in devising, testing and improving this plan, I decided to follow the same method with the large machine, and accordingly designed and had built a house boat, in which the machine could not only be stored, but which would also furnish space for workshops, and on the top of which was mounted a turntable and track for use in launching from whatever direction the wind might come. “ Everything connected with the work was expedited as much as possible with the expectation of being able to have the first trial flight before the close of 1899, and time and money had been spent on the aerodrome, which was ready, except for its engine, when the time for the delivery of this arrived. But now the builder proved unable to complete his contract, and, after months of delay, it was necessary to decrease the force at work on the machine proper and no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 49 its launching appliances until some assurance could be had of the final success of the engine. ... . “Tt was recognized from the very beginning that it would be desir- able in a large machine to use ‘superposed’ sustaining surfaces (that is, with one wing above another) on account of their supe- riority so far as the relation of strength to weight is concerned, and from their independence of guy wiring; and two sets of super- posed sustaining surfaces of different patterns were built and experi- mented with in the early tests. These surfaces proved, on the whole, inferior in lifting power, though among compensating advantages are the strength of a bridge construction which dispenses with guy wires coming up from below, which, in fact, later were the cause of disaster in the launching. “Tt was finally decided to follow what experiment had shown to be successful, and to construct the sustaining surfaces for the large machine after the ‘ single-tier’ plan. This proved to be no easy task, since in the construction of the surfaces for the small machines the main and cross ribs of the framework had been made solid, and, after steaming, bent and dried to the proper curvature, while it was obvious that this plan could not be followed in the large surfaces on account of the necessity, already alluded to, of making them rela- tively lighter than the small ones, which were already very light. After the most painstaking construction, and tests of various sizes and thicknesses of hollow square, hollow round, I-beam, channel, and many other types of ribs, I finally devised a type which consisted of a hollow box form, having its sides of tapering thickness, with the thickest part at the point midway between contiguous sides and with small partitions placed inside every few inches in somewhat the same way that nature places them in the bamboo. These various parts of the rib (corresponding to the quill in a wing) were then glued and clamped together, and after drying were reduced to the proper dimen- sions and the ribs covered with several coats of a special marine varnish, which it had been found protected the glued joints from softening, even when they were immersed in water for twenty-four hours. “Comparative measurements were made between these large cross ribs, 11 feet long, and a large quill from the wing of a harpy eagle, which is probably one of the greatest wonders that nature has pro- duced in the way of strength for weight. These measurements showed that the large, 11-foot ribs (‘ quills’) for the sustaining sur- faces of the large machine were equally as strong, weight for weight, 50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 as the quill of the eagle; but much time was consumed in various constructions and tests before such a result was finally obtained. “ During this time a model of the large machine, one-fourth of its linear dimensions, was constructed, and a second contract was made for an engine for it. The delay with the large engine was repeated with the small one, and in the spring of 1900 it was found that both contract engines were failures for the purpose for which they were intended, as neither one developed half of the power required for the allotted weight. “TI accordingly again searched all over this country, and, finally, accompanied by an engineer (Mr. Manly), whose services I had engaged, went to Europe, and there personally visited large builders of engines for automobiles, and attempted to get them to undertake the construction of such an engine as was required. This search, how- ever, was fruitless, as all of the foreign builders, as well as those of this country, believed it impossible to construct an engine of the neces- sary power and as light as I required (less than Io pounds to the horsepower without fuel or water). I was therefore forced to return to this country and to consent most reluctantly, even at this late date, to have the work of constructing suitable engines undertaken in the shops of the Smithsonian Institution, since, as I have explained, the aerodrome frame and wings were already constructed. This work upon the engines began here in August, 1900, in the immediate care of Mr. Manly. These engines were to be of nearly double the power first estimated and of little more weight, but this increased power and the strain caused by it demanded a renewal of the frame as first built, in a stronger and consequently in a heavier form, and the following sixteen months were spent in such a reconstruction simultaneously with the work on the engines. “The flying weight of the machine complete, with that of the aeronaut, was 830 pounds; its sustaining surface, 1,040 square feet. It therefore was provided with slightly greater sustaining surface and materially greater relative horsepower than the model subse- quently described which flew successfully. The brake horsepower of the engine was 52; the engine itself, without cooling water, or fuel, weighed approximately 1 kilogram to the horsepower. The en- tire power plant, including cooling water, carburetor, battery, etc., weighed materially less than 5 pounds to the horsepower. Engines for both the large machine and the quarter-size model were completed before the close of 1901, and they were immediately put in their No. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 5! respective frames and tests of them and their power-transmission appliances were begun. “The engines themselves were successfully completed before the close of 1901, and were of much more power than those originally designed ; but nearly a year and a half had been spent not only in their completion, but in properly coordinating the various parts of the frame carrying them, repairing the various breakages, assembling, dis- mounting, and reassembling the various parts of the appliances, and in general rebuilding the frame and appurtenances to correspond in strength to the new engines. “ There are innumerable other details, for the whole question is one Otidetails:y 2" ls 2 “It is impossible for anyone who has not had experience with such matters to appreciate the great amount of delay which experience has shown is to be expected in such experiments. Only in the spring of 1903, and after two unforeseen years of assiduous labor, were these new engines and their appurtenances, weighing altogether less than 5 pounds to the horsepower and far lighter than any known to be then existing, so coordinated and adjusted that successive shop tests could be made without causing injury to the frame, its bearings, shafts, or propellers. “And now everything seemed to be as nearly ready for an experi- ment as could be, until the aerodrome was at the location at which the experiments were to take place. The large machine and its quarter-size counterpart were accordingly placed on board the large house boat, which had been completed some time before and had been kept in Washington as an auxiliary shop for use in the construction work, and the whole outfit was towed to a point in the Potomac River, here 3 miles wide, directly opposite Widewater, Va., and about 40 miles below Washington and midway between the Mary- land and Virginia shores, where the boat was made fast to moorings which had previously been placed in readiness for it. “Although extreme delays had already occurred, yet they were not so trying as the ones which began immediately after the work was thus transferred to the lower Potomac. “In order to test the quarter-size model it was necessary to remove its launching track from the top of the small house boat and place it upon the deck of the large boat, in order to have all the work go on at one place, as it was impossible, on account of its unseaworthiness, to moor the small house boat in the middle of the river. 52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 «These difficulties might have partly been anticipated, but there were others concerning which the cause of the deterioration and disarrangement of certain parts and adjustments was not immediately detected, and consequently when short preliminary shop tests of the small machine were attempted just prior to launching it, it was found that the apparatus did not work properly, necessitating repairs and new constructions and consequent delay. Although the large house boat with the entire outfit had been moved down the river on July 14, 1903, it was not until the 8th of August that the test of the quarter-size model was made, and all of this delay was directly due to changed atmospheric conditions incident to the change in locality. This test of the model in actual flight was made on the 8th of August, 1903, when it worked most satisfactorily, the launching apparatus, as always here- tofore, performing perfectly, while the model, being launched directly into the face of the wind, flew directly ahead on an even keel. The balancing proved to be perfect, and the power, supporting surface, euiding, and equilibrium-preserving effects of the rudder also. The weight of the model was 58 pounds, its sustaining surface 66 square feet, and the horsepower from 23 to 3. “ This was the first time in history, so far as 1 know, that a success- ful flight of a mechanically sustained flying machine was made in public. “ T have spoken of the serious delays in the test of the small machine caused by changed atmospheric conditions, but they proved to be almost negligible compared with what was later experienced with the large one. .)-... Samrat hag Something of the same troubles which had been met with in the disarrangement of the adjustments of the small engine was experienced in the large one, although they occurred in such a different way that they were not detected until they had caused damage in the tests, and these disarrangements were responsible for broken propellers, twisted shafts, crushed bearings, distorted frame- work, etc., which were not finally overcome until the Ist of October. After again getting everything in apparent readiness there then ensued a period of waiting on the weather until the 7th of October (1903), when it became sufficiently quiet for a test which I was now beginning to fear could not be made before the following season. In this, the first test, the engineer took his seat, the engine started with ease and was working without vibration at its full power of over 50 horse, and the word being given to launch the machine, the car No. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 53 was released and the aerodrome sped along the track. Just as the machine left the track, those who were watching it, among whom were two representatives of the Board of Ordnance,” noticed that the machine was jerked violently down at the front (being caught, as it subsequently appeared, by the falling ways),” and under the full power of its engine was pulled into the water, carrying with it its engineer. When the aerodrome rose to the surface it was found, that while the front sustaining surfaces had been broken by their impact with the water, yet the rear ones were comparatively unin- jured. As soon as a full examination of the launching mechanism had been made, it was found that the front portion of the machine had caught on the launching car, and that the guy post, to which were fastened the guy wires which are the main strength of the front surfaces, had been bent to a fatal extent. “The machine, then, had never been free in the air, but had been - pulled down as stated. “The disaster just briefly described had indefinitely postponed the test, but this was not all. As has been said before, the weather had become very cold and the so-called equinoctial storms being near it was decided to remove the house boat at the earliest time possible, but before it could be done, a storm came up and swept away ail the launches, boats, rafts, etc., and in doing so completely demolished the greater part of them, so that when the house boat was finally removed to Washington, on the 15th of October, these appurtenances had to be replaced. It is necessary to remember that these long series of delays worked other than mere scientific difficulties, for a more important and more vital one was the exhaustion of the financial means for the work. “Immediately upon getting the boat to Washington the labor of constructing new sustaining surfaces was begun, and they were com- pleted about the close of November. It was proposed to make a * Major Macomb, of the Board of Ordnance, states in his report to the Board, that “the trial was unsuccessful because the front guy post caught in its support on the launching car and was not released in time to give free flight, as was intended, but, on the contrary, caused the front of the machine to be dragged downward, bending the guy post and making the machine plunge into the water about 50 yards in front of the house boat.” * This instantaneous photograph, taken from the boat itself and hitherto un- published, shows the aerodrome in motion before it had actually cleared the house boat. On the left is seen a portion of a beam, being a part of the falling ways in which the front wing was caught, while the front wing itself is seen twisted, showing that the accident was in progress before the aerodrome was free to fly. 54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 second attempt near the city, though in the meantime the ice had formed in the river. However, on the 8th of December, 1903, the atmosphere became very quiet shortly before noon and an immediate attempt was made at Arsenal Point, quite near Washington, though the site was unfavorable. Shortly after arriving at the selected point everything was in readiness for the test. In the meantime the wind had arisen and darkness was fast approaching, but as the funds for continuing the work were exhausted, rendering it impossible to wait until spring for more suitable weather for making a test, it was decided to go on with it if possible. This time there were on hand to witness the test the writer, members of the Board of Ordnance, and a few other guests, to say nothing of the hundreds of spectators who were waiting on the various wharves and shores. It was found impossible to moor the boat without a delay which would mean that no test could be made on account of darkness, so that it was held as well as possible by a tug, and kept with the aerodrome pointing directly into the wind, though the tide, which was running very strong, and the wind, which was blowing 10 miles an hour, were together causing much difficulty. The engine being started and working most satisfactorily, the order was given by the engineer to release the machine, but just as it was leaving the track another disaster, again due to the launching ways, occurred” This time the rear of the machine, in some way still unex- plained, was caught by a portion of the launching car, which caused the rear sustaining surfaces to break, leaving the rear entirely without sup- port, and it came down almost vertically into the water. Dark- ness had come before the engineer, who had been in extreme danger, could aid in the recovery of the aerodrome, the boat and machine had drifted apart, and one of the tugs, in its zeal to render assis- tance, had fastened a rope to the frame of the machine in the reverse position from what it should have been attached and had broken the frame entirely in two. While the injury which had thus been caused seemed almost irreparable to one not acquainted with the work, yet it was found upon close examination that only a small amount of labor would be necessary in order to repair the frame, the engine *” Major Macomb again states in his official report to the Board) he launching car was released at 4.45 p. m..... The car was set in motion and the propellers revolved rapidly, the engine working perfectly, but there was something wrong with the launching. The rear guy post seemed to drag, bring- ing the rudder down on the launching ways, and a crashing, rending sound, fol- lowed by the collapse of the rear wings, showed that the machine had been wrecked in the launching; just how it was impossible to see.” Ale oY} OJUT YO Jos pur ssurids AC petfedo.ad SUM JUIYORLU oY} YOM uo YIE1} IY} SMOYS SIU J €061 ‘ZL YSSHOLDO AO WIL S3H1L 3NOsag LSNF LVOSSSNOH SHL NO AWONGONRY ONIAYYVO-NVYW 3ZIS-1IN4 AHL AO M3IA Bais hee ts, a s ee By =—rT ae wT | ey 1 > Bim a) ee Pe 9°1d ‘8 ‘ON ‘26 “10A SNOILO31109 SNOANVIISOSIN NVINOSHLIWS no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 55 itself being entirely uninjured. Had this accident occurred at an earlier period, when there were funds available for continuing the experiments, it would not have been so serious, for many accidents in shop tests had occurred which, while unknown to the general pub- lic, had yet caused greater damage and required more time for repair than in the present case. But the funds for continuing the work were exhausted, and it being found impossible to immediately secure others for continuing it, it was found necessary to discontinue the experiments for the present, though I decided to use, from a private fund, the small amount of money necessary to repair the frame so that it itself, together with its engine, which was entirely uninjured, might be available for further use if it should later prove possible, and that they themselves might be in proper condition to attest to what they really represent as an engineering achievement. “Entirely erroneous impressions have been given by the account of these experiments in the public press, from which they have been judged, even by experts; the impression being that the machine could not sustain itself in flight. It seems proper, then, to emphasize and to reiterate, with a view to what has just been said, that the machine has never had a chance to fly at all, but that, the failure occurred on its launching ways; and the question of its ability to fly is consequently, as yet, an untried one. “ There have, then, been no failures as far as the actual test of the flying capacity of the machine is concerned, for it has never been free in the air at all. The failure of the financial means for continu- ing these expensive experiments has left the question of their result where it stood before they were undertaken, except that it has been demonstrated that engines can be built, as they have been, of little over one-half the weight that was assigned as the possible minimum by the best builders of France and Germany; that the frame can be made strong enough to carry these engines, and that, so far as any possible prevision can extend, another flight would be successful if the launching were successful; for in this, and in this alone, as far as is known, all the trouble has come. “ The experiments have also given necessary information about this launching. They have shown that the method which succeeded per- fectly on a smaller scale is insufficient on a larger one, and they have indicated that it is desirable that the launching should take place nearer the surface of the water, either from a track upon the shore or from a house boat large enough to enable the apparatus to be launched at any time with the wings extended and perhaps with 56 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 wings independent of support from guys. But the construction of this new launching apparatus would involve further considerable expenditures that there are no present means to meet; and this, and this alone, is the cause of their apparent failure. “ Failure in the aerodrome itself or its engines there has been none ; and it is believed that it is at the moment of success, and when the engineering problems have been solved, that a lack of means has pre- vented a continuance of the work.” A regrettable controversy has arisen regarding the capacity of this machine for flight. As our purpose here is only to recall the work and attainments of Langley, and as far as possible by his own words, we may well leave that question as he himself stated it. Our summary of Langley’s work is far from complete. Such important papers as “ The Solar and Lunar Spectrum,” “ The Cheap- est Form of Light,” “ Energy and Vision,” “ Observation of Sudden Phenomena,” “ Good Seeing,” “The History of a Doctrine,” and others have been entirely omitted. But space forbids further following of the steps of this great man except to quote in closing that inimit- able parable from the final pages of his charming book “ The New Astronomy ”’: “T have read somewhere a story about a race of ephemeral insects who live but an hour. To those who are born in the early morning the sunrise is the time of youth. They die of old age while its beams are yet gathering force, and only their descendants live on to midday ; while it is another race which sees the sun decline, from that which saw it rise. Imagine the sun about to set, and the whole nation of mites gathered under the shadow of some mushroom (to them ancient as the sun itself) to hear what their wisest philosopher has to say of the gloomy prospect. If I remember aright, he first told them that, in- credible as it might seem, there was not only a time in the world’s youth when the mushroom itself was young, but that the sun in those early ages was in the eastern, not in the western, sky. Since then, he explained, the eyes of scientific ephemera had followed it, and estab- lished by induction from vast experience the great ‘Law of Nature,’ that it moved only westward; and he showed that since it was now nearing the western horizon, science herself pointed to the conclusion that it was about to disappear forever, together with the great race of ephemera for whom it was created. “What his hearers thought of this discourse I do not remember, but I have heard that the sun rose again the next morning.” eis no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY ABBOT 57 REFERENCES (Listed in order quoted in this paper. ) On THE MINUTE STRUCTURE OF THE SOLAR PHoTospHERE. Amer. Journ. Sci. and Arts, vol. 7, pp. 3-10, Feb. 1874. Tue Tora Sovar Ecuipse oF JULY 29, 1878. OBSERVATIONS AT PIKE’S PEAK, Cotorapo. Astronom. and Meteorol. Observations 1876 U.S. Naval Obs., pt. 2, app. 3, pp. 205-209, Washington, 1880 THe BoLoMeTeER AND Raprant ENercy. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., vol. 16, pp. 342-358, 1881. On THE AMOUNT oF THE ATMOSPHERIC ABsorPTION. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 28, no. 165, pp. 168-170, Sept. 1884. RESEARCHES ON SOLAR Heat AND Its ABSORPTION BY THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE. A Report or THE Mount WHITNEY Expepition. Prof. Papers Signal Ser- vice, no. 15, pp. II, 13-14, 15, 35, 36, U. S. War Dept., 1884. THE TEMPERATURE OF THE Moon. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 4, pt. 2, 3d. Mem., Ppp. 107, 108-109, 113, 193, 194, 196, 197, 1880. On HitruHerto Unrecocnizep Wave-Lenctus. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 32, no. 188, pp. 83-84, 87-89, 100, Aug. 1886. ANNALS OF THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITU- TION, vol. I, pp. ili, I, 2, 22, 23, 129-130, 1900. ON A PossIBLE VARIATION OF THE SOLAR RADIATION AND Its PRoBABLE EFFECT ON TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. Astrophys. Journ., vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 305, 307, 315-318, 321, June 1904. EXPERIMENTS IN AERODYNAMICS. Smithsonian Contr. Knowl., vol. 27, art. 1, PP. 3, 5-6, 7, 9, 10, 107-108, 18oT. Tue INTERNAL Work OF THE WIND. Smithsonian Contr. Knowl., vol. 27, art. 2, Pp. I-4, 13-14, 22-23, 1803. Tue LANGLEY AERopROME. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1900, p. 216, 1901. EXPERIMENTS WITH THE LANGLEY AERopROME. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1904, pp. II3-115, 115-117, 117-118, 119-120, 122-125, 1905. Tue New AstTRONOMY, pp. 250-251. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston and New York, 1900. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 92, NUMBER 9 ite SKELETAL MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB, CALLINECTES SAPIDUS RATHBUN BY DORIS M. COCHRAN Assistant Curator, Division of Reptiles and Batrachians U. S. National Museum 4 ae c- I N Cc *ees Ds AOWFFVSCo ee S\g0tEANo o,f SPs GAYS AA iA = oT E S Qe s = LA THOS, | ee SAY, AD 07 (PUBLICATION 3282) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION JANUARY 22, 1935 The Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. As ” THE SKELETAL MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB, CALLINECTES SAPIDUS RATHBUN By DORIS M. COCHRAN Assistant Curator, Division of Reptiles and Batrachians U.S. National Museum CONTENTS PAGE Disa GT Col ATCT Coa Nye ey oastekseoueh ere t a oie ree Sheree ete eee ee ree allem e tele tael eclia eeeerebay ets 2 Bartle, whe muscles of thetnunk- and its appendages ieee cicero 3 AT vemtri tithes re yssseoy teste cher uceh ovatoncoy ce Maeno cu teares seen cdetortue tees raMeacl La ysis taerane 3 BTULTS Vie errte oie ras voisl aster st oreice estat or Sey fee, AS ous PETC RO eer el retrace Berar coene olor 6 dhhesretracten muisclestorathereyiernesics ciciacnerair as anreiceine ekers 8 Mhevanpendaresix cs. scveraik aueteas sks cie esas oye eee ea nee a oe ne otto sieraiaheteae 9 ihhesnirsteantennas (antennae) anemia crete eiie ets accel: II BGHeNS CCONGLATILEN Marr naitis wets aierh oa caieeae ec Gin.c ie Santee armen: 13 Alubresrrientrciby le spencers: ese eee date stoke ce Rev deeel eiotok oneetaee encsaete ae 15 piivegimstecmac ser lla cues cue waite aievare te ce nemo eh ehencaaere een cue cones a eucualione 19 shes secondamasclllargt pacts soca easel a eter Te ei oieh eae eave cts 21 iRhepirstomaxdllipedin ptsm cnmcientcec eo aeteuo et cieraie ie ac cima oeerere 25 sbhe second bmaxallipedi ns telahis oi cesicterseieeiee crate eieonrsia eens selene 28 heating: mara ltp ed epee ccs secs cass fever avelcxera evecan Sevesver are Secreta svetetsheesnst 31 MNES PELEIO POMS. cous asec ceaicte aac ine Biss Meena ATM erence means iereate 34 ENInSERDEEEIOP Oia tstsha com eneecre reciever re ic erste enere Serena el onerehcnotels 38 Secondiiperciopod! creer accion oars wens ci ee See 30 hid PEKelO POG We ae earthen RRs oie Ne ere ere ee ete 4I HotrthEpercvo pods sake w ress eee ern sipitior soe Co ereeceee raicie 43 Frith perelOpody...crsnc mio eicieecon bacon ne easton crests peseest tots 44 Athos] COPOUSa Aer vest ters cere siees ero eter siehe Acta cael aac Ee eae ebc baka vspricrane 46 ETikvepetiiall Cade ne esi sreeete ee eee ole aaa Une veneer nimeclenener ae tet orcie 46 ‘Bh evfemall €yss.csrys o tot tee reba eee coeirhe oe ES orci oe Rnre mie ae 48 MVE RSIELE TOIT, eases esteesee ane oo oeeouaus atone emt ates VSR eae ee eed 49 The general structure of the crustacean appendage............--.-.-<+ 53 Pattee ebhevossicles and muscles of the stomachiy-ma-j adeno acini eee 60 Ossiclescofatherstomach ter com mcrccrtel ee rtetotere Sterol aee een eats 61 @ssiclesvot themegast ricer weemcmay erie wert eysrtarsae cieiciat sha avec ciepetels 61 CardiacwasuppontineOSsiclesnmacemnn ae een eee 64 Py log Cum Sip pOntiNeMOSSICleSiae Pree rerten meri einic cere vee: 66 MiusclessontheralimentatyaesyStemunnne criteria cismiocrieicier le 68 JE eb alas (Ocramb eM Ot ye che COB oboe eOna b ae aaoG Eu roe Romantics 68 lira tram StCeMUISCLES es cdeesevere eveter ce Me pote Oi cote ae oeare ator ee recs iesl crates: sctecetar ae Ss 72 PND DLEWAtiOnssuscdeom item elIbesmars ameter etic econ cieieicine oleic © eerste cic 74 IRELERETICES? rsya ce Oe cic aia cathe Crerere eT Mesa ere REI Se tae ibie udewiarerereciabeieieted 74 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 92, No.9 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 INTRODUCTION The need for detailed morphologic study of the muscles of crusta- ceans is apparent upon making a survey of the very scanty literature dealing with the myology of so diverse and important a suborder. The taxonomy and the concurrent analysis of the external anatomy of crustaceans have received a great deal of attention, and their physio- logic reactions to stimuli have likewise been given a comparatively large amount of study. The internal structure and particularly the myology have been surprisingly neglected. Huxley (1880) made a now historic contribution in his book on the crayfish, and his masterly dissections were unequalled for over a quar- ter of acentury. Then the German school of zoology at Leipzig began a symposium on the crayfish, and the rechecking of the musculature was undertaken by Walter Schmidt, who made a most thorough and scholarly revision, in which he came upon several important points which Huxley had failed to emphasize. The next complete myological study of a crustacean was published by Alfreda Berkeley in 1928. Her study of the shrimp Pandalus danae was executed in the general manner of Schmidt’s treatment, so that their two papers are readily comparable. Several papers by R. J. Daniel have since appeared dealing with the very complicated abdominal musculature of shrimps, but these papers have little bearing upon the following study, because the shrimp and the crab are structurally dissimilar in regard to their abdominal organization. I am particularly indebted to R. E. Snodgrass, of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine of the United States Department of Agriculture, for his invaluable assistance and advice in interpreting, describing, and figuring the muscles of the blue crab, and in comparing them with those of other arthropods. I am likewise indebted to Prof. C. J. Pierson, of the Department of Zoology of the University of Maryland, for many suggestions, and to Dr. R. V. Truitt, of the same department, for directing my prelimi- nary survey of other anatomical features of the blue crab. My sincere thanks are due also to Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, curator of the division of marine invertebrates of the United States National Museum, for donating comparative material for dissection and for making available much of the literature dealing with crustaceans. The work on the appendages of the blue crab was done in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Maryland. NO. Q MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 3 PART I. THE MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK AND ITS APPENDAGES THE TRUNK The complete fusion of the segments of head and body in the blue crab has resulted in the disappearance of those intersegmental muscles which in crustaceans like the shrimp and the crayfish give a high degree of flexibility to the movements of the body. The crab’s head and body are encased in a hard, unjointed covering, which shows no trace whatever of segmentation on its dorsal sur- face, although ventrally the sternal thoracic segments on which the basal leg muscles originate are well marked. Of all the extremely complex and numerous body muscles that one encounters in the shrimp and crayfish, there is but one, the attractor of the epimera, which finds a counterpart in the blue crab, where it performs the same function of holding the gill chamber in its proper relation to the carapace. While the abdomen of the crayfish and shrimp is extremely pliable and is much used in swimming, the abdomen of the blue crab, in the male at least, is apparently progressing toward a condition of par- tial rigidity, as the third, fourth, and fifth segments are immovably fused in that sex. This fusion is not yet completely established, how- ever, as the former segmentation is still partly maintained in its mus- culature. The female’s abdomen has six distinct segments, all of which have the muscles well developed. The structure of the hard parts of the abdomen of the male is such that it can not be extended behind the body in line with the back, but at most can assume a position at right angles to the dorsal surface of the body. The abdomen in both sexes normally lies closely adpressed against the posterior region of the thorax. In this position, the dorsal part of the abdomen is under- neath the body and actually ventral in position. In the text, how- ever, it is described by the term “ dorsal,” applied to that part which would be uppermost in a normal crustacean abdomen extending back- ward behind the thorax. 1. Musculus ventralis super ficialis thoraco-abdomunalis (fig. 1 B) — This muscle arises on the outer posterior surface of the last segment of the thorax and is inserted on the anterior border of the first abdomi- nal segment near the midline, where it helps to pull the abdomen toward the thorax. This is the only trace in the blue crab of the ventral superficial thoracic muscles, which are so prominent between the highly movable body segments in both Astacus and Pandalus.’ *In the particular discussion of the muscles, the comparisons made to homolo- gous parts in the shrimp and crayfish refer only to the species Pandalus danae and Astacus fluviatilis. 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 Although this muscle is paired, as are all the other abdominal muscles, the members of the pair are so closely crowded toward the middle line that they appear as one median bundle of muscle fibers. 2-6. Musculi ventrales superficiales abdominis (fig. 1 B)—These muscles are arranged regularly in accordance with the original seg- mentation of the abdomen in the male, and the fusion of the third, fourth, and fifth abdominal somites in this sex has evidently not affected the ventral musculature at all, since the latter is similar in i205 (ae ————|—-—-— <_—-fI+1V+V—-——— i SS eee = Fic. 1.—Muscles of the abdomen of the male blue crab. A, dissection of the abdomen from the ventral side to show the dorsal muscles: 7b, small branch of musculus dilatator ani; 8-13, musculi dorsales superficiales abdominis. B, dissection of the abdomen from the dorsal side to show the ventral muscles: I, musculus ventralis superficialis thoraco-abdominis; 2-6, musculi ventrales superficiales abdominis; 7a, main branch of musculus dilatator ani. I-VI, abdominal somites 1 through 6; Tn, telson. both sexes. The muscles of the first pair (2) arise on the membrane of the anterior border of the first segment and are inserted on the heavy sclerotized ridge marking the second segment. Each muscle of the pair splits into several diverging branches, the two inner ones being practically confluent on the midline. The second (3) and third (4) pairs are similar to the first. Each muscle of the fourth (5) is definitely in a single piece, however, and its posterior attachment is made upon an arrow-shaped cartilagelike thickening of the membrane in the middle of the segment. The muscles of the fifth and last pair (6) are likewise undivided, the two muscles lying very close together NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 5 at their origin but diverging toward their insertion upon the outer walls in the middle of the sixth segment. There is no ventral muscle connecting the sixth segment with the telson in either sex. The ventral superficial muscles are much heavier in the female than in the male, owing no doubt to the fact that the ‘“ locking ”’ device for the male’s abdomen precludes the necessity for any strong contraction toward the body. The female, on the other hand, has no such locking device but must hold the abdomen bent forward under the body or curled around the egg mass, this position of the abdomen necessitating heavier muscles. 7 a,b. Musculus dilatator ani (fig. 1 A, B).—The main part of this muscle arises on a triangular cartilagelike thickening on the ventral membrane lying between the posterior border of the sixth somite and the anterior border of the telson. It is inserted ventro-medially by the side of the anal opening. The small second part arises in the same cartilagelike thickening on the ventral membrane, and is inserted on the anterior dorsal wall of the telson. By the contractions of the two muscles the anus is opened and widened, while the elasticity of the membrane around the anus opposes them. 8-13. Musculi dorsales superficiales abdominis (fig. 1 A.).—While Astacus has its first superficial dorsal muscle connecting the thorax with the abdomen, this muscle does not occur either in Pandalus or in Callinectes. A very heavy U-shaped membrane connects the first ab- dominal segment with the thorax in Callinectes, and at the base of this membrane arises the first pair of dorsal superficial muscles (8), which thus corresponds to the second pair in Astacus. Each muscle of this pair is in several parts lying side by side. The next pair (9) arises near the middle of the second segment behind a heavy sclerotized ridge and is inserted on the anterior border of the following segment, which in the male crab represents the complete fusion of the third, fourth, and fifth abdominal somites. In the center of this fused section there is still, strange to say, a pair of definite patches of muscle tissue arising on a heavy ridge, the marks of attachment of which may be seen going through to the dorsal integument as two slight shallow depressions. This pair of muscles (numbered “ zo or rr” in the figure) probably represents either the fourth or fifth pair of dorsal superficial muscles. It appears to have no function, as the hinge to its somite is entirely immovable. The adjacent pair of muscles has completely disappeared in the male. The sixth pair (72) arises some distance within the fused segment and is inserted on a cartilagelike outgrowth from the anterior border of the sixth segment. The seventh pair (13) is long and very 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 slender, to correspond to the shape of the male’s abdomen, and is in- serted on cartilagelike outgrowths emanating from the anterior border of the telson, which receives all its power of motion from this muscle, as no flexors of the telson exist in either sex. The female’s dorsal superficial muscles are like those of the male, except that all six ab- dominal segments are distinct and hence the full complement of six pairs of muscles is present and functional. The dorsal muscles serve to extend the abdomen backward, but as this position of the abdomen is not habitual in the blue crab, occurring only at the time of mating, the muscles are very weakly developed. 14. Musculus attractor epimeralis (figs. 12 A, 13 B).—AII that re- mains of this muscle, extensive in both Astacus and Pandalus, is a small patch of short muscle fibers uniting the epimeral plates and the cara- pace, between the metabranchial and the cardiac regions. It extends only for a short distance from the posterior angle of the first epimeral plate. It holds the gill chamber in place in the body, beneath the branchial lobe and the posterior part of the protogastric region, on which the muscle originates. THE EYE The eye of the blue crab is a highly complex organ, which presents many specializations in its structure and musculature. ‘The shortening and broadening of the body contour have also been repeated in the changes that have taken place in the eyes. The crayfish and shrimp, both with elongate, narrow bodies, have the eyes close together on short stalks, which project forward in front of the head. The blue crab, on the other hand, has eyes which project on very long stalks at right angles to the axis of the body. The middle cylinder (J in fig. 2), quite distinct and having its own muscles in the crayfish and shrimp, is completely fused * to the chitinous middle ring in the blue crab, and the muscles of these parts, formerly separated, are now forced to interlace in a very constricted area. The second segment, on the contrary, is immensely elongated in the blue crab. Its proximal part contains no muscles, but only a deep groove in which lie the blood- vessels feeding the eye. Ventrally, this part of the segment is separated from the head by a thin membrane. This membrane thickens consider- ably toward its distal boundary, and on this membrane the adductor muscle arises, which is not the case in either the crayfish or the shrimp. The muscles arising on the distal border of the second seg- ment, or on the heavy tendinous outgrowths from it, bear much the ? The entire fused structure will hereafter be spoken of as the middle cylinder. — NO. Q MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 7 same relations to one another as in the crayfish and shrimp. There are two branches to the abductor and three to the dorsal retractor, the result being that the blue crab has excellent control of its eye movements. 15. Musculus oculi basalis anterior (fig. 2)—This muscle arises medially on the epistome from a short, curved, movable rod, which projects first at right angles from the center of the epistome and then slopes downward and backward over the esophagus and enlarges to a buttonlike knob. From this knob the muscle runs dorsally and soon divides into two short but relatively thick branches, which find attach- ment side by side below the proximal edge of the chitinous middle 19a 25b 23a 20b Noone: 7 I 19b Fic. 2—Dorsal dissection of the eye of the blue crab. On the right side the deeper muscles are exposed. 15, musculus oculi basalis anterior; 76, musculus oculi basalis posterior; 17, musculus oculi attractor; 78, musculus oculi adductor; roa and z9b, musculus oculi abductor; 20a, 20b and 20c, musculus oculi retractor dorsalis; 27, musculus oculi retractor ventralis; 22, musculus oculi retractor lateralis; 23a and 23), musculus oculi retractor medialis. I, middle cylinder; JJ, second segment; J//, optic cup. cylinder which unites the optic peduncles. The distal part of each peduncle, bearing the retina, is thereby moved forward in a horizontal plane, so that the eyes are brought slightly nearer together. At the same time the second joint may be rotated slightly. 16. Musculus oculi basalis posterior (fig. 2).—This muscle arises on the knoblike part of the supporting rod of the preceding muscle. It runs unpaired dorsally for a short distance, closely adherent to the dorsally directed part of the preceding. Then it divides into two very fine but exceedingly strong branches which diverge slightly as they continue dorsally between the branches of the anterior basal muscle to their attachment on the frontal region of the carapace of the head, where their presence is marked usually by two small indentations. 17. Musculus oculi attractor (fig. 2).—This short compact muscle arises on the head carapace near its junction with the middle cylinder. 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 The muscles of this pair converge slightly before reaching their inser- tions on a T-shaped infolding of the ventral part of the middle cylin- der, in front of the attachment of the anterior basal muscle. As this middle cylinder is cartilagelike and hence somewhat pliable, the attrac- tor can assist the anterior basal muscle in depressing it and hence in bringing the solid joints attached to it nearer together. It may likewise oppose the basal muscle in rotating the second joint. 18. Musculus oculi adductor (fig. 2) This heavy and powerful but short muscle arises on the thick membrane separating the ventral part of the second joint from the head. It travels forward and outward to its insertion along the anterior distal wall of the second segment not far from the base of the optic cup, which is rotated strongly by its contraction. 190 a, b. Musculus oculi abductor a and b (fig. 2).—Originating posteriorly on the heavy membrane which connects the second joint to the optic cup, the main part (a) of this muscle is inserted on the posterior wall of the optic cup near to the corneal surface. This is the largest and heaviest of any of the muscles lying in the cup. The second branch (b) originates beside the first but juts off at an angle toward the ventral surface, where it is soon inserted not far from the proximal border of the optic cup. It is much shorter than the main branch, from which it is separated near its insertion by the lateral retractor muscle. Both branches oppose the adductor by pulling the eye away from the midline and rotating it in the opposite direction. THE RETRACTOR MUSCLES OF THE EYE Like the crayfish and shrimp, the blue crab possesses four retractor muscles, all of which originate on the membrane bordering the distal edge of the second segment and are inserted on the sides of the optic cup near the cornea. They bring the cup nearer to the second segment or rotate it. The insertion of each muscle is marked exter- nally by a characteristically different texture in the surface of the optic cup. 20 a-c. Musculus oculi retractor dorsalis a, b, and c (fig. 2).—This muscle has three branches, all of which arise from a heavy ossiclelike projection lying in the membrane and originating on the dorsal distal wall of the second segment. The main branch, the central one of the three, travels outward to its attachment on the dorsal surface of the optic cup, where its insertion is marked externally by a small area of a slightly granular texture different from the smooth surface around it. The second branch (b) projects forward at right angles to the first NO. Q MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 9 and is attached on the front wall of the optic cup near its proximal border. The third branch (c) projects also at right angles but in an opposite direction to b, and is attached to the posterior wall of the optic cup near its proximal edge. The three branches taken together with the ossiclelike piece from which they originate form a cross, and the attachment at the extremities of the cross produces a mechanical device of great strength for moving the optic cup dorsally and for rotating it from side to side. 21. Musculus oculi retractor ventralis (fig. 2).—This is a relatively small and weak muscle, which arises ventrally in the membrane emanat- ing from the distal edge of the second segment and is inserted on the ventral wall midway to the cornea. Since it runs parallel with the axis of the eye, it cannot act asa rotator. Its only function is to retract the optic cup. 22. Musculus oculi retractor lateralis (fig. 2).—This muscle origi- nates in a tendinous structure in the membrane of the posterior ventral wall of the second segment, and passes diagonally backward and up- ward between the two parts of the abductor to its insertion on the pos- terior wall of the optic cup just above the insertion of the shorter branch of the abductor. It has a strong rotatory function, owing to its position diagonal to the axis of the eye. 23 a, b. Musculus oculi retractor medialis a and b (fig. 2).—This muscle has two branches, both of which arise from an exceedingly heavy ossiclelike projection from the anterior distal wall of the second segment. The upper branch (a) proceeds straight along the anterior wall of the optic cup to its attachment not far from the cornea. The lower branch (b) diverges slightly downward to its attachment on the anteroventral wall of the optic cup not far forward of the insertion of the ventral rotator. The medial retractor has the rotatory function in addition to being a retractor, as its diverging branches testify. THE APPENDAGES The problem of choosing names for the various muscles governing the appendages has proved, to be a very puzzling one, especially in regard to those muscles governing the mandible, the maxillae, and the maxillipeds. It is often impossible in the living crab to assign to a definite one of the many complex muscles surrounding the base of each appendage a particular motion observed in that part of the ap- pendage. In the telopodite the case is much simpler, as there are but two muscles governing each segment, and but two corresponding direc- tions of motion. In the dissected crab, the many slender muscles con- IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 trolling the various basal parts of the leg are likely to break if enough tension is put upon them to show in what manner they influence the distal segments. Even the coarse and heavy muscles on tendons which do not break cannot invariably be assumed to cause the same motion in the segment of the stiffened dead tissue that they do in the pliable living organism. Thus it frequently becomes very difficult to deter- mine whether a muscle in function is a promotor or an adductor, a remotor or an abductor. Coupled with this difficulty is the fact that the crab is so highly specialized away from the ancestral primitive condition that some of the appendages now lie in a partly reversed position, and one appendage, the mandible, is completely reversed. This makes it equally hard to give the muscles positional names accord- ing to their points of attachment, and there are, besides, so many small muscles controlling the basal segments that one soon has to resort to the expedient of giving some of them merely a number, having ex- hausted the available adjectives descriptive of their locations. It is possible, however, to divide the muscles according to their place of origin, all the muscles originating on the carapace being called dorsal muscles, and those coming from the ventral surface and the sternal apodemes being referred to as ventral muscles. Only those segments anterior to the second maxilla have both dorsal and ventral muscles. The second maxilla and the segments behind it lack dorsal muscles, but are fully equipped with ventral muscles. The dorsal and ventral muscles are all extrinsic, meaning that they originate in the body itself beyond the boundaries of the true appen- dage. The intrinsic muscles are contained entirely within the appen- dage itself and control the distal segments of the limb and the flagellum if one be present. As far as it has seemed possible to do it, I have followed the nomen- clature adopted by Schmidt and later by Berkeley, in their respective anatomical analyses, to facilitate comparison between the three forms involved. The muscles of the blue crab do not always present perfect analogies in either position or function to those of the crayfish and the shrimp, however, and where a difference in function seems possible, the positional name may be given as first choice, with Schmidt’s or Berkeley’s corresponding name in synonymy. When so many muscles were found that the positional name of the one in question could not be given with the use of only one or two qualifying adjectives, the whole muscle has been referred to merely by its number. It is not well to be too arbitrary in assigning definite names to some of the more obscure muscles of the blue crab until such time as other representatives of the NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN ie order Decapoda shall have been dissected and compared carefully, muscle by muscle. It is quite possible that other genera of crabs may show up interrelationships of muscles that are quite obscure in Callinectes. THE FIRST ANTENNA (ANTENNULE) In the blue crab this appendage is similar to that of the shrimp and of the crayfish in regard to its high degree of flexibility. The compara- tively large size of the first segment is due to the presence of a large statocyst to which no muscles are attached, these tissues being entirely sensory in function. The structure of the two flagella in the shrimp | \ ie 4b 24a 26 28 25a ob Fic. 3—Dorsal dissection of the first antenna of the blue crab with the deeper muscles laid bare on the right side. 24a and 24b, musculus promotor I antennae; 25a and 25b, musculus remotor I antennae; 26, musculus productor. I antennae; 27, musculus reductor, I antennae ; 28, musculus adductor. I antennae; 29, musculus abductor: I antennae; 30, musculus productor; I antennae; 37, musculus reductor; I antennae; 32, musculus reductor: I antennae. St, statocyst. and crayfish, as well as in the blue crab, does not give any support to Huxley’s opinion that these flagella represent an endopodite and an exopodite, nor can the joint from which they arise be considered as a modified basipodite. 24 a, b. Musculus promotor a and b I antennae (fig. 3).—This muscle originates in two places on the posterior border of the aperture that connects the interior of the body with the interior of the antennule. Both parts are attached close together on an infolding of the mem- brane lying beneath the statocyst chamber in the first joint. The promotor raises the first joint, bringing it toward the midline and rotating it slightly in its socket. 25 a,b. Musculus remotor a and b I antennae (fig. 3).—One part of this short but heavy muscle arises on a round cartilaginous disk on IZ SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 the lateral edge of the aperture connecting body and antennule. It is attached to a tendon on the outer dorsal part of the first joint. The other branch of the remotor arises on the outer anterior border of the aperture, and runs to its attachment on the opposite side of the tendon to which the first branch goes. Both remotors pull the first joint strongly downward toward the body, at the same time rotating it in its socket. 26. Musculus productor . I antennae (fig. 3).—This muscle arises dorsally on the inner proximal border of the first segment and passes forward to its attachment on the heavy basal membrane on the lateral proximal border of the second segment, on which it exerts a strong downward pull. 27. Musculus reductor , I antennae (fig. 3).—This short muscle originates on the inner posterior wall of the first segment and is inserted anteriorly on the membrane of the proximal part of the sec- ond joint. It opposes the productor » by bringing the joint upward toward the midline. 28. Musculus adductor, I antennae (fig. 3)—This is the largest of the four muscles governing the second joint of the antenna. It arises on the inner posterior wall of the first segment and is inserted anteriorly on the membrane at the inner basal part of the second seg- ment. It thus parallels the reductor , and nearly conceals it. Like the latter, it brings the second joint upward and toward the midline. No adductor occurs in Astacus in any of the joints of its first antenna. 29. Musculus abductor, I antennae (fig. 3).—This muscle arises on the inner proximal border of the first segment, directly beneath the origin of the productor », paralleling it almost to its insertion on the membrane below the outer proximal edge of the second segment. It brings the second segment strongly backward and outward. 30. Musculus productor ; I antennae (fig. 3).—This muscle arises on the outer proximal part of the second joint and is attached to the cartilage emanating from the outer proximal edge of the third joint, which is pulled downward and outward by it. 31. Musculus reductor , I antennae (fig. 3).—Also arising on the outer proximal wall of the second joint, this muscle goes to its attach- ment on the membrane of the inner proximal border of the third joint, which it brings inward and upward in opposition to the productor ;. 32. Musculus reductor 4 I antennae (fig. 3)—This is the only muscle lying in the third segment. It arises on the inner proximal wall and is inserted on the membrane lying between the two flagella, which are pulled sharply together by its contraction, while the elasticity NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—-COCHRAN 13 of the membrane pulls them sharply apart. Apparently there are no special muscles within the flagella themselves. THE SECOND ANTENNA In the blue crab the second antenna is so different in structure from the corresponding appendage in the crayfish and shrimp that it is not feasible to attempt to draw a parallel very closely between them. The second antenna in the crayfish, as Schmidt remarks in his masterly analysis (Schmidt, 1915, p. 205), is the most highly segmented of all the head appendages, and hence possesses the greatest ability for motion. The same complicated structure was observed by Miss Berke- ley in the shrimp Pandalus. Both these crustaceans have a well-devel- oped, heavily muscled exopodite, as well as an endopodite in which all the typical segments may be recognized, the flagellum being taken to represent the dactylopodite in both cases. There is no jointed exopodite in the blue crab; the only trace of it is a hard protuberance on the outer part of the basipodite. Since a complete fusion has taken place between the basipodite and the head carapace, there are no depressor or levator muscles. The coxopodite is reduced externally to a membranous pocket lying anteriorly between the basipodite and the head carapace, in which the fusion occurs poste- riorly. Arising from the basipodite, and forming the base of the endo- podite, come two segments which I shall arbitrarily call the ischiopo- dite and the meropodite, which are provided with the typical reductor and productor muscles. Following these is a long annulated flagellum without definite muscles inside it. It is impossible to say whether the flagellum represents the division of the last three segments of the normal endopodite—carpopodite, propodite, and dactylopodite—or of the carpopodite alone, if one wishes to assume the complete loss of the other two. Because of this uncertainty, the muscles lying in the so- called meropodite and controlling the action of the flagellum are re- ferred to as the reductor and productor of the flagellum. 7 33. Musculus promotor II antennae (fig. 4).—This muscle arises on the dorsal carapace in the protogastric region, and runs inward and forward to its attachment on a slender tendonlike structure which thickens and hardens into a sickel-shaped rod, which curves outward and forward beneath the membranous pouch lying between the basi- podite and the head carapace, and finally attaches itself to this same cartilagelike membrane, which is moved forward and inward by its action. I4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 34. Musculus remotor II antennae (fig. 4).—This short muscle arises partly on the head carapace where it fuses with the basipodite and partly on the upper edge of the membranous pouch below the basipodite. It passes backward to its insertion on the posterior part of the sickel-shaped rod mentioned above. The membranous pouch is pulled backward and downward by its contraction. 35. Musculus productor ischiopoditis II antennae (fig. 4.).—This muscle arises on the proximal median portion of the basipodite and is attached to the outer proximal border of the ischiopodite, which it moves outward and downward. Fic. 4.—The second antenna. 33, musculus promotor II antennae; 34, musculus remotor II antennae; 35, musculus productor ischiopoditis II antennae; 36, musculus reductor ischiopoditis II antennae; 37, musculus productor meropoditis II antennae; 38, musculus reductor meropoditis II antennae; 39, musculus productor flagellaris Il antennae; 40, musculus reductor flagellaris II antennae. Cxpd, coxopodite; Bspd, basipodite; Iscpd, ischiopodite; Mrpd, meropodite ; Flg, flagellum. 36. Musculus reductor ischiopoditis IT antennae (fig. 4).—A little heavier than the preceding, this muscle arises near it on the inner proximal wall of the basipodite, and is inserted on the inner proximal margin of the ischiopodite, which is pulled strongly inward toward the center by its action. 37. Musculus productor meropoditis II antennae (fig. 4).—This muscle arises on the outer proximal wall of the ischiopodite and is inserted on the outer proximal margin of the meropodite, on which it exerts an outward and downward pull. 38. Musculus reductor meropoditis IT antennae (fig. 4).— Like the preceding in size and shape, this muscle originates on the inner proxi- mal wall of the ischiopodite and goes to its insertion on the inner proxi- mal edge of the meropodite, which receives a pull toward the center from it. NO. Q MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 15 39. Musculus productor flagellaris II antennae (fig. 4).—Arising on the proximal posterior wall of the meropodite, this muscle is inserted on the base of the first annulus of the flagellum, which is-pulled out- ward and backward by its contraction. 40. Musculus reductor flagellaris II antennae (fig. 4).—This muscle arises on the anterior wall of the meropodite and is inserted on the anterior part of the first ring of the flagellum, causing the latter to be brought inward and forward. THE MANDIBLE As in the crayfish, shrimp, and lobster, the mandible in the blue crab is firmly fixed at two articulations (4 and xx, fig. 5) and hence cannot rotate. The position of these articulations, however, is quite different in the blue crab from that of corresponding articulations in the crayfish and its allies, and a different mechanism for controlling the mandible is required. In the crayfish, shrimp, and lobster, one of the articula- tions is at the extreme upper anterior corner of the mandible, and the other is at the lower posterior corner. Therefore any muscles connect- ing the lower anterior corner with the skeletal part near the midline will pull the lower halves of the mandibles strongly together, function- ing thus as adductors. A muscle attached to the upper posterior edge of the mandible, and running from the same central skeletal founda- tion, perhaps beside and even parallel to the adductors just described, will pull the mandibles just as strongly apart, performing the function of abductors. This opposition is made possible by the widely separated points of articulation of the mandible, which allow its upper and lower borders to pivot inward and outward between their hinges. This swinging motion is further intensified by such additional abductors and adductors as give sufficient power to the masticatory function of the mandible. In the blue crab the articulations of mandible with head skeleton are both anterior, one at the upper and one at the lower corner of the mandible. Because of these anterior articulations, any muscles going from the central foundation to any available spot on the inner poste- rior surface of the mandible behind these forward-lying hinges are bound to open the mandible, functioning as abductors. Hence there is no anterior adductor in the blue crab, and the thin sheetlike muscle of the blue crab, which corresponds to that muscle in the crayfish, func- tions now as a major abductor of the mandible, and all the work of closing the mandible has to be done by the very heavy and powerful posterior and lateral adductors. 2 16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 In this appendage a division of the extrinsic muscles into those with dorsal origin and those with ventral origin is first clearly apparent. There is as a matter of fact only one ventral muscle, the greater abductor (41, fig. 5 A, C), and this might be referred to as musculus ventralis mesalis, the mesal ventral muscle of the mandible, if posi- tional names were adopted. There are three dorsal muscles of the Fic. 5—The mandible. A, dorsal view of the mandible in place. B, analysis of the mandible as an appendage. C, mesal view of the mandible. 41, musculus abductor maior mandibulae; 42, musculus abductor minor mandibulae; 43, musculus adductor posterior mandibulae; 44, musculus adductor lateralis mandibulae; 45, musculus extensor palpi mandibulae; 46, musculus flexor a palpi mandibulae; 47, musculus flexor b palpi mandibulae. x-xx, hinges of the mandible; 742, tendon of musculus abductor minor mandibulae; 744, tendon of musculus adductor lateralis mandibulae; S, cut ends of two stomach muscles; J, the dorsal promotor; J, the dorsal remotor ; KL, the ventral promotor and ventral remotor combined; Ant, anterior border of the mandible; Post, posterior border of the mandible. mandible, a posterior outer (42), a posterior inner (43), and a third one (44), in function a lateral adductor, which is very puzzling to name as to position, since it attaches itself to the now outer posterior angle of the mandible, which has reversed itself in the blue crab from its primitive anterior position. It has been repeatedly stated that the blue crab is a highly specialized creature, which departs in certain noticeable ways from the more gen- eralized morphological aspects of many other crustacean types. Hence NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 17 many of the blue crab’s appendages might be expected to show a varia- tion from the usual structure, and this expectation is fulfilled when the mandible is examined and compared specifically to that of the crayfish and shrimp. Because of its two anterior articulations, to which ref- erence has already been made, the mandible of the blue crab lies in a partly reversed position; as a matter of fact, its true anterior border now is its upper posterior border when the crab occupies a normal attitude, and its true posterior surface is now entirely ventral in position. The primitive appendage, as shown by R. E. Snodgrass in his “‘ Evo- lution of the Insect Head and the Organs of Feeding,” * has essentially Fic. 6.—Diagram of the theoretical elementary musculature of the segmental appendages (after Snodgrass). a-b, primitive dorsoventral axis of the appendage. I, dorsal promotor muscle; J, dorsal remotor; K, ventral promotor; L, ventral remotor; 7, tergum; Stn, sternum; Appd, appendage. (After R. E. Snodgrass, “The Thoracic Mechanism of a Grasshopper and its Antecedents,’ Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 82, no. 2, p. 10, 1929.) four muscles to control the movements of its basal part, two of which originate in the dorsal region of the body, and two on the ventral region (see fig. 6). The dorsal muscle, which is inserted on the ante- rior upper border of the rim of the appendage, is called the dorsal promotor (/), and the corresponding muscle inserted on the posterior upper border is the dorsal remotor (J). The muscle inserted on the anterior lower rim of the appendage is the ventral promotor (K), and the corresponding muscle with a posterior lower insertion is the ventral remotor (L). An attempt has been made (fig. 5 B.) to analyze the extrinsic muscles of the mandible in the blue crab to see just how they conform to the simple ancestral type. It was found that the dorsal muscle numbered * Smithsonian Rep. 1931, p. 465, fig. 14, 1932. 18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 44, functioning as the lateral adductor, corresponds to the primitive muscle J with insertion on the upper anterior rim of the appendage. The two remaining dorsal muscles, the minor abductor (42) and the posterior adductor (43) together represent the muscle J, since both originate dorsally and are inserted on the posterior (now ventral!) rim of the appendage. In the same way the muscle numbered 4/7, acting as the major abductor, represents a combination of the ventrally-rising primitive muscles K and L, since 47 is the only muscle of the appen- dage having a ventral origin. 41. Musculus abductor maior mandibulae (fig. 5 A, C).—Appear- ing as a broad sheetlike muscle, this muscle originates in two places on the head apodeme, and runs outward to its insertion along the posterior part of the mandible, which it helps to open. 42. Musculus abductor minor mandibulae (fig. 5 A, C).—This muscle arises laterally on the dorsal head carapace on the inner part of the epibranchial region and is inserted by a very slender but strong tendon on the lower outer part of the mandible, which is opened by it. 43. Musculus adductor posterior mandibulae (fig. 5 A, C).—\This very strong muscle arises on the urogastric region of the carapace in several heavy muscle bundles, which shortly fuse together into a long and extremely heavy tendon that passes forward and downward to its attachment on the mandible at the point of its lower articulation with the head skeleton. It brings the mandible strongly toward the midline. 44. Musculus adductor lateralis mandibulae (fig. 5 A, C).—This extremely heavy muscle arises on the head carapace partly at the base of the first spine and partly at the base of the third spine, the parts uniting on a heavy tendon attaching them to the outer posterior end of the mandible, which they bring strongly toward the midline. 45. Musculus extensor palpi mandibulae (fig. 5 A).—This muscle arises on the inner surface of the mandible near the base of the tendon of the posterior adductor muscle. It is inserted on the heavy mem- brane connecting the palp and the mandible, and its contraction straightens the palp and brings it away from the center, opposing flexor a in its action. There is no extensor for the distal segment of the palp. 40. Musculus flexor a palpi mandibulae (fig. 5 A).—This short but stout muscle arises on the outer part of the mandible and travels for- ward and slightly inward to its attachment on the posterior proximal border of the first segment of the palp. Its function is to lower the palp, thereby bringing it toward the median plane. NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN Ig 47. Musculus flexor b palpi mandibulae (fig. 5 A)—This muscle fills the whole of the first segment of the palp. It arises in the mem- brane proximal to this first segment, and is inserted on the proximal joint of the last (second) segment. It lowers this last segment, thus bringing it toward the center. THE FIRST MAXILLA The first maxilla in the blue crab, as in the crayfish and shrimp, is flattened, and while it normally lies close to the outer anterior surface of the mandible, it has a considerable degree of freedom of motion. This is due to the fact that its basal part is really in two pieces, the posterior half rather loosely attached to the lower distal margin of the anterior half, and the two halves working together somewhat like the blades in a pair of scissors. The anterior half has been called the basipodite by Huxley, Schmidt, Berkeley, and some other investiga- tors, but since there are no muscles between it and the posterior half, and since the body muscles go to both of them equally, it appears that the structure is in reality a coxopodite, semi-divided and provided with hinges to give necessary pliability. Borrodaile also considers that both parts belong to the coxopodite. It appears that the true basipodite is completely fused with and indistinguishable from the inner border of the coxopodite, as the endopodite arises from this region. Three dorsal muscles run to the first maxilla, although it is impos- sible to separate them at their origin because of their extremely attenu- ate form. They separate distinctly into three strands as they pass behind the mandible to their respective points of insertion on the first maxilla. The first of these (fig. 7, 51) is the anterior inner, which may be called musculus dorsalis anterior mesalis and whose functional name is the anterior adductor of the coxopodite. The next (52) is a posterior inner, musculus dorsalis posterior mesalis, which acts as a posterior adductor to the coxopodite. There is but one outer dorsal muscle, which may be referred to as musculus dorsalis exter- nalis and which functions as an abductor of the coxopodite. The ventral muscles may be classed as follows: 54. Upper inner: Musculus ventralis superior mesalis (levator). 55. Lower inner: Musculus ventralis inferior mesalis (depressor ). 48. Anterior outer: Muculus ventralis anterior externalis (promotor ). 49. Posterior outer: Musculus ventralis posterior externalis (remotor a). 50. Median outer: Musculus ventralis medialis externalis (remotor Db). The only intrinsic muscle in this appendage is 56, the adductor of the endopodite. 20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 48. Musculus promotor I maxillae (fig. 7) —This muscle arises on the head apodeme and runs forward and outward to its dorsal inser- tion in the extreme lateral part of the coxopodite beneath a disklike ossification near the inner hinge of the coxopodite. This muscle moves the coxopodite forward and upward. 49-50. Musculus remotor I maxillae a and b (fig. 7).—The shorter branch of the remotor (49) arises on the ventral part of the head : 30 49 52 gir * / / LAND MX Fic. 7.—The first maxilla. 48, musculus promotor I maxillae; 49-50, musculus remotor I maxillae ; 51, musculus adductor anterior I maxillae; 52, musculus adductor posterior | maxillae; 53, musculus abductor coxopoditis I maxillae; 54, musculus levator I maxillae; 55, musculus depressor I maxillae; 56, musculus adductor endopoditis I maxillae. ACxpd, anterior part of the coxopodite; PCxpd, posterior part of the coxopodite; Cnd; and Cnd:2, first and second endites of the coxopodite; Endpd, endopodite. apodeme external to the origin of the main branch, traveling parallel to the latter to its insertion on the posterior dorsal angle of the basal rim of the coxopodite beneath and slightly median to the insertion of the promotor. Lying directly below the promotor, the longer branch of the remotor (50) arises on the ventral surface of the head apodeme somewhat posterior to the origin of the promotor. It is inserted ven- trally in the anterior dorsal angle of the basal rim of the coxopodite at a point considerably posterior to the insertion of the promotor and near the union of the coxopodite with the ringlike outgrowth which NOI MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 21 encircles it and holds it near to the mandible. Both remotor muscles oppose the promotor by lowering the coxopodite. 51. Musculus adductor anterior coxopoditis I maxillae (fig. 7).— This exceedingly long and slender muscle arises on the epibranchial region of the head carapace and is inserted without a tendon on the anterior margin of the base of the coxopodite near its mesal end. It brings the free end of the coxopodite toward the mouth. 52. Musculus adductor posterior coxopoditis I maxillae (fig. 7).— This very slender, long muscle originates on the head carapace with the preceding and is indistinguishable from it at first; it travels for- ward, inward and ventrally to its insertion on the posterior margin of the base of the coxopodite, which it pulls forward and inward. 53. Musculus abductor coxopoditis I maxillae (fig. 7).—Arising on the head carapace at the origin of the preceding two and at first indistinguishable from them, this muscle, likewise very slender, is at- tached dorsally to the extreme outer border of the coxopodite on the same disk-shaped ossification that gives attachment to the promotor. It opposes the adductor in pulling the coxopodite away from the midline. 54. Musculus levator I maxillae (fig. 7).—This muscle arises on the anterior part of the head apodeme, just median to the promotor, traveling forward to the dorsal median proximal border of the inner half of the coxopodite, which it raises. 55. Musculus depressor I maxillae (fig. 7). —Arising on the ventral surface of the head apodeme under and slightly posterior to the origin of the levator, this muscle continues forward directly under the levator to its insertion on the ventral proximal border of the inner half of the coxopodite, which it pulls downward. 56. Musculus adductor endopoditis I mazxillae Ge 7).—This muscle arises on the inner proximal border of the inner half of the coxopodite and branches into a fanlike formation at its manifold inser- tion in the central part of the endopodite, which it brings toward the center of the body. The basipodite is no longer distinguishable as such in this appendage, and its position is postulated only by the presence of the endopodite, which when present always arises from the basipodite. THE SECOND MAXILLA Although this appendage has the most complex system of muscles of any in the blue crab, yet its muscles correspond more closely to those in Astacus and in Pandalus than do the muscles of its other appendages. The muscles leading to the parts bordering the mouth are 22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 relatively slender and weak, so that the appendage evidently does not assist greatly in the process of food-taking. Its true function is shown in the great development and complexity of the muscles controlling the scaphognathite, which cause the currents of water to pass continually over the gills. These muscles are attached to a very thick swelling, continuous at its outer end with the skeletal ridge running across the membrane covering the gill chamber. Its inner course borders the junc- ture of scaphognathite and coxopodite in a crooked and irregular swelling, which finally comes to an end as a cuplike thickening that bounds the outer proximal borders of endopodite and basipodite. This cup gives origin on its inner side to the adductor muscle of the endo- podite and on its outer side to the flexor of the scaphognathite. No tendons are found in any muscles of the second maxilla. There is no levator muscle in this appendage in Callinectes, Astacus, or Pandalus. The coxopodite bears two mesal bilobed endites, the anterior of which has been assigned to the basipodite by Brooks and many later writers. There is no distinguishable basipodite present as such in either of the two maxillae in the blue crab, but in both maxillae the coxopodite is so irregularly shaped that its appearance does not sug- gest superficially that it is in reality all one structure. As in the first maxilla, the position of the basipodite in the second maxilla is to be inferred only by the position of the endopodite. This region is so irregularly convoluted and infolded to give sufficient room for inser- tion to the complex and numerous respiratory muscles that the original boundaries between coxopodite, basipodite, scaphognathite, and endo- podite are completely obliterated in the blue crab. In describing the muscles of the second maxilla, no further reference will be made to a basipodite. As all the dorsal muscles are missing in this as in all the following segments, the naming of the ventral muscles remaining might appear to be an easy task, but such is not the case. The myological plan of the second maxilla is greatly complicated by the presence of no less than seven respiratory muscles, some of which are extrinsic, some intrinsic. As a matter of fact, the only muscle which permits of an easily descriptive positional name is 60, an anterior inner ventral muscle, musculus ventralis mesalis, which functions as an adductor ot the coxopodite. The remaining extrinsic ventral muscles (fig. 8) are 57, promotor; 58, remotor; 59, depressor; and 63 through 60, the anterior respiratory muscles. The remaining respiratory muscles (67 through 69), are intrinsic, as are likewise the adductor of the endopodite (61), and the flexor of the scaphognathite (62). NO. QO MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 23 57. Musculus promotor II maxillae (fig. 8) —This long, cylindrical muscle originates on the dorsal surface of the endopleurite of the last head segment, which segment coalesces with the first two thoracic seg- ments. It runs straight forward to its insertion on the skeletal ridge that borders the proximal part of the coxopodite. It brings the cox- opodite backward and upward, at the same time causing a similar movement in the attached anterior part of the scaphognathite. 58. Musculus remotor II maxillae (fig. 8).—Almost hidden by the respiratory muscles, the remotor arises on the dorsal surface of the endosternite of the same segment just in front of the apodemal fora- Cnd 2 Fic. 8.—The second maxilla. 57, musculus promotor II maxillae; 58, musculus remotor II maxillae; 50, musculus depressor II maxillae; 60, musculus adductor coxopoditis II maxillae; 61, musculus adductor endopoditis II maxillae; 62, musculus flexor scaphogna- thitis II maxillae; 63-69, musculi respiratorii II maxillae. Cnd; and Cnd:, first and second endites of the coxopodite; Endpd, endopodite; Scg, scaphognathite. men, and passes forward and outward between respiratory muscles one and two to its insertion on the thickened edge of the coxopodite slightly lateral to and below that of the promotor. It brings the coxopodite up- ward and somewhat toward the center. 59. Musculus depressor II maxillae (fig. 8).—This is the smallest and weakest muscle in the entire appendage. It arises ventrally on the endosternite, appearing as two very thin branches which travel for- ward through the coxopodite to their insertion on its proximal border. It causes the coxopodite to move downward and inward. In Astacus this muscle also has two branches. 60. Musculus adductor coxopoditis II maxillae (fig. 8).— This rela- tively short and slender but strong muscle arises on the inner anterior 24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 corner of the endosternite, running inward and forward to its insertion on the inner proximal border of the coxopodite. It pulls the coxopodite strongly backward and thus toward the center. 61. Musculus adductor endopoditis II maxillae (fig. 8).—This slen- der threadlike muscle arises on the inner proximal part of the coxopo- dite, passing laterally to its insertion on the cuplike swelling at the lateral outer border of the endopodite. It causes the endopodite to be bent somewhat toward the inner region. 62. Musculus flexor scaphognathitis II maxillae (fig. 8)—This muscle originates in the cuplike thickening that borders the outer part of coxopodite and endopodite, and runs outward with pronounced ramification through the scaphognathite to its attachment on the car- tilaginous fold which parallels the outer border of the scaphognathite. This segment is bent by means of the flexor muscle. In Pandalus there is an additional superior flexor muscle which is unbranched. 63-69. Musculi respiratorii IT maxillae (fig. 8).—Arising on the dorsal surface of the endopleurite just mesal to the origin of the promotor, the first of these muscles, musculus respiratorius primus (63), goes forward and outward beneath the promotor to its insertion on the lateral part of the skeletal swelling between coxopodite and scaphognathite. This and the remaining respiratory muscles induce a strong undulating motion in the scaphognathite, thus forcing the water that is drawn into the gill chamber to flow forward. The second muscle, musculus respiratorius secundus (64), heavy and powerful like the first, arises mediodorsally on the head apodeme, runs outward and forward, and passes above the first and below the promotor to reach its insertion just over the first. The third, musculus respiratorius tertius (65), is a small and slender muscle completely hidden until the more dorsal muscles are removed. It originates on the thickened skeletal ridge on the anterior part of the head apodeme, and runs for- ward and slightly outward to its insertion on the skeletal swelling of the scaphognathite just below the insertion of the remotor. The fourth, musculus respiratorius quartus (66), is an exceedingly heavy but short muscle arising under the third on the same skeletal ridge of the head apodeme, running outward to its insertion on the scaphog- nathite, between two angles of the skeletal swelling marking its proxi- mal border. The fifth, musculus respiratorius quintus (67), is a small, powerful muscle arising on an infolding of the apodemal membrane behind the fourth, then passing forward and slightly inward to its inser- tion on the skeletal swelling just beneath the insertion of the promotor. The sixth muscle, musculus respiratorius sextus (68), arises on the same infolding just lateral to the fifth, and proceeds straight forward NO. Q MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 25 to its insertion on the swelling, directly below the insertion of the third. The seventh muscle, musculus respiratorius septimus (69), like the sixth, is short and slender, arising laterally to it on the infolding and being inserted on the swelling midway between the insertions of the fourth and the sixth. THE FIRST MAXILLIPED The resemblance of this appendage to the maxillae rather than to the typical thoracic appendage has already been commented upon by several authors. The endopodite is weakly developed and devoid of muscles in the blue crab, but as its basal part is partly fused to the exopodite, it naturally partakes of the motion of the exopodite caused by the adductor muscle of the latter. The exopodite is relatively heavily muscled. The muscle extending through the flagellum origi- nates entirely within the proximal segment of the flagellum, which is considerably enlarged. This origin is similar to that found in Astacus. In Pandalus the origin of this muscle is in the basal lobe of the first seg- ment of the exopodite. The extremely poor development of the abduc- tor of the flagellum in Pandalus appears to throw the whole task of moving the flagellum upon the flagellar muscle itself, which therefore needs the wider attachment space. In Astacus and Callinectes, where the abductor of the flagellum is relatively very large, the flagellar muscle is rather slender and weak. Of the extrinsic muscles in the first maxilliped of the blue crab, it is possible to name positively only the promotor and the attractor of the epipodite. The small anomalous muscles which take the place of reductor, levator, and depressor have been referred to by number only, as their true function is as yet obscure. Further dissection of other representative decapods may subsequently reveal some species in which the functions of the corresponding muscles will be more apparent, and it may be possible in this way to assign names by analogy to these which it is now inadvisable to attempt to name arbitrarily. As in both maxillae, the basipodite of the first maxilliped is no longer traceable as a distinct segment, being either eliminated com- pletely or indistinguishably fused with the coxopodite. Its normal position if it were present may be ascertained in relation to the origins of endopodite and exopodite. In that case it would have lain between the second endite of the coxopodite and the epipodite. 70. Musculus promotor medialis I pedis maxillaris (fig. 9).—This strong but slender muscle arises on the inner anterior border of the paraphragm between the first and second thoracic segments near the 26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 midline of the body. It passes forward and slightly outward to its tendinous insertion on the tough membrane composing the dorsal sur- face of the coxopodite. It causes the coxopodite, and with it to some extent the inner part of the whole appendage, to be brought upward and inward. 71. Musculus promotor lateralis I pedis maxillaris (fig. 9).—This muscle is hidden partly beneath the first of the attractors of the epipo- dite and partly by the fused lamellae of the first and second thoracic paraphragms, on the outer ventral surface of which it arises. It runs Cot NEP ena a WW \ WU HAW ~~ JCxpary ys é aS \\ af 5 Es Fic. 9 —The first maxilliped. 70, musculus promotor medialis I pedis maxillaris; 7z, musculus promotor lateralis I pedis maxillaris; 72, unnamed Saas 73a- Shy musculus attractor epi- poditis I pedis maxillaris ; 74, unnamed muscle ; 5, unnamed muscle; 76, unnamed muscle; 77, musculus adductor exopoditis I Bee maxillaris; 78, ‘musculus ab- ductor flagelli exopoditis I pedis maxillaris; 79, musculus flagellaris exopoditis I pedis maxillaris. Cnd, and Cnd2, first and second endites of the coxopodite; Capd, coxopodite ; Endpd, endopodite; Eppd, epipodite; Expd, exopodite. forward and slightly inward to its attachment on the lateral border of the coxopodite just at the point of origin of the epipodite. It helps to raise the appendage but otherwise opposes the medial promotor by exerting an outward pull. 72. (Fig. 9)—This powerful but short muscle originates on the endosternite, passing outward beneath the median promotor to its insertion on the extreme outer ventral borders of the coxopodite with- out a tendon. It is not feasible to attempt to name this muscle func- tionally, as no definite movement of the appendage can be assigned solely to it. It appears to lie in approximately the same position as does the levator muscle in Astacus. NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 27 73 a, b. Musculus attractor epipoditis a and b I pedis maxillaris (fig. 9).—One branch of this muscle arises on the dorsal portion of the paraphragm between the first and second thoracic segments, lying directly below the first respiratory muscle of the second maxilla. It passes outward and forward to its insertion on the outer dorsal proxi- mal border of the epipodite, which it raises strongly, at the same time causing it to move backward and inward. The second branch, larger and more powerful than the first, passes under the first on its forward and outward path to its insertion beneath it on the ventral proximal border of the epipodite, which it brings strongly backward and downward. 74. (Vig. 9)—This short muscle arises deeply within a cuplike membrane beside the inner epistomal rim and is inserted at the base of the first endite on the coxopodite. It is impracticable to give a functional name to this muscle, although it undoubtedly controls the coxopodite in some way. It might perform the duties of a levator, but this can not be ascertained directly. 75. (Fig. 9).—This short but thick muscle arises on the mesal edge of the same cuplike membrane as does the preceding muscle, and is inserted deeply within the first endite of the coxopodite. It is not possible to name it as to function, although it presumably causes what- ever motion the first endite is capable of making. Its position is some- what similar to that of the depressor in Pandalus and Astacus. 70. (Fig. 9).—This short but heavy muscle arises on the lateral edge of the same cuplike membrane which gives origin to the two preceding muscles and is inserted beside and lateral to 74, where the first and second endites come together. Again a functional name is not forth- coming as no positive motion can be assigned to this particular muscle. 77. Musculus adductor exopoditis I pedis maxillaris (fig. 9). —This muscle originates on the posterior surface of the coxopodite just lateral to the insertion of 76, and runs laterally to its insertion on the outer anterior proximal border of the exopodite just above the ori- gin of 78. It brings the exopodite, and with it the partly fused .endopo- dite, away from the epipodite and toward the center. Berkeley men- tions a well-developed abductor exopoditis in Pandalus, not present in the blue crab. The endopodite of the blue crab has no muscles of its own. 78. Musculus abductor flagelli exopoditis I pedis maxillaris (fig. g).—Arising in two places on the inner ventral proximal wall of the exopodite, this powerful muscle unites and passes to its insertion on the inner proximal edge of the enlarged first segment of the flagellum. It causes a strong upward and outward movement in the flagellum. 28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 79. Musculus flagellaris exopoditis I pedis maxillaris (fig. 9).— Originating in the proximal segment of the enlarged first joint of the flagellum, this muscle runs outward through the various segments nearly to the tip of the flagellum, giving off small fibers in each seg- ment which attach themselves to the wall, thus giving a high degree of pliability to the flagellum. THE SECOND MAXILLIPED In this appendage the first true hinges between the segments appear, just as they do in both Astacus and Pandalus. In section, the ischio- podite is found to be fused with the basipodite. The exopodite is merely an annulated flagellum as in Pandalus. The promotor appears to be inserted by a tendon, as are some of the muscles at the distal segments of the endopodite. A long, flat epipodite and two podo- branchiae are present, with a slender attractor muscle to control the epipodite. In Astacus there are two podobranchiae and no epipodite ; in Pandalus, a single podobranchia and an epipodite are present. 80. Musculus promotor II pedis maxillaris (fig. 10).—This muscle arises usually in two parts on the inner median edge of the paraphragm between the first and second thoracic segments in a very broad attach- ment. The muscle fibers rapidly converge into a single thin tendon, which is attached to the extreme inner edge of the coxopodite. It causes the entire endopodite to move inward and upward. 81. Musculus remotor II pedis maxillaris (fig. 10).—This muscle arises on a more lateral part of the two paraphragms next to the gill-chamber, and proceeds forward and inward to its insertion on the outer posterior border of the coxopodite. It lowers the outer part of the coxopodite, bringing it distinctly outward and backward. 82. Musculus levator II pedis maxillaris (fig. 10.) —This muscle arises as a heavy and massive muscle on the inner lateral edge of the paraphragm between the first and second thoracic segments, and passes without diminution in size to its insertion on the dorsal proximal membranous portion of the basi-ischiopodite. There is but one levator in Callinectes; both Astacus and Pandalus have two. 83 a, b. Musculus depressor a and b II pedis mavxillaris (fig. 10).—The main branch of the depressor arises on the inner edge of the paraphragm between the first and second thoracic segments mid- way between the origins of promotor and levator. It parallels these two muscles to its insertion on the inner posterior border of the coxo- podite. It gives a strong inward and downward pull to the coxopodite and hence to the whole of the endopodite. The small depressor b arises NO. Q MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 29 near the junction of the coxopodite with the paraphragm and is in- serted just ventral to the main branch. It assists in lowering the coxopodite. 84. Musculus attractor epipoditis II pedis maxillaris (fig. 10).— Arising laterally on the meeting point of the body wall and the coxopo- Fic. 10—The second maxilliped. 80, musculus promotor II pedis maxillaris; 8z, musculus remotor II pedis maxillaris; 82, musculus levator II pedis maxillaris; 83a-b, musculus depressor a-b II pedis maxillaris; 84, musculus attractor epipoditis II pedis maxillaris; 85, musculus abductor exopoditis II pedis maxillaris; 86, musculus flagellaris exopoditis II pedis maxillaris; 87, musculus abductor flagelli exopoditis II pedis maxillaris; 88, musculus productor meropoditis II pedis maxillaris; 89, musculus reductor meropoditis II pedis maxillaris; 90, musculus abductor carpopoditis II pedis maxillaris; 9z, musculus adductor carpopoditis II pedis maxillaris ; 92, musculus productor propoditis II pedis maxillaris; 93, musculus reductor propoditis II pedis maxillaris; 94, musculus productor dactylopoditis II pedis maxillaris; 95, musculus reductor dactylopoditis II pedis maxillaris. Bs-Iscpd, basi-ischiopodite ; Crpd, carpopodite; Cxpd, coxopodite; Dcpd, dactylopodite; Eppd, epipodite; E-xpd, exopodite : Mrpd, meropodite; Prpd, propodite. dite, this slender muscle travels laterally to its insertion on the proxi- mal border of the epipodite, which it moves slightly inward. 85. Musculus abductor exopoditis II pedis mavxillaris (fig. 10).— This muscle arises ventrally in the outer side of the coxopodite and proceeds laterally to its attachment on the median ventral proximal part of the exopodite. It causes the exopodite to move outward and forward. 30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 86. Musculus flagellaris exopoditis II pedis maxillaris (fig. 10).— This muscle arises on the proximal border of the enlarged first ring of the flagellum and runs nearly to the tip, giving off short fibers at every annulation. As a consequence the flagellum has a considerable degree of mobility. 87. Musculus abductor flagelli exopoditis II pedis mavxillaris (fig. 10).—This muscle arises in two parts on the proximal dorsal side of the basal segment of the exopodite, fuses and runs to its insertion on the first ring of the flagellum, to which it imparts a strong outward motion. 88. Musculus productor meropoditis II pedis maxillaris (fig. 10). — This muscle arises on the ventral lateral border of the basi-ischiopodite and is inserted on the inner ventral proximal edge of the meropodite. The muscle is short but powerful. It moves the meropodite forward. 89. Musculus reductor meropoditis II pedis maxillaris (fig. 10).— More slender than 88 but likewise short, this muscle rises on the dorsal proximal border of the basi-ischiopodite and is inserted on the lateral proximal border of the meropodite. It tends to pull the meropodite backward. 00. Musculus abductor carpopoditis II pedis maxillaris (fig. 10).— This muscle originates in many bundles of fibers near the inner proxi- mal border of the meropodite and is inserted on the proximal inner edge of the carpopodite. It moves the carpopodite upward and outward. or. Musculus adductor carpopoditis II pedis maxillaris (fig. 10).— About the same size as the preceding, this muscle arises in a bundle of fibers on the inner surface of the meropodite and is inserted on the proximal inner edge of the carpopodite which it moves downward and inward. 92. Musculus productor propoditis II pedis maxillaris (fig. 10).— Arising on the outer proximal wall of the carpopodite, this muscle nar- rows rapidly to its tendinous insertion on the outer proximal edge of the propodite, which it moves strongly forward. 93. Musculus reductor propoditis II pedis maxillaris (fig. 10).— This relatively small muscle arises on the inner proximal part of the carpopodite and is inserted by a tendon on the inner proximal border of the propodite which it bends backward, and hence toward the mouth. 04. Musculus productor dactylopoditis II pedis maxillaris (fig. 10).—Arising on the outer proximal part of the propodite, this muscle is inserted by a short tendon on the outer proximal border of the dactylopodite, which it moves forward. 05. Musculus reductor dactylopoditis I pedis maxillaris (fig. 10).— Like the preceding in size and shape, this muscle arises on the inner NO. QO MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 31 proximal part of the propodite and passes quickly to its tendinous insertion on the inner proximal edge of the dactylopodite, which is brought inward and backward. THE THIRD MAXILLIPED This appendage in the blue crab, as in the crayfish, retains its func- tion of a true mouthpart, and is essentially similar to the second maxil- liped in structure. In the shrimp, on the other hand, the third maxil- liped no longer assists in the taking of food, but is pediform and has completely lost its exopodite, while its endopodite has fewer segments, a characteristic condition in the Caridea. The endopodite in the blue crab is bent inward in its natural position ; in fact, it can not be straight- ened perfectly, owing to the shape of the segments and the uniformly weak development of all the extensors except the one controlling the dactylopodite. The coxopodite and the basipodite of the third maxilliped of the blue crab appear to be represented by a single segment, the protopodite. Brooks (1882) has labeled as “ basipodite’’ the narrowed proximal part of the ischiopodite, which externally appears to be set off from the main part of the segment by a suture. An examination of the mus- culature of this segment, however, shows no evidence that it is com- posed of two elements. Furthermore, the exopodite does not originate upon this proximal region of the ischiopodite, which it would naturally do if a true basipodite were involved here. 06. Musculus promotor III pedis maxillaris (fig. 11 )—This muscle arises mostly on the dorsal side of the endosternite of the third thoracic segment, and partly on the ventral (now anterior) side of the para- phragm, which is very narrow here. It is a powerful and wide muscle, narrowing and thickening as it goes forward to its insertion on a heavy tendinous ligament of the dorsal proximal inner corner of the protopodite, which is moved inward and forward by it. 07. Musculus remotor III pedis maxillaris (fig. 11).—Arising lat- erally on the endosternite, this strong muscle is inserted by a tendon on the lateral proximal edge of the protopodite. It opposes the pro- motor effectively, although it is somewhat less developed. 98 a-c. Musculus levator a, b, and c III pedis mavillaris (fig. 11).—This muscle is much smaller than the preceding. Its main branch (a@) arises on the endosternite beneath the promotor and is inserted near the center of the posterior wall of the protopodite. The shortest branch () originates near the main branch on the endoster- nite, and joins the main branch before its insertion on the protopodite. 3 32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 Another branch (c) arises in the extreme lateral border of the pro- topodite not far from the insertion of the remotor and passes inward to its insertion anterior to that of the main branch on the posterior wall of the protopodite. The levators move the basipodite outward and forward. PT ea Crpd“ 1107109 108 107 106 105 Fic. 11.—The third maxilliped. 96, musculus promotor III pedis maxillaris; 97, musculus remotor III pedis maxillaris; 98a-c, musculus levator a-c III pedis maxillaris; 99, musculus depressor III pedis maxillaris; roo, musculus adductor exopoditis III pedis maxillaris ; zoz, musculus abductor exopoditis III pedis maxillaris ; 102, musculus abductor flagelli III pedis maxillaris; 103, musculus flagellaris exopoditis III pedis maxillaris; ro4, musculus flexor meropoditis III pedis maxillaris; 105, musculus extensor meropoditis III pedis maxillaris; 106, musculus flexor carpopoditis III pedis maxillaris; zo7, musculus flexor propoditis III pedis maxillaris; zo8, musculus extensor propoditis III pedis maxillaris; oo, musculus flexor dactylopoditis III pedis maxillaris; rzo, musculus extensor dactylopoditis III pedis maxillaris. Crpd, carpopodite; Dcpd, dactylopodite; Eppd, epipodite; Expd, exopodite; Iscpd, ischiopodite; Mrpd, meropodite; Prpd, propodite; Prtpd, protopodite. 99. Musculus depressor III pedis maxillaris (fig. 11).—This is a very heavy muscle which originates over a relatively broad area on the epimeral plate beneath and beside the promotor, as well as the dorsal side of the endopleurite. Its many branches run forward and inward to join before the insertion of the muscle on the ventral median distal part of the protopodite. It opposes the levators. NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 33 too. Musculus adductor exopoditis III pedis maxillaris (fig. 11) .— This slender but strong muscle originates in the extreme distal anterior part of the protopodite and runs inward to its insertion on a short, hard projection of the inner proximal border of the exopodite, which is pulled strongly toward the midline by the contraction of the muscle. The crayfish does not appear to have this muscle. tor. Musculus abductor exopoditis III pedis maxillaris (fig. 11) .— This is a short, loosely-knit muscle arising ventrally on the median border of the protopodite and running obliquely outward and forward to its insertion on the heavy membrane attached to the ventral proxi- mal wall of the exopodite. It moves the exopodite away from the center and slightly outward. 102. Musculus abductor flagelli IIT pedis maxillaris (fig. 11).— This strong muscle originates in two places on the proximal part of the exopodite. The two sections soon unite, and the muscle is inserted by a tendon on the outer proximal edge of the greatly enlarged first segment of the flagellum, which is moved strongly upward and out- ward by its action. 103. Musculus flagellaris exopoditis III pedis maxillaris (fig. 11) .— Originating on the proximal wall of the enlarged first segment of the flagellum, this muscle goes almost to the tip of the flagellum, giving off fibers to each annulus, and thus insuring freedom of motion to the flagellum. 104. Musculus flexor meropoditis III pedis maxillaris (fig. 11).— ‘his muscle arises in numerous groups of fibers on both dorsal and ventral walls of the ischiopodite. These fibers all join a tendon before their final insertion on the inner proximal edge of the meropodite, which is strongly pulled down by their action. There is apparently no extensor muscle, the tension of the joint itself being sufficient to bring the meropodite back into position after its contraction by the flexor. 105. Musculus extensor carpopoditis III pedis mavillaris (fig. 11).—This very slender and weak muscle originates midway on the walls of the meropodite and is inserted on the outer proximal edge of the carpopodite, which it pulls upward rather weakly. 106. Musculus flexor carpopoditis III pedis maxillaris (fig. 11).— As might be expected from the condition in the preceding segment, this muscle, which causes the bending toward the center, is very well developed. It originates widely on the proximal margin of the mero- podite and narrows to its tendinous insertion on the inner proximal margin of the carpopodite. 107. Musculus flexor propoditis III pedis maxillaris (fig. 11) — This muscle is similar to the flexor in the preceding segment in size 34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 and function. It originates on the outer walls of the carpopodite, nar- rowing to an insertion on the outer proximal edge of the propodite. 108. Musculus extensor propoditis III pedis maxillaris (fig. 11) — Originating on the inner proximal walls of the carpopodite and inserted by a tendon on the inner proximal corner of the propodite, this muscle is like the corresponding one in the preceding segment in form and function. 109. Musculus flexor dactylopoditis III pedis maxillaris (fig. 11).— This muscle originates on the outer proximal border of the propodite and is inserted by a tendon on the outer proximal edge of the dac- tylopodite. Relative to the size of its opposing extensor, it is better developed than any other flexor in this endopodite, and apparently can exert a strong outward pull upon the dactylopodite. 110. Musculus extensor dactylopoditis III pedis maxillaris (fig. 11 ).—Originating on the inner proximal margin of the propodite, this muscle is inserted on the inner proximal edge of the dactylopodite, which is brought strongly downward by it. In this segment the ex- tensor and the flexor are nearly the same in size and apparent strength. THE PEREIOPODS The five pairs of pereiopods, or true legs, occur upon the last five of the eight thoracic segments. The promotor, the remotor, and the levator muscles of each pereiopod are extrinsic in the origin of all their parts. The depressor. of the telopodite, however, is both extrinsic and intrinsic in origin, for the larger and heavier branches originate in the body wall or some of its apodemes, while there are usually two or more branches originating proximally on the anterior and posterior walls of the coxopodite. The functions of the different pairs of legs become evident upon examining their distal segments. On the first parr of legs, the dactylo- podite arises on the anterior (preaxial) border of the propodite nearly at the middle ; the unhampered tip of the propodite curves and tapers to a point, while the dactylopodite curves in a way to oppose it effec- tively, the two forming a powerful pinching claw, the chela, which is rendered still more effective by the horny teeth that have developed on the opposable surfaces. The claw is held out in front of the cara- pace, and may swing widely forward and sidewise in a horizontal plane, and less widely in a perpendicular plane, both movements serv- ing as the means to repulse an enemy or to seize and tear up food. The extension of the leg forward has caused it to assume a position half- turned from the normal one, and now the true anterior (preaxial) sur- face of the first pereiopod is uppermost. NO. Q MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN on Sat The second, third, and fourth pereiopods resemble one another rather closely, as they are nearly the same in size and perform the same kinds of motions, being adapted for walking. In these, the dactylopo- dite arises on the distal part of the propodite, tapering rapidly and becoming much flattened. The tip is pointed and sharp, and on these tips the crab is able to walk. The overhang of the carapace allows little upward motion to these legs, and so they have retained the normal posi- tion of hanging downward beneath the body. The anterior surface of these legs is preaxial, as is usually the case in arthropods. The fifth and last pereiopod is the swimming leg, and projects back- ward and upward behind the carapace when the crab is swimming. Its basal muscles are very powerful, especially the remotor, which is rela- tively weak in the preceding pereiopods. The terminal segment is very thin and flat like the blade of a paddle, ovoid in shape, and propels the crab sidewise very swiftly. Like the first pereiopod, the fifth is also a half-turn away from its normal position, but in a direction opposite to . that of the first, so that its anterior (preaxial) face is now downward, and its postaxial face uppermost. Since the muscles of the segments distal to the basipodite are essen- tially similar in all the pereiopods, those of the third pereiopod have been chosen to be described in detail, while the corresponding muscles of the other legs may be referred to the third as a model, taking into consideration the fact that the first and fifth legs are not identical with it in position. The basal muscles are sufficiently different in each leg to merit a full description. A cross-section of the body at the level of the anterior part of the fourth and of the sixth thoracic segments shows the relations of some of the muscles of the first and third legs to their respective surround- ings. (See fig. 13.) The promotor of the fifth pereiopod deserves notice because of the peculiar disposition of its anterior branch. This projects forward through the thorax into the fourth thoracic segment, surrounded by a membrane, on the posterior surface of which its own fibers originate, and on the anterior surface of which about a dozen branches of muscles pertaining to the legs of the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh segments also take their origin. Another feature of the endoskeletal structure must here be ex- plained. An intermediate endopleurite exists in the center of each of the basal chambers occupied by the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh seg- ments. This endopleurite is fastened to the membrane covering the 36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 6 5 =| l7 139 157 156d J K ie (Ae. 1a lve 146a 147a M I56b N O pra ie bid Re ae i oe oie op ie I57b 158 IGl 159 158f 158b 158a 158c tee I55e 155b 155a 18a Fic. 12. (For legend see next page.) NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB-——COCHRAN By anterior projection of the promotor of the fifth pereiopod, and gives additional room for attachment to the numerous branches of muscles governing the movements of the leg base. THE FIRST PEREIOPOD t11 a, b. Musculus promotor a and b (figs. 12 A, 13 B).—The anterior branch (a) originates upon a narrow, curved apodeme which comes inward and forward from the floor of the gill chamber and attaches itself laterally by a process to the sternum and medially to the endosternite between the third and fourth thoracic segments. The muscle passes outward and downward to its attachment on a heavy membrane coming from the preaxial proximal border of the coxopo- dite. The posterior branch (b) originates on the anterior border of the intermediate endopleurite of this segment and ends upon a heavy ten- don attached to the anterior border of the coxopodite and directly behind the attachment of branch a. These two parts give a strong for- ward pull to the basal part of the leg. 112. Musculus remotor (fig. 12 C). This is the only unbranched muscle controlling the leg base. It takes origin partly on the lateral surface of the membrane enclosing the anterior promotor of the fifth pereiopod behind 173 c and partly on the anterior part of the endo- pleurite separating the fifth and sixth thoracic segments. It is inserted Fic. 12.—The pereiopods. A, B, C, the first pereiopod. 14, musculus attractor epimeralis ; rzza-b, musculus promotor a-b; 112, mus- culus remotor; rz3a-c, musculus levator a-c; z14a-g, musculus depressor a-g ; 115, musculus reductor meropoditis; 126, musculus abductor carpopoditis; 117, musculus adductor carpopoditis. D, E, F, the second pereiopod. r22a-d, musculus promotor a-d; 123, musculus remotor; 124a-d, musculus levator a-d; 125a-e, musculus depressor a-e; 126, musculus reductor mero- poditis; 127, musculus abductor carpopoditis; 125, musculus adductor carpo- poditis. G, H, I, the third pereiopod. 133a-g, musculus promotor a-g; 134, musculus remotor; 135a-c, musculus levator a-c; 136a-e, musculus depressor a-e; 137, musculus reductor meropoditis ; 138, musculus abductor carpopoditis ; 739, musculus adductor carpopoditis. Bs-Iscpd, basi-ischiopodite; Crpd, coxopodite. J, K, L, the fourth pereiopod. 14ga-d, musculus promotor a-d; 145, musculus remotor; 146a-b, musculus levator a-b; 147a-d, musculus depressor a-d; 148, musculus reductor mero- poditis; z49, musculus abductor carpopoditis; 150, musculus adductor carpo- poditis. M, N, O, the fifth pereiopod. 155a-c, musculus promotor a-c; 156a-b, musculus remotor a-b; 157a-c, mus- culus levator a-c; 158a-f, musculus depressor a-f; 159, musculus reductor peas 160, musculus abductor carpopoditis ; 167, musculus adductor carpo- poditis. 38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 on a heavy tendon attached to the upper postaxial border of the coxo- podite. The leg base is pulled backward by the contraction of this muscle. A Fic. 13.—Transverse section of the thorax. A, section through the third pereiopod. 122b, branch of musculus promotor of second pereiopod; 133c-g, branches of musculus promotor of third pereiopod; 136a, branch of musculus depressor of third pereiopod; 137, musculus reductor meropoditis of third pereiopod; 138, musculus abductor carpopoditis of third pereiopod; 739, musculus adductor carpopoditis of third pereiopod; ro, musculus productor propoditis of third pereiopod; 142, musculus reductor propoditis of third pereiopod ; 142, musculus abductor dactylopoditis of third pereiopod; 143, musculus adductor dactylo- poditis of third pereiopod; 155a, branch of musculus promotor of fifth pereiopod ; 156d, branch of musculus remotor of fifth pereiopod; 757a, branch of musculus levator of fifth pereiopod. B, section through the first pereiopod. IJ, musculus attractor epimeralis; z7Za-b, branches of musculus promotor of first pereiopod; rrga, branch of musculus depressor of first pereiopod; 175, musculus reductor meropoditis of first pereiopod; 116, musculus abductor carpopoditis of first pereiopod; 177, musculus adductor carpopoditis of first pereiopod ; 178, musculus productor propoditis of first pereiopod; 179, musculus reductor propoditis of first pereiopod; 120, musculus abductor dactylopoditis of first pereiopod; 72rz, musculus adductor dactylopoditis of first pereiopod ; 122b, branch of musculus promotor of second pereiopod; 133, branch of mus- culus promotor of third pereiopod. 113 a-c. Musculus levator a-c (fig. 12 A, B).—The first branch (a) originates on the anterior border of the endosternite separating the fourth and fifth thoracic segments. It passes outward to its inser- tion on the upper postaxial proximal border of the coxopodite. A sec- ond and much shorter branch (>) begins on the lower rim of the inter- . NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB——-COCHRAN 39 mediate endopleurite. A third branch (c) begins behind this endo- pleurite on the lateral surface of the membrane holding the anterior promotor branches of the fifth pereiopod which extends forward through the thorax and gives attachment to many muscles, and runs into branch b at their mutual insertion. These muscle parts act to- gether in raising the leg base. 114 a-g. Musculus depressor a-g (figs. 12 A, B, C; 13 B)—The first branch (a) originates mesally on the sternum and passes out- ward to its insertion on the tendon attached to the membrane on the preaxial proximal border of the basi-ischiopodite. The second branch (b) is very indistinctly separated from the first, originating in several sections along the anterior edge of the endosternite separating the fourth and fifth thoracic segments. A third branch (c) which appears to be quite distinct, originates on the extreme lateral part of the same endosternite beneath 773 a, and comes forward to its insertion on the membrane of the lower proximal border of the basi-ischiopodite. The fourth branch (d) begins behind the intermediate endopleurite on the under surface of the pleural wall separating the gill chamber from the fifth thoracic segment. The remaining branches (e, f, and g) originate at different points in the posterior part of the coxopodite. These three last-named branches are not compact, and it is possible to subdivide them still further than this. The distinctness of these minor branches varies considerably according to the state of preservation of the tissues, and consequently appears to be much less evident in some individuals than in others. They are inserted side by side along the lower and post- axial proximal margins of the basi-ischiopodite. The depressor muscle as a whole gives a very strong downward movement to the leg base. 115. Musculus reductor meropoditis.—See 137. 116. Musculus abductor car popoditis—See 138. 117. Musculus adductor carpopoditis—See 139. 118. Musculus productor propoditis—See 140. 119. Musculus reductor propoditis—See 141. 120. Musculus abductor dactylopoditis—See 142. 121. Musculus adductor dactylopoditis—See 143. THE SECOND PEREIOPOD 122 a-d. Musculus promotor a-d (fig. 12 D).—The most anterior part (a@) arises on the posterior surface of the endosternite separating the fourth and fifth thoracic segments, passing downward and out- ward to its insertion on a heavy tendon coming from the proximal preaxial rim of the coxopodite. The long and slender branch (0) 40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 originates mesally on the prolongation of the endopleurites where they come together just below the attractor of the epimera. It travels ven- trally for half its length, separated from the visceral cavity only by a very thin sheet of tissue. It passes at last into the fifth thoracic seg- ment behind branch a of the promotor, where it finally attaches itself to the same tendon. The third branch (c) originates on the lateral part of the membrane covering the anterior promotor of the fifth pereiopod, which extends forward through the thorax as previously stated. The most lateral branch (d) originates on the lateral anterior surface of the intermediate endopleurite, being inserted beside branch c on the broad tendon common to all branches of the promotor. The contraction of this muscle causes the leg base to be moved strongly forward. 123. Musculus remotor (fig. 12 F).—As in the first leg, this is the only unbranched muscle belonging to the leg base. It arises on the anterior surface of the endopleurite separating the fifth and sixth thoracic segments, passing downward and outward to its tendinous insertion on the upper postaxial border of the coxopodite. It opposes the promotor. 124 a-d. Musculus levator a-d (fig. 12 D, E).—This heavy muscle appears to be divided into four main parts, although the third and fourth are not very distinct from each other. The first branch (a) arises on the posterior surface of the endosternite between the fourth and fifth thoracic segments and is inserted by an extremely strong tendon on the upper (in this case postaxial) border of the basi-ischio- podite. A second branch (0b) arises on the lateral part of the mem- brane encasing the anterior promotor of the fifth pereiopod. The two remaining branches (c and d) arise close together, on the anterior sur- face of the endosternite between the fifth and sixth thoracic segments, and are inserted between branches a and b on the same strong tendon. The entire muscle causes the leg to be raised. 125 a-e. Musculus depressor a-e (fig. 12 D, E, F)—The first branch (a) originates mesally on the posterior surface of the en- dosternite separating the fourth and fifth thoracic segments, as well as on the sternal wall of the fifth segment. It is inserted on the lower (in this case preaxial) rim of the basi-ischiopodite. A very short branch (0) runs from the anterior part of the coxopodite to the same insertion, while a similar short branch (c) originates in the rear of the coxopodite. A slightly longer branch (d) begins on the outer part of the sternal wall near the endosternite between the fifth and sixth thoracic segments. The longest branch (e) originates on the anterior wall of the endopleurite separating the fifth and sixth segments, com- NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 41 ing forward and downward to its insertion with the other branches. The muscle as a whole opposes the levator. 126. Musculus reductor meropoditis.——See 137. 127. Muculus abductor carpopoditis—See 138. 128. Musculus adductor carpopoditis—See 139. 129. Musculus productor propoditis—See 140. 130. Musculus reductor propoditis—See I4T. 131. Musculus abductor dactylopoditis—See 142. 132. Musculus adductor dactylopoditis—See 143. THE THIRD PEREIOPOD 133 a-g. Musculus promotor a-g (figs. 12 A; 13 A).—The anterior branch (a) originates on the posterior surface of the endosternite separating the fourth and fifth thoracic segments, going outward to its insertion on the tendon attached to the anterior proximal rim of the coxopodite. The second branch (0) originates on the same prolonga- tion of the endopleurites on which 122 b of the preceding segment takes origin. It travels ventrally beside 122 b, separated from the visceral masses only by a thin membrane, passing finally under the anterior extension of the promotor of the fifth pereiopod until it joins its tendon. Branch c originates mesally on the anterior upper edge of the endosternite separating the sixth and seventh segments near to its point of fusion with the endopleurite. The next two branches (d and e), not very distinct from each other, arise on the lateral part of the membrane encasing the anterior promotor of the fifth pereiopod. Branch f arises on the anterior lateral surface of the intermediate endo- pleurite, while branch g arises just behind it on the posterior surface of the same ’endopleurite. All these go to the same insertion with branch a. The muscle pulls the leg base forward. ° 134. Musculus remotor (fig. 12 H, 1).—This unbranched muscle arises on the pleural wall and on the endosternite separating the sixth and seventh segments. Its insertion is on the proximal postaxial border of the coxopodite. Its contraction causes the leg base to be drawn backward. 135 a-c. Musculus levator a-c (fig. 12 H).—The most ventral branch (@) begins on the anterior wall of the sixth and seventh thoracic segments. The branch b, originating just above it on the same en- dosternite, is perhaps not truly distinct from it. The third branch (c) originates on the lateral part of the membrane covering the anterior promotor of the fifth pereiopod. These three branches are all inserted upon a heavy tendon attached to the proximal postaxial rim of the basi-ischiopodite. The leg base is raised by their contraction. 42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 136 a-c. Musculus depressor a-e (figs. 12 G, H, I, 13 A).—The first (a) of the numerous branches to this muscle originates partly on the posterior wall of the endosternite between the fifth and sixth thoracic segments, partly on the anterior wall of the endosternite between the sixth and seventh segments, and partly on the sternal wall between. It passes to a heavy tendon attached to the tough membrane bordering the proximal anterior rim of the basi-ischiopodite. The next branch (b) begins on the endopleurite between the sixth and seventh segments just above the anterior prolongation of the promotor of the fifth pereiopod. The next branch (c) lies partly behind branch b, originat- ing on the endosternite near its fusion with the endopleurite separating the sixth and seventh segments. Branch d originates anteriorly in the coxopodite, and branch e posteriorly in the same segment. All these are inserted on the heavy tendon or on the membrane beside it. Their mutual contraction pulls the leg base forcibly downward. 137. Musculus reductor meropoditis (figs. 12 1; 13 A).—This fan- shaped muscle begins in several places on the preaxial part of the basi-ischiopodite, and is inserted postaxially on the proximal border of the meropodite. The hinge between these two segments is only slightly developed preaxially, and not much more so postaxially, so that the rearward motion imparted by this muscle is slight. It is opposed by the stiffness of the preaxial connection which causes the leg to become straightened again after its contraction. 138. Musculus abductor carpopoditis (figs. 12 I, 13 A).—This large muscle originates in a great many bundles of fibers attached on the whole dorsal surface of the meropodite from its anterior to its posterior walls. These bundles run together before their insertion on a long bladelike tendon which is inserted on the posterior dorsal proximal border of the carpopodite. This muscle extends the carpopo- dite so that it lies in a straight line with the meropodite. 139. Musculus adductor carpopoditis (figs. 12 I, 13 A).—This originates in the same way as the abductor but lies ventrally in its segment and is inserted similarly by a very long tendon leading to the anterior ventral proximal border of the carpopodite. This muscle is therefore in perfect opposition to the adductor, bending the carpopo- dite at right angles to the meropodite. 140. Musculus productor propoditis (fig. 13 A).—This densely- fibered fanlike muscle originates on the entire outer border of the carpopodite, its parts coming together on a heavy leaf-shaped tendon which is inserted on the proximal median anterior border of the propodite, to which it gives a strong forward motion. NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 43 141. Musculus reductor propoditis (fig. 13 A).—This muscle arises on the outer and postaxial walls of the carpopodite, narrowing to its tendinous insertion on the posterior proximal border of the propodite, which is moved backward by it. 142. Musculus abductor dactylopoditis (fig. 13 A).—This rather slender and feather-shaped muscle arises in many small fibers on the preaxial wall of the propodite. It is inserted by a very long bladelike tendon on the outer proximal edge of the dactylopodite, which is moved outward by its action. 143. Musculus adductor dactylopoditis (fig. 13 A).—Very similar to the preceding in shape and size, this muscle arises largely on the postaxial part of the protopodite and is inserted also on a bladelike tendon to the inner proximal border of the dactylopodite. The termi- nal segment is bent strongly toward the midline by this muscle. THE FOURTH PEREIOPOD 144 a-d. Musculus promotor a-d (fig. 12 J).—The first branch (a) originates mesally on the endosternite between the seventh and eighth thoracic segments and is inserted on a heavy tendon attached to the membrane on the anterior border of the coxopodite. The second branch (b) originates dorsally to a on the same endosternite and just below the membrane covering the anteriorly extending promotor muscle of the fifth pereiopod. The branch c originates partly on the lateral surface of the membrane of the promotor of the fifth pereiopod and partly on the endosternite separating the seventh and eighth seg- ments. The branch d originates on the posterior surface of the inter- mediate endopleurite, which in this segment is very small. All these branches are inserted with or beside the first one. The whole muscle moves the leg base forward. 145. Musculus remotor (fig. 12 L).—As in the three preceding pereiopods, the remotor of the fourth pereiopod is unbranched. It originates on the lower surface of the pleural wall, passing outward and downward to its tendinous insertion on the upper posterior rim of the coxopodite. It opposes the promotor by bringing the leg backward. 146 a-b. Musculus levator a and b (fig. 12 J, K)—The first branch (@) originates partly on the posterior wall of the endosternite separat- ing the sixth and seventh segments above 147 a, and partly on the anterior wall of the endosternite separating the seventh and eighth segments. The second branch (0) originates on the anterior wall of the endosternite between the seventh and eighth segments. It would be possible to separate this part into smaller subdivisions, as several 44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 strands go more deeply than others. The branches of this muscle go to a mutual insertion on a heavy tendon coming from the upper proximal border of the coxopodite. Their contraction causes the leg base to be elevated. 147 a-d. Musculus depressor a-d (fig. 12 J, K, L).—The first branch (a) originates partly on the posterior wall of the endosternite separating the sixth and seventh segments, partly on the sternal wall of the seventh segment, and partly on the anterior surface of the endosternite between the seventh and eighth segments of the thorax. The second branch (b) lies behind the posterior part of the first branch, spreading in a fan shape over the endosternite between the seventh and eighth segments of the thorax. It might be considered as being more than a single branch, as it is not very compact at its source. The third and fourth branches (c and d) begin on the anterior and posterior walls respectively of the coxopodite. All branches of this muscle go to the same heavy tendon fastened to the proximal ventral rim of the basi-ischiopodite. The muscle opposes the levator effectively. 148. Musculus reductor meropoditis.—See 137. 149. Musculus abductor carpopoditis—See 138. 150. Musculus adductor car popoditis—See 139. 151. Musculus productor propoditis—See 140. 152. Musculus reductor propoditis—See 141. 153. Musculus abductor dactylopoditis—See 142. 154. Musculus adductor dactylopoditis.—See 143. THE FIFTH PEREIOPOD 155 a-c. Musculus promotor a-c (fig. 12 M).—The longest and heaviest branch (@) originates anteriorly on the median plate and passes posteriorly and laterally to its insertion on the tendon on the membrane at the anteroventral border of the coxopodite. The next branch (b) is very prominent, originating on the posterior surface of the membrane which projects diagonally forward through the pre- ceding segments and on the anterior surface of which some of the branches of muscles of the second, third, and fourth pereiopods were attached. The third branch (c) is the smallest. It arises on the poste- rior surface of the endosternite between the seventh and eighth seg- ments, being inserted above branch b on its tendon. The muscle im- parts a forward motion to the leg. 156aand b. Musculus remotor a-b (fig. 12 M, O).—In this pereio- pod the remotor differs from the corresponding muscle in the other NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 45 pereiopods in that it is branched and also much more strongly developed than in the other legs, owing to the fact that it has to give a powerful backstroke to this fifth leg, which serves as the paddle and which alone causes the very effective swimming movements of the crab. The first branch (a) originates dorsally on a T-shaped part of the endopleurite which is attached mesally on the median plate. The posterior branch (b) originates on the posterior wall of the eighth segment. Both branches are inserted on a heavy tendon attached to the membrane on the proximal postaxial (in this case dorsal) border of the basi- ischiopodite. The muscle as already stated directs the leg backward. 157 a-c. Musculus levator a-c (fig. 12 M, N).—The large first branch (@) originates on the median plate just posterior to the first branch of the promotor. It travels laterally beneath the second branch of the promotor and beneath the dorsal half of the remotor also, to its insertion on a heavy tendon attached to the anterior (dorsal) proxi- mal border of the basi-ischiopodite. The second branch (b) is small and weak. It originates on the sternum between the main branches of the promotor and the depressor, and goes upward and laterally to its insertion on the same tendon. The third branch (c) is a heavy and strong one, arising on the sternal wall near to the wedge formed by the first abdominal segment. The entire muscle pulls the leg strongly upward. 158 a-f. Musculus depressor a-f (fig. 12 M, N, O).—The first branch (@), very large and heavy, originates mesally on the sternal wall of the eighth thoracic segment. Branch 0 is very small, originating laterally on the sternal wall. Branch c parallels the first branch, begin- ning partly on the sternal wall and partly on the median plate. The fourth branch (d) originates on the posterior sternal wall at the end of the thorax. The fifth and sixth branches (e and f) originate on the dorsal and posterior walls respectively of the coxopodite. All these branches converge upon an extremely heavy tendon attached to the proximal preaxial (in this case posterior) border of the basi-ischio- podite. This extraordinarily powerful muscle pulls the leg base downward. 159. Musculus reductor meropoditis.—See 137. 160. Musculus abductor carpopoditis—See 138. 161. Musculus adductor carpopoditis—See 139. 162. Musculus productor propoditis—See 140. 163. Musculus reductor propoditis—See 1r4I. 164. Musculus abductor dactylopoditis—See 142. 165. Musculus adductor dactylopoditis—See 143. 40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 THE PLEOPODS THE MALE In the male blue crab, appendages occur only on the first two seg- ments of the abdomen. The distal abdominal segments are much nar- rower than in the female, and the third, fourth, and fifth segments are fused so that their original sutures are scarcely visible, as I have pointed out earlier in this study. In the first pleopod of the male the coxopodite is large and partially sclerotized. The basipodite is irregularly shaped, and its distal border is a membrane that attaches the long, whiplike flagellum and gives it the necessary freedom of movement. In this membrane is likewise a pocket in which the flagellum of the second pleopod normally rests. The name “ flagellum” is chosen arbitrarily for the distal part of the pleopod, as it does not show the character of a true flagellum. But neither is there sufficient evidence for considering it a highly modified endopodite or exopodite. The second pleopod is very much weaker than the first, which com- pletely covers it. Its coxopodite is very thin-walled and partly mem- branous. A small basipodite is present, controlled by a single muscle originating in the coxopodite. The basipodite and flagellum are sclero- tized, but an extensive membrane lies between them, as in the first pleopod. Preaxially, the basipodite is represented only by a mem- brane, as its sclerotized part is entirely postaxial in position. 166. Musculus promotor coxopoditis I pedis spurt (fig. 14 A).— This muscle originates on the ventral surface of the last thoracic somite just lateral to the origin of the first ventral superficial abdomi- nal muscle. It is inserted on the inner preaxial proximal border of the coxopodite, which it erects strongly. This is the only extrinsic muscle belonging to the first pleopod. 167. Musculus abductor basipoditis I pedis spuri (fig. 14 A).— Arising on the walls of the outer part of the coxopodite, this muscle is inserted on the outer proximal margin of the basipodite, which is pulled away from the center by its contraction. 168. Musculus adductor basipoditis I pedis spur (fig. 14 A).— This is a heavy muscle arising on the inner proximal walls of the coxopodite. It is inserted on the inner proximal border of the basipo- dite, which is pulled toward the center by its action. 169. Musculus abductor fagelli I pedis spuru (fig. 14 A).—This small and compact muscle arises on the distal postaxial border of the basipodite, and is attached to the extended proximal edge of the flagel- lum. It causes the tip of the flagellum to move strongly outward. NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 47 170. Musculus promotor coxopoditis II pedis spurii (fig. 14 B). This heavy muscle arises on the anterior margin of the second abdomi- nal segment lying entirely beneath the first pleopod. It is inserted on the inner proximal part of the coxopodite, which is erected by its contraction. Bspd W72—Fle Fic. 14.—The pleopods. A, the first pleopod of the male. 166, musculus promotor coxopoditis I pedis spurii; 767, musculus abductor basipoditis I pedis spurii; 168, musculus adductor basipoditis I pedis spurii; 160, musculus abductor flagelli I pedis spurii. B, the second pleopod of the male. 170, musculus promotor coxopoditis II pedis spurii; 777, musculus adductor basipoditis II pedis spurii; 172, musculus abductor flagelli II pedis spurii. C, the first pleopod of the female. 173, musculus promotor coxopoditis I pedis spurii; 774, musculus abductor coxopoditis I pedis spurii; 775, musculus adductor coxopoditis I pedis spurii; 70, musculus reductor basipoditis I pedis spurii; 777, musculus abductor exopoditis I pedis spurii; 778, musculus adductor exopoditis I pedis spurii. 71. Musculus adductor basipoditis II pedis spurii (fig. 14 B.)— Arising in numerous strands on the inner postaxial wall of the coxo- podite, this muscle is attached to the inner proximal border of the basipodite, which is brought toward the center by its contraction. No abductor of the basipodite is present in this appendage, as the elas- ticity of the membrane apparently gives the necessary opposition to the adductor. 4 48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 172. Musculus abductor flagelli II pedis spurw (fig. 14 B).—Like the corresponding muscle in the first abdominal appendage, this muscle arises on the lateral part of the wall of the basipodite and terminates on the proximal preaxial border of the flagellum, which is brought away from the center as well as slightly forward by its action. THE FEMALE The first and sixth abdominal segments of the female blue crab lack appendages. The second, third, fourth, and fifth segments each have pleopods which become increasingly smaller posteriorly. The coxopodite and basipodite are separated by a membrane on the post- axial surface; preaxially the two are fused. A description of the muscles pertaining to the first abdominal appendage, attached to the second abdominal segment, applies to the other three pairs of abdomi- nal appendages, in which the muscles are similar but weaker. 173. Musculus promotor coxopoditis I pedis spurt (fig. 14 C).— This muscle arises on the dorsal border of the second abdominal seg- ment and is inserted on the middle of the preaxial proximal border of the coxopodite, which it brings strongly forward. 174. Musculus abductor coxopoditis I pedis spurii (fig. 14 C).— This muscle likewise originates on the dorsal border of the second abdominal segment lateral to the origin of the promotor. It passes slightly outward to its insertion on the extreme lateral proximal border of the coxopodite. The appendage is moved away from the midline by its action. In the three pleopods which follow this one, the abductor of the coxopodite takes its origin below and behind that of the pro- motor muscle, so that in the last pleopod it is nearly obscured by the promotor when viewed preaxially. This is the only noteworthy differ- ence in any of the muscles of the following three appendages as com- pared with those of the first appendage, except that they become smaller as the appendages themselves decrease in size. 175. Musculus adductor coxopoditis I pedis spuru (fig. 14 C).— This muscle is much larger than its opponent, the abductor. It arises on the median dorsal border of the second abdominal somite from almost the midline to the origin of the promotor. It is inserted at the extreme median proximal margin of the coxopodite, which it pulls inward and forward. 176. Musculus reductor basipoditis I pedis spurii (fig. 14 C).—This is a very short but rather powerful muscle arising laterally along the proximal posterior border of the coxopodite at the only place where the fusion is not complete between basipodite and coxopodite. NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 49 It runs inward without narrowing to its insertion along the proximal posterior wall of the basipodite, which is moved backward by its action. 177. Musculus abductor exopoditis I pedis spurii (fig. 14 C).— Arising on the lateral anterior border of the basipodite near the inser- tion of the abductor of the basipodite, the abductor of the exopodite is inserted on the lateral wall of the exopodite, on which it produces a feeble outward pull. 178. Musculus adductor exopoditis I pedis spurii (fig. 14 C)—This rather slender muscle arises on the median proximal preaxial wall of the basipodite and extends outward to its insertion on the inner proxi- mal end of the exopodite, which is moved inward by its pull. There are no muscles to govern the endopodite, which moves only as the basipodite moves. 179. Musculus promotor coxopoditis II pedis spurii—See 173. 180. Musculus abductor coxopoditis II pedis spurti—See 174. 181. Musculus adductor coxopoditis IT pedis spurii—See 175. 182. Musculus reductor basipoditis II pedis spurii.—See 176. 183. Musculus abductor exopoditis II pedis spurii—See 177. 184. Musculus adductor exopoditis II pedis spurii—See 178. 185. Musculus promotor coxopoditis IIT pedis spurii—See 173. 186. Musculus abductor coxopoditis III pedis spurii—See 174. 187. Musculus adductor coxopoditis III pedis spurii—See 175. 188. Musculus reductor basipoditis III pedis spurii—See 176. 189. Musculus abductor exopoditis III pedis spurii—See 177. 190. Musculus adductor exopoditis III pedis spurii—See 178. 191. Musculus promotor coxopoditis IV pedis spurii—See 173. 192. Musculus abductor coxopoditis IV pedis spurii—See 174. 193. Musculus adductor coxopoditis IV pedis spuriiSee 175. 194. Musculus reductor basipoditis IV pedis spurit—See 176. 195. Musculus abductor exopoditis IV pedis spurii—See 177. 196. Musculus adductor exopoditis IV pedis spurii—See 178. THE SKELETON A brief survey of some of the skeletal peculiarities found in the blue crab is not out of place in a study of its myology, since the shape of the skeleton and the arrangement of the muscles attached upon it are mutually interdependent. The segments of the head and thorax of the crab are immovably ankylosed, as I have repeatedly emphasized. To some extent, this fact simplifies the musculature, as it at once precludes the presence of 50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 true trunk muscles which are necessary only when the segments move individually. (See figs. 15 and 16.) The muscles of the last five thoracic segments are separated inter- nally by a series of irregularly shaped partitions. Each of these par- titions consists of two thin plates, formed by the anterior wall of one segment closely applied to the posterior wall of the preceding segment. Fic. 16.—Ventral view of the blue crab. The lower half of each partition is formed by a pair of the plates arising from the sternal borders of neighboring segments and is called an endosternite. The upper half of each partition is similarly formed by a pair of the plates which originate on the pleural walls of neigh- boring segments and is called an endopleurite. Each endosternite coalesces with its corresponding endopleurite, and it is at this line of coalition that the break occurs during ecdysis to allow the crab to molt completely. (See figs. 17 and 18.) NO. Q MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN SI Fic. 17.—Dorsal view of thorax with carapace removed to show internal skeletal parts. I-V'IITI, first through eighth somites of thorax. | | | | | beri | | abe, Hiv V VI VI Vill Fic. 18.—Lateral section of thorax showing internal skeletal parts. I-V IIT, first through eighth somites of thorax. to SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 on The endosternites and endopleurites formed in the manner just described are entirely intersegmental. A secondary infolding of the pleural wall occurs, however, in the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh thoracic segments. To this infolded structure, which is strictly intra- segmental, I have given the name of secondary endopleurite. No cor- responding infolding occurs in the sternal parts of these segments. The secondary endopleurite is firmly attached at its inner margin to the anterior surface of the membrane encasing the promotor of the fifth pereiopod. The remotor muscle always finds its origin behind the secondary endopleurite, while some of the branches of the depres- sor and levator do so likewise in certain segments. This indicates that these partitions are in truth only secondary, since the remotor of a particular segment would not arise outside its own segment. The endoskeletal partitions of the last five segments of the thorax present an interesting complexity due to the overdevelopment of the fifth pereiopod, as I have already noted. The muscle attachments of this pereiopod have been increased by the forward prolongation of a branch of the promotor muscle through the three preceding segments. The pocketlike membrane that encases this part of the muscle serves as a place of attachment for the several endopleurites where they meet the endosternites, as well as for the secondary endopleurites, and these attachments hold it firmly in place to resist the heavy pull which the muscle exerts upon it. The anterior termination of this pro- longation may be seen upon the posterior wall of the fourth thoracic segment, where it appears as an oval, semi-transparent window partly separating the endopleurite and endosternite lying between the fourth and fifth thoracic segments. Although the median plate extends forward as far as the endoster- nite separating the first and second pereiopods, it serves exclusively as a place of origin for branches of the four basal muscles of the telopodite of the fifth pereiopod. Some part of each of these muscles originates upon the median plate, although none of the muscles origi- nates entirely upon it. The third maxilliped and the first pereiopod bear a pair of gills, which lie side by side in the gill chamber. The second maxilliped like- wise possesses two gills, one of which lies in the extreme anterior part of the gill chamber in front of the gills belonging to the pereiopods, and which can be distinguished from them only by its smaller size and its anterior position. The other gill of the second maxilliped lies at right angles to the first, extending outward and backward from the anterior corner of the gill chamber. The second and third pereiopods each possess a single gill. The first maxilliped and the fourth and fifth pereiopods lack gills. NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 53 THE GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE CRUSTACEAN APPENDAGE In order to understand the true relationships between the exceed- ingly diverse and often highly specialized crustaceans that exist today, it is a matter of importance to attempt to reconstruct a generalized ancestral type, from which all these existing divergences may have arisen by various evolutionary processes. A typical leg of any of the higher crustaceans consists of not more than seven segments, including the basal segment called the coxopo- dite, which is followed by the basipodite bearing the endopodite of five segments, each segment having a pair of muscles to move it. Any or all of these seven segments may be provided with exites—lobes growing on the external part of the limb, or endites—lobes growing on the internal part of the limb. These exites and endites, when they are large and movable, may have special muscles of their own. In the insects the basal segment of the leg is obviously divided into a coxa and a subcoxa, the latter forming sclerotized plates in the pleural wall of the thorax. In the crustaceans it is possible to trace a similar development of the limb basis. Consequently, we may look upon the coxopodite as being equivalent to the coxa of the insect, while the sternal and possibly the pleural regions of the thorax in the blue crab represent the subcoxal regions of the legs of the insect. The coxopodite is sometimes ankylosed with the basipodite, in which case the resulting structure goes by the name of protopodite. The coxopodite may exist by itself, as in the mandible and the two maxillae of the isopod and the amphipod (fig. 21 A, B, C; fig. 22 A, B, C), or it may give rise to a basipodite with or without an exopodite and endopodite. The coxopodite may have one or more epipodites (fig. 24 E, F), which are usually gill-like, nonsegmented structures forming a part of the respiratory system. In the lower crustaceans the leg has an exopodite as well as an en- dopodite, both of which always arise from the basipodite. In the higher crustaceans the exopodite still persists in the maxillipeds and the pleopods. The exopodite may have any number of joints, and its distal part may be modified to form a flagellum, as in the maxilliped and true legs of the mysid (fig. 19 D; fig. 20 A, B, C). The endopodite, on the contrary, is very definitely limited to a maximum of five segments. Frequently, the distal segments are not present, and some of the proximal ones may have ankylosed. The endopodite exists in its typical form as a walking leg in the higher crustaceans, the names of its segments being the ischiopodite, the meropodite, the carpopo- dite, the propodite, and the dactylopodite. The typical crustacean leg has two principal places for bending—one at the basal joint between 54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 the coxopodite and the basipodite, and the other at the “knee ” joint between the meropodite and the carpopodite. Hence there are typically three segments between the basal joint and the “ knee ” joint, and three Fic. 19.—Appendages of Michtheimysis stenole pis. A, the mandible. B, the first maxilla. C, the second maxilla. D, the first maxilliped. Bspd, basipodite; Crpd, carpopodite; C.xrpd, coxopodite; Dcpd, dactylopodite ; End, endite; Eppd, epipodite; Expd, exopodite; Flb, flabellum; Jscpd, ischiopo- dite; Mrpd, meropodite ; Prpd, propodite ; Prtpd, protopodite. more beyond the ‘“‘ knee” joint. When fewer segments occur in either section, we may know that the leg is not entirely typical. For instance, in the second maxilliped of the amphipod (fig. 23 A), only two seg- NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 55 ments occur distal to the “ knee” joint, and therefore we know that the dactylopodite is absent or fused. In the leg of the blue crab (fig. 12 A, B), two movable segments occur between the basal joint and the “knee” joint. One can easily see in this case that the Fic. 20.—Appendages of Michtheimysis stenolepis. A, the second maxilliped. B, the third maxilliped. C, the fifth pereiopod. Bspd, basipodite; Crpd, carpopodite; Cxpd, coxopodite; Depd, dactylopodite ; Eppd, epipodite; Expd, exopodite; Iscpd, ischiopodite; Mrpd, meropodite; Prpd, propodite; Prtpd, protopodite. basipodite is nearly ankylosed with the ischiopodite, the resulting structure thereby becoming a basi-ischiopodite. In the leg of the higher crustaceans the exopodite is absent. The basipodite plus the endopodite is often referred to as the telopodite. 50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 | | | | | Cxpd Bs-Iscpd Mrpd Cr | Fic. 21.—Appendages of Ligia exotica. pd Prpd Depa A, the mandible. B, the first maxilla. C, the second maxilla. D, the maxilliped. E, the first pereiopod. Bnd, endite of the basipodite; Bs-Iscpd, basi-ischiopodite; Bspd, basipodite ; Depd, dactylopodite; End, endite; Endpd, endopodite; Eppd, epipodite; E-, exite; Mrpd, meropodite; Prpd, propodite. NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN A Fic. 22.—Appendages of Orchestoidea califormiana. A, the mandible. B, the first maxilla. C, the second maxilla. D, the first maxilliped. Bspd, basipodite ; Cxpd, coxopodite; End, endite; Endpd, endopodite. B/; 58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 Cc : pd Bspa iene cid “plod Jaa tena er Prpa Fig. 23—Appendages of Orchestoidea californiana. A, the second maxilliped. B, the third maxilliped. C, the fifth pereiopod. Bspd, basipodite; Crpd, carpopodite; Cxrpd, coxopodite; Iscpd, ischiopodite ; Mrpd, meropodite; Prpd, propodite; Ptg, paratergite. NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 59 Zi _ jj iI] AN \W \) I) QQ NY /, ‘ \ WW y Fic. 24.—Appendages of Penaeus setiferus. A, the mandible. : B, the first maxilla. C, the second maxilla. D, the first maxilliped. E, the second maxilliped. F, the third maxilliped. Add, tendon of the adductor muscle of the mandible; Bnd, endite of .the basipodite; Bspd, basipodite; Cex, exite of the coxopodite; Capd, coxopodite; Expd, exopodite; Prtpd, protopodite; Scg, scaphognathite. 60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 When more than seven segments appear to be visible externally, as is the case in the syncarid Anaspides, the additional supposed seg- ments are due to slight creases or furrows in the body wall and are not true segments with their necessary complement of muscle. Some shrimps also apparently have many additional segments in the distal part of the legs, but neither are these true segments, as their myology proves. The so-called exopodite of the trilobite leg arises on the actual basal segment of the limb, and the question has been raised as to whether it is a true exopodite or an epipodite. If it is an exopodite homologous with that of living crustaceans, then it throws the trilobite definitely into the class Crustacea. If, on the other hand, it is an epipodite, then it makes the trilobite ancestral to all the Arthropoda so far as the structure of its legs is concerned. PART II. THE OSSICLES AND MUSCLES OF THE STOMACH Although it was not at first intended to do more than list the muscles of the appendages, the structure of the stomach appeared to be so interesting that I have prepared a second part to my paper including the muscles of the stomach and listing the ossicles on which they find their attachment. The literature on the stomach muscles is even less extensive than is that on the appendage muscles, and I find that some of the muscles of the pyloric region of the stomach of decapod crus- taceans have not been figured or described. It is logical to include the stomach muscles in the same paper with the muscles of the appendages that originate on the body wall, for developmental studies of invertebrates have demonstrated that the gastric mill is merely an invaginated part of the body wall, so that the muscles pertaining to it are as truly “‘ skeletal” as are those of the appendages. The word “ stomach ” is, as a matter of fact, a misnomer. The en- larged part of the alimentary canal immediately following the esopha- gus, although popularly referred to as a stomach, is a part of the stomodaeum of arthropods and performs the same function as does the gizzard in birds—that is, to pulverize the fragments of food and render them small enough to be acted upon effectively by the true digestive juices, which are secreted in the pylorus, a relatively small section of the alimentary canal which follows the stomodaeum. But it is convenient to speak of the whole structure from the mouth to the beginning of the intestine as the “ stomach.” As this has been done in most of the preceding discussions by former authors, the term has been used in the present discussion in the same broad sense. NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—-COCHRAN 61 OSSICLES OF THE STOMACH In order to give the necessary rigidity to the stomach in the break- ing up of food particles to aid in their rapid assimilation, the stomach is equipped with a complicated mechanism composing the so-called “gastric mill.” A series of strategically placed ossicles gives places of attachment externally to the muscles, and inside the stomach most of the ossicles are tooth-bearing so that they may effectively pulverize the food before it passes on to the next stage of digestion. These ossicles may be considered under separate headings according to their function and position. ‘ OSSIGCLES OF THE ~ GASTRIC MILL I. Mesocardiac ossicle. Single-——This small median ossicle lies in the dorsal wall of the cardiac region of the stomach and is almost completely fused with the urocardiac ossicle, which lies behind it. In front it is bounded on either side by the pterocardiac ossicles. It gives a firm attachment to the anterior ends of the cardiopyloric muscles, since it is especially thickened at this point. (Figs. 25 A, 27, 28.) II. Pterocardiac ossicles. One pair—tThese ossicles lie on either side of the foregoing and meet each other in front of it, projecting on either side with their wing-shaped outer ends nearly at right angles to the midline of the stomach. One of the pair of anterior gastric muscles (197) is inserted on the widened inner border of each ossicle. The attenuate tip of the ossicle approaches the outer border of the zygo- cardiac ossicle, with which it is closely connected. (Figs. 25 A, 27, 28.) III. Zygocardiac ossicles. One pair—tThis pair of ossicles lies in the superolateral wall of the cardiac region of the stomach and is the largest and strongest of the ossicles. Externally, they appear as slender curved structures, the anterior end in close connection with the tips of the pterocardiac ossicles, and their posterior end with the exopyloric ossicles. When the stomach is opened, the zygocardiac ossicles are found to project inward, thickening greatly and bearing on their inner opposed surfaces the “ lateral teeth,” consisting of one very heavy denticle of tough chitinous material followed by two smaller single ones and by a double row composed altogether of about 20 very pointed small denticles, directed inward and growing smaller in size posteriorly, the area between them without ridges. (Figs. 25 A, B, 26, 27.) IV. Exopyloric ossicles. One pair—rThese ossicles appear exter- nally as short and nearly straight structures lying diagonally near the lateral posterior border of the stomach. The outer end of each ossicle 62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 IV Vit Vi B Fic. 25.—External views of stomach showing ossicles. A, ossicles of the fully distended stomach viewed from above, all muscles re- moved. I, mesocardiac ossicle; //, pterocardiac ossicle; I//, zygocardiac ossicle; IV’, exopyloric ossicle; , urocardiac ossicle; VJ, propyloric ossicle; V///, pyloric ossicle. B, ossicles of the posterior wall of stomach and dorsal pyloric region. IV, exopyloric ossicle; VJ, propyloric ossicle; VII, pyloric ossicle; XIV, anterior mesopyloric ossicle; XJ’, posterior mesopyloric ossicle; X/’/, urpyloric ossicle; X N/V’, middle pleuropyloric ossicle; Pl’, pyloric valve. C, ventral view of stomach, walls partly collapsed, all muscles removed. IIT, zygocardiac ossicle; 1X, prepectineal ossicle; NJ, inferolateral cardiac ossicle; XVII, antero-inferior pyloric ossicle; XVJII, pre-ampullary ossicle ; XIX, postero-inferior pyloric ossicle; XX, anterior supra-ampullary ossicle. Amp, ampulla; CdAl, anterolateral cardiac plates; CdPI, posterolateral cardiac plates; Cpl’, cardiopyloric valve; Oe, esophagus. NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 63 is directly behind the posterior termination of the zygocardiac ossicle, to which it is closely articulated, and its inner upper border is the point of insertion for the outer cardiopyloric muscle (210 a). Inwardly, the ossicles project as small triangular plates lying below the median tooth of the urocardiac ossicle. (Figs. 25 A, B, 26, 27.) V. Urocardiac ossicle. Single—This ossicle is a broad, shield- shaped median plate which is almost completely fused with the meso- cardiac ossicle on its anterior border. It projects backward and finally 1D. Gre Il Xi | / yh : MN S| Vill. X XE XI XX/XXI Amp XVI Fic. 26.—Lateral view of stomach showing ossicles after removal of all muscles. III, zygocardiac ossicle; JV, exopyloric ossicle; VJ, propyloric ossicle; V JJ, pyloric ossicle; III, pectineal ossicle; JX, prepectineal ossicle; X, postpectineal ossicle; XJ, inferolateral cardiac ossicle; X/J, subdentary ossicle; XIII, lateral cardiopyloric ossicle; XIV, anterior mesopyloric ossicle; XV, posterior meso- pyloric ossicle; XVI, uropyloric ossicle; XVIII, pre-ampullary ossicle; Oe anterior supra-ampullary ossicle; X XJ, middle supra-ampullary ossicle; XXII, posterior supra-ampullary ossicle ; X XJJJ, anterior pleuropyloric ossicle; XXIV, middle pleuropyloric ossicle. Amp, ampulla; CdAl, anterolateral cardiac plate; CdPI, posterolateral cardiac plate; Oe, esophagus. downward as an elongate, heavy plate, articulating with the inner termination of the propyloric ossicle. On its ventral (inner) surface it bears the heavy, ridged median tooth which opposes the lateral teeth of the zygocardiac ossicles. (Figs. 25 A, 27, 28.) VI. Propyloric ossicle. Single-——This appears externally as a small, curved, median ossicle lying in the dorsal wall of the stomach, its outer end just behind the inner terminations of the exopyloric ossicles and articulating closely with them by a short bar of cartilagelike tissue. Upon dissection, the inner part of this ossicle appears triangular in shape, its inner point meeting the uropyloric ossicle at its posterior end 5 Se 64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 and serving to give rigidity to the median tooth. (Figs. 25 A, B, 20,27.) VII. Pyloric ossicles. One pair—These strongly convex, triangu- lar structures lie between the exopyloric ossicles, with which they articulate on either side, and extend behind the propyloric ossicle, entirely on the surface of the stomach. They give attachment to the inner posterior gastric muscles. There is a ligamentous connection ap uit Seay, Xl X VIII. Amp Fic. 27.—Internal view of stomach cut slightly to one side of the median line to show relative positions of the “teeth.” I, mesocardiac ossicle; J/, pterocardiac ossicle; ///, zygocardiac ossicle; IV, exopyloric ossicle; , urocardiac ossicle; J, propyloric ossicle; V JJ, pyloric ossicle; VIII, pectineal ossicle; /X, prepectineal ossicle; X, postpectineal ossicle; XJ, inferolateral cardiac ossicle. Amp, ampulla; CdAl, anterolateral cardiac plate; CdPI, posterolateral cardiac plate; Cpl, cardiopyloric valve; Oc, esophagus. between them, but they do not appear to be fused into one structure, as in the case in the European Cancer pagurus. (Figs. 25, A. B, 26, 27.) CARDIAC ‘SUPPORTING OSSICLES ” VIII. Pectineal ossicles. One pair—tThese ossicles lie in the lateral wall of the stomach between the lower posterior end of the prepectineal and the upper posterior end of the postpectineal ossicles. Externally, they appear as relatively small, semicircular structures, but internally, they are seen to bear a distinct brushlike cluster of six or seven long NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 05 clawlike teeth, which are called the “lateral accessory teeth.” (Figs. 26:27, 25s) IX. Prepectineal ossicles. One pair—These slender, curved, rod- like ossicles, lying entirely on the lateral stomach wall, extend upward and forward from the pectineal ossicle to the outer anterior end of the zygocardiac ossicle with which they articulate by a cartilagelike este: (Giies, 25 'C;'26;'27. 287) Cd Al Cd PI CpV Fic. 28.—Internal view of posterior part of stomach, the anterior parts being dissected away to show the “ gastric mill.” I, mesocardiac ossicle; JI, pterocardiac ossicle; J//, zygocardiac ossicle; V, urocardiac ossicle; /’I//, pectineal ossicle; /X, prepectineal ossicle. CdAl, anterolateral cardiac plate; CdPl, posterolateral cardiac plate; CpV, cardiopyloric valve. X. Postpectineal ossicles. One pair—Passing downward and for- ward from the posterior margin of the pectineal ossicle, these ossicles, also slender and rodlike, merge with the ventral wall of the stomach below the posterolateral cardiac plates. For the greater part of their length they lie closely in contact with the inferolateral cardiac ossicles, which can scarcely be distinguished from them at their anteroventral termination. (Figs. 26, 27.) XI. Inferolateral cardiac ossicles. One pair—These ossicles are in contact with the subdentary ossicles near their posterior termination, 66 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 but as they go forward and downward along the ventral wall of the stomach, they soon join the postpectineal ossicles, as noted in the preceding paragraph. Seen from below, these ossicles are found to be wide posteriorly, tapering as they converge anteriorly. (Figs. 25 C, 20, 27.) XIT. Subdentary ossicles. One pair —Each of these ossicles, some- what curved and boomerang-shaped externally, is in contact on its upper margin with the zygocardiac ossicle. Ventrally each is attached by a cartilagelike tissue to the inferolateral cardiac ossicle just at its posterior point of attachment to the postpectineal ossicle. (Fig. 26.) XIII. Lateral cardiopyloric ossicles. One pair—These extremely small curved ossicles lie behind the inferolateral cardiac ossicles and are attached on their lower posterior border to the anterior supra- ampullary ossicles. (Fig. 26.) Cd Al. Anterolateral cardiac plates. One pair—These rhombic membranous plates lie directly in front of the posterolateral cardiac plates but are much less clearly defined. There is no heavy calcification in these plates, but the anterodorsal margin is stiffened into a ridge that is slightly thicker than the remaining membrane of the plate. (Figs. 25. C20, 27254) Cd Pl. Posterolateral cardiac plates. One pair —These broad plates, nearly triangular in shape, lie above and in front of the postpectineal ossicle. Although most of the surface is membranous, each plate has a hammer-shaped calcification extending along its upper and anterior borders, to give attachment to the lateral cardiac muscles. The inner posterior border of each plate has several rows of bristles, which project into the stomach. (Figs. 25 C, 26, 27, 28.) Cp V. Cardiopyloric valve—This valve lies in the ventral posterior part of the stomach, bounded at each side by a posterolateral cardiac plate. It is approximately tongue-shaped, and the thickened posterior end is provided with bristles. It regulates the entrance of triturated material into the intestine. (Figs. 25 C, 27, 28.) ‘ PYLORIC ‘‘ SUPPORTING OSSICLES ” The three following pairs of ossicles are found in the dorsal wall of the pyloric foregut, which is bent so that it is now directed posteriorly. XIV. Anterior mesopyloric ossicles. One pair—These small angu- lar ossicles project sharply from the membrane surrounding them. They are near the median line and below and posterior to the pyloric ossicle (VII). (Figs. 25 B, 26.) NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 67 XV. Posterior mesopyloric ossicles. One pair—tThese ossicles lie directly below the preceding. They are roughly crescentic in shape and are connected by a thin membrane. (Figs. 25 C, 26.) XVI. Uropyloric ossicles. One pair—These very slender, angu- larly-bent ossicles are found behind the posterior mesopyloric ossicles in the roof of the pyloric region, now forming the posterior termina- tion of the stomach. (Figs. 25 B, 26.) PV. Pyloric valves. One pair—tThese valves project posteriorly from the cartilagelike tissue which lies posteriorly behind the uro- pyloric ossicles (XV) in the dorsal wall of the pyloric region. (Fig. Zee Ey.) The ventral wall of the pyloric foregut bears the following ossicles: XVII. Antero-inferior pyloric ossicle. Single -——This median rhom- boid plate is transversely widened and lies immediately in front of the ampullae. Its widest base is anteriorly in contact with the cardio- pylone valve, (Hie. 25.C:) XVIII. Pre-ampullary ossicles. One pair—These two very small ossicles project from the region just behind the outer border of the antero-inferior pyloric ossicle and a short distance in front of the pyloric ampullae. (Figs. 25 C, 26.) XIX. Postero-inferior pyloric ossicle. Single—This small bow- shaped ossicle lies behind the inter-ampullary groove. It is not heavily calcified and therefore is not very apparent at first glance. (Fig. 25 C.) XX. Anterior supra-ampullary ossicles. One pair—Each one of this pair of ossicles is a small semicircular, heavily calcified projection, which appears just below and in contact with the lateral cardiopyloric ossicle and behind the supra-ampullary ossicle. (Figs. 25 C, 26.) XXI. Middle supra-ampullary ossicles. One pair —Each one of this pair of short, straight ossicles lies in a vertical position below the pre- ceding and above the ampullae. (Fig. 26.) XXII. Posterior supra-ampullary ossicles. One pair—These semi- circular ossicles lie close together below the ampullae, and terminate the series of ossicles supporting the pyloric region posteriorly. (Fig. 26: ) The following ossicles occur in the pleuropyloric walls: XXIII. Anterior pleuropyloric ossicles. One pair —This very heav- ily calcified, triangular structure projects strongly from the side wall of the stomach in front of the anterior mesopyloric ossicle (XIV). It is continued as a long forked calcareous projection leading forward and downward externally along the stomach wall. (Fig. 26.) XXIV. Middle pleuropyloric ossicles. One pair—Attached to one of the forks of the calcareous projection of the preceding ossicle is 68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 a rounded but equally prominent ossicle, which is arbitrarily called the middle pleuropyloric. The posterior pleuropyloric ossicle seems to be lacking in the blue crab. It is named but not figured by Pearson (1908) in his study of Cancer pagurus (p. 103). (Figs. 25 B, 26.) MUSCLES OF THE ALIMENTARY SYSTEM For the sake of conformity with the writings of other authors, the muscles of the alimentary system are discussed according to their ori- gin, following the definition of Mocquard,’ who recognized two sets of muscles—first, the extrinsic, in which the points of origin are on some part of the body skeletal system and which are inserted on ossicles lying in the walls of the stomach, and second, the intrinsic, which are attached at both ends to stomach ossicles or to thickened parts of the stomach membrane. EXTRINSIC MUSCLES The following three sets of muscles help to work the gastric mill: 197. Musculus gastricus anterior. One pair—KEach muscle of this pair has its origin on the cervical membrane and extends backward, gradually convergent toward the midline. They are attached side by side on the inner anterior part of the pterocardiac ossicle (//). These muscles are the most readily detected of any of the stomach muscles, as their large size and dorsal position bring them conspicuously to view as soon as the carapace is broken in that region. (Figs. 29, 30.) 198. Musculus gastricus posterior mesalis. One pair.—These muscles arise from two small calcareous projections on the under side of the carapace at the median part of the mesogastric region. There is a distinct transverse indentation or channel on the outside of the carapace, which indicates the position of attachment of these muscles, as well as that of the external posterior gastric muscles and the dorsal pyloric muscles to be mentioned later. The inner posterior gastric muscles extend forward and downward to their attachment on the pyloric ossicle (VII). These muscles are not so heavy as the anterior gastric muscles (197) just described. (Figs. 29, 30.) 199 a and b. Musculus gastricus posterior lateralis. Two pairs a and b—These muscles arise from the under side of the mesogastric region in the outer part of the same channel which marks the origin of the inner posterior gastric muscles (798) discussed above. They extend downward and forward, converging as they go, and the median *Mocquard, F., Recherches anatomiques sur l’estomac des Crustacés podoph- thalmaires. Ann. Sci. Nat., 6 ser., Zool., vol. 16, p. 238, 1883. NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 69 ones (199 b) are inserted just below the inner end of the exopyloric ossicle (JV) near the end of the propyloric ossicle (V/), while the external pair (790 a) are inserted on the outer half of the exopyloric ossicle (VJ). The outer and inner posterior gastric muscles seen in their natural positions resemble the spokes of an opened fan, being nearly alike in size and length and converging at somewhat similar angles to their respective points of insertion. (Figs. 29, 30.) [| i Camenemimy E <— Loy 204a 204b 198 199b 199a Fic. 29.—Muscles of the stomach viewed from above. 197, musculus gastricus anterior; 208, musculus gastricus posterior mesalis ; 199a and b, musculus gastricus posterior lateralis a and b; 200, musculus dila- tator anterior superior ventriculi; 204a and b, musculus dilatator dorsalis pylorici anterior a and b; 2Z0a and b, musculi cardiopylorici a and b; 273, musculus cardiacus anterior mesalis; 274, musculus cardiacus anterior lateralis. The following muscles dilate the stomach: 200. Musculus dilatator anterior superior ventriculi. One pair.— Each muscle arises from the inner side of the cervical membrane im- mediately behind the orbit. The body of the muscle extends inward and backward, dividing very soon into a dozen or more slender fibers which diverge widely to their points of insertion at various places on the anterior upper and outer walls of the stomach. These fibers are exceedingly delicate. (Figs. 29, 30.) 7O SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 201. Musculus dilatator anterior inferior ventricult. One pair.— The muscles of this pair are extremely attenuate and difficult to sepa- rate from the antero-superior dilator muscle of the foregut (206) at their common origin on the upper part of the epistome. A careful tracing shows that the former pair is inserted on the lower anterior wall of the ventriculus above and behind the termination of the esopha- 200 203 197 202 2lla 2llb dalle 2lid 2lle 210a 199b 198 21Ge 215 208 209 205b 205a 216m 216] 216i 216F 21Gh 216¢ Fic. 30.—Lateral view showing muscles of the stomach. 197, musculus gastricus anterior; z98, musculus gastricus posterior mesalis; 199a and b, musculus gastricus posterior lateralis a and b; 200, musculus dilatator anterior superior ventriculi; 207, musculus dilatator anterior inferior ventricul1; 202, musculus dilatator lateralis anterior ventriculi; 203, musculus dilatator lateralis posterior ventriculi; 204a and b, musculus dilatator dorsalis pylorici anterior a and b; 205a and b, musculus dilatator pylorici inferior a and b; 206, musculus dilatator anterior superior oesophagei; 207, musculus dilatator anterior inferior oesophagei; 208, musculus dilatator lateralis oesophagei; 209, musculus dilatator posterior oesophagei; 2z0a, musculus cardiopylorici a; 2I1a-g, musculi interiores cardiaci laterales a-g; 215, musculi circumoesophagei ; 2I6a-n, musculi pylorici a-n. gus. The connectives of the cerebral ganglion pass diagonally across them. (Fig. 30.) 202. Musculus dilatator lateralis anterior ventriculi. One pair.— These muscles arise on the roof of the prebranchial chamber and pass inward and downward to their insertion on the upper margin of the anterolateral cardiac plate (Cd Al). They are not very firmly knit and may be torn away with the tissues surrounding the stomach. (Fig. 30.) 203. Musculus dilatator lateralis posterior ventriculi. One pair.— Arising on the roof of the prebranchial chamber, these muscles pass NO. Q MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 71 inward through the sheetlike sinus tissue, widening somewhat as they approach their insertion along the anterior edge of the hammer-shaped calcification in the posterolateral cardiac plate (Cd Pl). (Fig. 30.) 204 aand b. Musculus dilatator dorsalis pylorici anterior a and b. Two pairs—The two muscles on each side run close together at their origin, so that they are not readily separable. They arise directly below the origin of the inner posterior gastric muscle (198), being attached to the lower end of the same calcareous projection of the inner sur- face of the carapace at the median part of the mesogastric region. Both pairs of dorsal pyloric muscles pass downward and forward as ribbon- like bundles of muscle fibers. The anterior and upper of the two pairs (204 a) is inserted on the anterior pleuropyloric ossicle (XX///), while the posterior and lower pair (204 b) terminates on the posterior mesopyloric ossicle (XV) ; thus at their insertions they are entirely separate. (Figs. 29, 30.) 205 a and b. Musculus dilatator pylorici inferior a and b. Two pairs —Each slender muscle of the outer pair (203 a) originates on the endopleurite of the first maxillary segment, passing backward and upward to its insertion on the pre-ampullary ossicle (XVIII). The muscles of the inner pair (203 b), much longer than the outer but equally attenuate, arise near the base of the mandibular apophysis, thence passing close to the sides of the esophagus and the posterior wall of the cardiac region, and are inserted on the antero-inferior pyloric ossicles (XVJI) in the ventral wall of the pyloric region. For the last half of their course, the muscles of this inner pair lie so near together that the two appear to be one. (Fig. 30.) The following muscles dilate the esophagus : 206. Musculus dilatator anterior superior oesophagei. One pair.— Fach of these muscles arises from the epistome near the midline and just beside the median projection from which spring the basal ocular muscles. Diverging backward and downward, the muscles widen con- siderably at their insertion on the upper wall of the esophagus. (Fig. 30.) 207. Musculus dilatator anterior inferior oesophaget. One pair.— These muscles are nearly indistinguishable from the preceding at their origin on the epistome, but they pass straight downward to an insertion in a more anterior position on the esophagus. (Fig. 30.) 208. Musculus dilatator lateralis oesophagei. One pair —This muscle springs from the posterior angle of the epistome, diverging consider- ably as it approaches the esophagus, on the lateral wall of which the various fibers find their attachments, just below those of the preced- ing muscle. (Fig. 30.) i 72 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 209. Musculus dilatator posterior oesophaget. One pair—vThis muscle is small and not easily distinguishable, lying as it does within the web of tissues surrounding the stomach. It arises on the endo- pleurite of the first maxillary segment, passing backward and over the inner ventral pyloric dilator (205 b) to its insertion on the lateral wall of the esophagus just posterior to the insertion of the lateral dilator of the esophagus (208). (Fig. 30.) INTRINSIC MUSCLES 210 a and b. Musculi cardiopylorici a and b. A median and two lateral—The median muscle (b) extends from the thickened posterior border of the mesocardiac ossicle (J) to the upper central edge of the propyloric ossicle (VJ). The lateral muscles (@) extend from the mesocardiac ossicle (J) to the inner end of the exopyloric ossicle (IV), diverging slightly posteriorly. These muscles oppose the movements of the extrinsic gastric muscles. (Figs. 29, 30.) 211 a-g. Musculi interiores cardiaci laterales a-g. Seven pairs— These muscles all run more or less dorsoventrally on the lateral wall of the stomach. (Fig. 30.) In the following list, the dorsal insertion is named first: a. Hammer-shaped ossicle in the posterolateral cardiac plate (Cd P1) to the inferolateral cardiac ossicle (XJ). b. Prepectineal ossicle (7X ) to inferolateral ossicle (XJ). c. Zygocardiac ossicle (///) to inferolateral ossicle (X/). d. Zygocardiac ossicle (///) to anterior supra-ampullary ossicle (AX): e. Zygocardiac ossicle (///) to anterior supra-ampullary ossicle (XX) ; perhaps this and the preceding should be considered as parts of the same muscle because they have their origins and insertions on the same ossicles, although not on the same points of the ossicles. f. Exopyloric ossicle (JV) to anterior pleuropyloric ossicle CG: g. Pyloric ossicle (VJ/) to anterior pleuropyloric ossicle (XXJIJ/). 212. Musculus cardiacus posterior inferior. One pair.—This muscle is composed of short fibers attached on the sides to the inferolateral cardiac ossicle (X/) and coming almost together at the median line, where they are attached to each side of a projecting ridge running down the center of the cardiopyloric valve. These muscles cannot be seen until the outer and inner lower dilators of the pylorus have been removed, as well as the obscuring branches m and m of the pyloric muscle. (Not figured.) NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 73 213. Musculus cardiacus anterior mesalis. Single—If one detaches the anterior gastric muscles carefully, the weak and poorly developed strands of the anterior cardiac muscle may be seen. It arises under- neath the former, in front of the anterior median part of the meso- cardiac ossicle (/), passing forward and downward over the ante- rior wall of the stomach, and dividing into numerous fibers before it reaches its attachment above the esophagus. (Fig. 29.) 214. Musculus cardiacus anterior lateralis. One pair—vThe fine strands of this muscle arise on the anterior border of the anterolateral cardiac plate (Cd Al) and go upward as a thin sheet of very loosely- knit fibers to their attachment near the median line just above the esophagus, close to that of the preceding muscle. (Fig. 29.) 215. Musculi circumoesophaget. Many.—Taken all together, these numerous muscle fibers go to make up a band surrounding the esopha- gus. Individually they are very small. (Fig. 30.) 216 a-n. Musculi pylorici a-n. Fourteen pairs—lIt is most con- venient to list these numerous small muscles controlling the constriction of the pylorus in tabular form, giving the ossicles between which each muscle extends. The numbering of each individual muscle has been purely arbitrary and without other significance than one of identi- fication. (Fig. 30.) a. Lateral cardiopyloric ossicle (X///) to anterior pleuropyloric ossicle (X XI/1). b. Lateral cardiopyloric ossicle (X/J//) to posterior mesopyloric os- sicle (XV). c. Middle supra-ampullary ossicle (X XJ) to posterior mesopyloric ossicle (XV). d. Middle supra-ampullary ossicle (X XJ) to uropyloric ossicle CVE). e. Ampulla (Amp) to uropyloric ossicle (XV J). f. Posterior supra-ampullary ossicle (XXJ/) to middle pleuro- pyloric ossicle (XXJV). g. Posterior supra-ampullary ossicle (X X//) to uropyloric ossicle (eer iy h. Posterior supra-ampullary ossicle (XXJJ) to pyloric valve. GPP): 1. Pre-ampullary ossicle (XVJII) to middle supra-ampullary os- sicle (XXJ). j- Middle supra-ampullary ossicle (X XJ) to ampulla (Amp). k. Anterior pleuropyloric ossicle (X X///) to posterior mesopy- loric ossicle (XV). 74 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLE. 92 1. Anterior pleuropyloric ossicle (X XJII) to anterior mesopyloric ossicle (XIV). m. Ampulla (Amp) to antero-inferior pyloric ossicle (XVJI). n. Lateral cardiopyloric ossicle (XJI/) to inferolateral cardiac os- sicle (XJ). ABBREVIATIONS USED ON THE FIGURES a-b, primitive dorsoventral axis of appendage. A Cxpd, anterior part of coxopodite. Add, tendon of adductor of mandible. Flb, flabellum. Flg, flagellum. I, dorsal promotor muscle. Iscpd, ischiopodite. J, dorsal remotor. A, ventral promotor. Bnd, endite of basipodite. L, ventral remotor. Bs-Iscpd, basi-ischiopodite. Mrpd, meropodite. Bspd, basipodite. Palp, palp. Cex, exite of coxopodite. P Cxpd, posterior part of coxopodite. Cnd, endite of coxopodite. Post, posterior border. Crpd, carpopodite. Prpd, propodite. Cxapd, coxopodite. Prtpd, protopodite. Decpd, dactylopodite. Ptg, paratergite. Ant, anterior border. Appd, appendage. End, endite. Scg, scaphognathite. Endpd, endopodite. St, statocyst. Eppd, epipodite. Sin, sternum. Ex, exite. T, tergum. Expd, exopodite. Tn, telson. REFERENCES Baumann, H. 1919. Das Gefass-system von Astacus fluviatilis (Potamobius astacus L.) Ein Beitrag zur Morphologie der Decapoden. Zeitschr. wiss. 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The abdominal muscular systems of the shore crab (Carcaenas maenas) and of the zoea I and megalopa states. Proc. Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc., vol. 45, pp. 50-56, 2 figs. 1931. Comparative study of the abdominal musculature in Malacostraca. Pt. I. The main ventral muscles of the typical abdominal segments. Proc. Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc., vol. 45, pp. 57-71, 2 pls. 1932. Comparative study of the abdominal musculature in Malacostraca. Pt. II. The superficial and main ventral muscles, dorsal muscles and lateral muscles, and their continuations into the thorax. Proc. Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc., vol. 46, pp. 46-107, 6 pls. Hansen, H. J. 1921. Studies on Arthropoda I. 80 pp., 4 pls. Copenhagen. 1925. Studies on Arthropoda. IJ. On the comparative morphology of the appendages in the Arthropoda. A. Crustacea. pp. 1-176, 8 pls. Copenhagen. 1930. Studies on Arthropoda. III. On the comparative morphology of the appendages in the Arthropoda. B. Crustacea (supplement), Insecta, Myriopoda, and Arachnida. pp. 39-49. Copenhagen. Elbe ube ele 1880. The crayfish. An‘introduction to the study of zoology. 371 pp., 8o figs. Appleton, New York. Jackson, H. G. 1928. The morphology of the isopod head. Part 2, The terrestrial isopods. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pp. 561-595. Keim, WILHELM. 1915. Das Nervensystem von Astacus fluviatilis (Potamobius astacus L.). Ein Beitrag zur Morphologie der Dekapoden. Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., vol. 113, pt. 4, pp. 485-545, 28 figs. 76 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 Netz, WILLY 1917. Das Skelett des Flusskrebses (Potamobius astacus Leach). Disserta- tion. 104 pp., 38 figs. Marburg. PeEarsSON, J. 1908. Cancer pagurus. Mem. Liverpool Marine Biol. Committee, vol. 16, 209 pp., 13 pls. Ratreun, M. J. 1930. The cancroid crabs of America, of the families Euryalidae, Portunidae, Atelecyclidae, Cancridae, and Xanthidae. U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 152. Raymonp, P. E. 1920. The appendages, anatomy, and relationships of trilobites. Mem. Con- necticut Acad. Arts and Sci., vol. 7, 169 pp., 11 pls. Scumipt, WALTER 1915. Die Muskulatur von Astacus fluviatilis (Potamobius astacus L.) Ein Beitrag zur Morphologie der Decapoden. Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., vol. 113, no. 2, pp. 165-251, 26 figs. Smitu, G., Woops, H., Suiptey, A. E., WarsurtTon, C., THompson, D’A. W. 1909. Crustacea and arachnids. The Cambridge Natural History, vol. 4. Snopcrass, R. E. 1927. Morphology and mechanism of the insect thorax. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 80, no. 1, 108 pp., 44 figs. 1928. Morphology and evolution of the insect head and its appendages. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 81, no. 3, 158 pp., 57 figs. 1929. The thoracic mechanism of a grasshopper and its antecedents. Smith- sonian Misc. Coll., vol. 82, no. 2, 111 pp., 54 figs. 1932. Evolution of the insect head and the organs of feeding. Smithsonian Report for 1931, pp. 443-480, 25 figs. WiiuiaMs, LEonARD W. 1907. The stomach of the lobster and the food of larval lobsters. State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. 37th Ann. Rep. Comm. Inland Fisheries, pp. 153-180, 10 pls. ALONG Lede eae 1 ie * we" u > my SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 92, NUMBER 10 RECENT DISCOVERIES OF CAMBRIAN BEDS IN THE NORTHWESTERN UNITED STATES BY CHARLES ELMER RESSER Curator, Division of Invertebrate Paleontology, U.S. National Museum me tn E-INCA ewe ORS (PUBLICATION 3284) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOVEMBER 6, 1934 THe Lord Waltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. As RECEND DISCOVERIES: OF ‘CAMBRIAN BEDS IN THE NORTHWESTERN, UNITED STATES By CHARLES ELMER RESSER Curator, Division of Invertebrate Paleontology, U.S. National Museum The lifelong studies of Dr. Charles D. Walcott on the stratigraphy and paleontology of Cordilleran North America not only made this a classic area for geologic research, but also established here the most complete known sections of Cambrian strata. However, a considerable area in which Cambrian strata seem to be wanting existed between the definitely known outcrops of the Cambrian in Montana and in British Columbia. Dr. Walcott’s further plans included field work in the northern United States and southern Canada for the investigation of this problem, but his death prevented the completion of the project. Recently, several fortunate discoveries of Cambrian beds have been made in northwestern United States which contribute to a better understanding of the fundamental structure of the Rocky Mountain region. To understand fully the significance of these recent discoveries it is necessary to have in mind both the geographic distribution of the concerned Cambrian outcrops, as well as the primary structural regions of the Cordilleras, especially with respect to the location and direction of geosynclines and basins at the beginning of Paleozoic sedimentation. PREVIOUSLY KNOWN DISTRIBUTION OF THE CAMBRIAN Hitherto, as a result of Walcott’s extensive studies, the Lower Cambrian was known to extend from southern California northward through the Great Basin as far as the Eureka District in central Nevada and the vicinity of Salt Lake City in the Wasatch Range of Utah. From these points northward, beds older than Middle Cam- brian seemed to be lacking, not only in northern Utah, Idaho, and Montana, but also for a considerable distance along the southern part of the Canadian Rockies. The Middle Cambrian, on the other hand, was known to extend beyond the mentioned points in Nevada and Utah, throughout the Wasatch and thence northward into the western side of the Teton Range, in western Wyoming, and to crop out widely about the head- waters of the streams forming the Missouri River in western Mon- SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 92, No.10 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 tana. North of the Belt Mountains or of the latitude passing through Helena, Mont., no Middle Cambrian was known in the vast expanse of Beltian sediments extending far north into Canada, except that discovered in 1905 by Walcott in a limited area near Ovando, Lewis and Clark County, north of Helena. In the Canadian Rockies Walcott traced similar Middle Cambrian beds southward at least as far as Elk Pass on the Continental Divide. Thus it is evident that the gap between the nearest exposures of Middle Cambrian in the Rockies of the United States and of Canada was much smaller—by the distance between Salt Lake City and the Ovando area—than that between the nearest exposures of the Lower Cambrian. Finally, the Upper Cambrian was known to extend rather generally throughout the southern Rocky Mountains, as defined below, where it constitutes the sole Cambrian deposition. These strata are at present best designated as the Deadwood series. In Montana the upper portion of Peale’s Gallatin limestone series is of about the same age as the Cambrian in the Southern Rockies, and in Canada beds corresponding rather closely to the Gallatin series and younger strata are well de- veloped. However, both in Montana and in Canada the Upper Cam- brian has a more restricted distribution than the Middle Cambrian and does not exactly coincide with it. Thus, earlier observations indicated that Cambrian outcrops were confined to the Rocky Mountain system proper—as defined in the following paragraphs—and that in it an extensive area existed in western Montana, northern Idaho, and the southern parts of Alberta and British Columbia, in which Cambrian strata were apparently lacking. PRIMARY STRUCTURAL UNITS OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS Before the recent discoveries are described, a few words concern- ing the fundamental structure of this part of the Cordilleran region will be helpful. In the light of early Paleozoic history it is desirable to depart somewhat from the regional classification in vogue, which is based primarily on present topography and is, therefore, a delimi- tation of physiographic rather than of structural provinces. The structural provinces, as here outlined, take account of the persistently positive and negative elements, and amounts of total and differential movement, or, in short, the geographic conditions during the initiation of the Cambrian or of other initial early Paleozoic periods, in so far as they are determinable. Southern Rocky Mountains —According to conditions at the begin- ning of Paleozoic time, which persisted throughout that era, this NO. IO DISCOVERIES OF CAMBRIAN BEDS——-RESSER iS structural province is regarded as including the Southern and Middle Rockies as recently defined by Fenneman. This includes the ranges in central Colorado, Wyoming, and south-central Montana, but ex- cludes the Wasatch and western Wyoming ranges. Although the Southern Rockies are in line of strike with the ranges to the northwest, nevertheless they have a wholly different geologic history and consequent structure, consisting essentially of a Cryp- tozoic * core fringed with belts of Paleozoic rocks. We may take the Big Horn Range as a typical example of the Southern Rockies. This range consists of an elongate dome of peneplaned Cryptozoic rocks, the edges of which are surrounded by a band of early Upper Cambrian overlain by younger strata. It is certain that the overlapping edges of the Upper Cambrian strata have been stripped back along the pene- planed surface on which they rest, but they appear never to have covered altogether the higher, central portions of the dome. Owing to the positive nature of these domes, coupled with their stability through- out long periods of time, it is not surprising that real geosynclines are apparently absent from the Southern Rockies, and that, in consequence, all sediments from Cambrian to Recent times are basin deposits laid down in the same manner as the Tertiary beds of the present Big Horn Basin. The northern boundary of the Southern Rockies is naturally an irregular line. Along the main strike the province terminates with the Beartooth Mountains, northeast of the Yellowstone National Park. However, the Gallatin and other similar Montana ranges to the west of the Beartooth mass should be excluded, even though in their evident stability and peneplaned cores they retain characteristics of the Southern Rockies. Their Cambrian, or initial Paleozoic, strata clearly belong to the northern subdivision, so that they represent the southern shore line of that province. Eastward of the Beartooth mass the northern boundary of the Southern Rockies extends far northward to include the Little Rockies and Big Snowy Mountains of central Montana, and to the east to embrace the Black Hills in South Dakota. Applying the same criteria to the delimitation of the western boundary of the Southern Rocky Mountains, it is necessary to exclude the Wasatch, Teton, and intervening ranges from this province and include them with the Great Basin, even though the Tetons and pos- sibly the Salt River ranges partake somewhat of the structural nature of the Southern Rockies. Cambrian and other Paleozoic strata in * Term recently used by Schuchert and Dunbar, Textbook of Geology, 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1933. 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 these ranges were apparently deposited in a geosyncline, and the contained faunas indicate their deposition in the seas covering the Great Basin. In other words this situation would naturally be expected if these ranges are the eastern margin of the Great Basin geosyncline. The manner in which Cambrian distribution is related to the struc- tural provinces is well shown in the Beartooth region. On the south and east sides of this dome Upper Cambrian strata of the Deadwood series rest directly on the peneplaned Cryptozoic, but on its north- western flanks the older Middle Cambrian holds this relationship. This situation extends the Middle Cambrian shore line, described by Peale for the southern margin of the Gallatin Valley, a considerable distance toward the east. Northern Rocky Mountains —From the Beartooth Mountains in southern Montana, immediately northeast of the Yellowstone National Park, northward to the Yukon River in northern Canada, all ranges of the eastern Cordilleran element may be grouped as the Northern Rocky Mountains. Again, from the standpoint of Cambrian or early Paleozoic history, this usage departs from that of some physiographers, conforming more closely to that of Daly, who regards the Rockies as confined, in an east-west direction, to the mountains between the Great Plains on the east and the Rocky Mountain Trench on the west. In contrast to conditions characterizing the Southern Rockies, the northern subdivision consists essentially of great thicknesses of folded and faulted sediments, evidently deposited in geosynclines. These geosynclines were, of course, the result of prevailingly negative move- ments, which allowed the accumulation of thicker, more continuous sedimentary series than were possible in basins of the Southern Rockies. In the southern portion of the Northern Rockies, as stated above, the Gallatin, Madison, Jefferson, and McCartney Ranges exhibit Cryptozoic cores, on whose peneplaned surface Middle or Upper Cambrian strata rest without intervening Beltian beds, in which re- spect they assume characteristics of the Southern Rockies. However, only a few miles north of the mentioned ranges Beltian strata lie beneath the Cambrian, and continuing northward the Beltian at once thickens rapidly, covering most of northwestern Montana and ex- tending into Canada beyond the Watertown Lakes Park. It has been estimated that these Beltian strata total fully 60,000 feet. For a long time it was thought that this enormous thickness of sedimentary deposits constituted the complete sedimentary record of the geosyn- NO. IO DISCOVERIES OF CAMBRIAN BEDS—-RESSER 5 cline, but the recent discoveries indicate the possible presence of at least Middle Cambrian, as well as the previously known younger Paleozoics. RECENT DISCOVERIES OF CAMBRIAN BEDS IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS It will be easier to understand the true significance of the following finds if we take them up in the order of their discovery, which also automatically places them in their proper provincial grouping. Pend Oreille Lake—rThe first discovery extending the area of known Cambrian outcrops into the supposed gap across the Beltian area was made about 1920 by Dr. Edward Sampson, at that time a member of the United States Geological Survey. He found a good Cambrian section along the southern shores of Pend Oreille Lake in northern Idaho. Here limestones and shales contain abundant Middle Cambrian fossils, which recall both those of the Ovando region in central Montana and also others in the Canadian Rockies, thus show- ing that Cambrian seaways extended across the western as well as the eastern portions of the supposedly barren Beltian area, where Walcott’s studies in 1905 had shown the existence of Cambrian. Extension of the Ovando area.—During recent years the Montana State geologists have been studying the sedimentary beds of north- western Montana, particularly with the view to unraveling the com- plicated Beltian sedimentary record. This work greatly extended the Cambrian, both geographically and stratigraphically, in the Ovando region about the head of Sun River observed by Walcott in 1905. Study of these data is now under way by Dr. C. F. Deiss of the State University at Missoula, Mont. South Kootenay Pass—The third significant discovery was made by Dr. G. S. Hume, of the Canadian Geological Survey, during the field season of 1932, when he collected what appear to be Middle Cambrian fossils north of Red Deer River, in the vicinity of North Kootenay Pass, southern Alberta. Here shales, with layers and lenses of limestone, overlie about 100 feet of quartzites, which in turn rest on the Beltian with an erosional unconformity between. The Middle Cambrian is said to be overlain by Silurian strata in the southernmost locality found, but a little farther north is directly succeeded by Devonian. The Cambrian, as well as the other mentioned Paleozoic beds, vary rather rapidly in thickness. This discovery reduces the gap, as previously outlined, by many miles in a north-south direction, as the Pend Oreille find did in the east-west direction. 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 Beartooth Mountains—The recent work of the Princeton Uni- versity group studying the geology of the Beartooth region has shown the presence of Middle Cambrian on the northwestern quadrant of the Beartooth Mountains. On the eastern and southern sides of this uplift only the Southern Rocky Mountain Upper Cambrian series is present, but west of a gap where Cambrian is lacking, the presence of northern Middle Cambrian apparently determines the southeastern extent of the geosynclinal seas washing the margins of the more stable lands which prevented their continuation southward through Wyoming or the Southern Rockies. All four new localities mentioned lie within the Rocky Mountains proper, and in every respect their strata resemble those previously determined by Walcott’s studies; consequently they serve merely to close the gap between the previously known Cambrian areas in the southern part of the Northern Rockies. In other wards, these dis- coveries were to be expected as long as definite evidence was not at hand that the known Middle Cambrian seaways had detoured around this supposedly barren Beltian area. From our knowledge we may, therefore, infer that a thin, probably discontinuous sheet of Middle Cambrian once covered some of this Beltian area, but no evidence exists pointing to the extension of younger Cambrian beds across the area. Naturally, thin beds, lying on top of great masses folded and faulted into the high ranges such as exist here at present, would suffer severely from erosion, with the result that only patches of Cambrian are left here and there in the bottoms of synclines. Nevertheless, it is the opinion of all who have studied the region that the Middle Cambrian sheet never extended all the way across the gap. DISCOVERIES WEST OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS In contrast to the four finds described, another group located in northeastern Washington contribute not so much toward closing the gap, but have a much greater significance, since they occur west of the Rocky Mountains in the strike of the Selkirk and Purcell systems. Metaline Falls—Recently Washington State geologists searched patiently the hitherto supposedly unfossiliferous metamorphosed rocks in the eastern part of their State and were rewarded by finding fossils which prove the presence of Paleozoic strata as was previously sus- pected. Last winter, Mr. W. G. Bennett, a student of Washington State College, found a shale containing good Middle Cambrian fos- sils at Metaline Falls on the Pend Oreille or Clark Fork River in the northeastern corner of the State, a few miles south of the international NO. I0 DISCOVERIES OF CAMBRIAN BEDS——RESSER 7 boundary. This shale occurs in the southward extension of Daly’s Pend Oreille group or Summit series. This does not necessarily re- move either series from the Beltian, but probably indicates conditions similar to those described for the Rocky Mountain Beltian area north of Helena, Mont. This shale is part of a limestone belt lying between two mountain ranges of quartzite and schist. Besides the shale and limestone, from which other Paleozoic faunas have been collected, graptolitic argillites are present, which are now being studied by Dr. Ruedemann. The Middle Cambrian fossils in the shales are Elrathia aff. cordillerae, Pagetia cf. bootes, Kootenia sp., Olenoides, and W estonia, all typical of the Stephen formation, very common in the Rockies about Lake Louise, Alberta, and Field, British Columbia. Localities near Colville—In 1931 C. C. Branson reported Kutor- gina, a genus confined to the Lower Cambrian, from the Stevens series on the Colville River, 6 miles north of Chewalah, Wash., a locality about 40 miles southwest of Metaline Falls. The Stevens series formerly was also regarded as Beltian in age, and as stated for the Pend Oreille group, it probably is Beltian but was covered with Cambrian beds, fragments of which remain in the infolded synclines. A second Lower Cambrian locality was found by Mr. Bennett, who sent in a single piece of limestone from the town of Colville. This limestone contains fragments that appear to represent Wanneria, or at least an olenellid trilobite, accompanied by several cups of Archae- ocyathus. Taken together, these two discoveries unquestionably extend the known range of Lower Cambrian strata far southwest of the most southerly locality previously known in Canada. This was at Cranbrook in southeastern British Columbia, and in or west of the Rocky Mountain Trench, which is the western limiting feature for the Rocky Mountain system. However, it is not clear whether we should regard this occurrence as being in the Purcell or in the Rocky Mountain systems. On the other hand, without doubt, the Washington Lower Cambrian localities are west of the Purcell Trench and, therefore, in the Selkirk system. Kettle Falls—Finally, Mr. Bennett secured another piece of fos- siliferous rock a few miles east of the Columbia River, at Kettle Falls, 10 miles west of Colville, containing a pocket in which occur silicified fragments of Nisusia, Hyolithes, and a small, smooth trilobite sug- gesting Agnostus. This small fauna could be either Lower or Middle Cambrian, but seems to be the latter. This piece of rock is from an argillaceous quartz conglomerate, lying between two masses of schis- tose greenstone and grit. The conglomerate itself is much metamor- 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 phosed and sheared, and since the fossils are not distorted, it is likely that originally they occurred in a limestone pebble forming a part of the conglomerate. This, therefore, raises the question as to whether the conglomerate is of Cambrian age or younger. PRESENT CAMBRIAN DISTRIBUTION With the data furnished by these recent discoveries, the general picture of Cambrian distribution has been considerably altered, and several generalizations become possible. The Lower Cambrian is still unknown both throughout the Southern Rockies and in the northern division as far north as the Bow Valley, near Lake Louise, Alberta. This statement, of course, disregards the possibility that the Cranbrook occurrence in the Rocky Mountain Trench should be included with the Rocky Mountains and not placed in the Selkirk system. On the other hand, the distribution of the Lower Cambrian has been extended in the ranges west of the Rockies a considerable distance farther south than it was formerly known to occur. Middle Cambrian distribution was expanded to a greater extent. In the Rocky Mountain system it has reduced the Beltian gap to several hundred miles, and to the west its range has been expanded equally with that of the Lower Cambrian. On the other hand, the Upper Cambrian received no unquestioned additions, so that the Deadwood series still constitutes the sole record in the Southern Rockies and retains approximately its previously known distribution to the north. DEDUCTIONS REGARDING CAMBRIAN SEAWAYS When Lower Cambrian seas first penetrated the continent in western North America, it appears to have been along a single great geosyn- cline, the complete course of which was outlined by Philip King (1933). Judging from Lower Cambrian occurrences, it seems that this geosyn- cline developed by growing simultaneously from its two extremities. Thus Lower Cambrian waters entered its southern portion, the Great Basin geosyncline, and passed through what is now southern Cali- fornia as far northward as central Nevada and Utah. From the north, marine waters apparently came down from the Arctic to northeastern Washington, leaving an unoccupied gap of several hundred miles, because existing evidence does not indicate removal of Lower Cam- brian here prior to deposition of the Middle Cambrian. It will be noted that this interpretation considers the existence of but one geo- NO. 10 DISCOVERIES OF CAMBRIAN BEDS——RESSER 9 syncline, which follows the trend of the northern Rockies south from their northern extremity to Montana, where it swings westward around the Southern Rocky Mountain region and thence continues southwestward through the Great Basin, to enter the Pacific in southern California. Or possibly one might consider this as two geosynclines joined by a crossover in Montana ; but the faunas in both are the same. By Middle Cambrian time floods apparently penetrated the entire length of this long negative area. It is not to be understood that all Middle Cambrian formations are thought to have covered the entire width and length of the geosyncline, for they were evidently deposited in relatively narrow, often parallel, and always very shallow troughs, and differential movements within the larger depressed area must have operated everywhere and during all time so that every formation was a discontinuous sheet. (See Walcott, 1927.) With the beginning of Upper Cambrian time, subsidence appears to have affected the whole continent to such an extent that marine waters were enabled not only to flood portions of this long geosyn- cline, but also to extend themselves out across the smoothed surfaces of interior portions of North America. Thus in the Southern Rocky Mountains Cambrian seas were able to enter the basins between certain positive elements which were then islands and are now the cores of existing ranges. It seems that possibly all of the Cordilleran geo- syncline was drained at the close of Middle Cambrian, because the basal Upper Cambrian beds usually contain salt crystals, ripple marks, and other shallow-water features. On the other hand, relatively soon after the seas reached their maximum extent in lower Upper Cambrian, emergence began west of the Mississippi Valley, so that the younger members of the Cambrian are less and less widely distributed. With no change in dip, the Mons, Garden City, Manitou, or equivalent formations again spread widely both within and without the geosyn- cline, overlapping the Cambrian beds of various ages but apparently never reaching beyond them to rest directly on the Cryptozoic. In other words, diastrophic movements creating early Paleozoic basins or geosynclines were fully determined by early Upper Cambrian. REFERENCES Branson, C. G. 1931. New paleontologic evidence on the age of the metamorphic series of northeastern Washington. Science, n.s., vol. 74, p. 70. DAT eaReAt 1912. Geology of the North American Cordillera at the Forty-ninth Paral- lel. Geol. Surv. Canada Mem. 38. 10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 Derss, CHARLES F. 1933. Paleozoic formations of northwestern Montana. Bur. Mines and Geol., Montana, Mem. no. 6, March. Kinc, Puiip. 1933. An outline of the structural geology of the United States. Internat. Geol. Congr., 16th sess., Guidebook 28, pl. 1. PEADE ARG: 1893. The Paleozoic section in the vicinity of Three Forks, Montana. U.S. Geol. Sury. Bull. 110. Sampson, Epwarp. 1928. Geology and silver ore deposits of the Pend Oreille District, Idaho. Idaho Bur. Mines and Geol., Pamphlet no. 31, December. (Mimeo- graphed. ) Watcort, D. C. 1927. Pre-Devonian sedimentation in southern Canadian Rocky Mountains. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 75, no. 4, April 2. Se SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 92, NUMBER 11 PHOTOTROPIC SENSITIVITY IN RELA- TION TO® WAVE LENGTH (WitH Two PLATEs) BY EARL S. JOHNSTON Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution (PUBLICATION 3285) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION DEGEMBER 6, 1934 “ " F ij | | iy , ; , ; The Bord Waltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A. Ae V a a 1 , PHOGOTROPIC SENSIMIVIGY IN RELATION TO WAVE LENGTH By EARL S. JOHNSTON Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution (WitH Two PLatTEs) INTRODUCTION Asymmetric growth resulting from unilateral stimulus has been des- ignated tropism. Growth curvatures following unilateral illumination are usually classified under the term phototropism. Different plants respond in different degrees to light, but perhaps those most fre- quently used in phototropic experiments are the sporangiophores of Phycomyces and the coleoptiles of Avena. In such studies the in- tensity, the wave length, and the duration of exposure to light each acts as a contributing factor toward the final result. Just as there appears to be a threshold of intensity for a given duration of light exposure, so there are wave lengths which seem to exert no influence on these growth responses, but with exposures to other wave lengths the plants show distinct degrees of sensitivity. Not only do different plants vary in their sensitivity, but separate portions of the same plant respond differently. Recent work on growth substances indicates the presence of factors other than light in this complex plant-response. In the present paper the subject is limited, in the main, to the influ- ence of radiation of different wave lengths on phototropism as shown by the response of the coleoptiles of Avena sativa. The variety used is Culberson, C.Il. no. 273, for which the author wishes to thank Mr. T. Ray Stanton, of the United States Department of Agriculture. All the light intensity measurements were made by Dr. E. D. McAlister, to whom credit for that part of this work is given. HISTORICAL, SURVEY Many of the early experiments on phototropism have been reviewed by Parr (1918) and the data classified under four general theories: 1. The “intensity” theory originating with De Candolle in 1832 and adhered to in a more or less modified form by Wiesner, Darwin, Engleman, Oltmanns, Yerkes, Loeb, and Davenport. 2. The ray- SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 92, No. 11 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. Q2 direction theory advanced by Sachs in 1876 and supported by the experiments of Strasburger, Davenport, and Canon. 3. The wave- length theory first investigated by Payer in 1842. 4. The energy theory first mentioned by Miiller in 1872 in which the maximum response of cress seedlings shifted in the spectrum for different energy values of the wave lengths studied. The basis for much of the recent quantitative work on phototropism was laid by Blaauw (1909, 1914, 1915, 1919). His studies were perhaps the first serious attempt made to interpret this growth re- sponse in terms of modern physics. Plant responses were studied in different spectral regions of sunlight and of the carbon are and com- pared with the energy values calculated from Langley’s (1884) tables. Blaauw found the most effective region of the carbon spectrum for phototropic response of Avena seedlings to lie between 4660 and 4780 A, while the red and yellow regions were ineffective. According to Blaauw (1914), the curvature of a plant resulting from unilateral illumination is caused by the light-growth responses on the opposite sides which are illuminated differently. The minimum amount of radiation required to produce phototropic response was found to be 20 meter-candle-seconds. It also appears from his work that for equal effects the product of light intensity and time of exposure is a constant. It is impossible to evaluate the effect of wave length in many of the early phototropic experiments because of the lack of accurate physical data. Some Io years after the early quantitative studies of Blaauw, Parr (1918) made a study of the responses of Pilobolus to different wave lengths and intensities of carefully measured artificial light. The results of these quantitative studies are best summarized in her own words: (1) Pilobolus responds to the light of all the regions of the visible spectrum. (2) The presentation time decreases gradually from red to violet. There is no indication of intermediate maxima or minima. (3) The presentation time does not vary in direct ratio with the measured value of the energy of the light in the different regions of the spectrum. (4) The presentation time varies in inverse ratio to the square roots of the wave frequency. (5) The product of the square root of the frequency times the presentation time, decreases with the decrease in the energy value of the spectral regions, and is an approximate con- stant for a given light-source. (6) The spectral energy in its relation to the presentation time may be expressed approximately in the Weber-Fechner formula, if the wave-frequencies be made a function of the constant. (7) The relation of the spectral energy to the presentation time may also be approximately expressed in the Trondle formula, the wave-frequencies being made a function of the constant. NO} U2 PHOTOTROPIC SENSITIVITY—JOHNSTON 3 About the same time Hurd (1919) showed wave-length effect on young rhizoids by equalizing the intensity of the light coming through a series of Wratten filters. Only the blue (4700 to 5200 A) and violet (4000 to 4700 A) lights produced phototropism, negative in direction. The other lights at the intensity of 1800 meter-candles had no effect. However, with a greater intensity the green light (5200 to 5600 A) exerted a negative phototropic effect as well as the blue and violet. For the purpose of investigating the wave-length effects of radia- tion on phototropic bending of young plants, Johnston (1926) con- structed and described a simple plant photometer. The apparatus consisted of a long box divided into three compartments. Each end compartment contained an electric lamp which could be moved toward or away from the light-filter window in the partition separating it from the central or plant compartment. Plants which easily respond in their directional growth to differences in light intensities were em- ployed in place of the adjustable indicator or photometer screen in the ordinary Bunsen photometer. Sonne (1928-1929) determined the necessary amount of energy of different wave lengths to produce a minimum phototropic response in oats. The young plants were so placed that about 1 cm of their tips were exposed at different distances from the light of a mono- chromator for different exposure periods. The visible part of the spectrum of a Hefner lamp was used as a standard of comparison. Minimum response was obtained at 0.86 x 10° g. cal. per cm? in 1 second. The energy was measured by a thermo-element. The results are summarized in table 1. TABLE I.—Sonne’s Data showing Phototropic Sensitivity Determined from the Amount of Energy Required to Produce a Minimum Response in Oats Wave length Absolute Phototropic (A) energy effect 5700 588 0.17 5460 371 0.27 4360 0.028 3572 4050 0.06 1667 3660 0.10 1000 3130 0.66 152 3020 0.06 104 2800 253 44 2650 32 and 15? 7 2530 19 5 2400 ai I 4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 It will be seen from this table that the amount of energy which barely causes phototropic curvature varies with the wave length. The yellow (5700 A) is about 600 times as intense as is the white light necessary to bring about the same response, while the green (5460 A) is approximately 400 times as intense, and the blue (4360 A) only .03 as strong as the energy of his standard white light. The blue is thus approximately 10,000 times as effective phototropically as the green and 20,000 times that of the yellow. The violet (4050 A) is also very effective but only about half that of the blue. 700 50 80 70 60 50 40 JO 20 A (mt) Fic. 1—Graphs from Bachmann and Bergann showing the sensitivity of Avena sativa to wave lengths of light (continuous line) compared with their cor- rected values of Blaauw (crosses), of Sonne (circles), and of Koningsberger (horizontal lines). Bergann (1930) made a very careful study of the effects of mono- chromatic light on the growth and bending of Avena sativa as well as the effects produced by a change of intensity and length of exposure. Employing the method of placing the young plant between two oppos- ing lights, he concludes that the regions other than the red and infra- red produce corresponding growth reactions for suitable intensities. In unilateral light equal bending is shown for corresponding intensi- ties, first positive, then negative, and finally positive. Light curvatures and light-growth reactions are parallel processes. The stronger the light-growth reaction 1n a given wave-length region, the greater will be the phototropic response. The seedlings “ choice”? in the com- pensation experiments between two wave-length ranges is always that which corresponds to the stronger growth reaction. NOs IT PHOTOTROPIC SENSITIVITY—_-JOHNSTON 5 Bachmann and Bergann (1930) review the early work of Blaauw and correct the energy values of his data for light absorbed by CuSO, and water filter, surface reflections, and color filter in order to com- pare his results with those obtained by Bergann. The results of Sonne and Koningsberger are also corrected and compared. These data are represented graphically in figure 1, in which the continuous line is the sensitivity curve. The data from Blaauw’s work are indicated as Relative efficiency “600 620 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 3580 Wave -length —mu Fic. 2—Graphs from Castle showing the relative efficiencies of different wave lengths in their stimulation on Phycomyces blakesleanus (horizontal lines), on Phycomyces nitens from data of Blaauw (solid circles), and on Pilobolus calcu- lated from data of Parr (open circles). small crosses, those of Sonne as circles, and those of Koningsberger as horizontal lines. The multiplier for Blaauw’s data in the short- wave-length region is 2.5. Irom this work it is concluded that there are two maxima in the phototropic curve and that these correspond in general to the maxi- mum light absorption regions of chromolipoids. It appears that the phototropic curvatures in the different wave-length regions follow the absorption of light by specific substances or their compounds in these same regions. The sensitivity of the sporangiophores of Phycomyces to light of different wave lengths was investigated by Castle (1931). The 6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 sporangiophores were placed between two light sources. The intensi- ties were adjusted until the phototropic effects of the different spectral regions were equal. At this point the efficiency of each region was taken as proportional to its relative energy content. Wratten filters were used in conjunction with a copper chloride filter. The most sensitive region proved to be in the violet (4000-4300 A). In figure 2 Castle compares his results with those obtained by Blaauw and Parr. It is pointed out that because of the presence of “accessory ”’ pig- ments in these sporangiophores care must be taken in correlating these results with those obtained from the absorption spectrum of the photosensitive substance. PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS The general method of studying the wave-length effects on photo- tropism as described by Johnston (1926) was used by Johnston, Brackett, and Hoover (1931) with an improved plant photometer for evaluating four spectral regions in terms of plant response. The gen- eral procedure was to place an oat seedling between two different and oppositely placed lights, and after an interval observe the growth curvature. If, for example, when the seedling was exposed to blue and to green lights, a distinct bending was noted toward the blue side, the lights were so adjusted as to increase the green or decrease the blue intensity. Another seedling was then used and the process repeated until a balance point was reached where the effect of one light neutralized the effect of the other. When this balance point was determined, a specially constructed thermocouple replaced the plant and the relative light intensities were measured. From these experi- ments it was found that no measurable phototropic response was found for wave lengths longer than 6000 A (Wratten no. 24—red filter), while a noticeable bending was found with the yellow filter (Corning’s heat-resisting yellow—yellow shade), whose cut-off on the short-wave-length side was 5200 A. The threshold for wave- length influence was found to lie somewhere between 5200 and 6000 A. The effects of green and blue light (Wratten filters nos. 61 and 47 respectively) were progressively greater, being in round num- bers 1,000 for the green and 30,000 for the blue times that of the yellow. These results justified a more elaborate and better controlled ex- periment wherein narrower spectral regions could be investigated. For this purpose Johnston (1931) used the specially constructed monochromator illustrated in plate 1. Care was taken to eliminate scattered light and to keep the conditions surrounding the coleoptile NO? EL PHOTOTROPIC SENSITIVITY—JOHNSTON 7. symmetrical, with the exception of the wave-length region being investigated. A double-walled glass cylinder with water between the walls slowly rotated about the axis of the coleoptile. Two strips of paper blackened on the inside and separated 1 cm from each other were wrapped about the cylinder in order to shield all but a restricted region at the tip of the coleoptile from the light. The cylinder was encased in a light-proof box which contained two oppositely placed side windows. Through one window, light was passed from the monochromator, and through the other, light from the standard lamp. The standard used was a 200-watt, 50-volt projection Mazda lamp with the filaments in a plane. The standard lamp was enclosed in an air-cooled brass housing with one small glass window opening toward the plant. The light from the standard was passed through a number 6.0 Corning line filter, a heat-absorbing glass, and a water cell before entering the rotating cylinder surrounding the plant. The number 6.0 Corning line filter transmitted wave lengths from about 4400 A to 5800 A and from 7000 A to 12800 A of the light transmitted by the water filter. The radiation intensity of the standard was 0.37 micro- watts/cm? at a distance of 25 cm. This value, of course, varied with different lamps and also with the same lamp as it aged. A photo- graphic red lamp was used behind the small rear window of the plant box for properly placing a coleoptile at the beginning of each expo- sure. Previous experiments showed the coleoptile to be insensitive for all practical purposes to this particular light. The monochromator lamp was located outside the phototropic room, which was a small room with no outside walls located in the west basement of the Smith- sonian building. Very little daily temperature fluctuation occurred in this room because of its ideal location. Coleoptiles of oats, Avena sativa Culberson, were used in all these experiments. The seeds were germinated at approximately 25° C. between glass plates covered with moist filter paper. The plates were so placed in moisture chambers that the seedlings grew vertically. A careful selection of the seedlings was made for straightness when they had attained a length of 2 to 4 cm. One was then transferred to a small Erlenmeyer flask fitted with a cork stopper. It was supported by means of a little cotton in a small hole of the stopper. The flask was filled with distilled water so that the roots were entirely im- mersed. With the cross hairs in a small telescope as a guide, the seedling was adjusted to a vertical position within the glass cylinder located between the two lights. The general experimental procedure was to illuminate the coleoptile on its two opposite sides, preferably the narrow edges, and after a 8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 time interval to note the resulting growth curvature. If the light adjustment was very much out of balance as indicated by the plant, a bending similar to that shown in plate 2 occurred in 20 to 30 min- utes. An adjustment was then made in the proper direction and the used seedling discarded for a new one. As the balance point was approached the exposure time necessarily increased. [inally on mov- ing the standard light back and forth through a distance of 1 cm, the plants could be made to curve repeatedly toward one light then toward the other. The balance point was taken to be the midpoint between these two positions. Care was always used not to expose the fresh seedlings to any light but red in the preliminary handling. Priestley (1926) has shown that light affects normal and etiolated shoots very differently. The amount of light required to induce phototropic curva- ture in normal light-grown shoots is greater, and must be continued longer, than that required to bring a similar curvature in etiolated shoots. After a balance point had been determined and tested by using several seedlings, a specially constructed thermocouple was inserted into the glass cylinder occupied by the seedlings and the light intensi- ties measured at the balance position. The junction of the thermo- couple was made of a short length of fine bismuth wire and one of bismuth-tin alloy, each about 25 microns in diameter. The alloy was made up of 95 percent bismuth and 5 percent tin. Utmost care was needed in measuring the light intensities since the plants were found to be much more sensitive to the light than the best physical instru- ments available. It should be remembered, however, that the seedling integrates the effect of radiation over a relatively long period, while the thermocouple responds in a few seconds. The results of this experiment are presented in table 2. The ratio of the intensity of the monochromator light to that of the standard light is given in the third column for corresponding wave-length ranges shown in the first column. Where filters were used in combina- tion with the monochromator they are indicated in the second column. No phototropic responses were obtained in any of the first six wave- length ranges. The first quantitative measurements that could be made were for the range 5040 to 5160 A. In the last column of the table the relative phototropic effectiveness of the different wave- length ranges is given. The ratio 29.10 was arbitrarily taken as unity. With unilateral illumination through the monochromator and a number 77 Wratten filter in the region 5430 to 5670 A, bending oc- NO. II PHOTOTROPIC SENSITIVITY—JOHNSTON 9 curred in four hours. This indicated the approximate threshold region of phototropism. In order to determine this point more accurately a mercury arc in pyrex glass was substituted for the Mazda lamp of the monochromator, and by passing this light through a number 77 Wratten filter, a seedling was unilaterally illuminated by the 5461 mercury line. In five such tests, each lasting from two to several hours, two gave positive bending and three no bending. With reason- TABLE 2.—Data from the Preliminary Experiment Showing Phototropic Effectiveness of Restricted Regions of the Spectrum. That for Wave-length Region 5040-5160 A is Taken as Unity Filter ® Relative Wave-length used with Light intensity ratio phototropic range (A) monochromator (Monochromator/standard) effectiveness 7250-7700 W 88 6900-7300 W 88 6550-6950 CEkee2 6250-6600 GE 5940-6270 CEE 3 5670-5950 TR 5430-5670 Wa22s Glen sep 5200-5430 Wae77, 5040-5160 CEE 61 29.10 1.0 4940-5070 CIEE Oem 2.49 Tele 4810-4930 CILIR @pii 0.68 2.8 4070-4800 CEE 6.1 0.54 53.9 4550-4670 GEE 7 0.20 100.3 4450-4550 0.27” 107.8 4410-4500 0.34” 85.6 4360-4450 0.36” 80.8 4280-4360 0.41” 71.0 4210-4280 0.47 67.0 4130-4220 0.84 34.6 4970-4135 1.49 19.5 2 W, Wratten; CLF, Corning line filter; _TR, thermometer red. : _» With the standard lamp at a fixed position from the plant, the intensity of monochromator Beet wee varied by changing the resistance in its lamp circuit until a balance point was obtained. able certainty it can be concluded that under these particular experi- mental conditions the threshold wave-length effect is at or very near 5461 A. When the phototropic effectiveness is plotted against wave length, a curve is obtained as shown in figure 3, with its maximum at about wave length 4550 A. The horizontal lines represent the wave-length ranges for which balance points were determined. Points where filters were used in addition to the monochromator are represented as circles. IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 There is a slight suggestion of two other maxima, one on each side of the peak. It could not be determined from these data whether or not these secondary maxima were real. Furthermore, certain condi- tions existed during this preliminary experiment which make it impos- sible to consider this sensitivity curve more than approximately cor- rect. Although an attempt was made to burn the lamps at a constant voltage, there was some fluctuation during the exposure of the seed- no aaa ion oe ey = ostheo naar vl if ] ir >| die es “0 BSR See SS Neer 4000 4100 4200 4300 4400 4500 4600 4700 4800 4900 5000 S100 5200 5300 5400 lic. 3.—Phototropic sensitivity curve of preliminary experiment (continuous line). The ordinates are relative sensitivity values, the abscissae, wave lengths in angstroms, and the horizontal bars indicate the wave-length ranges of the balance points. Circles indicate points obtained with filters combined with the monochromator. Points more accurately determined are indicated by crosses and connected by dash lines. lings and during the intensity measurements. Also, in some of the work the standard lamp as well as its filter cell was cooled by tap water. This resulted in an accumulation of iron on the glass surfaces during the time required for determining the balance points. These uncontrolled factors undoubtedly modified to some extent the char- acter of light transmitted. Because of the suggested secondary maximum on the longer-wave- length side, three points on this side were again determined. This time the lamps were connected to a battery of storage cells and the current held more nearly constant. These three wave-length regions with the NOW LT PHOTOTROPIC SENSITIVITY—JOHNSTON II corresponding phototropic effectiveness are given in table 3 and the midpoint of each band plotted in figure 3. Here a distinct break in ascent of the curve is shown. TasLeE 3.—Data from the Second Experiment Showing Phototropic Effectiveness in the Spectral Region Indicating the Presence of a Double Maximum Relative Wave-length Light intensity ratio phototropic range (A) (monochromator / standard) effectiveness 4460-4560 .29 100.3 4558-4662 -42 69.3 4685-4805 SAT 71.0 IMPROVED EXPERIMENTATION AND RESULTS Another experiment was planned and carried out in which the technic was further improved. A motor generator was installed wherein the current used for the light sources was automatically con- trolled. Both the monochromator lamp and the standard lamp were connected in series and replaced at the same time when one burned out. These lamps were the Mazda projection type rated at 200 watts, 50 volts, with an average life of 50 hours. They were burned at four amperes. The water jacket around the standard lamp was removed and the filter cooled by a thermosiphon method in which distilled water was used. In the longer-wave-length regions the light from the monochromator was passed through suitable glass filters to reduce the effect of scattered light of shorter wave lengths affecting the seed- lings. Unfortunately no filters which transmitted an adequate per- centage of light were available for wave lengths of 4500 A or shorter when used in connection with these projection lamps. The data from this more accurately controlled experiment are pre- sented in table 4 and shown graphically in figure 4. The maximum phototropic effect ogcurs at 4400 A, a region about 150 A shorter than the maximum found in the earlier experiment. A secondary maximum occurs at approximately wave length 4750 A with the intervening minimum at about 4575 A. From this double maximum the sensitivity of Avena falls off rapidly to 5000 A on the long-wave- length side, and to 4100 A on the short-wave-length side. It would be interesting to determine if the limit of sensitivity in the case of Avena continues to fall off on the short-wave-length end of the spec- trum, as some previous work would indicate. At some future date it may be possible to extend this curve into the violet and ultraviolet regions. I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 Considerable difficulty was experienced in obtaining a satisfactory balance point in the region of 4800 A. It was necessary to repeat this part of the experiment several times. All other points gave con- sistent data. It is possible that a slight shift of the seedling, one way or the other from the center of the light beam, in this particular por- tion of the spectrum was sufficient to account for the difficulty of obtaining entirely satisfactory data. If this were true, then it would indicate a considerable change in sensitivity over a range of only 100 angstroms at about wave length 4800 A. TaBLe 4.—Data showing the Phototropic Effectiveness of Restricted Regions of the Visible Spectrum. That for the Hg Line 4358 A is taken as Unity Filter @ Relative Wave-length used with Light intensity ratio phototropic range (A) monochromator (monochromator/standard) effectiveness 4945-5055 SG 9.37 .05 4873-4970 NC 17S .27 4760-4840 HRN .54 .89 4650-4750 SG 51 -94 4530-4620 SG .58 .83 4470-4545 -49 .98 4360-4440 .42 el 4270-4335 ‘ 48 1.00 4170-4230 65 74 4072-4125 1.18 41 « SG, Sextant green (1.94 mm); NC, Noviol “C” (4.15 mm); HRN, heat resistant Noviol (3.04 mm). As mentioned above, the light source for this experiment was the Mazda projection lamp. Most of the regions investigated were approximately 100 angstroms wide. For the five points on the short- wave-length side no filters were used. It is believed that the amount of scattered light coming through the optical system of the mono- chromator in this end of the spectrum did not greatly change the character of the sensitivity curve. It is much more important to elimi- nate the scattered light at the long-wave points. However, it seemed advisable to determine one or two points on the short-wave-length side by using the lines of the mercury arc that fall in this particular region. A mercury are in pyrex glass was set up in front of the monochromator, and balance points were determined for lines 4047 A and 4358 A. These points gave ratio values of 1.08 and 0.48 respec- tively, and phototropic effectiveness values of 0.44 and 1.00. Both points are indicated by crosses on the graph in figure 4. Because of the purity of the 4358 A mercury line its value was taken as unity for all the points given in table 4 and shown in figure 4. NO. II PHOTOTROPIC SENSITIVITY—-JOHNSTON 13 The efficiency value for line 4358 A falls below the curve. This is to be expected if the points on the curve adjacent to wave length 4358 A contained scattered light of more phototropic effectiveness. The value for the 4047 A line is above the curve. It may be noted that this radiation was not exactly monochromatic, since an examination with the spectroscope showed very faintly the presence of lines 4078 A -50 .40 .30 -20 olen 4000 4100 4200 4300 4400 4500 4600 4700 4800 4906 5000 5100 $200 5300 5400 Fic. 4.—Phototropic sensitivity curve. The ordinates are relative sensitivity values, the abscissae, wave lengths in angstroms, and the horizontal bars indicate the wave-length ranges of the balance points. Circles indicate points obtained with filters combined with the monochromator. The crosses show where mercury lines were used. and 4358 A. This would make the apparent effectiveness of this line (4047 A) greater than its actual effectiveness and hence raise it above the curve. On the other hand, the curve itself is doubtless a little higher than that which would have been obtained had it been possible to use filters in addition to the monochromator for this region. It may be possible that the phototropic sensitivity curve actually begins to rise at this point, although there is no indication of this from the other data obtained in this work. It is to be expected that in the ultraviolet region the curve would rise, owing to injury of cells on the proximal side of the seedling. 14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 DISCUSSION The use of the plant photometer in determining the sensitivity of seedlings to light has in its favor the elimination of the operator’s judgment at many points during the experiment. The plant itself is used as a null point instrument. After a time interval the plant has grown toward or away from the standard light. There is no need for the operator to estimate the angle of curvature or the exact time at which bending begins. Repeated experiments demonstrate that by moving the standard lamp 0.5 cm toward or away from the plant when located at a balance distance of approximately 25 cm, the curva- ture of seedlings can be changed from one direction to the opposite. It is interesting to note that repetition of balance points seldom differed from each other by more than 5 percent. Very rarely was an unorthodox seedling or an apparently nonsensitive seedling found. One possible objection to this method might be raised. Each point on the phototropic curve is not strictly comparable to the others. This arises from the fact that the plant was at a fixed distance from the monochromator. The intensity of the various wave lengths used was different. The intensity of the standard light was changed to balance that of the monochromator light. A better method perhaps would be to maintain the standard light at a fixed intensity with respect to the plant and change the monochromator light to balance the standard light. It is of interest to note that the maximum phototropic response occurs at wave length 4400 A. This point lies midway between the greatest absorption maxima of chlorophyll a and chlorophyll 6 re- cently measured by Zscheile (1934) by an improved method. It is also the position of one of the maxima found by Hoover (1934, data unpublished) for carbon dioxide absorption by young wheat plants. Since phototropic response is an index of growth retardation it would at first appear that photosynthesis progresses best at a point in the spec- trum where growth is least. Such is not the case, however, when the other and somewhat greater maximum of carbon dioxide absorption is considered. This occurs in the region of 6400 A. Here there is no phototropic response and no retardation in growth. The absence of any phototropic effect in the red and infrared, as shown in these experiments as well as by those of other investigators, and the sharp rise in the curve from about 5000 A into the blue, is typical of an electronic photochemical reaction. The photochemical nature of at least some of the underlying processes involved in photo- tropism is also suggested by the part played by auxins. NO. II PHOTOTROPIC SENSITIVITY—-JOHNSTON 15 Went and his school have shown that small pieces of agar and gela- tine impregnated with this growth-promoting substance when placed asymmetrically on decapitated coleoptiles bring about a growth curvature with the small agar or gelatine block above the convex por- tion of the coleoptile. The amount of bending can be influenced by exposing the tips to light before impregnating the agar or gelatine blocks. It would appear that light either prevents the formation of the auxins or destroys their activity. Furthermore, Kogl (1933) and Kogl, Haagen-Smit, and Erxleben (1933) show this growth- promoting substance to be an unsaturated acid of the formula C,sH 3205, which loses its growth-promoting activity on oxidation. Recently Flint (1934) has called attention to a very interesting relationship between light and the germination of lettuce seed. Cer- tain varieties fail to germinate unless exposed while in a moist condi- tion to a small amount of light. In his preliminary work it is shown that light of wave lengths shorter than about 5200 A inhibits germina- tion, while that longer than about 5200 A brings about changes result- ing in germination. Furthermore, he has shown that normal or non- light-sensitive seeds could be made light-sensitive by subjecting them in a moist condition to strong blue light. These seeds would not germinate until exposed to light of wave lengths longer than 5200 A. All of this work is very suggestive of a common photochemically responsive growth-promoting substance in these lettuce seeds and in the coleoptiles of oats. Light in the visible spectrum of wave length shorter than 5200 A exerts an inhibiting influence on the oat seedling. Likewise this same wave-length region exerts a decided inhibiting action on the germination of these lettuce seeds. However, an expo- sure to light of longer wave length is necessary for the germination of the light-sensitive seeds, even though the exposure is of as short a duration as one minute. This stimulating effect of the red was not noted in the phototropic experiments. All that can be said is that red light did not exert an inhibiting action. The seedlings were handled in red light, so that if a stimulating action were present, it could not be detected, since no corresponding experiments were tried in total darkness. SUMMARY The influence of radiation of different wave lengths on photo- tropism is briefly reviewed and discussed. Experiments are described in which the plant photometer was used to determine the sensitivity of the coleoptile of Avena sativa to the different wave-length regions of the visible spectrum. 16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 The phototropic sensitivity curve rises sharply from 4100 A to a maximum at 4400 A. It then drops off toa minimum at about 4575 A and again rises to a secondary maximum in the region 4700 to 4800 A. The fall is very rapid from this point to 5000 A, from where it tapers off very gradually to the threshold on the long-wave-length side at about 5461 A. Phototropism, because of its photochemical nature, its relation to auxins and the fact that it is a specific light-growth reaction, places in the hands of the experimenter an important tool for investigating the fundamental relationship of plant growth processes to light. LITERATURE CITED BACHMANN, FR., and BERGANN, FR. 1930. Uber die Werkigkeit von Strahlen verschiedener Wellenlange fur die phototropische Reizung von Avena sativa. Planta, Arch. wiss. Bot., vol. 10, pp. 744-755. BERGANN, FRIEDRICH. 1930. Untersuchungen iiber Lichtwachstum, Lichtkriimmug und Lichtabfall bei Avena sativa mit Hilfe monochromatischen Lichtes. Planta, Arch. wiss. Bot., vol. 10, pp. 666-743. BLAAuw, A. H. 1909. Die Perzeption des Lichtes. Rec. Trav. bot. neerl., vol. 5, pp. 209-372. 1914. Licht und Wachstum. I. Zeitschr. Bot., vol. 6, pp. 641-703. 1915. Licht und Wachstum. II. Zeitschr. Bot., vol. 7, pp. 465-532. 1919. Licht und Wachstum. III. Die Erklarung des Phototropismus. Med. Landbouwhoogeschool, Wageningen, vol. 15, pp. 89-204. CASTEEEAUS: 1931. The phototropic sensitivity of Phycomyces as related to wave length. Journ. Gen. Physiol., vol. 14, pp. 701-711. Fruint, Lewis H. 1934. Light in relation to dormancy and germination in lettuce seed. Sci- ence, vol. 80, pp. 38-40. Hurp, ANNIE May. 1919. Some orienting effects of monochromatic lights of equal intensities on fucus spores and rhizoids. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 5, pp. 201-206. JoHNsTON, Eart S. 1926. A plant photometer. Plant Physiol., vol. 1, pp. 89-90. 1931. A quantitative determination of phototropic response to wave length. (Paper presented at meeting of the Amer. Soc. Plant Physiol., New Orleans, La., Dec. 29.) JouNsToN, Eart S., Brackett, F. S., and Hoover, W. H. 1931. Relation of phototropism to the wave length of light. Plant Physiol., vol. 6, pp. 307-313. Koc, Fritz. 1933. On plant growth hormones (auxin A and auxin B). Rep. British Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol. 1933, pp. 600-609. NOF TE PHOTOTROPIC SENSITIVITY—JOHNSTON WW, Kooi, F., Haacen-Snit, A. J., and ErxLesen, H. 1933. Uber ein Phytohormon der Zellstreckung. Reindarstellung des Auxins aus menschlichem Harn. Zeitschr. Physiol. Chem., vol. 214, pp. 241-261. LANGLEY, S. P. 1884. Researches on solar heat and its absorption by the earth’s atmosphere. U. S. War Dep., Prof. Papers Signal Service, no. 15, 242 pp. Washington. Parr, ROSALIE. 1918. The response of Pilobolus to light. Ann. Bot., vol. 32, pp. 177-205. PriEstLeEy, J. H. 1926. Light and growth. III. An interpretation of phototropic growth curva- tures. New Phytol., vol. 25, pp. 213-226. SONNE, CARL. 1928-1929. Weitere Mitteilungen iiber die Abhangikeit der lichtbiologischen Reactionen von der Wellenlinge des Lichts. Strahlentherapie, vol. 31, pp. 778-785. ZSCHEILE, F. PAUL, JR. 1934. An impoved method for the purification of chlorophyll @ and b; quan- titative measurement of their absorption spectra; evidence for the existence of a third component of chlorophyll. Bot. Gaz., vol. 95, PP. 529-562. JHOSIM OL DNISNOH LHOIT GUHYVONVIS DNIGIIS 4 HLIM YSEWVHO LNV 1d SHL ‘1437 NO YOLVWOYHD Eeaitd) EON 6. J1O/ HL OGNV ‘YALNSED NI! YAGNITAD ssv19 aja ONOW HALIM Yat ~ Av M-371En[d DNIMOHS ONY GSAOWSHY LNOYSA AWOLOHd LNV 1d GSA0e8dWN I 4AO M3IA WHANAD SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOE OAs INO mi kalaene PHOTOTROPIC CURVATURE OF AN OAT SEEDLING RESULTING FROM A DIFFERENCE IN WAVE LENGTHS OF LIGHT ILLUMINATING IT FROM OPPOSITE SIDES SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS fHodgkins Fund REMARKABLE LIGHTNING PHOTOGRAPHS (WITH ONE PLATE) BY CG. G. ABBOT Secretary, Smithsonian Institution GUT HsOON SY aT OT Ces Lai GTOT (PUBLICATION 3287) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOVEMBER 2, 1934 Tbe Lord Baltimore (Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. & A. Hodgkins Fund REMARKABLE LIGHTNING PHOTOGRAPHS By C. G. ABBOT Secretary, Smithsonian Institution (With ONE PLATE) About 30 years ago the Institution made grants from the Hodgkins Fund to Alexander Larsen, of Chicago, to promote his studies of lightning flashes, in which he made many photographs of lightning, using a moving camera. Mr. Larsen contributed an illustrated paper on this subject to the Appendix to the Smithsonian Report for 1905.” He continued these experiments for several years after 1905, and in the year 1908 sent to this Institution the two extraordinary photo- graphs shown in plate 1, with the following notes: The print marked no. 4 [pl. 1, fig. 1] is from a plate which was the fourth one exposed on that occasion [May 29, 1908]. The camera at the time was moved with a speed of 1 revolution in 5 seconds. The flash was a very bright one, but it was so sudden and vivid that I did not notice anything peculiar about it. The thunder accompanying it was very sharp and sudden, like the report from acannon. The interval between lightning and thunder cannot be given accurately ; it was less than a second, and probably more than half a second. The picture of this flash is very remarkable; I have never seen any one resembling it, and would prefer to call it a tubular flash on account of its general shape and large diameter, measuring, as it does, over 3 mm at its widest part, and about 2 mm at its narrowest; this great width cannot be accounted for, to be caused by the movement of the camera; the uniformity of the width, both in the vertical and horizontal portion of it, disproves that idea. It seems to be a practically instantaneous flash, coming from a NW. direction in an almost straight line at an angle of 32°, then bending suddenly, moving upward again, bending in a SW. direction, moving downward, again turning eastward making another bend, moving south slightly upward, then turning downward again. If we assume that the nearest portion of this flash took place at a distance of 1,000 feet, which in my opinion would be a conservative estimate, we are con- fronted by the remarkable fact that the diameter of this flash would be over 18 feet. (The angle of the lens is 43°.) I am absolutely at a loss to account for this remarkable flash; it does not appear to be a ribbon flash, which can be accounted for by the movement of the lightning path, by air currents, so will have to defer my opinion until some future time, and leave it to others who may be able to give a plausible explanation. * Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1905, pp. 119-127, 6 pls., 1906. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 92, No. 12 bo SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 To summarize, will say that the flash was apparently one which took place between two clouds; it has the appearance of a very flexible tube of large diameter, was almost instantaneous, and accompanied with a heavy downpour of rain. The camera when the exposure was made was moved by hand, the camera being placed on the stand described previously and was slanted upward at an angle of 15°; the speed was 1 revolution in 5 seconds. Temperature was 23° C. Barometer steady at 29.81 inches. Wind S.W. after- wards changing W. and N.W., with intervals of calm. On the same evening [July 17, 1908] a friend of mine, R. J. Spickerman, residing at 2813 Lowe Ave., about 6 miles south from my place, secured a most remarkable photograph of a flash [pl. 1, fig. 2], by means of a small 2} by 33” film camera. A copy from the original photograph is enclosed, marked no. 9, and also an enlargement of the same, marked no. 10. In describing how he obtained the flash he said that he was sitting on the porch watching the beautiful display, and having a camera, he thought that he would try his luck in photo- graphing, having heard me speak of it several times. He held the camera on his lap, pointing it toward the southeast, where the most flashes were observed. He thought that he held the camera still, at the time that he secured the flash, but the photograph shows that it must have moved. It shows a meandering and very complicated flash, consisting of four distinct and separate rushes,’ following one another in the same path, opened up by the first discharge. It is almost incomprehensible how such a complicated flash can follow all those curves and bends which the photograph shows. The only rea- sonable explanation to my mind would be that the path of the flash was a partial vacuum with very low resistance, which the beaded or striated appearance of this flash also would tend to confirm. How this partial vacuum can be ac- counted for is a difficult problem to solve. It is the first lightning photograph which I have had the fortune of seeing that shows the path in broken lines, or striated. It is this peculiarity which makes it especially interesting. I have only on one occasion observed a vertical flash which showed the path broken up in alternate light and dark divisions (it is about 4 years ago). I did not succeed in getting a photograph of it. It is possible that those beads or striae are of similar nature as those produced in vacuum tubes, although they differ from them in this respect, that the striae in a vacuum tube are narrow (as the name implies), whereas in the flash they are wide. The word striae is really a poor term to use; beads would be more appropriate, and I shall use it hereafter when speaking of them. On the original photograph some of these beads are 1 mm long but the most of them about 4 mm. The dark spaces between them are on the average about + mm wide. Now, saying that the angle of the lens is 36°, and the distance of the flash from the camera was 10,000 feet, which is a conservative estimate, that would mean that the average length of the beads would be 36.5 feet and the average distance between them would be 14.6 feet. Of course these figures are only approximate ; they only give an idea for comparison between the striae in a vacuum tube and those in the flash. These divisions seem to have been of a stationary nature, 1T think I can see six separate rushes.—C. G. A. NO. 12 REMARKABLE LIGHTNING PHOTOGRAPHS—ABBOT 3 occupying the same relative positions on the different rushes; in that respect they behave somewhat like the striae in a vacuum. It is possible that these beads in reality were not as wide as they appear, the apparent width being caused by their intense light causing halation to a cer- tain extent. The whole flash seems to be made up of these alternate light and dark spaces; in some places of the picture, where the flash was moving either away from or toward the observer, it shows the beads very close together, forming almost unbroken lines, but judging from the general appearance, it seems that the divisions are of about uniform dimensions. When this pic- ture was taken there was a continual display of meandering flashes, lasting for over an hour. No rain was falling, and Mr. Spickerman judged the lightning to be about 4 mile above the ground. The flash is certainly very interesting, and I think that it deserves to be reproduced in the yearly report of the Institution, if possible, together with the photograph taken by me on May 20, marked no. 4 in my last report. The barometer reading at 7 p.m. = 758.5 mm. Temperature = 20° C. Relative humidity 80 percent. Wind, west. B. F. J. Schonland, of the University of Cape Town, Union of South Africa, has lately been making somewhat similar experiments in lightning photography, on which he reported at the meeting of the National Academy of Sciences at Washington, in April, 1934. Mr. Schonland, calling at the Smithsonian Institution, examined Mr. Larsen’s photographs and expressed a particular interest in the one here shown as plate 1, figure 1. At his suggestion this publication is made, and it seemed to the writer interesting to include also figure 2. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92, NO. 12, PL. 4 1. Photograph by A. Larsen of lightning flash between clouds near Chicago on May 29, 1908. Camera moving about a vertical axis. Speed, one revolution in 5 seconds. 2. Photograph by R. J. Spickerman of lightning flash between clouds neat Chicago on July 17, 1908. Camera held stationary in the lap of the operator. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 92, NUMBER 13 THE STANDARD SCALE OF SOLAR RADIATION BY CG. G. ABBOT AND L. B. ALDRICH Smithsonian Institution Ca OG PONT | 445 Hso 71, SUHINGTO es (PUBLICATION 3288) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOVEMBER 2, 1934 The Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8S. A. ae THE STANDARD SCALE OF SOLAR RADIATION By C. G. ABBOT anp L. B. ALDRICH Smithsonian Institution We published about 2 years ago* a description of the double- chamber compensation water-flow pyrheliometer No. 5 and the results of comparisons made between it and silver-disk pyrheliometer S.I.5yis. These results indicated that the Smithsonian radiation scale of 1913 was 2.5 percent too high, but on account of certain defects in the sensitive parts of the water-flow pyrheliometer No. 5 we felt that further comparisons were needed before accepting that correction. The thermoelectric junctions, which were imperfectly soldered in 1932, have been removed and replaced by others securely melted to- gether. Every care was used in reassembling the instrument to guard against all conceivable sources of error. We have employed the in- strument on Mount Wilson in July 1934 to restandardize silver-disk pyrheliometer S.1.5,;;. Besides the diaphragms within the boxed in- strument shown in plate 1, figure 3 of our former publication, we invariably used in addition in 1934 the double polished screen de- scribed in lines 34-40, page 4, of our former publication, whereby the water-flow pyrheliometer No. 5 was limited to observe precisely the same sky area as the silver-disk pyrheliometer S.I.5,;;. All other ar- rangements were precisely like the best ones described in our former paper. During most of the days observed in 1934 the sky was of ex- ceptional clearness, and observations were made only at high sun. The temperature of the different days varied so much that on some com- parisons silver-disk pyrheliometer S.1.5,:; was read at 46° C., while on some other occasions its readings were as low as 26°, with all inter- mediate temperatures between these extremes represented in the several series. We were unable to detect any differences in results showing any influence of this large range in temperatures. As stated in our former paper, the entire measurement made with the compensation water-flow instrument consists in a determination of the energy of the compensating electric current. Equivalence between solar and electric heating in the two opposed chambers is indicated by * Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 87, no. 15, 1932. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92, No. 13 2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92 a null reading of the sensitive galvanometer connected into the thermo- electric circuit whose two sensitive junctions are in the outflowing cur- rents of water issuing from the two chambers. In preparing for a series of readings, both chambers were opened simultaneously to the sun rays, and the adopted zero of the galvanometer was that which subsisted during this preliminary joint exposure. After the conclusion of a series, the zero was again determined in the same way, and some- times was found to have changed a little. Nevertheless, error from such a drift of zero is approximately eliminated by the device of alternately exposing the two chambers to solar and electrical heat. For if owing to an unknown drift of the real zero the electrical energy is determined too large within one chamber, it will be found for the same reason too small in the other immediately afterward by about an equal amount. To secure complete elimination, we took one more electrical measurement on one side than on the other and made our West plus West comparisons as between ———~-——— and East. Users of the = Angstrém compensation pyrheliometer will have employed and will appreciate this corrective principle. In fact we found no appreciable difference in the results of the various series as between occasions when the drift of the galvanometer zero was relatively large and rela- tively small, respectively. The total deflection for uncompensated solar heating ranged from 3 to 10 centimeters on the scale of the galvanometer, depending on the rate of flow of the water current used on different days. The zero observation could be made to a tenth of a millimeter or better, cor- responding to from et 46 = of the total deflection. No systematic difference in results depending on the rate of flow of the water current could be detected. During the entire campaign of comparisons, the silver-disk pyrheli- ometer was read by C. G. Abbot, with timing by the eye and ear method, listening to beats electrically sounded from an accurate sec- onds pendulum. The galvanometer and current measurements were made by L. B. Aldrich. To determine the electrical energy of compensation, an electric cur- rent from storage batteries was passed through slide wire resistances, thence to a milliammeter, and thence to the manganin heating coils within the pyrheliometer chambers. The resistances of these heating coils were repeatedly measured on a standard Wheatstone’s bridge. : 2 ree IT ; They were found to be identical to within less than with the NOTES SCALE OF SOLAR RADIATION—ABBOT AND ALDRICH 3 resistances of the same coils in 1932. The readings of current on the milliammeter ranged between 50.0 and 63.0 on its scale, and could usually be read to somewhat better than a possibly tc nae : 600 1000 The milliammeter, with its position and surroundings unchanged, was calibrated against two standard cells which were obligingly checked against standards between two of our comparisons by a member of the staff of the California Institute of Technology, and found highly ac- curate. We believe that we have measured the pyrheliometer currents I I by these methods to better than ——, possibly to ——. As the current : 500 1000 enters the formula in its square, the error due to inaccuracy of cur- rent measurements may reach 0.5 percent but is believed to be less. Accidental errors of the standardization of silver-disk pyrheliometer S.1.5pis against the water-flow pyrheliometer are to a great extent eliminated by the numerous repetitions of the comparisons. We now give in the following table a summary of the results of the standardization. Date No. of Temperature range Mean value of comparisons of S.1.5pis constant S.1.54;. 1934 * Centigrade July 12 5 35-46 0.3667 Seam TA. 6 31-42 0.3641 Smee 6 30-40 0.3626 elo 5 33-42 0.3615 eel, II 29-38 0.3622 oO) 9 26-34 0.3019 Total 42 Mean 0.3629 This mean value is 2.3 percent below the value 0.3715, which, as stated in our former paper, represents the Smithsonian scale of 1913. The defect 2.3 percent is in close agreement with the defect 2.5 per- cent indicated by our results of 1932. But on account of the numerous observations and highly satisfactory conditions prevailing in 1934, we prefer to attach full weight to the correction 2.3 percent. The causes which may have contributed to the higher scale found in 1913 are fully discussed in our former paper. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 92, NUMBER 13 DE STANDARD: SCALESOF SOLAR RADIATION BY CG. G. ABBOT AND L. B. ALDRICH Smithsonian Institution i . (ss iW, *, ay I; SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS WAG 5 INOS adh THe 7 From a painting by E. G. Cassedy. BAY ISLAND POLYCHROME ! VASE WHICH CONTAINED CENTRAL VOTIVE CACHE, DIXON SITE, ROATAN SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLUME 92, NUMBER 14 (End of Volume) ARCHEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN THE BAY ISLANDS, SPANISH HONDURAS (WITH 33 PLares) BY WILLIAM DUNCAN STRONG Anthropologist, Bureau of American Ethnology ENE: IN Ch, (PUBLICATION 3290) CITY OF WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FEBRUARY 12, 1935 The Lord Baltimore Press BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8 A. CONTENTS PAGE MEO CIGELOME Pac erenee tern ly Ro oe eee ratnakeioteedetttevoncuet shore oictersorecereishe ete esekcueks I Eimvaronnientale baGlorOm dl : eyerepcrveterstatelereletelstetee leet ateliele lene toleo exe role ele Vells(ole)sr-i> els 3 Historical and ethnological background.................ecccescarceececss 7 exept OLS em aeystetetofotel chetetctelevorcvelavcrchavetetek fal cher okey teveltoWoveve oTefelerexeerelel= Tove oreveio) sists 20 itil -malic ariclimrpepracioe Reacialel oro ctetortcnetetetetoteRetetenetotateremeroterstetelorarelsranetsleveh evel 20 BiackwRockBasiney seer eee ee lecie eit reteisier lervetraresrereciale 20 Siteur auGneandusicillubtiiialsneaeeee meee riiriice eerie 20 STEM RA Be Rea ie a OS ES I ea a Codec ra eer NaE 28 Brandon enlist Cavern titacctcrstan osteeeta creer iia recksle siclperstier sitar. 30 PE pyp Ot) UE ANTE ashes y spe) woes eitohe ist -satelocNatinjeSatot taco tole ate ele eistelia’ ei aforerela isis) \cfoy. 32 Psion erly © aviekcsyaer. reteset evoke ole ose caveste ie fats eltatoveneterenndlapaMeretefeleetete slat etaie 33 ENG htVeRA ChE sani \OLMEEYSIEESI a5. otc s leisyerelormiereeieha etal etoleraievelererareiehe 34 EN Oatatie US citi cl pmenserses cee pe racyaicrctors oral te oles ater cicnerm oaetsper ie vtopemeie eltneonalseoctoretsic 36 [BortanOvallentaciets cites tele mises ave crer asta ci colersianote creteha Tasverstokette te Chats 36 Onesie Bie litaevye rie eter tee rsveteycnete etek ete Nelonel cieye) eleliey«relieleelsoneueVoaeys 42 SE eases ere ecto oasis te Geos ARSE EAS ees enero te avatar orien stare tone CesT 43 (GST ATA CS Re here hal ole ake F oan Rien oes Searohe connor stereos 44 Othermartitactswe. ose sec reterraetreroricraitle 48 Site Papier teresa re ehalere toe paraiel o Salas Ai mormerale wae leetere ere meen eMone rea 50 Ie M Chim ial Ue O LMNs erect resale iakeleret ote eeeorsicken cre ten aeisictetetetictopetetarors 50 Aut esi IO Tp/SUC Ch yaleratate folate oletersoielle ato sions: