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SMITHSONTAN
MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

VOL.93

“EVERY MAN IS A VALUABLE MEMBER OF SOCIETY WHO, BY HIS OBSERVATIONS, RESEARCHES,
AND EXPERIMENTS, PROCURES KNOWLEDGE FOR MEN ”"_sMITHSON

(PUBLICATION 3340)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
1935

The Lord Waltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. As
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we

ADVERTISEMENT

The present series, entitled “ Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collec-
tions,’ is intended to embrace all the octavo publications of the
Institution, except the Annual Report. Its scope is not limited,
and the volumes thus far issued relate to nearly every branch of
science. Among these various subjects zoology, bibliography, geology,
mineralogy, anthropology, and astrophysics have predominated.

The Institution also publishes a quarto series entitled ‘ Smith-
sonian Contributions to Knowledge.” It consists of memoirs based -
on extended original investigations, which have resulted in important
additions to knowledge.

C. G. Assort,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

(ii)

bo

N

Q.

CONTENTS

Wricut, W. H., and McAtister, E. D. The effect of ultraviolet
radiation on the ova of the ascarid roundworms Toxocara canis
and To-xascaris leonina. 13 pp., Dec. 26, 1934. (Publ. 3201).

Scumitt, Watpo L. Mud shrimps of the Atlantic coast of
North America. . 21 pp., 4 pls., Feb. 15, 1935. (Publ. 3292.)

GaTEs, G. E. New earthworms from China, with notes on the
synonymy of some Chinese species of Drawida and Pheretima.
FOr pps, 15 figs., Feb: 27, 1945. (Publ. 2202.)

RANDERS-PEHRSON, N. H. Pioneer wind tunnels. 20 pp., 4 pls.,
8 figs., Jan. 19, 1935. (Publ. 3294.)

RessER, CHARLES ELMER. Nomenclature of some Cambrian
trilobites. 46’pp., Feb: 14, 1935. (Publ. 3295.)

HRplLicKa, ALES. Ear exostoses. 100 pp., 5 pls., May 14, 1935.
(Publ. 3296.)

McAttster, E. D. The Christiansen light filter: its advantages
and limitations. 12 pp., 2 pls., 4 figs., Apr. 2, 1935. (Publ.
3297.)

Basser, R. S. The classification of the Edrioasteroidea. 11 pp.,
E pl, Apr: 4, 1935. (Publ. 3307.)

CANU, FERDINAND, and BAssLer, Ray S. New species of Ter-
tiary cheilostome bryozoa from Victoria, Australia. 54 pp.,
© pls., Apr: 26, 1935. (Publy 3302)

STRONG, WILLIAM DuNCAN. An introduction to Nebraska ar-
cheology. 323 pp., 25 pls., 30 figs., July 20, 1935. (Publ. 3303.)

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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 93, NUMBER 1

THE EFFECT OF ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION ON
THE OVA OF THE ASCARID ROUNDWORMS
TOXOCARA CANIS AND TOXASCARIS
LEONINA

BY
W. H. WRIGHT

Zoological Division, Bureau of Animal Industry,
U. S. Department of Agriculture

AND
E.. D. MCALISTER

Division of Radiation and Organisms,
Smithsonian Institution

(PUBLICATION 3291)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
DECEMBER 26, 1934

The Lord Baltimore Press

BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A.

Hie BEPECM OF ULTRAVIOLET, RADIATION ON THE
OVA OF THE ASCARID ROUNDWORMS TOXOCARA
CANIS AND TOXASCARIS LEONINA

By W. o. WRIGHT,

Zoological Division, Bureau of Animal Industry,
U.S. Department of Agriculture

AND
E. D: McALISTER,

Division of Radiation and Organisms,
Smithsonian Institution

INTRODUCTION

Through the courtesy of Dr. C. G. Abbot, Secretary of the Smith-
sonian Institution, the opportunity was presented to study the action of
ultraviolet light on the ova of the two species of ascarids commonly
infesting the dog. It was desired in the experiments reported here to
determine, if possible, the radiotoxic effect of ultraviolet light of
different wave lengths and, as a practical measure, to correlate the
possible sterilizing action of sunlight on the ova of these two species
of ascarids.

The apparatus employed for the radiation of the ova, described in
detail by Brackett and McAlister (1932), consisted of a quartz mono-
chromator and a quartz mercury arc. This apparatus eliminates the
disturbing effect of the large amount of heat attending all total arc
exposures and permits irradiation by the different wave lengths of the
mercury spectrum. The intensities of the spectral lines employed were
as follows:

Wave length (A) Intensity (ergs/sec. cm”)
3650 9500
3130 4200
3022 1900
2967 gI0
2804 610
2052 570

In correlating the dosage employed with ultraviolet intensities in
sunlight, the determinations of Coblentz and Stair (1931) have been
used. These investigators gave the value of 65 microwatts per cm’
(650 ergs/sec. cm’) for noonday, midsummer sun at Washington,

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 93, No. 1

2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

D. C., for wave lengths of 3130 A to the solar limit at 2970 A. From
their data there have been computed an average value of 55 microwatts
per cm’ (550 ergs/sec. cm’) for the above-mentioned wave lengths in
July sunlight between 9: 00 a. m. and 3: 00 p. m. at Washington, D. C.
This value has been used in translating into terms of days the exposures
employed in some of the tests reported here.

The ova of Toxocara canis are globular, subglobular, or slightly
ovoid in shape and of a light brown color. Externally, the egg is
covered with a thick, albuminous coating which is mammillated at
regular intervals. The eggs vary in measurement from 82 to 102 p
in length and 79 to 96 » in width. The ova of Toxascaris leonina are
ellipsoidal to subglobular or globular in shape, with thick, double-
contoured, smooth, clear shells. They measure 82 to 96 » in length and
82 to 92 w in width.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The effect of ultraviolet irradiation on the ova of Ascaris equorum
(= A. megalocephala) has been studied in some detail by a number of
investigators. Most of these experiments were conducted from the
standpoint of the cytologist with a view to determining the effect of
the light on various parts of the egg or on the whole egg at different
stages of development. Stevens (1909), using a total arc exposure,
found that exposure of the whole egg to ultraviolet light for 6 to
8 hours did not usually kill the egg at once, but prevented further
development when the eggs were in the 2- to 4-cell stage at the time of
exposure. Exposure for a period too short to prevent further cleavage
(4 to 3 hours) caused various irregularities in development including
irregular fragmentation of the chromosomes, delay in cleavage and
abnormal gastrulation. Stevens believed that ova arrested in develop-
ment may be said to be paralyzed to such an extent that they are unable
to initiate any further mitosis.

In his extensive experiments in exposing various parts of the egg of
A. equorum to ultraviolet light Schleip (1923) employed the micro-
scopic method devised by Hertel (1904) and modified and improved by
Tschachotin (1912). The apparatus used gave a spectral line of 2800 A
from the magnesium arc. Schleip found that irradiation of the whole
egg or various parts of the egg for varying periods of time resulted in
a marked lethal effect. Schleip concluded, moreover, that no part of
the egg could be influenced by ultraviolet light without producing
secondarily some alteration in other parts not exposed to the light.

Ruppert (1924) also employed the apparatus of Tschachotin in
irradiating the ova of A. equorwm. In Ruppert’s experiments short

NO. I IRRADIATED ASCARID OVA——-WRIGHT AND McALISTER 3

exposures of the whole egg resulted in marked abnormal embryonal
development, which appeared most frequently in the gastrula stage.
Longer exposures gave a marked lethal effect. Ruppert concluded that
there is a rhythmic alteration in the lethal effect of ultraviolet light,
depending on the stage of development of the egg at the time of
exposure.

Seide (1925), in irradiating ova of A. equorum, used the method of
Tschachotin as well as total arc exposures at wave lengths between
4050 and 2530 A of the mercury spectrum. In his experiments there
was no apparent lethal effect on the eggs and no apparent lag in
development.

Nolf (1932) observed that a very small total arc exposure at wave
lengths between 2800 and 3150 A or between 1800 and 3150 A was
sufficient to prevent a large percentage of the ova of Ascaris lum-
bricoides from reaching embryonation. A slightly greater exposure
was completely lethal to the eggs.

Although results obtained by the above-named investigators are of
general interest, their findings offer no means of comparison with
results of experiments reported in this paper, in which measured in-
tensities of single wave lengths of ultraviolet light were employed.
The intensity of the 2800 A spectral line from the magnesium are was
not reported by those using this method, making comparison impos-
sible, and it is equally impossible to compare results with those of
workers who employed total arc exposures.

EXPERIMENTS
SERIES A

Preliminary tests were made by exposing Toxocara and Toxascaris
eggs to six wave lengths of ultraviolet light in order to gain some idea
as to lethal effect, if any, of these various wave lengths. The ova of
both species of ascarids were mixed and placed on a glass slide and
allowed to dry at room temperature. The slides were exposed to ultra-
violet light for a length of time sufficient to provide an equivalent
dosage (the product of time and intensity ) at the various wave lengths.
As the longest period of exposure was 20 minutes, each slide was
dried for 20 minutes, including the time of exposure to the light, in
order to provide equal conditions for the test. Each slide was then ex-
posed to the arc for the time stated in Table 1. The dosage was 684,-
000 ergs/cm’ or approximately equivalent for the 3022 A slide to 18
minutes exposure to nooday, midsummer sun at Washington, D. C.

4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

The exposed area on each slide was marked off with a diamond
point ; this area was equivalent to the dimensions of the light ray dis-
charged from the aperture, or 5 by 30 mm. Eggs on the same slide
outside of the irradiated area served as controls ; the control eggs were
therefore subjected to identically the same conditions during develop-
ment as were the irradiated eggs. After exposure, each slide was
immediately placed ina Petri dish and covered with a 1 per cent solution
of formalin, in which the eggs were permitted to develop. For the
most part the eggs adhered to the slide. The culture was allowed to
develop for a period of 8 to 9 days at temperatures ranging from 26°
to 28° C. At the end of this time, counts were made to determine the

TABLE 1.—Results of Exposure of Ova of Toxocara canis and Toxascaris leonina
to Ultraviolet Light

Series A—Exposed on May 23, 1934
Dosage—684,000 ergs/cm?

Percentage embryonated

ee
oO
Ne. Wave exposure Dare Toxocara Toxascaris
slide length count
Minutes} Seconds frag Control ied Control
A 1934
I 2652 20 =e May 31 27.5 32 6.5 25
2 2804 18 46 May 31 46 48 6 29.5
3 2967 12 30 June I 51 50.5 20 22
4 3022 6 if June I 60.5 57 33 2205
5 3130 2 44 June rt 49.5 47 27.5 23.5
6 3650 I 12 June I 47 49.5 26 27

percentage of embryonation in the eggs of the two species, both on the
control part of the slide and on the irradiated part of the slide. For each
count, 200 ova were taken. Table I summarizes the results obtained
from the irradiation of ova in series A.

From an examination of the data it is apparent that the relatively
short exposure used in this series had little or no effect on the develop-
ment of the ova in the majority of cases. However, in two instances
the ultraviolet light appears to have exerted a definite toxic effect on the
ova of Toxascaris. On slide 1 (wave length 2652 A) only 6.5 per cent
of the irradiated ova became embryonated, whereas 25 per cent of the
control ova became embryonated. On slide 2 (wave length 2804 A),
6 per cent of the irradiated ova were embryonated at the time the
count was made, whereas 29.5 per cent of the control ova were

INO Seek IRRADIATED ASCARID OVA—WRIGHT AND McALISTER 5

embryonated. In each of these instances it is apparent that the ultra-
violet light prevented development in a relatively large proportion of
the Toxascaris eggs. In other cases the differences in embryonation
were well within the limits of experimental error in the counting
technic.

SERIES B

In view of the fact that wave lengths from 2652 to 2967 A are below
the limits of the solar spectrum, there appeared to be little information
of practical value to be derived from the further irradiation of ascarid
eggs at these wave lengths even though Toxascaris ova were consider-
ably affected by irradiation at wave lengths of 2652 and 2804 A. For
this reason further experiments were confined to irradiation of the ova
at wave lengths within the range of the solar spectrum with a view to
ascertaining the relative lethal effect of sunlight, exclusive of heat and
desiccation, on the ova of these two species of ascarids. This point has
practical application in the control of ascariasis.

In series B the ova were exposed to a dosage approximately equal to
40 times that used in series A. The dose was equivalent to 27,400,000
ergs/cm’. This exposure for dish I (wave length 3022 A) was ap-
proximately equivalent to 12 hours of noonday, midsummer sun at
Washington, D. C.

For this test, a mixed culture of Toxvocara and Toxascaris ova was
dried in the bottom of 50-mm culture dishes for 10 minutes. After the
eggs had dried on the bottom of the culture dish, water was added to
the dish to a depth of 2 mm. This prevented drying of the culture
during the period of irradiation. An area equivalent to the light aper-
ture, or 5 by 30 mm, was marked off on the bottom of each culture
dish with a diamond point and the eggs within that area were exposed
to the ultraviolet light. Eggs without this area were not exposed and
were used as controls. After exposure of the eggs, formalin was added
to the culture dishes to provide a concentration of I per cent in order
to prevent bacterial growth in the cultures. Temperatures during de-
velopment of the cultures ranged between 29° and 30° C. Counts were
made nine days after irradiation ; 200 ova were taken in each count.
The results of the experiment are recorded in table 2.

In only one case was there any apparent toxic effect from the ultra-
violet irradiation in series B. In dish I (wave length 3022 A) there
resulted a marked lethal effect on the ova of both Toxocara canis and
Toxascaris leonina, although the effect was most marked on the ova of
the latter species. Of the ova exposed at this wave length, 24.5 per
cent of the irradiated Toxocara eggs developed to embryonation, where-

6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

as 58.5 per cent of the control eggs became embryonated. Only 8 per
cent of the irradiated Tovrascaris eggs developed, whereas 29 per cent
of the control eggs became embryonated. A slight toxic effect may
have been exerted on the ova exposed in dish 2 (wave length 3130 A),
although reference to the series C experiment would seem to indicate
that the differences noted above are probably due to chance variation
in the counts.

TABLE 2.—Results of Exposure of Ova of Toxocara canis and Toxascaris leonina
to Ultraviolet Light

Series B—Exposed on June 5, 1934
Dosage—27,400,000 ergs/cm?2

Percentage embryonated

Bar
fo)
J - Date
N . Wave EES ISSUERS of Toxocara Toxascaris
dish length count
Hours |Minutes a Control trad Control
A 1934
3022 4 ae June 14 24.5 58.5 8.0 29.0
2 3130 I 57" | June 14 43-5 51.0 22.5 30.0
g 3650 A 48 June 14 56.5 51.0 28.5 30.0
8 7 percent overdose.
SERIES C

In series C irradiation of Toxocara and Toxascaris ova with ultra-
violet light was prolonged to the time indicated in table 3. The dosage
used was approximately five times that employed in series B, and
amounted to 137,000,000 ergs/cm’. For dish 1 (wave length 3022 A)
the exposure utilized was approximately equivalent to 60 hours of
noonday, midsummer sun at Washington, D. C., or 12 days of July
sunlight.

The method of exposure used in series B was found unsatisfactory
from the standpoint of making microscopic counts. Owing to the long
exposure in series C, it was necessary to devise a more suitable method
of irradiating the eggs so that drying would be prevented. There were
constructed small glass dishes 5 mm wide, 30 mm long, and 5 mm high,
the first two measurements representing the size of the area over which
the light was dispersed from the aperture. A mixed culture of Toxo-
cara and Toxascaris eggs was placed in the dishes and water added to
a depth of approximately 3 mm. As evaporation proceeded during the
course of irradiation, more water was added to prevent drying of
the eggs.

NO. I IRRADIATED ASCARID OVA—-WRIGHT AND McALISTER 7

A number of eggs sufficient to cover only the bottom of the dish was
used in order to prevent any overlapping and shadowing of eggs from
the ultraviolet light. After irradiation the eggs were transferred by
means of a clean pipette to culture dishes containing a 1 per cent
solution of formalin. As a control, a culture was made in 1 per cent
formalin on the same date as the first irradiation exposure and was
subjected to the same conditions of development as were the irradiated
cultures. Temperatures during the period of development varied be-
tween 30° and 35° C., as recorded on a thermograph chart. Table 3
gives the results of this experiment. In this series 400 ova were taken
for each count.

TABLE 3.—Results of Exposure of Ova of Toxocara canis and Toxascaris leonina
to Ultraviolet Light

Series C—Exposed July 16, 18 and 20, 1934
Dosage—1I 37,000,000 ergs/cm?2

Warstion Percentage embryonated
No. fo}
Wave Date Date
a length esol IRS of of Toxocara Toxascaris
exposure count :
!
Hours |Minutes Irradiated | Control | Irradiated | Control
A 1934 1934
Tn gO22 20 ste July 16 | July 27 20.5 65-5 1.5 42.0
2553130 9 10 | July 20 | July 31 63.5 65.5 29).7.5) || 42-0
3650 4 if July 18 | July 28 | 63.0 65.5 46.5 42.0

It will be noted that the exposure to ultraviolet light at a wave length _
of 3022 A was the only exposure which produced any apparent toxic
effect on the eggs of either species. The counts indicated that only 20.5
per cent of the irradiated Toxocara ova reached embryonation as com-
pared with 65.5 per cent of the eggs embryonated in the control culture,
and only 1.5 per cent of the irradiated Toxascaris ova became em-
bryonated as compared with 42 per cent of the eggs embryonated in
the control culture.

In this experiment the irradiated and control cultures were examined
daily under the microscope. A careful check was made on the develop-
ment of the cultures in an effort to determine whether there was any
lag in development in those ova which actually started to segment. No
such lag in development was noted. Those ova which segmented ap-
parently began segmentation as promptly as did nonirradiated ova in
the control culture.

8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

The radiotoxic effect on the ova of both species was exhibited in
different ways. On the ova of both Torocara and Toxascaris it was
apparent in some cases that the ultraviolet light had some direct and
undelayed lethal effect, inasmuch as many eggs never underwent any
cleavage. On the other hand, some of the ova of both species developed
in part until development was definitely arrested. In order to check
on this point, the culture in dish 1 (wave length 3022 A) was re-
counted at the expiration of 21 days in an effort to determine whether
any ova which were in intermediate stages of development at the time
of the first count, 11 days after exposure, had completed their develop-
ment. It was found that none of the ova which were partially developed
at the time of the first count had completed their development at the
time of the second count 10 days later. It would appear that such ova
had been definitely and permanently arrested in development, a cir-
cumstance which agrees with the results obtained by Stevens (1909),
who believed that such ova may be said to be paralyzed to such an
extent that they are unable to initiate any further mitosis.

In some of the ova arrested in the course of development it was
apparent that cleavage had proceeded normally up to a certain point.
On the other hand, all sorts of irregularities were noted in the develop-
mental stages of some of these eggs. These irregularities were most
frequent in Toxocara ova. In some the cytoplasm was apparently
degenerated and was distributed in various areas within the shell. In
other ova the cytoplasm contained large vacuoles. Irregularities and
abnormalities in blastulation and gastrulation were marked. Some of
the Toxocara ova contained partly formed embryos, the unformed
remainders of which were composed of undifferentiated and irregularly
formed masses of cells. In some of the eggs the first somatic stem
cell failed to develop, whereas the first germinal stem cell divided
many times. In other eggs the first germinal stem cell developed only
partly. In most of the Tosxascaris ova that showed development it
would appear that segmentation proceeded normally up to the 8- to
16-cell stage, at which stage it was definitely arrested. Development
in none of these ova proceeded to the blastula or gastrula stage, except
in a very few eggs which actually reached embryonation. In all ova
of both species which became embryonated, the larvae appear to have
ensheathed normally.

In order to determine the infectivity of embryos which developed
in the irradiated ova, on August II, 1934, the three cultures irradiated
in series C were each fed to a young albino rat; at the same time the
control culture was fed to a rat from the same litter. The rat which
received the control culture gave birth to a litter of 10 young on August

IN(ORe gE IRRADIATED ASCARID OVA——-WRIGHT AND McALISTER 9

17, 1934. As it was desired to raise this litter, the animal was not
killed. The three other rats were killed on August 17, 18, and 21, 1934,
respectively. Ascarid larvae were recovered from the liver and lungs
of each of the three animals. All of these larvae proved to be those
of Toxocara canis. Failure to recover Toxascaris larvae from the rats
was not unexpected, as only a very limited supply of To.xascaris leonina
ova was available at the start of the experiment and the cultures con-
tained only a relatively few ova of this species. Failure to recover
larvae is therefore not regarded as definite evidence that the embryos
within the ova were not infective.

In all of the experiments in which any radiotoxic effect was noted
from ultraviolet irradiation, Toxascaris eggs appeared to be the most
severely affected by the exposure. In series C, the lethal effect ap-
parently resulted in a definite killing of the ova without any segmen-
tation, or in an arrest in development during the early stages of seg-
mentation. In no case did Toxascaris eggs which were arrested in
development reach the blastula or gastrula stages. This is in contrast
to the effect on Toxocara ova in which blastulation or gastrulation,
even though abnormal, was reached in some cases. It would appear
that the more marked radiotoxicity on the eggs of Toxrascaris may be
associated with the smooth, rather clear, nonmammillated shell of
these eggs, in contradistinction to the mosaically formed, mammillated,
more darkly pigmented shell of Toxocara. It is believed that the
mosaic pattern of the shell of this species of egg would tend to diffuse
the ultraviolet rays and that the deeper pigmentation of these eggs
would be responsible for some absorption of the ultraviolet spectrum
before the rays had had an opportunity to reach the cytoplasm or
nucleus of the egg.

CORRELATION OF PRESENT RESULTS WITH PREVIOUS
INVESTIGATIONS

A number of investigators have reported on the effect of exposing
the ova of various species of ascarids to sunlight. Ross (1916) re-
ported that the eggs of the human ascarid, Ascaris lumbricoides, de-
veloped and remained alive when kept for 6 weeks on glass slides in
the direct sunlight in India; Ross was of the opinion that a relatively
high humidity was not essential for the development of the eggs.
Ross’s observation is at variance with the results obtained by Mana-
lang (1927), who found that human ascarid eggs on glass slides were
all dead after 14 hours’ exposure to the direct sunlight in the Philip-
pines, although such eggs resisted an exposure of one-half hour. How-
ever, Ohba (1926) reported that ascarid eggs in water cultures in

IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

direct sunlight continued to develop. Brown (1927) exposed the eggs
of A. lumbricoides to direct sunlight in Panama by placing them in
sand, and after a period of 21 days of such exposure it was found that
all of the ova had degenerated. Brown considered that the destruction
of the ova was due to two factors, viz, high temperature and desic-
cation. Soil temperatures in the sand cultures were found to reach at
least 123° F., which appears to be above the lethal range of heat for
ova of this species. Caldwell and Caldwell (1928) exposed fecal-soil
cultures of the ova of the human and pig ascarids to sunlight in Ala-
bama, and after a period of 3 days’ exposure, the ova in all cultures
were disintegrated. The maximum temperature recorded in the cul-
tures was 146° F. These investigators place great emphasis on
desiccation as the chief lethal factor involved, inasmuch as cultures
moistened at hourly intervals while exposed to sunlight showed little
disintegration of the ova of the pig ascarid ; ova of the human ascarid
showed less resistance. Otto (1929) reported that eggs of the human
ascarid developed and remained alive over the summer of 1928 on the
surface of clay, loam, sand, and cinder-loam soils in the shade in south-
western Virginia. Many of the eggs on the first three soils in the sun
died rapidly, but after 160 days about one-fourth of the eggs isolated
were still alive, whereas most of those on cinders in the sun died before
becoming embryonated. The high temperatures recorded on the surface
of the cinders lead the author to conclude that temperature played an
important part in the death of these eggs.

Apparently, Owen (1930) is the only investigator to observe the
effect of sunlight on the ova of Toxocara canis. Owen exposed the ova
of this species to summer sunlight in Kentucky and Minnesota and
found that such ova disintegrated before reaching the infective stage.
A surface-soil temperature of 131.9° F. was obtained on the plots of
soil on which the eggs were exposed. Owen was of the opinion that
the failure of the eggs to develop was due to the high temperature.

Schwartz (1932) reported that ova of Ascaris vitulorum did not
survive exposure on glass slides to 1 hour’s direct sunlight in the
Philippines. Eggs exposed in beakers of water also failed to survive
after 1 hour of direct sunlight. Schwartz then exposed ova in vials
painted with India ink to exclude light. An exposure of I hour in
sunlight was lethal to ova in painted and unpainted vials, and Schwartz
thus attributed the death of the ova to the temperature, which reached
asec,

Ohba’s negative results from exposure of ascarid ova to sunlight
are difficult to interpret in the light of our irradiation tests, as the
length of exposure is not stated in the English summary of Ohba’s

NO: I IRRADIATED ASCARID OVA—-WRIGHT AND McALISTER Mail

paper. Regardless of these negative results, it is apparent from our
tests that sunlight, through the ultraviolet spectrum at wave lengths
of approximately 3022 A, does exert a definite radiotoxic effect on
ascarid ova. However, owing to the relatively long exposures necessary
for the development of this lethal effect, it appears probable from a
practical standpoint that other factors, such as desiccation or high
temperatures, exert a more destructive action on these ova. In humid,
tropical climates, however, ultraviolet light probably does serve in
some measure in preventing the development of such ascarid ova as
are directly exposed to sunlight.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Irradiation of the ova of Toxocara canis and Toxascaris leonina at
measured wave lengths from a quartz monochromator and quartz
mercury arc resulted in a certain degree of radiotoxicity to the ova
exposed at certain wave lengths.

A dosage of 684,000 ergs/cm’* at wave lengths of 2652 and 2804 A
had a marked lethal effect on the ova of Toxascaris leonina but ap-
parently no effect on the ova of Toxocara canis. A similar dosage at
wave lengths of 2967, 3022, 3130, and 3650 A was without effect on
the ova of either species.

A dosage of 27,400,000 ergs/cm’ at a wave length of 3022 A re-
sulted in definite radiotoxicity on the ova of both species of ascarids.
Exposures to the same dosage at wave lengths of 3130 and 3650A
showed no effect.

A dosage of 137,000,000 ergs/cm* at a wave length of 3022 A
showed a marked lethal effect on the ova of both species. In the case
of Toxocara, only 20.5 per cent of the irradiated ova developed to
embryonation as compared with 65.5 per cent embryonation in the
control culture; only 1.5 per cent of the Toxascaris ova reached
embryonation as against 42.0 per cent embryonation in the control
culture. The dosage employed was approximately equivalent to an
exposure of 60 hours noonday, midsummer sun at Washington, D. C.,
or 12 days of average July sunlight.

In all of these tests, the ova of Toxascaris leonina proved more
susceptible to the action of ultraviolet light than did the ova of Toxo-
cara canis. This difference is probably accounted for by the difference
in structure and pigmentation of the shell; the mosaically patterned,
mamumillated, darkly pigmented shell of To.ocara ova would appear to
disperse and to absorb more light than does the clear, unmammillated,
lightly pigmented shell of Tosxascaris ova.

[2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Although the marked lethal effect of sunlight on ascarid ova, as
reported by several workers, is probably due chiefly to desiccation and
high temperatures, it would appear that the ultraviolet spectrum is in
itself a factor under certain conditions in the destruction of such ova.

LITERATURE CITED

Brackett, F. S., and McAuister, E. D.

1932. A spectrophotometric development for biological and photochemical
investigations. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 87, no. 12, pp. I-7,
Sept. 26.

Brown, Harotp W.

1927. Studies on the rates of development and viability of the eggs of
Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura under field conditions.
Journ. Parasitol., vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 1-15, Sept.

CALDWELL, FRED C., and Errrepa L.

1928. Preliminary report on observations on the development of ova of
pig and human Ascaris under natural conditions, and studies of
factors influencing development. Journ. Parasitol., vol. 14, no. 4,
pp. 254-260, June.

CosLENTz, W. W., and Stair, R.

1931. Measurements of extreme ultra-violet solar radiation using a filter

method. Bur. Standards Journ. Res., vol. 6, no. 6, pp. 951-976, June.
HeErvTet, EF.

1904. Uber die Beeinflussung des Organismus durch Licht, speziell durch die
chemisch wirksamen Strahlen. Zeitschr. allg. Physiol., vol. 4, pp.
1-43.

MANALANG, C.

1927. Observations on the development of Ascaris ova. Philippine Journ.

Sci., vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 249-255, July.
Notr, L. O.

1932. Experimental studies on certain factors influencing the development
and viability of the ova of the human Trichuris as compared with
those of the human Ascaris. Amer. Journ. Hyg., vol. 16, no. I, pp.
288-322, July.

Ounsa, T.

1926. On the growth of the eggs of Ascaris lumbricoides. Japanese Journ.

Zool., vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 121-122, Mar. 31.
Orro, G. F.

1929. A study of the moisture requirements of the eggs of the horse, the
dog, human and pig ascarids. Amer. Journ. Hyg., vol. I0, no. 2,
Pp. 521-525, Sept.

OweEN, WILLIAM B.

1930. Factors that influence the development and survival of the ova of an
ascarid roundworm Tovocara caiis (Werner, 1782) Stiles, 1905,
under field conditions. Univ. Minnesota Agr. Exp. Sta., Techn.
Bull. 71, pp. 1-25, Sept.

Ross, RoNALD. :

1916. The life history of Ascaris lumbricoides. (Letter to Editor, dated

July 1.) British Med. Journ., vol. 2, no. 2807, pp. 60-61, July 8.

NOS I IRRADIATED ASCARID OVA—WRIGHT AND McALISTER 13

Ruppert, W.
1924. Empfindlichkeitsanderungen des Ascariseies auf verschiedenen Stadien
der Entwicklung gegeniiber der Einwirkung ultravioletter Strahlen.
Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., vol. 123, no. 1, pp. 103-155, June 2.
ScHLEIP, W.
1923. Die Wirkung des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die morphologischen
Bestanteile des Ascariseies. Arch. Zellforsch., vol. 17, no. 3, pp.
289-366, Aug. Io.
ScHwartz, BENJAMIN.
1922. Observations on the life history of Ascaris vitulorum, a parasite of
bovines in the Philippine Islands. Preliminary paper. Philippine
Journ. Sci., vol. 20, no. 6, pp. 663-669, June.
SEIDE, JAKOB.
1925. Zur Kenntnis der biologischen Strahlenwirkung. Untersuchungen am
Ascaris-Ei mit ultravioletten, Rontgen-und Radiumstrahlen. Zeit-
schr. wiss. Zool., vol. 124, no. 2, pp. 252-304.
Stevens, N. M.
1909. The effect of ultra-violet light upon the developing eggs of Ascaris
megalocephala, Arch. Entwicklungsmech. der Organismen, vol. 27,
no. 4, pp. 622-639, June 15.
TSCHACHOTIN, SERGEI.
1912. Die mikroskopische Strahlenstich Methode eine Zelloperations-
methode. (Vorlaufige Mitteilung.) Biol. Centralbl., vol. 32, no. 10,
pp. 623-630, Oct. 20.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 93, NUMBER 2

MUD SHRIMPS OF THE ATLANTIC
COAST OF NORTH AMERICA

(Wir Four PLATEs)

BY
WALDO L. SCHMITT

Curator, Division of Marine Invertebrates,
U.S. National Museum

(PUBLICATION 3292)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
FEBRUARY 15, 1935

The Lord Galtimore Press

BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8S. As

MUD SHRIMPS OF THE ATLANTIC COAST OF
NORTH AMERICA

By WALDO L. SCHMITT
Curator, Division of Marine Invertebrates, U. S. National Museum

(Witu Four Piates)

Except for the comprehensive and invaluable papers of de Man,’
and the exceedingly useful, though less exhaustive, account of Bor-
radaile,’ there is for American workers no readily available taxonomic
information concerning the several species of Callianassa occurring on
the Atlantic coast of North America. To fill this need in part at least,
these brief notes and diagnostic key have been compiled. To render
them as complete as possible at this time, it has been found necessary
to describe three new species, together with a new variety of one of
them, and to propose a new name for a specimen that had been assigned
to an old, inadequately described species, which to this day has not been
certainly rediscovered :

Page
Galhanassan(Gallichivus) aslagrande ence aes cect oe ase elas aleve ey ifs
TOREOTEE TD Ge Oo. BED Toa cle SOC ncn cs POO EE ye)
jamaicense vat. lowisianensis............+..+- 4, 12
ANANTH OEM te ey CER ofc. OCC COG ODIO CTD GCOS Als its
hartmeyeri, new name for
Glypturus grandimanus Balss.............. 4

It is possible also to report a new record of occurrence in Jamaica
for Callianassa (Callichirus) longiventris, a species not heretofore
seen since the original types were described by A. Milne-Edwards
from Martinique.

Moreover, in the light of the studies contributory to this paper,
Stimpson’s genus Glypturus appears no longer tenable, and its unique
species therefore reverts to the genus Callianassa.

* A contribution to the knowledge of twenty-two species and three varieties
of the genus Callianassa Leach. Capita Zoologica, vol. 2, pt. 6, pp. 1-56, pls.
I-12, 1928.

The Thalassinidae and Callianassidae collected by the Siboga-Expedition with
some remarks on the Laomediidae. Siboga-Exped. Monogr. 39a°, pp. 1-187, pls.
I-20, 1928.

*On the classification of the Thalassinidea. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 7,
vol. 12, pp. 534-551, 1903.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 98, No. 2

2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

A word of appreciation is here extended to some of the students and
staff of the Biological Laboratory of the Louisiana State University
at Grand Isle, La.; in particular, Dr. Ellinor H. Behre, Director, and
William W. Anderson, a student of several summers ago, whose in-
dustry first brought to my attention specimens of two undescribed
species found at Grand Isle, in the determination of which the other
information here presented was brought together. I also wish to thank,
among others, Drs. E. A. Andrews, of Johns Hopkins University ;
C. B. Wilson, of the State Teachers College at Westfield, Mass. ; and
A. S. Pearse, of Duke University, Durham, N. C. who have con-
tributed specimens of Callianassas to the collections of the United
States National Museum.

Three west Atlantic species are not included in the key given
below:

(1.) Callianassa grandimana Gibbes (Proc. 3d. Meet. Amer. Assoc.
Adv. Sci., p. 194, 1850. Type locality, Key West). Many attempts
have been made to establish this species, regrettably so briefly described
by its author. The species to which it seems to stand nearest is C.
branneri (Rathbun). Of this latter species I have the greater part of
several large specimens taken by Dr. A. S. Pearse on Long Key, Dry
Tortugas, Fla., out in the Gulf of Mexico, roughly 60 miles due west
of Key West, the type locality of C. grandimana, but until we know
more of the Callianassas of our southern States we should refrain from
making use of Gibbes’ specific name. Balss some time ago assigned a
specimen from Kingston, Jamaica, to C. grandimana, but the very
spiny armature of the ventral border of the ischium and merus of the
larger cheliped of this specimen definitely precludes any such identity.
The ischium of C. grandimana, second segment of Gibbes,’ has “ dis-
tant granules on its lower edge,” and the merus, “ the third segment [, |
is broader, dilated so as to form below a sharp serrated edge, which is
truncated as it approaches the posterior articulation.” Balss’ specimen,
moreover, shows a prominently trispinose front ; Gibbes says nothing
on this score, but I do believe if the front had been different in any
marked degree from that of C. major he would have made some com-
ment to that effect ; his observations, so far as they have been checked,
have always been proved accurate. His fault was brevity of descrip-

*De Man, Capita Zoologica, vol. 2, pt. 6, p. 19, 1928, does say that Gibbes did
not describe the merus and ischium, but in the very relations of the several joints
of the major cheliped as set forth by Gibbes, the second and third joints are none
other than those particular joints; the shape ascribed by him to each of them
makes their identification unmistakable.

NO. 2 MUD SHRIMPS—SCHMITT 3

tion. Just recently his Squilla neglecta, characterized in remarkably
few words, has been found again and recognized without difficulty.’
The front of his grandimana surely cannot be very different from that
of C. major or very unlike that of C. branneri. That several authors
have assumed that C. grandimana had a trispinose front seems to be
due to a mistaken impression based on Stimpson’s passing comparison
of the description, not specimens, of Gibbes’ species with his Glypturus
acanthochirus. De Man was well aware that Stimpson, as he says, had
never seen the Gibbes species, yet he, too, without any good reason,
was moved to consider that it might be related to the trispinose C.
longiventris. For Balss’ species the name of the collector, Dr. R. Hart-
meyer, is proposed: Callianassa hartmeyeri.

(2.) Callianassa siguanensis (Boone). (Glypturus siguanensis,
Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll., vol. 1, art. 2, p. 85, fig. 17, 1927. Type
locality, Siguanea Bay, Isle of Pines.) This species would key out
below with C. branneri (p. 4, below). For want of evidence other
than that given by the author I am inclined to consider it identical
with this last-named species.

(3.) Callianassa occidentalis Bate (Rept. Challenger Macrura, p.
29, pl. 2, fig. 2k, 1888. Type locality, off Sombrero Island). Only the
larger left cheliped is known, so the species ( ?) cannot be satisfactorily
keyed out ; moreover, it may even be the cheliped of a larger specimen
of the “ Cheramus ” occidentalis of the same author noted in the key
below (II. A., p. 5), a considerably mutilated specimen lacking the
chelipeds.

KEY TO SPECIES OF CALLIANASSA

I. Telson broader than long, third maxillipeds more or less broad and flattened,
especially ischium and merus, and often the propodus too.
A. Lateral angles or projections of front not spined.
1. Inner uropods narrow, about four times as long as broad, styliform or
straplike; rostral projection low, blunt, or rounded triangular.

a. Carpus of larger cheliped more than four times as long as its great-
est width; merus with a shallow projection or low granulated
tooth on ventral border; ischium with a long, prominent hooked
tooth or spine near middle of ventral border... .islagrandce, n. sp.

b. Carpus less than three times as long as wide; merus with strong
tooth near proximal end of lower border; ischium not known
(North Carolia toniiorida)c2 ssc ceists + 6 ses'ei ss ele « major Say.”

*“Lunz, G. Robert, Jr., Charleston [S. C.] Museum, Leaflet No. 5, pp. 1-8,
1933.

*Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 1, pt. 2, p. 238, 1818; de Man,
Capita Zoologica, vol. 2, pt. 6, p. 30; pl. 7, fig. 14-14b; pl. 8, fig. 14c-14d, 1928.

4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

2. Inner uropods wider, either (a) about twice as long as wide or (b)
not much longer than wide.

a. Inner uropods about twice as long as greatest width; rostrum a
conical acuminate spine.

i. Merus of larger cheliped armed with a toothlike process near
proximal end of ventral border; upper border of carpus about
as long or longer than upper border of palm. . jamaicense, n. sp.

ii. Merus unarmed below; upper border of carpus not exceeding
three-fourths the length of upper palmar border (Puerto Rico
and:Batbados)s aces sscmuctansm one ae marginata Rathbun.°

b. Inner uropods not much longer than wide; rostrum low, triangu-
lar, subacute, or rounded off.

i. Merus of larger cheliped armed with a strong tooth near proxi-
mal end of lower border; upper border of carpus three-fourths
or more the length of the upper palmar border (Massachusetts
tom Nonthe Carolina) aseriscereeeee cies atlantica Rathbun."

ii. Merus inconspicuously serrate or denticulate, but without strong
tooth below; carpus from a half to two-thirds as long as upper
border of palm (Brazil, Bermuda, Puerto Rico, Barbados, and
the Dry, dortugas, Plorida)). esses branneri Rathbun.*

B. Frontal margin trispinose.

1. Both chelae armed with three strong spines above; upper border of
carpus three-fourths the length of the palmar border; carpus
strongly spined on lower border, merus spined above and below
(Hloridasamaicas Barbados) meee acanthochirus Stimpson.*

2. Chelae not armed with strong spines above.

a. Eyestalks flattened, cornea on dorsal surface ; merus of larger cheli-
ped multidenticulate below, of minor cheliped unarmed; upper
border of carpus of larger cheliped less than half the length of
thesupper palmar bordeGeesane see cece tes rathbunae, n. sp.

b. Eyestalks subcylindrical, cornea terminal or nearly so.

i. Merus of large cheliped with more than five spines on ventral
border, of minor cheliped unarmed; upper border of major
carpus less than half as long as upper palmar border (Mar-
tiniquesand Jamaica) aemeceeteeeee longiventris A. M.-Edw.”

ii. Merus of large cheliped with four or less spines below, of minor
cheliped with one or two; upper border of major carpus more
than half the length of the upper palmar border (Jamaica).

hartmeyeri, new name.”

® Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1900, p. 92, fig. 15a-d, I90T.

7™U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 138, p. 107, footnote, 1926; C. sttmpsont Smith, Rep.
U. S. Fish Comm. for 187, p. 549, pl. 2, fig. 8, 1873; de Man, Capita Zoologica,
vol. 2, pt. 6, p. 37, pl. 9, figs. 17, 17d, 1928.

§ Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., vol. 2, p. 150, pl. 8, figs. 5-8, 1900.

> Glypturus a., Ann. Lyceum Nat. Hist. New York, vol. 10, nos. 4, 5, p. 121,
1871.

” Nouv. Arch. Mus. Mem., vol. 6, p. 92, 1870. De Man, Capita Zoologica,
vol. 2, pt. 6, p. 24, pl. 6, figs. 12, 12h, 1928.

4 Glypturus grandimanus Balss, Zool. Anz., vol. 61, p. 179, 1924.

NO. 2 MUD SHRIMPS—SCH MITT 5

II. Telson longer than broad; third maxillipeds narrow; frontal margin without
lateral spines; eyestalks flattened, cornea dorsal or lateral; inner uropods
less than twice as long as wide.

A. Telson with a pair of spines on the posterior half of either lateral margin,
and a spine at middle of posterior margin; rostrum a little shorter than
the eyestalks; chelipeds and external maxillipeds unknown (off Som-
(ARES VIG) cially Lier ae Se ear A een a a batei Borradaile.”

B. Telson laterally with several spinules, posteriorly unarmed; upper border
of carpus less than half as long as upper palmar border ; rostrum longer
than eyestalks; external maxillipeds narrow (Puerto Rico).

minima Rathbun.”

CALLIANASSA (CALLICHIRUS) ISLAGRANDE, n. sp.

A distinctive species. Lineae thalassinicae distinct ; cervical groove
crosses the carapace at nearly one-fourth the length of the carapace
from the hinder margin. Rostral projection of front low triangular,
extending forward beyond the level of the blunt, inconspicuous lateral
projections by about one-fourth or one-fifth its width measured be-
tween those projections; the rostrum reaches forward less than one-
third the length of the eyestalks, and these in turn reach between one-
fourth to one-third the length of the second segment of the antennular
peduncle.

The eyestalks are dark brown, with black corneae, and are about
twice as long as broad ; their terminal one-third to two-fifths are each
drawn out into a slender spine slightly curved upward, and with the
tip very slightly exerted ; inner borders of eyestalks contiguous to about
the level of the anterior margins of the corneae ; the latter are opposite
the distal end of the second segment of the antennal peduncle. Fourth
segment of the antennal and second segment of the antennular
peduncles reach about equally far forward; fifth or terminal segment
of antennal peduncle reaches about two-fifths the length of the distal
segment of the antennular peduncle.

Right cheliped of male much the larger; remarkably long and
slender, quite the most striking character of this species; the carpus
exceeds a little the propodus plus the dactyl, even when the latter is
extended straight forward ; carpus and palm about equally wide ; carpus
nearly four and one-half times as long as its greatest width; palm
shorter, measured on the upper margin, about three and one-half times

® Ann. Mag. Hist., ser. 7, vol. 12, p. 546, 1903. Cheramus occidentalis Bate,
Rept. Challenger Macrura, p. 32, pl. 2, fig. 1, 1888. Callianassa batei de Man,
Capita Zoologica, vol. 2, pt. 6, p. 10, pl. 1, fig. 3, 1928.

18 Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1900, p. 92, fig. 16a-d, 190T.

6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

as long as wide; merus about four-sevenths the length of carpus;
ischium a little longer than merus and about two-thirds the length of
carpus.

Ischium granulated with low, rounded, “ pearly ” granules on both
faces, more sparsely on outer than inner faces, forming a denticulated
inferior margin; upper margin evenly concave, longitudinally deeply
grooved; upper part of outer face of joint, including outer ridge,
forming dorsal groove without granules, smooth and shining; inner
face of ischium more heavily granulated than outer; just before the
middle of its length there is a long, prominent, well-granulated tooth
on the lower margin of the ischium, a tooth about as long as the
ischium is wide.

Upper margin of merus unevenly and shallowly concave in lateral
view ; at about the posterior third of its ventral margin is a low granu-
lated tooth, appearing to be made up of sharper, more prominent and
more crowded granules than those ornamenting the sides of the
ischium ; upper border longitudinally grooved like ischium ; outer ridge
forming groove also very smooth.

The carpus is approximately parallel-margined, though finding its
greatest width at about the distal end of the proximal three-sevenths ;
it is smooth and shining on inner and outer faces but finely denticulate
on the upper margin for the greater part of its length, the denticles
becoming obsolescent close to its posterior extremity ; lower margin of
carpus keeled, keel less conspicuous and more or less replaced by
rather widely separated denticles or granules in anterior four-sevenths
and also obscurely so at the hinder angle.

Palm, like carpus, smooth and shining on lateral faces, upper margin
on inside very finely denticulate, lower keeled, keel smooth; on either
side of keel there are tufts of long hairs, toward lower edge of palm
the hair tufts are roughly alternate on either side of this keel; along
the outer side of the keel from proximal end to tip of fixed finger there
may be counted about eight tufts, on inner side eleven, the last five of
which are more on the “ ventral’ surface of the finger, for here the
keel seems to become less distinct anteriorly and the finger is a bit
flattened below on the inner side of the palm; the keel of the lower
margin is paralleled by a row of denticles for a little more than its
distal half, denticles disappearing on the inner, lower margin of the
finger where a blunt keel takes their place; the last hair tuft just below
the extreme tip of the movable finger is elongate and more bushy than
the other tufts.

The movable finger for the greater part is gently bowed, but at the
far end is abruptly hooked; below, it is armed proximally with a

————————

NO. 2 MUD SHRIMPS—SCH MITT 7.

prominent blunt tooth, and anterior to it, with two blunt denticles ;
distally on the outer, upper border of the terminal hook of the movable
finger there is a conspicuous blunt right-angled tooth topped with a
thick tuft of hair. This upper, outer tooth on the movable finger makes
the digit appear terminally bifurcate ; the tooth seems to be a feature
characteristic of this species alone ; on the upper margin near the base
of the tooth is a blunt tuberculiform tooth, and beginning a little
distance behind this on the inner side of the upper margin of the finger,
a row of low tubercles, about seven in the type; they seem not to be
developed in smaller specimens ; the fixed finger arises some distance—
about half its length—behind the distal margin of the palm and forms
with the forward projection of the palm a deep sinus; the fingers,
when closed, have a large gape between them, half of which is formed
by the sinus just described ; the terminal portion of the movable finger
closes or hooks outside the tip of the fixed finger.

The smaller cheliped, as compared to the larger, is slight and thin,
carpus and propodus together being noticeably shorter than the carpus
alone of the larger cheliped ; the ischium is fairly straight, unarmed,
thin, and flat, a little longer than the merus, shorter than the carpus,
and a little shorter than the chela to the tips of the fingers when closed ;
from its hinder border the carpus narrows anteriorly in lateral aspect,
likewise the hand to the tips of the fingers ; measured to the tip of the
extended movable finger, the hand and carpus are subequal ; measured
at the middle of its length, the width of the carpus is contained twice
in the length of its upper border; the palm, measured from the base
of the sinus between the fingers, is longer than wide and longer than
the fixed finger measured from the same point, but equal to the
movable finger; all joints of the cheliped are smooth and shining ;
merus and carpus hairy on lower margins, palm thickly so on both
margins, fingers on outer surface face adjacent to prehensile edges
provided with a thick felt or pad of hairs; prehensile edge of either
finger denticulated, armed with about 15 small, sharp, triangular teeth,
of which the most anterior are rather small; distal fourth of either
prehensile edge or margin more or less without teeth.

The inner face of the ischium of the third maxilliped (pl. 3, fig. 2)
shows a short crescentic row of tiny granulations, scarcely to be ob-
served with a glass in a wet specimen; continuing the curve of the
crescent formed by not over a dozen of these granulations is a slight
ridge, set off by no more than an incised line beside it, which extends
about three-fourths the length of the joint.

The abdomen is soft, broad, and depressed ; the first two somites are
dorsally thin and membranous, the others are thicker and tougher,

8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

symmetrically grooved, and with the exception of the sixth, are orna-
mented on the epimeral region of either side with a pad or felt of hair.

The telson is about one and one-half times as wide as long, and a
little less than half as long as the sixth abdominal somite ; the telson and
the sixth somite are ornamented with hair tufts about as in C. major,
but otherwise the two are of very different shape. The telson of C. isla-
grande is truncate or more or less squared-off posteriorly, and but little
contracted anteriorly; medially there is a longitudinal, smoothly
rounded, raised area, but lower than the inflated lateral portions of
the dorsum of the telson, which is bounded laterally by bowed-out,
smooth grooves or depressions confluent behind but separating again
to pass either side of a rounded, raised area, the pushed-up median
portion of the hind border of the telson; the outer uropod is more or
less triangular with but gently convex posterior margin, the inner uro-
pod is narrow, tongue- or strap-shaped, distally rounded, and nearly
four times as long as wide.

In the useful key given by de Man™ our species would take place
alongside of C. major, having, like it, very narrow inner uropods,
about four times as long as broad, and, to use his expression, almost
styliform. However, the different eyestalks, the remarkably elongate
larger chela of the male, and the character of the telson sharply differ-
entiate C. islagrande from that species.

The females need no separate description ; their chelipeds are both
much like the minor cheliped of the males.

Type.—vU.S.N.M. no. 69362, the largest of 10 specimens (401, 62)
collected by William W. Anderson at Grand Isle, La., in the summer
of 1930. It is a male, measuring approximately (in millimeters) :
carapace 19 long, abdomen 62 exclusive of telson, telson 6 long by
8.5 wide. The larger right cheliped measures: ischium 21, merus 17,
carpus 30 (greatest width 6.5), hand on upper margin 19. The ex-
treme forward reach of the movable finger from the articulation to the
summit of the tooth on the upper outer margin of the finger measures
10; from articulation to tip this finger measures only 8.5. The smaller,
left cheliped measures: ischium 9; merus 8; carpus 11, width at middle
4.8; palm, upper margin 5, width at middle 3.5, lower margin to tip of
fixed finger 7.3; movable finger from articulation to tip 6.

I have also seen a lot of 10 females collected by Dr. Ellinor H. Behre
at the same place July 5-17, 1928, and a male taken July 15 of the
same year by Mr. Anderson.

* Siboga-Exped. Monogr. 39a’, p. iii, 1928.

NO. 2 MUD SHRIMPS—SCH MITT 9

CALLIANASSA JAMAICENSE, n. sp.

Lineae thalassinicae present; central dorsal “ oval’’ area bounded
posteriorly by the cervical groove, and delimited before by a trans-
verse groove behind the rostrum; cervical groove crosses the carapace
two-sevenths of the length of the carapace from its hinder margin ;
the groove crossing the carapace behind the rostrum is about one-
seventh the length of the carapace behind the tip of the rostrum; the
rostrum extends beyond a line joining the barely marked, obsolescent
lateral angles of the front by about half this distance. The rostrum is
a stout conical spine reaching about as far forward as the distal margin
of the cornea.

The eyestalks are contiguous throughout the extent of their inner
margins ; on the inner margin just in advance of the centrally placed
cornea there is the suggestion of a tubercle reminiscent of the one
described by Holmes” for his Lepidophthalmus, now Callianassa
(Callichirus) eiseni from Lower California, a species to which the
present one shows kinship, yet from which it may readily be dis-
tinguished by the proportions and armature of the major cheliped.
The eyestalks of C. jamaicense fall a little short of the first segment
of the antennular peduncle; the second segment of the antennular
peduncle is very little longer than the first measured from the orbital
margin of the carapace, and a little short of a third of the length of
the third segment; the terminal segment of the antennal peduncle
reaches the middle of the last segment of the antennular peduncle, the
fourth segment a little past the second of the antennular peduncle, and
the second antennal segment and the first or basal antennular segment
reach about equally far forward ; the antennal scale is represented by a
small, inconspicuous spine at the antero-lateral angle of the second
segment ; the first or basal segment reaches about to the middle of the
cornea ; as in all these Callianassas, the third segment of the antennal
peduncle in dorsal view scarcely appears to be more than an articulation
between the second and fourth segments of the normally five-seg-
mented peduncle; the third segment is for the most part behind and
hidden by the second segment.

The ischium of the larger right cheliped is nearly equal to the upper
border of the palm in length and a little (about one-fifth) shorter than
the merus ; upper border of merus a little longer than that of carpus;
merus about one and three-fourths times as long as its median width ;
carpus at middle of its length about as wide as length of upper border ;

= roe, California Acad! Sci, ser. 3; Zool., vol. 3, no. 12; p. 311; pl. 935; figs:
6-13, 1904.

Io SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

median width of palm and carpus equal; fixed finger measured from
the sinus at its base is three-fourths the length of the palm measured
back from the same point ; it is fairly long and ends in a stout conical
subacute tip, and a very low triangular tooth is situated about the
middle of its length.

The movable finger is nearly a third longer than the fixed one and
armed with three stout conical teeth, a blunt one near the base tending
to fit into a notch at the upper end of the base of the sinus between the
fingers ; the second and larger of the other two more pointed teeth is
placed just before the middle of the finger, and the third and smallest
is located about one-third the distance from the second tooth to the tip ;
the upper border of the movable finger is smoothly rounded off, but
toward the articulation is somewhat eroded-looking, two short grooves
and several pits appearing here; there is a low, conical, inconspicuous
tubercle, and perhaps a second lower one adjacent to it, just before the
articulation ; the fingers cross in such a way that the tip of the fixed
one closes between the anterior of the three teeth of the movable finger
and its hooked tip, and the two conical teeth of the upper finger bite
just before the triangular tooth of the lower margin.

On the outer face of the palm, more or less continuing the line of
the outer edge of the prehensile margin of the fixed finger back on to
the palm, is a well-marked, curved carina extending back nearly half
the length of the palm ; above this carina is a low, depressed, triangular
area; the anterior margin of the palm is armed with two blunt, for-
wardly directed teeth, one forming the outer side of the notch at
the upper end of the base of the sinus between the fingers and the
second placed laterally just below the articulation of the movable finger.
Lower border of the palm and movable finger somewhat cristate and
obscurely and bluntly serrate, rather, one might say, undulate, owing
to the insertion of hair tufts found there ; above the palm is more or less
carinate in its posterior two-thirds. The carpus is cristate above and
below, the anterior dorsal and ventral angles forming each a com-
pressed triangular tooth.

All joints are smooth and shining. The merus shows a blunt longi-
tudinal ridge on the outer face; the infero-proximal angle of this joint
is armed with a conspicuous, angled lobe or toothlike process ending
primarily in a stout, elongate, conical spine, on the inner hinder side
of which is a secondary, smaller, and somewhat curved spine; the
laminate lower margin of this joint 1s seven-toothed in its anterior
two-thirds, the first two flattened, the second of these obscurely
doubled, the following five placed on the anterior curve of the lower
margin more tuberculiform, though compressed; the upper margin

NO. 2 MUD SHRIMPS—-SCH MITT MIE

of the merus is interrupted close to the posterior end by a conspicuous
narrow U-shaped notch, at the upper extremities of which the dorsal
margin of the joint forms a blunt tubercle.

The ventral margin of the ischium is, beginning near the hinder end,
finely and for the greater part rather evenly denticulate, the denticles,
however, gradually increasing in size anteriorly, the last two or three
being larger, the last of these very large comparatively, and forming
rather a tuberculiform tooth almost half a millimeter long and distally
obscurely bilobed ; in advance of this tooth the lower margin is blunt-
ridged; above on the outer face, and shorter than the denticulated
portion of the lower margin of the ischium, is an obscure, blunt ridge.

When both chelipeds are moderately extended to about the same
degree, the fingers of the smaller reach scarcely half their length beyond
the distal margin of the carpus of the larger. The ischium is about as
long as the merus and a little longer than the carpus or upper margin
of palm, but only four-sevenths the length of the movable finger. The
upper margin of the dactylus is ridged and grooved, the prehensile
edges of both fingers are wide and somewhat hollowed out and the
movable one is furnished with two anteriorly converging lines of ob-
scure, small tubercles; the extreme tips are somewhat abruptly con-
stricted to form conical spinous tips so that there is apparently a blunt
tooth at the anterior extremity of the outer moiety of each fairly broad
prehensile edge ; when closed, the tips of the finger reach about equally
far forward; there is a sizable gape between them. The palm is
rounded above, cristate below, except on the distal half of the fixed
finger, carpus blunt above, cristate below, superior and inferior distal
angles subacute, merus blunt-ridged above and below; ischium blunt
above, with finely denticulate margin below; the ischium and merus
are about of the same length measured on the upper border, either a
little longer than the carpus, about one-third longer than the upper
border of the palm, and a little less than two-thirds the length of the
movable finger.

The inner face of the ischium of the third maxilliped (pl. 2, fig. 8)
carries a smooth, blunt, yet well-formed, carina wholly without spinous
armature, or tiny scalelike excrescences.

Telson somewhat rectangular, about one and one-third times as long
as wide, little less than half as long as the sixth somite. Posterior
margin three-lobed, shallow, median lobe occupying more than one-
third of the posterior margin, and the gently curved lateral angles
carried evenly and smoothly around to their respective sides to merge
with lateral margins of the telson; dorsal surface evenly convex in
both directions ; across the dorsum of the telson a little way before the

I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

base is a fine, sharply impressed line occupying more than half the
total width of the telson. Inner uropod narrow, a shade more than
twice as long as its greatest width measured on, and at right angles to,
the median axis drawn from articulation to apex of the blade. Basal
joint of uropod armed with a sharp, stout spine; there is a similar but
even longer spine near the proximal end of the inner border of the
outer uropod, forming with the blade a notch into which the outer
margin of the inner blade snugly fits.

Holotype-—U.S.N.M. no. 69363, male, taken from a brackish pond
at Montego Bay, Jamaica, by C. B. Wilson, June 29, 1910. It measures
(in millimeters) approximately 73 long, tip of rostrum to end of
telson ; somewhat broken carapace about 18+, abdomen and telson 55,
telson 6 long by 7.5 wide. Large chela, lower border of palm to tip
of fixed finger 21, upper border 13.5, dactylus 12.5, width of palm at
middle of length 12.5, upper border of carpus 12.5, width 12.5, upper
border of merus 13.7, ischium 11. Small chela, lower border of palm
to tip of fixed finger 16, upper border 6.1, dactylus 12.5, width 8.3,
carpus 7.2 long, width at middle of length 6.3, length of merus 8,
ischium 8.

A smaller specimen of about 61 mm in length, also from Montego
Bay, taken on June 24 of the same year by Dr. E. A. Andrews, likewise
from a salt-water pond, is like the type in all particulars, except in the
ventral armature of the merus of the large cheliped, which is five-
instead of seven-toothed toward the distal end of the joint. The fine,
sharply impressed line across the midportion of the base of the telson
is present, but does not extend as far to either side as in the type.

CALLIANASSA JAMAICENSE var. LOUISIANENSIS, n. var.

From Grand Isle, La., comes another specimen very similar to the
preceding, which I should almost have been tempted to describe as a
distinct species but for the fact that its larger right hand shows some
evidence, though slight, of having been injured. For the present at
least it had best be considered as no more than a varietal form. There
is only a single male specimen taken by Chenier Ronaville, July 18.
1928.

Type—vU.S.N.M. no. 69364. The description of the type of the
species proper as regards carapace, rostrum, and frontal appendages,
about fits the variety ; the eyestalks, however, have a very pronounced
tubercle on the inner margin, whereas only a suggestion of one was to
be seen in the type of the species. It was only mentioned in con-
nection with the type, because a very definite though small tubercle is

NO. 2 MUD SHRIMPS—SCH MITT 1033

visible in the only other specimen of the typical species at hand, also
from Montego Bay, Jamaica.

The major right cheliped does not differ much from that in the
typical species in the proportions of its joints and their armature ex-
cept in the fingers ; merus and carpus about subequal, measured on their
upper borders; merus about twice as long as its median width; fixed
finger from hind end of sinus between the fingers is one-half the
length of the palm measured back from the same point. The fixed
finger is short and strong and ends in a stout, conical, up-turned ex-
tremity and has a strong, blunt, tuberculiform tooth situated at about
one-third the length of the finger from the back of the sinus between
the fingers to the tip. The movable finger had the tip broken off before
capture and may have lost from a tenth to a fifth of its length, the part
remaining slightly exceeding in length the fixed finger. On the cutting
edge it is provided with two teeth, a stout conical one near the base
of the finger tending to fit into a notch at the upper end of the base
of the sinus between the fingers, and an anterior longitudinally elon-
gated laminate tooth; these teeth are so spaced that the tooth on the
fixed finger bites between them, while the tip of the fixed finger closes
in advance of the laminate tooth of the movable finger ; on the upper
margin of the movable finger is a single blunt tubercle, more con-
spicuous than either of the tubercles similarly placed in the type of the
species ; also in the variety the finger is smooth above and not eroded
toward the articulation; in the second of the typical specimens the
finger, again, is eroded and the tubercle inconspicuous.

Near the hinder end of the carina forming the posterior two-thirds
of the upper border of the palm there is a brief emargination, followed
by a small tooth; that this effect may have been brought about by an
injury is possible ; the conspicuous carina on the outer face of the palm
of the type of the species is here represented by an inconspicuous
impressed line perhaps two-sevenths the length of the palm in line
behind it ; no depressed area is evident above this line.

The antero-inferior angle of the carpus shows two tiny tuberculi-
form projections, one either side of a hair tuft at that angle.

The ventral margin of the merus, other than the two-spined lobe at
the posterior end, as in the type of the species, is unarmed except for
three compressed teeth near the anterior end of the middle third of
the margin; the merus of the smaller of the two typical specimens
closely resembles that of the varietal form, though it has five teeth in
place of the three just mentioned. Posteriorly, the upper margin of
the merus has a shallow emargination in place of the very definite
notch found in the typical specimens. The tooth at the anterior end of

14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

the denticulations arming the ventral margin of the ischium is larger
than that in the type of the typical species, being nearly half a milli-
meter long.

The smaller cheliped is not much different from that of the type of
the species proper, the fingers are more slender and the hand more
triangular ; the tip of the movable finger is also wanting.

The smooth, blunt ridge on the inner face of the ischium of the
third maxilliped (pl. 2, fig. 7) appears unarmed or unadorned ; only
by careful inspection, and then with a glass, can five little scales or
tiny, scarcely perceptible, well-separated, flattened spines be observed
in line on the proximal third of the ridge.

Next to the differences from the typical specimens in the large chela
and fingers, those found in the telson and the uropods are the most
marked. The telson is even more rectangular-appearing than that of
the type of the species, as the lateral angles are not so broadly rounded
and the hinder margin is more truncate or straight ; it is, however, like
that type in being about one and one-third times as wide as long, and
contained in the length of the sixth abdominal somite about twice ; the
telson is transversely evenly, though shallowly, convex, flatter than in
the typical species, but unlike it, has the median longitudinal con-
vexity interrupted by a not inconspicuous depression just before the
hinder margin ; the inner uropod measured as in the type of the species
proper is but one and one-half times as long as wide ; the basal segment
of the uropods is armed with a low, blunt, triangular spine, and in
place of the conspicuous spine on the proximal margin of the outer
blade of the typical specimens there is an inconspicuous, low tubercle ;
no fine impressed line appears across the middorsal region of the telson
parallel to and a little before the basal margin ; there is a short, not at
all well-marked, shallow, transverse depression on either side of the
midline, but not crossing it; these two inconspicuous depressions are
well separated from one another transversely and are in no way like
the very definite fine line of either of the typical specimens, which very
distinctly crosses the middorsal line of the telson.

The differences are such as one might expect, in part at least, be-
tween male and female specimens, but I can find no evidence that any
of the specimens are female. True enough, the type retains but one
basally much mutilated third leg, but there are in the other two speci-
mens no traces of external female apertures, and the first pleopods of
all three are of the same masculine character.

This varietal specimen measures (in millimeters) approximately 68
long, carapace and rostrum 16, abdomen and telson about 52; telson
alone about 4.9 long by a shade over 6 wide. The large chela, measured

—— -

NO. 2 MUD SHRIMPS—-SCHMITT T5

on lower border to tip of fixed finger, is 15.5 long; upper border of
palm to articulation of dactylus 10, broken dactylus 7.7, width of palm
at middle of length 11, length of upper border of carpus, as well as
width, 11, upper border of merus 10.3, ischium 8.6. Small chela,
movable finger 10, upper border of palm 4.3, width 6.5, lower border
to tip of fixed finger 12, carpus 5.7, width at middle of its length the
same, merus 6, ischium 6.5.

Remarks—In giving a name to this proposed new variety, I am
reminded of the varietal form that de Man” has indicated for Borra-
daile’s C. (Callichirus) novae britanniae, and again of his discussion ™
‘of C. (Tryphaea) californiensis var. japonica Bouvier and C. (T.)
japonica (Ortmann) and his C. (Callichirus) longiventris var. borra-
dailei.* I believe the specimen worthy of varietal designation until
such time as additional material may call for a change of opinion.

CALLIANASSA (CALLICHIRUS) RATHBUNAE, n. sp.

With tridentate front and the “ oval ” area before the cervical groove
scarcely delimited from the front, although a very faintly indicated
groove crosses the anterior part of the carapace at a distance behind
the orbital margin about equal to the length of the rostrum; laterally,
this faint groove trends backward and downward toward the linea
thalassinica on either side but does not join either it or the cervical
groove behind. The cervical groove is deep and crosses the dorsum
of the carapace about two-sevenths of the length of the carapace in
advance of its hinder margin. The rostrum is a slender short spine
reaching about one-half the length of the contiguous portions of the
inner margin of the eyestalk. The latter are in contact for about two-
thirds of their length, flaring in the anterior third widely outward to
terminate each in a little pointed tubercle at the juncture of the inner
border of the eyestalk and the gently incurved outer border in front
of the cornea. This tubercle lies in line with the midpoint or center of
the cornea and about the length of the corneal diameter in front of it.
The corneae are light brown and occupy the outer two-fifths of the
width of the stalk and approximately the fourth and fifth sevenths of
the length of the stalk.

The eyestalks just overlap the distal margin of the basal segments
of the antennular peduncle; thus the first segment of this peduncle
is not visible except for a small portion either side of the eyestalks ;

* Capita Zoologica, vol. 2, pt. 6, p. 49, 1928.
™ Idem, pp. 18, 10.
“dent, p. 27.

16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

the second segment of the peduncle is about four-sevenths the length
of the first, and in turn three-fifths the length of the terminal segment.
The second segment of the antennal peduncle on the right side reaches
about as far forward as the basal segment of the antennular peduncle ;
the fourth segment reaches nearly to the distal margin of the terminal
segment of the antennular peduncle; the terminal segments of both
peduncles are nearly subequal in length and each about two-thirds the
length of the fourth segment of the antennal peduncle; the antennal
peduncle of the left side seems to be placed lower, as the distal margins
of its several segments each fall short in turn of the forward distance
attained by the segments of the extended peduncle on the right side.
The lateral frontal spines are slender, sharp, incurved, and to some
degree movable, as they are joined to the front by a somewhat flexible
noncalcified extension of the carapace ; they lie just without the line of
the inner margin of the antennal peduncles. The lineae thalassinicae
diverge more widely anteriorly than ‘posteriorly, and so at the front
the “oval” area which they appear laterally to limit seems much
wider there than posteriorly, thus giving the dorsum of the carapace
of this species an inverted wedge-shaped look unlike the other species
described in this paper.

The large left cheliped has a very short carpus, which is a little
short of being twice as high as long. Measured on the upper border,
the palm is very slightly longer than the merus, and a very little
shorter than the movable finger, about twice the length of the carpus
and about one-fifth longer than the ischium; the palm is about as wide
at its midpoint as the upper border is long. The ischium is armed
beneath the anterior end with three moderately long, slender spines,
toward the posterior end also with three more widely spaced, much
smaller, slender ones, and at a point midway between the two groups
there is a single spine of intermediate length; all of the spines are
directed forward, as are those arming the lower border of the merus;
on the latter are to be counted 12, which get smaller anteriorly, with
the exception of the second spine, close by the first one, which seems
smaller than it should be, perhaps abnormally so. The carpus and chela
are smooth and shining; the upper and lower margins of the former
are thin, laminate, and turned over to form a serrate edge above and
below ; in the ‘case of the carpus for the greater part of the hinder
margin this serrate edge is so turned over as not to be visible in the
outer, lateral view of the cheliped, except for the most anterior two
or three serrations at the infero-distal angle; the upper and lower
margins of the palm are cristate and also serrate, but the serrations
are not so much turned at right angles to the perpendicular as in the

NO. 2 MUD SHRIMPS—SCH MITT WZ

carpus, for, although the dorsal serrations are scarcely visible from
the side, the ventral ones are plainly so; the latter run forward only
about half the length of the ventral border of the fixed finger. The
prehensile edge of the dactylus has two elongate, not very prominent,
laminate teeth, the fixed finger a single low triangular, more or less
inconspicuous one a little behind the middle of its length. In the
smaller chela the ischium is very little longer than the merus, subequal
‘to the carpus, and nearly a third longer than the upper border of the
palm ; the movable finger is a little longer than the palm above. The
greatest width of the carpus is contained about twice in its length, and
equal in width to the palm; the width of the latter is contained in its
upper border about one and one-third times.

On the inner surface of the ischium of the third maxilliped (pl. 3,
fig. 1) there is a curved row of 17 teeth, of which the proximal 7 are
strong, acute spines, and the remainder on the distal moiety of the
comb are dentiform rather than spiniform.

Telson truncate, hinder margin slightly scalloped, a little less than
one-half the length of the sixth somite and about four-fifths as long
as its greatest width ; inner uropod longer than the telson, but shorter
than the outer uropod, broadly triangular; outer blades but weakly
sculptured. Somites of the abdomen remarkably smooth and without
ornamentation.

Type.——vU.S.N.M. no. 23010, the larger of two male specimens in
the collections of the National Museum, both from Bluefields, Jamaica,
where they had been washed up after a storm in the summer of 1899.
It measures (in millimeters) : carapace and rostrum 18 long, abdomen
and telson together 43, telson 5.3 by 6.7 wide; large cheliped, ischium
to long, merus I1, carpus 6.5 long, greatest width 10.5, palm, upper
border 12 long, movable finger 12, lower border 22.2, width of palm
at middle of length 11. Small chela has the ischium 8.3 long, merus
7.7, carpus 9 by 4 wide, palm, upper border 6, movable finger 6.8,
lower border, including fixed finger, 12.0, width of palm at middle of
length 4.3

CALLIANASSA (CALLICHIRUS) LONGIVENTRIS A. M.-Edw.

Callianassa longiventris A. Milne-Edwards, Nouv. Arch. Mus. Mem., vol. 6, p. 92,
1870.

Callianassa (Callichirus) longiventris de Man, Capita Zoologica, vol. 2, pt. 6,
p. 24, figs. 12, 12 h, 1928.

From the bathing beach at Montego Bay, Jamaica, Dr. E. A.
Andrews, of Johns Hopkins University, took two specimens of a

18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Callianassa, one of which regrettably lacks the larger chelipeds, for
both represent an exceedingly rare species known heretofore only from
the type lot of four described in 1870 by A. Milne-Edwards, from
Martinique.

A comparison with the detailed description given by de Man for one
of the specimens of the type lot reveals certain small differences,
mention of which might not be out of place here.

The rostrum is longer, extending about as far forward as the tuber-
cles tipping the eyestalks; the acuminate, lateral spines of the front
reach about as far forward as the corneae and so are longer, too, than
those of the type.

I should say that the eyestalks are subcylindrical, though they appear
in dorsal view to be more or less cylindrical ; the corneae are rounded,
bulged-up prominences on the anterior dorsal surface of the trans-
versely convex stalks; the patches of dark pigment are concentrated
within in the median, posterior halves of the corneae.

The first and third segment of the antennular peduncle are about
subequal, each a little longer than the second segment. The terminal
segment of the antennal peduncle exceeds the corresponding segment
of the antennular peduncle by about three-fourths its length ; the fourth
or penultimate segment reaches about two-thirds the length of the
second segment of the antennular peduncle; while the distal dorsal
margin of the third, which is about all that is visible of it from above,
about attains the distal margin of the basal segment of the antennular
peduncle.

The telson is rather angulated, posterior margin rather straight with
the triangular median prominence well marked; medially, in the an-
terior half above, there is a small, smooth and shining, more or less
semicircular raised area from which the telson falls away to its mar-
gins ; two obscure ridges run back to the postero-lateral angles of the
telson ; on the posterior margin just inside either of these angles is a
tuft of long hair; the hinder margin of the raised area on the dorsum
of the telson is also furnished with a pair of these hair tufts.

The larger cheliped, as in the type described by de Man, is also on
the left side; of the ventral ischial spines, the last is the larger, and so
it seems to be also in the drawing that de Man gives of this joint; on
the lower border of the merus there are but three instead of four
spines, the first the smallest, the third larger and more forwardly
directed than the others; these three, moreover, are all placed close

EE

NO. 2 MUD SHRIMPS—SCH MITT 19

together at the infero-posterior angle of the joint and not so placed as
to occupy the greater portion of the ventral margin as shown in the
picture of the variety figured by Borradaile” and referred to by
de Man. Measurements (in millimeters) are as follows: carpus on
the upper border 6 long and 8 broad at the distal margin; palm 11.5
on the upper margin, 9 broad at the middle, and 17.5 on the ventral
margin to the tip of the fixed finger ; movable finger from articulation
to tip 9 long. The distal border of the palm is distinctly crenulate and,
as in the type, is separated by a minute triangular incision from a low
triangular tooth which, in the case of our specimen, has its apex at
about a fourth of the length of the cutting edge of the finger from
the small triangular notch at the base to the tip; the cutting edges of
both fingers are sharply cristate throughout, biting so as to about
impinge on the “ crown”’ of the tooth of the fixed finger; there is a
low, not very conspicuous, triangular tooth on the movable finger.

In the smaller cheliped, the ischium is armed below with Io instead
of 7 spines ; the merus has a spine as in the type; it is here placed on
the inferior margin at the end of the first third, but, unlike the type,
shows a second spine midway between it and the infero-posterior
angle of the merus; of this spine the distal half has been broken off,
apparently before capture. Measurements (in millimeters) are as
follows: carpus 6 long and 5.7 wide at the distal end; upper border
of the palm 7 long, the lower to the tip of the fixed finger 14, width
at middle 6; the distal margin of the palm is crenulate, but not so
distinctly so as in the larger chela, the fingers are armed much as are
those of the larger hand; the movable finger is about 8.8 long.

The comb on the inner surface of the ischium of the third maxilliped
(pl. 3, fig. 3) is armed, in the distal half with 12 to 15 small sharp
spinuliform teeth, followed in its proximal portion by three large,
strong, rather widely separated spines.

Of this more complete specimen, a male, the carapace and rostrum
together are about 20.7 long, the abdomen and telson together ap-
proximately 63; telson is about 6.2 wide at base by 5.8 long. The
specimen without chelipeds is a female, a little larger in size, measuring
not less than 88 from tip of rostrum to end of the telson.

” The fauna and geography of the Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagoes, vol.
2, pt. 3, p. 752, pl. 58, fig. 2, 2b, 1904.

20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

CALLIANASSA (CALLICHIRUS) ACANTHOCHIRUS STIMPSON

Glypturus acanthochirus Stimpson, Proc. Chicago Acad. Sci., vol. 1, p. 46, 1866;
Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. New York, vol. 10, p. 121, 1871; de Man, Siboga-
Exped., monogr. 39a", p. 19, 25, 180, 1928.

De Man has already intimated that Glypturus as a genus is perhaps
not distinct from Callianassa. His point is well taken, for any ex-
amination of the subgenus Callichirus will show a number of species
that have third maxillipeds approaching, if they do not actually possess,
the Glypturus type of external maxilliped. The generic character
given by Stimpson and based on these appendages, “ ischium armed
along the middle of its inner [face, instead of edge as Stimpson has
it—surely a slip of the pen] with a sharp, prominent, spinous crest,”
is common to the majority of the species of Callianassa; as are the
“deeply sculptured caudal lamellae,” to a number of the representa-
tives of the subgenus Callichirus. Little needs otherwise to be said
of this well-characterized and easily recognizable species. The oppor-
tunity is here taken (pls. 1-4) of supplying some photographic details
of a male specimen of the species. On the distal half of the inner
face of the ischium of the third maxilliped (pl. 3, fig. 4) is a comb of
Io spinous teeth of irregular size, but roughly, more or less alternately
large and small; near the proximal margin of the joint and continuing
the line of the comb are four large and one much smaller dentiform
tubercles.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES
PLATE I

Fic. Callianassa jamaicense, 3, carapace and frontal appendages, about 23.
C. jamaicense var. louisianensis, 3, same.

C. islagrande, 3, same.

C. longiventris, 3, same.

C. rathbunae, 3, same.

C. acanthochirus, 3, same.

ONCE CoN

PLATE 2

Fic. Callianassa islagrande, 3, chelipeds, * #.

C. rathbunae, 3d, same.

C. longiventris, 3, same.

C. jamaicense var. louisianensis, 3, same.

C. acanthochirus, &, same.

C. jamaicense, 3, same.

C. jamaicense var. louisianensis, 3. a, d, inner and outer faces of third
maxilliped ; b, c, inner and outer aspects of third leg, & about 23.

C. jamaicense, 3. a, d, inner and outer faces of third maxilliped; b, c,
inner and outer aspects of third leg, about 23.

at ee Ss aS) be

ee)

NO. 2 MUD SHRIMPS—SCHMITT 21

PLATE 3

Fic. 1. Callianassa rathbunae, 3. a, d, outer and inner aspects of third leg;

b, c, outer and inner faces of third maxilliped, & about 24.

2. C. islagrande, 3. a, d, inner and outer faces of third maxilliped; b, c,
inner and outer aspects of third leg, & about 2+.

3. C. longiventris, 3. a, d, inner and outer faces of third maxilliped; b, c,
inner and outer aspects of third leg, & about 21.

4. C. acanthochirus, 3. a, d, inner and outer faces of third maxilliped; b, c,
inner and outer aspects of third leg, & about 2t.

PLATE 4

Fic. Callianassa jamaicense, 3, telson, dorsal view X about 2}.
. rathbunae, 3, same.

. longiventris, 3, same.

. jamaicense var. louisianensis, 3, same.

. islagrande, 3, same.

. acanthochirus, 3, same.

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PD AVG Dy

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOR IS NOZ 2 eed

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MUD SHRIMPS OF THE GENUS CALLIANASSA

(For explanation, see page 20.)

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93, NO. 2, PL. 3

MUD SHRIMPS OF THE GENUS CALLIANASSA

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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 93, NUMBER 3

NEW EARTHWORMS FROM CHINA, WITH NOTES ON THE
SYNONYMY OF SOME CHINESE SPECIES OF
DRAWIDA AND PHERETIMA

BY
G. E. GATES

Judson College, Rangoon, Burma

(PUBLICATION 3293)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
FEBRUARY 27, 1935

The Lord Battimore Press

BALTIMORE, MD., U. & As

NEW EARTHWORMS FROM CHINA, WITH NOTES ON
Pot SYNONYM OF SOME CHINESE SPECIES
OF DRAWIDA AND PHERETIMA

ByiGs Eee GAMES
Judson College, Rangoon, Burma

Seven years and more ago the author undertook a study of the
earthworms collected in the province of Szechuan, China, by Dr. D. C.
Graham for the United States National Museum. As many of the
Chinese species were inadequately characterized, completion of the
report on this study had to be delayed until the gaps in our knowledge
of the older forms could be filled out. In the meantime further col-
lections made by Dr. Graham necessitated numerous changes in the
earlier manuscript. Just recently opportunities have arisen to examine
the types of many important species. As the types of the few remain-
ing species are not likely to be available for examination in the im-
mediate future, the report was brought to completion. As publica-
tion of the full report may be delayed for some time, owing to finan-
cial conditions, it seems desirable to publish diagnoses of the new
species together with short notes on the changes in the synonymy.
Full descriptions of the types of the new species, together with some
account of the examinations of the older types, as well as explana-
tions of the changes in the synonymy will be included in the definitive
report.

In connection with a few of the species the opportunity has been
taken to include brief remarks on a very recent paper by Chen (1933),
published after the writer’s longer paper was completed.

DRAWIDA Michaelsen

The clitellum, in this genus, appears to be a rather evanescent struc-
ture, often absent in most, if not all, of the specimens submitted to
the systematist for examination, and possibly present or recognizable
externally during only a small portion of the year. In these circum-
stances many of the species in this genus have been erected on aclitel-
late specimens.

Unfortunately, some of the types have been so juvenile that dis-
tinguishing specific characteristics are entirely unrecognizable, and

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 93, No. 3

to

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

other types are so immature that there is doubt as to whether the
structures of most importance for taxonomic purposes have reached
a definitive stage in their development.

Criteria for the recognition of sexual maturity in the genus Drawida
are therefore essential. Size (of the specimen) is not a satisfactory
criterion: a worm 30 mm long may be fully mature, whereas other.
worms well over 100 mm in length may be too small to identify.
Other criteria that might be suggested have proved unsatisfactory,
but for most taxonomic purposes sexual maturity may be regarded
as evidenced by the distension of ovarian segments or chambers and
ovisacs by free ova, the distension of the testis sacs by testicular
material, and the distension of the spermathecal ampullae by a floc-
culent, whitish material.

Especial attention is necessary, in identifications and specific de-
scriptions, to the characteristics and contents of invaginations at
the ectal ends of the male deferent apparatus and of the spermathecae,
to the central body of the prostate, to the spermathecal atria, and to
the glands of the genital markings and the male porophores. The
extent of the closing off of the ovarian segment is also to be
determined.

DRAWIDA GISTI Michaelsen, 1931

Distinguished from D. hehoensis Stephenson, 1924, by the greater
size of the prostates and their relation to the penis pouches, greater
length of the penes, larger size of the spermathecal atria, incomplete-
ness of closure of the ovarian chamber, presence of an “ urn-shaped ”
gland in the atrial wall, and by the definite genital markings with their
glands projecting through the parietes into the coelom.

D. gisti f{. typica Chen, 1933, differs from the types as follows:
apertures of the penial chambers located in bc nearer to c than B,
prostates shorter, 4 to 8 mm in length (including duct) rather than
g to II mm, presence of a genital marking in the penis pouch. These
differences may or may not be significant.

D. gisti var. nanchangiana Chen, 1933, differs from the types as
follows: prostates smaller (2 to 24 mm in length), relation of pros-
tates to the penial chambers, minute size of the spermathecal atria,
and “ventrally closer and more prominent setae”. According to
Chen the spermathecal atrium is “ often minute, bulb-like embedded
in body wall, rarely elongate like other varieties”. Specimens with
minute atria embedded in the body wall may, of course, be juvenile,
but if sexually mature must be specifically distinct from forms with
elongate and coelomic spermathecal atria.

NO. 3 NEW EARTHWORMS FROM CHINA—GATES 3

D. gisti var. anchingiana Chen, 1933, is not adequately described
but differs from the types as follows: limitation of the penis
pouches (?) to the body wall, small size and smooth surface of the
prostates, and the presence of the spermathecal atria in vii rather than
viii. These differences are important enough to distinguish the worms
specifically from D. gisti. The specimens may not be sexually ma-
ture—vide absence of granulations on the prostates, the empty ovisacs,
and the small size of the spermathecal ampullae, as well as the indis-
tinctness of the clitellum.

DRAWIDA GRAHAMI, n. sp.

Length 55 mm, diameter 4 mm. Spermathecal pores in 7/8 midway
between b and c. Male pores in bc, nearer to 0 than to c, on small
porophores seated on 10/11, intersegmental furrow 10/11 ending
blindly against the lateral and median sides of the porophores. Genital
markings on vii-xili, each marking with a firm, rounded gland pro-
jecting through the parietes into the coelom.

Vas deferens short. Prostates sessile on the parietes, outline circu-
lar; central body tiny, ovoidal, pointed end buried in the parietes.
Segment xi reduced to a horseshoe-shaped ovarian chamber. Sper-
mathecal atria finger-shaped, erect in viii. °

Type —vU.S.N.M. no. 20093, from Suifu, Szechuan.

Distinguished from D. japonica by the absence of the appendix
on the ovisacs, the more median location of the spermathecal pores,
and the sessile prostates.

DRAWIDA JAPONICA Michaelsen, 1892

This species is characterized by a posterior continuation of the
ovisac into a very long and slender rodlike appendix, which may
extend as far back as segment xliii. These appendices were over-
looked by both Michaelsen and Stephenson.

The central body of the prostate is shortly tubular, finger-shaped.
The vas deferens passes ectally into the body wall just median to
the prostate. The ovarian chamber is horseshoe-shaped. The male
pores are located on segment x on the ventral faces of porophores in
be, nearer to b than to c.

D. japonica {. siemssen Michaelsen, 1910 and 1931, is probably
specifically distinct from D. japonica. It differs from the latter in
size, number of gizzards, external genital markings and characteris-
tics of the male porophores. Unfortunately, the internal organs of
the single specimen have been lost so that the species cannot be ade-
quately characterized.

4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

D. japonica Chen, 1933, is probably only in part, if at all, con-
specific with D. japonica. Chen’s forms are characterized by greater
size (70 to 200 by 3 to 54 mm rather than 28 to 65 by 1 to 3 mm),
location of the male pores, at least in part, on penes or penislike pro-
tuberances, and the absence of the characteristic appendices on the
ovisacs. Possibly Chen’s material is to be referred to two distinct
species—mention is made of “some smaller ones about 30 mm long

bf

and 2 mm wide also showing sexually mature ”.

DRAWIDA LINHAIENSIS Chen, 1933

The types of this species are probably not fully mature—vide
smooth or finely-granular surface of the prostates, the small size of
the spermathecal ampullae, and the lack of clitellar development
(“clitellum traceable only in one specimen”). The male porophore
may possibly contain a spheroidal gland as in D. nepalensis.

Further information is needed on the penis (?) pouch (?) and rela-
tion of the prostate thereto, as well as on characteristics of the sper-
mathecal atria and ovarian chamber in fully sexual specimens.

DRAWIDA SINICA Chen, 1933

Apparently a good species—the prostates and the spermathecal atria
certainly appear to be quite characteristic. The types are not, how-
ever, fully mature—vide absence of ova in the ovisacs and ovarian
segment and the small size and emptiness of the spermathecal
ampullae.

DRAWIDA SYRINGA Chen, 1933

The description is rather abbreviated and the species cannot be ade-
quately characterized in absence of information with regard to the
central body of the prostates and the relation of the prostatic duct to
the penis pouch(?). Length of ovisacs, in view of rather wide intra-
specific variation in this characteristic, may possibly be of little
importance.

PHERETIMA Kinberg

In this genus especial attention is necessary, in identifications and
specific descriptions, to the characteristics and contents of the invagi-
nations at the ectal ends of the male deferent apparatus and of the
spermathecae, to the intestinal caeca, to the testis sacs and their relation
to the seminal vesicles and to the glands of the genital markings.
The failure to describe adequately some of these characteristics has

NO. 3 NEW EARTHWORMS FROM CHINA—GATES 5

been responsible for the erection of unnecessary species and for con-
siderable confusion in the synonymy.

Abnormalities probably occur much more frequently in this genus
than in most other genera of earthworms and are often of such a
nature as to render a particular specimen scarcely recognizable or
indeed actually unrecognizable. Considerable taxonomic caution may
therefore be necessary not only in connection with unique specimens
but even with whole series or large batches.

PHERETIMA ABDITA, n. sp.

Length 80 to 140 mm, diameter 34 to 6 mm. .Setae: vi/30-42,
vii/30-44, Xvi1/14-16, xviii/13-17, xix/16-19, xx/54-69. First dorsal
pore in 12/13. Spermathecal pores small, three pairs, in 5/6-7/8.

Sis

Fic. 1.—Pheretima abdita, new species. Spermathecal diverticulum and portion
of spermathecal duct, cleared in lactophenol. X ca. 94.

Male pores at ventral ends of tubular penes located in eversible, deep
parietal invaginations with elongately slitlike apertures. Genital mark-
ings paired, presetal on xviii and xix.

6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Septa 8/9-9/10 present and thickly muscular. Intestinal caeca
simple. Testis sac of x annular. Testis sac of xi U-shaped or annu-
lar. Seminal vesicles of xi included in the posterior testis sac. Sper-
mathecal diverticulum with a short, muscular stalk, a middle portion
more or less regularly bent back and forth in a zigzag fashion, and a
terminal, ovoidal seminal chamber. Genital marking glands sessile,
sometimes slightly protuberant into the coelom.

Type—uvU.S.N.M. no. 20094; from Suifu, Szechuan.

Distinguished from P. flowert and P. gemella as well as from
'P. rockefelleri by the presence and muscularity of septa 8/9-9/10.

PHERETIMA ANTEFIXA, n. sp.

Length 85 to 120 mm, diameter 34 to 5 mm. Setae: viii/12-14,
xiv-xv/+ or —, xvi/7-16, xvii/12-18, xvili/6-10, xix/13-17, xx/36-
42. First dorsal pore in 12/13. Spermathecal pores superficial, one
pair, in 8/9. Male pores superficial, toward lateral margins of short,
transverse ridges. Genital markings unpaired, median, presetal on
ili, Iv, and v.

Fic. 2—Pheretima antefixa, new species. Portion of spermathecal diverticulum,
cleared in lactophenol.

Intestinal caeca simple. Testis sacs of x and xi unpaired and ven-
tral. Spermathecal diverticulum with a short, muscular stalk and an
elongately tubular seminal chamber, the latter nearly straight, twisted
or looped. Genital marking glands stalked and coelomic.

Type—vU.S.N.M. no. 20095, from Suifu, Szechuan.

Distinguished from other bithecal species of Pheretima with sper-
mathecal pores in 8/9 by the extreme anterior location of the unpaired,
median genital markings.

NO. 3 NEW EARTHWORMS FROM CHINA—GATES 7

PHERETIMA ASPERGILLUM (E. Perrier), 1872

In the synonymy of this species there must now be placed the fol-
lowing: Pheretima lauta Ude, 1905, Pheretima paraglandularis Fang,
1929, Pheretima siemssem Michaelsen, 1931 (in part).

PHERETIMA BUCCULENTA, n. sp.

Length 135 mm, diameter 6 mm. Setae: vi/22, vii/22, vili/25,
xvii/16, xviii/20, x1ix/20. First dorsal pore in 12/13. Spermathecal
pores minute and superficial, four pairs, in 5/6-8/9. Male pores on
tiny, conical tubercles in the dorsalmost portions of deep parietal
invaginations with longitudinally slitlike apertures. Genital markings
paired, presetal on xviil.

Intestinal caeca simple. Testis sacs of x and xi unpaired and
ventral. Genital marking glands sessile but protuberant through the
parietes into the coelom.

Type—vU.S.N.M. no. 20096, from “Szechuan ”’.

Distinguished from other octothecal Chinese species of Pheretima
by the combination of superficial spermathecal pores and deeply invagi-
nate male pores.

PHERETIMA EXILIS, n. sp.

Length 68 to 85 mm, diameter 2 to 24 mm. Setae: vi/39, xvi/6,
Xvii/10-15, xvili/8, xix/II-13, xx/50. First dorsal pore in 12/13.
Spermathecal pores minute and superficial, two pairs, in 5/6-6/7 or
on the posteriormost margins of v and vi. Male pores within slight
depressions on glistening, not sharply demarcated areas. Genital mark-
ings paired on xvii and xix, probably postsetal.

Intestinal caeca simple. One pair of testis sacs in x. One pair of
vertical testis sacs in xi. Seminal vesicles of xi included within the
posterior testis sacs. Genital marking glands sessile but slightly pro-
tuberant through the parietes into the coelom.

Type.—uU.S.N.M. no. 20097, from Suifu, Szechuan.

Distinguished from quadrithecal Chinese species of Pheretima with
spermathecal pores in 5/6-6/7 by the inclusion of the seminal vesicles
of xi within the posterior testis sacs.

PHERETIMA FLEXILIS, n. sp.

Length 40 mm, diameter 2 mm. Setae; vii/16, viii/16, xvii/I10,
XVili/10, xix/1I. First dorsal pore in 13/14. Spermathecal pores
minute and superficial, three pairs, in 6/7-8/9. Male pores superficial,
at the centers of tiny, transversely oval areas, each area surrounded by

8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Fic. 3—Pheretima exilis, new species. Spermatheca with iridescent mass in
seminal chamber. X ca. 64.

Fic. 4.——Pheretima exilis, new species. Spermatheca with no iridescence in
diverticulum. X ca. 64.

Fic. 5.—Pheretima fornicata, new species. An ectal portion of spermathecal
diverticulum, cleared in lactophenol.

Fic. 6.—Pheretima fornicata, new species. Ental portion of spermathecal di-
verticulum, cleared in lactophenol. Magnification much less than in fig. 5.

NO. 3 NEW EARTHWORMS FROM CHINA—GATES 10)

several concentric furrows. Genital markings unpaired and median,
presetal on viii, postsetal on xvii and xviii.

Intestinal caeca simple. Testis sac of x horseshoe-shaped. One
pair of vertical testis sacs in xi. Seminal vesicles of xi included
within the posterior testis sacs. Spermathecal diverticulum with short,
muscular stalk and an elongately tubular seminal chamber, the latter
variously bent, twisted or looped. Genital marking glands with long,
coelomic stalks.

Type—uU.S.N.M. no. 20098, from between Gin Keo Ho and
Dawei, Szechuan.

Distinguished from P. hupeiensis by the absence of septa 8/9-9/10
and from P. lohri by characteristics of the testis sacs as well as by
the extra pair of spermathecae.

PHERETIMA FORNICATA, n. sp.

Length 78 to 90 mm, diameter 4 to6 mm. Setae: vi/17-24, vii/19-
21, vili/18-23, xvii/13-14, Xvil1/Q-14, Xix/12-15, xx /56; a wide dorsal
gap in the setal circle of ii. First dorsal pore in 12/13. Spermathecal
pores minute and superficial, four pairs, in 5/6-8/9. Male pores
superficial, on circular to transversely oval, disk-shaped porophores.
No genital markings.

Septum 8/g present but membranous. Intestinal caeca simple.
Testis sacs of x and xi unpaired and horseshoe-shaped. Spermathecal
diverticulum with a long, slender stalk and a spheroidal or asymmetri-
cal seminal chamber.

Type —uvU.S.N.M. no. 20099, from Tatsienlu, Tibet.

Distinguished from P. hongkongensis by the gap in the setal circle
of ii, the exclusion of the seminal vesicles of xi from the posterior
testis sac, and the absence of genital markings.

PHERETIMA GRAHAMI, n. sp.

Length 235 to 285 mm, diameter II to 15 mm. Setae: vii/22-25,
vili/22-27, xvii/26, xvili/19, xix/19-25, xx/80-91. First dorsal pore
in 12/13-13/14. Spermathecal pores on tiny, conical protuberances
into large, club-shaped spermathecal chambers, the latter invaginated
posteriorly and deeply into the coelom and bound by connective tissue
to the ventral parietes; apertures of spermathecal chambers large,
transversely slitlike, three pairs, in 6/7-8/9. Male pores on broadly
conical tubercles in large copulatory chambers with apertures approxi-
mating to transversely slitlike. External genital markings lacking;

IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

5 to 6 circular to oval, flat-surfaced markings in each copulatory
chamber; one large, oval marking on the dorsal (morphologically
anterior ) wall of each spermathecal chamber.

Intestinal caeca simple. Testis sacs of x and xi unpaired and ven-
tral. Spermathecal diverticulum with a short, muscular stalk and an

Fic. 7—Pheretima grahami, new species. Portion of spermathecal duct, cleared
in lactophenol.

elongately tubular seminal chamber, the latter often looped in a regu-
larly zigzag fashion.
Type—uvU.S.N.M. no. 20100, from Da Shiang Lin Pass, Szechuan.
Distinguished from P. vulgaris by the unpaired, ventral testis sacs
and the large, club-shaped spermathecal chambers with their large,
oval genital markings.

PHERETIMA GUILLELMI (Michaelsen), 1895

A good species. Distinguished from P. houlleti (E. Perrier), 1872,
with which it has been confused, by the limitation of the male pore
invaginations to the parietes (in P. houlleti the male pores are in copu-
latory chambers). P. houlleti Stephenson, 1925, and P. ichangensis
Fang, 1933, must be included in the synonymy. Amyntas houlleti Mi-
chaelsen, 1899, is probably also a synonym. P. vulgaris agricola Chen,
1930, is probably also, at least in part, a synonym. P. guillelmi Chen,
1933, is a composite of P. guillelmi and P. vulgaris.

PHERETIMA HONGKONGENSIS Michaelsen, 1910

The unpaired testis sac of x is ventral and median. The unpaired
testis sac of xi is U-shaped, the limbs of the U reaching to the dorsal
blood vessel. The seminal vesicles of xi are included within the
posterior testis sac and are surrounded by a layer of testicular
coagulum.

The holotype is either not fully sexual or is not quite normal.

NO. 3 NEW EARTHWORMS FROM CHINA—GATES Ii

PHERETIMA HUPEIENSIS (Michaelsen), 1895

The testis sacs of x and xi are U-shaped. Chen (1933) appears to
regard the testis sacs as annular. Chen’s account is not quite clear.
He places the seminal vesicles of xii in a membranous sac similar to
that which contains the seminal vesicles of x1, though there is no testis
sac in xii. Coelomic coagulum may sometimes be compacted around
the seminal vesicles so closely as to produce an appearance somewhat
similar to that of a testis sac filled with testicular coagulum.

Perichaeta hupeiensis Gee, Boring, and Wu, 1927, is certainly not
P. hupetensis and is probably a composite of three distinct species.

PHERETIMA IGNOBILIS, n. sp.

Length 55 mm, diameter 3 mm. Setae: vi/1I7, vii/16, viii/16,
Xvli/I5, xvili/9Q, x1x/16. First dorsal pore in 11/12. Spermathecal
pores in parietal invaginations with transversely slitlike apertures,
four pairs, in 5/6-8/9. Male pores on the roof and toward the median
side of transversely slitlike depressions. No genital markings.

Intestinal caeca simple. Testis sacs of x and xi paired and ventral.

Type—vU.S.N.M. no. 20101, from near Ningyuenfu, Szechuan.

Distinguished from all octothecal Chinese species of Pheretima by
the location of the spermathecal pores in parietal (or deeper?)
invaginations.

PHERETIMA LIMELLA, n. sp.

Length 60-85 mm, diameter 24-5 mm. Setae: v/38, vi/51, xiv-
xvi/ +, xvli/18-29, xviii/14-21, xix/18-26. First dorsal pore in 12/13.
Spermathecal pores minute and superficial, one pair, in 5/6. Male

Fic. 8—Pheretima limella, new species. Spermathecal diverticulum, cleared in
lactophenol.

pores at centers of small, oval tubercles; a thin fold of tissue at the

lateral margin of each male porophore can be drawn mesially over the

tubercle in the manner of an eyelid. Genital markings paired and

presetal on xvii.

12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Septa 8/9-9/10 present and thickly muscular. Intestinal caeca
simple. Testis sacs of x and xi unpaired. Spermathecal diverticulum
with a muscular stalk and an elongate seminal chamber, the ectal
portion of the latter looped, the ental portion ovoidal. Genital marking
glands sessile.

Type—vU.S.N.M. no. 20102, Suifu, Szechuan.

Distinguished from P. zoysiae Chen, 1933, by the presence and
muscularity of septa 8/9-9/10 and by the presence of genital markings.

PHERETIMA MIRABILIS (Bourne), 1887

In the synonymy of this species there must now be placed P. hetero-
chaeta (Michaelsen), 1891, and P. divergens var. yunnanensis Ste-
phenson, 1912.

PHERETIMA MODESTA Michaelsen, 1927

The male pores are in copulatory chambers which, in a completely
retracted condition, protrude rather conspicuously into the coelom. A
very large portion of the coelomic protuberance is composed of tiny
quirks in the prostatic duct on the dorsal face of the chamber and a
mass of connective tissue surrounding these quirks. The lumen of
the chamber is rather small but is narrowed in the outer layers of the
parietes as if by a contraction of an annular, sphincter muscle. In
slightly softened specimens the apertures of the chambers gape open,
and the lumen of the chamber does not extend internally beyond the
level of the coelomic face of the parietes.

In the synonymy of P. modesta are to be placed P. kiangensts
Michaelsen (in part only?) and P. hesperidum Chen, 1931 and 1933.
The status of Beddard’s P. hesperidum was discussed in Gates (1932).
Stephenson (1933) considered the status of P. hesperidum and has
also refused to accept Beddard’s species.

PHERETIMA OBSCURITOPORA Chen, 1931

Erected on juvenile specimens of uncertain age, in which the adult
and hence definitive specific characteristics are unrecognizable. The
Szechuan specimens might be rather small juveniles of P. grahanu or
P. praepinguis; the Nanking specimens may possibly belong to
P. tschiliensis.

PHERETIMA OMEIMONTIS Chen, 1931

P. paraglandularis var. omeimontis Chen, 1931, is distinguished
from P. paraglandularis Fang, 1929 (= P. aspergillum), by differ-
ences so numerous and significant that omeinontis must be regarded
as specifically distinct.

NO. 3 NEW EARTHWORMS FROM CHINA—GATES 13

PHERETIMA PAETA, n. sp.

Length 75-136 mm, diameter 5-6 mm. Setae: viii/22-24, xvii/18-21,
Xvili/10-16, xix/21-24, xx/65-68. First dorsal pore in 11/12-12/13.
Spermathecal pores on circular to oval areas within deep invagina-
tions with transversely slitlike apertures, two pairs, in 7/8-8/9. Male
pores on the dorsal wall of large copulatory chambers conspicuously
protuberant into the coelom. On the median wall of the copulatory
chamber a presetal, transversely oval genital marking, occasionally
also a postsetal marking ; on the roof of the chamber one or two further
markings of variable shape and:size. External genital markings paired,
on the posteriormost margins of vii and viii, each marking one to
three intersetal intervals median to the aperture of the spermathecal
invagination.

Intestinal caeca compound, dorsalmost secondary caecum the longest.
Testis sacs of x and xi unpaired and ventral. Spermathecal diver-
ticulum with a muscular stalk and an elongately tubular seminal cham-
ber, the latter looped back and forth in a regularly zigzag fashion.

Type —vU.S.N.M. no. 20103, from Song Pan, Szechuan.

Distinguished from P. omeimontis by the copulatory chambers, and
from P. schmardae by the larger size, the invagination of the sper-
mathecal pores, and the presence of genital markings.

PHERETIMA PAPILLIFERA, n. sp.

Length 100 mm, diameter 4 mm. Setae: vi/11(+ ?), vii/13(+ ?),
sally on iv. First dorsal pore in 11/12. Spermathecal pores minute and
superficial, three pairs, in 5/6-7/8. Male pores superficial, at centers
of circular areas demarcated by slight furrows. Genital markings
paired, presetal, on xi-xiv.

Intestinal caeca simple. Testis sacs of x and xi paired. Spermathe-
cal diverticulum with a short muscular stalk and a longer, more irregu-
lar seminal chamber. Genital marking glands sessile on the parietes.

Type—vU.S.N.M. no. 20104, from near Zachoo, Szechuan.

Distinguished from sexthecal Chinese species of Pheretima with

dorsally on iv and by the location of the genital markings.

PHERETIMA PECTENIFERA Michaelsen, 1931

The male pore region of P. pectenifera is so remarkably similar to
that figured for P. yamadai Hatai, 1930, that the former may be, in
reality, a synonym of the latter. Hatai’s species is not adequately

14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

characterized and P. pectenifera must, accordingly, be allowed to stand
until after reexamination of the Japanese types or amplification of
the original description. Further information is needed with regard to
size, spermathecal pores, setal numbers, septa 8/9-9/10, intestinal
caeca, testis sacs, and the preclitellar genital markings.

Pheretima yamadai Chen, 1933, is almost certainly a composite of
two distinct species, P. pectenifera and P. tschiliensis Michaelsen,
1928. Chen himself distinguishes two forms, A and B; A is probably
tschiliensis, B probably pectenifera.

P. pingi Michaelsen, 1931, may be, in part, synonymous with
P. pectenifera. At least four of the Hamburg specimens labelled
“P, pingi”’ are obviously P. pectenifera.

PHERETIMA PINGI Stephenson, 1925

The hearts of x are present but are small, usually empty and bound
by connective tissue to the anterior face of 10/11. In these circum-
stances the hearts of x are easily overlooked. According to Chen
(1933) the hearts of x are entirely lacking.

Fic. 9.—Pheretima pingi. An ental portion of spermathecal diverticulum, cleared
in lactophenol.
(The term “heart” is used to refer to a segmental commissure
connecting the ventral blood vessel with the supra-esophageal vessel
or the dorsal blood vessel or both, in any of segments ix-xi11.)

PHERETIMA POMELLA, n. sp.

Length 87 mm, diameter 5 mm. Setae: vii/19, xvii/19, xvili/14,
x1x/19, xx/ca. 50; lacking dorsally on ii. First dorsal pore in 10/11.
Spermathecal pores minute and superficial, two pairs, presetal on vii
and viii, slightly nearer to the intersegmental furrows than the setal
circles. Male pores superficial, on rather indistinctly demarcated
areas. Genital markings paired, presetal on xii, xiii and xvili, post-

NO. 3 NEW EARTHWORMS FROM CHINA—GATES I5

setal on xviii; markings on xviii in line with male pores, on xii-xiii
about in ab.

Intestinal caeca simple. Testis sacs of x and xi unpaired and ventral.
Spermathecal diverticulum with a short, muscular stalk and an elon-
gately tubular seminal chamber, the latter twisted into a ball-like mass
of loops.

Type.—vU.S.N.M. no. 20105, from Suifu, Szechuan.

Distinguished from P. planata Gates, 1926, by the posterior loca-
tion of the spermathecal pores, the absence of copulatory chambers,
and the locations of the genital markings.

PHERETIMA PRAEPINGUIS, n. sp.

Length 207-(357?) mm, diameter 16 mm. Setae: vii/23, viii/24,
Xvli/20, xvili/Q+, xix/22, xx/93. First dorsal pore in 12/13. Sper-
mathecal pores on tiny tubercles located in parietal invaginations with
transversely slitlike apertures, three pairs, in 6/7-8/9. One circular
genital marking on the anterior wall of each invagination. Male pores
on tubercles in the lateralmost portions of deep parietal invaginations
with crescentic apertures, lateral walls of the invaginations thin and
nonsetigerous. Just median to each male pore tubercle a single genital
marking ; on the median wall of the male invagination a transversely
oval, presetal genital marking. External genital markings paired,
presetal on vii, vili and ix.

Intestinal caeca simple. Testis sacs of x and xi unpaired and ventral.
Spermathecal diverticulum with a short, muscular stalk and an elon-
gately tubular seminal chamber, the latter with several slight
constrictions.

Type—vU.S.N.M. no. 20106, from Mount Omei, Szechuan.

Distinguished from P. tschiliensis by the spermathecal invaginations
and the genital markings therein.

PHERETIMA ROBUSTA (E. Perrier), 1872

In the synonymy of this species there must now be placed the fol-
lowing: P. siemssent Michaelsen, 1931° (in part), P. fokiensis
Michaelsen, 1931, P. lauta Ude, 1932. P. léhri (Michaelsen), 1899,
can be distinguished from P. robusta only by the small size. The types
of P. lohri may be dwarfed forms of P. robusta, the dwarfing the
result of a heavy infection of parasitic protozoa. P. lauta Chen, 1933,
is probably in large part, if not entirely, synonymous with P. robusta.
Chen does, however, differentiate between ‘“‘ coast”? and “ inland”
forms, and possibly some of one or both groups may be referable to

16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

P. aspergillum. Chen’s specimens appear to be more or less ab-
normal—* prostates not well developed... . or totally absent or
very rudimentary ”

Fic. 10.—Pheretima robusta. Portion of a spermatheca, cleared in lactophenol.
X ca. 54.

All Szechuan specimens that can be referred to P. corrugata Chen,
1931, are abnormal. The two paratypes that have been available for
examination are also abnormal. P. corrugata is therefore regarded as
very dubious, possibly synonymous with P. robusta.

Fic. 11.—Pheretima schmardae. Duct and diverticulum of a spermatheca.
Cd 70:

PHERETIMA TSCHILIENSIS MICHAELSEN, 1928

In the synonymy of this form there must now be placed the fol-
lowing: P. asiatica Michaelsen, 1902 (in part), P. tibetana Michael-
sen, 1931, and P. kiangsuensis Chen, 1930 and 1931.

NO. 3 NEW EARTHWORMS FROM CHINA—GATES 17,

Fig. 12—Pheretima ssechuanensis. Spermathecal duct and diverticulum, cleared
in lactophenol. X ca. 52.

Fic. 13—Pheretima tschiliensis. Spermathecal duct and diverticular stalk,
cleared in lactophenol.

18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Types of P. asiatica (Michaelsen), 1900, have not, unfortunately,
been available for examination, but inasmuch as Michaelsen’s reasons
for splitting off P. tibetana from P. asiatica do not appear to be ade-
quate—especially in view of the variability of the form under con-
sideration—it is quite possible that P. tschiliensis may have to be
placed in the synonymy of P. asiatica. The latter is not, however,
sufficiently distinguished from P. guillelmi to warrant further change
at the present.

Fic. 14.—Pheretima tschiliensis. Spermathecal diverticulum, cleared in lacto-
phenol. X ca. 45.

PHERETIMA TUBERCULATA, n. sp.

Length 80-110 mm, diameter 3-5 mm. Setae; vi/g-10, vii/9-14,
Xvli/16-19, Xvili/10-13, xix/17-20, xx/40-53. First dorsal pore in
10/11. Spermathecal pores minute and superficial, three pairs, in 5/6-
7/8. Male pores superficial, at centers of small, oval areas. Genital
markings small tubercles in immediate vicinity of male and spermathe-
cal pores.

Intestinal caeca compound, dorsalmost secondary caecum the long-
est. Testis sacs of x and xi unpaired and ventral. Spermathecal
diverticulum with a muscular stalk and an elongately tubular seminal
chamber, the latter often looped in a regularly zigzag fashion. Genital
marking glands stalked and coelomic, stalks erect in the coelom.

Type—vU.S.N.M. no. 20107, from Suifu, Szechuan.

Distinguished from sexthecal Chinese species of Pheretima with
spermathecal pores in 5/6-7/8 by the compound intestinal caeca.

NO. 3 NEW EARTHWORMS FROM CHINA—GATES 19

PHERETIMA VULGARIS Chen, 1930

A good species if the account of the typical forms is correctly inter-
preted, distinguished from P. guillelmi, with which Chen has lately
(1933), confused it, by the characteristic club-shaped copulatory
chambers as well as by the spermathecal invaginations.

Fic. 15.—Pheretima vulgaris. Spermathecal duct and ectal portion of divertic-
ulum. X ca. 36.

P. pingi Michaelsen, 1931, and P. kiangensis Michaelsen, 1931, are
probably, at least in part, synonymous with P. vulgaris; some of the
Hamburg specimens labelled P. pingi and P. kiangensis are obviously
P. vulgaris. An aclitellate specimen from Ichang in Hupeh, referred
by Fang to P. vulgaris, is correctly identified, but specimens from
Peiping referred to P. vulgaris by Fang cannot be properly placed.

LITERATURE CITED
CuHen, Y.
1933. A preliminary survey of the earthworms of the lower Yangtze valley.
Contr. Biol. Lab. Sci. Soc. China, vol. 9, no. 6.
Gates, G. E.
1932. The earthworms of Burma. III. The Megascolecinae. Rec. Indian
Mus., vol. 34, pt. 4.
STEPHENSON, J.

1933. Oligochaeta from Australia, North Carolina, and other parts of the
world. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1932.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 93, NUMBER 4

Peo NEER: WIND) TUNNELS

(With 4 PLateEs)

BY
N. H. RANDERS-PEHRSON

Assistant, Division of Aeronautics, Library of Congress

(PUBLICATION 3294)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
JANUARY 19, 1935

The Lord Battimore Press

BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.

PIONEER WIND TUNNELS

By N. H. RANDERS-PEHRSON
Assistant, Division of Aeronautics, Library of Congress

(WitH 4 PLatTEs)

In a paper read before the Royal Society in 1759 John Smeaton
presented the following very neat outline of the various methods that
may be used for aerodynamic research: *

In trying experiments on wind mill sails, the wind itself is too uncertain
to answer the purpose; we must have recourse to an artificial wind. This
may be done two ways; either by causing the air to move against the machine,
or the machine to move against the air. To cause the air to move against the
machine, in a sufficient volume, with steadiness and the requisite velocity, is
not easily put in practice: To carry the machine forward in a right line
against the air, would require a larger room than I could conveniently meet
with. What I found most practicable, therefore, was to carry the axis, whereon
the sails were to be fixed, progressively round in the circumference of a large
circle.

Technical difficulties prevented Smeaton from using a wind tunnel
and prompted him to adopt the whirling machine, invented in 1746
by Ellicott and Robins. This and other inferior methods of research
were in use long after wind tunnels had been constructed and found
satisfactory. Thus, Eiffel spent much time dropping plates from the
tower bearing his name before adopting the wind-tunnel method ;
Langley and others used whirling machines, while many used natural
wind, which Smeaton had already found to be unreliable.

F. H. WENHAM

The distinction of being the first to introduce the wind tunnel be-
longs to Francis Herbert Wenham, founder member of the Aero-
nautical Society of Great Britain, who read at its opening meeting
his classical paper on “ Aerial Locomotion ’’. In 1871 this Society
desired to undertake systematic aerodynamic experiments to obtain
“data on which a true science of aéronautics can be founded”. A
subscription fund was established ; an instrument designed by Wenham

*Smeaton, John, Experimental enquiry concerning the natural powers of
wind and water, p. 38, London, 1794.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 93, No. 4

74 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

was approved by the experimental committee and was constructed
by John Browning, an optician and member of the Society. It was
set up at Messrs. Penn’s Marine Engineering Works at Greenwich,
where the world’s first wind tunnel experiments took place.

The tunnel was a wooden trunk 18 inches square and 10 feet long.
Through it was directed the blast from a fan, driven by a steam en-
gine. The wind velocity was measured with a water gauge, various
speeds up to 40 miles per hour being used. The wind was not steady,
considerable fluctuations making the observations difficult. The di-
rection of the wind was tested with a vane and said to be fairly
straight, although there is no mention of a wind straightener of any
kind.

The balance was exhibited and explained to the Society by Mr.
Wenham. It consisted of a vertical steel spindle, supported on a
hardened steel center. Through an eye at the upper end of the spindle
passed a horizontal weighing beam, supported by a cross pin axle. The
long end of the beam carried the testing planes which could be set at
various angles of incidence while they were always kept at right angles
across the current. The short end carried a sliding counterweight so
as to balance the testing plane. The drag was measured by a spring
steelyard connected toa lever from the vertical spindle, close to the
base of the machine. The lift was read off by a vertical spring steel-
yard.

The balance with the testing planes was placed in front of the
tunnel at a distance of 2 feet, a wooden shield covering the balance
and leaving only the planes exposed to the wind. Lift and drag were
measured simultaneously, two persons making the observations. Only
plane surfaces were tested, the largest being 18 inches across, the
same width as the tunnel. They were placed at various angles from
15° to 60°; tests on smaller angles were found to be very desirable
but could not be achieved with the instrument at hand.

In spite of the crudeness of the tunnel and the shortness of the time
allotted for experiments, the results were the most satisfactory of the
kind obtained to that time. The experiments were very encouraging
to aviation enthusiasts, as they proved that the lift at small angles
exceeds the drag to a much greater extent than had previously been
suspected. The desirability of a large aspect ratio and the location of
the center of pressure near the leading edge were also demonstrated.
The test data were published in tabular form in the Report of the
Aeronautical Society. These tables were widely used and were also
made the basis for actual construction, particularly by Thomas Moy

NO. 4 PIONEER WIND TUNNELS—RANDERS-PEHRSON .| 3

for his “ aerial steamer ’’, the first large power-driven airplane model
to rise from the ground in tethered flight.’

Twenty-five years later Wenham expressed the wish that he might
have an opportunity to build a large tunnel that would convey a current
“at rates varying from a gentle breese, up to a tornado that could rip
the clothes off your back, or blow you away like a feather, but no
flying man should mind this effect.” In 1900, at the age of 76, he
actually rigged upa fan blower for experiments ; it ran at 1,700 revolu-
tions per minute and gave a current of 25 miles per hour. Apparently
it was driven by hand, as he says: °

I could not get beyond this as it absorbed all my strength to work it, still
the current was definite and steady with proper arrangement to measure lift
and drift [i. e., drag]. I attached various models in the blast, consisting of
different forms of supporting surfaces. 25 miles an hour would be a sufficient
speed to begin to fly with.

HORATIO PHILLIPS

Next to use a wind tunnel was another Englishman, Horatio
Phillips. He produced his air current by means of a steam jet, hoping
in that way to avoid the fluctuations of the wind which had marred
Wenham’s experiments.

Section on ling oe c-)
LE: :

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Fic. 1.—Phillips’ wind tunnel, 1884.

Phillips’ tunnel was 17 inches square and 6 feet long. Attached to
one end was “‘ an expanding delivery tube of sheet-iron”’, which was
6 feet long, 12 inches wide where it entered the box, eontmedne to
8 inches, and again expanding to 2 feet. In its narrowest part was
introduced a ring of iron pipe pierced with holes, through which steam
was fed from a large boiler under 70 pounds pressure. This produced
by suction an air current in the square part of the tunnel. In order to
increase the speed of the current, the square box was partly closed by a

* Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, 6th Ann. Rep., pp. 75-78, 1871;
7th Ann. Rep., pp. 6-12, 1872; 9th Ann. Rep., pp. 6-7, 1874.

* Unpublished letters from F. H. Wenham to Octave Chanute, now in the
Library of Congress.

4. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

solid packing of wood, leaving a space 10 by 17 inches in cross-section,
where a speed up to 60 feet per second was obtained, as measured by a
water gage.

The balance consisted of two uprights, pivoted at the base and con-
nected by a horizontal wire at the top. This passed through eyes on
two stiff wires attached to the leading edge of the testing surface. Drag
was measured by weights in a scalepan, attached to the model mounting
by a string running over a pulley, and lift was measured by a weight
suspended under the testing surface at the supposed center of pressure.
The balance was pushed into the tunnel where the current was swiftest,
so that the scalepan was outside the tunnel, and the suspended weight
in a hole in the wood packing.’

Fic. 2.—Phillips’ balance.

While Wenham studied planes only, Phillips turned his attention to
curved surfaces. His were the first systematic studies of cambered air-
foils, a subject about which practically nothing was known before.
Phillips noticed the partial vacuum above the airfoils. He patented a
number of profiles, and introduced the downward curving leading edge,
now in almost universal use. Several of the airfoils developed by
Phillips had a maximum lift-to-drag ratio of about 10, an efficiency
adequate for pioneer flying and not known to have been surpassed
before the arrival of modern wind tunnels.’

The “ Venetian blind ” airplane built by Phillips, on the basis of data
obtained in his wind tunnel, readily lifted itself in tethered flight, and
was, with its cambered surfaces, a distinct improvement over its
predecessors.

LUDWIG MACH

Dr. Ludwig Mach of Vienna in 1893 was the first to use a wind
tunnel to photograph the flow of air. The tunnel had a cross section
of 18 by 25 centimeters ; one side was of glass and the others black on
the inside. The air was sucked through by means of a centrifugal fan

“Engineering, vol. 40, pp. 160-161, illus., London, Aug. 14, 1885.
° British Patent, no. 13,768, 1884; and no. 13,311, 1801.

INO: a! PIONEER WIND TUNNELS—RANDERS-PEHRSON 5

at the rate of 10 meters per second. A piece of wire mesh over the
opening served to straighten the current. By the use of silk threads,
cigarette smoke and glowing particles of iron, the flow could be ob-
served. Streams of heated air were also introduced, invisible to the
eye, but recording on a photographic plate. A series of good flow
photographs was obtained.

JOHAN IRMINGER AND H. C. VOGT

The first wind tunnel measurements of pressure distribution were
made by Johan Irminger, and H. C. Vogt, of Copenhagen. Vogt, who
was a marine engineer, had made extensive studies on sails and air
propellers and had found that the partial vacuum on the leeward side
was responsible for the greater part of the thrust. Phillips was first
to notice a rarefaction, but did not press his investigation of this factor
very far. Vogt, in conjunction with Irminger, director of the Copen-
hagen Gas Works, undertook a series of wind-tunnel experiments to
establish this fact conclusively.

Fic. 3.—Irminger and Vogt’s tunnel, 1894.

There was at the gas works a smokestack 100 feet high and 5 feet
in diameter, serving a large number of gas furnaces. In order to utilize
the draft in this chimney for experimental purposes, an opening was
made in its side and a rectangular box inserted, 40 inches long and
44 by 9 inches inside cross-section. The inside of the box was polished
and a shutter was used to control the speed of the air current, which
ranged from 24 to 48 feet per second.

To determine the pressure distribution on plane surfaces, two pieces
of sheet iron were placed 1/10 inch apart, joined along the edges to
form a shallow closed box. To the interior of this a water gage was

*Zeitschr. Luftschiffahrt und Phys. Atmosphare, vol. 15, pp. 129-139, pls.
I-III, 1806.

6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

connected by means of a pipe. A number of small holes were made in
both surfaces, of which one at a time was opened. Two such testing
planes were used ; both were 14 inches wide, one 44 inches long, reach-
ing entirely across the tunnel, the other 24 inches long. The testing

Section x-y

Fic. 4.—Pressure measuring apparatus used by Irminger and Vogt.

planes were placed in the middle of the tunnel and could be set at
different angles that were indicated by a pointer on the outside.

Measurements of pressure distribution were also made on bodies of
various shapes, as prisms, spheres, etc., and on models of buildings
and gas tanks."

*Ingenioren, p. 101, Copenhagen, 1804.
Inst. Civil Eng., Minutes of Proc., vol. 118, pp. 468-472, 18094.
Engineering, vol. 60, pp. 787-788, illus., London, Dec. 27, 1805.

NO. 4 PIONEER WIND TUNNELS—RANDERS-PEHRSON aL

CHARLES RENARD

Col. Charles Renard, constructor of the famous airship La France,
conducted a large number of aeronautical experiments at the Etablisse-
ment Militaire de Chalais Meudon, of which he was the director.
Renard continued his experiments during a long period of years and
employed a variety of methods and equipment. The details were
secret at the time, and the information available is still meager.

Fic. 5.—Renard’s tunnel, 1806.

Some time during the latter half of the nineties a wind tunnel was
used. It was cylindrical, 80 centimeters in diameter and 4 meters long.
The wind was produced by a blower fan and said to be “ violent ”’.
Fourteen meters per second is given in a published chart. There is no
mention of any means for straightening the wind.

In his tunnel Renard studied the stability and critical speed of air-
ships.” Most of his equipment—balances, testing models, etc.—are pre-
served in the aeronautical museum at Chalais Meudon.

SIR HIRAM MAXIM

For the construction of his giant airplane, Sir Hiram Maxim realized
the necessity for scientific data and utilized a number of testing devices.
Among these was a wind tunnel which was in operation in 1896.
Maxim’s tunnel was a wooden box 12 feet long and 3 by 3 feet inside
cross-section, connected with a shorter box 4 feet square. Two air-
screws on the same shaft, placed in the wider section and driven by a
100-hp. steam engine, blew the air through the tunnel. To straighten
the airstream a number of wooden slats were placed in the tunnel
horizontally, vertically, and diagonally. The objects to be tested were

°C, R. Acad. Sci., vol. 138, p. 146, June 6, 1904.

Aerophile, vol. 12, pp. 153-155, July 1904.

IV congres internationale d’aeronautique, Nancy 1909. Proces-verbeaux,
rapports et memoires, p. 241.

Aeronautique, vol. 6, p. 84, illus., Paris, April 1924.

8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

placed in front of the tunnel and the balance measured both lift and
drag.

Sir Hiram tested airfoils, struts, and airplane parts in his wind
tunnel, and also the efficiency of steam condenser pipes.’

PAUL LaCOUR

Two wind tunnels were used by Paul LaCour, of Askovy, Denmark,
for windmill research. Both were made of sheet iron, cylindrical, 2.2
meters long; one was 1 meter in diameter and the other 3 meter. The
wind was produced by electric blower fans and straightened by radial
fins inside the tunnels. A speed of 10 meters per second was used, and
this was kept constant by controlling the fan speed, which was read
from a tachometer. The testing surfaces and windmill models were
placed 1 meter out in front of the tunnel.”

ETIENNE MAREY

Etienne Marey, of Paris, famous for his chronophotographic studies
of animal locomotion, in 1899 turned his attention to obtaining photo-
graphs of air in motion. This was achieved by the use of narrow
bands of smoke in a small, vertical wind tunnel.

The tunnel was 20 by 30 centimeters in cross-section, with front
and sides of plate glass and the back covered with black velvet. The
air was drawn down through the tunnel by a small suction fan and
straightened by passing through fine silk gauze of very even weave.

Smoke was supplied through a row of fine tubes at the top of the
tunnel and descended in straight bands, clearly showing the flow past
small models that were inserted. Photographs were taken by means
of a magnesium flash, burnt in a ventilated box close to one side of
the tunnel.

Among the scientists that were interested in these experiments was
Samuel P. Langley. He provided funds from the Smithsonian Insti-
tution for their continuance, and the next year Marey built a new and
improved tunnel. This was 20 by 50 centimeters in cross-section, and
the smoke tubes, 60 in number, could be made to vibrate laterally
10 times a second.

* The Aeronautical Annual, 1896, pp. 50-61, illus., Boston.
Maxim, Hiram, Artificial and natural flight, pp. 50-61, illus., New York and
London, 1908.
* LaCour, Paul, Forsogsmollen, pp. 14-15, Copenhagen, 1900.
Ingenioren, no. 10, Copenhagen, 1897.

NO. 4 PIONEER WIND TUNNELS—RANDERS-PEHRSON 9

The speed of the air at any point was indicated by the undulations
of the smoke bands caused by these vibrations. Judging from some
of the photographs where the measuring rod is seen, the speed was
about 30 centimeters per second.

A number of very beautiful flow photographs were obtained by
Dr. Marey.”

A. F. ZAHM

The first complete wind-tunnel laboratory, equipped for a wide
range of aerodynamical experiments and with instruments capable
of exact measurements, was devised by Dr. A. F. Zahm and erected
on the grounds of the Catholic University of America in the winter
of 1901.

This laboratory was made possible by Hugo Mattullath, inventor
of a giant flying boat, Dr. Zahm having agreed to become, during his
spare time, the consulting engineer of Mattullath’s company.

The laboratory building was a one-story frame structure 30 by 80
feet and housed a wooden tunnel 6 feet square in cross-section and
40 feet long, with windows in the ceiling and walls. The wind was
drawn through at a speed of 27 miles per hour by a 5-foot suction
fan, driven by a 12 hp. electric motor. The intake end was covered
with one or two screens of cheese cloth or wire mesh to straighten
the wind. The air speed was held constant within a fraction of 1 per-
cent by a boy with a tachometer and a rheostat, controlling the fan
speed. For some researches movable liners were introduced in the
main tunnel, making the current contract trumpetwise to gain speed,
then run straight in a narrower stream, and finally discharge as an
open jet in the after part of the main tunnel. The testing model was
placed either between the parallel sides, where the wind speed was
greatest, or in the center of the current where it entered the experi-
mental chamber.

The wind tunnel was equipped with a variety of instruments in-
vented by Dr. Zahm for showing the character of the air flow and
its action on the models.

™C. R. Acad. Sci., vol. 131, pp. 160-163, July 16, 1900; vol. 132, pp. 1291-
1296, June 3, IgoI.
Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1901, pp. 14, 332, 337-340, pls., 1902.
Journ. phys. theroique et appliquée, 4th ser., vol. 1, pp. 129-135, illus., 1902.
Scientific American, n. s., vol. 86, pp. 75-76, illus., Feb. 1, 1902.
Nogues, P., Recherches expérimentales de Marey sur le mouvement dans
Yair. France. Min. de lair. Publ. sci. et techn., pp. 94-07, illus., 1933.

IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

The air speed was measured with a pitot-static tube, connected with
an extremely sensitive manometer.” This consisted of two thin metal
cups, inverted over coal-oil and supported from opposite ends of a
weighing beam. Two tubes, one from underneath each cup, were
joined respectively to the inner and outer tubes of the speed nozzle.
To test the accuracy of this instrument a “ balloon anemometer ’’ was
devised. A toy balloon floating downstream intersected on its way
two thin pencils of light focussed on the moving plate of a long
camera constructed for that purpose. This was an adaptation of the
ingenious chronograph previously invented by Dr. Zahm for his re-
searches on the speed of bullets.”

The manometer was also used for the study of pressure distribution.

Several aerodynamic balances were developed, among them the wire
suspension balance, now in general use, and the bell crank balance,
now often called the N. P. L. balance. It was called the “ universal
pressure balance’ in 1902, and consisted of a bell crank with hori-
zontal axle mounted on knife edges above the tunnel, having a gradu-
ated horizontal arm with scalepan and sliding weights, and a vertical
arm running down through a streamline wind shield to hold the models
in the air stream.

The laboratory was built and equipped early in 1901 and a descrip-
tion was communicated to the American Association for the Advance-
iment of Science June 30, 1932, and was privately printed (200 copies )
in a small pamphlet which is now a great rarity.”

Mattullath died in December 1902, and the flying-boat project was
abandoned, but the scientific work in the laboratory went on inter-
mittently until 1908. Money grants for special researches were made
by the Smithsonian Institution and the Carnegie Institution in 1904
and 1905. Results of the investigations were communicated to scientific
journals and societies. The most important of these was Dr. Zahm’s

” Exhibited before the Washington Philosophical Society, May 24, 1902;
described in Phys. Rev., vol. 17, pp. 410-423, December 1903. In this paper,
p. 417, the term “ wind tunnel” is used for the first time.

™ The resistance of the air determined at speeds below one thousand feet a
second, with description of two new methods of measuring projectile velocities
inside and outside the gun. Thesis, Johns Hopkins Univ., 46 pp., illus., 1808.

“New methods of experimentation in aerodynamics; outline of some experi-
ments made by H. Mattullath and A. F. Zahm, at the Catholic University of
America. Paper communicated to the meeting of the American Association for
the Advancement of Science, at Pittsburgh, June 30, 1902. 12 pp., illus., signed
A. F. Zahm, Washington, D. C., 1902.

NO. 4 PIONEER WIND TUNNELS—RANDERS-PEHRSON II
epoch-making paper on ‘Atmospheric Friction”’,” read before the
Philosophical Society of Washington, February 27, 1904.

This paper disclosed for the first time the fact that skin friction
is responsible for the major part of the total drag. The tests were
made in the wind tunnel on carefully constructed boards up to 16 feet
long suspended on the wire balance.

Tests were also made on various spindle- and fish-shaped bodies,
establishing the best form for airship hulls and giving, for the first
time, the reason why the now universally accepted torpedo shape is
preferable. The resistance of wires, struts, wings, and other airplane
parts was also studied.

The tunnel was also used for instruction at the University, several
students taking part in the experiments. Occasionally, special tests
were made for other investigators; for instance, Octave Chanute sent
a stuffed buzzard for lift and drag measurements, and Emile Berliner
had a monoplane model tested.

WRIGHT BROTHERS

The Wright Brothers’ gliding experiments at Kitty Hawk in 1901,
although they seemed successful to other observers, were very dis-
appointing to the Wrights themselves, as the new glider did not at all
perform according to their calculations based on the aerodynamic
tables of Lilienthal. On returning to Dayton in August, they decided
to find out by laboratory methods what was wrong.

Their first testing machine consisted of a bicycle wheel mounted
horizontally on a spar projecting from the front of a bicycle. The
relative aerodynamic efficiency of various surfaces was found by
mounting them on this wheel, balancing one against the other and
riding the bicycle at a fairly constant speed.

Next they sent the blast from a fan through a square tube and
mounted their surfaces as blades on a vane in the stream, balancing a
curved surface against a plane surface.

By the middle of October 1901 a small wind tunnel was completed.
It was 16 inches square inside and about 6 feet long, with a glass top.
The wind was forced through by a blower fan, and passed through a

** Atmospheric friction with special reference to aeronautics, pp. 237-276,
diagrs., 1904. From Bull. Philos. Soc. Washington, vol. 14, 1904.

Also printed in England: Atmospheric friction on even surfaces, with
commentary note by the Rt. Hon. Lord Rayleigh, F. R. S. Reprinted from the
Philos. Mag., July 1904, pp. 58-67, diagrs.

IZ SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

honeycomb wind-straightener. The air speed was estimated to be
40 feet per second.

The balance was based on the principle of using the normal pres-
sure on a plane surface to measure the lift of an airfoil. The wing
model and the normal plane were mounted on separate horizontal
cross-stream bars so linked together that the wind lift on the model

F1G.6.—Schematic drawing of the Wright Brothers’ balance, based on a photograph.

tended to move it across stream. The drag on the normal plane would
tend to resist this movement. When the two were exactly balanced,
the ratio of lift to the resistance of the normal plane was indicated
by a pointer.

A balance of similar construction was later used by Orville Wright
in his wind tunnel in Dayton.”

* Warner and Norton, Wind tunnel balances. U. S. Nat. Adv. Comm.
Aeronautics, Rep. no. 72, pp. 39-40, 1920.

NO: 4: PIONEER WIND TUNNELS—RANDERS-PEHRSON 13

About 200 wing models made of sheet metal were tested in the
wind tunnel. Each model was tested at 14 different angles of inci-
dence, varying from 0° to 45°. Tests were also made to ascertain
the effect of varying the aspect ratio, of superposing surfaces, etc.
Great care was taken in making the tests; no one but the observer was
allowed near the tunnel while it was in operation, and he kept the same
position during the extent of the test, in order not to disturb the air
current. The results were meticulously noted, and when completed
they formed a valuable collection of aerodynamic tables which were
later used by the Wrights as the basis for their design. Around
Christmas 1902 these experiments came to an end, and the apparatus
was taken down.”

This construction and the Wright Brothers’ investigations there-
with formed one of the chief factors leading to their success at Kitty
Hawk on December 17, 1903.

i. E. SPANTON

The first wind tunnel at the National Physical Laboratory in Lon-
don was set up several years before aeronautics became a subject of
research at that institution. This predecessor of the great modern
N. P. L. tunnels was built in 1903 by Dr. Thomas E. Stanton, for
investigation of wind pressure on surfaces and structures.

Stanton’s tunnel was vertical, the upper part a cylinder 2 feet in
diameter and 44 feet long, terminating in a square box 4 by 4 feet,
and 1 foot 3 inches deep where the balance was inserted. Underneath
this, connected by a shorter length of pipe of the same diameter as
the upper part of the tunnel, was the fan chamber. The fan, which
produced the wind in the tunnel by suction, was driven by an electric
motor and could be regulated to give air speeds from 5 to 30 feet per
second.

The balance comprising a horizontal lever carried on knife edges,
had a sliding scale, and a scalepan with a dashpot for damping the
vibrations. It was inserted in the center part of the tunnel, so that
the model projected into the cylindrical section. The long arm of the
lever was hollow and could be connected with a sensitive manometer

* Aeronautical Journ., vol. 20, pp. 73-74, July-Sept. 1916.
Unpublished letters of Wilbur Wright to Octave Chanute, now in the
Library of Congress.

l4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

for measurement of pressure. The speed of the current in various
parts of the tunnel was measured by a pitot-static tube connected to
the manometer.

ELEVATION

SECTIONAL
PLAN

Scace | IncH = 4 Feer
FooT 1 ? ' z 3 4 7 Freer

Fic. 7.—Stanton’s tunnel, 1903.

Experiments were made in this very carefully constructed little
tunnel to determine the resultant pressure and the distribution of
pressure on round, square, and rectangular thin plates, normal and
inclined to the current, on lattice work, cylinders, and finally on model
roofs and bridges. The tunnel was still in use at the time when the
4-foot N. P. L. tunnel was constructed.”

* Tnst. Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proc., vol. 156, pp. 78-139, illus., 1904.
Great Britain Adv. Comm. Aeronautics. Rep. 1909-10, p. 14.

NO. 4 PIONEER WIND TUNNELS—RANDERS-PEHRSON 15

GaAx. CROCCO

In the fall of 1903 an aerodynamical laboratory was established
near Rome by the “ Brigata Specialisti”’ of the 3rd Italian Engineer
Corps. The laboratory was built under the direction of Lieutenant,
now General, Gaetano Arthuro Crocco. It was well equipped with
research apparatus, including, as the most prominent part, a wind
tunnel of novel construction.

By means of a 2.5-meter centrifugal fan and a 30-hp. electric motor,
air was driven into a large cylindrical chamber like a gasometer, 5
meters in diameter and 3.5 meters high, which served to overcome
turbulence and fluctuations. From here the wind was conveyed through
a tunnel, the end of which was inserted in the laboratory wall, fan and
air tank being outside. The cross-section of the mouth of the tunnel
was I by I meter square; also a cross-section of 80 by 80 centimeters
was used, and cylindrical mouthpieces of smaller diameter.

The tests were made in the open jet, balance and models being
mounted on a support on the floor, on a light carriage, or sometimes
on floats swimming in water. The principal balance, constructed by
Crocco in 1904, was an improvement on the dynamometric balance
of Renard.

For some researches the part of the laboratory where the air entered,
was closed off to form a second air-straightening chamber, and the
wind continued through a tunnel within the laboratory building. This
tunnel was 8 meters long and 0.85 by 1.50 meters in cross-section.”

The investigations at the laboratory of the Brigata Specialisti were
chiefly concerning air propellers and the resistance and stability of
airships. The construction of the first Italian military airship in 1907
was based on these tests.

Results of the investigations were also presented in several im-
portant papers by Crocco, published in various places, and reprinted
in his “ Problemi aeronautici, degli albori fino alla guerra.” 524 p.,
illus., 27 pls. (Roma, A. Stock, 1931).

D. RIABOUCHINSKY

Through the efforts of D. Riabouchinsky, a wealthy patron of
science and himself a scientist, Russia took its place in the front rank
with regard to pioneer aerodynamic research.

*” Boll. Soc. aeronautica ital., vol. 2, p. 209, illus,, Nov.-Dec. 1905.
Marchis. Le Navire aerien. Appendix, pp. 122a-127a, illus. Paris, 1909.

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16

NO. 4 PIONEER WIND TUNNELS—RANDERS-PEHRSON 17

At Koutchino, not far from Moscow, Riabouchinsky erected, at
his own expense, a complete aerodynamic laboratory with several
buildings and an adequate staff. According to a suggestion by Prof.
N. E. Joukovsky, the laboratory was equipped with a cylindrical wind
tunnel, 14.50 meters long and 1.20 meters in diameter. Wind was
produced by a suction fan, driven by an electric motor. Great pains
were taken to render the wind uniform. After several experiments
that did not give satisfactory results one end of the tunnel was en-
closed in a cylindrical hood 2.2 meters in diameter and 3.5 meters long,
coaxial with the tunnel itself. This admitted the air in such a way
that a sufficiently even current was obtained. The testing section, in
the middle of the tunnel, was provided with windows, from which the
action of models could be observed.

A great variety of aeronautical and hydrodynamical subjects were
studied. Among the researches in the wind tunnel, the experiments
with propellers, particularly lifting propellers were important. A bul-
letin was published by the laboratory in six large issues, the last
ii 1920...

LUDWIG PRANDTL

With the construction of the first wind tunnel at Gottingen we are
approaching modern times. This was the first return-flow tunnel,
built by Dr. Ludwig Prandtl for Motorluftschitfstudiengesellschaft
and completed in July 1908."

This tunnel was superseded in 1916-17 by a much larger tunnel with
open jet and return flow, which is now called the Gottingen type.

A. RATEAU

With the aid of the Société d’Etudes de Locomotion Aérienne,
A. Rateau built a wind tunnel in Paris in 1909. A 4-foot propeller
blew the air into a rectangular chamber, 1.60 meters in cross-section,
with an outlet contracting to a nozzle 70 centimeters square. The
current was straightened by passing between a number of wooden

” Institut aérodynamique de Koutchino. 8 pp., 17 pls., St. Petersbourg, 1905.
Institute aérodynamique de Koutchino, 1904-1914. Moscow, 1914.
Bulletin de l'Institut aérodynamique de Koutchino. Fasc. 1-6. Moscow,
1909-1920.
* Motorluftschiffstudiengesellschaft m. b. h. Berlin, Jahrbuch 1907/08-1912/13.
Zeitschr. Ver. deutsch. Ingenieure, vol. 53, pp. 1711-1719, Oct. 16, 1909.

18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

slats, and the nozzle made possible speeds of up to 35 meters per
second.”

- GUSTAVE EIFFEL

Gustave Eiffel built his first wind tunnel on the Champ de Mars in
1909. It was the open-jet nonreturn tunnel with an airtight testing
chamber, known as the Eiffel type. The air current was cylindrical,
I.5 meters in diameter, later enlarged to 2 meters.”

In 1911 Eiffel moved to Auteuil and built a new and larger labora-
tory, which he later turned over to the French Government.

NATIONAL PHYSICAL LABORATORY

The N. P. L. built its first large wind tunnel in London in 1910. It
was 4 by 4 feet in cross-section and was supported inside another tun-
nel 8 by 8 feet. The space between the walls of the two tunnels was a
return passage for the air, which was drawn through the 4-foot tunnel
by a Sirocco fan, driven by a 15 hp. engine.”

This tunnel was not very satisfactory and was replaced in 1912 with
a closed-jet nonreturn flow tunnel.

The tunnels of Prandtl, Eiffel, and the N. P. L. have been very
briefly described, as their main features are generally known, and full
descriptions are readily available.” They end the pioneer period and
begin a new era in wind-tunnel history. Before these three laboratories
were established, powered flight had become a proved fact, and air-
ships had met with considerable success. The necessity for reliable
laboratory research soon became universally recognized and wind-
tunnel laboratories were built and maintained by governments and
institutions, as well as by private agencies.

* Aérophile, vol. 27, pp. 266-268, illus., June 15, 1900.

Soc. ingenieurs civils France, Mém. et C. R. Traveaux, vol. 65, pp. 61-78,
illus., July 1912.

** Eiffel, Gustave, Installation d’un laboratoire d’aérodynamique. Paris, 1910.
La résistance de l’air et l’aviation, experiences effectuées au Laboratoire du
Champ de Mars. Paris, 1910. The resistance of the air and aviation, experi-
ments conducted at the Champ de Mars Laboratory. Translated by Jerome C.
Hunsaker. London and Boston, 1913.

** Great Britain Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Rep. 1909-10, pp. 14-15,
2 folded plates.

Flight, vol. 2, pp. 226-227, March 26, 1g1o.

* Zahm, A. F., Report on European aeronautical laboratories, Smithsonian

Misc. Coll., vol. 62, no. 3, 23 pp., 11 pls., 5 figs., 1914.

19

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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93, NO. 4, PL. 2 |

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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93, NO. 4, PL. 3

1. A. F. ZAHM'S AERODYNAMIC LABORATORY, 1901

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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93, NO. 4, PL. 4

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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

VOLUME 93, NUMBER 5

NOMENCLATURE OF SOME CAMBRIAN
TRILOBITES

BY
CHARLES ELMER RESSER

Curator, Division of Invertebrate Paleontology,
U.S. National Museum

(PUBLICATION 3295)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
FEBRUARY 14, 1935

The Lord Baltimore Press

BALTIMORE, MD., U. S&S A.

NOMENCLATURE OF SOME CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES

By CHARLES ELMER RESSER

Curator, Division of Invertebrate Paleontology,
U. S. National Museum

INTRODUCTION

After many years devoted to intensive study of Cambrian stratig-
raphy and paleontology, the author hopes soon to submit for print-
ing a complete summary of available information on the subject. Dur-
ing the course of this research many interesting facts have been
brought to light, and it becomes clear that much of the paleontology is
not up to date. To include the necessary nomenclatural changes in
the bibliographic portion of the summary would be to bury them;
hence it is planned to publish, from time to time, separate papers
embodying necessary changes.

Dr. Charles D. Walcott’s intention to monograph the Cambrian
trilobites as he did the brachiopods was repeatedly stated in his writ-
ings and discussed in conversation over a period of many years. He
finally came to realize that this would be more than a life-long work,
since, while brachiopod species are numbered by hundreds, the trilo-
bites comprise thousands. Unfortunately, just as he was well started
on the description of the many new species in hand, matters pertain-
ing to the World War robbed him of his research time. Although he
accomplished much in this line, his assemblage of trilobites was so
vast that many of the species remained unstudied and undescribed.

With the study of the new material generic relationships formerly
obscure become apparent, and a more satisfactory classification
emerges. However, monographic studies of many more groups must
be made before families or other groupings above generic rank can
be attempted. For this reason the genera discussed in this paper are
not referred to families.

The data here presented do not lend themselves to precise syste-
matic arrangement, for time is not available to properly monograph
the genera or families discussed ; wherefore the information is given
in a condensed form, and is arranged alphabetically by genera. How-
ever, occasionally rather lengthy descriptions are presented, particu-
larly when important generic questions are involved. Usually incom-

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 93, No. 5

2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

plete bibliographies are given, but they include references to all papers
that add information. Care has been exercised to conform strictly
to the rules of the International Commission on Zoological Nomen-
clature. For the sake of lowering publication cost illustrations are
omitted from this article, even though they would be desirable, par-
ticularly since most papers describing Cambrian fossils are now out of
print. New genera and species which require illustration to conform
to the rules will be placed in a separate series of papers. Few foreign
species are given consideration because several reports either in press
or about to be printed care for many of them.

ACROCEPHALITES Wallerius, 1895

Acrocephalites Wallerius, Unders zonen med Agnostus leavigatus i Vestergot-
land, Sweden, p. 52, 1895.
Acrocephalites Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3, p. 174, 1916.

Much confusion exists respecting this genus, as many different
trilobites have been referred to it simply because they possess a
median boss. In fact, the genus was not understood until Wester-
gaard * published photographs of the type species. From his studies it
is evident that the North American forms cannot even belong to the
same family, and consequently fall into other genera. Restricting the
genus to species congeneric with the genotype, only three very rare
forms remain, viz., Acrocephalites stenometopus (Angelin) and A. ?
rarus Westergaard, from Sweden, and A. vigilans Walcott and Resser
from Novaya Zemlya.

Diagnosis—Cranidium alone known. Viewed vertically the facial
suture converges forward from the posterior margin, but in side view
it rises sharply from the basal plane of the head to the eyes and then
drops off equally rapidly to the anterior angles. Cranidium keeled.

Glabella large, about two-thirds as long as the head, tapering for-
ward, but truncated anteriorly; two pairs of glabellar furrows turn
sharply back; occipital furrow and ring well defined; sharp occipital
spine. Brim with a well-defined rim about one-third the width of the
preglabellar area; rim thickened and extended forward into a blunt
spine medially. Fixed cheeks half as wide as the glabella; palpebral
lobes strongly curved, elevated, and entirely beyond the rather straight
course of the facial suture. Surface granulose.

Genotype.—Solenopleura? stenometopa Angelin.

Range.—The genus is confined to Upper Cambrian strata in the
Atlantic Province.

* Sveriges Geol. Unders., ser. Ca, no. 18, p. 123, pl. 1, figs. 20, 21, 1922.

NO. 5 CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES—RESSER 3

Species formerly referred to Acrocephalites:

A. americanus = Alokistocare A. insignis = Acrocephalops

A. aoris = Alokistocare A. majus = Alokistocare

A. aster = Deiracephalus A. multisegmentus = Deiracephalus
A. glomeraius = Modocia A. tutus = cicrocephalops

A. haynesi = Bolaspis A. vulcanus = Billingsaspis

ACROCEPHALOPS Poulsen, 1927
Acrocephalops Poulsen, Meddels. Gr¢énland, vol. 70, p. 275, 1927.

Numerous species formerly referred to Acrocephalites belong to
this genus. At present all forms so identified are confined to the Ap-
palachians and Greenland.

Diagnosis —Cranidium with tapering glabella, furrowed; fixed
cheeks wide, sometimes upturned from the well-defined dorsal fur-
row ; eyes moderately small; eye lines heavy ; brim wide, with median
boss (usually) and a narrow thickened rim of even width. Free cheeks
with no peculiar characteristics. Surface granulated or lined.

Thorax and pygidium not known.

Comparisons.—Acrocephalops differs from Alokistocare primarily
and chiefly in the presence of a thickened rim, narrow and of even
width nearly to the anterior angles. From Bolaspis it is less clearly
separated, the distinguishing criteria being the flatter shield, wider
fixed cheeks, eyes apparently never stalked.

Genotype.—A. gibber Poulsen.

Range.—Possibly confined to the Middle Cambrian of the
Appalachians and Greenland.

DESCRIBED SPECIES REFERRED TO ACROCEPHALOPS

Acrocephalops tutus (Walcott)
Acrocephalites tutus Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3, p. 181,
pl. 24, figs. 6, 6a, 1916.
Middle Cambrian, Conasauga; (loc. 141) near Cave Spring,
Georgia.
Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 61566, 61567.

Acrocephalops insignis (Walcott)
Acrocephalites insignis Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64,
no. 3, p. 179, pl. 25, fig. 1(only), 1916. (Not figs. 1a, 1b= A. nitida.)

Again, several species were included under one name and must,
therefore, be separated. The name insignis is retained for the forms
with the strongest sculpturing.

4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Middle Cambrian, Conasauga; (loc. 112) 5 miles southeast of
Center, Alabama.
Lectotype and plesiotypes—U.S.N.M. no. 61568.

Acrocephalops nitida, n. sp.

Acrocephalites insignis Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64,

no. 3, p. 170, pl. 25, figs. 1a, 1b, 1916. (Not fig. 1= A. insignis.)

Acrocephalites americanus Walcott, idem, pl. 24, fig. 3a. (This poor specimen

may represent the species.)

Unfortunately, none of the illustrated specimens is well preserved,
and that shown in figure Ia has been damaged since it was photo-
graphed. However, this form clearly has weaker eye lines and other
sculpturing than A. insignis.

Occurrence same as preceding.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 61569, 61570, and possibly 61560.

ALOKISTOCARE Lorenz, 1906

Alokistocare Lorenz, Zeitschr. deutsch. Geol. Gesell., vol. 58, no. 1, p. 62, 1906.
Alokistocare Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3, p. 182, 1916.
Amecephalus Walcott, idem, vol. 75, no. 2, p. 53, 1924.

Amecephalus Walcott, idem, vol. 75, no. 3, p. 65, 1925.

If the rules of nomenclature did not require recognition of Alokis-
tocare because Lorenz named a described species as its type, the
original description would remain meaningless. Furthermore, the
choice of A. subcoronatum as the genotype is unfortunate because
only cranidia of the species are definitely known, and hence uncer-
tainty prevails as to whether the tail was small or large, which in
turn prevents final determination of generic limits. This problem
is further complicated by the fact that cranidia similar to that of the
genotype occur in entire specimens with both small and large pygidia.
However, a search among the scores of cranidia of A. subcoronatum
from Blacksmith Fork, Utah, reveals the presence of two pygidia
which can represent the species, as they are small and similar to those
of other species here referred to the genus.

Much confusion exists between Alokistocare and Acrocephalites as
well as among species of several other genera, because many strongly
bossed trilobites which appear to belong rightly to Alokistocare have
been assigned to the Atlantic Province genus Acrocephalites, and, as
discussed above, their removal leaves no North American species in
that genus. On the other hand, certain species must also be removed
from Alokistocare to new genera.

Owing to the confusion of species, Alokistocare has not been prop-
erly understood, although in 1916 Walcott presented a diagnosis, evi-

NO. 5 CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES—RESSER 5

dently based on other than the type species, which is correct in most
essential points. Furthermore, it now appears that Amecephalus was
not well founded and is congeneric with A. subcoronatum. The rela-
tionship between A. subcoronatum and A. piochensis is apparent in
the cranidium, and if the pygidium mentioned above represents J.
subcoronatum, this part also conforms. In addition several entire in-
dividuals belonging to undescribed species prove this relationship.
A new generic diagnosis based on the enlarged group is given below.

Diagnosis —Entire many-segmented trilobite tapering from a wide
cephalon to a small pygidium.

Cephalon semicircular, and usually with considerable convexity.
Facial suture diverges only slightly in front of the eyes and is intra-
marginal for perhaps one-third the distance to the center. Behind
the eyes it diverges rapidly, forming short, blunt posterolateral limbs.
Glabella marked off by well-defined dorsal furrow; tapers slightly
and has three or four usually short glabellar furrows; length usually
slightly more than half the length of the cranidium. Occipital furrow
developed ; neck ring thickened. Brim wide; rim usually defined but
sometimes by only a faint furrow; preglabellar area equal to or
wider than the rim; and in common with many wide-brimmed trilo-
bites usually has a more or less well developed median boss; brim
striated vertically, anterior to the eye lines. Fixed cheeks wide, with
large, strongly bowed palpebral lobes. Eye ridges usually strong ; eyes
small, situated about the middle of the glabella. Free cheeks fairly
large, concave toward the margin and with flat, sometimes concave
genal spines.

Thorax with approximately 20 segments, which are directed rather
straight out, bending downward at the fulcrum and ending bluntly.

Pygidium small, not exceeding in width the diameter of the glabella
at the occipital furrow. Axis usually highly arched, as are also the
pleural portions. Pleura fused; rim usually not demarcated.

Surface striated vertically on the brim; some species are pustulose
or granulose, sometimes with both a fine and a coarse set.

Genotype.—Conocephalites subcoronatus Hall and Whitfield.

Range——Chiefly in the Middle Cambrian, but also late Lower
Cambrian.

Species formerly referred to Alokistocare:

A. labrosum = Bolaspis A. prospectense = Eldoradia
A. linnarssoni = Eldoradia A, ticida = Bolaspis

6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

DESCRIBED SPECIES REFERRED TO ALOKISTOCARE

Alokistocare americanum (Walcott)

Acrocephalites americanus Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64,
no. 3, p. 177, pl. 24, figs. 2, 2b, and possibly fig. 3, 1916. (Not 2a
= A. georgense; 3a= Acrocephalops nitida?.)

Two and perhaps three species are included in the original cotypes,
and a brief examination of the nontype specimens from the locality
indicates that perhaps twice that number of species occur. Conse-
quently, the species must be carefully discriminated and restricted to
the specimens conspecific with the lectotype.

Middle Cambrian, Conasauga; (loc. 89) Livingston, Georgia.

Lectotype-—U.S.N.M. no. 61557; paratype, no. 61559.

Alokistocare georgense, n. sp.
Acrocephalites americanus Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64,
no. 3, p. 177, pl. 24, fig. 2a, possibly also 3b, 1916. (See A. americanum.)

Compared with A. americanum, this species has more granules, par-
ticularly on the brim, and the rim is less thickened but upturned more
sharply than shown in the illustrations.

Occurrence same as preceding.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 61558.

Alokistocare althea Walcott
Alokistocare althea Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3, p. 184,
pl. 25, figs. 3, 3a, 4, 5a, 1916.

Middle Cambrian, Bright Angel: (loc. 74) Nankoweap Valley, and
(loc. 74e) near Indian Garden Springs, Grand Canyon, Arizona.
Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 61571-61574.

Alokistocare subcoronatum (Hall and Whitfield)
Concephalites subcoronatus Hall and Whitfield, U. S. Geol. Surv. Expl. 4oth
Parallel, vol. 4, p. 237, pl. 2, fig. 1, 18772
Ptychoparia subcoronata Walcott, U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 30, p. 205, pl. 28,
fig. 4, 1886; idem, roth Ann. Rep., p. 652, pl. 96, fig. 6, 1891.
Alokistocare subcoronatum Lorenz, Zeitschr. deutsch. Geol. Gesell., vol. 58,
no. I, p. 62, fig., 1906.
Alokistocare subcoronatum Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3,
p. 187, pl. 25, fig. 2, 1916.
Middle Cambrian, Ute; Blacksmith Fork Canyon, east of Hyrum,
Utah.
Cotypes.—U.S.N.M. no. 15442.
Alokistocare aoris (Walcott)

Acrocephalites aoris Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3, p. 178,
pl. 26, figs. 3, 3b, 1916.

NO. 5 CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES—RESSER Ve

Middle Cambrian, Pleasant Hill; (loc. 107d) 1 mile northwest of
Henrietta, Pennsylvania.
Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 61579, 61580.

Alokistocare pomona
Alokistocare pomona Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3, p. 186,
pl. 25, fig. 6, 1916.

It is not altogether certain that this species can remain in Alokis-
tocare because of the narrow cranidium, but without additional speci-
mens it cannot be determined how much of this is due to distortion of
the soft shale matrix.

Middle Cambrian, Park: (loc. 159f) Near Sixteen, Montana.

Holotype-——U.S.N.M. no. 61577.

Alokistocare majus (Walcott)
Acrocephalites ? majus Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3, p. 180,
Dl zowh eT TOLO:

It appears that the median boss has been compressed laterally into
a ridge.

Middle Cambrian, Meagher; (loc. 4g) North of Gallatin River,
east of Logan, Montana.

Holotype-—U.S.N.M. no. 61578.

Alokistocare piochense (Walcott)

Ptychoparia piochensis Walcott (part), U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 30, p. 201,
pl. 26, 2b; pl. 28, figs. 1, 1a, b, e, 1886. (Not pl. 26, 2a, nor pl. 28, Ic,
1d= A. packi: pl. 26, fig. 2= Glyphaspis nevadensis.)

Ptychoparia piochensis Pack (part), Journ. Geol., vol. 14, p. 207, pl. 2, fig. 4a
(only), 1906: (For other figures see below.)

Liostracus piochensis Lorenz, Zeitschr. deutsch. Geol. Gesell., vol. 58, no. 1,

p. 61, fig., 1906.

Amecephalus piochensis Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 75, no. 2, p. 53,
pl. 9, 1924.

Amecephalus piochensis Walcott, idem, vol. 75, no. 3, p. 65, pl. 15, figs. 8-10,
1925.

As originally set up this species was a mixture of specific and
generic forms. As used by Walcott in 1886, plate 26, figure 2a, and
plate 28, figures Ic and Id, represent another species, A. pack; plate
26, figure 2, represents Glyphaspis, which may be the same as that de-
scribed by Pack under the name Ptychoparia kempi. Of Pack’s fig-
ures, only 4a can possibly belong to Alokistocare; however, if this
figure is correctly drawn, it is not piochensis, but an undescribed
species. Figure 4 appears to be A. packi, 4b belongs to Glossopleura
packi, and 4c to Clavaspidella howelli.

8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

At first glance this species, which was made the genotype of
Amecephalus, is quite distinct from Alokistocare. Closer examination
shows conclusively that it is congeneric with A. subcoronatum and
must therefore be referred to it as the older genus. Because the speci-
mens are considerably flattened, A. piochensis appears somewhat dif-
ferent from A. subcoronatum, but if several specimens are carefully
examined and variations due to preservation noted, generic distinc-
tions are wanting.

Description—Entire shield tapers from a wide cephalon to a small
pygidium ; but because of the fewer thoracic segments, this feature
is less pronounced than in other, longer, undescribed species.

Cephalon semicircular in outline and apparently of moderate con-
vexity. Cranidium about equally broad as long. Anterior facial su-
ture diverges about 14°, to rather square anterior corners; intra-
marginal possibly one-half the distance to the center; posterior por-
tion diverges rapidly, forming long, narrow postero-lateral limbs.
Glabella well defined by dorsal furrow, which, as usual, is shallower
across the front and anterior to the eye lines ; tapers considerably and
is a little over half as long as the cephalon. Three pairs of glabellar
furrows traceable in some specimens. Occipital furrow shallow in the
middle portion, separating a ring of even width. Brim wide, strongly
striated vertically, anterior to the eye lines; a slight median boss
usually discernible. When the free cheeks are retained, a narrow rim
is apt to be present. In most individuals the doublure is pressed
through so that its inner edge shows on the upper side as a ridge, with
the consequence that many photographs seem to show a broad rim;
doublure much wider in the center than toward the anterior angles,
owing to the intramarginal course of the facial suture on the under
surface. Fixed cheeks wide, eyes small, strongly bowed; eye ridges
strong and, when undistorted, apparently fairly straight. Free cheeks
also wide, with a concave border; sometimes with a narrow rim;
genal spines concave and sharply pointed.

Thorax with 19 segments. Pleura straight; fulcrum far out; fur-
rows in a central position extending to the fulcrum.

Pygidium small, with well-defined axis extending its full length.
Pleura well fused, with pleural furrows showing only faintly on cer-
tain moulds.

Comparisons.—Confusion of this species with described forms is
not likely because of its broad brim and widely placed fulcrum.

Middle Cambrian, Chisholm ; (loc. 31) 3 miles northwest of Pioche,
Nevada.

Lectotype and paratypes —U.S.N.M. no. 15434b.

_

NO. 5 CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES—RESSER 9

Alokistocare packi, n. sp.
Ptychoparia piochensis Walcott, U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 30, p. 201, pl. 26,
fig. 2a, pl. 28, 1c, 1d, 1886. (See A. piochensis.)

In the narrowness of the cranidium this species is like A. pomona.
Occurrence same as preceding.
Holotype and paratype —U.S.N.M. no. go171.
Alokistocare charax (Walcott)
Ptychoparia charax Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 67, no. 2, p. 31, pl. 6,
fie 1, LOZ:
Ptychoparia pylas Walcott (part), idem. pl. 6, fig. 4b.

This trilobite seems to belong to Alokistocare even though the fixed
cheeks are somewhat narrow and eyes slightly large, in which respects
it recalls Glyphasis, but since it fails to go far enough in that direction,
reference to that genus does not seem to be warranted. In the pub-
lished illustrations the eye lines are drawn too heavy.

Middle Cambrian, Gordon; (loc. 4q, 4v) between Gordon and
Youngs Creeks, Lewis and Clarke Range, Montana.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 63736; paratype, no. 63742.

Alokistocare agnesensis (Walcott)
Olenopsis ? agnesensis Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 57, no. 8, p. 242,
pl. 36, fig. 2, 1912; idem (part), vol. 67, no. 3, p. 75, pl. 13, fig. 5, 1917.
(Not 5a-c= A. stephenensis.)
Middle Cambrian, Ptarmigan; (loc. 35m) 3 miles southwest of
head of Lake Louise, Alberta.
Holotype —vU.S.N.M. no. 58363.

Alokistocare stephenensis, n. sp.
Olenopsis ? agnesensis Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 67, no. 3,
p. 75, pl. 13, figs. 5a-c, 1917. (Not 5, see preceding.)

Middle Cambrian, Ptarmigan: (loc. 58k) north shoulder Mount
Stephen, 3 miles east of Field, British Columbia.

Alokistocare cleora (Walcott)
Olenopsis cleora Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 67, no. 3, p. 74, pl. 13,
fig. 3, 3a, 1917.

Lower Cambrian, Mount Whyte; (loc. 62w) Gog Lake, Wonder
Pass, British Columbia.

Holotype-—U.S.N.M. no. 64396.
Alokistocare stator (Walcott)

Agraulos stator Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3, p. 173, pl. 36,
fig. 6, 1916; idem, vol. 67, no. 2, p. 28, pl. 6, fig. 6, 1917.

1e) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

This species is not quite typical of the genus because the tips of
the thoracic pleura are blunt, but this feature is hardly a generic
criterion.

Middle Cambrian, Ptarmigan; (loc. 35c) Mount Bosworth, British
Columbia; (loc. 35m) 3 miles southwest of head of Lake Louise,
Alberta.

Holotype—U.S.N.M. no. 61729.

ANORIA Walcott, 1924

Anoria Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 75, no. 2, p. 54, 1924; idem, no. 3,
p. 67, 1925.

Genotype.—Dolichometopus tontoensis Walcott.
Range.—Middle Cambrian.

DESCRIBED SPECIES REFERRED TO ANORTA

Besides the genotype A. tontoensis, several other described species
are now referred to the genus.

Anoria bantius (Walcott)
Bathyuriscus bantius Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5, p. 336,
pl. 40, figs. 2-2c, 1916.

Raymond suggested that this species might go into Athabascia,
(=Clavaspidella), but it will be observed that, except for the exten-
sion of the pleural furrows to the margin of the pygidium, it has no
feature in common with Clavaspidella.

Middle Cambrian, Rutledge; (loc. 12b) McAnnallys Ridge, 12
miles northeast of Knoxville, and (loc. 11) 1 mile east of Post Oak
Spring, Tennessee.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 62661-4.

Anoria bessus (Walcott)
Dolichometopus ? bessus Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5,
p. 362, pl. 51, figs. 3-3c, 1916.
Middle Cambrian, Park; (loc. 621) near Sixteen, Montana.
Lectotype-—U.S.N.M. no. 62699; paratypes, nos. 62700-62701.

Anoria baton (Walcott)
Dolichometopus baton Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5, p. 362,
pl. 51, figs. 2-2b, 1916.
Middle Cambrian, Gordon; (loc. 3j) 6 miles northwest of Scape-
goat Mountain, Powell County, Montana.
Lectotype-—U.S.N.M. no. 62696; paratypes, nos. 62697-98.

ee

NO. 5 CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES—RESSER TE IL

Anoria utahensis, n. sp.
Bathyuriscus productus Walcott (part), U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 30, p. 217,
pl. 30, figs. 1a, 1g, 1h, 1886.

Sorting of the material from this locality identified as Bathyuriscus
productus in 1886 and referred to B. anax in 1916, revealed the fact
that neither mentioned species was present but that two other forms
represented species referable to two other genera.

Besides the illustrated head and pygidia, many other cranidia are
‘in hand as well as pygidia typical of Anoria.

Middle Cambrian, Ophir; (loc. 30a) 1 mile below Argenta Cotton-
wood Canyon, Wasatch Range, Utah.

Holotype and paratypes—U.S.N.M. no. 15458.

APHELASPIS, n. gen.

A very abundant trilobite characterizing the upper beds of the
Cap Mountain formation was described by Shumard as Conocephali-
tes depressus. Recently, the genus has been found in beds of cor-
responding age in Wisconsin and possibly in the western United States.

Diagnosis —Cranidium rather long and narrow; rather flat. Facial
suture diverges anterior to the eyes. Glabella narrow, slightly tapered ;
glabellar furrows very faint; occipital furrow shallow but distinct.
Brim wide; rim well defined, flat, usually somewhat upturned ; pre-
glabellar area more than twice width of rim; usually rather convex.
Fixed cheeks only about one-third width of glabella; eye lines clearly
developed, eyes moderate in size, situated about center of head ; palpe-
bral lobes strongly bowed, palpebral furrow distinct. Free cheeks
rather large, long, with long genal spines; ocular platform swollen,
elongate.

Pygidium short, wide ; axis arched high above pleural lobes, extend-
ing to rear margin; three axial furrows clearly defined ; pleural fur-
rows less well developed.

Genotype.—Conocephalites depressus Shumard.

Name.—Agderes = neat ; aoms = shield.

Range—Upper Cambrian. Above Crepicephalus zone and below
Ironton.

Aphelaspis depressa (Shumard)

Conocephalites depressus Shumard, Amer. Journ. Sci. 2d ser., vol. 32, p. 219,
1861.
Ptychoparia depressa Miller, North Amer. Geol. Pal., 1880, p. 565, (gen. ref.).

I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Inasmuch as Shumard’s types were not illustrated and were later
destroyed by fire, the propriety of recognizing his species may be
questioned, but Walcott long ago set aside specimens as the species,
and since they agree with Shumard’s description, little doubt of their
identity remains.

Upper Cambrian, Cap Mountain (Aphelaspis depressa zone) ; (loc.
67) Potatotop, 7 miles northwest of Burnet, Texas.

Plesiotypes—U.S.N.M. no. 90172.

ASAPHISCUS Meek, 1873

Asaphiscus Meek, 6th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., p. 485, 1873.
Asaphiscus Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5, p. 381, 1916.

Asaphiscus was made in a footnote, without illustrations of the type
species. Subsequently, the type and other species were well illus-
trated, but as now constituted several distinct genera are included in
Asaphiscus.

Diagnosis.—Entire trilobite subelliptical. Cephalon semicircular in
outline. Glabella wide, subconical, with only faint traces of glabellar
furrows; occipital furrow also almost obsolete. Brim wide; rim wide,
slightly thickened, flat, suture intramarginal for a short distance.
Fixed cheeks narrow ; postero-lateral limbs triangular ; palpebral lobes
moderately bowed. Free cheeks small, simple, without or with short
genal spines.

Nine thoracic segments in genotype.

Pygidium nearly as large as cephalon. Pleural furrows weak ; when
doublure shows, it appears to have a wide rim.

Genotype—A. wheeleri Meek.

Range.—Middle Cambrian.

Species formerly referred to Asaphiscus:

A.agatho = Genus undet. A, capella = Glyphaspis

A.anaxis = Genus undet. A. duris = Genus undet.

A. bradleyi = (new genus—Canadian A. florus = Genus undet.
age) A. granulatus = W ecksina

A. calanus = Coosia A. minor = Cedaria

A. calenus = Glyphaspis A, unispinus = W eeksina

A. camma = Glyphaspis

DESCRIBED SPECIES REFERRED TO ASAPHISCUS

At present Asaphiscus iddingsi Walcott (part) from Manchukuo
is the only described species besides the genotype, remaining in the
genus, but other new species are at hand.

NO. 5 CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES—RESSER 13

Asaphiscus wheeleri Meek
Asaphiscus wheeleri Meek, 6th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., p. 485,

1873.
Asaphiscus wheeleri White, Rep. U. S. Geogr. Surv. West tooth Meridian,

vol. 4, p. 43, pl. 2, figs. 1a-f, 1877.

Asaphiscus wheeleri Walcott, U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 30, p. 220, pl. 31, figs. 3,
3a; pl. 25, fig. 9, 1886.

Asaphiscus wheeleri Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5, p. 390,
pl. 58, figs. I-1g, 1916.

Meek did not figure this species when he described it. Later White
figured six specimens, stating that they were those used by Meek.
White’s figure 1f is the tail of an almost entire individual. The speci-
men shown in figure Ie is lost, and it is possible that several other
unmarked specimens were used by Meek. In 1886 Walcott presented
two figures, the entire shield being a composite of Meek’s original
cotypes. The head shown in figure 3a cannot be located. Walcott
(1916) figured eight specimens. Figure I is an individual found by
G. K. Gilbert and is unusually large and complete. Figure te is one
of Meek’s original cotypes, whereas Ia is again a composite. The
small head shown in Id is from locality toy near Marjum Pass, sev-
eral miles from Antelope Springs. Unfortunately, this head was not
prepared, and hence the figure is of little worth. All published figures
show the rim as thickened, which it is not.

Middle Cambrian, Wheeler; (loc. 4) Antelope Spring, House
Range, Utah.

Cotypes.—U.S.N.M. no. 8576 (6 specimens) ; plesiotypes, nos.
62754-62760.

BATHYURISCUS Meek, 1873

Bathyuriscus Meek, 6th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., p. 484, 1873.
Bathyuriscus Walcott, U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 30, p. 215, 1886.
Bathyuriscus Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5, p. 330, 1916.
Bathyuriscus Raymond, Amer. Journ. Sci., 5th ser., vol. 15, p. 310, 1928.

If the genus is restricted to the forms agreeing with the genotype,
only a few described species remain, but many new species will be
described from the more recent collections. As the genus is herein
described, the species fall into two groups: those with two marginal
spines at the anterior corners of the pygidium; and the typical group,
which lacks them. Inasmuch as all other characters appear to agree,
this feature is not regarded as of generic value.

Genotype.—Bathyuriscus ? haydeni Meek

Range.—Middle Cambrian.

I4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Species formerly referred to Bathyuriscus:

B. anax = Clavaspidella, etc. B. lodensis = Glossopleura

B. bantius = Anoria B. ornatus = Klotziella

B. belesis = Glossopleura B. productus = Glossopleura

B, belus = Clavaspidella B. parabola = Glossopleura

B. bithus = Clavaspidella B. pupa= occidentalis = Poliella
B. dawsoni= Kootenia B. rossensis = Ptarmingia

B. howelli = Clavaspidella B. senectus = Bonnia

Reed’s species from India, B. ? stolickai is not Bathyuriscus, and
most, if not all, of the Chinese forms are in the same category. B. batis
Walcott, which may come from Lower Cambrian strata has a crani-
dium much too wide to remain in the genus, but the material is so
poor that a new name is not now suggested.

DESCRIBED SPECIES REFERRED TO BATHYURISCUS

Besides the species discussed below, B. rotundatus (Rominger) be-
longs to the typical group of the genus.

TYPICAL, NONSPINED GROUP

Bathyuriscus haydeni (Meek)
Bathyurus ? haydeni Meek, 6th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., (1872)
p. 482, 1873.
Bathyuriscus haydeni Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5, p. 341,
pl. 46, figs. 2-2b, 1916.

Meek had very fragmentary material and but little has been found
since, but the species is apparently correctly understood.

Middle Cambrian, Meagher; north of the Gallatin River, east of
Logan, Montana.

Cotypes.—U.S.N.M. no. 7863.

Bathyuriscus powersi Walcott
Bathyuriscus (Poliella) powersi Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64,
no. 5, p. 351, pl. 46, fig. 1, 1916.

Middle Cambrian, Meagher ; Pole Creek, Madison Range, Montana.

Bathyuriscus obrutchevi (Lermontova)
Proetus sculptus Korovin (not Barrande) 1924. (Reference not available.)
Olenoides obrutchevi Lermontova, Bull. Com. Geol. Leningrad, vol. 44, no. 8,
p. 764, pl. 18, figs. 1-10, 1926.

Middle Cambrian ; Tcheremkhova, Irkutsk, Siberia.

Bathyuriscus piedmontensis, n. sp.
Bathyuriscus sp. undet. Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5, p. 348,
pl. 49, fig. 3, 3a, 1916.

———

ee Oe eee

NO. 5 CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES—RESSER 15

It is possible that the illustrated pygidium does not belong to the
species.

Middle Cambrian, Conasauga ; (loc. 16e) 1 mile southwest of Pied-
mont, Alabama.

Holotype—U.S.N.M. no 62665; paratype (°?), no. 62666.

SPINED GROUP OF BATHYURISCUS
It may prove desirable to separate these forms as a distinct genus.

Bathyuriscus adaeus Walcott
Bathyuriscus adaeus Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5, p. 334,
pl. 47, figs. 3-3c, 1916.

In most respects this species is much like B. rotundatus, but the
anterior pygidial segment is extended beyond the margin into spines.
The published illustrations fail to show correctly the full length or
direction of the spines, which turn backward and reach about to the
posterior end of the axis. Further, this spine interrupts the rim and
does not arise from it.

The specimen from locality 61j identified as this form represents
another species.

Middle Cambrian, Stephen; (loc. 58j) Mount Stephen, near Field,
British Columbia.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 62631-4.

Bathyuriscus atossa Walcott
Bathyuriscus atossa Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no 5, p. 336,
pl. 48, figs. 2-2b, 1916.

Middle Cambrian, Spence; (loc. 55c) Liberty Canyon, west of

Montpelier, Idaho.
Lectotype-—U.S.N.M. no. 62642 ; paratypes, nos. 62643-4.

Bathyuriscus marjumensis, n. sp.
Bathyuriscus ? sp. undet. Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5,
p. 348, pl. 65, fig. 5, 1916.

Presumably this form falls within the spined group of Bathyuriscus.
If it rightly belongs here, it is apparently the youngest species of the
genus known.

Middle Cambrian, Marjum; (loc. 11p) 24 miles southeast of
Marjum Pass, House Range, Utah.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 62845.

4

16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

BILLINGSASPIS, n. gen.

Several Lower Cambrian species referred with a query to Acro-
cephalites constitute a distinct generic group. Since the genotype is a
species described by Billings, the hybrid name Billingsaspis seems
appropriate.

Diagnosis ——Cranidium on the whole truncate-conical in shape;
facial suture converging slightly, but because the anterior angles are
considerably depressed this feature is accentuated in dorsal view.
Glabella tapers considerably ; in limestone specimens three pairs of re-
flexed glabellar furrows traceable. Brim consists of a depressed pre-
glabellar area and a raised and thickened rim ; some specimens have a
small median boss. Eyes small, eye lines present. Fixed cheeks
rather wide and rising from the dorsal furrow to the angular palpe-
bral lobes.

Comparisons.—Superficially, Billingsaspis resembles Bolaspis, ex-
cept for the depression where the latter has the great boss in the pre-
glabellar area. Further study is necessary to show whether this re-
semblance indicates genetic relationship.

Genotype.—Conocephalites vulcanus Billings.

Range.—Possibly confined to Lower Cambrian.

Billingsaspis vulcanus (Billings)

Conocephalites vulcanus Billings, Rep. Geol. Vermont, vol. 2, p. 952, fig. 357,
1861 ; repeated Geol. Canada, p. 286, fig. 206, 1863; original republished,
Pal. Fossils Canada, vol. 1, p. 14, fig. 17, 1865.

Ptychoparia vulcanus Walcott, U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 30, p. 198, pl. 26, fig. 4
(not 4a), 1886 U. S. Geol. Surv. roth Ann. Rep., p. 653, pl. 96, fig. 4
(not 4a=“ Ptychoparia” miser?), 1891.

Acrocephalites ? vulcanus Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3,
p. 182, pl. 26, fig. 2, 1916.

Lower Cambrian, Parker; (loc. 25) Parkers quarry, Georgia, and
(loc. 26) Corman farm, east of Highgate Springs, Vermont.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. no. 15437.

BLAINIA Walcott, 1916
Asaphiscus (Blainia) Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5, p. 393,
1916.
This undoubtedly deserves full generic rank; in fact, it is doubtful
whether it is even closely related to Asaphiscus.
Genotype.—Asaphiscus (Blainia) gregarius Walcott.
Range.—Middle Cambrian.
Species formerly referred to Blainia:

B. glabra = Blountia B. paula = Genus undet.

NO. 5 CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES—RESSER 17

DESCRIBED SPECIES REFERRED TO BLAINIA

Blainia gregaria (Walcott)
Asaphiscus (Blainia) gregarius Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll.,
vol. 64, no. 5, p. 304, pl. 62, figs. 1, 1b-17 (not 1a= B. centerensis), 1916.

It is possible that, even with the specimen figured as ta eliminated
because it has 10 instead of 9 segments, more than one species still
remains.

Middle Cambrian, Conasauga ; (loc. 90) 3 miles southeast of Center,
Alabama.

Lectotype and paratypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 62797 and 62791,
62793-6, 62798-62801.

Blainia centerensis, n. sp.
Asaphiscus (Blaimia) gregarius Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol.
64, no. 5, p. 394, pl. 62, fig. ra, I916.

This form has Io instead of 9 thoracic segments.

Occurrence same as preceding.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 62792.

BOLASPIS, n. gen.

A rather large group of Cambrian trilobites, usually referred to
Acrocephalites and Alokistocare because of the highly developed boss
in the center of the preglabellar field, has long needed a generic name.

Diagnosis —Cranidium characterized by a conical glabella, with one
or more pairs of rather sharply reflexed furrows; fixed cheeks wide
and tumid; eyes small and sometimes stalked; large rounded or tri-
angular elevation in preglabellar field; rim usually flat and erect,
particularly in the middle; neck ring heavy, sometimes extended into
a spine. Thorax and pygidium unknown.

Comparisons —When Acrocephalites was first described from frag-
mentary specimens, which fail to give a true concept of the genus,
the conical glabella and the boss in the preglabellar area were the sole
generic features apparent. However, after the genus came to be un-
derstood, it was apparent that the American species have only a few
superficial resemblances and are not related to it.

Comparing Bolaspis with Alokistocare, we find little similarity ex-
cept in the possession of the median boss. Bolaspis has a much more
tapering glabella, its preglabellar area is reduced to triangular form
by the down-turned anterior angles, and it lacks the vertical striations
crossing the brim.

Genotype—Alokistocare ? labrosum Walcott.

Name.—Bodos= lump, and aoms= shield.

Range.—Apparently confined to the Middle Cambrian.

18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

DESCRIBED SPECIES REFERRED TO BOLASPIS

Bolaspis labrosa (Walcott)
Alokistocare ? labrosum Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64,
no. 3, p. 184, pl. 25, fig. 5 only, 1916. (Not 5a=B. nethartensis.)

Several hundred cranidia permit the selection of specimens showing
all features.

Description —Glabella conical, with deeply impressed occipital fur-
row ; two and sometimes three pairs of sharply recurved glabellar fur-
rows are distinguishable on certain individuals ; neck ring drawn out
into a heavy and probably fairly long spine; brim diamond-shaped,
separated from the fixed cheeks by rather heavy, deep furrows which
pass forward and outward from the glabella; rim somewhat thick-
ened, highly arched in middle and nearly erect ; frontal furrow strong ;
preglabellar area triangular, rising into a high boss in the middle ; fixed
cheeks tumid, rising considerably higher than the glabella, the abrupt
slope into the preglabellar area at times serving as an eye ridge; eyes
small, situated about the middle of the cranidium, and usually stalked.

The surface is granulose ; the granules are fairly large and scattered,
and are most numerous on the glabella.

At present the free cheeks and pygidia are not located.

Middle Cambrian, Meagher ; (loc. 5f) 11 miles south of Neihart.
Montana.

Lectotype and plesiotype —U.S.N.M. no. 61575.

Bolaspis neihartensis, n. sp.
Alokistocare ? labrosum Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64,
no. 3, p. 184, pl. 25, fig. 5a only, 1916.

Among the cotypes of B. labrosa is a much shorter and more com-
pact form, to which the name AB. neihartensis is given.

Comparisons —Compared with B. labrosa, the brim is reduced in
width, with the consequent loss of the prominent boss. Furthermore,
the dorsal furrows are more shallow and the fixed cheeks less ele-
vated, so that the whole cranidium is rather evenly convex in cross-
section. Finally, the surface of the new species appears to be smooth.

Occurrence same as preceding.

Holotype and paratype —U.S.N.M. no. 61576.

Bolaspis haynesi (Walcott)
Acrocephalites haynesi Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3,
p. 179, pl. 24, fig. 4b (upper figure only), 1916. (Not 4, 4a= B. errata.)

Three species were illustrated as B. haynesi, which fact vitiates this
as an example of a variable form, and it is necessary to restrict the

NO. 5 CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES—RESSER 19

name to one of them. Furthermore, among the new collections there
are at least four additional species.

The upper of the figures on the slab shown in figure 4b agrees most
closely with the description and becomes the lectotype of B. haynesi.
This specimen evidently carried a large occipital spine and not simply
a thickened neck ring as in the picture.

Middle Cambrian, Meagher ; (loc. 20k) Pole Creek, Madison Range,
Montana.

Lectotype-—Cast U.S.N.M. no. 61503 (one specimen). (Original
in Mus. Comp. Zool.)

Bolaspis raymondi, n. sp.
Acrocephalites haynesi Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3,
p. 179, pl. 24, fig. 4b (lower specimen), 1916.

This species differs from B. haynesi in being less granulose ; wider
across the fixed cheek, particularly at the anterior angles; and in
possessing a stronger boss.

Occurrence same as B. haynest.

Holotype-—Cast U.S.N.M. no. 61562. (Original in Mus. Comp.
Zool. )

Bolaspis errata, n. sp.
Acrocephalites haynesi Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3,
p. 170, pl. 24, figs. 4, 4a, 1916.

B. errata has almost completely lost the median boss, so that the con-
sequently narrower preglabellar area gives it an aspect different from
more typical forms of the genus.

Occurrence same as B. haynesi.

Holotype—Cast U.S.N.M. no. 61562. (Original in Mus. Comp.
Zool.)

Bolaspis ticida (Walcott)

Alokistocare ticida Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3, p. 187,

pl. 26, figs. 6, 6a, 1916.

Until better preserved material becomes available, we can tenta-
tively refer this species to Bolas pis.

Middle Cambrian, Bloomington; (loc. 55s) Blacksmith Fork, 15
miles east of Hyrum, Utah.

Cotypes.—U.S.N.M. nos. 61589, 61590.

CEDARIA Walcott, 1924

Cedaria minor (Walcott)
Asaphiscus minor Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5, p. 388,
pl. 61, figs. 3-3b, 1916.

20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Upper Cambrian, Weeks; (loc. 300) Weeks Canyon, House Range,
Utah.

Lectotype and Paratypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 62778-80.

CLAVASPIDELLA Poulsen, 1927

Clavaspidella Poulsen, Meddels. Grgnland, vol. 70, p. 277, 1927.
Athabascia Raymond, Amer. Journ. Sci., 5th ser., vol. 15, no. 88, p. 311, 1928.

This genus differs from the others of the group formerly referred
to Bathyuriscus in having a more rapidly expanding glabella anterior
to the eyes, and in its large tail in which the pleural furrows extend
to the margin, increasing in width toward their extremities.

Genotype.—C. sinupyga Poulsen.

Range.—Middle Cambrian.

Poulsen was uncertain as to the age of the Cape Frederick VII
formation, but it seems clearly to represent a portion of the Stephen
formation and is therefore Middle Cambrian.

DESCRIBED SPECIES REFERRED TO CLAVASPIDELLA

Poulsen described three species:

Clavaspidella sinupyga Clavaspidella platyrrhina
Clavaspidella quinquesulcata

Raymond also referred to Athabascia:

Athabascia ostheimeri Raymond Athabascia belus (Walcott)
Athabascia glacialis Raymond

Clavaspidella howelli (Walcott)
Bathyuriscus howelli Walcott, U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 30, p. 216, pl. 30, figs. 2,
2a, 1886. Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5, p. 343, pl.
47, figs. 1-1b, 1916.

Middle Cambrian, Chisholm: (loc. 31) 3 miles northwest of Pioche,
Nevada.

Lectotype and paratypes —U.S.N.M. no. 15457.

Clavaspidella bithus (Walcott)
Bathyuriscus ? bithus Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5, p. 340,
pl. 47, figs. 4, 4a, 1916.

Unfortunately, only pygidia of this species have yet been located.
When a study of the large quantity of material from this locality is
undertaken, heads will likely be found.

Middle Cambrian, Spence; (loc. 55c) Liberty Canyon, West of
Montpelier, Idaho.

Lectotype-—U.S.N.M. no. 62635 ; paratype, no. 62636.

NO. 5 CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES—-RESSER 2

Clavaspidella anax (Walcott)
Bathyuriscus anax Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5,
p. 335, pl. 48, figs. I, ta, 1c, Id (not 1b), 1916.

A mere glance at the illustrations shows that the forms from Cotton-
wood Canyon referred to this species belong to Glossopleura.

Middle Cambrian, Ophir; (loc. 55e) Wasatch Range, north of
Brigham City, Utah.

Lectotype —U.S.N.M. no. 62637; paratypes, nos. 62638-40.

Clavaspidella sylla (Walcott)
Bathyuriscus (Poliella) sylla Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5,
p. 354, pl. 65, figs. 2, 2a, 1916.

This species approaches the extreme limits of the genus, but until
more forms become available it seems inexpedient to make another
genus.

Middle Cambrian, Marjum; (loc. 110) 4 miles southeast of Ante-
lope Springs, House Range, Utah.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 62837-8.

COOSIA Walcott, 1911

Coosia calanus (Walcott)
Asaphiscus calanus Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5, p. 384,
pl. 61, figs. 8, 8a, 1916.

Upper Cambrian, Nolichucky; (loc. 47h) Wolf Creek, Bland

County, Virginia.
Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 62789-90.

DEIRACEPHALUS, n. gen.

Several Upper Cambrian forms previously referred to Acrocephali-
tes may be descendants of Middle Cambrian forms but are generi-
cally distinct.

Diagnosis —Cranidium quadrate in general outline. Sutures diverg-
ing slightly anteriorly. Glabella tapering, rather conical, somewhat
over half as long as the cranidium; no glabellar furrows visible on
available specimens. Brim wide with a narrow rim of even width;
preglabellar area crossed by a vertical median ridge, beginning at the
dorsal furrow and widening out to join the brim. Eye lines strong ;
palpebral lobes small, situated a little behind the middle of the cra-
nidium. Occipital furrow separating the neck ring, which bears a spine.
A beautiful compound eye has been preserved on a free cheek. Sur-
face richly ornamented by pustules, or pustules and lines.

22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS — VOL, 93

Comparisons —Compared with the somewhat older species of
Alokistocare and Acrocephalops, this genus resembles both in certain
features. Features of the rim as well as the median ridge, which re-
places the boss, distinguish it from Acrocephalops, and the less ex-
panded brim and the well-defined rim separate it from Alokistocare.

Genotype—Acrocephalites ? aster Walcott.

Name.—Aewpas = ridged, xehados = head.

Range.—Possibly confined to the Upper Cambrian Crepicephalus
zone.

DESCRIBED SPECIES REFERRED TO DEIRACEPHALUS

Deiracephalus aster (Walcott)
Acrocephalites ? aster Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3,
p. 178, pl. 26, figs. ob, oc, 1916. (Not figs. 9, 9a = L. buttsi.)
Upper Cambrian, Conasauga; (loc. 22y) opposite car barn, Birm-
ingham, Alabama.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 61594.

Deiracephalus buttsi, n. sp.

Acrocephalites ? aster Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3,

p. 178, pl. 26, fig. 9, 9a, 1916.

This form is similar to L. aster but differs in having fewer pustules
and a heavier occipital spine.

Upper Cambrian, Nolichucky ; (loc. 107¢) west base Copper Ridge,
Tr miles northwest of Knoxville, Tennessee. |

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 61593.

Deiracephalus multisegmentus (Walcott)
Acrocephalites multisegmentus Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3,
p. 180, pl. 24, figs. 5, 5a, 1916.
Upper Cambrian, Weeks; (loc. 30n or 300) 2 miles south of
Marjum Pass, House Range, Utah.
Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 61564-5.

DOLICHOMETOPUS Angelin, 1852

Dolichometopus Angelin, Pal. Scandinavica, pt. 1, Crustacea formationis transi-
tionis Lipsiae, p. 72, 1852. Idem, Pal. Scandinavica, 3d ed. Holmiae,
p. 72, 1878.

Dolichometopus Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5, p. 355, 1916.

Numerous trilobites belonging to many genera have been referred
to Dolichometopus, Corynexochus, and Bathyuriscus simply because
their glabellae tended toward a rectangular form and expand forward.
Angelin referred the first two genera to his family Corynexochidae.

itt, deta step a a ~ e

NO. 5 CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES—RESSER 23

No doubt the family is valid, but it must be confined to Dolichometopus
and Corynexochus, which occur only in the Atlantic Province ; hence
all other American and Asiatic forms must go into other genera.
Properly restricted, Dolichometopus contains the species D. acadicus
Matthew and D. suecicus, the genotype.

The following list shows the generic position of the North Ameri-
can forms not belonging to the Atlantic Province :

D. baton = Anoria D. lodensis = Glossopleura
D. bessus = Anoria D. occidentalis = Poliella
D. bion = Glossopleura D. productus= Glossopleura
D. boccar = Glossopleura D. tontoensis = Anoria

D. expansus = (Not determined) D. varro = Housia

The Oriental species ascribed to the genus all belong elsewhere.
Their revision is now under way.

DUNDERBERGIA Walcott, 1924

Dunderbergia Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 75, no. 2, p. 56, 1924;
idem, no. 3, p. 85, 1925.

Several species from Nevada, other than the genotype, D. mitida,
appear to belong to the genus. Undescribed species from other regions
also appear to belong to Dunderbergia.

Genotype.—Crepicephalus (Loganellus) nitidus Hall and Whit-
field.

Range.—Upper Cambrian beds representing the Pterocephalia zone.

DESCRIBED SPECIES REFERRED TO DUNDERBERGIA

Dunderbergia maculosa (Hall and Whitfield)
Crepicephalus (Loganellus) maculosus Hall and Whitfield (part), U. S. Geol.
Expl. goth Parallel, vol. 4, p. 215, pl. 2, figs. 24, 25?, 1877. (Not fig.
26 = D, halli.)
Ptychoparia maculosus Walcott, U. S. Geol. Surv. Monogr. 8, p. 269, 1884.
Upper Cambrian, Secret Canyon ; (loc. 62a) opposite Jackson Mine,
Eureka District, Nevada.
Holotype-—U.S.N.M. no. 90670.

Dunderbergia halli, n. sp.
Crepicephalus (Loganellus) maculosus Hall and Whitfield (part), U. S. Geol.
Expl., goth Parallel, vol. 4, p. 215, pl. 2, fig. 26, 1877. (See D. maculosa.)
This figured pygidium is not from the same locality as the head
of D. maculosa, and further, since the cranidia associated with this
tail are also distinct, the logical procedure is to combine the two as a
new species.

24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Upper Cambrian, Secret Canyon; (loc. 60) near Richmond Mine,
Eureka District, Nevada.
Holotype and paratypes —U.S.N.M. no. 24617.

Dunderbergia simulator (Hall and Whitfield)
Crepicephalus (Loganellus) simulator Hall and Whitfield, U. S. Geol. Expl.
4oth Parallel, vol. 4, p. 218, pl. 2, figs. 16-18, 1877.
Inouyia simulator Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, 1916.

Upper Cambrian, Secret Canyon ; Eureka District, Nevada.
Lectotype-——U.S.N.M. no. 24575; paratypes, no. 24573.

Dunderbergia granulosa (Hall and Whitfield)
Crepicephalus (Loganellus) granulosa Hall and Whitfield, U. S. Geol. Expl.
4oth Parallel, vol. 4, p. 214; pl. 2, figs. 2, 3, 1877.
Ptychoparia granulosa Walcott, U. S. Geol. Surv. Monogr. 8, p. 57, 1884.
Inouyia granulosa Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3, p. 204, 1916.

Upper Cambrian, Secret Canyon; (loc. 61) near Hamburg Mine
and other localities, Eureka District, Nevada.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 24573.

Dunderbergia pustulosa (Hall and Whitfield)
Ptychaspis pustulosa Hall and Whitfield, U. S. Geol. Expl. goth Parallel, vol. 4,
D223) pleen ties 27518775
Upper Cambrian, Secret Canyon; Pogonip Mountain, White Pine
District, Nevada.
Holotype-—vU.S.N.M. no. 24579.

Dunderbergia suada (Walcott)
Ptychoparia suada Walcott, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 13, p. 274, pl. 21, fig. 9,
1890.
Upper Cambrian, Wilberns; (loc. 70) Baldy Mountain, near Mor-
gans Creek, 8 miles northwest of Burnet, Texas.
Holotype -—U.S.N.M. no. 23860.

EHMANTIA, n. gen.

Many Middle Cambrian species characterized by a peculiar pygidium
have been referred to various genera during the past 55 years.
When they are gathered together and their features noted, a definite,
clear-cut genus emerges. To this is assigned the name of Philip
Ehman, of Logan, Montana, who has been of material assistance in
restudying the classic region along the north side of the Gallatin
Valley.

Diagnosis —Cranidium of a very common type. Glabella tapered,
rounded in form, distinctly demarcated by dorsal furrow; glabellar

NO. 5 CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES—RESSER 25

furrows usually very faint. Brim variable in width, with a convex pre-
glabellar area and a flat, upturned rim. Eyes moderate in size, not
much bowed, situated about the middle of the cranidium. Fixed cheeks
about half as wide as the glabella. Free cheeks show suture intra-
marginal for some distance and have a stout, short genal spine.

Thorax has 12 to 14 segments in the specimens observed.

Pygidium wide ; axis well defined except at rear; up to six or more
axial rings are marked out. Pleural lobes very distinctive because
both the pleural furrows and grooves are distinctly impressed to the
very margin.

Genotype.—Ehmania weedi, n. sp.

Range.—Middle Cambrian.

DESCRIBED SPECIES REFERRED TO EHMANIA

Ehmania gallatinensis (Meek)

Conocoryphe (Ptychoparia) gallatinensis Meek, 6th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol.

Surv. Terr., p. 485, 1873.

Unfortunately this species is not illustrated, and it is necessary to
restrict it to one of the three or more species present in the type lot.

Middle Cambrian, Meagher ; north of Gallatin River, near Logan,
Montana.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 7862.

Ehmania walcotti, n. sp.

Ptychoparia antiquata Walcott (part) (not Salter), U. S. Geol. Surv. Monogr.

32, pt. 2, p. 456, pl. 65, fig. 7a, 1899. (Not fig. 7= E. weedi.)

This species was described as a variety. Many fine cranidia and
pygidia occur among the specimens not illustrated.

Middle Cambrian, Meagher; (loc. 151d) south of Gallatin River,
Crowfoot Ridge, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. no. 90667.

Ehmania weedi, n. sp. Genotype
Ptychoparia antiquata Walcott (part) (not Salter), U. S. Geol. Surv. Monogr.
32, pt. 2, p. 456, pl. 65, fig. 7 (not 7a), 1899.
This species has more strongly developed glabellar furrows than
the other described species.
Occurrence same as preceding.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 35234.

Ehmania oweni (Walcott)
Ptychoparia oweni Walcott (not Meek and Hayden), U. S. Geol. Surv. Mongr.
8, p. 55, pl. 10, figs. 3, 3a, 1884. (Probably also fig. 18, which is placed
with Eteraspis laeviceps; and fig. 22.)

20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Middle Cambrian, Eldorado ; east side Secret Canyon, Eureka dis-
trict, Nevada.
Cotypes—U.S.N.M. no. 24610.

Ehmania smithi (Walcott)
Anomocarella smithi Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 57, no. 4, p. 92,
pl. 17, figs. 3-3a, 1911. Research in China, vol. 3, Carnegie Inst. Publ.
54, p. 203, pl. 19, figs. 16-16), 1913.

Middle Cambrian, Conasauga; (loc. 90x) 3 miles east of Center,
Alabama.
Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 58296, 582098.

ELDORADIA, n. gen.

Still another group formerly referred to Alokistocare deserves a
separate generic name, and since it seems to reach its best develop-
ment in the Eldorado limestone of the Eureka District, Nevada, may
appropriately be named for the formation.

Diagnosis.—Cranidium generally rectangular in outline, with a
tapering glabella about half as long as the cranidium; usually well
defined by shallow dorsal furrows; glabellar furrows faint or absent.
Brim wide, usually with a large median boss; rim not sharply sepa-
rated owing to the poor development of the anterior furrow. Fixed
cheeks usually wide, with small, sometimes stalked eyes about op-
posite the anterior end of the glabella.

Comparisons—Compared with Bolaspis and Acrocephalops, this
genus lies between the two but nearer to the former. From this it
differs in greater width of fixed cheek, less clearly defined rim and
shallower furrows.

Genotype.—Ptychoparia ? linnarssoni Walcott.

Range.—Presumably confined to the Middle Cambrian.

DESCRIBED SPECIES REFERRED TO ELDORADIA

Eldoradia linnarssoni (Walcott)
Ptychoparia ? linnarssoni Walcott (part), U. S. Geol. Surv. Monogr. 8, p. 47,
pl. 9, fig. 18a, 1884. (Not 1%=E. lata.)
Alokistocare linnarssoni Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64,
no. 3, p. 185, pl. 25, fig. 7, and possibly the cheek inset in fig. 7a, 1916.
(Not 7a=E. lata.) The best cranidium was not figured.

Middle Cambrian Eldorado; (loc. 58) east side of New York
Canyon, Eureka District, Nevada.
Cotypes—vU.S.N.M. no. 24611.

NO. 5 CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES——RESSER 27

Eldoradia lata, n. sp.
Ptychoparia ? linnarssoni Walcott (part), U. S. Geol. Surv. Monogr. 8,
p. 47, pl. 9, fig. 18, 1884.
Alokistocare linnarssoni Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64,
no. 3, p. 185, pl. 25, fig. 7a (heads only), 1916.
This species differs from EF. linnarssoni in its wider fixed cheeks.
Occurrence same as E. linnarssoni (loc. 58a).
Cotypes—U.S.N.M. no. 90669.
Eldoradia prospectensis (Walcott)
Ptychoparia ? prospectensis Walcott, U. S. Geol. Surv. Monogr. 8, p. 46, pl. 9,
fig. 20, 1884; U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 30, p. 202, pl. 27, fig. 5, 1886.
Alokistocare prospectense Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3,
p. 186, pl. 25, fig. 8, 1916.
Middle Cambrian, Eldorado; (loc. 52a) Prospect Mountain, Eu-
reka District, Nevada.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 15441.

ELRATHIA Walcott, 1924
Elrathia Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 75, no. 2, p. 56, 1924; idem,
no. 3, p. 87, 1925.

Already species have been referred to Elrathia improperly, as they
formerly were to Ptychoparia, consequently great care must be ex-
ercised to prevent this name also becoming a “ dumping ground.”
These forms have what might be called the “ median” structure of
the trilobite, consequently many genera are close to one another.

Genotype.—Conocorphe (Conocephalites) kingi Meek.

Range.—Likely confined to the Middle Cambrian.

ADDITIONAL SPECIES REFERRED TO ELRATHIA
Elrathia candace (Walcott)

Ptychoparia candace Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 67, no. 2, p. 28,
ple 6, figs: 35/30, 1017.

Middle Cambrian, Gordon ; (loc. 4v) Gordon Creek, Powell County,

Montana.
Cotypes——U.S.N.M. nos. 63738, 63739.
Elrathia pylas (Walcott)

Ptychoparia pylas Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 67, no. 2,
p. 33, pl. 6, figs. 4, 4a, 1917. (Not 4b= Alokistocare charax; 4c=— A.
gordonensis. )

Middle Cambrian, Gordon; (loc. 4q) between Gordon and Youngs

Creeks, Powell County, Montana.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 63740, 63741.

28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Elrathia haguei (Hall and Whitfield)

Crepicephalus (Loganellus) haguei Hall and Whitfield, U. S. Geol. Expl. 40th
Parallel, vol. 4, p. 210, pl. 2, figs. 14, 15, 1877.
Ptychoparia haguei Walcott, U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. ro, p. 36, pl. 6, fig. 6, 1884.

Species must be confined to the locality given below.

Middle Cambrian, Eldorado; Pogonip Mountain, White Pine Dis-
trict, Nevada.

Holotype-—U.S.N.M. no. 24660.

EUREKIA Walcott, 1924

Eurekia Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 75, no. 2, p. 56, 1924; idem, no. 3,
Pp. 90, 1925.
Genotype.—E. granulosa Walcott.
Range.—Late Upper Cambrian.
Previously the genus contained five species :

Eurekia granulosa Walcott Eurekia eos (Hall)
Eurekia angustifrons (Walcott) Eurekia binodosa (Hall)
Eurekia dissimilis (Walcott)

ADDITIONAL SPECIES REFERRED TO EUREKIA

Eurekia denticulata (Meek)
Proetus (Phaeton) denticulatus Meek, Rep. U. S. Geol. Expl. 40th Parallel,
vol. 4, pt. I, p. 49, pl. 1, fig. 10, 1877.

Originally assigned to the Devonian.

Upper Cambrian, Hamburg; drift west side of Steptoe Valley,
Nevada (float).

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 14579.

Eurekia finkelnburgi (Clark)
Bayfeldia finkelnburgi Clark, Bull. Amer. Pal., vol. 10, no. 41, p. 32, pl. 4,
fig. 7, 1924.

Upper Cambrian, Norwalk sandstone ; Osceola Mills, Wisconsin.
Holotype.—M.C.Z. no. 1712.

ETERASPIS, n. gen.

Diagnosis —Cranidium strongly arched longitudinally. Glabella
poorly defined ; without furrows. Neck ring thickened ; occipital fur-
row very shallow. Brim about one-third length of glabella; wide rim
separated by shallow anterior furrow. Eyes moderate in size and
moderately bowed, situated about middle of cranidium.

NO. 5 CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES—RESSER 29

Pygidium flat. Axis defined by shallow dorsal furrow, but chiefly
by arching above pleural lobes; extends to border. Pleural furrows
faintly outlined. Border flattened.

Genotype.—Ptychoparia laeviceps Walcott.

Range.—Middle Cambrian.

Name.—Erepos = another ; aoms=shield.

Eteraspis laeviceps (Walcott)
Ptychoparia laeviceps Walcott, U. S. Geol. Surv. Monogr. 8, p. 54, pl. 10,
fig. 17, 1884. (Not 18= Ehmania oweni?.)
Middle Cambrian, Eldorado; (loc. 58) east side Secret Canyon,
Eureka District, Nevada.
Holotype and paratypes —U.S.N.M. no. 24614.

GLOSSOPLEURA Poulsen, 1927
Glossopleura Poulsen, Meddels. Gr¢gnland, vol. 70, p. 268, 1927.

Diagnosis —Cephalon and pygidium large, of about equal size.
Glabella wide, extending to anterior margin, where a narrow upturned
brim may sometimes be present; glabella sometimes expands some-
what forward of the eyes; four faint pairs of glabellar furrows usually
traceable. Fixed cheeks small; eyes large, situated well back. Free
cheeks rather wide with a broad rim when the wide doublure is im-
pressed on them, otherwise sloping smoothly to margin.

Thorax has seven segments.

Pygidium usually has the axis well defined. Axial furrows often
faint; pleural furrows faint but clearly traceable in some species to
outer edge ; wide rim sometimes definite, when doublure is impressed
on test.

Genotype.—Dolichometopus boccar Walcott.

Comparisons.—Glossopleura, as pointed out by Poulsen, resembles
Anoria in the number of thoracic segments and the extension of the
glabella to the front margin, but differs in having longer eyes. How-
ever, his observation that Glossopleura lacks the macropleural de-
velopment of the fifth thoracic segment does not hold if the present
specific references are all correct.

From the other members of the family Glossopleura it is distinguish-
able by its less developed furrows, the absence of a brim on the
cephalon, and the large size and posterior position of the eyes.

Range.—Apparently confined to the Middle Cambrian of Green-
land, the Appalachians, and the Rocky Mountains. Frequently the
species of this genus constitute the entire fauna, except that an
Alokistocare may go with it.

30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

DESCRIBED SPECIES REFERRED TO GLOSSOPLEURA

The four species from Greenland described by Poulsen appear to be
typical of the genus. ;

Glossopleura boccar (Walcott)

Dolichometopus boccar Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64,
no. 5, p. 363, pl. 52, fig. 1a, Ic, Ie, 1916. (Not fig. 1=G. stephenensis;
fig. 1b=G. bosworthensis; figs. 1d, 1f = G. nitida.)

Glossopleura boccar Poulsen, Meddels. Grgnland, vol. 70, p. 268 (gen. ref.)
1927.

It appears that four species are represented among the figured
specimens of D. boccar, consequently one form must be chosen as the
species, in order that the genotype of Glossopleura can be understood.
Keeping in mind Walcott’s habit of always writing the type locality
first, and the statement he makes on page 363 that D. boccar is from
the Mount Bosworth section, we may at once conclude that the latter
is the type locality and hence choose the types of D. boccar from the
illustrated specimens of locality 57g. This leads us to use figures 1a,
Ic, Ie, as the cotypes of G. boccar. Figure ta shows the cranidial
features imperfectly, first, because in the specimen the frontal ex-
tension of the glabella is bent down by rock folding, and second, the
photograph was cut off too short. Examination of the specimen, how-
ever, reveals that its glabella is essentially like that of Figure tc.

The specimens not illustrated from other localities referred to the
species with more or less reservation represent new forms. Numerous
unworked collections have been made from this zone, and it is pos-
sible that the species may be found in them, but a cursory study indi-
cates that most belong to new forms.

Description—Head and tail of even size, semicircular in outline.
Glabella nearly rectangular, but slightly constricted behind the center ;
glabellar furrows faint. Fixed cheeks practically confined to the palpe-
bral lobes ; none in front of the eyes. Eyes long and situated far back.

Thorax with seven segments.

Pygidial axis rather high and well marked by the dorsal furrow.
Five or six axial furrows distinguishable. Doublure wide, and when
pressed against test, makes a well-defined border; otherwise the
pleural lobes slope rather steeply down to the margin all around.
Pleural furrows traceable but not deep.

Middle Cambrian, Stephen; (loc. 57g) Mount Bosworth, British
Columbia.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 62703, 62705, 62707.

—_

=

NO. 5 CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES—RESSER 31

Glossopleura bosworthensis, n. sp.
Dolichometopus boccar Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5,
p. 363, fig. 1b only, 1916. (See preceding, G. boccar.)

Several cranidia and a hypostoma appear to constitute another
species. Compared with G. boccar, the glabella is even more nearly
rectangular, the eyes slightly longer and directed more outward.

Occurrence same as G. boccar.

Holotype-—U.S.N.M. no. 62704.

Glossopleura nitida, n. sp.

Dolichometopus boccar Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5,

p. 363, pl. 52, figs. 1d and 1f only, 1916. (See preceding, G. boccar.)

Cranidia of this species are much shorter than the others formerly
referred to G. boccar. The hypostoma is placed with the illustrated
pygidium because its surface ornamentation is similar.

Occurrence same as G. boccar.

Holotype—U.S.N.M. no. 62708; paratype, no. 62706.

Glossopleura stephenensis, n. sp.
Dolichometopus boccar Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5,
p. 363, pl. 52, fig. 1 only, 1916. (See preceding, G. boccar.)

Only this one impression representing the genus has been found
among the thousands of specimens collected from the Mount Stephen
fossil bed. Unfortunately, it is not well preserved.

Comparisons —Compared with D. boccar, to which it had been re-
ferred, this species has a shorter glabella without glabellar furrows,
and the dorsal furrow is more curved, causing greater expansion of
the glabella at both ends. In the tail axial and pleural furrows are
practically absent.

Middle Cambrian, Stephen; (loc. 14s) Mount Stephen, near Field,
British Columbia.

Holotype—U.S.N.M. no. 62702.

Glossopleura producta (Hall and Whitfield)

Ogyia producta Hall and Whitfield, U. S. Geol. Expl. goth Parallel, vol. 4,
p. 244, pl. 2, figs. 31-34, 1877.

Bathyuriscus productus Walcott (part), U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 30, p. 217,
pl. 30, fig. 1f and composite from two localities, 11, 1886. (Not Ic,
1d=G. piochensis; 1=G. parabola; ta, 1g, th=Anoria utahensis ;
1b=G. utahensis.)

Dolichometopus productus Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64,
no. 5, p. 369, pl. 53, figs. 2-2e only (all copies of originals), 1916.

Many species have been referred to this form. Every occur-
rence except unquestioned Ophir shale can be eliminated without
examination,

3

32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Middle Cambrian, Ophir, East Canyon, and (loc. 3c) Ophir,
Oquirrh range, Utah.
Cotypes.—U.S.N.M. nos. 15456, 15459.
Glossopleura parabola (Hall and Whitfield)
Ogygia parabola Hall and Whitfield, U. S. Geol. Expl. goth Parallel, vol. 4,
p. 245, pl. 2, fig. 35, 1877.
Bathyuriscus productus Walcott (part), U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 30, p. 217,
pl. 30, fig. 1e only, 1886. (See G. producta.)
Dolichometopus productus Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64,
no. 5, p. 360, pl. 53, figs. 2d only (copy of original figure), 1916.
This is a good species and should not have been included with
G. producta.
Occurrence same as preceding.

Holotype—U.S.N.M. no. 15456d.

Glossopleura packi, n. sp.

Bathyuriscus productus Walcott (part), U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 30, p. 217,
pl. 30, figs. 1c, Id only, 1886. (See G. producta.) Figures copied in
Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5, pl. 53, figs. 3-3, 1916.

Bathyuriscus productus Pack, Journ. Geol., vol. 14, p. 207, pl. 2, figs. 3-3b,
1906. (Also 4b which he assigned to Alokistocare piochensis. )

The cranidium of this species differs from G. producta in having
slightly smaller eyes and a wider glabella. On the other hand the
pygidium of G. packi is close to G. parabola and if we had the
cephalon of the latter, it also might be very similar. From G. parabola,
the new species differs chiefly in a more circular outline, a slightly
wider axis, and a relatively narrower doublure.

Middle Cambrian, Chisholm ; (loc. 31) 3 miles northwest of Pioche,
Nevada.

Holotype and paratypes—U.S.N.M. no. 15455.

Glossopleura belesis (Walcott)
Bathyuriscus belesis Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5, p. 338,
pl. 50, figs. I-17, 1916.

Middle Cambrian, Gordon; (loc. 4v) 6 miles up Gordon Creek,

Lewis and Clarke County, Montana.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 62667-76.

Glossopleura bion (Walcott)
Dolichometopus bion Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5, pl. 52,
figs. 2-2c, 1916.

There is some hesitation to placing this form in Glossopleura, but
the pygidium is altogether typical as are also the eyes and palpebral
lobes. The difference lies in the slightly concave brim and expand-
ing glabella.

NO. 5 CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES—RESSER 33

Middle Cambrian, Spence; (loc. 55c) Liberty Canyon, west of
Montpelier, Idaho.
Cotypes.—U.S.N.M. nos. 62709-62712.

Glossopleura utahensis, n. sp.
Bathyuriscus productus Walcott (part), U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 30, p. 217,
pl. 30, figs. 1, 1b, 1886.
Bathyuriscus anax Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5,
p. 335, pl. 48, fig. 1b, 1916.

Besides the figured head and cheek numerous other cranidia as well
as pygidia are on hand.

Middle Cambrian, Ophir ; (loc. 30a) 1 mile below Argenta, Cotton-
wood Creek, Wasatch Range, Utah.

Holotype and paratypes——U.S.N.M. no. 62641.

Glossopleura mckeei, n. sp.
Dolichometopus productus Walcott (not Hall and Whitfield), Smithsonian
Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5, p. 360, pl. 53, figs. 4, 4a, 1916.
Dolichometopus tontoensis Walcott (part), idem, pl. 51, figs. 1d’, 1d”, th
(others Anoria tontoensis).

Compared with G. producta, this species has a wider glabella, which
expands forward somewhat faster and the pygidium lacks the pleural
furrows and has much weaker axial furrows. In this respect it is
more like G. parabola.

The specific name is in recognition of the splendid work the present
Park Naturalist Edwin D. McKee is doing at the Grand Canyon.

Middle Cambrian, Bright Angel; (loc. 74e) Indian Garden Springs
and (loc. 74) Nankoweap Basin, Grand Canyon, Arizona.

Glossopleura buttsi, n. sp.
Dolichometopus ? productus Butts (not Hall and Whitfield), Geol. Surv. Ala-
bama, Spec. Rep. 14, pl. 5, figs. 8, 12, 17, 18, 1926.

This species differs from G. producta in having shorter cranidium
and pygidium.

Middle Cambrian, Conasauga; Aldrich, Alabama.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. no. 90169.

Glossopleura alabamensis, n. sp.
Dolichometopus ? productus Butts, Geol. Surv. Alabama, Spec. Rep. 14, pl. 5,
figs. 6, 7, 10, II, 13-16, 1926.

Compared with G. buttsi, this species has a smaller eye and less
fusion of the pleura in the tail.
Middle Cambrian, Conasauga ; 3 miles west of Talladegea, Alabama.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. no. 90170.

34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Glossopleura lodensis (Clark)
Bathyuriscus howelli lodensis Clark, Univ. California Publ., Bull. Dep. Geol
Sci., vol. 13, p. 6, 1921.
Dolichometopus ? lodensis Resser, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 81, no. 2,
p. 10, pl. 3, fig. 9, 1928.
Middle Cambrian; Marble Mountains, Mohave Desert, California.
Holotype—vU.S.N.M. no. 78400.

Glossopleura mohavensis, n. sp.
Dolichometopus ? productus Resser, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 81, no, 2,
p. 10, pl. 3, fig. 9, 1928.
Occurrence same as preceding.
Holotype-—On U.S.N.M. no. 78400.

GLYPHASPIS Poulsen, 1927
Glyphaspis Poulsen, Meddels. Gr¢nland, vol. 70, p. 273, 1927.

Poulsen described a species from Greenland, which may have to be
referred to another genus.

Comparisons.—As stated by Poulsen this genus differs from Asa-
phiscus in having genal spines, long-pointed pleura, and a broad, fur-
rowed pygidium, the pleural furrows of which are continued into the
concave border.

Genotype —Asaphiscus? capella Walcott.

Range.—Middle Cambrian.

DESCRIBED SPECIES REFERRED TO GLYPHASPIS

Glyphaspis capella (Walcott) Genotype
Asaphiscus ? capella Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5, p. 385,
pl. 59, figs. 2-2c, 1916.
Glyphaspis capella Poulsen, Meddels. Gr¢gnland, vol. 70, p. 273, 1927.

Middle Cambrian; (loc. 54z) Half Moon Pass, Big Snowy Moun-
tains, Montana.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 62761-4.

Glyphaspis calenus (Walcott)
Asaphiscus calenus Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5, p. 384,
pl. 60, figs. I-1c, 1916.

Middle Cambrian, Meagher ; (loc. 5£) 11 miles south of Neihart,
and Dry Creek, East Gallatin River, Montana.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 62765-62768.
Glyphaspis camma (Walcott)

Asaphiscus camma Walcott, Smithsonian Misc, Coll., vol. 64, no. 5, p. 384, pl.
60, figs. 2-2c, 1916.

NO. 5 CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES—RESSER 35

Middle Cambrian, Meagher ; (loc. 4g) 5 miles northeast of Logan,
Montana.
Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 62769-62772.

Glyphaspis ? montanensis (Whitfield)
Crepicephalus (Loganellus) montanensis Whitfield, Ludlow’s Rep. Recon.
Yellowstone Nat. Park, War Dep., p. 141, pl. 1, figs. 1, 2, 1876.
Specimen too poor to be sure of generic position.
Middle Cambrian, Meagher ; near Fort Logan, 18 miles northwest
of White Sulphur Springs, Montana.
Holotype—U.S.N.M. no. 90668.

IDAHOIA WALCOTT, 1924
Idahoia Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 75, no. 2, p. 58, 1924; idem, no. 3,
Pp. 94, 1925.
Genotype.—I. serapio Walcott.
Range.—Middle Upper Cambrian.

ADDITIONAL SPECIES REFERRED TO IDAHOIA

Idahoia wisconsinensis (Hall)
Conocephalites wisconsinensis Hall, 16th Ann. Rep. New York State Cab.
Nat. Hist., p. 164, pl. 7, figs. 39, 41; pl. 8, figs. 22-24, 27, 28, 1863.
Saratogia wisconsinensis Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3,
p. 198, pl. 34, figs. 5-5c, 1916.
Upper Cambrian, Franconia; Trempealeau and other localities in

Wisconsin.
Cotypes—A.M.N.H.

Idahoia latifrons (Hall)
Conocephalites latifrons Hall, 16th Ann. Rep. New York State Cab. Nat.
Hist., p. 122, pl. 7, fig. 40, 1863.
This form is a good species.
Upper Cambrian, Franconia ; Trempealeau, Wisconsin.
Holotype.—Presumably lost.

Idahoia hamulus (Owen)
Lonchocephalus hamulus Owen, Rep. Geol. Surv. Wisconsin, Iowa, Minne-
sota, p. 576, pl. 1A, figs. 8, 12, 1852.
Conocephalites hamulus Hall, 16th Ann. Rep. New York State Cab. Nat.
Hist., p. 166, pl. 7, figs. 43, 44; pl. 8, figs. 25, 26, 1863.
Saratogia hamulus Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3, p. 196,
Ig16.

Upper Cambrian, Franconia; Minneiska, Minnesota; Trempealeau
and other localities in Wisconsin.
Cotypes.—Original types destroyed ; plesiotypes, A.M.N.H. no. 315.

36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Idahoia hera (Walcott)
Saratogia hera Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3, p. 197, pl. 35,
figs. 3-3b, 1916.
Upper Cambrian, Franconia; Marine Mills, Minnesota.
Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 61715-6.

INGLEFIELDIA Poulsen, 1927
Inglefieldia Poulsen, Meddels. Gr¢gnland, vol. 70, p. 261, 1927.

This genus is closely allied to Kochiella, differing chiefly in having
a wider rim and lacking the doublure impression. The rim in turn
has the backward expansion opposite the center of the glabella.
Pygidium unknown.

Genotype.—TI. porosa Poulsen.

Range.—Upper portion of Lower Cambrian. At present no Middle
Cambrian species have been determined.

Inglefieldia porosa Poulsen scribed as Chancia

Inglefieldia planilimbata Poulsen Inglefieldia thia Poulsen (not Wal-
Inglefieldia groenlandica Poulsen cott’s species )

Inglefieldia inconspicua Poulsen Inglefieldia affinis Poulsen = new
Inglefieldia discreta Poulsen genus.

Inglefieldia venulosa (Poulsen), de-

KOCHASPIS, n. gen.

Numerous species referred to several genera, particularly to Crepi-
cephalus, when the pygidia were known, appear to be closely allied to
K ochiella.

Diagnosis —Cranidium wide. Glabella wide, tapering, clearly de-
fined, with two or more pairs of furrows. Brim wide, divided into
two subequal parts by anterior furrow which is shallow in the center ;
rim clearly defined. Fixed cheeks two-thirds width of glabella; eye
lines heavy; eyes rather small, situated at about the mid point of
cranidium. Free cheeks extended into long genal spines.

Pygidium with large prominent axis. Pleural furrows strong ;
pleural lobes drawn out into spines.

Surface granulose, lined or both.

Genotype.—Crepicephalus liliana Walcott.

Range.—Late Lower and Middle Cambrian.

DESCRIBED SPECIES REFERRED TO KOCHASPIS

Kochaspis liliana (Walcott)
Crepicephalus liliana Walcott (part), U. S. Geol. Surv. 30, p. 207, pl. 28,
figs. 3, 3a, 1886. (Not 3b, 3c—K. highlandensis) ; toth Ann. Rep. U. S.
Geol. Surv., p. 653, pl. 96, figs. 7, 7a, 1890; Smithsonian Misc. Coll.,
vol. 64, no. 3, p. 209, pl. 29, figs. 5, 5a, 1916.

NO. 5 CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES—RESSER By,

Careful separation of the specimens identified as this and other
species according to locality necessitates a realignment.

Lower Cambrian, Pioche; (loc. 31a) Panaca Road, southeast of
Pioche, Nevada.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. no. 15428.

Kochaspis augusta (Walcott)
Crepicephalus augusta Walcott (part), U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 30, p. 208, pl. 28,
fig. 2a, 1886. (Not 2=K. nevadensis; 2b = another genus.)
Locality same as preceding.
Holotype-—U.S.N.M. no. 15430.

Kochaspis nevadensis, n. sp.

Crepicephalus augusta Walcott (part), U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 30, p. 207,

pl. 28, fig. 2, 1886. (See preceding. )

Published figures exaggerate the narrowness which characterizes
this species.

Lower Cambrian, Pioche formation; (loc. 30) 8 miles north of
Bennetts Spring, Highland Range, Nevada.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 61643.

Kochaspis highlandensis, n. sp.
Crepicephalus liliana Walcott (part), U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 30, p. 208, pl. 28,
figs. 3b, 3c, 1886. (See preceding.)
Rim on published figure drawn too concave. Pygidium like K.
augusta but with narrower axis.
Occurrence same as preceding.
Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 61640-1.

Kochaspis cecinna (Walcott)
Crepicephalus cecinna Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 67, no. 3, p. 99,
Ok Tits WER, My i, OZ
Lower Cambrian, Mount Whyte; (loc. 63a) Ptarmigan Peak,
54 miles northeast of Lake Louise, Alberta.
Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 64365-6.

Kochaspis celer (Walcott)
Crepicephalus celer Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 67, no. 3, p. 101,
pl. 11, fig. 2, 1917.
Ptychoparia clusia Walcott, idem, pl. 11, fig. 3.
Middle Cambrian, Ptarmigan; (loc. 58k) Mount Stephen, 3 miles
east of Field, British Columbia.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 64367 ; paratype, no. 64368.

Kochaspis chares (Walcott)
Crepicephalus chares Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 67, no. 2, p. 35,
pl. 6, figs. 5-5c, 1917.

38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Cranidium may belong to another species.

Middle Cambrian, Ptarmigan ; (loc. 63d) east base Ptarmigan Peak,
3 miles northeast of Lake Louise, Alberta.

Cotypes.—U.S.N.M. nos. 63744-6.

Kochaspis ? gogensis (Walcott)
Ptychoparia gogensis Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 67, no. 3, p. 88,
pl. 12, figs. 4, 4a, 1917.
Lower Cambrian, Mount Whyte; (loc. 62w) above Gog Lake,
Wonder Pass, British Columbia.
Holotype-—U.S.N.M. no. 64386.

Kochaspis carina (Walcott)
Ptychoparia carina Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 67, no. 3, p. 80,
pl. 13, fig. 6, 6a, 1917.
Middle Cambrian, Ptarmigan ; (loc. 35m) 3 miles southwest of head
of Lake Louise, Alberta.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 64400.

,Kochaspis upis (Walcott)
Crepicephalus upis Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3, p. 218,
pl. 33, figs. 4-4d, 1916.
Middle Cambrian, Gordon Mountain; (loc. 150b) Chinese Wall,
South Fork, White River-Indian Creek Pass, Montana.
Lectotype-—U.S.N.M. no. 61697; paratypes, nos. 61695, 61696,

61608.
Kochaspis unzia (Walcott)
Crepicephalus unzia Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3,
p. 217, pl. 34, fig. 7a, 1916. (Not 7= undescribed genus.)
Occurrence same as preceding.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 61706.

KOCHIELLA Poulsen, 1927
Kochiella Poulsen, Meddels. Grgnland, vol. 70, p. 259, 1927.

We are here dealing with a group of trilobites which developed
greatly in late Lower Cambrian time, continuing into the Middle
Cambrian. Aside from the two genera made by Poulsen, this group
has long needed complete revision. Even now the final word cannot
be said.

Diagnosis —Trilobites with wide cranidia. Glabella clearly defined,
with three pairs of furrows usually developed. Brim wide flat or
concave, with a narrow rim faintly outlined ; conspicuous feature of
brim is impression of doublure on upper surface, which simulates a

NO. 5 CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES—RESSER 39

wide rim bent back toward the glabella at the middle. Fixed cheeks
wide, eye lines heavy ; eyes moderate in size and situated rather far
back. Free cheeks greatly expanded at genal angles, flat or concave
in the outer portion and with long, wide genal spines.

Pygidium with wide axis. Pleural furrows well defined and pleural
lobes extended into spines.

Surface usually with scattered granules often of more than one
size.

Owing to the width of the fixed cheeks, some species were referred
to Olenopsis, while those for which the pygidium was known were
placed in Crepicephalus.

Genotype.—K. tuberculata Poulsen.

Range.—Later Lower Cambrian, extending into Middle Cambrian.

DESCRIBED SPECIES REFERRED TO KOCHIELLA

Besides the species discussed below, there are K. propinqua Poulsen,
K. arcana Poulsen, and K. gracilis Poulsen.

Kochiella tuberculata Poulsen
Kochiella tuberculata Poulsen, Meddels. Grgnland, vol. 70, p. 259, pl. 15,
figs. 7-13, 16, 1927.
Crepicephalus cf. cecinna Poulsen, Meddels. Grgnland, vol. 70, p. 267, pl. 16,
HOS TZ) 1027.
There can be but little doubt that this pygidium represents a species
of Kochiella.
Lower Cambrian, Cape Kent; Cape Kent, North Greenland.
Cotypes.—Min. Mus. Copenhagen.
Kochiella crito (Walcott)
Olenopsis crito Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 67, no. 3, p. 75, pl. 11,
fig. 6-6b, 1917.
Lower Cambrian, Mount Whyte; (loc. 60e) Ptarmigan Lake Pass,
Alberta.
Lectotype —U.S.N.M. no. 64371; paratypes, nos. 64372-3.

KOCHINA, n. gen.

Certain Middle Cambrian species resemble Kochiella, but all differ
in the same manner and therefore are regarded as a distinct genus.

Comparisons.—K ochina differs from Kochiella in three respects:
First, the brim is narrower so that the preglabellar area is practi-
cally eliminated ; second, the converging course of the anterior facial
suture greatly reduces the area of brim at the anterior angles; and
third, the eyes have a more anterior position.

40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Genotype.—Olenopsis americanus Walcott.
Range.—Thus far confined to the Albertella zone of the Middle
Cambrian.

DESCRIBED SPECIES REFERRED TO KOCHINA

Kochina americana (Walcott)
Olenopsis americanus Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 57, no. 8, p. 243,
pl. 36, figs. 8-11, 1912.
Middle Cambrian, Gordon; (loc. 4v) Gordon Creek, Montana.
Cotypes.—U.S.N.M. nos. 58368-71.
Kochina bosworthensis, n. sp.
Olenopsis cf. americanus Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 67, no, 2, p. 37,
pl. 6, fig. 8-8b, 1917.
Middle Cambrian, Ptarmigan; Mount Bosworth (loc. 35c) and
Popes Peak, above Ross Lake (loc. 63j), British Columbia.
Lectotype —U.S.N.M. no. 63749; paratype, nos. 63450-1.

MACELLOURA, n. gen.

Diagnosis —Cranidium quadrate, facial sutures diverge anterior to
eye, making sharp, salient, down-turned anterior angles; postero-
lateral limbs short. Glabella quadrate, tapering but slightly ; extends
to anterior margin; without glabellar furrows; wide. Fixed cheeks
one-fourth width of glabella; eyes rather small.

Pygidium spade-shaped with anterior pleural furrows making up-
turned sides; dorsal furrow marked only by change in slope; axial
and pleural lacking ; axis tapering rapidly, half as long as pygidium.

Free cheeks and thorax not known.

Genotype.—lllaenurus ? dia Walcott.

Name.—Maked\a = spade ; ovpa= tail.

Range.—About middle Upper Cambrian, or somewhat younger.
Macelloura dia (Walcott)

Illaenurus ? dia Walcott, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 13, p. 277, pl. 20, fig. 6,

1890.

Nileus ? dia Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 57, no. 13, p. 359 (gen.

ref.), I914.

Upper Cambrian, Wilberns; (loc. 70a) Morgans Creek, Burnet
County, Texas.

Cotypes.—U.S.N.M. no. 23865.

METEORASFPIS, n. gen.

Diagnosis ——Cranidium but little larger than glabella. Glabella
large ; dorsal furrow well defined ; without glabellar furrows. Occipital

NO. 5 CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES—-RESSER 4!

furrow and rim well developed. Brim about one-third as wide as
glabella is long; heavy, thickened, up-turned rim separated by strong
anterior furrow; preglabellar area almost obsolete in front of glabella.
Fixed cheeks narrow, consisting entirely of the strongly arched palpe-
bral lobes and apparently narrow straps. Eyes rather large.

Genotype-—Ptychoparia ? metra Walcott.

Range.—Middle Upper Cambrian.

Name.—Mereopos = high ; aoms = shield.

Meteoraspis metra (Walcott)
Ptychoparia ? metra Walcott, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 13, p. 273, pl. 21,
fig. 7, 1890.

Upper Cambrian, Wilberns; (loc. 67) Potatotop, 7 miles northwest
of Burnet and (loc. 68) Packsaddle Mountain, 11 miles southeast of
Llano, Texas.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 23858.

MODOCIA Walcott, 1924

Modocia Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 75, no. 2, p. 59, 1924; idem, no. 3,
p. 106, 1925.
Genotype—Arionellus (Crepicephalus) oweni Meek and Hayden.
Range.—Upper Cambrian.

DESCRIBED SPECIES REFERRED TO MODOCIA

Modocia oweni (Meek and Hayden)

Arionellus (Crepicephalus) oweni Meek and Hayden, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Philadelphia, 1861, p. 436.

Modocia oweni Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 75, no. 2, p. 59,
pl 12) figs. 1, 2, 1924- idem, no. 3, p: 106, pl. 16, figs, I, 2, (not
3= WM. centralis), 1925. (Not Ptychoparia oweni Walcott = Ehmania
owent. )

This trilobite was referred by various authors to Agraulos, Ptycho-
paria, and Crepicephalus. Also several other species were included
under this name. Study of the types shows that the species occurs
only at the locality given below.

Upper Cambrian, Deadwood; head of Powder River, Big Horn
Mountains, Wyoming.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 1180.

Modocia centralis (Whitfield)
Crepicephalus (Loganellus) centralis Whitfield, Prelim. Rep. Pal. Black
Hills, U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 10, 1877; Rep. Geol. Res. Black Hills, U. S.
Geogr. and Geol. Surv., p. 341, pl. 2, figs. 21-24, 1880.

Modocia owem Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 75, no. 2, p. 59,
pl. 12, fig. 7, 1924; idem, no. 3, p. 106, pl. 16, fig. 3, 1925.

42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Upper Cambrian, Deadwood; Castle Creek, Black Hills, South
Dakota.
Cotypes—U.S.N.M. no. 24581.

Modocia berkeyi, n. sp.
Agraulos convexus Berkey, Amer. Geologist, vol. 21, p. 288, pl. 20, figs. 9-11,

pl. 21, figs. 3, 7, 1808.

Agraulos convexus var. A. Berkey, idem, pl. 20, figs. 1, 2, pl. 21, fig. 5.

Ptychoparia calymenoides Berkey, idem, pl. 20, figs. 3, 4, pl. 21, fig. 4.

It appears that variety A and the other specimens assigned to the
species are alike except for size. However, critical work will have to
be done to settle this point. Variety B of Berkey belongs to another
genus.

Upper Cambrian, Ironton; Taylors Falls, Minnesota.

Holotype-——Columbia Univ. no. 22283; paratypes, nos. 22286,
22307.

Modocia glomerata (Walcott)
Acrocephalites ? glomeratus Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 3,
Po l70, pl. 20, figs. 7, 7a; 1916:

This specimen is typical of the genus Modpcia, departing only in
the development of the median boss.

Upper Cambrian, Deadwood ; (loc. 340c) near Rawlings, Wyoming.

Holotype—U.S.N.M, no. 615901.

Moosia Walcott is a synonym of Elvinia Walcott (Smithsonian. Misc.
Coll., vol. 75, no. 3, p. 88, 1925).

PLAGIURA, n. gen.

Diagnosis —Cranidium large, smooth, rather flat; facial suture
converges slightly anterior to eyes ; behind the eyes it diverges rapidly,
forming wide, blunt postero-lateral limbs. Brim about one-third as
wide as the glabella is long; no rim separated. Fixed cheeks about
half width of glabella; eyes small, situated opposite anterior third of
the glabella. Free cheeks simple curved bands, with rounded genal
‘angles.

Pygidium triangular, broad, with anterior angles somewhat drawn
out; axis wide, well separated by change in slope and extends nearly
to rear margin ; axial and pleural furrows present.

Genotype.—Ptychoparia? cercops Walcott.

Range.—Upper Lower Cambrian, Canadian Rockies.

Name.—rAaywos = slanting ; ovpa=tail.

NO. 5 CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES—RESSER 43

Plagiura cercops (Walcott)
Ptychoparia ? cercops Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 67, no. 3, p. 81,
pl. 12, figs. 1-1d, 1917.

Lower Cambrian, Mount Whyte; (loc. 63c) 14 miles northeast of
Lake Louise, Alberta.
Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 64377-64381.

POLIELLA Walcott, 1916

Poliella Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5, p. 340, 1916.

This genus was established as a subgenus of Bathyuriscus, with the
statement that the pygidium was different. Even a cursory revision
of the trilobites referred to Bathyuriscus and related genera shows the
necessity of making this a full genus. Evidently, Walcott first in-
tended to use the form from Pole Creek, Bathyuriscus powersi, as
the genotype, but since he designated the Spence shale form, it be-
comes the genotype, and the genus is not represented at the Pole
Creek locality.

Diagnosis —Cephalon much larger than pygidium. Glabella quad-
rate, expanded anteriorly; two pairs of glabellar furrows usually
clearly defined, others very faint or absent. Eyes long, moderately
bowed. Brim when present narrow and simple.

Thorax with 7 to 9 segments.

Pygidium with wide, well-defined axis; pleura usually fused ; two
to four pleural furrows extend to the margin; rim absent.

Comparisons——Compared with Bathyuriscus, Poliella is distin-
guished by its fewer thoracic segments, larger eyes, and much smaller
tail.

Genotype-—Bathyuriscus (Poliella) anteros Walcott.

Range.—Middle Cambrian.

Species formerly referred to Poliella:

P. powersi= Bathyuriscus P. sylla= Clavaspidella
P. probus = Clavaspidella

DESCRIBED SPECIES REFERRED TO POLIELLA

Besides the species discussed below, the following belong to the
genus.

Poliella anteros Walcott Poliella chilo Walcott
Polhiella balus Walcott

44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Poliella occidentalis (Matthew)

Dolichometopus occidentalis Matthew, Trans, Roy. Soc. Canada, 2d ser., vol. 5,
sec. 4, p. 49, pl. 2, fig. 2, 1890.

Bathyuriscus pupa Matthew, idem, p. 51, pl. 2, fig. 5.

Bathyuriscus occidentalis Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 53, no. 2,
p. 41, 1908. Walcott, Canadian Alpine Journ., vol. 1, pt. 2, pl. 3, fig. 2,
1908.

Bathyuriscus (Poliella) occidentalis Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64,
no. 5, p. 351, pl. 46, fig. 3, 1916.

Owing to the poor preservation of the holotype, this species would
be inadequately represented except that two excellent carapaces have
just been discovered in our collections. It seems that the pygidium
fits Poliella. The published figures are restored more than warranted.

Middle Cambrian, Stephen ; (loc. 14s) Mount Stephen, near Field,
British Columbia.

Holotype—Royal Ontario Museum (casts U.S.N.M. no. 62621).

. Poliella prima (Walcott)

Bathyuriscus (Poliella) primus Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll.,
vol. 64, no. 5, p. 352, pl. 46, figs. 6, 6a, 6b, 1916. (Not 6c, d=P.
castlensis.)

This is described as a Lower Cambrian species but belongs to the
Ptarmigan formation.

Middle Cambrian, Ptarmigan; (locs. 35m, 35e) 3 miles southwest
of the head of Lake Louise, Alberta.

Lectotype-—U.S.N.M. no. 62624; paratype no. 62623.

Poliella castlensis, n. sp.
Bathyuriscus (Poliella) primus Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll.,
vol. 64, no. 5, p. 352, pl. 46, figs. 6c, d, 1916.

It is necessary to separate this head from P. prima because of its
wider brim and eyes which have a more divergent position.

Middle Cambrian, Ptarmigan ; (loc. 58t) Castle Mountain, Alberta.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 62626.

Poliella caranus (Walcott)
Bathyuriscus (Poliella) caranus Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64,
no. 5, p. 350, pl. 46, fig. 5, 1916.

This form barely remains within the genus because of its greatly
reduced brim.

Middle Cambrian, Spence; (loc. 55c) Liberty Canyon, west of
Montpelier, Idaho.

Holotype—U.S.N.M. no. 62628.

—_ -

NO. 5 CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES—RESSER 45

STROTOCEPHALUS, n. gen.

Diagnosis —Cranidium alone available. Facial suture diverges an-
teriorly to rather sharp anterior angles; glabella tapering with faint
furrows ; occipital furrow shallow; occipital ring slightly thickened.
Brim wide, concave, and without a rim, striated vertically ; eye lines
developed; palpebral lobes of moderate size, situated far back.

Comparisons.—Differs from Alokistocare in two points, viz, sharper
anterior angles and more posterior position of the eyes.

Genotype —S. gordonensis, n. sp.

Name.—Xzporos = spread, xepados = head.

Range.—At present confined to Middle Cambrian.

Strotocephalus gordonensis, n. sp.
Ptychoparia pylas Walcott (part), Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 67, no. 2,
pl. 6, fig. 4c, 1917. (Other figs. Elrathia.)

Middle Cambrian, Gordon; (locs. 4q, 4v) Gordon and Youngs
Creeks, Ovanda quadrangle, Montana.
Holotype—U.S.N.M. no. 63743.

WEEKSINA, n. gen.

Two species from the Upper Cambrian of the House Range referred
to the Middle Cambrian genus Asaphiscus are distinct in many
respects.

Diagnosis —Entire trilobite ovate; convexity not determinable.
Facial suture diverges anterior to the eyes and is intramarginal two-
thirds of the distance to the center so that the anterior angles are
strongly rounded. Glabella wide, rounded in front; glabellar fur-
rows short, but fairly deep. Brim of moderate width; rim thickened
and, owing to course of the suture, sharply narrowed toward anterior
angles. Fixed cheeks narrow; eyes fairly large; palpebral lobes
strongly bowed. Free cheeks with well-defined rim and blunt genal
angles.

Thorax with 10 or 12 segments; tips of pleura blunt ; long spine on
axis of next to last or third from last pleuron.

Pygidium half the size of the cephalon; axis well defined, rather
wide, and extending nearly to rear margin; axial and pleural furrows
distinct.

Surface granulose.

Genotype.—Asaphiscus ? unispinus Walcott.

Range.—Presumably early Upper Cambrian.

46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS — VOL. 93

DESCRIBED SPECIES REFERRED TO WEEKSINA

Weeksina unispina (Walcott) ‘
Asaphiscus ? unispinus Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5, p. 389,
pl. 61, fig. 1, 1916.
Upper Cambrian, Weeks ; (loc. 30n) Weeks Canyon, House Range,
Utah.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 62775.

Weeksina granulata (Walcott)
Asaphiscus ? granulatus Walcott, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 64, no. 5, p. 385,
pl. 61, figs. 2, 2a, 1916.
Number of thoracic segments uncertain.
Occurrence same as preceding.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 62776-7.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 93, NUMBER 6

Pon OS LOSES

(WitH Five PLATEs)

BY

ALES HRDLICKA

Curator, Division of Physical Anthropology,
U. S. National Museum

(PUBLICATION 3296)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
MAY 14, 1935

The Lord Baltimore Press

BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. Ay

CONTENTS

PAGE

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iv CONTENTS VOL. 93

PAGE

Miscelllatieotis’ \CatS@Si asc orescorec ters acs.o a innover ovate e havatetee enerojee tenn teuerrens Celtel 73

Enbineedimeri ocr otic fee icrectes nh dis2 oie joieathe eta a ata neers eae vet eater 73

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Connection with exostoses of inner ear, or of other parts of the

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SHG: Bac avchaieteiesss ale oS gras o tee aah winlaneyniay oral piaverore Ar suaie cara Revel TaRN rere e orereaieiete rete 81
Constitutional diseases, local pathological conditions, traumatisms, irri-

LCL tol ee aE Gel Aten Kerr eR IA picroR AG pie Sao. Aor 82

The iwenenall Featise sr, «cs: sare ciate aha stavensuves Sie, ones ope versioueis Ocoee recenevaraiarcrele tetera 82

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Bibliographiy:® & Sa aericies sciste soe eee CIO ee ORS Se See rei nenereieiere 86

Index of authors). 2 Saciaac aoe outs ecleeone Bee Nene Cee tater etme tei lare one ere tenet 909

BAR EXOSTOSES

By ALES HRDLICKA
Curator, Division of Physical Anthropology, U. S. National Museum

(WirH Five PLates)
INTRODUCTION

Few subjects in racial osteopathology have received more attention
than that of ear exostoses, and this not only in Whites, but also in
the American aborigines.

The term “ear exostoses”’ is used here for the sake of brevity.
Under it are understood all distinct bony excrescences or tumors within
the external auditory canal, of whatever form or size, from the emi-
nence, ridge, or “ pearl”’, that can definitely be recognized as an ab-
normal formation, to the more or less irregular bony masses that in
some cases fill almost the whole lumen of the meatus and may even
protrude from its mouth.

These growths have received a number of names. They belong to the
“enosthoses ” of Von Rokitansky ; Toyabee called them “ osteomata ”’,
Roosa “ hyperplastic osteomata ”, Steinbriigge “ periosteal osteomata ”.
Kessel distinguished hyperostoses, exostoses, periostoses, and osteo-
phytes. Other authors use mostly the terms hyperostoses and ex-
ostoses, acknowledging that the two merge into each other. In general,
however, as stated by Dahlstrom (1923, p. 217), “ these growths have
come to be understood as exostoses.”

5

LITERATURE

Bony growths in the auditory canal were doubtless known to medi-
cal men long ago, but what seems to be the first printed record of such
an abnormality appeared in 1809, when Autenrieth* reported a case

* Autenrieth, J. H. F., Arch. Physiol., vol. 9, p. 349, Halle, 1809. As the first
report, the case deserves perhaps to be cited in full and in the original:

“ Bey einem vierzigjahrigen Weibe, das sieben Jahre frither eine Hemiplegie
der linken Seite erlitten hatte, und im Frtthjahr von 1808 an einer Wiederholung
des Schlagflusses gestorben war; ihr ganzer Schadel zeigte sich schief, und
weiter auf der rechten, als linken Seite, die Jugular-Venen Grube ungewohnlich
weit, links auserst klein. Die eigentlich Zitzenfortsatze waren gehorig gross
und sich einander gleich; aber der rechte knécherne Gehorgang durch einen

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 93, No. 6

2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

in a white female. In a woman of 4o who died of apoplexy and whose
skull showed asymmetry, “the right external meatus was nearly
closed, except for a vertical fissure hardly as broad as a line, by a
bubblelike bony growth proceeding from the posterior and upper side.”
The interior of the exostosis was cancellous; and no connection was
found between its cellular spaces and those of the mastoid.

In the thirties of the last century these bony growths in the ears
were evidently repeatedly encountered by Kramer, who does not,
however, clearly differentiate them from polyps. Kramer (1837), says,
speaking of polypoid conditions:

These granulations may be either soft, spongy, of a very red colour, vesicular,
bleeding readily on the slightest touch, sensitive, covered with copious mucous
secretion, pedunculated, or globular; or they may be broad of base, and be of
cartilaginous or almost bony hardness, insensible, bleeding little or not at all,
and rather of a pale red colour. (P. 107.)

* * * *

One case in particular I cannot avoid here mentioning. A stalactite-shaped
growth hung from the superior surface of the meatus, very near the membrana
tympani, and was of so remarkable a bony hardness and density, that it was
impossible to pierce it even with the sharpest knife. (P. 118.) [This could only
have been an ear exostosis. ]

Notwithstanding these early reports, the knowledge of bony growths
in the ears lags until the middle of the nineteenth century. Von
Rokitansky (1864) lays a broad foundation for the knowledge and dif-
ferential diagnosis of exostoses, hyperostoses, and osteophytic ex-
crescences of human bones. Toynbee (1855-60) reports nine cases of
ear tumors from his practice and discusses ably the whole subject of
these exostoses. Von Troeltsch (1862-81) gives due attention to bony
growths of the ear, to be followed by Bonnafont (1865-68) and others.
Beginning with 1864, these conditions commence to assume also an
anthropological importance.

blasenf6rmigen Knochenauswuchs von der obern und hintern Seite her, bis zu
einer in der Mitte kaum linien breiten senkrechten Spalte verschossen. Dieser,
einer knéchernen Gehorblase der Thier ahnliche, Knochenauswuchs war durch
eine Rinne von den tibrigen Theilen des Schlafknochen geschieden, ihnen ganz
zelligt ; doch fanden wir keine Verbindung dieser Luftzellen mit denen des eigent-
lichen Zitzenfortsatzes; der GehoOrgang wurde durch ihn in der Mitte seiner
Lange noch mehr zusammengedritckt, als bey seinem Eingang, doch erhielt er
gegen die Trommelhohle zu wieder seine gewohnliche Weite. Die Substanz des
Knochenauswuches selbst war gesund, so wie inneren Theile des Gehorganges
waren.” :

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 3

Seligmann (1864),’ of Vienna, reports finding ear exostoses in
five out of six highland “Inca” skulls with Aymara deformation
(four out of five in his 1870 account). All the skulls with the ex-
ostoses were males, the remaining one was a female. Seligmann con-
cluded that these abnormalities did not occur in the Peruvian “ flat-
heads’; that the circular deformation of his specimens was not the
cause, for similarly deformed skulls from elsewhere did not show the
tumors ; that the exostoses were restricted to males above 16 years of
age; and that they were caused by an extension of an inflammatory
process brought on by irritation due to the piercing of the ears, force-
ful enlargement of the openings for large ear ornaments, and the car-
rying of such heavy ornaments—at and after the initiation ceremonies
of the Incaic youth.

The next report of anthropological interest on these abnormalities
is that of Welcker (1864), who opposes Seligmann’s views as to the
causation of the tumors. He found them in two out of nine crania of
Marquesas Islanders of the Barnard Davis collection and also in an
undeformed skull of a Fox Indian.

Toynbee (1860) gives the first statistical datum on the frequency
of these growths in a given population—in 1,013 diseased ears of
the English he found ear exostoses in 14, or 1.03 percent of the tem-
porals.

The year 1874 brings to light the first two American contributions
to the subject, one by a physical anthropologist of note, the other by
a physician. Jeffries Wyman (1874), Curator of the Peabody Mu-
seum, reports having found the exostoses in 8 out of 330 crania from
Ancon, Peru; and Blake informs Wyman (Wyman, 1874), that he
found the growths in about 5 of 1,000 cases (or 0.5 percent) of
American Whites treated for diseases of the ear. There is not much
discussion, but Wyman states that the growths “ vary in size from a
pin’s head to that of the whole calibre of the canal.”

In his Thesaurus Craniorum (London, 1867) and its supplementary
volume (1874), J. Barnard Davis refers to the presence of auditory
exostoses, among the crania of his collection, in the two skulls re-
ported by Welcker, in another specimen from the Marquesas Islands,

*One or two authors give the credit of the first report of an ear exostosis
in an American Indian to Zschokke (Uber eine merkwiirdige bisher unbekannte
krankhafte Veranderung an Menschenknochen aus Peru. Wiirzburger Inaug.—
Diss., Arau, 1845), but this author reports on peculiar multiple exostoses in
six old Peruvian bones without touching on those of the skull.

* According to Virchow (Klin. Wochenschr., 1893, p. 636), Seligmann himself
in later years gave up his former opinion.

4. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

in a skull from the Loyalty Islands, in three Kanaka crania from the
Sandwich Islands, in the skull of one of the Khas tribe from Nepal,
in the skull of an ancient Roman, and in four Peruvian crania belong-
ing to the Quichua Indians (quoted also by Turner, 1878).

Lucien Carr (1878) includes the following notes on ear exostoses
in his report on 67 crania from the stone graves in Tennessee: “ Small
bony tumors are found in the outer opening of the ear in seven of
the brachycephalic and in two among the flattened skulls of class
four; but they are not present in either of the other groups. This
percentage, a little more than one in seven, is greater than Professor
Wyman found among the Peruvian crania in which it existed one
in 41.25, or among Europeans, among whom it is said by Dr. C. J.
Blake to be found in about five out of a thousand.”

In 1879, in an article on the “ Exostoses within the External Audi-
tory Meatus”’, William Turner reports ear exostoses in a deformed
skull from Peru, and also in one of a flat-head Chinook Indian. Seven-
teen other artificially deformed crania from North and South America
were free of exostoses, though several presented a greater or lesser
narrowing of the auditory canal. “ There would thus appear to be
a tendency on the part of the aboriginal inhabitants of the American
continent to possess modifications in the configuration of the external
auditory passage.”

In the same year (1879) Flower, in his well-known “ Catalogue”,
notes ear exostoses in 20 crania, as follows: of 12 Guanche, exostoses
in 1; of 44 Chatham Islanders, in 4; of 11 “ flat-heads ’ of Northwest
American coast, in 1; of 3 from Tennessee mounds, in 2; of 147
from Peru, in 9; of 107 Australians, in 1; of 20 Melanesians, in 2.
There is no discussion.

An important account of ear exostoses in North American crania is
that of Blake (1880). He reexamined for this abnormality the Indian
crania in the Peabody Museum of Harvard University and found the
growths in 36 of 195 skulls (a large majority with fronto-occipital
compression) from the old mounds and stone graves of Tennessee
(18.5 percent), and in 5 out of 108 (undeformed) Indian crania of
California (4.6 percent). The exostoses “ occurred in both canals in
12 out of 36 crania, and of the remainder in the right canal in 9, in the
left canal in 15. Of all the exostoses detected, 54 in number (counting
the triple exostosis found, as one), 42 occurred on the posterior and 12
on the anterior wall of the canal. Making the division into ‘ rounded ’
and ‘ flattened’ to distinguish the two forms principally assumed by
these growths, 12 belonged to the former and 42 to the latter class.”
In discussing the etiology of these formations Blake reaches no definite

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 5

conclusion, but points to the probable influence of “ hereditary ten-
dency ”, without intimation as to what he means by this term.

Miss Studley (1881), in a study of 22 adult Indian crania from
Coahuila, Mexico (15 male, 7 female), found ear exostoses in 7 of
the males, in none of the females.

In 1864, 1875, 1885, 1889, 1892 and again in 1893, attention to ear
exostoses, particularly in American crania, is called by Rudolf Vir-
chow. Among 134 mostly deformed (“ flat-head ”’) skulls from Ancon,
Peru, he found 18 (13.4 percent) with one or more bony tumors in
the external auditory canal. Virchow accentuates the fact that these
growths start generally from the tympanic-ring portion of the meatus.
In discussing their causation he is at first strongly inclined to associate
them with arthritis deformans. Later he evidently weakens in this
opinion and believes (1893) that they “are plainly products of a
pathological nature ”’; that “ like all exostoses, they owe their inception
to a pathological irritation restricted to the pars tympanica ” ; that pos-
sibly they may have some connection with chronic arthritis deformans,
also with multiple exostoses of the skeleton; that mechanical causes
such as suggested by Seligmann may have a favoring effect on their
production ; that they are “ examples of disturbed development, which
probably begins in and proceeds from the end parts of the annulus
tympanicus ”’; and that head deformation is without effect on their
production.

Politzer (1889) reports a case of an aural exostosis in a skull from
Borneo. He gives considerable attention to the subject of ear exostoses
in his well-known Textbook and in other writings. He failed to find
any instance of the abnormality in over 1,000 crania of Whites.

Hartmann (1893) reports 14 cases of bony ear tumors in a little
over 9,000 White patients (German), or about 1.5 percent.

An extensive series of observations on these abnormalities is pub-
lished by Ostmann (1894). His report extends to 2,633 skulls, on
2,320 of which he made personal observations, the others being taken
from various other authors. The specimens were in the main those
of the Konigsberg, Berlin, Halle, Senkenberg, Darmstadt, and Breslau
anatomical collections, and the series comprised skulls of 1,054 Euro-
peans, 516 Egyptians, 491 Asiatics, 267 Negroes, 113 Australians
and Pacific Islanders, and 202 American Indians.

In this material bony outgrowths in the auditory meatus were found
in but 16 crania, of which 13 (6.4 percent) were American, 2 (1.8
percent) Polynesian (both Hawaiians), and 1 (0.2 percent) Egyp-
tian. No exostoses were found in the Negroes, the Asiatics, or the
Europeans.

6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Of the 13 American skulls with exostoses in the Ostmann report,
12 are from Peru. The total number of Peruvian crania examined
is 111, which gives the frequency of 10.8 percent. As to location of
the abnormality in the 12 Peruvian skulls, there was some form of
bony outgrowth three times on the right side, twice on the left, and
seven times bilaterally. In the remaining Indians and the three non-
Indian skulls with ear exostoses, the condition was bilateral in all.

Struck by the frequency of the outgrowths in the American Indians
and apparently also in the Polynesians, Ostmann collected all other
cases relating to these two groups from previous reports, so that the
final number of specimens reached 606 Indians (largely Peruvian),
with bony ear growths in 78 (11.5 percent); and 283 “ Pacific
Islanders ” with ear exostoses in 10 (3.5 percent). The American
skulls included those of Blake and others mentioned in the present
references. Ostmann failed to find records of the abnormality in other
races.

As to location, Ostmann saw the exostoses always at the edges of
the tympanic ring, on its posterior as well as the anterior border. In
one case, however, he found two little “ buttons” originating within
the meatus near the ring; the picture of that specimen shows the
tympanic ring to be thick and bulging at its edges.

Ostmann enters into the discussion of exostoses of the ear in rela-
tion to skull deformation. Like Blake, he has given close attention
to the shape and size of the opening of the auditory canal and believes
erroneously “ that, on the whole, the form of the lumen of the meatus
depends on the form of the skull, and that in general dolichocephalic
crania will show a rounder, brachycephalic crania a more oblongly-oval
meatus.” * Artificial deformation of the skull, he believes, has a de-
cided effect on the form of the meatus, and the cause of the tympanic
exostoses is largely connected with the deformations of the skull. It
seems very probable to Ostmann that the narrowing of the opening of
the meatus consequent upon the skull deformation results in an irrita-,
tion which so disturbs the development of the tympanic ring that,
especially when any other tendency toward the formation of exostoses
exists, hypertrophies in the ossifying parts will result, leading to
exostoses.’ “ The frequent occurrence of exostoses of the outer ear

*“ Wir konnen demnach sagen, dass die Form des Gehorgangslumens im
Grossen und Ganzen abhangig ist von der Schadelform, und dass im Allgemeinen
zu dem dolichocephalen Schadel der mehr kreisrunde, zu dem brachycephalen
Schadel der mehr langlichovale Gehorgang gehort.” (P. 273.)

*“Tn diesen ktinstlich veranderten oder in der Veranderung begriffenen Raum
wachst der knécherne Gehorgang hinein, und es will mir als sehr wahrscheinlich

NO. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA Ci)

in the old Peruvians may be explained through the action of two
causes, the peculiar compression of the outer part of the canal in the
brachy- and hyper-brachychephalic [i. e., deformed, flat-head] skulls,
and especially a given tendency towards excessive bone growth, such
as is manifested through multiple exostoses.” °

The same year (1894) George Dorsey reports, in his paper on the
“Crania from the Necropolis of Ancon, Peru”, 4 crania with ear
exostoses among 58 skulls of males (near 7 percent), and 2 among 28
undeformed skulls of females (a little over g percent) ; but the report
is of a somewhat casual nature and probably does not fully represent
conditions in this respect as they existed in the series of skulls Dr.
Dorsey examined.

Bezold (1895) reports the frequency of ear exostoses in over 19,000
White (mainly German) patients with ear troubles to have been
0.6 percent.

A brief report on ear exostoses in American crania is made by Ten
Kate (1896). In 50 crania from various localities on the coast of
Peru he found 4 with ear exostoses ; in 110 Calchaqui skulls of north-
western Argentina there was none with such a formation. In view of
his evidence he is strongly of the opinion that cranial deformation
has no connection with the bony tumors.

The same year Von Luschan, in dealing with various defects and
deformations in the external auditory meatus, particularly in deformed
skulls from Peru and Argentina, touches also on the meatal hyper-
ostoses and exostoses. He gives no new data, but expresses the opinion
that these conditions cannot be attributed to head deformation, for
on one hand they are absent from many of the most deformed skulls,
and on the other they occur also in skulls that have no deformation.
The real causes of these bony growths are uncertain; in individual
cases they may perhaps originate in consequence of the constant drag
produced by heavy ear pendants and great enlargement of the lobule.

erscheinen, dass wir in dieser besonderen, kunstlich geschaffenen Raumverdan-
derung und Beschrankung ein Irritamentum zu suchen haben, welches das
wachsende Os tympanicum in seiner normalen Entwicklung derartig zu stoOren
vermochte, dass es, bei einer aus irgend welchen anderen Griinder vorhandenen
Disposition zur Exostosenbildung, tiberhaupt an Stellen welche zur Ossification
schritten, excessiv wucherte und somit Exostosen des dusseren Gehorgans
erzeugte.” (P. 274.)

°“Aus dem besonderen Zusammenwirken zweier Momente, der eigenartigen
Verdrtickung des ausseren Gehdrgans bei den brachy- und hyperbrachycephalen
Schadeln und einer gegebenen Neigung zu excessivem Knochenwachsthum iiber-
haupt, wie sie durch die Exostosis multiplex zu Tage tritt, wiirde sich somit das
so auffallend haufige Vorkommen von Exostosen des ausseren Gehorgans bei
den alten Peruanern erklaren lassen.” (P. 275.)

8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

The largest series of American crania examined for tympanic ex-
ostoses before the present work is that of Russell (1900). It com-
prised in all the skulls of 1,369 American aborigines, which gave
the following proportions of exostoses :

Ear Exostoses tn American Aborigines

Exostoses Per- Exostoses Per-

Crania in crania cent Crania in crania cent
SIgiskinionengeniaeie fe) fa) 22 New Mexico
64 Indians, New (pueblos)..... fe) fa)
England. fo) O 158 Indians, Calif.... 2 THe
58 Indians, Florida. . 2 5.2 66 Indians, Pueblo
456 Ohio and and Plains.... 2 BEO
Tennessee 47 Indians, Mexican 4 8.5
Gnourrds) jaye 69 I if 447 Indians, Peru....| 24 5.4

Total no. of subjects, 1,369; total no. of skulls with ear exostoses, 104;
percent, 7.6.

Russell’s comments on the abnormalities are as follows:

There is a tendency in all races toward the formation of bony tumours or
exostoses in the external auditory meatus. The tendency is increased in de-
formed crania, though it is now believed that such exostoses are not a necessary
accompaniment of deformation; in support of this it will be noted that the small
series of crania from New Mexico with pronounced occipital deformation exhibit
not a single case of tympanic exostosis. .... The exostoses varied in size from
minute nodules to large tumorous growths and, in several instances, resulted in
complete occlusion of the external auditory meatus.

Ranke (1900) found, among 21 skulls from Ancon, 3 (14 percent)
with ear exostoses. He regarded these as examples of an “ endemic
disease common to the burial grounds of Ancon as well as those of old
Peru in general.” *

Moore (1900) reports that ear exostoses are “ common in Hawaii”,
but gives no data or observations ; and Meyer and Jablonowski (1901,
p- 75) mention such growths in 2 among 24 crania from Easter Island.

Le Double and Lebourg (1903) report 9 cases of these growths in
46 skulls of American Indians (19.6 percent). Their causation is
uncertain: they are evidently neither congenital ‘as was supposed by
Velpeau”’, nor of pathological origin.

In 1904 Korner states that he found ear exostoses at Rostock in 16
cases among 2,162 patients with ear troubles, or 0.74 percent ; along the

“The printed table contains errors which have here been corrected. The

material examined includes that reported on by Blake.
*“Fine fiir das Totenfeld von Ancon, wie fiir alle altperuanischen Leichen-
p
statten endemische Erkrankungsform.”

NO. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 9

seacoast of Germany he encountered III cases in 2,876 aural patients,
or 3.86 percent.

One of the later treatises of anthropological interest on the auditory
canal and its exostoses is a dissertation by Bachauer (1909). He made
glue casts and measurements of the canal. Among the 33 Peruvian
skulls of the Miinich anthropological collection (including doubtless
those reported upon by Ranke), he found 4 (12.1 percent) with
exostoses. Bachauer takes up various questions in connection with
the meatus. He finds that the only relation between the skull and
the auditory canal is that in general large skulls have large canals,
and small skulls smaller ones. He does not find that the dolicho-
cephalic have a round, and the brachycephalic an oval, meatus, as was
claimed by Ostmann. He also reaches the conclusion that race makes
no difference in the shape of the lumen of the canal. But there is a
decrease of the lumen in some deformed skulls. His wax casts com-
prised a series of deformed American and undeformed European
skulls. He measured the longitudinal and transverse diameters at the
orifice and found decreased lumen in 5 among 32 skulls from Pachac-
amac (15.6 percent). In three deformed skulls from that locality
there were slitlike canals. Bachauer’s main deduction is that the cause
of the tympanic exostoses has not yet been found, but that their
formation is no special characteristic of the old Peruvians.

In 1913, in my report on the results of my observations on the
skeletal remains in Peru, I gave the following brief note on ear exos-
toses (Hrdlicka, 1914):

A relatively large proportion of the pre-Columbian people of the more central
parts of the Peruvian coast suffered, as shown by the skulls, from a greater or
lesser occlusion of the external auditory canals by bony tumors. These are gen-
erally hard osteomata, from one to three in number, ranging in size from those
like a minute drop to those of several millimeters in diameter, mostly rounded
or pearl-shape, but occasionally irregular, frequently with enamel-like surface,
and situated just within, or perhaps protruding slightly from the orifice of the
osseous meatus. These little tumors, which are associated with no signs of
any inflammatory nature, develop invariably from the tympanic ring and particu-
larly from its extremities. They were in no case seen to coalesce, and though
they may almost close the meatus they were never seen to do this entirely.

Similar osteomata occur, though far less frequently, among the Whites; and
they are found occasionally in the skull of a North American Indian.

Further attention to aural exostoses, in part from the anthropo-
logical standpoint, is given by Burton (1927), who has studied
those parts of my Peruvian collections which are housed in the Mu-
seum of San Diego. Burton’s examination of 26 deformed skulls
from Peru showed 5 cases of exostosis in the canal and 1 in the middle

10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

ear; 52 other Peruvian crania of the collection showed 5 with ex-
ostoses (in all 12.82 percent). Regrettably, the rest of the data are
presented in a form that is difficult to understand, and there appear
to be some bad printer’s errors. To his interesting discussion as to
the causation of these growths we shall return later.

In 1930 two important contributions to the subject of ear exostoses
among the American aborigines are made independently by Oetteking
in New York and Alexander in Vienna. Oetteking (1930) studied
the skulls of the northwest coast of North America, Alexander (1930)
mainly those of Channel Islands, California.

Oetteking’s material is given in the table on page II.”

In addition to the above Dr. Oetteking examined 43 skulls of the
young, belonging to all the above series (including 10 Chinook), with-
out finding any exostosis.

There is no discussion of the pathogeny of the tumors.

Alexander, on a visit to the United States, examined 550 Indian
crania. His data are not given in as organized a way as would be
desirable. There is no information as to how many specimens were in
the different groups involved, and there was no sexing. The total
number of skulls with ear exostoses was 30 (5.5 percent). A large
majority of the skulls, and also of those with exostoses, were from
California. The author adds an account of 21 (erroneously given as
22, nos. 3 and 15 being duplicates) cases of Austrian Whites with such
growths, and goes into a detailed discussion of the whole subject.

In 1930, too, Moodie reports a case of ear exostoses in a California
Indian; and in 1931 he mentions and illustrates, although with few
details and no discussion, six cases in the Peruvian skulls of my
San Diego collection, which doubtless had also been included in
Burton’s report.

The latest and among the most important contributions to the subject
of ear exostoses from the anthropological point of view is that of
Moller-Holst (1932). He examined 341 Chile-Bolivian skulls, of
which 57 (16.7 percent) showed ear exostoses. Strangely, a larger
proportion of these were in the undeformed crania (18 percent) than
in the deformed (14.8 percent). In 250 skulls of German Whites
there was but I case of exostoses. The author deals with the subject
comprehensively and with much detail.

* Data in his memoir supplemented by Dr. Oetteking in correspondence and
arranged by the present writer.

-

EAR EXOSTOSES—-HRDLICKA

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I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

SUMMARY

The data presented in the preceding pages together form a consid-
erable mass of material of anthropological interest. To make them
more easily graspable, they are abstracted in the following tables.

The statistical data on the White peoples are not as comprehensive
or as uniform as might be desired, yet there is something of harmony.
Ear exostoses in European and American Whites, taken as a whole,
are scarce ; among those with ear troubles they are found in from 0.4
to 1.5 percent of the cases, except along the German seacoast, where
the percentage is apparently higher. Their racial and local frequencies
within the White stem at large cannot as yet be estimated.

Added to the above observations on Whites may be those of I case
of ear exostoses (among 12 skulls) in the Guanche; I in a Nubian;
and I (among 516 skulls or 0.2 percent) in an old Egyptian.

Very different and more precise are the data on the American In-
dian. Here there are no reports on the living, all the observations
having been made on skulls; and the skulls show many of the smaller
ear exostoses that would give little if any trouble during life and hence
would not come under the attention of the otologist, were he present,
thus affecting the statistics. In other words, it is certain that the
experience of an otologist with these tumors among the Indians would
have differed considerably from that of the examiner of their crania.
Nevertheless, even if only those ear exostoses be considered that must
have caused distress, their frequency in general is above that in the
white man. The records are as shown in tables on pages 13 and 14.

Condensing these two tables and leaving out duplications, we obtain:

Condensed Data on Ear Exostoses in the American Indian

Group Senile eaeeros oie pene
Chinook, Flat-head, NW. Coast.............. 94 24 2eog
Menmessees(QGOMIO) so neces ce ore canoe 459 71 75.5
Perteibolivia (aciChile) =. if. 2.22 ane oe nee approx.
1,433 149 10.4
GaliOrmian(CHIeny) oo. jacioscaotu ese beseenee 816 38 Az.
Mise, Nace S) Amerindian: «5.06560. 0. cee I ,004 54 5 A
New: nngland Indiana. f28 <5... as. Se coer 64 oO
NW: @oast; mise: undenned=......0. 0.00 112 fo)

Calchaquilemprecutsscre ceueia ocr. ae ope cie IIO fo)

-

HRDLICKA

13

EAR EXOSTOSES

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VOL. 93

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10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

The maximum incidence of ear exostoses is not in Peru, but ap-
parently among the tribes with fronto-occipital head deformation of
the Columbia watershed, and in the Tennessee-Ohio mound and stone-
grave region; also apparently in the old population that has left its
skeletal remains in the caves of Coahuila, northeastern Mexico.

The data will receive further attention in the discussion of causa-
tion. For the present it is sufficient to note the fact that in America
itself very marked differences exist, as to tribe and location, in the
frequency of the growths under consideration.

There is but a single observation on a series of Eskimo skulls and
that is negative—Russell in 54 specimens found no exostosis.

From regions other than Europe and America the data on ear ex-
ostoses are as yet very inadequate. There is little or nothing in this
respect on the peoples of the densely populated areas of China, India,
and Malaysia, of the rest of Asia or of Negro Africa, but there are
indications that the abnormalities in question are relatively frequent
among the Polynesians. The data are given in the table on page 15.

CLINICAL MATERIAL

In addition to the data tabulated in the preceding pages, there are
scattered through medical literature of the last and present centuries
reports of perhaps as many as 300 separate clinical cases of ear ex-
ostoses in white Europeans and Americans. A large majority of these
are reported more or less defectively as to nationality, sex, age, and
other details of importance, attention having been centered on the
pathology and cure of the condition. Anthropologically, they add but
little to the knowledge of the growths beyond showing further that
they occur with no great rarity in England, France, Belgium, Germany,
Italy, and other European countries, as well as in the United States.

Numerous as these reports are, they would not suffice to give a clear
and full picture of the abnormalities. But here and there interesting
points appear, and collectively there is much of value on the histology
and especially on the etiology of these ear tumors.

The earliest comprehensive account of this nature is that of Joseph
Toynbee (1850). He reports 12 cases of such “tumors”, 10 (ap-
parently) in males and 2 in females, mostly elderly people of British
extraction. The exostoses consist of very hard and dense bone, are
of slow growth, and develop frequently “ unattended with any symp-
toms.” He strongly suspects their connection with gouty diathesis
and from a further standpoint of causation divides them into two
classes—one “ in which the disease appears associated with congestion

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA Ly

of the mucous membrane of the ear, as a result of rather free living ”’
(and drinking) ; and the second associated with “ disease in the cavi-
ties containing the expansion of the auditory nerve.”

The first “ thesis” devoted entirely to the subject of ear exostoses
is by Delstanche (1878) ; and in the course of time this is followed
by other such treatises by Schlomka (1891), Braunberger (1896),
Sabroux (1901), and Bachauer (1909) ; to which may be added the
comprehensive dissertations on the subject by Alexander (1930) and
Moller-Holst (1932).

It would seem that a relatively limited condition that has received
such prolonged and extensive attention should be well understood
by this time; but, as will be shown later, this is still far from being
true.

The records of over 200 cases of ear exostoses reported by aural
surgeons are given in the next table. The stated nationality is usually
that of the author, but the subjects, especially in such complexes as
Austria or the United States of America doubtless included various
other racial elements.

The data as to the sex, side, etc., do not always extend to the whole
or an equal number of cases reported, which reduces their value. They
need not be considered at this juncture; as far as they go they will be
dealt with in subsequent chapters.

The table on page 18 has no pretense to completeness. There are
records of additional cases, but some of these are little more than
mere mentions, while with others the original report was unobtainable.

Burkner (1884, pp. 92-93) summarized the statistical data on ear
diseases published by 16 authors to 1884, but combined, regrettably,
stenoses, exostoses, and atresiae into one group, and there is no way
of separating the three. The figures had nevertheless some interest.
In all there were 94 cases of the three above-named conditions, re-
ported by 6 authors; and their combined frequency was, for Gruber
0.2; Lucae 0.2; Hedinger 0.3; Newark 0.3; Burkhardt-Merian 0.5;
and Schwartze 0.2 percent of all cases with ear diseases.

What stands out from all the preceding data is the wide distribution
of the incidence of ear exostoses, geographically, racially, and also
in time. It is no recent or local affliction, but an old and widely gen-
eralized disorder. A few racial groups appear immune, but from none
of these is there sufficient material to decide the question. In the
remainder the frequency varies greatly, and this variance seems to
follow racial or geographical affinities, but there appear no few
exceptions to this, especially in the American Indian, where group
conditions evidently prevail over the racial.

VOL. 93

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

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No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 19

NEW OBSERVATIONS

In 1910 and again in 1913 the writer made trips to Peru. Owing
to some fortunate circumstances and with the invaluable aid of the
Peruvian authorities, he was able to make large skeletal collections
which, aside from a mass of other parts of the skeleton, comprised
approximately 4,000 skulls (Hrdlicka, t911, 1914). These proceeded
mainly from the coasts but in an important degree also from the moun-
tains. A portion of this material was used in 1915 in the preparation
of the anthropological exhibit for the Panama-California Exposition
and remains in the San Diego Museum; the rest is preserved in the
National Museum at Washington.

Even in the field I was struck by the frequent presence in the outer
half of the external auditory meatus of bony swellings and in some
cases distinct tumors that more or less restricted or even almost
closed the ear opening. In the report on the second expedition
(Hrdlicka, 1914), I briefly called attention to the fact that “a rela-
tively large proportion of the pre-Columbian people of the more cen-
tral parts of the Peruvian coast suffered from a greater or lesser
occlusion of the external auditory canals by bony tumors.” A small
series of these crania with ear exostoses was exhibited and remained
at San Diego, and another series was placed on exhibit in the Divi-
sion of Physical Anthropology at the United States National Museum
for demonstration to visiting surgeons.

In 1921-22, at my instigation, the series of Peruvian skulls in the
United States National Museum was examined for the bony tumors in
question by Dr. Beatrice Bickel. During these examinations and
especially when an attempt was made to prepare the results for publi-
cation, it was found that the subject was more complex than at first
anticipated and that some needed data were not obtained, which led
to a second study of the whole series by Dr. Paul Van Natta, then
Aid in the Division of Physical Anthropology of the Museum; and
as the results of this second study differed somewhat from those of
the first, a larger part of the collection was submitted to a third ex-
amination by myself. The results differed slightly from those of both
previous examinations, but the differences in the three were seen now
to be mostly only those in the precise appraisal of the various grades
of the abnormality, the essentials remaining fairly constant.

Subsequently, finding the condition repeatedly also in other Indian
and even in some non-American skulls, I extended the personal ex-
amination to a number of series of crania in the National Museum
collections. Then other work intervened, and the publication of the
results had to be postponed.

20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Meanwhile, as already noted in the first section of this memoir,
the material left in San Diego received attention by a number of
students from the west coast, two of whom, Burton and Moodie,
reported on the ear exostoses of the skulls. Other publications on
the growths appeared from time to time. From 1930 to 1932 three
especially important studies in this line were published, namely those
by Oetteking, Alexander, and Moller-Holst. Moreover, additions
were received to our collections which promised to throw additional
light on the peculiar disorder. These considerations led me to a de-
termination to finish the survey of the subject, add as much as pos-
sible to the previous data, and attempt, should the facts warrant, to
advance the understanding of the affliction under consideration. The
results follow.

NEW MATERIAL

The total number of skulls examined for ear exostoses in this
new study is 7,814. All these, with the exception of about one-third
of the Peruvians, were sexed and examined by me personally.

The material is part of that of the Division of Physical Anthro-
pology, United States National Museum, and the only portion of the
specimens reported upon previously were those mentioned casually
in my own publications. Only the larger series of our collections were
made use of, and such as would give as far as possible a widespread
racial as well as geographical and time distribution.

The abnormal bone formations were found to range without any
line of separation from distinct localized “ pearls” “ or tumefactions
of bone in the external auditory canal to bony tumors that almost
fill the distal part of the canal or even protrude outside of it. Only
those cases were recorded where the growth presented distinct local-
ized welting, excrescence, or tumor. In addition there were fairly
numerous cases where a more or less evident trace of a tumefaction
or a diffuse pathological thickening of the wall existed; these were
not included in the records.

The earlier and again the late stages of ear exostoses present diff-
culties to the examiner. The initial tumescence, “ pearl” or welt, may
be ill defined; and one or two small swellings, welts or “ pimples ”’
or ridges, may accompany a larger growth which tends to preempt
the attention or obstruct clear vision. Hence no two observers or
even repeated examinations by the same student will give absolutely

‘

* The term “pearl” is particularly fitting, for many of the growths in their
earlier stages very closely resemble developing pearls on their mother shell.

NO. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 21

the same results as to the minor grades of the abnormalities. Consid-
erable experience must be acquired by the student of these exostoses
before his records can have real value.

The total new material and the gross results of the examination are
shown in the following table.

Ear Exostoses in Different Racial Groups, New Observations

NGBeE Number Percent Number Percent
Adults ¢ F Bheulls of skulls | of skulls of ears of ears
(except as specified otherwise) examined with ear with with with
exostoses | exostoses | exostoses | exostoses
Egypt:
XG) eyleishitu 92 eeysesorreras 379 7 Tas, 10 Te?
XX D.—III Cont. Kharga... 75 2 DoF 2 Tes
American:
| EHS) cer 6 (ee ae a I ,000 2 0.2 4 0.2
Indian @hildren®= see 335 I I hee
Gi foT 21S] 0) Poa een re 500 12 24 19 1.9
Horta DakGtas i: ss. c55- 26 29 2 6.9 2 3-45
RilOniGda so eters cys oy acnaie si aarsie 395 35 8.9 53 6.7
Galifornmatn er (a sons cee 435 46 10.6 69 7.9
NE. States (St. Lawrence
River to Maryland)....... 112 13 iE (0) 19 8.5
Greer red anicus een seerasie eid tcseose 3,651 522 14.3 855 TAT
MUMIA Ae ec Ss wali 65 14 Bile fy 25 19.2
Louie, a5 e050 oco gp omaor 61 15 24.0 26 BN,
IXTCATISASSernih ees is seit ore les 73 47 yee 75 2 Tiny,
S. Dakota (All, Mowbridge,
Arikan eeiniSGs) weiss eh qe 109 30 27.5 48 22.0
S. Dakota (Mowbridge alone) 76 23 30.3 37 24.3
INentuckymerrn ccs eee go 29 Bene 52 28.9
Polynesian:
INewaZealandi.s5 cates ee 19 4 Bit sit 7 18.4
IS EN TANDI AA Setcige Mele Goole aide 148 39 26.4 60 20.3
Asiatic:
Whinese ae Cee eessesrinds exe Wid
Malaysian:
Be AG lees aiasy sis. Shaverdio diel silers 10
Melanesian tote cctat ote. 39
African:
Negro (African and American) I12

@ Including a very small proportion of subadults.

+ From age when fully developed tympanic bone is in place to eruption of a permanent second
molar. A fair proportion of deformed, all three varieties of deformation.

© Mainly of Channel Islands.

4 Mounds.

Examination of our Egyptian material, all of which was collected

personally and is thoroughly identified, shows that although ear ex-
ostoses were rare, nevertheless they occured in the Egyptians—at root

a branch of the White stem—as far back as 2000 B. C.

i)
i)

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

There is no case of a tympanic exostosis in the 112 African and
American Negro crania in our collection. It will be recalled that Ost-
mann, in 267 Negro skulls, also found no case of these exostoses.
It would seem, therefore, that the true Negro was free of these
formations.

No case of these tumors is found in our Melanesian and Malaysian
skulls, but the series of specimens here are too small. Flower, it was
seen, found one case of these exostoses in 1 of 7 Australian and in
1 of 20 Melanesian skulls. It appears, therefore, that the condition
is not wholly absent either in Melanesia or Australia, though it prob-
ably is rare in these territories.

Especially interesting is the apparently complete absence of ear
exostoses in the Chinese. No case in these people, so far as I could
discover, is on record, and the valuable series of 77 adult male Can-
tonese skulls in our collection shows not a trace of bony ear tumors.
Yet the Chinese belong fundamentally to the same yellow-brown
human stem as do the American Indians, who show so many of these
abnormalities, while on the other hand they are far apart from the
African Negro, who similarly appears to be free from ear exostoses.

In the remaining groups of our table conditions differ greatly. At
one end of the series stand the Eskimo, first cousins of the Indians,
who in 1,000 skulls give but 2 with a moderate form of distinct local-
ized tympanic tumefaction ; at the other end are the Kentucky, South
Dakota, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Virginia Indians, with the Hawaii
and New Zealand Polynesians, among whom over one-fifth to one-third
of the skulls show the neoplasms under consideration. The Arkansas
and Louisiana Indians range themselves territorially with those of
Tennessee and also Ohio, in whom both Blake and Russell found a
high incidence of these growths; the Kentucky Indians show a slight
similarity to those of Tennessee; the Dakotas are unconnected with
any earlier or present groups reported on in this connection; our
Polynesians harmonize with Welcker’s and Davis’ Marquesans, who
also showed a high incidence of ear exostoses, and seemingly with the
Polynesians in general.

From all the preceding it is plain that the highest frequency of the
condition is found, on one hand, among the old aborigines of the North
American continent, and on the other hand, in Polynesia. In North
America ear exostoses were most frequent in portions of the north-
central, south-central and central-eastern parts of the present territory
of the United States, in the Columbia basin “ flat-heads ”’ (Oetteking),
in some parts, at least, of Mexico (Studley: Coahuila) ; and in South
America, in Peru. Peru, which was supposed to head all the Ameri-

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 23

can groups in the frequency of these growths, is seen to be barely in
the middle of the American range of their frequencies.

Additional details of importance regarding the development and
prevalence of the abnormalities under consideration on the American
continent, and of their significance, will be dealt with in succeeding
sections.

DETAILED DATA
AGE

Older observations —The youngest subject in whom an exoStosis in
the external auditory canal has so far been observed, recorded by
Field (1878a), was a girl of 3 years, in whom the bony growth fol-
lowed the removal of a polyp. This being by far the earliest age at
which the abnormality has been found, the case deserves to be quoted
in full; the report reads:

M. W., a little girl aged 3, was brought to the hospital on July 25th. Her
mother states that she had suffered from a severe attack of measles 12 months
previously, and that she had since had an offensive discharge from the left ear.
I had a few months since removed a polypus. About a fortnight ago, she noticed
a hard substance in the ear, causing the child much uneasiness. When she came
to the hospital, a small pedunculated osseous tumour about the shape of a pear
was discovered, almost filling up the meatus.

The individually recorded cases in the young and up to about the
age of puberty, that I was able to find in the literature, are as follows:

Field (1878a), in a girl of 3 Brindel (in Sabroux, 1901), in a boy
Alexander (1930), in a boy of 9 of 13
Tod (1909), in a boy of 10 Alexander (1930), in a girl of 13
Krakauer (1891), in a girl of 12 Kessel (1889), in a girl of 14
Garrigou-Désarénes (1888), in a boy Ferreri (1904), in a girl of 14

of 12 Bezold (1895), in a boy of 14
Karewski (1892), in a girl of 13 Green (1879), in a boy of 14

It may be worthy of note that of the 12 subjects for whom both the
individual ages and sex are given, 6 were males and 6 females, a rela-
tion which, as will be seen in the next section, does not hold later in
life, when the exostoses are much more numerous in the males.

Bezold (1895, p. 48) mentions an isolated case in a boy of 14; and
in addition West (1909) reports a case “in a child of 12”, who was
probably a girl, for the term “ child” would scarcely be applied to a
boy of that age.

The great rarity of ear exostoses in children appears most strik-
ingly from the data published by Bezold (1885). Examinations by

24. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

aurists for ear troubles in 9,939 school children failed to show even
a single case of the tumors. The detailed data were:

Ler (el ote a ER R= 1 ee ee 1,055 children, no ear exostoses
Wei Stubemant ahi e aps osc s-c.s.a 5,905 children, no ear exostoses
BezoldsMininichtesaaeene cee cae. 1,918 children, no ear exostoses
SOUGHT Ot Ante orciciniy heads seis 570 children, no ear exostoses
INorrellyeWaSwAL 2o.cieeia i.e. 491 children, no ear exostoses

Kessel (1889) believed that the growths appeared between the ages
of 10 and 13, or later—most frequently about the age of puberty.
Erhardt thought they originated during the period of the ossification
of the canal; and Edward, of Berlin, thought similarly that these
exostoses could originate only in the skeletal parts still in the process
of formation—opinions opposed by De Rossi, Ferreri, and others.

Braunberger (1896) stated they developed both before and after
the ossification period of the external meatus, though they are more
common in advancing age. Lake (1898) thought the “ hyperostoses
often appeared latish in life.”

According to Bezold and Siebenmann (1908, p. 102) “ they develop
nearly always after puberty.’’ To which Bezold adds, “ In 170 cases
which I observed up to 1&96 there was none below 15 years. Neither
did I find a single case in public schools or deaf-mute institutions.”
In another place, however, as noted above, he mentioned a case in a
boy of 14.

Gray (1910) states that the bony growths in the ears are ‘‘ seldom
found in children.’’ Alexander (1930) failed to find these growths
in children, even in those whose parents were badly affected by ear

‘

exostoses.

In contrast to this Marx (1926), who conceives a substantial dis-
tinction between hyperostoses and exostoses, regards as an essential
mark of hyperostoses that they occur in early childhood, whereas the
exostoses develop in the adult. Von Troeltsch’s (1873) cases “‘ were
predominantly in the middle-aged”; and Whitney (1886), in his
Indian series, found them “as a rule in men past middle life.”

A most helpful record in this connection is that of Korner (1904,
p. 105), who, although going into no details, gives a list by ages “ of
the hyperostosis and exostosis cases ” observed by him in his private
practice, “in 1,000 consecutive patients with ear diseases.” The data
follow:

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—-HRDLICKA

ty
Cn

“ Hyperostoses and Exostoses Cases” Observed by Korner

Subjects with exostoses

Bee Subjects aad perenne

number of growths

Number Percent

pe MR renee ches onset aus? auiseheaislcunrrev es eytoKe ate) 2 age 81 = ©

Ga OM Rr ee tectet re Che oi eave cla Oe 113 A= ih
MAT UN fas iak way HRN nips BU Geman (alee SANS She 116 6= 4.8
MODOC eee teecre fo esis ote ereea wis es shieke, ct 115 i — Ss
22 rses eiehe it es oe eres SA Ute whee SS 78 ie OR
2O—Z Os alathepe wenera sisjateioe Bear Slave ya « eke Gd eee 719, 17 = 13.6
BUSS Ciccone clem so eonp o60.0bn Moo doo oon 74. 12 = 9.6
BOAO ite eet ot are epcre oe a Secretar I ba 74 1 =] 17.833
ANTE A' Stay tefishntcctereirs svasche, eraashes aueeramiees Sys 68 13 = 10.4
AGS Ours cise sess) Oro amaerneicos se ELTe 61 7= 5.6
Ee Ofer rence oe in se ech ehenncetalce erat 38 8= 6.4
GOO Sis) ie] si ohare as «aks cre eyote) ox sieydlln iy house 45 10= 8.0
OMS OS erstorpigs cnc haart aiiot foarte, oiket ta. 29 Alva) a BD
CGS OMe ci Med eres oe aera 19 5= 4.0
CONDE FAO'S oles oe CICA OME eae a loca ae 12 I= 0.8
I ,000 125 = 100.0

To the above I am able to add data which I have culled from addi-
tional clinical reports, showing IOI cases where some information as
to age was given. Of these, in 25 cases the subjects were merely
marked as “adult ”’, or “ of mature age’, or “elderly ”. The 77 sub-
jects whose age was stated range as follows:

Age of Patients (White) With Ear Exostoses

Age Subjects Moree

BelOWwalOne shinee hier ccna kote aaa 2 2.6

NO 2O Rare etme oad citie sieinds Stabe aneee 13 16.9

2 BO ae eu Gey Acie cmapes ek alee e: Se sae BIO 19 AT,

AeA OM gay atass crandheningekayett « SAL Ue oreo 15 19.5

AD SOME ei ee atten seen ce te ae ole 14 18.2

BOOP eu da smear kcucih eta) ne Kshs Gancad Ginyeto oats 8 10.4

OU OS Fe Peery aioe Lin ie sutlene easel ah onal ous irae 6 Fes)
EN DOVELOS MEET AOR Ech rN toe ee

The greatest frequencies of the bony growths in the external audi-
tory canal are registered, it is seen, between the ages of 20 and 50.
Their period of prevalence extends chiefly from 16 to 60. They are
rare below to and but one had so far been recorded above 70, though
the distribution in our table indicates that a few cases do probably
occur above that age.

The condition or “ disease ’’, if it can be called such, is therefore,
it is clear, dominantly one of the earlier to middle adult life, and has

26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

very little if any connection with senility and its disorders—another
point of importance.

It should be borne in mind, moreover, that the clinical age reports
embodied in the above data are the ages at the time the subjects applied
for treatment, and that in all the cases the bony growths in the ear
began earlier. The data therefore show the ages at which the tumors
reached development that caused the patient to apply for relief. Should
we wish to learn the age at which the ear exostoses began, it would
be necessary to shift the whole scale of ages in the direction of less
years. How much to shift, on the average, cannot be estimated. In
individual cases ear exostoses were known to the patients to have
existed for many years before they gave sufficient trouble to lead the
subject to the aural surgeon. The matter can only be settled, it would
seem, by prolonged future attention to this point.

New observations —Excluding the Eskimo, the specimens in which
both meatus cannot be examined, and the very young, there are in
the National Museum 335 skulls of Indian children between the ages
when the tympanic portion is fully added to the bony ear and when
there occurs the eruption of a permanent M,—in other words between
about 2 and 12 years of age. The material, like that of the adults, is
mainly pre-Columbian, and a good proportion of the skulls show one
or another of the three kinds of deformation. A careful scrutiny
of these specimens showed 334 without any trace of ear exostoses.
The sole specimen showing the abnormality was a pronounced “ flat-
head” from Santo Domingo, with lateral permanent upper incisors
and permanent upper molars about to erupt—hence about 8 to 9 years
of age. In the left meatus of this skull is seen on the posterior wall,
tympanic part, a small but distinct abnormal nodule, which in all
probability would have later grown to a definite exostosis.

It may thus be concluded that, among the old American Indians at
least, tympanic exostoses did not develop, or did so but exceedingly
rarely, in childhood.

Even in the Indian adolescent of our collections, however, these
growths are not very evident. They belong essentially to the earlier
half or two-thirds of the adult life, though they not seldom begin
before the adult stage is reached. Their maximum frequency and
development in the Indian belong principally to the ages of about
30 to 60. They are infrequent in older subjects and, as in Whites, it
is plain that they have little if any relation to senility and its path-
ology. All of these facts are of etiological importance.

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 27

SEX

Since Bonnafont (1868), all writers who have dealt with the sub-
ject agree that ear exostoses are considerably more common in men
than in women. Thus Delstanche (1878, p. 14) says that they are
“much more frequent in males,” and practically the same words are
used by Von Troeltsch (1881, p. 141). Whitney (1886, p. 442) found
“the subjects were as a rule men’’; for Kessel (1889) the growths
were “ decidedly more frequent in the males.”” Schlomka (1891, p. 16)
and Sabroux (1901) express themselves exactly as do Delstanche and
Von Troeltsch. For Braunberger (1896) it is “certain they are more
common in males.” There are many other expressions to the same
effect.

More definite data on the subject, in living Europeans, are given by
Korner and Bezold. The latter says (1908, p. 102): “‘ The male sex
is affected much more frequently than the female. My statistics show
a proportion of 11 to 1, those of Korner of 3.5 to I.”

The individual clinical reports are frequently negligent as to sex, but
from those in which sex is stated, the indications are very conclusive.
Out of 89 instances that I was able to gather in which the sex was
given, 70 of the individuals, or nearly four-fifths (78.7 percent), were
males, and but 19, or a little over one-fifth (21.3 percent), were
females. In the old craniological observations on non-European peoples
sexing has been attempted in but a very few cases and that inade-
quately ; but as far as the data go they show among those affected with
ear exostoses a decided predominance of males.

New observations.—The new materials reported upon in this work
have all been sexed on the basis of ample experience, with all possible
care, and often with the aid of the rest of the skeleton, so that the
records may safely be held reliable to within less than 5 percent of
possible error. The results are given in the table on page 28.

The data show that:

In all the groups, Egyptian, American, and Polynesian, ear exostoses
are more common in the males than in the females.

The total frequency of the growths in a group appears to have little
if any influence on their relative frequency in the two sexes.

The proportion of occurrence in the two sexes differs considerably
between some of the groups. Much of this difference is probably con-
nected with the unequal and not always adequate number of specimens,
but apparently there are also other reasons, the nature of which re-
mains obscure.

In the two Polynesian groups the relative frequency of the growths
in the females is higher than that in any of the American series.

28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

The clinical records cannot be directly compared with our figures ;
they lack one of the essentials, which is the proportion in each sex of
those with ear tumors to those without ; but as the proportion of the
two sexes in the White population at large is much the same, the rela-
tive values of the cases reported are probably nearly correct. They

Relative Frequency of Ear Exostoses in the Two Sexes

Total P f skull
Group dott paiet Gan eto fae Male te
(in order of frequency unt cb of skulls cma
f t ) of skulls ith (male
awaears examined exostones Males Females = 100)
Hoy ptlallernct rer cone are - 454 9 Bar ews 272
American:
BL SNGHMON te eee. hee ce eters I ,000 2 0.8 cae cere
OldgPRuchlowne veosans ssa 500 12 2.8 2.0 Fplod
INES akotay carte serosa hehe 29 2 1b ie Toe oe
loniGama serie ae aie si: f 395 35 1367, Sieis} 24.1
CaltGinians yahoo 3h ato asa s 435 46 15.2 Sa 7/ 37.5
INI States) saeror vey: cnc oe okeccie II2 13 16.0 10.2 63.8
IG Hheng ciaig eats Sigal. Ck oe Cn 3,651 522 222 6.3 28.4
WEES TaN USSR pict Ga ene ee 65 14 28.6 1g). 46.5
WOUISIAN Ameya tie os ces hes 61 15 46.4 6.1 ie ya
PADICATISAS atest Me Meee varnii css o8 173 47 38.6 16.7 A338
SsDakotavallis.ic2ee. 6 012 109 30 38.2 Ws 9/ 43-7
S. Dakota, Mowbridge...... 76 23 Atins 21.4 51.8
PREM EMEKV Ae sents ak eke oe rere) 29 48.0 m2 5 26.0
Polynesian:
Mew Zealand ty. see : 19 4 25.0 18.2 72.8
awa ees Actes cokes 148 39 28.4 24.7 87.0

indicate that for every 100 White males with ear exostoses there are
about 27 females with that affection. In most of the Indian groups
and in both the Polynesian groups the proportion of females was
decidedly higher, a fact for which there must be reasons as yet
undetermined.

FREQUENCY OF EXOSTOSES IN THE TWO EARS

Our material permits us to show definitely the number of individual
ears affected in the different groups, and the proportional involve-
ment of the two ears in the affected skulls.

The next table gives for our series of groups the proportions of
affected ears in relation to that of the affected skulls or individuals.
It will be seen that, barring a few exceptions, in groups where the
frequency of individuals or skulls with ear exostoses is smaller, the
percentage of single ears free of the growths is larger than in those
groups in which the proportion of individuals or skulls affected by

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 29

these abnormalities is larger. In other words, in general, the indi-
viduals or skulls that are more subject to ear exostoses will show not
only absolutely but also relatively a larger proportion of ears involved
than the groups where the growths are less common. Were some of
our smaller series as large as are others, the figures would probably
be more regular and even more convincing. The meaning of the phe-
nomenon can only be that there must exist something like an oto-
exostotic “inclination”, which differs in quantity in different racial,
geographical, or other groups; and that the larger the quantity of
this + in a group, not only the more individuals, but also the larger
percentage of individual ears, will become subject to the growths.
The affection acts thus as an entity—perhaps more accurately a “ dia-
thesis ’’,” a conception which will be found further strengthened when
we come to consider the numbers, masses, and character of the ab-
normalities under discussion.

Relative Proportion of Skulls and Ears Affected by Ear Exostoses in the
Different Groups

Percentage Percentage Percentage
: Group Skulls of skulls Ears of ears of ears
in order of frequenc F F : : affected vs.
: of ear exostoses) z aeeee pulbeay. ee Lh hs percentage
OM RIAN tis utara katte Heh 454 2.0 908 tog 66.3
American:
ESKIMO Pei ne ae I ,000 On2 2,000 0.2 (100)
OLGEPiIe DOR siete: ee «ie ieee. 500 2.4 I ,000 1.9 79.2
I os) 0 5G 8 Sie is eeepc ac 29 6.9 58 3.45 50.0
ilOnidarpepresiatic toh ey etc se avele 395 8.9 790 6.7 75.3
ASAE ceo ees aces Gra. oe ssl ens 435 10.6 870 7.9 74.5
ONES otates! i. seine ea ans 112 1t.6 224 8.5 TBs
Renee sen as atten dieit We 3,651 14.3 7,302 Tt ai7/ 81.8
BU SMMIN AG a cote ice scan ie 6 eek 65 21.5 130 19.2 89.3
PROS AA re ew he oe eae eas. 6 61 24.6 122 28 86.6
PATIKATISAS rata Torsrnare trotted 173 Dae 346 2147 79.8
SaDakotaralli@s ces ros 109 27.5 218 22.0 80.0
S. Dakota, Mowbridge...... 76 30.3 152 24.3 80.2
USGI CCl 9. cas cae ea ae 90 22.2 180 28.9 89.8
Polynesian:
Mew Zealand: 553023. ae0's cick 19 Aisi 38 18.4 87.2
DU Wallles shoe ace Paik ae coteuecntea ees 148 26.4 296 20.3 76.9
SIDE

Since the early history of ear exostoses, it has been known that
such growths have a tendency to occur bilaterally, but opinions differed
as to the frequency of such an occurrence.

“In the sense of “‘a constitutional predisposition or aptitude for some particu-
lar development” (Webster’s New Int. Dict.).

3

30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Delstanche (1878, p. 10), stated that though the exostoses showed
a tendency to occur on both sides, in his personal experience uni-
lateral cases were “much more frequent’. Schlomka (1891, p. 16)
and Braunberger (1896) have also reached the conclusion that they
occurred more frequently unilaterally than bilaterally. On the other
hand, Von Troeltsch (1881, p. 141) saw them to be “ predominantly
bilateral”; Sabroux (1901, p. 35) says they were “ very frequently
bilateral”; and there are other statements of similar import.

Blake (1880) gives the first exact data on the subject. Of 231 old
Tennessee and California Indian skulls, 38 had ear exostoses: in 14
(36.8 percent) these were bilateral ; in 9 (23.7 percent) in the right ear
only; and in 15 (39.5 percent) in the left ear only.

Attempts at statistical estimates in Whites were made by Korner
(1894), who found the exostoses in 64 percent of cases bilaterally,
in 36 percent unilaterally ; and by Bezold (1895, p. 48) who found
them in 54.4 percent of cases on both sides and in 45.6 percent on
one side only. Bezold observed: that occasionally, in cases originally
unilateral, in time a development of the abnormality would also take
place in the second ear.

As to the side in the unilateral cases, Ferreri (1904) thought the
growths were more frequent on the left.

New observations —The table that follows gives the involvement of
the ears as to side in our material.

Side
Percentage of skulls
Groups Percentage with ear exostoses
of ear exostoses) exostoses | Bijateral Right ear | Left ear
only only
Space ciety eile occ ett 454 2.0 23.23 2252 44.5
American:
12S iTNVals een ots onde, ceo eR eo I ,000 0.2 (100) ican Beat
@ldbRueblomorosmen. ego 500 Bish 58.3 16.7 25.0
NeDakotare sas situs faxes 29 6.9 (Num|ber inade|quate)
Hlonidanerraraecocepe oe ot ee 395 8.9 51.4 28.6 20.0
Califouniabaer ater: see 2 435 10.6 50.0 23.9 26.1
NIB States ert sites Sieve 112 Wy asy 46.2 15.4 38.5
PEK ate to aA ieee a sesne es 28050 sulla ss 63.6 16.1 20.3
Wing intaewrs eins rary eet: oh 65 215 78.6 72 14.3
ouisianare meer eee. er 61 24.6 73S nes 13-3
Arkansas@ econ ae sae. 3.3 173 Dae 63.8 19.2 17.0
S) Dakotaralle en cewretee sc 109 27S 60.0 20.0 20.0
S. Dakota, Mowbridge ...... 76 30.3 60.9 Gp adel 217,
IWentucky ae. pamece eo eae go 2202 79.3 13.8 6.9
Polynesian:
New Zealandin. ssn sedan: 19 Zee 75.0 ies 25.0
ELE Wall na ees Beha e ae cae weal 148 26.4 53.8 15.4 30.8

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 31

The data on page 30 show the following conditions:

I. In general, in a group the larger the number of individuals af-
fected by ear exostoses, the more commonly both ears are involved.

2. The frequency of bilateral as compared to unilateral involvement
varies from 33 to 79 percent in the different series of our material.

3. When but one side is involved, there is a perceptibly greater
tendency for the abnormalities to develop in the left ear. In the
14 groups of our crania, in 9 the involvement was more frequent on
the left side, in 3 on the right side, and in 2 groups it was equal on
the two sides.

The proportions of bilateral involvement in our series agree fairly
closely with those of Bezold (54.4 percent) and Korner (64 percent)
on European Whites. Through all this the affliction again impresses
one as something of a pathological entity.

As it is probable that some proportion, at least, of the individuals
whose skulls enter into these series, if they had lived longer, would
have developed the condition bilaterally, it may be assumed that the
general tendency for the tympanic exostoses is to involve both auditory
canals; but they evidently tend to start more frequently on the left
side. Why this should be so is not apparent, but it is probably con-
nected with nervous and vascular factors.

The very apparent tendency toward a bilateral involvement should
be an important factor in the study of the deeper causes of these
formations.

NUMBER

Ear exostoses may be single or multiple. Delstanche (1878) en-
countered up to three in one ear. Von Troeltsch saw “ frequently
several in one ear, arising from different parts of the wall.” Sabroux
(1901, p. 35), from the data he gathered, believed them to be “ ordi-
narily single’, though there might be two or even three in one ear.
For Kerrison (1913, p. 125) they were “ multiple oftener than single.”

Blake (1880) and Korner (1894, p. 107) alone give some statistics
on the point. In Blake’s 39 cases of ear exostoses in Tennessee and
California Indians, 54 of the 78 ears showed the growths: in 38 ears
(70.4 percent) they were single, in 12 (22.2 percent) double, in 3
(5.6 percent) triple, and in 1 (1.8 percent) multiple. In 41 ears
Korner found the exostoses 32 times (78 percent) single, 8 times
(19.5 percent) double and once (2.7 percent) triple. The two records
are remarkably harmonious.

Aside from Blake’s there are no data on this subject in the published
reports of a more anthropological nature. Among the clinical records

32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

in the literature I was able to find 84 cases} or rather ears, in which
the number of exostoses was given. The results follow:

Number of Exostoses in Individual Ears of White Subjects Recorded in
Otological Literature

Number
of records Exostoses
on individual = a ; —
ears Single Double Triple or more
84 44 27 13

52.470 32.1% 15.5%

It seems plain from the above data, small in number and imperfect
as they are, that among the Whites, in over one-half to two-thirds of
the ears affected by exostoses in the external meatus which come to
the attention of the aural surgeons, there is but one of these growths,
and in the remaining number there are two or over.

New observations——A much more satisfactory record can be pre-
sented in connection with the new observations that are given in this
work, though on different racial groups:

Number of Exostoses in Individual Ears Affected with Such Growths

Skulls Percentage of exostoses in individual ears
Group Skulls with ear
exostoses 1 2 3 Over 3
IDEAWDISENNG on oro Ge ooo enc 454 9 83.3 8.3 ee 8.3
American:
eS kai OP Meus sects Gees I ,000 2 (100) ae
OldgBueblozse.ssn4-- 500 12 100 : Bie oe
INEGIDalkotalere aise ac 29 2 (100) ahs Re ae A
lonidamine emma 395 35 la 24.4 2.0 .O
Cahifonniaeeecescec. - 435 46 737, 175 7.5 Wo
INEsiStatesiss sin. soo 112 13 W277, 26.3 tare ;
Renee ee ean tickers 3,651 522 46.3 38.6 14.6 0.4
Winging aie) ss 3 sic * 65 14 52.0 36.0 4.0 8.0
ICOUISIananys ane ee ee 61 15 732 26.8 a pW aps
Akan Sasaiv cise cin aise 173 47 Aang 25.3 1.4 ae
SyDakotaralleeecin: 109 30 75.0 16.7 Le 8.3
S. Dakota, Mowbridge 76 23 81.1 16.2 ane Dey
INGnIGHeKyao are scres go 29 ae 26.9 15.4 ae
Polynesian:
New Zealand........ 19 4 (42.9)) | (14:3) Gag) Gases
FlAaSvallieeanyerorereste sens 148 39 56.9 36.7 4.9 tek

It will be seen that in all the larger groups a single outgrowth in
a meatus is the most frequent condition. In our Pueblos, curiously,
it is the universal, and in our old Egyptians a nearly universal, condi-
tion. But in most of the other groups two exostoses per meatus are
also fairly frequent; three are scarce, and more than three are decided
rarities.

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 6)

The single tumefaction-exostosis is, as a rule, the initial stage, but
a second enlargement, generally from the opposite side of the tympanic
portion, will soon follow, the third and perhaps additional growths
developing later.

In no less than 6 of the 12 Indian series the percentage of single
tumors is practically identical.

In three of the remaining groups, Peru, Virginia, and Kentucky,
and in both Polynesian groups, the proportion of cases with two or
more growths is exceptionally high.

The Peru and the Kentucky material especially shows many ears
with three exostoses.

Two notes of caution are here necessary: 1, In some specimens
with one ear exostosis, had the subject survived to older age there
might have taken place a development of additional growths; and 2,
where the canal is nearly filled by one, two, or three exostoses, other
growths, smaller and more posterior, cannot be seen and thus escape
enumeration. This means that the proportions of cases with more than
one exostosis would be somewhat higher were we dealing with those
who lived their full span of life; and that the proportions of two and
especially those of three or more growths are in reality in some
measure higher than those given in the records; but the excesses in
either case could hardly be very material.

The chief meaning the above results convey is once more that the
ear affection under consideration appears in the form of an entity or
“ diathesis ”, which manifests itself practically identically in a large
proportion of different geographic or tribal groups of the same race,
but which may also, through some peculiar causes, differ substantially
in other groups of the same people.

LOCATION

As in other respects, so in this also there are in the history of
ear exostoses some variants of experience and hence of opinion.
According to Toynbee (1860), ear exostoses

may develop in any part of the length of the tube; but the part from which
they most commonly originate is about the middle third of the passage. ....
Occasionally the posterior wall affords the point of origin to the tumour, and
then it not unfrequently resembles a simple bulging of the wall. In other cases,
a similar tumour is also developed from the anterior part, and the two protuber-
ances meet and lie in contact in the middle, leaving an inferior and superior
triangular space at the place of the original opening of the tube..... The
tumour may grow from the upper surface of the tube..... Two or more
tumours, again, extend sometimes from various parts of the circumference of
the meatus, and converging towards the center, fill up nearly the whole cavity.

34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Delstanche (1878) says that the growths may develop from any
point of the meatus, but arise most frequently posteriorly. For Blake
(1880), most of them are on the posterior wall; for Ayres (1881),
they are in any portion of the canal but most frequent posteriorly ;
Von Troeltsch (1881, p. 141) states they “ occur as well at the be-
ginning of the bony canal as close to the drum . . . . by far the most
often from the posterior and superior, less often from the anterior
wall.”

R. Virchow, and after him Hartmann, Ostmann, Korner, and Marx,
held that the abnormal bony growths in the external auditory canal
originated generally (or even invariably) from the borders of the
tympanic bone, where they lay on and fused with the squamous portion
of the temporal; some of these authors, however, had observed also
occasional exostoses in other parts of the canal. Moos (cited by Gold-
stein, 1898), in his cases, observed that they arise “ invariably from
the upper wall of the canal, almost at its outer end’”’; in Jacquemart’s
(1889) practice they were ‘“ encountered most commonly at the in-
ferior part of the meatus.”

Among additional statements, some of which merely repeat others,
the following may be quoted. Schlomka (1891, p. 16): “As to their
origin, these exostoses arise most often from the postero-superior wall
of the auditory canal . ... more seldom from the anterior, most
rarely from the lower portion of the same.” Sabroux (1901, p. 34)
says that they develop anteriorly and posteriorly as well as superiorly
and inferiorly, “ but it is at the union of the cartilaginous with the
bony part (of the meatus), or again quite close to the drum, that we
observe them most often.” Ferreri (1904): ‘‘ Most frequent pos-
teriorly and superiorly.” Kessel (1889, p. 285): “‘As far as the place
of origin is concerned, the globular exostoses arise from the posterior
and superior wall, the cylindrical ones extend along the floor of the
meatus parallel to its axis, while the osteophytes occur preferably on
the superior part of the inner portion of the canal.’’ Kerrison (1913,
p. 125): “ Oftenest on the anterior and posterior walls. ... . When
one growth only is present, the anterior wall near the attachment of
the drum membrane, is the most common site.” Dahlstrom (1923,
p. 213): “Most of the exostoses were found approximately on the
boundary between the cartilaginous and the bony parts.” Burton
(1927): ‘“ By far the larger number of aural exostoses are found
along the suture lines between the canal and the rest of the temporal
bone.” Oetteking (1930, p. 249): “The pea-shaped restricted to
marginal area of meatus; more or less pedunculated anterior or
posterior; the crest-shaped is elongated and extends from without
inward.”

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 3

cn

For Moller-Holst (1932, p. 96), who had the advantage of observ-
ing numerous cases in skulls, “ the exostoses of the auditory canal
occur in the outer, middle, and inner portions of the canal. They are
located on the tympanic bone in different places, mostly on the boun-
dary of this bone and the squama or pars mastoidea. They seldom
proceed from the squama.” In his material, “they occurred with
about equal frequency anteriorly and posteriorly in the tympanic part;
one-third of the cases showed them anteriorly, one-third posteriorly,
and the last third both anteriorly and posteriorly.”

Older records.—The only actual record on the location of ear ex-
ostoses within the meatus is that of Blake (1880). In 45 Indian skulls
with such growths, from Tennessee, California, and Arkansas, out of
a total of 82 exostoses 55 (66.3 percent) were posterior, 24 (28.9
percent) anterior, 3 (3.6 percent) antero-superior, and I (1.2 percent )
postero-inferior.

New observations —The location of the exostoses was noted in all
of our material. It was as shown in the table on page 36.

Notwithstanding some significant differences, there is a remarkable
basic agreement in the figures, and also between that part of
them that embraces the bulk of the American Indian material and those
of Blake on the same race.

It may now definitely be said that ear exostoses in the American
Indian (with a few exceptions), regardless of the amount of total
involvement by the growths, will be in something over 60 percent
(of all the exostoses) posterior, in from 20 to 40 percent anterior to
antero-superior, and in a small percentage—and that in but some of
the groups—postero-inferior or antero-inferior. Superior (squamous
part) outgrowths occurred in but three of the series, inferior out-
growths in but one and that only in a single instance.

Some observers would perhaps be inclined to class some of the
cases included in “ posterior ”’ as postero-inferior or postero-superior,
but that would not alter the main significance of the above showing.
This is that, in general, in the American Indian, approximately two-
thirds of the ear exostoses arose from the posterior end or portion
of what was originally the tympanic ring and later developed into the
tympanic bone; that nearly one-third of the growths arose from the
anterior end of the ring and subsequent bone; and that in but a few
groups was there apparently any tendency toward a development of
bony excrescences from the squamous portion of the meatus—though
the incidence and proportions as given in the table for this item would
probably be augmented somewhat if an examination of the whole
squamous part were always possible; and that the floor of the meatus

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36

NO. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA oF

is practically never primarily involved by these abnormalities, though
it may be secondarily involved when the posterior or anterior exostoses
are large and diffuse.

In the old Egyptians of 4,000 years ago there is the same predomi-
nance of posterior growths, with a smaller proportion of anterior, and
no other.

In the Polynesians conditions differ but slightly from. those in the
Americans: there are somewhat less of posterior and correspondingly
more of anterior and antero-superior exostoses.

The data demonstrate once more that, although there are some group
differences in the location of ear exostoses, this location discloses
certain general tendencies, which in their turn support the conception
of the process of these growths as a definite and separate abnormal
entity.

Observation along this line on large numbers of specimens leaves a
strong impression of basic definiteness and rule, both as to location
and mode of development, which is radically opposed to any incidental
or purely local origin of these formations.

SIZE

In size the ear exostoses vary, according to Wyman (1874) from
“a pin’s head to that of the whole caliber of the canal”; according
to Whitney (1886), “from a simple thickening all stages can be
traced, up to the formation of round osseous growths as large as
pease, which in one or two cases have completely blocked up the
opening ’’; according to Russell (1900), from ‘“ minute nodule to
large tumorous growths”. Sabroux (1901) says that their volume
varies much—from a simple protrusion on the walls of the canal to
a complete obliteration of the same. For Gray (1910) their size
ranges from “a pinhead to that of a bean”’. Dahlstrom (1923) states
that they “‘ seldom reach such a size that they would completely close
the meatus.’ Moller-Holst (1932) says that “the size varies from
that of a pinhead to exostoses that involve nearly one whole wall of
the meatus; while in height they range from very low to those that
project up to 7 mm.” There are additional statements on the point,
but they merely repeat more or less what has been given here.

New observations —From our observations, unimpeded by any soft
parts or wax or discharges, it is possible to state as follows: The
growths differ from small distinct abnormal bulgings or little circum-
scribed exostoses to bony tumors that almost occlude the meatus, or
even protrude beyond it. In no instance has an absolute occlusion of
the auditory canal been seen, but when in life the parts were covered

38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

with skin the closure in some of the cases must have been about com-
plete. Large growths are frequently accompanied by smaller ones.
The circumscribed exostoses never coalesce, and they never become
fused with the wall they reach in their growth.

An attempt was made to record the exostoses found as to size. Such
a procedure is difficult and calls not only for extensive experience but
also for a clear notion as to the range of variation of the growths.
With these conditions satisfied, it is possible to arrive at a rational
classification which, although incapable of mathematical accuracy, is
nevertheless really useful for conveying a fair picture of the condi-
tions.

The whole range in size of the growths was divided into small,
moderate to medium, and large. The ‘“‘ small ”’ ranged from that which
could be distinctly diagnosed as a new growth to those grades where
the formation began to be too much developed to be still readily
included in that class; the “ moderate to medium” were those from
the upper boundary of the “small” to such as would occlude up to
a half of the canal; and the “large’’ were those growths that oc-
cluded more than half of the meatus. The results obtained are not
without interest :

Size of the Ear Exostoses

sa Percentage Size of the bony US
Group of skulls Ot sulle 7
examined exostoses Small pias toe Large
p Percent Percent Percent
Bowpblaitns ete cre ssa hs oon 454 2.0 76.5 23.5
American:
Skimpy ake ace ces oO oer I ,000 0.2 25.0 75.0 oat
OldePueblovicaeugc. 225 ae ees 500 Bol 100.0 aha is
IN-eDakotaiaccss. 3.19. wea woe 29 6.9 50.0 50.0 fe
Ploridaemceie cece snakes ak a 395 8.9 67.2 25.7 Gol
Galittionmitae sg. :toio ss fee ake s 435 10.6 78.8 18.1 B2
INE Stateses en f . gama oi T12 11.6 75.0 25.0 acne
IBELU cen creer s aris vis dale eta: 3,651 TAs 50.9 Aas 6.6
WIRGIMID a teeta tracy cin oaine 65 215 52.4 40.5 Fal
IEOUMISIANA yey fee scares cee 61 24.6 78.1 18.7 301
INT Kan sa smear prer rie Giiciee es ae 173 272 65.7 28.1 6.2
SyDakotayall i 5 eo. aes 109 BG 60.3 39.7 Lat
S. Dakota, Mowbridge ...... 76 30.3 55.1 44.9 xi
Wwentuckyearraner actin caciae go Bo 45.1 50.0 4.9
Polynesian:
INewsZealardreri nares och ast 19 PEI 86.7 133
Flea Wi ttre te elise nstene cere.) ae ts 148 26.4 96.7 Bh

There are some very perceptible and significant differences in the
above figures. In the old Egyptians, the Pueblos, and the two Poly-

NO. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 39

nesian groups, in the two Dakotas and in the northeastern American
States, there were no exostoses that could be recorded as “ large ”’.
In the Egyptians, the Pueblos, and the Hawaiians, in particular, not-
withstanding their widely differing total involvement by the growths,
the exostoses were all or almost all small. The greatest collective
“massiness”’ of the abnormal formations occurred in Kentucky,
Virginia, Arkansas, Florida, and Peru—again under widely differing
total involvement.

The causes of the above differences are not clear. If it were prac-
ticable to divide the basic causes of these exostoses into hereditary
and those checking, or again favoring or exciting, their development
and growth in the predisposed individual—as may be correct—then
it could be conceived that the differences in their total bulk in a group
were due proportionately to the checking or favoring factors. Another
influence that enters into the subject is that of age. The growths
need time for their development to a large size. Of two groups equally
subject to the exostoses the younger would presumably show less
mass of the growths. It is probable that the mean age of the affected
skulls is not the same in all the groups. But age alone could not
possibly account for all the differences encountered.

One item is clear from the results shown in the preceding table,
and that is that the numerical involvement by ear exostoses in differ-
ent groups does not always go hand in hand with the collective massi-
ness of the growths.

SHAPES

Ear exostoses occur in many shapes, and these merge with each
other so much that any definite classification appears impossible. Blake
(1880) believed that he could recognize two main forms, the
“rounded” and the “ flattened ”. Von Troeltsch (1881) divided the
better differentiated ones into broad-based and pedunculated. Kessel
(1889, p. 285) states they are “ multiform ”’, but fall into three classes,
namely, hyperostoses, periostoses, and exostoses; under the latter
“are understood more or less circumscribed tumors that grow espe-
cially in one direction and stand either vertically to or parallel with
the axis of the canal. One can observe rounded, cylindrical, and
conical exostoses ’’—but there are also transitional and peculiar forms;
there are, too, spinelike growths which have been called “‘ osteo-
phytes ”. For Schlomka (1891, p. 16), who doubtless in part follows
Kessel, “ one can speak of rounded, cylindrical, or conical exostoses ;
but there are many combinations of these forms”, and some of the
growths may assume the form of ossified polyps. Sabroux (1go1,

40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

p. 35) says that their implantation is various, ranging from large
diffuse to one or even more than one “ pedicules”’. Korner (1904,
p. 106) believed that “ the globular growths tended to be located more
outwardly than the small buttonlike exostoses, to arise from the pos-
tero-superior wall of the canal, to be larger than the other excres-
cences—pea to cherry size—and to lead readily to the complete clos-
ure of the meatus.” Moller-Holst (1932, p. 96) says: “As to the
shape, one can distinguish flat, broadly based, semiglobular, globular,
and pedunculated exostoses. All the forms connect through inter-
mediary grades.”

New observations—In our examinations it was found that the
ear exostoses show a variety of forms which merge into each other,
present no distinct separate classes, and can only be subdivided roughly
or arbitrarily. They range on one hand from what can clearly be
recognized as an abnormal localized tumefaction or bulge on the pos-
terior or anterior tympanic wall to large irregular massy growths with
adventitious smaller elevations; from slight oblong ridges directed
along the axis of the canal to redundant more or less conflowing welts ;
from a recognizable swelling of the postero-superior or antero-
superior terminal part of the tympanic ring or bone, to masses that
almost occlude the auditory canal; and from little pearllike exostoses
to more or less buttonlike or pedunculated and irregular tumors,
some of which nearly occlude and some even protrude from the
meatus. On the other hand, there were observed no slender spines,
or sharp osteophytic growths, and no forms that could properly be
called “ cylindrical ”.

SYMMETRY

There are repeated statements in the literature on ear exostoses that
these growths in some cases occur symmetrically in the two ears of the
same individual. Thus Dalby (1876) states that “not infrequently
both meatus are affected similarly, not only in respect to the presence
of these tumors, but also as to their size and number ” ; and they may
also “increase synchronously” in the two canals. For Delstanche
(1878, p. 10) “ most often, in case the tumors are bilateral, their point
of insertion corresponds exactly in the two canals, and they possess
also a certain analogy of form and even of size.”” Ayres (1881) says,
“ There is seemingly a good deal of uniformity in their development ” ;
and similarly Kessel (1889, p. 286) states, “as to the bilateral cases,
it may be remarked that they occasionally appear in the same form
and in the same locations and therefore symmetrically’; and for
Schlomka (1891, p. 16) the bilateral outgrowths “are occasionally

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 41

entirely symmetric, both as to form and location.” Noquet (1899) in
one case saw perfect symmetry on the two sides—the same aspect,
volume, point of origin; Urbantschitsch had one case with two ex-
ostoses in each meatus, exactly alike. Sabroux alone (IgoI, p. 35)
considers them as “ very rarely implanted symmetrically in the two
auditory canals.” For Korner (1904, p. 107) they “develop mostly
symmetrically ’’; and also for Moller-Holst (1932, p. 96), “they in
part develop very symmetrically.”

New observations——wNo statistical data have been attempted in this
connection, for it was learned that a tendency toward symmetry, where
both external auditory canals are affected by exostoses, is the general
rule. The likeness extends most to the location of the growths, less to
their number and size, and least to the details of their shape. Even
where the growths must be recorded as unilateral, there is frequently
a trace of a commencing tumefaction in the corresponding locality of
the other meatus.

This general tendency of the growths toward symmetry on the two
sides connects them clearly, in the view of the writer, with the central
neuro-vascular system and is another element of importance in the
etiology of these formations.

RATE OF GROWTH

An inquiry into this subject is possible only to the clinician. There
are a number of notes on the subject in otological literature.

Toynbee (1860) learned that the development of these tumors may
frequently be very gradual and “ unattended by any symptoms calcu-
lated to attract the attention of the patient.’ Dalby (1876) found
that ear exostoses “ may remain without perceptible change for many
years.”

In the observation of Von Troeltsch (1881), their growth was gen-
erally very slow; Braunberger (1896) stated that it was “slow and
painless.” Kessel (1889, p. 288) noted that, although usually slow,
their growth at times was rather rapid. “It was most accelerated
toward the time of puberty; older age retards growth. The growth
is sometimes uneven; it can cease for a time and then recommence.”’
In Stewart’s (1901) experience, although such an occurrence was
“extremely rare’’, yet on occasion these exostoses could take on a
rapid growth suddenly.

A summary of all the clinical observations on the rate of growth
of ear exostoses is that their early stages are slow, symptomless, and
usually ignored even by the subject; that many apparently stop all
growth after reaching a smaller or larger size; but that under exciting

42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

conditions, evident or not, there may set in a relatively rapid enlarge-
ment, which soon is attended by distressing symptoms that bring the
subject to the aural surgeon.

An interesting further fact is that after an operation and removal
of an ear exostosis, in a majority of cases the subject remains free
from the growth, but in some cases there is a recurrence of the bony
tumor. In the absence of both infection and malignancy the latter
event implies, it would seem, a special neuro-vascular influence.

SUBDIVISION

Since Toynbee (1860), repeated but not very successful efforts have
been made at a classification of ear exostoses, either on the basis of
causation, of the form of the tumors, or of their structure.

The morphological classification alone needs to be dealt with in this
section. It begins with Cassells (1877), who divides the growths into
two categories, namely, the hyperostoses and the exostoses, which he
believes to be separate abnormalities and of totally different origin.
This clinically convenient subdivision, notwithstanding voices to the
contrary and its demonstrable basic inaccuracy, has become generalized
in otology and will probably stay there. Von Troeltsch (1881, p. 144)
states that hyperostoses are not clearly separable from exostoses, yet
he uses the two terms, applying the first to “a generalized hyperplasia
of the walls ” of the meatus. Virchow, though in general admitting the
subdivision, appears at times uncertain; he speaks (1889) of a “ hy-
perostosis ” in a Tanimbar skull which closely resembles the “ ex-
ostoses”’ of the Peruvians.

Kessel (1889) follows Cassells, but adds two more forms and gives
the following somewhat arbitrary definitions: Hyperostoses, involv-
ing the whole extent of the canal; exostoses, more or less circum-
scribed growths ; periostoses, ringlike bony growths ; and osteophytes,
spinous growths.

Pritchard (1891) attempts to divide ear exostoses into: 1, multiple,
uniformly smooth and rounded ; 2, multiple, irregular in shape ; and 3,
single, polypoid.

Hartmann (1896, p. 44) has this to say:

Now as it happens that of late years both hyperostoses and exostoses have
been described indifferently under the title of exostoses, although they are
plainly two different processes; the descriptions of cases vary a great deal,
depending on whether the author has had his mind more intent on exostosis or
on hyperostosis. That there is an essential difference between the two, is also
supported by Virchow, who, with his enormous experience with exostoses,

remarked, during the discussion of a paper which I had read in the Berlin Medi-
cal Society: “I agree with the reader, particularly in one point which made

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 43

itself plain to me many years ago during my ethnological investigations of skulls
from the northern portions of the Pacific coasts. I refer to the more diffuse
hyperostosis which he has exhibited in his first case. That, I should not call
an exostosis at all. Diffuse hyperostosis is quite different from a genuine
exostosis. Inasmuch as exostoses have a very typical situation, this interpreta-
tion is very plain.”

Hyperostosis of the external auditory meatus always limits itself to the pars
tympanica, whilst the adjacent squamous portion of the bone has no bony pro-
tuberance..... . ; The entire pars tympanica may become hyperostotic.

For Lake (1898) hyperostosis is distinct from exostosis, being
“a more or less uniform bony stricture of the external meatus.”
Sabroux (1901, p. 13) distinguishes between exostoses and osteomata,
believing the two to differ anatomo-pathologically ; but gives no satis-
factory rule for differentiating the two.

Korner (1904, pp. 106-7) thus imperfectly distinguishes the two
forms:

Of the exostoses, the button- to semiglobular forms are found near the
antero-superior border of the drum, in the vicinity of the location, still open at
birth, of the original tympanic ring. They remain mostly very small. .... The
hyperostoses are found as a rule in the outer part of the bony meatus. In accord
with the differing participation of the tympanic bone in the formation of the
lower portions of the bony meatus, they reach up to the middle, seldom to the
upper third of the lumen of the canal. They develop usually synchronously on
the anterior and the posterior wall, seldom also on the floor of the meatus,
in such a manner that the remaining opening of the canal becomes pear-
Shaped)... After what was said it seems that the frequently mentioned occur-
rence of multiple exostoses in one ear is really to be assumed as a combination
of ex- and hyperostoses; only the small exostoses at the upper border of the
drum do occasionally occur in a multiple number

oO oreo ic

Bezold and Siebenmann (1908, p. 102) offer a somewhat peculiar
concept of the hypero8toses and exostoses and decide against speaking
of them separately:

We call exostoses small round bony growths which are usually found as little
white circumscribed elevations in groups of two or more on both sutures of the
deepest part of the os tympanicum to the horizontal part of the scale of the
temporal bone. One protuberance is usually directly in front, another close
behind the short process of the hammer in the drum membrane. A third one
often protrudes between the two. Hyperostoses present themselves more in the
form of diffuse bulgings of the anterior lower, and sometimes also posterior
lower wall. A crosscut through the meatus has consequently the shape of a
pear with the point downward. We shall speak about exostoses and hyperostoses
together, as they are found not infrequently in the same ear.

Jackson (1909) divides the neoplasms merely into: 1, those that
entirely block the meatus; 2, those that do so partially ; and 3, those
that scarcely affect it, causing merely some narrowing.

44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Ballenger (1914, p. 661) attempts, though hardly successfully, to
give precise definitions: “An exostosis is a bony tumor growing from
the wall of the meatus, and may be either sessile or pedunculated.
Hvyperostosis is a diffuse thickening of the bony tissue, or a true
hyperplasia.”

Ferreri (1904) opposes the division into hyperostoses and exostoses
as artificial. But Gray (1910, p. 137) accepts Cassell’s classification,
defining ear exostoses as growths “ which are circumscribed and even
occasionally pedunculated ; and hyperostoses, in which a general diffuse
thickening of the bony walls takes place.”

Manasse (cited by Moller-Holst, 1917, p. 71) says that the hyper-
ostoses are broadly based thickenings, the exostoses showing a globular
development; and the same definitions are given by Bauer and Stein
(1926). For McKenzie (1920, p. 457) “ osteomata in the meatus may
be sessile (hyperostosis) or pedunculated (exostosis) .”

Bauer, Stein, Kaufmann (cited by Alexander) designate the cir-
cumscribed protruding bony growths as exostoses, the more diffuse
ones as hyperostoses. ‘“‘ Thereby”, says Alexander, “the principal
distinction between exostosis and hyperostosis falls; the difference
lies simply in the development. The separation of exostoses and hyper-
ostoses of the external auditory canal is not easily possible when they
occur at the same time in the same ear passage.” Alexander then
classifies the growths according to location, into:

1. Exostoses that proceed from the outer border of the os tympanicum.

2. Exostoses that proceed from the inner border of the os tympanicum.

3. Exostoses that arise from the body of the os tympanicum.

4. The flat but slightly protruding exostoses of the inner part of the canal,
coming mostly from the terminal line of the os tympanicum.

He also classifies the growths pathognomically, of which more later.

Oetteking (1930) separates hyperostoses and exostoses, but says
that “there may be transitional forms ”, though in shape rather than
structure.

Finally Moller-Holst (1932, p. 73, 101, 102) expresses himself
thus:

Under hyperostoses Kessel and Ostmann understand general thickenings of
the tympanic bone; Kaufmann diffuse bone increase in mass, but also circum-
scribed growths; Hartmann and Virchow flat exostoses; Manasse broadly
based thickenings; Marx diffuse malformations which are to be counted among
the hyperplasias and which originate already in childhood; Alexander a struc-
tural variation, not an abnormality (Missbildung), which when more strongly
developed are to be counted with the tumors. Zuckerkandl’s exostoses also, are
designated by Alexander as hyperostoses. Under exostoses are generally under-
stood localized bony outgrowths.

NO. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 45

For Kaufmann, Moller-Holst says, exostoses and hyperostoses are
but form-differences. “ Marx, too, knows no boundaries between cir-
cumscribed exostoses and diffuse hyperostoses, and no more does
Alexander, who uses the two terms for the same growths.” Moller-
Holst’s own view is that, though there exist all kinds of transitions
between the bony growths in the ears in their form as well as their
structure, yet from the clinical point of view there is a justification
for subdivisions of the formations on the basis of location, shape,
and size. “ Speaking generally, therefore, a so-called bony polyp of
the meatus may anatomo-pathologically be an exostosis or a hyper-
ostosis ’—which last statement is not very clear.

New observations.—It is plain from the above that a generally valid
classification of the abnormal bony ear growths has not been realized
and in fact, appears to be unrealizable; but that clinically there is a
prevalent sense of two or rather three forms—the diffuse or broad-
based irregular tume factions ; the circumscribed, occasionally peduncu-
lated tumors, capable of a rapid growth and, together with their soft
coverings, of causing an occlusion of the whole canal; and small
indolent rarely troublesome “ ceiling ” growths in the meatus.

The extensive examinations reported in this monograph lead to the
conclusion that, aside from the small, more or less pearllike exostoses—
or probably better osteomata—arising from the superior or squamous
part of the meatus, there is no line of demarcation that would permit
any valid subdivision of the growths into hyperostoses and exostoses,
or in any other manner. There are many cases where a clear charac-
terization of the growth by one or the other of the above main terms,
hyperostosis and exostosis, is impracticable—it is more or less both.
There are other more differentiated cases in which at the base the
growth would deserve the name of diffuse hyperostosis, but above this
is definitely a more or less rounded exostosis. There are cases where
what is evidently the same growth, in the same location, will in one of
the ears of the same skull show the form of a pronounced exostosis,
in the other that of some grade of hyperostosis or an intermediary
condition. And there are no few instances in which both or all three
of these forms (hyperostoses, exostosis, and intermediary) may be
seen in the same ear. The more or less diffuse hyperostosis of the pos-
terior or anterior wall of the meatus is in many cases in all probability
but an earlier stage of an exostosis.

Thus otology, for its practical purposes, will doubtless keep its
conventional classification of the bony growths of the external auditory
canal into hyperostoses, exostoses, and osteomata of the roof; but
those who use this classification should be aware of the fact that,

4

40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

except perhaps for the rare osteomata of the roof, it is merely a con-
ventional and convenient subdivision, without substantial anatomical
or pathological foundation.

STRUCTURE

A number of authors who dealt with ear exostoses report the re-
sults of a histological examination of these growths. The results show
differences ; some are more or less cancellous and some are compact
tumors, but between the two there is no line of demarcation—they
connect by intermediary grades. Thus histology, too, fails to afford
any definite basis for the differentiation of these neoplasms into dis-
tinct categories. About all that can legitimately be said is that the
small, pearllike and the smooth, rounded exostoses are generally the
more compact, the tumefactions and the large masses prevalently the
more cancellous.

The structure of ear exostoses received attention from the very
first report of these cases, that of Autenrieth (1809). The growth
was “ formed of areolar bone tissue.”

Contrary to this, in Toynbee’s experience the tumors were compact.
In his Textbook (1860) we read:

As far as my opportunities have permitted examination, these tumours...
appear to consist of extremely hard and dense bone. In one case, where a por-
tion of the bone was denuded of membrane, it appeared shiny, white and polished,
like ivory. In another, where, under the misapprehension of the body being a
polyp, caustic had been applied, the bone was exposed and found to be extremely
hard and devoid of sensibility. In a third instance, where I observed the mem-
brane to be absent, there was a thin layer of cartilage on the surface, beneath
which the bone was very hard.

Delstanche (1878) distinguishes “cellular” and “ eburnated ”’
structure of ear exostoses. He says (p. 8): ‘‘ Thus some—the cellu-
lar exostoses—are formed by areolar bony tissue which is enveloped
by a thin layer of compact bone; others—the eburnated exostoses—
are completely formed by compact tissue of much density.” Schwartze
(q. by Delstanche) “is of the opinion that the spongy and compact
states of the exostoses represent merely different phases of the devel-
opment of the neoplasms, and that exostoses that were at first can-
cellous can pass into the state of eburnation; and he believes also in
the possibility of their transformation in the reverse sense. This
opinion is also partaken of by Virchow and Nélaton.”

Individual cases were studied histologically by Hedinger, Cocks,
Kuhn, Eulenstein, and others. The reports are sometimes rather in-
volved, but all agree on one hand in the complete absence of anything

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 47

that would suggest malignity, and on the other in the lack of a
substantial basis for any definite subdivision of the growths into dif-
ferent classes.

A case of a pedunculated exostosis operated upon and studied by
Politzer (1902, p. 210), “‘ showed here and there very compact lam-
ellae (eburnation) with spaces that contained but few vessels.”

Another pedunculated exostosis was removed and studied by Tod
(1909, p. 77) who reports briefly as follows: “ On making a section
the ossification was seen to be proceeding from the centre.’ Other
exostoses “ were very hard, with a very thin layer of skin over them.”

A number of detailed histological examinations of ear exostoses are
reported by Dahlstrom (1923, pp. 215-216), and notes on the subject
may be found in Kessel, Schlomka, Ferreri, Gray, Oetteking, and
other authors, but there is nothing to afford any definite aid in the
attempt at a classification of these growths.

Marx (1926, p. 502) thus summarizes the results of the histological
studies of ear exostoses up to his time:

They consist of compact bone without distinct medullary spaces, but often
with strikingly marked vascular canals. In substance the “‘ exostosis eburnea ”
and the ‘exostosis spongiosa” are not different, but it is to be accepted that

one form passes into the other (Weber, Virchow, Schwartze), and that occa-
sionally also mixed forms are encountered.

Finally, Moller-Holst (1932, pp. 69, 100) states:

Some exostoses consist only of cancellous bone and will therefore be desig-
nated as exostosis spongiosa, others are covered with a compact layer and are
called exostosis eburnea. Histological examinations by the clinicians have shown
that between the two extremes (the compact and the spongy exostoses) occur
all transitions.

Remarks.—tThe only conclusion that can be drawn from the his-
tological evidence regarding the bony growths in the ears is that they
all together constitute but one abnormal complex, which offers nu-
merous individual differences, grades, and variations.

NATURE

What, in the opinion of those who have dealt with the condition,
is the nature, pathologically, of ear exostoses? There are numerous
opinions on this subject, but in general they are based on limited in-
dividual observations, and that mostly clinical, which do not permit
of a sufficient perspective and grasp. However, it is interesting to
survey these opinions.

Roosa (1866) concluded that ear exostoses “ were morbid growths
consequent on local irritation.”

48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

For Von Troeltsch (1881) the “ exostoses ” were pathognomically
close to tumors, the ‘‘ hyperostoses’’ close to diffuse osteophytic
growths.

Hedinger (1881) diagnosed his case as “ ostoid metamorphosis of
inflammatory proliferation of papillary and connective tissue, with
lime deposits *—no regular bone formation.

Moos (1881) regarded his cases as simple hyperplasias arising
from irritative processes at a time when the tympanic ring fuses
with the adjacent parts of the temporal; Roosa, about the same time,
viewed them as “ hyperplasias of the periosteum and the underlying
bone”; Politzer (1893) as “ partial hyperplasias of development and
ossification.”

Steinbriigge (1891) terms the outgrowths “ periosteal osteomata.”’
Virchow (1893) considers them as “ plainly products of pathological
nature... . examples of disturbed development, which probably
begins in and proceeds from the end parts of the annulus tympanicus ”’,
and says later, “ The localization of the exostoses of the auditory
canal implies that they, as the exostoses of other parts of the skeleton,
may be conceived as excessive bone growths on places which are
advancing toward ossification.”

Whitney puts them, ab origine, under “ cartilaginous exostoses.”

Braunberger (1896, p. 6) thought that “if we want to give these
exostoses an anatomically and physiologically substantiated position
in ear pathology, we must range them with connective tissue tumors
in the ectodermal part of the sound-conducting apparatus of the ear.”

Ranke (1900) believed that the growths “were examples of an
endemic disease common to the burial grounds of Ancon as well as
those of old Peru in general.”

Sabroux (1901, p. 13) says, “ Exostoses of the auditory canal are
tumors formed by an abnormal and circumscribed production of bony
tissue on the surface of the canal.’’ They are “ benign tumors, harm-
ful only by mechanical obstruction.”

Mayer (1923, 1924) attaches these exostoses (as also otosclerosis)
to the ‘ hamartomata ”’ or defect-developments (Fehlbildungen), and
refers them to a defective condition of the periosteal connective tissue.

For Marx (1926, p. 500), “ exostoses of the auditory canal repre-
sent circumscribed bony neoplasms and are to be counted with the
tumors, in distinction from the more diffuse hyperostoses, that belong
to the hyperplasias. A sharp division of the two is, however, not
always possible, as evidently there are transitional forms and as cir-
cumscribed exostoses may also occur in a meatus narrowed through

‘

‘

hyperostosis.”

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 49

Alexander (1930) regards both hyperostoses and exostoses—sep-
arable only by their form—when slight as variations, when large as
tumors.

Remarks—It must be clear from the above that the pathognomy
of ear exostoses is a subject that is as yet by no means as elucidated
as might be desired. The relative rarity of the condition in the living,
its clinical disadvantages, the want in many cases of the assistance of
an expert histo-pathologist, all constitute serious difficulties in this
field. Perhaps the extensive observations that form the basis of this
report may help to throw some light on the matter; this will be dealt
with in the terminal discussion.

ETIOLOGY

The causation of ear exostoses, being of especial importance to
otology, has received considerable attention; nevertheless, here also
much still remains obscure. The subject has naturally a direct con-
nection with that of pathognomy of the growths.

A general review of the observations and opinions recorded in this
part of the field shows that attention has been concentrated mainly
on the local or exciting agencies and on the possible connection of
the exostoses with certain systemic conditions or diseases. Never-
theless, there are also a number of valuable observations on the heredity
of the growths. It will be well to take up separately the various etio-
logical factors involved.

c

TRUE CAUSES “ UNKNOWN ”

A large majority of the authors who deal more adequately with
the etiology of ear exostoses acknowledge more or less openly that
the true or basic causes of this class of disorders are unknown or
uncertain.

Statements such as “ nothing positive ”’, “ still dark as to the causes ”’,
“true causes unknown ”, and others of similar import may be found
in Turner, Blake, Garrigou-Désarenes, Ferreri, Lake, and many
others. Hedinger (1881), “ pathogenesis entirely unknown”; Whit-
ney (1886, p. 41), “ various explanations have been offered for the
occurrence of the growth in this situation, but none of these is entirely
satisfactory ”’; Kessel (1889), “ causes still but little known ”’ ; Gold-
stein (1898), “ etiology often shrouded in mystery ”; Politzer (1902,
p. 210), “ the causes of these exostoses are, in the majority of cases,
not ascertainable.’ Le Double and Lebourg (1903), “ causation uncer-
tain”; Bachauer (1909), “cause not yet found”; Burton (1927),

50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

“causes still largely speculative’; Moller-Holst (1932), “ subject in
many points not satisfactorily cleared.”

Notwithstanding this general pessimistic attitude, there are many
beliefs and theories as to the causation of the tumors. They will be
reviewed in the following sections.

‘““ SPONTANEOUS ”’, NUTRITIVE

There are a number of remarks in otological writings to the effect
that an exostosis in the meatus commenced spontaneously without an
apparent reason. As late as 1930 Alexander says that some “ originate
spontaneously, as an abnormality.”

Dupuytren (q. by Sabroux, 1901) suggested a nutritive disturbance.
He believed that they depended on a modification in the nutrition of
the bone, on some sort of aberration in the distribution of the bone
juices, comparing the tumors to the outgrowths which develop as a
result of irregularity in distribution of sap.

Masini (1882) believed also in disturbed nutrition. He thought the

x, 99

growths “ may be comprehended as exaggerated nutritive ‘ lavosio’.

CONGENITAL

A number of authors have advanced the idea that some of the ear
exostoses may be “ congenital’, though none have taken the trouble
to state precisely what they meant by that term. In some cases it
probably stands loosely for “ hereditary ”’.

Thus Dalby (1876) says, “that small bony enlargements in the
external auditory canal are sometimes congenital I feel tolerably
confident.” Delstanche (1878), a little more explicit, believes that
the exostoses “‘ may develop both before and after the ossification of
the canal.” For Roosa (1892) “there may be congenital cases.”
Velpeau (q. by Le Double) believed some to be “ congenital.” For
Goldstein (1898) exostoses in American Indians belong apparently
to “congenital’’ growths. Sabroux (1901, p. 24) accepts, though
rather loosely, the “ congenital” nature of some of these growths:
“we call therefore congenital all exostoses whose origin is unknown
and which seem to be transmitted by heredity ; exostoses whose pres-
ence coincides with the development of some congenital tumors or
malformations; and finally all those exostoses that characterize one
race more than another.”

In Bezold and Siebenmann’s textbook (1908, p. 102) we read on this
subject as follows: “ The exostoses in the bony meatus which Virchow
found in many Mexican [should be Peruvian] skulls and which he

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 51

explained as a peculiarity of the race, must be considered as congenital
deformities.”

Furst (q. by Moller-Holst, 1932, p. 73) regarded the exostoses as
possibly congenital, and Green (ibid.) held that some of the growths
could be of fetal origin.

All ideas of congenitality are, on the other hand, opposed strongly
by Kessel (1889, p. 286), who states: “ In the literature of the subject
there are also met with opinions that the exostoses in the auditory
canal may occur congenitally. In my estimate this assumption rests
on a gross error, for from developmental studies it is known that in
the newborn there is as yet no bony meatus and that the same comes
into existence only during the first years of life... .. The exostoses
are therefore later manifestations. ... . ” Le Double and Lebourg
(1903) express the view that the growths “evidently are not con-
genital’; and Korner (1904) states unequivocally that they do not
occur congenitally.

New observations —An examination of numerous skulls of fetuses,
newborn, and infants has shown me not the slightest trace of what
could be regarded as a hyperostosis or exostosis of the tympanic ring,
or on the roof of what was becoming the external meatus. As Kessel
pointed out, there is no bony canal until well after birth, in early
childhood.

Judging from the incomplete developmental stage of the parts up
to and for a period after birth, and from the absolutely negative results
of our examinations, which included infant skulls of groups that were
greatly affected by ear exostoses in later life, it may safely be said,
I think, that the growths in question do not occur congenitally. The
term ‘“ congenital” should henceforth be excluded from the literature
of ear exostoses.

DEVELOPMENTAL

Aside from causes inherent in the organism and derived either from
some constitutional fault or from heredity, a number of students of
ear exostoses connect them with “ developmental ” conditions of the
external auditory canal. Just what is meant by this is mostly not clear,
and even where an attempt is made at explanation, no proof of the cor-
rectness of the view is given in any instance.

Virchow (q. by Moller-Holst, 1932, p. 73) believed that some of
the exostoses originated in the fetal stage from the tympanic ring as
a result of a pathological irritation. Much the same view was held
by Moos. Green, too, believed that some of the growths could develop
in fetal life. For Heiman (1890) congenital ear exostoses were “ due

52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

to hyperplasia during the period of development and ossification of
the external auditory canal.”

Hartmann (1893; 1896, p. 43) held that ear exostoses “ must be
cases of anomalies of development, because of the simultaneous ap-
pearance on both sides, the limitation of the anomaly to pars tympanica,
and the perfectly uniform consistency of the rest of the bone.’ And
further (pp. 45-46) :

All of these structures are to be regarded as anomalies of formation, which
begin with the development of the external meatus and come to light with the
advancing of the pars tympanica.... .

If I were to offer proof that these alterations were simply anomalies of
development and had nothing to do with inflammatory or morbid processes, I
should emphasize: the absence of alterations which could possibly be referred
to previous inflammation; the perfectly uniform condition of the bone, which
can in no way be distinguished from the neighboring bone, and especially from
that of the squamous portion; the limitation of the hyperostosis to the pars tym-
panica; the uniform occurrence on both sides; the stationary condition of the
tumor in adults; and finally the hereditary influence so often observed.

Lake (1898) opposes Hartmann’s opinions. But J. Gruber (1897,
p. 212) believes similarly “that the development of ear exostoses
stands in connection with the growth of the tympanic ring and is to
be conceived as an excess product of this.” And for Politzer (1902,
p. 210), in some cases the origin of the growths may be attributed to
“ partial hyperplasia during the stages of development and ossifica-
tion of the bony auditory meatus.”’ According to his view, “ those
bilateral osseous neoplasms which develop without symptoms belong
to this class, especially if they are located symmetrically in both
meatuses and have a corresponding form. They are usually found
in the middle and inner sections of the osseous meatus. They are
sessile or pedunculated, and seldom attain such a size that they com-
pletely fill the auditory canal.”

Ballenger (1914, p. 161), too, subscribes to these opinions. He
says: ‘‘ They may be due to developmental causes, particularly in
those cases wherein the middle and the inner section of the osseous
meatus on each side is the seat of the growth. When due to faulty
development, the growths are usually small.”

Since the above, the “ developmental” origin of ear exostoses
received noteworthy further support by Burton (1927). To this
observer,

it seems logical to believe that the exciting agent, whatever its form, acts
equally upon the entire canal but is responded to only by those points which
are especially susceptible to the stimulus. Which are these points? In the vast

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 53

majority of cases reported only those areas responded to this stimulation, what-
ever it was, which during the development grew most rapidly. These places are
the two ends of the annulus. By far the larger number of aural exostoses are
found along the suture lines between the canal and the rest of the temporal bone.
Why? The author believes that an adequate explanation is to be found in his
theory that these susceptible areas have retained their early potentiality of
more rapid development and response to any stimulus of production.

For Alexander (1930) the “ deeper causes of ear exostoses lie in
the temporal bone, which is formed of parts that ossify in cartilage
and parts formed from periosteal ossification; also the persistence of
cartilaginous points in the petrosum, and the lateness of the close
of the postembryonal growth, create a disposition to variation in the
bone and pathological growths.”

Critical remarks—Although the theory of a “ developmental ”
origin of some, at least, of the ear exostoses has received a considerable
backing, yet most of this appears of the order of “ follow the leader ”’.
And neither the leader nor those who followed have furnished the
slightest material evidence that would bear out their contention, or
even make it possible.

The discussion under ‘“‘ Congenital Origin ”’ applies also here. There
are no observations on record of a fetal, or even later, involvement by
the growths up to Field’s child of 3 years, and even that case is
unique. The bony parts that are to form the external meatus and
from which eventually exostoses may arise, are still largely deficient
in fetal life and are still far from complete at birth. And irritative
ear troubles, that could excite the formation of the outgrowths, are
not known of before birth.

INBORN TENDENCY

Wholly different from congenitality is the case of the causes com-
prised under the term “ inborn tendency ”’. Here is something worthy
of earnest attention.

The suggestion that there may be behind ear exostoses an inborn
tendency toward their production has been expressed by a number of
writers on the subject, though one would vainly search for any com-
prehensive exposition of the idea. Thus Nélaton speaks of a “ prédis-
position générale de l’économie ’’, and Delstanche (1878), who quotes
him, admits this as among the causes. Masini (1882) names “ immi-
nent predisposition’, and Ostmann (1894) mentions “ inborn ten-
dency” as among the causes of the exostoses. For Russell (1900)
there 1s a “ tendency in all races towards the formation of bony tumors

54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

or exostoses in the external auditory meatus.” A noteworthy state-
ment on the subject is that of Gray (1910):

The other general aspect of the problem is that the majority of individuals
never do suffer from exostoses, no matter how badly or from whatever cause
their general health become affected, or whether they suffer from some local
disease of the ear, such as suppuration, middle ear catarrh, etc., or not. Now
it appears to the writer that, viewed from this point of view, the logical con-
clusion to be drawn is that the cause of exostoses, that is the condition without
which the disease cannot occur, is to be found in the organ of hearing itself,
and, further, that this condition exists in the organ of hearing of certain indi-
viduals, and in these individuals only. From this point of view, which I believe
to be the correct one, exostosis is idiopathic. That is to say, the disease occurs
in people who have an inborn tendency to it, and that this is the only constant
factor in the etiology. No doubt disturbances, either locally in the ears or
constitutionally in the bodies of these individuals, may precipitate the onset of
the disease, but no particular one of these disturbances need be present and in
many cases they may all be absent. The single constant factor is the innate
tendency to the disease and the fact that hereditary influences are evident in
many cases is strongly in support of this view.

Burton (1927) supports Gray’s (and others’) view of the presence
of an “innate tendency ” toward these developments, and would call
this “atavism”’, though evidently with a different shade of meaning
from that ordinarily applied to this term. For Moller-Holst (1932,
p. 102) a causative connection of atavism is wholly unfounded.

A few authors approach the conception of a “ racial influence ”.
Thus Darnach (q. by Alexander, 1930) regards the inclination of
the American Indian to ear exostoses as a racial peculiarity (char-
acter), something like that of the African Negro toward keloid forma-
tions. Moller-Holst (1932) is skeptical and would at most admit a
“ race-peculiarity ’ (Rasseneigenthumlichkeit ).

Remarks—The above and some additional statements of this nature
range from hesitating suggestions to firm convictions. They show
that the more obvious agencies of the disorder did not fully satisfy
these observers. They felt more or less vaguely, or have become defi-
nitely convinced, that some innate predisposition, individual or racial,
lay in the background of the etiology of the growths under considera-
tion. But not one of them has attempted to pin down and critically
analyze the hazy factor.

HEREDITY

The subjects of ‘‘ congenitality ’, “ predisposition’, and “ inborn
tendency ”’, considered above, lead inevitably to that of heredity of
ear exostoses, and here otology furnishes a line of definite valuable
observations.

nN

NO. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 55

As early as 1878, Schwartze reports that he had observed hereditary
connections, and Delstanche regards “ hereditary predisposition ” as
among ‘the best determined causes” of the bony growths in the
meatus.

According to Blake (1880, p. 88) :

there is one other possible influence which may have a bearing upon the
occurrence of these growths, and which is at least worthy of consideration in
any future investigations which may be made, and that is, hereditary tendency.
Of the more marked cases—that is, cases exhibiting excessive growth without
evidence of other aural lesion—I have found, in aural practice, that the majority
have occurred in certain families, in the male members of successive generations,
the most marked instance being in the three successive generations of one
family.

Masini (1882) found positive evidence of heredity of ear exostoses
in one case, and similarly did Boyer, Kirchner, Politzer, and Moore.
Kessel (1889, p. 288) states that he can confirm the heredity of the
growths out of his own clinical experience. There exists here, he
says “‘a constitution-anomaly which leads to certain disturbances in
the genesis of the skeleton, without the possibility of a conclusion as
yet as to just what this anomaly consists of.”

Braunberger (1896) affirms that in individual cases heredity is as-
certainable. Hartmann (1897, p. 43) has not only seen evidences of
heredity of ear exostoses in his own practice, but a review of the litera-
ture on the subject has shown him “the frequent occurrence of
hereditary influence in similar cases”; Korner (1904, p. 102) says,
“ There exists nevertheless in not a few families an hereditary dis-
position to these bony new growths ”’; and in Bezold and Siebenmann
(1908, p. 102) we read, “ This anomaly is often found in several
members of the same family.”

Gray (1910) states that: ‘“ The single constant factor is the innate
tendency to the disease and the fact that hereditary influences are evi-
dent in many cases is strongly in support of this view.” For Ballenger
(1914, p. 662), “ there are some cases in which heredity seems to be
a factor in the production of these growths, as the same condition may
be traced through a few generations.” O. G. Kessel (1924) declares
heredity alone to be the effective cause of the growths, other factors
being of but secondary importance. Burton (1927), as already noted,
calls the growths “ atavisms”’, which implies inheritance, and asserts
that heredity is among the best substantiated of the causes of the
abnormalities. For Alexander (1930), ear exostoses are “ often
hereditary ”’.

‘

56 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

.

Convincing as the above statements are, they are supplemented by
the sustaining evidence of actual observations on the heredity of the
abnormalities. The reported cases, as far as it was possible to gather
them, are as follows:

Reports of Cases of Evident Inheritance of Ear Exostoses

Blake (1880, 1888): In two families father and son successively affected.

Masini (1882): In cne case, adult male, mother “deaf” through occlusion of
both ears when about 4o.

Boyer (q. by Hartmann, 1897, p. 43): Treated a woman whose father, brother,
three sisters, two nephews, and all of her own children were affected by
ear “ hyperostoses.”

Kirchner (1883): Observed a man with bilateral ear exostoses, in whose son
he later found a similar condition.

Kessel (1889, p. 288): Like Blake, saw in two families bony growths in ears
of a father and a son.

Moore (1900): Had two cases, in two brothers, in one in the right, in the
other in the left ear.

Korner (1904, p. 102): Treated, I, a father, 63, with bilateral marked hyper-
ostoses; in his first son, 26, the same; in the second son, 20, the same; in
his daughter, 22, a hyperostosis in the right ear; II, father, 55, bilateral
marked hyperostosis; son, 7, hyperostosis in the left ear; 1II, man, 42,
bilateral marked hyperostoses .... brother 38, the same; sister, 30,
meatus normal; their cousin, 19, in right ear a completely occluding,
coftee-bean-size exostosis.

Kessel (1924): Presents a heredity-tree of three generations of a family with
ear exostoses.

Alexander (1930): Had three male patients with ear exostoses, the father
of each of whom was affected by similar growth; another male whose
brother and sister were effected ; and still another male with “ ear troubles ”
in a brother and three children of another brother.

Discussion.—In view of the above data, it cannot be doubted that
direct heredity plays a part in the etiology of ear exostoses. But there
is no light as yet on the problems of how large and important this
part is, whether it is generalized or restricted to individual families,
whether it is progressive or regressive, and how it originates. Also,
nearly all that is said relates to direct inheritance in families and not
to heredity in a wider sense. The subject will receive due attention in
our final chapter.

An item that calls for some consideration in this place is that of
inbreeding. Inbreeding as a cause of ear exostoses was brought up
recently (1932) by Moller-Holst, but without comment or any attempt
at an explanation. Inbreeding is known to be capable of accentuating
and spreading different pathological conditions. In limited localities,
in small human groups, and especially in single families, it might have

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 57

played a part in multiplying the cases of ear exostoses. But inbreed-
ing means essentially intensified heredity. It could augment but hardly
create the exostoses. As these abnormalities are so widespread over
the earth, inbreeding, if it was their cause, would have to be equally
generalized, which of course it is not. Harmful inbreeding is rare in
any race of men. It did not exist in America, where exogamy was
the rule. It did exist in Egypt, but only in the Pharaohs and perhaps
in the highest families. It took place only very exceptionally in whites.
More closely inbred communities, whether in the Old World or the
New, have never been reported as especially subject to ear exostoses.
In fact, the more closely the subject of inbreeding is examined the
more it eludes as a possible cause of ear exostoses.

SOCIAL STATUS: OCCUPATION

There are but a few references to social or occupational causes of
ear exostoses, but these few are suggestive. Von Troeltsch (1881,
p- 142) states that his cases predominated in those of middle years
‘“ who liked to eat well and drink.” Bezold in 24 years of hospital
and private practice found ear exostoses in 116 patients and says
(1895, p. 49): “In only a few instances have I found the exostoses
in the dispensary patients; my observations come almost all from
private practice. The occurrence of the exostoses is therefore over-
whelmingly a disease of the better situated.” And the same is reas-
serted in Bezold and Siebenmann (1908, p. 102).

Korner (1904), in dispensary practice at Rostock, found ear exos-
toses in but 1.1 percent of his ear patients—a relative rarity in the
poor. For Tod (1909) the growths appeared more frequently in
the “more favorably circumstanced than in the labouring class.”
Moodie (1930) mentions that the exostoses are more frequent “ among
the sedentary groups than among the more active ’’, although he does
not state the basis for this conclusion. In Moller-Holst (1932, p. 69)
we find the following statement, though it is perhaps not original :
“Usually [the ear exostoses] will, curiously, be found almost ex-
clusively among the well-to-do and but seldom in the poor.”

Remarks.—Both the social and the occupational factors are of such
breadth and complexity, as well as potency, that some influence by
them on any pathological or abnormal process may safely be assumed.
Such influence may be of direct or indirect nature, primary or secon-
dary. Given the existence of a widespread oto-exostotic diathesis, it
is conceivable that its manifestations might be favored or hindered by
what is embraced in the term “ social status’, or occupation. Either

58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

of these complex agencies, in other words, might act as a contributory,
exciting, modifying, or checking cause of the abnormalities under
consideration.

CLIMATE

The climate of England has been blamed. Law (1909, p. 77)
thought ear exostoses were ‘“ more frequent in the South, and more
so among individuals who have lived in hot climates.” Alexander
(1930) regards climate as possibly influential in “ releasing” the
growths. Moller-Holst (1932, p. 69) says—though apparently not
as a result of personal observation—that “it is also an interesting
fact that the development of exostoses in the external auditory canal
occurs more frequently in people who had had a prolonged stay in
the tropics ’’; yet on another page (102) he states that this view is
“unfounded ”.

Remarks —Our materials hardly sustain the claim for climate as
one of the causes of ear exostoses. Our northernmost large group, the
Eskimo, is nearly free from the growths; but so is one of the most
southern groups, the Egyptians, and so are even more, apparently,
the essentially hot-climate African Negroes. The exostoses are fre-
quent along the coasts in Peru, but so they are in the highlands of
Peru and Bolivia. The old tribes of the Channel Islands in California
and those of Florida, who were equally at least as “ oceanic ” or litoral
as the Peruvians, show much less incidence of these formations.
This is particularly noteworthy in Florida, whose old natives belonged
largely to the same physical type as those of Louisiana and Arkansas,
and where moreover there was a prevalent tendency toward a super-
abundance of bone formation, as shown frequently by all parts of the
skull as well as the skeleton. The greatest involvement by the ex-
ostoses is found in tribes of Dakota, Kentucky, Virginia, Tennessee,
and Arkansas—all inland regions but differing considerably in cli-
matic conditions. And there is the considerably greater frequency of
the growths in the Polynesians than in the Melanesians, with whom
the climate is very similar.

From the above it seems that for the present the only safe con-
clusion to be drawn from the geographical distribution of tympanic
exostoses is that their frequency differs very considerably in differ-
ent territories, but that this is largely, if not entirely regardless of
climate or other geographic factors.

FOOD, DRINK, HABITS

Stimulating food and drink.—Toynbee (1860), aside from other

considerations, says: ‘‘ The disease in question may be divided into

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—-HRDLICKA 59

two classes: I, appears with congestion of the mucous membrane
of the ear. Most of the patients who have consulted me on account
of it were in the habit of partaking freely of stimulating food and
beverages.” Hedinger (1881), on the basis of about 40 cases, found
it necessary to deny abuse of liquor as an etiological factor. Heiman
(1890) mentions alcohol, but the question is ‘ hard to decide.” Ac-
cording to Alexander (1930), food has possibly also “‘a releasing
effect on the exostoses.” Moller-Holst (1932, p. 102) says “ effect of
nutrition is not determinable.”

Habits —Habits in the main imply occupations. With the possible
exception of those of sea divers (see under Salt Water), and that of
carrying heavy ear pendants (see under Mechanical) no attempts
have thus far been made to connect occupational or other habits with
ear exostoses.

CONSTITUTIONAL DERANGEMENTS
GOUT, ARTHRITIC DIATHESIS

In dealing with the obscure etiology of ear exostoses it was in-
evitable that much thought should be given to the possible connection
of these abnormalities with those constitutional derangements or dis-
eases that are known to be the cause of osteoblastic disturbances.
The foremost of such conditions are the arthritic or gouty diathesis,
and syphilis.

The view that rheumatic or arthritic diathesis and resulting localized
osteitis or periostitis were the causes of ear exostoses was suggested
as early as 1856 by Rau, but was especially fathered by Toynbee
(1860), who believed that “it 1s principally in individuals of rheu-
matic or gouty temperament that one encounters these bony tumors ” ;
and “ they appear to be the result of a rheumatic or gouty diathesis.”

Roosa (1866, p. 428), is the first to raise a partial objection—some
influence of rheumatic dyscrasia cannot be denied, but must not be
overestimated. For Delstanche (1878) the influence of rheumatic or
gouty diathesis is not well established. Von Troeltsch (1881) did not
see arthritic signs in his cases. For Dalby (1885) the views of
Toynbee and similar views are “ fallacious’’; for Kessel (1889),
ascribing the growths to rheumatic or gouty diathesis is untenable.

Virchow, (1889, p. 395) is uncertain—“ there exists a certain re-
lation between these formations and arthritis deformans’”’; and in
1893 he is still in doubt—there is “ possibly some connection.” Jacque-
mart (1889, p. 192), however, returns to the old view and believes
ear exostoses result “ from the species of plethora which characterizes
arthritism; are found principally in individuals of rheumatic and

60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

gouty temperament.” Pritchard (1891), speaking of ear exostoses
of certain kinds, says “as far as my own observations go, I am inclined
to the belief that they are usually of gouty or rheumatic origin.”
Alderton (1898) saw in his case “a local gouty manifestation of the
constitutional diathesis.” For Politzer (1902) gout was one of the
causes of the tumors; for Tod (1909) one of the chief causes; and
Noquet (1899) saw a case of bilateral ear exostoses in a gouty subject.
Sabroux (1901, p. 27) sums up the situation as follows: ‘“ Aside
from the syphilitic diathesis, we must mention in the etiology of these
conditions, arthritism and herpetism, diatheses which are nearly
equivalent and closely related if we consider their effects, and finally
the gouty diathesis.”

For Ballenger (1914, p. 662), gout is doubtful as a direct cause;
“it is more probable that the gouty diathesis causes an inflammatory
process of the skin and the periosteum, which finally undergoes a
retrograde change and becomes the seat of lime deposits.”

Remarks.—Arthritic, gouty or rheumatic diathesis is a subject
still far from being well understood. It is not even definitely known
whether all the conditions comprised under these terms are merely so
many differing manifestations of one basic diathesis, as it seems to
the writer, or whether they belong to two or more related yet dis-
tinct constitutional derangements. They do not, except perhaps on
very rare occasions, affect the external auditory canal. They cause
irregular osseous deposits in or about the joints, but never peduncu-
lated or circumscribed bony tumors. And they affect mainly those
above middle age, whereas exostoses are predominantly an affliction of
the earlier part of adult life. A very large proportion of the rheumatic,
arthritic, or gouty, moreover never develop ear exostoses. Where
then is the connection between the two conditions ?

That ear exostoses may exist or develop in “ gouty ” subjects need
not be questioned ; that a gouty condition of the system may possibly
in some cases act favorably on their development could readily be
admitted, though proof should be furnished; that an arthritic di-
athesis could be the sole cause of an ear exostosis is unexplainable and
is opposed by the mass of evidence presented by the extensive skeletal
materials at our disposal.

The Eskimo offer perhaps the best refutation of a causal connec-
tion between arthritis and ear exostoses. Arthritis is frequent and
at times severe in these people, leading to marked joint deposits and
marginal exostoses—ear hyperostoses and exostoses are practically
absent. On the other hand, in our Kentucky, South Dakota, and Vir-
ginia groups, where ear exostoses are most common, arthritic condi-
tions are no more frequent than usual in American material.

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—-HRDLICKA OI

SYPHILIS

Syphilis has been blamed for so many pathological conditions of
which the causes were difficult to detect that no surprise need be felt
that ear exostoses, too, have been attributed to the disease.

The first to believe he saw a direct connection between the two is
Triquet (1857, q. by Sabroux), who says “ the presence of these bony
tumors is not encountered except in subjects manifestly affected by
syphilitic infection.” Roosa (1866, p. 428) believes that, as with gout,
“the influence of syphilis may not be denied, but must not be over-
estimated”. Gruber (1870) thinks syphilis acts in part as a cause ;
so also, more or less similarly, do Politzer, Jacquemart, Fournier,
Noquet, Meniére, Krakauer, and Sabroux.

To the above stand opposed Von Troeltsch, Delstanche, Schwartze,
Erhardt, and Hedinger. Von Troeltsch (1881, p. 142) says cate-
gorically—‘“ connection with syphilis is utterly undemonstrable ”’.
Hedinger (1881), as a result of his observations on about 40 cases
of ear exostoses, “ must exclude syphilis as an etiological factor”.
For Kessel (1889), ascribing them to syphilis is untenable. According
to Duplay (q. by Sabroux, 1901, p. 25), “ nothing authorizes us to
connect these exostoses with syphilis.”

Sabroux (1901, p. 24), though on the basis mainly of the opinions
of others, inclines to the view that syphilis is concerned in the genesis
of the congenital ear tumors; while in the acquired forms, “ syphilis
is quite certainly the most common agency that influences their de-
velopment. .... In hereditary syphilis we have the congenital ex-
ostoses; in the acquired we encounter the exostoses as one of the
tertiary manifestations of the disease.’ And for Ballenger (1914,
p. 662), ‘“‘ Syphilis is undoubtedly a cause of the growths, although
not in a very large number of cases.”

Yet for Bezold and Siebenmann (1908, p. 102) “ there is no proof
of a special diathesis for this disease such as lues.”

There are other statements on the two sides of the question, but
no proofs. More recent textbooks and authors in otology tend to
be cautious.

Remarks.—Not one single case in the great collection of prehis-
toric American material that passed through our hands in connection
with this study, has shown any evidence of syphilis. Nor was there
seen any trace of the disease in any of the Polynesian or other skulls
that were found to be affected with ear exostoses.

In the 14 post-Columbian to recent Indian, Eskimo, and White
skulls with extensive tertiary syphilitic lesions, in the United States
National Museum collections, not one shows even a small ear exostosis.

5

62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Whether syphilis, acquired or inherited, may in some way favor
the appearance or growth of ear exostoses cannot be decided from
my sources. But these do show beyond question that ear exostoses
may exist, and that to a far greater extent than in White people,
without a trace of syphilis being present; and that on the other hand
a whole series of skulls with most pronounced syphilitic involvement
may exist with not a vestige of ear exostoses.

LOCAL IRRITATIONS AND INFLAMMATIONS

Of all the possible causes of ear exostoses, none in otological litera-
ture receives as much attention as ear irritations and inflammations.
The irritations are secondary, due particularly to injuries and dis-
charges, and act by setting up an inflammation. The inflammations
may be of any intensity, acute or chronic, localized or generalized.
They range from mild focal periostitis or osteitis to serious involve-
ments of the meatus, and to otitis media. All were, and largely still
are, believed to be more or less directly influential in favoring the
development of the bony growths in the meatus, directly or through
their irritating discharges.

Wilde (1855, p. 241) concluded that ear exostoses were the results
of chronic osteitis and periostitis in the meatus. Rau (1856) ex-
pressed the same opinion. For Toynbee (1860), one class of the
growths was due to “ congestion of ear lining”, secondary to a dis-
eased condition of the ear. Roosa (1866, p. 428) saw in their pro-
duction a process “ substantially an irritative one, often even inflam-
matory’; “irritation and probably periostitis due to chronic otor-
rhoea.”’ Similarly for Dalby (1876) they were “ at times called into
existence by an irritation .... by the irritating influence of a
discharge ”’.

Delstanche (1878, pp. 17, 65) enumerates ‘ among the most potent
causes ” of ear exostoses, “‘ chronic phlegmasia (inflammation), pri-
mary or secondary, of the walls of the meatus . , . . inflammation
of bone and periosteum ... . inflammation of irritation, spontan-
eous or traumatic’. Similarly, the chief or one of the chief causes
of the growths is, in the opinion of Hedinger (1881), “ hypertrophic
inflammation of the lining membrane, with subsequent osseous meta-
morphosis of the new-formed connective tissue.” For Masini (1882,
p. 616), continued local irritation (as in otorrhoea) is a cause of the
growths. Moos, Kessel, Politzer, Pritchard, Jacquemart, Heiman,
Kuhn, Jackson, Sabroux, Ballenger, Michailowskij, and others express
themselves in a more or less similar manner.

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—-HRDLICKA 63

xX

‘

For Roosa (1892) the growths are “in general caused by local
irritation.” Politzer (1902) sees as their basis hypertrophic inflam-
mation of the lining of the canal, with ossification of the new tissue.
Virchow (1893) feels that they “ owe their inception to a pathological
irritation restricted to the pars tympanica.” For Green (1896) they
are “in most cases, in all probability, the results of a circumscribed
periostitis.” For Goldstein (1898) “the most tangible and compre-
hensible cause, yet one not often met with, is that of the long-standing
direct irritation and chronic inflammatory condition of the walls of
the external auditory canal.’”’ McKenzie (1920, p. 458) holds that
“exostoses of the meatus seem to be the result of some long-continued
irritation, such as chronic suppuration of the middle ear, or eczema
of the meatal wall.”” For Michailowskij (1924, 1926) the chief cause
of ear exostoses is chronic otitis media and long-lasting dermatitis
of the auditory canal. Ballenger (1914, p. 661) tries thus to explain
the process: “‘ Chronic suppuration of the middle ear may excite a
secondary inflammation of the membranous canal, and cause a fibrous
or connective tissue thickening, which, after a long period of time,
may be metamorphosed into osseous tissue.”

Many other authors, however, express doubt. Field (1878), al-
though acknowledging the influence of inflammatory conditions, never-
theless points out that there is a “ rare form of exostosis of ivory con-
sistency, partaking of- the nature of a new growth, and quite inde-
pendent of inflammatory changes.’ Kessel (1889, p. 287) and after
him Schlomka (1891, p. 15) acknowledge that the exostoses occur
most frequently in those with chronic ear discharges, and that the
discharge causes irritation is beyond doubt; but often it is very hard
to decide which was the first condition, for it can be shown that the
exostoses are capable of arousing inflammation. Bezold (1895, p. 50)
found that ‘‘ suppurative processes of the middle ear, as accompani-
ments of exostoses, belong to the great rarities.”

Korner (1904, pp. 102-104) feels that the causation of the hyper-
ostoses and exostoses of the meatus by other ear affections is a pos-
sibility only in very isolated instances and definitely proved in none ;
but ‘‘ there is a rare variety of the exostoses that appears only in con-
sequence of chronic suppuration. These are small buttonlike, fairly
pedunculated growths that develop from the postero-superior border
of the meatus, close in front of or behind the suprameatal spine and
which therefore do not belong, as do the ordinary exostoses, to the
tympanic part, but to the squamous portion of the temporal bone.”
Gray (1910, p. 137) cautions that “ judgment must be reserved in
this matter’’-—a large number of the growths are without any
symptoms.

,

64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Burton (1927) is skeptical as to the influence of otic discharges:
“If the exciting agent be some form of chronic irritation and the
potentialities of all four walls be equal, we are surely entitled to
postulate that the floor, being the most dependent part, would be the
wall receiving the maximum stimulation, and hence should be the
area most frequently productive of these overgrowths. But the floor
is hardly ever involved in the process. It follows therefore that we
are justified in premising etiological factors other than chronic irri-
tations ue, ” O. Mayer (q. by Alexander, 1930) does not believe
that ear exostoses arise from a primary local inflammation. Moller-
Holst’s material (1932, p. 102) “ fails to show connection with otitis
media ”’; and he has also failed to find, in the mummies with ear ex-
ostoses, inflammatory processes in the soft parts.

Discussion.—As with most other alleged causes of ear exostoses,
the question remains undecided.

There is no question but that in a large majority of the clinical
cases the growths were found accompanied by otorrhoea and in some
by marked otitis media. But there were also observed cases without
any discharge or otitis, and a great many patients with otorrhoea or
otitis media develop no ear exostoses.

A number of the aural surgeons reporting on the condition mention
that for long periods the growths caused no trouble to the patient.
In general the subject is unaware of the hyperostosis or exostosis
until it reaches such a size that it begins to be accompanied by a
discharge or interferes with the hearing. But when conditions reach
such a stage, a determination of which was first, the bony growth or
the discharge and inflammation, is impossible.

The fact that the growths almost never develop from the floor of
the meatus, which is most exposed to ear discharges, need not have
much significance, for in all probability, owing to differences in in-
nervation and blood supply, not all parts of the tympanic bone are
equally prone to the development of exostoses, and at night the dis-
charges bathe also the lateral parts of the meatus.

Theoretically, 1t cannot but be acknowledged that any cause in-
ducing nerve irritation and reactive prolonged hyperaemia of the
meatus would be capable, where a “ predisposition’ to ear exostoses
existed in the parts, of arousing or favoring their development. Where
the predisposition does not exist or is held in check in some way, there
would, in all probability, be no exostoses. Irritations and inflamma-
tions may thus be admitted as among the possible exciting causes of
ear exostoses, but hardly as the basic causes of such growths.

NO. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 6

Sal

The Indian and other material that passed through my hands sus-
tains the view that the fundamental causes of ear exostoses are quite
different from mere irritation or inflammation. Most of the specimens
with such growths in our collections show no detectable inflammatory
changes. Nor are the growths themselves, in a large majority of cases,
such as would suggest inflammation. They and the parts about them
show nothing like the periostitic bone deposits or osteitic indurations
that are so well marked elsewhere in the skull or skeleton where
inflammatory processes affected the bone. Our material suggests
strongly that, in general, otorrhoea and other otic derangements may
not precede but rather follow ear hyperostoses and exostoses, after
these have begun to reach an obstructive stage.

SALT WATER

Connected with the preceding category of causes, yet having some
individuality of its own, is the irritation of the ear by water and
more particularly salt water. A number of authors incline to regard
this as a cause of ear exostoses in some instances.

Thus in Field’s (1878) cases, two of his four patients attributed
their ear troubles, which proved to be exostoses, to repeated and pro-
longed sea bathing. For Korner (1894) exposure to sea water ‘‘ was
influential ”—he found them more than five times as common along
the seacoast of Germany as in the interior. Moore (1900, p. 786) re-
ported that ear exostoses were “‘ very common in the Hawaiian Islands,
where great fondness for aquatic sports is supposed to be a cause.’’
Tod (1909) blamed “ gout and the morning tub.”’ For Law (1909,
p. 77) “a causative factor seemed to be the pouring of water into the
ears, especially carelessly sponging while holding the head on one
side ’’; and for Jackson (1909) it was “ local irritation, principally by
sea water.’’ Jackson thought irritation by salt water to be a more
frequent cause of ear exostoses than any other. McKenzie (1920,
p. 458) says, “they are very common in people who indulge freely in
sea-bathing and diving.”

For Heiman (1890) the case is “ hard to decide.” In a case of Lake
(1898) the subject “had never had a sea bath.” And for Moller-
Holst (1932, p. 102) the claim, with some others, is “so unfounded
that no discussion of it is necessary.”

Remarks —Some efforts were made to connect the frequency of
ear exostoses in the Peruvians and the Channel Islands Californians
with sea bathing. It was not known then that the abnormalities would
be found to be even much more frequent in some of the inland tribes;
that they also occurred in parts of Peru where no one bathed ; that they

60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

were rare in the Egyptians who were great water lovers; and that
the Malays and the boys of some other maritime groups, including
certain Whites, were great swimmers and divers without being par-
ticularly troubled with ear exostoses.

Notwithstanding the above, sea water is undoubtedly capable of
causing chronic ear troubles, and these may conceivably act, where
there is a tendency to the exostoses, as exciting ‘or favoring causes.

ABSCESSES, FURUNCLES

Cassells (1877) regarded some ear exostoses as secondary to a
subperiosteal abscess of the mastoid.

Jacquemart (1889, p. 193) states that after a cure of an ear furuncle
or abscess, it is not surprising to see a development of one of these
tumors ; and Sabroux (1901, p. 29) makes the same assertion.

POLYPS

From evidence adduced by others, Kessel (1889, p. 289) is satisfied
that ear polyps may ossify and thus turn into bony tumors. Pritchard
(1891) attests that the origin of ear exostoses in some cases may be
traced “ even to the actual ossification of the polypi.” Sabroux (1901,
p. 31) quotes Klotz, Bezold, Patterson, Cassells, Hedinger, and Cook
as having seen bony tissue in ear polyps, seemingly parting from the
bony part of the canal and developing preferentially into the im-
plantation of the tumor (Politzer). Tod (1909) reports a case where
a single exostosis developed “‘ from the floor of the auditory canal ”’
2 years after the removal of a polyp from that ear. Dahlstrom (1923,
p. 216) reports that ossification of ear polyps had been observed by
Cocks and Noltenius.

Remarks.—These cases, if correctly reported, would seem to differ
substantially from ear exostoses.

MECHANICAL CAUSES AND TRAUMATISM

The first to call attention to the probable influence of mechanical
causes on the development of the ear exostoses was Seligmann (1864),
who advanced the theory that in ancient Peru the growths were due
to the mechanical irritation produced in the Incaic youth, about the
time of puberty, by loading the ears with heavy ornaments. This idea
is met with also here and there in later authors, and even Virchow
(1889, p. 395) inclines to the view that such may have been the
cause of the growths in some cases. Blake (1880) found it sugges-
tive that most of the growths occurred in the posterior wall of the
meatus, “ the wall most exposed to violence.”

No. 6 "EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 67

Politzer believed traumatism might be a cause of ear exostosis,
through consequent localized periostitis. Jacquemart (1889, p. 193)
claims that even in cases of arthritic or syphilitic diathesis which pre-
disposed to the bony growths in the ears, “ it is ordinarily by trauma-
tism that the process commences.” More or less similar views are
advanced by Heiman (1891), “L. B. of Hamburg”’, and other
authors.

Wagenhauser (q. by Schlomka, 1891, p. 14.) reports a case in which,
following a fracture of the anterior wall of the meatus resulting from
the kick of a horse, 3 months after the healing of the wound there
showed on the site of the injury in the canal two small rounded
exostoses.

Contrary to these opinions and reports Kessel (188 9) declares
that “should one think of mechanical irritation, he will be disap-
pointed. We see foreign bodies remain in the auditory canal for whole
decennia, without causing exostosis.”

Sabroux (1901, pp. 24, 28) tends to restore the belief in such causes ;
he says:

A purely mechanical cause may also determine deformations of the auditory
canal and thereby bring about the production of exostoses. Such an agency might
be the compression of the external ear by the umbilical cord when this is
coiled about the head..... An imjury of the meatus, however slight, may
become the starting point of an exostosis, particularly in those predisposed to
such growths through syphilitic, rheumatic, or gouty diathesis; and the same
applies to severe traumatisms.

Korner (1904, p. 104) says that “also fractures of the temporal
bone, which pass through the auditory canal, may lead to the de-
velopment of hyperostoses or exostoses in the canal. I have seen
two such cases. In both the new bone formation assumed the form of
a dull cone and was located on the floor of the canal quite far out
toward the mouth of the meatus.”

Ballenger (1914, p. 661) holds equally that “traumatic fracture
of the walls of the meatus, whereby a circumscribed periostitis is
excited, may finally result in the formation of a bony mass or tumor.”

Moller-Holst (1932, p. 102) objects to the presumed influence of
ear pendants.

There are still other references to the subject of traumatisms in
otological literature, but they add nothing further.

From the above it appears certain that traumatisms of the meatus
may in some cases act as the exciting causes for the development of
bony growths in the canal. On the other hand no substantial support

68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

is given to the idea that heavy ear pendants might induce the de-
velopment of these growths, though conceivably in rare cases some
exciting influence may exist even in this connection.

HEAD DEFORMATION

Students of ear exostoses who gave attention more especially to
American cranial materials, where artificial deformation is frequent,
have mostly been inclined to attribute to these deformations more
or less influence in the causation of the abnormalities ; but there were
also those who opposed the view.

There are three main forms of head deformation. One is the
simple occipital flattening produced by the unaided or aided pressure
of the back of the head on a resistant base. This form assumed its
greatest development and vogue among the Pueblos, but it was also
present in Florida and elsewhere.

The next form is the “circular” or ““Aymara”’ deformation, pro-
duced by a band applied about the head from over the forehead to
under the bulge of the occiput. This caused the curious more or
less truncated skulls known best from the highlands of Peru and
Bolivia, but common also in Vancouver Island, in parts of Argentina,
and in other localities.

The third form of head deformation is the fronto-occipital or
‘ flat-head” compression. This was produced by the direct application
of pressure to the forehead by means of planks or bags, and occasion-
ally a pad or other appliance for counterpressure to the lower part
of the occiput. It prevailed in the Columbia basin, in the south-
eastern United States, in Mexico and Yucatan, in northern South
America, and in Peru. It was also present in Hawai.

The presumed influence on the development of ear exostoses of
artificial skull deformation, ranges itself with the mechanical causes.
About the best expression on the subject is that of Whitney (1886,
pp. 441-442). He says:

If now the flattened skulls are examined it will be found generally that the
meatus is narrowed from before backwards and the lips are often slightly thick-
ened and raised up; .... There is no absolute demonstration possible that it
is the narrowing of the meatus from posterior pressure in early youth that gives
a vicious twist to the tympanic ring and places it in a condition favorable to
give rise to such outgrowths in after years, All that can be said is that it
occurs more frequently in such heads than in those that are normal or flattened
by anterior pressure which does not apparently affect the shape of the meatus.
And further the similarly flattened heads of the ancient Peruvians show also
a large percent affected with hyperostoses. It is not claimed that this deformity
is the sole cause, but that it simply increases a tendency which is universal.

NO. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 69

For Ostmann (1894), too, the cause of the tympanic exostoses
among the American aborigines 1s largely connected with the deforma-
tions of the skull, through its effect on the meatus, which sets up ir-
ritation that will lead to exostoses, especially when any other tendency
toward such formation exists; with Whitney, he recognizes in the
American materials two main causes—‘ inborn tendency, with head
deformation.” Goldstein (1898) inclines to a similar opinion ; Russell
(1900) believes the tendency to bony tumors in the meatus “is in-
creased in deformed crania’’; and there are other suggestions of
this nature.

On the other hand Turner, as early as 1879, though he found
exostoses in a deformed Peruvian and a flat-head Chinook, states
that “ there was nothing in the two skulls to indicate that the growths
may have been induced by the artificial deformation.” For Virchow
(1893) head deformation was without effect on the production of
these growths; for Ten Kate (1896) head deformation had “ no con-
nection with ear tumors ”; and for Von Luschan (1896) ear exostoses
“cannot be attributed to head deformation.”

It is plain from the above that the influence of artificial skull
deformation on the production of ear exostoses is still problematical.

However, with the observations already on record and the extensive
materials that form the basis of this study, it should be possible to
throw more definite light on the matter. Let us see how the principal
American data on ear exostoses will range themselves in relation to
head deformation.

The lessons of the table on page 70 are not as conclusive as might be
desired, yet they are not valueless. The records show that undeformed
American Indian skulls may be practically free from ear exostoses,
may be involved slightly to moderately, as in the Californians, or
may present a very marked involvement, as in the Coahuilas. An
absence of cranial deformation is therefore no index of freedom from
the growths.

There appear in the table several other points worthy of notice.
The Argentine Calchaqui, though generally affected by more or less of
occipital cradle-board flattening—artificial but very gradual and prob-
ably unaided deformation—are, in the available series, free from
ear exostoses ; and the Vancouver Islanders, all of whose skulls show
the artificial circular or Aymara shaping, which in some cases 1s
known to reach very marked degrees on the island, show the growths
relatively but very rarely. On the other hand the Chinooks, all of
whose heads are deformed by more or less pronounced fronto-occipital
flattening, present a very high proportion of the abnormalities.

7O SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93
Older Data on American Indians
Number| _ Per-
ae of skulls}centage
Author Territory Deformation o cae S!with earjof skulls
rae ex- |with ex-
amined ostoses | ostoses
Oetteking....| NW. Coast, NONE. soe eee eae 112
misc.
Ten Kate....| Calchaqui..... generally occipital 110
flattening
Russell...... Californias ces NONeGs. meee eee 158 2 ie
Oetteking....| Vancouver all deformed, circular. .| 260 5 Ii.
Island
Russell...... enue ciysns oes most deformed, fronto- | 447 | 24 5.
occipital & circular
Alexander....| Amer. Indian, in general, no 550 | 30 5.
chiefly deformation
California
Wirchowme a. ANCONA Ee most deformed, fronto- | 134 18 136
occip.
Rousselle yy. Tennessee & most deformed, fronto- | 456 69 15.
Ohio occip.
Moller-Holst | Chile-Bolivia....| most deformed, fronto- | 341 57 1 Ge9/
occip.
Oetteking....| Chinook........| all deformed, fronto- S20 2am ela
occip.
Studley... Coahuilaee NONE Se ca ree 22 a Git ote:

New observations —In the next table are given the results of our
own series. The indications from these data are hardly better than—
in fact, not very different from—those that preceded, but there are
confirmations which can hardly be without importance.

In the first place it is now definitely seen that undeformed groups
may range widely in the incidence of ear exostoses. This can only
mean that the syndrome of these growths exists independently of
cranial deformation.

The second synergistic result is that shown by the old Pueblos.
A large majority of the skulls of this large group are deformed by
the occipital cradleboara compression. In some cases this compression
seems to have been aided, is very pronounced, and the whole skull has
been affected as a result. Yet this group shows a remarkably low pro-
portion of cases of the abnormal ear growths. It thus ranges itself with

NO. 6

EAR EXOSTOSES—-HRDLICKA

_

Fis

the Calchaqui, who present the same variety of deformation. These
results are further strengthened by Hooton, who failed to find any
noteworthy involvement in his large Pueblo series from old Pecos.
All this justifies the conclusion that the simple occipital cradleboard
compression does not favor—and may possibly even check in some
way—the development of ear exostoses.

On the other hand the fronto-occipital artificial deformation, pro-
duced by the direct and forcible application of pressure over the fore-
head with a counter pressure on the back of the head, must be viewed
with the increasing suspicion that it aids in some way in the ap-
pearance of the growths under consideration.

Author

Hrdliéka

New Data
Numb
f ‘ Aa Be sculls
Territory Deformation 2 eels S)with ear
amined eataees
American:
ESS kettria Operas ye eae loiccaetc eNOoee a ST I ,000 2
Old Pueblo........ nearly all deformed, BOG) 212
occipital flattening
INEM Akola ae Sacer oie etme Alia aig | 29 2
Mlonidane 5 86 about 10 percent 205 | 35
deformed, fronto-
occipital
Caiarmice re sei sh tit eae sean es cake 435 | 46
INES States sey). |semeinerise 1 cone ae 112 13
Rens AeA RG cot ors most deformed-mainly |3,651 | 522
fronto-occipital—
some circular
WANS) (os Rae en ae gel [Oe Nee Ce, ord ee a 65 14
Wouisianas seen - frequent deformation, 61 15
fronto-occipital
Arkansas.......°..| occasional deformation,| 173 47
fronto-occipital
Ss Dakota alts ot .5| cotnon nas cove comitocecs sete 109 30
Ss DakMowbridgeliias .csce ee ae se oe hes 76 22
Kentuckyaanianiae- only a few deformed, go | 29
occipital or fronto-
occipital
Polynesian:
Weir 2 CALAHOE sree muctoide Qathieice sear aih cs bces 19 4
Hla ware past sree most undeformed— 148 39

occasional fronto-
occipital

Per-
centage
of skulls
with ex-

ostoses

No

oo AND

This matter may perhaps be more conclusively tested in another way.
In six of our series exact records were made of the three main kinds

72 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

of deformed skulls (fronto-occipital, circular, and simple occipital),
and their aural exostoses. The results came out thus:

Frequency of Ear Exostoses in Undeformed and Deformed Skulls of the Same People,
and in the Three Varieties of Deformed

Percent of skulls with ear exostoses in—
erritory

nee undeformed | inital | Circular or | gether
BCT eerie een verona hin eae, eens (O57 14.4% Be 18.0
Pele DlOStee a wae oiovs ees hats 2.0 Dias d. absent | d. absent
WoUtsicima area dee eecks! ie cists tas 21.7 detcrmation absent 26.3
NT KANSAS wee oe eee Chios einem see 21.6 absent absent 31.8
Hlonidamew erm ste cec ce 8.7 absent absent 12.5
IGEN Gs 'ordta 0 cyclic Oe HRS eee 23.5 absent absent 28.3

2 Most, if not all, of these Peruvian skulls are really cases of artificial ‘‘flat-head’’ deformation,
but the pressure on the forehead was not sufficient to cause a permanent well-marked flattening of
the frontal bone.

In this table, it will be noted, it is possible to compare directly the
percentages of specimens with exostoses in each category of the unde-
formed and deformed skulls, within the same ethnic series. The re-
sults are convincing. In every instance where both undeformed and
“ flat-head ”’ skulls existed in some quantities, the proportion of ear
exostoses is distinctly higher in the flat-heads. The fronto-occipital
deformation, therefore, it may now for the first time be said posi-
tively, favors somewhat the development of the growths.

The simple occipital or cradleboard flattening has evidently but
small if any influence on the exostoses ; and the circular or Aymara
artificial deformation seemingly shows more of a checking than a
stimulating effect on the growths.

Just how the flat-head deformation may favor or excite the develop-
ment of ear exostoses is not clear. Many of these cases of deforma-
tion are not of extreme grades, and the skulls that are most deformed
do not by any means always show the abnormal ear growths; the
occurrence of the latter, in other words, is not directly proportionate
to the grade of the distortion.

Where the occiput has been much flattened in these cases—pressed
forward—a considerable stress has undoubtedly been transmitted to
the parts composing the external bony ear. But much the same com-

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 73

pression of the back of the head with similar effects on the ear occurs
in some of the cases of the simple occipital flattening, without resulting
in tympanic exostoses.

It seems that it is the forcible frontal compression which is mainly
to blame. The stresses within the skull produced by the fronto-
occipital forcing are certainly greater than those in simple occipital
compression. The shape of the external auditory canal is certainly
affected in many of these cases. But just how this could give rise to
the exostoses is not clear, especially as such growths do not appear to
develop earlier in the flat-heads than they do in other crania. Much
evidently remains to be learned in these connections.

The simple fact that definitely emerges from our data is that the
fronto-occipital head deformation in the newborn of a group is as
a rule attended with an increased frequency of development of ear
exostoses later in life in that group. The size, forms, and locations
of the growths remain apparently unaffected. As to the cause for the
increase in frequency, it could be conceived that where artificial head
flattening was practiced for a long period of time and favored the
development of ear exostoses, the tendency toward these became
more and more “alive”, and perhaps also the abnormalities became
multiplied through direct heredity in families, thus increasing their
frequency in the group, even in the undeformed heads. There is
probably a kernel of truth in this, though for the present the idea
must remain in the category of speculation.

MISCELLANEOUS CAUSES

As in other cases where the causation of a condition is obscure,
so with ear exostoses, the students of the subject in the course of
time have advanced about the whole gamut of theories that could well
be made in this connection. Aside from those dealt with in the previ-
ous pages may be mentioned the following:

INBREEDING

Moller-Holst (1932) believes that the pathological ear exostoses,
as well as the normal thickening of the tympanic bone such as found
in the Eskimo, have arisen through inbreeding (see p. 56).

CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES (OTHER THAN SYPHILIS AND ARTHRITIS )

Heiman (1890) regarded scrofula as favoring a development of ear
exostoses, but only indirectly, through its favoring inflammatory con-
ditions in the auditory canal. There are a few other weak references

74 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

to such a possible connection in the earlier literature. Alexander
(1930, p. 456) believes some of the growths to ‘“ be connected with
general constitutional diseases’, but does not specify or go further
into the subject.

INNERVATION

‘

Toynbee’s (1860) class II of ear exostoses “ showed symptoms
indicative of diseases in the cavities containing the expansion of the
auditory nerve.”

CONNECTION WITH EXOSTOSES OF INNER EAR, OR OF OTHER PARTS OF THE SKELETON

A connection of meatal exostoses with those of the inner ear was
noted by Toynbee, Gruber, Schmaltz. Virchow (1889) saw that in ©
two of his cases the skeleton showed also other exostoses, which sug-
gested a possible connection. Krakauer (1891) was inclined to
believe that there was a connection between meatal exostoses and
multiple exostoses of the skull. Ostmann (1894) believed the ear
exostoses to be due in part to “a tendency to excessive bone produc-
tion, such as manifested through multiple exostoses.”

OTOSCLEROSIS

Burton (1927) attempts to identify the process leading to ear
exostoses with otosclerosis. Bezold (1895, p. 50) states that “ sclerotic
processes in the middle ear do not infrequently coexist with the
exostoses.”

MASTOID

Rafin and Rougier (q. by Sabroux, p. 22) cite a case of advanced
obliteration of the auditory canal by exostoses, in which the mastoids
were more developed than the average; Knapp (1898) looked upon
some of the ear exostoses—hecause they are so often posterior—as
probably due to primary affections of the mastoid.

MASTICATION

Burton (1927) raises a point which, curiously, has been neglected
by other authors. This is the influence upon the meatus of the ac-
tivity of the lower jaw. He believes “ irritation to the aural canal due
to mastication to be a contributory factor of aural exostosis.” The
excess of the growths in the male he attributes to the same factor.
But Moller-Holst (1932, p. 102) says the idea of the effect of masti-
cation cannot be sustained.

NO. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA

NI
(S|

VESTIGIAL

Whitney (1895) believed “these exostoses must be considered as
formed from remnants of fetal cartilage.”

NO PATHOLOGY

For Le Double and Lebourg (1903), finally, who examined the ear
exostoses in a series of American Indian skulls, the growths were
“ evidently not of pathological origin.”

GENERAL DISCUSSION

Including the records presented in this work, there are few if any
pathological conditions of the human skeleton that could command as
vast an amount of material as that of ear exostoses, not only clinically,
but also, and in much larger measure, racially. This ampleness of
material enables the student to see the subject in a much more com-
plete and satisfactory manner than has hitherto been possible. Let
us survey briefly what the facts, as far as revealed, indicate.

UNITY OF COMPLEX

About the most important result of the studies is the realization
that the subject of ear exostoses, notwithstanding its many variations,
represents not a mixture of diverse conditions, but in substance a
large unit, a special unit-complex, in the field of human derangements.

While there is a possibility that some of the smaller growths from
the deep portion of the roof of the ear, and now and then perhaps
an ossification in a polyp, or a hypertrophy following a serious injury,
may be formations apart, the great bulk of exostoses in the external
meatus constitutes a single human pathological complex-entity. Re-
gardless of any secondary subdivisions of the growths, some of which
may be useful, the overwhelming testimony of the evidence is that
there is involved but one process—a realization that should facilitate
the eventual comprehension of its causes.

RESTRICTION TO MAN

According to all indications the affliction of ear exostoses is purely
human—no such growth has ever been observed in the anthropoid
apes, any other primates, or any other living forms provided with
an external bony meatus. It is apparently one of the penalties of the
human estate.

6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Ni

GENERALIZATION IN MAN

Aside from the fact that ear exostoses are limited to the human
family, the next major realization is that of the generalization of the
tendency to these growths over many if not all the human races. So
far the formations have been found in all branches of the human
family from which large cranial collections are available. They have
not yet been reported in a Negro skull, in that of a Chinese, nor in
those of a few other groups, but the numbers of specimens in no
one of these cases has been adequate. When sufficient material is
available, there are indications that the growths will be found ab-
sent in no human aggregate.

VARIED FREQUENCY

Though a tendency toward ear exostoses is probably a pan-human
condition, the incidence of the growths varies greatly in different races
and groups, and even in different localities. This may be due to dif-
ferences in the tendency, or to the quantity or effectiveness in a given
group or locality of the exciting causes; or both these factors to-
gether. The most afflicted, in the order named, are some of the
American Indians, the Polynesians, and probably some groups of the
Whites ; the least affected are the African Negro, possibly the Chinese,
and the Eskimo. There is no racial concordance in this and no plain
significance, except perhaps as to the African Negro, who in general
represents one of the least advanced groups, so far as the brain and
head are concerned.

The very marked difference in the incidence of ear exostoses among
the American Indians and probably also among the Whites indicates
that in some groups and localities the agencies that master the normal
status have been further weakened, or that conditions favoring the
production of the growths are more potent or common. The term
“racial inclination ” must be understood in this manner.

GENERAL SIMILARITY

A survey of large and varied series of osteological material reveals :
1, that in general, ear exostoses display, regardless of race or place,
essential similarity; and 2, that there is often distinguishable more
or less of group or place peculiarities. Thus in one tribe or locality
large growth may be frequent; in another, equally involved, they may
be scarce. There are also group differences in the exostoses according
to their location, in their predominant forms, and in other respects.

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA V4

It may be said that each more important racial or geographical unit
of people will present its own characteristic picture of ear exostoses,
though the fundamentals remain much the same. The differences may
be of but little import, but now and then are rather striking. All char-
acteristic group differences in these respects must necessarily be con-
nected, on one hand, with the neuro-vascular background of the
growths, and on the other hand, with the status of the normal bony
structures involved.

NATURE OF THE PROCESS

The syndrome of ear exostosis cannot be regarded as a “ disease ”’.
Although secondarily it may become pathological and incidentally
even fatal, yet in general the outgrowths are quite innocuous, and
mostly not even known of, until they grow so large as to become an
obstruction or lead to the development of inflammatory conditions.
There seems to be no possibility that any bacterial agency is involved
in their production, and they are in no sense malignant.

If we exclude all microorganisms and all malignancy, then there
remain, it would seem, but two classes of possible causes, the first
comprising such “ poisons” in the lymph and blood as would be capa-
ble of arousing bone tissue to localized bone overgrowths and out-
growths, and the other consisting of derangements of the trophic
nerve control of the parts concerned.

“ Poisonous’, i. e., harmful, substances circulating in the body
liquids are certainly present in many individuals, particularly in the
later years of life, when the liver, kidneys, and other organs no
longer suffice for their neutralization and elimination, and particularly
in various pathological conditions and diseases during which poisonous
products come into the blood and lymph from pathogenic bacteria.

Granted a “ predisposition’ to outgrowths in the tympanic bone
and the squamous part of the bony meatus, some such poisons as
those just mentioned could readily be conceived as the initiators of
the exostoses. What many otologists suspected in connection with
syphilis, gout, and other constitutional troubles as causes of ear ex-
ostoses, was not really these conditions themselves as much as their
poisonous products. Mineral as well as organic poisons, such as lead,
mercury, alcohol, etc., may also enter the system in other ways. That
some such substances may be capable of inciting abnormal osteogene-
sis where the ground for this is favorable may provisionally be ad-
mitted. That any special one or ones can excite the bony growths in
the ears, would need an unequivocal demonstration through experi-
ment. That any and all are generally powerless to produce such bony

6

78 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

outgrowths is shown by the very many whose blood and lymph are
known to carry such poisons for years, without any effect on the ears.
Moreover, such poisons, when present, reach all parts of the osseous
system, yet produce nothing resembling the hyperostoses and exostoses
of the ear. The case for the internal poisons therefore is not a strong
one.

There remains the factor termed conveniently “ predisposition ”.
This predisposition must be something limited to the external meatus,
for barring rare exceptions, no such bony growths appear elsewhere
on the skeleton. But what is the “ predisposition”? It can hardly be
anything in the mechanics or the structure of the bone—if it were,
there would probably be other examples of such a condition and its
results elsewhere. There is no evidence that the tympanic bone is
unfinished or proliferating in spots. Yet the fault, essentially, can only
be with the meatus, or with what controls its structure and being.

If the condition of ear exostoses is, as it appears to be, of the nature
of an osteogenic derangement, then it would be reasonable to regard
it as the result of a disturbed or weakened trophic control of the parts
affected. The development of every part of the body is under a very
definite and heredity-bound neuro-vascular control. In the apes and
lower forms such control of the external bony meatus is evidently
thoroughly established and fully adequate. In man this control ap-
pears to be disturbed and no longer wholly sufficient; and with, or
even without, sufficient exciting causes abnormal bony growths in the
ears are the result. Such a disturbance or weakening could possibly
be an accompaniment of the unprecedentedly great and rapid evolution
of the human head. Such radical change must have disturbed pre-
existing trophic controls, and a full reaccommodation has not yet been
reached, at least not in most of the human groups.

Another, though related, way would be to look upon the deranged
neuro-vascular control of the external aural canal as an expression of
degeneration. Degeneration may be defined as a generalized, progres-
sive groupal insufficiency of the organism to sustain the developmental
level reached by an organ. Such insufficiency can again only be based
on inadequacy of the trophic nerve centers. It differs diametrically
from the inadequacy of accommodation in that it tends to augment
with time, whereas the latter tends to diminish, unless the evolutionary
changes that caused it keep on advancing.

Can the osteogenic disturbance which results in ear exostoses be
regarded as a process referable to a pan-human greater or lesser de-
generative condition of the tympanic bone or the external meatus?

NO. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 79

Normal, that is, primarily devolutionary and not pathological, or-
ganic degeneration follows, as a rule, the reduced use of an organ.
Examples of it may be observed in human teeth, appendix, the fifth
toe, and other parts that in the course of time have become less active
and important than formerly. The changes comprise diminution in
size, loss of regularity of shape, diminished vital resistance, and a
tendency toward elimination of the part. Has the human ear, or at
least the external auditory canal, become less useful and necessary
to man than it has been in the lower primates and other animals?
The changes here, too, aside from the outgrowths, include diminutions
in size (lumen), distortions in shape, and occasionally a more or less
complete elimination.” °

Is the underlying process of ear exostoses, then, a degeneration, or
merely a disturbed accommodation—a slowly regressive, or but a
somewhat inadequate central control of the neuro-vascular system
of the parts involved, with the bony abnormalities as secondary mani-
festations? It may be best not to attempt any answer to this question
before the rest of the available facts on the subject can be considered.

ANTIQUITY

It is not known, and will probably never be determined, when in
the existence of man the abnormality of ear exostoses made its first
appearance. No case of the growths has as yet been reported in
early (geologically ancient) man, and none even from the Neolithic
period, though that does not necessarily mean that they were absent.

The oldest skulls in which ear exostoses have been encountered so
far are the seven skulls with such outgrowths found by me in the
Egyptians of the beginnings of the XII Dynasty, or close to 4,000
years ago. These specimens came from the deep rock-tombs at Lisht
and belonged to the higher classes of the people.

The four next oldest specimens with ear exostoses are the skull of
an Egyptian (date?) reported by Ostmann (1894), that of an early
Christian Nubian Egyptian mentioned by Wood Jones (1910), and
the two Egyptian crania found by me in the collection from the Kharga
Oasis. Possibly quite as old, or nearly so, are some of the pre-
historic American Indian skulls with the growths. Most of the Ameri-
can specimens of such a nature are pre-Columbian; others are post-
Columbian but of a period before there was any appreciable influence
by the white man. The Hawaiian and New Zealand crania of our

™ See the writer's “ Seven prehistoric American skulls with complete absence
of the external auditory meatus.” Amer. Journ, Phys. Anthrop., vol. 17, no. 3,
1933.

8o SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

series are probably all pre-White. The European and American
Whites recorded in this connection are all recent, as are also the
Chinese, the African Negro, and the Melanesians.

Thus the time in which ear exostoses are known to have existed
extends back about 2,000 years before the Christian era. But the
frequency of the condition in the prehistoric American skulls is a sure
index that the beginnings of the affection are much older—which is
about all that can safely be said on the subject for the present.

An even more important question than that of antiquity is that of
progression. Have ear exostoses, or have they not, been becoming,
however slowly, more frequent? A reliable answer to this query would
go far toward the solution of the problem as to whether or not the
process is of a degenerative nature; but such an answer is not yet
possible.

AGE

Far exostoses, the data have shown, are encountered from child-
hood to old age, but the maximum frequency of their development
ranges from adolescence to middle age. With no known exception,
they begin to form only after the parts they involve have reached full
development, and this development, as seen in the affected skulls,
barring an occasional diminution in the lumen of the meatus has as a
rule been quite normal. This regular normalcy of structure and the
delayed manifestation of the growths speak against the basic cause of
the abnormalities being of a degenerative nature.

SEX

Ear exostoses are decidedly more frequent in males than they are
in females. This phenomenon, moreover, is common to all races, all
human subdivisions. What is the meaning of this marked and gen-
eralized sex difference ?

It would be easy to draw heredity into the picture and speculate
on its sex dominance and other effects, especially since there is con-
clusive evidence that hereditary transmission often does have a part
in the spread of these growths. But this method of thinking, with
our present knowledge, would lead only to a maze of uncertainties.

Yet heredity in the wider sense is involved in the problem, The
pan-human extension of that something in the system that predisposes
to ear exostoses can only be sustained as time goes on through he-
redity ; and this generalized deeper heredity apparently finds its effec-
tiveness everywhere enhanced in the males. The females on the whole

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 81

are more infantile, less differentiated, organically more conservative ;
the males more advanced morphologically, less set, more variable.
For these reasons the effects of any evolutionary belatedness in ac-
commodation of parts could confidently be expected to show more
in the males. This seems likely to be the explanation of the sex differ-
ence in the incidence of the abnormal conditions under consideration.
There may be assumed, in general, a somewhat greater control of
the normal conditions of the tympanic bone and the external meatus
as a whole in the females.

An interesting fact in this connection is that according to pro-
. longed observations by otologists, ear troubles and diseases in general
are more common in the males than in the females. There is however
one notable exception and that is atresia or congenital defect of the
external meatus; this serious agenetic defect is considerably more
common in the females, particularly in certain human races.”

SOCIAL STATUS

A number of authors, it has been seen, have voiced the opinion
that, among the Whites at least, ear exostoses occur predominantly
in the well-to-do classes. If this is so—and there is no voice to the
contrary—the question would arise, what is there in the wealthier
class that favors the abnormalities?

Here is a promising line of inquiry, but the foundations for it need
to be strengthened. All that may be said now is that being “ well-
to-do’ means, on one hand, usually more leisure and what this carries
with it, on the other hand, a greater preservation of the weaker—which,
together, may conceivably lead in time to some weakenings or derange-
ments of the basic neuro-vascular controls of different parts of the
organism.

SIDE

In materially over one-half of the cases of ear exostoses, on the
average, the affliction is bilateral and frequently more or less sym-
metrical. This points strongly to the conclusion that the basic cause
of the growths lies centrally in the nervous system. That not all cases
are bilateral is due probably to developmental differences of the bones
of the meatus in the two ears. It is well known that no two bones are
exactly equal, macroscopically and microscopically, on the two sides.

In the unilateral cases, there is perceptible a general tendency for
the exostoses to be more frequent in the left ear. In clinical experience

“See the writer’s report on the condition, Amer. Journ. Phys. Anthrop.,
vol. 17, no. 3, 1933.

82 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

with ear troubles as a whole, according to extensive statistics, “ the
left ear becomes diseased more often than the right ”, in the proportion
of about 5 to 4 (Burkner, 1883, p. 103). The significance of this
eludes us for the present.” In this connection it must not be forgotten
that not a few one-side cases tend with time to become bilateral.

CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES, LOCAL PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS,
TRAUMATISMS, IRRITATIONS

None of these conditions is associated with ear exostoses, except
on more or less infrequent occasions. Examinations of osseous ma-
terials show that in cases where gout, arthritis, or syphilis have run
unchecked to their limits, there are generally no ear exostoses. These
diseases, as well as most of the local irritative conditions affecting the
external meatus, can occupy no more than a secondary place in the
etiology of the abnormal growths. They can probably all be accepted
as occasional exciting, but not as the original, causes, except perhaps
in the case of certain traumatisms of the bones composing the meatus.
The real, the predisposing, cause is different: it is deeper and is gen-
eralized over most if not all human groups.

THE GENERAL CAUSE

On the basis of the extensive materials reported in this work and
after all preceding considerations of the etiology of ear exostoses,
both by other authors and the writer, it seems possible now to approach
certain generalizations that hitherto were impossible.

Let us fix our minds once more on the essential facts of the subject
under consideration. These are: an apparently complete absence of
the process in animals, including the primates; a generalized predis-
position to it in recent and present man; the absence or rarity of
developmental defects; the predominance of the manifestations from
the post-pubertal to presenile time of life ; the excess of involvement in
the males ; the marked tendency of the growths to bilaterality and even
symmetry ; and their ascertained occasional direct inheritability.

All this, as seen in previous discussion, points to the conclusions
that ear exostoses constitute a special complex or entity belonging
not in the field of diseases but in that of abnormalities, and that they
must be directly connected with neuro-vascular derangements, which

“ Here again, curiously, the serious defect of ear atresia forms an exception,
being considerably more common, especially in the American Indian, on the
right side.

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 83

may be excited locally by different agencies, but which have their
seat in the trophic nervous centers that control the bony structures of
the external auditory canal.

There remains to be considered the general cause of the neurocentric
derangement and insufficiency. It was seen that two possible agencies
suggested themselves in this connection. One of these is degeneracy,
the other incomplete or disturbed evolutionary adjustment.

The disgenic character of the ear growths would seem to point to
a degenerative cause affecting the aural apparatus—they tend to lead
to loss of hearing, local troubles, and indirectly, in rare cases, even
to death. Another item that might conceivably support the view of a
degenerative cause of ear exostoses is the fact, long known in otology
(see Burkner, 1883, p. 103), that “‘ the disposition to ear troubles (in
general) rises from birth to the goth year and thence diminishes with
age”, which might be viewed as evidence of a degenerative condition
regarding the ear and which bears a close relation to the age incidence
of the ear growths. The much greater prevalence of ear exostoses
in the males than in the females, in all the human groups known to
show the abnormalities, might be viewed as a further support for the
idea of a basic degenerative cause, for the males as the less stable or.
conservative sex might be expected to make just such a showing.

But there are serious difficulties in the way of the hypothesis of
degeneration. The most potent are: There is no evidence that the
human ear is falling into disuse and hence would be starting on the
way to degeneration and restriction or elimination ; ear exostoses affect
not the organ of hearing proper, but the relatively much less important
bony passage that leads to the hearing apparatus itself ; the exostoses
as a rule are not accompanied by congenital defects in the parts in-
volved; they are associated with few and followed by very few, if
any, changes that could possibly be looked upon as of degenerative
nature of either the ear as a whole or of the meatus; once successfully
removed by the surgeon they generally leave a sound ear with normal
function and but rarely recur; the process of the production of these
growths is in substance an excess of production rather than any ex-
pression of structural weakness or defective vitality such as usually
result from degenerative causes ; and although they may be transmitted
to the progeny, the ear exostoses recur as such and not, so far as
known, in the form of any congenital defects of the meatus.

It appears from the above that there is more that speaks against
than for a degenerative cause in the background of ear exostoses.

There remains to be considered the central neurotrophic maladjust-
ment. It is plain that all structures in the body must be formed and

84 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

maintained under the direction of special nervous centers, which as
yet are known but very imperfectly but the existence and regulatory
function of which are necessary, and which are called the trophic cen-
ters. They are highly important parts of the central government of
each individual organism. They act upon the blood and lymph supply
and doubtless also in other effective ways. The tissues themselves
can have no architectonic individuality; they are but so much living
material from which, under the strongly hereditarily fixed specific
influence of the nervous centers, there are built different structures.
Nor does the function of these centers end with the finish of the con-
struction, just as the function of the government of a city cannot end
with the completion of its streets and houses. There is a perpetual
guardianship under the continued power, of heredity, and there are
perpetual changes, for heredity is not fully discharged or satisfied with
the completion of the structures—it is a lifetime factor. And here,
I feel, lies the clue to the problem that confronts us in our study of
ear exostoses.

It may safely be regarded as axiomatic that as long as both the
heredity and the nervous apparatus that subserves it in connection
with any given part of the organism are normal, that part will, unless
in some way injured, remain normal. If in the absence of a chemical,
mechanical, or bacterial injury a part behaves abnormally, it is an un-
questionable proof that at that point and to that extent there is either
a weakening or derangement of the hereditary control, or of its proper
transmission. The something we call heredity must not be conceived
as any special power acting within and upon an organism—it can in
the end consist only of a specific organization within and between the
molecules of the cells of the nervous centers. Such organization is as
a rule deeply fixed and not readily influenced. It may however be
affected by deep-acting causes. Just what such causes are and how
they may act, except in case of destructive bacterial or other poisons,
is still but little known.

What from the above discussion can help us toward an understand-
ing of the basic cause of ear exostoses? Can it be a weakened or
temporarily disturbed heredity, or does the cause lie in a faulty or
temporarily disturbed mechanism of nervous transmission of the
hereditary control ?

Both the above conditions are possible, but the wide prevalence of
ear exostoses in the human family, and their manifestations as to
age, sex, and side, seem to speak against derangements of nerve
transmission.

No. 6 EAR EXOSTOSES—HRDLICKA 85

This leaves as the most probable basic cause of ear exostoses a
weakening or derangement of the normal hereditary control of the
tympanic bone and parts adjacent. With this conclusion we must rest
for the present, for while it was possible to proceed thus far by the
use of logic, a further delving into the subject, until there have ac-
cumulated additional reliable data, would entail pure speculation.

Only one thought, already touched upon, may here be permissible,
but that must not be taken for an assertion. It concerns man’s astound-
ingly rapid evolution and changes—geologically and morphologically.
Within some 500,000 years man’s progress, especially as concerns
his brain and head, has far outstripped that of all the rest of creation.
This rapid progress and differentiation, with a spread to all regions
and exposure to a multitude of new factors, has prevented in many
respects a full adjustment of all parts, a full harmonization and sta-
bility in all regions. There is a possibility that the central trophic con-
trol of the external meatal region, in the greatly enlarged, altered and
still altering skull, has not regained the full life-long adequacy that
it possessed before. This would mark the abnormality under con-
sideration as an incidental condition, one that might disappear in the
natural course of events, if further skull changes affecting the part
stopped and if direct inheritance of the abnormality did not meanwhile
become rooted. Should this conception prove to be true, then the
process of ear exostoses could be defined as that of irregular out-
growths of bone in the external bony auditory canal and principally
from its tympanic part, due primarily to evolutionarily-weakened
normal neuro-vascular control of the parts.

One other item demands a brief consideration in these connections.
It is that of a possible disturbing, and hence causative, influence of the
sex hormones. As seen, ear exostoses develop most frequently during
the period of major sexual activity. Also they are more common in
the male, in whom the sex activity is more intense. This attractive
“clue ”’, however, proves disappointing. Perhaps no race, particularly
as regards the males, is more active sexually than the Negro—yet
ear exostoses are very rare if not absent. There are so many such
incongruities, racial and individual, that this promising lead must be
abandoned.

SUMMARY

Far exostoses are neither a constitutional, nor infectious, nor malig-
nant disease. They do not even properly deserve the name of disease,
being but secondarily pathological and that mainly through obstruction
or pressure. They are abnormalities rather than a disease.

86 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Ear exostoses are localized hyperplasias, or outgrowths, from es-
sentially the tympanic part, but occasionally also from the squamous
portion, of the external bony meatus.

They arise generally from what were the free upper ends of the
tympanic ring. Their development belongs chiefly to the later adoles-
cent period and the earlier half of the adult period.

A “ predisposition ” to ear exostoses is now probably universal in
man, but in some races or groups the formation of the abnormalities,
owing perhaps to direct hereditary effects, is much more frequent than
in others.

Males are considerably more subject to the growths than females,
the well-to-do (in Whites at least) more than the poor. The affection
is most frequently bilateral, and where one-sided, it occurs somewhat
more commonly in the left than in the right ear.

Structurally, the growths range from cancellous to compact, with-
out any definite segregation. Though macroscopically the bone is
often more or less aberrant, its elements are normal and remain
viable. There is never any breaking down or necrosis, nor a com-
plete calcification.

The causes are systemic or “ predisposing”, and exciting. The
paramount systemic cause appears to be a deranged neuro-vascular
control of the parts involved, chiefly the tympanic bone, during what
corresponds to the sexually more active part of life; but on critical
consideration it becomes apparent that no connection of the exostoses
with sex activity can be ascertained.

What causes the peculiar time-limited neuro-vascular derangement
that predisposes or leads to ear exostoses cannot yet be definitely es-
tablished, but it appears to be something in the hereditary endowment
of the trophic nervous centers that control the normal status of the ex-
ternal bony meatus. A deranged accommodation of evolutionary na-
ture suggests itself, rather than degeneracy, as a plausible explanation.

The exciting cause of ear exostoses, where the predisposition to
these exists, may be anything mechanical or chemical that produces
prolonged irritation, with consequent hyperaemia to inflammation,
of any part of the bony meatus.

‘

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native races of North America. 18th Ann. Rep, Peabody Mus.
Cambridge.
Wipe, W. R.
1853. Practical observations on aural surgery and nature and treatment
ot diseases of the ear. Philadelphia.
WyMAN, JEFFRIES
1874. Report on a collection of Peruvian Crania. 7th Ann. Rep. Peabody
Mus., p. 15. Cambridge.
ZSCHOKKE, E,
1845. Uber eine merkwiirdige, bisher unbekannte veranderung an Menschen-
knocken aus Peru. Inaug.-Diss. Wurzburg.
ZUCKERKANDL, EMIL
1873. Zur entwicklung des ausseren GehOrganges. Monatsschr. Ohrenheilk,
vol. 7, pp. 30-34.
1874. Uber oxycephale und akrocephale Cranien. Mitt. Anthr. Ges. Wien,

vol, 4, p. 153.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLES 93), INO== 6, Peat

THREE PRE-COLUMBIAN SKULLS FROM PERU, EACH WITH ALARGE POS-
TERIOR EAR EXOSTOSIS, WITH VARIOUS BASE ATTACHMENTS

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

Wolbe Cisis INOS a lelbs 2

r

~,
A

Le &

_ Poe 2,

~~ ——

a ied

THREE PRE-COLUMBIAN SKULLS FROM PERU, WITH IRREGULAR POS-
TERIOR AND ANTERIOR (OR A-S) EAR EXOSTOSES

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOR Sr INO Ogn eens

=~
ay

THREE PROBABLY PRE-COLUMBIAN INDIAN SKULLS, UPPER FROM VIR-
GINIA, LOWER TWO PERU, WITH DOUBLE (POSTERIOR AND ANTERIOR)
EAR EXOSTOSES, OF VARIOUS SHAPES

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOE OS NOt iG ele,

TWO PREHISTORIC SKULLS FROM PERU WITH EAR EXOSTOSES

UPPER: A VERY LARGE POSTERIOR (OR P-1) WITH A SMALL ANTERO-
SUPERIOR GROWTH

LOWER: TWO LARGE GROWTHS, POSTERIOR AND ANTERIOR, WITH SEC-
ONDARY SMALL GROWTHS ANTERIORLY

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS WOES sis INOS G5 tebe

Bee Ay

ie

x

ie

UPPER: PRE-COLUMBIAN INDIAN SKULL, PERU, WITH TRIPLE EAR EXOS-

TOSIS
LOWER: THE SAME, WITH A 5 MM-HIGH EXOSTOSIS OUTSIDE ABOVE THE
MEATUS, OF SEPARATE ORIGIN AND SIGNIFICANCE. SMALL INTRA-

MEATAL EXOSTOSIS IN EACH EAR

INDEX OF AUTHORS

Alderton, H. A., 18, 60

Alexander, G., 10, 14, 17, 18, 20, 23, 24,
44, 45, 49, 50, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59,
64, 70, 74

Autenrieth, J. H. F., 1, 18, 46

Ayres, S. C:, 18, 34, 40

2S 7 Dr. Ls. of Hamburg,” 67

Bachauer, J., 9, 14, 17, 49

Batlenses, W844. *s2, 55. 60, Gt,
62, 63, 67

Bauer, J., 44

IBEZOld he 7 Tan 2Gn 2Ane27) GO aTe (43)
50, 55, 57, 61, 63, 66, 74

Blakes a Jp s416, os 13) 145 22,130,321,
34, 35, 39, 49, 55, 56, 66

Bonnafont, J. P., 2, 18, 27

Boyer, 55, 56

Braunberger, E., 17, 24, 27, 30, 41, 48,
55

Brindel, 23

Burkhardt-Merian, A., 17

Btrkner, K., 17, 82, 83

Burton, F. A., 9, 10, 14, 20, 34, 49, 52,
54, 55, 64, 74

Carr, LL; 4, 14

Cassells, J. P., 18, 42, 44, 66

Cheatle, A. H., 18

Cocks, D. C., 46, 66

Cook, 66

Dahlstrom, W.., I, 34, 37, 47, 66

Dalby, W. B., 18, 40, 41, 50, 59, 62

Darnach, 54

Davis, J: B.; 3, 14; 22

WelstanchesG. (Gals)h) 175 18, 27. 30; ai.
34, 40, 46, 50, 53, 55, 59, 61, 62

De Rossi, E., 2

Désarenes (see Garrigou-Désarénes )

Dorsey, G., 7, 14

Duplay, 61

Dupuytren, 50

Edward, 24

Erhardt, J., 24, 61

Eulenstein, 46

Perreri, (G:, 18; 23,24, 30, 34, 44, 47,
49

Eield: G: Pe 16; 234 53; 63,65

Flower, W. H., 4, 14, 22

Fournier, 61

Fiirst, 51

Garrigou-Désarénes, 18, 23, 49

Goldstein, M. A., 18, 34, 49, 50, 63, 69

Gray, A. A., 24, 37, 44, 47, 54, 55, 63

Green, Js OF We, 23, 51,63

Geuher, J) 17152, 61.74

Hartmann, A; 5, 13; 18, 34, 42, 44,
52, 55, 56

Hedinger, A., 17, 18, 46, 48, 49, 59, 61,
62, 66

Feiman, IF. EL, 18; 51, 50; 62, 65, 67,
73

Hooton, E. A., 71

Hovyelle ia Mie 18

Jablonowski, 8

Jackson, G., 13, 14, 18, 43, 62, 65

Jacquemart, A., 18, 34, 50, 61, 62, 66,
67

Jones, F. Wood, 79

Karewski, 23

Kaufmann, E., 44, 45

Kerrison, Po D3, 34

Kessel, ©. 'G., a, 13; 18) 23, 24; 27, 34;
39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 47, 49, 51, 55, 56,
50, 61, 62, 63, 66, 67

Kirchner, W., 55, 56

Klotz, 66

Knapp, 74

Korner, (@:,18; 13; 245-25, 27, 30, 38, 34,
40, 41, 43, 51, 55, 56, 57, 63, 65, 67

Krakauer, 23, 61, 74

Kramer, W., 2

Kuhn, 46, 62

Lake, R., 18, 24, 43, 49, 52, 65

ILEKiy, dos 1s, Ge, OS

Lebourg, 8, 14, 40, 51, 75

Le Double, A. F., 8, 14, 49, 50, 51, 75

Lucae, A., 17

Manasse, P., 44

Martin, 13

Marx, H., 24, 34, 44, 45, 47, 48

Masini, O., 18, 50, 53, 55, 56, 62

99

TOO

Mathewson, A., 18

Mayer, O., 48, 64

McKenzie, D., 44, 63, 65

Meniere, 61

Meyer, A. B., 8

Michailowsk1j, S., 62, 63

Moller-Holst, G., 10, 13, 14, 17, 20,
35, 37) 40, 41, 44, 45, 47, 50, 51, 54
56, 57, 58, 59, 64, 65, 67, 70, 73, 74

Moodie, R. L., 10, 20, 57

Moore, W. O., 8, 18, 55, 56, 65

Moos, S., 34, 48, 51, 62

Nélaton, A., 46, 53

Newark, 17

Noltenius, 66

Noquet, 18, 41, 60, 61

Norrell, 24

Oetteking, B., 10, 14, 20, 22, 34, 44,
47, 70

Ostmatn, Ps 5, 6, 13, 14, 22, 34, 44
53, 69, 74, 79

Patterson, 66

Politzer, “As, 5, 03) 18, 47; 40,49; 525
55, 60, 61, 62, 63, 66, 67

Pritchard, U., 42, 60, 62, 66

Rafin, 74

Ranke, J., 8, 9, 14, 48

Rat Wee 50,102

Reuchard, 2<

Roosa, D. B. St. J., 1, 18, 47, 48, 50, 59,
61, 62, 63

Rougier, 74

Russell, F., 8, 14, 16,
70

Sabroux, Ele) 17,08, 27530) 3in34)
37, 39, 41, 43, 48, 50, 60, 61, 62, 66,
67, 74

22:137;°53,0 00}

INDEX

Schlomkah ji Ga He i7s 1os27) 30.3"
39, 40, 47, 63, 67

Schmaltz, 74

Schwartze, H., 17, 46, 47, 55, 61

Seligmann, 3, 5, 14, 66

Sexton, 2

Siebenmann, 24, 43, 50, 55, 57, 61

Stein, 44

Steinbrugge, H., 1, 48

Stewart, W. R. H., 18, 41

Studleyai@s Ata is. 1422570

Taylor, S. J., 18

Ten Kate, H.,, 7, 14,60, 70

Tod, H., 18, 23) 47,.57, 60, 65,00

Doynbee, J, 1,/2;3, 13,10, 18; saan
42, 46, 58, 50, 62, 74

Triquet, E. H., 61

Turner, W., 4, 14, 49, 60

Urbantschitsch, V., 18, 41

Velpeaux, 8, 50

Wirchow, IR; 3) 5) 14) 34, 42) A4aos
47, 48, 50, 51, 50, 63, 66, 69, 70, 74

Von Luschan, F., 7, 69

Von Rokitansky, C. F., 1, 2

Von Uroeltsch, 2) 24,273 30, si.es4
39, 41, 42, 48, 57, 59, 61

Wagenhauser, 67

Weber, C. O., 47

Weil, 24

Welcker, H., 3, 14, 18, 22

Wiest: G. Ea 18, 23

Whitney, W. F., 24, 27, 37, 48, 49,
68, 60, 75

Wilde, W. R., 62

Wyman, J., 3, 14, 37

Zschokke, E., 3

Zuckerkandl, Emil, 44

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 93, NUMBER 7

Mie Con ShANSEN LIGHT FILTER: ITS
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS

(WitH Two PLATEs)

BY
E. D. McALISTER

Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution

(PUBLICATION 3297)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
INPAQIE Yio MOSS

The Lord Baltimore Press

BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8 A.

fib CukiSTiANnsEN LIGHT FILTER: ITS ADVANTAGES
AND LIMITATIONS

By E. D. McALISTER
Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution

(WitH 2 PLATES)

INTRODUCTION

Since the Christiansen light filter is little known in this country,
it is believed that a brief description of the filter and a discussion of
its possibilities may be useful. The object of the present paper is
threefold: 1, to report an improvement in the construction of the
filter, which allows its use in an intense beam of light; 2, to discuss
the advantages and limitations of these filters for general usage;
and 3, to give some “ practical suggestions ” concerning the construc-
tion of these filters. The improvement mentioned has arisen from a
need (in our laboratory) for an extensive beam of reasonably mono-
chromatic light intense enough to produce an easily measured amount
of photosynthesis in a higher plant. The second and third purposes
of the paper are to answer numerous inquiries the writer has received
during the past year.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

In 1884 C. Christiansen discovered that a mass of glass particles
immersed in a liquid transmitted freely that color for which the liquid
and glass particles had the same refractive index. He pointed out in
two papers (1884, 1885) that any desired color could be obtained and
that a color complementary to the one directly transmitted was seen
at oblique angles. He also showed that the wave length of the trans-
mitted ray decreased rapidly with an increase in temperature. After
a paper with comments and improvements by Lord Rayleigh in 1885,
the subject lay dormant for nearly 50 years with the exception of a
descriptive paragraph in all editions of R. W. Wood’s “ Physical
Optics.” In a series of three papers F. Weigert and collaborators
(1927, 1929, 1930) show the necessity of accurately controlling the
temperature of the filters and the advantage of a refined optical system,
and also describe a single filter that transmits red light when at 18° C.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 93, No. 7

2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

and blue light when at 50° C. Konrad von Fragstein, in 1932 and
1933, describes a filter for the near ultraviolet. One filter covers the
range from 3000 A to 3700 A by temperature variation. E. Knudsen,
in 1934, discusses all the various ways of making these filters and
points out the possibility of making a filter of particles of low-dis-
persion glass in combination with particles of high-dispersion glass
fused together, both having the same index of refraction for the
desired wave length. He has made such a filter but gives no details
of its performance.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FILTER AND DISCUSSION OF
LS ACTION

In their commonest form these filters are made up of a solid pack
of optical glass particles (0.5 to 2 mm in size) in a glass cell, with
the spaces between filled with a liquid having the same index of refrac-
tion as the glass for the wave length desired. (The present paper is
not concerned with the various emulsions and colloidal preparations
exhibiting “ Christiansen colors.’ Readers interested in these are re-
ferred to Knudsen, 1934.) Figure 1 gives the curves—index of re-
fraction plotted against wave length—for a low-dispersion (borosili-
cate) crown glass and a suitable liquid—to percent (by volume) car-
bon disulphide in benzene at 20° C. (both anhydrous). Remembering
the laws of refraction and reflection at an interface, we see that for
the wave length where both liquid and glass have the same index of
refraction, the filter acts as a solid plate, and the rays of this wave
length are transmitted without deviation or reflection loss within the
filter. All other rays of shorter and longer wave lengths are deviated
and reflected in an amount dependent upon the difference in the in-
dices at the interfaces—glass to liquid and liquid to glass. Examining
these curves in figure I more closely, we see that they depart from each
other more rapidly on the blue side of the crossing than they do on
the red side. This is typical of most suitable glasses and liquids. This
shows that the filters will have a sharper blue “ cut-off ” than the red.
Also a filter made for blue light will transmit purer colors than one
made for longer wave lengths. These two characteristics are evident
in the curves shown in figures 2 and 3. Obviously, it is desirable to use
a glass of the lowest possible dispersion in combination with a liquid
having the highest possible dispersion.

The refractive index of a liquid changes rapidly with its tempera-
ture in comparison with that of the glass. Hence the color transmitted
by the filter will vary with its temperature. Thus to maintain a given
color, the temperature of the filter must be held constant. For use

NO. 7 CHRISTIANSEN LIGHT FILTER—McALISTER *

with light of low intensity, such as in visual work, a carefully thermo-
stated water bath is sufficient. lor use with intense light, such as
direct sunlight, other more direct means of cooling (discussed below)
are necessary. Weigert (1929), making use of this temperature co-

1.54000

800

200
1.53000
800 LIQUID

ra
600
400
200

1.52000

INDEX OF REFRACTION

800

600

400

200

1.51000

800

4000 5000 6000 7000
WAVE LENGTH
Fic. 1—Index of refraction curves of the components of a filter.

efficient, constructed an ingenious filter using methyl benzoate with
crown glass particles. This filter transmits red light when at 18° C.
and blue at 50° C.
These filters are not used like the ordinary colored- glass ones. The
“undesired ” colors are not absorbed as in the case of colored glass,
but are scattered symmetrically in a halo about the center line through

4

the filter. The angular position of a given

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

‘

“undesired ” color about

the axis of the filter depends upon two factors: 1, the difference in
the indices of the liquid and glass for that wave length; and 2, the

% TRANSMISSION

45

40

35

30

25

20

iS e
A hs ins
4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 JOOO 7500
WAVE LENGTH

Itc. 2—Transmission curves of a set of five filters at 20° C.

number of interfaces through which the beam passes (i.e., particle
size and thickness of the filter). Also, since the interfaces are oriented
in a random or probability manner, there exists only a “ most proba-

NO. 7 CHRISTIANSEN LIGHT FILTER——McALISTER 5

ble’ angle for a given “ undesired ” color and this color is in evidence
in varying amounts at all angular positions about the axis of the filter.
Some means of intercepting these “ undesired ” wave lengths is neces-
sary. The simplest means is to use an optical system consisting of two
lenses with the filter placed between them in parallel light. In this case
the “ undesired ” wave lengths are cut out by a diaphragm placed at
the image of the source of light. It is imperative that the opening in
this diaphragm should conform with the shape of the source of light.
If a filament is the source, the opening in the diaphragm should be cut
to conform to the shape and size of the image of the filament. If this
is not done, the maximum purity of color is not attained. Obviously,
the purity of the color obtained increases with an increase in focal
length or a decrease in numerical aperture of the optical system used.
(See, for instance, von Fragstein, 1933, pp. 33 and 34.) Thus it is
necessary to measure the transmission of the filter with the particular
optical set-up to be used. Another way of using the filter is in parallel
light—direct sunlight, for instance—employing a series of diaphragms
to intercept the halo of “ undesired” wave lengths. In this case it
is necessary to place the filter at a considerable distance from the ob-
server, since the purity of color obtained increases with distance from
the filter.

Owing to the fact that the “ undesired ” colors are not absorbed but
are scattered at various angles about its axis, the Christiansen filter
cannot be used in any optical system where sharp images are desired.
For instance, it cannot be used before the lens of a camera in pho-
tography. The only way it could be used in this respect is with its
own optical system to illuminate the object (necessarily a small one)
to be photographed.

Figure 2 shows the transmission characteristics of a set of five
filters at 20° C. They are all made of borosilicate crown glass particles
(I to 2 mm in size) immersed in mixtures of carbon disulphide and
benzene. The blue filter has about 4 percent (by volume) carbon di-
sulphide, the red one 20 percent, and the others have percentages
between these limits. These filters are 50 mm in diameter, 18 mm thick,
and the windows are fused on optical flats. Two of them are shown in
plate 1. The transmission curves (fig. 2) were measured with the
filters in parallel light between two 20-cm focal length lenses. A
double monochromator and vacuum thermocouple were used to make
the measurements. This purity of color is obtained only in the image
of the filament used as a source.

A battery of Io such filters ranging from ultraviolet to infrared,
each selecting a spectral region about 150 A wide (at half maximum),

6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

was used by Messrs. Abbot, Stebbins, and Aldrich on Mount Wilson
in 1934 to measure the distribution of radiation in the spectra of stars
at the Conde focus of the 100-inch reflector. The filters were mounted
within a constant-temperature box upon a squirrel-cage device, so as
to be successively introduced into a collimated beam. The selected ray
was brought to focus with a 19-cm focus lens. All this part of the
experiment worked well, and owing to the short-focus objective lens

100

55 %| TRANS. |
S

90

80

70

60

% TOTAL
INTERVAL ENERGY

50

4450 -4700A 5%

RELATIVE ENERGY

4700 -

76 O - 4950 83
4950 - 5200 8
5200 - 5450 25
30 5450 - 5700 1.0

5700 - 6000 0.5

20

4400 4600 4800 5000 5200 5400 5600 5800 6000
WAVE LENGTH

Fic. 3—Energy transmission curve for a 6-inch diameter filter equipped
with vanes.

the quality of the atmospheric seeing was immaterial. Unfortunately,
the sharp peak of the photoelectric cell sensitivity proved fatal to
the success of the observations. Small traces of stray light of bluish
color were so disproportionately effective as to mask real values in
the ultraviolet and the red. Dr. Abbot hopes to develop a sufficiently
sensitive black receiver as a substitute for the photoelectric cell in
future stellar work.

Figure 3 shows the energy transmitted by a 6-inch diameter filter
(described below and detailed in fig. 4), using the parallel rays of

CHRISTIANSEN LIGHT FILTER——McALISTER

Lead Gasket
Glass
Rubber Gasket

Aluminum

SIDE VIEW

9 _
1)

a ee 2
oO § cv

7 ca

3 38

a o

aw y =

re es
= ro)

allt
/\6
INCHES

FACE VIEW

Fic. 4.—Diagrams showing detailed construction of a 6-inch filter with vanes.

8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

direct sunlight. The observations were made 66 feet from the filter
with the filter temperature held at 20° C. This purity of color is ob-
tained over a 6-inch circular area at that distance.

AN IMPROVEMENT THAT PERMITS THE USE OF AN INTENSE
BEAM OF LIGHT

The necessity of an optical system and the disadvantage of the
temperature coefficient have been pointed out in detail in previous
publications. However, for any exacting use of the filter where much
light energy is used there is still another trouble which proves to be
very serious: when a strong beam of light is forced through the filter,
some energy is absorbed, and the center reaches a higher temperature
than the edges, owing to poor heat conduction. The color transmitted
is no longer pure, even when the filter is in a water hath. The writer
has finally overcome this difficulty by inserting aluminum vanes
through the body of the filter so as to cut off the least amount of
light and carry off as much heat as possible. Details of a satisfactory
filter equipped with these vanes are shown in figure 4. The body of
the filter is cast aluminum, machined as shown, to take the glass
windows and the necessary gaskets. No cement is known to the writer
that will satisfactorily withstand the benzene and carbon disulphide
mixture on the inside and the water on the outside. For this reason
the windows were clamped on, as shown, with a soft lead gasket (4
inch thick) underneath the glass. Ridges were machined on the
aluminum face to press into the lead gasket and improve the seal. A
zig-inch rubber gasket is placed between the glass window and the
brass clamping ring. The vanes are of 35-inch aluminum assembled
so that their extremities press firmly against the inner wall of the
aluminum case, thus providing a path of good heat conduction from
the inside of the filter to the surrounding water bath. The holes
shown in the vanes allow the cell to be filled with the glass particles
after it is assembled. Without these vanes, the center of this filter
rose 9° C. above the temperature of the water bath when the rays from
a 1,000-watt lamp were concentrated on the filter. With the vanes
installed, the temperature at the center of the filter rose only 0.25° C.
above that of the water bath under the same conditions.

Plate 2 figure 1, is a photograph of this filter in its water bath.
The filter is filled with glass particles and a liquid (about 9 percent
carbon disulphide in benzene), and gave the transmission curve shown
in figure 3 under the conditions previously mentioned. Plate 2, fig-
ure 2, isa photograph of a 12 X 14-inch filter (not filled) with its water
bath. When in use the water of the bath is thermostated and stirred.

NO. 7 CHRISTIANSEN LIGHT FILTER—McALISTER 9

Aluminum was chosen as the metal for the cell and vanes because it is
least attacked by the various liquids used. The outside of the alumi-
num case must be carefully covered with several coats of waterproof
paint.

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN THE CONSTRUCTION AND
USE OF THESE FILTERS

The Christiansen filter is little known in this country. For this
reason the writer believes it will not be amiss to pass on to those in-
terested some practical points concerning the construction of these
filters and their uses. In this connection the writer is drawing on the
literature cited and his own experience with these filters.

The type of cell chosen to hold the components depends upon the
use to be made of the filter. For visual work and other uses where
only moderate intensities are necessary, a glass cell with parallel win-
dows fused on is suitable. If a permanent filter is desired, a small
expansion chamber should be provided on the filling “ neck,’ and
after filling, the cell should be sealed off above the expansion chamber:
ina flame. To do this safely the expansion chamber should be packed
in carbon dioxide snow. When high intensities of light are used, such
as direct sunlight, the cell needs to be of the type detailed in figure 4.
To be sure, a thin glass cell may be used for high intensity work, but
the purity of color will be very inferior to that obtained with a metal-
cased filter equipped with vanes.

The glass particles for the filter should be of the best optical quality
obtainable—preferably low-dispersion borosilicate crown glass. Fused
quartz is also suitable and of course necessary for ultraviolet work.
However, the quartz should be free of bubbles and inclusions, as these
lower the transmission of the filter and give it a muddy appearance.
In preparing the glass particles, the writer has used the following pro-
cedure. If the glass or fused quartz is in large fragments, it is ground
up with an iron mortar and pestle until the larger particles are 2 or
3 mm in size. This should be done with a minimum of grinding. A
damp towel should be wrapped about the top of the pestle and draped
over the top of the mortar to prevent the “dust” from flying. The
operator should use some protection over his nostrils to avoid breath-
ing the dust. The glass particles are graded by running them through
several sizes of sieves. Before using, the particles must be carefully
cleaned. This is best accomplished by boiling in chromic acid cleaning
solution. The particles are then washed many times in clear water,
then in distilled water, and finally dried completely. The particle size
found suitable by previous workers and the writer ranges from 0.5

IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

to 2 mm (usually graded closer—i. e., 0.5 to I mm, or I to 2 mm).
A cell 15-mm thick using the 0.5 to 1 mm particles gives approximately
the same results as a 30-mm cell using the 1 to 2 mm particles. With
a given optical system, reducing the particle size or increasing the cell
thickness gives a narrower transmission curve with lower percentage
transmission at the “ peak.” In an “ideal”’ filter the glass particles
would be perfectly homogeneous as to refractive index, and these par-
ticles and the liquid surrounding them would be all at exactly the same
temperature. It is because these two conditions can never be realized
that the percentage transmission at the “ peak ” decreases as the num-
ber of interfaces in the filter is increased.

In filling the cell it is best to put the liquid in first—enough to fill the
cell about half full. The glass particles are then poured in slowly so that
air bubbles are not carried down. It is difficult to free the cell of air
bubbles after it is packed solid with the glass particles. The liquid or
liquids used must be anhydrous and of the highest purity. The mixing
of carbon disulphide and benzene—originally suggested by Chris-
tiansen in 1884—to obtain a liquid of any desired index of refraction
(between that of pure benzene and pure carbon disulphide, of course)
has been found very satisfactory by the writer in spite of its relatively
high temperature coefficient. Methyl benzoate, used by Weigert (1929,
1930), in combination with crown glass particles makes a remarkably
variable filter. Von Fragstein (1932, 1933) uses a mixture of 44 per-
cent alcohol (ethyl) and benzene with fused quartz particles for an
ultraviolet filter. This filter, with suitable optics, transmits a narrow
band of wave lengths in any desired part of the region 3000 A to
3700 A. The wave length of maximum transmission is shifted as
desired in this region by temperature variation, just as in Weigert’s
methyl benzoate cell.

Various optical systems have been described in the literature. Wei-
gert’s (1929) autocollimator is of considerable interest as it passes
the rays twice through the filter. The writer has shown that the filter
can be used successfully without an optical system (other than plane
mirrors and diaphragms ) in direct sunlight, or, of course, in any beam
of similar parallelism of rays. In using an optical system it is again
emphasized that the diaphragm at the image of the source of light must
conform in size and shape to this image. Any change in this diaphragm
will change the transmission characteristics of the set-up. This is
shown clearly by Weigert (1929, fig. 13, p. 159).

In the use of the filter for studying the wave-length effect of some
photochemical phenomena it is necessary to allow for or take into
account the effect of the “ undesired ”’ colors—i. e., those wave lengths

‘

NO. 7 CHRISTIANSEN LIGHT FILTER—McALISTER a

shorter and longer than the wave length of maximum transmission.
In any case care must be exercised in determining the combined effect
of the shape of the transmission curve of the filter, the wave length
versus sensitivity curve of the phenomena under investigation, and,
in the case where the energy content of the beam from the filter is
measured with a photocell, the sensitivity versus wave-length response
of the detector. For instance, if the energy in the beam from an ultra-
violet filter is measured with a photocell that has its maximum sensi-
tivity in the blue, considerable error may come into the final result
owing to the long-wave-length “tail”? on the transmission curve of
these filters. (See von Fragstein, 1933, fig. 8, p. 33.)

The writer believes that these filters will be found of considerable
value as a source of monochromatic light for rough visual measure-
ments of refractive index, rotation of plane of polarization, etc., be-
cause one can set cross hairs on the wave length of maximum trans-
mission within + 10 angstroms. With a sealed filter and accurate
temperature control this wave length of maximum transmission 1s
sharp and reproducible.

The large filter shown in plate 2, figure 2, will be used with sunlight
to irradiate a growing plant in an experiment to determine the wave-
length effect of photosynthesis. At great distance it will yield a trans-
mission curve comparable to that shown in figure 3. Two filters are
to be used—one to cover the range 4000 A to 6000 A, the other from
5500 A to 8000 A. The wave length of maximum transmission is
moved through these ranges by temperature variation.

The possibility of substituting a high-dispersion glass for the
liquid—i. e., making the filter of a high-dispersion glass flowed around
the particles of low-dispersion glass—is interesting. Knudsen (1934)
has accomplished this, but gives no details. The resultant filter will
have only a very small temperature coefficient, which will considerably
enhance its usefulness. The writer has in his possession two suitable
glasses, but has not yet had an opportunity to complete the filter.

The writer is grateful to A. N. Finn, of the United States Bureau
of Standards, who has kindly furnished the borosilicate crown glass,
and to L. B. Clark, of the Division of Radiation and Organisms of
the Smithsonian Institution, who constructed the glass cells with fused-
on optical windows.

LITERATURE, CIVED

CHRISTIANSEN, C.
1884. Untersuchungen iiber die optischen Eigenshaften von fein vertheilten
Korpern. Ann. Phys. Chem., vol. 23, pp. 298-306.
1885. Idem, vol. 24, pp. 439-446.

I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

KNUDSEN, E.
1934. Chromatische disperse Zweiphasensysteme unter besonderer Beriick-
sichtigung ihrer Verwendung als Lichtfilter. Koll. Zeitschr., vol.
66, pp. 257-266, March.
Konn, H., and von Fracstein, K.
1932. Ein Christiansenfilter fiir ultraviolettes Strahlung. Phys. Zeitschr.,
vol. 33, pp. 929-931. .
RAYLEIGH, Lorp
1885. On an improved apparatus for Christiansen’s experiment. Phil. Mag.,
vol. 20, pp. 358-360.
VON FRAGSTEIN, K.
1933. Ein Christiansenfilter fiir ultraviolettes Licht. Ann. Phys., vol. 17,
Pp. 22-40.
WEIGCERT, F., and Staupe, H.
1927. Uber monochromatische Farbfilter. Zeitschr. Phys. Chem., vol. 130,
pp. 607-615.
WEIGERT, F., Straube, H., and Etvecarp, E.
1929. Uber monochromatische Lichtfilter. II. Zeitschr. Phys. Chem., ser.
B, vol. 2, pp. 149-160.
WEIcERT, F., and SHIDEr, J.
1930. Photodichroismus und Photoanisotropie. VII. Ibid., vol. 9, pp. 329-
355. (See pp. 331-334.)
Woop, R. W.
Christiansen’s experiment. In all editions of Wood’s Physical Optics.

~ee 5!

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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 93, NUMBER 8

fee eho rCALION: OF THE
EDRIOASTEROIDEA

(WITH ONE PLATE)

BY
R. S. BASSLER

Head Curator, Department of Geology,
Wiese National Museum

(PUBLICATION 3301)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
APRIL 4, 1935

The Lord Waftimore Press

BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.

THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE EDRIOASTEROIDEA

BYaRe Ss BASSEER
Head Curator, Department of Geology, U..S. National Museum

(WitH ONE PLATE)

The Edrioasteroidea, a group of Paleozoic echinoderms, regarded
by specialists either as a distinct class of the Pelmatozoa allied to the
cystids or as an aberrant order of the same division, has been the
subject of so many detailed observations and changes in nomenclature
that much confusion exists in its classification. Many of the genera
have inexact limits assigned them, because they are based upon incor-
rect illustrations or described from species other than the cited geno-
type, or, again, because they are founded upon characters of uncertain
value. Lastly, some authors, without regard to. the rules of nomen-
clature, changed the generic endings to suit their ideas as to the
relationships of the group, Agelacrinites, for example, becoming first
Agelacrinus and later Agelacystis. Furthermore, it must be remem-
bered that the camera-lucida drawings of years ago resulted in reversed
images, the right side becoming the left, which in the edrioasteroids
gave rise to a serious error since the direction of the ambulacra, a
generic character now believed to be important, thus was reversed.
However, most students paid little attention to the extent and direction
of curvature of the ambulacra, including in the same genus forms
most diverse in these respects.

In preparing the present classification the writer first of all proved,
at least to himself, from a study of several hundred specimens of
several Cincinnatian species, that the amount of imbrication of the
interambulacral plates, the width of the peripheral border of plates,
and the number of arms or ambulacra may vary even in the same
species ; but the plate structure of the ambulacral and oral areas, and
the direction and extent of curvature of the ambulacra, remained
constant, thus affording good generic characters.

In their simplest form the edrioasteroids have a flexible theca or
sacklike body composed of numerous more or less polygonal plates
having a mouth on the upper surface at the central point of radiation
of five straight or curved arms or ambulacra separated by interam-
bulacral plates, and an anus with valvular covering occupying part

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 93, No. 8

2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

of an interray with a hydropore located between it and the mouth.
These primitive echinoderms, free or attached by a part of the lower
surface, developed into parasitic circular flattened forms, into elevated
sacklike bodies or into cylindrical objects bearing the ambulacra at
the top of a fused mass of plates. Starting at the left of the anal
area and proceeding clockwise, the ambulacra are designated as follows:
1, left posterior ; 2, left ; 3, anterior (opposite the anal area) ; 4, right ;
5, right posterior. These numbers are employed in the following
descriptions.

Through the study of the Springer and Ulrich collections of Edrio-
asteroidea in the National Museum, and of material lent by other insti-
tutions, the writer has been enabled to review the structure of most of
the known genera and species of this group, the generic results of
which are offered below. Here, the old genera are briefly redefined and
six new generic names are proposed. This paper is introductory to
a more complete publication that will include descriptions of additional
new species upon which this classification is based.

Class EDRIOASTEROIDEA Billings, 1854-58

(Thyroidea Chapman, 1860; Agelacrinoidea S. A. Miller, 1877-1883; Cys-
tasteroidea Steinman, 1888; Thecoidea Jaekel, 1895; Cystostellaroidea Steinman,
1904. )

Family AGELACRINITIDAE, new name
(Agelacrinidae Jaekel, 1899; Thecocystidae Jaekel, 1899)

Theca flexible, composed of thin plates attached temporarily or
permanently by the greater part of the aboral surface and with am-
bulacra confined to the oral surface. A single row of ambulacral
flooring plates overlapping proximally.

STROMATOCYSTITES Pompeckj, 1896
(Stromatocystis Bather, 1900)

Theca depressed, pentagonally globular in form with oral surface
bearing five narrow, straight ambulacra separated by polygonal mosaic
interambulacral plates with numerous intervening pores and the under
surface completely occupied by smaller, less regular polygonal plates.
Anal area slightly elevated, indistinct.

Genotype.—S. pentangularis Pompeckj, 1896. Middle Cambrian of
Bohemia. S. balticus Jaekel, 1899, S. walcotti and var. minor Schuch-
ert, 1919 are other species of the genus.

no. 8 EDRIOASTEROIDEA—BASSLER 3

WALCOTTIDISCUS, n. gen.

Pentagonal form and general shape of theca as in Stromatocystites,
but the oral face bears curved ambulacra, four (1-4) directed to the
left and one (5) to the right. Furthermore, the edge of the oral sur-
face is composed of a narrow band of very small nodose plates and
the under side of larger polygonal plates imbricating. Anal area
indistinct.

Genotype.—W. typicalis, new species. Middle Cambrian of British
Columbia.

WALCOTTIDISCUS TYPICALIS, n. sp.
late siete. oe

Type specimen, free, depressed, globular, subpentagonal in outline,
imbedded and somewhat distorted in hard shale. Oral face with five
slightly curved ambulacra, four directed to the left and one, the right
posterior, to the right, separated by polygonal interambulacral plates
very slightly overlapping. Edge of oral side formed by a band con-
sisting of five or more rows of very small elongate imbricating plates ;
basal side of theca as shown where pushed over oral face, occupied
by large elongate polygonal, imbricated plates. Anal area not dis-
tinguishable with certainty.

Occurrence-—Burgess shale of Middle Cambrian, Burgess Pass
near Field, B.\C..(loc..35 k)-

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 90754.

CYSTASTER Hall, 1871
(Thecocystis Jaekel, 1899)

Theca an elongate sack with the lower end attached to some foreign
object. Ambulacra short and straight, five in number, with plates
often rather nodose. Interambulacrals rounded or polygonal, mosaic,
very minute (0.25 mm in diameter). Anal pyramid of Io elongated,
abruptly raised plates.

Genotype.—Hemicystites (Cystaster) granuatus Hall, 1871. Or-
dovician (Maysville) of Ohio.

CINCINNATIDISCUS, n. gen.
(Hemicystites of authors not Hall)

Like Cystaster except that the theca is not sacklike but depressed,
attached, and that the interambulacral plates are squamose and imbri-
cate distinctly, divided into larger central plates and a marginal zone
of small nodose ones. Anal pyramid of nodose plates.

4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Genotype.—Agelacrinus (Hemicystites) stellatus Hall, 1866. Or-
dovician (Maysville) of Ohio. Hemicystites carnensis Foerste, 1914,
belongs to this genus.

CARNEYELLA Foerste, 1916

Theca typically elevated, sacklike, attached by narrow basal part
but also may occur as a thin circular expansion. Ambulacra curved,
four (1-4) to left and one (5) to the right, with two rows of covering
plates elevated and alternating with each other along the middle line.
Oral area composed of three plates, one large and two small. Anal
area of many small plates radially arranged. Surface of plates orna-
mented with minute pits and nodes.

Genotype. —Agelacrinus (Lepidodiscus) pileus Hall, 1866. oe
vician (Maysville) of Ohio. Carneyella vetusta Foerste, 1914, i
related to C. cincinnatiensis, n. sp., next described. Carneyella ene
rensis Clark, 1920, is doubtfully referred here.

CARNEYELLA CINCINNATIENSIS, n. sp.
Plate 1, fig. Io

Agelacrinus (Lepidodiscus) cincinnatiensis Hall (not Roemer), Descr. new
species fossils Cincinnati, Ohio, p. 214, pl. 2, fig. 7, 1871 (advance sheets,
p. 6, 1866) ; 24th Rep. New York State Cab. Nat. Hist., p. 214, pl. 6, fig. 7,
1872.

This well-marked species, erroneously referred to Agelacrinus (now
lsorophus) cincinnatiensis Roemer, is readily distinguished from that
form by its thin, depressed, almost flat theca attached by its entire
aboral portion. Furthermore, the ambulacral plates are less elevated,
all the plates are rather papillose, and there are only three oral plates.

Occurrence.—Maysville division (Corryville beds) of the Ordo-
vician, Warren County, Ohio.

Holotype-—U.S.N.M. no. 40743.

ISOROPHUS Foerste, 1916

Theca depressed, circular, attached by the entire under surface.
Ambulacra composed of two rows of plates with an intercalated series
often present, more or less curved, four (1-4) to the left and the
right posterior (5) to the right. Oral area occupied by numerous
small plates. Margin composed of numerous rows of small plates
slightly increasing in size inward. Interambulacral plates polygonal,
becoming slightly imbricated. Anal area a circle of triangular plates
regularly arranged.

no. 8 EDRIOASTEROIDEA—BASSLER 5

Genotype—Agelacrinus cincinnatiensis Roemer, 1851. Ordovician
(Maysville) of Ohio, etc. Other species of Jsorophus are Agela-
crinus austini Foerste, 1914, A. faberi Miller, 1894, A. warrenensis
James, 1883, and A. holbrooki James, 1878.

ISOROPHUSELLA, n. gen.

Like Isorophus but ambulacra I, 2, and 3 directed to the left and 4
and 5 to the right, and the interambulacral plates strongly imbricating.

Genotype—Lebetodiscus inconditus Raymond, 1915. Ordovician
(Trenton) of Ontario, Canada.

ISOROPHUSELLA INCONDITUS (Raymond)
Plate 1, fig. 11
Lebetodiscus inconditus Raymond, Ottawa Nat., vol. 29, pl. 1, fig. I, 1915.

Theca a thin, slightly convex, circular disk, attached to or resting
upon a limestone bed by its entire aboral surface, about 20 mm in
diameter, exhibiting on its oral face a broad peripheral band of minute,
closely imbricating plates, five ambulacral areas of which the oral por-
tion is composed of many small irregular, angular plates, and each
ambulacrum has two rows of covering plates alternating with each
other and frequently developing additional small accessory plates
along the midline between them. Ambulacra short, rather broad,
three (1-3) curving to the left and two (4, 5) to the right. Inter-
ambulacral areas of larger, narrow, strongly imbricating plates. Anal
area rather distinct, consisting of Io elongate triangular smooth plates
in one circle meeting at the center but not rising above the general
surface.

Although very similar to species of [sorophus, this interesting form
is readily distinguished by the different arrangement of the ambulacra.

Occurrence.—Trenton limestone, Hull, Quebec.

Plestotype —U.S.N.M. no. 8.3871, Springer Coll.

STREPTASTER Hall, 1872

Theca as in Carneyella, except that the ambulacra all revolve
strongly toward the left and are composed of highly elevated plates.
Interambulacrals are small, polygonal, mosaic plates, 0.5 to 1.0 mm in
diameter.

Genotype.—Agelacrinus vorticellatus Hall, 1866. Ordovician
(Maysville) of Ohio. S. reversatus Foerste, 1914, and S. septem-
brachiatus Miller and Dyer, 1878, are other species of Streptaster.

6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

LEBETODISCUS Bather, 1908

Theca depressed, circular. Ambulacra curved, five in number, all
directed toward the left, with mosaic interambulacral plates. Am-
bulacral plate structure apparently as in Carneyella. Anal area well
defined in slightly wider interradius.

Genotype.—Agelacrinites dicksoni Billings, 1857. Ordovician
(Trenton) of Ontario, Canada. L. loriformis Raymond, 1915, is a
second described species.

FOERSTEDISCUS, n. gen.

Like Lebetodiscus, but ambulacra all directed to the right, short,
broad, and strongly curved, and interambulacral plates polygonal but
overlapping toward the center and highly imbricating around the
periphery. Anal area of many small, irregularly arranged plates in
slightly wider interradial area.

Genotype-—F. grandis, new species. Ordovician (Trenton) of
Kentucky.

FOERSTEDISCUS GRANDIS, n. sp.
Plate 1, fig. 12

Theca a flattened disk, 25 mm in diameter, resting upon or attached
to a layer of limestone. Ambulacra five, short, broad, all curved to
the right, consisting of two rows of elongate covering plates slightly
raised along the midline, and a single row of floor plates. Interambu-
lacrals large, imbricating, but flat in the central areas, narrow, more
numerous, and piled up on edge along the margin. Anal area large,
distinct, occupying a slightly wider space, composed of many small
imbricating plates arranged in circles, the smallest in the center.

Although resembling Lebetodiscus dicksoni (Billings), the right-
handed arrangement of the ambulacra in this present species is a
ready means of separation.

Occurrence—Curdsville division of the Trenton, near Troy, Wood-
ford County, Kentucky.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. S.3191, Springer Coll.

PYRGOCYSTIS Bather, 1915

Oral surface of five broad, straight ambulacra mounted on a high
cylindrical turret composed of wide, thin, closely imbricated plates.
Genotype—P. sardesoni Bather, 1915. Ordovician (Decorah) of
Minnesota. Scalpellum sulcatum, procerum, and cylindricum Aurivil-

no. 8 EDRIOASTEROIDEA—BASSLER 7

lius, 1892, Pyrgocystis octogona Richter, 1930, P. grayae Bather, 1915,
P. ansticei Bather, 1915, and P. batheri Ruedemann, 1925, are the
other species of this genus.

HEMICYSTITES Hall, 1852
(Hemicystis Haeckel, 1896)

Theca a thin, flattened disk with oral arrangement and pitted plate
structure of Carneyella, but ambulacra are short, broad, and straight.
Anal pyramid elevated and composed of a circle of triangular plates
regularly arranged.

Genotype.—H. parasitica Hall, 1852. Silurian (Rochester) of New
York. Agelacrinites bellulus, bohemicus, confertus, latiusculus, sim-
plex, tener, and velatus of Barrande, 1887, A. rectiradiatus Shideler,
1918, and Agelacrinus billingsi Chapman, 1860, Lebetodiscus youngi
Raymond, 1915, and L. chapmani Raymond, 1915, are described spe-
cies of Hemicystites.

THRESHERODISCUS Foerste, 1914

Agelacrinitidae with branched ambulacral rays having a pronounced
trimerous origin. Interambulacrals large, squamose, imbricating in
central part and smaller along border.

Genotype-—T. ramosus Foerste, 1914. Ordovician (Trenton) of
Ontario, Canada.

AGELACRINITES Vanuxem, 1842

(Agelacrinus authors; Agelacystis Haeckel, 1895; Haplocystites Roemer, 1852;
Haplocystis Bather, 1899)

Thin parasitic disks attached by entire aboral surface. Ambulacra
five, long, narrow, much curved; two (4, 5) to the right and three
(1-3) to the left. Interambulacral plates mosaic and sculptured, al-
though slightly imbricating. Periphery formed by several rows of
small plates followed by one row of much larger elongate ones. Anal
area a circle of triangular, regularly arranged plates.

Genotype —A. hamiltonensis Vanuxem, 1842. Devonian (Hamil-
ton) of New York. A. ephraemovianus Bogolubov, 1926, A. hanoveri
Thomas, 1924, and A. rhenanus Roemer, 1851, from the Devonian,
and A. blairi Miller, 1894, A. legrandensis Miller and Gurley, 1894,
from the Mississippian are referred to this genus.

8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

DISCOCYSTIS Gregory, 1897

(Echinodiscus Worthen and Miller, 1883 (not Agassiz) ;
Ageladiscus Miller, 1897)

Like Agelacrinites except that four ambulacra are curved to left
and one, the right posterior (5), to right, and that body is well de-
veloped and sacklike with many rows of elongate, narrow marginal
plates.

Genotype—Echinodiscus optatus Worthen and Miller, 1883=D.
(Agelacrinus) kaskaskiensis Hall, 1858. Mississippian of Illinois.
Echinodiscus sampsoni Miller, 1891, is another species of this genus.

COOPERIDISCUS, n. gen.

Body depressed globular, free, entirely covered with plates ; ambu-
lacra long, very narrow, much curved, all turning to the right. Inter-
ambulacral plates strongly imbricate. Anal pyramid of regular tri-
angular plates meeting at a point.

Genotype.—Lepidodiscus alleganius Clarke, 1901. Devonian (Che-
mung) of New York.

LEPIDODISCUS Meek and Worthen, 1868

Like Cooperidiscus but ambulacra 1-4 curve strongly to the left and
5, the right posterior one, to the right. Interambulacral plates small,
strongly imbricating. Anal pyramid well developed.

Genotype.—Agelacrinites squamosus Meek and Worthen, 1868.
Mississippian. Agelacrinites beechert Clarke, 1901, A. buttsi Clarke,
1901, Lepidodiscus lebouri Sladen, 1879, and L. muilleri Sharman and
Newton, 1892, are the known species of this genus.

ULRICHIDISCUS, n. gen.

Body semiglobose with the oral side occupied by five narrow but
well-defined, very long ambulacra all strongly curving to the left,
with a well-defined anal pyramid of many long triangular plates in
one circle, and interambulacral areas composed of polygonal but
slightly imbricating plates.

Genotype—Agelacrinus pulaskiensis Miller and Gurley, 1894. Mis-
sissippian (Chester) of Kentucky.

Family EDRIOASTERIDAE Bather

Theca flexible, depressed, usually globular, attached by the small
central excavated part of the aboral surface; ambulacra strongly

No. 8 EDRIOASTEROIDEA—BASSLER 9

curved and passing on to aboral surface; floor plates arranged in two
series, one on each side of the ray, and alternating along the median
line.

EDRIOASTER Billings, 1858

(Cyclaster Billings, 1857, not Cotteau, 1856; Agelacrinites Forbes, 1848,
not Vanuxem; Edriocystis Haeckel, 1896; Aesiocystites Miller and
Gurley, 1894; Aesiocystis Bather, 1900)

Sacklike, flexible theca attached by a small central portion of the
aboral surface and with the ambulacra passing from the oral to aboral
sides. Interambulacral plates mosaic. Ambulacra strongly curved,
four (1-4) to the left and one (5) to the right, with an anal pyramid
composed of many small plates, irregularly arranged.

Genotype.—Cyclaster bigsbyi Billings, 1857. Ordovician (Trenton)
of Canada. Agelacrinites buchianus Forbes, 1848, Edrioaster levis
Bather, 1914, E. saratogensis Ruedemann, 1912, and Aesiocystites
priscus Miller and Gurley, 1894, are other species of this genus.

DINOCYSTIS Bather, 1898

Oral surface convex, with five narrow ambulacra all strongly curved
to the left and aboral surface composed of a thin flexible integument
of narrow imbricating plates with a small central orifice for attachment.

Genotype.—D. barroisi Bather, 1898. Devonian of Belgium.

Family CYATHOCYSTIDAE Bather

Edrioasteroidea in which the aboral portion consists of a fused solid
mass of plates attached permanently to some foreign object.

CYATHOCYSTIS Schmidt, 1880

Theca with oral surface much as in Stromatocystites but mounted
upon a solid fused mass of stereom and permanently attached at the
aboral end.

Genotype-—C. plautini Schmidt, 1880. Ordovician (Echinosphe-
rites limestone) of Estonia.

CYATHOTHECA Jaekel, 1927

Like Cyathocystis, except that the ambulacral areas are apparently
very narrow, practically hidden at the surface.
Genotype.—C. suecica Jaekel, 1927. Ordovician of Sweden.

10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

POSITION UNCERTAIN
Family ASTROCYSTITIDAE, new name
(Steganoblastidae Bather )
ASTROCYSTITES Whiteaves, 1897
(Steganoblastus Whiteaves, 1897)

Regarded by Bather as an edrioasteroid and by Hudson as a
blastoid.

Family CY CLOCYSTOIDIDAE, Sy Aj Miller, 2889

(order uncertain)

Genera Cyclocystoides Billings and Salter, 1858; Narrawayella
Foerste, 1920; Savagella Foerste, 1920.

EXPLANATION OF PEATE

Fic. 1. Walcottidiscus typicalis, new genus and species. The holotype, 3, a
crushed theca showing the oral side. Middle Cambrian (Burgess
shale) Burgess Pass, near Field, British Columbia.

Fics. 2, 3. Carneyella (Agelacrinus) pileus Hall, 1866. View of oral side of
theca and lateral view, 2, showing the sacklike form. Maysville
(Fairmount formation) : Cincinnati, Ohio.

Fic. 4. Cystaster (Hemicystites) granulatus Hall, 1871. Side view, X 2, of
the elongate theca. Maysville (Fairmount formation): Cincinnati,
Ohio.

. Streptaster (Agelacrinus) vorticellatus Hall, 1856. Oral side of theca
slightly enlarged, exhibiting the elevated ambulacra all revolving
toward the left. Maysville (Fairmount formation): Cincinnati,
Ohio.

Fic. 6. Cincinnatidiscus (Agelacrinus) stellatus Hall, 1866. Oral side of the
depressed, attached theca, with straight arms, 2. Maysville (Fair-
mount formation) : Cincinnati, Ohio.

Fic. 7. Ulrichidiscus (Agelacrinus) pulaskiensis Miller and Gurley, 1894. View
of the semiglobose theca, natural size, showing strong curvature of
all ambulacra to the left. Chester (Glen Dean formation): Pulaski
County, Ky.

Fic. 8. Pyrgocystis sardesoni Bather, 1915. Side view of theca, < 14, showing
the solid basal portion of many imbricating plates surmounted by
the oral surface. Black River (Decorah) shales: St. Paul, Minn.

Fic. 9. Cooperidiscus (Lepidodiscus) alleganius Clark, 1901. Oral side of the
free, globular theca, X 14, exhibiting the very narrow ambulacra all
curved to the right and the highly imbricated interambulacral plates.
Chemung formation: New York.

Fic. 10. Carneyella cincinnatiensis, new species. View of the attached, thin cir-
cular theca with ambulacral structure of Carneyella, X 4. Maysville
(Corryville formation) : Warren County, Ohio.

Fic.

OL

e
=

no. 8 EDRIOASTEROIDEA—BASSLER Vat

Fic. 11. Jsorophusella inconditus (Raymond, 1915). Example, * 4, a depressed
circular expansion with the plate structure of /sorophus but with 3
of the ambulacra directed to the left and 2 to the right. Trenton
limestone: Hull, Quebec, Canada.

Fic. 12. Foerstediscus grandis, new genus and species. The holotype, X 2, a
flat circular expansion with the ambulacra all directed toward the

right. Trenton (Curdsville limestone): Near Troy, Woodford
County, Ky.

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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 93, NUMBER 9

NEW SPECIES OF TERTIARY CHEILOSTOME
BRYOZOA FROM VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA

(Wirth NINE PLATES)

BY
FERDINAND CANU
AND
RAY S. BASSLER

Head Curator, Department of Geology,
U. S. National Museum

Try ee,

E-INC
ZOE VIG,
fi oo “ANo 1

=

(PUBLICATION 3302)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
APRIL 26, 1935

The Lord Baltimore Press

BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.

NEW SPECIES OF TERTIARY CHEILOSTOME BRYOZOA
FROM VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA

By FERDINAND CANU
AND
RAY S. BASSLER
Head Curator, Department of Geology, U. S. National Museum

(With NINE PtrateEs)
INTRODUCTION

Through the kindness of various Australian friends, particularly
Dr. F. Chapman, I have from time to time received many packages of
washings containing Tertiary bryozoans from Victoria, with the re-
sult that as our studies upon other faunas progressed, Dr. Canu and
I were able not only to classify more accurately, and make new ob-
servations upon, the known Victorian species but also to bring to
light a number of interesting new forms. By the fall of 1931 such a
volume of notes had accumulated that Dr. Canu began their compila-
tion for publication. On February 11, 1932, he completed the editing
and forwarded the final pages of these notes to me. The next morning,
awakening with a slight headache, which grew steadily worse, he
passed away from cerebral hemorrhage within a few hours. Thus
came to a close our association in scientific work of almost a quarter
of a century.

Economic conditions have prevented the publication of our com-
plete work upon this subject, and the following abridged descrip-
tions of the new species are issued at the present time to make them
available for stratigraphic use in South Australian geology. Our
studies would seem to indicate that the Australian Tertiary does not
cover a long time period. The bryozoan faunas are so unlike the
standard associations in the Tertiary of Europe and America that no
definite correlations have been made so far. Indeed, their nearest re-
lations seem to be in the recent seas around Australia. All the types
of the species here described are in the collections of the United States

National Museum.
RS: BASSEER.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 93, No. 9

bo

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Class BRYOZOA Ehrenberg
Order CHEILOSTOMATA Busk

Suborder Anasca Levinsen

Division MALACOSTEGA Levinsen, 1909
Family MEMBRANIPORIDAE Busk, 1854
ACANTHODESIA Canu and Bassler, 1920
ACANTHODESIA QUADRILATERA, n. sp.

Plate 1, figs 10

Description—The zoarium is subcylindrical, consisting of six rows
of zooecia arranged around a central line. The zooecia are distinct,
adjacent to each other through their mural rims, elongated, rectangu-
lar. The mural rim is thin, rounded, granulated, common to the
adjacent zooecia; the cryptocyst is flat, smooth, shorter than the
opesium. The opesium is anterior, elongated, elliptical, regular, bor-
dered by a salient cushion, ornamented by small, very short spicules.

Measurements.—

ho=0.27 mm Lz=0.48 mm

Opesium Zooeciu

lo=0.12 mm lz=0.25 mm
Occurrence-—Muddy Creek (Balcombian), and Orbost, Gippsland
(Janjukian), Victoria.
Holotype -—U.S.N.M. nos. 85582, 85583.

ACANTHODESIA REGULARIS, n. sp.
Plate 1, fig. 3

Description—Zoarium of slightly flattened, subcylindrical branches
of 6 to 10 rows of zooecia arranged around a central line. Zooecia
rectangular with granulated mural rim and a cryptocyst about three
fifths as long as the opesium, which is anterior and elongated.

Measurements.—
ho=0.30 mm Lzg=0.60-0.65 mm

Opesium{ lo=0.18-0.20 mm Zooeciay lz=0.30-0.35 mm
Occurrence.—Janjukian beds at Anticline Creek, Dartmoor,
Victoria.
Cotypes—U.S.N.M. no. 85581.

NO. 9 TERTIARY BRYOZOA—CANU AND BASSLER iS

MEMBRANIPORA Blainville, 1830
MEMBRANIPORA AREOLATA, n. sp.
Plate 1, fig. 2

Description—The zoarium is bilamellar; the fronds have four or
five longitudinal rows of zooecia on each face. The zooecia are distinct,
separated by a furrow or by a quadrangular area more or less broad, a
little elongated, elliptical. The mural rim is thin, flat, of irregular
width, smooth, and bears distally a small transverse triangular avicu-
larium with two denticles and a pointed beak. The opesium is large,
of the same form as the zooecium. The quadrangular area is very
irregular in form and position. Ovicell unknown.

Measurements.—
Ore ho=0.40-0.50 mm z ; Lz=0.60 mm
m1 ooecium
Pesiun) Jo=o. 35 mm lz=0.45-0.50 mm

Occurrence.—Janjukian ; Aire Coastal Beds, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 60153.

VINCULARIA Defrance, 1829
VINCULARIA GIGANTEA, n. sp.
Plate 1, fig. 4

Description —The zoarium is rodlike (vincular) in form, composed
of four or five longitudinal rows of cells arranged around a central
line. The zooecia are distinct, gigantic, much elongated, rounded
distally, narrowed proximally. The mural rim is thin, smooth, salient,
rounded; the cryptocyst is very large, flat, smooth, or very finely
granulated ; the opesium is elliptical, elongated, margined by a salient
swelling, terminal, and much smaller than the cryptocyst.

Measurements.—
ho=0.50-0.65 mm ; L220) fim
lo=0.30 mm BeUee lz=0.65 mm

Occurrence—Janjukian beds at Anticline Creek, Dartmoor,
Victoria.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. no. 85905.

Opesium

OTIONELLA Canu and Bassler, 1917
OTIONELLA CIRCUMDATA, n. sp.
Plate 1, figs. II, 12

Description—The zoarium is a small, truncated, solid cone; the
base is slightly convex and ornamented with sinuous radial lines; at

4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

the periphery there are small elliptical cavities equally spaced, 11 or
12 in number, each containing a small avicularium. The zooecia are
distinct, separated by their mural rim, arranged in radial rows, hex-
agonal. The mural rim is thin, salient; the cryptocyst is large, con-
cave, deep, smooth; the opesium is terminal, orbicular, margined by a
salient thread. The vibracula are very large, auriform, primoserial.
The zooecia are not closed around the apex.

Measurements.—
ho=0.07 mm { L2=0.25-0.30 mm
lo=0.07 mm | lz=0.25-0.30 mm

Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, near Hamilton,
Victoria.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85807.

Opesium

Family HINCKSINIDAE Canu and Bassler, 1927
HINCKSINA Norman, 1903
HINCKSINA UNISERIALIS, n. sp.
Plate 2, fig. 9

Description—The zoarium incrusts bryozoa. The zooecia are ar-
ranged in uniserial, ramified branches ; they are large, much elongated,
pyriform, and bear proximally along caudal gymnocyst. The opesium
is large, anterior, oval; the mural rim is salient, beveled, a little en-
larged at the base and ornamented with spines. The ovicell is endo-
zooecial, rather large, convex, smooth.

Measurements.—
ho=0.40-0.45 mm Lz=0.55-0.80 mm
lo =0.20-0.25 mm lz=0.35-0.40 mm
Occurrence.—Janjukian beds at Corio Bay, Geelong, Victoria.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85756.

Opesium Zooecium

Family ALDERINIDAE Canu and Bassler, 1927
MEMBRANIPORIDRA Canu and Bassler, 1927
MEMBRANIPORIDRA (?) ASYMMETRICA, n. sp.
Plate 1, fig. 9

Description—The zoarium is bilamellar. The zooecia are large,
distinct, separated by a very deep furrow, elongated, elliptical; the
gymnocyst almost entirely surrounds the opesium; it is convex and
salient on the lateral parts, concave, deep, and hidden proximally.
The mural rim is a thin, sinuous thread bearing a salient, simple, or

NO. 9 TERTIARY BRYOZOA—CANU AND BASSLER 5

bifurcated apophysis on one side only ; the opesium is elongated, ellip-
tical, asymmetrical. The proximal gymnocyst bears the ovicell or a
large, transverse, inconstant, elliptical avicularium. The ovicell is
hyperstomial, globular, smooth, closed by the opercular valve.
Measurements.—
ho=0.37-0.45 mm : Lg=0.75 mm
lo=0.15-0.20 mm ——_ lz =0.30-0.40 mm
Occurrence-—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85794.

Opesium|

ELLISINIDRA Canu and Bassler, 1933
ELLISINIDRA PYRIFORMIS, n. sp.
Plate 4, fig. 7

Description—The zoarium incrusts shell fragments. The zooecia
are distinct, separated by a very shallow furrow, little elongated,
elliptical, or almost transverse with a general pyriform aspect. The
mural rim is very thin, filiform, rounded, smooth; it bears distally
a small triangular, transverse avicularium; the opesium is very large
and of the same form as the zooecium. The ovicell is small, convex,
hyperstomial, closed by the operculum.

Measurements.—
ho=0.35-0.40 mm Te Lz=0.45-0.50 mm
Jo=0.30-0.40 mm lz =0.40-0.50 mm

Occurrence.—Janjukian beds at Flinders and Mount Gambier ;
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 85691-85693.

Opesium

STAMENOCELLA Canu and Bassler, 1917
STAMENOCELLA FUSIFORMIS, n. sp.
Plate 1, fig. 8

Description—The zoarium is free, cylindrical. The zooecia are
distinct, separated by a common mural rim, very elongated, fusiform;
the gymnocyst is short, rectangular, very little convex, smooth. The
mural rim is thin, rounded, smooth; the opesium is very much elon-
gated, elliptical, terminal. —The gymnocyst bears sporadically an orbic-
ular avicularium. The ovicell is unknown.

Measurements.
ho=0.45 mm : fz—070 mm
esium Zooecium
oe | Jo=0.15-0.18 mm lgz=0.25 mm

Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype-—U.S.N.M. no. 85881.

6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

ALLANTOPORA Lang, 1914
ALLANTOPORA CONFINIS, n. sp.
Platetr, ie 5

Description—The zoarium incrusts shells and forms uniserial or
pluriserial rows of zooecia. The zooecia are distinct, separated by
a deep furrow, very elongated pyriform, simply adjacent in the multi-
serial portion ; the gymnocyst is large, very convex, smooth, narrowed
proximally, forming a caudal portion. The mural rim is thick, rounded,
smooth. It bears exteriorly to the termen a row of large spines en-
tirely surrounding the opesium.' Ovicell and ancestrula unknown.

Measurements.—
ho=0.25-0.30 mm. ces Lg=0.60-0.75 mm
lo =0.18-0.20 mm [z=0.30-0.40 mm

Number of zooecia in 4 mm* (=4 square millimeters), 20-22.

Occurrence-—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek and Janjukian at
Flinders and Mount Gambier, Victoria.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 85598-85600.

Opesium

AMPHIBLESTRUM Gray, 1848
AMPHIBLESTRUM GRANDE, n. sp.
Plate 1, fig. I

Description—The zoarium is bilamellar. The zooecia are distinct,
separated by a deep furrow, very large, little elongated, ogival, sur-
rounded on three quarters by a granular gymnocyst. The mural rim
is salient, very thin distally, enlarged laterally, much attenuated proxi-
mally ; the cryptocyst is shallow, flat, smooth, merging imperceptibly
with the proximal gymnocyst ; the opesium is large, terminal, trans-
verse, pyriform, slightly trifoliated. The ovicell is hyperstomial, not
closed by the opercular valve, globular, smooth, margined by an ecto-
oecium, resting on the distal zooecium.

Measurements.—
ho=0.30-0.35 mm Tobesiitn Loe ee mm
lo=0.35-0.40 mm | Izg=0.50-0.75 mm
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85602.

Opesium

RAMPHONOTUS Norman, 1894
RAMPHONOTUS (?) LAMELLOSUS, n. sp.
Plate 2, fig. 1

Description—tVhe zoarium is bilamellar. The zooecia are distinct,
separated by a shallow furrow, very much elongated, pyriform. The

NO. 9 TERTIARY BRYOZOA—-CANU AND BASSLER ii

mural rim is thin, salient, sharp, smooth ; the cryptocyst is flat, smooth,
little deep, as long or longer than the opesium ; it bears on its proximal
portion a large transverse, triangular avicularium, with denticles, and
in which the beak is very pointed and often slightly curved; the
opesium is elongated, elliptical, narrowed distally by two small con-
dyles symmetrically placed. The ovicell is hyperstomial, placed on
the cryptocyst of the distal zooecium, globular, smooth, crowned by
a zooecial avicularium.
Measurements.—
f ho=0.20-0.25 mm Lzg=0.60-0.65 mm
Opesiuin} gor Zooecium | (ess
.13-0.15 mm 2 =0.32-0.35 mm
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 21.
Occurrence-—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek and Janjukian at
Dartmoor, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. nos. 85850, 85853.

Family HIANTOPORIDAE MacGillivray, 1895
TREMOPORA Ortmann, 1890
TREMOPORA ORBICULATA, n. sp.

Plate 2a fies

Description—The zoarium is unilamellar; the dorsal bears fenes-
trae. The zooecia are distinct, separated by a deep furrow in which
the connecting tubes are visible, orbicular, or slightly elongated. The
mural rim is thin distally and very much enlarged at the base; it
bears two large distal spines and laterally a large elliptical avicularium
placed very high, opposite which is situated a small avicularium or a
short bifurcated spine. The opesium is elliptical or orbicular, of the
same form as the zooecium.

Measurements.—

‘ ho=0.50 mm Lzg=0.60-0.70 mm
Opesinm{ lo=0.40-0.50 mm Zovecium) lz =0.60-0.65 mm
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype—U.S.N.M. no. 85894.

TREMOPORA STAMINIS, n. sp.
Plate 2, figs. 4, 5

Description.—The zoarium is unilamellar, free. On the dorsal the
fenestrae are short, linear, narrow, and separate the six more or less
broad connecting tubes. The surface is convex, smooth, ornamented
with small salient radicular pores. The zooecia are distinct, separated

8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

by a deep furrow at the angles of junction; the mural rim is thin
distally, somewhat enlarged at the base; it bears two small distal
spines, simple or bifurcated. The avicularium is large, triangular,
without pivot, placed on the mural rim and in the immediate vicinity
of the opercular valve. The beak is salient outside of the cell, very
slightly curved. At its base a large spine with numerous reticulated
filamentous branches covers the zooecium and unites itself to the op-
posite side of the mural rim; the lacunae are little numerous, long and
linear. Always on the mural rim in front of the large avicularium
there is a small, branching palmate spine placed above the last ramifica-
tions of the large spine. The ovicell is hyperstomial, small, convex,

granular.
Measurements.—
‘ ho=0.60-0.70 mm_, _ (Le=075 mam
Opesium| lo=0.25-0.30 mm ooecia| Iz=0.45-0.50 mm

Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 15.
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype.—U.S.N.M. no. 85896.

Family ARACHNOPUSIIDAE Jullien, 1888
ARACHNOPUSIA Jullien, 1886
ARACHNOPUSIA LINEARIS, n. sp.

Plate 2, fig. 2

Description.—The zoarium is free and bilamellar. The zooecia are
distinct, separated by a shallow furrow, very elongated, oval or el-
liptical; the frontal is a pericyst perforated by large lacunae; the
latter are irregular, orbicular or crescentric, arranged irregularly in
transverse rows. The opesium is semielliptical, transverse ; the distal
peristome is thin; the proximal lip is Jinear, thick, with a large inden-
tation on one side; this indentation is the insertion of a large spine
which has disappeared in fossilization. On the side opposite the in-
dentation and adjacent to the peristome there is a small triangular
avicularium, the beak oriented distally above each opesium, and ad-
jacent to the peristome there is another small triangular avicularium,
the beak of which is oriented proximally.

Measurements.—
ho=0.10 mm s
he 6 ol eais Zooecium
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 9-10.
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85603.

Lz=0.90-1.15 mm

Oncnae
Z=0.50 mm

NO. 9 TERTIARY BRYOZOA—-CANU AND BASSLER 9

Division COILOSTEGA Levinsen, 1909
Family OPESIULIDAE Jullien, 1888
RECTONYCHOCELLA Canu and Bassler, 1912
RECTONYCHOCELLA (?) DIMORPHOCELLA, n. sp.
Plate 2, fig. 6

Description—The zoarium is bilamellar. The ordinary zooecia are
distinct, separated by a furrow of little depth, elongated, ogival. The
mural rim is little distinct and is confused with the cryptocyst; the
latter is smaller than the opesium, concave in its vicinity, somewhat
convex proximally, slightly granular; the opesium is terminal, large,
pyriform, narrowed toward the top by two small lateral condyles
symmetrically placed. The accessory zooecia are membraniporoid ; the
elliptical opesium is surrounded by a rounded salient mural rim.

Measurements.—

: ho=0.35-0.40 mm Lz=0.65-0.80 mm
Opesiam lo=0.30 mm Zooeciusn| lz =0.55-0.60 mm

Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 12.

Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85854.

FLORIDINELLA Canu and Bassler, 1917
FLORIDINELLA AUSTRALIENSIS, n. sp.
Plate 1, fig. 6

Description—The zoarium is free, bilamellar ; the fronds are nar-
row and bear on each face four longitudinal rows of cells. The zooecia
are distinct, separated by their common mural rim, elongated, ogival,
much narrowed proximally. The mural rim is thin, salient, rounded ;
the cryptocyst is large, shallow, concave, smooth; the opesium is
terminal, elongated, semielliptical, with the proximal border straight
or concave ; two small distal condyles, symmetrically arranged, slightly
contract the opesium.

Measurements.—
? ho=0.25-0.28 mm ; Lz=0.60-0.70 mm
Opesium Zooecium
lo=0.17-0.19 mm lz=0.40-0.43 mm

Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85722.

IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

VIBRACELLA Waters, 1891
VIBRACELLA PARVULA, n. sp.
Plate 3, figs. 8, 9

Description—The zoarium is a small truncated, solid cone; the
base is ornamented with numerous radial ribs, dichotomously dividing,
each containing one or two rows of large lunularian pores. The
zooecia are distinct, separated by their mural rim, small, hexagonal,
arranged in radial rows. The mural rim is thin, salient; the crypto-
cyst is concave, shallow, smooth; the opesium is terminal, semielliptic,
little elongated, the proximal border being a little convex with two
lateral, shallow, opesiular indentations. The vibracula are large, auri-
form, primoserial.

Measurements.—
Gast ho=0.10-0.1I2 mm 7 : L2=025 tm
esium ooecium
P lo=0.10 mm lz=0.25 mm

Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype.-—U.S.N.M. no. 85904.

SELENARIA Busk, 1854
SELENARIA TRIFOLIATA, n. sp.
Plate 2, figs. 7, 8

Description—TVhe zoarium is orbicular, cupuliform, thick, some-
what convex ; the inner face is slightly concave, granular, costulated,
with a row of large scattered pores in the middle of the radial ribs.
The zooecia are distinct, adjacent through their mural rim, hexagonal,
somewhat elongated or transverse. The mural rim is thin, salient;
the cryptocyst is shallow, smooth, slightly concave. The opesium is
slightly elongated, trifoliate; the distal portion is elliptical and bor-
dered laterally by two triangular, very salient apophyses ; the opesiular
portion is linear, transverse, with two deep and rounded lateral in-
dentations. The vibracula are primoserial, very large, auriform, sepa-
rated into two parts by a salient point. The ancestrula is large and
surrounded by 10 much smaller zooecia, of which 5 are vibracula.

Measurements.—

: ho=0.27-0.30 mm Zooecia f{Lg=0.40-0.50 mm
EE lo=0.24 mm (marginal ! =
ginal) } /z=0.50 mm
Occurrence.—balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Cotypes—U.S.N.M. no. 85863.

NO. 9 TERTIARY BRYOZOA—-CANU AND BASSLER rE

SELENARIA GRANDICELLA, n. sp.
Plate 3, figs. 1, 2

Description—tThe zoarium is orbicular, cupuliform, little convex.
The zooecia are distinct, separated by a shallow furrow, very large,
hexagonal, elongated or transverse ; the cryptocyst is small, smooth,
somewhat concave. The opesium is very large, trifoliate; the distal
border bears a kind of vestibular arch; the lateral borders are some-
times a little salient; the proximal border is convex; the opesiular
indentations are wide, deep, rounded. The vibracula are very large,
auriform, primoserial ; the inner distal portion is shallow. On the in-
ner face of the zoarium there are broad radial ribs, convex, each
perforated by two rows of large irregular lunularian pores.

Measurements.—
ho=0.35 mm Lz=0.50 mm
lo=0.30 mm lz=0.40-0.50 mm
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85864.

Opesium) Zooecium

Family STEGANOPORELLIDAE Hincks, 1884
SIPHONOPORELLA Hincks, 1880
SIPHONOPORELLA LIVINGSTONE], n. sp.
Plate 3) fics 5

Description—Vhe zoarium is unilamellar. The zooecia are distinct,
separated by a shallow furrow, elongated, elliptical, narrowed at the
base; the mural rim is somewhat salient, slightly thickened, granu- -
lated ; the cryptocyst is shallow, flat, granulated. The opesium is large,
terminal, irregular ; the polypidian tube is very salient, oblique, wide.

Measurements. —

Diameter of polypidian tube, 0.12-0.15 mm
Width of opesium, 0.35 mm
: Lzg=0.75-1.00 mm
Zooecinin ls=0.48 mm
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 12.
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85884.

SIPHONOPORELLA FILIPARIETIS, n. sp.

Plate 3, fig. 4

Description —The zoarium is unilamellar. The zooecia are distinct,
separated by a deep furrow, elongated, ogival ; the mural rim is round,

12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

very thin, filiform, salient; the cryptocyst is shallow, flat, very finely
granulated. The opesium is large, terminal, semielliptical, transverse ;

the polypidian tube is long, oblique, smooth, very narrow, expanded
distally.

Measurements.—
Diameter of polypidian tube, 0.12 mm
Width of opesium, 0.40-0.45 mm
Lz=0.85 mm
lz=0.45-0.50 mm
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85883.

Zooecium

Family THALAMOPORELLIDAE Levinsen, 1902
THALAMOPORELLA Hincks, 1887
THALAMOPORELLA ELONGATA, n. sp.

Plate 2, fig. 10

Description.—The zoarium is bilamellar; the fronds are narrow.
The zooecia are distinct, separated by their mural rim, much elongated,
narrow, subrectangular ; the mural rim is thin, rounded, salient, joined
to the peristome ; the cryptocyst is concave, rather deep, finely granu-
lated. The aperture is orbicular or a little transverse ; the peristome

is thin, salient. The opesiules are wide, short, placed in the neighbor-
hood of the aperture.

Measurements —

ha=0.12-0.15 mm
la=0.15 mm
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 21.
Occurrence.—Janjukian beds at Mitchell River, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85897.

Lz=0.70-0.75 mm
Apertura Zooeciuin |

Iz =0.25-0.30 mm

Family ASPIDOSTOMATIDAE Jullien, 1888
MACROPORA MacGillivray, 1895
MACROPORA CLARKEI ATTENUATA, n. var.
Plate 4, fig. 1
Description —The zooecia are separated by a furrow and not by a
salient thread. Our specimens bear kenozooecia analogous to those
figured by Waters, 1885. One of them bears traces of a broken ovicell.

Occurrence—Janjukian beds at Flinders, Victoria.

Cotype.—U.S.N.M. no. 85781.

NO. Q - TERTIARY BRYOZOA—-CANU AND BASSLER 13

MACROPORA QUADRISERIATA, n. sp.
Plate 3, fig. 3

Description—The zoarium is free, vincular, quadriserial. The
zooecia are distinct, separated by a thin salient thread, elongated,
hexagonal; the cryptocyst is large, little convex, perforated by nu-
merous pores and ornamented with small tuberosities. The aperture
is subterminal, large, semielliptical, transverse; the proximal border
is straight with two small, lateral indentations ; the peristome is very
thick and salient. At the base of each zooecium there are two polygonal
areas outlined by the ramifications of a separating thread.

Measurements.—
ha=0.15-0.20 mm L2= 125 mm
la=0.20-0.25 mm Zooecium 2=O75 smn
Occurrence—Janjukian beds at Bairnsdale, Victoria.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85705.

Aperture}

Division PSEUDOSTEGA Levinsen, 1909
Family CELLARIIDAE Hincks, 1880
CELLARIA Lamouroux, 1812
CELLARIA ORBICULARIA, n. sp.

Plate 4, fig. 3

Description—The segments are quadrangular. The zooecia are
distinct, separated by their mural rim, much elongated, hexagonal ;
the mural rim is thick, rounded, regular, the cryptocyst is shallow,
very little convex, finely granulated. The opesium is large, orbicular,
without any proximal denticle, margined by a thick pad. The ovicell
is endotoichal; it is closed by an orbicular lamella forming a large
area above the opesium.

Measurements.—

{ha=0.20 mm Lz=0.90-1.00 mm
ope aue la=0.20 mm — lz=0.45 mm

Occurrence.—Janjukian beds at Anticline Creek, Dartmoor,
Victoria.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85623.

CELLARIA ATTENUATA, n. sp.

Plate 4, fig. 4

Description—The segments are long and rounded distally. The
zooecia are distinct, separated by a very thin salient thread, somewhat

14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

elongated, hexagonal; the cryptocyst is convex and forms a shallow
cavity in front of the aperture. The aperture is semielliptical, trans-
verse; the proximal border is straight or a little concave, with two
very small lateral indentations. The ovicell is endotoichal ; its orifice
is a thin, crescentic slit. The avicularian zooecia have a large semi-
elliptical, transverse opesium.

Measurements. —
ha=0.12-0.15 mm Lz=0.75-0.80 mm
Aperture Zooecium ‘
P la=0.15-0.17 mm Iz=0.50 mm

Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85617.

Family MEMBRANICELLARIIDAE Levinsen, 1909
OMOIOSIA Canu and Bassler, 1927
OMOIOSIA ELONGATA, n. sp.
Plate sss nen

Description—The zoarium is free, bilamellar. The zooecia are
distinct, separated by their mural rim, elongated, hexagonal, arranged
in alternating transverse rows ; the mural rim is thick, salient, triangu-
lar in section; the cryptocyst is deep, concave, very finely granular
and entirely surrounds the opesium. The opesium is large, elliptical,
elongated, not adjacent to the mural rim, surrounded by a salient
thread. The special zooecia are larger but of the same form; their
opesium is elliptical, median, and measures 0.30 by 0.15 mm.

Measurements —
ho=0.20-0.22 mm
lo=0.15 mm
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 24.
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype -—U.S.N.M. no. 86955.

Lz=0.00-0.65 mm

Opesium) lz=0.35-0.40 mm

Zovecium)

Division CELLULARINA Smitt, 1867
Family SCRUPOCELLARIIDAE Levinsen, 1g09
CRASPEDOZOUM MacGillivray, 1886
CRASPEDOZOUM (?) ELONGATUM, n. sp.

Plate 3, figs. 6, 7

Description—The zoarium is free, unilamellar, the fronds being
formed of three longitudinal rows of zooecia. The zooecia are dis-

NO. 9 TERTIARY BRYOZOA—CANU AND BASSLER 15

tinct, separated by a common mural rim, very long, ogival, a little
narrowed proximally. The mural rim is thick, salient, rounded; the
cryptocyst is very large, deep, concave, smooth; the opesium is ter-
minal, elongated, elliptical, very finely crenulated. The zooecia of
the median rows alone bear a large avicularian chamber ; it is placed
on the proximal cryptocyst where it occupies half of the length; it
is rectangular and convex; the avicularium is median, small, salient,
triangular, with the beak oriented proximally. The noncellular face
of the fronds shows the limits of the lateral zooecia and their out-
lines without any apparent relation to the series of median zooecia.
Measurements. —
ho=0.35-0.40 mm aes eee mm
lo=0.25 mm lz=0.45 mm
Occurrence-—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Cotypes—U.S.N.M. no. 85721.

Opesium

Suborder AscopHora Levinsen, 1909
Family CRIBRILINIDAE Hincks, 1880
CRIBRILINA Gray, 1848
CRIBRILINA CRASSICOLLIS, n. sp.

Plate 1, fig. 7

Description—tThe zoarium is free, cylindrical, bifurcated, formed
of four or five longitudinal rows of zooecia. The zooecia are distinct,
separated by a furrow (when young), elongated, elliptical. A thick
secondary calcification fills up the separating furrow joining together
adjacent mural rims and surrounding the zooecium and the aperture.
The frontal is convex, perforated by large lacunae arranged in quin-
cunx. The apertural bar was rapidly covered with secondary calcifica-
tion to form a thick peristome. The aperture is terminal, semielliptical,
transverse, with a concave proximal border. Two small avicularia
are arranged symmetrically on each side of the aperture.

Measurements —
ha=0.10 mm 2 le 0.05) min
la=0.18 mm “O0°Cl4 Iz=0.45 mm

Occurrence —Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, and Janjukian beds
at Batesford, Victoria.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 85664, 85665.

2

Aperture}

10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

CRIBRILINA TERMINATA CORONATA, n. var.
Plate 3, fig. 12

Description—tThe distal portion of the peristome is crowned with
three or four avicularia.

Measurements. —
nes ha=0.15-0.20 mm 7 . {Lz=0.75-0.90 mm
ertura ooecia
P la=0.20 mm c lz=0.45-0.50 mm

Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 10-12.
Occurrence—Balcombian at Muddy Creek, and Janjukian at
Bairnsdale and Flinders, Victoria.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 85670, 85671.

CRIBRILINA TRISERIATA, n. sp.
Plate 3, fig. 10

Description—The zoarium is free, unilamellar and formed of only
three rows of cells. The zooecia are distinct, separated by a furrow,
very elongated, elliptical ; the mural rim is very thick, smooth, entirely
surrounding the cell; the frontal is perforated by small lacunae sepa-
rated by small granules. The aperture is semielliptical, transverse ;
it is surrounded by a very thick peristome joined with the mural rim.
Two oblique, triangular avicularia are arranged symmetrically on each
side of the proximal border of the aperture. The lateral zooecia are
oblique and longer than the axial zooecia.

Measurements.—
ha=0.11 mm ; Lz=0.90 mm
RSLS la=0.16 mm Zocectam lz=0.45 mm
Occurrence.—Janjukian beds at Flinders and Batesford, Victoria.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. nos. 85668, 85660.

Family PORINIDAE D’Orbigny, 1852
PORINA D’Orbigny. 1852
PORINA FISSURIFERA, n. sp.
Plate 4, fig. 11

Porina gracilis (pars) MacGillivray, Trans. Roy. Soc. Victoria, vol. 4, p. 103,
Dial zie TeOS.
Measurements.—
hp=0.14 mm :
P Zooecium
Ip=0.14 mm

Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 10-TT.

Be=i.5/mm

Peristomice lz=0.60 (?) mm

NO. 9 TERTIARY BRYOZOA—-CANU AND BASSLER iy)

Affinities —This species differs from Porina (Acropora) gracilis
Milne Edwards, 1836, in its larger micrometric dimensions, in its
ascopore, which is a longitudinal slit, 0.10 mm in length, decorated
with two lateral lips, and in the presence of small spathulated latero-
frontal avicularia.

Occurrence —Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, and Janjukian at
Mount Gambier, Victoria.

Holotype-—U.S.N.M. nos. 85584, 85585.

PACHYTHECELLA Bassler, 1934
PACHYTHECELLA UNIFASCIATA, n. sp.
Plate 4, fig. 5

Description—The zoarium is free, bifurcated; the branches are
somewhat compressed and formed of two longitudinal rows of cells
opening only on one side. The dorsal is convex and smooth, except
that the outlines of the zooecia are marked off by ridges. The zooecia
are indistinct, little elongated, smooth, the frontal is perforated by a
large orbicular ascopore. The peristomie is little salient, rather long ;
the peristomice is orbicular ; the peristome is thin, nonsalient.

Measurements.—
hp=0.15 mm ; Lz=0.45 mm
Ip=0.15 mm 29seelta 2=0.30 (?) mm
Occurrence—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85823.

Peristomice

PACHYTHECELLA ARMATA, n. sp.
Plate 4, fig. 8

Description——The zoarium is free, bilamellar, formed of rather
wide, compressed branches. The zooecia are indistinct, elongated,
with very thick walls; the frontal is convex and covered with a large
number of shallow pores. The peristomie is formed by the much
thickened zooecial walls; the apertura is buried at the bottom of the
peristomie and appears orbicular ; the peristomice is orbicular and little
distinct because of the absence of the peristome. On the marginal
zooecia the ascopore is replaced by a large triangular, nonsalient, trans-
verse, oblique avicularium; its beak is oriented exteriorly.

Measurements. —

: . fhp=o.15 mm ;
Peristomice Zooecium
Ip=0.15 mm

Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 18.
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85822.

Lz=0.60-0.75 mm
lI2=035 (7?) mim

18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Family TUBUCELLARIIDAE Busk, 1884
TUBITRABECULARIA Canu and Bassler, 1934
TUBITRABECULARIA PRODITOR, n. sp.
Plate 4, fig. 10

Description—The zoarium is articulated; the segments are large,
clavate, somewhat compressed at their extremity. The zooecia are in-
distinct, much elongated ; the frontal is convex, smooth, bordered by
large pores, and formed by an epicalcification hiding the peristomie
and supported by thin trabeculae radiating from the ascopore. The
peristomie (when visible) is long, oblique, much reduced, smooth,
tubular ; the peristomice is orbicular; the peristome is thin, smooth,
sharp. The ascopore is small, tubular (when visible), placed at the
base of the peristomie. The ovicelled zooecia are globular, salient,
often grouped in variable numbers.

Measurements.—

Poagpemirey ns if - - te
Number of zooecia in 1 mm’, 5.
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85886.

Lz=0.70-0.80 mm

Zooecium
lz=0.40 (?) mm

Family PETRALIIDAE Levinsen, 1909
PETRALIELLA MacGillivray, 1887
PETRALIELLA VULTUR AVICULIFERA, n. var.
Plate! 5, fig. 2

Description.—The zoarium is unilamellar. The zooecia are distinct,
separated by a furrow, large, elongated, capitate; the frontal is con-
vex and punctured by scattered pores. An avicularian umbo, very
salient, very long and somewhat oblique, is placed before the aperture ;
the mandible is very long and placed laterally. The aperture is large,
suborbicular, a little transverse ; a small expanded lyrule is placed on
the proximal border in the vicinity of two very short cardelles; the
peristome is very thin, smooth, ornamented with four spines. On each
side of the aperture there is a small elliptical avicularium, with pivot,
oriented proximally ; sporadically on the longer zooecia there are one
or two small elliptical avicularia with pivot oriented distally.

NO. 9 TERTIARY BRYOZOA—CANU AND BASSLER 19

Measurements.—

ha=0.16 mm ;
la=0.20 mm Zooecia}
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 12.
Occurrence—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85825.

Lz=0.75-1.00 mm

A
perture lz=0.40 mm

PETRALIELLA TRACTIFERA, n. sp.
Plate 5, fig. 1

Description—The zoarium is unilamellar, perhaps orbicular. The
zooecia are distinct, separated by a salient thread or by a thickened
band, large, elliptical, elongated, swollen; the frontal is a tremocyst
with large expanded pores and bearing an orbicular, salient, avicu-
larian umbo. The shield is a narrow circular band surrounding the
aperture ; it bears from four to six large hollow spines. The aperture
is large, circular ; it bears proximally, a small lyrule and two trans-
verse cardelles always placed at the same level as the distal border
of the lyrule; the peristome is thin, smooth, salient, strengthened ex-
teriorly by the shield. On the dorsal face of the zoarium, the zooecia
are distinct, subhexagonal, separated by thickened salient bands form-
ing an interzooecial epicalcification.

Measurements.—

ha=0.15-0.20 mm _ {Lz=0.75-0.80 mm
Aperture; la=0.15-0.20 mm cnecia | lz=0.60 mm
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, Io.
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype. —U.S.N.M. no. 85824.

PETRALIELLA (?) DENTICULATA, n. sp.
Plate 4, fig. 9

Description—The zoarium is bilamellar with wide fronds. The
zooecia are distinct, separated by a salient thread, very elongated,
irregular ; the frontal is somewhat convex, granulose, bordered with
areolar pores. The peristomie is long, the peristomice is oblique, very
irregular, with proximal border denticulated by two or three salient
rounded mucrons. The aperture is buried at the bottom of the
peristomie and bears a well-developed lyrule.

Lg=0.75-1.00 mm
lz=0.40-0.50 mm

Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 15. .
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85826.

Measurements.—Zooecium !

20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Family GIGANTOPORIDAE Bassler, 1935
GIGANTOPORA Ridley, 1881
GIGANTOPORA HYSTRIKX, n. sp.

Plate 4, fig. 2

Description—The zoarium is free, cylindrical. The zooecia are
distinct, separated by a large prominent thread, somewhat elongated,
hexagonal; the frontal is convex, pierced by numerous small tremo-
pores separated from one another by protruding spinelike granules.
The peristomie is long, salient, partly buried on the distal zooecium ;
the peristomice is oblique, elliptical, transverse. The spiramen is
large (0.17 mm wide) crescentric, somewhat tubular. The two avicu-
laria are small, triangular, almost transverse.

Measurements.
; ) | ip=—O-10 mm ; Lz=0.85 mm
Pesistomice} Ip=o.15 mm Zooecium gos nn
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85728.

GIGANTOPORA HEXAGONALIS, n. sp.
Plate 4, fig. 6

Description —The zoarium is unilamellar. The zooecia are distinct,
separated by a salient thread, a little elongated, hexagonal ; the frontal
is transversely concave, formed by a tremocyst with small pores sepa-
rated by regular tuberosities. The peristomice is subcircular; the
peristome is smooth, thin, salient. The spiramen is large (0.14 mm
wide), crescentic, bordered by a distinct thread. The two avicularia
are large, triangular, oblique, with pivot. The beaks join on the median
zooecial axis above the spiramen and form an angle with thickened
lines which partially cover the peristomice.

Measurements.—

Peristomice} ie ee a

Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 12.

Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, and Janjukian at
Flinders, Victoria.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. nos. 85725, 85726.

Lz=0.90 mm

Zooecium
lz=0.55 mm

GIGANTOPORA PERFORATA, n. sp.
Plate 5, fig. 10

Description—The zoarium is free, bilamellar, formed of fronds
of varying width. The zooecia are large, little distinct, elongated ;

NO. 9 TERTIARY BRYOZOA—CANU AND BASSLER 21

the frontal is little convex, punctured by rather large tremopores. The
peristomice is large, orbicular or elliptical and elongated ; the peristo-
mie is very short; the peristome is rather thick, smooth, little salient.
The spiramen is a simple perforation in the short peristomie. The
ovicell is hyperstomial, opening largely in the peristome, very large,
globular, covered with scattered tremopores. The two avicularia are
small, triangular, transverse or oblique, pointed downward.
Measurements.
hp=0.22-0.25 mm
Ip=0.18 mm
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 8-10.
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek and Janjukian beds
at Flinders, Victoria.
Cotypes —U.S.N.M. no. 85729.

Lz=0.90-1.00 mm

Peristomice lz=0.65-0.70 mm

Zooecinin

GIGANTOPORA ELONGATA, n. sp.
Plate 5, fig. 5

Description—The zoarium is free, cylindrical. The zooecia are dis-
tinct, separated by a furrow bordered by two very thick salient threads,
large, very elongated, sinuous ; the frontal is a tremocyst, little convex
and penetrated by rather large pores. The peristomie is short; the
peristomice is orbicular or elliptical and trarisverse; the peristome is
smooth, thick, little salient. The spiramen is large (0.25 mm wide)
simple, not salient, marginated, somewhat concentric. The two
peristomial avicularia are large, triangular, with pivot; their beak is
pointed, oriented toward the peristomice.

Measurements.—
hp=0.20 mm
Ip =0.22-0.25 mm
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 6.
Occurrence —Janjukian beds at Gellibrand, Victoria.
Holotype—U.S.N.M. no. 85727.

f3= 1-25-0230 mim

Peristomice
Iz =0.65-0.75 mm

Zooecia}

GIGANTOPORA MINUTIPOROSA, n. sp.
Plate 5, fig. 9

Description—The zoarium is unilamellar, thick. The zooecia are
distinct, separated by a thick salient thread, elongated, subhexagonal ;
the frontal is somewhat convex, pierced with very small pores sepa-
rated by small granulations. The peristomie is short, somewhat buried
in the distal zooecium ; the peristomice is large, orbicular or elliptical,
and transverse, little oblique ; the peristome is salient, thick granulated,

22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

or crenulated. The spiramen is large (0.20 mm wide) distally tubular,

granulated, oblique, oriented proximally. The two frontal avicu-

laria are relatively small, triangular, with pivot; the beak is rounded

and united to the thickened proximal portion of the peristome.
Measurements.—

hp=0.22 mm ; Lzg=1.08-1.17 mm

lp =0.22-0.27 mm a lz =0.63-0.72 mm

Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 7.

Occurrence.—Janjukian beds at Flinders and Batesford, Victoria.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. nos. 85730, 85731.

Peristomice

GEPHYROPHORA Busk, 1884
GEPHYROPHORA BILAMELLARIA, n. sp.
Plate 5, fig. 3

Description—The zoarium is free, bilamellar ; the fronds are broad
and very thick. The zooecia are distinct, separated by a salient thread,
large, rectangular, somewhat elongated; the frontal is little convex,
almost flat, and formed by a granular tremocyst with numerous pores.
The apertura is large, oval, with a broad, rounded proximal sinus ;
the peristome is thin and very little salient. The ovicell is very large,
globular, of the same nature as the frontal. On each side of the
apertura there is a large triangular avicularium with pivot, with beak
very pointed and oriented obliquely toward the apertural sinus.

Measurements.—

{ha=0.20 mm » tLe =0.7.0 mm

acd Ineo arin as jp oeomnin
Number of zooecia in 4 mm”, ITI.

Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85723.

SPIROPORINA Stoliczka, 1864
SPIROPORINA TENUIS, n. sp.
Plate 5, fig. 4

Description—The zoarium is free, cylindrical, bifurcated, very
thin, formed of only four rows of cells. The zooecia are distinct,
separated by a very small and very finely crenulated thread, much
elongated, subcylindrical; the frontal is convex, perforated by very
small tremopores arranged in linear rows and separated by scattered
granulations. The peristomie is little apparent and of variable length.
The peristomice is elliptical, transverse, oblique; the peristome is

NO. Q TERTIARY BRYOZOA—CANU AND BASSLER 23

rather thick, fimbriated or crenulated. The spiramen is a small perfora-
tion placed in the vicinity of the peristomice.
Measurements.—
hp=0.08 mm ; Lz=0.45-0.50 mm
Ip=0.15 mm a lz=0.25 mm
Occurrence.—Balcombian at Muddy Creek and Janjukian at Corio
Bay, Geelong, etc., Victoria.
Holotype—U.S.N.M. no. 85738.

Peristomice

Family SCHIZOPORELLIDAE Bassler, 1935
Subfamily ScHIzoporELLAE Canu and Bassler, 1917
BUFFONELLODES Strand, 1928
BUFFONELLODES BACULINA, n. sp.

Plate 5, fig. 11

Description.—The zoarium is free, cylindrical, formed of five or six
longitudinal rows of zooecia. The zooecia are distinct, separated by a
furrow, somewhat elongated, lozenge shape, wide; the frontal is con-
vex, smooth. The apertura is elongated, oval, terminated proximally
by a wide rounded sinus; the peristome is wide, smooth, little salient.

Measurements.—

ha=0.10-0.12 mm oS —=@O100-0.75 Tm
2a la=0.08 mm Zeocetats lz=0.50 fh

Occurrence—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, and Janjukian
beds at Boggy Creek, Victoria.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. nos. 85606, 85607.

STEPHANOSELLA Canu and Bassler, 1917
STEPHANOSELLA SEXSPINOSA, n. sp.
Plate 6, fig. 1

Description—tThe zoarium is incrusting. The zooecia are distinct,
separated by a furrow, rather large, wide, ensiform; the frontal is
convex, smooth. The aperture is suborbicular; the proximal border
bears a wide rounded sinus; the peristome is very thin, little salient,
ornamented with six very short spines. On each side of the aperture,
distant from the peristome, there is a distinct, cylindrical, avicularian
chamber, terminated by an orbicular, oblique orifice. The ovicell is
hyperstomial, not closed by the operculum, very salient, globular,
granulose, ornamented with a large, smooth triangular area. On cer-
tain zooecia, the aperture is hidden by a large flat mucron; it bears

24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

very frequently the base of a very large transverse avicularium with
spathulate pivot in which the beak is supported on the peristome of an
adjacent zooecium.
Measurements.—
ha=o0.12 mm _ (including

Aperture
I lone mm _ oral sinus)

: L2z=0.65 mm
Zooecium / 5
| ls=0.40-0.55 mm

Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 16.
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85885.

DAKARIA Jullien, 1903
DAKARIA CRASSOCIRCA, n. sp.
Plate 6, fig. 7

Description —The zoarium is free, cylindrical, formed by four longi-
tudinal rows of zooecia. The zooecia are distinct, separated by a
furrow, at the bottom of which is a salient thread, elongated, elliptical ;
the frontal is very convex and covered with large infundibuliform
tremopores. The aperture is transverse, semielliptical; the proximal
border bears a very wide rounded sinus; the peristome is complete,
very thick ; between the inner proximal portion and the aperture, there
is a small armature of little depth and characteristic of the genus.
Ovicell unknown.

Measurements.—

ha=0.12 mm : Lz=0.84 mm
Aperture la=0.15 mm Zoecinn [eosin
Occurrence.—Janjukian beds at Bairnsdale, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85683.

SCHIZOBRACHIELLA Canu and Bassler, 1920
SCHIZOBRACHIELLA HEXAGONALIS, n. sp.
Plate 6, fig. 5

Description—The zoarium is free, unilamellar. The zooecia are
distinct, separated by a salient thread, hexagonal, somewhat elongated ;
the frontal is convex and formed of a tremocyst with small, numer-
ous pores. The aperture, orbicular in aspect, is formed by a large
semicircular anter and by a concave poster notched by a wide, shal-
low sinus separated from the anter by two small lateral indentations.
Laterally, at the height of the apertural sinus there is either a longi-
tudinal slit or a small elongated avicularium.

NO. 9 TERTIARY BRYOZOA—CANU AND BASSLER

ho
on

Measurements. —

ha=0.15-0.17 mm
la=0.17 mm
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, IT.
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85861.

Lz=0.80 mm

Aperture lz=0.50-0.55 mm

Zooecinn |

CHIASTOSELLA Canu and Bassler, 1934
CHIASTOSELLA LAMELLATA, n. sp.
Plate 6, fig. 8

Description—TVhe zoarium is free and lamellar; the fronds are
more or less wide, bifurcated. The zooecia are little distinct, vaguely
separated by a white line irregularly placed between the areolar pores,
elongated ; the frontal is narrow, bordered by two scattered rows of
areolar pores concealing the little apparent pleurocyst. The aperture
is semicircular ; the proximal border is rectilinear and notched by a
straight, short sinus rounded at its extremity; the peristome is thick,
little salient, with four or five large distal spines. The ovicell is large,
embedded in the distal zooecium, hyperstomial, not closed by the
operculum; the ectooecium is large, circular, convex, smooth, orna-
mented on the periphery with lines of small pores arranged radially.
The two avicularia are arranged transversely on the transverse median
axis of the zooecium ; they are long and thin with pivot, very pointed,
projecting on the adjacent zooecia ; their base is placed on the exterior
line of areolar pores.

Measurements.—
ha=0.15 mm
la=0.10-0.12 mm

Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 16 to 20.

Occurrence—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, and Janjukian at
Mount Gambier, Victoria.

Cotypes —U.S.N.M. nos. 85630, 85631.

Aperture Zooecium | Lz=0.60-0.65 mm

CHIASTOSELLA GIBBERA, n. sp.
Plate 6, fig. 2

Description—The zoarium is unilamellar. The zooecia are little
distinct, elongated, irregular ; the frontal is convex, ornamented with
a longitudinal, median gibbosity surrounded by a double row of
scattered areolar pores often separated by pseudocostules. The aper-
ture is semielliptical, transverse; the proximal border is somewhat
concave and bears a very narrow linear sinus; the peristome is non-

26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

salient and bears four inconstant spines. The zooecial avicularium
is transverse, thin with pivot, nonsalient, inconstant. The ovicell is
unknown.
Measurements. —
x ha=oO.1 2) mm: f J Lz=0.60 mm
DEORE la=0.15 mm Be Iz =0.25-0.30 mm
3
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 18-20.
Occurrence.—Janjukian beds at Bairnsdale, Victoria.

Cotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85629.

CHIASTOSELLA POROSA, n. sp.
Plate 6, fig. 4

Description—The zoarium is free, unilamellar. The zooecia are
distinct, separated by a furrow, ogival, wide, often transverse; the
frontal is convex, very porous, with much reduced pleurocyst. The
aperture is suborbicular; the concave poster bears a rounded sinus
of little depth; the peristome is wide, nonsalient, with three or four
large spines. The avicularium is placed transversely on the median
axis of the zooecium; it is very long, with pivot, with a beak thinned
and placed on a convex, porous chamber. Ovicell unknown.

Measurements.—
ha=0.16-0.20 mm
la=0.20-0.22 mm
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 12.
Occurrence—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype—U.S.N.M. no. 85632.

E2z=0.70 mm

Aperture
P lz=0.80 mm

Zooecium i

CHIASTOSELLA GRANDICELLA, n. sp.
Plate 6, fig. 3

Description—The zoarium is free, unilamellar. The zooecia are
distinct, separated by a furrow, very large, ogival, very wide, trans-
verse ; the frontal is convex, porous, bordered by three rows of areolar
pores leaving only a small frontal pleurocyst. The aperture is large,
suborbicular ; the proximal border is very concave with a wide,
rounded, rather deep sinus; the peristome is very thick, nonsalient
and provided with four large distal spines. The zooecial avicularium
is very large, rather long, with pivot, arranged transversely; the
beak is pointed. Ovicell unknown.

Measurements.—
eee ha=0.22-0.25 mm 7 ’ Lz=0:90 mm
erture ooecium ;
P la=0.22 mm lz=0.80 mm (ir-

regular )
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 5.

NO. 9 TERTIARY BRYOZOA—CANU AND BASSLER 27

Occurrence-—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85628.

CHIASTOSELLA PARVIPOROSA, n. sp.
Plate 6, fig. Io

Description——tThe zoarium is unilamellar. The zooecia are distinct,
separated by a deep furrow, very large, ogival, little elongated, wide ;
the frontal is convex, covered with relatively small pores, without
pleurocyst. The aperture, transverse and semielliptical in aspect, bears
on its concave proximal border a small rounded sinus; the peristome
is very thick, nonsalient, garnished with four large hollow spines.
Ovicell unknown. The avicularium is large, transverse, borne on a
large porous convex chamber ; the beak is rather pointed; its base is
placed on the first row of pores.

Measurements.—

ha=o0.28 mm f Lz=0.50-0.60 mm
Aperture | la=0.25-0.27 mm Zoveciuen | Iz=0.50-0.55 mm
(without avicularium)

Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 5.

Occurrence —Janjukian beds at Flinders, Victoria.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85627.

EMBALLOTHECA Levinsen, 1909
EMBALLOTHECA INCLINATA, n. sp.
Plate 6, fig. 6

Description—The zoarium is bilamellar, with broad fronds. The
zooecia are distinct, separated by a white nonsalient thread ; the frontal
is flat, perforated by large polygonal, expanded tremopores, rectangu-
lar and somewhat elongated. The aperture is semielliptical, transverse ;
the proximal border bears a semicylindrical mucron, inclined in the
aperture; two small lateral cardelles are placed at the level of the
distal border of the mucron ; the peristome is incomplete, wide, smooth,
nonsalient. The ovicells are enormous, embedded in the distal zo-
oecium, very convex and salient, covered with large pores. The ovi-
celled zooecia are wider; their aperture is large (0.20 by 0.25 mm)
and ornamented with two large cardelles; the peristomice is semi-
elliptical, transverse.

Measurements. —
ha=0.10 mm Lz=0.60-0.70 mm
la=0.15-0.16 mm 2NC SD Iz=0.40-0.50 mm
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85701.

Aperture}

28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

EMBALLOTHECA GRANULATA, n. sp.
Plate 5, fig. 7

Description——The zoarium is bilamellar. The zooecia are distinct,
separated by a deep furrow, rectangular, elongated, a little contracted
behind ; the frontal is convex, covered with granules separated by very
small tremopores. The aperture is semielliptical, transverse ; the proxi-
mal border is formed by a wide convex mucron; there are two car-
delles, long, thin, oblique, oriented proximally ; the peristome is thin,
smooth, hardly salient. The ovicell is unknown.

Measurements. —
ha=o.10 mm ]
la=0.18-0.20 mm Zooecium)

Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 13, 14.

Occurrence.—Kalimnan beds (bore no. 1, depth 110 feet) at Lakes
I’ntrance, Victoria.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85703.

Lz=0.75-0.90 mm

Aperture
2=0.40-0.50 mm

EMBALLOTHECA ANGUSTATA, n. sp.
Plate 5, fig. 8

Description—The zoarium is bilamellar. The zooecia are distinct,
separated by a thin thread placed at the bottom of a furrow, much
elongated, very narrow, of cylindrical aspect; the frontal is convex,
finely granulose and perforated by a large number of very small
tremopores. The aperture is semicircular; the proximal border is
formed by a wide convex mucron presenting a small circular depres-
sion on the zooecial axis ; the peristome is incomplete, smooth, salient.
There are two thin cardelles.

Measurements.—

(ha=0.15 mm
{eon mm
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 13.
Occurrence—Janjukian beds at Orbost, Gippsland, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85704.

= 0.80-0.95 mm

Aperture =0.35 mm

Zooecium i ae
L lg

SCHIZOPORELLA Hincks, 1877
SCHIZOPORELLA ORBICULIFERA, n. sp.
Plate 6, fig. 9
Description—The zoarium is free, cylindrical, formed of four or

five longitudinal series of zooecia. The zooecia are distinct, separated
by a very salient thread, lozenge-shaped, very much elongated, large ;

NO. 9 TERTIARY BRYOZOA—CANU AND BASSLER 29

the frontal is convex, formed by a granular tremocyst with very small
and numerous pores. The aperture is semielliptical, transverse; the
proximal border bears a small rounded sinus; the peristome is com-
plete, thin, smooth, little salient and separated from the separating
thread only by a small furrow. The avicularium is small, orbicular,
a little salient, always placed in one of the two lateral angles. The
ovicell is large, globular, placed on the distal zooecium, hyperstomial,
closed by the operculum; its surface is granular. The aperture of the
ovicelled zooecia is larger.

Measurements.—
ha=0.10-0.12 mm : Lzg=0.90-1.00 mm
AES lo=O0.15. mm Bouse Iz=0.50-0.60 mm
Occurrence.—Janjukian beds at Anticline Creek, Dartmoor,

Victoria.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. no. 85856.

SCHIZOPORELLA MACGILLIVRAYI, n. sp.
Plate 9, fig. 5

Schizoporella phymatopora MacGillivray (pars), Trans. Roy. Soc. Victoria,
vol. 4, p. 80, pl. 11, fig. 3 (not 2), 1895.

Measurements.—
oe ha=0.16 mm © 7 ; 2=0.77-0.85 mm
rtur ium
ee) Ja=O1620.07 mm yo Iz=0.44-0.55 mm

Structure.—It is quite impossible that figures 3 and 2 of MacGil-
livray refer to the same species, for there is a great difference in the
apertural dimensions. We consider figure 3 as representing a distinct
species, S. macgillivrayi, very close to S. alata, and characterized by
its orbicular aperture (not transverse), its rounded proximal sinus,
absence of avicularia, and zooecia frequently axially disarranged.

Occurrence-—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85859.

SCHIZOPORELLA TENUILAMELLOSA, n. sp.
Plate 9, fig. 4

Description —The zoarium is bilamellar ; the fronds are flat, broad,
and very thin. The zooecia are distinct, separated by a shallow fur-
row, rectangular, very long; the frontal is a little convex, smooth,
bordered with about 10 large areolar pores. The aperture in transverse
aspect is semielliptical ; its proximal border is rectilinear and notched
by a very small triangular sinus. Each zooecium bears on the median
longitudinal axis of the frontal two very small avicularia; the first

30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

is orbicular and placed a short distance from the apertural sinus ;
the second placed a little lower, is transverse, very thin, triangular.
The ovicell is unknown.
Measurements.—
fha=0.10 mm Piel co {
| la=0.09-0.10 mm ™
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 15, 16.
Occurrence —Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85860.

Lz=0.65-0.75 mm

Aperture lz=0.35-0.44 mm

SCHIZOPORELLA PUSTULOSA, n. sp.
Plate 5, fig. 6

Description—The zoarium is bilamellar with very narrow fronds.
The zooecia are distinct, separated by a furrow, at the bottom of
which is a very thin thread, elongated, somewhat oval; the frontal
is a pleurocyst ornamented with seven to nine large granules or
pustules and bordered by six very small areolar pores much separated
from each other. The aperture is small, oval, a little oblique, em-
bedded ; the proximal sinus is very wide, and triangular ; the peristome
is very thin, nonsalient and bears four very small and much scattered
tuberosities. Ovicell unknown.

Measurements.—
ha=o.10 mm . |

Zooecium
la=0.09 mm
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 22-24.
Occurrence.—Janjukian, Aire Coastal beds, Victoria.
Holotype—U.S.N.M. no. 85862.

Lzg=0.60-0.75 mm

Aperture lz=0.35 mm

SCHIZOPORELLA ARCANA, n. sp.
Plate 9, fig. 9

Description—The zoarium is unilamellar. The frontal is not en-
tirely perforated ; the cells are surrounded with an olocystic band and
bear below the aperture a macula of the same nature.

Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. no. 85857.

SCHIZOPORELLA CLYPEATA, n. sp.
Plate 6, fig. 11

Description—The zoarium is unilamellar. The zooecia are distinct,
separated by a very thin thread, very large, nonsymmetrical, much

NO. 9 TERTIARY BRYOZOA—-CANU AND BASSLER 31

elongated, of little width; the frontal is little convex and formed by
a large pleurocyst forming a smooth, elliptical cushion or shield; it
is surrounded laterally by a double row of areolar pores and proxi-
mally by four rows of scattered pores. The aperture is oval, axially
disarranged, terminated by a narrow proximal sinus rounded at its
extremity. A small oral avicularium, adjacent to the peristome is
placed between the anter and the sinus. Another small zooecial avicu-
larium is placed laterally on the exterior line of areolar pores and a
little below the level of the proximal sinus. Ovicell unknown.
Measurements. —

ha=0.26 mm e240, mm
Aperture Zooecia

la=0.20 mm 2=0.65-0.75 mm
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 6.
Occurrence.—Janjukian beds at Anticline Creek, Dartmoor,
Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85855.

Subfamily ExocHELLINAeE Bassler, 1935
BATHOSELLA Canu and Bassler, 1917
BATHOSELLA LATICELLA, n. sp.
Plate 9, fig. 2

Description —The zoarium is free, bilamellar, with narrow fronds.
The zooecia are distinct, separated by a very deep furrow, elongated,
globular, very wide; the frontal is rather convex, finely granular,
pierced laterally by two or three pores. The aperture is large, ellipti-
cal, transverse, somewhat oblique ; the peristome is thick, a little salient,
smooth. On one zooecial margin there is a small triangular avicu-
larium with pivot oriented distally.

Measurements.—
ha=0.14 mm
la=0.20 mm
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 12.
Occurrence.—Janjukian, Aire Coastal beds, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 60211.

Lz=0.85 mm

Zooecium
[z=0.50-0.55 mm

Aperture}

BATHOSELLA BULBOSA, n. sp.
Plate 9, fig. 1

Description—The zoarium is free, bilamellar, of narrow fronds.
The zooecia are distinct, separated by a deep furrow, large, elongated
bulbous ; the frontal is very convex, marginated by two to four large

3

32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

pores, and formed by a granular pleurocyst. The aperture is large,
elliptical, transverse, oblique, often mucronated ; the peristome is thick
and granulated like the frontal. Laterally, on the transverse median
axis of the zooecium and symmetrically arranged, there are two small
elliptical, salient avicularia with pivot, oriented proximally.
Measurements.—
ha=0.12-0.15 mm : '
Zooecia
la=0.20 mm
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 14 or 15.
Occurrence.—Janjukian, Aire Coastal beds, Victoria.
Holotype-—U.S.N.M. no. 60205.

Lz=0.75-0.80 mm

Aperture lz=0.40-0.45 mm

EXOCHELLA Jullien, 1888
EXOCHELLA GRANDIS, n. sp.
Plate 9, fig. 3

Description— The zoarium is unilamellar. The zooecia are distinct,
separated by a salient thread, large, elongated, hexagonal ; the frontal
is a granular pleurocyst, bordered by large areolar pores separated
by short costules. The apertura is semielliptical ; the peristome is thin
and salient; a salient rectangular mucron hides the proximal border
of the apertura. The ovicell is globular, convex, granular. The avicu-
larium is transverse, thin, triangular, acuminated ; it replaces an areolar
pore.

Measurements.—
ha=0.15-0.17 mm . (Lz=0.75-0.90 mm
la=0.15-0.17 mm ooecla) ]z=0.50-0.70 mm
Occurrence —Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype-—U.S.N.M. no. 85711.

Apertura

DIDYMOSELLA Canu and Bassler, 1917
DIDYMOSELLA CLYPEATA, n. sp.
Plate 9, figs. 7, 8

Description—The zoarium is unilamellar, free ; the fronds are nar-
row, bifurcated, formed of about seven longitudinal rows of cells;
the dorsal is covered with an epicalcification hiding the form of the
zooecia and on which there are deep longitudinal furrows. The
zooecia are little distinct, separated by shallow and inconstant fur-
rows, long aliform; the frontal is convex, formed distally by a shield,
and proximally by a tremocyst with large pores. The shield is large,
broad, smooth, perforated by two large foramina; its distal portion

NO. 9 TERTIARY BRYOZOA—CANU AND BASSLER 33

is arched and separated by a deep furrow with two calcified bands at-
tached to the peristome. The large zooecial avicularium is triangular,
with pivot ; its beak is oriented exteriorly toward the nearest zooecial
margin. The peristomice is semielliptical, transverse, with somewhat
concave proximal border ; the peristome is thin, salient, ornamented
with four spines, two of which are proximal.

Measurements.—

Peristomice| p _ ue oe)
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 12.
Occurrence—Muddy Creek (Balcombian), Anticline Creek, Dart-

moor and Corio Bay, Geelong, Mount Gambier, etc., (Janjukian),
Victoria.
Holotype-—U.S.N.M. nos. 85684-85688.

Lzg=0.72-0.75 mm

Za ium
Coe 2 =0.47-0.50 mm

ESCHAROIDES Milne-Edwards, 1836
ESCHAROIDES ERECTA, n. sp.
Plate 9, fig. 6

Description—The zoarium is free, erect, cylindrical, formed of
four longitudinal series of zooecia. The zooecia are large, very
elongated, somewhat aliform distally; the frontal is very convex,
formed by a finely granulated pleurocyst, bordered by numerous
areolar pores which separate very short costules; its distal portion is
terminated by two large avicularian mucrons, very long, erect, hiding
entirely the aperture and the locella. On each side of the aperture
there is a small transverse, triangular avicularium in which the cham-
ber is large, triangular, perforated in its middle by a small pore
(radicell ?).

Le= TA 5-25 mie
lz=0.60 mm

Occurrence.—Janjukian beds at Gellibrand, Torquay, Mount Gam-
bier, and Boggy Creek, Victoria.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. nos. 85819, 85847.

Measurements —Zooecium

Subfamily MicroporELLAE Canu and Bassler, 1917
MICROPORELLA Hincks, 1877
MICROPORELLA CAILLETI, n. sp.
Plate 9, fig. 10
Description—The zoarium is unilamellar. The zooecia are distinct,

separated by a deep furrow, hexagonal, wide, very little elongated ;
the frontal is convex and is a finely granulated tremocyst perforated

34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

by a large number of very small pores. The ascopore is transverse,
elliptical or crescentric, salient and almost adjacent to the aperture.
The aperture is semielliptical with a straight, transverse, proximal
border ; the peristome is distal, salient, thick, ornamented with several
flat, short spines. The avicularium is lateral, large, transverse, tri-
angular, with beak pointed and oriented exteriorly, placed at the
side or a little below the ascopore ; it surmounts a triangular chamber,
salient, convex, covered by tremopores. The ovicell is hyperstomial,
closed by the operculum, large, globular, of the same nature as the
frontal.

Measurements.—
ha=0.07 mm :
la=0.15 mm Zovecia}
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 16.
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85791.

Le=0'55 mam

Aperture 1z=0.40-0.55 mm

FENESTRULINA Jullien, 1888
FENESTRULINA PRAETEXTA, n. sp.
Plate 9, fig. 11

Description—The zoarium is free, bilamellar, bifurcated; the
fronds are narrow and flabellate. The zooecia are distinct, bordered
by a thin thread surmounting a large salient smooth cushion, triangu-
lar in section, much elongated, rectangular somewhat narrowed be-
hind; the frontal is little convex, bordered laterally by areolar pores
and proximally with some tremopores; it bears on the longitudinal
axis a large orbicular or crescentric ascopore much removed from
the aperture. The aperture is semielliptical, transverse, the poster
being simply concave. Ovicell unknown.

Measurements. —
ha=0.09 mm
fete uibes saainal
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 18.
Occurrence.—Janjukian beds at Flinders, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85720.

Lz=0.80 mm

Zooecium
a0 lz =0.30-0.40 mm

Aperture!

Subfamily HrppoporAr Canu and Bassler, 1917
HIPPOMENELLA Canu and Bassler, 1917
HIPPOMENELLA PARVIPOROSA, n. sp.

Plate 7, fig. 2
Description—The zoarium is unilamellar and attached to frag-
ments of bryozoa. The zooecia are distinct, separated by a rather deep

NO. 9 TERTIARY BRYOZOA—-CANU AND BASSLER 35

furrow, elongated, vaguely lozenge-shaped, enlarged on the transverse
axis; the frontal is convex, smooth, bordered by a double row of
numerous very small areolar pores separated by small radial costules.
The aperture is oval, elongated ; the anter is separated by two cardelles
descending from the poster, which is smaller. The frontal avicu-
laria are small, triangular, with pivot; the beak is salient, pointed,
oriented proximally ; they are placed indistinctly on the first or on
the second row of pores; there are two or three on the same frontal.
Measurements.—
ha=0.20 mm ;
so ae Zovecixm
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 10.
Occurrence—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85755.

Lz=0.75-0.95 mm

Aperture lz=0.60 mm

HIPPOMENELLA RARIROSTRATA, n. sp.
Blate a ties

Description—tThe zoarium is unilamellar. The zooecia are distinct,
separated by a deep furrow, elliptical, little elongated; the frontal
is very convex, smooth, bordered by a double row of areolar pores.
The aperture is large, semielliptical, elongated, with convex proximal
border, without peristome. The ovicell is large, buried in the distal
zooecium, hyperstomial, closed by the operculum; its frontal is deco-
rated with numerous radial lines of small pores separated from each
other by very salient costules ; the latter are arrested at the center by
a large smooth, triangular area and a smooth, curved pad serves as
the proximal limit. The frontal avicularia are rare, a single one, often
absent, to a zooecium, small, triangular, placed very inferiorly on the
inner line of areolar pores ; they have a pivot and the beak is oriented

proximally.
Measurements. —
ha=0.18-0.20 mm ; Lz=0.66 mm
peste la=0.16-0.18 mm 2 OUTS | lz=0.45 mm

Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 8.
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype.—U.S.N.M. no. 85753.

HIPPOMENELLA MAGNA, n. sp.
Plate 8, fig. 13
Description —tThe zoarium is unilamellar. The zooecia are distinct,
separated by a deep furrow, fusiform, large, very elongated; the
frontal is convex and formed by a reduced pleurocyst, elliptical, elon-
gated, bordered by two or three rows of lateral areolar pores and by

30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

four or five rows of proximal ones. In the inner row the areolar pores
are small, numerous, and separated by short radial costules. The aper-
ture is neatly hippoporiform ; two long, oblique cardelles, placed low,
separate a large orbicular anter from a poster smaller but wider and
in which the proximal border is straight or a little convex ; no salient
peristome. There is only a single lateral avicularium to a zooecium ;
it is placed a little above the transverse, median zooecial axis ; it is small,
oval, oblique, with beak oriented exteriorly.

Measurements.—
ha=0.22 mm
la=0.29 mm

Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 6.

Occurrence.—Janjukian beds at Torquay, 15 miles south of Geelong,
Victoria (bore no. I at depth of 160 feet).

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85754.

g=1.10-1.65 mm

Aperture: Ig=0.55-0.65 mm

Zooecium}

HIPPOMENELLA VERMICULARIS, n. sp.
Plate 8, fig. 3

Description —The zoarium is unilamellar, the zooecia are distinct,
separated by a very deep furrow, elliptical, very short, swollen; the
frontal is very convex and formed by a smooth pleurocyst, surrounded
by four or five rows of large areolar pores. The aperture of the ovi-
celled zooecia is rectangular, a little transverse, narrowed in the in-
ferior third. The proximal border is convex. The ovicell is enormous,
globular, embedded in the distal zooecium perforated by large scattered
pores and richly decorated by salient vermiform ridges. There are two
avicularia symmetrically arranged on the transverse median axis of
each zooecium and on the inner line of areolar pores; they are small,
triangular, oblique ; their beak is salient and is oriented exteriorly and

proximally.
Measurements —
ha=0.15-0.20 mm , Lz=0.75 mm
Aperture 5 Zooecium 75
la=0.21 tim lz=0.15 mm

(Ovicelled zooecia)
Number of zooecia in 1 mm’, 3.
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85752.

HIPPOPORELLA Canu, 1917
HIPPOPORELLA TESTU, n. sp.
Plate 8, fig. 4
Description —tThe zoarium is unilamellar. The zooecia are distinct,
separated by a deep furrow, large, elongated; the frontal is very

NO. 9 TERTIARY BRYOZOA—-CANU AND BASSLER 37

convex, smooth, bordered by a line of small areolar pores much
scattered. The aperture is large, transverse, having the form of a
dish cover with concave proximal border ; the peristome is incomplete,
very little salient, thin, and bears six spines; the two proximal spines
correspond to a slight lateral contraction of the aperture. The ovicell
is large, globular, not closed by the operculum. A small oral avicu-
larium placed on the line of the pores adjacent to the peristome is
visible on one side of the aperture.

Measurements.—
ha=0.24 mm ; Ls= 1.00: mm
la=0.30-0.33 mm a lz=0.60 mm
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85760.

Aperture]

HIPPOMONAVELLA Canu and Bassler, 1934
HIPPOMONAVELLA ACUTIROSTRIS, n. sp.
Plate 7, fig. 5

Description—The zoarium is incrusting. The zooecia are distinct,
separated by a salient thread, polygonal, elongated; the frontal is
little convex, smooth, bordered by very small and numerous pores.
The aperture is suborbicular, very little elongated ; the two cardelles
are thin, salient, median ; the peristome is terminal, thin, little salient.
The avicularium is thin, triangular, elongated, almost adjacent to the
peristome ; the beak is very sharp and salient. Ovicell unknown.

Measurements. —

ha=0.14 mm (ee 2 mm
Aperture lg=og mm asec scl ee ae ae

Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 13.

Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85757.

Family SMITTINIDAE Levinsen, 1909
SMITTINA Norman, 1903
SMITTINA PERFORATA, n. sp.

Plate 7tigs 3

Description—The zoarium is unilamellar. The zooecia are distinct,
separated by a very small furrow, elongated, elliptical; the frontal
is convex, marginated by a salient pad, convex and formed by a
smooth pleurocyst surrounded by a line of six to eight pairs of large
areolar pores separated by very short costules. The aperture is sub-

38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

orbicular ; its proximal border bears a wide lyrule, salient and flat.
In front of the aperture on the median longitudinal axis of the zo-
oecium, there is a large orbicular perforation corresponding to an
avicularium of the same form.
Measurements. —
ha=o0.14 mm
la=0.12 mm
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 13.
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype -—U.S.N.M. no. 85868.

Lz=0.63 mm

Aperture Iz=0.41 mm

Zooecium

SMITTINA (?) PARVIOVICELLOSA, n. sp.
Plate 7, fig. 4

Description—The zoarium is free, bilamellar, with wide, flat, or
undulated fronds. The zooecia are distinct, separated by a salient
thread, much elongated, fusiform; the frontal is convex, surrounded
by small and very numerous areolar pores and formed by a rugose
pleurocyst. The aperture is elliptical, transverse, without peristome.
The ovicell is very small, globular, smooth, placed on the distal zo-
oecium. The oral avicularium is small, adjacent to the aperture, el-
liptical, with pivot, placed on the median longitudinal axis of the
zooecium.

Measurements. —
ha=o.10 mm
la = O21 mm
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 12.

Occurrence.—Janjukian beds at Orbost, Gippsland, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85869.

Lzg=1.00-1.24 mm

Aperture: lz =0.30-0.36 mm

Zooecium |

MUCRONELLA Hincks, 1880
MUCRONELLA ELONGATA, n. sp.
Plate 7, fig. 6

Description.—The zoarium is free, cylindrical, rectilinear, of small
diameter (0.80 mm). The zooecia are distinct, separated by a small,
little salient thread, very long, narrow, fusiform. The frontal is
convex, smooth, surrounded by a row of 14 to 16 pairs of very small
areolar pores. The peristome is salient, thin, elliptical, elongated ; its
proximal border bears a small mucron inclined in the peristomie ;
the aperture is visible at the bottom of the peristomie. The ovicell is
large, salient, globular, placed on the distal zooecium, smooth, hyper-
stomial, opening in the peristomie.

NO. 9 TERTIARY BRYOZOA—CANU AND BASSLER 39

Measurements —
hp=0.15 mm Lg=1.15-1.25 mm
Ip=0.12 mm [z=0.30-0.35 mm
Occurrence.—Janjukian beds at Anticline Creek, Dartmoor,
Victoria.
Cotypes.—U.S.N.M. no. 85806.

Peristomice Zooecium

SMITTINELLA Canu and Bassler, 1934
SMITTINELLA MAGNA, n. sp.
Plate 8, fig. 7

Description—The zoarium is bilamellar with very narrow fronds.
The zooecia are distinct, separated by a salient thread, large, rectangu-
lar, much elongated ; the frontal is convex and perforated by three or
four longitudinal rows of tremopores. The lateral zooecia are wider
than the axial zooecia. The peristomice is suborbicular or elliptical ;
the peristome is salient, thin, sharp, complete, with a small proximal
spiramen. The ovicell is large, globular, marginated, finely granulated
with a large porous area.

Measurements. —
hp=0.10-0.11 mm
[p=0.10-0.11 mm
} Lz=0.75-0.90 mm

Zooecium Iz=0.25 mm (axial) 0.30 mm (lateral)

Number of zooecia in I mm’, 3.

Occurrence—Janjukian beds at Anticline Creek, Dartmoor,
Victoria.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 86957.

Peristomice|

SMITTINELLA OSIFERA, n. sp.
Bilate7apicano

Description—The zoarium is bilamellar with narrow fronds. The
zooecia are distinct, separated by a small salient thread, somewhat
fusiform, elongated ; the frontal is convex, finely granulose and per-
forated by some scattered pores. The aperture is elliptical, transverse,
with a very small proximal sinus ; the peristome is complete, very thin,
scarcely salient. There is a broad lyrule and two small cardelles. The
ovicell is very large, salient, globular with broad margin and a very
fragile orbicular area; the orifice is very large, transverse, of the
form of an open mouth, with a proximal spiramen.

4

40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Measurements.—
ha=0.12 mm. . {Lz=0.70-0.80 mm
Aperture] la=0.17 mm cine | Iz=0.30 mm
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 20-23.
Occurrence.—Balcombian, beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

Cotypes —U.S.N.M. no. 85871.

SMITTINELLA MAGNIPOROSA, n. sp.
Plate 7, fig. 8

Description—The zoarium is bilamellar with narrow, flat fronds.
The zooecia are distinct, separated by a large salient thread, rectangu-
lar, short, elongated ; the frontal is somewhat convex and perforated
by a dozen large pores. The aperture is oval, a little elongated ; the
proximal sinus is more or less wide, and always rounded; the lyrule
and the cardelles are very fragile. The peristome is wide but not
salient. The ovicell is large, globular with a central area orbicular
and fragile. The peristomice of the ovicelled zooecia is large, semi-
circular, transverse; the spiramen is large, salient, constant.

Measurements.—

ha=0.12-0.15 mm

Aperture Zooecium
© ig=0 82 mm

Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 25-30.
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype—U.S.N.M. no. 85870.

Lzg=0.50-0.55 mm
lzg=0.22-0.25 mm

PORELLA Gray, 1848
PORELLA TUBEROSA, n. sp.
Plate 7, fig. 7

Description—The zoarium is bilamellar. The zooecia are distinct,
separated by a salient thread, elongated, fusiform; the frontal is con-
vex, covered by tremopores separated by tuberosities. The aperture
is suborbicular; a hollow, rounded proximal indentation serves as
orifice for an orbicular avicularium opening into the peristomice ; the
chamber of this avicularium is large, smooth, and forms in front
of the aperture a large gibbosity. The peristome is thin, little salient
and forms a separating thread. The ovicell is very large ; a small axial
ridge separates it into two compartments. The ovicelled zooecia are
broader ; their aperture is enormous (0.15 by 0.25 mm).

NO. 9 TERTIARY BRYOZOA—CANU AND BASSLER 41

Measurements.—
ha=0.15 mm ‘ Lzg=0.75-1.00 mm
Aperture] la=0.15-0.17 mm Zooeciunn} ‘= 0.29-0.34 mm
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, 15.
Occurrence.—Balcombian, beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85843.

PORELLA CYLINDROROSTRIS, n. sp.
Plate 7, fig. 9

Description—The zoarium is bilamellar. The zooecia are distinct,
separated by a thick thread, very salient, smooth; they are elongated,
polygonal ; the frontal is little convex and perforated with large ex-
panded tremopores. The peristome is thick, smooth, salient, covering
proximally the avicularian chamber ; the peristomice is elliptical and
transverse or suborbicular; into the peristomie opens a large cylin-
drical avicularium, little salient, in which the orifice (invisible) is
perpendicular to the apertural plane. The apertural chamber is large
and forms a large convexity, salient, smooth, in front of the aperture.
The ovicell is large, convex, marginated, with a fragile orbicular area ;
it opens into the peristomie.

Measurements —
hp=0.13 mm
lp=0.17 mm
Number of zooecia in I mm’, 4.
Occurrence.—Janjukian beds at Torquay near Geelong, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85829.

Lz=0.70-0.77 mm

Peristomice lg=0.35-0.42 mm

Zooecium

PORELLA BACULINA, n. sp.
Plate 8 fig. 8

Description—The zoarium is free, cylindrical, in the form of a
baton. The zooecia are distinct, separated by a small salient thread,
elongated, elliptical, large; the frontal is convex and perforated by
numerous small tremopores. The peristome is salient, thick, smooth,
complete ; the peristomice is suborbicular; an elliptical avicularium
is lodged in the proximal portion of the peristomie.

Measurements. —
hp=0.22-0.25 mm re es i2Z— TO) Tin
Ip=0.25 mm lz=0.50-0.55 mm

Occurrence.—Janjukian beds at Mitchell River, Bairnsdale, Mount
Gambier, and Boggy Creek, Victoria.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 85830-85832, 85848.

Peristomice|

42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

PORELLA OPERCULATA, n. sp.
Plate 8, fig. 6

Description—The zoarium is free, cylindrical, long. The zooecia
are indistinct with thick walls, very long; the frontal is convex and
covered with numerous tubular tremopores. The peristome is thick,
smooth, very little salient; the peristomice is elliptical, elongated ;
the peristomie is deep and formed by the thickening of the zooecial
walls ; it contains in the proximal portion a large oblique avicularium,
triangular, with pivot ; the beak is oriented distally ; the proximal por-
tion is free or closed by a suborbicular, calcareous operculum. The
ovicell is large, salient, globular, ornamented with a double row of
large pores separated by short radial costules.

Measurements.—

hp =0.27-0.30 mm 4 L2=1.10-1.20 mm
| lp=0.17-0.20 mm Bee iz=0.50 (7) mm

Occurrence—Janjukian beds at Anticline Creek, Dartmoor,
Victoria.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. no. 85842.

Peristomice

PORELLA EXCAVATA, n. sp.
Plate 7, fig. 11

Description— The zoarium is free, bilamellar ; the fronds are cylin-
drical, flabellate or lamellar and narrow, bifurcated; there are from
one to seven longitudinal rows of zooecia on each branch. The zooecia
are distinct, separated by a salient thread, elongated, rectangular ;
the frontal is flat and perforated with tremopores. The peristome is
thin, salient, smooth; it is indented in the proximal portion by a
linear sinus at the bottom of which there is a flat lyrule; the sinus
is prolonged on the median axis of the zooecium by a small, linear
excavation in which is placed a small, triangular, thin, elongated
avicularium; the peristomice is orbicular and small. The ovicell is
very small, globular, smooth.

Measurements —
hp=0.12 mm
lp=0.12 mm

Zooecium "jp oe 9 mm
Iz=0.25-0.30 mm
Occurrence—Janjukian beds at Anticline Creek, Dartmoor,
Victoria.
Cotypes—U.S.N.M. no. 85838.

Peristomice|

NO. 9 TERTIARY BRYOZOA—-CANU AND BASSLER 43

PORELLA RHOMBOIDALIS PARVIAPERTURA, n. var.
Plate, 8, fig. 1

Description—Vhe aperture is small. There is a small round avicu-
larium supported on a flat wide lyrule. The separating threads of the
zooecia are very salient and thin.

Measurements. —

; 1 f[hp=0.200 mm
Pevistomice| Ip=0.18 mm
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, II.
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85841.

Lz=0.80-0.85 mm

Zooecia 1 Iz=0.45 mm

PORELLA RHOMBOIDALIS CRASSIMARGINATA, n. var.
Plate 8, fig. 2

Description—tThe aperture is smaller than in the type. The small
avicularium is borne on a flat lyrule. The separating threads of the
zooecia are little salient and very thick.

Measurements.—

: . {hp=0.20 mm
Peristomice} Ip=6.15 mm
Number of zooecia in 4 mm’, Io.
Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 85844.

Lz=0.80 mm

Zooecium
sii lz=0.50-0.60 mm

PALMICELLARIA Alder, 1864
PALMICELLARIA (?) MAGNA, n. sp.
Plate. 8, ‘fie. 5

Description—tThe zoarium is free, very long, filiform, formed of
four longitudinal rows of zooecia opposed two by two. The zooecia
are distinct, separated by a small, little salient thread, very large, very
long, tubulose; the frontal is very convex, fibrous and garnished
laterally with numerous small areolar pores. The peristome is very
long, oblique, rather salient, thin, with an inferior lip more developed
and convex; the peristomice is large, semielliptical, transverse. An
oral avicularium with basal chamber large and globular opens laterally
on the interior of the peristomie.

Measurements. —

Peristomice} 7p 0.30 mm Lg=1.75-2.00 mm

Zooecium
Ip=0.30 mm lz=0.50 mm

Qccurrence-—Janjukian beds at Anticline Creek, Dartmoor,

Victoria.

Cotypes.

U.S.N.M. no. 85818.

44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Family CELLEPORIDAE Busk, 1852
COSTAZIA Neviani, 1895
COSTAZIA CONVEXA, n. sp.

Plate 8, fig. Io

Haswellia producta (pars) MacGillivray, Trans. Roy. Soc. Victoria, vol. 4,
p. 137, pl. 14, figs. 17, 18 (not 16 and 20), 1895.

Description—The zoarium is cylindrical. The zooecia are distinct,
poorly oriented, separated by a deep furrow; the frontal is very
convex, almost tubular, smooth, surrounded by areolar pores, termi-
nated by a mucron bearing an avicularium hiding a part of the aper-
tura. The apertura is elliptical, somewhat elongated, without cardelles.
The ovicell bears a perforated costulated area. The interzooecial avic-
ularia are large, spathulated, enlarged at the beak, directed toward
the base of the branches.

Occurrence.—Balcombian. beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

Cotypes—U.S.N.M. no. 85650.

Family PHYLACTELLIDAE Canu and Bassler, 1917
PHYLACTELLA Hincks, 1880
PHYLACTELLA CHAPMANTI, n. sp.

Plate 8, fig. 9

Description—The zoarium incrusts shells. The zooecia are dis-
tinct, separated by a furrow, somewhat elongated, rather swollen ; the
frontal is convex, smooth in appearance but perforated by extremely
small pores and bordered by larger, more scattered pores. The aper-
ture is small, semielliptical, with two cardelles and a lyrule visible
only after suitably inclining the preparation ; the peristome is salient,
somewhat thick. The ovicell is recumbent, small, globular, smooth,
not closed by the operculum, opening in front of the oral mucron.

Measurements. —
ha=0.07 mm . {Lz=0.60-0.90 mm
la=0.1I0 mm Zooecia =0.50-0.75 mm

Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek and Janjukian beds
at Torquay (bore, 160 feet deep), Victoria.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. nos. 85820, 85821.

Aperture]

NO. 9 TERTIARY BRYOZOA—-CANU AND BASSLER 45

Family ORBITULIPORIDAE Canu and Bassler, 1923
STICHOPORINA Stoliczka, 1861
STICHOPORINA (?) PARVICAPITATA, n. sp.

Plate 8, fig. 11

Description—The small fragments of this species in our collection
are incomplete, and it is difficult to classify them. The ovicell which
ought to be closed by the operculum, is small and analogous to that
of Batoporaand Orbitulipora. We do not know if there was a central
pit. The zooecial walls are olocystal with two or three pores at the
base. On the interior face the zooecia are hexagonal, and without
doubt this species is indeed one of the Orbituliporidae.

Occurrence.—Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

Cotypes —U.S.N.M. no. 85882.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES
PLATE I

(All illustrations on this plate are magnified, * 20)

Fic. 1.. Amphiblestrum grande, new SPECiIES.........2.c00ceecccnscccsecs 6
Ovicelled fragment of a unilamellar zoarium illustrating the large
size of the cells, the granular gymnocyst and the apparent ab-
sence of avicularia.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Fic. 2. Membranipora areolata, new SpecieS........005.ccesccccccesscses 3
Portion of the bilamellar zoarium showing the distal transverse
avicularia and the polygonal interopesial spaces.
Janjukian, Aire Coastal beds, Victoria.
Bug: “3. Acanthodesta regularis; new SPECIES... sc.ss us decease bee cde se 2
Portion of the free, subcylindrical branch exhibiting the regular
form of the zooecia.
Janjukian beds at Anticline Creek, Dartmoor, Victoria.

BiG, A. Vaencularag: osgantéa; new iSPeCleS <.ccie esac whos « ceases 0s od cee 3
Portion of the rodlike zoarium composed of unusually large
zooecia.
Janjukian beds at Anticline Creek, Dartmoor, Victoria.
Bias 5. 2dilantopora confints, new SpecieS <<. scuesscc sondeckc cscs cecae nc 6
A normal incrusting colony with zooecia bearing a large gymno-
cyst.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Fic. 6. Floridinella australiensis, new species..........000.00ccccccuecee 9

The narrow bilamellar zoarium exhibiting the characteristic con-
dyles in the opesium.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

PAGE
Fie) 7 Gribrilina crassicollis, New Species: «eta eee iae 15
Surface of the free cylindrical zoarium.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Fie: 8; Stamenocella fustformis, new SpeCleS). «224. 2: e ee see eel cee 5

The free cylindrical zoarium celluliferous on all sides, exhibiting
the fusiform zooecia and the orbicular avicularium.
Balecombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Fic. 9. Membraniporidra asymmetrica, new SPECi€S...........00eeee evens
Ordinary and ovicelled zooecia of the bilamellar zoarium. The
spiniform process on one side of the zooecium and the large
transverse avicularium are shown.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Fic. 10. Acanthodesia quadrilatera, new species..............0+-.eesseeee
The delicate subcylindrical zoarium of elongated rectangular
zooecia with short spicules indenting the opesium.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Eres: 1 02) (Ofonella cincumadata, NewasSpeClesa niece eieieieeiiee ieee
tt. Lateral view of a small conical zoarium with large auriform
primoserial vibracula.
12. Base of the same with radial lines and elliptical cavities each
containing an avicularium around the periphery.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

PLATE 2
(All illustrations on this plate are magnified, * 20)

Fic. 1. Ramphonotus (?) lamellosus, new species................-..:-..
The bilamellar zoarium with normal and ovicelled zooecia and the
narrow, transverse, triangular avicularium on the proximal
part of the cryptocyst.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

Bie. 2) Arachnopusia linearis. news Speclessadeeoaeeaee eee eee ce
The free bilamellar zoarium showing the aperture with its recti-
linear proximal border and the perforated zooecial frontal.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

hic. 3. Lremopora orbiculata. New Species... ..a- cece eee eee etree
Portion of the unilamellar zoarium illustrating the orbicular

zooecia, the two distal spines and the large lateral avicularium
with a small one opposite it.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

Figs. 4, 5. Iremopora staminis, new SPECieS.....-. 6 .. sarees oe selec.

4. Frontal of a unilamellar zoarial fragment exhibiting ovicells
and some zooecia with the large frontal spine preserved.

5. Dorsal of the same zoarium showing the fenestrae separating
the connecting tubes, and the radicular pores.

Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

Fic. 6. Rectonychocella dimorphocella, new species............0seeeeees
Surface of the bilamellar colony with both ogival and membrani-

poroid cells.
3alcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

iS)

NI

NI

NO. 9 TERTIARY BRYOZOA—CANU AND BASSLER 47

HIGSIe OS CLEnGHIOUiTITOlalG, Mew; SPECIES waaa cite see ced os 6 cles see cis 10
7. Outer margin of an orbicular zoarium showing the labial eleva-
tion of the opesium.
8. Inner side of a specimen with single row of large pores to each
rib.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Bic. 0) Aincksmacunisertalis, new: SPeCieSs si. es. eee cle) sie os ve eels © 4
Part of the incrusting uniserial colony with one ovicelled
zooecium.
Janjukian beds at Corio Bay, Victoria.
Fic. 10. Thalamoporella elongata, new species.................++20-000-- 12
The narrow bilamellar zoarium showing the much elongated
zooecia and the inequality of the opesiules.
Janjukian beds at Mitchell River, Victoria.

PLATE 3
(All illustrations on this plate are magnified, < 20)
PAGE
Fics. 1, 2. Selenaria grandicella, new SPeCieS. 6... ..2< cn. cis sce ee owen II

t. Cellular side of the cupuliform zoarium showing the vibracula
with distal concavity.
2. Inner side of the same colony; the ribs have large lunularian
pores.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Fic. 3. Macropora quadriseriata, new SPeCieS.......... 0.0 eeeseeeeeses 13
The quadriserial rod-shaped zoarium with zooecia ornamented
by two polygonal areas at their base.
Janjukian beds at Bairnsdale, Victoria.
Fic. 4. Siphonoporella filiparietis, new SpecieS.......--...-..ee ee ee eens II
Fragment of a unilamellar zoarium showing the thin mural rim,
the narrow polypidian tube, and wide zooecia.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

Fic. 5. Siphonoporella livingstonet, new SPeCieS............. eee ee renee II
Unilamellar zoarium with narrow zooecia and wide polypidian
tubes.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Fics. 6, 7. Craspedozoum elongatum, new SP€Ci€S..............eeeeeeee 14

6. Unilamellar, triserial fragment with the large avicularian
chamber developed on the middle row.
7. Dorsal of the fragment shown in figure 6.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
PIGS) Son. i soracciia. parvuld, NEW SPECIES aehscig sts < coi eee isieie ee alas 10
8. Cellular face of the small conical zoarium with large auriform
primoserial vibracula and small hexagonal zooecia.
9. Base of the same with lunularian pores on the ribs.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Fic. 10: Gribrilina triseriata, New. SPECIES. «.. 2 ees. b ese eee cece eee ee cee 16
Frontal view of the unilamellar triserial zoarium.
Janjukian beds at Flinders, Victoria.

48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

PAGE
Pic ri Omiotosta elongata, Mew SPECIES: acs masse ore nae nei eee ie oie eee 14
A bilamellar zoarium showing the elongate zooecia of two kinds—
normal and special.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Fic. 12. Cribrilina terminata coronata, new variety........+-ssceeeeeseees 16
View of unilamellar zoarium illustrating small avicularia on the
peristome.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
PLATE 4
(All illustrations on this plate are magnified, 20) aie
Fic. 1. Macropora clarkei attenuata, new variety..........00.eeeeeeee ees 12

Portion of the bilamellar zoarium showing the characteristic
separating furrow.
Janjukian beds at Flinders, Victoria.
Gigantopora hystrix, new Species. 2... ssc. ee nee we cele enislere 20
Surface of the cylindrical zoarium showing the short, broad
zooecia and salient spines separating the tremopores.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Picgoe3. Cellarianorbiculeria, Mew. SPECiESin.jesr ete seein ees 13
Portion of an ovicelled segment exhibiting the orbicular opesium.
Janjukian beds at Anticline Creek, Dartmoor, Victoria.
Ere) 4. Cellariaatienuata, mew Species’ as canst ieieee lente = adeteters yee de> 13
Extremity of a segment showing a joint of articulation at the
end, a large broad avicularian zooecium, and the orifices of the
ovicells.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Fie. 5. Pachythecella unifasciata, new Species ../\5. 2. j2ee accel teem ee 17
Celluliferous side of the unilamellar bifurcated zoarium showing
the large orbicular ascopore.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Fic..6 Gigantopora hexagonalis, new SPeCieS........6--e aes secuencere cae 20
Several zooecia of the unilamellar zoarium illustrating the coales-
cence of the beaks of the two large lateral avicularia above
the spiramen.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Elltisimdra pyriformis;, NeW SPOCiES..f).). ste vile cere oiaie slefeterais es one 5
An example preserving the small hyperstomial ovicell.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Pic. 8: Pachythecella: armaia, new ‘SpeCieS. 3% 201. sais most esle ae sia ee 17
Bilamellar zoarium with orbicular aperture, small ascopore and
the frontal of the zooecia covered with small shallow pores.
3alcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Fic. 0. Petralielia (2?) denttculata, new: SpeCies. <0. ee 12 oe - sein elses ats 19
Surface of the bilamellar zoarium showing the denticulated border
of the peristomice.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

Fic.

Ny

Fic.

N

NO. 9

Fic. Io.

RIG. tr

RIG. i.

EstGae 2:

Fic. 3:

Frc. 4:

Fig, 5:

LEE, (6)

Fic. 7.

Fic. 8.

Fic. 9

TERTIARY BRYOZOA—CANU AND BASSLER

Tubtirabecularta proditor, new SPeCieS..........2---es cece ceceee
Portion of a complete ovicelled segment, showing trabeculae con-
solidating the peristomies, the ascopore, and the tubular per-
istomie and rounded peristomice.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
IROTINOMASSUPUTE TUE W SPECIES larete rarer tele oicie aie syelel olaln/oin sauce a!» sherals
Portion of a narrow bilamellar zoarium with large frontal avicu-
laria and slitlike ascopore.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

PLATE 5
(All illustrations on this plate are magnified, < 20)

iRetaliella’ tractifera. TeWeSPCCIESay arc sies sioltelsleiee retain eile soe
Zooecial surface of the unilamellar orbicular zoarium.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Petraliella vultur (Hincks, 1882) aviculifera, new variety........
Surface of the unilamellar zoarium showing the numerous small
avicularia and the salient avicularian umbo with its laterally
placed mandible.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Gephyrophora bilamellaria, new specieS...........----eeee ee eees
Surface of the bilamellar zoarium. The zooecia are without
spiramen.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
SPIRO POMING sHENUES (IEW “SPECIES aco cisdye scsi so, dois at endne shs)e\ alas ees
View of the thin cylindrical bifurcated zoarium composed of
zooecia separated by a thin crenulated thread.
Janjukian beds at Corio Bay, Victoria.
Gigantopora elongaia: NeW SPECIES. 2/9). 5... 2 o.es eo 6 wien Pei ein waite bois
The cylindrical zoarium exhibiting the elongate zooecia and the
crescentric spiramen.
Janjukian beds at Gellibrand River, Victoria.
Scniwoporeiia: pustulosa, GEW SPECleS 5.20.2. s-e oe cesar enase os os
Portion of the bilamellar zoarium showing the formation of the
frontal pustules.
Janjukian, Aire Coastal beds, Victoria.
Emballotheca granulata, mew) Specicss..<22- sees ecesecs sc sss e soe
Fragment of the bilamellar zoarium exhibiting the rectangular
zooecia with frontal covered by granules.
Kalimnan beds at Lakes Entrance, Victoria (bore no. 1 at depth
of 110 feet).
Emballotheca angustata, new SPECIES... 2.2.22 .06-.50c cess ceeces
Fragment of the bilamellar zoarium with very narrow, much
elongated zooecia.
Janjukian beds at Orbost, Gippsland, Victoria.
Gigantopora minutiporosa, MEW SPECIES............. cece wees ecco
Celluliferous side of the unilamellar zoarium with the zooecial
frontal pierced by minute pores.
Janjukian beds at Flinders, Victoria.

16

22

22

2I

30

28

28

21

50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Fig..10.. '(Gigantopora. perforata, Mew SPECIES... 2a 4.06 -. cave sie oe euninie ne 20
Surface of a narrow bilamellar ovicelled zoarium.
Some zooecia have their peristomie complete and perforated by a
small spiramen.
Janjukian beds at Flinders, Victoria.
Big. 1 Bunonellodes baculina, new, SPeCleS-- scene eee eee 22
Cylindrical unovicelled zoarium formed of zooecia with convex
smooth frontal.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

PLATE 6

(All illustrations on this plate are magnified, 20)

PAGE
Fic. 1. Stephanosella sexspinosa, new specieS................cceeeeeveee 23
Ovicelled incrusting zoarium with both zooecial and zoarial
avicularia.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Fic. 20 Chiastosella gibbera: new Species. 2..-ce seca us on cee ree ae ee 25
Small fragment of a unilamellar zoarium illustrating the ir-
regular indistinct zooecia and large falciform avicularia.
Janjukian beds at Bairnsdale, Victoria.
Fic. 3.. Chiastosella grandicella, new species..........2:+2+2.seeeneeeccs 26
Unilamellar zoarium exhibiting the very large zooecia and avicu-
laria.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
PiG.«14,° (Chiastosclla. porosa, Rew ISPECieS.20 wee een eae ee ee ee 26
Surface of the unilamellar zoarium showing the convex porous
frontal and transverse avicularia.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Fic. 5. Schizobrachiella hexagonalis, new species...............eeeeeeeee 24
Zooecia of the unilamellar zoarium bearing only a single well-
developed avicularium.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Bic. 16) “Emballotheca anclimata, mew sSpecies.n ee eee eee eee 27
Surface of the broad bilamellar type specimen showing the enor-
mous embedded ovicell and the semicylindrical mucron inclined
in the aperture.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
bic. 7. Yakariavcrassocirzca:newespeciesaaace ae roe eee eee eee 24

Portion of the free, cylindrical zoarium.
Janjukian beds at Bairnsdale, Victoria.

Er. 8: ‘Chastosella lameliata, news species)... ae oe eee ee eee 25
Wide frond of the lamellar zoarium exhibiting a group of ovi-

celled zooecia.

Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

Fic. 9. Schizoporella orbiculifera, new SPeCieS..........0...eeeeseeecee 28
Zoarium exhibiting a perforated ovicell.
Janjukian beds at Anticline Creek, Dartmoor, Victoria.

NO. 9 TERTIARY BRYOZOA—CANU AND BASSLER 5I
PAGE
Fic. 10. Chiastosella parviporosa, new SPECiI€S............c ccc ccccee veces 2

The unilamellar zoarium composed of large zooecia with the
frontal ornamented by relatively small pores.
Janjukian beds at Flinders, Victoria.
Pig ia. Schizoporella clypeata, NEw, SPECIES. ..6 on s4 ccs as occ cdo ssaw vanes 30
The unilamellar zoarium showing the disarranged apertures and
the zooecial shield surrounded by areolar pores.
Janjukian beds at Anticline Creek, Dartmoor, Victoria.

PLATE 7
(All illustrations on this plate are magnified, * 20)
PAGE
Fic. 1. Hippomenella rarirosirata, New SpeCieS... 2.5.0... cceccevaccece 35

Fragment of a unilamellar ovicelled zoarium showing the radially
ornamented ovicell with triangular area and few avicularia.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

Fic. 2. Hippomenella parviporosa, new SpeCieS.............ceceeeccccaee 34

Unilamellar zoarial fragment attached to a fragment of bryozoan,
showing the irregularity of position of the avicularia, the smooth
frontal and the small areolar pores.

Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

EN Gamo MRSIIIELIIUUS PONOT Adm MeWiESPECIESh temo acs cascade inca ane aes ne 37
Fragment of the unilamellar zoarium showing the place of the

large, orbicular, median avicularium.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

Fic. 4. Smittina (°) parwviozicellosa, new SPECIES. ..455 0.662 c0 ces oe ec eee 38

Portion of a bilamellar ovicelled zoarium exhibiting the very small
ovicells and much elongated zooecia.
Janjukian beds at Orbost, Gippsland, Victoria.

Fic. 5. Hippomonavella acutirostris, new SPeCieS.......0...500ce eee ceeee 27

Zoarium incomplete, incrusting, showing the formation of new
cells and occurrence of the median avicularium.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

Bie 6. Maucronellavclongata, new Species: <02.2o he soa ce wees oo bo 38

Example showing the very long zooecia with smooth frontal, one
row of small areolar pores and small mucron.
Janjukian beds at Anticline Creek, Dartmoor, Victoria.

Brene7= horellantuberosd, Mew SPECIES acs ete Oe aoe okie 40
Surface of the bilamellar zoarium showing the frontal tuberosities

and one ovicelled zooecium.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

Fic. 8. Smittinella magniporosa, new speCcieS.............. cee cece ccc eee 40
Bilamellar ovicelled zoarium, showing the large frontal pores.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

Bic. 6: -Porella, cylindrorosinis, new’ Species: 4.5.22 62. dak eo. boc eke. 41
Portion of a bilamellar ovicelled frond showing the cylindrical

avicularium covered by an expansion of the peristome.
Janjukian beds at Bird Rock, Torquay, Victoria.

52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Surface of an ovicelled zoarium exhibiting the very transverse
outline of the ovicelled zooecia.
3alcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Bice eRorellasencavata, new. SpecieSaa-- heen aan eee nee 42
A wide frond in which the avicularia are quite visible in their
excavations.
Janjukian beds, Anticline Creek, Dartmoor, Victoria.

PLATE 8

(All illustrations on this plate are magnified, x 20, unless otherwise indicated )

PAGE
Fic. 1. Porella rhomboidalis parviapertura, new variety...............06- 43
Unilamellar specimen with the characteristic small apertures.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Fic. 2. Porella rhomboidalis crassimarginata, new variety...........+...- 43
Unilamellar zoarium showing the zooecia surrounded by a broad
margin.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Fic. 3. Hippomenella vermicularis, new species...........-.seeeeeeeeeee 36

Fragment of a unilamellar zoarium showing the decoration of the
ovicells and the two small zooecial avicularia.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
ic: 4: Heppoporetla test, new 'Species...si..c.c aeelen ere se hse cae see ae 36
Fragment of an ovicelled unilamellar zoarium. The large trans-
verse aperture, six oral spines and small avicularium are shown.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
1G 5. almicellariar magna newa SPECIES seis ie ete ele seer eee 43
Fragments of the cylindrical zoarium, natural size, and an example
on which the zooecia have two oral avicularia.
Janjukian beds at Anticline Creek, Dartmoor, Victoria.
Pic. 6. Porella operculata, tlew Species 62.2152 access ot ee eee soe eee 42
Portion of the cylindrical zoarium with calcareous opercula and
showing the true form of the oral avicularium.
Janjukian beds, Anticline Creek, Dartmoor, Victoria.
BiGH OMI Nella magna MewaSpeCleS teenie eeeteiee eee 39
Bilamellar ovicelled zoarium showing the large dimensions of the
zooecia and the very porous frontal.
Janjukian beds, Anticline Creek, Dartmoor, Victoria.
Fre. 8: ‘Porella: baculind, -new-SpeCieSmiacuc cos at oleae css ee ORE eee eee 41
Cylindrical zoarium with wide zooecia.
Janjukian beds at Mitchell River, Bairnsdale, Victoria.
Fic: 9: Phylactella chapmant,, newaspecieS:-nia.ieelieeiene cele eae ee 44
Portion of the incrusting zoarium illustrating the convex zooecial
frontal, the lyrule and the recumbent ovicell.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Pic.10, ‘Costasiaiconvera. news SpeCiessaeenisni eee ee eee ee eLne 44
Cylindrical zoarium illustrating the small dimensions and the
occurrence of an oral avicularium on an umbo.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

NO. 9 TERTIARY BRYOZOA—-CANU AND BASSLER 53
PAGE
Fic. 11. Stichoporina (?) parvicapitata, new species............... eee eeee 45

Zooecial surface of the unilamellar zoarium.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Fic. 12. Trigonopora (Metrarabdotos) vermicularis Maplestone, 1902.
Surface of a narrow bilamellar zoarium received from Mr. Maple-
stone as Trigonopora vermicularis. The endozooecial ovicell,
form of aperture and pleurocystal frontal with lateral areolae
show this to be a true Metrarabdotos.
Janjukian beds, Cape Otway, Victoria.
Fic. 13. Hippomenella magna, new SPeCieS............ccesccccceescccees
Fragment of the unilamellar zoarium illustrating the large zooecia,
the arrangement of the areolar pores and form of aperture. At
the middle there is a monstrous zooecium.
Janjukian beds (Torquay bore no. 1, depth of 160 feet) 15 miles
south of Geelong, Victoria.

PLATE 9
(All illustrations on this plate are magnified, < 20)

HIGHER CthOosellavuilbosa@imewsSpeCless a -eeerieeeeae hier oie ails
Surface of the bilamellar zoarium with small elliptical avicularia
and some zooecia closed by a calcareous operculum.
Janjukian, Aire Coastal beds, Victoria.
huci25. Bathoscila jaticella.. new SpeCieS x. 34. <5 a. case olsinee nes 6 aks
The bilamellar zoarium composed of very wide zooecia with
several rounded areolar pores on each side.
Janjukian, Aire Coastal beds, Victoria.
Biers Sue eOchelia gry Gndis, NEW SPECIES. \os.c sme Aene 3 5 oetewse ores teideuele/sieiare
Surface of the unilamellar zoarium with some ovicelled zooecia.
One cell has a calcified operculum.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
. Schizoporella tenuilamellosa, new specieS..............cceeeeeees
Surface of the very thin bilamellar zoarium with a small orbicular
and a transverse avicularium before each aperture.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Schizoporella macgillivrayi, new species...............cecccceees
Fragment of a hollow cylindrical zoarium exhibiting the disar-
ranged zooecia.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Pigs GO. i Schorotdes. erecia, NCW. SPECICS...cco lace aes oe cowie ovine ccc eae
The free erect, cylindrical zoarium composed of large elongated
zooeCcia.
Janjukian beds, Gellibrand, Victoria.
IGS. 7; 6. Jidymosella- clypeata, new: Species. . 2 tui... i sie se niece sees:
7. Cellular side of the free, unilamellar zoarium. The frontal
shield, with its two foramina, is large and smooth.
8. Dorsal side of the same specimen.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

Fic.

_

Fic.

oe

35

32

29

29

33

S4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Fic. 9.° Schizoporella arcana, new: SPeCieS. 0 6i..6 suse sin nen se eis visas oie 30
The unilamellar zoarium showing the large perforation in front of
the aperture.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Fic. 10. Microporetla cailleti, new Species’ 0.02. os acres cis laminates a
The incrusting zoarium with several ovicelled zooecia.
Balcombian beds at Muddy Creek, Victoria.
Fice1i. Fenestrulina practexta, tlew Species... 74h a. es ee tay eee 34
Surface of the bilamelar zoarium showing ascopore much re-
moved from the aperture.
Janjukian beds at Flinders, Victoria.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS MOVES E)si5 INO Sa tebe 1

TERTIARY CHEILOSTOME BRYOZOA FROM VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA

(For explanation, see page 45.)

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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 93, NUMBER 10
(End of Volume)

AN INTRODUCTION TO NEBRASKA
ARCHEOLOGY

(WiTH 25 PLATES)

BY
WILLIAM DUNCAN STRONG

Anthropologist, Bureau of American Ethnology

(PUBLICATION 3303)

CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
JULY 20, 1935

The Lord Waftimore Mreas

BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8 A,

CONTENTS

PAGE

HORE WOU Waitrose oscar catnist ole: aieret pene sneavatenete TNS PE Pe es are coats Sire rosap rere shoe I

MTG OCIS Hl ONT Meee eeed ce sheto tc ehalcvoner cha creek crete lome euniee wich eed stereu suas veya are) sesnaudialede cy shay 6

Eistoniceanautracitional backeround es acccimee eclceciee elsre ee irra. «aes 8
Table 1, a digest of certain maps showing the Indian tribes in the region

Ge ehrasica, GEOM TOFS 10 TS1Qscn nic dee anise ce a cor ssa lt ara Oia) ane aie 14

RHEE VATOMMIetItal SELEMAR. 5/25 c> ccc ade eles ese naira das dle «ia eleaiwajoeeis’ 30

Previous archeolosical work in Nebraska soc 622 ssc ce cece cect een nce es 40

Historic and protohistoric Pawnee culture as revealed by archeology...... 55

Prehistoric sites recently excavated in Nebraska.....................5. 68

Village on Lost Creek (Dooley site), Franklin County.............. 69

Methods#otvearth-lodgevexcavationesracten scree siecle arm ere 73

TESTS AC PAS OP See Me Re eae A Ost ade Leo 5s 1 eet 74

StonacewGu Caches pits 1. aoe a eaey ears cia tie WeiheGa solace as © 78

IRELUSGush Aap Siitat state a ookrteeenst aes erate la rscs ane, mike veteecuere eetarsinys 8I

REN BES) sy ste eae PIE SON oe a ear ORAS ROLE eg Arcee ea 82

Wroslcsint around -Stone.....cos as sre ci ore eos esi da cient saa 85

Wotkeintchipped sstomel ck cinetien er crc a oen eccrine ele aicrerats 87

Table 2, classification chart for chipped points........... 89

Table 3, distribution of chipped points according to type.. 90

VG Teka EN AD TNS pecs ed stata su aci-a) ober eere a reer oan eaten oreo tar arabe hers 94

Bonesonrantler bracelet tragmentse- eee oe cine een 97

Wor kmeittica mt lemyasesterrsroseraiscewe tokercccie aie caste thee ses tensin tactics ous ieie oie 97

WViorkeai ties helllimyamraystters «ecg wetter welt eat eRe on Pada s orc yes eaete 100

Animal sandemolluscan remainsaaseeee ee enero eee eriion. 100

PV OUS Chee rer eecacope cette ctatek acest vote etc crore ae ee Nace ora iste Locicre reiave aie IOI

Disposal wotmethexd ead -r4s:>.ccc anes cae ete OL ASL eae 103

Ossuary on Prairie Dog Creek (Graham site), Harlan County....... 103

IPieyineray ainoyan’ (Grmneyan CRSVEIAY. boc nocaudacanononnaacnaoeneac 108

Worle inisekOundsStOne sans ast eames ier eeterenicale ts Gees 109

Wronkeitiachippnedeestoner scarp rraccrart relate atoice tera cunsie chore 109

‘WACGiel eathat jl Och ates ees eenesterenenctene Siege ian 4 oer cine eee ee eee eee IIO

Wis clteyhnl Ghintd Lene pista oenctoso 6 Goss es 6 OU8.A6 DIO RTOCIs Set ORI nE ee aE III

\iWferel Feorio ats) oe) iieepencane cee tera. ctod cic ort ols cao) ec caer Ona aera een III

WOE SIN COPPER wut sorsencic ert reyerertehe release cacy cuaye, ies e e| Slo teases 114

Negative excavations in vicinity of Graham ossuary.............. 114

Conclusions regarding Prairie Dog Creek sites.................. 116

Ossuary on the Republican River (Marshall site), Harlan County.... 116

AGutactse frome Viacsialleosstiaisyereeem neces tenis seca ccccie oes 120

Gonclusions regarding Marshall .ossuatry.. ....... 0... 20 ens ce eee 121

Ossuary on Republican River near Alma, Harlan County............. 122

Ossuary, on) Munson Creek, Eloward! Gountya... 20. s5es5606 500-0000 123

1V CONTENTS

PAGE
Village near Rock Bluffs (Rock Bluffs site), Cass County............ 124
1a lalb (en Celene eRe eRe cor ant mine Cin aa cncbiaca co oapedwcatc 126
TOUS EF 2 sg hi seelais ari Gan phi roe Mee arene RTECS ORS reac eee 126
Storage: spits: 2vsn dure cowee eae oer e ee eee te 129
Refuse heaps: asd sicisietommatay teerneasrncecte eres eae RO Ore eR er ar 130
Pottery irom SHOuUse 2... 4 ees Shel en eee ao Tee ieee 130
Work: inground) stone: ccpenacestee ae eee eee ee eel 133
Work im chippedestone: cn. ssacect oc croeinsor rene niece emote 134
Wrork “inebone’ssertc.s cele Se eye orn eenatercelorccsicce aC ener eee 136
Weorkearp. sShrelisc; crise scsessahe tune oraercianttne Decne ene SO ner 136
Baishketiteyys aa on-vacherithorsntyal toa ersvestadehe bccew ER OSes TEE ho OT 137
Animal sancdenolliascane nema creer ene taeieicre 137
TOUS Es 3 ecdey storie ase aR CIR OTS TOO OO re Orion 138
Disposalvot the dead’ 44 ciranttesc marcus esener Oe eee Tete 139
laltoyb Re Suite saree he INGerelte leiouniky (Cave S))oca0dcunccucecadouencsoocr 139
IPOETE tay? wanes evapo s ci egciove crapoicepotcesyere el ner OTSR IPAS ere eran 139
Workin eround, Stoney <:s2.scccathee sa urls Serecsie cies euren tater 140
Wonk? in ‘chipped istome ap cicversa custeccsiere casveraterachscree treteretene eteetete 142
Workin bones scvcocn bismnocie acne Cie ee aeata ace te) Sees Cer OTe eee 142
Vegetal (remains? < .g nec wine coucsaye sce doris Oe ee eres Reno 143
Village between the Platte River and Papillion Creek (Gates site),
Sarpy County; jscet ca coc eae ates cure oie sient toe Coach wieepee erate iene mas 143
| Fob oy si Cae tie 7 wee OID ES <p MURS Bbad go a Py eee cosh abate eee 147
PO GCI Ys» essa) rele roseueuale wyotews OM NnsTSn lel UTNE OTT RCT A eet een I51
Wiorkain around estomes acacess ce en ae oes cn ee erie eee 152
Worl am chipped Stone oases cscs cole Gee mena aeons 153
Work in bone and miscellaneous material.................. 153
IG US Gh a ie ae ets iS oy Su or OPC RL RROOPSTR 154
Sforage. of ‘cache spitsinncc coc Aten. aoe ernie 157
PGtteny io gauie ce ttorre tbs reietot siete OSE eee Te Ca Ie 158
Worle ineoroundtstone: 2. vcard on oc ner cm cei 161
Work: in chipped stone oo -.acemce clock re ona mete erates 162
Workin OMe ea cetrs sree erate ee oie eae te ore A cate ee eet 163
Work Sal antler so. scent tite are ose ck oto eee ee oe eee 164
1 Ero Sy Sic RIA he Aro Eien Arama rian Cri EEG Gioia ate mare SiR cRn eK 6 8 164
| 0} Ath aac Oar ae eS Aaa Rand Nb wane rottiind oc. ade dete alten bic 165
Other ‘artifacts: i doee kee ae Oe Oe ee ene ere 166
TLOUSE: Aho iererais wraps taccecem epasvtie oie areas Siaraye ORC hor ele eI Riemer ae 166
Oeganic. retains) eiccuiciesss. cise arcu Se ceeerere: ale a otal erie Meniere ecto reecretene 167
Village and ossuaries near the mouth of the Elkhorn River (Saunders
site)! "Wouglas: ‘Countyacosnscancascnee Give ieee ten Cease teen 168
SMound? 20) Sy.c sao cee tem Greceeeerae ora ae ee ee oer er eanie ee Eee 170
ei Mioutd "soos Linccnc th Sets yal oo eee aoe ae CEE eT eee cee Al
HOUSE. Th. “AG ae ad coe elke ote tere eo OA CS ee hk har Oo enere 172
The Walker Gilmore (stratified) site, Cass County..........-50066 4 175
Nebraska culture ((surtace deposits) easnee eee ace ee eeneeeeee 180
Disposal of the dead (Nebraska culture?) 5. .....-055. + eee 182
dhe! Sterns Creek culttre (deepy strata )mecise eee eee 184
la bitation ss) users c.eceace catende aul reerereiee atone nce meres 184

POGHETY: Sa cavere Siete sie ateleencieo te ate ORO ee ere eo ree 187

CONTENTS Vv

PAGE
Wordle Tin Acorbria eQitoyarem goin ooo’ 6 aco Cie nO OO GEE I Cora ee ener 190
WVioskastnichipped! Stonemasons eink ace ose seewk sos ests acs 190
NOt katt DOLIG® paraters corse wore rN Mee aroha e Suore bisce alates IQI
WWrorcaltivantler gh vetoes toicie aie tert nels ereisiae.eGs wi sigs. hneieresis 192
Se ARSE AS Vt Un ORRIN, Oe 0h Ce es 193
WAfOn ein OOC ie cca eie ree have PEP RSe ees etter eh scree ane slave: che 193
Bee Ertl AE TATANIOG. o cxzyclciss ci aiaparses Gately etanelepa esha Satis cveushe 2 9-4 sid 2 Sees 193
Animal and molluscan “‘Temaims.%- sae .c hence: tees ee chs eee 194
Probable antiquity of the Sterns Creek culture................... 195
SiHepestions stor 1unther WwOtles« cm. .ttssea ese ite Sle w's es ee ee wes 196
Burial mounds and native quarries in the Weeping Water Valley, Cass
COU EY a peers einige asics tere eie.e [alofe tol nvepeare couse toon ors ereua/ole teelosade crers aves « eles Mae 198
shempLoplemTlOteNebraskaminoundsesmeryceic mecca nace ls 205
Surface sites on the Dismal River, Hooker County................... 212
Gravel deposit containing artifacts and fossilized bones (Bird Creek
CaniyOn site) woalpys COUltymcm ee eter eemeie sore oie ees oc 217
Recent discoveries of human artifacts associated with extinct mammals
ine Nebraska and: closely: adjacent mecionsene eae ene cee ee esa. 220
Signal Butte, a stratified site in Scotts Bluff County.................. 224
Geolocicabackenoundin as crcecuce om oie oe Oe CA ones 225
Methodtotmexcavationh jae ce msc. tec en on a. sae Damicie 6 227
Ciltacalmevidencesbymlevelsna tet ant ene ote ee nea. 228
(GS PETIT (CS sae yas G Aerated Ath SAE SAU tad tall A ts At eT hs anne A 229
(GrOundestOne perc tc ee ete ISR Ee En et ee 230
@iinped stoneware eee ea tented tek ah oa rae 230
ONE sANGeaNeh a OGK. matte ics kis oc: oe xe ea cr ees 234
Shrelleworke teresa ot nee te Rae cones ee ta eee eee 235
JANTOUUSTEEDL yee TUL VTO Sern cfeneyts CoP SEE EN EATER NE RC NENERA Eas reac cen 235
Considerationswoterelativemasenenn msc orem ae 236
Other sitessands restons: wie Nebraskare.. acs eset acl eee coe eee 239
Grouping of sites and summary of cultures represented................... 245
sihemUpperelvepublicanuciltuneseenee mar ere Cine eee mere 245
Table 4, grouping of Nebraska archeological sites according to
CU EUIT ESE Penge ec ante ate eee a eee ee Ee ee ee Eee Ae 246
Table 5, types of rims from two Upper Republican culture sites... 248
sithewmNebraskawcultunesscie ash ccs wesc O ee Cae oe. 250
Table 6, types of rims from Nebraska culture sites excavated by
ERC MOUENEY © Sunn ae sat apeec eb Mr A Se ee a 253
Mhew Sterns aeneek Culttinesswaccaccr ese eee i eee ee 267
Si Cia CtteRculeunes™ (lLeandily eric ae eee ee eee imarin aerate oe 269
(ONS aYESR SURES, erin ea caet BM eaten ERE i Siar i ee ace cit LN ee Aa a da A 270
Culture sequence and development in Nebraska..................00-c000- 271
Table 7, sequence of cultures in Nebraska (and northern Colorado). 272
Smilin! -aliliacons. with ‘adsacent. akeass aici ec eccis niece osc oh nec ves 282
CGOnEIUSIOMM re eheTesi ee ces ere ee TE es oes tele cls maces 204
TR SEE BAPE GO ROEM CRY Seyi 8e fecy hits <<a; 58 ois Sits FoR ATOR MSE OGY tones Sitios Boece sr oh ee 300
RE etl cot) SOLA LES cents oo i are es ie a ee tee Sys otha, 30 310

[EGGERS Uc OE) SIS BY eee sho Le ne 317

wk &

w N

ILLUSTRATIONS
PEATES

PAGE

Historic Pawnee pottery and typical artifacts, Hill site (circa 1805)...
Protohistoric Pawnee rim sherds, Schuyler and Burkett sites (circa
N00) Leia er rberina cpras errr Ms eos akc otrhe ccc Nene Saag a
Restored protohistoric Pawnee pots, Burkett site (circa 1600)........
Most) Creelkersitey Uppers Republican culture reer semteter siicteletel teltetreete
Rim sherds from Lost Creek, house 1 and vicinity, Upper Republican
Cualbeie Ae es sis ks ces tant dhe Sacks Su leaps: Sneed tee ce occa teRteNe rete Rate
Bone and antler artifacts of the Upper Republican culture, and bison
scapulae digging tools from various Nebraska cultures..............
Types of chipped points, end scrapers and knives from various Nebraska
CUIEUEES ENS so euic Snr asucio lis) enchant aciepelal suaeieis teas cfoia ahs toa le rote Re oe tere
Prairie Dog Creek ossuary, Upper Republican culture...............
Rim sherds from Prairie Dog Creek ossuary, and bone, shell and
copper artifacts, Upper Republican culture (toggled harpoon,
Nebraska culture)! series oc. cwiciioe secs etsichovs ocapewsin\e ose tole eueisVoserstetanverseroe
Marshall@and@erairie: DoorGreeksossuanies-.4. oeeeeciiiie oer
Shell artifacts from Upper Republican and Nebraska cultures, and types
ot beads from) variousssites in Nebraska: eeaeinic octets eerie
Nebraska culture ssitesiccrnsiyeristers score ass teeters aerate oes
Large pot, house 2, Rock Bluffs, Nebraska cultures... s.cne.---- seek
Nebraska iculture pottery ac acc cscs ce oc cei sisusseetiaietonieeisem ec
Nebraskal cultures nim), SlendS)jacieegaeers crete o ee oeee ciel iors einioeeers
Nebraska culture modeled face-pipe, lugs, basketry impression; and
types of tobacco pipes from various Nebraska cultures..............
Ground and large chipped stone artifacts, various Nebraska cultures...
Bone and antler artifacts, mainly Nebraska culture; and Sterns Creek
CUbure Tantikacts: "oss cis ereaie elo oara 4 oe ba mas aiaetal weeratoeneincanrerne
Sterns Greek cultures Walker Gilmorensite. nese aisle terete
Mound tandiquarnyatrenchs Gasse Countycceeiieieereieieeei reciente
Upper Republican culture artifacts from various sites...............-
Potsherds from Dismal River sites, Hooker County; and artifacts with
fossilized bison bone, Bird Creek canyon, Sarpy County............
Stratified site on the summit of Signal Butte, Scotts Bluff County......
Artifacts from the two upper occupation levels (II and III), Signal
MSUAEEG ie 5 sss sala. 0 core. 31S) 3 6 arabe wae teece atone a esnche ate pees a Oe ee eee

TEXT FIGURES

Map showing general location of recently investigated archeological
SIEES FMI INEDraSKa sires ateeratere elsrateraaettere tae evetarastene creme ei erect

Map of tribes in Nebraska (circa 1800) in relation to geographic areas.

Floor plan of protohistoric Pawnee earth lodge, Burkett site, Nance
COunEY © iecgiere sean where Sd wvsl nd atecesons Oe Sow, retin atone an res ee eer eee
vi

316

“ce

ILLUSTRATIONS Vii

PAGE
Sketch map of Lost Creek district, Franklin County.................. 70
lance pian Gnolisent) ost, CLeeke Gee mre erie siuisle 8 t'e(se)eln 6. c)e'e @ 0/4 <\elnia s 72
(GrOsseseCHonsOmHousenis Most Greekc ere vriete eject elo) viele epersia) sm ene ce sere one 75
Form: classiication for chipped’ points. ...0 ses «scl. os vice eine eine eee eres 88
Sketch map of Prairie Dog Creek district, Harlan County............ 104
(Groune plan Gt (arahiatd SIGG. << os cniceiseate mainte hiss esis ose clsie ews ee 105
@ross=section of (Graham sites ss ascitic: eocisie scien a sisu aicls efi 100
Ground: plaw of Marshalllsite si4).02 9. aeacsse< sede sus lees nieie ee a nuess 118
Grossssectionz of Wlarshalliesitesin sec ctteters va cclereiis e ieiersicre elevestieinic: eves 119
Sketch map of Rock Blutts district, Cass County... 02.2 osc ciceees 125
Ground plan and cross-section of house 2, Rock Bluffs................. 127
Sketch map of Gates site village, Sarpy County. ...4. 0sccaccielscwnw is 145
Ground plan of house 1, Gates sites: 2.2. cnet saat coecaws eo amie sats 148
Gross-section, west to east, house, ¥, Gates Site. 5... ccs ocr ecce ces 149
(Cross-section, south to north, house 1, Gates site................-...«- 149
Ground plan shouses, 2sanduas Gatesy sites. er. ieeyoris laine eis ais 155
@ross-section, north, to south: house 2) Gates site...2......-s0.6-s0+-.6 156
Gross-section west toneast house 251 Gates sites rience ceeded siecle 158
@ross-section» north to;south house sy Gates site. 4-2. se ee cece cee: 165
Sketch map of Platte River, above and below junction of Elkhorn River. 169
Sketch map of Walker Gilmore site, Cass County..................2. 176
Ash strata and hearths at exposure 4, Sterns Creek culture, Walker

(CTT OTE Gitar ras ome TO OO COSA on Oo ta Da ae atn pmo bins Bitciolas orcoue 185
Ash strata, hearth, and post molds at exposure 10, Sterns Creek culture,

Wier ices Gri LORE SUE sy ett ots <i eons eee arate earns « Ces re eee 186
Sketch map of aboriginal sites on Weeping Water Creek, Cass County. 199
Cross-section, mound 2, Weeping Water Creek...............--20e00: 200

North to south cross-section through central portion of earth cap on
(op) Crt Sifernell ie Wieooge coconwodoepadoosencdee
Etisyeneaas trom) Nebraska culture sites...) sce eieeieeiooecinee ce 258

AN INTRODUCTION TO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY

By WILLIAM DUNCAN STRONG
Anthropologist, Bureau of American Ethnology

(WirH 25 PLaTEs)

FOREWORD

The present paper was completed in April 1932, but publication
at that time was not possible. It was revised and brought up to date
during the early part of 1935. Since at that time the bulk of the
manuscript was already written, 1t proved impractical to incorporate
throughout the new terminology and taxonomic method proposed by
McKern (1934) and others for Middle Western archeology. How-
ever, every effort has been made herein to present all the cultural
data (wherever possible in statistical form) from each individual site,
and it is hoped that the materials thus afforded may be fitted into
whatever system of cultural classification may be desired.

Wedel (1935, IV) has prepared a “ Preliminary Classification for
Nebraska and Kansas Cultures ” along the lines suggested by McKern.
There follows a very similar classification for the cultural groupings
discussed in the present paper. This should be considered in rela-
tionship to the later section, ‘Grouping of Sites and Summary of
Cultures Represented ”. If it is remembered that in the present report
the much abused term “ Culture’ has been primarily employed to
designate what is implied by the newly proposed, and useful term,
“Aspect”, a major difference between the two terminologies will
disappear. The “ Central Plains Phase” is tentatively introduced to
distinguish certain groupings of sites which, although similar in
many ways, differ in house types, ceramics, and certain other fea-
tures from Upper Mississippi Aspects. The “ Woodland Phase’’ is
not given Basic Culture status because of its definite Mississippi Basic
Culture affiliations (see Setzler, 1933). A “ Great Plains Basic Cul-
ture” and an “ Early Hunting Phase” are introduced to include
those Plains sites which show no Basic Mississippi or other already
classified influences. The present groupings are purely tentative, and
certain of them will undoubtedly be revised in the light of fuller data.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 93, No. 10

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

VOL. 93

Suggested Cultural Classification for Certain Nebraska (and Colorado) Sites

Basic culture Phase Aspect Focus Component
Omaha Rock Bluffs, Gates
Upper Saunders, Walker
Mississippi} Nebraska Gilmore II.
St. Helena Butte, St. Helena, etc.
Lost Creek | Lost Creek, Prairie
Dog Creek, etc.
Sweetwater | Sweetwater, Munson
Upper Creek, etc.
Republican| Medicine Medicine
Creek Creek
North Platte] Signal Butte, III, etc.
Mississippi Central |
Plains Lower Loup | Beaver Burkett, Schuyler,
(Protohist. Creek etc.
Pawnee?)
Lower Platte | Columbus Horse Creek, Fuller-
(Historic ton, Linwood, etc.
Pawnee)
Republican | Hill, etc.
Woodland Iowa ‘‘Algon-
kian”’ Sterns Creek} Walker Gilmore I
Signal Signal Butte| Signal Butte II
Butte II(?)
Great Plains | Early Signal Signal Butte) Signal Butte I
Hunting Butte I
Folsom Northern Lindenmeier (Colo.)
Colorado

The bulk of the new material included in the present paper was

obtained while the writer was professor of anthropology at the Uni-
versity of Nebraska from 1929 to 1931. In 1929 an archeological
survey of the State was established by the University of Nebraska,
and the greater part of the field work here reported on was accom-
plished under these auspices. The writer takes this opportunity to
thank the Regents of the University of Nebraska and to acknowledge
his great debt to Chancellor E. A. Burnett, Deans J. D. Hicks (now
of the University of Wisconsin) and F. W. Upson, and Profs. E. H.
Barbour and J. O. Hertzler, who made the work possible. He is also
obligated to the Smithsonian Institution for an additional grant for
field work in 1930 and 1931 under the provisions of the ‘ Fund for
Cooperative Ethnological and Archeological Investigations’. In July
1931 the author assumed a position as anthropologist with the Bureau
of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution. The present report

NO, IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 3

has been organized and written since his connection with the latter
institution and also includes certain data obtained in the field during
the summers of 1931 and 1932 under the same auspices. During the
latter summer, the Laboratory of Anthropology at Santa Fe cooper-
ated with the Bureau of American Ethnology in excavation work at
Signal Butte and in South Dakota. A condensed account of the major
results at Signal Butte appears in the present paper.

At the University of Nebraska much valuable assistance has been
received from Drs. A. L. Lugn, Nels A. Bengtson, W. Van Royen,
Glenn W. Gray, Robert L. Reynolds, the latter now connected with
the University of Wisconsin, and Earl H. Bell, the present Director of
the University of Nebraska Archeological Survey. Among the large
number of students who assisted, both in the field and in the laboratory,
Michael O’Heeron, Frank Morrison, Bertrand Schultz, Loren Eiseley,
Lee Daniels, Newell Joyner, and Paul McGrew were especially help-
ful. Maurice E. Kirby, who served as engineer, draftsman, and ge-
ologist on the 1932 expedition, rendered invaluable services both in
the field and after our return. In Waldo Wedel the writer had a field
assistant who possessed an excellent archeological technique, a clear
grasp of essential problems, and a stimulating enthusiasm for the
work at hand. To Wedel was assigned the important task of dealing
with historic Pawnee archeology in Nebraska, which study, with
the indispensable aid of A. T. Hill, of Hastings, he has successfully
inaugurated.

For criticism and advice on various ethnological and historical as-
pects of the present problem the author is grateful to Dr. John R.
Swanton, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, and to Dr. Robert
H. Lowie, professor of anthropology at the University of California.
Frank H. Setzler, of the United States National Museum, and Dr.
Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr., of the Bureau of American Ethnology,
have also furnished valuable assistance and criticism. To Dr. A.
Wetmore, Gerrit S. Miller, Jr., and Dr. C. L. Gazin, of the United
States National Museum, I am obligated for reports on the avian
and mammalian faunal remains from Signal Butte. Through the
kind permission of Dr. Frederick H. Sterns it has been possible to
incorporate herein certain facts and summaries contained in his ex-
tremely valuable unpublished paper on the “Archeology of Eastern
Nebraska ”, now on file at the Harvard University Library. To Dr.
Sterns, and to the members of the anthropology department of Har-
vard University, the author is very grateful for the opportunity thus
afforded. Further technical assistance was furnished by Dr. Melvin
H. Gilmore, of the University of Michigan, and Dr. Frank C. Baker,

4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

of the University of Illinois, who respectively identified certain botani-
cal and molluscan remains recovered in our excavations. Without their
aid many significant determinations would have been impossible. To
Dr. Paul B. Sears, of the University of Oklahoma, both Maurice E.
Kirby and the writer are very grateful for analyses and suggestions
concerning the soil conditions on Signal Butte.

In the location of sites, in preliminary survey work, in regional
comparisons of artifact types, and often in actual excavation, the
efforts of the Nebraska Archeological Survey were supplemented by
the assistance of several Nebraska archeologists and a number of
other interested persons. Without this cooperation much of the data
here presented would never have been assembled. Two archeologists
of long standing, Dr. Robert F. Gilder and E. E. Blackman, were
especially kind in furnishing a newcomer orientation in a field with
which they were so familiar and in furnishing valuable information.
To A. T. Hill, Director of the State Historical Society Museum, and
to Dr. G. H. Gilmore, of Murray, the writer is particularly indebted.
The exact nature of this debt will become evident in the following
pages. In addition, John Champe, of Lincoln, Thomas L. Green, of
Scottsbluff, Gene P. Spence, of Franklin, Karl L. Spence, of Craw-
ford, A. L. Bishop, of Omaha, L. E. Simmerman, of Fremont, J. B.
O’Sullivan, of O'Neill, and Ralph Douglas, of Bloomington, all as-
sisted the Survey in a number of ways. The information thus gained
and the pleasure afforded by such associations are appreciated beyond
any brief acknowledgment that the present writer might make.

It must be obvious that the present paper is actually a cooperative
piece of work wherein the writer has been directly and materially aided
by a large number of persons. Of this latter group only a small
proportion have been professional archeologists, the majority being
persons in other walks of life who have been drawn to archeology
as an avocation. Owing to the increasing interest in prehistoric re-
search in this country, the number of amateur archeologists is grow-
ing rapidly. Encouraging as this rising interest in archeology un-
doubtedly is, it must frankly be admitted that inasmuch as it is often
unaccompanied by technical knowledge, it 1s both a potential and an
actual danger. This is demonstrated by the rapidly increasing de-
struction of important archeological sites, either by enthusiastic but
untrained amateurs or by persons who are frankly mere collectors
or relic hunters. There is a world of difference between these two
types. The former is interested primarily in the human story sug-
gested by the arrowpoints or potsherds he finds and carefully pre-
serves ; the latter regards such specimens as mere curios or relics, to be

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 5

dug up, hoarded for a while, then, unless they can be sold to other col-
lectors for a paltry sum, to be lost and forgotten. Persons of the first
type may be scientific archeologists in the making ; those of the second
type uselessly destroy the very stuff of human history.

Like all professions, sciences, and arts, archeology must be learned,
for it involves methods and techniques which, though often basically
simple, are fundamental. Furthermore, it deals with extremely limited
and perishable aspects of human history, and such evidence if once
destroyed is irreplaceable. The specimen wrenched from its context
means little or nothing. The story that is hidden in the ground is
the significant thing, and this is totally destroyed by careless or un-
skilled excavation. Therefore the beginner in archeology who is truly
interested in the subject will do no digging. This need not stop his
field activity, however, for in nearly all regions there are numerous
specimens to be found on the surface of the ground, in plowed fields,
and in cut banks. A collection of such artifacts carefully labeled as
to the exact place of finding has great scientific value. When system-
atic archeology begins in any region, such collections furnish the first
leads toward tracing out the prehistory of the area.

If the worker’s interest grows stronger he should get in close touch
with the centers of archeological research in his State,’ and having
fully equipped himself for the task, will be in a position to contribute
a larger share toward the elucidation of the prehistoric problems of
the region.

INTRODUCTION

Despite the fact that geological, geographical, and faunistic con-
siderations all suggest the Great Plains as a highly probable home
for early man in North America, while the great river valleys of
the plains have from time immemorial offered migration routes and
ideal habitation sites for both hunting and horticultural peoples, an
idea seems to have been prevalent that the region had no archeology
worthy of the name. It is the purpose of the present paper to present
the results so far attained through historic and prehistoric archeologi-
cal research in certain portions of only one of the central States of
this great natural area. Although modern political boundaries ob-
viously need have no ethnic significance, they serve as convenient and

* Usually the State University, historical society, or museum is more or less
active in such research. Contacts with active and trained workers in any part
of the United States may also be made by writing the Committee on State
Archaeological Surveys (of the) National Research Council, Washington, D. C.,
or the Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
BAG.

6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

practical divisions in attacking a problem as vast as this one promises
to be. Far from apologizing for such an arbitrary limitation, the
writer hastens to emphasize the fact that as far as Nebraska itself is
concerned the present work has been a mere sampling of a very prom-
ising field. It is at best an introduction to a series of important prob-
lems and in no sense purports to be a final report.

That the more recent work may assume significance in relation to
that which had already been accomplished, a fairly exhaustive résumé
of previous archeological work in Nebraska has been included. More-
over, since comparative recency of white occupation in the region
permits the determination of many historic aboriginal sites with un-
usual exactitude, considerable emphasis has been put upon this line
of approach to the past through the historic present. In all cases the
conscious effort has been to approach the unknown through the known,
the prehistoric through the historic. In actuality there have been
deviations from this ideal, but where followed out this top-to-bottom
method has yielded the best results. Few regions seem to promise
more fruitful returns to a closely combined historical, ethnological,
and archeological approach than do the Great Plains, and Nebraska
has not proved a disappointment in this regard. In addition, since the
interior plains of North America offer a special environmental setting
for human development, the physical geography of Nebraska has
been outlined in an effort to determine whether any correlation exists
between cultural types and topographic, climatic, and biotic subareas.
The direct purpose of all these lines of approach is to obtain a cross-
section of human history in the central part of the Great Plains.

To the writer, ethnology and archeology, far from being isolated
studies, are actually two inseparable means to an essential end—the
attainment of the most complete understanding possible of human
culture at all places and in all times. The more complete data of
ethnology permit certain deductions concerning the past, but these
can be objectively checked only when the archeological record is also
known. To ignore those important aspects of any human society
that can be understood solely by reference to the historic and pre-
historic past, is as inadmissible scientifically as it is fraught with
danger from the practical standpoint. In two earlier studies (1927
and 1929) I made an attempt to present and analyze the available
data on social and ceremonial life among the native peoples of the
Southwest. From these ethnological data certain conclusions regard-
ing the history and development of social institutions in the area
seemed evident. Checked against the very full and objective record

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG i

of Southwestern archeology, the ethnological inductions, which were
independently arrived at, agreed in all basic essentials.

In the present paper the problem is reversed, for the peoples of
the Great Plains have received much ethnological study, whereas
their archeology has, up to very recent times, received little serious
attention. Therefore, an attempt is here made to fill in part of the
prehistoric record for a portion of the central Great Plains by ob-
jective archeological techniques, such as the correlation of material
cultural complexes with (exact) historic tribal locations, stratification
of habitation levels, and the occurrence of human artifacts in deposits
of determinable geological sequence. The results of this inquiry have
in turn been used as a check regarding current ethnological theories
and sequences postulated for the cultural history of the central plains.
In the present case the results of direct archeological research and of
current ethnological theory fail to synchronize so closely. This has
significant implications regarding the essential value of such a co-
ordinated ethnological and archeological approach, which will be
stressed in the conclusion.

HISTORIC AND TRADITIONAL BACKGROUND

The march of Coronado across the buffalo plains to the provinces
of Quivira and Harahey in 1541 is the romantic prologue to the short
but vivid drama of Indian history in the Great Plains of North
America. In the brief descriptions vouchsafed us by the various
chroniclers of the expedition, references occur to the “ governor of
Harahey and Quibira,” to the characteristics of the two provinces,
and to their numerous sedentary inhabitants. Subsequent researches
have strongly indicated that the Quibira or Quivira of Coronado was
in northeastern Kansas and that its inhabitants were the Wichita
Indians, while Arache, Arahei or Harahey to the north was the
country of the Pawnee presumably in Nebraska. These conclusions,
based on geographic, linguistic, and ethnographic evidence, regarding
the native peoples of Quivira and Harahey indicate that almost 400
years ago the Plains region west of the Missouri River in Kansas
and Nebraska was occupied by Caddoan-speaking peoples who lived
in numerous permanent villages and cultivated corn, beans, and pump-
kins. As the inhabitants of Harahey appear to have been the Pawnee,
they are thus the first Nebraska tribe to be recorded in history. The
chroniclers clearly distinguish between the purely nomadic buffalo
hunters encountered by the expedition farther to the south and the
settled inhabitants of Quivira and Harahey ; hence when the curtain
rises on Kansas and Nebraska it is a horticultural rather than a purely

VOL. 93

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

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1fe) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

hunting scene that is revealed." Subsequent Spanish expeditions in
1593, 1601, 1618, and 1634, concerning which even less is on record,
reached as far north and east as the indefinite region that had then
come to be designated as Quivira. The Llano Estacado stood as a
barrier, the way was long, and observable profit lacking. Hence, even
before the Pueblo revolts of 1680 and 1696, Spanish enterprise had
been for some time temporarily diverted to the south.

The next act of our drama, therefore, finds adventurous French
traders, missionaries, and explorers pressing from the northwest
toward the Gulf and later to the north and west in quest of furs,
converts, and territory. Long before any written accounts French
traders were living with the tribes on the Missouri River, and almost
the only record of their discoveries is preserved in various maps drawn
up by European cartographers from word-of-mouth accounts. Some
first-hand knowledge of the Missouri River tribes from 1719 to 1801
can be gained from the bare records or more rare accounts of such
men as Du Tisné, Charlevoix, Bourgmont, the Mallet brothers, the
La Vérendryes, father and sons, Truteau, Perrin du Lac, and Le Raye,
but on the whole this was a period of silent commercial expansion or
exploitation rather than one of scientific or even political exploration.

The European horse had been first introduced into the Plains by
the early Spanish explorers and later by trade, or through raids of
the southern Indians on Spanish-Mexican rancherias. By 1682 the
Pawnee were in possession of horses, and it is possible that the
tribes south of the Platte had them as early as 1600.” Hence the native
culture of the Plains during this period of the late seventeenth and
early eighteenth centuries was being greatly modified. Not only did
traveling become easier and more rapid, but buffalo hunting was
now possible by new and easier methods. Many tribes were thus

1For the accounts of the various chroniclers see Winship, 1896, pp. 528, 577,
500, 591. The Relacion del Suceso as translated by Winship, p. 577, regarding
Quibira, reads, “they have corn, beans and melons” whereas the Spanish text,
T. P. Smith, 1857, p. 152, reads “maiz e frisoles e calabazas”, i. e., the fruit
of pumpkins or gourds as the last item. For regional and tribal identifications :
Bandelier, 1890, pp. 44, 170; 1803, pp. 235, 239; and F. W. Hodge in Brower,
1800, pp. 29-73. The nomads mentioned in the chronicles may have been bands
of Apache, Tonkawa, or Comanche, Winship, 1896, p. 306. By implication
Wissler, 1920, pp. 148-149, cites the description of these nomadic hunters as
though it applied rather universally to the cultural status at the time of such
Plains tribes as the Pawnee, though elsewhere, 1914, pp. 14, 25, he is more
explicit.

? Wedel, no date. Wissler, 1914, p. 6, thinks that Pawnee may have had
horses as early as 1630.

NO= LO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 1A

diverted from horticulture to buffalo hunting as a primary means
of subsistence, and these included many bordering peoples that now
swept into the true plains for the first time. So completely did the
horse enter into and modify the scheme of Plains Indian life that not
only the later explorers but also many of the ethnologists who came
after them have envisioned this type of life as being ancient
and universal in the region rather than a comparatively recent
development.

With the fully recorded expeditions after 1804 of Lewis and Clark,
Zebulon Pike, Major Long, and other American army officers and
scientific observers comes the well illuminated climax of the play.
With or shortly after these men came educated travelers like Bracken-
ridge, Irving, and Prince Maximilian of Wied, naturalists like Nuttall
and Bradbury, and artists such as Bodmer, Catlin, Eastman, and Kurz.
In their accounts and pictures, the full historic culture of the Plains
is revealed for the first time, with its special emphasis on buffalo
hunting and its cult of warfare. Contrasted with the fragmentary
records of the Spanish and French, these later descriptions are strik-
ingly full and vivid and it is not remarkable that the picture of
the Plains Indians as they were during the first three-quarters of the
nineteenth century should eclipse all others in the popular and even
in the scientific mind. Nevertheless, the student of human history
in the Plains region, in the light of the scant earlier records, must bear
in mind the fact that this last period was one of cultural degeneration
for many of the tribes concerned.

The establishment of reservations from about 1855 on, the ex-
tinction of buffalo on the Plains, and the grim record of the Indian
wars mark the tragic finale of the old Indian life. Perhaps we are
still too close to these events and too conscious of the Indian as he
exists today on so many reservations to appreciate fully the tre-
mendous dramatic possibilities revealed in these closing scenes. To
one who has known or who can visualize the Plains Indian of the
recent past it would seem that the epic qualities of that hopeless but
gallant fight against overwhelming odds have as yet been barely
touched upon. Less dramatic than the Indian wars perhaps, but more
important, there still remains the baffling problem of acculturation
whereby this virile addition to the modern American stock may be
fitted into that culture which so ruthlessly, however inevitably, sup-
planted the colorful life of the old buffalo plains. Such in broadest
sweep is the recorded Indian history in the major area with which we
are concerned.

TABLE I—A Digest of Certain Maps Showing the i

Siouan linguistic stock

Maps Dhegiha Division Chiwere Division
Dakota
Omaha Ponca Kansa Oto lowa
1. Marquette, 1673 (no) SW. of (no) well S. of just S. of NW. of a
(does not show Pawnee Pawnee Pawnee Pawnee (?)
Missouri R.) (see Co-
manche on
this chart)
2. Joliet, 1674 far to NE. on small river (no) S. of Pawnee | on (Des farthest N. |
(rivers appar- suggesting and W. of Moines) R. on (Des
ently confused) Des Moines (Missouri) R. | between Moines) R.
Pawnee on N.
and Illinois
toS
3. Carte de la (no) far to NE. (no) well S. of far to NE. in | W. of 5
Louisiane, 1679 beyond Oto Pawnee (Minnesota) Omaha
but Oto River | tribe
in Iowa
4. Anonymous (no) (no) (no) W. of Mis- near head- N. of a
French Map, souri R. S. of | waters of Pawnee, E.
circa 1697 Pawnee Missouri R. of Missouri
W. of Iowa RS
tribe
5. Le Sueur’s map, far to NE. ex-| on (Big S. of Platte | on (Nemaha) | both sides 3 locations
1701 cept Teton Sioux) R. in between R. and upper | Missouri R. in N.S. and
and Yankton | (Iowa) Oto and Kansas R. below Platte central
in W. Iowa (?) Kansa (?) Iowa
6. De I'Isle, map of (no) (same as (no) on small river (no) (same as
Canada and the map 5) S. of Platte W. map 5)
Mississippi, 1702 of Missouri
7. Carte Generale de (no) above Co- (no) on Kansas R. (no) (no)
la Louisiane ou manche on
de Miciscipi, NE. branch of
Vermale, 1717 Missouri R.
8. De I'Isle map of far to NE (same as (no) on upper in Iowa op- north of
Louisiana, 1718 map 5) Kansas R., posite mouth | Pawnee, W.
also on “‘Little | of Platte, of Missouri
Kansas” also to E. R. (?)
9. Del'Isle, map of | far to NE. (same as (no) (same as (same as (same as
1722 map 5) map 8) map 8) map 8)
10. Bellin’s map of far to NE. (no) (no) strip across N.| in Iowa oppo- | N. of Oto
Louisiana (in Kansas, that site mouth of
Charlevoix) 1744 river and S. Platte
tributaries
ir. Du Pratz, map of (no) (no) (no) on Kansas R. in Nebraska in N. Iowa
Louisiana, 1757 and Missouri | just S. of
R. just N. Platte
12. Collot’s map, to N. and E in Nebraska (no) on Kansas R. | (same as (no)
1790 opposite map IT)
Sioux R. :
13. Perrin du Lac, (no) in Nebraska on Ponca (same as on Platte just (no)
Carte du just N. Sioux Creek map II) above Elkhorn
Missouri, 1802 R. (Nebraska) (Yutan site)
14. Lewis and Clark, | to NW. and (same as (same as (same as (same as in central
1804 c map 13) map 13) map ITI) map 13) Iowa
I5. Pike’s map, 1805 (no) (no) (no) (same as “remains of (no)
map II) village’ on
Platte W. of
Shell Creek
16. Long’s map, 1819 | N. on the on Omaha (same as (same as (Yutan) site (no)
Missouri R. Creek (same map 13) map It) on Platte
in South as map I3)

Dakota

Fiibes in the Region of Nebraska from 1673 to 1819

Caddoan linguistic stock Shoshonean Algonkian linguistic stock
Arikara Pawnee Wichita Comanche Cheyenne Arapaho
(no) region of W. Iowa or just NE. of Shea, 1861, p. 93, (no) (no)
E. Nebraska Kansa suggests that the
““Pahoutet”’ of
Marquette were
the Padouca or
Comanche
perhaps N. group between Oto and SW. of (no) (no) (no)
Ol Pana’? Omaha on (Des (Arkansas) R.
Moines) R., also SW.
of (Missouri) R.
N. of Kansa
f (no) on river suggesting on dubious (no) (no) (no)
7 Platte river SW. of
R. Missouri R.
ne country N. and W.| on what appears to be (no) (no) (no) (no)
of Missouri R. a branch of Platte
Rz
sas R.| on Missouri in 12 villages on (Loup) (no) headwaters of the (no) (no)
(South Dakota) R. 10-12 on Arkansas R.
(Republican) R.
isa, possibly N. group | 3 places: E. of Mis- 2 places: just (no) (no) (n)
of ‘‘Panis’’ souri R. opposite N. of Arkansas
Re Platte; on vague r. N.| R. and W. of
of Platte and 2 vil- (Nemaha) R.
lages on headwaters
of Arkansas
1sa 40 villages of many villages on probably to villages on upper (no) (no)
“Panis” on Mis- Platte R. Also shown | Pawnee group | Missouri R.
souri above Platte | on upper Arkansas R. | shown on
SE. of “‘Padouca”’ Arkansas River
40 villages of on all branches of the | 4 villages on 5 villages west of (no) (no)
ee “Panis’’ on Mis- Platte middle Arkan- | Missouri near moun-
souri in (South sas R. tains, country of
Dakota) “Apache and
Padoucas”’
(same as map 8) (same as map 8) (same as “White Padouca” in (no) (no)
map 8) N., “Black Pa-
douca”’ in S.
is R. | ‘Panis’? on upper | centering on Platte on middle N. and S. group and (no) (no)
isa Missouri in including general Arkansas R. a long strip W. of
(South Dakota) region N. of Kansa Missouri R. border-
ing mountains.
isa, “Panis noirs’’ just | on Platte R. “Panis blanc’ | 4 places W. of (no) (no)
sof | east of Missouri, on N. branch | Pawnee ‘‘Gr[and]
R. N. of Pawnee of Arkansas village’ on
proper (Solomon) R.
on headwaters on Platte and Re- (no) on S. fork of Platte | at forks of (no)
White R., ancient | publican Rivers Cheyenne
village near R. (South
Cheyenne R. Dakota)
(South Dakota)
vil- near mouth of S. side Platte W. of (no) “ancient village’ on | (Cheyenne (no)
of Cheyenne R., Oto village. On Loup lake on small branch) R., South
V. of | (South Dakota) and Republican Rivers of (Niobrara) R. Dakota,
pee shown)
at near (North and (same as map 13 only (no) (no) mentioned in at forks of Ka-ne-na-vish
site South Dakota no one on text as formerly W. | Cheyenne (identified by
Line) Republican R.) of Pawnee R. (South Gatschet) on
Dakota) upper Platte
3. of (no) on Loup R., on S. (no) (no) (no) (no)
. and side of Platte above
te Elkhorn R. and on
Republican R.
isite | (old villages on Loup R. only, SE. ‘‘Pawnee | designates south just N. of (no)
.ge in | shown in North except a ‘‘Pawnee village’’ may fork of Platte as Cheyenne
uth and South Dakota) | village deserted in be Wichita Padouca R. (South
-) 1820’’ shown where Dakota)

“Blue Water”’ enters

Red R. far to SE.

he EE a ee eee ee EE

4

a

Pee

ow

4 ee ve OA Ee ©
a 7 , ies i, - “
2 = Ws fine 7

~

Se i, i ee

Maps

TABLE 1—A Digest of Certain Maps Showing the Indian Tribes the Region of Nebraska from 1673 to 1819

Siouan linguistic stock

Dhegiha Division

Chiwere Division

Caddoan linguistic stock

Dakota Omaha Ponca Kansa Oto Eke - - Arikara
ee issourl

= SS | my: (no) well S. of just S. of ee en

7 pracanettas 1673 (no) las Pawnee Pawnee Pv. of @) | well SE. of (no)
Aiiseour! R.) (see Co- to
Manche on
this chart)
——<s ss. =| wear iiriver| (no) S. of Pawnee | on (Des Caer ee NI
a, Joliet, 1674 | far to NE | jueuesting and W. of | Moines) R. | om(ises \* | (m0) | Brttipenarss SUP
rn , s i issouri) R. e :
ently confused) Des Moines 2 Pamacwon N. Moines) R.
and Illinois
to S,
— ~ P ee |
NE. (no) well S. of far to NE. in Re z
3. Carte de la F (no) se A Die averes (Minnesota) Se just N, of (no)
Louisiane, 1679 but Oto River | tribe mouth of
in lowa issouri R.
—$— SS . ——
(no) W. of Mis- near head- N. 7 i ;
4. Anonymous (no) ee souri R. S. of | waters of Baynes meee cf Mizouri a M
French Map, Pawnee Missouri R. | of Missouri | Mieye R
circa 1697 WAtotil ord R. issouri R.
tribe
———— ———— -
1 - Bi S. of Platte | on (Nemaha) | both sides locati = Mi ii
5. Le Sueur’s map, ad Hes eae ex oa BR fk Blpten Recon inper || MinasurieKs 4 Ncoeea S. of Kansas R. Oath Dak cea)
he and Yankton | (Iowa) Oto and Kansas R. below Platte central
in W. Iowa (?) Kansa (?) R. Iowa
j : as (no) on small river (no) GRIOAING
Beene |) | Ge SP lac W. cence ee aam | genkey N wow
Mississippi, 1702 of Missouri Missouri R.
7. Carte Generale de (no) above Co- (no) on Kansas R. (no) (no) S. of Kansa 4o villages of —
la Louisiane ou manche on Panis” on Mis-
de Miciscipi, NE. prone of sou avove Plate
Vermale, 1717 Missouri R. . of ‘‘Padouca”’
8. De I'Isle map of | far to NE. (same as (no) on upper in Iowa op- north of mouth of 40 villages of
Tagiaicne, 78 map 5) Kansas R., posite mouth | Pawnee, W.| Kansas R. “Panis” on Mis-
also on ‘Little | of Platte, of Missouri souri in (South
Kansas” also to E. R. (?) Dakota)
9. De l'Isle, map of | far to NE. (same as (no) (same as (same as (same as (same as (same as map 8)
1722 map 5) map 8) map 8) map 8) map 8)

10. Bellin’s map of far to NE. (no) (no) strip across N.| in lowa oppo- | N. of Oto | on Kansas R. | ‘‘Panis’’ on upper
Louisiana (in Kansas, that site mouth of S. of Kansa Missouri in
Charlevoix) 1744 river and S. Platte (South Dakota)

tributaries

11. Du Pratz, map of (no) (no) (no) on Kansas R. | in Nebraska in N. Iowa | S. of Kansa, “Panis noirs”’ just
Louisiana, 1757 and Missouri | just S. of both sides of | east of Missouri,

R. just N. Platte Missouri R. N. of Pawnee
proper

12. Collot’s map, to N. and E. | in Nebraska (no) on Kansas R. | (same as (no) (no) on headwaters,
1796 opposite map IIL) White R., ancient

Sioux R. ‘ village near
Ga S R.
uth Dakota)

13. Perrin du Lac, (no) in Nebraska on Ponca (same as on Platte just (no) est ot near mouth of
Carte du just N. Sioux | Creek map II) above Elkhorn aa Ww heyenne R.,
Missouri, 1802 R. (Nebraska) (Yutan site) pa uri es (South Dakota)

i F ith Oto at
14. Lewis and Clark, | to NW. and same as S s (same as in central wit a near (North and
1804 . oes 13) Say a “) map 13) Iowa (Yutan) site oe Dakota
e
——__
15. Pike's map, 1805 (no) (no) (no) (same as Sree of (no) G ee (eo)
map II village”’ on ae
Pee Sate W. ce mam site
ell Cree ————— |
1 ere | t Yutan sit i
16. Long's map, 1819 My on us op Cae (same as (same as ay site (no) (old village in eS a eee
3 reek (same on Platte m
a South as map 13) cates ee i Re and South Dakota)
akota

Pawnee

region of W. Iowa or
E. Nebraska

between Oto and
maha on (Des

Moines) R., also SW.

of (Missouri) R.

N. of Kansa

on river suggesting
Platte

Wichita
---_

just NE, of
Kansa

—_—_—_—__

SW. of
(Arkansas) R.

Shoshonean

on dubious
river SW. of
Missouri R.

on what appears to be
a branch of Platte

12 villages on (Loup)
R, 10-12 on
(Republican) R.

3 places: E. of Mis-
souri R. opposite
Platte; on vague r. N.
of Platte and 2 vil-
lages on headwaters
of Arkansas

many villages on
Platte R. Also shown
on upper Arkansas R.

(no)

(no)

2 places: just
N. of Arkansas
R. and W. of
(Nemaha) R.

probably
Pawnee group
shown on
Arkansas River

on all branches of the
Platte

(same as map 8)

centering on Platte
including general
region N. of Kansa

on Platte R.

on Platte and Re-
publican Rivers

S. side Platte W. of

Oto village. On Loup
and Republican Rivers

(same as map 13 only

no one on
Republican R.)

on Loup R., on S.
side of Platte above
Elkhorn R. and on
Republican R.

on Loup R. only,
except a ‘‘Pawnee
village deserted in
1820’’ shown where
“Blue Water” enters

4 villages on
middle Arkan-
sas R.

(same as
map 8)

on middle
Arkansas R.

“Panis blanc”
on N. branch
of Arkansas

(no)

(no)

(no)

(no)

SE. ‘Pawnee
village’ may
be Wichita

Comanche

Shea, 186r, p. 903,

Suggests that the

‘Pahoutet"’ of

Marquette were

the Padouca or

Comanche
Ree e ee e

(no)

(no)

headwaters of the
Arkansas R.

(no)

to villages on upper
Missouri R.

5 villages west of
Missouri near moun-
tains, country of
“Apache and
Padoucas”’

“White Padouca”’ in
N., “Black Pa-
douca” in S.

N. and S. group and
a long strip W. of
Missouri R. border-
ing mountains.

4 places W. of
Pawnee ‘‘Gr{and]
village” on
(Solomon) R.

on S. fork of Platte

Algonkian linguistic stock
———$—$—$———Sasnc Stock

Cheyenne

_—_———

(no)

(no)

(no)

(no)

(no)

(no)

(no)

(no)

(no)

Cheyenne
R. (South
Dakota)

“ancient village’’ on
lake on small branch
of (Niobrara) R.

(no) mentioned in
text as formerly W.
of Pawnee

(no)

designates south
fork of Platte as
Padouca

R., South
Dakota,
shown)

at forks of
Cheyenne
R. (South
Dakota)

(no)

just N. of

Cheyenne
R. (South
Dakota)

at forks of

(Cheyenne

Arapaho

(no)

(no)

(no)

(no)

(no)

(no)

(no)

(no)

Ka-ne-na-vish
(identified by
Gatschet) on
upper Platte

(no)

(no)

- Red R. far to SE.

14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

It is not the purpose of the present paper to set forth in full detail
the history of the various Indian tribes within the borders of Nebraska.
Rather it is hoped that a general background may be afforded whereby
the archeological findings of the prehistoric period may be linked with
the cultures of known tribes or groups of tribes within the State. For
this purpose it has seemed most effective to draw together and sum-
marize a number of the more important maps showing the location of
tribes in or adjacent to Nebraska during the period between 1673 and
1819 (table 1). Not all the maps for this period are included, but
enough have been digested to assure a fair sampling. Hence it is im-
probable that any native peoples of importance occupying Nebraska
within the prehistoric period have been omitted. From a study of
these data it is possible to determine just which tribes actually
lived within the boundaries of the State and to discuss their move-
ments and the nature of the environment in which they lived. Some
of these early maps, where widely divergent, may be in error, and
where identical, may have been copied one from the other, but there
can be no doubt that as a whole they show the general location of
Nebraska tribes and the major movements that occurred within the
period represented.

If the vertical columns of table 1 are scanned from top to bottom
the locations and changes of each tribe shown on the selected maps
can be traced from 1673 to 1819. As previously stated, only those
tribes in or adjacent to Nebraska within historic times are included.
Considering each tribe in succession from left to right, it appears
first that the various bands of the Dakota can be eliminated as original
residents at the start. This does not mean that certain of these
groups did not penetrate into northern and even central Nebraska in
historic times, a fact that is well known, but rather that they are not
shown on any of these earlier maps as permanent residents within the
Nebraska area. The Omaha are first shown in Nebraska by Collot in
1790, and they were certainly a Nebraska tribe within historic times.
As such they will be subsequently discussed in more detail. The Ponca,
save for Le Sueur’s map of 1701, appear first in Nebraska on the
Perrin du Lac map of 1802. They are certainly a Nebraska tribe. All
maps indicate that the historic Kansa range was just south of Ne-
braska. Although not a Nebraskan people, they are important in
relation to the general problem of Siouan migrations, as the first
Dhegiha tribe to be mentioned west of the Missouri, “by Juan de
Onate, who went from San Gabriel, New Mexico, in 1601, till he met
the ‘ Escansaques,’ who lived 100 leagues to the N.E., near the

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG T5

‘ Panana,’ or Pawnee.” * The Oto, unless Marquette’s vague location
of them was actually in Nebraska, are first shown within that State
by Du Pratz in 1757, and are a Nebraska tribe. De I’Isle in 1718 and
1722 shows the Iowa in Nebraska, but, as future discussion will indi-
cate, they seem to have been only secondarily a historic Nebraska
tribe. The Missouri are likewise only secondarily a Nebraska tribe,
since they are not shown in that area prior to Lewis and Clark in 1804,
at which time their remnants were affiliated with the Oto. The Arikara
are consistently located north of our immediate region and need not be
considered in detail at this time, though Omaha traditions claim that
the Arikara were in northeastern Nebraska prior to their own oc-
cupation. Their kinsmen, the Pawnee, however, are the Nebraska
tribe par excellence. From the time of Coronado until their removal
to Oklahoma in 1876 they are always indicated within Nebraska,
though their earlier territories extended to the south beyond the State
boundary. Like the Arikara, the Wichita do not appear to have
made their home within our region in historic times. The Comanche
present a puzzling and fascinating problem but can certainly be in-
cluded as a Nebraska tribe at some time during their historic wander-
ings. Not until Collot’s map in 1796 are the Cheyenne indicated, and
then north of our territory, in South Dakota. Since they claimed and
at times occupied extreme western Nebraska in the later historic
period they may be considered also as secondarily one of the tribes
of that State. The Arapaho are shown solely by Lewis and Clark
and then on the upper Platte, presumably in Colorado. Their history
is closely linked with that of their linguistic kinsmen, the Cheyenne.

Five tribes, namely, the Pawnee, Omaha, Ponca, Oto, and Co-
manche, were certainly resident in Nebraska for considerable periods
of time. Two other tribes, the Iowa and the Missouri, lived on the
eastern border of the State for brief periods, and various bands of
the Dakota as well as the Cheyenne and Arapaho in late historic times
ranged over and claimed the extreme northern and western border
areas. Although various tribes since the reservation period have been
assigned temporarily or permanently to restricted areas in Nebraska,
these need not be discussed in the present connection. Such forced
or temporary visitors as the Sauk and Fox, Winnebago, and Santee
Dakota, arriving in Nebraska as government wards, obviously have
no direct bearing on the archeological problem at hand.

All historic evidence indicates that the Pawnee were the most firmly
rooted of the native peoples in Nebraska. Their early history, tra-
ditions, and exact locations within the State have been discussed in

* Handbook of American Indians, Bur. Amer. Ethnol., Bull. 30, pt. 1, p. 653.

16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

detail by Wedel, and the material there set forth is basic to a con-
siderable part of the present discussion. Certain Pawnee sites not
mentioned by Wedel may be briefly referred to here. On the basis of
Oto legends, Maj. A. L. Green tells of an early Pawnee village said
to be located near Blue Springs, Gage County, Nebr. (Con-
nelley, 1918, p. 444.) Likewise an abandoned village, said to have been
claimed by the Kitkehahki or Republican tribe, is reported on the site
of the present town of Savannah in Butler County. (Brown, 1892, p.
283.) Reference is made by Du Tisné, in 1719, to two Pawnee vil-
lages on the Grand or Neosho River in the vicinity of the Grand Saline,
near the present town of Vinita, Okla.,* as well as numerous Pawnee
sites to the north and west. Like the “ Pawnee” village on Long’s
map in 1818, located on the Red River, certain of these “ Pawnee ”’
sites may actually refer to their southern relatives, the Wichita. The
entire matter of historic Pawnee villages in Kansas and Oklahoma
should be carefully investigated, but may only be referred to here in
passing. Another disputed matter is the possibility of the Skidi
Pawnee ranging east of the Missouri in early historic or late pre-
historic times.’ The De I’Isle maps of 1702 (and 1703) show a group
of Pawnee east of the Missouri opposite the mouth of the Platte,
but aside from this | know of little verification for their traditional
location in this region. Until something more tangible is at hand it
seems reasonable to regard the Pawnee as centered in the Platte and
Republican River regions of Nebraska, west of the Missouri, where
all historic maps and accounts place them. The general range of the
Pawnee within Nebraska during historic times is indicated on the
map (fig. 2). Of all the tribes discussed, the Pawnee hold the best
claim to being the original Nebraskans, at least so far as the historic
period is concerned.

Next in importance to the Pawnee in Nebraska were the sedentary
Siouan tribes along the Missouri River. These belong to two linguistic
groups or divisions of the great Siouan speech family. Of these, the
larger is the Dhegiha division, to which belong the Omaha, Ponca, Qua-

*Connelley, 1918, p. 443. According to Connelley there were also Tappage
Pawnee villages on the Smoky Hill River in 1836. A “ Panis old village” is like-
wise shown near the Neosho River between Saline and Spavinaw Creeks on a
map of the U. S. exploring party in 1803-04, map on file, U. S. Army, Corps of
Engineers, File Mark I R 20 Roll. This reference is important since the map
distinguishes the Wichita or “ Panis Piqués” on the headwaters of the Red
(or Washita?) River. This record was called to Dr. John R. Swanton’s atten-
tion by Grant Foreman, the Oklahoma historian.

* Dorsey, 1886, p. 215, and Connelley, 1918, p. 443, on the basis of Dhegiha
Siouan traditions believe that at one time the Skidi lived east of the Mississippi.

NO. I0 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 17,

paw, Osage, and Kansa tribes, while the smaller or Chiwere division,
according to Dorsey, is composed of the Iowa, Oto, and Missouri tribes.
Both divisions have numerous traditions regarding their westward
migration in rather late prehistoric times. The Dhegiha division claims
to have come westward to the mouth of the Ohio River as one
people. Here the Quapaw separated, going down the Mississippi
while the others went up the Missouri, resolving themselves gradually
into the Osage, Kansa, Omaha, and Ponca in about that order. The
Chiwere group have similar traditions to the effect that they were
originally one people with the Winnebago living on the Great Lakes
who subsequently moved in a southwesterly direction. The languages
of these tribes are actually very similar to that of the Winnebago.
At Green Bay, Wis., they divided, the Winnebago remaining while
the rest went on until they reached the Mississippi at the mouth of
the Iowa River. Here one band, the Iowa, remained while the others
proceeded to the west until they reached the mouth of the Grand
River in the present State of Iowa. Here the split between the Mis-
souri and Oto took place.” The general direction of this movement
and the assumed relationship of the tribes involved is corroborated
in the main by ethnographic, linguistic, and historical evidence. On
the other hand, the time at which the earlier movements occurred and
the exact lines of migration remain obscure. There is such great
variation in the traditions among the various tribes, and even between
the different versions within the same tribe, that complete acceptance
of any of them as regards temporal and geographic details seems im-
possible. Since only certain tribes of each division moved into Ne-
braska, these alone need be considered in detail. Of the Dhegiha group
these are the Omaha and the Ponca, and of the Chiwere division, the
Oto in particular, and the [owa and Missouri secondarily.

According to Fletcher and La Flesche the name Omaha means
“against the current” or “upstream” in contrast to the Quapaw
“with the current’ or “ downstream,” and was fixed prior to 1540
as indicated by De Soto’s (assumed) contact with the Quapaw at that
time.’ Omaha traditions place their original home in the east but, ac-
cording to the above authorities, are vague as to their westward move-

* Summed up by Swanton and Dixon, 1914, pp. 385-389.

Dr. John R. Swanton informs me that on cultural and historical grounds he
strongly doubts the identification of the “ Pacaha”’ (mentioned by three of
De Soto’s chroniclers) as the Quapaw. This generally accepted identification
has rested mainly on the apparently inverted term “ Capaha” as given solely by
Garcilasso, who appears to have been the least accurate of all the chroniclers.
This criticism also applies to Dorsey, 1886, p. 222.

18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

ment, although one traditional account states that subsequent to their
separation from the Quapaw they followed the Des Moines River
to its headwaters and wandered to the northeast. Other traditions
state that they dwelt on the Big Sioux River in bark houses but learned
to make earth lodges and to cultivate maize from the Arikara, who
at that time are said to have occupied the historic Omaha territory in
northeastern Nebraska. Many traditional accounts indicate close con-
tact with the Arikara in prehistoric times, but Fletcher and La Flesche
doubt that maize was first introduced to the Omaha by the Arikara.
The Ponca are said to have been the last of the cognate tribes to
separate, leaving the Omaha on the Missouri River. Ponca traditions
state that they first obtained horses from the Padouca (Comanche)
and later drove these people away from their interior village. Aside
from certain legends that “horses came from the southwest” the
Omaha traditions are not explicit in this regard. Traditions are some-
what vague as to Omaha villages on the Missouri but several sites,
extending from the mouth of the White River in South Dakota on the
north, south to the Platte and east of the Elkhorn River are mentioned.
(Fletcher and La Flesche, 1911, pp. 36-94.)

Dorsey gives a detailed account of Omaha migrations in which
traditional and historic movements appear to be blended in a con-
fusing fashion. In this account the united Iowa, Omaha, and Ponca
are said to have moved northwest in Iowa up the Chariton River until
they reached the pipestone quarries in Minnesota. It is said that they
were already building earth lodges and cultivating the soil at that time.
Here they were attacked by the Sioux (Dakota) and fled southwest to
the Missouri River in South Dakota, ascending that stream to the
mouth of the White River. The Iowa and the Omaha stayed here,
while the Ponca went off to the Black Hills. The latter returned, and
the three tribes then descended the Missouri on the western bank
until they reached the Niobrara River, where the Ponca remained.
The others crossed, and the Omaha settled on Bow Creek, while the
Iowa went south and built a village on a stream near the present site
of Ionia in Dixon County, Nebr. The Omaha then moved to a place
near Covington, Nebr., opposite Sioux City, and the Iowa passed them
and built another village just north of the present city of Omaha,
where the town of Florence is now located. From this site the Iowa
moved southward until they reached their reservation on the Kansas-
Nebraska line. Dorsey gives a map of the traditional Omaha villages
north of the Platte and east of Shell Creek which, in conjunction with
similar data in Fletcher and La Flesche, should have value when work
on Omaha archeology is begun. Dorsey states that the Oto were first

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 19

met by the Omaha in comparatively recent times on the Platte. He
also speaks of the Cheyenne as dwelling with the Comanche in a
sandy region on a great lake near the head of the Elkhorn River,
neither tribe using the bow but employing darts instead. The Cheyenne
are likewise said to have checked the northward advance of the Kansa
near the Nebraska-Kansas State line. (Dorsey, 1886, pp. 218-222.)

It is impossible to determine the assumed period of each of these
different movements from either Dorsey’s account or the vague out-
line presented by Fletcher and La Flesche. According to the former,
the traditional evidence suggests that the Ponca split from the Omaha
sometime about 1390, that all migrations prior to the separation of
Iowa, Omaha, and Ponca occurred prior to 1673, and that the split be-
tween Quapaw and Omaha occurred prior to 1540." Aside from the
confusing problem as to the relative time of these postulated move-
ments, Dorsey’s references to the Iowa and Cheyenne do not seem to
agree with the historic locations of these groups. This matter will be
referred to shortly. The traditional evidence as to the Dhegiha migra-
tion gathered by Dorsey is undoubtedly significant, but only the most
painstaking historical and archeological research can authenticate and
clarify the picture thus presented.

From the maps here summarized (table 1) it appears that prior to
1796 the Omaha were located on the east side of the Missouri in the
vicinity of the Big Sioux River. Collot’s map of the above date first
shows them within the territory now included in Nebraska. How-
ever, in 1801 Le Raye mentions bands of the Omaha and Ponca being
associated with the Cheyenne and other tribes on the headwaters of

* Dorsey, 1886, pp. 221-222. Dorsey translated the term “ Pana” on Mar-
quette’s map as Ponca and this has since been generally accepted, Handbook of
American Indians, Bur. Amer. Ethnol., Bull. 30, pt. 2, pp. 216, 278. This
identification seems extremely dubious since both La Salle and Father Henne-
pin use the term “ Pana” as though referring to one of the Pawnee tribes
(Margry, 1874, 1, pp. 201-202, and Hennepin, 1903, 0, p. 443), while on the
N de Fer map of 1718 (Partie Meridionale de la Riviere de Mississippi) and
the Von Keulen Map of New France, 1720, the “Apana” are located between
the “ Panimaha” (Skidi Pawnee) and the ‘“ Paniassa” (Wichita). Wedel
(no date) has tacitly assumed that Marquette’s term ‘‘ Pana” referred to
the Pawnee and, on the evidence above cited, I am inclined to agree with him.
The point is an important one and merits further research, since it has been
generally stated that the Marquette reference proved the separate existence of
the Ponca in 1673. Since all Marquette’s locations of Missouri River tribes
were based on hearsay evidence, it seems far more probable that he would have
been told of the important Pawnee groups rather than a small, slightly differ-
entiated branch of the Omaha. In the present paper I have assumed Wedel’s
identification to be correct.

20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

the Cheyenne River in what is now South Dakota, all these tribes being
hostile to the Dakota. (Le Raye, 1908.) This record affords some
corroboration of the traditional movement postulated by Dorsey. The
subsequent maps of Perrin du Lac, Lewis and Clark, and Long all
show them in the northeastern corner of Nebraska. Although the
Omaha had practically abandoned their territory east of the Missouri
in the eighteenth century, they continued to hunt there on occasion
until the middle of the next century. Their eastern territories were
ceded to the United States in the treaties of 1830, 1836, and 1854.
(Fletcher and La Flesche, 1911, p. 89.) In 1845 the Omaha were
living to the south, a short distance above the Platte, and in 1847 the
village in the forks of Papillion Creek was built. The year after the
treaty of 1854 they returned north to their former home in the then
newly assigned reservation in Dakota County, Nebr., where they are
at the present time. (Bur. Amer. Ethnol., Bull. 30, pt. 1, p. 120; Bush-
nell; 1922, 1p) Sr.)

Thus, on historic evidence alone, the Omaha may only be regarded
as a Nebraska tribe since about 1796, during which time they have
occupied a strip of territory extending from the Cheyenne River in
South Dakota south as far as the Platte River (map, fig. 2). If the
migration account given by Dorsey is to be taken literally, all the latter
part of the Omaha, Ponca, and Iowa movement, from the White or
Cheyenne River region in South Dakota down the west side of the
Missouri, must have occurred since 1796. The fact that the Omaha
were located in northwestern lowa at the time of their discovery is,
however, no proof that they may not have been in Nebraska in pre-
historic times. Not only does the general westward movement of the
Dhegiha group seem probable, but the location of two of these tribes,
the Osage and Kansa, on the lower Missouri, and the Omaha and the
Ponca farther up the same river, suggests possible movements up or
down that stream. Thus the latter tribes may well have reached their
prehistoric location by moving north on either or both sides of the
Missouri, in which case their prehistoric villages should be located in
either western Kansas, eastern Nebraska, or both regions. In any
case prehistoric Siouan movements along the Missouri River seem
probable from both geographic and traditional considerations, although
recorded history, so far as the Nebraska area is concerned, indicates
that both the Omaha and the Oto were east of the river at the time
of their discovery.

From the archeological standpoint the Omaha and Ponca will prob-
ably be found to represent a single culture, although the data regard-
ing the time when the Ponca separated from the Omaha are very

STRONG 21

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY

contradictory. According to Dorsey it occurred as far back as 1390;
McGee thinks it probably took place about the middle of the seven-
teenth century; and Fletcher and La Flesche imply that it was rela-
tively late, though they are not specific.” Jean Baptiste Monier is
said to have “ discovered” the Ponca in 1789 (Shine, 1914, p. 21),
but the name “ Puncas ” appears on Le Sueur’s map of 1701, though
the location there given as south of the Platte between the Oto and
Kansa seems open to question. As previously mentioned, Le Raye
reported bands of the Ponca in the region about the headwaters of
the Cheyenne River in 1801. In 1802 Perrin du Lac locates them on
Ponca Creek in northeastern Nebraska, and the subsequent maps of
Lewis and Clark and Long do the same. The traditional accounts of
the Ponca migration to the north, on the west side of Missouri, are
supplemented by the Rev. A. L. Riggs, who was told by members of
the tribe that their ancestors formerly dwelt east of the Mississippi
and that subsequently they inhabited the country on the north side
of the Missouri near its mouth, later following up that river to the
north in company with the Omaha. (Dorsey, 1886, pp. 214-215.)
History therefore records the Ponca as a Nebraska tribe from the
beginning of the eighteenth century (map, fig. 2), but the time of their
separation from the Omaha, their actual locations, and the authen-
ticity of their migration legends must be determined by future his-
torical and archeological research.

Of the Chiwere tribes the Oto are the most closely affiliated with
Nebraska, though they were a wandering group as the following quo-
tation from McGee indicates:

According to Winnebago tradition, the [Chiwere] tribes separated from
that “ People of the parent speech” long ago, the Iowa being the first and the
Oto the last to leave. In 1673 the Oto were located by Marquette west of the
Missouri River [sic] between the fortieth and forty-first parallels; in 1680 they
were 130 leagues from the Illinois, almost opposite the mouth of the Miskoncing
(Wisconsin), and in 1687 they were on Osage river. According to La Hontan
they were, in 1690, on Otontas (Osage) river; and in 1698 Hennepin placed
them ten days journey from Fort Créve Coeur. Iberville in 1700 located the
Iowa and Oto with the Omaha, between Wisconsin and Missouri rivers, about
100 leagues from the Illinois tribe; and Charlevoix, in 1721, fixed the Oto
habitat as below that of the Iowa and above that of the Kansa on the western
side of the Missouri. Dupratz mentions the Oto as a small nation on the
Missouri river in 1758, and Jefferys (1761) described them as occupying the
southern bank of the Panis (Platte) between its mouth and the Pawnee
territory; according to Porter, they occupied the same position in 1829. The
Oto claimed the land bordering the Platte from their village to the mouth of the

* Dorsey, 1886, p. 219; McGee, 1807, p. 191; Fletcher and La Flesche, 1911,
p. 78.

22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

river, and also that on both sides of the Missouri as far as the Big Nemaha.
In 1833 Catlin found the Oto and Missouri together in the Pawnee country ;
and about 1841 they were gathered in four villages on the southern side of the
Platte from 5 to 18 miles above its mouth. In 1880 a part of the tribe removed
to the Sac and Fox reservation in Indian Territory where they still remain; in
1882 the rest of the tribe, with the remnant of the Missouri, emigrated to the
Ponka, Pawnee and Oto reservation in the present Oklahoma, where in 1890
they were found to number 400.”

According to Major Green, the earliest reports concerning the Oto
in about 1634 locate them in the Blue Earth region, Minnesota. Later
accounts place them on the Des Moines River in Iowa and finally in
the region of the Platte and Weeping Water in Nebraska. He quotes
Chittenden to the effect that as far back as the middle of the eighteenth
century the Oto dwelt on the banks of the Platte about 40 miles above
its mouth. (Green, 1930, pp. 176-177.) In 1700 Le Sueur makes the
Oto appear as almost omnipresent, since his map locates them in
southwestern Iowa and on the Platte, and his account speaks of the
Blue Earth River region in Minnesota as the country of the Western
Sioux, the Iowa, and the Oto, although he states that the Iowa and
the Oto have just gone to establish themselves on the side of the
Missouri River in the neighborhood of the Omaha. Both the lowa
and the Oto are reported as cultivating the soil diligently. (Shea, 1861,
pp. 101-107.) However, for a supposedly sedentary tribe, the Oto
seem to have been on the jump, since they are said to have been in
southern Minnesota, southwestern and northeastern Iowa, and east-
central Nebraska all in the same year. Undoubtedly, various bands
of the Iowa and Oto are referred to, but the record is interesting,
since it shows the general state of flux then prevalent among the
Siouan tribes of the Missouri River region.

Our selected series of maps (table 1) indicate that prior to 1701
the Oto were for the most part residents of northern Iowa and
southern Minnesota. The earlier maps of Marquette and Joliet locate
them south of the Pawnee (‘‘ Pana’) and apparently somewhere
near their later historic range, but these very general locations, based
on extremely incomplete geographic knowledge and hearsay evidence,
cannot be taken too literally. De I’Isle in 1718 and 1722, as well as

” McGee, 1897, p. 195. I can find no verification for McGee’s and Dorsey’s
(1886, p. 214) statements, that Marquette positively located the Oto west of the
Missouri River (see French, 1850, and Shea, 1852, p. 39). On his map Mar-
quette omits the upper Missouri entirely, while the map of Joliet, though it
omits the name “ Pekitanoiii’” or Missouri, locates the Iowa, Omaha, Pawnee
(“Pana”), Oto, and certain Illinois tribes in order from north to south, along a
small river to the east of the large river corresponding to the lower Missouri
on Marquette’s map.

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 23

Bellin in 1744, place them on the east side of the Missouri across from
the mouth of the Platte. Du Pratz, 1757, locates them in Nebraska
south of the Platte, and the later maps all show their main village on
the Platte above the mouth of the Elkhorn, close to the modern town
of Yutan. In 1835 the Oto built a new village only 6 miles above the
mouth of the Platte. (Merrill, Samuel P., 1892, p. 158.) From the
historic evidence it thus appears probable that from about 1670 to 1744
the Oto range was mainly in Iowa, during which time they were in
close association with the Iowa tribe, and that between 1701 and 1757
they had shifted west, settling on the Platte in Nebraska, thus coming
under the influence of the Pawnee (fig. 2). A priori, one would expect
the material culture of the Oto, as revealed by archeology, to be very
similar to that of the Iowa and probably to that of the Ponca and
Omaha. In future archeological research it must be borne in mind
that such late sites as the village near Yutan will probably show strong
Pawnee influence; hence if earlier historic sites in southeastern Ne-
braska or in Iowa can be located, a more typical culture would be ex-
pectable. At the time of this writing no documented historic sites of
either Oto, Omaha, Ponca, or Iowa have been excavated by scientists
in Nebraska; hence the archeological characteristics of this occupation
on the eastern border of the State are as yet entirely unknown.

The two remaining tribes of the Chiwere group to be associated with
Nebraska, namely, the Missouri and the Iowa, may be dealt with
briefly. All our maps prior to 1804 show the Missouri tribe well to
the south of the Nebraska-Kansas boundary. Following their crushing
defeat by the Sauk and Fox and their allies, which took place about
1700, the remnants of the Missouri affiliated with the Osage, Kansa,
and Oto. In 1804, Lewis and Clark found a number of Missouri living
with the Oto at the Yutan site. Later, in 1839, when the Oto were
living just above the mouth of the Platte, the Missouri group estab-
lished another village across the river. When the Oto went to their
Oklahoma reservation in 1882, they were accompanied by the Mis-
souri. (McGee, 1897, p.195; Merrill, Moses, 1892, p. 176.) Thus
the Missouri may be regarded as a Nebraska people only after the
breakdown of their own tribal life and their affiliation with the Oto.
The Iowa present a somewhat more complex problem. From the
concrete data at hand this tribe does not seem to have permanently
occupied or claimed any major portion of Nebraska within the historic
period, though they undoubtedly had villages and camps on the west
side of the Missouri River at various times. Our maps from 1673 to
1697 show them in the region of northern Iowa and southern Minne-
sota, whereas the later maps locate them in various parts of the State

24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

which bears their name. Of the maps included in table 1 only the De
l'Isle maps of 1718 and 1722 locate any of their bands west of the
Missouri. However, in the period 1832-1840 the lowa seem to have
been frequent visitors around the mouth of the Platte. (Merrill,
Moses, 1892). They were settled on the Nemaha reservation on the
Kansas-Nebraska line in 1836, and later part of the tribe moved to
Oklahoma. (Bur. Amer. Ethnol., Bull. 30, pt. 1, p. 613; Skinner,
1926, p. 191.) Thus within the historic period they have ranged
through southern Minnesota, Iowa, and northern Missouri, and have
often penetrated the eastern boundaries of Nebraska, though there
seems to be no positive evidence of any long residence within the
latter State.

Opposed to this conclusion is the traditional evidence concerning
the Lowa as given by Dorsey and apparently confirmed by Fletcher and
La Flesche (1911, pp. 36-94; also see Will and Hyde, 1917, p. 40)
which recounts a southerly movement of undetermined duration
through eastern Nebraska with Iowa villages near the present towns
of Ionia and Florence. More exhaustive historical research than is
possible in a summary account may verify these details, which have
already been accepted as substantially correct by other authorities.”

It appears to the present author, however, that the whole problem
regarding the recorded and traditional movements of the Chiwere and
Dhegiha as well as other Siouan tribes should be critically examined
once more. This would involve a complete concordance of all the
various migration legends of these tribes and a thorough compilation
of the source material on the historical aspects of the problem. Such a
study of the two former groups would in all probability indicate early
documented sites which could be excavated, thus revealing the actual
culture horizon or horizons to be assigned to the so-called sedentary
Siouan occupation of the Missouri River region. Only when this has
been done can the ethnological data already obtained from these tribes
be properly evaluated and understood or any objective approach to
their prehistory be begun.

As the evidence now stands a cursory study such as the present one
reveals two pictures: one of the brief historic occupation (or re-
occupation) of Nebraska by Dhegiha and Chiwere tribes entirely
within the eighteenth century, and another picture, almost equally im-
pressive but vague and contradictory, being based on traditional evi-
dence, which suggests the movement of Siouan peoples up and down
the Missouri River through eastern Nebraska and western Iowa for

41 Bur. Amer. Ethnol., Bull. 30, pt. 1, p. 612. Also Skinner, 1926, p. 191,
apparently without further examination.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 25

many centuries prior to the dawn of history in the region. We will
have occasion to refer to this important problem in our concluding
sections.

Leaving the Siouan peoples temporarily, we find one tribe of the
Shoshonean linguistic stock resident at an early time in west-central
Nebraska, namely, the nomadic and warlike Comanche. Nearly all of
the maps showing the Nebraska region prior to 1804 locate the
““Padouca ” somewhere to the west of the Missouri River. The “ Pa-
douca”’ are generally believed to have been the Comanche, but this
identification has been disputed by George Bird Grinnell, who thinks
they may have been the Jicarilla Apache.” The main evidence for the
latter identification seems to rest on the fact that the French desig-
nated Villazur’s Jicarilla Apache allies as “ Padouca ” in their accounts
of the expedition and the subsequent massacre of the Spanish force
in 1720. It is significant that the De l’Isle map of 1718 (table 1)
designates five villages in what is now western Nebraska and Kansas
by the term “Apache and Padouca’”’, indicating that the French at
this time either confused these two nomadic peoples or else considered
them as linked in some way. On the other hand it is clear that such
Siouan peoples as the Ponca and Omaha used the word “ Padouca”’
in reference to the Comanche,” and that in general such an identifica-
tion of the term is correct. Grinnell has clearly shown, however, that
the term was often loosely used and where employed in early accounts
must be carefully checked before being applied to any specific
tribal group. In table 1 the “ Padouca’”’ or Comanche are first located
on the headwaters of the Arkansas by Le Sueur in 1701, although it
has been suggested by Shea that the “ Pahoutet ’ of Marquette were
the Padouca or Comanche.” In 1717 ten of their villages are shown
on the upper Missouri River; De I’Isle in 1718, as mentioned above,
locates five villages of “Apache and Padoucas” west of the Mis-
souri near the mountains; in the De l’'Isle map of 1722 a “ White
Padouca’”’ group in the north and a “ Black Padouca” group in the
south are distinguished. Bellin in 1784 distinguishes a north and
south group occupying a long strip of country bordering the moun-
tains, and Du Pratz in 1757 shows them in four places west of the

* 1920, pp. 248-260. There are many valuable references in this paper to early
tribal names and synonyms.

* Fletcher and La Flesche, 1911, p. 79. The term is probably derived from
the Pénatéka division of the Comanche, who were the first to move south.—
Mooney, 1808, p. 162.

* Shea, 1861, p. 93. However, Le Sueur’s map shows the “Aiaouez ou Paoutez’
and the Padoucas as distinct groups.

b

26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Pawnee, with their “ Grand Village’? on what I would presume to
be the Solomon or Smoky Hill Rivers in Kansas.” Collot in 1796
locates the ““ Padouca ”’ on the south fork of the Platte, and Perrin du
Lac 6 years later indicates an “ ancient village’ on a lake drained by
a small branch of the Niobrara (?) River. The maps of Lewis and
Clark and of Pike do not indicate either the Padouca or Comanche.
The former authorities mention the “ Cataka” or ‘“ Cat-a-kah” as
a group of the “ Paducar ” who came to trade at the Arikara villages
on the upper Missouri.” Zebulon Pike states that the “ Comanches ”
were called the ‘‘ Padoucas ” by the Pawnee,” but it is not altogether
clear from his references whether the people called “ Tetaus” or
“Tetans ’’ were identical or separate from the Comanche. Long in
1819 designates the south fork of the Platte as the “ Padouca” but
elsewhere (1823, II, pp. 116, 187) he refers to the Kiowa, Kaskaias
(Kiowa Apache ?), Arapaho, and Cheyenne as being collectively
known as the “ Padoucas,” whereas the ‘‘ Camancias”’ are referred
to as a separate tribe. Obviously the term ‘‘ Padouca”’ had come to
be used for a number of nomadic buffalo-hunting tribes that occupied
the central and southern plains at a relatively late period. However,
the use of this term by other tribes and by the earlier explorers and
cartographers seems generally to have signified the Comanche. Con-
sidering that the ethnology, history, and archeology of the Comanche
have all been woefully neglected it seems futile until more explicit
data are at hand to do more than point out that they did occupy
central Nebraska in the early historic period, apparently coming from
the north and west and leaving toward the south. In a later section
we will have occasion to refer briefly to the problem thus presented.

Of the Algonkian linguistic stock at least two and probably three
tribes moved through and to a certain extent occupied western Ne-
braska within historic times. These were the Cheyenne, the Arapaho,
and the Sutaio, the last originally neighbors of and later incorporated
with the Cheyenne. On Lewis and Clark’s map this last group is
designated as the “ Sta-e-tan”’ and located near the headwaters of
the White River in South Dakota (table 1). A fourth group, the
Atsina, were originally associated with the Arapaho but moved
northwest, later joining the Blackfoot. The Arapaho appear to have
once been in the region of northern Minnesota, moving west about

* Connelley, 1918, p. 454, and Grinnell, 1920, p. 248, locate this village on the
Smoky Hill River.

* 1904, I, p. 190. The Handbook of the American, Indians, Bur. Amer. Ethnol.,
3ull. 30, pt. 2, p. 1037, however, identifies Ca taka as Kiowa Apache.

* Coues, 1895, III, p. 536; also see Grinnell, 1920, pp. 256-257, in this regard.

NO. I0 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 27

the same time or earlier than the Cheyenne and, after crossing the
Missouri, drifting south. In 1801 Le Raye locates the Arapaho as
the “ Gens-di-rach ” or “ Gens de valch,” i. e., ““ people of the buffalo ”’,
on the headwaters of the Cheyenne River in association with the
Cheyenne and other enemies of the Dakota. On Lewis and Clark’s
map (table 1) they appear as the ‘“‘ Ka-ne-na-vish,” then located on
the upper Platte in the general region of western Wyoming. None
of our other maps shows the Arapaho. Throughout the later his-
toric period they were closely associated with the Cheyenne. The
Cheyenne were first reported in the region of southeastern Minne-
sota, where they were visited by Carver in 1766 and were mentioned
by Mackenzie on the plains of eastern North Dakota in 1790. (Grin-
nell, 1918, p. 359; Mooney, 1907, p. 372.) Between 1740 and 1790
at least two groups of Cheyenne had been driven out of villages on
the Sheyenne River by the Chippewa according to the accounts of
Henry and Thompson. Later they had villages on the Missour1
River.” Collot’s map of 1796 shows Cheyenne villages at the forks
of the Cheyenne River, South Dakota, and Lewis and Clark in 1804
show them at the same place (table 1). According to Alexander
Henry, the younger, in 1806 the Cheyenne moved south from the
Black Hills in winter and north to the Missouri in the spring.
(Mooney, 1907, p. 375.) Grinnell (1918, p. 380) states that the
Cheyenne still farmed on the Missouri until 1833, when the majority
of the tribe took up a wandering life to the south, though the Sioux
claim that the Cheyenne had penetrated far to the west 150 years
before. In 1819 Major Long met part of the Cheyenne and Arapaho
associated with various other tribes south of the Nebraska territory
and in 1843 Fremont visited a camp composed of 100 Arapaho and
25 Cheyenne lodges located in southeastern Colorado on the South
Platte near the Nebraska line. His map indicates the Cheyenne-
Arapaho range in southeastern Wyoming and eastern Colorado.”
Both the Arapaho and the Cheyenne split into two divisions, a
northern and a southern, about 1835. These divisions were formally
recognized in the treaty with the United States in 1851. Thus the
various bands and divisions of both tribes sporadically occupied and
claimed the southwestern corners of what is now Nebraska, at least
during the first half of the nineteenth century (map, fig. 2). No
archeological research in either Arapaho or Cheyenne sites has been:
reported from Nebraska or Colorado, and what the material traces
of their apparently brief occupation may be are unknown.

* Mooney, 1907, p. 367; Swanton, 1930, pp. 156-159; Grinnell, 1918, p. 359.
* Long, 1823, 11, p. 187; Fremont, 1845, p. 209.

28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

One more division of the Siouan stock remains to be discussed.
This includes the various bands of the Teton Dakota, namely, the
Oglala, Brulé, Blackfoot,” Miniconjou, Sans Arc, Two Kettle, and
Hunkpapa, comprising the western and principal part of the Dakota
proper. With the eastern Dakota bands, since they were not histori-
cally resident in the Nebraska region, we are here little concerned. In
1680 Hennepin placed the home of the Tetons west of the other
Dakota bands on the upper Mississippi, and Lahontan also lists them
as an upper Mississippi tribe.” In general the Dakota seem to have
been more or less driven out of their former woodland habitat by
the Chippewa, who were the first to get guns from traders.” Although
the Dakota movement toward the prairies may have begun slightly
prior to white contacts it was certainly accelerated by the advent of
both firearms and horses. Le Sueur’s map of 1701 shows Teton and
Yankton bands just east of the Missouri River in western Iowa
(table 1). If this location is reliable the western Dakota must oc-
casionally have penetrated Nebraska even at this early date. The
first record that I have encountered of the Dakota being west of the
Missouri is La Vérendrye’s reference in 1743 to a band of “ twenty-
five lodges of the Gens de la Fléche Collée, otherwise known as the
Prairie Sioux,” which he met somewhere west of the Missouri River
in what is now South Dakota, apparently near the Cheyenne River.”
According to Lewis and Clark, French traders had been on the upper
Missouri for 20 years before their own advent and we have the record
of Le Raye who in 1801 was captured by a band of Brulé Sioux or
Dakota in northern Missouri and traversed parts of Kansas, Nebraska,
and the Dakotas with his captors.“ Thus the Dakota already appear
to have carried their raids far afield and had undoubtedly traversed

* Not to be confused with the Blackfoot tribe belonging to the Algonkian
linguistic stock who, contrary to Blackman’s supposition (1903, pp. 317-325),
are not known to have ever occupied Nebraska.

* Bur. Amer. Ethnol., Bull. 30, pt. 1, p. 376; pt. 2, p. 736. Contrary to the
statement in the last citation, I can find no evidence that Hennepin actually
encountered the Teton; rather he seems to have been with the Issati, i. e.,
Santee, during his enforced visit. (See Shea, 1852, pp. 112-131.)

* Swanton, 1930. Swanton adds that this Dakota movement was also the
result of attractive as well as repulsive forces, i. e., horses and buffalo hunting
lured them to the west, while enemies with guns pressed them from the rear.

* Burpee, 1927, p. 429. The French term for the Dakota here used is of
ethnological interest. La Vérendrye’s record was called to my attention by
Dr. J. R. Swanton.

*Le Raye, 1908. This is an exceptionally interesting though brief account,
both of conditions on the Missouri at the time and for the ranges and habits
of numerous tribes. He mentions Crow earth lodges.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 29

portions of the Nebraska region considerably prior to 1800. Lewis
and Clark had trouble with various Teton bands and describe them
in very uncomplimentary terms. Their map locates a Yankton Dakota
village near the mouth of the James River and several bands of
Tetons along the Missouri above the mouth of the White River in
what is now South Dakota. Major Long’s map, in 1819, shows a
Yankton camp at the mouth of Floyd River and also shows Teton Da-
kota villages on the Missouri north of the White River. In 1842 Fre-
mont locates the “‘ Sioux ’’ between the north and south forks of the
Platte close to the Laramie plains (1845, map), and throughout the
nineteenth century various bands of Dakota seem to have dominated all
of northern and northwestern Nebraska. Although they seem never to
have been permanent residents of Nebraska in the sense that the
Pawnee were, they must certainly be listed as a Nebraskan tribe at
least subsequent to 1800, during which period they raided and hunted
through the region, harassing the Pawnee and the more settled Siouan
peoples along the Missouri.

With the Dakota we conclude the list of known tribes that occupied
or claimed any large portions of Nebraska within the realm of
recorded history. Undoubtedly other tribes had camps in or passed
through our region, as did the Kiowa about 1815,” but it is beyond
the bounds and the needs of the present work to list the comings and
goings of all the Plains tribes in that period of flux just prior to and
during the Indian wars. Our brief survey has clearly indicated that
of all its known inhabitants only the Pawnee were surely in Nebraska
when the first white men came, that the Ponca, Omaha, and Oto
have the next best claim to long residence, and that the Comanche,
Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Dakota were either relatively late or were
transitory occupants. Whether the Ponca, Omaha, and Oto or other
Siouan tribes ever occupied eastern Nebraska prior to the dawn of
recorded history is a problem for the future. From the fragmentary
historical evidence at our disposal it can be demonstrated that the
last two tribes, at least, crossed the Missouri within the historic
period, but the nature of their distribution and of their traditions
makes it possible that this was a reoccupation rather than the first
appearance of Siouan peoples upon the Nebraska scene. Here is
a problem for the archeologist, assisted by the ethnologist and the
historian.

> Mooney, 1898, p. 168, records a Kiowa camp at the junction of Horse and
Kiowa Creeks in extreme western Nebraska at this time. Also see his map,
pl. 73.
3

30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

THE ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING

Although the foregoing section has presupposed considerable fa-
miliarity with the surface geography of Nebraska and immediately ad-
jacent regions, it seems necessary to proceed somewhat farther in
visualizing the area from the standpoint of human ecology. The
historic Indian culture of the Great Plains of North America is often
cited as a particularly good example of cultural uniformity resulting
from a vast but very similar environmental background marked by
no important natural barriers to hinder amalgamation. The problem
at once arises as to whether this late uniform culture is the result of
cultural accidents, such as the acquisition of the horse and the pressure
of an alien population from the east, or if its cause might be truly
environmental. Lacking any actual historical insight into the prehistory
of the Plains, the environmental explanation seems at present to have
gained the ascendancy. As archeological research proceeds in this
area we can at last begin to check general theory against actual fact.
If the prehistoric cultures can be demonstrated as possessing the same
general uniformity which the historic Plains tribes shared, late cul-
tural factors can be ruled out and the role of the environment as
a direct cultural determinant be defined. But if a more complex
prehistoric picture is thus presented, it would seem that cultural causes
must be sought, not only for the more or less uniform historic pattern
but for the varied prehistoric manifestations as well. Thus the Great
Plains, as has long been recognized, constitute a unique and splendid
laboratory for the study of man in relation to his environment. Few
major physiographic areas of the world have received and are receiv-
ing such thorough geologic, paleontologic, and geographic study, and
of no similar area is so much already on record concerning the native
nonindustrialized mode of life characteristic of its aboriginal inhabi-
tants. As we trace the human record of the Plains back toward its
beginnings, which, incidentally, appear to recede in a remarkable
manner as we approach, we deal with a section of human history
pregnant with possibilities for distinguishing major trends and de-
terminants of human cultural development. Such major correlations
and conclusions, however, are for the future. At present, from the
anthropological standpoint, we know a great deal about the ethnology
of the northern plains, less about that of the southern plains, and
practically nothing concerning the prehistory of either section.

If the territory of some 77,500 square miles comprising the State
of Nebraska is considered in relation to the rest of the United States
solely on the basis of structure, it falls entirely into one major physical

NO. I10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 31

division termed the Interior Plains.” The Interior Plains, however,
are divided into two provinces within the State. The first of these
is the Central Lowland, of which only the eastern fringe extends
into Nebraska, including a rather uniform glaciated strip about 60
miles wide extending the length of the State just west of the Missouri
River. In Kansas, and again in South Dakota, this strip is clearly
set off from the Great Plains proper by an east-facing escarpment
which in Nebraska is lacking owing to the thick mantle of loess. The
line, however, follows the western edge of the glacial drift through-
out the State. Characteristically, the Central Lowland consists of
maturely to submaturely dissected till plains which are relatively low
and flat, with streams not far above their base level. To the west
there is usually a rise of a few hundred feet, beyond which the streams
are actively dissecting, but in Nebraska, as just stated, this clear sur-
face indication does not occur. The greater part of the State, how-
ever, falls into the Great Plains province, owing to the active dis-
section of the streams and the pleateaulike character of the central
and western terrain. This terrain has a marked slant to the east,
which reaches its highest point of 5,250 feet on the western border
in Kimball and Banner Counties and its lowest dip in the southeast
corner near Rulo, where the altitude is only goo feet. There are three
sections or subdivisions within the Great Plains province which either
include large portions of or touch upon Nebraska. Three-fourths of
the State, including the central and western sections, is included in
what the Fenneman classification terms the High Plains. This large
area is the remnant of the originally smooth plain caused by Tertiary
deposits which once stretched from the mountains to the eastern edges
of Kansas and Nebraska. Although it has been somewhat dissected
by streams, the intervening areas are truly residual plains. To the
south is an area from which the Tertiary mantle has in large part been
eroded and which is dissected by streams but not yet reduced to the
low level of the Central Lowland province. This is considered as the
Plains Border section of the Great Plains province and, in Nebraska,
comprises a narrow strip along the southern border between Furnas
County on the west and Thayer County on the east, extending hardly
more than 60 miles north from the Kansas-Nebraska line. The Mis-
souri Plateau, comprising the third division or section of the Great

* For the main physiographic divisions of Nebraska see Fenneman, 1928,
pp. 309-322 and map. For the specific physical geography of Nebraska, Condra,
1906, and Condra and Keyser, 1908; and for biotic zones and descriptions,
R. H. Wolcott in Shelford, 1926, pp. 519-524. The present section has in the
main been summarized from these sources.

32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Plains province, takes in only the extreme northwestern and north-
eastern corners of Nebraska. This is a rather rough, unglaciated area,
consisting of old plateaus, tablelands, local bad lands, and isolated
mountains. It isan area of profound degradation which in some places
has been at least several thousand feet. Such are the major physio-
graphic divisions occurring within the State.

Considering Nebraska by itself and taking in other factors, rather
than limiting the consideration to local structure in relation to larger
physiographic units, it appears that three, and possibly four, main
geographic areas are to be distinguished. These are the Loess Region,
which may or may not be separated from the glaciated area just west
of the Missouri River; the High Plains, which include only the
western portion of the region thus designated in the Fenneman clas-
sification and may here be considered as taking in the localized Bad
Lands; and the central Sand Hill area. For present purposes we will
consider these as four areas, extending from west to east as follows,
the High Plains (including the Bad Lands), the Sand Hills, the
Loess Plains, and the Glacial Area (map, fig. 2). These in turn
correspond rather closely with the five biotic regions distinguished by
Wolcott, which, in the same order, are the (short grass) plains region
(plus the isolated coniferous woodland regions) ; the sand-hill region ;
the prairie region (tall grass prairie) ; and the Missouri River bluff
region. Although these last may not completely overlap with the four
biotic regions listed above, the correspondence is close enough for
general consideration. It is difficult for one whose impressions of Ne-
braska may have been gained solely by passing through the cultivated
loess plains on the train, to realize that the monotonous “ rolling foot-
hills of Nebraska” represent only a limited portion of that great State’s
surprisingly varied topography. A preconceived idea of the plains
region generally as constituting a uniformly monotonous environment
will be rudely jarred by traversing the rough and picturesque mesa
and bad-land areas of western Nebraska or the mountainous and pine-
clad regions in the northern part of the State. All these variations in
topography, flora, and fauna must have had an effect on the aboriginal
populations subjected to them. We will briefly sum up the salient char-
acteristics of each, later checking up to see whether the distribution of
the historic Nebraska tribes shows any definite alignment with such
natural areas.

The High Plains comprise an area of over 16,000 square miles of
gravel, sand, and clay deposits, with a rather low annual rainfall of 15
to 20 inches. Originally formed by wash from the mountains to the
west, they have been eroded, owing to their high altitude, by numerous

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 33

swift rivers and streams such as the North Platte, Niobrara, White,
Pumpkin, and Lodgepole. These have formed numerous troughs or
valleys, of which that of the Platte is the largest and deepest. In
between these troughs are the most elevated portions of the State,
comprising the still undissected High Plains surface. In places large
areas such as the Cheyenne and the Box Butte plains have retained
this old high surface ; elsewhere rough hills and prominent buttes pro-
ject from the eroded areas as remnants of the old level. The Pine ridge
on the north edge of the Box Butte plains and the Wildcat range
between the North Platte and the Pumpkin are striking examples of
the latter, at the same time indicating by their intricate and steep-
walled canyons and sheer flanks the destructive power of the forces
of erosion. Although different in composition and form, the true Bad
Lands of northwestern Nebraska, which are an extension to the south-
west of the Dakota Bad Lands, present much the same general appear-
ance as do the eroded buttes and tablelands to the south.

The High Plains region in general may be characterized as a short-
grass country with grama grass, buffalo grass, and various grasslike
sedges predominant. Along the rougher portions are scattered yellow
pines which on the Pine Ridge and similar areas are numerous enough
to form small coniferous woodlands. The pines occur on the canyon
walls and talus slopes, and willows and cottonwoods flourish on the
bottom lands and wherever surface or subsoil water is available. In
between such areas extend the rather flat, open plains marked by low
shrubs in sheltered places, some sagebrush, yucca, and a few small
species of cactus. The buffaloberry, wild plum, wild cherry, currant,
gooseberry, and sand cherry are among the edible native products of
the region. Much of the limited rainfall is absorbed by the shallow
water table, but there is some run-off after heavy storms. Certain
streams, being fed by springs, are continuous throughout the year and
in their deep canyons are occasional small ponds and marshes resulting
from the work of beavers. Of the larger streams the North Platte,
fed by mountain water, as well as the spring-fed branches of the Loup
and the Dismal Rivers, are continuous at all seasons. The soils of
greatest distribution in the High Plains region are close-textured,
sandy, and alkaline. Although they are fertile and readily cultivated,
they do not produce ordinary late-maturing crops, owing to the lack of
precipitation. Native to the region were large numbers of buffalo,
prong-horn antelope, and mule deer. In addition, the coyote, kit fox,
badger, beaver, black-footed ferret, striped ground squirrel, prairie
dog, white-tailed jackrabbit, and smaller rodents are still abundant. In
the limited coniferous woodland areas occur such forms as the yellow-

34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

haired porcupine, wolverine, northern plains skunk, wood rat, red
squirrel, and numerous species of small rodents. Prairie chickens,
sharp-tailed grouse, and migrating water fowl must also have fur-
nished a considerable item in primitive household economy. In general
the picturesque High Plains in Nebraska offered considerable induce-
ment to hunting peoples, whereas from the horticultural standpoint
they would seem to possess less obvious advantages then as now. At
the present time the region is rather sparsely settled in comparison
with the eastern and southern portions of the State, excepting, of
course, the even more scantily occupied Sand Hills region immediately
to the east.

The Sand Hills, or more technically sand dunes, in central Nebraska
occupy a broad, rather poorly defined area of some 18,000 square miles
(map, fig. 2), not including isolated dune areas on the lower Loup and
south of the Platte. The area is rather generally covered with shifting
wind-blown sand dunes ranging from 25 to 100 feet or more in height.
In between occur valleys, marshes, and especially in Cherry County,
numerous lakes. The river valleys here have few tributaries and are
mainly spring-fed, though a few smaller streams occur on the eastern
margin. The water table is variable in depth and most of the drainage
is underground, thus accounting for the lakes and marshes. It is a thin
grass country supporting a considerable number of varieties of bunch
grass, although some 20 acres are said to be necessary to support a
single horse or cow. Yucca, sagebrush and small cacti are character-
istic, and wild plum, wild rose, dogwood, and greasewood thickets are
to be found in the more sheltered pockets. Raspberries, wild plums,
and sand cherries are abundant. Waterfowl breed in all the lakes and
even today are still very numerous. Prior to the advent of the white
man and the automatic shotgun they must have bred here in tre-
mendous numbers. Many of the animal species mentioned as occurring
in the High Plains are found in the sand hills as well, though it seems
improbable that the main buffalo herds would voluntarily have left
the rich pasturage of the Loess Plains or even the High Plains for the
more barren sand hills. Travel is difficult in the region, owing to the
large areas of shifting sand, fuel is hard to obtain, and the dune-sand
soil is not well adapted for farm crops. Water and grazing are ade-
quate for stock raising, however, and this constitutes the main occupa-
tion of the very thin present-day population. We will have occasion
subsequently to present a somewhat more intimate picture of the sand-
hill region (see p. 212, “ Surface Sites on the Dismal River, Hooker
County ”’).

i)

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 35

The Loess Plains, or the “tall grass prairie,” include a large area
comprising something more than the entire southern half of the State.
Originally, the entire region was covered by a dense sod with a grass
cover I to 3 feet in height, of which bluestem, prairie, and spear grasses
were the most abundant species. Beyond the boundaries of Nebraska
the tall grass prairie extended into Iowa and Missouri to the east and
Kansas to the south. In the former State the region is drained by large
rivers such as the Republican, Big and Little Blue, and Platte River
system. These rivers flow through broad valleys having extensive
bottom lands and flood plains marked by alluvial benches and terraces
above them. The soil of all these riparian areas is exceptionally rich
and fertile and at present produces great crops of corn and winter
wheat. Characteristically, the Loess Plains are rolling and open be-
tween the river valleys, presenting vast vistas in all directions. In the
west, however, steep-walled ravines are common. Elsewhere, along the
Republican River especially, are great loess bluffs over 100 feet in
height, but in certain places the loess mantle has been removed by
natural forces of erosion, revealing the underlying Dakota sandstone or
Pennsylvanian limestone. This was the heart of the old buffalo range,
and here the incredibly numerous herds had almost unlimited pas-
turage. Of the smaller mammals, elk, deer, antelope, wolves, coyotes,
badgers, beaver (along the streams), and numerous small species
occurred. The soils of the Loess Plains as a rule are deep, fertile, and
(once the prairie cover has been removed) easily cultivated. In addi-
tion to the loess which forms the subsoil of most of the uplands and
the alluvial soil of the bottom lands, there are several additional kinds
of soil, each with a local distribution. In the eastern part the annual
rainfall is sufficient for crop production, though it decreases to only
17 inches in the west. Similarly, the run-off is greater in the east than
in the west. Except on the western portion of the plains trees grow
well but under natural conditions the native timber followed the water-
ways. Cottonwoods, oaks, elms, willows, ash, box elders, and walnut
are the main species. The grass grows higher in the east than in the
west, but pasturage can be obtained on the wet flood plains, rougher
grounds, and drier uplands as well. This region and the Glacial Area
along the Missouri are the most thickly settled portions of Nebraska
at the present time. They likewise would seem to have offered greater
inducements for aboriginal occupation.

Much that has been said regarding the Loess Plains applies equally
well to that region along the eastern border of Nebraska next to the
Missouri River, here designated as the Glacial Area. Throughout the
glacial area the loess mantle also occurs, and high loess bluffs are char-

36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

acteristic along the western bank of the Missouri. However, all this
eastern region has been subjected to direct glacial action as well, though
the loess has covered the majority of the glacial deposits. In a few
places in the southern portion, however, large numbers of glacial
boulders are exposed on the surface. Elsewhere these are usually visi-
ble only where loess and till have been cut through or removed by
water action. Back from the Missouri River, Loess Plain conditions
prevail, but along the eastern border (corresponding to the Central
Lowland of the Fenneman classification ) are the wooded bottom lands
and bluffs of the Missouri River and the lower portions of its tribu-
taries. Here are broad-leaf forest and thicket communities, and the
rivers with their shifting sand bars, flood plain thickets of young
cottonwoods and willows, bottom lands with their tall cottonwoods,
cut-off ponds, marshes and swamps, and cool wooded ravines with
clear running streams, all form conspicuous habitats. The bluffs are
more open than the lower ground, but even the bluffs are sometimes
crowned with open woodlands of oak, ash, hickory, walnut, linden, and
other deciduous tree species. Certain eastern woodland animal and
bird species occur here, as, for example, the woodchuck, ruffed grouse,
broad-winged hawk, and other smaller forms. To judge from archeo-
logical findings, as well as from the records of early explorers, elk and
white-tail deer must formerly have been abundant. The soil is rich
and varied, and water and fuel are more abundant than in any other
part of the State. It is at present the most heavily populated portion
of Nebraska, and undoubtedly the combination thus offered of open
plains passing into wooded bluffs and bottom lands plus the heaviest
precipitation in the State would have appealed to horticulturally
minded Indian peoples as well.

In considering the natural factors affecting the aboriginal occupa-
tion of Nebraska the fact that the entire State was in the very center
of the old buffalo range must be stressed. Speaking of the bison, Allen

(1876; pp: 175; 176) says:

Over a large part of the former vast region they inhabited they were as
numerous, as they now are [1876] in Western Kansas or Northern Texas, and
ranged at different seasons over the whole. Particular portions of this area have
ever formed their favorite places of resort, where they were sure to be found at
almost any season of the year. There is, for instance, abundant historic evidence
that over the plains of Kansas [sic], especially near the forks of the Platte,
along the Republican, the Pawnee, the Canadian, and other tributaries of the
Arkansas, they were as numerous when these parts were first visited by the
early explorers as they have been ever since, and that subsequent travellers have
always found them in immense numbers at all these points, the plains there
literally swarming with them.

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG B71

Such evidence not only justifies the general conception of Nebraska
and Kansas as constituting the center of bison distribution, but also
brings home the extreme recency and tragic thoroughness of the exter-
mination of the buffalo in this portion of the plains. In Nebraska,
about 1849, also occurred the permanent division of the buffalo into
the northern and southern herds which were never united again. Allen

(1876, pp. 144, 145) says:

The great overland route, as is well known, followed up the Kansas and
Platte Rivers, and thence westward by the North Platte, crossing the Rocky
Mountains by way of the South Pass. The buffaloes were soon all driven from
the vicinity of this line of travel, thousands being annually slaughtered, a large
proportion of them being killed wantonly. The increase of travel, and finally the
construction of the Union Pacific Railroad and the consequent opening up of
the country to settlement has effected a wider separation of the herds, the
buffalo retiring every year further and further from their persecutors. None
are now found for a long distance to the north of this road, and they approach
it from the southward only along that portion situated between Fort Kearney
and the Forks of the Platte.

Allen quotes Col. Richard I. Dodge to the effect that the Dakota
tribes exterminated the bison in the High Plains region of Nebraska
and adjoining States:

The great composite tribe of Sioux driven by encroaching civilization from
their homes in Iowa, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, had crossed the Missouri and
thrust themselves between the Pawnees on the east and the Crows on the north
and west. A long-continued war between the tribes taught at least mutual
respect, and an immense area, embracing the Black Hills and the vast plains
watered by the Niobrara and White Rivers, became a debatable land, where
they were comparatively unmolested, remaining there summer and winter in
security. When the Pawnees were finally overthrown and forced on to a reserva-
tion, the Sioux poured into this country, just suited to their tastes, and, finding
buffalo very plenteous and a ready sale for their robes, made such a furious
onslaught upon the poor beasts that in a few years scarce a buffalo could be
found in the extensive tract of country south of the Cheyenne and north and
east of the North Platte River. This area, in which the buffalo had thus
become practically extinct, joined on the southwest the Laramie Plains country,
and there resulted a broad east-and-west belt from the Missouri to Montana
which contained no buffalo.”

Although one may justly doubt that the Dakota alone or even in
large part effected the decimation of these herds, especially when one
considers the terrific inroads made by professional hide hunters and
meat hunters for the railroads, mines, army posts, etc., the quotation
is of interest in regard to the nature of the late Dakota occupation of

*7 Dodge, R. I., Chicago Inter Ocean, August 5, 1875, quoted by Allen, 1876,
pp. 163-164.

38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

the region. The Dakota had been constantly harassing the Pawnee
for many years before but the final blow came in 1876, when a war
party of Teton and Oglala Dakota fell upon a Pawnee hunting party
in southwestern Nebraska and drove them from the field with consider-
able loss. This was the last buffalo hunt of the Pawnee and very
shortly after the broken and dispirited tribe removed to the Indian
Territory in what is now Oklahoma. In any event the presence of
large herds of buffalo in the grassland regions of Nebraska can be
taken as an important factor in considering the natural resources
available to the aboriginal inhabitants. Whether the presence of the
buffalo was as important in Plains economy before the advent of the
white man and his horse as it became afterward is a question to be
answered by the archeological findings.

Before leaving the subject of geographic factors in relation to
human occupation in Nebraska certain other general features must be
considered. First of all, Nebraska has a typical inland climate with
hot summers and mild dry winters but is subject to sudden and severe
changes due to the cyclonic nature of the weather. The mean annual
temperature varies from above 50° F. in the southeastern part of the
State to less than 45° F. in the northwest. Nights in summer are
generally cool, especially in the higher western portions. Rainfall
occurs mainly in connection with thunder storms moving across the
country with the cyclones, the mean annual rainfall decreasing from
over 33 inches in the southeast to less than 15 inches in the west.
Seven-tenths of the rainfall comes in the growing season from April
to August and during the middle of this period the climate of the
southeastern portion can almost be called humid. There is, however,
great variability of rainfall, especially in the western counties. Wind
velocity, as elsewhere in the plains region, is high and for the State as
a whole averages about 10 miles per hour, being greater in the west
than in the east. The snowfall is about one-twelfth of the total rainfall,
coming in January and February for the most part, and as a rule lying
on the ground only a short while. The snowfall is greatest in the north-
eastern counties. When these factors are considered in relation to the
topographic areas aiready discussed a reasonably complete picture of
the territory comprising the State of Nebraska can be formed.

On the map (fig. 2) the approximate territories held by Nebraska
tribes in the early part of the nineteenth century have been indicated.”

*It is impossible to delimit accurately tribal territories in Nebraska, owing
primarily to their variations from time to time and also to the fact that there
were always disputed border areas. The map, figure 2, is a compromise based on
the following sources: The Omaha, Fletcher and La Flesche, r1o1t, pl. 21;

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 39

The four main geographic and biotic areas of the State are also indi-
cated by varied hachuring. The superimposition thus obtained shows
several very interesting correlations between tribal domains and
natural areas. First of all, the Pawnee during this period held the
heart of the State, including almost all the Loess Plain and half the
Sand Hill areas. The Omaha and Oto (Dhegiha and Chiwere division
representatives of the Siouan linguistic stock) occupy the entire
Glacial Area (which coincides with the Interior Lowland of the Fenne-
man classification and the Missouri river-bluff region of Wolcott).
The related Ponca border on this area to the north and west. The
Dakota controlled the northern High Plains (and Bad Land) region
with the western part of the Sand Hills, while the Arapaho and Chey-
enne exerted a transient control over the southwestern High Plains in
Nebraska. The Padouca or Comanche formerly occupied the heart of
the Sand Hill region, but they had moved far to the south and west
prior to 1800. After their departure the Sand Hills seem to have served
as a buffer area between tribes instead of being exclusively occupied by
any one of the latter. Certainly the Ponca and the Omaha extended
their activities into the region but seem definitely to have claimed very
little of it.

It is hard to believe that one of the richest portions of the State,
i. e., the Glacial Area, was first occupied by Siouan tribes subsequent
to 1796 as our fragmentary historic data suggest. No evidence of their
having taken it from the Pawnee exists, yet had it been unoccupied
prior to 1796 surely the latter tribes would have claimed at least por-
tions of the Missouri River border. As will be indicated in the next
section, a rather mysterious prehistoric culture that does not appear
to have been Pawnee is found throughout the Glacial Area. Whether
this older culture represents a prehistoric Siouan occupation or per-
tains to some unknown people who vanished prior to the advent of the
white man must be established by archeological research. It is also
of interest and undoubtedly significant that the two richest farming
regions, namely the Glacial Area and the Loess Plains, were entirely
occupied by sedentary and horticultural Siouan and Caddoan tribes
respectively. The question arises whether the accidental occupation
of such a potentially rich horticultural section led these tribes into
such practices or whether their choice of territory in Nebraska was
conditioned by their already possessing a culture based on agriculture.

Ponca and Oto (in 1832), Mooney, 1808, pl. 57; Arapaho and Cheyenne, Mooney,
1907, pl. 10; and the Pawnee, Wedel (no date). The northern boundary of the
Pawnee range differs somewhat from that indicated by Wedel.

40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

When the archeologists can demonstrate the prehistoric horizons from
which each culture developed, the question may be answered.

Our brief study of natural areas and tribal territories in Nebraska
also indicates a striking cultural adaptation on the part of all local
tribes to their particular geographic areas. Thus, the nomadic, buf-
falo-hunting Dakota, Arapaho, and Cheyenne occupied the elevated
and rather sterile High Plains where game was formerly abundant ;
the more advanced and horticultural Pawnee held the rich Loess
Plain area which was also the heart of the buffalo range; and the
sedentary Ponca, Omaha, and Oto were mainly along the Missouri
River in an area well adapted to cultivation and immediately adjacent
to the rich hunting grounds of the western plains. One of the major
problems of our area is here outlined—was the pre-Caucasian mode of
life in the area horticultural and sedentary, or nomadic and based
primarily on hunting? In other words, Do the Dakota or the Pawnee
most closely represent the norm of aboriginal culture in the central
Plains prior to Caucasian interference? It is the purpose of the
present paper to demonstrate, in so far as the available data permit,
the prehistoric background from which these divergent culture types
emerge. When these data have been considered, it may be possible
to throw more light on this and similar problems of the region.

PREVIOUS ARCHEOLOGICAL WORK IN NEBRASKA

Ever since 1906 American anthropologists might well have reworded
the ancient saying concerning Africa to read semper aliquid novi ex
Nebraska. Unfortunately, however, the archeological surprises from
this great central State have often turned out to be more startling
than revolutionary. As a result, Nebraska has existed in the fore-
ground of archeological consciousness despite the fact that her pre-
history has been almost unknown. It is, for example, impossible to
even find the name Nebraska in the index of Cyrus Thomas’ (1894)
voluminous report on the mounds of eastern North America, and
the latest general book on the same subject has but two sentences
touching on the State, and of these the last is of very doubtful authen-
ticity.” Perhaps the fact that the scant archeological literature of the
State has often been controversial rather than definitive fostered this
state of affairs, for there is certainly no lack of historic and prehistoric
aboriginal remains in the State. Yet, with the exception of a small
area bordering the Missouri River reported on by Gilder and Sterns,

* Shetrone, 1930, p. 340, “A few scattering mounds have been noted in
eastern Kansas, mainly along the Kansas River, and still fewer are reported
from eastern Nebraska. The latter appear to be mostly low house mounds.”

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 4I

very little information on Nebraska archeology has crept into any of
the more general treatises on New World prehistory. It seems worth
while, therefore, to review briefly the general scope and status of
archeology in Nebraska before presenting such new evidence as is
available.”

Rarely does the anthropologist in the Missouri or the Columbia
River valleys turn in vain to the accounts of those great scientific
explorers, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. They saw much of
the living Indians and more surprisingly many things that pertained
to the past activities of the Indian people. What they saw they re-
corded briefly but accurately, for they had keen eyes and clear judg-
ment. Thus, on July 12, 1804, we find the following entry in the
original journal of William Clark (Lewis and Clark, 1904, p. 75):

Concluded to Delay here today with a view of takeing equal altitudes &
makeing observations as well as refreshing our men who are much fatigued.
after an early Breakfast I with five men in a Perogue assended the River
Ne-Ma-haw about three [2] Miles to the Mouth of a Small creek on the
Lower Side, here I got out of the Perogue, after going to Several Small
Mounds in a leavel plain, I assended a hill on the Lower Side, on this hill
Several Artificial Mounds were raised, from the top to the highest of those
Mounds I had an extensive view of the Serounding Plains, which afforded
one of the most pleasing prospect I ever beheld, under me a Butifull River of
Clear Water of about 80 yards wide Meandering thro: a leavel and extensive
meadow, as far as I could See, the prospect much enlivened the fiew Trees &
Shrubs which is bordering the bank of the river, and the Creeks & runs falling
into it, The bottom land is covered with Grass of about 4% feet high, and
appears as leavel as a smoth surfice, the 24 bottom [the upper land] is also
covered with Grass and rich weeds & flours, interspersed with copses of the
Osage Plumb, on the riseing lands, Small groves of trees are Seen, with a
numbers of Grapes and a Wild Cherry resembling the common Wild Cherry,
only larger and grows on a small bush on the tops of those hills in every direc-
tion, I observed artificial Mounds (or as I may more justly term graves) which
to me is a strong evidence [indication] of this country being once thickly
Settled. (The Indians of the Missouris Still keep up the Custom of Burrying
their dead on high ground) after a ramble of about two miles about I returned
to the perogue and descended down the river, gathd. Som grapes nearly ripe,
on a Sandstone Bluff about 4 of a Mile from its mouth on the Lower Side I
observed some Indian Marks, went to the rocks which jucted over the water
and marked my name & the day of the month & year.

This was at the mouth of main Nemaha River in what is now
Richardson County, Nebr., just north of the Kansas line. Subse-
quent excavation in certain of these mounds has verified Clark’s

*® The following summary makes no pretense at absolute completeness. It is
drawn from all readily available sources but does not attempt to include all
newspaper accounts or very obscure local reports.

42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

conclusion that they had been used for purposes of burial. (Zimmer-
man, 1918, p. 475.) They have never been systematically worked
and reported on, however.

On July 27 Captain Clark writes (Lewis and Clark, 1904, pp.
QI-92):

I took one man R. Fields and walked on Shore with a view of examoning
Som Mounds on the L.S. of the river those Mounds I found to be of Different
hight Shape & Size, Some Composed of sand some earth & Sand, the highest
next to the river all of which covered about 200 acres of land, in a circular

form, on the Side from the river a low bottom & small Pond. The Otteaus
formerly lived here.

This was near the present southern boundary of the city of Omaha
and was probably on a flat below the elevated series of bluffs which
border the river here. Gilder at one time suggested that this Oto
village was the same as the series of prehistoric house pits and mounds
on the bluffs at Child’s Point (1908, p. 73), but subsequently de-
cided that the Oto village must have been on a lower flat since
washed away by the Missouri River in the constant shifting of its
channel (1907, pp. 64-65). This is in all probability correct and it is
certain that Clark’s description cannot be applied to the Child’s Point
sites. On July 28th, from the past mentioned camp, the journal con-
tinues (Lewis and Clark, 1904, p. 92) :

Passed at 1 ml. a Bluff on the S.S. the first high land above the Nodaway
approaching the river on that Side, a Island and Creek 15 yds. wide on the S.S.
above this Bluff, as this Creek has no name call it Indian Knob Creek [probably
Indian Creek flowing into the Missouri at Council Bluffs—present author]
our party on Shore Came to the river and informs us that they heard fireing
to the S.W. below” this High and on the S.S. the Aiauway [Iowa]
Indians formerly lived, below this old village about 5 miles passed Some Monds
on the L.S. in a bend where the Otteauze [Oto] Indians formerly lived, this
Situation I examined, found it well situated for Defence, about 2 or 300 acres
of Land Covered with Mounds.

Clark also gives a good description of the hilltop grave of the
famous (or infamous) Omaha chief, Blackbird (Lewis and Clark,
1904, p. 106) :

Capt. Lewis myself & Io men assended the Hill on the L.S. (under which
there was some fine Springs) to the top of a high point where the Mahars King

Black Bird was burried 4 years ago. [Died of small pox] a mound of earth
about 12 [feet—Biddle] Diameter at the base & 6 feet high is raised over him

* The rest of this paragraph follows the original manuscript which had been
crossed out by another pen. The Biddle edition says that the Iowas “ emigrated
from this place to the river Des Moines,’ as does the Coues edition. Neither
of the later editions mentions the old “ Oto” site again.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 43

turfed, and a pole 8 feet high in the Center on this pole we fixed a white
flage bound with red Blue & white, this hill about 300 feet above the water
forming a Bluff.

There are a few other references to Omaha burial customs and
village sites in the original journals, but these do not directly concern
us in the present report. When the latter have been definitely relocated
and carefully excavated, so that the criteria for the historic sedentary
Siouan occupation are known, a great step in Plains archeology will
have been made.

A summary of all the accounts during the period of exploration
which touch on the village sites of Nebraska tribes would have great
value but cannot be included here.” For present purposes we may
only sum up such as have a definite archeological bearing on the
problem in hand. An early record of this sort is made by Hayden in
1872, when he describes an ancient Pawnee village site near Beaver
Creek just northwest of the present town of Genoa, Nebr.” He also
mentions in passing, but without locating them, ancient village sites
associated with pottery in the valleys of the Little Blue, Big Blue,
Platte, and Loup Rivers. The finding of a “large coarse arrow or
spearhead ” in a railroad cut 2} miles southeast of Omaha, Nebr., is
recorded by Samuel Aughey. The find as reported was remarkable,
since 13 inches above the point and almost in line with it, likewise
under 20 feet of loess, occurred the lumbar vertebrae of a fossil
elephant.“ The point was stemmed and about 3} inches in length.
The record stands by itself without further confirmation, and later
anthropologists and geologists generally have placed little credence
in it. It is interesting, however, in connection with later finds to
be discussed shortly.

The disputed aboriginal flint quarry sites near Nehawka in Cass
County early excited much local interest and discussion. They were
described in 1888 by Todd (1888, pp. 374-376), in some detail and
with great clarity. He concluded, partly on the basis of his own ob-
servations and partly as a result of-the disinterested labors of Isaac
Pollard, that they were of human origin. A conclusion confirmed
by Blackman“ as well as by Winchell, Upham, and Brower (Black-
man, 1903, pp. 314-317), who formed part of a committee that visited

* See Wedel (no date) for a summary of such early records concerning the
Pawnee tribes in Nebraska.

* Hayden, 1872, pp. 411-412. Quoted by Holmes, 1903, p. 199, with illustra-
tions of the pottery. This was either the Burkett site or one nearby of similar
protohistoric Pawnee affiliations.

* Hayden, 1876, p. 254. Compare Shimek, 1908, p. 244, and 1917, p. 97.

* 1907 b, pp. 103-110. Also 1903, p. 207, 1905, pp. 3-5, and 1907 a, p. 354.

44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

the site in 1902. Since definite artifacts or indisputable human evi-
dence have not been found in any of the quarry pits so far opened, the
problem is not a simple one. Sterns (1915 a, I, pp. 126-135), on the
basis of personal examination concluded that the assumed quarry
pits were of natural rather than human origin, though these conclusions
have not as yet been published. Unfortunately my own researches
here were not directly concerned with the “ quarry pits” themselves,
and hence throw only an indirect light on the problem. We will return
to this subject briefly in a later section.

In 1892 a brief article was published stating that the mounds along
the west side of the Missouri were the remains of earth lodges rather
than artificial burial mounds. (Jones, 1892, pp. 111-112.) Since the
whole matter of Nebraska ‘ mounds” is a troublesome problem, it
will be discussed in a later section. There seems little on record
for this decade concerning Nebraska archeology. Certain second-hand
observations given by Grinnell (1893, pp. 255-256) on the subject of
pottery making by the Pawnee have value, especially since little else
is extant on the subject. Likewise, the general study of eastern
ceramics made by Holmes (1903, pp. 58-59, 145, 199, and pl.
cLxxv11) has some direct references to Nebraska problems. He
figures some of the sherds collected on Beaver Creek by Hayden and
generally classifies Nebraska as being in the northern and simpler
area of eastern ceramics. The Beaver Creek sherds figured and the
projected shapes derived therefrom are excellent and present a good
sample of protohistoric Pawnee pottery in its best period.

On October 21, 1906, the Omaha World-Herald announced the
finding of human remains occurring in undisturbed loess formation
and presumably of great antiquity. In excavating an apparently arti-
ficial mound on Long’s Hill about 10 miles north of Omaha, Robert F.
Gilder had run into a large number of disarticulated human bones
both above and below an area of what appeared to be burned clay
which occurred at a depth of about 4 feet. The remains from the upper
strata appeared to him and to others who examined them to be of a
relatively modern Indian type but the lower skulls had certain ap-
parently primitive characteristics. (Gilder, 1907 a, pp. 35-39; 1907 b,
pp. 378-381.) Interested in the report, Henry Fairfield Osborn made
a trip to Omaha, examined the material, and later published a rather
cautious article (1907, pp. 371-375) stating that although the remains
were more recent than Neanderthal man and might even be more
recent than early Neolithic man in Europe, they were of a very primi-
tive human type. The skeletal material was transferred to the Uni-
versity of Nebraska, where it was studied by E. H. Barbour and H. B.

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 45

Ward. On the basis of their study of the bones, combined with the
geologic examination of the site, they concluded that the bones of
the lower layer antedated the formation of the loess hill, whereas
the bones of the upper layer were younger. (Barbour and Ward,
1906, pp. 319-327.) Later, after further study and excavations car-
ried out at the site, Barbour stated (1907 a, p. 331 et seq.) that “ he
stands ready to give notice of the occurrence of human remains in
the loess, and unhesitatingly and unconditionally announces his be-
lief in the discovery of Nebraska loess man.” He adds that there
is no discoverable relationship between the upper and lower human
remains, that the lower skulls are of the Neanderthal type especially
resembling the man of Spy, and that the suspicion of Pleistocene man
in America is therefore verified.”

Blackman, who also examined the site and the material, in general
accepts Barbour’s conclusions but adds that there exists a possibility
of the intrusion of the lower bones into their deeper situation through
the activity of gophers. He also adds that the present-day formation
of the loess by wind action is the greatest argument against extreme
antiquity. (Blackman, 1907 c, pp. 76-79.)

In January 1907 the site was visited by A. Hrdlicka after he had
studied the skeletal material at Lincoln. Weather conditions were
such that little actual excavation seems to have been accomplished
on this visit. In his report, brought out soon after, Hrdli¢ka (1907,
pp. 66-98) sums up the bulk of the evidence and presents his own
conclusions. In relation to the general problem of artificial mounds
in Nebraska it is of interest that Hrdlicka, like the other authorities
quoted in this regard, accepts the artificial nature of the mound on top
of Long’s Hill, though he specifically states that no lines of soil de-
marcation could be distinguished.” Briefly stated, his main conclusions
are twofold; first, that the remarkably low foreheads and pronounced
supraorbital ridges of certain of the skulls seem to him to be in-
dividual variations representing either exaggerations of definite sexual
characteristics, examples of degeneration, or reversions. He points
out (1907, pp. 92, 96) that these characteristics as well as the size and
thickness of the crania of the “ loess man”’ type can be found in equal

* Barbour, 1907 a. Also see same author, 1907 b, pp. 110-112; 1907 c, pp. 40-46.
The last citation states that there are three races represented at the Long’s Hill
site, the oldest being loess man synchronous with the glaciation, then the mound-
builder type, and last the (intrusive) modern skull.

* Hrdlicka, 1907, p. 75. Shimek, cited below, is an exception to this general
statement, and Gilder in a later paper (1908, p. 68) stated that the burial
mound can be partially traced from inside the excavation.

4

46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

and even more exaggerated form among modern and ancient Indian
groups, being especially marked in mound-building peoples of the
upper Missouri and Mississippi. Secondly, he argues (1907, pp.
87-91) that the bones are not fossilized, that certain of the bones
show evidence of having been gnawed by rodents and in some cases
have been cut with sharp implements, the latter almost always re-
stricted to the skull and long bones and occurring on both the assumed
most ancient and most modern remains ; and thirdly that rodents have
obviously been active in the mound and through the caving in of their
burrows the fragmentary bones could have easily reached the deeper
levels at which they were found. His results are summed up as
follows (1907, p. 98) :

The mind searches in vain for solid ground on which to base an estimate of
more than moderate antiquity for the Gilder Mound specimens. The evidence
as a whole only strengthens the above conclusion that the existence on this
continent of a man of distinctly primitive type and of exceptional geological
antiquity has not as yet been proved.

Gilder (1911 a, pp. 157-169) has since offered certain objections to
some of Hrdlicka’s statements and conclusions, the most important
of which seem to be that the double layer of human remains found
at Long’s Hill is not usual in Nebraska mounds but highly exceptional,
that the assumed “knife marks ” are all of animal origin, and that
none of the low-browed Indian skulls figured by Hrdlicka shows the
heavy supraorbital ridges meeting between the eyes as is the case
in the “loess” type. Poynter, in a brief study of Nebraska crania
(1915, pp. 509-524), indicates that the Long’s Hill group are of a
“low order racially ”’ and form a distinct type, and Hooton, in study-
ing the skeletal material collected by Sterns, groups the “loess man ”
with certain isolated finds from near Plattsmouth as a distinctive
type (Sterns, 1915 a, I, pp. 147-162). Until a thorough study of
Nebraska crania from the historic sites occupied by known tribes, as
well as prehistoric remains from carefully determined culture strata,
has been made, no clear-cut conclusions as to the sequence of types
are possible. That the Long’s Hill type may prove to be distinctive
seems highly probable. That it is pre-Indian or of Pleistocene age,
however, seems highly improbable.”

What appears to have been the most systematic and careful piece
of work carried on at the Long’s Hill site, at least so far as one
may judge from the various published accounts, was that of Shimek.”

* See Boule, 1923, pp. 407-408.

* Shimek, 1908, pp. 243-254. See pl. 15, fig. 1. It is remarkable that with this
single exception not one good photographic or detailed diagrammatic presenta-
tion of the evidence in situ appears in the literature of this dispute. The Barbour

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 47

According to this authority the boundaries of the disturbed area
forming the mound can be traced in lateral section beyond the edges
of the previously excavated area. Unfortunately, this evidence is not
indicated by any diagram. He points out the fact that the second layer
(3-74 feet) reported as undisturbed by Barbour contains modern shell
forms, is of loose texture, and that buried or intrusive soil can be
traced between the depths of 73} and 84 feet. In spite of careful
searching he found no bones below this layer, though the presence of
root channels and gopher burrows might make their intrusion possible.
He is unable to confirm Barbour’s conclusion that certain of the
deeper human bones were water worn and concludes that an ordinary
burial mound of no geologic antiquity is represented here. Last of
all he scouts the idea that the loess itself is glacial. Since this brings
one to the complex problem concerning the aeolian or glacio-fluviatile
theories of loess deposition, a halt is indicated. (Also see Shimek,
1917, pp. 93-98.) Sufficient for present purposes is the fact that
Shimek agrees with Hrdlicka in denying any geologic antiquity to
the human remains in question.

Returning to a more general consideration of the progress of
archeological research in Nebraska, the long-continued work of E. E.
Blackman must be considered. Appointed Archeologist of the Ne-
braska State Historical Society in 1901, Mr. Blackman, with the
exception of certain periods when he was employed elsewhere, has
continued his labors in this field up to the present time. His work in
regard to the Nehawka flint quarries has already been referred to.
In addition, his various annual reports “ contain references to a great
number of historic and prehistoric aboriginal sites both in Nebraska
and just beyond the State boundaries. In his first report” may be
found a good brief account of the Indian tribes known, or believed,
to have occupied Nebraska within the historic period. His early clas-
sifications of Nebraska cultures and ceramic types (1903, pp. 310-314;
1905, p. 5; 1906, pp. 394-395) are perhaps not so fortunate, though
these were made at a time when lack of data made adequate generaliza-
tions impossible. Particularly valuable are his brief references to

ground plan (10907 4a, fig. 5, p. 335) is complex but not illuminating, whereas
the Gilder plans (1908, figs. 31, 32, pp. 63-64) are unconvincingly schematic.
Hrdli¢ka (1907) gives no diagrams or photographs of the site.

“Blackman, 1903, 1905, 1906, 1907, 1928, 1930.

“1903, pp. 317-325. With this should be mentioned an historical summary of
somewhat the same type by Father M. A. Shine, 1914, pp. 1-23. There are
several tribes mentioned by Blackman as having occupied Nebraska for which
no historic records exist.

48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

such historic sites as the Oto village near Yutan (1903, p. 296; 1907 a,
p- 355), the Omaha village on the forks of the Papillion (1906, p. 391),
the historic Pawnee villages at Linwood, Horse Creek, Clarks, Genoa,
and the McClaine site near Fremont.” He explored the remarkable
protohistoric Pawnee villages at the Schuyler or Gray site and at the
Burkett site (1905, p. 5; 1903, p. 297). Later he carried on excava-
tions at the Burkett site, deciding that it was a Skidi Pawnee village
dating from around 1341 A. D. (1907 a, pp. 339-3443; 1924, pp. 1-8).
Blackman also examined the Republican Pawnee village near Re-
public, Kans., reputed to be the one visited by Zebulon Pike, and
pointed out that the local topography was not in agreement with the
maps and descriptions of Pike’s exploring party.” Mr. Blackman is
still interested in archeological research in Nebraska and has much
unpublished data.

Almost contemporaneous with that of Blackman has been the work
of Dr. Robert F. Gilder, of Omaha, Nebr. Originally a newspaper
man, he became interested in archeology in 1903 and since that time
has carried on such research in all available time. In addition, it
should be added that Dr. Gilder is also an artist of unusual distinction.
Although connected with the University of Nebraska for some time
and having received an honorary degree from that institution, much
of Gilder’s archeological work has been independently carried on.
Although he has done some reconnaissance work in Arizona and
Wyoming, the bulk of his excavation work has been accomplished in
the Omaha district of Nebraska and to a lesser extent across the
Missouri in Iowa.

The modern city of Omaha is located in one of the richest archeo-
logical sections of Nebraska, especially as regards prehistoric earth
lodges of a rather remarkable type. The culture of these prehistoric
lodges has been described by Gilder in a number of papers.” These
articles are especially valuable in setting forth the characteristics of
this quite unique culture, the artifacts of which are well illustrated
in Gilder’s papers of 1907, 1909, IQII, 1913, and 1926. Owing to in-
complete excavation, the statements and diagrams made by Gilder in
regard to the circular shape of all these prehistoric lodges appear

“1907 a, P. 329; 1903, Pp. 207; 1907, PP. 355-358; 1903, p. 296. Wedel, (no
date), gives further information regarding these sites.

“1907 a, p. 349. Also see Pike-Pawnee Village, 1927 a, pp. 182-192, and
Wedel (no date).

“ Gilder, 1907, pp. 702-719; 1908, pp. 173-174; 19090, pp. 56-84; IQII, pp. 249-
259; 1913, pp. 107-115; 1926, pp. I-32.

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 49
to be in error.” The typical earth lodges of this culture have since
been found to be characteristically subrectangular or square, although
a very few round houses of this culture have been opened. (Sterns,
1915 a, II, p. 204.) In 1926 Gilder published a little brochure entitled
“The Nebraska Culture Man”’, in which he briefly summed up and
illustrated the characteristics of this prehistoric rectangular earth
lodge culture of the Missouri River bluffs in eastern Nebraska. The
term “ Nebraska culture” thus given seems a convenient name for
the inclusion of all lodges of this sort marked by the same distinctive
pottery and artifact complex, hence it has been adopted in the present
work. The characteristics of the Nebraska culture as revealed by the
work of Gilder, Sterns, and the University of Nebraska Archeo-
logical Survey in 1930 and 1931, will be summed up and discussed
in a later section.

Dr. Gilder has not confined his activities entirely to the earth
lodges but has also excavated a number of burial mounds and other
sites in the same region.” The much-discussed excavations at Long’s
Hill have already been mentioned. The large collections made by
Gilder are considerably scattered. Much material is in storage at
the State Museum at Lincoln, an excellent collection obtained between
1907 and 1912 is on exhibition at the Omaha Public Library,” and a
third collection is in Gilder’s own possession. The credit for having
discovered and brought to scientific attention the unique Nebraska
culture must go entirely to Gilder. Others have enlarged upon and
in part corrected his work, but he has been the pioneer in a field in
which he is still an active figure.

During the years 1912-1914 the region of southeastern Nebraska
was worked both extensively and intensively by Dr. Frederick H.
Sterns for the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Eth-
nology. Sterns’s work included parts of Thurston, Burt, Washington,
Douglas, Sarpy, Otoe, Nemaha, Richardson, and Lancaster Counties
in Nebraska, Brown and Doniphan Counties in Kansas, and Potta-
wattamie County in Iowa. In Nebraska he opened 27 earth lodges of
the Nebraska culture, discovered the stratification at the important
Walker-Gilmore site in Cass County, and examined a large number
of other sites in the general region above outlined. His published re-
ports (1914, pp. 135-137; 1915, pp. 121-127) have been brief but

* Gilder, 1907 and 1909. See Sterns, 1914, p. 135, and Gilder, 1913, p. 107,
and 1926, p. 5, for correction in this regard.

“ Gilder, 1907, p. 710; 1908; 1908 a, p. 173; 1900, pp. 61-76; 1913; I914.

“This collection fortunately has been well catalogued. (See Gilder, R. F.
(no date), in bibliography. )

50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

highly significant. The bulk of his data, however, has unfortunately
never been published. These data are to be found in two large volumes
on file in the library of Harvard University in the form of a doctor’s
dissertation entitled “The Archaeology of Eastern Nebraska, with
Special Reference to the Culture of the Rectangular Earth Lodges.”
This well-illustrated work contains a vast amount of detailed and
exceedingly valuable data, especially on those prehistoric Nebraska
cultures designated in the present volume respectively as the Sterns
Creek culture and the Nebraska culture. I have elsewhere acknowl-
edged my debt to Dr. Sterns for permission to incorporate some of
his data in the present report. This material will be discussed at some
length in later sections. From the strictly scientific standpoint Sterns’s
various reports stand preeminent in the field of Nebraska archeology.

Between 1914 and 1929 there appears to have been no very ex-
tensive or coordinated work carried on in the State. Nevertheless,
various individuals already mentioned were active, and some out-
side reports appeared. In a paper published by Zimmerman (1918,
pp. 471-487) are some valuable data on house sites and mounds in
extreme southeastern Nebraska. Unfortunately, Zimmerman has a
tendency to so confuse his concrete data with various theoretical con-
siderations that the two are often hopelessly intermingled. In 1922
a brief report of Gerard Fowke’s archeological investigations along
the Missouri River in northern Kansas and southern Nebraska ap-
peared (1922, part III, pp. 151-160). The portion of this report
dealing with northeastern Kansas and southeastern Nebraska covers
much the same ground as that of Zimmerman just cited. Both refer to
an early historic Pawnee village near the mouth of the Nemaha River
(Fowke, 1922, pp. 152-153; Zimmerman, 1918, p. 473) and Fowke
states that the Pawnee lived here until 1837, when they were wiped out
by the Iowa and Oto, and that two Iowa women living in 1914 tell of
the bodies lying around the site. Neither Wedel nor myself have been
able to secure any historical references to this village nor to the historic
Pawnee ever having lived in this immediate vicinity. Sterns examined
the site and described the pottery, concluding that it was “ almost
historic’ but assigning it to no particular tribe.” From Sterns’s de-
scription the ceramic remains here are all shell-tempered and bear
little or no resemblance to any known Pawnee pottery. Unless definite
historical evidence can be produced connecting this Nemaha site with
the Pawnee, such an identification is in all probability erroneous and

* 1015, a, II, pp. 171-176, 264. Blackman, 1928, p. 511, also mentions this site
and says that the pottery tempering suggests Osage ware, whereas forms of
vessels are similar to Ohio types.

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 5I

should be corrected. Fowke also reviews some of Gilder’s work and
discusses the Long’s Hill find at some length. He appears to lean
heavily on the fact that “save for some markings on pottery” all
“relics” from the mounds and house pits in the vicinity are the
same as those from the Lewis and Clark villages. Since I know of
not a single village on this part of the Missouri mentioned as oc-
cupied in the time of Lewis and Clark which has been positively
identified or scientifically excavated since, it is hard to tell where
Fowke gets his information. He concludes this section of his report
with the following remark: “Any estimate of age must be only a
guess at best, but it is a safe guess that no earth work, mound, lodge
site or human bone along this part of the Missouri River has been
here as long as 10 centuries.”

Bushnell (1922 and 1927) published two reports on the villages and
burials of Algonkian, Siouan, and Caddoan tribes west of the Missis-
sippi. Both accounts contain much valuable historical and descriptive
material concerning such Nebraska tribes as the Pawnee, Omaha, Oto,
and others in the historic period. In the same year appeared a re-
port bearing on the disputed question of the exact location of the
Republican Pawnee village visited by Zebulon Pike in 1805. (See
Pike, Pawnee Village, 1927.) This publication was largely instigated
on the Nebraska side by the discoveries and excavations of A. T. Hill,
of Hastings, Nebr. An enthusiastic amateur archeologist, particularly
interested in all that concerns the Pawnee, Mr. Hill has been an ardent
field worker and student of Nebraska archeology for many years. His
very valuable researches will be referred to in more detail in later
sections.

We must now turn from strictly archeological considerations to a
paleontologic discovery and discussion which for some time made
western Nebraska a focal point in the eyes of all students interested
in the major problems of human evolution and prehistory. On Febru-
ary 25, 1922, Henry Fairfield Osborn received from Harold J. Cook
a worn molar tooth collected by the latter in the Pliocene deposits
of the Snake Creek beds of western Nebraska. Shortly afterward,
following consultation and discussion with W. D. Matthew, W. K.
Gregory, and M. Hellman, Osborn published a brief paper describing
the molar as the type of a new genus and species, Hesperopithecus
haroldcookii, “an anthropoid of the Western World discovered by
Mr. Harold Cook.” Since this was the first seemingly credible
trace of an anthropoid primate so far reported from the Western

* Osborn, 1922, pp. 1-5; also, same author, 1922 a, pp. 281-283.

52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Hemisphere the announcement created a considerable stir in paleonto-
logic and anthropological circles. Certain scientists inclined to accept
the identification, but others, particularly Smith Woodward in Eng-
land, suspected that the find had received an inappropriate name and
that instead of representing the primate stem it should be compared
with the last lower molar in primitive bears, notably Hyaenarctos.”
To the layman it may seem incomprehensible that such a wide diver-
gence of opinion could prevail among acknowledged leaders of paleon-
tologic science, yet it must be remembered that man and the anthropoid
apes as well as the pig and the bears are all omnivorous animals of
widely variable diet and that their generalized dentition reflects the
catholic nature of their tastes. Let the scoffer compare certain of
the molar teeth of the domestic pig and man, and the difficulty will
become apparent. When much-worn teeth of long extinct forms are
thus compared, the problem is far more difficult. The matter, how-
ever, of a seemingly premature identification on somewhat slender
evidence is not so easily explained.

In 1923 W. K. Gregory and M. Hellman published two brief papers
containing notes on the tooth in question.” In the first paper Matthew
determined the age of the find as early Pliocene, equivalent in a broad
way to Lower Pliocene (Hipparion fauna) in Europe. The authors
state that the tooth is very different from those of Hyaenarctos and
conclude that Osborn was probably correct in assigning it to a hitherto
unknown form of the higher primates. The second paper is mainly
taken up with a detailed argument as to the probable place of the tooth
in the carnivore, anthropoid, or human series, Gerrit S. Miller, Jr.
propounding the questions to be answered. The authors concluded that
while the exact generic diagnosis of Hesperopithecus must await
further discoveries they return with more confidence to their conclu-
sions that it is probably a second upper molar of a hitherto unknown
anthropoid ape resembling the gorilla and chimpanzee rather than the
orang. Meanwhile further excavations in the Snake Creek beds were
being carried on by A. Thomson, who was sent out by H. F. Osborn.
For a brief period the controversy slumbered, awaiting the discovery
of further evidence of a less debatable nature.

New fuel of a decidedly sensational nature was added to the discus-
sion by Osborn in a report to the American Philosophical Society in
1927, in which, according to the article in Science, May 6, 1927,” over

* Woodward, 1922, p. 750, and Boule, 1922, pp. 526-527. Compare Elliot Smith,
1924, V, and pp. 6-7, and Wilder, 1926, p. 150.

“Gregory and Hellman, 1923 a, pp. 1-16, and 1923 b, pp. 509-532.

* Vol. 65, no. 1688, Science-Supplement, p. X, 1927. Slightly corrected or
amended, same vol., no. 1690, Science-Supplement, p. XIV, 1927.

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 53

300 implements of apparent human origin from the Pliocene beds in
western Nebraska were described. According to this account the
implements were of 40 different types, of which certain forms found
counterparts in known artifacts from other archeological sites in North
America. Since the materials employed in the former were the bones of
extinct species of animals, and the artifacts came from the same
general beds as the “ Hesperopithecus”’ tooth, the presumption that
the two finds were associated seemed logical. Such a presumption
involved not only the occurrence of the hitherto unknown American
anthropoid in the Pliocene of Nebraska but also the fact that he was
already a tool-using animal with a well-developed material culture.
When it is realized that the oldest human fossils yet discovered in the
Old World are regarded as either early Pleistocene or very late Plio-
cene in geologic age and that no traces of a complex material culture
have been found associated with them, the extremely radical implica-
tions of the above report become apparent. These implications were
partially confirmed in an article published shortly thereafter by
Osborn,” in which both Hesperopithecus and the fossil bone imple-
ments were entered on a chart showing the development of man
through the Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Recent periods. Both were
entered in the Middle Pliocene portion of the chart as the ‘“ most
ancient evidence of man,” but surmounted by a question mark.

This question mark was soon fated to grow to such proportions that
it has completely overshadowed the above tentative conclusions. In
Science for December 16, 1927, Gregory published an article entitled
“ Hesperopithecus Apparently Not an Ape nora Man ” (1927, pp. 579-
581 ), in which he reviewed the earlier facts of the case and stated, on
the basis of the more adequate material obtained from the Snake Creek
beds by Thomson, his doubt regarding the correctness of his former
identification of the original tooth as a primate. Rather it would
appear that the tooth bore a more specific resemblance to many simi-
larly worn-down premolar teeth of a species of Prosthennops, an
extinct genus related to the modern peccaries. While there are certain
details in which the “ Hesperopithecus”’ tooth differs from those of
Prosthennops in general it agrees with almost every conspicuous char-
acteristic in that type. Many of the Prosthennops teeth had been
found which resembled the “ Hesperopithecus” specimen except that
their crowns were less worn. He concludes: ‘‘ Thus it seems to me far
more probable that we were formerly deceived by the resemblance of
the much worn type to the equally worn chimpanzee molars than that

** Osborn, 1927, fig. 1, p. 482. See also Vosy-Bourbon, 1929, p. 408, for a later
foreign notice.

54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

the type is a really unique token of the presence of anthropoids in
North America.”

The authenticity of the middle Pliocene bone “artifacts” of
Nebraska was likewise soon strongly attacked by Nelson in an article
entitled ‘ Pseudo-Artifacts from the Pliocene of Nebraska.” ™ Calling
attention to Gregory’s article setting forth his matured views, Nelson
pointed out the necessity of an extremely careful investigation con-
cerning the assumed artificial nature of the bone implements, especially
since they stood alone without human remains, hearths, or stone imple-
ments for their manufacture. Of the former he had minutely examined
nearly 3,000 specimens. He points out that primitive artifacts fall into
two main classes, sharp edged or sharp pointed, and that ornaments are
usually tubular or flat. Moreover, they have a recognized shape or
design and usually show evidences of wear such as polish or abrasions
and perforations. If the Nebraska Pliocene specimens were cut from
bone prior to their fossilization, as is assumed, they too should show
shape, wear, polish, cutting marks, abrasions, and perforations. On
this basis Nelson finds no evidence either of their intentional design
or of artificial workmanship. A. few suggest beads and awls of an
improvised, unfinished type. They do not correspond to definite arti-
fact types in later American archeological horizons but rather to a few
accidental fragments from the latter which have served temporary
purposes. The grooves on some of the fossil bone fragments are at
present inexplicable, but they are irregular and taken by themselves are
meaningless. Two or possibly three fragments carry decidedly sug-
gestive markings and are of a type which, if found by an archeologist
in a refuse heap, might be preserved as showing purposeless and
accidental human activity. No one can positively say that they are or
are not the result of human activity, though they may merely be tooth
marks. Likewise such splitting of bone as occurred prior to its fossili-
zation might equally be the result of crushing by carnivores or by man
between two stones. The more or less uniformly worn or polished
condition of some of the artifacts is difficult to explain but does not
appear to be the work of man. Nelson sums up his study as follows:
“The inevitable conclusion is, therefore, in my judgment, that the
presence of artifacts in the Snake Creek deposits is not established
and can not be established by the collections examined to date.”

Since 1927 both “ Hesperopithecus” and the Pliocene “ artifacts ”
have faded into the background. Perhaps future paleontological dis-
coveries may revive them or bring a new “ ape of the western world ”

™ Nelson, 1928, pp. 316-317. Also see Boule, 1928, pp. 443-444, for a somewhat
ironic supplement.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 55

back upon the stage once more, but for the present we must still look
to the Old World for our prehuman predecessors.

Our account of archeological research in Nebraska is almost up-to-
date. In 1929 the present author, while professor of anthropology at
the University of Nebraska, organized a State archeological survey
for that institution. The main results of this survey during the period
from September 1929, to September 1931, are included in W. R.
Wedel’s report, “‘ An Introduction to Pawnee Archeology,” ” in a pre-
liminary report by the writer (1933b), and in the present work.

The work of the University of Nebraska Archeological Survey
since September 1931 has been under the direction of Dr. Earl H.
Bell. In cooperation with Mr. Hill and other agencies interested in
these problems, Dr. Bell is carrying on Nebraska field work.

HISTORIC AND PROTOHISTORIC PAWNEE CULTURE AS
REVEALED BY ARCHEOLOGY

The study of historic Pawnee archeology was basic in the work of
the University of Nebraska Archeological Survey from 1929 to 1931.
Once the archeological criteria of this important Nebraska culture had
been determined, it was then possible to begin the advance from the
known and historic into the unknown and prehistoric. Much remains
to be done in the field of historic Pawnee archeology, but its outlines
are already clear enough to serve as a guide into the more murky
depths of the prehistoric cultures of the State. When the archeological
criteria for the sedentary Siouan occupation of Nebraska in early
historic times are equally clear, another great advance will have been
made. So far, however, attention has been concentrated on the historic
Pawnee and on various prehistoric cultures, and almost nothing is
known of the archeology of such Siouan tribes as the Omaha, Ponca,
and Oto. The excavation of historic villages of these peoples is the
next logical step toward an understanding of Nebraska culture
problems.

Fortunately, the matter of historic Pawnee archeology has been
dealt with at some length by others and need only be summed up in the
present paper. Bushnell has gathered together various nineteenth cen-
tury descriptions of Nebraska Pawnee villages.” These include the
accounts of Pike, Long, Dunbar, Fremont, Murray, De Smet, and
Grinnell, which, with the excellent photographs of W. H. Jackson
showing Loup River Pawnee villages, furnish a good picture of the

*° Awaiting publication by the Bureau of American Ethnology.
°° 1922, pp. 155-167; also see Bushnell, 1927, pp. 79-82, for historic data on
Pawnee burial customs.

56 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

externals of Pawnee life in this period. Museum ethnological collec-
tions present an equally vivid picture of the costumes, habitations,
weapons, and utensils of the Pawnee in late historic times. But of the
nonperishable artifacts characteristic of the Pawnee tribes in the early
contact period very little has been available. Pottery, so important in
any archeological study, is not represented in any of the Pawnee
ethnological collections of our large museums, and the same can be
said in regard to the majority of native-type stone or bone artifacts.
Such things were rather quickly replaced by more efficient European
kettles and tools, and by the time the ethnologist appeared on the scene
they were long out of use. Hence if we want to know the concrete
details of Pawnee life we must go to the early contact villages and get
them from under the ground.

Before the present Nebraska Archeological Survey was organized,
this work had already been well begun by A. T. Hill, of Hastings,
Nebr. Mr. Hill had purchased and conducted excavations in the
Zebulon Pike-Pawnee village just southeast of Red Cloud, Nebr.,” and
his collections from this site were both extensive and accompanied by
scientific data. In addition, he had studied the problem of locating the
Pawnee sites referred to in early historical accounts, had visited all
those that could be located, and had made sample collections from
them. These invaluable data, the product of tedious research and
excavation, he put freely at the disposal of myself and my assistants.
In the late summer of 1930 the Survey party worked for 2 weeks at
the Hill site near Red Cloud, and subsequently my research assistant,
Waldo Rudolph Wedel, spent several weeks at Hastings studying the
Hill collections. This was supplemented by many trips to all the his-
toric Pawnee sites with Mr. Hill and by further excavations in such
sites made by the Survey in 1931. Mr. Wedel has written up this
phase of the Survey work in his paper, “ An Introduction to Pawnee
Archeology,” hence I need only sketch in the outlines of historic
Pawnee archeology therein presented. Our indebtedness to Mr. Hill is
further emphasized by the fact that both in 1930 and 1931 he also
gave generous support to Mr. Wedel’s investigations.

In all, 10 historic Pawnee villages have been located to date.” Of
these only two have been extensively investigated. These, the Hill
site near Red Cloud in Webster County and the Linwood site near
Linwood, Butler County, date from the period around 1800. While
various other sites of both earlier and later dates have been more super-

* See the Nebraska History Magazine, vol. 10, no. 3, 1927; and Wedel, no date.
* See Wedel’s paper for their exact location, documentation, and archeological
details. For general location see fig. 1, sites I-10, present paper.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 57

ficially investigated, we will confine the immediate discussion to the
Pawnee culture of about 1800, as revealed by our own excavations and
Mr. Hill's work in these two sites. It may be added that the Hill site
was occupied by members of the Kitkehahki or Republican Pawnee
tribe while the Linwood site was occupied by the Chaui or Grand
Pawnee tribe. So far no distinction has been observed in archeological
remains pertaining to the different Pawnee tribes. Although more
detailed investigation may reveal new criteria in this regard, our own
investigations indicate very close cultural uniformity for all these
groups in the historic period.

In briefest outline the salient characteristics of Pawnee culture at
the close of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth cen-
turies, as revealed by archeology, are as follows. The five earth lodges
opened at these two sites had been very slightly excavated below
ground level, 20 inches being the deepest, and all of them were per-
fectly round, ranging from 20 to 45 feet in diameter. The central posts
ranged in number from four (one house) to eight (two houses had six
center posts, two had eight). The outer circle of posts ranged in num-
ber from 13 to 18, with an average of 12. Four houses had only one
central fireplace, and one had two fireplaces. This second fireplace was
immediately opposite the doorway, where the shrine is often located.
One earth altar or shrine in this location was found. Entrance pas-
sageways about 12 feet long and 4 to 7 feet broad lead from the south
or east side of the houses. There appeared to be no exact orientation
in this regard. Three houses had no interior or exterior cache or
storage pits, one house had four interior caches, and six were located
outside the walls. The fifth house had one interior cache located
between the fireplace and shrine and in line with the entrance passage.
Such storage pits, therefore, occur both inside and outside the houses.
They are usually cylindrical, being slightly wider at the bottom than at
the top, with a flat floor. They range from 3 to 11 feet in depth, 4 to 5
feet being usual, and are often lined with decayed bark or white sand.
Ashy soil containing much debris fills the majority of these pits,
artifacts are rather rare, and the pits appear to have served mainly for
storing corn.

At the present time earthworks in connection with the sites are rare,
owing mainly to the many years of plowing to which the majority of
the villages have been subjected. Sections of the old sod walls are pre-
served solely at the Horse Creek site in Nance County. There is no
concrete evidence at present that palisades were in use. An interesting
bit of evidence uncovered at the Hill site was a rectangular hard-

58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

packed area surrounded by post molds, evidently a horse corral.
Pawnee burials of this period are single inhumations, usually flexed,
grouped on high hills near the villages. Gifts of various sorts occur
with the bodies and they are often wrapped in reed matting. Caucasian
artifacts, such as metal containers, reworked iron hoes, bridle bits, gun
barrels, rifle balls, knife blades, scrap metal, and a little glass occur in
house sites, cache pits, and burials in association with pottery and
aboriginal artifacts. Horse remains are very common in cache pits and
refuse deposits, along with bison, elk, deer, bird, and numerous animal
bones. In fact horse and bison bones appear to constitute the bulk of
the animal remains. Vegetal remains, charred corn predominating, are
fairly numerous in cache pits and houses, and occasionally in graves.
All these matters are discussed in detail by Wedel and need only be
mentioned here.

Pawnee pottery of this period is very characteristic and fairly abun-
dant, though complete pots are rare. Enough of the latter have been
recovered, however, to fill in details regarding size and shape. All the
pottery appears to have been hand molded, perhaps with a paddle and
anvil stone. Two main wares have been distinguished. The most
abundant of these (pl. 1, fig. 1, a, b, c, d, f, 1, k, 1) has a smooth paste
with fine grit temper, often containing considerable mica. It is light
buff ranging to gray in color, with a rough, irregular surface rubbed
fairly smooth in some cases but rarely polished. Cord marks are noted
occasionally on the body but are usually almost obliterated by subse-
quent rubbing. They do not occur on the necks of vessels. The pots
are characteristically small to medium in size, globular in shape, with
a more or less constricted neck. Especially characteristic is a collarlike
rim from 1 to 3 inches in width (pl. 1, fig. 1, a, b, c, d, 1) decorated
with incised lines. In many cases tabs extend down from this collar
and often these tabs are extended to the neck, forming a series of loop
handles (pl. 1, fig. 1, b, c). The rim itself is often decorated by a
series of straight or diagonal notches (pl. 1, fig. 1, b, c). The collar
designs are especially characteristic and limited to four main types, an
incised line forming a series of triangles filled in by hachuring (pl. 1,
fig. 1, a, d, f) being most common, series of chevrons, herringbone,
and simple diagonal lines (pl. 1, fig. 1, b, c) also being employed. The
pieces illustrated (pl. 1, fig. 1) are all from the Hill site and show
the lack of finish characteristic of decoration in this period. Lines are
irregular and the work is careless in the extreme. The fixed tradition
of form and decoration combined with a fundamentally advanced
pottery technique are in marked contrast to the lack of interest dis-
played in finish and decoration. Quite obviously the pottery makers of

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 59

this period had lost interest in their work. It was a dying industry,
formalized and decadent.

The second and less abundant type of Pawnee pottery also occurs
in all sites of this period. Ware of this type is hard and flaky but
similar to the last in its poor finish. The paste appears to contain much
iron and as the result of firing ranges in color from a light yellowish
brown to a bright orange red. Pottery of this type is much thicker
than that previously discussed, although there is considerable variation
in this regard even in the same piece. Uneven drying or firing has
apparently caused many of these pieces to crack along the midline of
the walls. Its characteristic completed form is a round, open-mouthed
bowl without handles or incised decoration (pl. 1, fig. 1,4). The speci-
men figured is unusual in having a separate lid with a loop handle (pl.
I, fig. 1, e). Both pieces were found close together in the same house
at the Hill site and have been carefully restored. Since separate lids
are unknown in any Nebraska prehistoric culture, it may be that this is
a Caucasian introduction. Two other plain-rim sherds of this type are
figured (pl. 1, fig. 1, g, 7). A unique characteristic of this ware is the
common occurrence of a wash or pseudoslip of red ocher on the inner
surface of bowls and sherds. This coating, which is often rather
brilliant, can generally be removed by rubbing, but occasionally it
appears to have been baked in. The use of this red pseudoslip is not
a late trait, as it occurs on the inner surface of about the same pro-
portion of protohistoric Pawnee pottery as well as on one type of pre-
historic ware. Since the mineral powder present in such bowls would
make very unpleasant eating, it seems probable that this type of ware
had certain ceremonial functions, a usage further indicated by the
unique lid already mentioned. Summing up the matter of historic
Pawnee pottery of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries,
we can say that it seems to furnish a reliable clue concerning the group
affiliations and period of any site at which it may be found. It
further forcibly illustrates the degeneration of the ceramic art follow-
ing the adoption of horse culture and the nomadic life thus engendered.

Stone artifacts are still numerous at Pawnee sites of this period.
For purposes of comparison with the artifact complexes of other
Nebraska cultures we may summarize Wedel’s historic Pawnee data.
In the following list of archeological criteria thus indicated, those non-
perishable artifact types which, so far as Nebraska cultures are known
at present, seem especially characteristic of Pawnee culture in this
period, are italicized.

Historic Pawnee ceramic type.

Metates, rare. One recorded from the Hill site, one from the Skidi site near
Palmer, Nebr.

60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Small rectangular manos, fairly common.

Cupped anvil stones of various sizes, very common.

Arrowpoints, rather rare. A few finely chipped and notched stone points and
about the same number of iron points recovered.

Large, flat side scrapers, very common. These are usually crudely chipped
quartzite having one edge rounded for holding and are espectally typical
Gpleenaiicn 2) aend))e

Small planoconvex end scrapers, very rare,

Rubbing stones, common.

Discoidal hammerstones, common.

Pecking stones, common.

Stone balls, fairly common (usually from graves).

Polished quartz pebbles and crystals, rare (usually from graves).

Grooved mauls, fairly common. Rather crude.

Grooved axes, rare. A few straight-backed, three-quarter grooved, long-bladed
specimens from surface at Linwood site.

Celts (polished), rare.

Celts (chipped), rare.

Stone “molds”, not abundant, but several found in graves and in houses at both
Hill and Linwood sites. They are of close-grained red stone with deep,
broad designs cut into them.

T-shaped and straight small chipped drills. Rare.

“ Whetstones”’ (elongate pieces of limestone, schist, or sandstone), common in
graves. Associated with left hand of 80 percent of the adult male skeletons
at the Hill site.

Sandstone shaft polishers (in pairs), fairly common (pl. 1, fig. 2, ¢).

Stone elbow pipes, common. Usually of catlinite (pl. 16, fig. 2, 1).

Bone and antler artifacts are likewise numerous. Bison scapula
hoes, for example, are often found in the same cache pits with an early
type of iron hoe. Shell artifacts are less common. The main types are
as follows:

Short bone awls, fairly common. These are usually of poor workmanship.

Rib shaft straighteners, common. This type (illustrated in pl. 6, fig. 1, c, from
a prehistoric ossuary) is rare in Nebraska save for protohistoric and
especially historic Pawnee sites, where they are common.

Bison ulna pick, common. (See pl. 18, fig. 1, a, for similar type from prehistoric
site.) They are most common in historic Pawnee sites.

Elk antler hide-scraper handles, fairly common. Unknown as yet in proto-
historic or prehistoric horizons.

Bone paint “brushes”, common (pl. 1, fig. 2, c). Unknown as yet im proto-
historic or prehistoric horizons.

Bison rib beaming tool, fairly common (pl. 1, fig. 2, b). Unknown as yet
protohistoric or prehistoric horizons.

Scapula hoes, common (pl. 6, fig. 2, d).

Toothed fleshers of bone, common (pl. 1, fig. 2, f). Unknown as yet im pre-
historic horizons,

Bone “plume holders”, rare (several from Hill site). Unknown as yet in
protohistoric or prehistoric horizons.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 61

Antler knapping tools, rather scarce.

Antler or bone bracelets, not reported.

Perforated animal teeth, fairly common. (See pl. 9, fig. 2, h, for similar artifacts
from prehistoric site.)

Animal jaw “corn shellers”’, common.

Ornamented animal skulls (one wildcat with brass buttons for eyes).

Bison horn spoons, fairly common in graves. (These are very perishable and
may have disappeared in more ancient sites.)

Notched mussel-shell spoons, rare.

Cylindrical shell “ear ornaments”. Occur rather often in pairs in graves.

Small tubular shell beads, rare.

Bone beads, not reported.

Owing to their perishable nature wooden artifacts are rare in all
sites of any antiquity. Nevertheless, a number of types have been
recovered in historic Pawnee sites.

Wooden mortar with legs, one found at Hill site. (According to historical
evidence these were in common use. )

Wooden bowls, fairly common (from graves).

Wooden platter, one found in grave at Hill site.

Cradle board, a considerable number of fragments found in graves at the Hill
site.

Glass beads, very numerous, especially in graves.

For the same reason as the above, woven artifacts are also rarely
encountered by the archeologist. However, the numerous graves
opened at the Hill site have furnished some material of this sort.
Bison hair cloth, several fragments from graves.

Bison hair yarn, numerous fragments from graves.
Twined rush matting, numerous fragments from graves and houses.

Thus, not including the more perishable types which may have
vanished from more ancient sites, we have 12 artifact types especially
characteristic of historic Pawnee culture. These are, first, a unique
type of pottery, then, large crude quartzite scrapers, grooved mauls,
stone “ molds”, “‘ whetstones ”’, catlinite elbow pipes, bison rib shaft
straighteners, elk antler hide-scraper handles (elbow type), “ paint
brushes ” of spongy bone, bison rib beaming tools, toothed fleshers of
bone, and cylindrical “ear ornaments” of shell. To these might be
added the mano, cupped anvil stones, grooved axes, and bone “ plume
holders’. The other nonperishable artifacts not listed occur more or
less commonly in other Nebraska cultures. The fact of individual
inhumation in hilltop cemeteries is likewise a distinctive historic
Pawnee trait so far as our present knowledge of Nebraska cultures is
concerned. These occurrences will be discussed later in connection
with the other cultures so far distinguished in the State. The develop-
ment of the Pawnee house type and other similar matters will likewise
be considered at that time.

5

62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

In addition to the later and documented Pawnee sites just described
the University of Nebraska Archeological Survey has also surveyed
and excavated in two large and important protohistoric sites appar-
ently of the same culture but representing a somewhat earlier period
(map, fig. I, sites 11, 12). These protohistoric villages are not only
located in the very heart of the Pawnee territory but also contain much
internal evidence linking them with the historic Pawnee culture as
revealed by archeology. Both have already been described in some
detail by Wedel,” although complete reports of later excavations car-
ried on during the summer of 1931 are in preparation. For our
present purpose it will suffice to sum up the general characteristics of
the culture thus revealed in order to facilitate comparison with other
and prehistoric cultures. The first of these is called the Burkett site
and is located above the Loup River. 4 miles southwest of Genoa in
Nance County. The other, called the Gray or Schuyler site, is larger,
being strung out for some 2 miles along a ridge between Shell Creek
and the Platte 2 miles north of Schuyler, Colfax County. Judging
from the relative amount of metal and glass remains recovered from
each, the Burkett site appears to be the older of the two, though both
represent the same general culture horizon. So far no horse remains
have been reported in excavating either of these sites, whereas such
skeletal material is abundant in the historic Pawnee villages circa 1805.
This occurrence of rather rare Caucasian artifacts of metal and glass
in sites in which horse remains are either scarce or entirely lacking is
significant and offers a means of dating the culture with relative
accuracy. Such artifacts could hardly have reached the Pawnee prior
to 1540 and Robert La Salle reports horses as being numerous in the
Pawnee villages by 1682, hence the present culture must fall between
these two dates, giving us an approximate median dating of 1600 for
the protohistoric Pawnee culture as revealed in the Burkett and Gray
sites.

Leaving for future publication the presentation of this evidence in
full, we will briefly sum up the salient characteristics of the rich cul-
ture so far revealed in these two sites. Both villages are scattered over
considerable areas without any apparent order and lack any visible
fortifications or earthworks, though both sites are marked by numerous
low mounds or refuse heaps between the houses.” In neither site are
the house remains marked by pits, and the earth lodges appear to have

* Wedel (no date). See Burkett and Schuyler sites. As previously mentioned,
Hayden (1868) and Blackman have briefly described certain aspects of these
protohistoric villages.

* See Wedel, no date, for further details.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 63

been built on or only a few inches below the surface of the ground.
At the Schuyler site one of the largest and finest houses of the Pawnee
type yet reported was excavated by Wedel in the summer of 1931.
This house, the floor of an earth lodge, was 49 feet in diameter, had
4 large central posts, an intermediate circle of 15 posts, and an outer
circle of 112 posts. The entrance passage, lined with posts, was in the
eastern part of the house, and there were seven large cache or storage
pits in the northwest quadrant of the floor area. Another house here of
somewhat similar nature but very poorly defined was also partially
excavated. Two houses have been excavated so far at the Burkett site,
one by the writer in the spring of 1931 and another by Wedel in the
summer of that year. The two houses were very similar, having 4
central posts and only one outer row of 12 posts, with entrance pas-
sages to the east. The floor plan of the house excavated in the spring
of 1931 is given here (fig. 3). These houses resemble that at the
Schuyler site in being perfectly round in general plan, but are small
and lack the outer row of post molds. Only the second of the Burkett
site houses contained a cache pit, the house here figured lacking them.
The protohistoric caches are generally similar to those of the historic
period but the survey parties located no outside storage pits at the
Burkett site, though they have been reported at the Schuyler site.
Particularly interesting is the consistent use of four central posts in
these protohistoric Pawnee houses in contrast to the characteristic six
or eight employed in the later historic lodges. Since the four direc-
tional house posts played an important role in all Pawnee ceremonial
symbolism their uniform occurrence in this earlier culture is undoubt-
edly significant.” It tends to refute Linton’s interpretation of the
larger number of central posts in the historic Pawnee lodges as being
an example of late and incomplete borrowing from the Arikara or
their Siouan neighbors.” Rather it would seem that the trait was an
old one in Pawnee culture that had disappeared in historic times save
for certain ceremonial vestiges. Equally interesting is the typical .
buffalo skull shrine in the first house excavated (fig. 3). It was
located directly opposite the passageway, between the four central
posts and against the western wall on a slightly raised earth platform.
The skull had been burned, apparently on the destruction of the lodge,
but with it were charred “shrine sticks’? and the only Caucasian
artifacts found in the house, a few crude and possibly native-made
glass beads and small pieces of sheet copper, testifying to its cere-

* See Murie, 1914, for the symbolism connected with the four-post motif.
* Linton, 1924, pp. 247, 248; compare Wedel (no date).

64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

monial significance. No such shrine or altar was found in the second
house excavated. Thus the protohistoric house type is practically
identical with that of the historic Pawnee save that the one house at
the Schuyler site is technically superior to any of the latter so far
excavated, and the earlier houses cling to the fout-post central
foundation.

Very little is known of the protohistoric Pawnee burial complex.
Wedel found a semiflexed adult skeleton in a cache pit at the Schuyler

eet mene
So ee eee PaaS
Seen se hate Se ae
a.

te ‘: He} *s
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; liO re, OC .
ee HO ge ee
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‘ 12"x 3" § FVRE °
DEIN S PLACE we tOe 22 ce eee oeeeee ee 2 ne
iy BEAT ‘ i {e) !
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s 7 eee

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= ag ae
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ee ld

Fic. 3.—Floor plan of protohistoric Pawnee earth lodge, Burkett site, Nance
County. I-IV, central posts; 1-12, outer posts; A, burned buffalo skull shrine;
B, C, broken pots; ?, extra post molds or pocket caches.

site in June 1932 and mentions unverified reports of sitting burials
from the same place. Blackman (1924, p. 7) has described an ossuary
at the Burkett site which, if verified by future research, may prove
to be an important link with prehistoric cultures in Nebraska. So far
no hilltop burial grounds have been reported from the vicinity of
these sites.

The ceramic remains from both the Burkett and Schuyler sites are
strikingly similar and of the finest type so far reported from Nebraska.
Both sites are astonishingly rich in broken pottery, which occurs in
abundance in house sites and refuse heaps. This pottery was first

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 65

figured by Holmes and has since been described by Wedel,” hence we
need only discuss its major characteristics. Complete restored pots
(pl. 3) and characteristic rim sherds (pl. 2) are figured here, and these,
in conjunction with the illustrations given by Holmes and Wedel,
present a good picture of protohistoric Pawnee pottery. This ware
appears to have been the product of a living ceramic art, variable and
well executed in its forms and showing none of the careless formalized
technique so marked in the historic Pawnee pottery. In protohistoric
Pawnee ware a gray paste predominates, often fired to a light-brown
color and tempered with fine sand or crushed stone. It is similar in
texture to the better grade of historic Pawnee pottery but is usually
better polished on the outer surface. Presumably it has been shaped by
the paddle and anvil method, or by lump modeling, since no evidences
of coiling have been noticed. The occurrence of vertical ridges on the
body of many of these pots is hard to explain (see pl. 2, fig. 2, d, 1;
pl. 3, a, b, and Holmes, 1903, pl. 177, upper left-hand corner) but is a
rather characteristic feature of the ware and may be the result of
molding the pots within a willow twig frame as described by Dunbar.”
Decoration is characteristically accomplished by incision and to a lesser
extent by modeling, but a small percentage of the sherds have a red
ocher slip or wash on their inner surface, as is also the case with his-
toric Pawnee pottery. The decoration of lips, rims, and handles with
angular incised designs is rather ornate and pleasing to the eye (pl. 2).
Curvilinear and cord-marked designs such as occur on Mandan pottery
(compare Will and Spinden, 1906, pls. 37, 40) are totally absent,
though the ridged surface texture and many of the geometric designs
occurring on the Mandan sherds are strikingly similar to some of the
protohistoric Pawnee pieces. While a considerable proportion of the
Burkett and Schuyler site rims are simple and direct (pl. 2, fig. 1, k, l,
m) others have marked collar with incised designs (pl. 2, fig. 2, g, h, and
Holmes, 1903, pl. 177, lower right-hand corner) which closely approxi-
mate both the historic Pawnee (pl. 1, fig. 1) and certain prehistoric
Nebraska pottery types to be discussed later (pls. 5, 9, 21, 24). On
the whole, however, the shouldered rims or collars on the protohistoric
pottery are less pronounced than in either of the foregoing wares.
Instead, the protohistoric Pawnee pottery makers seem to have run to
broad loop handles (pl. 2, fig. 1, a-g, fig. 2, a-e) or to a pot marked
by an outward curling lip and a whole series of loop handles, often

@ Holmes, 1903, figs. 78, 79, and pl. 177; Wedel, no date. The photographs
of restored pots, pl. 3, were made available through the courtesy of Dr. E. H.
Bell.

* Cited by Grinnell, 1893, pp. 255-256.

66 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

elaborately incised, extending from lip to shoulder (pls. 2, fig. 1, b,
fig. 2,a). Cord marking occurs but rarely in the protohistoric pottery,
apparently being replaced to a great extent by the peculiar vertical
ridges already noted. As can be seen from our restored pots (pl. 3),
the reconstructions drawn by Holmes (1903, fig. 78) are very accurate
as to the characteristic round or semi-pointed body shapes of the
complete pots.

In addition to the more characteristic pottery forms several unique
types with numerous spouts or with a flat canteenlike shape have been
recovered at these sites. Certain of these appear to be trade pieces
which may prove to have important historical connections, This is
especially true of a number of shell-tempered and, in some cases,
incised sherds found at the Schuyler site. The only other pottery arti-
facts are a very few modeled tobacco pipes (see Holmes, 1903, fig. 79)
and more numerous small, ground-down pottery disks which are
usually perforated (pl. 11, fig. 2, a). The latter owing to the small
size of the perforation do not seem to have been used as spindle
weights, but their function is as yet undetermined.

Until the considerable amount of archeological material obtained
by the Survey from both the Burkett and the Schuyler sites has been
carefully studied in detail, no full treatment of protohistoric Pawnee
culture is possible.” However, for purposes of the present compara-
tive study we may briefly list the main artifact types noted at the time
the excavations were in progress, though such a list must obviously be
incomplete and subject to correction. Stone artifacts are rather
numerous.

Small, slightly dished mortars occur, though metates and manos have not been
reported.

Arrowpoints, characteristically very small and triangular in shape, lacking
either stem or notches (NBa, fig. 7), very numerous (pl. 7, fig. I, 7).

Stone knife blades, common. Diamond-shaped and beveled type characteristic.

Large flat side scrapers of quartzite, fairly common, especially at Burkett site.

Small planoconvex end scrapers, very common. Usually very short but some
long and narrow examples from Schuyler site.

Rubbing stones, common.

Discoidal hammerstones, common.

Pecking stones, common.

Stone balls, not noted.

Polished and perforated gypsum crystals, quartzite pebbles, and hematite paint
nodules, all noted.

Grooved mauls, large and heavy examples fairly numerous.

Grooved axes, not reported (probably rare or lacking).

Polished celts, not reported (probably rare or lacking).

* Such a study is being prepared under the direction of Dr. E. H. Bell.

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 67

’

Chipped celts, fairly common (also chipped ‘‘ hoes”? common).
Stone “molds”, not found.

T-shaped stone drills or awls, fairly common.

“ Whetstones”’, not reported.

Sandstone shaft polishers, common.

Stone elbow pipes, both catlinite and “ pipestone’”’ specimens found.

Platform pipe (one unbored specimen found at Schuyler site).

Bone and antler artifacts are likewise rather abundant:

Bone awls, various sizes, fairly abundant.

Rib shaft straightener, very common.

Antler shaft straightener, not reported.

Bison ulna pick, present.

Elk antler hide-scraper handle, not reported.

Antler pick or punch, present.

Bone paint “ brushes”, not reported.

Bison rib beaming tool, not reported.

Scapula hoe, common (pl. 6, fig. 2, c).

Toothed fleshers of bone, rare (1 found at Burkett site).

Bone “plume holders”, not reported.

Antler knapping tools, not reported.

Perforated animal teeth, not reported.

Antler or bone bracelets, fragments found.

Animal jaw “corn sheller”’, not noted if present.

Ornamental animal skulls, etc., one complete skeleton of mammal (badger ?)
covered with purplish red pigment in refuse heap at Burkett site.

Bison-horn spoon, none recovered.

Mussel-shell spoons, not noted.

Cylindrical shell ear ornaments, not found.

Small tubular shell beads, not reported.

Tubular bone beads, present at both sites.

Neither wooden artifacts, textile materials, nor vegetal remains have
been recovered from either of these protohistoric sites. The absence of
remains of such materials is apparently due to the greater age of the
Burkett and Schuyler villages than that of the historic Pawnee villages
previously discussed. Similarly, bison horn cores and other fragile
skeletal material occurs at the Hill site, whereas it is lacking in the
protohistoric villages. The fact that historic Pawnee cemeteries as well
as village sites have been opened, whereas in the protohistoric Pawnee
sites the cemeteries or ossuaries have not been located, must be con-
sidered in comparing the totality of the two cultures. Concerning
Caucasian contacts the Burkett site yielded a few blue-green, poorly
crystallized glass beads, some small copper beads, and strips of sheet
copper, and the Schuyler site contained bits of iron, copper leaf, a
tubular copper bead, and a few gun flints. No horse remains were
found in examining the animal bones at the Burkett site. The animal

68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

skeletal remains from the Schuyler site have not yet been fully
reported on.

Considering the relationship of this older culture to that of the his-
toric Pawnee we find that the former contains just one-half of the
peculiarly characteristic Pawnee artifact types, namely, a more abun-
dant, richer, but rather similar ceramic type, large flat side scrapers
(quartzite), grooved mauls, catlinite elbow pipes, bison rib shaft
straighteners, and toothed fleshers of bone (the latter rare in proto-
historic sites, however). Besides these, the two cultures share many
common artifact types such as chipped celts and hoes, hammer stones,
rubbing stones, pecking stones, shaft polishers, bone awls, bone and
antler picks, bone beads, and scapula hoes. Of the more unique arti-
facts, both phases of culture possess perforated or polished quartz
crystals and decorated animal remains. On the other hand, the proto-
historic culture is particularly characterized by tiny triangular arrow-
points, flaked stone knives, an abundance of short end scrapers,
T-shaped chipped stone drills, platform and clay pipes, and fragmen-
tary antler or bone bracelets. Moreover, the protohistoric sites are
much richer in every respect, except Caucasian artifacts, than are the
historic Pawnee sites. When the protohistoric interments have been
excavated, the greater richness of such sites may be even more strik-
ingly emphasized. There is evident a strong linkage between the two
cultural phases, but the earlier horizon is the more elaborate and con-
tains many native artifact types that had already disappeared prior to
the advent of American explorers in the Pawnee territory.

PREHISTORIC SITES RECENTLY EXCAVATED IN NEBRASKA

So far we have been considering the general problems of our im-
mediate region, its historical and environmental background, and the
previous archeological research therein accomplished. In addition,
the concrete outlines of one of the major historic cultures of the
State, namely, the evidences of Pawnee occupation, have been sketched
in. It remains to present the new evidence on prehistoric archeology.

The following sections deal with scattered prehistoric sites in
south-central, central, and extreme western Nebraska (see map, fig. I
and table 4, p. 246). These were excavated in an attempt to outline
major cultures within the State as suggested by earlier excavations,
examination of local collections, and reconnaissance work by members
of the survey parties. Rather than spend all available resources on a
complete surface survey of the State, the writer attempted a less ambi-
tious survey coupled with actual excavation in chosen sites that gave

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 69

promise of wider correlations. It is this evidence that is now pre-
sented. First, a series of village and ossuary sites in south-central
Nebraska are considered. Then a series of village and ossuary sites
in eastern Nebraska, all the latter belonging to the prehistoric “ Ne-
braska culture” of Gilder and Sterns, are discussed. Next, the im-
portant Walker Gilmore site near Rock Bluffs, Cass County, where the
Nebraska culture is superimposed over an earlier and very different
horizon, is dealt with at some length. Following this, other sites not
fitting into any clearly distinguished culture group are referred to,
and, later still, sites incompletely known but important in this initial
attempt to trace the spread of known prehistoric cultures are men-
tioned. Last of all, recent finds revealing the earliest known evidence
of man in Nebraska will be considered.

Reference to the map of sites (fig. 1), coupled with the map of
geographic areas and tribal domains (fig. 2), will aid the reader in
following this necessarily incomplete account. We are here dealing
with a huge area of which a great, indeed the greater, part is still
unknown from the archeological standpoint. That the limited work
already accomplished will give a complete outline of Nebraska pre-
history is not to be expected, but perhaps the beginnings of such an
outline may emerge.

VILLAGE ON Lost CrEEK (DooLey SiTE), FRANKLIN CouNTY

On the south side of the Republican River near its junction with a
small stream known as Lost Creek is a large aboriginal village site of
prehistoric origin (fig. 1, site 13; fig. 4). Traces of former occupa-
tion are to be found over many acres of creek bottom and hill slope,
and several similar sites occur farther south along Lost Creek. The
place where Lost Creek enters the Republican River is marked on
the west by steep walls culminating in bare river terraces. To the
east, however, the land gradually rises to a series of low, rounded
hills. These hills and the lower lands are nearly all under cultivation
at the present time, and the plowed fields are marked by abundant
potsherds, flint work, and other cultural detritus. Owing to its size
and the present state of cultivation, no detailed map of the entire
site was obtained, but a former population of considerable size is
indicated. The concentration of artifacts and camp debris in certain
small areas over the plowed fields marks the location of numerous
lodges, and the general similarity of the potsherds and other cultural
evidence over the entire site suggests.an occupation more or less
uniform in composition and in time. The fact that no traces of white

70 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

contact have been found in this village gives a minimum age of some
350 years for the site, although it may be much older.

Prior to the wholesale breaking up of the prairie sod Lost Creek
was evidently a sizable stream at all times of the year, and its steep
western banks, some 50 feet high, testify to considerable cutting
power. At the time of our visit, July 8-27, 1930, the lower course of
the stream was bone dry, and only a few pools marked its southern
extension. In time of heavy rainfall, however, the stream still carries
a large amount of water. Cottonwoods, willows, bur oaks, elms, and
other deciduous trees grow thickly along the river and creek beds, but
beyond the draws leading into such bottoms the rolling hills are devoid

BLOOMINGTON

o BURLINGTON AND Quincy Rp,

HIE Ae

\ 3/6 MILE S

i} TO HANSAS LINE

Fic. 4.—Sketch map of Lost Creek district, Franklin County. 1, 2, earth lodges
at Dooley site.

of trees. The soil of the hills and bottoms is a fertile sandy loam
favorable to both recent and ancient cultivation. In the course of
cutting its channel Lost Creek has exposed beds of limestone which
contain layers of brown and yellow jasper. The jasper is mostly of
a poor grade, though some clear deposits of the mineral occur. The
poorer quality jasper takes the form of thin layers which break off
in slabs ranging froma few inches to several feet in horizontal dimen-
sions and only a few inches in thickness. Both the clear jasper and the
slabs were employed by the natives in the manufacture of stone
artifacts and occasionally for flooring material. This juxtaposition of
wooded river bottom, rolling plains, and surface jasper quarries made
the general site exceptionally favorable for aboriginal occupation.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG Ff

Our excavation work in this region was prosecuted on a farm then
owned by T. Dooley, situated on the east bank of Lost Creek about
one-eighth of a mile from its junction with the Republican River.
Previous digging here by local collectors from Franklin and nearby
towns had revealed much of archeological interest. This work car-
ried on in 1928 and 1929 was largely unorganized, few notes were
taken, and the specimens were scattered. However, through the cour-
tesy of one of the workers, Karl Spence, of Crawford, Nebr., I have
been able to compare some of this earlier material with that which
we obtained. Mr. Spence kindly sent me photographs and descrip-
tions of his extensive collection from this site. This data I have in-
corporated under the heading “ house 2,” at the close of the present
section. é

The site which we selected for excavation was a small flat some
40 feet above the present bed of Lost Creek and separated from larger
flats on both the north and the south by wide draws or former creek
channels. The little island or miniature mesa thus formed was again
almost cut in two from east to west by a smaller draw or dry wash.
The bulk of the earlier digging had been carried on to the south of
this little draw and along the steep banks of Lost Creek. The banks
at this point drop steeply to a small shelf about 35 feet below, and then
vertically for 10 to 12 feet to the present water level. The old houses
were located on the uppermost level, and the steep creek banks had
been used as a place for dumping refuse; ashes, broken pottery, and
artifacts were formerly thickly deposited along the rim. Unfortu-
nately, relic hunters had torn up most of these deposits and had so
honeycombed the edge of the bank that the owner was obliged to forbid
further excavation here. Since the bulk of the digging back from the
banks occurred south of the small draw previously mentioned, we
centered our first exploration work on the north side, which had been
relatively little dug over. The whole flat in question had never been
under the plow, having been used as pasture land. While it formed
part of the bottom, inasmuch as the low hills to the east were almost
a quarter of a mile away, it had no timber other than low shrubs,
the larger trees at this point being confined to the creek bed and the
deeper draws.

Since there were no surface indications of house pits, we ran our
first trench through a depression parallel to the edge of the bank where
local collectors reported much material had been found (fig. 5, excava-
tion 2). A trench 20 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 3 feet deep yielded
some artifacts but no subsoil indications of any house structure. A
few potsherds, some worked jasper and chips, as well as two bison

72 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

teeth were found between the depths of 12 and 24 inches. At a depth
of 3 feet an irregular mineral deposit of white nodules and streaks
was encountered at all points in the trench. This deposit occurs at
about the same depth along the cut banks of the creeks and is natural
in origin.

Abandoning this trench, we crossed the small draw to the much
dug-over area to the south. Here we dug three trenches, respectively

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Fic. 5.—Floor plan, house 1, Lost Creek. Hachures, excavated area outside

house; outline of house enclosed by dot and dash lines; I-IV, central posts; Cr1-8,
cache pits; small circles, pocket caches; black dots, posts or post molds; dots
within circles, either post molds or pocket caches; A-B, cross-section shown in
figure 6.
20, 15, and g feet in length by 3 feet in width and depth, all radiating
out from the area of most intensive digging. This excavation (no. 3)
is not shown in figure 5, but occurs about 100 yards southeast of ex-
cavation 2. Identical conditions to those in excavation I were en-
countered, scattered charcoal, debris, and artifacts occurring between
the depths of 12 and 24 inches, but no traces of any house construction
were found.

During this preliminary work we were obsessed with the idea that
house remains would be encountered in the depressions of the pasture

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG FS

rather than in the few elevated areas, which we avoided. Our pre-
conceptions in this case were due to earlier experience along the Mis-
souri River, where old lodges are marked by pits as the result of their
original subterranean nature. Fortunately, we were joined at this time
by A. T. Hill, who informed us that the house previously excavated
here had been marked by a low mound. With his assistance, and after
sinking numerous test pits, we selected a small rise just southeast of
excavation 2, which proved to be a house site, apparently closely
similar to that which had been torn up on the south side of the small
draw.

METHODS OF EARTH LODGE EXCAVATION

Prior to discussing this site in particular it may be well to devote a
short space to the matter of house site excavation in general. In our
earlier work in Nebraska trenching methods were employed both to
facilitate refilling and because in many cases it was impossible to leave
a larger excavation open between week-end trips. Allowing for the
inevitable modifications of technique at certain sites, our system was
generally as follows. Having determined the circumference of the
mound (or pit), its height (or depth), and the central point, four
large datum posts were set up at the cardinal points well beyond the
assumed edge of the house itself. A diagram or floor plan was then
made, dividing the entire area into 3-foot squares, lettered from north
to south and numbered from east to west. A row was then dug
out from north to south in the center completely bisecting the
mound (or pit) and extending well beyond and below the house
structure thus cross-sectioned. The dirt thus removed was piled on
the east side of the trench so that the west half of the house could
be completely excavated. In this way the dirt pile could be kept just
behind the advancing workers. Each section was carefully measured
and staked off, each worker removing a 3-foot section at a time
(pl. 12, figs. 1, 3). As each north-to-south row was removed the west
wall thus revealed was diagramed. The depth of the excavation in
all places reached into undisturbed soil, and a progressive series of
house cross-sections was thus obtained. Having completed the western
half of the house we returned to the center, and having cleared off
and excavated the first row to the east, the work was similarly carried
on to the eastern limits of the house. Naturally, the trench was nar-
rowed down in following out passageways (fig. 5).

The necessity of returning to the center of the house and removing
the dirt heap here prior to excavating the second half may be avoided
by starting the initial trench on one edge of the house site and carrying

74 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

it completely through to the other. In practice, however, it is often
so difficult to locate the edge of the actual house area prior to ex-
cavation that a central trench cleanly outlining the structure is apt
to save time and energy.

All important artifacts and structural features were thus recorded
on separate diagrams as the work progressed, and in theory, when
these were assembled they should have given a complete reconstruction
of the site in question. The actuality, however, often left a great deal
to be desired. Only those who have worked in sites of this nature
where almost no solid structural features remain can appreciate the
difficulty involved in reconstructing the exact nature of a house from
evidence thus recorded. The older the site the more will rodents, in-
sects, and roots have disturbed the original features of the earth-
lodge structure, which naturally lacks any solid walls or floors differ-
ing in basic material from the surrounding earth.

For this reason in all our later work we uncovered the entire floor
of the lodge at one time, removing the earth with wheelbarrows. In
this way we were able to go over every inch of the floor with trowels
in our search for post molds or other structural features, thus avoiding
the unpleasant discovery that despite the best of intentions we must
have overlooked such features, which, under the former system, would
already have been covered up by our dump heap. The matter of
features above the floor in this latter form of excavation was taken
care of by charting them in as the digging progressed. The matter of
soil layers above the floor may also be determined by leaving a datum
square of earth in the center of the house which may be compared
with the walls of the excavation beyond the edges of the floor. I
mention this last type of excavation at this point because I believe it
to be by far the best method for exploring the earth-lodge type of
dwelling. However, since the excavations covered in the present re-
port were for the most part carried on during the early part of our
Nebraska work it may be taken for granted, unless otherwise stated,
that the trenching system was employed.

HOUSE I

In house 1 there was little or no surface indication of any dwelling
other than a low mound not more than 16 inches higher than the
surrounding pasture land and roughly 60 feet in diameter. The
mound was irregular in outline, with its greatest height along the
north-and-south axis, although it was hardly noticeable as a rise in
the rough pasture land. Its artificial nature was only determined by
test pits, as there was no cultural evidence on the surface.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 75

Excavation by trenching in the manner previously outlined dis-
closed the remains of an earth lodge in the form of a rounded square
with the four walls closely oriented to the four points of the compass
(fig. 5). Two entrance passageways led from the center of the east
and west walls, respectively. The walls were approximately 30 feet in
length and the outer boundaries of the house were marked by 27
burned posts or post molds. The fireplace, slightly more than 3 feet
in diameter, was located in the center of the north-and-south axis of
the house but about 3 feet west of the true center. Two large cache
pits were located in the northwest and southwest corners of the house
and some 10 smaller caches and “ pocket ”’ caches were also noted.
In several cases it was impossible to tell whether a post mold or a
pocket cache was represented by these subfloor excavations, and only
where vertical charcoal or wood was encountered did we designate
it as a post. The distinction between definite posts, pocket caches, and
indeterminate subfloor excavations has been indicated (fig. 5). A

i. pee UNMIXE D. soiL~

Fic. 6.—Cross-section of house 1, Lost Creek. Hachures indicate unexcavated soil.

typical cross-section of the house mound is also shown (fig. 6), the
outlines of the two largest cache pits appearing in this diagram. The
diagram also illustrates the relative depths of the main soil strata to be
distinguished, and indicates rather well the manner in which the floor
line has been broken down in places by the long-continued activity
of rodents, insects, roots, and other disturbing agencies.

Our excavations indicated that the upper foot of soil was barren
of artifacts or human debris, except where these had been brought
up by the burrowing of rodents. This layer consisted of a light yellow
sandy loam and had evidently been deposited over the site subsequent
to its abandonment. Below this to the depth of approximately 3 feet
(from the surface) the soil was darker and mixed with charcoal, ash,
and human detritus. The old floor line was indicated by a very waver-
ing black line, hard-packed in places, and marked by a somewhat greater
concentration of charcoal, artifacts, and debris. In the central por-
tions of the mound the depth of this floor line averaged 30 inches,
decreasing slightly in depth toward the edges of the mound.

76 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

From the evidence revealed by all cross-sections made in excava-
tions I, 2, and 3, the following interpretations seem justified. First,
that the upper foot of soil over the area in question is of natural origin
and has accumulated since the site was abandoned. This is indicated
by its uniformly unmixed nature. Second, that the mixed soil over
the general site from a depth of 12 to 24 inches, approximately, had
accumulated during the period of occupancy. This is indicated by the
fact that the excavations extending outside the boundaries of house 1,
as well as those on the flat outside of any house sites (excavations 1,
2), all showed scattered human refuse throughout this layer. Third,
that the human detritus found in house 1, from a depth of about 24
inches to the lowest point of mixture (cache I, 6 feet 3 inches), was
due to the nature of the house in question. The floor line (averaging
30 inches deep at the center) is some 6 inches below the bottom of
the mixed soil outside the house site. This apparently indicates that
the house floor had been excavated originally to only about this
depth below the then surface of the surrounding soil. Such an in-
terpretation of the evidence accounts for the collapsed earth lodge
forming a low mound rather than a depression such as occurs where
a deeper pit has been dug. It also agrees with the internal evidence
of the various excavations already mentioned.

Unfortunately, no accurate data are available for estimating the
time element involved in this accumulation of about 12 inches of mixed
soil prior and 12 inches of unmixed soil subsequent to the abandon-
ment of the site by its original inhabitants. Such a deposition of soil
other than by human agency and wind action, must have been due to
wash from the low hills to the north and east. Owing to the almost
level nature of the treeless flat on which the house is located and to
the very gradual slope beyond this to the hills in question, the filling-in
process would presumably have been rather slow. The lack of any
traces of white contact alone gives the site a minimum age of 350
years, but beyond this we must leave to future physiographic research
the problem of the actual time involved during its occupation and since
its abandonment.

The floor plan of the house itself is shown in figure 5 and plate 4,
figure 1. Its square form with rounded corners is unlike any other
lodges previously excavated on the Republican River. On the other
hand, its very shallow semisubterranean floor, its outer and inner post
holes, central fire place, and internal cache pits bear a generic re-
semblance to the historic Pawnee lodges of that region previously de-
scribed. Unlike the latter sites, however, the floor line of this lodge
had been badly broken up and, compared to the Pawnee lodges of

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 77

circa 1800, was difficult to trace. In this regard it is apparent that the
older the site the more broken up will be the lines of soil stratification,
owing to the long-continued work of insects and rodents. In all cases
but one the posts had rotted away except for small crumbling pieces
of charcoal and rotted wood. Each post, however, thus left a mold
somewhat larger than itself which could often be cleaned out by hand
without the use of tools. The outer post molds averaged about 10
inches in diameter, suggesting a post about 7 inches in thickness.
These outer posts appear to have been vertical rather than leaning
outward as occurs in historic Pawnee lodges; however, lacking the
actual posts themselves, this is not positive. One post in the southeast
corner was more or less intact below the floor line, consisting of two
slabs of bark filled with yellow earth, ash, and charcoal. The bark
crumbled on exposure but appeared to be a soft wood, perhaps cot-
tonwood, and the post itself measured 7 inches in diameter. It is
possible that not all the outer posts were located, especially on the
north and west walls. Their distribution was six on the north, eight on
the east, eight on the south, and five on the west, although originally
there may have been eight to a side. In every case the upper portions
had been burned, while the lower portions had rotted away. Evidences
of the floor line extended only about 2 feet beyond the posts.

The arrangement of the inside posts as revealed by the excavation
leaves something to the imagination. In many cases it was impossible
to distinguish between post molds and small pocket caches, while in
others large cache pits or other subfloor excavations made the location
of post holes difficult. Four post molds, each about 6 feet from the
center of the fireplace, are located in an almost perfect square (fig. 5,
I-IV). The northeast post hole measured 12 inches, the southeast
10 inches, the southwest 10 inches, and the northwest 9 inches. The
southwest post hole was less clearly defined than the others (fig. 5,
IV) but appears to have served this function rather than that of a
pocket cache, since it contained considerable charcoal. All of the post
molds, both inner and outer, were sunk well below the level of the
floor. Judging from the one 7-inch post found more or less intact,
the holes were first dug out, the posts set in, and the earth tamped
down around them. Just 3 feet south of the north wall three 4-inch
post molds occurred on an east-and-west line, but all three were very
shallow, penetrating only a few inches below the floor line. They
could not have been used as roof supports, and their positions, each
2 feet north of a cache pit, suggest some relationship between post
and pit. One 4-inch post mold was located 3 feet from the southeast
corner, another of the same size exactly between the NE. and SE.

6

78 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

center posts, and a third 8 feet east of the latter. There were un-
doubtedly other posts missed in the excavation and, as before men-
tioned, some of the pocket caches may actually represent post molds
retaining no traces of their former wood content.

To judge from the postholes located, it would seem that the four
center posts formed the central framework of the lodge. It should
be noted, however, that this central framework, as well as the fireplace
itself, occurs about 3 feet west of the exact center. The 4-inch post to
the east may be one of a pair on either side of the east entrance,
but if so no trace of its mate was found. The other 4- and 6-inch posts
above mentioned may have served as markers for cache pits, as par-
titions, or for both purposes.

Clearly defined entrance ways were encountered leading out from
the center of both east and west walls. They were marked by a heavy
layer of hard-packed ash and clay averaging 3 feet in width and 5
inches in thickness. The eastern passage was traced out 12 feet and the
western 20 feet. Starting from floor level (26 inches below ground
level on the west, 27 inches on the east) the east passage sloped very
gently up about 6 inches in 12 feet. The west passage likewise left
the house at floor level just beyond the outer posts, but was level
throughout its length. At 20 feet, owing to the westward slope of the
ground, it was only 15 inches below the surface. Beyond this, earlier
burrowings along the creek bank prevented tracing it. Only one bor-
dering post hole was noted on the north edge of the west passage,
18 feet from the west wall. This contained a very badly disintegrated
4-inch charred post. However, the two narrow, clearly defined pas-
sageways extending with even width so far beyond the house walls
indicate that they were originally closed in. Possibly all the posts
would have been noted had the floor been entirely cleared off instead
of being cut through by trenches.

The fire place consisted of a bowl-shaped depression at floor line
about 3 feet in diameter. Some 12 inches of white ash and charcoal
rested upon 5 inches of red baked clay in the center of the depression.
Traces of burned clay, ash, charcoal, burned bone, and other debris
extended about 12 inches beyond the fireplace proper.

STORAGE OR CACHE Pits

In all, 21 subfloor storage or cache pits were distinguished in house
1. These ranged from large, carefully excavated pits, lined with stone
slabs, to small scooped-out pockets hardly to be distinguished from
rodent or other burrowings. No cache pits were encountered in any of
our trenches outside house 1, although they may have been present.

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 79
Accounts of the amateur work across the draw rather suggest that they
dug out some outside caches, but there is no certainty in this regard.
Since comparatively few complete specimens were found in any of the
caches it seems probable that they were emptied by their owners when
the house was abandoned.

Cache I was a bell-shaped storage pit, 6 feet 3 inches deep and 3 feet
6 inches in greatest diameter, located in the southwest corner of the
house. A cross-section and the position of the pit is shown in figs. 5
and 6. It had been carefully dug out of the hard magnesia-streaked
earth, and its narrow mouth opened just below the floor at a depth
of about 36 inches. There was much white ash in the opening, but the
lower soil in the cache was dark and much mixed with midden
material. This soil could be taken out with the bare hands, in marked
contrast to the walls which were extremely hard.

To judge from the manner in which the walls scaled off to a depth of
I to 2 inches, the cache had evidently been originally lined with wet
clay. The floor was flat with rounded edges. The following articles
were taken from this pit: 1 worked bison scapula, 1 hammerstone,
I antler shaft straightener, 4 bone awls, 1 antler flaking tool, 2 cut
antlers, potsherds, several fragments of incised antler (?) bracelet,
t bone fishhook, 3 flint hoes, several broken flint blades, and several
fragments of baked wattle and daub with imprints of grass or reed.
Two large flat slabs of low-grade jasper, many lumps of baked clay,
burned limestone, flint spalls, chips, pebbles, mollusk shells, and
various animal remains were also found. Although this was the richest
cache found in the house, it too appeared to have been largely emptied
by its owners.

Cache 2 was located directly north of cache 1 in the northwest corner
of the house (figs. 5, 6). It was shallower than cache 1, being 5 feet
Io inches deep and 3 feet in greatest diameter. Unlike the former, it
had a wide mouth and contained very little material. The most striking
feature was the flooring of 12 large slabs of low-grade jasper (pl. 4,
fig. 3). These were arranged evenly over the floor of the cache, and
above the mouth of the cache, about floor level, were a considerable
number of other slabs, perhaps having served as a covering. One
chipped jasper celt, two bone awls, and some potsherds were the only
artifacts in the pit. There was much white ash at its opening but the
lower soil was soft, black, and much mixed. There was no clay lining,
though the rounded walls were distinct.

According to G. P. Spence, of Franklin, a similar stone-lined cache
pit with very little in it was encountered in the older diggings across the
draw. Ralph Douglas, of Bloomington, while digging in a plowed field

80 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

about one-eighth of a mile west of house 1, had also encountered part
of an old lodge floor, 8 by to feet, paved in the same manner. Like-
wise, A. T. Hill, excavating a lodge about 3 miles south of the present
site, encountered two areas on its floor, respectively 34 and 5 feet
square, which were covered with evenly laid slabs. As previously men-
tioned, these low-grade jasper slabs occur naturally in the bed of Lost
Creek and by their nature almost suggest this type of use. In the
course of our own digging many of these slabs were encountered, and
while some gave evidence of having been artificially squared we found
no others placed together as flooring.

Cache 3 was a circular pit 3 feet in diameter and 5 feet deep (3 feet
below floor line). It was marked by an abundance of baked clay on the
floor line at a depth of 27 to 30 inches, perhaps the result of fires
having been built over the cache. A considerable number of flat, thin
stones occurred at a depth of 32 inches. A few small end scrapers,
broken chert blades, bone artifacts, potsherds, and considerable char-
coal, ash, mussel shells, and other debris occurred throughout the pit,
which was filled with soft dark mixed soil. There was no evidence of
any lining to the cache pit.

Cache 4 was a cylindrical pit, being 30 inches in diameter and 4 feet
deep. It was filled with dark soft earth containing much ash and char-
coal. Aside from a broken jasper hoe and some potsherds, it was
devoid of artifacts. There was no evidence of any special floor or
lining.

Cache 5 was very similar to cache 4. It, too, was cylindrical in form,
being 20 inches in diameter and 4 feet 6 inches deep. Its contents con-
sisted of dark soil heavily impregnated with ash, containing no arti-
facts other than some flint chips and potsherds.

Cache 6 was somewhat smaller than the last, being marked by a
4-inch layer of pure white ash at floor line and by its greater depth.
It measured 18 inches in diameter and was 5 feet deep (from the
surface). Six inches from the bottom was a large horizontal stone
slab about 19 inches long. Aside from sherds, chips, and bone debris,
its dark mixed soil contained no artifacts.

Cache 7 was completely covered at floor line by a thin jasper slab
measuring 11 by 144 inches. The pit itself was small and somewhat
narrower at the mouth than at the bottom, being 40 inches deep and
20 inches in greatest diameter. Aside from the covering slab, this pit
was typical of all the other pocket caches indicated by unnumbered
circles in figure 5, and the photograph (pl. 4, fig. 2) illustrates the type.
There was no evidence of any lining to the pit, and its dark mixed soil
content was devoid of artifacts.

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG SI

Cache 8 would have been an ordinary pocket cache but for the fact
that it was lined with baked clay about three-fourths inch in thickness.
The cache was small, being 11 inches in greatest diameter and 3 feet
6 inches deep (1 foot 6 inches below the approximate floor line). The
soil content was of soft dark mixed earth but was barren of artifacts.
The lining of the cache was similar to that in cache 1, but unlike the
latter it had been thoroughly baked, possibly by the introduction of
burning coals into the excavation after it had been coated with wet
clay.

The remaining 12 pocket caches indicated in figure 5 present no new
features. A cross-section of one of these is shown in figure 6 and, as
previously mentioned, cache 7, aside from its slab cover, is also typical
(pl. 4, fig. 2). Just what function these small pits may have served is
obscure, but they might have been places for hiding artifacts in some
cases and a means of burying offensive offal in others.

REFUSE HEAPS

The extensive use of the steep banks of Lost Creek at this place for
the deposition of refuse has already been referred to. While engaged
in the excavation of house 1, we learned from Ralph Douglas that
along the bank just west of excavation 1 and northeast of the house
site itself he had earlier dug up a great deal of refuse material. Bones,
potsherds, especially rims, broken artifacts, ash, and charcoal had been
abundant here, reaching a considerable depth just over and below the
edge of this bank. Several fragments of a burned bone bracelet, show-
ing incised designs similar to those on fragments from cache 1 in the
house, as well as a number of large baked fragments of wattle and
daub with large twig imprints were the most significant finds. Plainly
this was the refuse dump for house 1 (fig. 5), and this earlier digging
accounts for the fact that only a limited amount of refuse material was
found in excavation I (just east of the dump) and in our western
trenches. Hoping to find a similar refuse heap along the bank south of
the eastern entrance, we ran a 20-foot trench south from the passage to
the edge of the bank (fig. 5), but no indication of another refuse heap
was encountered. To judge from the uniformity of the collections of
previous diggers in this refuse heap it would seem that one group and.
one general period were represented. So far as I could learn, little was
recovered in any refuse heaps that was not represented in our findings
at house I.

In general, it appears that house I was originally a square, slightly
subsurface, earth lodge, with a 4-post central foundation and shorter

82 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

posts around the outer margins (fig. 5). The orientation of the walls
with the compass and the two opposite entrances on east and west are
interesting features. We will discuss its cultural significance in a later
section, turning now to the artifacts recovered from it.

POorreRY

Compared to artifacts of stone, bone, and antler, the pottery found
in house 1 was not overly abundant. Nevertheless, its complexity and
good technique indicates a considerable mastery of the ceramic art.
Had we been able to excavate the refuse heap of this house, we would
have obtained much more broken pottery, to judge from the collection
made at that spot by Mr. Douglas. Rim sherds especially had been
thrown out as being awkward underfoot, and the natives generally
seem to have been lamentably good housekeepers in this regard. The
following list indicates the total amount and main ceramic types
recovered :

Complete pots, none.

Restored pots, none.

Total number of sherds, 596 (rim 58, body 538).
Cord-marked sherds, 535 (rim 32, body 503).
Plain ware sherds, 52 (rim 26, body 26).
Incised body sherds, none.

Hematite stained on inside, 9 (rim 0, body 9).

A fairly smooth gray paste predominates in all this ware, which is
extremely hard in the finished product. The texture of the pottery
appears to be somewhat crumbly, but this is due to the coarse river
gravel, or more often disintegrated stone used in tempering. Although
the broken edges of the sherds appear crumbly, they are not actually
friable, even when roughly handled. Classified on the grounds of
crumbling or flaking ware, however, the present pottery might fall into
the crumbling class. The degree of coarseness exhibited by the grit
tempering is highly variable in individual pieces but, generally speak-
ing, heavy tempering has been used. The pottery is well baked, in most
cases showing light gray all the way through, but in a small percentage
of the thicker sherds the interior is black, indicating an insufficient
firing.

In color a rather dirty gray predominates, light or dark according to
the amount of soot present ; the inside of the sherd is in almost all cases
lighter and cleaner than the outside. All the sherds seem to have come
from utilitarian pots. The only exception to this gray ware consists of
nine sherds which are stained bright red on the inner surface. The
stain appears to be of red iron ocher. On the sherds in question this

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 83

stain might be termed a slip, as it cannot be rubbed off and was appar-
ently applied prior to the last firing. The outer surface of all nine
sherds is cord-marked and yellow-buff in color. Cross-sections show
that the red stain is almost entirely on the surface. Nearly all these
ocher-painted sherds came from cache 1, and the type is rather rare
in Lost Creek collections generally.

As the foregoing list of pottery types indicates, there is a great pre-
ponderance (90 percent) of cord marking on sherds both from the
house and from the locality generally. This cord marking is very
distinct, generally running vertically up the body of the vessel (pl. 5,
fig. I, 7) and often at an angle along the rim. It was apparently
applied with a cord-wrapped paddle. In a number of cases the pottery
had been polished subsequent to the cord marking, thus obscuring the
latter (pl. 5, fig. 1, f). In thickness the ware is very uniform, averag-
ing 5 mm, with little more than I mm variation either way. The sherds
are very irregular on their inner surface and give no indications of
having been built up by a coiling process; lump modeling, perhaps
with anvil and smoothing stone, appears to have been the method
employed. The plain sherds as a rule have been well polished and,
even the cord-marked ware has a smooth though irregular feel. A
considerable amount of soot occurs on both inner and outer surfaces
of some sherds, but there is no indication of any maize-oil coating on
the pottery. None of the sherds from house I is large enough to give
any positive idea as to shape. However, the almost complete lack of
handles or lugs, the predominance of collars, the sharp angle char-
acteristic between shoulder and neck, and the absence of any sherds
suggesting other than round or semipointed bottoms are notable points.

Only one complete pot is known from this particular site and that
is in the Spence collection at the Hastings (Nebraska) Museum.
Through the courtesy of its owner, Karl L. Spence, I am able to
illustrate this specimen (pl. 21, fig. 1, b). This small pot, having a
capacity of slightly more than a pint, was found by C. A. Duncan, 20
to 24 inches below the surface in house 2. It is of a dull yellowish buff
color and is heavily cord-marked. The rim is exceptional in its lack of
any collar or flare. No other sherds from the site that I have seen have
a similar type of rim. The shape and surface texture, however, are
very similar to the general run of Lost Creek pot fragments. Another
complete pot in the Spence collection (pl. 21, fig. 1, a) was found by
Mr. Spence on the C. J. Furry farm, just south of the river bridge at
Franklin, Nebr. This pot is about 17.5 cm high by 13.7 cm in diameter
and holds about half a gallon. It is dusty gray to buff in color, with
vertical cord marking on rim and body. The bottom is semipointed,

84 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

and grit has been used for tempering. While the cord marking (instead
of incising) on the rim is rather unusual, the shape of rim and collar as
well as the color and cord markings on the body, indicate that the pot
belongs to the culture represented in houses 1 and 2. Mr. Spence also
found a flat, rounded rock or “ pot cover”? with this vessel which
fits the opening perfectly. Since the only two complete pots of this
culture known at present (1932) lack decorative features, we must
consider the rim sherds from house 1 in this regard.

The decorative elements, if we except the previously mentioned cord
marking and rare painting with red ocher, are almost entirely on the
rim. This decoration takes the form of modeling (shape of collar and
rim) and incision. The main types of rim decoration from house I are
illustrated in plate 5, figure 1, and more or less representative rim
sherds from surface sites are shown in plate 5, figure 2. The latter
plate shows some typical sherds from a collection presented by Ralph
Douglas, of Bloomington. These were all collected from plowed fields
along Lost Creek and the neighboring stream valley of Rebecca Creek
a few miles to the west (fig. 4). They pertain to the same general
culture as house 1. The range of rim types from house I is indicated
in table 5 (p. 248).

From the foregoing it is apparent that the majority (82 percent) of
the pots used by the former inhabitants of house 1 were characterized
by a marked collar between lip and rim and that the predominant rim
design for incising consisted of parallel horizontal lines. Although the
number of these lines varies in the present collection from 1 to 6
(1 sherd has 1 line, 4 have 2, 5 have 3, 10 have 4, 7 have 5, and 2
have 6 lines), it is obvious that the 4 and 5 line designs were the most
popular. None of these lines on Lost Creek pots were made by cord
impressions; they are all incised. Although this type of decoration
occurs elsewhere rather commonly along Lost Creek and at other sites
where this culture has been encountered, it seems to have been espe-
cially favored by the occupants of house I and house 2, since it over-
shadowed all other types. The other design units are all illustrated and
do not need more description at this time. The method of decoration
by means of small incisions across or along the lip (pl. 5, fig. 2, d, j, k)
should be noted. This additional ornamentation is not confined to
any particular type of rim but occurs sporadically on various types.
It is also noteworthy that handles, lugs, tabs, or appendages of any
sort are extremely rare in findings from houses of this type in the
Lost Creek district. As previously mentioned, only one rim sherd sug-
gests handles or tabs and these are too fragmentary for certainty.
This sherd, unfortunately not figured, has no collar but has a straight

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 85

neck with the typical four parallel incisions around it. The three exten-
sions occur at the bottom of the neck and are only a few centimeters
apart, but have been broken off close to the body of the vessel. Whether
they represent a series of tabs or are remnants of small handles cannot
be determined. We will return to this pottery later in connection with
that from other sites.

Work IN GrounpD STONE

The excavations in house 1 yielded three whole or restorable stone
pipes (pl. 16, fig. 2, g, k, p) and one large bowl fragment. In addition,
a fragment of a partially completed pipe was picked up on the surface
of a plowed field not far from this site (pl. 16, fig. 2, c). All these
pipes or fragments are cut out of white or red “ pipestone”. This
mineral has not been accurately determined, but it is relatively soft and
close-grained. No true catlinite pipes or fragments were found at this
site.

The fragment last mentioned (pl. 16, fig. 2, c) is of red “ pipestone ”
and was broken while being bored out. Evidently the maker shaped his
pipe first and then drilled out the bowl. In this case he had drilled too
far to one side and broken through the base. I have seen a Naskapi
Indian, long out of practice, spoil two pipes in this manner prior to
successfully completing one. The material in this Labrador incident
was steatite. Probably this was a common accident in aboriginal pipe
manufacture.

The pipe figured below it (pl. 16, fig. 2, g) is made of a whitish gray
“ pipestone ’’ and comes from house I. It is 45 mm high and 30 mm
long at the base. The bowl measures 19 mm in diameter. It is hard to
tell which end is bowl and which stem, as both are completely hollowed
out and neither shows signs of fire. However, the longer section has
the widest, deepest bowl and was probably so intended. There is no
decoration on the pipe, which was complete when found.

The next pipe (pl. 16, fig. 2, k) is the largest and most elaborate
found. It is restored from two pieces found separately in the east end
of house 1. The material is a yellowish “ pipestone’’. The pipe is
67 mm high, 44 mm long at the base, the diameter of the bowl is 29 mm
and the stem 23 mm. ‘The flaring rim and the graceful shape of the
bowl are notable, as is the pointed end of the base. It was fitted with a
large stem, to judge from the large hole at this end, which is only
slightly smaller than the diameter of the bowl.

Another specimen (pl. 16, fig. 2, p) was complete when found
except for a broken stem portion. It was found on the floor of house
I and appears to be nearly complete. The material is red “ pipestone ”,

86 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

and the pipe is 40 mm in height with a diameter of 21 mm for both
bowl and stem. It is a well made, compact specimen with a projecting
rounded point opposite the stem opening. The stem opening is again
only slightly smaller than that of the bowl.

Only one other pipe fragment was found in house 1. This is the
section of the bowl of what must have been a large pipe of white
“pipestone’’. Around the rim are two notches, 23 mm apart, which
may have been ownership marks or simple attempts at decoration.
There is a slight curve at the bottom of this broken section, evidently
indicating the beginning of the stem. Although great care was taken,
no other pieces of this pipe were found during the excavation.

From the foregoing it appears that the elbow pipe bored from a soft
stone was the predominant (and only) type found in house 1. It is
also the most common form in local collections from the Lost Creek
district. However, it should be noted that several pipes and pipe bowls
of baked clay were recovered in house 2 which, in all other regards,
was closely similar in its cultural content to house 1. The clay pipe,
therefore, was also occasionally used by the Lost Creek people at this
period.

In all, 16 shaft polishers of various shapes and sizes were recovered
from house 1. All but two are of red Dakota sandstone, the two excep-
tions being of white sandstone. The largest (pl. 17, fig. I, d) is
120 mm long, 41 mm wide, and 31 mm high, and has a shape suggesting
the modern nail buffer. The profile of this type of shaft polisher
(pl. 17, fig. 1, f) is best illustrated by a smaller lime-impregnated
specimen also from house 1. The type is characterized by a single
groove and the artifacts were probably used in pairs for smoothing
down arrow shafts and similar wooden or bone objects.

The other specimens are smaller, and although the majority suggest
the “ nail buffer” type in outline, a few are square or rectangular in
shape. The latter have from one to three polishing grooves, some of
which are more worn than others. The smallest specimens are the most
irregular and appear to have been used rather haphazardly.

Five hammerstones were found in house 1. One of these (pl. 17,
fig. 1, k) is definitely worked and is a rather common type in Lost
Creek sites. The material is a conglomerate of sand cemented with
lime and of firm consistency. The two flat surfaces have been slightly
hollowed out to fit the thumb and fore-fingers and the rounded edge
has been used as a hammer. Both sides and edge show pitting, but the
latter was apparently the main striking surface. It measures 90 mm in
diameter, 54 mm in thickness, with a hollow on both sides of about
5mm. Three of the other hammerstones are much cruder. They have

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY

STRONG 87

not been worked into shape but are merely large pebbles utilized as
hammers. In shape they are roughly oval and the ends are pitted from
blow fractures. One of these has one flat face which was used for
grinding as well. The material of each is a sand and lime conglomerate,
and they are rather heavily encrusted with lime. The fifth specimen
has been roughly chipped from a quartzite boulder, and the top has
been left rough. The bottom, however, has been used for both striking
and grinding and has a very shallow, broad groove down the center.
It measures 110 mm long by 84 mm wide and has a height of 60 mm.
Its material and form rather suggest the quartzite side scraper found
in historic and protohistoric Pawnee sites.

The occurrence of a few disintegrating nodules of lime-cemented
sand should also be noted. These are grayish in appearance and may
have been burned or treated in such a manner as to break them down.
The sand that can be rubbed from them is very similar to the tempering
used in the pottery and may have been so employed. Certain of these
disintegrating nodules appear to have been used as grinding stones.

The striking paucity of ground stone artifacts in the Lost Creek
sites is well indicated by the above slender list of types. Pipes, shaft
polishers, and hammerstones conclude the list, which is meager indeed
compared with the abundance and variety of chipped stone, bone, and
antler artifacts.

Work IN CHIPPED STONE

The excavation at house 1 yielded a large number and variety of
chipped stone artifacts commonly worked from the local brown jasper,
the latter occurring in the layers of limestone exposed by Lost Creek.
Besides jasper, flint and chert were also employed. For the purpose of
describing and comparing types of chipped arrowpoints, spear heads,
and knives, a classification based entirely upon form rather than
assumed function has been employed. The types are shown in outline
(fig. 7) with the characteristics on which they are segregated some-
what exaggerated. These outlines are entirely. irrespective of size.
Although size is important in distinguishing between arrowpoints and
the two other types of artifacts, it does not enter into the following
classification, which is based entirely on form.

As each site is studied, the chipped points coming under the above
classifications will be listed in table 3. In this way it is possible to see
at a glance the distribution and grouping of types and to compare the
various sites in this regard.

A large number of chipped stone arrowpoints were recovered in
house 1. There were 32 in all, and these fall into six types: NBa (15),

88 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

NBar (3), NBa2 (3), NBa3 (1), NBc (9) and a doubtful broken
example of SCat (1). Although these six specific types are present,
the arrowpoints according to size as well as form fall into two main
divisions: a small, delicately chipped NB type, usually with from two
to five notches (NBat-3) (pl. 7, fig. 1, c) and a larger heavy point of

CLASSIFICATION CHART FOR CHIPPED POINTS

N
NAa_NAbi NAb2_ NAb3_ NADA | NAb3 NAb4,,NBa_ NBal_ NBa2
A. eee shaped B. Triangular
_NBa3_NBa4 NBb NBbI NBb2_~ NBc | NBbt NBb2
Cpenaaenee — mene
Not ee) Pe ee ee
Stemmed D. Straight-sided E.Ovoid| A. Contracting Stem 8B. Parallel- sided

F ODADAAA G

S€al “SCaz_ SGa3, SE bi SC b2 SCb3
Stemmed Ser C. Expanding Stem

Fic. 7——Form classification for chipped points (see table 2).

either NBa or NBc type (pl. 7, fig. 1, 7, m). A typical specimen of the
small, delicate type measures 25 mm in length and 15 mm in breadth
at the base. A typical point of the second unnotched type is 46 mm
long by 33 mm wide at the base. Since the two types each vary some-
what in size there is a certain amount of blending. However, the dis-
tinction is generally clear between the heavier, unnotched triangular

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 89

points and the very delicate triangular and often notched specimens.
Apparently a difference in function is indicated here, a matter to be
dealt with later. The distribution of the arrowpoint types from house
1 is also given in table 3. It may be added that the workmanship on
the more delicate points is of a very high order. The majority of the

Table 2.—Classification Chart for Chipped Points ®

N. Not Stemmed S. Stemmed
A. Leaf-shaped. A. Contracting stem.

a. Pointed at both ends. a. Shouldered only.

b. Pointed at one end. b. Shouldered and barbed.
1. Convex base. c. Neither shouldered nor barbed
2. Straight base. (lozenge).

3. Concave base. B. Parallel-sided stem.
4. Concave base (longitudinal a. Shouldered only.
groove) [Folsom type]. b. Shouldered and barbed.
B. Triangular. c. Neither shouldered nor barbed
a. Straight base. C. Expanding stem.
1. Two side notches. a. Shouldered only.
2. Two side notches and 1 base 1. Convex base.
notch. 2. Straight base.
3. Four side notches and 1 base 3. Concave base.
notch. b. Shouldered and barbed.
4. Four side notches and no base t. Convex base.
notch. 2. Straight base.

b. Concave base. 3. Concave base.

1. Two side notches c. No barb, no shoulder.
2. Two side notches and 1 base
notch.

c. Convex base.
C. Diamond shaped.
a. Beveled.
D. Straight sided and pointed at one
end [Yuma type].
a. Narrow base [Yuma type].
FE. Round or ovoid in outline.

points are of clear brown jasper, but gray flint and chert is also
employed.

The small end-scraper is very common in Lost Creek sites, and 20
specimens were obtained in house 1. Few artifacts have been given as
many names as this widespread form—keeled, planoconvex, thumbnail,

6 This classification, based upon that of Thomas Wilson, 1899, part I, pp. 887-
044, was employed by Gifford and Schenck, 1926, pp. 80-81; by Schenck, 1926,
p. 239, and Schenck and Dawson, 1929, pp. 370-371; and by Strong, Schenck,
and Steward, 1930, pp. 78-79. It can be modified at will to suit special material.

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duckbill, and snub-nosed, to mention only the most common. The
simple designation “ end scraper ” with qualifying adjectives for such
details as size, however, seems preferable. In the present site all end
scrapers are characterized by a smooth, flat ventral surface, often
curved, owing to the plane of cleavage of the original flake, and a keel
(or convex dorsal surface) culminating in an abrupt edge at one end
and a gradual slant down on all other sides. In size the end scrapers
from house I range from a length of 83 mm to only 27 mm. All of
them are characterized by a much greater length than breadth. The
following materials were employed: banded jasper 5, brown jasper 8,
yellow jasper 2, chalcedony 2, flint or chert 3 (one of the latter is of
“ Nehawka flint ” from southeastern Nebraska). The largest specimen
from house 1 is 83 mm long and 35 mm wide (pl. 7, fig. 1, 0). In
addition to the clearly defined end scrapers are some six roughly sub-
rectangular pieces of chipped flint, ranging from 50 mm to 37 mm
in length and from 34 mm to 25 mm in breadth. These have been
carelessly retouched on both sides and ends and in their flat ventral
and ridged dorsal surfaces suggest the type of end scraper just
described. They may be incomplete specimens or may be a cruder
type. The end scraper was probably hafted and used in dressing hides
and is often the most numerous single artifact on surface sites in
Nebraska.

Three small flint or chert artifacts of ovoid shape may be tentatively
classified as side scrapers. These specimens are very thin (6 mm for the
thickest) and are retouched on both sides. Two of them are 44 mm
long and the third is 22 mm long. The edges have received the most
careful retouching, especially along the sides. They differ from the
end scrapers in the latter regard as well as in lacking any keel or
abruptly chipped end. In addition, there are 11 fragments of what
appear to have been side scrapers, 5 ovoid and 6 circular in outline.
Of these, 6 are retouched only on one side, the others on all sides.
Four of these are red, black, and gray chert, 7 of yellow or brown
jasper. The longest is 67 mm and the shortest 46 mm in length, and
they range from 8 mm to 3 mm in thickness. It is obvious that all of
the above specimens may have served as knives; however, the poorer
workmanship and the emphasis on the side retouch at the expense of
the whole blade favors their classification as scrapers. They have not
been included in the chart (table 3) showing the distribution of arrow-
points, spearheads, and knives.

A large number of thin, flat, delicately retouched stone artifacts
from house 1 have been classified as knives. Including large frag-
ments there are 50 pieces of this sort from house 1. These, with some

Q2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

forcing, fall into six main types: oval in outline but having a point at
each end (NAa), oval without points (NE), rectilinear in outline
with one round and one straight end (NAb2), triangular (NBa),
diamond-shaped (NC), and diamond-shaped with beveled edges
ENCa):

The first group (NAa) is subdivided into large and small blades.
Of the former blades there are six large fragments made of various
chert materials. Two of these fragments appear to be from the same
specimen with only a small midsection missing. When these two frag-
ments are put together and aligned in relation to their respective curves
they produce a large blade measuring 144 by 75 mm. The other four
fragments are of the same type, being characterized by their large size
and beautiful retouching as well as by their thinness (pl. 7, fig. 2, m, 1).
The large size of these fragments is indicated by the range of their
measurements, 123 to 145 mm in length, 78 to 53 mm in width, and
I5 to 7 mm in thickness. The majority of the pieces are heavily
encrusted with lime (pl. 7, fig. 2, 7). They are the finest examples of
large flint work from the site.

The smaller oval knife blades of this type number seven complete
pieces and nine fragments. The seven complete pieces differ from the
above in lacking bilateral symmetry. They are flattened along one edge
as shown in plate 7, figure 2, h. The specimen illustrated is the best of
the seven, some of which are rather crude and range from 85 to 18 mm
in length, from 38 to 19 mm in width, and from 11 to 4 mm in thick-
ness. The material is jasper in the majority of cases. As a rule the
flattened side is the thickest and the most poorly chipped, and it 1s
possible that a handle was fitted on this side. However, lacking any
bone or other objects suggesting such handles, it is more probable that
the blade itself was held here. The remaining nine well chipped frag-
ments of jasper and chert appear to have been of the regular pointed
oval type. Like the larger specimens of this type described above, they
are heavily lime incrusted.

Of the second type, oval without points (NE), there are five
complete specimens and twelve fragments. The specimen figured
(pl. 7, fig. 2, k) is typical. It is 96 mm long by 45 mm wide, and the
material is yellow jasper. The other four complete specimens are
similar in size and shape; all are retouched on both faces and are
very thin. So far as can be determined from their incomplete condi-
tion, the twelve broken fragments represent similar artifacts.

Only one specimen is rectilinear in outline with one round and one
straight end. Hence it really represents a unique form rather
than a distinct type. The material is hlack quartzite (?), and the arti-

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 93

fact is 95 mm long by 32 mm wide. The rounded end suggests the
point of the blade, the other flattened end the butt.

The triangular type (NBa) is only slightly more numerous. There
are only two knives of this form, one of which is illustrated (pl. 7,
fig. 2,7). The latter is 105 mm long, 43 mm wide, and 11 mm thick
and is rather roughly retouched. It is heavily incrusted with lime, as
the illustration indicates. The second specimen is similar to the above
but somewhat smaller (65 by 38 by 7 mm).

Diamond-shaped knives (NC) are more common, six coming from
house 1. A typical specimen of jasper is figured (pl. 7, fig. 2, d). All
these specimens are thin, and, with one exception, are biconvex. The
one exception has one flat surface. The material of all is jasper, and
they range in length from 114 to 66 mm and in width from 45 to
27mm. One other specimen (pl. 7, fig. 2, b) is of this general type
but has one end slightly rounded. Perhaps this was the hafted end.

The sixth and last type (NCa), that is, the diamond-shaped and
beveled form, is poorly represented in house 1. One rather small
specimen of yellow jasper has four beveled edges. Its dimensions are
62 by 38 by 6mm. An unusual specimen with two notches above the
point is likewise beveled and suggests this type (pl. 7, fig. 2, e¢). How-
ever, the larger part of the blade, on the other side of the notches from
the complete point, is broken and it is uncertain what the original shape
of the entire piece may have been. This is the only notched knife blade
so far encountered in our excavation work.

Many pieces of heavy chipped stone work were found in house 1.
In all, 80 artifacts roughly classified as axes, hoes, and picks were
recovered. No polished stone celts or grooved axes were found.
Practically all of these larger chipped stone artifacts were of yellow or
brown jasper and were probably made from local material. The
following classification according to function is open to some question
but seems justified by the nature of the objects.

Forty-nine of these larger chipped artifacts appear to have been
used as axes. These are of two types, a triangular form with a broad
blade (35) anda more oval form with a less distinct blade (14). That
they were used as axes is indicated by the battered and often retouched
edge as well as by their form. Seven specimens have slight notches on
one or both sides, suggesting that they were hafted. It is extremely
probable that the majority had handles of wood. So mounted, they
would make excellent chopping tools. Both the triangular (pl. 17,
fig. 2, k) and the oval (pl. 17, fig. 2, 7, J) axes are carefully worked
and, unless battered from use, have keen cutting edges. Certain of the
oval specimens in particular are beautifully retouched and of a perfect

7

Q4. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

“limande” form (pl. 17, fig. 2, 2). In size they range from 174 to
50 mm in length, 78 to 42 mm in width, and 27 mm to 15 mm in
thickness.

Sixteen specimens have been classified as hoes. These are long and
thin and as a group show less severe usage on the broad or blade end
(pl. 17, fig. 2, m). In size they approximate the larger axes but are
more often rectilinear in outline than the latter. It is of course impos-
sible to distinguish between hoes and axes in all cases. The presump-
tion is that the former were lashed onto a bent or crotched stick as was
the case with the shoulder-blade hoe so common throughout the Plains.

Only two specimens have been classified as picks. These are of
rather rough workmanship and culminate in a point instead of a blade
(pl. 17, fig. 2, 7). The specimen illustrated measures 177 by 75 by
34mm. The other artifact of this type is larger and heavier, measuring
120 mm in length and 75 mm in breadth. It is roughly retouched all
over but is rounded on top, having a small and irregular point or pick.
Whether either specimen was hafted is open to question.

Work IN BONE

Lost Creek sites in general yield large quantities of bone work, and
house I was no exception in this regard. Shoulder-blade hoes, mostly
in fragments, and many smaller bone artifacts were recovered. One
particularly excellent specimen of bison scapula hoe was found in the
floor layer (pl. 6, fig. 2, a). This specimen, 25 cm long by 13 cm in
width at the blade end, has a very sharp edge and was in thoroughly
usable condition when left in the house. The spines had been ground
down and a broad groove made over the top of the glenoid process for
the attachment of a handle. Two large, evenly bored perforations had
been made on the blade for a lashing across the tip of the handle.
The groove across the top, as well as the perforations on the blade,
suggest that the elbow of the handle may have fitted over the glenoid
process and extended down over the face of the blade. Lashings
across the tip of the handle and around the neck of handle and blade
would have held it firmly in place. In historic specimens the handle is
fitted and lashed under rather than over the bone blade. The edge of
the specimen in question had been ground down to a place where
further sharpening would have reached the tip of the handle. In cache
1 a large bison scapula was found in process of manufacture into a
hoe. The spines had been ground down but the blade edge was
unworked. In all, 25 fragments of what had evidently been scapula
hoes were recovered. These show sharpened edges and in some cases
perforations like those in the complete specimen previously described.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 95

Six additional pieces of broken scapula hoes had been readapted to
serve as hand scrapers and, in addition to a well-worked scraping edge,
showed high patination along the other edges from long handling.
The largest of these is 17.5 cm long by 6 cm wide and is characterized
by one notch and by transverse scratches along the blade. Possibly it
had been used as a knife or skinning tool.

Some 12 complete specimens and 13 fragments of bone awls or
bodkins came from this site. For the most part these are beautifully
worked and have delicate, very sharp points. They were probably
employed in weaving mats and baskets as well as in the sewing of
skins. No needles with eyes were found here. The common type of
awl was split from the cannon bone of a deer’s leg and ground to a
stiletto-like point. The manner in which these awls were manufactured
is shown (pl. 6, fig. 1, , 0, p). Three sections of deer cannon bone
were found with the smaller end neatly cut off and the remaining bone
tempered by fire (pl. 6, fig. 1, p). Also several split sections of simi-
larly prepared bones were found (pl. 6, fig. 1, 0). Of the tip ends of
the bone thus removed four were noted in the excavations (pl. 6,
fig. 1,g). A few of the awls are rounded and taper rapidly to a point
(pl. 6, fig. 1, k). In length they run from 185 mm to about 60 mm.
An unusual specimen of this sort is apparently made from the penis
of araccoon (pl. 6, fig. 1,7). It is neatly cut off at the base and worked
to a slender point, resembling the meat forks made of similar bones
employed by the Pawnee in historic times. Very similar rounded awls
or bodkins were made of antler and are described under the heading
of work in antler. The fragments of awls, like the complete specimens,
are mostly tempered by fire and range in color from polished white to
brown. One perfectly round specimen has a series of some ten small
notches near the broken-off point. The notches form no definite pat-
tern, and their purpose is obscure.

A large section of deer cannon bone with the joint forming the
handle was also found. The opposite end is splintered to a decided
point which is badly scarred from application to hard, sharp surfaces.
Whether this artifact is a very crude awl or served as a stone-knapping
tool is somewhat problematic. It is 120 mm long and 25 mm thick at
the joint or handle end.

Another bone object of uncertain use suggests either a knapping
tool, a wedge, or a chisel. It is of heavy bone, tempered by fire and of
an ivory yellow color. The butt end is large and smooth, and the blade
tapers to a rounded point. On one side a heavy splinter of bone has
been split out from the point as though the tool had been hammered
against something with too great force. The butt end, however, shows

90 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

little sign of long-continued hammering. The specimen is 103 mm
long, 40 mm wide at the butt, and 10 mm wide at the point.

Three bone fishhooks and one unfinished part of a similar artifact
were recovered (pl. 9, fig. 2, a-d). The largest specimen (pl. 9,
fig. 2, d) is 45 mm in length and 5 mm in thickness. Around
the top of the shank is a shallow groove for the attachment of
a line. This hook is heavily incrusted with lime and is rather
thick and clumsy looking. The other complete specimen (pl. 9,
fig. 2, b) is much more delicate with a slender point, curve, and more
delicate shank. It is 35 mm in length and has a groove around the
top of the rounded shank. It has been tempered by heating. The third
specimen (pl. 9, fig. 2, c) has a broad bend and needle-sharp point,
but the end of the shank has been broken off at the line groove. It is
40 mm long and about 3 mm thick. All three fishhooks are without
barbs. From the broken and unfinished specimen it seems probable
that the hooks were made in pairs from a flat piece of bone with the
center gouged out (pl. 9, fig. 2, a). The same technique was employed
in the manufacture of the ancient Iroquois fishhooks. (Compare
Skinner; 1921, fig. 3; p: 71-)

Two hollow, slightly curved tubes of bird bone were found lying
together on the floor of house 1 (pl. 11, fig. 2, 7). The larger is
122 mm and the smaller 115 mm in length and both are 9 mm in
diameter. Aside from having the ends neatly cut off they are unworked.
They may have been used as part of a breast ornament or gorget.
It is also possible that they represent sucking tubes and were part of a
ceremonial outfit.

Five bone beads and one piece of bone from which beads had been
cut were also found. The beads are of bird bone, and all but one have
been heat-tempered. They range from 50 mm to 14 mm in length, and
in each case they have been neatly cut at both ends (pl. 11, fig. 2, 7).
In addition there was found the wing bone of a bird (possibly a prairie
chicken) which had been fire-tempered and from which beads had been
cut. The bone is 60 mm in length and on the end opposite the joint
is one bead 10 mm long not quite cut away from the remainder of
the bone.

Two pendants were found. The first of these is the canine tooth of a
wolf with a neat hole for suspension bored through the tip of the root
(pl. 9, fig. 2, h). This specimen was found on the floor of house 1.
The other pendant is of bone, coated with a deposit of lime (pl. 9,
fig. 2, k). It is slightly curved, has a rounded upper end with a neat
hole bored through, and the tip is broken off. The specimen is 45 mm
long, 9 mm wide at the large end, 5 mm wide at the broken tip, and

NO. I0 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 97

averages about 2 mm in thickness. It is closely similar to artifacts of
shell from ossuaries of the same culture (pl. 9, fig. 2, 7, 7,1, m, n).

A variety of partially worked or of broken bone fragments were
found, but most of these are too fragmentary to merit detailed descrip-
tion. However, one flat piece of worked bone, 78 mm long by 15 mm
wide, has been heat-tempered and well polished by use. It has rounded
edges and is larger at the ends than in the middle, suggesting some
sort of a handle, although its method of attachment or of use is
obscure. A small worked piece of bone suggesting the tooth of a comb
may be worth mentioning. This piece is triangular in outline, being
30 mm long, 5 mm wide at base, and 1 mm thick. It has a polish on
both sides resulting from use. No other artifact suggesting a comb
was noted. Several solid and perfectly round sections of cut bone,
often with deep notches in them, were also found. These fragments
are similar in size to the round awls and may have been reworked
fragments.

BoNE oR ANTLER BRACELET FRAGMENTS

In cache 1 were found two small fragments of a delicate incised
bracelet or arm band. Several other fragments of similar nature were
also found by Ralph Douglas in the west refuse heap of house 1. The
fragments from cache I are extremely thin and have been burned to a
whitish gray, shell-like consistency. It is impossible to tell whether
they are of antler or bone. The largest is 50 mm in length, 25 mm in
breadth, and less than 2 mm in thickness. On the convex surface is an
incised design of two vertical lines about 35 mm apart with eight
horizontal connecting lines. The other fragment is 35 mm long, 20 mm
wide, and the same thickness as the other. It has been rounded at the
corners of one end, which is the end of the specimen itself. Five
millimeters from the end is a vertical line with eight horizontal lines
running to the broken ends of the fragment. In each corner of the
design is a round perforation apparently for the attachment of thongs.
The two fragments suggest a round arm band with units of design
made up of two vertical and eight horizontal lines. The bracelet
apparently went part way around the forearm and was tied together
by two thongs. Whether there was more to the design than is indicated,
or how many design units there were, is indeterminable, owing to its
fragmentary condition. Careful sifting of the refuse material in the
cache pit yielded no other fragments.

Work IN ANTLER

Work in antler is rather abundant among the artifacts from house I.
The animal species represented most commonly are the elk (wapiti)

98 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

and the deer. Certain artifacts, such as awls and bodkins, are very
similar to those made from bone, and their segregation according to
material used is more or less artificial.

One long, perfectly round awl of ground-down antler is 154 mm
long by 7 mm in diameter (pl. 6, fig. 1, 4). A smaller bodkin (pl. 6,
fig. 1,7) is 85 mm long by about 8 mm in diameter. Both are perfectly
round in cross-section and have delicately tapering sharp points. The
shorter specimen is complete, but the longer awl appears to be broken
off at the butt end. The latter is also characterized by a gradual out-
ward curve toward the point, whereas the shorter artifact is perfectly
straight.

In addition to the above well-worked specimens are three antler tips
of either small elk or large deer. They have been cut off at the base.
but are otherwise unworked. In one case this cutting is very neatly
done and the slender tine has clearly been used as a tool of some sort.
In the other two specimens the cutting is very rough and they show
but little sign of use. The longest and best worked of these is 215 mm
in length with a diameter of 26 mm at the base (pl. 18, fig. 1, d).

There are also three cylindrical sections of deer antler, two of which
appear to have been used in flint working. In all three cases the base of
the antler has been preserved, and a neat cut has been made at the other
end. The longest of these artifacts is 180 mm with a diameter of
33 mm at the large end (pl. 6, fig. 1,¢). The surface is rough, natural
antler, but one small tine has been cut off the side. One end of this
artifact has the swelling characteristic of the base of the antler, and the
opposite end has been neatly cut off. In the cut-off end is a funnel-
shaped cavity about 13 mm deep. This cavity, in conjunction with the
rather extreme curve of the implement, suggests that this particular
specimen may represent a handle of some sort rather than a tapping
tool. Two somewhat similar specimens from prehistoric earth lodges
near Omaha are in the Gilder collection in the Omaha Public Library,
one (303 h) serving as the handle for an end scraper, the other (278)
for a small stone knife. It is said that these artifacts were found so
mounted in situ. It may be that we have here a similar handle, although
it should be noted that in the two Gilder specimens, as well as in the
present implement, the holes for mounting are extremely shallow. The
main evidence for each use rests on the reported finding in situ of the
combined specimens.

The two remaining artifacts of this sort from house I are straighter
and show no sign of having been employed as handles. The specimen
figured (pl. 6, fig. 1, d) is 120 mm in length by 25 mm in diameter.
The utensil has been rubbed smooth and the rough original surface of

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 99

the antler removed. The top, or large end, has been smoothed off and
shows considerable pitting from hammering. The splitting observable
in this illustration is apparently due to the imperfect preservation of
the artifact. A similar specimen is 130 mm long by 35 mm in diameter,
the large end being formed by the base of the antler, as is the case in
the other similar artifacts, and the smaller end has been neatly cut off.
The grip has been left rough in contour like the original antler. The
function of these last two artifacts would appear to have been that of
punches used with a hammerstone for striking off large flakes of
workable stone material.”

One antler shaft straightener was found in cache 1 (pl. 6, fig. 1, b).
It is made from a tine of deer or elk antler which has been perforated
and smoothed. The specimen is 130 mm long by 17 mm wide, with the
hole 26 mm by 17 mm in length and width. The hole is notched from
use on all four edges and a wooden shait, such as a lead pencil, run
diagonally through the hole fits neatly in the transverse groove thus
formed. In other words the originally round hole has evidently been
worn down on the ends by the transverse pressure of wooden shafts.
There is no similar wear on the sides of the hole, and the artifact was
apparently held in a vertical position when in use. Particularly inter-
esting are four ownership or decorative marks arranged in pairs on
the large end above the shaft hole. Both ends of the antler are broken,
and the artifact had evidently been discarded by its former owner.
Such artifacts were used in lining up and straightening arrow shafts
when newly made or after use when warping had occurred.*

One antler artifact from house I suggests a wedge or chisel (pl. 6,
fig. 1, a). It has seen hard service and is marked by narrow grooves
along the flattened blade. It measures 165 mm in length and is 30 mm
wide at the butt, which is broken, and 15 mm wide just above the point.
It is made from a single tine of elk antler.

The finding of several roughly worked antler tips, perhaps used as
awls, has already been referred to. In addition, a flat strip of elk horn
was found which measured 181 mm by 35 mm. It was rough and of
natural antler ridging on the outer surface but smooth and somewhat
hollowed out on the inner side. This slightly troughlike shape was due

* For the actual use of such an artifact see Saxton Pope’s account of Yahi
archery, 1918, p. 116 and pl. 27.

® That this type of artifact was actually used for the purpose suggested is
attested by both ethnological and archeological records. Birket-Smith, 1920,
p. 360, gives references for its use in many areas of both North America and
northern Asia. I have actually seen it used by old Dakota Indians on the Stand-
ing Rock Reservation.

100 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

either to purposive removal or the rotting out of the softer core
material. Down each side was a smooth edge where the slab had been
removed by grooving down both sides and prying or splitting off the
horn. There are several rough cuts along one edge. This might be an
antler bracelet or other ornament prior to the working down and
steaming processes. Fragments of bone or antler bracelets of this type
from cache 1 have already been referred to.

Work IN SHELL

Very little worked shell was found in house 1. One flat shell bead
(pl. 11, fig. 2, d) about 15 mm in diameter with a hole 5 mm across
and a thickness of 2 mm was the only artifact of this type encountered.
It was ground from the shell of a fresh-water bivalve and retains con-
siderable luster. One worked shell (Uniomerus tetralasmus Say) was
noted with one edge serrated for a distance of about 40 mm. Other
unworked bivalve shells found in caches and on the floor were in all
probability used as spoons.

No work in copper, nor any indications of basketry or textile work,
were encountered. Cordage was indicated only by the cord-marked
pottery. The lack of certain perishable materials naturally does not
indicate their absence from the culture here represented. The site
presented no unusual circumstances for preservation of perishable
materials, and as a result this type of artifact had vanished.

ANIMAL AND MoLituscan REMAINS

Owing to the lack of comparative material at the University of
Nebraska, it was impossible to obtain a complete list of the fauna
represented at the Lost Creek site. However, certain animal forms
were easily identified and in some cases it was possible to check the
animal remains against known material. The most abundant remains
were those of the bison. Broken marrow bones of this species were
fairly common as well as skull fragments and teeth. No complete
skulls, horn cases, or horn cores were noted. Wapiti and deer (white
tail and possibly mule deer) bones and antlers were almost equally
numerous. Remains of the antelope were also found. One fragment
of a dog’s skull and a perforated canine of a wolf or large coyote were
noted. Without sufficient comparative material it is impossible to posi-
tively distinguish between these three species. Several beaver teeth,
raccoon and rabbit (both jack rabbit and cottontail) bones, and a large
number of rodent bones were also noted. The prairie dog was the most
common species among the latter remains, but it was impossible to

NO. I0 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG Io!

identify others. All the bone material from the site was checked over —
by graduate students in paleontology, but no horse remains were pres-
ent. Many bird bones were found, but aside from noting a preponder-
ance of those from geese, ducks, and probably prairie chickens, no
detailed comparisons were made.

Owing to the nature of the site, no vegetal remains of any sort were
recovered in our excavation work. The abundance of bone and stone
hoes, however, testified to horticultural pursuits.

Considering the fact that Mollusca are rarely seen nowadays in the
Republican River, a surprising number of species were recovered from
house 1. Their identification, as previously mentioned, we owe to Dr.
Frank C. Baker, of the University of Illinois. With one exception
these are all fresh-water species. The exception is the species Olivella
jaspidea (Gmelin), which is a marine shell from the Atlantic or Gulf
coast. A considerable number of these in an unworked condition were
found in cache 1. The fresh-water forms found in house I are as
follows:

Lampsilis anodontoides (Lea)

Quadrula quadrula bullocki (F. C. Baker)
Quadrula postulosa prasina (Conrad)

Tritogenia tuberculata (Barnes)

Uniomerus tetralasmus (Say)

Anodonta grandis (Say)

Anodontoides ferussacianus subcylindraceus (Lea)
Proptera alata megaptera (Rafinesque)

Sphaerium silicatum (Lam.). Numerous

Physa gyrina (Say). Numerous

Helisoma trivolvis (Say)

Helisoma pseudotrivolvis (F. C. Baker). Numerous
Anculosa praerosa (Say). Great number in cache 1

This last species of fresh-water snail is common in the Ohio and
Wabash Rivers but is not believed to occur west of Illinois. Dr.
Baker suggests it was obtained by barter from Illinois tribes.

HOUSE 2

An area southeast of house 1 was dug up by local collectors a year
or sO previous to our own excavations, and it was this earlier work
that called the site to our attention. I have designated this as house 2,
for although very little could be learned in detail as to the nature of
the internal structure revealed by the earlier digging, there is no doubt
that it was a house site very similar to ours. Through his own efforts
and by gift or purchase, Karl L. Spence had gathered together a large
part of the material from this site. In October 1931 he very kindly

102 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

sent me photographs and notes on this collection which is similar to
that obtained from house 1. The one complete pot from house 2 has
been previously described. The rim sherds from house 2 are closely
similar to those from house 1. The collared rim with incised decora-
tion is exceedingly common and the use of a varying number of hori-
zontal lines predominates as a decorative motif. Incisions on the lips
of the vessels occur, and diamond-shaped or closely crosshatched
incised rim designs are common. Incised triangles occur and in some
cases these triangles are filled with horizontal lines. A great majority
of the sherds illustrated in Mr. Spence’s photographs are cord-marked
on the body, and there are no indications of either lugs or handles.
Sherds with notched rims also occur in some cases. On the whole one
might say that the ceramic remains from both houses are in all essen-
tials identical.

The pipes, whole and fragmentary, from house 2 are exceptionally
interesting. The finest of these is illustrated (pl. 21, fig. 1, c). It is
made of hard stone and, when found, was heavily impregnated with
lime. Removing the lime, Mr. Spence found the design which repre-
sents the head of a catfish with great realism. A very similar pipe
had been pecked out, but after attempts to drill it at bowl and stem it
had been abandoned. Two broken fragments of stone pipes are very
similar to those figured from house 1 (pl. 16, fig. 2, c, g, p). In addi-
tion, five pipes or fragments of pipes made of clay were recovered.
Two of these are closely similar in shape to the stone pipes from
house 1. Of the others, one small pipe bowl decorated by horizontally
depressed rings and a larger, almost round specimen are noteworthy.
Mr. Spence says that these specimens are molded and are not drilled.
The material has evidently been fired with varying degrees of success
in the different specimens. The occurrence of clay pipes in house 2
is one of the few marked differences to be noted between that site
and house 1. Since the other artifacts from the two houses are so very
similar, it is probable that the lack of clay pipes in house 1 is accidental
rather than significant.

Aside from rounded, cylindrical hammerstones and shaft polishers,
no other polished stone implements are recorded from house 2. Mr.
Spence notes specifically that no polished or grooved celts or axes were
found. The work in chipped stone is closely similar to that described
from house 1, and practically all the types referred to there were found
in house 2. The flint knives are similar to those from house I except
that the large laurel-leaf blades are not mentioned, whereas the dia-
mond-shaped, beveled knife (Harahey type) was very abundant. Of
about 50 specimens of this type of knife found by the earlier workers

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 103

in the vicinity of Lost Creek, the majority came from house 2, accord-
ing to Mr. Spence. The bone implements are likewise very similar to
those from house 1. Two crude “ picks” of almost unworked bison
ulna (pl. 21, fig. 1, d) are interesting, since similar crude artifacts are
common in historic Pawnee sites. A fragment of bone or antler shaft
straightener with notches along one surface is also a new type. One
broken bone fishhook was found in house 2. Mr. Spence notes the
fact that in all the work carried on at this site no glass, metal, or other
Caucasian artifacts were found. This is in accord with our findings
in house 1.

DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD

In spite of much searching by local archeologists and by our own
party, no burials pertaining to the prehistoric people of Lost Creek
have come to light. One intrusive burial was dug up by local men in
the refuse deposits along Lost Creek a short distance north of house 1.
The artifacts with the skeleton, however, were in large part of Cauca-
sian origin and bore no relationship to the earlier culture. Our party
did considerable prospecting and trenching on likely points and hills,
with entirely negative results. From evidence shortly to be given it
appears certain that when these earlier burial places on Lost Creek
are located, they will be in the nature of ossuary pits on the higher
hills or points along the river or creek.

OssuaRY ON Prairie Doc Creek, Hartan County

Since our efforts to discover the burial places of the Lost Creek
people were unavailing, we transferred our activities to a site on the
Robert Graham farm across the Republican River from Republican
City (fig. 1, site 14, fig. 8, site 1). This site in Harlan County is
about 20 miles west of the Dooley farm on the same or south side
of the river. Earlier work here by C. B. Schultz, of Red Cloud,
Nebr., had revealed human bone mingled with pottery of a type sug-
gesting that from Lost Creek. Mr. Schultz kindly showed me the
site in November 1929, and thanks to the permission of Robert
Graham, the owner, we were able to work here from July 26 to
August 4, 1930.

The burial site in question was located on the summit of a rolling
hill about 12 miles south of the Republican River and a short distance
south of Prairie Dog Creek, which enters the river just northeast of
this point (see fig. 8, and pl. 8, figs. 1, 2). The site has an altitude
of some 2100 feet and with other hills to the east and west forms
a line of bluffs bordering the river valley that is rather striking in

104 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

the flat prairie country. Between the hill and the river are flat bottoms
now largely under cultivation. A branch of Prairie Dog Creek en-
circles the hill to the west and the main creek flows by in a north-
easterly direction at its base. The course of the streams and the
river is rather heavily wooded, but the hills are entirely bald. Because
of the tall corn it was impossible in a limited time to make a survey of
the upper bottom lands along the creek, but a careful search would
probably reveal clear traces of houses. Some sherds, shells, and flint
artifacts were found in the cornfields just below the hill in question

ROLLING HILLS

AEPUBLICAN
CHIN.

Fic. 8.—Sketch map of Prairie Dog Creek District. 1, Graham site; a-e, other
excavations; 2, Marshall site; 3, Alma ossuary.

(pl. 8, fig. 1), marking the location of one village which could not be
worked because of the ripening corn. The next hill to the west is
slightly higher than the one we designated as Graham Hill and is
locally known as Indian Hill because of the human bones and artifacts
dug up on its summit in times past (pl. 8, fig. 2). These hills are the
most striking features of the entire landscape, and human figures
on their summits are visible for many miles in every direction.
Excavation on the summit of Graham Hill indicated that the human
bone and artifacts were concentrated in an area 24 feet long by 23 feet
wide (fig. 9). The whole central portion of this area had been dug
over by previous visitors, but these earlier diggings had only reached
the bottom of the deposit in a few places and had not extended to its

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 105

borders. Within this area was a mixture of broken and scattered hu-
man bones, broken pottery, artifacts, intrusive rocks of various sizes,
and a little charcoal and cultural debris. The original pit was about
3 feet 6 inches deep in the center, sloping gradually upward on all
sides so that around the edges the human deposit extended to a depth
of only 12 to 14 inches (fig. 10). Trenches run beyond the 24 by 23

ale Le a :

SAU
Nt RAY a ANGE Ui Mi Mile i
eA Pes

Miwworag ste

‘ OLD EXCAVATION :

' (PEFILLED) |

ONSY EGS 20 ce

Sd

iin / f} OA I, NS
: inate 2 iy \ MY et vanes vs} Toe ant ann) Vs wh WS st \
ey M ANN SUES ANU ANS AWS
Palit ane y\A iI (\\ Ay \\\) I NY ! WILY 1) AMWAY \\VX NOON
eats Ms ait Ve RM ATUAWATALINEA BEANS S
ty {HI\ TWN AAAS Inst \\\3 Na Nie ee

uy} at ay La AACS: WINS WAS

Fic. 9.—Ground plan of Graham site. Hachures, excavated area outside os-
suary pit; extent of ossuary and of former excavated area indicated by dotted
lines. A-B, cross-section shown in figure Io.

foot area were barren except for a few potsherds or flint fragments
in the upper 12 inches near the main pit itself. The earlier digging
had so disturbed the central part of the pit that it was impossible
to determine accurately the methods by which it had originally been
dug and then refilled. It appeared most probable, however, that
human remains and artifacts had been thrown in and covered up over
a considerable period. As the cultural remains indicate, the bulk of
the material here was homogeneous, although it is possible that some

106 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

intrusive deposits may have occurred. The natural soil itself was a
gray sandy loam with considerable lime or magnesium at a depth of
3 feet or more. It was extremely hard except that within the pit
itself there had been a great deal of badger and smaller rodent work
which made softer areas. The recent digging was for the most part
easily distinguished except where it had been taken advantage of by
rodents in enlarging their runways. There is, however, no reason
to believe that rodents or recent workers were responsible for the
broken and haphazard arrangement of bones and artifacts, for this
was equally apparent in places where there was no trace of any such
disturbance. Our own excavation work covered the entire interment
area and extended beyond into barren soil on all sides. The work was
carried on by a series of trenches all of which were carried down

M N re) 2 Q R S als U

uy ‘ 0
wer” GRAY SO/L
oi (MUXTURE) 25

-
“32
ie.

Fic. 10.—Cross-section of Graham site. 1, carved antler bracelet; 2, fragment _
of male skull; 3, pocket of 12 shell beads; 4, sandstone shaft polisher; X, indi-
cates fragments of human bone; hachures indicate unexcavated soil.

into the undisturbed natural soil. Definite concentrations of bones and
artifacts within the pit were not observed, material of this sort being
scattered through the entire area from top to bottom (pl. 8, figs. 3, 4).

With the exception of two infant skeletons, there was no indica-
tion of any order in the human remains. Bones and bone fragments
were scattered throughout the pit area without any indication of
natural association. The first child’s burial was found at a depth of
2 feet in the east-central part of the pit. The crushed skull and most
of the other bones were present but badly disintegrated. Near the
neck were a number of perforated marine shells (Olivella jaspidea
Gmelin) and snail shells (Anculosa praerosa Say), probably part of
a necklace. There was no indication of a definite laying out of the
remains nor of any separate grave. Rather the remains appear to
have been thrown in with the surrounding human bone fragments.
The second infant skeleton occurred at a depth of 12 inches in the
northeast corner of the burial pit. In spite of the shallow earth

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 107

covering, the skull was completely smashed. The ribs, vertebrae, and
some of the long bones were present. As in the preceding case, this
skeleton had been put into the general pit, no indication of individual
burial or of grave gifts being present. One fragment of a child’s
calvarium was found at a depth of 4 feet, about 7 feet west of the
skeleton just described. It had been carried down a large rodent bur-
row and may originally have been with the near-by infant remains.

As previously stated, no adult human remains were found in defi-
nite association. The skull of an adult male was found at a depth of
3 feet in the central part of the pit. The completely inverted position
of the skull in situ is clearly indicated in the illustration (pl. 8, fig. 4).
Near this skull were found three human mandibles in a good state of
preservation. In the northwest corner of the pit at a depth of 14
inches was an adult female skull likewise in a good state of preserva-
tion. Three fragmentary adult skulls were also encountered at depths
of 8, 10, and 12 inches, respectively. Besides these skeletal remains,
human bones of every sort were found at all depths throughout the
pit area. The random distribution of these bones is clearly indicated
by the diagram and photographs (fig. 10 and pl. 8, figs. 3, 4). All the
projections shown in the photograph of the trench wall (pl. 8, fig. 3)
are human bones as they occurred in situ in a hitherto undisturbed
section of the pit. In all, two large boxes were filled with these
skeletal remains. It is significant that many of the bones were more
or less slightly scorched or charred. None, however, were completely
burned. There was no evidence that these had been burned in situ;
rather they appeared to have been scorched (perhaps by prairie
fires) at a time prior to their disposal in the pit.

Owing to lack of adequate laboratory space and anthropometric
instruments, no detailed study of these remains was attempted, but
they are preserved in the Nebraska State Museum for future reference.

Disregarding for the moment the artifacts associated with the
human remains, there were few other features worthy of comment.
It should be noted, however, that a considerable number of rocks of
varying sizes were scattered throughout the pit. These are not natural
in this hilltop soil and were obviously placed in the pit by human
agency. Their purpose is unknown. Charcoal occurred in small frag-
ments throughout the pit area. There was no concentration of charcoal
and ash nor any fireplaces, and it would appear that the charcoal was
more or less accidentally mixed with the earth used to cover the bones.
The same explanation probably holds for the few animal bones (other
than rodent) occasionally found in the pit. Like the charcoal, these

108 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

remains are too scarce to indicate actual occupation of the site and ap-
pear to have been brought in either with the human bones or with the
covering soil.

PoTTERY FROM GRAHAM OSSUARY

Ceramic remains from this site were abundant and extremely inter-
esting. The following list indicates the amount and major types
recovered :

Complete pots, none.

Restored pots, none.

Total number of sherds, 923 (rim 113, body 810).
Cord-marked sherds, 866 (rim 83, body 783).
Plain ware sherds, 57 (rim 30, body 27).
Incised body sherds, none.

Hematite stained or painted, none.

The description of paste, color, and tempering in the sherds from
house 1 on Lost Creek is entirely applicable to the above collection,
and hence need not be repeated. Although the color of the above
sherds is predominantly gray, there are perhaps more approaching a
clear brown or buff than there are from house 1. The great pre-
dominance of cord marking (94 percent) and the complete lack of
handles or lugs both serve to bring out the relationship between the
two wares. Only one sherd from the Graham ossuary gives evidence
as to the shape of the bottom of the pot, and this is rounded. Many of
the plainer sherds are blackened from use, whereas the most decorated
pieces are often without any blackening or charring. Two heavy cord-
marked sherds are interesting on account of neat holes bored through
from the outside. It seems probable that the holes were for lashings
to mend breaks, although it is possible that some other purpose, such
as the making of potsherd disks or beads, is indicated. These two
sherds, respectively 7 and 8 mm thick, are of the thickest ware ob-
served and contrast markedly with three unusually delicate sherds
which average 4 mm in thickness. The latter have exceptionally fine
cord markings and are dark gray on the outside and reddish brown
on their inner surface. The hematite-stained ware, rare in house I,
was not observed in the present site.

The sherds from the Graham ossuary (pl. 9, fig. 1), like those
previously described from house 1 on Lost Creek, have the great
majority of their decorative elements on shoulder and rim. The range
of rim types from the Graham ossuary is indicated in table 5 (p. 248).

Incised designs on the lip of rim sherds are rather common and
occur on examples of most of the above types, with certain excep-
tions noted in the above list. A series of small angles running

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 10g

around the lip, transverse double and single lines, recurring dots and
short lines are all employed. This form of lip decoration occurs in
about 32 cases. Another feature is the rather common occurrence of
narrow extensions between notches on the lower edge of the collar
of a definite nipplelike form (pl. 9, fig. 1, d). The collar or shoulder
between lip and lower rim occurs in slightly less than 50 percent
of the cases.

A comparison of table 5 and plate 9, figure 1, with plate 5 will show
the close resemblance between the present ossuary pottery and that
from Lost Creek sites. The similarity is obvious, the most marked
differences being the greater abundance of collared rims (82 percent)
in house 1, Lost Creek, compared with the same type in the Graham
ossuary pottery (less than 50 percent) and the much greater abundance
of horizontal line decoration at the former site. Such differences would
be expected in different sites of the same general culture and might
also be due in part to the fact that the finds represent slightly dif-
ferent periods.

Work IN GrouUND STONE

Only one pipe was found in the ossuary in question. This was
a much weathered and eroded specimen of white “ pipestone ” simi-
lar to those from house 1, Lost Creek. It is an elbow pipe, 37 mm
high from bowl to base and 20 mm in diameter at both bowl and stem
(pl. 16, fig. 2, 2). The interior of the bowl forms an oval, whereas
the stem cavity, only slightly smaller, is triangular. The extreme
weathering of the pipe is apparently due to exposure before it was
placed in the ossuary pit.

In all, four broken sandstone shaft polishers come from the Graham
ossuary. They are all of the “ nail buffer ” type (see pl. 17, fig. 1, f,
for type) and range from go to 40 mm in length. One specimen has a
well-defined double groove on the base, one channel continuing up
over the top of the artifact.

One piece of hard red stone, polished smooth and flat on both sides,
seems to have been used either for grinding or polishing. It is
slightly incrusted with lime and is 90 mm long by 50 mm wide.

Work IN CHIPPED STONE

Seven small chipped arrowpoints were found. Of these, three were
of jasper and the remainder of chalcedony and chert. The majority
(five) are notched, one is unnotched, and one crude specimen suggests
a stem. All are of the delicate, thin type noted in house 1, Lost Creek,
and range in length from 35 to 21 mm. Six fall into the NBa group

8

Ilo ' SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

(pl. 7, fig. 1, d), the seventh, which is the crudest and may be aberrant,
suggesting the SCat type (pl. 7, fig. 1, a). The exact classification of
these points is shown in table 3.

Two small, neatly made end scrapers of brown jasper were found
here (see pl. 7, fig. 1, g, for type). One specimen is 40 mm long, 22
mm broad, and 5 mm thick. It is the usual planoconvex type neatly
retouched on all edges. In addition, two worked stone pieces, re-
spectively 23 and 20 mm in length, suggest this type of artifact but
are very crudely retouched on all sides. There are two other oval
fragments of roughly chipped stone which may belong to either
this or the following type.

No well-defined side scrapers were found in the ossuary. There
are two fragments of chert, however, which are retouched on only
one side and may have been used as side scrapers.

One good example of the diamond-shaped beveled knife, often
called the “ Harahey ” type, was found in the Graham ossuary (pl. 7,
fig. 2, c). The specimen, of brown jasper, is 125 mm by 48 mm in
greatest dimensions and is very thin. The four edges are neatly
chipped and beveled. When found, the knife was broken, but the two
pieces were in close proximity to one another. Four other knife frag-
ments were found; one was pointed and one rounded at the tip, and
the other two were rectangular fragments of uncertain form. All
four are of brown jasper. The three adequate specimens are classified
in table 3.

Work IN Bone

One bone shaft straightener came from the south side of the
ossuary pit at a depth of 3 feet. It is made from the rib of a large
animal, probably a bison, and has a neatly cut and much worn oval
hole in the center (pl. 6, fig. 1, c). One end is cut off, the other
broken, the entire specimen being 13 mm long. This artifact is notable
since similar rib bone shaft straighteners are common in historic and
protohistoric Pawnee sites.

One extremely well-finished bone awl was found at a depth of
2 feet 6 inches in the north-central part of the pit. The artifact has
a rounded butt, is well polished, and has a slender sharp point (pl. 6,
fig. 1,17). The butt formed by the head of the bone has the beginning
of a small bored hole on one side as though an eye had been started.
The awl is 180 mm long.

Only two small bone beads were found in this site. Both have
been carefully cut from the hollow bone of some medium-sized bird.
One is 8 mm and the other 7 mm in length. The type is illustrated

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG Lot

by similar specimens from house 1, Lost Creek (pl. 11, fig. 2,7). One
small pendant, the material of which may be bone, is described later
with other similar objects made from shell.

Work IN ANTLER

In the northeast portion of the ossuary pit at a depth of 8 inches
an unusually interesting bracelet or bow guard was uncovered (pl. ro,
fig 4). It had been broken into 32 pieces by long continued pressure,
but being almost complete, it was fitted together in the field by
Mrs. Strong. The specimen is decorated with a rather elaborate
design (pl. 10, fig 2). The material appears to be antler, probably
elk, split along the grain and then steamed and bent into a circle. Its
length, if laid out flat, would be 170 mm, and its width is 55 mm;
it has three neatly bored holes in each end for the attachment of
thongs to go around the arm. The outer surface is smoothly polished,
whereas the inner surface shows the natural grain of the material.
The incised design consists of an outspread hand at either end reach-
ing along the bracelet, the wrist of each hand is decorated with four
angular lines probably representing bracelets, there is a circle on the
center of each hand, and the nails of each finger are clearly indicated.
Around the greater curve of the object are six double lines, each cross-
hatched at 8-mm intervals. Each of these double lines culminates in a
point and reaches just within the fingers on both ends. The object is
well preserved and shows no sign of having been burned. In size it
comfortably fits the forearm of a grown man just above the wrist, and
since the material when fresh must have had considerable strength,
it may have served to protect the forearm from the twang of a bow-
string. Its rather elaborate decoration, however, suggests a bracelet
of purely ornamental character. The significance of the design and its
nearest analogies in prehistoric American art will be discussed later.
There can be no doubt, however, that the present artifact is closely
similar to the calcined bracelet fragments recovered from house 1,
ast Creek:

Work IN SHELL

Two long pendants or ear ornaments found separately in the Graham
ossuary pit are exceptionally interesting (pl. 11, fig. 1, c). These are
cut from one shell of a large Gulf coast conch (Busycon perversus
Linn.) which is native to the coast of Florida and the Gulf coast
generally. When the two objects are placed side by side, they fit per-
fectly and show clearly where they have been cut apart. Each has
been neatly cut off and ground on both ends, and each has a neat

rr SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

3-mm hole bored through the broad end. In size they are practically
identical, with a length of 120 mm, a greatest width of 21.5 mm,
and a minimum width of 9mm. The shell itself is 5 mm in thickness
in the heaviest part. The texture of the shell is smooth, having a dull,
chalky white color on the ventral surface and a little more luster on
the dorsal side. The material is firm and in good condition. The two
holes have been bored from the ventral side of the shell, having a
crater of 5 mm and an actual aperture of 3 mm. The entire specimen
in each case presents a smooth, well-polished appearance.

Besides the above large specimens, eight complete and three broken
pendants of a smaller and somewhat different type were recovered.
These range in length from 30 to 70 mm and rather suggest imitation
animal teeth or claws. All are perforated for attachment, probably
to a necklace (pl. 9, fig. 2, 7, 7, 1, m, n). They are smoothly polished
with neatly bored holes and fall into two main classes, an oval, well-
rounded form (pl. 9, fig. 2, i, 7) and a more triangular type with
straight sides (pl. 9, fig. 2, 7, m, ). Several of these are much
eroded, apparently as the result of exposure. Since the majority were
found in place, undisturbed by later digging, it is probable that the
exposure occurred before they were placed in the ossuary. One of
these (pl. 9, fig. 2, 7) appears to have been made of bone but is of the
same shape as the others. This last specimen recalls a similar though
much eroded bone pendant from house 1, Lost Creek (pl. 9, fig. 2, k).

In all, 85 cylindrical shell beads, all with well-bored holes for
stringing, were recovered. They were scattered throughout the pit
but occasionally occurred in groups of 12 or less. None were found
in alignment suggesting definite strings. They are of various sizes,
the largest being 15 mm in diameter with a 4-mm hole, the smallest
6 mm in diameter with a 3.5-mm hole. In each case the beads were
flat on both sides and had vertical edges. The type is illustrated (pl.
II, fig. 2, c), although these particular beads come from another site.
Many of the beads from the Graham ossuary are stained rusty red
and have been considerably eroded by previous exposure. Some of
them occurred in recently disturbed soil but many were from un-
disturbed areas. As in the case of other artifacts previously dis-
cussed, it would appear that the beads had been exposed for a
considerable period prior to their deposition in the ossuary pit.

There are nine cylindrical shell beads, the longest 20 mm with a
diameter of 11 mm, and the shortest 10 mm with a diameter of 7 mm
(pl. 11, fig. 2, e). Holes have been bored from each end and taper
markedly toward the center in all but one bead. The latter has a
straight 5-mm hole through one half, meeting a straight 3-mm _ hole

NOs LO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 113

on the other end. The majority of these specimens have a rusty red
and white mottling and are considerably eroded from previous ex-
posure. This condition, like the method of boring the hole from
each end, is well shown in the illustration (pl. 11, fig. 2, e). Here
again recent exposure cannot account for the erosion, as the majority
of the beads came from various undisturbed areas. Unfortunately,
no samples of these beads were sent to Dr. Baker, hence the shell is
unidentified. To the unpracticed eye, however, they suggest a marine
rather than a fresh-water species of mollusk.

Sixteen flattened and bored fresh-water snail (Anculosa praerosa
Say) shells were found in association with the partial skeleton of
a child at a depth of 2 feet in the east-central portion of the pit (pl. 11,
fig. 2, f). These have been ground flat on the ventral surface and a
rough hole broken at one end, which, with the natural aperture, might
be used for stringing the beads. According to Dr. Baker, this par-
ticular species is common in the Ohio and Wabash Rivers and south-
ward, but is not known to occur west of Illinois. He suggests they
were probably obtained through trade with Illinois tribes. A similar
type of shell, identically worked, was found by Harrington (1920, p.
229, fig. 37) in Caddo territory in Arkansas. A number of unworked
shells of this species were found in cache 1, house 1, Lost Creek.

Associated with the same child’s remains were five olivella (Olivella
jaspidea Gmelin) shells with a neat hole bored through the small end
in line with the natural aperture (pl. 11, fig. 2, h). This is a marine
species from the Gulf or Atlantic coast. They average 14 or 15 mm in
length, a small part of one end having been flattened for boring. Un-
worked shells of this species were also found in cache 1, house 1, Lost
Creek.

One other shell bead was found. It had a single hole pierced
opposite the natural opening. The species (Marginella apicina Menke)
is a marine form from the Florida or Gulf coast. The present specimen
is 12 mm in length.

A unique shell artifact carefully worked from some heavy shell,
probably that of the Gulf coast conch (Busycon perversus Linn.),
is hard to classify (pl. 11, fig. 1, b). It has been neatly ground down
on all edges and has a bowllike depression in the larger end. Along
one side are two groups of bored holes, one group of two, the other
of three. In the group of three the two end holes open out to the
edge of the artifact. Except for the holes along the side, the shape of
the artifact most strongly suggests the shoehorn in our own culture.
It was probably used as part of a spoon or dipper. With a wooden
handle lashed along the side of the perforations it would serve the

IIi4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

latter purpose admirably, and with a similar shell bowl lashed on
the other side of the handle it would have been doubly effective. The
artifact is 70 mm in length and 50 mm across at the widest end. It
was found at a depth of ro inches on the eastern border of the pit
in soil undisturbed by any recent digging. The shell retains con-
siderable luster and is in an excellent state of preservation.

Work IN COPPER

Two very similar copper artifacts from the Graham ossuary pit are,
to the best of my knowledge, the first aboriginal specimens of this
material reported from Nebraska. The first of these (pl. 9, fig. 2, g)
was found on our dump heap, and although it came from the central
portion of the pit its exact provenience is unknown. The second
was found at a depth of 12 inches also near the center of the pit. Un-
fortunately, the site here had been badly torn up by previous digging,
and it is probable that the artifact had been disturbed at this time.
The first object found was a thin disk of much oxidized copper with
a small (3 mm) hole punched through the center. The second speci-
men is of the same type but is much more complete, as the illustra-
tion (pl. 9, fig. 2, f) indicates. The outer edges of this disk have been
hammered around a similar disk of wood, and the hole has been
punched through from the copper face. The complete disk is 54 mm
and the hole is 3 mm in diameter. The first fragmentary disk (pl. 9,
fig. 2, g) is not part of the second artifact, for it overlaps the opening
above the wood filler. It was probably part of a similar object, one
side of which had been broken off. The specimens are somewhat ir-
regular in thickness, much oxidized, and dull green in color. Although
no analysis of the metal has been made, the nature of the artifacts
and of the site generally suggest purely native provenience. Their
purpose is unknown, but they would have served admirably as ear
ornaments, pendants, or plume holders.

Besides the two artifacts just described, several very small frag-
ments of copper were found nearby. They were probably parts of
the same specimens. The only other metal object was a small piece
of galena encountered at a depth of 12 inches on the south side of
the pit.

NEGATIVE EXCAVATIONS IN VICINITY OF GRAHAM OSSUARY

At the conclusion of the main excavation in the Graham ossuary
a considerable number of trenches and pits were sunk in various parts
of the summit and upper slopes of the hill in order to determine

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 115

whether there were similar pits nearby. For the same reason a trench
was run across the high ridge about 200 yards to the northeast (fig. 8,
site 1a). No evidences of human disturbances were found, and if other
pits exist here we were unable to find any trace of them. Since an
area 5 feet square, covered with limestone boulders and jasper slabs,
had been noted on a hill about one-half mile to the southeast, we also
sank pits here (fig. 8, site 1b). The stones were all on the surface
of the ground and after removing these we sank a trench to a depth of
3 feet with negative results. These stones, which are not natural on
such an eminence, may have been carried to the spot to form a fireplace,
either by whites or Indians.

As previously mentioned, Indian Hill (fig. 8, site 1d), to the south
of Graham Hill, received its name from skeletal remains dug up in
times past. The entire summit of Indian Hill and many places on the
sides have been completely overturned by numerous relic hunters.
Since no records of any of this work exist and since the material
secured is hopelessly scattered, it is impossible to draw any con-
clusions regarding its significance. We sank many trial pits on such
parts of the hill as had not been completely dug over but obtained
only negative results. It is possible that careful excavation on the
extreme summit, which we neglected because of its hopelessly torn-up
appearance, might reveal deeper and undisturbed deposits. Bertrand
Schultz, of Red Cloud, secured many shell beads here and found two
nearly complete skeletons. Around the neck of one were many shell
beads and the three cut shell ornaments illustrated here (pl. 11, fig. 1,
g, h, t), which had formed part of a necklace. The ornaments are cut
from the shell of a fresh-water mussel. A priori it might seem logical
to suppose that there was once an ossuary pit on Indian Hill as there
was on Graham Hill, but evidence as to the exact nature of the former
site is too fragmentary to support any conclusion. It may be signifi-
cant that Schultz does not report any pottery from this site, nor
did we find any, either in our trenches or on the dirt piles of the
former excavations. On a low knoll to the northwest of Indian Hill
(fig. 8, site Ie) a trench 4 feet deep yielded a few bits of burned clay
and charcoal in the upper 2 feet, but no other traces of habitation.
There should be aboriginal house sites in this vicinity, to judge from
the favorable location just above the stream with its bottom lands
and below the burial hills. However, our trenches here did not find
them. The arroyos and canyons in this vicinity yield many fossils,
and the bluff region along the Republican River generally may well
yield much more ancient traces of man than those already reported.
It may be mentioned that members of our party visited a large rock

116 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

shelter or cave just southwest of Indian Hill, locally known as “ Buf-
falo Bill’s Cave”. It is a limestone formation with slightly smoke-
blackened walls but has no soil deposit on the floor and is therefore
sterile from an archeological standpoint.

CONCLUSIONS REGARDING PRAIRIE DOG CREEK SITES

From the foregoing it is clear that we only sampled the sites in the
vicinity of the junction of Prairie Dog Creek and the Republican
River. It is evident that at least one village site similar to that de-
scribed from Lost Creek is located in the corn fields below the Graham
ossuary. It is also probable that there are other burial places in the
vicinity and that extremely careful excavation on the summit of Indian
Hill might yet recover valuable details in regard to this badly looted
but undoubtedly significant site. From the information so far avail-
able concerning Indian Hill we are unable to state whether it is similar
to the Graham ossuary or to the Marshall ossuary which will be de-
scribed shortly, or whether it is unique in possessing complete inter-
ments. Careful work around and under the looted areas may yet
answer these questions, and the scientific excavator who is fortunate
enough to discover an untouched burial place of this type will obtain
even more valuable information.

Concerning the Graham ossuary it seems most probable that this
communal pit was used for the ultimate disposal of human remains
previously exposed elsewhere. The fact that many of these bones are
charred suggests that the racks or scaffolds on which they had been
exposed may have fallen down and the bones been scorched by prairie
fires. From time to time these remains were gathered up with such
votary offerings as remained with them and thrown into the pit, where
they were covered with soil. Such an explanation best accounts for the
utterly haphazard disposition of the bones and the weathering of the
artifacts as well as the occasional charring of both bones and of-
ferings. It is noteworthy that no individual pits for interment oc-
curred ; rather a general area, approximately 24 feet square, was used
in common and presumably over a considerable period. Beyond once
more referring to the close similarity between the cultural remains
from this ossuary and the material from the Lost Creek houses, we
will leave further consideration of cultural correspondences for later
general discussion.

OssuARY ON THE REPUBLICAN River (MarsHatt SITE),
HarLtan County

On the Marshall farm, 3 miles west and 2 miles north of the Graham
site and close to the south bank of the Republican River, is located

NO. I0 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG Ty,

a somewhat different type of prehistoric ossuary (fig. 1, site 28 and
fig. 8, site 2). This site was called to my attention by A. T. Hill,
and with the permission of the owner we carried on excavation
work here August 5 to 7, 1930. Since the place is well known to
local collectors, it has been much dug over. Fortunately, our excava-
tions revealed small undisturbed areas under old dirt piles, and these
gave us a key to the general nature of the interments.

The Marshall ossuary is situated on a point of the river bluffs
which at this place approach to within 200 yards of the present river
channel (pl. 10, fig. 1). This point rises abruptly to a height of some
50 feet above the first bottom but is somewhat lower than the hills on
either side. Since the point is not particularly conspicuous, there
seemed no particular reason why it alone should have been selected
for burial purposes. Nevertheless, surface examination and some
trenching on the more conspicuous points to the east and west re-
vealed no traces of other burials. At first glance the extent and random
nature of the previous digging (fig. 11) made further excavation seem
futile. However, the occurrence of a considerable number of shell
beads and human bone fragments at the mouth of a badger burrow
on the north end of the hill seemed to indicate the existence of some
undisturbed areas under the dirt pile.

We therefore ran a 24-foot trench across the north end and carried
it south by 3-foot sections. The first three sections (fig. II, 4, 5, 6)
were through a badly disturbed area. Although occasional small un-
disturbed areas were found, they were not large enough to give any
idea of the original nature of the site. In these three rows we found
1,500 shell beads, of which about half had been rounded and bored,
as well as a large number of very fragmentary human bones. The
beads and bones came from both the undisturbed pockets and the dug-
over fill. All that could be ascertained in regard to the original deposit
was that it reached a depth of 6 feet-in certain places but averaged
only about 14 inches deep at both ends of our trench. The occurrence
of small fragments of charcoal in the undisturbed old deposit is
worthy of note. In the central part of sections 5 and 6a definite con-
centration of bone fragments and shell beads at a depth of from 3 to
6 feet suggested an ossuary pit of some sort (fig. II, pit 1). How-
ever, the earlier digging here, combined with a deep rodent burrow,
made it impossible to define clearly the limits of the original exca-
vation. Fortunately, in sections 7 and 8 we found undisturbed areas
on both sides of the filled holes of earlier excavations. This, inci-
dentally, was also the end of the badger burrow, and it was from
here that the beads and bones first noticed had evidently been carried
out.

118 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93
Fragments of human bone and large numbers of shell beads were
here concentrated in three areas or pits (figs. II, 12, pits 2, 3, 4).
These pits were round or oval in outline and in each case were sunk
at least 1 foot into the hard undisturbed soil at the bottom of the
Pit 2 was oval in outline with a slightly concave bottom

deposit.
(pl. 10, fig. 5) measuring 3 feet 8 inches long by 3 feet wide. The

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depth of the bottom from the original surface was 6 feet. The walls
of the pit were straight and beyond the pit wall to the east there were
no traces of bones or artifacts. The area to the west of this pit had
been dug up by previous excavators. Pit 3 was on the western border
of this previously disturbed area and only a small portion of it re-
mained intact. To judge from the curve of this remnant, the original
pit had a diameter of about 3 feet. The slightly concave bottom was

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG I19Q

5 feet from the present surface. Although the bottom foot of the
pit was in hard undisturbed soil, above this, on the west, the pit
merged into an area of originally disturbed soil through which were
scattered a few beads and bone fragments (fig. 12). Whether this
original disturbance between the pits extended toward pit 2 is un-
certain, owing to the later excavations. Pit 4 was oval in outline,
4 feet by 3 feet 6 inches in horizontal dimensions, and 5 feet 6 inches
deep. The bottom was slightly concave, as in the other pits. Like
pit 3, the bottom 1 foot 6 inches extended into undisturbed soil, but
above this depth pit 4 merged into an originally disturbed area con-
taining some bones and beads (fig. 12). In both pits 3 and 4 the
greater number of bones and beads were concentrated on and just
above the bottom, whereas the slight mixture above this and between
the pits was haphazard.

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ABS! HAR Db: WHITE: UNDISTURBE o “SOIL: ia NES+BEADS

O25 IS ee Si 6G 7-
eo ae

Fic. 12—Cross-section of Marshall site. Hachures indicate unexcavated soil.

Within the pits the human remains were massed in the bottom
2 feet and with them were large quantities of shell beads. As can be
seen (pl. 10, fig. 3), there was no natural grouping of the bones. They
had been thrown in en masse, and both under and over them shell
beads had been scattered apparently by the handful. Occasionally
short strings of evenly matched beads were noted in situ, but as a rule
the beads, both bored and unbored, were in heaps. Bones of all sorts
were intermingled, and each pit contained the remains of numerous
individuals. Many of the bones were broken and some were burned.
Likewise many of the beads were calcined. No complete skulls were
found, and skull and jaw fragments were rare. Mr. Hill and
Mr. Brooking of Hastings, Nebr., earlier obtained one adult skull at
this site, which is now in the Hastings Museum. From pits 2, 3, and 4
at least 5,000 shell beads were recovered, as well as two large boxes
of human bones. No detailed study of the human remains has yet been
possible, but they await further research in the Nebraska State
Museum.

120 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

ARTIFACTS FROM MARSHALL OSSUARY

Shell beads were the predominating and almost the only type of
artifact found in this entire site. Over 8,000 beads were recovered
in our own excavation, and very many times this number have been
removed at various times by local collectors. The entire dug-over area
is impregnated with shell beads, their very abundance causing them
to be neglected by the collectors. In addition, as previously stated,
they occurred by the handful in the lower portions of the undisturbed
ossuary pits. The various types and sizes are shown (pl. IT, fig. 2,
b,c, g). About half of those recovered were ground flat on the edges
and perforated (pl. 11, fig. 2, c), whereas of the remainder all were
rough on the edges and about Io percent were unbored (pl. 11, fig. 2,
b). As many as 25 evenly matched ground and bored beads were found
in alignment just as the string of beads was thrown into the pit. The
fact that all of the ground beads are perforated, whereas many of the
rough disks are not, indicates the probable method of working. Ap-
parently, the shells of a fresh-water bivalve were broken up, ground
approximately round on sandstone or broken to shape, bored, strung
on some stiff wood fiber and then rolled on a slab or between two slabs
until perfectly smooth and round. This is the method employed by the
Pomo and other California tribes, and the same sequence is suggested
by the complete series from the present site. Since all stages of this
process are represented in the Marshall ossuary, it is evident that
both finished and unfinished beads were regarded as especially suitable
for mortuary offerings.

In addition to the finished and unfinished beads a considerable
number of unworked mollusk shells were found in the Marshall
ossuary. Of these Dr. Baker has identified three species :

Lampsilis ventricosa vccideus (Lea), also found in historic Pawnee and other
sites

Lampsilis anodontoides (Lea), also found at Lost Creek, house 1

Pleurobema coccineum (Conrad), numerous at Marshall site only

It is of interest that none of these shells occurred in the Graham
ossuary, nor were any of the marine forms noted there found at the
Marshall site. It is uncertain just what other species were used in
making the common shell beads, but in all cases fresh-water rather
than marine shells seem to have been employed. Besides the usual flat
disk beads, one other interesting small bead was noticed which had
two neat holes on the same plane, one bored lengthwise and the other
at right angles (pl. 11, fig. 2, g). Also a single bored fresh-water
pearl was found (pl. 11, fig. 2, g). The only other shell artifacts found

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG [21

were two partially broken triangles of thin shell with holes bored in
the upper two corners. Several of these small shell gorgets were
found here earlier by both Mr. Hill and Mr. Brooking. Only one
other artifact was found in our entire excavation. This was a broken
and calcined object of worked bone, probably the head of an awl
(pl. 6, fig. 1, f). The well-rounded knob or head of this artifact is dif-
ferent from any other bone implement so far noted in Nebraska.
The abundant shell beads, the one broken shell gorget, and this bone
artifact are to the best of my knowledge the only artifact types so
far recovered from this ossuary.

Since the disk beads from this site were identical with the much
less numerous disk beads from the Graham ossuary we had rather
expected to find similar pottery, although A. T. Hill warned us there
was none. The latter even offered the boys $5 for the first potsherd
but no one was able to claim the reward. Not only was pottery ab-
sent but there was no trace of stone work, nor, aside from the one
broken artifact, no bone work. It was truly a “ shell bead burial ” and
therefore different from the Graham ossuary both in content and
structure.

CONCLUSIONS REGARDING MARSHALL OSSUARY

Although the extent of the earlier digging for specimens at the
Marshall site precludes positive determinations as to original extent
and exact nature, certain conclusions may be drawn with reasonable
accuracy. There appear to have been a considerable number of small
pits sunk in an area at the end of the point approximately 30 feet
in diameter. In this regard it may be noted that excavation 2 (fig. IT)
was in undisturbed soil and beyond the limits of the burial ground.
The ossuary pits, to judge from those revealed by our excavations,
were from 3 to 4 feet in diameter and 5 to 6 feet deep. In these the
previously exposed human remains were deposited with liberal of-
ferings of shell beads. That different pits were dug at different times
is suggested by the absence of a uniform bottom level and by the mixed
soil between the upper portions of certain pits. The latter might easily
have résulted from digging a new pit alongside a former one, thus
accounting for the mixture in the upper levels. That individual pits
were intended is clearly indicated by their definite round outline and
concave bottom, as well as by the concentration of bones and artifacts
in the lower levels (pl. 10, figs. 3, 5; figs. 11, 12). Although it is
apparent that parts of numerous individuals were included in each pit,
it is uncertain how many individuals were represented either in the

[22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

entire site or in each pit. The general fact of reinterment of the mixed
bones of the dead with offerings, and the occurrence of shell disk beads
in each, tends to link the Marshall and the Graham ossuaries. In de-
tails of construction and in the types of artifacts in each, the two sites
are different. This, however, is a matter for later discussion.

OssuARY ON REPUBLICAN RIVER NEAR ALMA, HARLAN COUNTY

On March 18, 1931, A. T. Hill wrote me concerning an ossuary
very similar to that excavated at the Graham site. I take the liberty of
quoting from his letter, since it is brief and to the point.

I celebrated St. Patrick’s Day, as all good Irishmen should, by a business
trip down to the Republican Valley. When I got to Alma one of my friends
told me he had located an Indian grave which he and some other boys had done
considerable work in. I told him we would try to get down there some time
this summer to help them work it out, but they insisted that we work it at once
as it was impossible for them to keep outsiders from digging it up. So yesterday
we went out and very carefully excavated a trench 3 by 12 feet (east and west)
and 4 feet deep, finding a culture that exactly duplicates the Graham site, with
an abundance of pottery and broken (human) bones, four shell beads and three
small clawlike pendants made out of conch shell. The latter are exactly the
same as those you found in the Graham site. The location of this burial is
about one-half mile south of the Republican River and on the highest hill nearest
the river (fig. 8, site 3). We kept a strict record of everything found and its
position and I will send you a detailed report as soon as I have time to make
it out. I am satisfied from the amount of digging that has been done here that
this burial covers as much ground as the Graham site does. The boys are going
to protect it if they possibly can so that we can get some more information later,
but I know that the site is at least 15 feet east and west and 15 feet north and
south.

A later letter of March 23, 1931, enclosed vertical and horizontal
diagrams showing the exact location of the 116 human bone fragments
and artifacts encountered in the above-mentioned trench. The hori-
zontal plat shows a rather even distribution of bones and artifacts
throughout the trench, except that they are scarce in the outer 2 feet
on both ends. The vertical plat shows a similar evenly scattered dis-
tribution from 8 inches below the ground surface to a depth slightly
below 3 feet in the central 6 feet. The outer 3 feet on both sides show
that the artifact-bearing layer slants up on each end from a depth of
3 feet to only 1 foot at the east and west ends of the trench. In other
words, the artifacts and bones have been deposited in a basinlike exca-
vation and are scattered at random throughout the fill. The situation
here was therefore practically identical with that at the Graham site.
Mr. Hill notes that the human bones were in very bad condition, being
wet and crumbly. No complete skulls, but many skull fragments,

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 123

teeth, and other skeletal parts were found to the number of 49. All
were disarticulated, and no indication of any complete skeletons or
bundle burials were observed.

The artifacts included 30 pieces of pottery, 3 small shell pendants,
5 columnar shell beads, 3 disk shell beads, 4 bone beads, 2 five-notched
arrowpoints (NBa3), fragments of flint, pebbles, some yellow paint
(limonite ?), mussel shells, a conch shell fragment, and some burnt
clay. The pot rims are mainly of the collared type, with incised hori-
zontal line decoration or with regular notching around the lowest and
widest portion of the collar (compare pls. 5 andg). The shell pendants
are identical with those from the Graham site (pl. 9, fig. 2, 7, 7,1, m,n).
The arrowpoints are thin, beautifully chipped examples of the NBa3
type (see table 2 and compare pl. 7, fig. 1, c). A comparison of these
artifacts with the findings in the Graham ossuary can leave little doubt
that the culture represented in both is practically identical.

Mr. Hill adds that although no village has yet been located at the
Marshall site, there is a village site, as yet unexcavated, close by the
Alma site. He finds no indication of pit burials in the Alma ossuary,
stating, ‘“ While we have not excavated the Alma site fully, I do not
believe that we will find any pit or bundle burials. Everything in this
ossuary seems to be evenly distributed and well scattered. As you
will note in the drawing I sent you, the artificial material is about as
thick one place as another.” (Letter of December 17, 1931.)

OssuAry ON Munson CREEK, Howarp County

In the letter just quoted Mr. Hill also mentions a rather unique
type of ossuary pit located in the North Loup River drainage 3 miles
west of the town of Elba (map, fig. 1, site 16).

At the Lehn site on Munson Creek in the ossuary, which is one-fourth of a
mile south of the village, I found a very peculiar situation. We cleaned off a
space of ground about 16 feet east and west and about the same dimensions north
and south and found charcoal, bones, flint, and pottery. We started to clean
this out and found that it had been originally dug down from 18 inches to 26
inches and was not level but declined toward the center. Three feet north of
the exact center of this 16-foot square we found an ossuary pit that was 53
inches deep, 78 inches long, and 60 inches wide with rounded corners. We
cleaned this out very carefully and found two fairly good skulls and fragments
of three others, also found four shell beads of the disk type, three shell beads
of the tubular type, two of the three notched arrows [NBaz2], one Harahey type
knife [NCa], one bone pendant, one thumb scraper, a part of a cedar pole (that
had been standing upright and extended up about 2 feet from the bottom of the
hole), charcoal, and numerous potsherds. There were human bones of at least
eight different skeletons in this hole, scattered from the top of the ground to
the entire bottom. One of the skull fragments which was the top part of the

124 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

head was found 13 inches below the plow line and two others 17 inches below
the plow line. The two fairly good skulls that we got out were 47 inches and
50 inches down. There are several villages, so far as we know now, on Munson
and Davis Creeks, and all used the ossuary type of burial containing potsherd
offerings with disk shell beads. The pottery on these two creeks is very similar
- [and] can readily be distinguished from any other pottery that we have found
in this country so far. There are some pieces that link in design with the
Republican River pottery [i. e., Lost Creek and Graham sites], [but] the con-
clusion that I am compelled to draw from my observation so far is that there
is considerable difference between the Republican River pottery and the Loup
River Valley pottery. There will be pieces in all these sites that bear resem-
blances, but I have reference to the majority of the pottery.

It may be added that all the skeletal remains and artifacts mentioned
may be found fully catalogued and accessible for study in the Hill
collection at the Hastings (Nebraska) Museum. From the Loup and
Republican River valleys we now turn to consider various prehistoric
sites along the Missouri River in eastern Nebraska.

VILLAGE NEAR Rock Biurrs (Rock Briurrs Site), Cass County

In the spring and early summer of 1930 considerable work was
done in a small prehistoric village site located in the cemetery of the
little town of Rock Bluffs. The Rock Bluffs cemetery is above the
town on the Missouri River bluffs and about I mile to the north (fig. 1,
site 20, fig. 13). Dr. G. H. Gilmore knew of a house site at this place,
and through his good offices we obtained permission to excavate. The
brushy area within the cemetery grounds had just been burned over,
and in going over the cleared ground we found three more shallow
house pits besides the one previously mentioned. The house pits
extended in a north and south line along the ridge for a distance of
about 100 yards. Possibly there were other houses in the plowed field
to the south, but no surface indications, either pits or cultural detritus,
were found there. The same may be said for the very brushy area
across the road to the north (fig. 13). The house pits within the ceme-
tery grounds are extremely shallow and show no other surface indica-
tion than a slight depression. Without the assistance of Dr. Gilmore’s
trained eye we would never have noticed them.

The general locale of the aboriginal village is on the first high ridge
above the Missouri River and about half a mile west of its present
channel. The ridges here are heavily wooded but through the trees
one may catch attractive glimpses of the river and of the lowa bottoms
and bluffs on the other shore. To the west the country is rolling, with
wooded ridges and small cultivated valleys. There is no water near
the site at the present time, though an outcrop of glacial drift a few

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 125

hundred yards to the north may formerly have given rise to a spring
at this point. The river would appear to have been too far below
and too distant to have served as a regular water supply.

According to Dr. Gilmore the most northerly pit at this site (house
1) had been partially opened by Dr. Fred H. Sterns some time around

Miz.
QUEEN

=

SOWA

(SUELS co:)

Fic. 13.—Sketch map of Rock Bluffs district, Cass County.

1915. Sterns does not mention the site in his complete manuscript
(1915 a), possibly because the excavation was not finished. On our
first day at the site, April 12, 1930, some time was spent in an attempt
to excavate that portion which Dr. Gilmore thought had been un-
touched in the former work.

9

126 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

HOUSE I

In 1930 this house pit was round, having a diameter of 33 feet. The
depression was very shallow, perhaps 6 inches in depth and was barely
noticeable. We ran a 3-foot trench from the center to the south end of
the pit, keeping just to the east of the center line. Since the earlier
excavation had been carefully filled in there was no way to tell which
half Sterns had excavated other than by Dr. Gilmore’s memory. At
a depth of 3 feet 2 inches a floor line was encountered, and in the north-
west corner of the trench (i. e., the center of the pit and presumably
of the old house) a fire area 3 to 4 inches in thickness was found at
the same level. The only aboriginal artifacts recovered were a few
flint chips and a half dozen potsherds of the same type as those found
later in houses 2 and 3. However, near the center of the trench we
found a post containing iron nails, indicating that we were in Sterns’
former excavations. Since there seemed no way to avoid duplicating
much of this earlier work, and as the untouched house pits had just
been located, we stopped work in house 1 and filled in. Trial pits in
house 2 yielded the surest evidence of occupation, so we transferred
our activities to that house pit.

HOUSE 2

This house was indicated in the brushy area at the south end of the
cemetery by a faint depression, perhaps 8 inches in depth and roughly
30 feet in circular outline. Work began here April 12, 1930, and was
carried on three other week ends during the spring. On the summer
expedition of that year we worked in house 2 from June 11 to June 18,
when the excavation was completed and the pit filled in. The method
of excavation by trenching has already been described in regard to the
Lost Creek site. Plate 12, figure 1, illustrates this work in progress
on the southeast side of house 2. The presence of trees and brush with
the resulting network of subsoil roots made excavation difficult.

As seen in the diagram (fig. 14), the house outline was approxi-
mately square with rounded corners, measuring 18 feet from northeast
to southwest and 17 feet from northwest to southeast. The edges of
the old floor line were difficult to determine with exactitude, except
on the southeast side, where there was a clear line of demarcation.
This is indicated in the diagram (fig. 14) by solid lines where the
boundaries were perfectly clear and dotted lines where they are
approximate. The charred remnants of five vertical posts and one post
mold, each about 5 inches in diameter, were encountered on and just
below the floor line. These are apparently remnants of the inner row

NO. I0 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 127

,
' ‘
‘ es” es” es” :
; PReSer ine
‘
'
: ENTRANCE
'
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, :
ne
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2
' es” :
1 iy
' POST MOULD O ot '
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Fe =F 5

SA Pit

ae
-
- -<oc-er
-- o---
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J os
Yj Yy
vs tify, fy
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Fig. 14.—Ground plan and cross-section of house 2, Rock Bluffs.

128 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

of large posts supporting the rafters from the sides. Just what the
complete arrangement of posts may have been is uncertain, for it is
evident that some were either missed in the excavation or, less likely,
that all traces of them had vanished. No indications of small posts
around the outer walls were encountered except one 2-inch post near
the northwest wall (fig. 14). This lack of outer posts is evidently
significant and is not due to their being overlooked, since there were
no traces of any such posts along the southeast wall where other
features of house construction were well preserved. From the evidence
at hand it would seem most probable that the 5-inch posts form the
main interior framework from which rafters ran down to rest directly
on the edge of the excavated house pit. The purpose of the 2-inch
post previously mentioned and of the 3-inch post just southwest of the
fireplace remains problematical. The slanting 2-inch post on the edge
of the fireplace (fig. 14) probably served as a crane or other cooking
appurtenance. The entrance passage was near the center of the south-
west wall. It was 3 feet across and extended at least 10 feet beyond
the edge of the house. Since the ground level beyond the edge of the
house sloped down in this direction it is probable that this natural slope
and the passage floor came together beyond the end of our trench.
No posts were found along the passage, but they may have been
overlooked.

Considering the vertical soil layers revealed in cross-section (fig.
14), the upper stratum was I foot deep at the edges and 1 foot 6 inches
in the center, being composed of dark humous material interlaced with
roots. It was free of all cultural evidences except where rodent bur-
rowings had introduced these from below. This accumulation had
evidently occurred after the abandonment of the house. Below this
was a layer of dark mixed soil containing charcoal, burned clay, and a
few artifacts. In this layer along the southwest wall near the passage
entrance was a considerable amount of burned clay containing imprints
of grass and small twigs (fig. 14). This wattle-and-daub material was
evidently part of the passage covering, for it also occurred 10 feet out
in the passage itself. The mixed layer under discussion had an average
thickness of slightly more than 1 foot and was apparently composed
of the fallen-in earth roof. At a depth of 2 feet 6 inches in the center
and 3 feet on the sides occurred a concentrated layer of charcoal, ash,
and artifacts forming the old floor line. This varied in thickness from
a few inches on the sides to over a foot near the fireplace. The
majority of artifacts, save those from the cache pits, occurred in this
layer. The fireplace was about 3 feet in diameter, being composed of
ash, charcoal, and cultural debris with red baked clay underneath to a

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 129

depth of over a foot. The 2-inch post next to the fireplace, which had a
slant to the southwest, has already been mentioned. Below the floor
level occurred hard yellow unmixed clay.

StTorAGE Pits

Cache pit no. I was located on the northwest side of the house
(fig. 14). It was circular in outline, 4 feet 3 inches in greatest diameter
and 2 feet wide across the mouth. Its greatest depth was 6 feet 3
inches, and it had a slightly concave bottom. It was bell-shaped in
cross-section with a wide bottom and narrow mouth. No special lining
of any sort was observed. The storage pit was filled with white ash
containing charcoal, bone fragments, potsherds, and a few artifacts.
The most striking of these was a large complete pot (pl. 13) lying
on its side at a depth of 4 feet 5 inches. The illustration shows how
strikingly the white ash in the cache pit contrasts with the surrounding
soil. The pot was full of ashes and dirt, one unworked mussel shell
being the only other object it contained. Besides this pot and a large
number of potsherds, one broken shell spoon, several small arrow-
points, several end scrapers, and numerous fragments of chipped
stone were recovered in cache I.

Cache 2 (fig. 14) was on the northeast side of the house. Its
flattened bell shape is clearly indicated in the diagram. It was roughly
circular in outline with a greatest diameter of 4 feet 5 inches and an
extreme depth from the ground surface of 7 feet 7 inches. The mouth
of the cache was about 2 feet in diameter and 2 feet below floor line.
Like cache 1, it contained a large amount of ash, but there was more
mixture both of dirt and of cultural detritus than in the former pit.
Near the top of the pit in the bottle neck (fig. 14) was a mass of black
organic material mixed with large numbers of fishbones, apparently
from very large catfish. There was also a large amount of baked clay
in the mouth of the pit, and its walls were lined with clay. This clay
lining was baked in places as though the walls of the pit when first dug
had been coated with wet clay and then a fire had been built on the
inside.

Artifacts were more numerous in cache 2 than in cache I. Just
under the organic material previously mentioned a small complete pot
was found in close contact with the roof lining of the cache (fig. 14).
It was right side up and in perfect condition (pl. 14, fig. 1, a). In
addition, the cache contained 1 small pottery ladle (pl. 14, fig. 1, e),
many potsherds (including both highly polished buff and polished
incised ware), I incised shell spoon, 4 arrowpoints, several broken
knife blades of chert, many retouched chert flakes, 3 small end scrapers,

i30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS — VOL. 93

1 chipped and partially ground celt, 2 chipped celts, 1 polishing stone,
1 hammerstone, I flat bone awl, 1 polished bone “needle” with a
groove around the butt, and 2 fragments of pottery pipes. Besides the
artifacts, many unworked rocks, numerous mussel shells, fishbones,
mammal bones, and rodent skulls were found. No traces of charred
corn were noted, although the black organic mass already noted near
the mouth of the pit may have once been corn. This material has not
been analyzed.

REFUSE HEAPS

No refuse heaps have been excavated at this site, although they
probably occur, since modern gravediggers have thrown up consider-
able amounts of shell and bone in the eastern part of the cemetery.
It was of course impossible to excavate further at such places and our
trial trenches away from the graves revealed no middens.

Pottery FROM HoUusE 2

A considerable amount of pottery was found in this house, for the
most part on the old floor level and in the two cache pits. The follow-
ing lists indicates the total amount and the main ceramic types re-
covered from house 2:

Complete pots, 2.

Restored pots, 2.

Total number of sherds, 1,126 (rim and handles 78, body 1,048).
Cord-marked sherds, 407 (rims and handles 7, body 400).

Plain ware sherds, 702 (rims and handles 71, body 631).

Incised ware, 13 (rims and handles 0, body 13).

Sherds with slip, 4 (?).

In general the ware from this house is of good quality and feels
smooth and hard to the touch. The paste in the majority of cases is
fine and the ware flaky in texture. The tempering is of fine grit and
difficult to determine in most cases, although occasionally coarser
river gravel has been used and such sherds are more crumbly than the
others. A tempering containing iron pyrites is sometimes used, and the
golden sparkle thus given the surface of the ware is attractive.” The
ware is hard and for the more part well fired, though occasional sherds
with a black interior indicate insufficient heating.

The prevalent color is a reddish brown, ranging from an orange-
buff to an almost black tone. A considerable proportion of the sherds
are brick-red. Smoke blackening occurs on the outside of many pieces.
The variable colors are due to the degree of firing or smoking and

* This may be the gold flake tempering referred to by Gilder, 1907, p. 712.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG I31

possibly to the different clays employed. No examples of a true slip
were noticed, though four sherds had a whitish coating on their inner
surface suggesting a lime wash. Although this wash did not rub off,
it did not appear to have been burned into the pot. As the above list
indicates, 62 percent of the sherds recovered were of plain ware which
is well polished and often lustrous. Cord-marked sherds made up
less than 38 percent of the total, and in most of these the cord marks
had been largely eradicated by subsequent polishing. The markings
had apparently been applied with cord-wrapped paddles and were
mostly on the body of the vessels, only 7 out of 78 rims from the
house showing such marks.”

Incising as a means of decoration occurs in a relatively small pro-
portion of pieces from this site. In cache 2 there were 13 small sherds
of a thin, well-polished brown ware having incised lines on their outer
surface. The lines, which had been applied with a pointed implement
while the pot was soft, were fine and shallow. Parallel lines and
angles are suggested, but the sherds are too small to indicate the larger
patterns of which they were a part.

Aside from polishing, cord marking, incising, and the rare painting
with a white wash, the main decorative elements of this pottery are
attained by modeling. Modeling occurs commonly on rims, lugs, and
handles, but only rarely on the body of the pots. Therefore an analysis
of all the rim sherds from house 1 will complete the general discussion
of ceramic decoration at this site (see table 6, p. 253).

In regard to modeling, the occurrence of a small separate loop
handle (pl. 16, fig. I, e) is notable. This had evidently been made
separately for insertion into an otherwise completed pot. In all com-
plete pots from house 2, as well as rim sherds having loop handles, the
handle appears to form part of the original pot. However the occur-
rence of an individual loop handle indicates that the riveting in of
separate handles also occurred.” A fragment of a small pot rim having
a human hand in relief (pl. 16, fig. 1, d) and a small crude bird effigy
(pl. 16, fig. 1, c) apparently broken from the rim of a pot are also
examples of modeling.

*® According to Sterns (1915 a, II, p. 243) nearly all the sherds he recovered
from sites of this type were marked with straw-wrapped paddles, often almost
eradicated by subsequent smoothing. Examination of Sterns’s pottery shows the
markings to be similar to those here designated as cord markings. Although
many of the marked sherds from house 2 show definite cord imprints, straw-
wrapped paddles may have been used on others.

™ Practiced by the Hopi today and by the Post Basket Makers in the San Juan.
Morris, 1927, p. 140. Webb, 1928, p. 279, figures a somewhat similar handle
from Kentucky.

132 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

The shape and size of the pottery from house 2 is best indicated by
the complete and restored pots from the site (pls. 13; 14, fig. I, a, d,
e, f). The largest of these is the vessel from cache 1 which was
practically complete and intact when found (pl. 13, fig. 1). It had been
broken by pressure but was mended by Mrs. Strong. The pot has a
total height of 34 cm, a greatest diameter of 33 cm, is 18 cm across the
mouth, and has a slightly flaring neck 4.5 cm high. The rim is deco-
rated with thumb-print scallops and has two lugs with vertical perfora-
tions on each side. It is burned a dull red on the outside, and the
inner surface is a dark gray. The outer surface is smooth and well
polished but has no lustrous quality. The globular shape and small
round opening are well indicated in the illustration (pl. 13, fig. 1). Since
the vessel shows little smoke blackening, it was probably used as a
water container, for which purpose it would have served admirably.
This is one of the largest vessels so far recovered in Nebraska.

From cache 2 came a small complete pot (pl. 14, fig. 1,a). This little
vessel has a round bottom, a wide open mouth, two small vertical
handles, and a slight flare to the rim. It is interesting to note that the
two handles are not exactly in the middle of the pot but are slightly
off center. The dimensions of the pot are as follows: 5 cm high and
9g cm across the opening, which is the same as the greatest diameter.
In color the pot is a dull reddish brown with a slight polish on the
outside. Both inner and outer surfaces are the same color.

A small fragmentary vessel is likewise from cache 2 (pl. 14, fig. 1,
f). It was restored by C. B. Schultz from a piece comprising about
one-third of the original pot. Since the curve of rim and bottom were
clearly indicated, the restoration is accurate, although it is possible
but not probable that the missing portion may have had handles. The
restoration is 5 cm high and 5 cm across the mouth. It is a dull gray-
brown in color, has a rough surface, and is crudely made. A small pot
having two horizontal lugs with vertical perforations was likewise
restored by Mr. Schultz (pl. 14, fig. 1, d). It is only 3 cm high, is
gray-brown in color, and is very crudely modeled. Another tiny vessel
(pl. 14, fig. 1, e) suggests a toy dipper.” It is not restored, the tip
of the solid handle being broken. Its total length is 4 cm, the bowl 2.8
cm in diameter and the height at the bowl 1.8 cm. The smallest vessel
recovered was one half of a flat concave disk of pottery about the size
of a quarter. It was gray-brown in color, rough in texture, and is the
smallest “ vessel” from house 2.

™ There is a striking, though presumably fortuitous, resemblance between this
artifact and a tiny Post Basket Maker ladle. Morris, 1927, p. 152, fig. 7.

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 133

In general, then, it appears that house I pottery is usually globular
or bowl-shaped, the large “ olla’’ type (pl. 13, fig. 2) and the wide-
mouthed bowl (pl. 14, fig. 1, @) being common types. With one excep-
tion, a single broken sherd suggesting a flat bottom, all the pottery
from this house is round-bottomed. As the foregoing description indi-
cates, there is a wide range in the size of vessels (compare pls. 13, fig.
2, and 14, fig. 1,e). The same variation occurs in regard to their thick-
ness, which ranges from 4 to 12 mm. The openings of all the vessels
are round, and there is usually a slightly flaring rim. Handles and lugs
are common, and modeled features such as the hand and bird pre-
viously mentioned occur, though less frequently. Collars on the vessels
are extremely rare (two cases) and incised designs do not occur on
the neck and very rarely on the body of the pots.

No complete tobacco pipes were found in house 2, but two frag-
ments of what appear to have been pottery pipes came to light. Both of
these are of light-brown pottery tempered with fine grit. One is
cylindrical with a smoke-blackened hole through the center and has five
finely incised lines slanting around part of the outer surface. It was
evidently the stem of a tubular or very slightly bent pipe. The other
fragment is about the same size (24 mm long by 12 mm in diameter)
but is slightly darker on the outside and shows no burning within.
Only half of this section is present, and it may have been part of a
lug or handle rather than a pipe.

Work IN GROUND STONE

Eight shaft polishers of rather coarse white or gray sandstone come
from house 2. Of these five are roughly rectangular, four having one
groove, and one having grooves on three sides. The widest groove is
I cm, and the specimen, which is fairly typical, measures 65 mm in
length and 40 mm in width. Another small rectangular polisher is only
30 mm in length and has one broad groove on each face and one
narrow groove on each edge. A small, flat piece of sandstone 60 mm
long and 35 mm wide has two parallel grooves on one side and two
diagonal grooves on the other. One broken shaft polisher (pl. 17,
fig. I, c) is 40 mm in length and has one groove.

Eight hammerstones were also found in this house. The best speci-
men (pl. 17, fig. I, 7) is 77 mm in diameter, with ground-out concave
sides for holding. On the top is a small artificial pit which con-
veniently fits the forefinger, and exactly opposite from this pit is the
battered striking surface. This type of artifact from its worn surfaces
appears to have also served as a rubbing stone. Of these hammer-
stones four are of granite, three of limestone, and of the latter two

134 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

have been exposed to considerable heat. With one exception, a piece of
fired limestone used as a hammer on the flat bottom, all are like the one
illustrated (pl. 17, fig. 1, 7) except that they lack the definite finger
pit on the upper edge.

No large grinding stones or metates were encountered, but two
small polishing stones were noted. One of these, of sandstone, was
go mm in length and was rough on one side and smooth on the other.
The smooth side had been used in grinding paint, as it was colored a
bright red. The other broken polishing stone was of granite with sharp
corners and two grinding surfaces.

One partially ground celt came from cache 2 (pl. 17, fig. 2, d).
The butt end is broken, but the remaining portion is 83 mm long,
60 mm wide, and 37 mm in thickness. The material is a hard gray
stone, which is roughly chipped toward the butt, whereas the cutting
edge is smoothly polished and sharp. There is no trace of any groove.
No other polished celts were found.

Although not classifiable as ground stone implements, it may be
noted here that many fragments of limestone, limonite, and other
mineral substances often showing the effects of exposure to great heat
were encountered in this house. These were probably for use as tem-
pering materials, and the slaked lime and limonite would be usable
as a paint. Six small, irregular, polished pieces of red mineral, pre-
sumably hematite, may also have been used for paint. Unworked
boulders and pebbles of various sizes were encountered commonly in
the floor layer and in cache pits.

WorkK IN CHIPPED STONE

The 19 arrowpoints from house 2 are of five types: NBa (10),
NBar (2), NBa4 (1), NBb (1), NBc (5). Like the points from
house t on Lost Creek, these also fall into two main divisions when
size is included as well as form. There is the heavy, triangular type
(pl. 7, fig. 1, k, 7) and the small, delicate, and commonly notched type
(pl. 7, fig. 1, b, h). The former are usually of the gray “ Nehawka ”
flint, the latter of brown or yellow jasper. The sizes of the two types
are approximately the same as those from house 1, Lost Creek,
although a few of the triangular, unnotched points from that site are
larger than the largest from Rock Bluffs, house 2. The form classifi-
cation of the house 2 points is given in table 3, where it can be com-
pared with that from other sites.

End scrapers were rather numerous in house 2, 24 being recovered.
The finest and largest specimen (pl. 7, fig. 1, s) is 75 mm in length

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 135

and is delicately retouched all over the upper surface. All are of the
usual keeled, planoconvex type (pl. 7, fig. 1, o-s). Two specimens
have a definitely marked median groove for attachment to a handle
(pl. 7, fig. 1, 7). With three rather crude exceptions (pl. 7, fig. 1, p),
all are very delicately retouched over the upper or keeled surface.
Of the entire 24, 5 are of the gray, speckled “ Nehawka”’ flint, 1 of
a pinkish chert, and 18 of a gray-white chert or flint.

There are eight chipped artifacts suggesting side scrapers. These
are large flakes of gray-white flint, unworked except for retouching
along one edge. The longest is a slender, prismatic flake measuring
125 mm. The others are shorter and are oval to round in outline.
This type of artifact blends in with another extremely numerous series
of small flint flakes either retouched or more probably chipped by use
along one edge. These seem to have been employed as knives, the
natural sharp edge resulting from the fracture being employed until
it was dulled, when the flake was thrown away in favor of a new one.
The 31 specimens of this type which were preserved are only a small
proportion of those actually found in house 1. This simple knife or
small side scraper was the most numerous single artifact type at this
site. Of the 31 preserved, 19 are of gray-white flint, 11 of “ Nehawka ”’
flint, and 1 of brown jasper. A good example of these simple but pre-
sumably effective flake knives is illustrated (pl. 7, fig. 2, g).

Besides the use of simple flakes, six delicately retouched knife-blade
fragments of gray-white and “ Nehawka” flint were found (pl. 7,
fig. 2,7). All were diamond-shaped or oval in outline, thin, sharp-
edged, and without noticeable beveling. These are included in table 3.
The largest fragment measured about 75 mm in length.

Besides the above artifacts, some 38 flint rejects and cores were
preserved. All showed human workmanship in the form of secondary
chipping but were unclassifiable as artifacts. As a rule the flint mate-
rial in these cores or rejects was of a very poor grade. Besides those
preserved, many similar fragments were discarded by us. The main
importance of the above lies in their testimony as to the making of
stone artifacts in the houses as well as in the fact that the secondary
products of such work, i. e., suitable flakes, were also utilized.

Of large chipped stone artifacts, eight roughly chipped celts of
gray-white flint were the only examples recovered (pl. 17, fig. 2, e, f,
g). The majority of these are much battered on the cutting edge, indi-
cating their use as axes. None show any indication of grooves for
hafting and it is probable that they were socketed in solid wood
handles. The finest example (pl. 17, fig. 2, g) is 105 mm long, 50 mm

130 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

wide, and only 15 mm in thickness. In the latter regard it approaches
the knife blades in type, but it is the lower edge rather than the sides
that shows both the most careful retouching and the greatest wear.

Work IN BONE

Two fragments of scapula hoes, probably bison, were found in
house 1. Both fragments indicate that the broad edge of the original
tool had been sharpened, and both show evidence of much handling
and wear. They are too fragmentary to tell much about their original
shape.

Only one complete and one broken bone awl were found here (pl. 18,
fig. 1, f, g). The complete specimen is 87 mm in length and has been
fire-tempered, especially toward the point. The small awl fragment is
split from a section of larger bone and is broad, tapering sharply to a
point. From the curve of the bone it seems possible that above the
break the bone was complete, forming a round handle. The specimen
is also well tempered by heat.

Besides five fragments of smooth, polished bone, brown from tem-
pering by fire, only one other bone artifact was found. This is a
small, delicate needle or bodkin. It is round in cross-section and has a
groove around the butt end. The point is broken off, and the artifact
is brown and polished from use and heat tempering. The groove
around the butt was evidently added after the artifact was tempered,
since it shows no evidence of extreme heating. No other bone nor any
antler artifacts were found in house 1, and their scarcity is remark-
able considering the relative abundance of other artifacts.

Work IN SHELL

Three shell spoons (pl. 11, fig. 1, a, d, e) came from this house. The
most ornate of these (pl. 11, fig. 1, e¢) came from cache 1. Like the
other two, the shell is a fresh-water bivalve (species not identified),
but the present specimen is decorated with rather faintly incised lines
suggesting the wing and head of a bird. The shell has been cut down to
form the head of the bird, which also forms the handle of the spoon.
The neck and body are separated by a sharply incised line suggesting
the gills of a fish; the long feathers of the wing are suggested by
faintly incised longitudinal lines; and the head, which has a rounded
nose or beak, is indicated by an incised circle for the eye and an incised
line for the mouth. The incised decoration is all on the outside of the
artifact. The spoon shows signs of considerable use and the lower

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 137

edge is broken. Another broken shell spoon (pl. 11, fig. 1, d) with a
carefully worked lug for the attachment of a wooden handle shows
signs of hard use but is. undecorated.. The third spoon or ladle is even
simpler, having a ground notch and a hole over and under the hinge,
presumably for the attachment of some sort of handle (pl. 11, fig. 1, @).
A small hole (1 mm in diameter) has been bored or punched through
the center of this artifact.

The only other piece of worked shell is a small, carefully cut piece
of shell, 40 mm in length, rectangular in outline with a rounded point.
The upper end is broken, and the artifact suggests a tooth from a shell
comb. No work in copper or other metal was recovered.

BASKETRY

In the floor layer above cache 2 small baked clay fragments were
recovered which bore the imprint of what, at the time, was thought to
be corn on the cob. Later, in the laboratory, these imprints were com-
pared with that of charred corncobs from similar sites and with the
imprint of coiled basketry. It was quickly apparent that whereas the
corncobs left an irregular imprint on modeling clay, the coiled basketry
imprint was identical with those on the baked clay. The largest of
these baked clay mold fragments (40 mm in length) is illustrated
(pl. 16, fig. 1, f). From this original imprint it can be seen that the
stitches alternate from row to row over what was probably a single
rod foundation. These small fragments are a clear indication that the
dwellers in house 1 used coiled basketry, although all other evidence
has vanished.

ANIMAL AND MOoLLUSCAN REMAINS

For reasons previously stated, no careful analysis of the animal
remains from house 2 was possible. In the course of excavation the
bones of the bison, deer, and various smaller mammals were noted.
Deer bones were rather abundant, but bison bones were surprisingly
rare. Rodent skulls and bones were numerous in cache 2, evidently
having been left by the inhabitants. Other rodent remains elsewhere
in the excavation were probably of accidental occurrence, since the
already disturbed soil of a house site is favorable to their burrowing
activities. At the top of cache 2 a considerable mass of fishbones has
been noted. The only identifiable remains were the spines of large

138 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

catfish. Shells of fresh-water mollusks were numerous, and the fol-
lowing species from this site were identified by Dr. F. C. Baker:

Amblema costata (Rafinesque) ~
Lampsilis anodontoides (Lea)
Lampsilis ventricosa occidens (Lea)
Lampsilis siliquoides (Barnes)
Tritogonia tuberculata (Barnes)
Elliptio dilatatus (Rafinesque )
Lasmigoma complanata (Barnes)
Anodontoides ferussacianus (Lea)
Ligumia recta latissima (Rafinesque)

No charred corn or other vegetal remains were noted in the excava-
tion, all trace of such as were formerly present having disappeared.
Several fragments of human bone were found in house 1, but these
will be mentioned in the section dealing with the disposal of the dead
at this village.

HOUSE 3

After filling up the excavation at house 2 a trial pit was sunk in
house pit 3, which was a shallow depression 30 yards north of
house 2. At a depth of 2 feet 6 inches a large potsherd was found.
We therefore cleared an area in the brush 30 feet square. This
included the depression, which was only 8 inches below the normal
ground level of the surrounding surface. A trench 21 feet long and
3 feet in width and depth across the south end of the pit did not show
any sign of house construction or yield any artifacts. A trench was
then run at right angles to the first, reaching the center of the pit.
Near the center of the pit a few fragments of pottery, chipped flints,
and charcoal were found at depths of from 30 to 36 inches, on a
poorly defined floor line in the hard-packed yellow clay. Even near the
center this floor line was irregular and thin, indicating a brief occupa-
tion of the house. Side trenches extended the original width of the
house to about 14 feet, but very few artifacts were found, and the
lines of original construction were very vague. Nowhere did we en-
counter any thick, black floor layer nor any trace of cache pits. After
2 days work at this site it was abandoned, because of its extreme
sterility. From the evidence at hand a semisubterranean earth lodge
either 12 feet square or 12 feet in diameter is indicated. The soil strata
were the same as in house 2, and the potsherds and scarce flint artifacts
were also identical with those from that house. It is uncertain from
our excavation whether house 3 was round or square in outline. All
that can be said is that it was similar to house 2 in all details uncovered,

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 139

but its thin floor layer and sterility combined with the great number of
roots and the hard soil made further excavation at this time
impracticable.

DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD

No aboriginal burial ground was found in connection with this
village. However, in house 2 several fragments of human bone were
encountered. These included two fragments of humerus and two
phalanges in the floor layer on the southeast side of the house. They
suggest that disarticulated human bodies were kept in the lodges prior
to burial or else, though less probable, that these were trophy bones
of enemies or evidences of cannibalism. In excavating house 3 a few
more fragments of human bone were found, but these were so super-
ficial (5-13 inches below the surface) that they may not have been
of aboriginal provenience. It is probable that either ossuaries or
crematory pits exist near this village, but none has been reported.

HOUSE SITE NEAR ROCK BLUFFS (HOUSE 5)

In 1911 a prehistoric house site on the western edge of the town
limits of Rock Bluffs was excavated by Dr. G. H. Gilmore. The
material saved from this site he presented to the Archeological
Survey of the University of Nebraska in May 1930. Since the material
came from the vicinity and closely approximates that obtained in house
2, it is described at this time.

The site was a shallow depression some 35 feet in diameter located
in the woods on a low ridge west of a little creek, locally known as
Keg Creek (fig. 13, H5). The digging was somewhat haphazard,
and aside from the fact that most of the artifacts occurred in a black
floor layer about 3 feet deep and in one cache pit 6 feet deep, there
is little else on record. Dr. Gilmore, who worked with us in house 2,
stated that conditions in house 5 were very similar.

PorTtrEeRY

Only such pottery as seemed to be restorable was saved by Dr.
Gilmore. In all, there are 67 sherds, 15 of rims, and 52 of body
portions. Of the rim sherds 7 are cord-marked, 8 plain, and of the
body sherds 12 are cord-marked and 40 plain. The paste, tempering,
and surface finish are identical with these characteristics in the
pottery described from house 2. Some sherds show unusually clear
cord marks extending in a vertical direction over the vessel and for
the most part horizontal to each other. Other sherds show a criss-

I40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

cross of cord marks suggesting the use of a cord-wrapped paddle.
Two sherds show the gray-white wash on the inside already encount-
ered in sherds from house 2. There was no positive indication of
shape, though the curve of all sherds suggested round bottoms. In
thickness the ware ranged from 4 to 15 mm. The main decorative
effects were achieved by the modeling of rims and handles. Classi-
fied under the headings used for rim classification in house 2, these
are listed in table 6 (p. 253).

The above list includes one-half of the distinct rim types described
from house 2 and indicates the close similarity between the ceramic
remains from both houses. The sherds from house 5 show propor-
tionately more cord marking, especially on the necks of vessels, but
this preponderance is due more to the selection of similar sherds for
restoration than to the natural distribution of types. The pottery
from the two houses is so close in all respects that not only the same
culture but the same general time period would seem to be represented.

One complete tobacco pipe of unbaked clay was recovered in house
5 (pl. 16, fig. 2, 0). Although it is gray in color and appears to
have been sun-dried rather than baked, it shows evidence of con-
siderable use. Both bowl and stem are caked as the result of long-
continued smoking. The artifact is 44 mm long, 39 mm high, 14 mm
across the bowl, and 11 mm across the stem. Down one side is a
crack or joint in the original pipe material, suggesting that the clay
forming the bowl was poorly joined here. There is considerable limy
intermixture or tempering in the clay. A fragment of a tubular pottery
pipe or pipestem (pl. 16, fig. 2, e@) also came from this house. This
fragment, broken at both ends, is 45 mm in length and conical in shape,
with an even perforation blackened from smoke extending from end
to end. The surface is a polished dark gray, and finely ground stone
is used for tempering. Whether this straight, conical fragment is
part of a straight tubular pipe or only the stem of an elbow pipe is
obscure, although it suggests the former type. If so, both the tubular
and the elbow pipe are represented in this house.

Work IN GROUND STONE

The most interesting artifact falling under the above category is
a broken pottery-making tool or anvil made of limestone (pl. 17, fig. 1,
a). The stem of the anvil has been broken off, but the convex base is
smooth and polished. The fragment is 35 mm in height, 55 mm in
diameter across the broken stem, and 70 mm across the polished con-
vex face. It has been ground down from a piece of fossiliferous
Pennsylvania limestone. Although much of the pottery—in fact one

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG I4I

might say most of the pottery—from Nebraska suggests lump model-
ing and the use of the paddle and anvil method, this is the only
definite artifact of the latter type so far recorded from the State. It
calls to mind a somewhat similar artifact (pl. 17, fig. 1, b), also pre-
sented by Dr. Gilmore, which came from the surface on the Joe F.
Behrns farm near Nehawka, Cass County (see map, fig. 27). The
latter object is ground from a soft blue-gray indurated clay and has
a rounded horizontal handle and a slightly swelling concave disk on
the bottom. The artifact shows the patination of long use and sug-
gests a tool for shaping the outside of pottery while using a rounded
stone or usual pottery anvil on the inside. The material of which it is
made is too soft for use as a pestle or hammer. The type is unique
not only for Nebraska but for North America generally, at least so
far as my own observations go.” This matter of pottery techniques in
the prehistoric cultures of Nebraska will be referred to later.

Two pairs of red sandstone shaft polishers came from house 5.
The first pair (pl. 17, fig. 1, e, g) were found in association in the
cache pit. They are oval in form, 60 mm long and 40 mm wide, and
each has a single 10-mm groove running lengthwise. The two arti-
facts are rather thin and could easily be held in one hand enclosing a
wooden arrow shaft to be polished by an up-and-down motion. The
other two artifacts were found separately and may or may not have
been used together. One is of the “ nail buffer’ type with a broken
end, being 70 mm long and 26 mm broad. It has a single broad, deep
groove 17 mm wide. The other polisher is rounded on one end, broken
on the other, and has a single groove 10 mm wide on the flat lower
surface. It is 95 mm long and 35 mm wide.

As was true in house 2, a considerable amount of slaked lime was
found in house 5. Besides three lumps of white slaked lime, there
was a large flat slab (125 by 75 by 25 mm) of this material. These
pieces are powdery on the surface and whiten a dark surface like
chalk. Two lumps of a disintegrating red rock each containing a
considerable amount of mica and much battered suggest the applica-
tion of extreme heat to break them down for use as tempering material.
A large lump of tempered but unbaked clay is also reported from
this house by Dr. Gilmore. It was not available for examination.
There is also a piece of very porous dark gray material strongly sug-
gesting pumice stone. It is extremely light and rough on its surface,
one side flattened, perhaps from use as a grinding implement. The

*® The “trowels” or modeling implements from the Middle Mississippi Valley
group, figured by Holmes, 1903, pl. 34, seem to be rather close analogues and
may have served the same purpose.

10

142 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

specimen was submitted to geologists in the Nebraska State Museum,
who stated that it was not of volcanic origin but appeared to be clay
which had been subjected to intense heat. Fragments of this pumice-
like material are fairly common in prehistoric earth lodges along the
Missouri River, and although the present fragment may be of pe-
culiarly baked clay, there is no doubt that pumice stone from the
deposits on the upper Missouri River was also employed by the pre-
historic peoples of this general area.

Work IN CHIPPED STONE

Two triangular unnotched and unstemmed arrowpoints of “ Ne-
hawka” flint come from house 5. One of these is chipped from a
flake and is slightly planoconvex, being 40 mm long and 26 mm wide.
The base of the latter is slightly convex and the type is NBc, whereas
that of the other is the NBa type. These conform to the large un-
notched type of point from house 2, Rock Bluffs, and house 1, Lost
Creek (see table 3). None of the smaller notched points are reported
from the present site.

Two very crude end scrapers come from house 5. They are plano-
convex, but the upper part or keel has been only roughly retouched
except on the working end or blade of one of them. The latter has a
delicately worked edge, but the abrupt working edge of the second
specimen is formed by one clean fracture. They are respectively
54 mm and 47 mm in length.

One flat flaked knife blade with rounded ends (NE type) was
found. It is of “ Nehawka” flint, slightly planoconvex, retouched
on the top and on all edges ; the bottom is smooth. Whether this arti-
fact, which is 59 mm long, was employed as a knife or as a side scraper
is problematical. Five flakes retouched possibly from use along one
or more edges are identical with the flake knives described for house 2.

Of the larger chipped flint artifacts only one well-worked celt of
gray flint or chert was obtained. It is 85 mm long, 53 mm wide, and
15 mm thick in greatest dimensions and is oval in outline. Across
the greatest breadth of the specimen, on one side only, is a suggestion
of a chipped groove for hafting as an ax. The edges of the artifact are
exceptionally sharp.

Work IN Bone

Two bone artifacts are at hand from this site. One is an awl of ex-
cellent workmanship made from a deer ulna. It is slightly brown from
heating and tapers to a sharp point (pl. 18, fig. 1,7). It is 123 mm

NO. I0 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 143

long. The other is a slender, slightly rounded bone awl split from a
section of large bone (pl. 18, fig. 1, 2). It is broken at the point, only
slightly tempered, and measures 200 mm in length. In addition, an un-
worked but brown and well-tempered cannon bone of a deer comes
from this house. This tempered raw material suggests that heat was
applied to the bone before it was worked, at least in some cases.
The heating seems too evenly applied to be the result of ordinary
cooking or burning.

VEGETAL REMAINS

No animal detritus was preserved in the Gilmore collection, but
several fragments of charred wooden posts are present. These show
the annular rings of growth in cross-section, but the latter are too
evenly spaced to promise much in regard to dating. Casual examina-
tion of the wood suggests oak or elm, but it has not been accurately
identified. Similar post fragments, 2 to 5 inches in diameter, came
from house 1. They seem to be identical with those from house 5.

Unusually interesting are five lumps of yellow amberlike resin
which were recovered from the cache in house 5. These were sub-
mitted to Dr. M. R. Gilmore, of the University of Michigan, for
examination. His conclusions are as follows (letter of April 20,
1931):

(1) This resin is from the western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosus Douglas).
The easternmost arm of the range of this tree extends along the course of the
Niobrara River as far as northwestern Holt County, Nebr. Its main range
is in the mountains to the west and southwestward in Arizona and New Mexico.
(2) The resin was probably valued for medicinal use and for chewing gum.
Possibly it also had its uses for incense. (3) This resin would be an incidental
commodity obtained and imported to the place where it was found in journeys
made mainly for other commodities. The journeys by which it was obtained
implied travel on foot to the Platte and then across to the Elkhorn to its
headwaters near the Niobrara, then over to the Niobrara. This journey would
be more than 4oo0, probably 450 miles, going and returning.

For chewing gum the most common and abundant source in all the region
of the Bluestem Prairies was the resin of the Compass Plant (Silphium bacini-
atum). But whenever the resins of pine and of spruce were found on journeys
into the Pine Ridge and the Black Hills they were gathered also. The resin of
Suphium is almost white while that of yellow pine is amber yellow, that of
white pine very light yellow, and spruce is darker than that of yellow pine.

VILLAGE BETWEEN THE PLATTE RIVER AND PAPILLION CREEK
(Gates Sire), SARpy County

On June 19, 1930, a scouting trip to locate the historic Omaha
village site at the main forks of Papillion Creek brought unexpected
results. No trace of the historic village could be found, but by ac-

144 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

cident we learned of a prehistoric village near here that had never
been dug in. Visiting the latter site under the guidance of Harold
Gates, we found it to be extensive and promising. We therefore
moved our camp to the place the next day.

It had been planned to excavate in the historic Omaha village of
Pahi tho"datho"™ in order to determine the characteristics of the
sedentary Siouan occupation in historic times before excavating any
more prehistoric sites. Although it is possible to identify the pre-
vious location of the forks before a new channel was excavated for
Papillion Creek, the former village remains have disappeared entirely,
owing to both the artificial changes in the channel of the creek and
the intensive cultivation. A thorough search of the vicinity here yielded
only one nondescript potsherd and a few flint chips, and numerous test
pits were all negative. It was therefore impossible to carry out our
original plan.

The prehistoric village, encountered by accident, was on the farm
of J. M. Gates and proved to be unique in that neither pot hunters nor
archeologists had dug it over looking for cache pits. The majority of
the very numerous earth-lodge sites near Omaha have been gutted
in this fashion, but the Gates site had fortunately been overlooked.
Even Dr. R. F. Gilder, who has been extremely active in this vicinity
for over 25 years, was unaware of a village at this place. The site is
also unusual because of its location some distance away from any
large river or stream, being about 6 miles west of the Missouri River,
5 miles north of the Platte River, and about 14 miles south of the
main channel of Papillion Creek (see map, fig. I, site 21). Permission
to excavate was readily granted by the owner, and throughout all our
work the entire Gates family were helpful in ways too numerous to
mention. It is a pleasure to acknowledge our great indebtedness to
them at this time. Our work at this site included the period June 20
to July 4, 1930, four week-ends in September and October of the
same year, and two days, March 29 and April 11, in 1931.

Located on a beautifully wooded ridge just west of a secondary
branch of Papillion Creek, the nine house pits extend in an irregular
line a little over 300 yards long from north to south (fig. 15). Large
maples and oaks grow on the ridges, and large cottonwoods lean over

* Fletcher and La Flesche, 1911, p. 100. This village, occupied by the Omaha
from 1847 to 1854, when they went on their present reservation, was visited and
sketched by the artist Kurz in 1851; see Bushnell, to08, where some of the
sketches are reproduced. Gilder, 1907, p. 75, mentions mounds and pits here,
but in 1930, when I visited the site with him we were unable to find any trace
of either. Also see Blackman, 1905, p. 390.

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 145

why,
rear

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80

Fic. 15.—Sketch map of Gates site village, Sarpy County. Dotted lines indicate
actual floor area of houses.

146 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL."'@3

the steep creek banks. The trees on the ridge were present as far back
as any settler living near here can remember. Some of the trees would
seem to be well over a hundred years old, but whether the ridges were
wooded when the prehistoric lodges were occupied is a matter on
which I have no positive evidence. The north end of the village
site, like the creek bottom, is heavily wooded, but the south end is
more open and at present is used for pasture. Maples over 5 feet
in circumference grow in certain of the house circles, and all of the
latter were thick with brush. None of the houses are more than a few
hundred yards from the creek, which is very small at present.
Mr. Gates told us that the flow has decreased markedly in the last
20 years, and where there was a good swimming hole 10 years ago,
it is hardly ankle-deep at present. A few artifacts have been picked up
along the creek, and one large piece of elk antler was exposed about
4 feet deep in the bank some years ago. Careful searching along the
creek bed and its adjoining banks, however, failed to reveal any evi-
dences of human occupation. About 100 yards north of the most
northerly house pit a small stream flowing from the west joins the
one which flows past the old village. The houses, therefore, are strung
along a spur or ridge in the forks of these two streams. The elevation
of the ridge, according to the United States Geological Survey map,
is 1,100 feet. The creek bed is about 50 feet lower down at this point.

The first four house pits in which we worked have been numbered
from I to 4 and the others, 5 to 9, which were unworked, are num-
bered in order from south to north (fig. 15). House pit 1 was by
far the largest in the village, being 60 feet in diameter, 3 feet deep
in the center, and having a slight rise or 6-inch rim around the north
side. The thick brush and the large size of this house pit after clear-
ing but before excavation are shown in plate 12, figures 1, 2. Two
maple trees each about a foot in diameter grew in the west-central
part of this pit. The remaining vegetation was smaller. House pit 2
had a diameter of 30 feet and a depth of 1 foot 3 inches in the center.
It was free of any very large trees. House pit 3, near and connected
with house 2, was 33 feet in diameter, having a greatest depth of
10 inches. There were six large trees in this pit (see fig. 19, I-6)
respectively 7 inches, 3 feet 2 inches, 3 feet 2 inches, and the last three
averaging 32 inches in circumference. Needless to say, the soil be-
tween was a network of roots. House pit 4 was 30 feet in diameter
and 1 foot 6 inches deep. The pit was filled with a mass of small trees
and brush. No excavation was attempted in the remaining houses, nor
were the trees or brush removed.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 147

The measurements of these last pits are therefore approximate
rather than exact. House pit 5 was 30 feet in diameter and about
1 foot deep. There were several large trees in and close around the
pit. House pit 6 was larger, 36 feet in diameter and about 8 inches
deep. It, too, contained several large maple trees. House pit 7 was 45
feet in diameter and about 2 feet deep (estimated) and full of small
trees and shrubs. House pit 8 was smaller, about 30 feet in diameter
and 1 foot 6 inches (estimated) deep. House pit 9 was about the same
size and depth, and both of the latter house pits were in thick brush
and contained a number of sizable trees.

Working conditions at this site were made difficult by the heavy
vegetation, the large trees with the network of subsoil roots, and the
extremely hard, nodular soil of the ridge. This soil was so hard-
packed that mattocks and picks had to be constantly employed. This |
fact in conjunction with the disturbing agency of the roots, as well
as the usual insect and rodent work, made determination of floor and
feature outlines extremely difficult. The site, although very interest-
ing, was not rich, cache pits were few and rather poor, and after ex-
cavating one house entirely, another almost entirely, and sampling two
more we left the remainder untouched for future work. It is to be
hoped that these will be scientifically worked at a later time. The dif-
ficulty of excavation combined with the comparative paucity of
artifacts should act as a deterrent to relic hunters, and the site may
thus be preserved.

HOUSE I

The outward aspect of this house before excavation has already
been discussed (pl. 12, figs. 2, 3). Though the entire house was not
excavated, about two-thirds of the floor area was uncovered in such
a manner (fig. 16) as to leave no doubt concerning the actual outline.
This proved to be subrectangular, with a north-to-south length of
32 feet, an east-and-west width of 34 feet, and a sloping passageway
which was traced 31 feet beyond the south wall, although it extended
farther. It was extremely difficult to be certain of the exact boundaries
of the house in many places, owing to a gradual blending of mixed
and unmixed soil. Yet where a line could be followed any distance,
as was the case with walls and passage, there was little doubt as to its
direction and approximate ending. Aside from a few charred beam
and charcoal fragments no wood was preserved. The only indications
of posts were three round molds below the floor line (fig. 16). One
of these, just northeast of the fireplace, was 12 inches in diameter
and may have been part of the central post foundation. The other two

148 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

were IO inches in diameter and were near the walls, possibly forming
part of an outer row of posts. Although there was some charcoal
in these molds, it was not determinable as being from posts, and it
is possible they represent subfloor excavations for some other pur-

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Fc. 16.—Ground plan of house 1, Gates site. Solid lines indicate boundaries
of excavations ; dotted lines apparent outline of house; F, fireplace; A-B, cross-
section shown in figure 17; C-D, cross-section shown in figure 18.
pose. Just west of the center of the house was a circular fire area
(fig. 16) marked by mixed ash, burned clay, and charcoal, but there
was no clearly defined fireplace. Three small but definite fireplaces
were noted, respectively north, south, and west of the central area
(fig. 16), and an unusual abundance of charcoal in the wall of the

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 149

trench to the east (fig. 17) may represent the edge of another direc-
tional fireplace. It is noteworthy that definite fireplaces occurred at
three and possibly all four of the cardinal points, and a ceremonial
significance seems the best explanation. Where the entrance passage
entered the house there was a rectangular pit some 8 feet in length
sunk about 1 foot below the general floor level (figs. 16, 18). In the
north-central part of the house was the deep subfloor disturbance
marked on figure 16 as a cache. Here in an area some 5 feet in

DARK. UNHXED. wumous “SOIL

Fic. 17.—Cross-section, west to east, house 1, Gates site.

diameter intrusive material was met with to a depth of 8 feet 3 inches.
Nothing of significance was found, the intrusive material consisting
of a few potsherds, rocks, and charcoal. The disturbed area went
down into the clear, hard yellow soil, and aside from the artificial
material the disturbed soil was the same in appearance and composi-
tion. There was no clear boundary to the disturbed area. Below 8 feet
3 inches test pits and auger borings showed clean soil, and similar tests
on all sides were likewise negative. I am at a loss to account for

— EEE AEE,

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WARD UNTIXED YELLOW CLAY Y YH y
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Fic. 18.—Cross-section, south to north, of entrance passage and southern half of
house 1, Gates site. Hachures indicate unexcavated soil.

this occurrence, unless the disturbed area represents an emptied cache
or storage pit of some sort. It was under the north edge of the most
northerly fireplace, and there may have been some symbolic or cere-
monial connection between the two features.

Considering the vertical soil layers (figs. 17, 18), conditions were
very similar to houses already described at Rock Bluffs. Over the top
was a dark unmixed layer averaging 12 inches in thickness. This
evidently represented the soil and humus accumulation since the house
was abandoned. Below this was a layer 15 inches to a little over 2 feet
in thickness of hard nodular soil which, within the house area, was

150 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

intermingled with charcoal and cultural detritus. A few fragmentary
burned beams (fig. 17) occurred in the more barren upper part of
this layer, which presumably is the collapsed roof of the old lodge.
This occurrence of charred wood in the upper portion of the mixed
strata may indicate the burning of the lodge. However, the lack of
any charred posts suggests that such burning may have occurred after
its collapse. At the bottom of the mixed layer, ash, bits of charcoal,
and artifacts were more numerous, indicating a poorly marked floor
line. Below this, except where the few subfloor excavations occurred,
the soil was a clean, hard yellow clay. Judging from the relationship
of the old floor level to the surrounding surface, it would appear
that before building the lodge an excavation had been made to a
depth of almost 2 feet. It is interesting to note that this almost square
semisubterranean earth lodge, some 33 feet on a side, had in the
course of time come to forma circular pit 3 feet deep and 60 feet in
diameter, the high walls of the remaining pit evidently being formed
as a result of wash from the roof prior to its collapse. There was little
indication that this lodge had been burned down while occupied, and
the paucity of artifacts suggested definite abandonment and the sub-
sequent gradual decay of the structure.

The passageway from house 1 commenced in a pit in the middle of
the south wall and extended for over 31 feet beyond the walls of the
house. It was 3 feet wide where it left the house and 2 feet 6 inches
wide at the 31-foot point. Its depth at the house was 3 feet, and
at the 31-foot point it was still 2 feet 8 inches below the surface. To
judge from this gradual rise and the present ground level (fig. 18),
the entire passage would have been 88 feet long before it came to
the surface. However, it may have ended abruptly with a step any-
where beyond the 31-foot point to which we traced it. The passage
is remarkable for its steep pitch where it enters the south side of the
house and for the rectangular depression or pit in the floor at this
place (figs. 16, 18). Even more remarkable is the small fireplace
in the center of this pit. A pottery pipe, a large fragment of heavy
antler from a white-tail deer, two fragments of bison scapula hoes,
two shaft polishers, and a considerable number of potsherds came
from the lower portion of this pit. The nature of this deposit in
conjunction with the abundant ashes, charcoal, and baked clay indi-
cates that this fireplace had been in use over a considerable period.
The pit combined with the steep ascent of the passage at this point
would have made for warmth, but the fire in this particular place
must have been a decided nuisance so far as the passage was con-
cerned. This circumstance rather strengthens the theory that this

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY

STRONG 151

fire in conjuction with the two other fireplaces in the west and north
represented some sort of a directional symbolism.

From the available evidence it appears that house 1 had originally
been a square earth lodge, presumably used for ceremonial purposes.
The latter explanation seems best to accord with the following facts:
its unusual size and central position in the village, its unusual entrance
pit and long passageway, its three and possibly four directional fire-
places, and last of all the extreme scarcity of broken or whole arti-
facts as well as animal remains in the floor layer. Furthermore, there
is some reason to believe that the building was abandoned and gradu-
ally fell to pieces rather than being burned. The house was not com-
pletely excavated, owing to the fact that a test of the entire village
was desired and time was lacking. The paucity of artifacts in this
lodge also made it essential that we work other houses if a representa-
tive series were to be obtained from the site.

POTTERY

The paucity of ceramic remains in house 1 is forcibly demonstrated
by the following list:

Complete pots, none.

Restored pots, none.

Total number of sherds, 464 (rims and handles 39, body 425).
Cord-marked sherds, 84 (rims and handles 1, body 83).

Plain ware sherds, 378 (rims and handles 36, body 342).
Incised sherds, none.

Sherds with slip (?), 2 (rims).

In all major characteristics the ware from house 1 and the Gates
village generally is closely similar to that from house 2 and the other
houses already described near Rock Bluffs. It is similar in color,
ranging from a buff-yellow to a dark gray or black, with the former
type predominating, in temper (ground stone with a considerable
amount of iron pyrites), and in general form. It differs, however,
in being less well preserved than was the case in the Rock Bluffs
houses. The Gates site pottery is more crumbly, especially just after
recovery. The cord-marked sherds from house 1 are evidently paddle-
marked, and the cord impressions are irregular. Probably the superior
condition of the ware from Rock Bluffs generally is due to better
drainage conditions at that site. For the present it will suffice to indi-
cate that the pottery from the two sites is clearly in the same cultural
tradition, leaving the matter of relative age for future discussion. The
rim types from house 1 are classified in table 6 (p. 253).

152 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

As indicated in the enumeration of ceramic remains from this house.
there were two small rim sherds of a plain, straight-necked type,
which seemed to be covered with chalky white slip. The outer sur-
face of the sherds is a gray-white, and the interior is a light bluish
white. The white coloration does not rub off, and since the ware is
thin, it almost permeates the sherds from both sides. One small
body sherd, 30 mm long, is closely similar but has four broad, deeply
incised lines on the outer surface, apparently arranged in a chevron
pattern. All four of these sherds are very different from the bulk
of the pottery but are closely similar to sherds previously described
from houses 2 and 5 at Rock Bluffs.

The tobacco pipe found in the pit at the end of the entrance pas-
sage in house 1 has already been mentioned. It is 48 mm high, of a
gray-brown pottery tempered with fine grit (pl. 16, fig. 2, b). The
tip of the stem, which forms an elbow, is broken and the interior of
the bowl and stem perforation are black from use. The bowl interior
matches the shape of the outer surface, but the stem is perforated by
only a small round hole.

In the east-central part of the house a fragment either of the stem
of a similar pipe or of the lower portion of a tubular pipe was re-
covered (pl. 16, fig. 2, f). This fragment is 40 mm long and perfectly
conical, having a rounded tip with a straight, small perforation
through the stem. It is of well-polished red-brown pottery containing
fine grit tempering and the central perforation is black from use.

Work IN GrouNnD STONE

Three shaft polishers of sandstone come from this house. One
is of the “ nail buffer” type (pl. 17, fig. 1, h). Only the bottom of
this artifact has a groove, but the two sides as well as the bottom sur-
face are worn smooth from grinding. Bits of reddish clay adhering
to these sides indicate that it was used as a polishing stone for pottery
as well as a shaft polisher. Another shaft polisher has grooves on
three of the four flattened surfaces. The specimen is 60 mm long,
25 mm wide and high, and the deepest of the three grooves is 5 mm.
The third shaft polisher is slightly smaller and has two flat surfaces
and two grooves. Besides the grooved polishers of sandstone there
is also a flat, irregular fragment, 42 mm in greatest length, with red
paint (probably hematite) rather thick on the grinding surface.
Another polishing stone of harder rock also has one smooth surface
tinted red, evidently from polishing pottery. Three pieces of pumice
stone, or the peculiar baked clay previously described were found.

—

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 153

Two hammerstones were recovered; one of hard stone (pl. 17,
fig. 1, 7) has three faces used for polishing and two battered ends.
There are two ground-out depressions on the sides, evidently for
grasping. The greatest length of this artifact is 97 mm. The other
hammerstone is about half as long; it is rather egg-shaped and con-
siderably battered on the larger end.

No celts or axes, either polished or chipped, were found in this
house. Four pieces of slaked or heat-decomposed limestone were
found. One of these was white, one yellow, and the other two pinkish.
The first two were chalky, the latter crumbly. A piece of heat (?)
disintegrated granite suggests the preparation of tempering material.

Work IN CHIPPED STONE

Only two triangular and unnotched arrow points of gray “ Ne-
hawka ” flint were found in house 1. One of these, 37 mm long and
18 mm wide, is complete ; the other is broken. They are of the larger
NBa type and therefore accord with larger, cruder, unnotched points
described from Lost Creek and Rock Bluffs (see table 3, p. 90).

There are only two small end scrapers from this house, one com-
plete and one broken. The former is 42 mm long by 20 mm wide.
They are of yellow jasper and bluish chert and are of the usual plano-
convex type.

Seven irregular flakes of gray flint and yellow jasper have been
utilized as side scrapers or simple flake knives. The natural edge
of the flake has been slightly retouched, presumably through use. Va-
rious other flakes and cores were not saved.

There is one well-worked diamond-shaped knife of grayish flint or
chert. It is very thin, with neatly retouched edges but no bevel; it
measures 102 by 28 mm. Another retouched knife blade of white
chert is too irregular for classification in table 2. It is 37 by 18 mm
in greatest dimensions and has two edges carefully retouched.

Work IN BoNE AND MISCELLANEOUS MATERIAL

This consisted solely of two fragments of bison scapula hoes. In
both cases the longitudinal ridge had been removed, and in one the
broad edge had been sharpened. One crumbly antler of a very large
white-tail deer was recovered, but it was unworked. Animal remains
as a whole were very scarce in this house, and only those from the
bison and white-tail deer were identified. No mollusk shells were
noted. Three small baked clay fragments containing the impress of
grass and small twigs were recovered. Two are black, the other buff
color ; no other wattle-and-daub material was noted in this house.

154 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

HOUSE 2

This house pit at the southeastern end of the village was completely
excavated. It was selected because it was far enough distant from
house 1 to furnish some indication as to whether all the houses on the
ridge were contemporaneous and actually part of one village. The
fact that the actual pit contained no trees was also in its favor. As
already indicated, the original pit was 30 feet in diameter and 15
inches deep in the central and deepest part. As in house pit 1, the
hard, nodular soil could not be sliced smoothly and this combined
with the disturbance caused by roots, rodents, and insects, made the
determination of internal features difficult.

The floor plan of house 2 was subrectangular, 21 feet 6 inches
long from north to south and 20 feet wide from east to west. It thus
formed almost a square with the four walls oriented to the cardinal
directions (fig. 19). Two clearly defined storage pits (caches I, 3,
fig. 19) and one rather indefinite subfloor excavation (cache 2, fig. 19)
were noted. Four post molds were located in the central part of the
house but only one of these showed any definite portion of the post
intact. This post mold (fig. 19, III) had a short, circular section of
charred wood in situ just below the floor line. Three of the posts
(fig. 19, I-III) evidently ranged from 6 to 9 inches in diameter ;
the fourth post mold was about 4 inches across. It is possible that
posts I-III represent part of a four-pole central foundation, the fourth
post, presumably in the disturbed area of cache 2, not being noticed
by us. The function of the smaller post is unknown. The central
fireplace, about 3 feet 6 inches in diameter, consisted of 3 inches of
red baked clay and several inches of ash and charcoal. A number of
limestone slabs and nodules, several of the former coated with baked
clay, were on the floor near the fireplace (fig. 21).

The passageway extending from the northwest corner of house 2
into the southwest corner of house 3 is exceptionally interesting. It
was 3 feet wide, 28 inches deep, and 17 feet long, extending from
east to west with a gradual curve toward the north (fig. 19). No
trace of any other entrance passage was discovered in house 2, nor,
so far as our excavations extended, in house 3. Either the people in
house 2 came in through house 3, through a roof entrance, or else
there was an exit for both houses midway between the two on the
south side of the passage. The presence of a large maple tree (fig. 19,
7) at this point prevented further excavation along the south wall
of the passage. The owner did not wish the larger trees cut down,
and even had we done so, the operation combined with the numerous

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 155

roots would undoubtedly have destroyed the old strata lines, which
were faint under the most favorable circumstances. However, it was
possible to follow the north wall of the passage to where it ran
into house 3. The width of the passage was clearly indicated at the
south end and io at one place near the north end (fig. 19). That

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Fic. 19—Ground plan, houses 2 and 3, Gates site. I-III, central posts; F,
fireplace ; numerals in dotted circles, cache pits; numerals 1-7, trees; A-B, cross-
section shown in figure 20; C-D, cross- -section shown in figure 21; E-F’, cross-
section shown in figure 22.

there was originally a doorway opening to the south from this pas-
sageway, midway between the two houses, is a tempting hypothesis.
Since no other entrance passage was discovered in either house, this
is possible. However, owing to the innate perversity of trees grow-
ing in archeological sites it could not be demonstrated pro or con.

156 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

In trench 1 (fig. 19) was revealed a good cross-section of soil
layers away from the house pits. Dug primarily to intersect any long
passage coming from house 2, it yielded little cultural evidence ex-
cept a few potsherds and flint chips at depths of from 10 to 15 inches.
The first 10 inches were of black unmixed humous soil; below this
were 16 inches of dark nodular soil with the few evidences of hu-
man occupation in the upper portion, then 1o inches of transitional
material between the dark nodular and the pure yellow clay, the latter
occurring at 36 inches. Cross-sections in house 2 (figs. 20, 21)
showed the same general strata, and the nodular soil layer occurred
both inside and outside the house area. A darker coloration caused
by charcoal and intrusive material, especially along the old floor line,
served to distinguish the general outline of the house. Near the
borders, where artificial matter was scarce, there was blending be-
tween mixed and unmixed soil, hence the difficulty in tracing house

OARMK,. PIXE D,NODULAR SOIL

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Fig. 20.—Cross-section, north to south, house 2, Gates site.

boundaries. It is the presence of artificial matter and the resulting
slight differences in color alone which reveal the old lodges.

In regard to the original structure of house 2 we have evidence
to show only that it was a subrectangular earth lodge built in a pit
perhaps 13 to 2 feet deep and that it had no outside passage except
the one in the northwest corner leading into house 3. The three
larger post molds (fig. 19, I-III), as already suggested, may be part
of a four-post central foundation of which the east post was not
located. If so, both walls and central posts would be generally oriented
with the four points of the compass. Such an orientation of central
posts, however, would make the inner roof framework diagonal to
the walls. No outer row of postholes, nor any indication of such a
row, was encountered. It is hardly possible that any large number
of such posts would have been overlooked. Hence it would appear
that rafters extending from the central roof framework rested on the
edges of the house pit excavation, which may have been banked up.
Granting that it had the four-post central foundation already sug-
gested, it would only require beams and rafters of 12 feet or less in

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 157

length to reach from post to post and to the edges of the pit. Such
an arrangement, owing to the spacing of the assumed central posts,
would have given an odd effect and a rather flat roof. With so little
internal evidence to go on, it is perhaps futile to attempt too detailed
a reconstruction. Careful and complete excavation of a few similar
houses in which the entire floor is bared instead of trenched should
settle these questions.

It is probable, from the small fragment of charred post just below
the floor line and a number of fragmentary charred beams in the
mixed layer above the floor, which presumably is composed of roof
material, that this lodge was burned down during or just after its
last occupation. The presence of one complete pot in cache I, as well
as fairly numerous artifacts in the house generally, suggests the same
explanation. That comparatively little charred wood remains in the
pit may have resulted from the fact that when the roof collapsed,
the earth covering probably put out the fire, leaving most of the wooden
framework uncharred and hence unprotected from decay.

STORAGE OR CACHE Pits

As already indicated, three cache pits occurred in house 2 (fig. 19).
Of these, cache 1 was clearly defined and contained more numerous
artifacts than the others. It was cylindrical in outline, having a
diameter of 32 inches and a depth of 6 feet 10 inches from the sur-
face and 4 feet from the floor level. The neck of cache 1 was full
of cultural detritus, suggesting that toward the last it had been used
as a refuse pit. In the central portion just below the old floor line
was a small round secondary excavation in the refuse about 12 inches
in diameter and 14 inches deep. It contained nothing more significant
than ashes, stones, and potsherds. The composition of the main pit
was largely of mixed dark ash, earth, and cultural debris. Near the
bottom was a 3-inch lens of white ash in which was one small com-
plete pot and various other artifacts. There was a clear distinction
between the cylindrical cache pit and the surrounding yellow clay.
The following material was recovered from this pit: 1 small com-
plete pot, many potsherds, 1 broken scapula hoe, 2 bone awls, 1 antler
shaft straightener, 1° antler tapping tool, 1 small bone pendant,
2 chipped arrowpoints, 2 end scrapers, 1 chipped stone awl, 2 lumps
of red paint, 1 large lump of baked clay, 20 various sized stones, and
numerous bird, animal, and molluscan remains.

Cache 2 was puzzling (figs. 19, 21). It consisted of a disturbed
area about 6 feet in diameter and extended to a depth 7 feet 6 inches
below the surface or 5 feet below floor line. There was no very
clear line of demarcation between the mixed and unmixed yellow clay

II

158 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

and almost no ash. The mixture consisted of some charcoal and in-
trusive stones with a few potsherds and animal bones. Near the
bottom of the pit two pottery pipes, a bison scapula digging tool, and
several fragments of hematite ‘ red paint” were found. The situation
in cache 2 was therefore closely similar to that in cache 1, house 1.
Both extended into very hard soil, and both because of their depth
required a great deal of labor. Trial pits and auger borings in the
bottom and walls of cache 2 revealed no traces of mixture outside
or below the area mentioned.

Cache 3 (fig. 19) was in the southwest corner of the house and
was definite in outline. It was 42 inches in greatest diameter and
extended down to a depth of 7 feet below the surface and 4 feet
6 inches below the floor line. It was round in outline, having a narrow
mouth about 2 feet wide and a rounded bottom. The material in the

DARK,/7/X ED NODULAR SO/L
tee ne LMARCOAL |

Frc. 21.—Cross-section, west to east, house 2, Gates site.

cache was heavily mixed with ash and contained a large amount of
cultural debris. Above the mouth of the cache and just north of it
occurred three pottery pipes, one compete and two broken, one of
the latter being well modeled as a face (pl. 16, fig. 1, a, b). The pipes
occurred just on and under the floor line. The cache pit itself yielded
many potsherds, animal bones, mollusk shells, and one charred
“bean”. The latter was unfortunately lost in packing, hence could
not be positively identified.
POTTERY
House 2 was much smaller than house 1, yet it yielded almost three

times as much pottery. The following ceramic remains came from
house 2:

Complete pots, 1.

Restored pots, 1.

Total number of sherds, 1,323 (rims and handles 104, body, 1,219).

Cord-marked sherds, 259 (rims and handles 5, body 254).

Plain-ware sherds, 1,025 (rims and handles 99, body 926).

Incised sherds, 35 (rims and handles 0, body 35).
Sherds with slip (?), 4 (rims and handles 0, body 4).

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 159

Like the pottery from house 1, that from house 2 is highly variable,
ranging from coarse, friable sherds to smooth, hard, polished frag-
ments. Fine grit tempering predominates, but coarse grit or gravel
is occasionally used. Some of the sherds with the latter tempering
have a golden glitter, due to the presence of iron pyrites. Three
sherds from this house are exceedingly interesting. They are from
one or more highly polished black vessels with their interior surface
gray-brown in color. The tempering is crushed and calcined shell,
the only example of shell tempering from any of the Missouri River
sites excavated by the Survey. The shell tempering, the highly polished
and lustrous black outer surface, and the gray-brown inner surface
of these sherds make them identical with many sherds from the
great Cahokia site in southwestern Illinois. Such a close resemblance,
especially in view of the general lack of shell tempering in Nebraska
pottery, would appear to be significant of cultural contacts between
east-central Nebraska and the St. Louis region in prehistoric times.

In color the ware from house 2 is light buff ranging to dark gray
or black. The black seems to be due generally to protracted use
over smoky fires. A small proportion of the sherds have turned brick-
red in firing, especially on the outside, though some are red on both
sides. Unless the sherds have had food burned in them, forming a
black crust, they are lighter inside than outside. One sherd is chalky
white inside and outside, suggesting a slip or an abundance of lime
in the paste. Three sherds are brick-red on the outside, bluish in the
center, and dead white on the inside. Evidently some sort of a slip
had been applied on the inner surface.

As the foregoing statistics indicate, cord marking as a means of
surface finish occurs in slightly less than 20 percent of the pottery.
This cord marking occurs on the body and very rarely on the neck.
It is irregular in application, as though done with a cord-wrapped
paddle. In many cases it has been nearly eradicated by subsequent
polishing, and it is therefore difficult to distinguish clearly between
rough plain and cord-marked ware. The great majority of the ware
is plain and polished, though a high polish or burnish is rare. The
three lustrous black shell-tempered sherds previously described are
all the more unique on this account. Incising as a means of decoration
appears to have been rather unusual and many of the 35 incised sherds
are from the same pots. Incisions seem to have been made in angular
patterns below the necks of various vessels (pls. 14, fig. I, c; 15,
fig. 2, f). Several of the thin incised pieces were found to fit on to
one large rim sherd (pl. 15, fig. 2, f), where they formed a geometric
upper body design consisting of a heavier zigzag line with the main

160 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

angles filled with hatching, rather similar to the design shown on the
complete pot (pl. 14, fig. 1, c). The other incised fragments suggest
similar designs, and for this purpose various broad and sharp pointed
gravers seem to have been employed.

A comparison of rim types from house 2 (table 6, p. 253) with the
rim sherd types from houses 2 and 5 at Rock Bluffs and house 1, Gates
site, will demonstrate the general uniformity of these wares. Similarly,
a comparison with the rim sherds from house 1, Lost Creek, and the
Prairie Dog Creek ossuary will indicate rather striking differences
between these and the above groups so far as ceramic decoration is
concerned.

The form of the pottery from house 2, Gates site, is best indicated
by a complete and a restored vessel from this site. The complete pot
(pl. 14, fig. 1, c) was found in cache 1. It is 90 mm in height, 79 mm
across the mouth, and averages 5 mm in thickness. Its globular form,
slightly flaring lip, and two loop handles are indicated in the illustra-
tion. It is interesting to note that the two loop handles are placed a
little to one side of the median line. The outer surface is a rich smoky
brown with an oily luster, the latter probably the result of boiling in
maize (?) oil subsequent to firing. The inside is rough and gray in
coloration. Aside from handles, flaring lip, and surface polish it is
decorated by a crude design incised around the mid body. This design
consists of a heavy angular line, the upper angles being filled with
converging rays, whereas the lower angles have parallel hatching.
The design is complete and effective but rough and uneven in
execution.

The restored pot (pl. 14, fig. 1, b) is considerably smaller and
simpler than the above. It is 70 mm high, 66 mm across the mouth,
and averages about 3 mm in thickness. It, too, is globular with slightly
flaring lip. The fragments from which it was restored had no handles
nor is it probable that there were any on the original pot. The outer
color is a somewhat smoke-stained yellow-buff, and the interior is the
same color without any dark stains. The ware is thin and hard with
fine grit tempering. Although many of the sherds recovered suggest
considerably larger pots than the above, the general shapes indicated
by such sherds are very similar.

House 2 yielded three complete and two fragmentary pottery pipes,
all of which are of a modified elbow type. The most striking of these
is the bowl of a pipe representing a human face (pl. 16, fig. 1, a, b).
Using the bowl of the pipe as a head, the native artist had made a
huge nose with incised nostrils, a twisted mouth, and slanting eyes,
below which appear to be tear channels running down the cheeks.

NO. I0 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 161

The face is outlined by a deep, even, incised line and the ears are
represented with what appear to be ornaments in them. The face,
although grotesque, is very lifelike, and on close scrutiny one gets
the impression from it of a man undergoing severe torture. The stem
end has been broken off, but enough curve remains to indicate that
the pipe was of the semielbow or trumpet type. The blackened bowl
takes up all the interior of the face portion, which is 50 mm in length
and 20 mm across. There is only a very small perforation passing
from the bowl through the upper portion of the stem. It is composed
of a hard brown pottery with a rough finish and was found just above
the floor line about 1 foot north of cache 3. Another decorated pipe
of much the same type came from the same area (pl. 16, fig. 2, d). It
is made of similar rough brown pottery, is 20 mm across the bowl
and has an upper segment of 40 mm and a lower segment of 45 mm.
On the outer surface of the bowl are two incised bird tracks, each
with a long hind toe. Fragments of still another pipe of similar
material were found just above cache 3. Although too small in their
restored condition (pl. 16, fig. 2, 7) to be certain as to shape, they
strongly suggest the tip end of a similar pipe.

From cache 2 come two more pottery pipes of the same general
type. One of these, restored from several associated fragments, is a
very large trumpet-shaped pipe broken off just above the base of the
bowl (pl. 16, fig. 2, a). Even in its broken condition it is by far the
largest pipe from any of our Nebraska sites. It is also of rough brown
pottery and has a basal length of 60 mm and an upper length of 55 mm
to where it is broken off. Its diameter across the base of the bowl is 25
mm. Both the bowl and the small perforation through the stem are
blackened from use. Another smaller pipe with a more flaring bowl
from cache 2 was intact when found (pl. 16, fig. 2, h). It is made of
light buff pottery with a coarse, unpolished surface. The bowl is
15 mm in diameter, its basal length 30 mm, and its upper length 25 mm.
It showed less evidence of use than any of the others. As a group it
can be said that the pipes from house 2 are notable for their number,
their uniformity, and, in one case especially, for their excellent
modeling.

Work IN GROUND STONE

Four rectangular shaft polishers of brown sandstone come from
house 2. One of these has a narrow groove on each of the four faces ;
one has a deep broad groove on one face and two faint grooves on
the sides. This artifact is heavily stained on the edges with red hema-
tite paint. The two smaller artifacts have four deep grooves which in

162 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

cross-section appear as a cross with rounded segments. There are
also six irregularly shaped shaft polishers of sandstone, three with
two grooves, one with 3 grooves, and one with a single groove. In
length these artifacts range from 55 to 30 mm.

Five hammerstones were recovered. They are of hard stone, rough
in contour, and with the sides or ends battered by use. Only one, the
largest specimen (54 mm long), has two pecked indentations on the
side which serve as grips for thumb and forefinger.

There is one partially ground celt with the butt end broken off
(pl. 17, fig. 2, c). The material is a hard stone, basalt or granite,
which has been chipped and lastly polished to shape. The blade is
narrow (35 mm in width) but quite sharp, and the fragment is 70 mm
long and 55 mm across at the break, which is just past the middle
section, There is no indication of any groove.

Four stone fragments have evidently been employed for grinding
paint and polishing pottery. One is a thin oval pebble of hard blue
material go mm in length with the edges worn and stained red. Two
are rough fragments of hard stone, each with one smooth face stained
with red. The fourth is apparently only a corner of an evenly rec-
tangukar piece of gray sandstone, with two flat surfaces and both
remaining edges rounded. One face is slightly hollow. Both faces
and edges show evidence of grinding, but there is no stain on any of
them.

Two beautifully smooth and much-worn fragments of red hema-
tite were found. These are small with polished faces and edges, and
when dampened, they can be used to write with like red crayons.
They were probably employed for facial or other decorative painting.

Of the miscellaneous unchipped stone material, 33 fragments of
red sandstone, evidently containing much iron, are of interest. These
had been subjected to intense heat, which caused their disintegration.
Whether this process was intended to produce tempering material or
paint is problematical. Five fragments of slaked lime, four white
and one pink, will write like chalk. There is also one fairly large
lump of the pumicelike material.

Work IN CHIPPED STONE

Only four arrowpoints were recovered in house 2. Two of these
are merely triangular flakes of ‘‘ Nehawka”’ flint, crudely retouched
on one side with the other side smooth. Because of the plane of
cleavage, both are slightly curved. Such points seem rather unpracti-
cal for projectiles and may have been employed as small knives or
gravers. Because of their aberrant nature, they are not classified in
table 3. Another larger point (35 mm in length) of ‘ Nehawka”’

x

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 163

flint is heavier, well chipped, and has a definite stem of the SCa type.
The end of the stem is broken off, hence it cannot be further classified.
The fourth point is small (123 mm long) and delicately worked. It
is of the NBat type and is also of “ Nehawka’”’ flint. A section of a
rather large point is broken at both ends, hence cannot be classified.

Four small chipped stone awls or borers are of a locally new and
interesting type. One (the smallest) is of brown jasper, the others of
gray flint. They range in length from 22 mm to 37 mm. The smallest
specimen is the most delicately worked, having a slender, neatly
chipped point and a narrow handle or flange which flares out on
both sides. It is delicately retouched on all edges. The two inter-
mediate specimens are cruder with definitely chipped, slender boring
points and wide, crudely chipped flanges or handles. The fourth and
largest specimen is by far the crudest, only the broad point being
retouched ; the handle is only the flaring natural flake. These are not
illustrated here; the general type, however, is of extremely wide
distribution.

Six small end scrapers were recovered. They are of the usual type
(compare pl. 7, fig. 1, p, s). Four are of gray-speckled ‘ Nehawka ”
flint and one of brown jasper. They range in length from 55 to 37 mm.

Three broken knives or side scrapers, two of ‘““ Nehawka ” and one
of a clear white flint, came from house 2. One blade 54 mm in
length is oval with rounded ends; it is very thin and well chipped
on both sides. A knife blade from house 1, Lost Creek (pl. 7, fig. 2,
k), is very similar. One broken fragment suggests a diamond-
shaped knife without beveling. The fragment is too small for certain
classification, however. The third is a thick, triangular piece of
“ Nehawka ” flint which has been retouched to a sharp edge along
one side. The upper end is heavy and rough, being composed largely
of the limestone matrix. The specimen is 94 mm in length, flat on
one face and sharply keeled on the other. The point is sharp and
retouched.

A diamond-shaped artifact of ‘“ Nehawka”’ flint, perfectly smooth
on both faces and retouched along all four edges, is of unknown use.
It is 27 mm in greatest length and 4 mm in thickness. It suggests a
gun flint in type but shows no signs of such use, nor is there any other
evidence at this or similar sites to suggest Caucasian contacts. A
somewhat similar piece broken in half was also recovered.

Work IN BoNE

One complete and three fragmentary bison scapula hoes come from
house 2. The complete specimen (42 cm long) was very crumbly
when found. The ridges along the bone had been cut off and ground

164 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

down and the broad edge was fairly sharp. Another blade fragment
(pl. 6, fig. 2, b) had been tempered by heating and was well pre-
served. It had been ground to a sharp edge and had a rounded notch
on the side just above the blade. The presence of this side notch has
been taken by Sterns as an indication that such scapula artifacts were
mounted on straight handles and used as spades. This is possible,
but since typical unnotched scapula “hoes” are also found, it may
be that the smaller notched pieces are fragments reworked for some
other purpose than digging. The other fragments also showed grind-
ing, and one had a rounded notch (as in pl. 6, fig. 2, a) at the butt end.
None of these were perforated.

A large awl, or more probably hand pick, made from the ulna bone
of a bison is rather unique (pl. 18, fig. 1, a). It contrasts markedly
with a small ulna bone awl (pl. 18, fig. 1, 7) from the same house.
Both artifacts had been heat-tempered. The former is 210 mm, the
latter 135 mm in length. Several fragments of split and tempered
bones, all more or less worked, were found. Split fragments of deer
cannon bone suggested the manufacture of bone awls.

Work IN ANTLER

Only two artifacts of this material were found, both coming from
cache 1. The first of these is a shaft straightener of deer antler
(pl. 18, fig. 1, b). A slender tine was selected and a 12-mm hole,
perfectly round and straight, cut through its base. Anothef tine
branching off at this point had been neatly cut off. One end of the
specimen culminates in the slender antler point, but the larger end is
broken off. The remaining portion is 165 mm in length. The other
specimen of antler is a punch or tapping tool (pl. 18, fig. 1, e). It
is a curved section of antler with the swelling base at one end and a
neatly rounded cut at the other. The surface of the antler has been
ground down to perfect smoothness, which with its whitish color
gives it the appearance of a section of peeled willow stick. It is 95
mm in length. As in the case of similar artifacts from house 1,
Lost Creek, it was probably used for detaching workable flakes from
a flint nodule. The larger end is worn as though from being lightly
hammered upon.

HOUSE 3

Owing to lack of time and the presence of numerous large trees
which made excavation difficult and slow, this house pit was only
sampled (figs. 19, 22). From the excavations completed, which
reached beyond the walls of the house in three directions, the original

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 165

form of the house appears to have been rectangular with an actual
length of 22 feet and an approximate width of 20 feet. Two fire areas
were noted (fig. 19), a central fireplace about 4 feet in diameter and
a smaller fireplace in the central part next to the south wall. The
curving passageway from house 2 came into house 3 in the southeast
corner. No posts or post molds were encountered, and only small
amounts of charred wood occurred above floor level. These deposits
were most noticeable near the two fireplaces and in the southeast
corner around the passage entrance. Artifacts were exceedingly

Fig. 22.—Cross-section, north to south, house 3, Gates site.

scarce in this house, but the majority of those found came from the
three areas just mentioned. In cross-section the soil layers of house 3
were identical with those of house 2 already described in some detail.
No evidence of subfloor pits was encountered nor was any entrance
way noted other than that above mentioned.

POTTERY

As was true of other artifacts, very little pottery was recovered
from our excavations in house 3, as the following list indicates:

xX

Complete pots, none.

Restored pots, none.

Total number of sherds, 87 (rims and handles 11, body 76).
Cord-marked sherds, 40 (rims and handles 2, body 38).
Plain-ware sherds, 44 (rims and handles 7, body 37).

Incised sherds, 3 (rims and handles 2, body 1).

Sherds with slip, none.

All the sherds were grit-tempered, the majority being rather thin
and hard with fine tempering. A number, however, were thick and
coarsely tempered, and these were very soft, almost mushy in some
cases. The three incised sherds were exceptionally thin and hard.
The color of the pottery was predominantly a light buff, but there
were a few brick-red sherds. The thin, hard sherds are more or less
uniform in color throughout, whereas the thick, friable sherds are

166 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

“blue” and poorly fired in their central section. The incised sherds
were almost black throughout. About half the sherds were cord-
marked by the paddle technique, whereas the plain sherds were
smoothly polished but without burnish.

The rim sherds, while limited in range of types owing to the small
number recovered, fall into the same classes as those from houses I
and 2. One type with a slight collar and incisions extending from the
greatest diameter of the collar toward the neck (pl. 15, fig. 2, c) is
confined to the Gates site, houses I and 3. Using the same rim classifi-
cation employed for both the Rock Bluff cemetery and Gates site
houses, the distribution occurs in the limited collection from house 3
as indicated in table 6, p. 253.

The three incised sherds from this house have linear designs
extending from below the neck over the larger part of the body.
They consist of diagonal and occasionally intersecting lines suggesting
the patterns already illustrated (pls. 14, fig. 1,c; 15, fig. 1, d; fig. 2, f).
The thin, hard quality of this incised pottery is rather in contrast with
the more abundant and heavier unincised ware. Briefly, then, it may
be said that the scant ceramic remains from house 3 conform in all
major details to those from the other Gates site houses and add noth-
ing that is new.

OTHER ARTIFACTS

Of ground stone artifacts only sandstone shaft polishers and frag-
ments of hematite and limonite paint stones were recovered. There
are two polishers, one 63 mm, the other 35 mm in length. The first
has a single groove on each of the four faces and one groove across
the end; all the grooves are variable in width and depth. The smaller
polisher is irregular with four grooves on one face, three on the other,
and two on one side. There are four pieces of mineral paint, three
of hematite, one of yellow-white limonite.

Of chipped stone artifacts, three well-worked end scrapers of the
small planoconvex type were recovered. They range from 52 to 50 mm
in length. A fragmentary diamond-shaped chipped stone piece sug-
gesting a small knife blade is the only other definite artifact. Besides
the above there are 18 worked fragments of chert and flint. Some of
these are crude flake knives, and one core, which is roughly four-
sided, seems to have been used for hammering.

HOUSE 4

On March 29, 1931, a test pit was sunk in house pit 4 near the
north end of the Gates site village (fig. 15). This was done in order to
determine whether the houses in this part of the village represented

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 167

the same period and culture as those already excavated at the site.
A small trench 9 feet long and 3 feet wide was sunk to a depth of 4
feet in the northeast portion of the depression. Two large rim frag-
ments and a number of sherds identical with others from houses 1-3
and one piece of retouched ‘‘ Nehawka”’ flint were the only artifacts
recovered. The ceramic remains serve, however, to indicate the close
cultural relationship between house 4 and houses 1-3. The cross-
section revealed by the trench showed 1 foot 8 inches of dark
humous soil, a vague floor line at 2 feet 8 inches, and mixed nodular
soil to a depth of 36 inches where the yellow clay began. There was no
well-marked floor accumulation, and artifacts of any sort were scarce.
The occurrence of 20 inches of dark unmixed soil over house 4 as
compared to the rough averages of 12 inches of this layer over houses
I, 2, and 3 is rather remarkable. This discrepancy may be accounted
for by the location of house 4 farther down the ridge, where erosion
from above may have accumulated more soil, especially in a small,
deep house pit such as the 1 foot 6 inch depth to a pit 30 feet in
diameter suggests. In any event this marked difference in the depth of
soil accumulation subsequent to abandonment between houses yielding
identical pottery types indicates the danger of leaning too heavily on
the bare fact of subsequent soil accumulation for dating. Intricate
factors of local topography, soil analysis, and the exact nature of
each accumulation must be considered in such matters, and only close
cooperation between archeologist and soil geologist in the field can
give trustworthy correlations between depth of soil layers and the
relative age of sites. This is a very promising line for future research
and can be readily applied once the general nature and distribution of
prehistoric cultures in any particular region have been determined by
archeological excavation.

ORGANIC REMAINS

Animal remains from excavations at this site were not very abun-
dant; mollusks were fairly common, but vegetal remains were absent
except in one case. Deer, especially the white-tail variety, as indicated
by antler fragments, were the most numerous animal species repre-
sented. Bison remains were decidedly rare except for a few teeth and
worked scapulae. Squirrel and rodent bones were fairly common in
cache pits. Many other animal remains could not be identified, owing
to the lack of comparative material already alluded to. The animal
remains as a whole were examined by advanced paleontological stu-
dents, and no evidence of the horse was encountered. The molluscan
remains sent to Dr. Baker included four species from this site:

168 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Amblema costata Rafinesque, Quadrula pustulosa Lea, Truncilla trun-
cata Gates, and Proptera alata megaptera Rafinesque. Besides these
four species thus identified there are others not included in the material
sent for examination. Unlike certain similar sites, vegetal remains
were scarce, the charred bean already referred to being the only
example recovered. There is, however, reason to believe that maize
was the staple food product of these prehistoric people. Certainly
animal remains are remarkably scarce compared to their abundance in
historic Plains Indian sites, and the presence of bone digging imple-
ments and the development of ceramics point to a horticultural mode
of life. Unless charred, vegetal remains are the first things to vanish,
and only a fortunate accident preserves them for archeological
recovery. No human remains were encountered in the houses at the
Gates site, nor could mounds or interments of any sort be located in
the time available for such exploration.

VILLAGE AND OSSUARIES NEAR THE MOUTH OF THE ELKHORN RIVER
(SAUNDERS SITE), DouGLas County

This exceedingly interesting site was called to my attention by Dr.
R. F. Gilder and the discoverer of the burials at this place, A. L.
Bishop, of Omaha. On their invitation we visited and worked at the
site on May 2, 1931, and again on May 16 and 17. These were the
last days spent in the field during the spring season of 1931, and in
such a short time the site, which is rather extensive, could only be
sampled. Nevertheless, the results of the brief excavation were so
interesting that they seem worthy of record until such time as the
site may be more thoroughly worked. On our first visit Dr. Gilder,
Mr. Bishop, Mr. Yocum, of Logan, Iowa, and Dr. C. W. M. Poynter,
Dean of the University of Nebraska Medical School, were present and
cooperated in the excavation work.

The prehistoric remains at this place consist of a number of natural
rises strongly suggesting artificial mounds, of which two and perhaps
all contain human bones. In addition, there are at least five circular
house pits on the ridge in close proximity to the ’, Nearly

‘

“mounds”.
all the house pits have been rather badly dug up at some former time
by relic hunters, but prior to Mr. Bishop’s investigation the “ mounds ”
do not seem to have been disturbed. The site extends for about an
eighth of a mile along the river bluffs on the east side of the Elkhorn
River (see maps, fig. 1, site 22; fig. 23). The bluffs at this point
form a sharp ridge, dropping steeply some 50 feet on the west to the
river bottom and more gradually to the east into deep creek canyons.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG

SARPY CO.

-
-
=

ay FEYASS <r
BSN

AN OMS

ws,

\i;

(RO CREEK
SJ2CANYON SITE

° ' 2 3S NULES

Fic. 23.—Sketch map of Platte River, above and below junction of Elkhorn
River, showing Saunders and Bird Creek canyon sites, also Yutan.

170 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

The sharp elevations occur on the narrow ridge itself, whereas the
house pits are located either between the ‘‘ mounds ” or on the spurs of
the ridge which jut out in an easterly direction. There are in all proba-
bility other house pits on nearby spurs or ridges which have not yet
been located. A considerable portion of the site is on the farm of Mr.
Saunders, who kindly permitted us to excavate. The general location
of the Saunders site near the mouth of the Elkhorn River, three-
fourths of a mile north of the Douglas-Sarpy County line and about
3 miles southeast of Yutan, is approximately indicated on the sketch
map (fig. 23). The entire ridge here is well wooded and attractive,
with a fine view over the combined Elkhorn and Platte Valleys.

‘““ MOUND” I

When we arrived, Mr. Bishop and Dr. Gilder were digging in one of
the central elevations, which for purposes of convenience we may
designate as “mound” 1. This was oval in form, being about 15
feet from north to south and 6 feet from east to west. Its greatest
height above the adjacent ridge was between 2 and 3 feet, and it
formed a noticeable rise. Mr. Bishop had found the site the week
before and had previously removed two or three skulls which must
have been just below the sod line. Further excavation in the center
line near the north exposed a mass of human bones at a depth of
only 18 inches. When cleared, this mass was found to cover a space
only 3 feet from north to south and 4 feet from east to west. In
depth the greatest concentration occurred at about 2 feet and below
3 feet 6 inches the soil was without mixture of any sort. There were
four skulls, 2 complete mandibles (one very large and U-shaped),
and a considerable number of long bones, ribs, pelvic bones, etc. The
bones were a rich brown color and although badly broken, were of
fairly firm texture. Pieces of male, female, and immature skeletons
were noted. A few of the vertebrae and ribs showed signs of align-
ment, but in general no articulation of parts was indicated.

Intermixed with and also below the bones were a number of pot-
sherds (including a few rim fragments) of the Nebraska culture
ceramic type, all of which were almost identical with those from the
Gates site. One flat knife blade of chipped stone (type?) had pre-
viously been found by Mr. Bishop. There were also fragments of
burned stone and flint chips in the mixed area. The skulls and bones
were taken for study by Dr. Poynter. There were no other bones
below this deposit nor on any side so far as our excavations were
extended. However, only about one-third of the “ mound” was

a

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG T72u

excavated. Since this was the first time members of the Archeo-
logical Survey had observed human interments in association with
potsherds of the Nebraska culture type, it seemed a noteworthy
occasion.

’

“MOUND” 2

On our second visit, May 16, we trenched another elevation about
100 yards north of “mound” 1. “ Mound” 2 consisted of a slight
crest or rise on the narrow ridge, being about 45 feet from north to
south and slightly less from east to west. Since its rise was continu-
ous with that of the ridge, it was impossible to estimate accurately
the height of the tip or “ mound ” apart from that of the ridge itself.
A 3-foot trench 45 feet long was run through the center of the eleva-
tion from north to south. No artificial material was encountered
except in a 3-foot area 9 feet from the north end of the mound. Here
at a depth of only 10 inches a few human bones were found and these
extended down to a depth of 2 feet 1 inch. Below this the clean sandy
soil showed no evidence of any mixture. The trench at this point was
carried to a depth of 4 feet and widened to 6 feet. The human bones
consisted of an adult pelvic girdle with all the leg bones in place, an
adult humerus, and above this the fragments of a child’s skull with
some other broken bones. The pelvic girdle and leg bones suggested
the lower half of a flexed burial, but there was no trace of any of
the rest of the skeleton or of the skull. Either the lower part of the
body had been thrown into this shallow burial at a time when it was
still held together by ligaments, or else the entire body had been
buried here and the trunk and skull subsequently removed. Judging
from the small size of the disturbed area, the former of these two
explanations seems the most likely, especially since the great majority
of the foot bones were likewise missing.

Two potsherds of the Nebraska culture type were found with the
bones, also a fragment of a small shell pendant closely similar to those
already figured from the Prairie Dog Creek ossuary (pl. 9, fig. 2, 7),
except that the Saunders site specimen has two incised lines just below
the perforation. The pointed tip had been broken off and was missing.

A cross-section of the entire elevation (mound 2) gave no evidence
that it was built up artificially ; rather there was a more or less uniform
layer of about 20 inches of dark moist soil over both the mound and
the nearby ridge. Below this dark layer the soil was light-colored
and sandy with numerous calcareous deposits. The bones had evidently
been buried in a very shallow excavation in the upper part of the
natural rise. No clearly defined pit could he discerned, however, since

172 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

the soil about the bones was very uniform in color and texture.
Although our limited excavations in these mounds furnished no evi-
dence that they were artificially built up, the fact that intrusive soil
around the human remains could not be distinguished either compli-
cates the problem. More thorough excavations, coupled with an
examination by geologists or geographers to determine whether such
sharp mounds as these can be natural, will be necessary to settle the
question. This appears to be an unusually favorable site for such an
investigation. [Since the above was written I am informed by Dr.
E. H. Bell that these mounds and house pits have been almost entirely
destroyed by relic hunters. |

HOUSE I

The afternoon of May 16 and a considerable part of May 17 were
spent partially excavating a house pit at the base of another elevation
or “mound” some 50 yards south of “mound” 1. There were
several large holes in this house pit, resulting from earlier relic-
hunting activities. By a continuous series of 3-foot trenches we
opened about three-fifths of the house, from 3 feet east of the center
to just beyond the west end. In the center the floor area of the old
lodge was 16 feet across and the fireplace (3 feet in diameter and
four or five inches thick) was in the widest portion. A trench halfway
across the house to the east indicated that the outline began to narrow
slightly in this direction. To the west, all of which was uncovered,
the floor area extended about 9 feet to the oval end of the house. Three
feet west of the widest section the floor area had narrowed to 11 feet
6 inches, and in the next 4 feet it narrowed down still further to the
rounded or oval end. Judging from the sections uncovered, the
floor plan was ovoid, being 16 feet in greatest dimension from north
to south and about 20 feet from east to west. The floor line seemed to
rise at the ends and sides rather like the sides of a bowl, although
time was lacking to work out this feature carefully.

In cross-section the excavations showed approximately 1 foot 4
inches of dark unmixed soil, then a layer of yellow soil intermixed
with charcoal, a few artifacts and some debris which culminated at
an average depth of 3 feet 3 inches in a rather well-marked floor line
of baked clay, ash, and considerable charcoal. Just above this floor
line considerable amounts of baked clay with twig and reed impres-
sions were noted, as though the lower part of the roof had consisted
of wattle and daub. No mixture was noted below the floor line in
the central part of the house, although our examination was too
cursory for any certainty. However, in the west end of the house

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 173

considerable mixture was noted to a depth of 4 feet 3 inches, or a
little more than a foot below the floor line. Across the west end of the
house, just on the floor layer, was a 3-inch charred beam which ex-
tended about 1 foot 6 inches beyond the north wall. Charcoal and
burned clay were abundant on the floor and throughout the roof
material above, indicating the burning of the lodge.

No posts or post molds, entrance passage, or cache pits were found,
but, as already mentioned, our work was too hasty to give much value
to such negative evidence. The artifacts found in the excavation all
pertained to the Nebraska culture type. The pottery, which was fairly
abundant, was unmistakably the same style as that from the Rock
Bluffs and Gates villages. The gray-brown to brick-red coloring,
grit temper, and the rather rare occurrence of almost obliterated cord
markings are all similar. The rim sherds in most cases were identical ;
vertically perforated lugs, simple flaring lips with broad loop handles,
flaring lips without handles, and scalloped and slightly incised rims
were found. One thick rim with very deep scallops and the inter-
vening “nipples”? about one-half an inch long was rather unusual.
This one sherd rather strongly suggests a type (pl. 9, fig. 1, d@) from
the Prairie Dog Creek ossuary and the Lost Creek region. Another
rim sherd with a vertically perforated lug seems to show traces of
flattened and partially eradicated quarter-inch coils on its inner sur-
face. Nebraska culture pottery generally suggests the use of a paddle
and anvil rather than a coiling technique. Otherwise the small series
of rims recovered at the Saunders site would fit in perfectly with the
series of rims from the Gates site.

One sandstone shaft polisher, two small finely chipped arrowpoints
(one with three notches, NBa2; the other with 4, NBa4), with a few
small end scrapers and side scrapers complete the list of artifacts
from the house. All of the latter would fit in with either the Nebraska
culture or the Lost Creek types. Animal bones, mostly broken and
burned, were rather common. Elk and deer remains seemed most
abundant, a burned and crumbly elk (?) skull fragment amidst a mass
of wattle and daub material just above floor line being of interest.
The shells of fresh-water mollusks were fairly common in the mixed
layers. The presence of the above artifacts with the animal remains
seems good evidence that the house had served for a dwelling at one
time, whatever its final function may have been.

The most unusual feature of house 1, however, remains to be men-
tioned. This was the fact that there occurred at the floor level through-
out the entire excavated portion of the house a great number of burned
and broken human bones. These fragmentary bones were mixed with

12

174 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

animal bones, potsherds, stones, and artifacts, occurring on both sides
of the fireplace and being especially numerous in the west end of the
house. The bones were for the most part brown and very crumbly
from charring, and various ages and both sexes were represented.
Fragments of a half dozen adult and immature skull caps, leg bones
broken in sections, isolated mandibles, and other bones occurred hap-
hazardly over the floor. No evidence of regularly laid out or aligned
skeletal parts could be distinguished. In the west end of the house
these human bones occurred with other intrusive material to a depth
of at least a foot below the apparent floor line.

The usual explanation for the occurrence of charred and broken
human bones amidst other camp refuse, i. e., cannibalism, may of
course be invoked. If so, it seems extremely peculiar that the local
people would have left human jaws and skull fragments underfoot ;
or, assuming that conquering enemies had eaten the original occupants
of the lodge prior to firing it, that they would have taken parts of
their victims’ bodies up and buried them in the ‘mounds’. Con-
sidering the haphazard distribution of human skeletal remains in the
“mounds ”’ as well as on the house floor, it would seem more rational
to regard house 1 as a charnel house of some sort connected with the
burial rites of the local people. Perhaps bodies were stored here for
the purpose of stripping the flesh from the bones prior to their ulti-
mate disposal in ossuaries, a practice commonly reported for certain
tribes of the Southeast. The evidences of residence in the house may
have accumulated prior to its becoming a charnel house, or it may
have served both purposes, however unpleasantly, at the same time.
That some sort of ceremonial cannibalism may have been indulged
in is, of course, quite possible, but it is hard to believe that the
occurrence of so many human bones in this house was a mere by-
product of culinary activity.

To my mind the situation here imperfectly revealed gives a glimpse
into the nature of the burial complex of the Nebraska culture people
rather than of the cannibalistic tendencies of either themselves or their
enemies. Certain it is that when house 1 burned down, there were
numerous human remains on the floor, but whether these were already
ultimately disposed of in the house or whether they were awaiting
transportation to the hilltop ossuaries at the time of the fire are ques-
tions that remain obscure. The Saunders site has a double interest,
since it reveals suggestive evidence regarding the cult of the dead in
the Nebraska culture and also in regard to the oval-shaped earth
lodge which we partially excavated. Of the seven earth lodges per-
taining to this culture partially or wholly excavated by the Survey

++

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 175

parties in 1930 and 1931, this was the only one that was not square
or subrectangular in outline. It was also the only one to contain any
large amount of human bones, although a few small fragments were
noted in house 2, at Rock Bluffs.

May 17 was the last opportunity for field work during the spring of
1931, and our excavations were carefully filled up before leaving.
The site had only been sampled, and much interesting work remained
to be done. It may also be mentioned that besides the Nebraska culture
remains briefly discussed herein, there are also said to be ash strata in
the deeply cut creek banks to the south and east of the site. These
should certainly be investigated. Moreover, the entire valley of the Elk-
horn is terra incognita so far as the scientific archeologist is concerned.
Through the efforts of enthusiastic amateurs such as J. B. O’Sullivan,
of O’Neill, we know that there are numerous and extensive pre-
historic sites to be investigated. This valley must always have been
an important artery of communication between the northern and
southern regions, since it is one of the few rivers cutting directly
through the desolate sand hills district. Dakota raids against the
Pawnee and vice versa passed through the Elkhorn Valley, and there
are much earlier evidences of human occupation there which should
be investigated.

THE WALKER GILMORE (STRATIFIED) SITE, Cass CouNTY

This is one of the most important as well as intrinsically interesting
sites in Nebraska, and it may be added, in the Plains region generally.
It is one of the very few stratified sites so far reported from the
Plains or Upper Mississippi regions and is also remarkable for its
topographical situation, extent, and type of cultural remains. Dis-
covered by Walker Gilmore, son of Dr. G. H. Gilmore, the site was
first worked by Dr. Fred H. Sterns, who has published a preliminary
report on his findings (1915). In his unpublished report on the arche-
ology of eastern Nebraska (1915 a) Sterns devotes considerable
space to the site and gives a rather detailed map of deposits ; hence in
the following account we will only sketch in the general situation with
such new data as have been obtained in some Io rather brief visits
to the place. It may be mentioned at the outset that in general we have
found Sterns’ conclusions adequate and well founded, and the major
part of our work has been supplementary and confirmatory rather
than original.

The older culture strata under discussion occur in a deep, narrow
gully formed by an intermittent stream now called “ Sterns Creek ”
by various local archeologists. This stream and the deposits are

176 . SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. Q3

located in eastern Cass County 8 miles south of the town of Platts-
mouth and 14 miles south of the old river town of Rock Bluffs (maps,
figs. 13, 24). Concerning the local topography, we may best quote
from Sterns’ brief but excellent summary report.”

The lower portion of this stream’s course [Sterns Creek] is through an
alluvial terrace of the Missouri River. This terrace is now about a quarter of a
mile wide and sufficiently raised above the present level of the river to be out
of reach of even the highest water. It is separated from the flat through

N

4.

Ba Mam (APPROX) ” Y diaaaag S BED)
i Ai

Fic. 24.—Sketch map of Walker Gilmore site, Cass County. I-17, exposures of
Sterns Creek culture; A, shallow exposure.

which the gully runs by an old river bank about 8 feet high. This flat forms
an east-and-west gap between two high river bluffs to the north and to the
south of it. Its greatest width from slope to slope is about a quarter of a mile.

The stream formerly had a winding southeasterly course across the alluvial
terrace; but the owners of the property diverted the creek a few years ago
by digging a drainage ditch almost due eastward. The great shortening of its
course thus produced has caused it to cut the gully which it now occupies (pl. 19,
fig. 2). This gully averages about 30 feet in width and 20 feet in depth and
has almost vertical walls. In places its sides and bed are composed of a yellow
loesslike clay similar to that which forms the neighboring river bluffs, while in
other placés it cuts through deposits of blue “ gumbo” clay such as is common
in the creek beds of the region, or through creek gravels, or through secondary

* 1915, pp. 122-123, Sterns’ unpublished work, 1915 a, aside from a map and
plates, showing exposures and artifacts, gives little additional information on
this site.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG ies,

loess such as could occur only as wash from the hills. The distribution of these
various materials in the gully and for some distance in its banks (as determined
by boring with a long auger) makes it clear that the present stream is cutting
across the course of an older stream whose channel was wider than that of
the present creek. The banks of the older stream valley had a much gentler
slope than those of the present gully, and its course was not the same as that
of the present stream. Where the latter cuts the old channel the gully walls
consist of “gumbo” clay, gravel, or secondary loess. Where it does not cut
the old valley the walls are of the original yellow clay.

The general situation above described is shown on a rough sketch
map made by the present author, February 14, 1931 (fig. 24).

On the flats around the gully Sterns found numerous potsherds and
a few flint implements. We will describe this pottery later, but for
the present it will suffice to say that in the main it resembles the
ceramic remains from the rectangular earth lodges (i. e., the Nebraska
culture). As the flat has been plowed since 1857, at present no visible
traces of house pits remain, but there was a remarkable concentration
of pottery on the flat compared to its scarcity in the gully of Sterns
Creek itself and its total absence on the surrounding ridges. These
observations made by Sterns were corroborated by our own work
here in 1930 and 1931. Hence he argues with reason that the rec-
tangular-earth-lodge people dwelt on the flat itself and not on the
ridges above. Since there is thus no evidence that the present surface
cultural debris was washed down from the higher ground we can
safely assume that the present surface of the flat on both sides of
Sterns Creek represents the living level of the prehistoric rectangular-
house people.

Coming to the gully of Sterns Creek itself, we find it to be generally
straight-walled and, according to Sterns in 1915, averaging 20 feet
in depth. It may be significant that our own measurements in 1931
showed a depth of 25 feet 6 inches at exposure 5 (map, fig. 24) and
of 24 feet at exposure 8. Whether this actually represents an addi-
tional 4 feet 6 inches of cutting since 1915 can be determined only
by detailed comparison of Sterns’ data (1915 a, pp. 179-187) with a
complete series of measurements taken at the points indicated in his
description. However this may be, we may note that the cutting of
Sterns Creek has exposed human habitation levels in the lower por-
tions of the gully walls. Sterns notes that 4 feet below the present
surface there are traces of charcoal but no artifacts. He points out
that this may indicate casual human habitation at this level, but,
judging from the very few scattered pieces of charcoal personally
observed in the banks at about this depth, I would hesitate to go so
far. Certainly there are no fireplaces and even very little charcoal ;

178 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

hence it may equally well be the result of natural fires. Since there
are no artifacts or hearths, the point has little immediate interest.
Sterns goes on to show that 6 feet below this point (i. e., 10 feet
below the present surface) there occur numerous ash beds and hearths.
He distinguishes 17 such exposures of ash and 9g distinct hearths. It
may be noted that our own sketch map (fig. 24) likewise indicates 17
exposures, but this correspondence must not be too strongly empha-
sized. Our own reconnaissance work was done in ignorance of the
extent of Sterns’ complete results and was therefore of a general
rather than a detailed type.” Since there remains much important work
still to be done at the site, some suggestions for a correlation of data
and further research here will be given at the close of this section.
The general distribution of the present exposures is indicated on the
sketch map (fig. 24), but I strongly suspect that we have failed to
locate some that Sterns mentions and added others of our own
discovery.

Sterns describes two levels of habitation in the lower walls of the
gully, one row of exposures at an average depth of 10 feet and at
certain places another layer 2 feet below this group, the two strata
being separated by a blue creek muck. This material accumulates
rapidly and involves no great lapse of time between the upper and
lower occupation levels. As the diagrams of the lower culture levels at
exposures 4 and 10 (figs. 25, 26) indicate, we have found three
levels of this older occupation at these particular places, whereas at
other exposures, as Sterns noted previously, only one or two strata
appear. Our own observations indicate a variation from one to three
levels at the different exposures of this old cultural horizon rather
than the one or two levels noted by Sterns. However, we are in
agreement regarding the fact that cultural material from all these
lower levels is uniform and that a relatively short period is represented
by all three.

By using a long auger Sterns was able to demonstrate that these
deep ash beds extend back into the gully walls on both sides for at
least 50 feet. It thus appears that for at least one-eighth of a mile
in a straight line along Sterns Creek there are some 17 old dwelling
sites exposed and that similar hearths or dwellings extend back for
some distance on each side of the gully. Since the exposure of sites

* Sterns’ published summary (1915) was consulted in our work, but his com-
plete manuscript and map (10915 a), being a thesis of which only one copy is on
file in the Harvard University library, was not available. As already noted,
it could not be consulted by the present author until January 1932, when his
own work at the site had been completed.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 179

by the recent cutting of Sterns Creek is haphazard and the present
gully only cuts across the former stream bed at a limited number of
places, it is evident that the early village or villages represented in the
lower levels were rather extensive. Covered as this horizon is at
present by many feet of alluvial fill, it has so far only been sampled
by digging in from the gully walls. The prohibitive expense in-
volved in removing the 10 to 15 feet of covering soil over the hearths
has so far justified the easier but dangerous and unsatisfactory method
of burrowing in from the sides. However, as will be mentioned later,
there is a possibility that there are less deeply covered horizons of
the same culture in the northwestern portion of the site (fig. 24, A).
This possibility was discovered too late to be made use of in the
present work, but if verified, may permit more systematic excavations
in the future.

A discussion of the probable sequence of events affecting human
occupation at the Walker Gilmore site may assist in understanding the
foregoing description. From the available evidence it appears that the
Missouri River at a former time flowed directly past the southeastern
end of the small valley (see ‘ former bank of the Missouri River,” fig.
24). At this time another larger stream with a deeper bed and more
sloping banks drained the valley and entered the river a quarter of a
mile northwest of the present mouth of the Sterns Creek canal. The al-
luvial terrace and the relatively high ground level of the flat to the
northeast (fig. 24) were then nonexistent. At this period the people
of the lower levels built their houses along the banks of the old stream.
Then the Missouri began to withdraw to the east, changing the gra-
dient of the former stream, which accounts for the accumulations of
creek muck over the earliest habitation levels. Apparently such floods
were periodic at first, and the people came back to the same sites
to settle when the waters had receded. In this way the one, two, or
three levels of occupation separated by blue clay or black sandy soil
are best accounted for (figs. 25, 26). Such flood deposits as occur
between these lower levels are often so thin that the high waters of
one or two wet seasons might account for them.

Finally, the stream bed became so clogged up that the flow was
intermittent and the small valley began to fill through erosion from
the surrounding hills. Living conditions were evidently unfavorable
and the older population went elsewhere. Thus by the silting up of
the old creek channel and the accompanying wash from the hills the
present flat was built up and the lower alluvial terrace to the east ex-
tended out as the Missouri River shifted its bed in that direction.
Unless the scattered charcoal in the redeposited loess from the sur-

180 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

rounding hills shall prove to be due to human agency, this was a period
when the upper valley was generally uninhabited. With the forma-
tion of the present level of the upper valley and the resumption of
drainage by the recent stream (Sterns Creek) the flat was reoccupied
by another people, those of the “ rectangular earth lodges ” (Nebraska
culture). How long they occupied the site or how many houses
they may have had in the vicinity is uncertain, owing to still later
changes. That they were entirely prehistoric is evidenced by the fact
that in none of the very numerous Nebraska culture houses excavated
in the past 20 years has any trace of Caucasian contact been en-
countered. Besides the remains clearly pertaining to the rectangular
lodge dwellers of the Nebraska culture, a few other artifacts have
been found on the surface of the flat which may be connected with
still another culture. Hence we have at this place clear evidence of
two distinct occupations—that of the Sterns Creek culture and later
of the Nebraska and a related culture, all three groups being
prehistoric.

With the coming of the whites the valley underwent still further
changes. The flat was plowed and all surface evidence of the earth-
lodge pits gradually destroyed, though the cultural debris from these
sites still testifies to their former presence. Later the drainage ditch
was dug directly east to the river (fig. 24) and with a shortened and
direct drainage Sterns Creek began to cut down into the alluvial fill
of the flat, thus forming the present deep, narrow gully. In this way
portions of the deeply covered human habitation levels and small sec-
tions of the older stream bed were once more exposed. This is the
history of the site so far as our present imperfect knowledge extends.
Such an interpretation of the evidence adds little to that already pre-
sented by Sterns (1915), but has the value of corroboration based on
independent observation and excavation.

NEBRASKA CULTURE (SURFACE DEPOSITS)

Since two definite levels of human occupation have been distin-
guished at the Walker Gilmore site, we will discuss the cultural evi-
dence from each separately, taking up first the material recovered
from the present ground level of the flat. Owing to the activity of
Sterns and of local collectors since that time, the surface material in
the plowed fields (see “corn field,” fig. 24) is rather scarce. How-
ever, a rather brief time spent in surface collecting there in the spring
of 1931 yielded 105 potsherds and a small amount of worked stone.
In general this pottery was very uniform, save for certain exceptions

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 181

to be referred to shortly. Owing to long plowing, the sherds are all
small, though they are quite adequate to establish their general type.
The sherds are composed generally of a well-mixed paste with fine grit
and in a few cases gravel used for tempering. They appear to have
come from small or medium-sized vessels molded by the paddle and
anvil rather than the coiling process. The ware is hard and in general
seems to have a flaking rather than crumbling texture. The majority are
smooth with some polish on the outer surface; only 22 (including two
rim fragments) show partly eradicated cord-wrapped paddle marks.
Ten sherds have a gray-white stain on the inner surface, which sug-
gests a pseudoslip or chalky wash such as noted in the Rock Bluff
Cemetery and Gates site pottery. The color is predominantly a light
buff, ranging in a small number of cases to a dark red, evidently the
result of variable firing. Much of the ware is blackish and smoke-
stained from use. Of the 10 rim fragments recovered, 2 are slightly
flaring and perfectly smooth, 4 are flaring with straight or diagonal
tool marks on the outer edge of the lip, 1 rim is cord marked with
diagonal incisions on the outer edge of the lip, and 1 is too battered
for classification. The 2 other rim sherds are somewhat aberrant and
will be referred to shortly. No lugs or handles occur in our collection,
but this is probably due to the frequently repeated breakage and earlier
collecting already referred to. Ten percent of the surface pottery col-
lection made by Sterns had lugs. This entire series of sherds agrees
very closely with the ceramic remains from rectangular earth lodges
in the Rock Bluff Cemetery and Gates sites. This is in agreement
with Sterns’ conclusion regarding the bulk of the surface pottery
fragments (1915 and 1915 a, II, p. 182).

However, in studying his surface material Sterns (1915 a, II, p.
182) came to the conclusion that a few of these sherds represented a
somewhat different culture. These sherds, about four in number, were
characterized by a marked collar which has heavily incised designs
on it. These designs were either in the form of three or four hori-
zontal lines below the rim or else simple patterns formed by incised
horizontal and diagonal lines. In our own collection, gathered in 1931,
are three sherds of this type. Two were found on the surface and
one on a gravel bar in the bed of Sterns Creek. All these rim sherds,
with one body sherd vertically marked with clear cord imprints, are
out of the ceramic pattern of the Nebraska culture but closely ap-
proximate the pottery from the Lost Creek and Prairie Dog Creek
sites on the Upper Republican River (pls. 5; 9, fig. 1). It would
thus appear that in the surface occupation at the Walker Gilmore site
there had been either some intimate contact of the two cultures or

182 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

else a successive occupation. In an addenda to his dissertation (1915 a,
handwritten note at end of thesis) Sterns adds that, having at that
time just examined some (protohistoric) Pawnee pottery, he thought
these aberrant sherds from the surface of the Walker Gilmore site
might be of Pawnee origin. This discussion would take us too far
afield for present purposes but is introduced at this time to show
our agreement with Sterns that although the bulk of the surface
pottery from the Walker Gilmore site pertains to the Nebraska or
“rectangular earth-lodge culture” (i. e., the Rock Bluff Cemetery
and Gates site type), there is a small percentage which shows dif-
ferent affiliations.

Sterns mentions celts and shaft polishers from the surface, all of
the “rectangular house culture” type. Dr. G. H. Gilmore found a
fine polished grooved ax of hard green stone here some years ago
(pl. 17, fig. 2, b). It has a flat butt and a smoothly polished but bat-
tered edge. The groove extends around three sides of the specimen,
which is 12.5 cm long by 7.8 cm wide. The grooved ax is extremely
rare in any of the cultures so far distinguished in Nebraska, and al-
though such specimens are often found on the surface, they are not
as yet diagnostic of any known horizon. Our own small surface col-
lection, besides the pottery, contains little other than a few broken
flint implements which are too fragmentary for classification. Sum-
ming up, the occupation of the present surface of the Walker Gilmore
site by the Nebraska culture people is evidenced by the occurrence
there of broken pottery fragments and a few other artifacts pertaining
to this culture, besides a considerable amount of charcoal, broken bone,
shell and stone fragments, all presumably turned up by the plow.
So far no actual house pits have been located in the flat, although it
seems quite possible that the lower levels of such house pits may still
exist below the plow line. Judging from the not overly abundant cul-
tural debris on the surface, I doubt that there were ever very many of
these earth lodges on the flat, and locating them in cornfields plowed
since 1857 would be extremely difficult.

DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD (NEBRASKA CULTURE?)

No positive evidence is on record concerning the mode of burial of
either the Nebraska culture or the Sterns Creek culture people at
the Walker Gilmore site. To the best of my knowledge no human
remains have been found either on the surface or in the deep ash
beds. However, on February 14, 1931, a series of four rather abrupt
rises or ““ mounds” were noted on the sharp ridge to the southeast
of Sterns Creek (fig. 24). The next week-end a pit was sunk in one

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 183

of these (“ mound” 1, fig. 24), and at a depth of 3 feet 6 inches a
human skull fragment was found. Work was stopped on account of
rain, but on April 2 the excavation was continued. The “ mound ”
consisted of an apparently natural rise or swelling about 45 feet long
from north to south and 40 feet wide from east to west (pl. 20, fig. 1).
Like the three similar “ mounds” to the east, it was on the narrow
top of the ridge bordering the river valley. Because of the slope
of the ridge on both sides, it was impossible to determine its height,
though there were slight depressions between the four elevations. A
square excavation (pl. 20, fig. 2), 12 feet on a side, was made in the
center of the mound to a depth of 5 feet 6 inches. Later four trenches
were run from each corner in a NW., NE., SE., and SW. direction,
and these were carried to the approximate edges of the slope. No soil
distinctions indicating the building of an artificial mound were ob-
served. Rather, there was a uniform surface layer averaging 1 foot
3 inches in thickness of dark humous soil; below this to a depth of
approximately 4 feet the soil was of a light yellow color intermixed
with scant human skeletal fragments and cultural debris ; at the 4-foot
depth limy concretions were abundant, and below this the soil was
hard, unmixed yellow clay. The bones and cultural evidence were
somewhat concentrated toward the center of the excavated area,
but a few fragments occurred toward the edges of the pit and in the
trenches.

In all, 12 fragments of human bone were recovered. These in-
cluded an astragalus, a patulla, several rib fragments, fragments of
long bones, and one portion of a zygomatic arch. One or two of the
bones appeared to have been slightly burned. The cultural evidence
consisted of a crude flint knife blade of small size, a flat retouched side
scraper, and two crude end scrapers of the small planoconvex type.
In addition two fragments of mussel shell, one lump of red burned
clay, and flakes of flint and red quartzite were recovered. No pot-
sherds were found. The small knife blade and the scrapers rather
suggest the Nebraska culture, but lacking this type of pottery in the
‘““mound ”, positive cultural identification is impossible. However, of
the two cultures represented in the valley, a correlation between this
burial site and the Nebraska or “rectangular earth-lodge culture ”
would seem the most probable.

It is difficult to decide what sort of interment is represented here.
As stated, there were no indications that the site was an artificial
mound. Rather it would appear as though one of the natural eminences
on the ridge had been chosen for digging the pit in which fragmentary
human remains had been disposed of. So fragmentary and scattered

184 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

were these human remains and so small in quantity that it is difficult to
understand the occurrence. Probably this was an ossuary of the Ne-
braska culture in which previously exposed human bones were placed.
The presence of the charred bones suggests that, since there is no evi-
dence of any general cremation, possibly the ancient people themselves
opened these ossuaries and took away the bulk of the bones when
they moved away from the valley. Such an occurrence would explain
the bone fragments that were left as well as the few artifacts with the
dead. Time was lacking to open any of the other three “ mounds ”
on the ridge and future investigation of these may clear up the prob-
lem. Similar ossuaries in apparently natural ‘“‘ mounds ” near houses
of the Nebraska culture and containing pottery of that type were
found at the Saunders site near the mouth of the Elkhorn River in
Douglas County, as described above. Hence the probability that the
Nebraska culture people were responsible for this “ ossuary ” at the
Walker Gilmore site is strengthened. Of the burials of the still older
Sterns Creek culture peoples no evidence has yet come to light.

THE STERNS CREEK CULTURE (DEEP STRATA)

Since the cultural material from the lower strata in the gully of
Sterns Creek is uniform and represents a type distinct from that in
any prehistoric sites yet described, it may for the present be desig-
nated by the noncommittal term “ Sterns Creek culture.’ In the fol-
lowing account an attempt is made to present all the available data
bearing on the artifacts and mode of life of these early inhabitants of
eastern Nebraska.

HABITATIONS

In his account of the lower ash beds at the Walker Gilmore site
Sterns (1915, 1915 a, II, p. 187) only mentions finding fireplaces,
rubbish heaps, and a few storage pits. He figures one such pit (1915 a,
pl. 41) containing ash and stone fragments which extends from the
upper stratum through the intervening blue clay into the lower ash
level. No deliberate storage of materials in such pits has been noted ;
rather they contain refuse and occasionally broken artifacts. A some-
what similar pit from exposure 4 is illustrated here (fig. 25, A).
Sterns makes no mention of either post molds or roofing material,
hence it may be assumed that such evidence was not observed.

The general appearance of the ordinary ash strata may be seen in
the illustration and diagrams (pl. 19, fig. 3; figs. 25, 26). In general
these consist of an ash layer containing a definite hearth in the thickest

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 185

portion (figs. 25, 26). Away from the hearth the ash stratum thins
out, though in a few cases it may continue on to another hearth (see
I, fig. 25, with fireplaces III and IV), as does also stratum 2 (fig. 26),
which runs for 30 feet to the north, where it widens out into another
fireplace. In general, however, one fireplace to a stratum (fig. 25, I)
is usual. In some cases the gully of Sterns Creek passes directly
through a habitation area, as is the case at exposure 8 (map, fig. 24).
Here thin ash layers on both sides of the creek indicate that the cen-
tral portion of the deposit has been washed way. The composition
of these strata is mainly gray ash containing large numbers of calcined
limestone fragments, wood, charcoal, animal bones, mollusk shells,
and occasional potsherds and artifacts. The fireplaces or hearths
are marked by a greater accumulation of ash and charcoal and an
underlying lenticular stratum of baked clay (figs. 25, 26). Numerous

1S FEET: YELLOW, WASHED-IN SOIL
AND BANDED CLAy

BLACK SOIL

SS oy s
BAKED Clay B 84K6D

POT SHEROS

° \ 2 a

Fig. 25.—Ash strata and hearths at exposure 4, Sterns Creek culture,
Walker Gilmore site.

stone fragments occur around and in these hearths, but no regular ar-
rangement of such stones has been noted. Certain rather thick layers
of ash are without any hearths and often contain masses of squash
seeds, mussel shells, bones, and broken artifacts. These are probably
refuse heaps. They occur on the same levels as the hearths but are
usually located apart from them.

We were fortunate in finding more direct evidence as to the na-
ture of the dwellings themselves than did Sterns. At exposure 10
(fig. 26) two post molds were noted in the intermediate stratum (2)
and three post molds in the lower stratum (1). The upper molds were
filled with the black sandy soil of the sterile area above the ash
stratum. They averaged a little less than 3 inches in diameter and
strongly suggest the refilled holes of posts in use during the occupa-
tion of stratum 2. The post molds in the lower stratum (1) were even
more convincing, since the small eastern mold (fig. 26) contained
charred wood, whereas the larger one 6 inches to the west was lined

186 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

with white ash, as though it had been dug out later and the surround-
ing ash had been filled in around the post. The inner core of this post
mold was filled with dark soil. The post mold slightly more than a
foot to the west contained brown pulpy wood fiber as well as the dark
soil. Moreover, at the bottom the blue clay was compacted as though
from pressure when the post was driven in. The filling of this “* post”
hole was very soft and could be cleaned out by brushing, leaving a
firm round clay mold, and the impacted clay at the bottom could be
scaled off. From west to east the circular post molds in stratum 1
were respectively 3, 4, and 3 inches in greatest diameter (fig. 26).

f

72 FEET, YELLOW, WASHED-IN SOIL
ANO BANDED CLAY

3: oe Silents CHARCOAL AND ASH: 9's: 5
BLACH,
SANDY,

PIIXED,
BLACK SOUL BLACK

STREAHED
BLVE SLIGHT CHARRED
CLAY SUX TURE Wwo0D

BLACK

CALCINED
LIMESTONE

BAKED CLAY

(CONTAINING 4
WOOD F/BRE )

(APPRoY) 7 FEET BLUE, SANDY. CLAY
MASKED BY TALUS

’

TO PAESENT
BED OF CREEK SSS SDE

° ! 2 3F7-

Fic. 26.—Ash strata, hearth, and post molds at exposure 10, Sterns Creek
culture, Walker Gilmore site.

At exposure 5 a tnass of what is thought to be reed roof thatch was
observed on one of our last hurried trips to the site. As the two
main forks of Sterns Creek come together at this place (map, fig. 24),
there is considerable erosion during the rainy season and the material
in question was thus exposed. Lack of time, combined with the muddy
condition of the creek bed, prevented detailed work, but the general
situation was clear. The ash strata at exposure 5 run along the north
bank from the junction of the streams to a point about 25 feet west,
where they terminate. On the west two stratum lines were visible,
separated by blue clay, but near the junction to the east the lower
stratum was deeply covered by talus fallen from above. The thatch
layer, which was from 3 to 4 inches thick and extended for about

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 187

5 feet along the bank, lay directly above the upper ash stratum. It
had evidently been preserved by the layers of blue creek muck which
sealed it both from above and below. The reeds lay horizontally and
had been pressed into a solid mass with puddled mud somewhat re-
sembling bark. There was no evidence of the reeds having been woven
into mats, although two small fragments of fiber string were found
just below this layer. A large section of this thatch material was pre-
served, and samples were sent to Dr. Melvin R. Gilmore, who identi-
fied it as a large sedge (Scirpus fluviatilis). Below the layer of thatch
and puddled mud was an ash layer and below this a blue creek muck
which also contained various artifacts. How far back into the bank
the reed layer continued was not determined. Conditions for the
preservation of material were remarkable, owing apparently to the
more rapid sealing up of the deposits in the blue muck. Besides the
reeds, numerous fragments of wood, bark, nuts, and fragile bird bones
were also recovered here. Owing to lack of time, however, this favor-
able circumstance could not be fully exploited. These fragmentary
observations indicate that small poles or posts were used in the
dwellings of the lower levels, that layers of large reeds were used for
roof material, and that bark may have been employed for wall ma-
terials. Samples of the many pieces of bark obtained in the lower
strata (especially at exposure 10) have been identified by Dr. Gilmore
as that of the cottonwood (Populus deltoides) and the white elm
(Ulmus americana). The exact nature and form of these dwellings
remain to be determined, but to judge by the size of hearth areas and
post molds, they were probably rather small. Such shelters differ in
toto from all the later earth-lodge types in the region.

POTTERY

The ceramic remains from the deep strata are very uniform and
differ markedly from any of the Nebraska ceramic types previously
described. Pottery is not very abundant but occurs scattered through
all of the deep ash layers. The following list indicates the amount
recovered in our own work at the site.

Complete pots, 1 (found in gully at A, map, fig. 24, presented by
Dr. G. H. Gilmore).

Restored pots, I.

Total number of sherds, 275 (rim 11, body 264).

Plain-ware sherds, 272 (rim 11, body 261).

Straw-marked sherds, 3.

Cord-marked sherds, none.

Incised body sherds, none.

Sherds with slip, none.

188 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

The texture of the Sterns Creek culture pottery is crumbly rather
than flaky. It is fairly hard, however, and has a gritty, chalklike feel-
ing. The tempering is of grit varying from coarse gravel to that of an
almost imperceptible fineness. Tempering containing mica has been
used in a considerable number of cases. The color ranges from a gray-
black to a light yellow. Of the 264 body sherds, 50 are light-colored,
12 are intermediate, and 202 dark, the gray-black ware predominating.
Surface finish is rough, only one sherd marked with fine vertical
scratches showing any degree of polish. They have for the most part
been smoothed inside and out, but the surface remains granular.
Cord marking on the body is absent. Several sherds have the rough
surface and vertical ridges observable on the complete pot found in
the gully at A (pl. 19, fig. 1, a). Some such implement as a straw-
wrapped paddle appears to have been used to produce this rough,
vertically ridged exterior. On some of the sherds only traces of such
ridges remain, owing to subsequent polishing. Straw-marked pottery
is very much in the minority, however, as the above list indicates.
Eight body sherds suggest in their horizontally ridged surfaces either
the imperfect eradication of coils or else molding in a coiled basket.
In the laboratory modeling clay pressed down into an open-mouthed
coiled basket received much the same sort of ridges. In general this
ware appears to have been coiled rather than molded by the paddle and
anvil method. The vessels, to judge from the restored pots and other
sherds, were characteristically small with a small mouth opening.
Irom the degree of curve observable on the rim sherds Sterns esti-
inated the average mouth opening to be 8 inches. This seems to me
to be too large for an average. The scarcity of rim sherds generally
(11 out of 275) argues for a small mouth opening, and this is borne
out by the restored and the complete pots.

The inside of many of the sherds retain a thick black soot and all
seem to have come from utilitarian vessels. There is considerable
range in thickness from a few heavy, coarsely tempered pieces to
very thin delicate sherds. The sherds range from 3 to 9 mm in thick-
ness, with the thin ware predominant, and all seem to have come from
small to medium-sized vessels. No trace of any lugs or handles has
been encountered. All the 11 rim sherds in the present collection are
decorated around the rim by a delicate thumb-nail scallop applied by
what might be called a “ pie-crust ’ technique or by simple incisions
(pl. 19, fig. 1, b). This scalloped band is from 2 to 4 mm in width,
and the impressions are applied diagonally or vertically, approaching
but not crossing the lip of the vessel. Of the 43 rim sherds recovered
by Sterns (1915 a, II, p. 187) from the deep strata, 40 had incisions

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 189

or finger-marked scallops, 1 had no rim decoration, and 2 were cord-
marked on the rim. In spite of special efforts to obtain this last
type in our own excavations, we were unsuccessful. The two cord-
marked rims found by Sterns have five horizontal markings along
the neck (each made with a single heavy twisted cord) and another
similar group of five running diagonally down from the bottom hori-
zontal line. What the complete design may have been or how far
over the body the diagonal lines extended is uncertain, because of the
small size of the sherds.

We were extremely fortunate in finding almost one-half of a pot
intact in one of the hearths. This large fragment gave ample detail
for an accurate reconstruction. Owing to the thinness of the ware and
an accidental second breakage this was a difficult job, but it was suc-
cessfully accomplished by C. B. Schultz. The specimen (pl. 19, fig. 1,
b) brings out the main characteristics of the Sterns Creek culture
pottery as suggested by the sherd collections. The characteristic deli-
cately scalloped rim has already been noted. The absence of any sharp
angle between neck and shoulder is also typical, as is the slight flare
to the rim and the complete absence of any handles or lugs. The bot-
tom tapers to a rounded point which, so far as our present evidence
goes, is likewise characteristic. It is a simple, rather graceful vessel,
quite unlike those from any other known culture in Nebraska. The re-
stored pot is 16 cm high, 14 cm in greatest diameter, 9 cm across
the mouth opening, and 5 mm in thickness near the rim. It is dark
gray in color, agreeing in this regard with the majority of the other
sherds.

Another complete pot presented to the Nebraska Archeological
Survey by Dr. G. H. Gilmore evidently pertains to the Sterns Creek
culture. This pot was found in the gully of Sterns Creek at the place
marked A, figure 24, by a local farmer who gave it to Dr. Gilmore. It
had apparently been washed out of the bank. Besides being unique
among all hitherto known examples of Nebraska pottery, the speci-
men has many of the traits already mentioned as being characteristic
of the deep-strata culture. It is small, has a slightly flaring lip, a
gradual curve from shoulder to neck, and a rounded point at the
bottom. The lack of handles and lugs is likewise suggestive. It differs
from the usual run of deep-strata sherds in its rough barklike ex-
terior which appears to have been the result of applying a straw or
reed wrapped paddle. Its color is a buff or light brown. In the matter
of color, surface texture, and plain rim it falls in with the minority of
sherds recovered from the deep strata. The vessel is 6 mm thick at
the neck, and the body is even thicker. This factor undoubtedly fav-

13

190 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

ored its preservation in complete form. The tempering is fine grit
containing considerable mica. It is a small, compact little vessel 14 cm
high, 10 cm in greatest diameter, and 8 cm across the neck opening.
As will be brought out shortly, the old ground level rises at A (fig. 24)
and typical Sterns Creek culture potsherds have been found in the
gully walls at a depth of only 3 feet from the surface (pl. 19, fig. 4).
There is every reason to believe, therefore, that the present com-
plete pot was washed out of the same stratum and pertains to the
same culture.

The only other pottery artifact recovered from the deep strata is
a fragment of a tubular tobacco pipe (pl. 16, fig. 2,7). This specimen
is made of hard, grit-tempered gray pottery and is conical, both ends
being broken. It is 43 mm long with a diameter at the large end of
20 mm and of 11 mm at the small end. The conical section is trans-
versed by a perfectly round 4-mm hole, which is blackened from use.
There is no indication of any curve or elbow, and the complete
artifact would appear to have been straight. Sterns (1915 a, II, p.
188) found three fragments of an identical type of pipe, including one
which composed the entire upper part of the bowl.

Work IN GROUND STONE

The most striking artifact of this type is the butt end of a small
polished stone celt (pl. 17, fig. 2, h). It is broken and the blade is
missing. The remaining portion measures 37 mm in length, 48 mm
in width, and 26 mm in thickness. The hard stone has been carefully
ground and shaped and the butt end is flat. There is no trace of any
groove. Polished celts are not common in Nebraska (except as sur-
face finds), and this is the only specimen of its kind from the deep
strata. One hammerstone composed of burned limestone was re-
covered. It is 35 mm long and 30 mm across, having a cylindrical
form. One end is heavily battered, and each side there is a pecked
depression for grasping it. Another fragment of limestone with a
flat polished surface and worn edges suggests a broken muller or
grinding stone. Sandstone shaft polishers and paint stones, so com-
mon in the Nebraska culture, have not been reported from the deep
strata of the Sterns Creek culture. Sterns mentions no ground stone
artifacts from the lower strata.

Work IN CHIPPED STONE
There are surprisingly few artifacts of this type known from the
Sterns Creek culture, and these few are remarkable for their crudity.
Sterns (1915 a, II, p. 188) found only two chipped flint arrowpoints,

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG Ig!

one of the NBa2 (with two side and one basal notch) and the other
of the NBc type. Both are rather crudely retouched and have a rather
thick midrib. Sterns mentions no other chipped artifacts and reports
that flint chips are rare in these lower strata. We found no arrow-
points and few chipped artifacts of any kind. The largest of the
latter is a crude “ pick”’ broken at one end and roughly retouched to
a point at the other (pl. 18, fig. 2, e). It is 18.5 cm long by 6.5 cm in
greatest width and is of a very poor grade of chert. Its crudity and
size give it a certain resemblance to the Chellean pick of the European
paleolithic. Its function in the present culture is uncertain. The only
other definite artifact of chipped stone recovered in our excavations
was a rather crude “ knife”, 80 mm long, and retouched on one side
(pl. 7, fig. 2, f). In addition, three crudely retouched flakes of gray
flint were preserved. These may have been used as simple flake
knives. Various flint and chert cores and flakes were noted, but,
as Sterns states, they are relatively rare. Flint chipping was evidently
of little importance in the Sterns Creek culture. This discrepancy in
techniques is striking in a people who ground stone and made good
pottery.

Work IN Bone

Bone artifacts from the lower strata are very abundant and of good
workmanship. Bone needles, rare or missing at most sites in Nebraska,
are common here. Five of these are figured (pl. 18, fig. 2, c,d, f, g,h),
as well as three broken points of ground bone (pl. 18, fig. 2, J, m, n)
which may have been the pointed parts of needles or of plain awls.
Two curved needles were found. The first of these (pl. 18, fig. 2, c)
is unusual, since the fragments of the eye are on the larger end; also
it is evenly notched along two edges. Whether these notches were
decorative or of value in grasping the needle is uncertain. Certainly
they would seem to have been of negative value in the matter of
penetration. The other curved needle has a delicate eye, but the
point is broken off (pl. 18, fig. 2, f). Like the above specimen, it is
also made from the rib bone of a small animal but has been fire-
hardened or tempered to a rich brown color. The two long, straight,
complete needles (pl. 18, fig. 2, d, g) are respectively 140 and 130 mm
in length. Both are fire-tempered and brown, but the lower specimen
is made of bird bone, the upper of animal bone. The upper needle is
therefore heavier and is decorated on one side by two sets of three
diagonal notches. These may have served as ownership marks or as
an aid in gripping the artifact. Besides those figured, one other butt
end of a bird-bone needle and a section of brown, partly worked bird

192 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

bone were recovered. Sterns (1915 a, II, p. 188) found one notched
rib needle, one plain rib needle, one ulna awl, and three rough bone
punches. The types are generally similar to those just described.

We found one triangular piece of heat-tempered bison scapula,
96 mm long and 61 mm wide, that had been sharpened on the end
and along one side. The worn-down end showed the most extensive
use, whereas the sharpened edge seemed to be a secondary adaptation
of a broken artifact. Its original use may have been as a digging tool,
the broken part of which was later used as a scraper. Sterns found a
similar broken scapula artifact. One heat-tempered bird bone bead
55 mm long and 8 mm in diameter was recovered. Sterns also found
one bird-bone bead. A unique artifact found in our excavation is a
carefully perforated phalange of some medium-sized animal (pl. 18,
fig. 2, 7). The core at the large end has been removed to form a conical
hole, and the small end has been neatly perforated by a small hole in
the center. This gives every evidence of having served as the end cup
of a “ring-and-pin” game (Culin, 1907, pp. 527-561). It is an
interesting clue to the antiquity of this widespread game in the
central plains.

Work IN ANTLER

Four antler artifacts were recovered in our excavations. Sterns
reports no artifacts of this material. Two of the above artifacts are
deer or elk horn knapping tools. One of these (pl. 18, fig. 2, 7) has
been worn smooth by use and the tip of the tine has been ground down
to a chisellike edge. The butt end is either broken or was severed
by the original owner. From its size the material may be elk horn. A
rather similar deer antler tine knapping tool, 14 cm in length, has a
smaller but equaily used point. Another fragmentary section of deer
antler from which a side tine has been cut off suggests part of a
similar flaking tool. Considering the small amount of chipped stone
recovered, it is somewhat surprising to find as many knapping tools
as finished flaked stone implements. Such a function, however, would
seem to fit the antler artifacts in question, though of course they may
have served some other purpose. One unusual deer antler tine “ pick”
is figured (pl. 18, fig. 2, k). This artifact has been cut off at one
end to form a round butt. It is worn at the butt end as though for-
merly socketed and also shows extensive wear on the side where it
curves up to the naturally pointed and little worn tip. Its function
is problematical.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 193

Work IN SHELL

We found no shell artifacts, though numerous crumbly mollusk
shells were encountered. Sterns (1915 a, II, p. 188) reports one piece
of notched shell from the lower strata.

Work IN Woop

The abundance of elm and cottonwood bark, possibly the remains
of house walls, has already been mentioned. Fragments of twigs were
numerous, especially at exposure 10. Besides cottonwood and white
elm, twigs, charcoal, and bark of either the bur oak (Quercus macro-
carpa) or the white oak (Quercus alba) and twigs of the wild plum
tree (the latter infested with “black knot”) were identified. One
worked piece of wood, round in cross-section and pointed, was also
recovered there but subsequently lost. It was the size of an arrow
shaft and may indicate the use of pointed wooden arrows with or
without stone heads. At the same site a small worked piece of wood
go mm long by 14 mm wide was recovered (pl. 18, fig. 2, 0). The
top of this fragment was fuzzy as the result of hammering, one end
was cut off, and it had been cut in two, evidently with a stone tool.
From its size and hammered top it suggests a skin-stretching peg.
The other numerous wood fragments recovered showed no evidence
of having been worked.

VEGETAL REMAINS

The most numerous plant remains in the deep strata were the seeds
of the bush summer squash (Cucurbita pepo type melopepo) and
those of the bottle gourd (Cucurbita lagenaria). Besides the seeds of
this last species many small and large fragments of the gourd shell
itself were encountered. These seeds and gourd shells were oc-
casionally found in the hearths but were especially numerous in the
refuse layers. In such deposits hundreds of seeds and gourd frag-
ments occurred in large pockets. Sterns (1915 a, II, pp. 188-189)
mentions the abundance of squash seeds, stating that one-third of
all his material from the site consisted of these seeds. In identifying
squash seeds of the same species from a historic Pawnee village,
circa 1806, Dr. M. R. Gilmore“ writes:

This type of cucurbit was of coextensive distribution with corn in the ab-

original agriculture of North America. In later prehistoric and historic cultures
many tribes possessed Cucurbita maxima (winter squash), Cucurbita pepo

"Letter of April 10, 1931. All of these tree and plant identifications were
made by Dr. M. R. Gilmore.

194 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

(pumpkin), and Cucurbita pepo melopepo (summer squash), but in earlier pre-
historic cultures Cucurbita maxima and Cucurbita pepo might be lacking,
[while] it appears that Cucurbita pepo melopepo was not lacking in any cultures
which possessed corn and beans.

Neither Sterns nor our party found any trace of either corn or beans
in the lower strata at this site. Considering the abundance of squash
and gourd seeds, both charred and uncharred, it seems remarkable
that neither corn nor bean remains were found. Perhaps future work
here may reveal examples of these plants, but until this occurs the
Sterns Creek culture must be listed as one having squash and gourds
in abundance but no corn or beans.

Two species of nuts were recovered by us: the shells of the black
walnut (Juglans nigra) anda few complete and fragmentary hickory
nuts (Carya minima). One of the latter was stained a bright blue,
which gradually faded on exposure to the air. This nut came from
the blue creek muck under the upper occupation stratum at ex-
posure 10, and I suspect that this blue color was due to some natural
pigment in the clay. The thick masses of reed thatching composed
of horizontally laid blades of a large sedge (Scirpus fluviatilis) have
already been mentioned. In the puddled mud around and through this
thatch, blades of bluestem grass (Andropogon furcatus) were dis-
tinguished by Dr. Gilmore. Careful work, especially in layers of blue
creek muck which are so favorable to the preservation of perishable
remains, will undoubtedly yield more evidence regarding both the
wild and the cultivated plants used by the Sterns Creek culture people.

ANIMAL AND MOoLLUSCAN REMAINS

Sterns (1915 a, II, p. 189) mentions finding the remains of deer,
bison, elk, dog, small birds, and Unio shells, but no fish remains in
the lower stratum. In our excavations we found deer remains were
the most numerous, elk and bison rare, prong-horn antelope rare, great
blue heron (two skulls in exposure 10), and many bird and small
mammal bones. No fish remains were noticed. As already mentioned,
detailed identifications were impossible. Two species of mollusks
from the deep strata at the Walker Gilmore site were identified by
Dr. Frank C. Baker. These are Lampsilis ventricosa occideus (Lea)
and Ligumia recta latissima (Rafinesque). This does not complete the
list of molluscan species present in the lower strata but only those that
were included in the material sent to Dr. Baker. In general it appears
that the Sterns Creek culture people depended to a considerable ex-
tent on horticulture, raising squash and gourds but not corn or beans,

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 195

at least so far as present evidence is concerned. Deer, small mam-
mals, and birds were hunted, and fresh-water mollusks were used for
food. Larger mammal remains, such as those of the bison, are ex-
tremely rare, and such animals seem to have been but little hunted.

PROBABLE ANTIQUITY OF THE STERNS CREEK CULTURE

Our later researches add very little to Sterns’ conclusions regarding
a tentative chronology for the cultures at this site. This matter of
dating obviously calls for careful study by experts in matters of sedi-
mentation and soil deposition. On two different occasions our party
working at the site was accompanied by a field geologist and by a
geographer, but their available time was too brief to form definite
conclusions beyond confirming the general course of natural events
already set forth.

Sterns (1915 a, II, p. 181; also 1915) pointed out the fact that box-
elder trees of more than 10 feet in circumference now grow on the
present level of the flat. He also found that in the streaked clay de-
posits just above the upper layer of the deep ash beds there were over
1,000 stratified bands. These bands appear to have been caused by
very heavy rains, and as there are not more than two or three of
these a year in this region we may have a clue to the time involved
in building up the first 4 feet of deposits above the lower living levels.
It may be added that above these deposits occurs some 6 feet of
washed-in secondary loess and about a foot of black organic soil.
Sterns concluded that 500 years would be a good minimum estimate
of the time required for such an accumulation.

A historical approach to this problem rather tends to raise this
estimate. To date, more than 40 houses pertaining to the Nebraska
culture (i. e., Sterns “ rectangular earth-lodge culture”) have been
opened without any traces of Caucasian contacts being discovered.
If we take the date of Coronado’s explorations in 1540-41 as the maxi-
mum date for the beginning of the historic period in this region, this
gives the Nebraska culture a minimum date of almost 400 years. It
may of course be much older than this, but it cannot be very much
younger. Our recent discovery in the protohistoric Pawnee village at
the Burkett site of glass beads apparently used prior to the acquisition
of the horse shows that artifacts of white origin were traded or
carried into Nebraska at a very early period. Hence, it seems to me,
we are safe in assuming that the Nebraska culture flourished at a
time prior to the Spanish or early French contacts. Therefore the
occurrence of Nebraska culture remains on the present surface of the

196 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

flat at the Walker Gilmore site indicates an occupation at least 350
years ago. This, according to Sterns’ minimum estimate, would allow
only 150 years for all the physiographic changes involved in covering
up the remains of the Sterns Creek culture with from 10 to 15 feet of
stratified clay and redeposited loess. This is possible, but, it seems
to me, rather improbable.

On the other hand, I do not presume to offer any other estimate.
That set forth by Sterns has the undeniable virtue of conservatism and
is founded on detailed observation by a man familiar with the local
geology. Many a Nebraska farmer can tell of remarkable cases of
rapid soil deposition observed during his own lifetime. Such ex-
amples of rapid erosion and corresponding soil accumulation are
nearly always due to the breaking up of the prairie grass soil cover
through plowing and the resulting rapid run-off. Such factors were
absent in the prehistoric periods we are considering. However this
may be, it appears that we can safely accept Sterns’ minimum estimate.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER WORK

On our last visit to the Walker Gilmore site, April 2. 1931, Loren
Eiseley made a discovery which may greatly facilitate the excavation
of houses belonging to the Sterns Creek culture. Following up the
north branch of Sterns Creek to the place marked A (map, fig. 24)
he found several large fragments of Sterns Creek culture pottery
projecting from the east bank at a depth from the surface of only 2
feet 8 inches (pl. 19, fig. 4). There was likewise a little scattered
ash and charcoal at about this level. The lower soil here appeared from
a hasty examination to be of the original clay rather than of recent
sedimentary origin, and it seems the most probable explanation that
the old soil level prevailing at the time of the Sterns Creek culture
occupation rises at this place almost to the present surface. If this is
so, trenching in this vicinity might reveal houses of the latter culture
only 3 feet below the surface of the ground. It would therefore be
possible to excavate some of these completely, revealing their form,
the position of the posts, and all other details which are hopelessly
obscured when burrowing into such strata under some 20 feet of
overhanging bank. This may be too optimistic an interpretation, but
it is hard to imagine how this type of pottery might occur in situ at
such a place unless the level at which it occurs was at one time
occupied by people of the Sterns Creek culture. Later people might
have picked up the old pottery revealed by the cutting of Sterns
Creek and dropped it on the higher ground where it was later covered
up, but this seems rather improbable.

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 197

Not realizing how much still remained to be done at the Walker
Gilmore site and having so many other areas and cultures in Nebraska
to investigate, the University of Nebraska Archeological Survey
from 1929 to 1931 made no very well-planned or extensive investiga-
tions there. Nevertheless, as the foregoing data indicate, we were
able not only to verify Sterns’ main conclusions but also to add con-
siderable information concerning the site. At the present writing,
having at last had access to Sterns’ complete work and having
combined it with our own results, the author feels in a position to
offer a few suggestions regarding future work at the Walker Gilmore
site. The fact that he should have put many of these into practice
himself is freely admitted. It is always easier to advise than to
perform.

First of all, the place calls for an extended period of cooperative
research on the part of both anthropologists and geographers. It
would therefore seem to be an unusually good project for the State
university, where men of both these departments are already working
together. The fact that it is only a few hours by motor from Lincoln
makes it accessible for week-end field trips on the part of both students
and research instructors. The entire site should be mapped and each
exposure given a number. Sterns’ practice of deeply incising this
number on the gully wall above the strata seems very effective and
prevents any mixup in referring to the different hearths or ash lenses.
Meanwhile the course of the older stream as indicated by gravel and
clay deposits could be mapped in by the geographers. Also the extent
and relationship of the different types of soil would be diagramed.
The combined results of such a survey would be an accurate series
of maps showing the old dwelling places in relation to the former
stream, to the various soil deposits, and to the present gully of Sterns
Creek. It would undoubtedly be possible to obtain photostatic copies
of Sterns’ map and his photographs of the exposures as they appeared
in 1915. These could be compared with the new maps and the rate
of change in the local situation noted. The determination of the time
period involved since the Sterns Creek culture deposits were covered
over seems primarily a geographic problem. The actual age of surface
trees and the clay banding noted by Sterns should be of primary
assistance. It is worth noting that a large section of a tree about 10
inches in diameter was partially uncovered just above the thatch layer
at exposure 10. This might give some indication of the time in-
volved in the first filling of the old stream valley. Some system of
tree ring computation might prove of great value, but the fact that
the majority of trees in this immediate region seem to show little

198 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

seasonal variation in ring formation may complicate this method of
attack.

From the archeological standpoint it is essential to excavate com-
pletely some of the houses and ash strata, working down from the top
rather than in from the sides. This might be done easily if shallow
deposits actually occur near A (map, fig. 24). If this lead proves
futile it is still possible to pick an ash bed exposure over which some
of the top soil has slid into the gully, leaving less earth to remove.
It is always a great temptation to burrow into the exposed ash strata
from the sides, but although such activities may yield a few interesting
artifacts they cannot furnish such complete facts as are now urgently
needed. A careful layer-by-layer excavation of a fairly large area
would furnish data on the nature of the deposition, the extent and
form of the houses, and would also yield artifacts in situ so that their
relationship to the other cultural evidences might be apparent. This
rather lengthy consideration of the possibilities of future work at the
Walker Gilmore site is merited by the fact that could the strata be
dated, a good chronology for two important prehistoric cultures in
Nebraska would thereby be established. It should be borne in mind
that this is one of the two stratified sites so far reported in the entire
State. As the neighboring areas are worked, it will become even more
important.

BurtaL Mounps AND NATIVE QUARRIES IN THE WEEPING WATER
VALLEY, Cass CoUNTY

The disputed matter of extensive aboriginal flint quarries occurring
in the valley of Weeping Water Creek between the towns of Nehawka
on the south and Weeping Water on the north has already been
referred to. Owing to the general policy of the University of
Nebraska Archeological Survey in 1929-1931 to work from the his-
toric cultures back into the prehistoric horizons, no definite investiga-
tion of this problem was attempted. Since no undisputed artifacts
had been found in any of the so-called quarry pits, and as any excava-
tion there promised a great deal of work with scant results, the
problem was neglected.

However, in November 1930 Dr. G. H. Gilmore called my attention
to a series of apparently artificial mounds on the Weeping Water
3 miles northwest of Nehawka. A sketch map of this immediate
region, furnished by Dr. Gilmore at that time and only slightly revised
by myself, is presented here (fig. 27). It not only gives the location
of the mounds in question but also indicates certain assumed quarry

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 199

pits and house sites as well.” Because of work then in progress at the
Walker Gilmore site, little time was available for an investigation of
the Weeping Water site; nevertheless, three short visits were made

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Fic. 27.—Sketch map of aboriginal sites on Weeping Water Creek, Cass
County. 1-9, mounds; A, B, B’, quarry trenches; C, E, F, house pits; D, where
artifact figured (pl. 17, fig. 1, b) was found.

to the latter place on November 22, 1930, and on February 7 and 21,
1931, respectively. One mound was trenched and the region rather
superficially examined on these three visits. In lieu of more extensive

* This is probably the hilltop site several miles north of Nehawka referred
to by Todd, 1888, p. 375, and later by Blackman, 1907 b, p. I1o.

200 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

work in such sites it seems worth while to record such data as were
then obtained.

The point on which these mounds and quarries occur is slightly
higher than the line of similar hills or bluffs bordering both sides of
the Weeping Water on this part of its course. These bluffs rise
rather sharply and in many places are marked just below their crest
by apparently artificially formed trenches averaging perhaps 15 feet
across and from 3 to 5 feet deep. These trenches now present a
rounded concave surface shaped by long-continued wash from the
surrounding banks. A typical surface section of one of these (trench
A, fig. 27) is shown in pl. 20, fig. 3. The sharp banks of the creek
here are heavily wooded, but the tops of the rolling hills are either
only slightly brush-covered or else cultivated. As Dr. Gilmore’s map
(fig. 27) indicates, there are at least eight slight rises or mounds on

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Fic, 28.—Cross-section, mound 2, Weeping Water Creek. 1, two fragmentary
“bundle” burials; 2, flint knife or side scraper; 3, stemmed arrowpoint; 4,
obsidian chip.

the point in question just back from the presumed quarry pits or
trenches. The most northerly of these are covered at present by
much-weathered slabs of limestone of all sizes, but two of the
southerly mounds (1 and 2) are covered by soil and in a sparse thicket
of oak trees. Mound 1 had been partially removed by the road
builders, but mound 2 at the time of our first visit was untouched.
The latter was an irregularly circular rise roughly 48 feet in diameter
and 2 feet higher in the central portion than the surrounding level of
the hilltop. The other mounds were even more irregular and less
marked. Because of the rough terrain at the end of the point, it is hard
to tell whether the northerly elevations are mounds or merely irregular
rock piles resulting from earlier quarrying activities. They were not
excavated.

Mound 2 (fig. 27) was the only one trenched, and the diagram (fig.
28) showing the west face of this excavation gives a cross-section of
over half the mound. The surface was covered with from 12 to 17
inches of dark humous soil containing neither limestone slabs nor

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 201

artifacts. Below this occurred in sequence a stratum of hard gray
mixed earth of variable thickness (fig. 28), a brick-red stratum of
baked earth likewise varying in thickness, and a layer of apparently
unmixed yellow soil extending to the underlying limestone bed rock.
Two chipped stone artifacts, flakes of ‘“ Nehawka ”’ flint, white quart-
zite or quartz crystal, and one flake of smoky black obsidian, besides
some scattered charcoal, occurred in the hard gray mixed layer (fig.
28, 2, 3, 4). Numerous slabs of limestone, both large and small,
occurred throughout this layer, some of these appearing in the cross-
section figured. The baked soil stratum was thickest near the center
and at a point about 3 feet south of the center underneath the frag-
mentary human skeletal remains. The latter occurred at a depth of
3 feet 6 inches and consisted of two very fragmentary adult skulls
and various long bones (fig. 28, 1). These were extremely crumbly
and rather suggested two bundle burials side by side, though not all
the bones of both skeletons were present. The bones may have been
subjected to the action of fire in some degree, but owing to their
poor state of preservation, this could not be positively determined.
No artifacts were directly associated with the human remains. A
series of auger borings just south of the human bones struck the
underlying limestone formation at a depth of only 6 feet 1 inch below
the surface of the mound. The yellow soil below the burned area
appeared to be unmixed with any artificial matter. Another interesting
feature was a heap of large limestone slabs suggesting a cairn
(fig. 28) 9 feet south of the human remains and extending to the
east beyond the limits of the excavation. The 3-foot trench was
widened at this point as well as in the vicinity of the burials. However,
the slabs, when removed, appeared merely as an irregular heap over
the thin burned stratum, and neither artifacts nor human remains
were encountered. Possibly these may occur farther east than our
excavation extended. Likewise, the thickness of the burned stratum
near the center suggests similar deposits north of the limits of our
trench in that direction. As indicated in the diagram (fig. 28), the
burned stratum runs out just south of this rock pile, and there is no
clear line of distinction here between the dark gray upper and the
underlying yellow soil, which gradually blend together.

From the scant evidence at our disposal I am inclined to believe that
mound 2 is of artificial origin. Although there are no clear lines of
soil distinction between the mound proper and the old soil level, there
is nevertheless the variable but extensive burned earth stratum which,
so far as our limited excavation extended, underlies all signs of human
activity. The human remains had been deposited on this stratum,

202 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

and the scanty artifacts occurred in the mixed gray earth above it.
It therefore seems probable that this level was prepared for mortuary
purposes by the building of extensive fires upon it, the removal of
these fires and the placing of the human bones in the slight pit and, last
of all, the heaping of earth and stone slabs over and around these
remains.

The two definite artifacts from mound 2 are of interest. The first
of these is a rather heavy stemmed point of gray “ Nehawka”’ flint
(pl. 7, fig. 1,7). In type it is slightly shouldered and definitely barbed
with a convex base (SCbr), being the only point of this type found
in situ during our excavations in eastern Nebraska (table 3),
though it is similar to the predominant type in level II of Signal
Butte (pl. 24, fig. 2, e, f). The other artifact is a small, oval, flaked
knife or side scraper of the same material (pl. 7, fig. 2, 1). As
indicated in table 3, similar artifact types were found in house pit
excavations at the Gates and Rock Bluff sites, in the Graham ossuary,
and rather commonly at the Lost Creek site (see pl. 7, fig. 2, k).
These correspondences, however, cannot be too heavily stressed,
because of the simple type and widespread occurrence of this sort
of artifact. The occurrence of one small flake of obsidian is interest-
ing. Obsidian, so far as my personal observations extend, was noted
solely at the surface sites on the Dismal River and at the stratified
Signal Butte site near Scottsbluff. The finding of numerous flakes
and fragments of the gray flecked “ Nehawka ” flint, in addition to
the artifacts of this material, has a definite bearing on the larger
problem concerning the utilization of the adjacent quarry pits, 1f such
they prove to be. No pottery was observed in the entire excavation,
though a careful watch was kept for any ceramic remains.

Conditions at mound 2 closely resemble those described by Gilder ®
at Long’s Hill inasmuch as fragmentary human skeletal remains
occurred in an apparently artificial mound and on a layer of baked
clay. The Long’s Hill findings differed, inasmuch as pottery frag-
ments and artifacts (apparently of the Nebraska culture type)
occurred with the burials above the burned clay stratum, while other
scattered human remains were found at considerable depths below this
stratum. So far as our excavations in mound 2 extended there were
no human remains below the burned soil, but, as already indicated,
more extensive work must be carried on here before this can be ac-
cepted as an established fact. The artifacts from mound 2 offer
little evidence as to the cultural affiliations of the burials. The

” 1908, pp. 64, 65. Also footnote 1, p. 65, for a similar occurrence in Iowa.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 203

chipped point is a unique type, whereas the small oval knife or side
scraper finds analogues in both the Nebraska culture and in arti-
facts from prehistoric Republican River ossuaries and house sites.
The fact that at Long’s Hill Gilder (ibid., p. 65) found similar burials
with pottery and artifacts closely similar to those from the nearby
Nebraska culture earth lodges suggests a possible affiliation with this
culture.

Close to the mounds are the three almost continuous trenches or
quarry pits shown in Dr. Gilmore’s sketch map (fig. 27, A, B, B’), and
there are other similar trenches (not indicated on the map) along
the ridges both to the east and to the west. The present appearance
of trench A (fig. 27) is shown in plate 20, figure 3. This section
differs in its rounded, washed-in contours from trenches B and B’,
which have both bottom and sides covered with rough limestone slabs.
As the underlying limestone almost reaches the surface all along
these ridges the covering alluvial soil here is rather thin. According
to Todd,” the limestone near Nehawka occurs in three separate strata,
of which the middle stratum alone contains masses of flint. Whether
such is the case at this northern site I do not know. Blackman has
made a partial survey of the Nehawka “ quarries” and reports 293
distinct pits, covering something over 14 acres” in that immediate
vicinity. He describes the flint nodules from the limestone near
Nehawka as a unique type, being bluish gray in color and containing
certain distinct fossils.” It has a peculiar speckled appearance which,
according to Woodruff (1906, p. 193), is due to the presence of small
particles of opal in the flint. Although I cannot personally vouch
for the restricted occurrence of this gray-blue speckled flint in the
limestone of the Nehawka district, there is certainly an abundance of
such material in practically all aboriginal sites in southeastern Ne-
braska. It is very common in prehistoric sites from Cass County, and
throughout the present paper I have referred to it as “ Nehawka ”
flint. The occurrence of artifacts and chips of this material in mound
2 has been mentioned, and similar chips and fragments were also
noted in the assumed quarry trenches nearby.

‘

The fact that Sterns, on the basis of personal investigation, does
not believe that the so-called quarries near Nehawka are of human

* 1888, p. 375. Blackman, 1907 b, p. 104, makes a similar statement.

** 1905, p. 3. Later, 1907 b, p. 104, he states that if the Nehawka mines were
placed side by side it is estimated that they would extend 1 mile. One pit cross-
sectioned was 10 feet deep and passed through three ledges of limestone rock.

1905, p. 9, 1907 b, p. 104. Blackman also reports similar limestone and flint
nodules from western Iowa.

204 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

origin has already been noted. This negative opinion is based on the
fact that no aboriginal tools have been found in such pits, nor have
any tool marks been observed on the limestone walls of such sites.
He does not agree with earlier statements that certain exposed lime-
stone areas show evidences of fire, and from the nature of the holes
themselves and the rubbish accumulated in them he does not believe
that they are quarry pits (1915 a, I, pp. 126-135). On the other hand,
he offers no alternative explanation as to the manner in which such
pits and trenches might have been formed through natural agencies.

Since I have not investigated this matter specifically, I cannot pre-
tend to decide. However, from casual inspection of the northerly pits
just described, I do not see how they could have originated in any
other manner than through human activity. It is of course possible
that the longer trenches and smaller pits might have resulted from
the work of early white settlers seeking lime or stone for building
or riprapping along the river. Woodruff states that during the early
settlement small limekilns were constructed for local use at the base
of steep hills and were charged with limestone from carts drawn by
a single horse. In one season at Weeping Water the product of two
such kilns amounted to 43,000 barrels. Such kilns were formerly
employed between Weeping Water and Nehawka but went out of
use many years ago. (E. G. Woodruff, 1906, pp. 209-211.) Although
this possibility of a relatively recent white origin for the quarry pits
must be considered, it seems rather unlikely in the face of statements
that the earliest settlers in the region reported the pits as present when
they first arrived. Bur oaks up to 15 inches in diameter also grow in
many of the pits.”

Moreover, if it be positively proved that the gray-blue speckled
flint is characteristic of the limestone beds in this vicinity, the presence
of artifacts of this material in the majority of prehistoric sites in
southeastern Nebraska is a strong argument in favor of regarding
these extensive pits as the source of such flint. Dr. Gilder is of the
opinion that the Nehawka quarries are of native origin and believes
that the trenches rather than the exposed limestone faces were mainly
utilized in getting the flint. In this regard he makes the following
interesting suggestion (communication from R. F. Gilder, November,
1930):

The hillside near the stream shows pits in the surface, around which is the
material taken therefrom. I judge these pits to have been up to 20 or more
feet in depth originally. It was from them the quarrymen obtained the nodules

“ Todd, 1888, p. 374-375. Both Todd and Blackman, 1907 b, p. 108, mention
such trees, the latter showing a photograph of one of them, lower photograph
opposite p. 104.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 205

for implement making, knowing that stone containing moisture was compara-
tively easy to shape as desired and that stone from exposed cliffs was difficult
of shaping. As these pits are now nearly filled with material eroded from the
hill higher up and decayed vegetation, those who first worked the quarry must
have been there in the very dim past.

From their extent, and from the widespread use in prehistoric
times of the peculiar type of flint said to come from this vicinity, the
problem of the Nehawka flint quarries assumes considerable im-
portance. When doubt has been removed concerning their prehistoric
and aboriginal human origin, these quarries may rank with the
“Spanish Diggings” of eastern Wyoming as one of the most im-
portant sources of native artifact material in the Plains area.

THE PROBLEM oF NEBRASKA MOUNDS

A problem in Nebraska archeology already touched on concerns the
exact nature of the numerous “ Indian mounds” reported from the
eastern part of the State. Although it has been tacitly accepted by
the majority of local field workers that these are of artificial origin,
my own investigations lead me to question the universality of such
a conclusion. A brief discussion of the ethnographic and archeological
data bearing on this problem may serve to point the question.

The portion of Nebraska bordering on the Missouri River within
historic times was occupied from north to south by the Omaha, Oto,
and Missouri, with possible temporary incursions by other Siouan
groups such as the Iowa and Kansa. According to Fletcher and La
Flesche (191r), “mound burial was the common practice of the
Omaha”. The dead were buried in shallow graves in a sitting pos-
ture, facing east, under a pole framework which was covered with
earth. A fire was kept burning for four nights at the grave. Accord-
ing to Bushnell (1927), Oto and Missouri burials were very similar,
whereas Kansa graves in the earth were covered over with rocks. The
heart of the State was occupied by the Pawnee tribes of Caddoan stock
among whom individual inhumation in hilltop graves seems to have
been an almost universal custom within historic times. An old photo-
graph of heaps of sod over what are said to be Pawnee graves (Bush-
nell, 1927, pl. 36) is the only suggestion of mortuary mounds on record
for this tribe, and recent archeological investigations in historic sites
confirm the general absence of such structures (Wedel, no date).
Since the other historic tribes occupied western portions of the State
from which no mounds have been reported, they need not be con-
sidered here.

14

206 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

In addition to burial mounds, artificial structures of this sort may be
erected as fortifications, ceremonial enclosures, substructures for tem-
ples or other buildings, and finally, may be the result of the gradual
accumulation of mollusk shells or camp debris in kitchen middens or
refuse heaps. Of these the second, third, and last types may be quickly
dealt with. So far as the ethnographic data are concerned there is
no historic record of either large ceremonial enclosures, mounds for
temples, or earth substructures for buildings among any of the Ne-
braska tribes, a state of affairs so far confirmed by archeological
research. Refuse heaps are the natural concomitants of all human
habitations and occur in Nebraska as elsewhere. They have been par-
ticularly noted at certain protohistoric Pawnee villages (Blackman,
1907 a, 1924, and Wedel, no date). From the abundance of fresh-
water mollusks at certain Nebraska sites it is possible that shell heaps
may occur, but so far none have been reported. Since refuse heaps
or middens are of such universal occurrence and differ markedly from
the artificial earth or stone structures usually designated as mounds,
we can eliminate them from the present discussion.

Although Bushnell (1922, p. 77) states that the Dhegiha division
of Siouan tribes, which includes the Omaha, Ponca, Kansa, Quapaw,
and Osage, were responsible for the great earthworks of southern
Ohio and adjacent regions bordering the Ohio River, fortifications or
ceremonial enclosures seem to have been largely lacking at historic
Omaha and Ponca sites in Nebraska. Dorsey (1886, p. 220 and
map 4), however, describes and figures a small “ fort’? near Ponca
Creek on the old Ponca Reservation. No earthworks of this sort are
mentioned in historic accounts of the Oto villages within the state
(Bushnell, 1927). Blackman (1903) mentions clearly defined earth-
works at the Oto site near Yutan, but neither Bradbury, who gives
a description of the site in 1811, nor Irving, who does the same in
1833, mention this feature (Bradbury, 1817; Bushnell, 1927). Thus,
while the Siouan tribes along the Missouri River in Nebraska raised
burial mounds, they do not appear to have commonly erected earth-
works either for purposes of defense or for ceremonial usage, nor
have any extensive earthworks been recorded by archeologists within
this region. According to Wedel (no date), nearly every Pawnee
village of the nineteenth century was surrounded by earth or sod em-
bankments. These have largely disappeared, owing to recent plowing,
but are still visible at the Horse Creek Pawnee site in Nance County.
Ceremonial enclosures, other than large earth lodges, are not recorded,
but a circular embankment some 90 feet across at the historic Pawnee
site near Linwood, Butler County, may indicate such usage. The

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 207

historic Pawnee sites of central Nebraska, although devoid of burial
mounds, are (or were) marked by earthworks for defense and may
have had a few small ceremonial enclosures. The ethnographic data,
then, indicate that along the Missouri River strip occupied by seden-
tary Siouan tribes burial mounds would be expectable but larger earth-
works generally lacking, whereas in central Nebraska the Pawnee were
without true burial mounds but erected sod walls of circumvallation.

Coming to the archeological aspects of the problem, we have al-
ready quoted Clark's comments on burial mounds in southeastern and
east-central Nebraska. To show that his conclusion concerning the
artificial nature and mortuary purpose of the mound near the mouth
of the Nemaha River was correct, we have already cited Zimmerman
(1918). Sterns (1915 a) also concurs in this opinion. Shetrone
(1930) states that the mounds of eastern Nebraska are “ mostly low
house mounds’. The only confirmation I can find for this statement
is the opinion of Jones (1892), who furnishes few specific data, and
brief mention by Gilder (1907) of two low mounds north of Omaha
containing hearths, some cultural debris, and both human and animal
bones. Otherwise the recorded data overwhelmingly indicate that in
eastern Nebraska the elevations or mounds contain human skeletal
remains, whereas aboriginal house sites are marked by pits or de-
pressions. We can thus for the present eliminate house mounds from
the problem so far as the “mound area” of eastern Nebraska is
concerned.

If the presence of human bones in marked elevations proved that
the latter were artificial mounds, there would be no problem, for such
occurrences are common. However, a mound artificially erected,
when carefully excavated, should reveal soil differences between the
base or natural ground level and the subsequently added material.
It is in this regard that the Nebraska evidence is most contradictory
or entirely lacking.

The discussion of the Long’s Hill excavations pointed this out. All
the investigators, Gilder, Osborn, Barbour, Hrdli¢ka, Shimek, and
Fowke, seem to agree that there was an artificial mound here, but
aside from such statements there is little evidence on record by which
a later investigator might form his own opinion. The occurrence of
the baked earth strata reported by Gilder is the most convincing testi-
mony in this regard; otherwise it would seem equally probable that a
natural elevation on the crest of a ridge had been used for burial
purposes over a long period of time. Gilder (1g11 a) reports the
excavation of 26 mounds in the immediate vicinity of Long’s Hill,
all apparently marked by a burned earth area on which the human

208 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

remains had been placed and then mounded over with earth. In
addition, 60 different prehistoric bundle burials of a similar type are
reported from both sides of the Missouri in this vicinity, and a skele-
ton associated with iron artifacts was also found under a burned
clay area more than 3 feet below the surface near Ponca Creek
(Gilder, 1908). The latter is said to have been an Omaha Indian.
Gilder also reports many mounds associated with house pits near
Child’s Point and states that mounds occur from that place at approxi-
mately 100-yard intervals all the way to Omaha (1909). In the same
report 20 burial mounds a mile south of Child’s Point are said to
have yielded, among other things, a considerable number of Spanish
coins. Gilder regards these as being of Oto origin, presumably on the
basis of Lewis and Clark’s mention of an old Oto site in the general
vicinity. Associated with the prehistoric house pits on Child’s Point
were five long narrow mounds, each 75 feet long and 25 feet wide,
placed end to end. A trench across one of these revealed artifacts
[of the Nebraska culture type] and human remains. About 300 yards
distant was another low tumulus from which three mixed-up and
calcined skeletons were recovered. The Wallace “ mound” near
Bellevue is also described as being 4o feet long by 15-20 feet in
width and marked by a slight elevation on a ridge. Many dissociated
and partly calcined bundle burials, 56 skulls (in three strata), and
potsherds [apparently of the Nebraska culture type] were taken from
this place (Gilder, 1909). Sterns, who was present during part of
the excavation here, states that this was not a mound but rather a
large number of intrusive burials on the side of a hill (1915 a). Gilder
(1909) also mentions house mounds occurring at the site of the historic
Omaha village in the forks of Papillion Creek, but, as previously
mentioned, when I visited the site with him in 1930 we were unable
to find either mounds or any definite traces of occupation.

Taken en masse, the above evidence would seem conclusive as to
the erection of numerous artificial burial mounds in the Omaha region
in both historic and prehistoric times. Personally, I am convinced
that in many cases Gilder’s conclusions are sound. Unfortunately,
however, most of these extremely important investigations are re-
corded by a bare statement which, without detailed corroborative data,
photographs, or diagrams, it is impossible to substantiate except by
further work in the same area.

Blackman has also made certain mound investigations in Nebraska.
He examined a reputed mound near Ruby, Nebr., in 1905 and de-
cided that it was entirely natural in origin (1906). In the same re-
port he speaks of numerous sharp conical elevations on the Iowa

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY

STRONG 209

side of the Missouri River. These contained burned human bones,
but the mounds themselves, of which 200 can be seen from one place
near Crescent City, are reported to be entirely of natural origin.
Proudfit (1881) speaks of numerous mounds in southwestern Iowa
along the Missouri River which contain human skeletal material and
artifacts but show no soil differentiation when excavated. Proudfit
evidently considers them to be of artificial origin. Blackman also ex-
amined a “mound” containing a post-Caucasian burial 5 feet deep
(1907 a). He concludes that this was originally merely a burial 3 feet
deep and that the 2 feet of sand had since been deposited on the
bluff here. So far as reported, Blackman’s data on prehistoric burial
mounds is generally negative as regards the artificial origin of the
mounds themselves.

Fowke mentions several burial mounds in northeastern Kansas
and southeastern Nebraska (1922). He points out that the sandy
loess soil of certain of these is identical with the surrounding soil but
believes that at least certain of the mounds were artificially built up.
The same conclusion is reached in regard to the artificial nature of the
small burial mounds on Long’s Hill. In this regard the following
statement is significant (Fowke, 1922, pp. 158, 159) :

The objection made to this theory [that the deepest bones from Long’s Hill
were in dug pits] is that the earth thrown out of the hole was unmixed, pre-
senting throughout the appearance and consistency of loess as it occurs where
exposed in ravines or on slopes in the vicinity. It is contended that if any
previous excavation had been made here and filled up afterwards the mixed
earth would be easily distinguished from that which was not removed, and that
the line of demarcation would be easily discernible.

As a rule this is true; but when dry loose earth of homogeneous consistency
is thrown out of a pit and then thrown in again without becoming mixed with
any other, it is sometimes impossible to distinguish it at a later excavation.
This is especially true of earth free from vegetable mold, as the soil in overflow
lands which have been built up mainly from floods carrying uniform soil sedi-
ment. The line of demarcation between the dug and the undug earth in such
conditions may become indistinguishable except when a vertical face is made
which shall show a clear section of both in contact. .... It is beyond question
that any soil, humus, or other discolored matter thrown into an excavation with
ordinary soil or subsoil will be apparent for an indefinite time afterward. But
on some of these high points and ridges there is even now not a trace of soil.
Frost and wind have worn bare spots where nothing grows or has grown for
a long time. As this region was a prairie devoid of even brush when the whites
settled here [sic], it is evident that such slight protection as grass or weeds
afford would not be sufficient to hold the earth in place in winter, and when
the ground is once swept bare such humble forms of growth may not get a
foothold in future.

Later in the same work, referring to the puzzling ‘“‘ house mounds ”
of southeastern Missouri, he speaks of mounds without any evidences

210 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

of human occupation in which “ no difference can be detected between
the earth upon which the mound rests and that on either side. Yet
the mounds are indubitably artificial.’ (Idem, p. 169.)

If Fowke’s last assertions can be accepted, it becomes obvious that
observable structural differences between an artificial mound and
its natural base would not be expectable in certain parts of Nebraska
or elsewhere in the mound area. However, the statement in the middle
of the second paragraph quoted, that only a vertical cross-section
would show such soil differences, is a very important qualification.
How, otherwise than by a vertical cross-section, one might hope to
distinguish between basal soil and artificial mound I do not know.
As regards the ‘‘ mounds ” without a trace of human intrusive ma-
terial which are “ indubitably artificial” I can only express myself
as being unconvinced pro or con. Fowke’s assertions are interesting
and should be carefully considered, especially in such peripheral
mound regions as eastern Nebraska, but I do not believe that as yet
they can be unqualifiedly accepted.

Sterns, as the result of his researches in southeastern Nebraska,
came to the conclusion that true mounds are rare in that region
(1915 a). Only three truly artificial mounds were encountered by
him throughout the entire area. One was the mound mentioned by
Lewis and Clark on the summit of a small hill above a branch of
the Nemaha River, another was outside of Nebraska near Iowa Point
in Doniphan County, Kans., and a third was a mile southeast of
Nehawka, Cass County, Nebr. He states that many little (natural)
elevations are mistaken for mounds and that (natural) hilltops are
called “‘ mounds” when they contain burials. He cites the Wallace
“mound ” near Bellevue as an example of this last type.

The researches of the University of Nebraska Archeological Sur-
vey from 1929 to 1931 already referred to, rather confirm Sterns’
conclusions, though our own field work was mainly carried on in
southern and central Nebraska, hence few “ mounds” were encoun-
tered. In all, only four mounds were partially opened by our parties,
and these incomplete excavations have been described in some detail.
This work included cross trenches in two of the numerous elevations
or “ mounds” at the Saunders site near the mouth of the Elkhorn
River, one fairly large central pit with four corner trenches in one
of the mounds above the Walker Gilmore site near Rock Bluffs, and
one mound cross-sectioned (out of the numerous mounds superficially
observed) on Weeping Water Creek. Although all the mounds at
the first two sites had the external appearance of being artificially
raised in prehistoric times, none of those excavated gave internal

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 211

evidence of such a state of affairs. Lacking any direct evidence of
human agency in their construction, I am inclined to believe that the
bones and artifacts therein encountered were intrusive in natural
hillocks rather than that the latter were erected for burial purposes.
Here is a question, it seems to me, that the surface and soil geologist
can help answer. If such mounds or hillocks cannot be accounted for
by any natural agency known to have acted on the local topography,
then, since they contain human material, they are probably the work
of man. If natural agencies could have caused them, then I am in-
clined to regard their human contents as intrusive. On the other hand,
such a site as mound 2 on Weeping Water Creek, which gives certain
definite internal evidences of human construction, is in my opinion
an artificial mound. Similarly, if the bare statements made by Gilder
concerning numerous mounds near Omaha can be corroborated, these
must also be included in the same category.

The problem of distinguishing intrusive burials in natural eleva-
tions from artificially erected burial mounds has, of course, a wider
significance than merely its Nebraska aspect. Nebraska, like its neigh-
boring States on both the north and the south, is peripheral to the great
central mound areas of the Mississippi Valley, and such puzzling oc-
currences are expectable in border regions, Mound building was an
activity indulged in by a great number of American Indian tribes
over a great extent of time, and its various manifestations are com-
plex. It is therefore important to understand clearly the mound-
building activity on the borders of its distribution, where it occurs
in its simpler and perhaps more rudimentary forms. Moreover, since
there seems to have been a general exodus from the great mound areas
of the east-central United States region at or just before the first
period of white contact, it may be possible to trace the movements
of such tribes up the great river valleys of the west. It has often
been suggested that certain of the Siouan tribes were formerly located
farther to the east and were responsible for many of the mounds of
the Ohio region and elsewhere. This is not the place to consider
such hypotheses, but it is not beside the point to recall that certain
tribes of the Siouan group, notably the Oto, Omaha, and Ponca,
came from the east into Nebraska about the time of the earliest white
explorers and that others had probably preceded them in the region.
Careful excavation of both true mounds and natural mounds used
for burial purposes will undoubtedly establish a correlation between
these and certain of the historic tribes already mentioned. As yet,
however, I am not aware of one mound in Nebraska that has been
entirely and painstakingly excavated in such a manner as to clearly
set forth its details of construction and its cultural significance.

212 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

SURFACE SITES ON THE DismMAL River, Hooker County

According to Fletcher and La Flesche, the Omaha tribal hunting
grounds extended “on the west to the country of the Padoucas,
whose easterly village in the forks of the Dismal River, was known
to the Omaha.” This was evidently Pa'-do"-ka-no"-ca-gaxa-i-ke,
“where the Padouca built breastworks’.“ Now ‘“ Padouca” is the
Siouan name for the Comanche, a nomadic tribe belonging to the
Shoshonean linguistic stock, originally neighbors and kinsmen of
the Shoshone in Wyoming. They had already passed through Ne-
braska prior to 1804, for Lewis and Clark speak of the ‘‘ Padouca
Nation” as having formerly occupied the region to the west of the
Pawnee and add, that although Bourgmont visited this tribe on the
Kansas River in 1724, at the time of which they write even this
southern portion of the old Padouca territory was held by the Kansa.
How long the Comanche lived in central Nebraska is unknown, but
the fact of their residence is testified to not only by the Omaha ref-
erences quoted but also by the fact that the north fork of the Platte
was known as late as 1805 as the Padouca fork.” In the course of
the last 15 years A. T. Hill has made many trips into this Dismal
River country, and although he has been unable to locate any village
site exactly in the forks, he reported three camp sites in the vicinity
marked by sparse but unique pottery remains.

In the summer of 1931 the author, on an archeological reconnais-
sance for the Bureau of American Ethnology,” visited the Dismal
River forks on August 22-23 with A. T. Hill and members of the
University of Nebraska Archeological Survey. The river at this point
flows through the desolate sand hill region of west-central Nebraska
before it joins the Middle Fork of the Loup in Blaine County (see
map, fig. I, sites 23, 24, 25). The forks are in a rough, almost
uninhabited terrain of rolling hills which often attain a height of
100 feet or more. Although the underlying sand formation is largely
held down by the abundant and characteristic bunch grass, there are
occasional moving dunes and many blow-outs of varying size. Some
hackberry thickets in the hill pockets, an abundance of yucca, sand-

‘

“* Twenty-seventh Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., pp. 88, 91. The disputed
identification of the term ‘‘ Padouca” has already been discussed in the first
section of the present paper.

* Bur. Amer. Ethnol., Bull. 30, pt. 1, p. 327. The south fork was also given
this name up to 1819. See Grinnell, 1920, p. 249.

* Strong, 1932 a. This summary report includes a very brief discussion of
the Dismal River sites and an illustration of the forks of that river, fig. 147,

p. 154.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 213

burs, and various small cactus plants give a rather southwestern ap-
pearance to the landscape. Both branches of the river flow through
deep and narrow gorges which are marked by scattered bunches of
bushy red cedars rare or lacking in the open country to the south.
In the river canyon itself these trees reach considerable size, and old
stumps 2 feet in diameter were noted on the south branch just above
the forks. The narrow river bottom is thickly wooded with willow
and cedar, and the water, although sandy, is cool and pleasant. In fact
the river itself deserves a more cheerful name, for it is a refreshing
and attractive oasis in a dismal country. Below the forks it is only
about 30 feet wide and perhaps 2 feet deep with a fairly rapid cur-
rent. It flows throughout the year and offers to man and beast the in-
evitable lure of fresh running water in an arid country. A mule deer
was seen by members of the party, and birds and small mammals
were abundant in the brushy areas. A large raccoon caught by the
expedition’s dog in a small gully furnished additional excitement.
I have said that the country, first seen in a drizzling rain, was dismal,
but this is only half true. The irregular contour of the sand hills, the
rare cedar trees, and the wide vistas of unoccupied country have an
allure of their own. It is still Indian country, though the natives have
long been gone. One remembers the Dismal River and the sand hills
with a thrill of pleasure, and plans to return.

We camped for two nights at the forks and spent a day in examining
the region and in visiting two of the sites located by Mr. Hill. Be-
tween the north and south branches is a long ridge or hogback of con-
siderable height. Deeply worn trails lead up the east end and the
south side, and although these may be worn down by cattle, they sug-
gest old Indian trails. A few tiny potsherds, numerous flint chips,
and one beautifully chipped arrowpoint (type NBb1) were picked
up on the east end of this ridge. There are no signs of any fortifica-
tions here, but a number of large blowholes some 30 feet or more deep
and very wide offer splendid hiding places, and the ridge itself offers
a wide view over both valleys. A few artifacts were found in the
sandy areas along the south bank, but no concentration areas nor
any occupation strata were noted, in spite of thorough searching.

One site (fig. I, site 23) known to Mr. Hill is on the south bank
6 miles below the forks. This was not visited by our party. It is a
large blown-out area of bare sand retaining evidences of old fires and
originally marked by a considerable amount of broken pottery, arti-
facts, and chips. Mr. Hill reports that only the coarse, hole-tempered
pottery is found at this site. Like the other two sites here, it has
been rather thoroughly picked over by relic hunters from the nearest

214 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

towns. The next site upstream is only a few hundred yards south
of the forks on the upper flat (fig. 1, site 24). Mr. Hill has re-
covered numerous artifacts and fragments of dark grit-tempered pot-
tery from this site, but at the time of our visit nothing was found
save flint chips. No hearths were observed here. It may be noted that
at none of the three sites do lodge circles, house pits, or even fire-
place stones occur.

We visited the third site in the afternoon. It is about 4 miles up-
stream and likewise on the south bank of the river. In size it is the
largest of the three, and artifacts are scattered over a large irregu-
lar blowout of several acres (fig. 1, site 25). We recovered a con-
siderable number of sherds of the dark grit-tempered ware, several
conical “ danglers”’ of trade copper, a few arrowpoints, crude end
scrapers, and small pieces of smoky black obsidian. Mr. Hill has also
found a few glass beads at this site, but we found none on this trip.
Chipped stone is very abundant, with yellow and brown jasper pre-
dominating and “ sugar quartzite” of “ Spanish Diggings ” type also
abundant. Two hearths were noted here which consisted of a black
crust from 1 to 3 inches thick and from 4 to 6 feet in irregular
diameter. The sand had blown from around this packed and char-
coal-impregnated soil, leaving it slightly higher than the surrounding
level. Several smaller areas of this sort were noted. They occur in the
places where artifacts are most numerous, but on their own surface
are not marked by especial concentration. Careful slicing of this strata
with a trowel yielded a few flint chips but no artifacts. The pre-
sumption is that these are the last remnants of hard-packed lodge or
fire areas, the remainder of the camp having been drifted out, leav-
ing the heavier debris concentrated by the removal of surface sand
through wind action.

Such a camp area would presumably be gradually denuded of grass,
so that on its abandonment the sandy soil would readily form a blow-
out. The narrow margin by which the grass cover holds down the
sand is illustrated by the fact that although cattle are afforded good
pasture here, when sheep were introduced in 1918, they ate the grass
down to the roots and the soil blew away over large areas. Such a
situation is characteristic of all three sites, and Mr. Hill has noted
these harder-packed “ hearth”’ areas at each of them. At the north-
west edge of the upstream site is an area where the grass cover still
holds, and here, running from the steep bank to the creek as though to
encircle a considerable portion of the camp, is a slight irregular rise
somewhat suggesting the remnant of an earth wall. We attempted to
cross-section this to determine whether it might be artificial. However,

NO. I0 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY

STRONG 215

the uniform color of the sandy soil and the lack of time to dig an ade-
quate trench prevented any positive determination. It may be that this
is aremnant of the “ breastworks ” referred to by Omaha tradition, but
further work will be needed to verify such a conclusion. There is,
however, no doubt that there was a large camp at this site, and
from the few trade artifacts found here it may have been early
historic in time. Possibly the copper “ danglers ” and glass beads were
left here by later Indians, but they occur intermixed with the aboriginal
detritus. Shallow trenches penetrating the grass cover in this part of
the site might reveal untouched hearths, but time was lacking for ex-
tensive work and our few trial pits yielded no evidence of this sort.

As already suggested, the pottery from these sites falls into two
main types. The first of these comes entirely from the downstream
site (D1), according to Mr. Hill. It is a very heavy ware, ranging
from one-quarter to three-eighths of an inch in thickness and of a
uniform grayish brown color (pl. 22, fig. 1, a, b, c, e). Both surface
and cross-sections of these sherds show numerous holes, apparently
where some sort of vegetable tempering has been burned out, and in
this sense it is “ hole-tempered”. In addition there is much very
fine white sand which probably also served for tempering. A very
heavy vertical ridging occurs on the outer surface which suggests
cord marking in general appearance but is more probably due to
vertical pressure from a straw-wrapped paddle or perhaps by scratch-
ing with a pointed stick. Lack of twisted fiber impressions argues
against the use of a cord-wrapped paddle. The vessels, to judge from
the few rim sherds in Mr. Hill’s collection, come to an abrupt edge
and have no flare nor any sort of a shoulder or handles (pl. 22, fig. 1,
b, e). The inner surface has been left smooth, but the lip is marked
like the outside with triangular ridges succeeding each other around
the rim. One or two of the rare rim fragments have smooth lips. The
ware is surprisingly hard and light, though very thick and crumbly
in appearance. One large rim sherd (pl. 22, fig. 1, e) shows a marked
curve below the rim as though it were part of an open-mouthed round-
bottomed bowl. This type of pottery is unique in Nebraska so far as
my own observations extend, and it is very scarce even at this site.
I have picked up sherds of this general type (thick “ hole-” and
sand-tempered, ridged on the outside and gray brown in color, but
denser and heavier in composition of paste) at Kaighns Point on
the south side of the Wildcat Hills in Scotts Bluff County about 12
miles south of Minatare, Nebr. Some of Renaud’s sherds from sur-
face sites in eastern Colorado also rather suggest this ware.” Its

“ Renaud, E. B., 1931 a, plate p. 8o.

216 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

affiliations are evidently with the west rather than the east, a cir-
cumstance which would be expected if this is actually Comanche
pottery. The fact that, to the best of my knowledge, there are no
historic references to Comanche pottery makes this an interesting
point for future investigation.

The second type of ware found at the two upstream sites (D2 and
3) is similar in having fine sand tempering and mainly simple direct
rims (pl. 22, fig. 1, d, f-n) but differs in lacking holes and in being
very hard and smooth, both inside and out. The majority of these
sherds are plain and well rubbed on the outer surface, but one es-
pecially (pl. 22, fig. 1, 1) has marked crisscross ridges on the outer
surface which have been partially eliminated by rubbing. One sherd
in Mr. Hill’s collection has a plain. slightly flaring rim, one figured
here has a broken rim of somewhat the same sort (pl. 22, fig. 1, d),
and a third sherd with a plain enlarged rim has a diagonal groove
across the flat lip (pl. 22, fig. 1, f). The color of this type of pottery
ranges from a dull brown to a more common gray black. It is gritty
to the touch. In general technique, tempering, and suggested shape
the two types of pottery from these sites seem to show a relationship
to one another. It may be added that in the same surface exposures
at Kaighns Point, previously mentioned, thinner sherds of pottery
closely similar to the type last described were found in association
with the thick ridged fragments. During the excavations at Signal
Butte in 1932, a number of the thin, sand-tempered sherds were found
in the third or upper level (III) but none of the thick hole-tempered
type.

Other artifact types seem to have been fairly uniform over all
three sites, though all artifacts are rare at present, owing to long-
continued surface collecting. Fortunately, Mr. Hill has a considerable
collection from these sites, gathered during the last 15 years. The
following description is based largely on his material. It should be
added that the sites were apparently never rich, and artifacts are
correspondingly rare. Retouched flakes of quartzite, perhaps used as
side scrapers, are most common. A large number of these are ex-
ceedingly irregular, crude, and scantily retouched. End scrapers are
of both large and small size and are crudely made. They are not very
abundant. One diamond-shaped beveled knife of quartzite and three
broken brown jasper awls or borers have been recovered. Arrow-
points were fairly common some years ago. Small, delicate, double-
notched points (NBat) were most abundant, triple-notched points
(NBaz2) of the same fine technique were next in frequency, and tri-
angular (NBa) and notched points (SC) were very rare. One frag-

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 217

ment of a sandstone shaft polisher and two flat mealing or rubbing
stones (one 12 by 14 inches) have been recovered. Chips, cores, and
rejects are abundant, brown quartzite, yellow and brown jasper and
lesser amounts of smoky black obsidian being most noticeable. Bone
work is rare, one large section of cut elk antler and a few frag-
mentary flint knappers of bone being the only artifacts of this sort in
the Hill collection. The occasional occurrence of trade copper and
glass beads has already been discussed. Such are the cultural evi-
dences in these three sites on the Dismal River, and, whether they
may ultimately be determined to pertain to the Comanche occupation
or not, they are unique in many regards so far as other known Ne-
braska cultures are concerned. The sand hill region is not generally
of great archeological promise, owing to its constantly shifting nature,
but it must be remembered that the same wind which covers up last
week’s camp may uncover the hearths of a thousand years ago.

GRAVEL Deposit CONTAINING ARTIFACTS AND FossILizED BONES
(Birp CREEK CANYON SITE), SARPY CoUNTY

On October 27, 1929, Dr. Robert L. Reynolds and the author, while
searching for ancient burials along the high bluffs bordering the Platte
River across from Ashland, found what appeared to be crude chipped
stone artifacts in a gravel deposit covered by about 12 feet of yellow
loess. This deposit occurs in the steep banks of a very small stream
at a spot locally called Bird Creek Canyon (pl. 22, fig. 2, a). Bird
Creek is intermittent, and its course extends a short distance west
through the river bluffs and then turns south to flow across the bot-
toms into the Platte (see maps, figs. I, site 34; 23). Located just east
of that point in the Platte River where Saunders, Cass, and Sarpy
Counties come together, the site is in the latter county about 2 miles
east of the town of Ashland and 3 miles southwest of Gretna. The
most noticeable topographic feature in the vicinity is the rather strik-
ing line of bald, high bluffs, between 1,100 and 1,200 feet in elevation,
which extend in a northeasterly direction from the river. These are
part of the same chain which continues to the south along the Platte
just east of Ashland. Bird Creek is rather short, and after draining
the higher country just behind the steep river bluffs, passes through
a rather rugged little canyon to the flat, low river bottoms. This
canyon is beautifully wooded, and the gravel deposit under discussion
occurs in the creek bank between an eighth and a quarter of a mile
east of where Bird Creek crosses the road at the foot of the bluffs.

Five visits (October 27, 1929, March 29, 30, 31, and April 1, 1930)
were made to this site. On the last trip we were accompanied by

218 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Dr. A. L. Lugn, of the Geology Department of the University of
Nebraska, who made a careful geologic examination of the deposits.

The middle valley of the creek, i. e., Bird Creek Canyon, has been
filled by many feet of loess washed in from above, and it is through
this fill that it has cut down to its present bed. The gully walls in this
section range from 5 to 30 feet in height but probably average about
15 feet in the canyon proper. Just above the point investigated by us
the creek swings to the south against an outcrop of Dakota sandstone,
then swings north and west out into the center of the narrow canyon.
Here at a bend in the creek occur the covered gravel beds which are
exposed on both sides of the stream. The best exposure is on the
south bank, which is nearly vertical. A cross-section of the south bank
at this place showed the following descending strata:

Dark organic soil, 1 foot (approximately).

Yellow washed-in loess, 11 feet.

Thin stratum of blue clay (perhaps an old soil layer), 6—12 inches.

Stratum of gravel, pebbles, and shale, 3 feet (containing bones and artifacts).
Blue and yellow clay, from this point down as far as was dug.

Total height of bank at this point, 16 feet (average).

Dn wd xo

Underlying the above deposits at varying depths are horizontal beds
of Pennsylvanian limestone.

Excavations in stratum 4 were conducted by smoothing off a sec-
tion of the gully wall (pl. 22, fig. 2, a) and troweling out the gravel,
etc., for a depth of a foot or so back into the bank. This layer is
composed of small rounded pebbles and gravel with small pockets of
blue shale. The gravel contained numerous fragments and chips of
ferruginous flint (pl. 22, fig. 2, c, f, k), nodules of flint with a
limestone matrix (pl. 22, fig. 2, b, d), crude and broken retouched
artifacts (pl. 22, fig. 2, ec, 1, 7), and fragments of fossilized bone
(pl. 22, fig. 2, g, h, I-q), some of which are burned (pl. 22, fig. 2, 1).
The great majority of the bones are small split fragments, most of
which possess a rich brown patination. One bone fragment (pl. 22,
fig. 2, m) shows the marks of some rodents gnawing and all are more
or less fossilized. The above objects are scattered at random through-
out the 3-foot gravel and shale stratum. Only two of the retouched
pieces can be classified as definite artifacts. These are a delicately
retouched side scraper with two sharp edges (pl. 22, fig. 2, e) and the
butt end of a rather heavy dart, spear, or knife point (pl. 22, fig. 2, 7).
There are, however, large numbers of flakes suggesting crude artifacts
but too irregular for classification. Many of the large flakes show
no retouching of any sort and could have been caused by natural
agencies. The majority of the flint nodules encrusted with a limestone

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 219

matrix have been rolled and worn smooth on their outer surface
through water action. They range in size from small pebbles up to
those a little larger than a man’s fist.

The bone fragments, such as were large enough for identification,
seemed to be mainly those of some species of bison. When compared
with the remains of the modern bison and those of the extinct Bison
occidentalis, they most closely resembled the latter in form, size, and
degree of fossilization. Since no large or truly diagnostic parts were
recovered, the identification is probable rather than absolute.

It may be added that the few artifacts recovered do not fit into
any of the Nebraska cultures so far as known at present. This may be
due to one of three causes: they may represent an earlier and hitherto
unrecognized cultural horizon; they may merely be rejects left in the
old creek strata by Indian flint workers attracted by the flint nodules ;
or they may simply be too fragmentary for any such classification.

Dr. Lugn, on the basis of an afternoon’s examination of the creek
bed and the gravel deposit, decided that the latter was not of Pleisto-
cene age so far as its present position was concerned. Rather the
deposits had been washed down from above and been left in their
present position by later water action. The nodules of jasper had
likewise been carried down from the limestone ledges above. The
gravel itself might have come from original Pleistocene gravel beds
in the upper reaches of the creek, but if so, there are no such beds
exposed at the present time. The present creek has in the course of
time cut through the washed-in mantle of loess down to the older clay
and gravel beds. In so doing it has exposed the very old ledges of
Dakota sandstone above the site, but so far as our examination ex-
tended it has not exposed any of the undisturbed Pleistocene gravels.
The gravel deposit in which the artifacts and bones occur is there-
fore of the Recent period, but according to Dr. Lugn may still be
of considerable antiquity. The depth of the cut and the occurrence
of fossilized bones presumably of an extinct species argue for at least
a moderate antiquity. Since the Pleistocene gravel beds in the vicinity
are all covered at present with a thick mantle of loess, they cannot be
examined. It is probable that the artifacts and burned bones were
mixed in with the gravel during its period of redeposition. On the
other hand it is possible that the artifacts and bones were in the orig-
inal beds and were carried down along with the gravel itself. If this
should prove to be the case, the mixed deposits would be highly sig-
nificant. To judge from the unrolled condition of most of the bones
and of the flaked stone fragments, it seems more probable that thev
are secondary additions to the gravel, although they occur all through
and not merely on top of the 3-foot stratum.

220 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

As previously stated, the presence of the flint nodules may have
led early people to use the gravel bed as a workshop site, which would
account for the large amount of chips and flakes as well as the few
broken artifacts. The fossilized bone fragments showing the effects
of fire as well as the broken marrow bones (pl. 22, fig. 2, n. g, q)
suggest that it was also a camp site and that these early people killed
and ate bison of a species now extinct. The total absence of any
pottery also indicates a nonceramic culture and in all probability a
preceramic culture.

Owing to pressure of other work, nothing more was done in Bird
Creek Canyon after our visit of April 1, 1930. The site here is very
inadequately worked, and there are in all probability similar ex-
posures in the bluff canyons bordering the Platte and the Missouri
Rivers.

RECENT DISCOVERIES OF HUMAN ARTIFACTS ASSOCIATED WITH
Extinct MAMMALS IN NEBRASKA AND CLOSELY
ADJACENT REGIONS

Since 1929 several discoveries of human artifacts in association with
skeletal remains of extinct animals, or under other circumstances sug-
gesting some geologic antiquity, have been reported from within the
boundaries of Nebraska. As individual papers have already been pub-
lished concerning the majority of these finds, as well as two general
reports (Strong, 1932 b, and Bell and Van Royen, 1934), they need
only be briefly referred to here. Since this evidence, wherever authen-
ticated, gives us the earliest glimpse of man in Nebraska yet known,
it must be considered in a work such as the present one dealing with
the general archeological problems of the State.

Considering these discoveries in chronological order, the first was
made in July 1929 by C. B. Schultz, of the Nebraska State Museum,
while excavating in the South Loup Valley about 7 miles southeast of
the town of Cumro, Custer County (fig. 1, site 35). While removing
fossilized bison bones from a 1-foot soil layer, under 16 feet of loess,
Schultz found and removed a black flint point or knife blade. This
specimen (pl. 7, fig. 1, ¢) is 7.6 cm in length and is of the so-called
“Yuma type” (ND, fig. 7). Later, in September of the same year, I
visited the site with Schultz, and we conducted further excavations but
found no other artifacts. Schultz has published a brief account of the
discovery. (Schultz, 1932; also see Strong, 1932 b, and Bell and Van
Royen, 1934.) Owing to the premature removal of the artifact and
the lack of secondary evidence, the association, although extremely
probable, cannot be fully demonstrated.

NOR LO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 221

In July 1931, while excavating fossil bison material on the bank of
the Platte River near Grand Island, Hall County (fig. 1, site 36),
Schultz (1932) found another chipped point in direct association with
Bison occidentalis remains. Later it was learned that F. G. Meserve
had found a similar point associated with the bison bones at this site
in 1924. (Meserve and Barbour, 1932; Schultz, 1932; Barbour and
Schultz, 1932 a; Strong, 1932 b; and Bell and Van Royen, 1934.)
The artifacts are fairly well chipped points of blue-gray flint about
4.7 cm in length. Both are of NAb type, more or less transitional be-
tween NAb3 and 4 (fig. 7). The presence of numerous eye witnesses
in both cases, the fact that Schultz photographed the last specimen in
situ and preserved the mold from which it came, all tend to confirm
the association as reported. As at the Cumro site, the exact geologic
age of the deposit has not been definitely determined. (Bell and Van
Royen, 1934, pp. 56, 58.)

In August 1931 A. M. Brooking, Director of the Hastings (Ne-
braska) Museum, reported the discovery of a chipped point in associ-
ation with the remains of a fossil mammoth near Angus, Nuckolls
County, Nebr. (fig. 1, site 38). (Hasting’s Daily Tribune, August 20,
1931, and Figgins, 1931.) The point is crudely chipped from a blue-
gray mineral and has a length of about 7.3 cm. Uneven longitudinal
grooves occur on both sides, the tip is rather blunt, and the point is
roughly of NAb2 type with a groove like NAb4 (fig. 7). Subsequent
examination of the site from the geologic standpoint indicates that
the fossil bones are apparently of Pleistocene age, possibly having been
deposited during the second or Yarmouth interglacial stage (Strong,
1932 b, and Bell and Van Royen, 1934). Unfortunately, the evidence
regarding the removal of the point is conflicting, and there exists no
secondary evidence to confirm the association. This was pointed out
shortly after the discovery (Strong, 1932 b), but as yet no explanation
of the conflicting evidence nor any additional testimony regarding the
exact nature of the association have been forthcoming. The matter is
one of extreme importance, for if the actual association could be
established beyond the realm of reasonable doubt, we would have here
strong evidence of human activity during the mid-Pleistocene of North
America.

A third and very interesting discovery of chipped artifacts in asso-
ciation with fossil bison remains was made by Schultz in the summer
of 1932. While working out a large deposit of these bones occurring
in the banks of Spring Creek near Signal Butte, Scotts Bluff County
(fig. I, site 37), Schultz encountered some eight chipped stone arti-
facts (Barbour and Schultz, 1932 b). The site was immediately visited

15

222 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

by E. H. Barbour and E. H. Bell, and the association definitely con-
firmed (see Science News Letter for August 20, 1932, pp. 118-119).
The eight artifacts were found in direct association with the bison
bones. The specimens have been well illustrated (Barbour and Schultz,
1932 b, p. 295, and Bell and Van Royen, 1934). Four are definite
chipped points, one an end scraper, one a retouched fragment, and two
are spalls or rejects. Of the chipped points, one is of ‘ Yuma type ”
(NDa, fig. 7), two are leaf-shaped without any longitudinal groove
and are rather coarsely retouched. In each case the butt is broken,
hence they cannot be more definitely classified ; the fourth has a stem
and shoulders (SCa3, fig. 7). The end scraper is planoconvex, being
large and coarse. The two spalls are rather nondescript beyond appear-
ing to be planoconvex. Barbour and Schultz (1932 b) have classified
this material as of “a Pre-Folsom culture”. The apparent cultural
significance of these artifacts, and the others previously mentioned,
will be discussed later. The geologic age of the deposit is not yet clear
(Bell and Van Royen, 1934, pp. 61-62), although it is obviously of
considerable age.”

In the banks of the East Fork of Greenwood Creek, in Morrill
County, about 10 miles northwest of the town of Dalton (fig. 1, site
39), Robert E. Cape in 1932 discovered several artifacts in deep,
cemented sand and in gravel layers. The occurrence of certain of these
chipped artifacts in situ has been observed and reported on by Bell and
Van Royen (1934). The artifacts come from two levels, A and B.
From A, the lowest gravel bed, come two retouched “ scrapers” of
planoconvex type evidently shaped by the percussion method and re-
touched by careless pressure flaking (Bell and Van Royen, 1934,
p. 67). From B, the cemented sand layer above A, come two other
planoconvex “ scrapers’, one of which is a definite end scraper. Both
have apparently been worked by pressure technique. As to period, Bell
and Van Royen tentatively suggest that gravel zone A may represent
the cool and humid period represented in Iowa by the coniferous vege-
tation and that B might approximate the dry amaranth period in Iowa.
(See Sears, 1932, p. 621.) They state (1934, p. 69) :

We also do not know whether these climatic fluctuations, as indicated by

Sears, were all of sufficient amplitude to find expression in the topography. If
some of the fluctuations were of such brief duration that they did not result in

8§ Since the above was written A. L. Lugn (and C. B. Schultz), 1934, p. 355, has
suggested that this site ‘‘seems to be not older than late Kansan, and it does
not seem to be as late as Wisconsin. Apparently its age is late mid-Pleistocene,
that is, post Kansan pre-Wisconsin.” As will be indicated later, this startling
conclusion seems rather at variance with the typological correlations of the arti-
facts recovered.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 223

pronounced changes in the activity of the streams, the lower complexes of the
exposure at Greenwood Creek might predate the oldest of Sears’ periods. Such
would very likely bring at least zone A into the youngest Pleistocene.

Before considering the cultural implications of the above discoveries
two other recent finds in northeastern Colorado should be mentioned.
In 1932, and again in 1933, single chipped points wére found in associ-
ation with mammoth remains at a site near Dent, Colorado. (Figgins,
1933.) The original discovery was made by Michael Ryan, Jr., and
Father Conrad Bilgery, S. J., and the second artifact was observed in
situ and photographed by Figgins (ibid.). The chipped flint blades are
respectively 11.4 cm and 9.4 cm in length. One is leaf-shaped with a
short longitudinal groove on both sides (NAb4, fig. 7), the other is
longer and more triangular with a slight longitudinal groove on each
side. (See illustrations, Figgins, 1933.) From their length they suggest
knife or spear points. Partial remains of 12 individual mammoths
were present, in the main representing young and small individuals.
Figgins calls attention to the presence of numerous large boulders,
which appear to be uncommon in the horizon, in association with the
animal remains. The exact geologic age of the remains is uncertain,
but Figgins believes that the terrace materials in which they occur must
have been deposited by a vastly greater and older stream than the
present South Platte River.

The most recent, and in many regards the most important excavation
of this general type, was made by F. H. H. Roberts, Jr., of the Bureau
of American Ethnology, in the region of Fort Collins, Colo., in
October, 1934. (Roberts, 1935.) Guided by Maj. Roy G. Coffin and
his brother Judge C. C. Coffin, who had found numerous Folsom
points in the immediate vicinity, Roberts discovered remains of camp
sites and workshops in a black soil stratum beneath some 14 feet of
gravel and top soil. Numerous artifacts were found in association with
camp debris such as storage pits, broken animal bones, and scattered
charcoal. The findings at the Lindenmeier site included some 30
Folsom points (NAb4, fig. 7) (mostly broken), end scrapers, side
scrapers, flake knives, stone drills with tiny points, and numerous small
flake gravers. Grinding stones, ground fragments of hematite, and a
few bone artifacts were also recovered in the preliminary excavations.
Particularly interesting are a number of planoconvex flakes that had
been thrown off the otherwise completed Folsom type points. These
indicate that Folsom type points were fully retouched on both sides
and that the removal of the two longitudinal flakes was the last, and
probably the most delicate, step in their production. The chipped stone
artifacts show that it was largely a flake industry, and the majority of

224 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

artifacts are planoconvex in form. The majority of the points found
in the preliminary excavations were of Folsom type (NAb4), and
these range from very small to medium sizes. The only other type of
point so far recovered are two small specimens without any groove
(NAb2), both of which are thinned down at the butt end and one of
which is largely planoconvex. The great importance of the find lies in
the fact that there was here uncovered in situ a complex of artifact
types extensive enough in range to merit for the first time the desig-
nation ‘‘ Folsom culture”. The nature of the associated fauna as well
as the geologic horizon represented have not yet been determined.
Work at the site has only begun, but the situation seems favorable for
correlation with the glaciated regions and the terrace systems of the
Platte drainage, hence there is a good chance of dating the horizon.
Further work should also go far toward defining the Folsom culture
(or aspect) in its major characteristics.

So far as geology is concerned, the clearest case seems to be the
Angus deposit, which appears to be definitely Pleistocene (and proba-
bly mid- Pleistocene), but here the evidence of association is as yet very
unsatisfactory. The rest, although extremely promising, await future
geologic research. The second factor inhibiting cultural classification
is the extremely limited amount of the human material found in such
associations. In a later section such wider correlations as seem justi-
fied at the present time will be suggested. One important stratified
site, that on the summit of Signal Butte, remains to be discussed.

”

SiGNAL Butte, A STRATIFIED SITE IN Scotts BLUFF CouNTY

In February 1931 the writer was informed by Thomas L. Green, of
Scottsbluff, that stratified deposits of human origin occurred on the
top of Signal Butte, a picturesque mesa (pl. 23, fig. 1) located about
21 miles southeast of the town of Scottsbluff (map, fig. I, site 27). In
August 1931, while on an archeological reconnaissance for the Bureau
of American Ethnology, I visited the site, accompanied by members
of the University of Nebraska Archeological Survey field party. We
were under the guidance of Mr. Green. Test trenches were made at
this time, which demonstrated the great importance of the site (Strong,
1932a). In June and July, 1932, a Bureau of American Ethnology
field party, assisted by four holders of archeological fellowships from
the Laboratory of Anthropology at Santa Fe, conducted intensive ex-
cavations here under my direction. Permission to excavate was very
kindly granted in behalf of the other owners by E. S. Simpson; Mr.
and Mrs. Simpson were helpful in many other ways as well, and we

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 225

owe them a debt of gratitude. Throughout the work Thomas L. Green,
the discoverer of the site, aided in every possible way, incurring both
our professional and our warmest personal gratitude. Preliminary
reports on this work have already been published. (Strong, 1932 a,
1933 a, b.) A complete report is being prepared by the present writer
and Maurice E. Kirby (Signal Butte, A Stratified Site in Western
Nebraska), but since this may not appear for some little time, a sum-
mary report on the site is included here. The great importance of the
Signal Butte deposits lies in the fact that they offer a long stratified
record of human activity in the extreme western portion of Nebraska.
This, in conjunction with the stratification pointed out by Sterns at the
Walker Gilmore site in the extreme eastern part of the State, forcibly
introduces the all-important element of time perspective that to the
present has been so lamentably lacking for major portions of central
and eastern North America.

GEOLOGIC BACKGROUND

The general nature of Signal Butte has already been discussed and
illustrated in the articles previously referred to (also see pl. 23, fig. 1).
It may be added that it is a remnant of the old original surface of the
high plains, is given an altitude of 4,583 feet on the United States
Geological Survey map (Nebraska-Scottsbluff Quadrangle), and is
located about one-fourth of a mile from Kiowa Creek and 14 miles
southwest of the North Platte River. The base of the butte is com-
posed of Brule clay (Oligocene), over this substratum rise almost
sheer walls of the Gering formation (Miocene) which is capped by
about 2 feet of white hard-grained rock of the same formation. The
upper members of the Miocene formation are lacking at Signal Butte.
Erosion has penetrated into and through this cap rock in certain
places, up-ending slabs and producing some distortion. In and above
this broken cap rock is a bed of sand averaging about 2 feet in thick-
ness (fig. 29). From bottom to top there is a marked transition from
coarse material to fine (based on mechanical analyses). Pebbles, more
abundant toward the bottom than at the top, are composed mostly of
slabby rock material from the Gering formation. Toward the top the
bed grades rather abruptly into a light buff-colored silt deposit in-
cluding some pebbles and quartz grains (fig. 29 and pl. 23, fig. 2). It
is thought that this well-sorted detrital material is of Pleistocene age.
This point, however, can only be established by full publication of the
data obtained by Kirby.

The recent deposits on Signal Butte lying above this silt and gravel
are composed mostly of materials weathered from the surrounding

VOL. 93

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country rocks. These consist, on an average, of 8 feet of fine wind-
borne material. Essentially, these may be called loess deposits, for
analyses show their composition to be very similar to that of true
loess found farther eastward. This loessial material is divided at
intervals by three horizons of human cultural debris (numbered
I-III from bottom to top). These intrusions represent old soil and
living levels. The lowest cultural horizon, level I, lies directly on
what are believed to be fluvial silts and gravels (fig. 29 and pl. 23,
fig. 2). It is composed of loess similar to that of the rest of the aeolian
portion of the earth cap impregnated with artificial matter, and con-
tains humus to the extent that the horizon presents a sooty blackness.
Some blackness may be attributable to burning, but a soil horizon is
undoubtedly present. The horizon is so solidly cemented together by
calcium carbonate that a shovel will not make much headway in it.

Above level I (fig. 29 and pl. 23, fig. 2) lies a 14-foot horizon of
sterile wind-borne material. Occupation of level I must have ended
abruptly, as shown by the sharp transition into the sterile layer above.
Above this sterile layer is a thin dark horizon (level II, fig. 29, pl. 23,
fig. 2) about 6 inches thick. This horizon is darker than the sterile
layers above and below, and it contains small amounts of rocks, bones,
artifacts, and a few fireplaces. Level II is capped in the center by
about 2 feet of sterile wind-borne material, and this in turn is covered
by about 14 feet of soil containing artificial matter (level III). At the
surface a vigorous growth of prairie grasses has darkened the soil to
a depth of 3 or 4 inches. Level I lies in a flat plane, as does also level
II some 2$feet above, but level III lies arched or draped over the
present surface and, as a result, almost makes contact with level IT at
the edges of the deposit (fig. 29).

METHOD OF EXCAVATION

Before excavating, a topographic map was made of the butte by
means of a plane table and telescopic alidade. The earth cap was con-
toured, using 1-foot intervals, the remainder of the butte was done in
10-foot intervals, and later a topographic map showing the 4 square
miles around the butte, on a scale of 1,000 feet to an inch with 10-foot
contour intervals, was made. The top of the butte was surveyed and
staked off into 5-foot squares, and excavation proceeded on a 20-foot
front from south to north. Later an east to west excavation was made,
tying in with our original test trench. Every cross-section was mapped
as exposed. The work was confined to the western half of the butte,
the entire eastern half being left for future excavation and checking.
The deposit was taken down layer by layer, according to squares, and

228 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

each layer was carefully cleaned off prior to excavation to prevent
mixture of artifacts. All the material was screened. Near the edges
of the butte the material from levels II and III could not be segregated
with safety, because of the closeness with which they approached each
other. This mixed material is not considered in this report. Before
leaving the butte a lead pipe marking the datum point of our work,
which was carved on it, was set in rocks and buried to aid future
workers. We filled in our trenches and with Mr. Simpson’s assistance
made every effort to protect the site from vandalism. Our efforts
unfortunately were largely unavailing, as the butte was immediately
invaded by swarms of relic hunters, who have since destroyed much
priceless evidence in the unexcavated area. Fortunately, we have a
good record for one half of this unique and invaluable site, but it is
tragic that mere curiosity and acquisitiveness on the part of a few
individuals should be permitted to destroy a historical monument and
scientific record which was truly an American heritage.

CULTURAL EVIDENCE BY LEVELS

In the upper sod and on the surface a few glass beads and objects
of trade copper were found. Below the sod line no historic material
was encountered. This top 14 feet, comprising level III of prehistoric
human occupation, is not very clearly marked and gives evidence of
sporadic rather than continuous occupation. Several fireplaces and a
number of small storage pits containing a few potsherds and artifacts
were encountered. One such pit contained the skull of a wolf and the
mandible of a child. Several partial bundle burials in small, slab-lined
cists, a few flexed child burials, and one complete skeleton of an adult
male seated on a large rock were encountered in level III. Level II is
indicated by a faint and rather thin black line representing a soil line
and a brief occupational horizon (pl. 23, fig. 2, and fig. 29). Its arti-
fact content is definite but very limited in extent, suggesting a uniform
but sparse, and probably brief, occupation. It contains a number of
shallow fire pits with blackened soil and charcoal. The charcoal from
this level was pronounced to be juniper but proved unsuitable for
dendrochronological determinations. Some of the fire pits were stone-
lined. There were a few small storage pits on this level, and one con-
tained a considerable amount of red hematite. Others contained broken
up animal bones and a few artifacts. Level I is thick and black (pl. 23,
fig. 3) and contained a great amount of cultural detritus and broken
animal bones. Some of the latter are partially mineralized. On this
level occur numerous small, pot-shaped storage pits dug down into the
underlying silt and gravel. These were sometimes lined with rock

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 229

slabs and contained broken animal bones and a few artifacts. Shallow,
round fire pits, occasionally lined with small stone slabs, were also
numerous. No evidence of houses nor of postholes could be found,
the people evidently living in the open or in skin tents which left no
traces. No burials were encountered in either level II or level I, though
one fragment of human bone was found in the lowest deposit (I).

CERAMICS

Pottery is confined entirely to the upper level (III). Not a sherd
was found below this horizon. The ceramic remains fall into two
main types, (A) thick with coarse gravel tempering, and (B) thin
with sand tempering. Type A is similar in all essentials to that already
described from Lost Creek and Medicine Creek (Upper Republican).
Type B is identical with the thin gray-black pottery already described
from surface sites on the Dismal River (Dismal River). Hence
further detailed description is unnecessary here. No complete pieces
were recovered. All sherds were preserved, 1,155 in all. Only 94 rim
sherds were found, and these fall into the following types:

A. Upper Republican type (60 total).
a. Rim sherds with marked collar (20).
1. Collar decorated with closely spaced incised crisscross line (11).
2. Collar decorated with incised herring bone pattern (8).
3. Collar without decoration (1).
b. Rim sherds without collar (40).
1. Low, slightly flaring rim with swollen, incised lip (14).
2. Low, slightly flaring rim without incisions (23).
3. Direct rim with outside bevel (3).
B. Dismal River type (34 total).
1. Bowls with direct rim (12).
2. Low, slightly flaring rim with slightly swollen lip (22).

The majority of the sherds were small, and small vessels were ap-
parently typical of both major types. A number of the Upper Republi-
can sherds were bored for crack-lacing. The more numerous body
sherds fall into the following classification :

A. Upper Republican type (total 747).

a. Cord marked (649).

b. Smooth outer surface (61).

c. Red stained (or burned) inner surface (34).
B. Dismal River type (total 314).

a. Sand tempered (314).

The occurrence of these two very distinct wares in level III ap-
parently indicates that during this period the butte was occasionally

230 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

visited by at least two different groups. There is no blending or obvi-
ous relationship between the two ceramic types, nor was there any
evidence of superimposition of either. The two ceramic types are
illustrated (pl. 24, fig. 2, a, b; also compare pls. 5, 9, 21, 22).

GROUND STONE

Ground stone artifacts occur in all three levels. From level III come
13 irregular fragments of thin sandstone rubbing stones, worn on both
sides (pl. 24, fig. 1, y). There are four nodules of sandstone used for
abrasive purposes and seven shaft polishers, each with a single longi-
tudinal groove. Three of the latter are rectangular, and four are
irregular (pl. 24, fig. 1, w, x). The best specimen (pl. 24, fig. 1, +)
suggests a type from level I. (Since it has probably always been im-
possible to gain the top of the butte without noticing the numerous
artifacts where level I outcrops all around the edge, many of these
ancient artifacts were picked up by the later peoples and used for their
own purposes. In the same manner a few level II artifacts were evi-
dently carried into level III. No distinct upper level types (II or IIT)
occur in level I, but distinct level I types occur in varying proportions
in the two upper levels). Level II] also yielded g battered hammer-
stones (pl. 24, fig.1, aa), all but 2 of which are broken, 5 pieces of
polished hematite (pl. 24, fig. I, 5), I piece of iron oxide, and 2 frag-
ments of a green mineral containing copper. The latter were obviously
used as paints. Level II yielded one long oval lapstone, numerous
irregular flat-sided grinding stones, ovoid and battered hammerstones,
and some hematite. Level I, with its much greater artifact content,
yielded several types of ground stone implements. These include
numerous flat sandstone or pumice grinders of irregular shape (pl. 25,
fig. 2, 2) ; numerous rounded or natural pebble hammerstones (pl. 25,
fig. 2,7) ; a number of pestlelike objects (pl. 25, fig. 2, d) ; two long,
cylindrical, longitudinally grooved, shaft polishers (pl. 25, fig. 2, 7) ;
two broken grooved hammerstones or mauls (pl. 25, fig. 2, 0), anda
flat smooth quartzite ax battered on both edges and slightly notched or
grooved at top and bottom (pl. 25, fig. 2, m). Both rough and ground
pieces of hematite and limonite paint occur.

CHIPPED STONE

Chipped stone artifacts comprise the bulk of the Signal Butte col-
lections, being especially numerous from the lowest occupation level
(1). A wide range of materials is represented in all levels, with cherts,
chalcedonies, quartzites, and jaspers predominating. Obsidian flakes

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 231

occur rarely in all levels. A few broken obsidian artifacts occur in
level III. Chipped artifacts will be considered for each level, com-
mencing with the uppermost and latest horizon (III). The statistics
on the occurrence of chipped points, according to types and segregated
by levels (I-III), is given in table 3 (p. 90). Since this distribution
is one of the most significant as regards the stratification at the site,
this table and diagram (fig. 7) should be carefully studied. In the
illustrations (pls. 24, 25) an attempt has been made to figure all the
types by levels roughly in the proportion of their occurrence.

From level III come 249 artifacts classified as chipped points. Small
(average length about 2.5 cm) projectile points of a triangular, thin
and delicately chipped type (NBa, table 3) are most numerous (80)
(pl. 24, fig. 1, h). Next most abundant (53) is another small delicate
form (NBar) with two side notches and a straight base (pl. 24,
fig. 1, k). A similar small type with a concave base (NBb1) supple-
ments this last class (32) (pl. 24, fig. 1, p.). These are typical upper
level (III) arrowpoints, which preponderate numerically and do not
occur save as aberrant forms in the lower levels. The sixteen NAb2
points from level III are larger and, in most cases, are typical of level
I, where they were probably picked up by level III people. The same
is true generally of the eight NAbi and the four NAB3 type points
from level III (pl. 24, fig. 1, 0, n). Similarly, the three SCb2 and the
three SCb3 points (pl. 24, fig. 1, J, m) are of the characteristic level II
type and probably originated there, being carried into level III by the
later peoples. The other small types scantily represented in level III
(table 3) are numerically insignificant. The large ovoid type (NE) is
really a side scraper (pl. 24, fig. 1, e) of irregular but generally ovoid
form. There are 39 NE artifacts from level III. Some of these may
have been carried up from the lower levels.

A characteristic level III type is the beveled, diamond-shaped knife
(pl. 24, fig, 1, f). There are five specimens of this type (NCa), all
from level III. Much more abundant (78) are planoconvex flake knives
(pl. 24, fig. 1, b). These range from large (11 cm long) planoconvex
types with one side carefully retouched, to small (2 cm long) flakes
with merely a use retouch. The majority of these pieces look sus-
piciously like those from level I, with the same wide range of minerals
represented and the small, abrupt retouch on the sides. Level III
yielded 62 planoconvex end scrapers, the majority being rather large
(pl. 24, fig. 1, c, d). Of these, 42 have the back retouched, 15 are
rough, and 5 are retouched and stemmed. The preponderance in level
III of ovoid, planoconvex, end scrapers with a neatly retouched back
(pl. 24, fig. 1, c) is undoubtedly significant. However, all the stemmed

232 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

and a number of the other types were probably made in level I times.
Side scrapers are rather abundant; there are 77 of planoconvex type
(pl. 24, fig. 1, a). (The distinction between a planoconvex flake knife
and the same type of scraper is in the edge. If the edge is thin and
sharp the artifact is called a knife; if abrupt and blunt, a scraper.
Naturally the choice in some cases must be arbitrary, but in general
the types are distinct.) There are 39 side scrapers (NE) retouched
on both faces (pl. 24, fig. 1, e). A number of both of these types are
probably from level I. Many are broken, and some of the large double-
faced scrapers may have served as chipped celts. Stone drills and
gravers include 26 artifacts. Of these, 9 are triangular and retouched
on both faces (pl. 24, fig. 1, g) ; 14 are unifaced gravers, in some cases
suspiciously like those from level I (compare pls. 24, fig. 1, 7 and 25,
fig. I, tf); the same is also true of three flakes with tiny retouched
points (pl. 24, fig. 1,7). In addition to the above a large number of
unclassifiable chipped fragments, flakes and cores come from level III.

The material from level II is limited. There are 73 chipped points,
of which 29 are ovoid side scrapers (NE). The most abundant and
typical projectile points from this level are stemmed (SC), of these,
17 have straight bases and barbs (SCb2) and 10 are without barbs
(SCaz2) (pl. 24, fig. 2, e, f.) The SCb2 points roughly average 3.5 cm
in length and comprise the most distinctive artifact type from this
horizon. There are 17 of the leaf-shaped type (NA), 10 of NAb2 and
7 of NAbr. A number of these leaf-shaped points are indubitably of
level I type and were probably carried up by the level IT people. From
level II come 25 flake knives of medium to small size (pl. 24, fig. 2, 7).
The majority are mere flakes with retouched edges, and some were
probably carried in from level I. There are 27 planoconvex end
scrapers, of which 14 are more or less re-touched on the upper surface
and 13 are without any retouching on the top (pl. 24, fig.2, 7, m). All
are rather crudely worked, and there is a general similarity to the
level I type, although the proportion of retouched to unretouched is
higher. There are 60 small to medium-sized planoconvex, side scrapers
(pl. 24, fig. 2,1). A few of these are of the neat, round, level I type
with two plane surfaces and an abrupt edge. Some 29 side scrapers
(NE) retouched on both sides come from this level (pl. 24, fig. 2, k).
Many of these are irregular in shape. Several side scrapers are made
of clear white and of rose quartz (pl. 24, fig. 2, / center). There are
1g stone drills and gravers, of which 9 are T-shaped, 2 are triangular
(retouched on both sides), 2 are flakes with small points, and 6 are
planoconvex gravers (pl. 24, fig. 2, c, d, g). In addition to the above,

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 233

numerous artifacts too broken for classification and chips come from
this level.

A large number of chipped artifacts were recovered from level I. In
all, 1,119 classifiable chipped points come from this level (table 3). The
most abundant type are ovoid side scrapers (NE), which number 445 ;
the remainder are knives (rare) or projectile points (common). The
most characteristic and abundant of the latter types is a medium-sized
(average length 4 cm) lanceolate or leaf-shaped projectile point with
a concave base (NAb3). The base is often thinned down by the re-
moval of flakes from each face. These number 222 (pl. 25, fig. I, a).
A similar type with a horizontal base (NAb2) is next in abundance
(170) (pl. 25, fig. 1, g). Leaf-shaped points of similar size with
rounded butts (NAb1) number 45 (pl. 25, fig. 1, f). The majority of
the above types are projectile points, but a number of larger-pointed
knives are also represented (pl. 25, fig. 1, g). A type of stemmed
point (SCa2, 56, SCa3, 87 and SCh3, 47) is the main variant and here
also those with a concave stem predominate (pl. 25, fig. 1, b, c, d).
A rare thin, notched form (NBat, 2, and NBaz2, 29) (pl. 25, fig. 1, ¢)
is unique. From the broad flangelike butt and the small rounded point
it is difficult to guess what the purpose of this particular type may have
been. This is the only notched form from level I, and they may repre-
sent an early and larger prototype of the small notched points of later
times. The bulk of the other medium-sized points suggest arrowheads,
but some of these, and the larger points, may have been used on darts.
It is diagnostic of the level I culture particularly that in all types of
points a considerable number occur that are definitely planoconvex
(pl. 25, fig. 1, d, right, f, left, 0, right). This feature occurs in the
upper levels to a limited extent, but it is particularly marked in level I,
where a number of the points are actually unifaced, retouched flakes
having a decided fracture curve (pl. 25, fig. 1, 0, right).

Next in abundance in the lowest level (1) are planoconvex end
scrapers, which number 491. These fall into three main types: (a)
those with an unretouched back, consisting of either a thick flake,
or a split naturally rounded pebble with the end abruptly chipped
(pl. 25, fig. 1, s). There are 290 of these, and they form a distinct
subtype of this almost ubiquitous implement. The (b) type has the
upper surface definitely retouched (pl. 25, fig. 1, qg) and usually keel-
shaped (153). The third and least numerous type (c) of which there
are 48, has a definite stem, which in some cases has a concave base
(pl. 25, fig. 1, 7). As already mentioned, side scrapers, retouched on
both sides and of an ovoid form (NE), are very numerous (445)
(pl. 25, fig. 1, v). Some of the larger specimens of this type are

234 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

probably chipped celts (about 10) (pl. 25, fig. 2, 2). Planoconvex
side scrapers, both rounded and irregular in shape, number 217. The
round, flat specimens with a fine, abrupt retouch are particularly
characteristic (pl. 25, fig. 1, #). Flake knives, composed of large to
small flakes used as cutting tools, number 277. They range from
simple flakes with a use retouch along one edge (pl. 25, fig. I, y, 2)
to definitely worked, planoconvex artifacts with a neatly retouched
back and a thin, finely retouched edge (pl. 25, fig. 1, w, 7). This last
is a characteristic level I type. Chipped stone drills and gravers num-
ber 124. Of these 52 are mere flakes, either plain or retouched on one
side with a point on the end or projecting from one side (pl. 25,
fig. 1, n). In eight cases this side point is very tiny, and a number
of such artifacts may have been overlooked in sorting in the field. In
general, the thin flakes with sharp, but graduated rather than abruptly
shouldered points, can probably be regarded as gravers for bone etch-
ing, etc., and the longer pointed types as drills or awls used for perfor-
ating skins prior to sewing. Almost equally numerous (50) are T-
shaped drills with a carefully retouched point (pl. 25, fig. 1, m). Four
drills have definite retouched stems, two having shoulders and a con-
cave base (pl. 25, fig. 1, k). This is a widespread type. Some 18 drills
are triangular in outline and more or less retouched on both sides
(pli25; fess. Pp):

There are a number of unusual chipped specimens, including a large
stemmed knife characterized by beautiful chipping, a concave base,
and a broad notched tip (pl. 25, fig. I, 7); a spurred knife with an
unusual stem (pl. 25, fig. 1, 4); and several spoke shaves (pl. 25,
fig. 1,7). In general, it can be said that flint work in level I was in
the nature of a flake industry, as demonstrated by the high percentage
of occurrence of simple flakes with finely retouched edges as points,
end scrapers, side scrapers, drills, gravers, and knives. In addition to
the abundant artifact types, level I yielded a mass of retouched frag-
ments, flakes, and cores. It was obviously a workshop as well as a
habitation horizon.

BonE AND ANTLER WorK

Artifacts of these materials are rather limited in all three levels
and are not strikingly distinctive as to type. However, certain differ-
ences do occur. In level III, the following specimens were recovered :
4 knapping tools, 1 of ground down antler and 3 of split antler, all
having rounded points (pl. 24, fig. 1, w) ; 1 short heavy punch of elk
antler (pl. 24, fig. 1, ¢), 8 awls, 1 rounded and 7 of split bones or
antler with sharp, rounded points (pl. 24, fig. 1, #), 2 of which are
merely sharpened splinters of bone; 9 pieces of cut bone, 2 of which

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 235

(pl. 24, fig. I, r) have rounded ends each with a single perforation ;
I piece of worked scapula (possibly part of a hoe); 1 well-made
fishhook (pl. 24, fig. I, g) ; and 12 bird bone beads of various lengths
(pl. 24, fig. 1, v). One of the latter is neatly incised with encircling
grooves. From level II come 5 pieces of thin, incised bone, 2 with
perforations and incised angular designs (pl. 24, fig. 2, p, compare
pl. 24, fig. 1, 7) ; 2 flat and triangular awls of split bone, I very rough
(pl. 24, fig. 2, g); 4 knapping tools, 1 a large rib ground to a rough
point, the others rough bone fragments (pl. 24, fig. 2,0). In addition,
there is a split deer cannon bone as well as some calcined and splintered
fragments. Level I yielded 72 definite bone and antler artifacts : there
are 15 knapping tools (of split bone, 1 small, 4 large bison ulnae, the
others intermediate) (pl. 25, fig. 2, k); 14 rounded bone or antler
awls (pl. 25, fig. 2, b) ; 22 split bone or antler awls, characteristically
with an abrupt, shouldered point (pl. 25, fig. 2, a) ; 5 large gouges or
scrapers of split bison bone, unworked except for the edge (pl. 25,
fig. 2, c); 12 incised bone fragments with simple geometric designs
(pl. 25, fig. 2, f) ; 4 bird bone beads (pl. 25, fig. 2, g) ; and a consider-
able number of split or worked fragments.

SHELL Work

A small amount of molluscan material appeared in each level. These
fragments have not been identified as yet, but fresh-water species
appear to be the only forms represented. Level III yielded two frag-
ments of shell and level II a handful of fresh-water mussel shell
fragments. From level I comes one small, clawlike shell pendant
with two notches at the top, several fragments of definitely cut or
ground shells, and a number of broken, unworked pieces.

This concludes the listing and brief analysis of all artifact types
recovered in our excavations at Signal Butte. The occurrence of two
types of pottery in level III and its complete absence in levels II and I,
with the marked differences in distribution and types of chipped points
in all three levels (table 3), form the most striking demonstration of
the cultural differentiation between the three levels which are physi-
cally separated by barren strata (fig. 29). The major cultural trends
observable in this long human record and their apparent significance
from the historic standpoint will be dealt with in later sections.

ANIMAL REMAINS

Dr. C. L. Gazin, of the United States National Museum, reports as
follows on the very fragmentary animal material from Signal Butte:

In all cases where material is sufficiently good to permit specific identifications,
living species are recognized. The fauna is that which is living in the region

236 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

at present or within historic times, and no evidence is seen by which one may
assign any considerable age to the occurrence. Although probability favors a
Recent time to the deposit, there is no certain evidence precluding a late Pleisto-
cene age.

The Bison material is not sufficiently complete to permit specific recognition
as species of this form cannot be identified without good skull and horn material.
The size, shape, and position of horns play an important part in the diagnosis.
From the material at hand, the form could be Bison bison.

The differences between the two mammalian faunas [I and II-III] is not im-
portant. Both are very incomplete, representing only a small percentage of the
forms inhabiting the region at the two stages.

Gerrit S. Miller; Jr., adds:

I can see nothing in the Bison remains from either of the three levels to
distinguish them from recent species. The teeth of the Antilocapra seem un-
usually large [level I]. I hope more of them will be found if further work is
done at this locality.

The few bird remains, identified by Dr. A. Wetmore, are of existing
species.

CONSIDERATIONS OF RELATIVE AGE

The main ramparts of Signal Butte were apparently isolated back
in the Pleistocene, and for many thousands of years the mesa has
probably been of about the same shape as at present, although scaling
and erosion have been continuous. The earth cap is geologically
recent and was formed primarily by wind action and secondarily by
human occupations. The crescentic form of Signal Butte, backed
by the main Wildcat escarpment (pl. 23, fig. 1), causes winds com-
ing across the plains to be deflected either upward or around the
two ends. This creates an eddy of comparative quiet over its top.
Observation and experiment have shown that regardless of direction
the winds tend to blow upward toward its center. This was un-
pleasantly apparent while screening operations were in progress. These
eddying conditions over a long period have caused the deposition
of the natural portion of the earth cap, the thin grass cover helping
to hold this material in place. Presumably, this process would have
commenced as soon as suitable material was available for the winds
to carry. The formation of sand dunes in the valley of the Platte
River, to which Signal Butte lies adjacent, point to the time, subse-
quent to the isolation of the butte, when dust became available. (The
more detailed study on which this brief summary is based cannot be
presented here but will appear in the complete report.) The dunes
nearest to the butte are a patch, about 4 miles in area, 3 miles to the
southwest. They are close to the abrupt escarpment of the Wildcat
Range and have reached a point where prairie-sweeping winds are

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY

STRONG 237

affected by the sharp rise of the highland. This has stopped the mi-
gration of the dunes, for they are now sodded over and in places
exhibit scant tree growth. The nearest sources for these dunes are
not less than 10 miles distant from where they are now, and the more
likely sources (according to the direction of the prevailing winds)
are some 143 to 18 miles away. Estimating the time required for dune
movement, at the highest speed the most reliable figures permit, it
would have taken these dunes some 2,110 years to reach their present
location. If they come from the north or the northwest, which is
more logical, it would have taken them at least 3,100 years. More
conservative estimates, based on slower rates of dune migration, would
raise this period to about 5,200 years. Even then, the dunes would
have to have been remarkably persistent in their movement. If more
humid conditions intervened, as seems probable from the soil layers
on the butte, the speed of the dunes would be materially reduced,
and a temporary cessation of movement would be expectable. It is
not likely that all the loess on Signal Butte and other high places in
the vicinity came from such sand dunes, but it is believed that the
origin of the dunes and of this loess came about at one and the
same time. As the dunes began migrating and sifting their materials,
the deposits on the highlands beyond, including Signal Butte, should
likewise have been begun. Hence the estimated time of dune move-
ment in this case should roughly correspond to the minimum age of
the aeolian deposit on top of Signal Butte.

The two old soil horizons in the earth cap on Signal Butte are
important factors in this discussion. These correspond with human
occupation level I (a thick, black, soil line) and human occupation
level II (a very thin and faint soil line). Level I lies directly on what
we believe to be water-carried deposits of Pleistocene age and marks
the beginning of the period of aeolian deposition. Above this comes
a sterile layer of wind-borne material apparently representing a dry
period. Following this, a thin soil horizon appears with evidences
of human occupation (level II), which is covered by another sterile
aeolian layer, again deposited under dry conditions. This is capped
by a third period of occupation (level III) which immediately un-
derlies the present sod line. This horizon is only slightly darker,
especially at the top, than the sterile aeolian layer which underlies
it. It is therefore obvious that the different strata on Signal Butte pre-
sent evidence of climatic fluctuations during the Recent period.

Unfortunately, Sears could find no pollen in soil samples from any
of these levels,” hence a botanical correlation with his suggested

* Letter from Paul B. Sears to Maurice E. Kirby, February 25, 1933.
16

238 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

chronology of postglacial changes in climate and vegetation in eastern
North America (Sears, 1932, p. 621) is not possible. However,
in a later letter” he states that if the material immediately below
level I is old loess, then that horizon could be correlated with the
cool, dry conditions previous to about 7,000 years ago. (Sears, 1932.)
On the other hand, if the deposit (in and) below level I is definitely
not aeolian, then (a) either the period before 7,000 years ago was not
favorable to loess formation, which he doubts, or else (b) level I is very
old, having been formed at or previous to 9,000 years ago, when
conditions were cool and moist. (Compare Sears, table 3, 1932, p.
621.) In the latter case, level II is the only trace of the humid in-
terval separating the cool dry from the warm dry periods, and is
about 5,000 years old, with level I almost twice as old. From a photo-
graph, he is inclined to believe that there is old loess below and in
level I. Dr. W. Van Royen, who has visited the butte, but has not
seen the best exposures of this sand and gravel layer (fig. 29) under
level I, is likewise unconvinced of the fluviatile origin of this deposit.
(Personal conversation, January 1934.) On the other hand, Kirby’s
detailed study and mechanical analyses of this material have convinced
us of the aeolian origin of level I (aside from human detritus) and
of the water-borne nature of the silt and sand immediately beneath
it. These sorted sand beds and silts occurred under level I through-
out our excavations, especially in the west-central portion of the butte,
and a test pit in the east end showed especially thick graded quartz
sands in that area. The question can only be settled by full publica-
tion of the data and through checking by more competent authorities
than Kirby and myself. This sand stratum, being barren of artifacts,
has probably not been ruined by relic hunters. Moreover, there are
at hand definite soil samples from all these levels. This is not directly
an archeological problem but is presented here because of its probable
bearing on dating the horizon and as an example of the manner in
which prehistoric archeological chronology must always depend on
the researches of geographer and geologist.

We may say then, subject to later correction, that level I on Signal
Butte probably falls either in the dry, cool period (circa 8,000 years
ago) or in the humid cold period (circa 10,000 years ago). In
general, Kirby’s time estimate of dune migration agrees. His esti-
mate of 5,200 years as a probable minimum must be expanded if
humid periods produced slackening rates, and there is evidence that
humid periods occurred during the formation of the earth cap. This
factor permits the general correlation of his minimum estimate with

© Paul B. Sears to Maurice E. Kirby, March 25, 1933.

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 239

the maximums given by Sears. The faunal material from the butte
gives no positive clues save that a postglacial dating for level I is
implied. However, recent research indicates that the Quaternary
paleontologic record is at present a poor gauge for chronology when
compared with the less spectacular but all important correlations with
glacial phenomena and postglacial climatic fluctuations. For North
America these last studies are in their infancy, but they promise ob-
jective results. Level II, from the same line of indirect evidence,
probably falls into the humid period (Prairie Sub-humid of Iowa)
(Sears, 1932, p. 621) of about 5,000 years ago, and level III into
the humid period (Sub-humid, Maize optimum of Iowa) of the last
1,000 years. In this upper level (III), ceramics occur of a type that
is entirely prehistoric. The bulk of this pottery (Upper Republican
type) is identical with that of a prehistoric culture to the south and
east which has an estimated age of 500 years. Thus the ciltural re-
mains in the three strata on tep of Signal Butte appear to cover a
period of some 7,000 to 10,000 years. At the present time this en-
tirely tentative correlation with Sear’s suggested chronology is a prom-
ising lead. Climatic fluctuations in postglacial time are suggested
on Signal Butte as well as in Iowa peat bogs. There is no royal road
to chronology, but the trail is being blazed by careful and conservative
geologists, paleobotanists, geographers, and anthropologists.

OTHER SITES AND REGIONS IN NEBRASKA

If one were to enumerate all the other known archeological sites
in Nebraska, they would make a surprisingly long list. A large num-
ber of these sites, as the foregoing account indicates, have been dug
over by curiosity seekers; others fortunately have not been thus ob-
scured or ruined and await careful scientific excavation. An enumera-
tion or chart of such unworked sites would add little or nothing to
our comprehension of prehistoric problems in Nebraska, and their
publication at this time would inevitably lead to the loss of much
valuable historic data. The writer is very strongly opposed to the
publication of archeological maps which show the logation of sites
that have not been scientifically or completely excavated, for the
reason that such maps are too often merely guides for relic hunters
and thus defeat their own ends, which primarily envisage the advance-
ment of knowledge. Nearly every small town throughout the United
States has its quota of private collectors or relic hunters, and these
become active in the use of such maps long before qualified archeolo-
gists, amateur or professional, can carefully excavate the sites thus

240 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

located. Furthermore, in little-worked regions, especially where dis-
tinctive potsherds are not numerous, such maps are utterly meaning-
less from the cultural standpoint. Thanks to the central agencies
that now exist” there is a growing spirit of cooperation between all
those interested in preserving the past history of man in the New
World, and such preliminary survey maps, on file at central institu-
tions, are accessible to every qualified amateur and professional arche-
ologist. For the above reasons the following discussion will be con-
fined to those sites and regions which have either been thoroughly
excavated or have an important bearing on the sites already discussed
in detail.

During the summer of 1931 the Nebraska Archeological Survey
excavated a prehistoric village near the modern town of Sweetwater,
on a small intermittent tributary of the South Loup River in north-
central Buffalo County (map, fig. 1, site 17). A complete report on
this work will eventually be published but a brief consideration of
the outstanding cultural factors revealed may be given here. Three
earth lodges, all with a four-post central foundation, were excavated.”
One of the houses was perfectly round, one intermediate in shape,
and one square in outline. In structure these houses resemble, or are
intermediate in form to, both the round historic Pawnee earth lodges
and the prehistoric square lodge discussed in connection with the
Lost Creek site. There were numerous cache pits both inside and out-
side the houses, and several small refuse heaps were also excavated.
The various houses, storage pits, and refuse heaps, as indicated by the
material they contained, all represented the same culture. The ceramic
remains are strikingly like those from Lost Creek and the Prairie
Dog Creek ossuary, except that the Sweetwater rim sherds are char-
acteristically decorated around the rim by impressed cords rather
than by incisions (pl. 21, fig. 2, e-m). This feature alone sets the.
Sweetwater ceramics apart as a subtype of the widespread Upper
Republican ware. In the preponderance of collars, horizontal and
angular rim designs, and cord marking on the body of pots, a close
resemblance to the Lost Creek or Upper Republican ware appears.
A small proportion of the potsherds likewise show a characteristic

* The Committee on State Archaeological Surveys (of the) National Research
Council, Washington, D. C.; The Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D. C.; and, for Nebraska particularly, the University
of Nebraska Archeological Survey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, and the
Nebraska State Historical Society, Lincoln.

* Photographs of these houses, excavated and photographed by W. R. Wedel,
have been published. See Strong, 1932, fig. 146.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 241

red hematite stain on their inner surface (pl. 21, fig. 2, k). Pottery
was abundant at this site. Chipped flint artifacts include triangular
unnotched arrowpoints (NBa) most numerous, double notched points
(NBa1) next, and only one slender, stemmed point (SCb2) ; oval
knives (often beveled), small end scrapers, and chipped celts. Bone
artifacts include scapula hoes, bone awls, fragments of bone bracelets
(dot and line decoration), bone beads, bone fishhooks, and cylindrical
antler tapping tools. One broken polished stone celt, perforated disk
shell beads, one perforated shell gorget, perforated and fired clay
disks, and two modeled clay elbow pipes are also reported from the
site, a cultural content that is closely similar to that from the Lost
Creek site earlier described. No burials or ossuaries were located,
though a few human bones were found in one of the cache pits.

The Sweetwater site is only one of a large number of such pre-
historic villages, often associated with ossuaries, in both the Loup and
Upper Republican River valleys. A great number of these sites have
been located and partially investigated by A. T. Hill. Judging from
Mr. Hill’s description, all of these sites present much the same type
of culture as the prehistoric Lost Creek (Republican) and Sweet-
water (Loup) sites already discussed. He calls attention to minor
differences, such as the matter of using cord impressions rather than
incision for rim decoration, between the Loup Valley prehistoric pot-
tery and that of the Upper Republican, and further notes that polished
celts and the draw-shave type of bone beaming tool occur in the east-
ern sites.” My personal impression is that the majority of these small
village and ossuary sites represent the same general culture, the dif-
ferences being due to local variations and pags to their representing
slightly different time periods.

A large village site near Max, in Dundy aoe (map, fig. 1, site 29)
on the western extension of the Republican River, has been reported
on by Loren Eiseley.“ Many house pits were noted here, but none
was excavated. However, the abundance of flint artifacts in a nearby
plowed field permitted a sampling of the culture represented. Pottery
was rather scarce, and no rim sherds were found; hence it cannot
be stated whether the Lost Creek (i. e., Upper Republican) type of
pottery occurs here. However, Mr. Eiseley found one indubitable
“black on red”’ Pueblo potsherd, which to the best of my knowledge
is the first typical southwestern pottery fragment reported from Ne-
braska. The significance of its occurrence on the surface of an ap-

*® Correspondence with A. T. Hill, winter of 1931-32. These problems are
discussed, and much new data presented, by Wedel, 1935, I and IV.
* Correspondence with Mr. Eiseley, winter of 1931-32.

242 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

parently prehistoric Nebraska village is unknown. Flint work was
abundant here, numerous end scrapers, side scrapers, knives (both
well worked and extremely crude), and T-shaped drills being reported.

One of the largest streams flowing from the north and west into
the Republican River is Medicine Creek, which extends from north-
west Furnas County through Frontier County into Lincoln County,
almost reaching to the North Platte (map, fig. 1, site 18). This stream
valley was followed by a much-used war trail during the Indian wars
and abounds in evidence of prehistoric occupation as well. During the
summer of 1931 the writer, guided by A. T. Hill, visited many of these
sites, following up the valley from south to north. The valley of Medi-
cine Creek has since been systematically investigated by Hill and
Wedel (Wedel, 1934, and 1935, I) and its outstanding culture, a
variant of the Upper Republican, described in detail. Characteristic
Medicine Creek rim sherds (pl. 21, fig. 2, a-d) are figured in the
present paper. In the light of the fuller data obtained by Hill and
Wedel, the earlier surveys by myself and by others are superseded.
Mr. Eiseley, however, has found fragments of worked steatite in sites
near Cambridge, Nebr. This calls to mind a cylindrical, steatite bowl
(27.5 cm in diameter) plowed up by C. W. Malroy near Cambridge
in 1902. The specimen is now in the Hill collection at the Hastings
(Nebr.) Museum. Harlan I. Smith (1910, p. 518) reports soapstone
vessels from southern Wyoming, but artifacts of this material are
rare or unknown in other sites reported from Nebraska.

Following up the Medicine to the North Platte River, we come to
another interesting region where rock shelters, blow-outs, and open
sites occur. Several rock shelters here have been excavated by
Dr. EF. H. Bell, and reports on this work will be forthcoming. Another
variant of the Upper Republican culture, similar to that from the
upper level on Signal Butte, occurs in this region, hence it has been
included in the map (fig. I, site 19). Since a further report on this
area based on excavation is in preparation by Bell there is no need
of giving the results of my preliminary surveys. Renaud (1934 a)
has already published the results of his archeological ‘survey of
western Nebraska.

In November 1932 an aboriginal site near the town of Butte, in
Boyd County (map, fig. I, site 31) was called to public attention by
workmen digging a sand pit. Located on Ponca Creek, in the little-
worked northeastern corner of Nebraska, the cultural remains so far
unearthed at the site and preserved in local collections seem to be
exceptionally interesting. On hearing of the find Dr. E. H. Bell,
Director of the University of Nebraska Archeological Survey, sent

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 243

Waldo R. Wedel and Lee Daniels to examine the site. According to
Mr. Wedel” the Butte material came from a number of cache pits
situated on a high flat terrace about 200 feet above Ponca Creek.
Artifacts occur over an area of some I0 to 15 acres, with numerous
cache pits strung along the edge of the terrace. The village site is
marked by low gravel-covered mounds, but whether these are lodge
sites, refuse heaps, or neither is not yet clear. According to Wedel,
the pottery, which is abundant, is similar in many respects to the
Upper Republican (Lost Creek, etc.) ware, having collared rims;
parallel incised-line rim decoration ; zones where the lower edge of the
collar has been pinched up between thumb and forefinger and, I pre-
sume, cord marking on the body of the vessel. On the other hand,
much of the ware has high, direct undecorated rims, wide lugs or tabs,
a yellowish color, and lacks cord marking, all of which features are
distinct from those of the Upper Republican pottery type and sug-
gestive of Nebraska Culture ceramics. Wedel and Daniels picked
up numerous surface sherds of both types and note that the local
collectors place both types in the same containers, claiming that they
come from the same pits. On the basis of limited excavation Wedel
is inclined to think that this is actually the case. It is possible that
stratification of two cultures each marked by a distinctive pottery
type occurs here, although from Wedel’s observations it seems more
probable that there has been a partial cultural amalgamation. This
will be discussed in the concluding sections of the present paper,
the point here stressed being the fact that the Upper Republican type
of pottery, albeit mixed or amalgamated with pottery of another type,
occurs in the northeastern part of the State.

In this regard a point already noted must be stressed, namely, the
occurrence of apparently numerous prehistoric village and burial sites
on the Upper Elkhorn River near the town of O’Neill, Holt County
(map, fig. 1, site 30). Unfortunately, no members of the Survey have
had the opportunity of examining these remains, which have been
called to public attention by J. B. O’Sullivan, of O’Neill.” From the
available descriptions numerous house pits mark these sites, some of
which yield only bone artifacts while others have considerable pot-

* Letters of November 21 and December 7, 1031. Sites in this vicinity have
since been investigated by Dr. E. H. Bell, and detailed reports are being pre-
pared. The culture represented here seems to be a hybrid between what we
have called the Nebraska and the Upper Republican cultures,

* Omaha World-Herald, Sunday, December 22, 1929. Mr. O'Sullivan has
also furnished the writer additional information, letters of January 7 and
August 5, 1930. :

244. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

tery and stone artifacts. The pottery is said to be grit- or gravel-
tempered, cord-marked, decorated with incisions and occasionally
with a red ocher slip. According to the newspaper article cited,
decoration also consists of pinching, modeling in relief, stamping,
and basket impressions. Mr. O’Sullivan believes it to be of Caddoan
(1. e., Pawnee) origin. Stone pipes, abundant small arrowheads, some
sort of soft red stone suggesting brick, obsidian, and numerous other
artifacts are reported. Although it is impossible to form any definite
impression as to the culture represented, the incised, cord-marked,
and sometimes ocher-stained pottery, the stone pipes, and tiny arrow-
points suggest our Upper Republican type. Whether the upper Elk-
horn River villages represent a pure Upper Republican culture, a
blend with the Nebraska culture such as seems to occur at Butte, or
a totally new type must be settled by future research. As will be
pointed out later, this region, directly between the upper Missouri
River area and the numerous prehistoric sites on the Loup and Re-
publican Rivers, seems of strategic importance in tracing the move-
ments of prehistoric populations west of the Missouri in Nebraska.

In extreme southeastern Nebraska Sterns (1915 a) briefly de-
scribes a large protohistoric or late prehistoric camp site on the
Nemaha River near Rulo (map, fig. 1, site 32). Abundant pottery is
reported from here, which is characteristically lump-modeled, smooth
surface, yellow to brown-black in color, thick, and shell-tempered.
Round-bottomed pots seem to have been the prevalent form. Hori-
zontally perforated lugs are common, the rims of vessels are scalloped,
and crude gouges and linear incisions decorate both the body of the
vessel and in some cases the inner portion of the rim. Besides pot-
tery, sandstone shaft polishers, small end scrapers, long chipped knife
blades, and arrowpoints similar to those of the Nebraska culture
occur. Similar remains on Wolf Creek in Kansas are also noted, and
since this pottery type is not found beyond the range of the Kansa,
who had villages in the region about 1725, Sterns (1915 a, II, pp.
171-177) suggests that these sites pertain to this tribe. (Compare
Harrington, 1924, pp. 18-19.) The relationship of this seemingly
distinct ceramic type to those known elsewhere in Nebraska remains
to be determined. It may account for certain of the shell-tempered
sherds found in Nebraska culture sites and should be carefully com-
pared with Oneonta culture pottery from Iowa. The entire region of
southeastern Nebraska is a promising and little-known field.

This concludes our hasty survey of sites as yet incompletely in-
vestigated which seem to have a definite bearing on problems raised
by the more complete excavations previously discussed. It remains

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 245

to sum up the characteristics of the various sites so far excavated and
to determine, in so far as is possible at this early stage, into what
larger wholes or cultures (aspects) they may be grouped.

GROUPING OF SITES AND SUMMARY OF CULTURES
REPRESENTED

Up to the present only one major prehistoric culture has been at
all clearly defined in Nebraska, namely, the “ rectangular earth-lodge
culture’ of Sterns or the “ Nebraska culture ”’ of Gilder, the latter
designation being the one employed in the present paper. To this
must be added the dwelling type and artifact complex revealed in
the lower strata at the Walker Gilmore site, which, since its discoverer
used no general name in describing it, I have termed the Sterns
Creek culture. The foregoing descriptive sections have indicated that
other prehistoric culture types in Nebraska are also represented in the
recent discoveries. In the present section all the prehistoric sites pre-
viously described will be grouped according to their apparent cultural
affiliations, and the major units thus distinguished will be discussed.
The “ Suggested Cultural Classification” chart in the foreword of
the present paper should be consulted in this regard. Naturally, a
number of such prehistoric sites are not yet classifiable into any larger
comprehensive groupings or cultures. Since the historic and proto-
historic Pawnee cultures have already been treated in a summary
fashion, they are also included in table 4, which draws together all of
the Nebraska archeological sites dealt with in the present paper. The
general location of these sites is indicated on the map (fig. 1), and
the cultural affiliation of every site that can be so classified is indicated
in table 4 (p. 246).

Tue Upper REPUBLICAN CULTURE

Since the known characteristics of historic and protohistoric Pawnee
culture have already been summarized, they need not be discussed here.
However, along the Upper Republican River and on the lower reaches
of the different branches of the Loup River are a number of pre-
historic sites which show many marked Pawnee characteristics. Since
the first of these sites were excavated on the upper Republican River,
this cultural grouping has been tentatively designated as the Upper
Republican culture, although the writer feels that the designation
Prehistoric Pawnee can eventually be applied to these sites. How-
ever, until the transitions between the Upper Republican culture
and that of the protohistoric and historic Pawnee have been entirely

246 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

worked out, it seems safer to use a geographic rather than a tribal
designation. To judge from the imperfectly known distribution of
the ceramic type found in Upper Republican culture sites, the culture
occurs in southwestern Nebraska as far west as Red Willow Creek
and on the North Platte River as far west as Signal Butte. It ap-
parently centers along the Republican and Lower Loup Valleys and

TABLE 4.—Grouping of Nebraska Archeological Sites According to Cultures (A spects)97
Classified sites (see Map 1, fig. 1)

Historic Pawnee Hrctobistoue Upper Republican Nebraska Dismal River (?)
1. Palmer 11. Burkett | 13. Lost Creek 20. Rock 23. Site I,
2. Cottonwood} 12. Schuyler} 14. Prairie Dog Bluffs Dismal River

Creek Creek 21. Gates 24. Site 2,
3. Horse Creek 15. Alma 22. Saunders Dismal River
4. Fullerton 16. Munson Creek 25. Site 3,
5. Genoa 17. Sweetwater Dismal River
6. Clarks 18. Medicine Creek
7. Linwood sites
8. McClaine 19. North Platte
g. Leshara sites
10. Hill

Stratified Sites
II Nebraska III Upper Republican and
culture Dismal River
26. Walker Gilmore) I Sterns Creek | 27. Signal Butte) II Signal Butte II
culture I Signal Butte I
Unclassified sites (or uncertain classification)

28. Marshall | 31. Butte 34. Bird Creek 37. Spring Creek
29. Max 32. Rulo 35. Cumro (fossil bison) (fossil bison)
30. O'Neill 33. Weeping Water | 36. Grand Island 38. Angus (?) (mammoth)

(fossil bison)

crops up under rather strange circumstances in extreme northeastern
Nebraska on the Missouri River. So far as known, sites of this cul-
ture do not occur along the Missouri River in central or southern
Nebraska, in which region Nebraska culture sites are numerous. The
Upper Republican culture probably occurs on the upper Elkhorn
River, but this is uncertain at present. Its suggestive but as yet
very poorly recorded occurrence beyond the boundaries of Nebraska
both to the north and to the south will be referred to later.

% These sites are located on map (fig. 1).

NO. IO NEBRASKA AR@HEOLOGY—STRONG 247

Our present knowledge of this culture (1932) depends on exca-
vations in two villages (fig. I, sites 13, 17), three ossuaries (fig. I,
sites 14, 15, 16), and other sites (fig. 1, sites 18, 19), besides reports
on similar villages and ossuaries furnished by A. T. Hill, which are
not specifically listed here. Since ceramic remains seem particularly
significant in indicating the relationship between the various sites
grouped under the term Upper Republican culture, this character-
istic phase will be briefly outlined. This has already been done in
some detail in earlier sections dealing with the Lost Creek, Prairie
Dog Creek, Alma ossuary, Munson Creek ossuary, Sweetwater, Medi-
cine Creek, North Platte, Signal Butte, and Butte sites, hence only
a brief recapitulation of the salient characteristics is necessary at this
time. Briefly, then, Upper Republican pottery is a well-made, rather
hard ware with grit tempering. This tempering material is usually
a rather fine pulverized stone, though occasionally coarse sand and
gravel is employed. In color, a gray tone predominates, ranging to
a light buff in some cases. The surface of the ware is smoothed off
but never highly polished. It does not appear to have been treated
with oil, and with one exception a slip of any sort is absent. This
exception is the occurrence of a bright red hematite stain, often applied
prior to firing, on the inner surface of a small proportion of sherds at
nearly all such sites. Decorative effects are also secured by cord mark-
ings over the outer surface, apparently applied with cord-wrapped
paddles. The percentage of cord-marked ware as compared with plain
ware appears to be rather high (go percent at Lost Creek, house 1,
and 94 percent at the Prairie Dog Creek ossuary). A similar pre-
dominance of cord-marked ware seems to occur at other sites of this
culture that have been investigated, but exact figures are not available.
There is no doubt as to the nature of these paddle marks, since the
impress of cords, often vertically applied, is clearly visible on many
sherds.

Rims of this ware are characterized by a predominance of definite
collars, geometric incised designs confined to the collars, and incisions
across or along the top of the lip of many vessels. At the Lost Creek
site, house I, 82 percent of rims had definite collars and at the Prairie
Dog Creek ossuary slightly less than 50 percent. The rim forms and
incised decoration at two Lost Creek type sites in the Upper Re-
publican Valley are indicated in table 5 (p. 248).

Incised decoration is confined to the collars or necks of vessels
and to the tops of rims, which are often notched. Handles or lugs
are almost lacking in such sites on the upper Republican River and
rare in those that have been investigated on the Loup River. Another

248 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

characteristic mode of decoration on collared rims consists of a zone
at the lower edge of the collar which has been pinched up between
thumb and forefinger, leaving a series of depressions with sharp
ridges or nipples between them. (PI. 9, fig. 1, d, illustrates the type. )
All of the characteristic rim decorations and other features of this ware
can be seen in plates 5, 9, and 21.

Although identical in all major characteristics, the ceramics per-
taining to this culture from the Loup drainage exhibit certain ad-

TABLE 5.—T ypes of Rims from Two Upper Republican Culture Sites

House 1, Prairie Dog

Lost Creek|Creek Ossuary Total
Rim sherds with marked collar:
Collar decorated with incised horizontal lines
(pl. 5, fig. 1,0, €; fig: 2, d) 2.2... .0...00 00 29 5 34
Collar decorated with incised design of chevron
type (pl..5; fig. Byek) 2.1. ace Boo oes 7 I 8
Collar decorated with incised design of diamond
Los Gols Hy iter, 15h he jo, Gy mess eel Aono oil 2 6 8
Collar decorated with incised design of barred
triangle (pling, figa TL) sate wes cn eee I score I
Collar without incised decoration but with
notches along lower edge (pl. 5, fig. 2, c; pl.
COE a eae aa Orie ants Ah BR Ree ened PA US on aS a Seek 2 15 7
Collar without incised decoration or notches
along lower edge (pl. 5, fig. 1,7; pl.9, fig. 1,c) | 8 28 36
Rim sherds without collar:
Neck decorated with incised horizontal lines
(ol Roly ie iW Oe eevee Shoals gore eas sone 8 wep 3
Neck decorated with incised design of chevron
ty Pen(PINO Migeeh ae ise Sr I I
Neck decorated with incised design of diamond
EM DOs creieitane he anette we ovetlouslanetsasire wiherenmenietey eat b rortvogs 2 Hae 2
Neck without incised decoration (pl. 9, fig. 1,
| a Pay) <7) ae emer Retan ws ea ent MERLIN Le ae 4 57 61
Rim sherds with lugs or handles................. Te (2) ere I
TiO Galle cisteye dinette cirttiel creat oye ote ae Pann 172

ditional features. The site at Sweetwater, since it is the only one
of this culture extensively investigated, may be taken as typical,
especially since superficial examination reveals the Sweetwater type
of pottery at numerous other sites in the region. So far as pottery
is concerned, therefore, the ceramic complex of the Upper Republican
culture can at present (1932) be divided into two phases (focii), a
Lost Creek phase (Republican River) and a Sweetwater phase
(Loup River). The Sweetwater phase apparently has all the char-
acteristics of the former with the addition of single cord impressions
forming geometric patterns on the collar of vessels, plus the occasional
use of loop handles and lugs (pl. 21, fig. 2, e-m). When the pottery

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 249

collections from the Sweetwater site have been intensively studied,
the degree of these and possibly other specializations may appear.
However, in general appearance and essential characteristics the two
ceramic phases are very similar.

Not only do the sites included in the Upper Republican culture
have a common distinctive ceramic type, but they also possess a par-
ticular artifact complex. In brief outline this consists of rather abun-
dant elbow pipes cut from soft stone; rare pottery pipes; sandstone
shaft polishers with the elongate oval or “ buffer” shape prevailing ;
small discoidal and ungrooved hammerstones; two main types of
arrowpoints, a large (NBa) triangular point of rather rough work-
manship and a small (NBa, 1-4) type, very delicately chipped and
often notched (table 3) ; small planoconvex end scrapers ; small ovoid
side scrapers ; oval, triangular, and diamond-shaped knives, the latter
type beveled and unbeveled in about equal proportions ; chipped celts ;
very rarely, polished celts ; excellent bone and antler work, including
incised bone and antler bracelets, awls, picks, scapula digging tools,
small bone fishhooks, bone beads, cylindrical antler tapping tools or
punches, perforated antler shaft straighteners and occasionally bison
rib shaft straighteners ; shell artifacts, including cylindrical shell beads ;
small, perforated, clawlike pendants, cut shell ornaments (including
molluscan species from the Gulf coast) ; and (at one ossuary site)
wooden disks covered with beaten copper. A majority of the above
artifact types were found in each site assigned to the Upper Re-
publican culture that has been intensively excavated. Their propor-
tion of occurrence also appears to be very uniform at all such sites.

Although limited in amount, the evidence regarding the dwellings
of the Upper Republican culture is suggestive. So far only one house
at Lost Creek and three houses excavated by Wedel at Sweetwater
are known in detail (1932). The first of these was practically square
with an eastern and a western entrance passageway and a four-post
central foundation. One of the houses at Sweetwater was perfectly
round, another was squared on three sides and rounded on the other,
and the third was perfectly square. All had central fireplaces, long
post-lined entrance passageways, and a four-post central foundation.
The available evidence therefore suggests that a subsurface earth
lodge was typical, and that these were predominantly square or rec-
tangular in outline, though the circular lodge was also in use. The
latter type is practically identical with the protohistoric Pawnee earth
lodge.” Storage pits are located both inside and outside the houses

* This correspondence can be seen by comparing the diagram of a protohistoric
Pawnee house, fig. 3, with the photograph of the round Sweetwater house
previously published, Strong, 1932, fig. 146, c.

250 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

and are usually somewhat bell-shaped, with flat or slightly rounded
bottoms. The occurrence of stone slabs forming floor areas in both
lodges and caches may be a cultural characteristic as well.

The interments of the Upper Republican culture, so far as known,
are in hilltop ossuaries in which previously exposed and rather frag-
mentary human bones have been deposited with a variety of broken
and unbroken artifacts. Disk shell beads are fairly common in the
sites of this type so far excavated. Local report indicates that stone-
slab graves were employed by the bearers of this culture along the
valley of Medicine Creek, but this awaits scientific confirmation. In all
cases where ossuaries have been grouped with other Upper Republican
culture sites, this has been done because potsherds of Upper Repub-
lican ware were abundant in such ossuaries. On the basis of the
present evidence, however, the segregation of the Upper Republican
culture as a historical unit seems justified. The relation of the Upper
Republican to other historic and prehistoric cultures will be discussed
in the next section of this paper.

THe NEBRASKA CULTURE

Compared to the newly distinguished Upper Republican culture a
great deal is on record concerning the Nebraska culture. This latter
culture was first recognized and named by Gilder, but to date has
been most exhaustively studied by Sterns, whose unpublished manu-
script is the most complete treatise on the Nebraska culture extant.”
Sterns excavated in 27 houses of the Nebraska culture type, his re-
sults being summed up in the unpublished paper referred to and his
collections being preserved in the Peabody Museum at Cambridge,
Mass. Since in its present form this paper is not available to many
students, I have, with the author’s permission, included certain of
Sterns’ summaries in the present report. Gilder has dug in a very
large number of sites of this type, but only a small proportion of
these results have been written up or printed, and much of his archeo-
logical material is scattered. The work of the University of Ne-
braska Archeological Survey during 1929-1931 included excavation
in two villages (fig. I, sites, 20, 21) and two habitation sites, one of
which was associated with an ossuary (fig. I, sites 22, 26), all per-
taining to this culture. In the following an attempt is made to draw
together the main results of Gilder, Sterns, and the writer to form
a reasonably complete picture of the Nebraska culture as a whole.

“ Sterns, 1915 a. References in the present section to Sterns’ work for which
no citations are given refer to this manuscript, vol. 2.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 25!

Owing to the more abundant and occasionally contradictory nature of
the data, this cannot be done as concisely as it was for the less fully
investigated Upper Republican culture.

The Nebraska culture has so far been revealed in a large number
of sites in eastern Nebraska and northeastern Kansas bordering the
Missouri River. Although its boundaries have been incompletely in-
vestigated, it is known to extend from Thurston County, Nebr., south
to Doniphan County, Kans. Apparently, it also occurs on the eastern
side of the Missouri River as the recently distinguished Glenwood
culture, which awaits full description by Dr. Keyes. The cultural
complex revealed in these eastern Nebraska sites was designated by
Sterns as the “ rectangular earth-lodge culture,” but since rectangu-
lar dwellings characterize the Upper Republican culture as well,
Gilder’s term “ Nebraska culture” seems preferable.

The Nebraska culture is particularly characterized by abundant and
distinctive pottery remains. Examples of this pottery obtained by the
Survey, as well as certain pieces collected at an earlier date by Gilder
and now in the Nebraska State Museum, are illustrated in plates 13,
14, 15. The paste of the Nebraska culture ware is usually smooth
and well mixed and in the majority of specimens has a flaking rather
than a crumbling texture. Grit tempering predominates, usually a
medium fine sand or pulverized rock, though gravel is occasionally
used. Sherds with the latter type of tempering represent the poorest
quality within the ware. Sparkling iron pyrites, a little-ground-up
limestone, hematite, and, in a few rather aberrant sherds, shell are
all occasionally used for tempering. When fine tempering material has
been used, the ware is rather hard, but when gravel has been em-
ployed, it is softer and more crumbling in texture. The prevailing
color is a reddish brown ranging from orange or brick-red to an
almost gray or black tone. Since the majority of this pottery has been
used for cooking, much of it is fire-stained or smoke-blackened. As
Sterns points out, this variation in color seems mainly to be the result
of somewhat different degrees of firing combined with slightly dif-
ferent clays locally employed.

The surface of this ware is usually polished but rarely has a
lustrous appearance. In a few cases the complete vessel seems to have
been boiled in (maize?) oil, giving it a more shiny appearance (pl. 14,
fig. I, c, fig. 2,4). The nearest approach to a slip is a gray-white wash
on a few potsherds obtained by the Survey, which had evidently been
applied on inner and outer surfaces prior to firing. Sterns notes
that a few small vessels he collected contained red hematite paint on
the inside, as though used for paint pots. The surface is paddle-

252 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

marked in a number of cases, but this may be mentioned under the
heading of decoration.

Decoration is mainly effected by the modeling of rims and secondary
features. A few typical Nebraska culture pots have simple incised
designs on the body, but there are also a number of unique shell-
tempered and well-incised sherds in many of these sites which appear
to be intrusive. Modeling rather than incision typifies the ware. Ac-
cording to the Survey findings paddle marks appear on less than 50
percent of the Nebraska culture sherds (at Rock Bluffs site, house 2,
38 percent; at Gates site, house 1, 18 percent; house 2, 20 percent,
and house 3, less than 50 percent). Thus, as far as the Survey finds
are concerned, polished and plain ware predominates. Of the paddle-
marked ware, some sherds show certain definite traces of cord im-
prints. The bulk of the paddle-marked ware, however, is too much
obscured by subsequent smoothing for one to be certain as to the
exact nature of the original paddle marks. Sterns makes a general
statement that nearly all his sherds show evidence of grass-wound
paddle markings, often almost obliterated by subsequent polishing.
Since he gives no statistics in this regard it remains for future analysis
to determine whether a predominance of paddle-marked ware as men-
tioned by Sterns, or a predominance of plain ware as occurs in the
Survey findings, is typical of Nebraska culture pottery. The same
must be said regarding the different classification of these marks in
the present paper as cord imprints or as imprints of grass-wrapped
paddles according to Sterns. The decorative effects obtained by
modeling of rims, lugs, and handles may be discussed under the
general heading of form.

Pots are the most common form of vessels in this culture, though
open-mouthed bowls, a few bottle-necked vessels, and numbers of
irregularly shaped small vessels, possibly toys, are also found. Cer-
tain effigies and pottery tobacco pipes will be discussed separately.
To judge from the lack of any evidence of coiling combined with the
irregular, often indented interior surfaces of pots, the Nebraska cul-
ture pottery appears to have been lump modeled, probably with paddle
and anvil stone. Globular vessels with round bottoms predominate,
and the majority seem to have had either lugs or handles. Rim types
are variable, as table 6 indicates.

From this table it can be seen that collars are rare in this type
of ware, whereas straight or slightly flaring, unmarked rims are
most abundant. Where decoration occurs on rims, it takes the form
of “ piecrust scallops,” i. e., pressed between thumb and forefinger,
or else a series of diagonal incisions around the outer lip made with

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 253

a rather blunt instrument. So far as the Survey collections from
Sarpy and Cass Counties are concerned, rim sherds with plain lips
greatly outnumber those with incised or finger-marked lips. Lugs

TABLE 6.—Types of Rims from Nebraska Culture Sites Excavated by the Survey

Rock Bluffs site Gates site
Total

House 2|}House 5|House 1|House 2|House 3

Rim sherds with collar:
a. Rim with slight collar deco-
rated with cord marks and
(or) incisions (pl. 15, fg. ie
Woe a TOYO) <6 ee 6) 22 oO 5 3 I II
Rim sherds without collar:
b. Rim straight or with slight
flare, plain lip (pl. 14, fig. 1,
AS Volk, Weems in TO) een oe ae 2, 7 16 69 7 126
c. Rim straight or with slight
flare, incised or finger-
marked lip (pls. 13, 0; 15,

fia ets OniG) all 50) I 9 5 oO 35
d. Rim with small punctate deco-
ration outside and below lip 2 fe) fe) fo) fe) 2
e. Rim with incised pattern on
NCCKEMP A ieee tal fo) fo) fo) fe) fo) fo)
Rim sherds (without collar) with
lugs:

f. Rim having round lug with
vertical perforation (pls.
Sy, (HD Gy hakees Ae Ae pele cre 8 5 2 4 I 20
g. Rim with flare forming lug
with vertical perforation
(pls. 14, fig. 1, d; 15, fig.

7p: 1) Ra ae ene a i I Co) 2 i (0) 4
h. Rim having lug with horizon-
fal perforation (pl. 15, fig. 2
St ier is iB he te eon a a ae oO oO (0) I oO I
ite Rim having horizontal unper-
forated lug (pl. 15, fig. 2,
CID area ete er eee et a: 2 I 2 2 oO 7
j. Rim having vertical unper-
DIaYAL Cal MG ctr sts auc hae ce ane 2 I (0) oO ) oO I
Rim sherds (witheut collar) with
handles:
k. Rim with plain loop handle
(Diset Ayah patpec ation ehh
Reb sp let feed, 2 )iae shack « 4 I 3 13 2 23
1. Rim with indented loop handle I 0) O O oO I
231

are common on these sherds, vertical perforations predominating over
the unperforated and the rare horizontal perforated lugs. Lugs may
be formed merely by a flare at each end of the rim which is per-
forated ; by having the upper edge of the lug formed by an extension
of the rim with a keylike projection on the lower end which pene-

17

254 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

trates the wall of the pot ; or in more unusual cases by having two such
keylike projections on each end of the lug. Unperforated lugs are
usually thickened extensions on the wall of the vessel. From the
proportion of lugs in his collection of rim sherds Sterns estimated
that they occurred in 40 percent of the vessels in this culture. Han-
dles are also common, the single-loop handle placed vertically being
the main type. In a few cases these lugs are modeled to represent
horned creatures, birds or animals (pls. 15, fig. 2, d, 16, fig. I, c).

In size, Nebraska culture vessels range from large pots holding
as much as 6 gallons to tiny toy vessels the size of a quarter dollar.
Smaller pots holding a gallon or less and from 5 to 7 inches in height
are most common. The smallest vessel secured by Sterns had a
diameter of 2 inches across the mouth and held 14 ounces, while
the largest was 10 inches in mouth diameter and held 6 gallons. The
average capacity of his complete vessels was between 1 and 2 gallons.
Crudely modeled and tiny pots and ladles suggest either the work
of children or else by-products of the adults’ work which were used
as toys.

Sterns attempted a regional classification of his Nebraska culture
ware from Washington, Douglas, Sarpy, and Cass Counties, dividing
it into four subtypes: Northern (northern Douglas and Washington
Counties), Central A (Sarpy County along the Missouri River),
Central B (Sarpy County away from the river), and Southern (sites
around Murray, Cass County). In form, color, and predominance
of grit tempering no regional differences were noted, although some
limestone, hematite, and shell was also used as tempering in Central
B ceramics. In size, the vessels from his Northern sites were larger
than those from Southern sites. Lugs with vertical perforations were
common in Southern sites, intermediate in number in the two Central
regions, and rare in Northern sites. The Central sites (both divisions )
had the largest number of unperforated lugs. In regard to hori-
zontally perforated lugs, these were most abundant in Northern sites,
next in abundance in the Central sites, and the Southern sites had less
than half as many as the Northern. The size of lug perforation was
greatest in the Northern and Central sites and smallest in those of
the Southern group. Since this decrease in size of perforation is
proportionately greater than the decrease in size of vessels from
north to south, Sterns regards it as significant, perhaps indicating
the use in the south of a small, stout cord for suspension. This
would also correspond to the greater prevalence of vertical perfora-
tions in lugs from Southern sites. In regard to rim, decorative in-
cisions or finger markings are lacking in the majority of rims from

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 285

Southern sites, whereas in Northern sites the majority are thus deco-
rated. The Central B group agrees in this regard with the Northern
group, whereas Central A is intermediate between Northern and
Southern. Finger markings predominate in such decoration at North-
ern sites, incisions at Southern sites.

Unfortunately, the material obtained by the Survey was studied
prior to the examination of Sterns’ manuscript ; hence entirely com-
parable statistics are lacking. Nevertheless, since the Gates site is in
Sterns’ Central B area and the Rock Bluffs site in or close to his
Southern area, it is possible to compare them. The rim types ob-
tained by the Survey coincide with Sterns’ classification rather well ;
the Southern (Rock Bluffs) site has a predominance of vertically
perforated lugs in spite of a smaller representation of pottery than
has the Central B (Gates) site. In the marked scarcity of horizontally
perforated lugs and the relative scarcity of unperforated lugs at both
sites they fall in with Sterns’ Central and Southern types. Since
finger-marked and incised rims are in a minority at both the above
sites, they also agree with Sterns’ Central and Southern types in this
regard. Thus, so far as the limited Survey collections are concerned,
Sterns’ typological distinctions seem justified.

The considerable range and large number of known Nebraska
culture sites, combined with the regional variations pointed out by
Sterns, give definite promise of either tracing out the development of
the culture in sitw or of tracing the direction from which it reached
eastern Nebraska. Although hundreds of these sites, especially in the
neighborhood of Omaha, have been unsystematically looted, it is pos-
sible that careful excavation of the remainder with subsequent detailed
analysis of their entire ceramic content will go far in elucidating this
problem so well begun by Sterns.

An interesting and significant point which must be mentioned before
leaving the subject of Nebraska culture pottery is the matter of in-
trusive vessels and sherds found in such sites. Both Gilder and Sterns
report the discovery in numerous sites pertaining to the Nebraska
culture of limited amounts of dark, often shell-tempered and beauti-
fully incised sherds, a ware contrasting markedly with the usual run
of ceramics at these sites.” In the Nebraska culture sites excavated

™ Sterns, 1915 a, and Gilder, 1926, p. 32. The latter authority in his papers
of 1907, 1900, 1913, and 1926 illustrates a large number of rim sherds, mostly
from the Omaha region and of the Nebraska culture type. Many of these
intrusive types are also shown. However, since these plates figure so many
types of rims rare or lacking in the collections obtained by Sterns or by the
Survey, with no data on their exact provenience, I have not felt safe in using
this material for comparative purposes.

250 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

by the Survey, 13 sherds from house 2, Rock Bluffs, 4 sherds from
house I, 1 small pot and 35 sherds from house 2, and 3 sherds from
house 3, at the Gates site, were of this thin, dark, and neatly incised
ware. Although certain of these sherds suggested a fine shell temper-
ing, two black, lustrous sherds with a gray-buff interior surface and
abundant shell tempering also came from house 2, Gates site. In
addition to this shell-tempered and often incised ware Sterns also
found a fragmentary incised vessel or dipper with a solid cylindrical
handle. Both this latter type of vessel and the lustrous black shell-
tempered ware are found at the important Cahokia site in Illinois ™
and represent northern extensions of common Middle Mississippi
ceramic types.

Two explanations are possible for the occurrence of such ware in
small amounts in Nebraska culture sites: either there were direct trade
relations between the people of the Nebraska culture and peoples to
the south and east or else there were outposts of the latter culture
(or cultures) in eastern Nebraska. That the latter may have been the
case is suggested by the fact that Sterns partially excavated earth
lodges near Peru, Nebr., in which a dark, neatly incised and often
shell-tempered pottery was the predominant type, and he suggests
that these were the people who traded with the Nebraska culture
people, thus introducing small amounts of such ware into an otherwise
homogeneous ceramic complex. Such an explanation would account
not only for the occasional appearance of such alien sherds or vessels
in Nebraska culture sites, but also, if the cultures were contempo-
raneous, for the occurrence of a few poorly executed designs of this
incised type on otherwise typical Nebraska culture vessels (pls. 14,
figs. I, c, 2, h; 15, 1, d, 2, f). The writer has also been told by Dr
Gilder of certain sites in the vicinity of Omaha excavated by the
latter which contained only incised ware. It thus seems highly probable
that in southeastern Nebraska there were one or more peoples con-
temporaneous with the Nebraska culture but apparently somewhat
more advanced in ceramic technique. Both Gilder and Sterns ap-
parently excavated in sites of this latter type, but none of these has
been completely worked or reported on.

The discussion of Nebraska culture pottery may be concluded with
a brief consideration of the most striking differences that set it apart
from Upper Republican culture ceramics. These may be summed up
by the statement that, although the Upper Republican culture ceramics
are characteristically gray in color, have a high percentage of clear,
evenly applied cord markings on exterior surfaces, are predominantly

#1 Shetrone, 1930, see pot illustrated in fig. 219; Moorehead, 1928, pl. 17, no. 3.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 257

without handles or lugs, have a great predominance of collared rims
decorated with geometric incisions or heavy cord marks, often have
lips of vessels incised or notched across the top, and, in a rather uni-
formly small percentage, are stained on the inner surface with red
hematite, the Nebraska culture pottery lacks all of these characteris-
tics. The few cases where Nebraska culture and Upper Republican
culture sherds have been found intermingled will be discussed later.

Before leaving the general subject of ceramics, however, the abun-
dant tobacco pipes and the unusual human effigy heads of pottery must
be considered. So far 14 of these effigy heads are known to have been
recovered from Nebraska culture sites (fig. 30)."” Suggestive of the
human effigy heads recovered by Gilder and by Sterns is the face pipe
(pl. 16, fig. 1, a, b) recovered by the Survey party in house 2 at the
Gates site. These objects are different from anything yet reported
from Nebraska and suggest the human effigy pots and pipes of the
Arkansas region. Their use in the Nebraska culture is unknown, al-
though Sterns in his unpublished work suggests that, judging from
the roughly rounded necks of those he recovered, they may have been
inserted into something, for example a doll bundle. The majority of
the heads are broken off at the neck, and most of them seem too large
to have ever formed part of a pot. They average around 2 to 3 inches
in height and about an inch in thickness. With the exception of the
Survey piece, they do not seem to have been used as pipes. The sketch
(fig. 30) only suggests the great variation in technique and realism
in the different specimens. With the exception of one small, beautifully
carved piece of pink soapstone (fig. 30, e) all are modeled of pottery.
One of them (fig. 30, f) has a fine white tempering suggesting ground
shell; the tempering material of the others is not known to the writer.
Whatever their function may have been, they represent an extremely
interesting study in realistic and crudely conventional or symbolic art
and indicate both the modeling abilities of the Nebraska culture people
and their possible down-river affiliations. All 14 effigy heads so far
recovered appear to have come from Nebraska culture house sites in
eastern Nebraska. Sterns’ five rather crude effigy heads (fig. 30, i-m)
come from eastern Sarpy County, whereas the majority of Gilder’s
specimens come from cache pits in such houses in Douglas and north-
eastern Sarpy Counties.

™ This figure is based on photographs published by R. F. Gilder, 1911, pp. 250,
254, and on simple sketches of these artifacts in Gilder’s private collection and
in the Sterns collection at the Peabody Museum, Cambridge. In his unpublished
work, 1915 a, pl. 73, Sterns illustrates nos. 9-13. Gilder, 1909, pl. 5, fig. 2, c,
shows another pottery head very similar to one here figured (fig. 30, 1), except
that the eyes are raised instead of incised.

258 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

'"
GANS fer

ida

71

MMM Ly,

ips vens

ss

Z
4
i”
ay)

eaeeetenes

ase co

ae .
af

ae Mang,

MW,

Foun?

Fic. 30.—Effigy heads from Nebraska culture sites. a, b, c, d, e, g, h (after
Gilder 1911); f, Gilder (private) collection; 1, 7, k, /, m, Sterns collection, Pea-
body Museum.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 259

Tobacco pipes recovered from Nebraska culture sites are remark-
able both as to quantity and quality. The 8 obtained by the Survey
from houses at Rock Bluffs and the Gates sites are all of pottery, 6 of
the bent tubular and 2 apparently fragments of straight tubular pipes
(pl. 16, fig. 2). These have already been discussed in detail. Sterns
obtained 40 pipes from Nebraska culture sites, 36 of pottery, 2 of lime-
stone, I of pumice, and I of steatite. The pottery pipes are mostly of
the bent tubular type, though they vary from almost a right angle to a
straight line. One of these pottery pipes with a sharp elbow and in-
cised parallel rings around the top suggests a common Iroquois type;
one broken pipe has a human face in relief, suggesting a similar pipe
obtained by the Survey, as does another of Sterns’ semielbow pipes
with incised turkey tracks; one pipe is modeled to represent a bison
skull; another a bison hoof ; another a human foot; another, a reptile
with lumps all over its back, has its legs broken off ; and still another
suggests half a banana in shape. Evidently the bent toward modeling
in the Nebraska culture evidenced in their pottery found even greater
expression in effigy heads and pipes. The three pumice and limestone
pipes are of the elbow type and resemble those already described from
Upper Republican sites. The steatite pipe is of the platform variety
with a flange around the top of the bowl and, as Sterns states, re-
sembles the Siouan calumet. Sterns (1915 a, II, p. 239) found no
catlinite pipes.

In the course of his excavations Dr. Gilder has obtained a large
number of pipes, many of which, especially the most unusual, have
been illustrated in his various papers already referred to. A charac-
teristic pottery pipe, obtained by Gilder near Omaha, now in the
Nebraska State Museum collections, is illustrated here with those
secured by the Survey (pl: 16, fig. 2, m). In the Gilder collection in
the Omaha Public Library, which contains material obtained mainly
from Nebraska culture sites in the Omaha vicinity, are 20 pipes.
Twenty of these are of pottery, 5 of soft stone, and 1 of steatite. Most
of the pottery pipes are of the bent tubular type; 2 have the form of
a bird with spread wings; 1 a bird with wings in place; 2 have incised
designs suggesting birds; I is a headless animal, the bowl opening
formed by the neck; and I is a well-modeled toad with knobs or
“warts” all over his back; a similar toad pipe collected by Gilder has
incised circles instead of bumps. The five stone pipes are of white,
pink, and red “ pipestone” (this may be chalk) and are of the elbow
type very similar to those found in the Upper Republican culture site
at Lost Creek. To judge from the published accounts and the available
collections, the Gilder pipe material accords with that obtained by

260 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Sterns and by the Survey parties. The bent tubular pottery pipe pre-
dominates, and modeling and incision are both employed on such
pipes. Stone pipes are rather uncommon and in form suggest either
those from Upper Republican culture sites or types more common
in the eastern United States.

In sketching in the outlines of the remaining artifact complex
characteristic of the Nebraska culture the specimens obtained by the
Survey parties, already described in detail, will be used as a basis and
additional types, described by Gilder and Sterns from similar sites,
will be included. Artifacts of ground stone are not especially numer-
ous in the Nebraska culture; they include a very few polished and
partially polished celts (no grooved axes), discoidal hammerstones,
pitted anvil stones, rectangular and “ buffer’ type shaft polishers of
sandstone (the latter described by Sterns as the “ ideal”’ type in this
culture), small sandstone and pumice slabs used for grinding, lime-
stone anvil for pottery (only one reported), and a few perforated
pieces of limestone and calcite. Ground-down pieces of hematite and
limonite “paint’’ are rather common. Chipped stone artifacts are
numerous, chipped celts, arrowpoints, knives, delicately chipped plano-
convex end scrapers, ovoid side scrapers, numerous sharp flakes used
as knives, and a few T-shaped chipped drills are represented. The
arrowpoints fall into two main types, a rather heavy triangular point
(NBa) and a small, delicately chipped point (also NBa), which
is often notched (NBa 1-4) (table 2). From his Nebraska culture
sites Sterns collected 117 unnotched points (mainly NBa), 16 with
2 notches (NBar), 5 with 4 notches (NBa4), and g with 5 notches
(NBa3). An examination of his collection reveals the same division
into large and small NBa types, and the same thing is shown in the
points obtained by Gilder in a typical site on Ponca Creek (near
Omahz)."” Stemmed points occasionally occur in Nebraska culture
sites but are very rare. Knife blades are about evenly divided between
ovoid and diamond-shaped forms, only a few of the latter type being
beveled. Sterns found two oval knives with small stems at one end.

Bone and antler artifacts are also abundant. Bison scapula hoes are
fairly common, some of these having side notches near the blade end,
indicating, according to Sterns, that they were fitted with straight
hafts and used as spades. Many reworked fragments of broken
scapula tools have apparently been employed for other purposes, such
as skin scrapers. Sterns reports one digging tool made from a portion
of bison skull, and Gilder (1926, p. 21) found one bison-horn spoon.

*8 Gilder, 1907, p. 713, fig. 48. The Gilder collection in the Omaha Public
Library contains the same two main types of points.

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 201

The latter artifact may formerly have occurred in other Nebraska
sites, but the material is very perishable. A few handles for stone
artifacts have been found, Sterns obtaining a semilunar piece of bone
with a slit at one end of the base, just the size of a flint knife blade,
and a hole, possibly for a thong, near the other end; also a piece of
perforated large mammal bone that might have been a small ax handle.
In the Omaha Public Library collection are three sections of cut
antler, each having a socket hole in one end and, in one example, a
small perforation at the other. According to Dr. Gilder, who found
them, one of these had an end scraper in place, one a small flint knife,
whereas the one with a socket and perforation was without any at-
tached stone artifact. If handles were commonly employed on Ne-
braska culture stone artifacts, the majority appear to have been of
perishable materials. Bone awls were rare in the sites worked by the
Survey, but many have been recovered by Gilder and Sterns. Ex-
amples from known Nebraska culture sites collected by Gilder and
now in the Nebraska State Museum collections are illustrated here
(pl. 18, fig. 1). Needles, i. e., awls with eyes, are rather rare in these
sites. None were found by the Survey, and Sterns states that less
than 10 percent of his awls had eyes. A few large picks of bison ulna
have been found (pl. 18, fig. 1, @). Shaft straighteners of antler, with
one perforation, are characteristic of the culture, one obtained by
Gilder and one by the Survey being illustrated (pl. 18, fig. 1, b, c).
Sterns found many of this type besides one made from deer bone and
one from a section of bison rib. Cylindrical tapping tools or punches
of smoothed and unsmoothed antler, antler gouges, conical antler
knapping tools, a few combs of antler, and grooved deer jaws (sinew
stretchers?) are all found in Nebraska culture sites. Bone and antler
fishhooks are rather common, the smaller of these resembling bone
fishhooks from Upper Republican culture sites, but many of them
are very large and marked by notches at the bend of the shank. The
Survey parties obtained none of these from Nebraska culture sites,
but both Gilder and Sterns found a number of them. Another unusual
antler artifact is a small toggle-head harpoon, of which at least three
have been recovered from Nebraska culture sites by Gilder.” The

™ Gilder, 1926, p. 8, illustrates five of these rather remarkable fishhooks.
Similar but less elaborate forms occur on the Upper Missouri, Will and Spinden,
1906, pl. 36, s, t; in Kentucky, Moore, 1916, fig. 8; in Tennessee, Harrington,
1922, pl. 75, f; in Iroquois sites in New York, Parker, 1922, p. 119, fig. 14, and
elsewhere in the east and southeast.

** 1926, p. 26; also pl. 9, fig. 2, e, present paper, shows one of these found
by Gilder, now in the Nebraska State Museum. The fact that they were toggle-
head harpoons and not weaving or other implements was brought out by
Wintemberg, 1912, p. 27.

262 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

occurrence of an indubitable harpoon of this type, perhaps used for
large catfish and sturgeon, in prehistoric sites in Nebraska is indeed
remarkable. Both Gilder and Sterns have found bone beads, pendants,
and some bracelet fragments. One of the latter recovered by Sterns
is noteworthy since it very closely resembles one found in the Upper
Republican culture site at Lost Creek (pl. 10, fig. 2). The bracelet
found by Sterns ina Nebraska culture house 5 miles north of Florence,
Nebr., is cruder than the Lost Creek specimen but has the same form
and perforations, with an incised hand on the outer surface showing
a line at the wrist and having marked off finger nails. There is no
circle in the palm of the hand.

The design of a spread hand marked with incisions and often having
a circle or eye in the palm is found commonly on pottery and copper
and stone objects in certain parts of the southeast. It is particularly
characteristic of the Moundville culture in Alabama and also occurs in
Mississippi and Tennessee.” It is undoubtedly significant that a con-
siderable number of Gulf coast shells, including artifacts made from
the shell of the large conch, were found in the ossuary site from which
the Republican culture bracelet was obtained. This design motif is
only a more specialized example of a number of generalized or at-
tenuated southeastern characteristics to be noted in both the Nebraska
and the Upper Republican cultures.

A few other problematical bone and antler artifacts have been found
in sites of this culture, but these need not be considered here. Worked
shell is also characteristic of the Nebraska culture. Numerous shell
spoons, shell pendants with incisions suggesting birds and fish, simple
triangular gorgets, clawlike pendants, and a few flat and disk-shaped
shell beads have been found. One cut fragment of shell obtained by a
Survey party at the Gates site suggests the tooth of a comb. Un-
worked mollusk shells are common in these sites, and most of these,
as well as the worked pieces, seem to be of native fresh-water species.
Of the textile arts the impression of a coiled basket recovered in
house 2, Rock Bluffs, and a very few clearly delineated cord markings
on pottery are the only remaining traces. A considerable amount of
charred corn and some charred beans and sunflower seeds have been
found in these sites, but so far no evidences of squash have been re-
ported. Of animal remains found at these sites deer bones appear to
be considerably more abundant than those of the bison.

We have already discussed in detail the six houses of this culture
excavated by the Survey. During the expeditions of the Peabody

* Moore, 1905, pp. 133-136, 149, 174, 175, 240. Also see Shetrone, 1930,
pp. 387-388, 395-3990, 420.

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 263

Museum from 1912 to 1914 Sterns excavated in 27 of these lodge
sites in eastern Nebraska, many being completely excavated and others
sampled. He states that [Nebraska culture] lodge sites extend along
the Missouri for a distance of at least 175 miles, from Thurston
County, Nebr., to Doniphan County, Kans., being very numerous in
northeastern Douglas County and in Sarpy County, Nebr., and scat-
tered elsewhere in this region. Such sites are usually near the flood
plain of the Missouri River on the first or second bluffs, exceptional
locations being ridges along the Papillion and Weeping Water Creeks.
To these exceptions, on the basis of the Survey work, we may add
that similar sites occur on ridges along the lower Platte and Elkhorn
Rivers. Sterns also notes that the majority of such sites are either near
springs or else close to glacial outcrops where springs may formerly
have occurred. He points out that these sites do not occur in village
groups but are always strung out in a line, even when located on a flat
river bottom, as though adapted to location on ridges. Here again we
may add that villages, such as those at the Rock Bluffs and the Gates
site, are known but that the line formation is usually maintained. Iso-
lated houses, sometimes half a mile apart, also occur, and close village
formation is apparently not characteristic of the culture as a whole.
Such a straggling and unorganized alignment of houses combined
with their occasional location in sites poorly chosen for either obser-
vation or defense suggests, as Gilder has already pointed out, that
the Nebraska culture flourished in times of comparative peace and
security.

The surface indications of such sites, according to Sterns, are
round depressions from a few inches to 4 or 5 feet deep, averaging 45
feet in diameter with a range in the sites he examined of 12 to over
60 feet in diameter. The deepest surface depressions are in the north.
Occasionally such house pits are marked by a low embankment and
often contain trees as large and as old as any in the region. On exca-
vation the great majority of the houses investigated by Sterns proved
to be rectangular in outline, although three were rounded. Sterns’
method of excavation was very similar to the trenching methods em-
ployed by the Survey previously discussed in the present paper ;
hence our results are strictly comparable. In vertical section Sterns
notes three layers, a dark stratum of recently accumulated soil averag-
ing 15 inches in thickness with a range, including all sites, from II
to 20 inches. He notes that the northern sites average nearly 5 inches

*7 This summary of house types is from Sterns, 1915 a, II. On pp. 194-195
Sterns gives the exact locations of these sites and refers to maps on which they
are located,

264 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

thicker than the southern in this regard, which may indicate greater
antiquity. The second stratum of jointed yellow clay, containing some
masses of dumped ashes and charcoal, is apparently the remains of
the earth roof. It averages 10 inches (range 8-16 inches). The third
stratum is the floor of the old lodge with its accumulated debris, which
averages 12 inches (range 9-16 inches). The total depth of the original
excavation varies from 24 to 44 feet below the present ground surface.
Of the sites excavated, those in the north average 1 foot deeper
than those in the south, the two shallowest houses being in the extreme
southern part of the area worked. Whether this variation might be
due to environmental causes is an interesting point not discussed by
Sterns.

The walls of 24 of the excavated lodges are straight and rectangular
in outline, having rounded corners. The length of the short wall aver-
ages 25 feet (range 16-34 feet) and of the long wall 28 feet (range
21-40 feet). Sterns discusses at some length the possibility of con-
scious orientation of these houses with the cardinal directions and
concludes that since a rectangular building can be only 45° off from
true north, the general north and south alignment of these houses is
accidental rather than purposeful. He notes that the subsurface walls
of the lodges slope outward from the top about 10° from the vertical.
In two sites the walls had been burned brick-red, perhaps to make
them impervious to water. An entrance passage was present in about
half these sites, the others apparently having roof entrances with
ladders. The passageways noted ranged from 12 to 24 feet in length,
but with the exception of the shortest all were over 20 feet long. They
were 4 to 5 feet in width, and their direction and length was apparently
determined by the local contour of the ground. They appear to have
generally extended to the southeast, but no definite scheme was ob-
served. Since the passageways had little or no slope, their length
depended on the ground slope beyond the individual house.

The floors in some cases appeared to have been burned prior to
occupation and, except for the areas around fireplaces and in corners,
were largely devoid of artifacts. Sterns noted very few postholes, and
these, he says, would accord equally well with either the historic earth
lodges or with a gabled roof, their paucity favoring the latter explana-
tion. As in the work done by the Survey, it is here that the trenching
method employed by Sterns is weakest, and it remains to be deter-
mined whether complete excavation of such sites above the floor line
with subsequent careful shaving off of the floor area might not reveal
the plan of post foundation employed.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 265

Small pits about 1 foot deep and 1 foot in diameter averaged three
to a lodge (range 0-6). They occurred in any part of the floor and
contained a few broken artifacts. Large pits averaging 34 feet deep
by 34 feet in diameter (range 23-6 feet in diameter and 2-5 feet deep)
averaged 4 to a house, although one house had ro. About half these
large pits were cylindrical and half were expanded at the bottom. The
majority of artifacts recovered came from such pits, but to Sterns
they do not appear as “ caches ”’, i. e., storage pits, but rather as rubbish
pits. Gilder (1926, p. 19), who has probably dug in more of these pits
than any other person, regards them primarily as storage places, and
the writer is inclined to believe that such was their primary purpose,
since the preparation of an interior pit for refuse deposition when the
whole outdoor was available seems a pointless procedure. The occur-
rence of large deposits of clear white ash and numerous unbroken
artifacts in such pits furthers this idea, as does their use by historic
tribes as granaries and deposit places. It is certain that, when empty,
they were often filled with refuse.

Sterns encountered only three lodges, in a group of six on Papillion
Creek in Sarpy County, that were not square or rectangular. Two
were circular, with diameters of 16 and 20 feet, and the third was
elliptical, averaging 18 feet in diameter, all being rather small. The
other lodges at the Papillion Creek site were not excavated by Sterns.
Aside from their shape they were similar to the rectangular lodges and
contained the same types of artifacts. It was in one of these houses that
Gilder and Sterns encountered numerous cracked and scorched human
bones on the floor and in cache pits, and in a cracked pot were frag-
ments of human rib bones which had the appearance of having been
boiled. (Gilder, 1913, pp. 107-116.) The small elliptical house com-
bined with the presence of mutilated human bones calls very strongly to
mind the lodge at the Saunders site partially excavated by the Survey.
Further investigation at these two sites should go far toward clearing
up this matter of ceremonial cannibalism or strange mortuary rites,
whichever it may be. One other interesting feature of the round and
oval houses reported by Sterns is the fact that this was the only site
where bison bones were more numerous than those of deer. Sterns
states that the form of these dwellings may represent a transitional
stage in the development of the round historic earth lodge of the
region or may merely be a modification resulting from their small size.

From the above condensed account of Sterns’ findings it appears that
the earth lodge of the Nebraska culture is characteristically rectangular
or square, is semisubterranean, and may or may not have a long
entrance passage. The occurrence of a few round lodges, in one case

266 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

at least used as a charnel house, is also noted. These conclusions are
in almost complete accord with those of the less extensive Survey
researches in such sites. Gilder has also described various Nebraska
culture houses, but owing to incomplete excavation his earlier descrip-
tions are seriously open to question and need not be considered here.

There remains to be mentioned the vexed problem of the methods
of disposal of the dead practiced by the people of the Nebraska
culture. The occurrence of some sort of charnel houses has been
mentioned above, and the presence of scattered bones and partially
articulated skeletons in natural hillocks or mounds associated with
potsherds of the Nebraska culture type has also been touched upon
in earlier sections. Fragmentary evidence of this sort obtained by
Gilder, Sterns, and the writer, indicates that the people of the Ne-
braska culture exposed their dead, perhaps on scaffolds or in certain
houses, and later buried them with a few scattered offerings in small
elevations or ridges near the houses. That some of these hillocks may
prove to be artificial rather than natural is a possibility, and until more
careful excavation work in such sites has been accomplished we can-
not tell whether the Nebraska culture carriers were actually mound
builders or not. The occurrence of only a very few scattered human
bones and offerings in such elevations, as was the case in the “ mound ”’
above the Walker Gwmore site previously described, suggests that the
Nebraska culture people may have at times removed the bones of their
dead and carried them away with them, as has been recorded, for
example, among the Sisseton and other Dakota groups. (Bushnell,
1927, p. 26.) All that can be said at present is that these people
exposed and dismembered their dead, seem to have kept the skeletal
remains in their lodges, perhaps practicing some form of ceremonial
cannibalism, and eventually deposited them in mounds, natural or
otherwise.

In summing up the characteristics of the Nebraska culture in com-
parison with those of the Upper Republican culture, a few sharp
differences as well as numerous similarities become apparent. Both
have rectangular semisubterranean earth lodges as the main type of
dwelling, and both occasionally used round earth lodges as well. How-
ever, the Nebraska culture lodges had only interior cache pits and
often lacked a definite entrance passageway, whereas the Upper Re-
publican culture house type, so far as known, had a definite four post
central foundation, one or two post-lined entrance passages, and ex-
terior as well as interior cache pits. Both cultures are characterized
by the deposition of previously exposed human bones in ossuaries,
but there is a possibility that the people of the Nebraska culture were

NO; LO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 267

mound builders as well. In regard to pottery, the two cultures, so far
as known at present, are quite distinct. On the other hand, the re-
mainder of the artifact complex of the two is basically similar. Both
cultures have tobacco pipes of pottery and stone, both have the two
main types of arrowpoints already described, the same types of flint
knives and scrapers, the same types of bone and antler implements, and
both worked shell in much the same manner. Differences appear in
the fact that pottery pipes predominate in Nebraska culture sites,
stone pipes in Upper Republican culture sites, and the artifacts of the
former culture generally exhibit a greater richness and variety than
do those of the Upper Republican culture. Indeed, if it were not for
the striking difference in ceramics found at the two types of sites, it
would be rather hard to draw a clear line between the two cultures.
Yet this major difference, combined with the minor distinctions listed
above, seems to justify their separation as distinct cultural entities.
The similar evidences of relative antiquity observed in excavating both
types of sites, combined with many close parallels in the content of
the two cultures, strongly suggests that the two were contemporaneous
in time and definitely reacted upon one another. The significance of
this evidence will be discussed in the next section.

THE STERNS CREEK CULTURE
The cultural evidence revealed in the lowest stratum at the Walker
Gilmore site (fig. 1, site 26, and pl. 19) is so different from the other
known prehistoric horizons in Nebraska that it must be classed as a

** This uniform occurrence of two types of arrowheads, a larger and a smaller,
in at least two prehistoric Nebraska cultures is significant. That the difference
was functional rather than accidental is indicated by Bradbury, 1817, pp. 164-
165, when he describes the arrows then in use among the Arikara: “ To produce
a more copious discharge (of blood), the heads of the arrows designed to he
used in hunting are much broader than those intended for war. The heads of
both are flat, and of the form of an isosceles triangle; the length of the two
equal sides three times that of the base. In neither does the shaft of the arrow
fill up the wound which the head has made; but the shaft of the hunting arrow
is fluted, to promote a still greater discharge of blood.” In a footnote he adds
that formerly the Indians made arrowheads of flint or horn stone, but at the
time of which he writes (1810) they purchased them from traders, who cut
them from rolled iron or hoops. Dunbar mentions the grooved arrow shaft in
use among the Pawnee but states that this tribe never followed the practice
of making two kinds of arrows, one for war and one for hunting. (See De Land,
1906, p. 308.) This agrees with the archeological findings, inasmuch as two
distinct sizes of arrowpoints have not been found on protohistoric and historic
Pawnee sites, whereas the Arikara seem to have preserved an old differentiation
between large “hunting” points and small “war” points noted in the two
main prehistoric cultures so far distinguished in Nebraska.

268 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

distinct culture. At present this one site is the only place where this
exact culture complex is known to occur, but there are some indications
that it may be found across the Missouri River in western Iowa and
possibly in other sites in eastern Nebraska. Since all the available
evidence on the Sterns Creek culture has already been presented in
the earlier section of this paper concerning the Walker Gilmore site,
we need only list its main characteristics. Particularly striking is the
evidence of small surface houses with thatched roofs, small posts and,
perhaps, walls of bark. Equally distinctive is the pottery from the
lower level, which appears to have had definitely pointed or conical
bottoms, has no collar and no sharp angle between shoulder and rim,
lacks any general body cord marking or incisions, lacks all secondary
features, such as lugs or handles, is crumbling rather than flaking in
texture and was apparently coiled rather than lump modeled (pl. 19,
fig. 1). Its decoration is simple, consisting in a great majority of cases
of delicate scallops around the outer edge of the rim, made with a
blunt instrument or with the fingers, and in rare cases of a design on
the neck made by single heavy cord impressions forming simple pat-
terns. This pottery, although not very abundant, occurs in all the
exposures in the lower level at this site and is both uniform and unique
in type. The only other pottery artifacts recovered here were frag-
ments of straight conical tobacco pipes. Of stone artifacts, only one
excellently polished celt or ax fragment and a few simple hammer-
stones, a very few crudely chipped notched and unnotched arrowpoints,
ovoid and retouched flake knives or scrapers, and one large crude
pick or hand ax have been recovered. Bone and antler work, on the
other hand, is excellent, including in the present list numerous awls
or needles with eyes, antler picks and knapping tools, one bone bead
and one perforated animal toe bone (part of a“ ring and pin” game).
Wood and shell occur in this horizon, the former material being defi-
nitely worked in a few cases. Especially notable is the presence of
numerous squash and gourd remains but, so far as known, no evidence
of maize. Likewise, the fact that deer bones predominate heavily over
those of the bison in the refuse deposits is undoubtedly significant.
Such in briefest résumé is the culture so far revealed in the lower
strata at the Walker Gilmore site. It is remarkable for many things,
such as its great depth of deposition, its occurrence under remains of
the prehistoric Nebraska culture, and the unique nature, so far as
Nebraska is concerned, of its cultural complex. Although this culture
seems unique and somewhat out of place within the State, it has certain
definite analogues elsewhere which will be discussed shortly.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 269

SIGNAL Butte Cuttures (II anp I)

There are at Signal Butte at least four main cultural manifestations
(components) representing four culture types (aspects) or subtypes.
Two (Upper Republican and Dismal River) in level III, one (Signal
Butte IT) in level II, and one (Signal Butte I) in level I. In addi-
tion, the two upper levels (III and IT) contain artifacts carried up
from the exposed edges of the lower and older deposits. Regarding
the most recent level of occupation (III), the essential character-
istics of the Upper Republican culture in its various manifestations
have already been discussed. The little known Dismal River cultural
type will be referred to later. The middle occupation level (II), aside
from intrusive artifacts from level I, is distinctive but as yet poorly
defined. Most characteristic of this horizon are stemmed projectile
points of medium size, with and without barbs (SCb2, SCaz2) (fig. 7
and pl. 24, fig. 2, e, f). This type of point comprises 61 percent
of all projectile points from this level. Those with straight bases
are most numerous. On Signal Butte, however, this horizon is so
limited that it must be found elsewhere in more abundance before
it can be described as a major culture (or aspect). The cultural
material from the lowest level (1), however, is so abundant and dis-
tinctive that it seems safe to designate it as a major culture, or aspect,
under the name Signal Butte I.

Owing to the condensed presentation of this evidence in a previous
section, only the major characteristics of the Signal Butte I cul-
ture need be recapitulated. Like Signal Butte II, the older horizon
(1) lacks pottery. It is primarily a chipped stone culture but a
number of ground stone artifact types also occur, particularly grinding
stones, shaft polishers and, rather unexpectedly, grooved mauls and
one ax with ground notches (pl. 25, fig. 2, m). The chipped flint
industry is rich and is particularly characterized by the use of flakes,
usually with excellent retouching. A large number of artifact types
occur, especially planoconvex scrapers and chipped points (table 3).
Among the latter a medium-sized to large lanceolate, or leaf-shaped,
form greatly predominates (65 percent of all projectile points). One
leaf-shaped type with a concave base (NAb3) comprises 34 percent
of all the other types of projectile points. In outline, this type is
similar to the Folsom type of point (NAb4) but lacks the longitudinal
grooves (fig. 7, and pl. 25, fig. 1, 0). Less numerous (28 percent of
all projectile points) are three types (Sca2, SCa3, SCb3) of stemmed
points, the majority of which also have stems with concave bases.
The occurrence of many planoconvex gravers and small flake drills

18

270 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

is also noteworthy. Plano-convex end scrapers are extremely numer-
ous, and of three types, those with rough backs comprise 59 percent,
those with retouched backs 31 percent, and those with definite stems
10 percent. Side scrapers are even more common, and of these 33
percent are planoconvex and 67 percent are retouched on both sides.
Flake knives, always planoconvex, are very abundant and range from
simple flakes with a use retouch on one or more edges, to a definite
type of flat knife with a well-retouched back, a delicately retouched
edge, and a curved (plane of fracture) under surface (pl. 25, fig. 1,
w-z). Workshop materials are abundant in this level, and a wide
range of materials are represented. Bone work is not overly abundant,
but several rather distinctive types are present, including an awl made
of split bone or antler with a short, shouldered point; large split
bone knapping tools; heavy, crude bone gouges; and polished bone
fragments with incised geometric designs. Some worked shell oc-
curs. Small, potshaped storage pits and round, often stone-fired fire-
places are the only structural features. This, very briefly, sums up
the salient characteristics of the Signal Butte I culture. In the next
section the sequence of artifact types from level to level on Signal
Butte will be touched upon.

OtTuHER SITES

In regard to the three sites on the Dismal River our present knowl-
edge is too scanty to determine whether a distinct culture is repre-
sented here or not. Two distinctive pottery types occur at these sites,
(a) a thick brown hole-tempered ware with deep markings on the
outer surface (pl. 22, fig. 1, a, b, c,e), and (b) a rather thin gray-black
smooth ware which is tempered with fine sand (pl. 22, fig. 1, d, f-m).
On the Dismal River a number of European objects have been found
associated with both these types of pottery on the surface, but
whether all three are contemporaneous is uncertain. In western Ne-
braska, at Kaighns Point, 100 miles to the west, the two ceramic
types were again found associated, and the gray-black ware (b) oc-
curs in association with more abundant Upper Republican type pot-
tery in the third level (III) at Signal Butte, where it is prehistoric
(pl. 24, fig. 2, b). It has been suggested, on the basis of historical
and traditional evidence, that the Dismal River sites were occupied
by the Comanche in early historic or protohistoric times and that one
or both of these ceramic types may pertain to that tribe. Since no
records of Comanche pottery-making exist, the point is interesting.

All of the Nebraska cultures so far distinguished have now been
mentioned. Obviously many of these, indeed most of them, are very

NWO LO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 271

inadequately defined, and of none can it be said that it is known in
full detail. That still other cultures remain to be added to this record
is indicated by numerous unclassified archeological sites, many of
which have been mentioned. The occurrence of artifacts associated
with various extinct species of bison at Cumro, Grand Island, Spring
Creek, and possibly Bird Creek has been mentioned. In each of these
finds, however, the artifact content has been too limited to do more
than suggest cultural affiliations. The true Folsom culture, revealed
at the Lindenmeier site in northeastern Colorado, has not yet (1935)
been encountered in situ in Nebraska.

CULTURE SEQUENCE AND DEVELOPMENT IN NEBRASKA

So far there have been four primary methods of establishing culture
sequence in Nebraska, the first based upon the degree of European
contact exhibited in aboriginal sites; the second upon the super-
imposition of culture layers, or stratification ; the third upon the as-
sociation of distinct types of artifacts with extinct animal species;
and the fourth upon the occurrence of artifacts in deposits of de-
terminable geologic age. The first of these permits a division of con-
tact sites into historic, i. e., documented, and protohistoric sites which
show evidences of white contact but are not recorded in the annals of
exploration. In general, such protohistoric sites are older than the
historic sites, and in a few cases their relative age can be determined
by the fact that they contain a few white trade articles but no horse
remains. Prehistoric sites that show no evidences of any such alien
contact are still older. The value of stratification in determining se-
quence is obvious, and in this regard we are fortunate in having two
prehistoric stratified sites strategically located in extreme eastern
and western Nebraska. The third method, i. e., the association of
definite artifacts with extinct fauna, has been a much emphasized
development of the last few years. Unfortunately, the uncertainty
which as yet exists concerning even the relative time of extinction
of many animal species has made this method of dating unsatisfactory.
In final analysis objective dating of such associations must rest upon
the fourth method of determining time sequence, i. e., their occur-
rence in horizons of known or determinable geologic age. Dendro-
chronology and fossil pollen analyses, which have recently been found
to be applicable in parts of the Mississippi valley, may prove highly
valuable in portions of the Great Plains as well. Methods of deter-
mining the finer time periods in the North American Recent and
Pleistocene periods are still in an experimental stage, and on their

272 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

development depends any worth while relative dating of the earliest
chapters of human history in the New World.

Applying the first three of these methods to the available archeo-
logical evidence in Nebraska, the following culture sequences are sug-
gested (table 7). The more or less debatable geologic age of certain
of these horizons or associations will be discussed later.

On the historic level the outlines of Pawnee archeology are already
known, whereas that of the sedentary Siouan peoples, Oto, Omaha,
and Ponca, are still obscure. From historic sources we know that the

TABLE 7.—Sequence of Cultures in Nebraska (and Northern Colorado)

(East—->] Glacial area | Loess plains Sand hills High plains [—>West]
Historic Sedentary | Pawnee Dakota, Arapaho, and Cheyenne
Siouan
Protohistoric ? Pawnee Comanche ?

Dismal River (poorly defined)

Prehistoric Nebraska | Upper (Signal Dismal River
Republican} Butte III) \| Upper Republican
Walk
as Sterns Signal Butte [I—
site) Creek (poorly defined)

Signal Butte I

Artifacts associated with extinct bison
(geologic age?)

Folsom (Northern Colo.)
(geologic age?)

PLEISTOCENE

(at present an indefinite transition)

latter tribes probably entered Nebraska during the eighteenth century,
occupying the richest portion of the State just west of the Missouri
River, apparently without any determined opposition on the part of
the Pawnee. Since the Pawnee immediately to the west had long
preceded them in Nebraska, were superior to them in numbers and
organization, and later dominated them politically, such a late and ap-
parently peaceful occupation is remarkable. The fact that this rich
eastern strip seems at no time to have been occupied by the Pawnee
suggests that the Omaha, Ponca, and Oto were merely the last of a
series of related peoples to hold this region. Otherwise it is incon-
ceivable that the Pawnee would not have extended their territories
to the Missouri at some point in its long course along the eastern

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 273

boundary of the State. The Pawnee, as has previously been stressed,
seem to have been the oldest Nebraska tribe. Apparently moving up
from the south in the rather dim past, they have occupied the heart
of the Nebraska region from the earliest dawn of recorded history.
As Wedel has suggested, they appear to be a people originally of
southeastern woodland cultural antecedents that had become habitu-
ated to a settled horticultural life along the lesser rivers of the cen-
tral loess plains. The time of their arrival in Nebraska is unknown,
but from the archeological record it must have been considerably
prior to the historic period. Of the nomadic buffalo-hunting peoples
of Siouan and Algonkian speech, namely, the Dakota and the Arapaho
and Cheyenne, the historic record indicates recency of occupation
along the western borders of the State.

During the protohistoric period, roughly between 1540 and 1682,
Pawnee culture seems to have achieved its highest development. The
known protohistoric Pawnee villages are larger, the house types in
closer conformity to native ideology and sometimes more elaborate,
and the ceramics and other artifacts of better quality than at any other
period. The pottery from protohistoric Pawnee sites is the finest
known in the Nebraska region and is as advanced and well finished
as any known Arikara or Mandan wares. This seems to be the type
of culture so briefly mentioned by the chroniclers of the Coronado
expedition, and archeology is thus able to confirm their reports of large,
settled villages west of the Missouri, whose numerous inhabitants were
horticulturists and in no sense nomadic hunters. Many things remain
to be determined concerning this culture, as, for example, the methods
of burial employed, the range of the culture in space, and the exact
transitions occurring between the historic sites on the one hand and
the prehistoric (Upper Republican) culture on the other. Never-
theless, the work already accomplished at the Burkett and Schuyler
sites is sufficient to indicate the high level of Pawnee development
just prior to the acquisition of the horse, and its subsequent decline.
So far nothing is known concerning either the sedentary Siouan
peoples of the east or the peoples of western Nebraska during this
period. From historical sources it is known that the Comanche oc-
cupied the sand-hill region of central Nebraska at about this time,
coming in from the west and moving out toward the south. Archeo-
logical investigation to date adds little to the incomplete historic
record in this regard, except that sites marked by unique pottery types
do occur on the Dismal River in the heart of the sand-hill region, in
places where the Comanche are reported to have been settled. At
the present time only the protohistoric Pawnee culture clearly bridges

274 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

the gap between the known historic and the entirely prehistoric
horizons.

The prehistoric period in Nebraska has been the main concern of
the present paper. It extends from 1541 for an indefinite period
back into the past, a period for which culture sequences are being es-
tablished but for which even relative dates do not yet exist. In 1922
Fowke concluded that not a single bit of human evidence revealed
along the Missouri River in northern Kansas and Nebraska was
older than ro centuries. Like Fowke, the writer admits that at present
most time estimates are mere guesses, yet his own opinion regarding
the earliest evidences of man in the region would change the centuries
of the former’s estimate to millennia and regard this as an ultracon-
servative estimate.

In considering the prehistoric cultures of our area from east to
west, the Nebraska culture must be discussed. So far as known this
culture is entirely prehistoric and coincides rather remarkably with the
historic range of the sedentary Siouan tribes. Considering the average
accumulation of 15 inches of soil in the house pits of this culture
subsequent to their abandonment, the culture is not extremely recent,
but the transposition of such an accumulation into terms of years is
not yet possible. The earth lodges, although predominantly rectangular
in outline, are ina few cases round, suggesting a possible transition to
the historic type in the region. Of all the strictly prehistoric cultures
in Nebraska, this is perhaps the most advanced. It also shows more
contact with other peoples to the south and east, as evidenced by
modeling in pottery, clay pipes, human effigies, and the occurrence
of intrusive ceramic types. From the scattered and often indefensible
nature of the isolated houses or small, strung-out villages it would
appear that the culture flourished in a period of relative peace. From
the abundance of charred maize and other vegetal remains in many of
these sites, the abundance of bone digging tools, and the quantity of
pottery found, a sedentary and horticultural life is also indicated.
There is a suggestion that mound burial was in vogue, at least the
previously exposed dead were deposited in small natural eminences,
and it is possible that careful excavation may establish the artificial
nature of some of these. Along the Missouri River the Nebraska
culture was preceded by a quite different sort of occupation, that of
the Sterns Creek culture people. To the west another prehistoric
people comprising the Upper Republican culture seem to have been
generally contemporaneous with the Nebraska culture. It remains
to be determined whether the Nebraska culture represents an earlier
Siouan occupation of the glacial area in the State or whether some

NO. I0 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 275

other group is represented here. This should become clear when the
archeology of the historic and protohistoric Siouan tribes has been
undertaken. One significant fact, however, is already evident, and
that is the dissimilarity that exists between the Nebraska culture and
the later Pawnee cultures. This is particularly marked in the pottery
characteristic of these cultures but extends into other cultural features
as well.

The Upper Republican culture, like the above, is marked by numer-
ous small, scattered villages which exhibit no attempt at close organiza-
tion or defense precautions. The remains of this culture seem to
center on the Republican and Loup Rivers in the heart of the historic
Pawnee territory but extend still farther to the west and north. Ap-
parently, they occur in Kansas as well, but the archeology of this State
is still obscure. From the amount of subsequent accumulation of un-
mixed soil over certain of the abandoned sites an antiquity rather
similar to that of the Nebraska culture is suggested. This belief in
contemporaneity is strengthened by certain general similarities in house
type, disposal of the dead, and the nature of the total artifact com-
plex (excepting pottery) that exists between the two cultures. More-
over, both Sterns and the writer found a few Upper Republican type
rim sherds mixed in with the typical Nebraska culture remains en
the plowed surface at the Walker Gilmore site.

At the Butte site in extreme northeastern Nebraska the relationship
between these two types of pottery appears to be even more com-
plex, suggesting that some sort of cultural amalgamation may have
occurred in the north. In this region the range of the sedentary
Siouan tribes and the Caddoan Arikara seems to have overlapped in
protohistoric and prehistoric times. Omaha ethnology strongly indi-
cates early and close contacts with the Arikara in this area (Fletcher
and La Flesche, 1911). The latter were evidently derived from the
generalized, prehistoric Upper Republican culture and, if the historic
Omaha and Ponca prove to be derived from the prehistoric Nebraska
culture, such a fusion would be expectable. Elsewhere the ceramic
complexes of the Nebraska and Upper Republican cultures differ very
markedly, and since slight though seemingly persistent differences
occur in their remaining cultural content, it would appear that the
two had persisted for some time side by side, very much as the Cad-
doan Pawnee and the sedentary Siouan tribes did in the historic
period. In both cases there appears to have been mutual borrowing of
traits, but the two cultures, at least in the central and southern por-
tions of Nebraska, seem to have maintained their own integrity.

276 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

It has been stated that the Upper Republican culture probably repre-
sents a prehistoric stage in Pawnee development. This is indicated
not only by the fact that the ranges of the two cultures coincide, but
also by the fact that a transition from Upper Republican culture to
protohistoric Pawnee and finally to historic Pawnee cultures is ap-
parent. This is particularly marked as regards the development of
house types and ceramics.

The predominant Upper Republican culture house type appears
to have been a small, semisubterranean earth lodge with a four-post
central foundation, covered entryway (or entryways), and square or
rectangular outline with rounded corners. At the same time one round
and one intermediate earth lodge pertaining to this culture have been
uncovered at Sweetwater (1932). The former of these, except for
smaller size and deeper floor, is identical with the later protohistoric
Pawnee earth lodges. The latter are round in outline, about half as
deep as the earlier type, and considerably larger, but are otherwise
very similar, having the same four-post central foundation, outer
circle (or circles) of posts and a post-lined passageway. The historic
Pawnee earth lodge is also round, is nearly on the surface of the
ground, and has from four to eight central posts instead of the al-
most universal four of the earlier types. In spite of this lapse from
the old pattern in building such lodges, the present Pawnee still refer
to only four house posts in their ceremonies. The outer circle of
posts and the post-lined passageways of the historic houses are the
same as those of the earlier types. There appears, then, to have been
a consistent development from the small, deep, square or round earth
lodge up to the large, slightly subsurface, round earth lodge of historic
times. Although the discovery that the square earth lodge is an earlier
type than the round lodge in central Nebraska may seem surprising,
it is in accord with the findings of Sterns in eastern Nebraska, where
the predominantly rectangular dwelling of the Nebraska culture pre-
cedes the round earth lodge of the historic Siouan tribes. Of these
two prehistoric house types, that of the Upper Republican culture
shows the most direct relationship to the historic Pawnee earth lodge.
It would take us too far afield to discuss the possible reasons for the
occurrence of this earlier rectangular type of dwelling in Nebraska.
It seems a promising hint that in the prehistoric Caddoan cultures
of southwestern Arkansas both the round and the square earth lodge
has been reported (M. R. Harrington, 1920, pp. 256-259, 291-297)
and that certain of these closely approximate the Upper Republican
(or prehistoric Pawnee) culture type of dwellings in central and
southern Nebraska. The point that is stressed at this time, however,

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 277

is the strong probability that the historic Pawnee earth lodge is a direct
outgrowth of the house type found at Upper Republican culture sites.

Equally interesting is the probability of the development of historic
Pawnee ceramics from the types represented in the Upper Republican
River culture. In regard to the predominant gray to buff tone of
the ware, the use of collars or overhanging rims, the decoration
of such rims with incisions, and the occurrence in all three cultures
of a small proportion of buff ware with a red hematite slip or pseudo-
slip on the inner surface, the Upper Republican, protohistoric and
historic Pawnee are the same. It is also notable that the Lost Creek
focus of the Upper Republican culture has a very high proportion of
collars but no loop handles (the Sweetwater focus has a few), the
protohistoric Pawnee ware also has collared rims but in many cases
substitutes a series of loop handles extending from flaring lip to
neck, whereas the historic Pawnee rim type returns to a predominantly
collared type but retains in many cases attenuated series of loop
handles extending from lip to neck as in the protohistoric stage. Pre-
sumably, the function of the overhanging collar is to facilitate the at-
tachment of thongs or cords for suspension; hence the development
noted in the three wares seems logical. The prehistoric people de-
pended almost entirely on such collars, the protohistoric people re-
tained these or substituted the more decorative row of loop handles,
and the rather decadent pottery of the historic period not only has
the accentuated collar but also retains in many cases the series of loop
handles of the intermediate stage. In all three wares incised decoration
characterizes the neck or collar of the vessels. This decoration is
simple and geometric in the Lost Creek focus, adds cord marking
to incising in the Sweetwater focus, runs to great elaboration of in-
cised design on handles and rims in the protohistoric period, and
becomes more simple, conventional, and very careless in the historic
period. Since at the present time we have only sampled sites of these
three cultures, it is not to be expected that a full series of inter-
mediate stages between all of them would be represented in the present
collections. As transition sites are excavated the writer believes that
a clear, unbroken line of ceramic and other development will become
evident. If such proves to be the case, it will be permissible to change
the term Upper Republican to Prehistoric Pawnee culture, although
further research may definitely connect this early culture type with
prehistoric Arikara, Wichita, or other cultures, in which case a more
inclusive term may be desirable.

Other artifact types in the three cultures likewise show many basic
similarities, and it might be possible, even with our limited data, to

278 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

trace the development of various types from the early to the late
periods. One marked break between historic and prehistoric cul-
tures is the method of interment practiced by each, the people of the
first period exposing their dead and eventually depositing them in
hilltop ossuaries, whereas the historic Pawnee buried individually in
hilltop cemeteries. When Pawnee burial sites of the protohistoric.
period are explored, it is probable that a transition between the two
types can be demonstrated. It will suffice for the present to point
out the strong probability that the Upper Republican culture, which
undoubtedly precedes the historic period by several centuries, repre-
sents the prehistoric stage of Pawnee development in Nebraska.

In the Sterns Creek culture we have a still earlier culture type in
eastern Nebraska. Direct superimposition of layers proves that it is
considerably older than the Nebraska culture and presumably than
the Upper Republican culture. There is very little resemblance be-
tween the Sterns Creek culture and the two prehistoric cultures that
succeed it. Since the Sterns Creek culture has so far been reported
from only one site on the extreme eastern border of Nebraska and
bears little resemblance to any later cultures in the State, it now ap-
pears as the westernmost thrust of an early trans-Missouri River
culture whose roots will be found to the east of our region. Of its
possible northeastern affiliations we will speak in a moment. It as-
sumes importance as the oldest known horizon containing evidence
of horticulture and the use of pottery so far distinguished in Nebraska.

The stratified site at Signal Butte in the extreme western part of
the State presents a similar situation, involving, however, different
prehistoric cultures than those represented at the Walker Gilmore
site. At Signal Butte a subtype (focus) of the Upper Republican
culture, mixed with ceramics and other artifacts of the poorly defined
Dismal River culture, overlies two distinct horizons (Signal Butte
Il and I), each of which is totally without pottery. The wider affilia-
tions of the upper level (Signal Butte III) cultures have already
been discussed and the essential characteristics, so far as known, of
the two lower and older cultural horizons listed. Since this remark-
able site gives a favorable opportunity to demonstrate cultural changes
occurring at definite intervals over a long space of time, an attempt
has been made to point out the major cultural trends from older to
later horizons on the butte. These can be noted in the earlier and
more detailed section on Signal Butte, but a brief recapitulation may
make them clearer.

In general features, there are a few definite changes from bottom
to top. Signal Butte I has no definite burials so far as known, Signal

NO. I0 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 279

Butte II yielded no human skeletal remains at all, but level III con-
tained partial and infant burials in crude cists, and a seated adult
burial. No dwelling remains were found in any level. Signal Butte I
has deeper fire pits and small, often stone-lined, storage pits. Shallow
fireplaces and irregular storage pits occur in levels IT and III. Ceram-
ics are entirely limited to level III, suggesting that pottery was in-
troduced into the western plains in relatively late prehistoric times.
Signal Butte I is characterized by a relative abundance of fragmen-
tary grinding slabs and a few pestles, shaft smoothers, grooved mauls,
and a notched ax. Ovoid lap stones occur in Signal Butte II, but in
general the peoples who occupied levels II and III seem to have picked
up the majority of their larger stone artifacts from the outcrops of
level I. This is one of several indications suggesting that occupations
II and III were sporadic and transitory compared to the long, continu-
ous inhabitation of level I.

A marked change in types of projectile points occurs on the butte.
The people of Signal Butte I preferred a leaf-shaped point of medium
to large size, especially one with a concave base, very similar in out-
line to the Folsom point (pl. 25, fig. 1, 0). This level I type, which
occurs only occasionally as an intrusion in the upper levels, links
Signal Butte I with other, and presumably earlier, cultures. It is the
only type other than the typical, longitudinally grooved, Folsom type,
so far known to occur in the Lindenmeier Folsom site in Colorado.
On the other hand, the Signal Butte I people also used a smaller
number of medium-sized to large stemmed points (pl. 25, fig. 1, a-d).
This is a connecting link with the later Signal Butte IIT horizon. In
Signal Butte II, the predominant projectile point is a medium-sized
to large stemmed, and often barbed, point (pl. 24, fig. 2, e, f). By
the time of the level III occupation, tiny, thin, triangular points,
often with two notches, were predominant (pl. 24, fig. 1, h, k, p).
Thus there is a definite change from the larger, leaf-shaped points,
through medium-sized stemmed points, to the small, delicate, tri-
angular points so common in the later prehistoric (Upper Republican
and Nebraska) and historic cultures (Pawnee and Arikara). The
common, planoconvex end scraper shows a similar transition; in
Signal Butte I a coarse type with an unretouched back predominates,
in Signal Butte II end scrapers with unretouched and retouched backs
are about evenly divided, and in level III those with retouched backs
predominate. The occurrence in level III alone of the diamond-shaped,
beveled knife is another link with the late prehistoric horizons (table
3). In the types and abundance of side scrapers, end scrapers, re-
touched and unretouched flake knives, stone drills with a tiny point,

280 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

and small, planoconvex gravers there is a strong linkage between
Signal Butte I and the recently defined Folsom culture in northern
Colorado. It is interesting that some ground stone and mineral paints
occur in all these horizons, including the Folsom culture. On Signal
Butte, the bone and antler work of the three levels is not particularly
distinctive, except that a rather unique type of split awl and bone
gouge (pl. 25, fig. 2, a, c) occur in Signal Butte I. These linkages,
especially as concerns flint implements, covering very considerable
time periods, tend to establish definite typological sequences in the
prehistoric chronology of central North America. The prospect thus
revealed encourages one in thinking that the time when the archeology
of this great area will emerge from the status of obscurely defined
“cultures” into a sequential record of human development is not so
very far in the future.

The various scattered finds of artifacts occurring in association
with extinct animals, or in geologically old deposits, that have been
reported from Nebraska and immediately adjacent areas within the
last 5 or 6 years are hard to place culturally. This is primarily due to
the paucity of cultural material from such sites. Considering this
problem primarily from a typological angle, i. e., the apparent relation-
ship between these isolated artifacts and those in well-defined cultural
associations, the following relationships seem indicated to the present
writer.

The chipped point from Cumro, Nebr., is of the so-called Yuma
type without the narrowed stem (ND, fig. 7, and pl. 7, fig. 1, e). It
does not fit into any known cultural horizon at the present time. The
Yuma type of point often occurs in association with Folsom type points
on blow-out sites as in Yuma County, Colo., and at Clovis, N. Mex.,
but in the work so far accomplished in the Folsom living level near
Fort Collins no Yuma type points have yet come to light. It has been
suggested that the Yuma point is in reality a knife used by the Folsom
people, and this may be demonstrated by later excavation at the Lin-
denmeier site or elsewhere. Renaud (1934 0, p. 2) argues on typologi-
cal and technical grounds that the Yuma type preceded the Folsom
type, but to date there is no stratigraphic evidence whatsoever to support
this view. Folsom type points have been found definitely associated
with extinct bison (Folsom), a musk ox-like animal (Guadalupe Mts.)
(see Howard, 1932, p. 14), and the mammoth (Dent), whereas the
Yuma type of point has so far only been found in association with
extinct bison (Cumro?, Spring Creek), but, as previously stated, in
our present state of knowledge such considerations should not be
given too much weight. The problem of relationship and (or) se-

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 281

quence of Yuma and Folsom type points is still an open one. In this
regard it should be mentioned that at least one typical Yuma point
(NDa) was found beneath the surface on Signal Butte. (Examined
by the writer in the collection of the finder, Ray Swanson, Scottsbluff,
in August 1931; see also Renaud, 1934 a, p. 39.)

In the bison quarry below Signal Butte, on Spring Creek, Schultz
found a typical Yuma point (NDa) in association with two, un-
grooved, leaf-shaped points (NAb 1-3, exact classification uncertain
owing to broken bases), a stemmed point (SCa3), and a planoconvex,
end scraper with a rough back. Barbour and Schultz (1932 b) classify
the Spring Creek artifacts as of a “ Pre-Folsom Culture” but, for
the following reasons, I am unable to agree with such a classification.
With the exception of the Yuma type point the remaining definite
artifacts from Spring Creek all fit into the Signal Butte I artifact
series (see table 3, p. 90), and, as previously noted, the Yuma type
of point has been reported from Signal Butte as well. This definite
association in the Spring Creek quarry between the Yuma type of
point (NDa) and a stemmed point (SCa3) seems very significant.
On Signal Butte it is clear that stemmed points are in a minority in
Signal Butte I and come into greatest vogue in Signal Butte II, where-
as so far they are unknown from the true Folsom culture. The in-
ference is obvious that the stemmed type is generally a later form than
the leaf-shaped. However, the inclusion of a definite Yuma (NDa)
point, which at best is very rare in any Signal Butte levels, with other
types which are common in Signal Butte I, suggests that culturally
the Spring Creek artifact complex may be somewhat earlier than
Signal Butte I, but is probably later than the true Folsom culture.
This suggestion is supported by the fact that the Spring Creek bison
are of an extinct species, whereas the fragmentary bison remains on
Signal Butte cannot be distinguished from those of the recent bison.
It should be remembered, however, that Bison bison apparently lived
in the late Pleistocene as well. (Romer, 1933, p. 70.) As to geo-
logic age, Lugn (1934) has recently suggested that these Spring
Creek deposits belong to a “ post-Kansas pre-Wisconsin ”’ Pleistocene
horizon. In the light of the marked cultural associations between the
Spring Creek artifacts and those from Signal Butte I, this dating
seems improbable unless the lowest horizons on Signal Butte are much
older than is believed at present. Owing to the importance of the
problems involved, the present writer believes that more detailed
geologic evidence must be presented than is now available (Barbour
and Schultz, 1932 b, and Lugn and Schultz, 1934) before this pro-
nouncement can be unreservedly accepted.

282 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

The two chipped points found in association with extinct bison near
Grand Island (Schultz, 1932) are suggestive of the Folsom type
(NAb4) but lack the fine retouching and complete longitudinal grooves
characteristic of typical Folsom points. They fit into the Signal Butte
series fairly well (NAb3) but have a partial, longitudinal groove
which is lacking on most of the Signal Butte I points of similar shape.
I am inclined to regard them as transitional between Signal Butte I
and Folsom.

The Angus find (Figgins, 1931) is still too incompletely authenti-
cated to make cultural comparisons worth while. The scanty material
from the Cape site near Dalton, Nebr. (Bell and Van Royen, 1934,
p. 67), contains only one definite artifact type, a planoconvex, end
scraper with an unretouched back, which agrees closely with the pre-
dominant type of end scraper from both Signal Butte I and the Fol-
som culture (Lindenmeier site). It may well be significant that Bell
and Van Royen (1934, p. 69) tentatively suggest that the horizons
where these finds occur fit into the same periods of Sears’ chronology
(1932, p. 621) that have been suggested for Signal Butte I. The two
large points (NAb4) found in association with mammoth remains
near Dent, Colo. ( Figgins, 1933), suggest knives or spears of the Fol-
som culture. Rather similar large leaf-shaped blades occur in Signal
Butte I (pl. 25, fig. 1, g) but lack any longitudinal grooves and do not
seem to be as delicately retouched. The main characteristics of the
recently discovered Folsom horizon near Fort Collins (Roberts, 1935)
have already been described, and the rather marked relationship be-
tween this culture and that of Signal Butte I commented upon. No
definite geologic age has yet been assigned to either the Dent or the
Lindenmeier site, but they can probably be correlated either with the
ancient terrace system of the South Platte or with late Pleistocene
horizons in the Medicine Bow region of Wyoming.

It is already certain that the human record in the Great Plains
extends far back into that still obscure period between the beginning
of the Recent and the close of the Pleistocene. Some believe that it
extends well into the latter period. The last 5 years have opened new
vistas in the human history of the region and there is no reason why
subsequent years should be less fruitful.

CULTURAL AFFILIATIONS WITH ADJACENT AREAS

Considering the present status of archeological knowledge con-
cerning the States bordering Nebraska, it is obviously premature to
attempt any detailed cultural comparisons. Of South Dakota, Wyom-
ing, Colorado, Kansas, and Iowa, only the last has been at all clearly

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY

STRONG 283

defined in regard to the general distribution of the prehistoric cultures
within its boundaries. Of the other States we know something con-
cerning isolated sites or limited areas, but as a whole they represent
glaring blind spots in the field of archeological vision. Such being the
case, all that the following purports to be is a rapid and admittedly
incomplete sketch of such salient points im the archeology of the
adjacent States as seem at present to have a direct bearing on the
problems discussed in this paper.

Kansas, to judge from the scattered literature available, is an ex-
tremely promising archeological field which has to the present received
nothing even approaching systematic investigation. However, interest-
ing features stand out. Particularly noteworthy is Udden’s excellent
description and illustrations of a protohistoric village site on Paint
Creek in McPherson County.” This site is marked by low mounds of
refuse apparently similar to those at the Burkett site in Nebraska,
and the culture revealed at the Paint Creek site also strongly suggests
the protohistoric Pawnee culture. Pottery was abundant at the site,
and certain rim sherds figured are definitely of the advanced and
complexly incised protohistoric Pawnee type. In addition, a small
proportion of sherds with red stain on the concave surface were noted.
The occurrence of a few sherds suggesting flat-bottomed pots and
some with elaborate incisions on the body tends to set the Paint Creek
site somewhat apart, but the remainder of the Paint Creek artifact
complex seems very similar to the protohistoric Pawnee culture in
Nebraska. The protohistoric age of the Paint Creek site is indicated
by the absence of white man’s artifacts except for what is apparently
a small piece of chain mail found 6 inches below the surface of one
of the mounds, and two blue glass beads which were also found at the
site. From Udden’s very clear and dispassionate treatment of these
finds it would seem that their authenticity may be fully accepted. This
discovery of very early white contacts in a Kansas site so similar to
the protohistoric Pawnee villages in Nebraska reinforces the con-
clusions independently arrived at that this culture was flourishing
about the time of the Coronado expedition of 1541.

In Brower’s brief description of the Griffing site in Riley County,
Kans., there is a strong suggestion of the Upper Republican or “ pre-

* J. A. Udden, 1900. Hill and Wedel have since investigated this site. Wedel
corroborates its protohistoric age but finds such distinctive differences from the
Lower Loup Aspect that he has designated the cultural type as the Great Bend
‘(Smoky Hill) Aspect, of the Central Plains Phase (Wedel, 1935, III and IV).
Wedel’s papers, including 1935, II, mark a front-line attack on the important
problem of Kansas prehistory.

284. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93
historic Pawnee” culture.”” To judge from the illustrations, the
diamond-shaped knives, end scrapers, small triangular notched points,
shaft polishers, flint celts, bone fishhooks, bone beads, and shell beads
from this site are very similar to those from Upper Republican culture
sites in Nebraska. The pottery from the site, though inadequately
described or figured, suggests a similar relationship. In northeastern
Kansas a number of historic, protohistoric, and prehistoric cultures
are evidently represented.” Harrington, on the basis of collections
and data furnished by Edward Park, of White Cloud, Kans., suggests
that the “latest culture’ in northeastern Kansas is Siouan (Kansa
or Osage) in origin and finds it closely similar to the “top layer
culture” overlying the Ozark Bluff Dweller culture in Arkansas.”
From the work of Sterns it is obvious that the Nebraska culture is
also represented here. One is much tempted to regard the “ latest
culture’ as a development from the Nebraska culture, a sequence
which would involve important theoretical implications. However,
the literature on this very important corner of Kansas is so frag-
mentary that it seems futile to attempt definite correlations until more
systematic excavations and publications are available. The same can
be said regarding the highly suggestive but tantalizingly incomplete
data available in regard to northern Oklahoma and southern Kansas,
where important early Caddoan cultures seem indicated but are not
yet defined in any clear or objective manner.” Thus any attempt at
present to trace Nebraska or other northern cultures toward their
apparent sources in the south and east meets with little success, owing
to the lack of systematic field work and publication in the important
intervening areas.

Thanks to the careful survey work of Dr. Charles R. Keyes, the
general distribution of prehistoric cultures in lowa has been well out-
lined.” Up to the present the main emphasis in Iowa has been on
survey work and relatively few scientific excavations have been made.
Nevertheless, through careful surface surveys, study of local collec-
tions, and painstaking compilation of all newspaper accounts and

b

™ Brower, 1898, p. 25. This report, and that by the same author in 1899,
give fragmentary data on a number of prehistoric sites evidently representing
several distinct cultures.

Sterns, 1915 a; Zimmerman, 1918; Pryor Plank, roto.

™ Harrington, 1924, pp. 18-19. This “latest culture” suggests the Rulo and
Wolf Creek sites assigned to the Kansa by Sterns. A relationship to the Oneota
culture of Iowa is also possible, but until careful excavations have been carried
on too much speculation is premature.

™’ Moorehead (and Joseph B. Thoburn), 1931, pp. 65-116.

™ Keyes, 1925, 1929. Shetrone, 1931, pp. 330-339, touches on Iowa problems.

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 285

similar published data, Dr. Keyes has already defined several im-
portant prehistoric cultures.

Of the known prehistoric cultures in this State, the variant of the
Hopewell culture found in eastern Iowa finds no direct analogies in
Nebraska so far as present indications are concerned. Widespread
over the Iowa region, however, is another culture termed the “Algon-
kian ”, which, according to Dr. Keyes (1929, p.138), includes perhaps
nine-tenths of all prehistoric evidence in the State. This “ Algonkian ”’
culture is of the western woodland type and is manifested along the
eastern border of the State by effigy mounds and elsewhere by oval
and linear and many conical mounds. In addition, there are village
sites and rock shelters which contain remains of the same type. In the
village sites definite house remains and large refuse heaps seem to be
lacking. The pottery of this culture is distinctive. It is rather soft,
porous, and unpolished ware, usually brown or red in color, and tem-
pered with coarsely crushed granite. Ornamentation consists of fabric
impressions as well as stamped, punched, rouletted, and occasionally
incised designs. The vessels have rounded or round-pointed bases
and are without definite handles, though small tabs or lugs sometimes
occur. Often they are marked by smoothly perforated holes in rims
or bodies. The other phases of the artifact complex are not clearly
defined as yet, but a strong development of stone work, both chipped
and ground, and a correspondingly weak development of bone work
has been noted. Of the ground stone artifacts, polished grooved axes
are particularly notable, and in the realm of chipped stone a very wide
variety of artifact types are present. The name “ Algonkian”’ has
been tentatively applied to this culture, owing to its woodland charac-
teristics and its similarity to other complexes in known Algonkian
areas to the east. ;

In northeastern and northwestern Iowa a third prehistoric culture
has been designated as the Oneota after the old name for the Iowa
River. The Oneota culture is marked by rather large villages in the
open, by conical and oblong mounds, deep and large refuse pits and
primary burials in mounds and nearby cemeteries. The burials are
usually simple, extended, and accompanied by considerable amounts
of pottery. The mortuary pottery is small and globular, though larger,
cruder cooking pots are found in dwelling sites and refuse heaps.
The Oneota ware is shell-tempered and is apparently rather soft in
texture with but little polishing.” In color it is characteristically a
slate-black or ashy color, though in many cases burned red. In shape

™ Orr, 1914, pp. 231-239, figures and describes a number of these pots.

19

286 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

it is globular or ovoid with a rounded bottom. Small loop handles for
cords, and, on the larger pots, larger handles occur. They are often
strengthened and ornamented by a rib on the outside and were often
made separately from the pots, being put on after the pot was finished.
Decoration is achieved by incised lines running from the bottom of
the flaring lip down over the upper part of the body. Punctate in-
cisions, a few simple incised patterns, and occasionally individual
cord markings are also employed. For rim decoration finger impres-
sions of the “pie crust”’ technique are rather characteristic. The
decoration on the small mortuary pots is rather regular, whereas that
on the larger vessels is very haphazard. Tiny pots of no particular
shape and without handles sometimes occur with children’s burials.
The remaining artifact complex is characterized by catlinite pipes,
often of the disk type; by heavy grooved hammers, polished celts
(grooved axes are both rare and crude), mullers, metates, sandstone
rubbing stones, small triangular arrowpoints, flake scrapers, numerous
bone implements, and tubular copper beads. Petroglyphs on nearby
cliffs of sandstone and incised pictographs on small polished slabs of
catlinite also appear to belong to the Oneota culture. Although the
exact historical affiliations of this culture have not yet been deter-
mined, it is generally regarded as pertaining to a Siouan people.

A fourth prehistoric culture in northwestern Iowa shows many
resemblances to the Oneota, but the pottery of the two is different.
The Mill Creek culture, as this fourth type has been designated,
occurs in village sites located along the second terraces of the Little
Sioux River and two of its tributaries. The villages consist of earth-
lodge depressions surrounded by a broad shallow ditch. Refuse de-
posits are both large and deep. A considerable number of conical
mounds occur on neighboring ridges, but whether these pertain to
this culture is as yet uncertain. Although the artifact types generally
correspond to those of the Oneota culture, the small Mill Creek arrow-
points are are more often notched, the stone celt more completely
displaces the grooved ax, bone implements are even more abundant,
discoidal stones and a few shell and pottery effigies occur. The type
of tobacco pipe employed is uncertain, since very few of these have
been found. Mill Creek culture ceramics are distinctive and have a
hard, fine texture. Finely crushed granite is used for tempering, and the
ware is gray or black in color. Globular bowls of small or medium
size often show polish on one or both surfaces. The rims are vertical
or flaring and are often surmounted with animal-head effigies and
handles. Decoration on the rim also takes the form of crosshatching,
shallow notching, and the incising of diagonal and horizontal lines on.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 287

the outer surface. The bowls are either plain or encircled by parallel
trailed lines. There is as yet no tie-up between the Mill Creek culture
and any of the historic tribes, though there are some interesting
resemblances to Mandan culture.

Very recently a fifth prehistoric culture in southwestern Iowa has
been encountered by Dr. Keyes.” Artifacts of this type occur along
the Missouri River from the southwestern corner of Iowa as far
north as the middle of Harrison County. So far no scientific exca-
vations have been made, and the only available material consists of
surface collections made by local collectors. The nature of this ma-
terial, however, leads Dr. Keyes to distinguish the types represented
under the designation of the Glenwood culture. In this region both
shallow house pits and numerous small ossuary mounds occur, prob-
ably as manifestations of the Glenwood culture. Most of the potsherds
in these collections are identical with those of the Nebraska culture,
and the same may be said for the other artifact types so far reported.
However, in these surface collections are a number of sherds clearly
marked with cord-wrapped paddles and having definite collars, both
of which traits suggest the Upper Republican culture of Nebraska
rather than the Nebraska culture proper. The meaning of this associ-
ation can be determined only by careful excavation work in south-
western Iowa sites. Until this has been accomplished, it will be 1m-
possible to decide whether “ Upper Republican culture ” sites actually
do occur as far east as Iowa, whether the sherds represent trade pieces
in Glenwood culture sites, or whether independent parallel develop-
ment of rim types has taken place. It will be remembered that an
association of this type occurred in the top level at the Walker Gilmore
site, above the Sterns Creek culture; hence similar occurrences in
western Iowa seem very important. If the Upper Republican culture
is actually represented east of the Missouri River, two explanations
are possible, either the Upper Republican culture does not pertain
‘strictly to the prehistoric Caddoan (i. e., Pawnee) culture, or else
Caddoan peoples lived to the east of the Missouri as some of their
legends have claimed. So far as the main body of material assigned
to the Glenwood culture is concerned, it seems probable that the Ne-
braska and Glenwood cultures will prove to be actually one and the
same.

In addition to the close similarity, if not identity, of the Glenwood
culture and the Nebraska culture, certain other apparent relationships
may be tentatively indicated. Certainly the Sterns Creek culture finds

_ ™° Information from Dr. Keyes at the Plains Archeological Conference, Lincoln,
Nebr., September, 1932.

288 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93
much more congenial company in the ‘‘ Algonkian”’ culture of Iowa
than it does with any known Nebraska culture. The ceramics of the
two are very similar, and the reed-thatched and possibly bark-walled
house of the Sterns Creek culture is fundamentally a woodland and
not a Plains type of dwelling. Material is not available to institute a
detailed comparison in regard to other artifact types. It might be
argued that the preponderance of worked bone and antler over flint
in the Sterns Creek culture differentiates it from the “ Algonkian ”
horizon in lowa as summed up by Dr. Keyes. This is true, but it re-
mains to distinguish the specific “ Algonkian”’ culture of western
Iowa from the more generalized pattern. When this is done, I strongly
suspect that the Sterns Creek culture will find complete parallels on
the east side of the Missouri River, whereas these seem to be lacking
in eastern Nebraska, where more investigation has already been
carried on.

Since the Oneota and Mill Creek cultures center in northern and
western Iowa they are in geographical contact with the region of north-
eastern Nebraska which at present is practically unknown from the
archeological standpoint. It is thus impossible to institute valid cul-
tural comparisons between the two regions at the present time. Both
the Mill Creek and Oneota cultures, however, seem closer to the
Nebraska culture to the south and to the west of the Missouri than
they are to the “ Algonkian”’ culture of Iowa. This is shown by the
similarity of ceramic forms and decorations and by the general range
of artifact types in all three of the former cultures. On the other
hand, the Nebraska and Oneota cultures differ in types of villages
(Oneota earth lodges have not yet been reported on), method of
burial, pottery tempering, and tobacco pipe forms and materials. The
Nebraska and Mill Creek cultures likewise differ in these regards,
except that grit pot-tempering material is employed by both. The
form and decoration of Mill Creek culture ceramics is less like the
Nebraska culture, on the other hand, than is the case with Oneota
culture ceramics. I am inclined to regard these three prehistoric
horizons as generically related and possibly of Siouan origin, but
the basis of this grouping is admittedly subjective. Last of all should
be mentioned the possibility that the true Oneota culture is represented
in the shell-tempered and roughly incised pottery of the Rulo site in
extreme southeastern Nebraska and perhaps elsewhere in the eastern
part of that State where shell-tempered pottery has been noted. It
is apparent that the clear delineation of these horizons should forge
strong links between the historic and prehistoric cultures of the
eastern woodlands and the central plains. Such research is certain to

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 289

cast a flood of light upon even more remote regions in regard to major
movements in prehistoric North America.

The work of McKern and others in Wisconsin carries certain of
the suggested correlations even farther afield.“ Two culture types in
Wisconsin, extending from the prehistoric into the historic period,
seem to be related to prehistoric horizons in Iowa and probably in
Nebraska. Of these, the Upper Mississippi culture of Wisconsin finds
many apparently basic similarities in the Oneota (and Mill Creek?)
cultures of Iowa and to a lesser extent in the Nebraska culture just
west of the Missouri River. As in Iowa, and probably in Nebraska,
this general type of culture in Wisconsin seems to be correlated with
the Siouan occupation. Apparently earlier than the Upper Mississippi
culture in Wisconsin, yet persisting alongside of it into historic times,
is the horizon recently designated as the Lake Michigan culture. This
culture is apparently correlated with historic (and prehistoric) peoples
of the Algonkian linguistic stock and is related to the widespread
Algonkian culture in Iowa and, presumably, to the Sterns Creek cul-
ture in eastern Nebraska. It is undoubtedly significant that wherever
stratification occurs in Wisconsin the Upper Mississippi culture is later
than the Lake Michigan culture, and similarly in eastern Nebraska,
at the stratified Walker Gilmore site, the Nebraska culture is de-
monstrably later than the Sterns Creek culture.

Until one has actually seen the tremendous number of large aborigi-
nal sites that remain to be excavated and reported on in North and
South Dakota, the futility of attempting any determination of culture
sequences or correlations between this region and other areas at the
present time cannot be realized. Although a small amount of scien-
tific excavation has been accomplished and some extremely valuable
data have been obtained by the North Dakota Historical Society, the
South Dakota Historical Society, the University of South Dakota, and
the Logan Museum of Beloit College, much of which awaits publica-
tion, archeological research in this region is still in its infancy. This
has been pointed out by Robinson, De Land, Grinnell, Montgomery,
Will, Spinden, Stirling, and others, yet to the present time the fact
does not seem to have penetrated the general archeological conscious-
ness that here is one of the four major archeological areas north of
Mexico which is still practically unknown. In the writer’s opinion the
Upper Missouri area is exceeded in the size and number of sites as
well as in cultural importance only by the pueblo region of the south-

47 McKern, 1931. Also verbal report by the same authority at the Vermillion
Conference of Plains Archeologists, Vermillion, S. Dak., 1931.

290 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

west, the lower Mississippi area, and the mound region centering in
Ohio. Not only would the upper Missouri River historic, protohis-
toric, and prehistoric sites, if properly and systematically worked, yield
almost complete data on the early culture and history of some six or
seven important North American tribes (see George F. Will, 1924,
p. 301), but such work would cast a flood of light on many obscure
problems in regions well to the south and east. Yet this highly im-
portant archeological area is at present represented by a single major
monograph and that only partially based on actual excavation.”

It is therefore impossible to establish anything but the most super-
ficial correlations between this and adjacent areas in the present state
of our knowledge. On the other hand, there is every reason to believe
that such important problems as the extent and age of the Caddoan
movement to the north, the various Siouan movements to the north
and west, and the manner in which Algonkian tribes like the Arapaho
and Cheyenne shifted from a horticultural woodland to a hunting
plains culture, etc., may only be answered when the prehistory of the
upper Missouri region is known. All that can be mentioned at the
present time are a few highlights on the area which seem to offer
extremely promising leads for future research.”

Numerous small conical mounds occur in eastern South Dakota and
extend into North Dakota, where effigy mounds are also abundant.
Very few of these mounds have been found west of the Missouri,
though they extend north a considerable distance into Manitoba and
Saskatchewan. (Montgomery, 1908.) In many cases these mounds are
marked by burned clay at the base and contain disarticulated human
remains. In this burial complex and to a certain extent in the some-
what scarce pottery and the other artifact types which they contain,
these mounds rather suggest the Nebraska culture. Along the Missouri
River and its tributaries in South Dakota are some 100 or more large
village sites and a great number of such villages are also to be found
in North Dakota. Particularly interesting are the elaborate forti-
fications which mark many of these clearly delineated historic and
prehistoric villages.” In general, the southern villages are regarded
as Arikara and the northern villages as Mandan in origin, although

“Will, G. F., and Spinden, H. J., The Mandans, a study of their culture,
archaeology and language, 1906. Reference should also be made to the excellent
survey report of G. F. Will, 1924.

™ The following comments are for the most part based on the verbal reports
of W. H. Over, George F. Will, and Dana Wright at the Vermillion Conference,
August 31—September 1, 1931.

™ Will, 1924, shows maps of several of these.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 291

there are also Cheyenne (George Bird Grinnell, 1918) and Hidatsa
villages, as well as many which may prove to be of different cultures.
(Since the above was written careful and extensive excavations have
been carried on at the historic Arikara village across from Mobridge,
S. Dak., which was visited by Lewis and Clark, Brackenridge, Brad-
bury, Maxmillian of Wied, and others. The writer mapped the village,
which was burned during Leavenworth’s attack in 1823, and excavated
both ceremonial and ordinary earth lodges and refuse pits. (Strong,
1933 c.) Stirling and Over excavated numerous burials here at an
earlier date. A report on this work by Stirling and Strong is in
preparation. )

On the brief reconnaissance trip through the Dakotas in September
1931 the writer was struck by the general resemblance between Upper
Republican ceramics (especially the Sweetwater type) and those from
one historic and several presumably prehistoric Arikara villages in
South Dakota. (Strong, 1932.) The time available was too short and
the collections examined too limited to permit any definite conclusions,
but I believe that future determination of the actual prehistoric Ari-
kara culture in South Dakota will reveal a horizon closely similar to
the Upper Republican culture in Nebraska. The supposition that an
early culture of the latter type occurs in South Dakota is strengthened
by the work of Mr. Over in a stratified cave site near the headwaters
of the Grand River in Hardin County, near the northwestern corner
of the state.” In this Ludlow cave Mr. Over found surface remains
associated with glass beads which appeared to be late Siouan (i. e.,
Dakota) in origin, while 2} feet below was another culture stratum
containing pottery, fine chipped stone, and bone and shell artifacts.
The culture of this lower stratum, as represented in the University
Museum at Vermillion, S. Dak., seemed to the writer to be very
similar in types of pottery, chipped points, and bone and shell work to
the Upper Republican culture of Nebraska. The full significance of
this important stratified site can be determined only after the facts
have been published in full.

At present certain main lines of archeological inquiry seem promis-
ing. Complete excavations should be made in early historic Mandan
sites in the north and in early historic Arikara sites to the south to
distinguish these two cultures as they existed prior to their virtual
amalgamation in later historic times. For serious comparative pur-
poses enough house sites, burials or ossuaries, refuse heaps, and earth-
works should be carefully uncovered at each site to clearly reveal a

™1'This cave and the unusual petroglyphs and bas-relief carvings which mark
it is described, and some of the latter figured, by Will, 1900, pp. 261-265.

292 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

fair sample, not only of the artifact complex but of all other structural
features as well. Otherwise, partial comparisons based on selected
lines of evidence can hardly be expected to solve the obviously difficult
and involved problem presented. If the historic, protohistoric, and
prehistoric phases of these two main cultures can be disentangled, a
large proportion of the known village sites on the upper Missouri
should be accounted for. In the same way the known Cheyenne and
Hidatsa sites should be investigated to determine whether these repre-
sent distinct cultural types or are mainly imitations of the apparently
dominant Arikara and Mandan cultures. Finally, it may be possible
to determine the degree of domination exerted respectively by the
ancestral Arikara and Mandan peoples, the relative antiquity of each
of these groups in the area, the direction from which each people came,
and the cultural associations which each brought with them. The
peculiar floresence of native culture on the upper Missouri seems at
present best accounted for by the contact between these two groups
representing a relatively highly advanced Siouan people from the
north and east and a similarly advanced Caddoan people from the south
and east.

Little is on record concerning the high plains and Rocky Mountain
foothill regions to the west of Nebraska. For eastern Wyoming the
survey trips of Harlan I. Smith in 1907 and 1908 and that of E. B.
Renaud in 1931 furnish nearly all the available data.™ Both report
humerous quarry sites, of which the very extensive “ Spanish Dig-
gings”’ are the best known. The latter were made to obtain quartzite,
and Renaud also found quarries from which speckled or peppered
jasper was obtained. Smith noted numerous boulder lodge circles, one
stone “ fort,’ and a number of promising caves with entrances closed
up by poles. Renaud reports over 200 aboriginal sites, and it appears
that there are abundant evidences of human occupation in this portion
of the State. Both found small amounts of pottery, Smith finding
pottery at only one site (near Rawhide Buttes) but hearing of its oc-
currence at eight other places. He also reports the presence of metates
and mullers in the southern part of the State and mentions steatite
pots of egg-shaped or truncated pyramid form. The occurrence of
steatite artifacts in southwestern Nebraska has already been noted.
From Smith’s account petroglyphs occur in both the eastern and
western portion of Wyoming but Renaud found comparatively few
in the eastern portion covered by his survey. Both report colored
pictographs. From these reports it appears that although no striking

“ Harlan I. Smith, 1910; Renaud, 1932 b.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 293

cultures are superficially apparent in Wyoming, it is a marginal area
of considerable importance.

Eastern Colorado is likewise known only from surface surveys.”
From these it is apparent that there are numerous aboriginal sites in
the region. Pottery is recorded from a number of sites but appears to
be neither abundant nor highly specialized. It seems to be predomi-
nately grit-tempered, and both plain and cord-marked ware was found.
A few sherds show incisions. Straight or flaring rims are reported,
but collared rims seem to be rare. One sherd indicating a pointed
bottom is mentioned. Renaud is inclined to regard the pottery of this
region as a western extension of “typical”? Plains pottery and notes
that it becomes more complex in type on the South Platte as one
approaches Nebraska. On the basis of the available data, however, it
is not possible to correlate definitely any of the Colorado sherds with
Nebraska culture types, except that certain sherds suggestive of the
thick ware on the Dismal River seem to be present. The occurrence
of obsidian on many sites in eastern Colorado corresponds to its pres-
ence at Signal Butte and elsewhere in western Nebraska. Likewise,
the absence of catlinite from prehistoric sites in Colorado is in agree-
ment with the late occurrence of this material in Nebraska cultures.
Possibly at the other end of the time scale is the occurrence in Yuma
County of chipped points closely resembling those reported in associ-
ation with extinct bison in Nebraska and elsewhere. These include
Folsom, Yuma, and Signal Butte I types. Although found on the
surface of the ground in “ blowouts”’, the Yuma County points in
some cases were at least superficially associated with the remains of
extinct animals. (Cook, 1931.) Considering the number of reported
associations of this sort in the high plains region, it is probable that
actual excavation in Colorado and Wyoming will reveal deposits or
habitation sites where such artifacts occur. (Since the above was
written the Folsom culture has been found in situ in northeastern
Colorado; see Roberts, 1935.)

It is obviously impossible to institute any specific cultural compari-
sons between these regions and western Nebraska at the present time.
Such comparisons must come later when more is known about western
Nebraska and when enough historic and prehistoric sites have been
actually excavated in eastern Colorado and Wyoming to permit the
establishment of at least tentative culture groupings for those regions.
However, one interesting feature does appear in comparing the known
archeology of Nebraska as a whole with the regions immediately to
the west. This is the fact that the western border areas alone cor-

“SE. B. Renaud, 1931 a, 1932 a, 1933.

294 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

respond to the general Plains archeological area as postulated by
Wissler,™ whereas central and eastern Nebraska must either fall into
his Missouri Valley area or else form a new prehistoric type. This
much is already certain, that the western high plains and mountain
border areas reveal abundant evidence of purely nomadic hunting
cultures, whereas the river and stream valleys of the central loess
plains abound in sites marked by earth lodges and numerous ceramic
remains. Such a condition of affairs suggests that, at least in later
prehistoric times, the strictly hunting peoples were mainly on the
margins of the plains, whereas the sedentary type of culture had a
much greater extension to the west along the numerous tributaries of
the Missouri River.

CONCLUSION

The present venture into the archeology of one State in the central
plains area reveals two outstanding features: first, the small amount
of scientific archeological work yet accomplished in the central part
of the United States, and second, the surprising amount of work there
is to be done as well as the breadth and depth of the prehistoric scene
that is opening up. Dimly seen at the bottom of the time scale are
evidences of early hunters, in some cases associated with extinct
animals, presumably in early Recent or late Pleistocene times. Thus
the hypothesis of early man in the Plains region is being verified,
though the earliest evidence is still somewhat obscure both as to the
exact time and the type of the cultures involved. Somewhat later,
in western Nebraska, a related hunting culture is more clearly revealed
in the lowest stratum at Signal Butte. As was expected, the dawn
of the prehistoric period so far as our present knowledge extends
finds man intimately related to the great bison herds of the region.
On hypothetical grounds it was the presence of such herds from
Pleistocene times on that favored the Great Plains as a place to find
traces of very early New World hunters. It is this long-awaited
evidence that is now coming to light.

The next type of evidence revealed by archeology has not been pre-
dicted by theorists. This is the early appearance of semi-horticultural
peoples in the region of the central Plains. Strange to say, it is a

™ Clark Wissler, 1922, pp. 271-272. Characterized as a barren area influenced
on all sides by adjacent cultures. Although pointing out that actual field explora-
tion may change this picture, Wissler states that tipi rings, quarry sites,
scattered stone alignments, pictographs, and simple bone and stone artifacts
seem to typify the whole area, but that permanent habitation sites and pottery
are generally lacking.

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 295

woodland culture of northeastern affiliations that occurs on the eastern
border as the earliest known occupation of this sort in Nebraska.
This was demonstrated by Sterns’ discoveries at the Walker Gilmore
site, and the fact that the Sterns Creek culture is apparently related
to the “Algonkian ” and Lake Michigan cultures of lowa and Wiscon-
sin is undoubtedly significant. It is too early to tell how strong the
correlations between these prehistoric cultures and those of the his-
toric Algonkian tribes may be, but they are at least suggested. All
that can be said at present is that a culture, possibly Algonkian, and
of northeastern woodland type is the earliest known horizon with
pottery and cultivated plants (squash and gourds, but so far as known,
no maize) in our region, albeit on the extreme eastern border. What
contemporary cultures existed to the west in Nebraska at this time
are as yet unknown.

Overlying this horizon in eastern Nebraska is the prehistoric Ne-
braska culture which extends over the rich glacial area later claimed
by Ponca, Omaha, Oto, and Kansa. Since the historic archeology of
these Siouan tribes is unknown, it is at present impossible to correlate
them with any of the prehistoric cultures. Nevertheless, since the
Nebraska culture is markedly different from that of the Pawnee in
any known period and also affiliates most closely with what are be-
lieved to be Siouan cultures in lowa and Wisconsin, there is reason
to suspect that the Nebraska culture will prove to be Siouan in origin.
Considering the probable northwestward migration of such Siouan
tribes as the Dakota, Hidatsa, and Crow, it is possible that the Ne-
braska culture represents their movement northward along the Mis-
souri River. From the time of Catlin it has often been stated that
the prehistoric earth lodges along this river in Iowa and Nebraska
marked the northern migration route of the Mandan but there is
actually very little specific resemblance between the Nebraska cul-
ture remains and those of the Mandan, at least so far as the latter
have been reported on. The most promising prehistoric link with
the Mandan at present would seem to be the Mill Creek culture of
Iowa, but this lead awaits investigation both in Iowa and in the
Dakotas. Since even less is known at present concerning the early
historic or prehistoric culture of the Dakota, Hidatsa, or Crow, it
may seem even less justifiable to attempt to link the Nebraska cul-
ture to an utterly unknown quantity. Nevertheless, since the Dhegiha
and Chiwere Siouan tribes appear to have peacefully occupied the
eastern border of Nebraska within early historic times, it seems logi-
cal to suppose that their immediate predecessors in the region were
other related peoples who had pressed on to the north. That the

296 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Nebraska culture represents a semisedentary and fairly well ad-
vanced mode of life is no argument against this possibility when the
rapid change in Plains culture after the acquisition of the horse
is fully realized.

It is the firm belief of the author that the possibilities of his-
toric archeology in North America are not fully realized by the ma-
jority of anthropologists at the present time. Wherever the approach
has been from the known historic into the unknown prehistoric, the
results have more than justified the method, as the present superior
status of archeology in the Iroquoian and Pueblo areas amply demon-
strates. It seems surprising, therefore, that even today there are
archeologists more interested in segregating obscure early cultures
of unknown periods and affiliations than they are in determining
the historic cultures and sequences represented in the regions to be
worked. Obviously, in such work the historic cultures need not be
an end in themselves, but they do seem to represent the threads
that give most promise of untangling the complex skein of pre-
history. The prehistoric past comes remarkably close to the historic
present in the New World, and it is this fact that especially favors
the ethnological and historical approach to archeology on both
continents.

Returning to the Nebraska region, it appears that the central and
even the extreme western part of the State were occupied by slightly
differentiated groups, here designated as the Upper Republican cul-
ture, more or less contemporaneously with the Nebraska culture
occupation in the east. From its apparent relationship to the proto-
historic and historic Pawnee it has been suggested that the Upper
Republican culture was ancestral to the Pawnee and probably to the
Arikara as well. It is still too early to tell how strong the proposed
correlations between the Sterns Creek, Nebraska, and Upper Re-
publican cultures respectively, and the historic tribes of the Algon-
kian, Siouan, and Caddoan linguistic stocks may be, but the latter
of these at least is very strongly suggested by the evidence at hand.
Both the Nebraska and Upper Republican cultures were semihorti-
cultural and in general exhibit attenuated characteristics of the south-
eastern woodland culture area. This connection with the southeast is
suggested by the presence in both areas of both square and round
earth lodges, the general type of ceramics employed, the occurrence
of certain types of artifacts and symbolic designs, and the use of
ossuaries in disposing of the dead. Unfortunately, too little is yet
on record concerning the regions immediately to the south of Ne-
braska to permit any definite correlation with known southeastern

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 297

cultures. From the standpoint of our immediate area this occurrence
of a period of as yet undetermined duration in which horticulture
was at least as important as hunting is surprising. Instead of being
confined to a narrow strip along the Missouri River in late prehis-
toric or early historic times, it now appears that this type of life
flourished for a considerable period in strictly pre-Columbian times
over an area extending some 400 miles west of the Missouri in
Nebraska and 200 miles west of that river in South Dakota. At
least, evidences of this cultural type have been found as far west as
Scottsbluff in the first State and the Ludlow cave in the second.
Finally, from the distribution of sites pertaining to the Nebraska
and Upper Republican cultures along the waterways of the region,
it would seem that the southeastern culture influences had followed up
the rivers and streams into the north-central plains. The lack of any
southwestern or early Pueblo influences, on the other hand, is marked,
and it appears that prior to the acquisition of the horse the barren
high plains to the west and staked plains to the south formed defi-
nite barriers between these regions.

The protohistoric period in the central plains, if one may judge
from the Pawnee, who are the only group so far reported on in this
regard, saw a blossoming out of this earlier culture. It is at this
time that the largest villages were built and the most highly developed
material culture was attained. Lured on by fabulous tales of golden
cities, the Spaniards may have looked with disdain upon the towns
of Quivira and the warriors of Harahey, but they evidently met a
people considerably more advanced in cultural status than were the
Wichita and Pawnee tribes a few generations later. The causes
leading to the florescence of Pawnee culture in protohistoric times
may become clear only when more work has been done in the region,
but it can hardly be doubted that the downfall of the culture began
when the horse was introduced into the Plains. Few facts are more
striking in Pawnee archeology than the inverse ratio that exists be-
tween the abundance of horse remains and the degree of excellence
as well as abundance of pottery and other artifacts in such sites.
This is easily seen by comparing the ceramics from the Burkett and
Schuyler sites (pls. 2 and 3), where no horse remains have been
reported and those from the Hill site (pl. 1, fig.1.) where horse bones
and riding gear were abundant. To some tribes the coming of the
horse may have brought cultural advancement but it can hardly be
doubted that to the Pawnee it brought definite retrogression.

Thus the historic period, again to judge from the Pawnee record,
saw a falling away from old standards and pursuits. The horticultural,

2098 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

or at least the semihorticultural, mode of life was apparently over-
shadowed by the seasonal buffalo hunts, until in the late period of
which Dunbar writes their permanent villages were occupied only
long enough to plant and again to harvest the crops. With the advent
of the horse there seems to have come an influx of border peoples
from the north, east, and west. With such groups ranging over
the plains, outlying, unprotected villages, so common in the prehis-
toric period, were no longer practical, and the Pawnee appear to have
concentrated in large sod-walled villages in the central part of their
territories or else traveled en masse following the buffalo.

If the present very incomplete archeological record is to be trusted,
the horse culture spread as a thin and strikingly uniform veneer over
the central plains, bringing with it many traits more typical of the
forest-hunting regions to the north than they were to the prehistoric
plains themselves. Given the horse, the plains with their vast bison
herds could not be resisted, and in the course of a century or two a
new mode of life developed involving many peoples that were ap-
parently relative strangers to the region. Added to the lure of horses
and bison hunting was the gradually increasing pressure of an alien
culture in the east; thus, while the bison herds drew newly mounted
tribes to the west, the guns of the traders in the hands of enemy tribes
to the north and east discouraged loitering. Only the fortified villages
along the main rivers could withstand the pressure of this influx of
hunters and warriors; hence when the French and American ex-
plorers entered the region, the warlike nomadic tribes were completely
in the ascendancy, and the more advanced semihorticultural villagers
had already been crowded back into a narrow strip along the Missouri.

If the situation definitely revealed in eastern and central Nebraska,
namely, the pre-Caucasian dominance of a more or less settled horti-
cultural life, can be applied to the rest of the north-central plains
it is obvious that the historic period saw a complete reversal of cul-
tural values in the area.” Prior to the coming of the horse it was
the village tribes that prevailed in the area; afterward the border
tribes or late invaders held the balance of power. Thoroughly motile,
possessed of an apparently unlimited meat supply, having nothing to
lose by war and almost everything to gain, such peoples as the
Comanche, Crow, Gros Ventre, Blackfoot, Kiowa, Assiniboin, and
Teton Dakota completely dominated the scene. The others, such as
the Mandan, Arikara, Pawnee, Ponca, Omaha, and Oto, clung to

% This state of affairs has recently been pointed out by Kroeber, 1928, p. 395,
in a brief analysis of Plains culture which foreshadows the actual archeological
findings in a remarkable manner. Also see Swanton, 1930.

alae

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 299

what they could of the old settled and horticultural life, or else, like
the Arapaho and Cheyenne, gave up the attempt and took over the
entire horse complex with its consequent nomadism and parasitism
based on the buffalo herds. In Nebraska, to judge from the archeo-
logical and historical records, such tribes as the Pawnee later at-
tempted to compromise between the two types of life and apparently
failed at both. It can be said, therefore, that although the Dakota mode
of life typifies the Nebraska area subsequent to 1650, the old Pawnee
type was certainly predominant prior to that time. The same can
undoubtedly be said in regard to the Arikara and Mandan on the
Upper Missouri, and this probably applies to all the central and east-
ern plains area.

Taking the bare outlines of Nebraska prehistory as a tentative
cross-section of the Plains area generally, it appears that pure hunt-
ing cultures dominated the region during two main periods. The
first began with the men who hunted the ancient bison and the mam-
moth and extended for an indefinite period beyond; the second
began with the introduction of the horse and ended with the dis-
appearance of the modern bison. Between these two periods, which
mark the beginning and the end of Plains Indian history, it now ap-
pears that there was a third period of considerable but as yet
undetermined duration, when horticulture played at least an equal
part with hunting in the economic life of the central plains. It is
this horticultural stage in the development of Plains culture which has
either been overlooked or disregarded in the majority of ethnological
theories bearing on the region.

The fact that the Plains area generally has produced or supported
a considerable variety and succession of culture types indicates that
its environmental limitations are not so drastic as have often been
believed. Not only hunters but primitive agriculturists as well have
flourished in the region, and these cultures, while relatively simple,
do not exhibit that striking uniformity which characterized the
mounted tribes of the region in the eighteenth and nineteenth cen-
turies. Moreover, it is already apparent from the definite corre-
spondences between tribal cultures and geographic areas in Nebraska
during the early historic period that even this one State contains
several distinct topographic regions quite capable of shaping human
culture. Hence one must conclude that the much stressed uniformity
of Plains culture in its closing phase was in the main the result of
historic forces rather than the direct result of environmental factors.
The environment, it is true, furnished a steppe or open country and
the great buffalo herds, but historic accident alone accounts for

300 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

the white invasion, the introduction of the horse, and the use of fire-
arms. These two major forces combined, produced the equestrian and
warlike tribes which for a time dominated the region. Then with the
disappearance of the buffalo and the spread of Caucasian settlement
all types of aboriginal culture vanished from the Plains. Archeological
research has already indicated that this familiar historic phase was
only the last of a surprisingly ancient and complex sequence of cultures.

Viewed as a whole, the foregoing facts bearing on the development
of human society in the central region of North America demonstrate
the basic importance of the prehistoric record in checking or cor-
roborating the work of the ethnologist. Even in its early stages
archeological research in Nebraska clearly indicates several far-reach-
ing changes in native economic adaptation within the Plains area.
When the ethnological data of historic times are analyzed in the light
of this greater perspective they assume more clarity, and underlying
reasons for the differential survival of certain groups are indicated.
Without depth, the ethnological concept of native culture in this
important area appears to have been lop-sided, shifting emphasis
from the older, and culturally more significant, horticultural tribes
to the nomadic militarists of the later historic period. In final analysis,
it seems evident that any anthropological or sociological approach
which ignores or underestimates the importance of time perspective is
open to the same criticism.

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n.s. vol. 17, no. I, pp. 121-127.
1915a. The archaeology of eastern Nebraska, with special reference to
the culture of the rectangular earth lodges. 2 vols. (Unpublished
thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Harvard University.)
STEWARD, J. H. See Stronc, W. D., SCHENCK, W. EcBErRT, and STEWARD.
Stronc, W. D.
1927. An analysis of Southwestern society. Amer. Anthrop., n.s. vol. 29,
no. I, pp. 1-61.
1929. Aboriginal society in southern California. Univ. California Publ.
Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol., vol. 26.
1932a. An archeological reconnaissance in the Missouri Valley. Expl. and
Field-Work Smithsonian Inst. 1931, pp. 151-158.
1932b. Recent discoveries of human artifacts associated with extinct ani-
mals in Nebraska. Science Service Research Announcement,
no. 130, Washington, June 27.
1933.a Signal Butte, a prehistoric narrative in the high plains. Expl.
and Field-Work Smithsonian Inst. 1932, pp. 69-72.
1933 b. The Plains culture area in the light of archeology. Amer. Anthrop.,
n.s. vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 271-287.
1933c. Studying the Arikara and their neighbors on the upper Missouri.
Expl. and Field-Work Smithsonian Inst. 1932, pp. 73-76.

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 309

Stronc, W. D., ScHEencx, W. E., and Stewarp, J. H.
1930. Archaeology of the Dalles-Deschutes region. Univ. California Publ.
Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol., vol. 29, no. 1, pp. I-154.
Swanton, J. R.
1930. Some neglected data bearing on Cheyenne, Chippewa, and Dakota
history. Amer. Anthrop., n.s. vol. 32, no. I, pp. 156-160.
Swanton, J. R., and Drxon, R. B.
1914. Primitive American history. Amer. Anthrop., n.s. vol. 16, no. 3,
Pp. 376-412.
THomas, Cyrus
1894. Report on the mound explorations of the Bureau of Ethnology.
Twelfth Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., pp. 17-730.
Topp; J. E.
1888. Some ancient diggings in Nebraska. Amer. Antigq., vol. 10, no. 6,
PP. 374-376.
TROWBRIDGE, ARTHUR C., and SHaw, E. W.
1916. Geology and geography of the Galena and Elizabeth quadrangles.
Bull. 26, Illinois State Geol. Surv.
Uppen, JoHAN AUGUST
1900. An old Indian village. Augustana Libr. Publ., no. 2, Rock Island, III.
Van Royen, WILLIAM. See Bett, Eart H., and Van Royen.
Vosy-Bourson, H.
1929. Traces de l’homme dans le pliocéne du Nebraska. Journ. Soc.
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Wess, WILLIAM S.
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1933. Preliminary notes on the archaeology of Medicine Valley in south-
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III. Salina I: A _ protohistoric village site in McPherson
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1926. The pedigree of the human race. New York.

310 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

Witt, GeorceE F,
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1899. Arrowpoints, spearheads, and knives of prehistoric times. Ann. Rep.
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1908. Ethnographical problems of the Missouri Saskatchewan area. Amer.
Anthrop., n.s. vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 197-207.
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Handbook ser., no. 1. 2nd ed.
1922. The American Indian. 2nd ed. New York.
WoopruFF, ELMER GRANT
1906. The geology of Cass County, Nebraska. Nebraska Geol. Suryv.,
vol. 11, pt. 2, pp. 176-290.
Woopwarpb, A. SMITH
1922. A supposed ancestral man in North America. Nature, vol. 100,
no. 2745, p. 750.
ZIMMERMAN, M. E.
1918. The ground-house Indians and stone-cist grave builders of Kansas
and Nebraska. Coll. Kansas State Hist. Soc., vol. 14, pp. 471-487.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES
PLATE I

Historic Pawnee artifact types

Bies i. Pottery, Ell site (emcar rosacea ae iro iertoerere ete 58
Fic. 2. Other artifact types, Hill site (circa 1805). a, d, quartzite scrapers ;
b, bison rib beaming tool; c, bone “ paint brush”; e, broken shaft
polisher; f, bone fleshing tool. Yrs. o.% os sce -etane ones oe ee 60

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 3iI

PLATE 2

Protohistoric Pawnee rim sherds (circa 1600)

Page
EEG HPTAE SCH VICES SITE) Fics. sajguctanw aie shales crane Soler eT AR eather oe atten aslo csteny eh eran 64
EUG oe OMIT Ot: S1t@ we ccd cicie dic ceciars xsye cue at siete a araols CET ae aie ears Sse a Le 64
PLATE 3
Restored Protohistoric Pawnee pots, from houses 1 and 2, Burkett site’
PERE ANADENIG Ae 2.5 oss Repos g PIS wre ete ee esi seh feie mana taye ens ois eee 65
PLATE 4

Lost Creek site, Upper Republican culture

Fic. 1. Post holes along east wall of rectangular earth lodge (house 1).... 76

Biew2 ss oinlallecache pit and slab covers(house 1). acer selec eer 80

BiGeesh learce cache pit floored! with slabs) (house 1)\as- aie ce) eo a ele 79
PLATE 5

Rim sherds, Upper Republican culture

Bice bromahouserr, ‘most Creek. 22.4; caine ane «es icrstec ane eee 82
iGe2: rom sites on ost Creek and Rebecca Creel. ..-6--- ce sees ne cee 82

PLATE 6
Bone and antler artifacts

Fic. 1. From various sites, Upper Republican culture................... 93-245

Fig. 2. Bison scapula digging tools from various cultures. a, Lost Creek,
Upper Republican culture; b, Gates site, Nebraska culture; c,
Burkett site, Protohistoric Pawnee; d, Hill site, Historic
AWC) yn rt ore ciesste eiais aie SR OC eeraloaiel a eaicate etete alckenenctctore commen 03-245

PLATE 7
Chipped flint artifacts from various cultures in Nebraska

Fic. 1. Types of points and end scrapers. a, c, d, f, g, j, m, 0, Upper Re-
publican culture; b, h, k, 1, p, r, s, Nebraska culture; e, Cumro
site (with fossil bison) ; », Weeping Water site; 7, g, Protohis-
LOLI PEA WINE h.2.)5 7s aha schists tate seclolsiay hehe tse oeemele pale Chasse ieronencntene 93-245

Fic. 2. Types of knives or blades. a, g, i, Nebraska culture; b, c, d, e, h,

j, k, m, n, Upper Republican culture; f, Sterns Creek culture;
BowWeeping Water Sites. <«s\sa0i¢ vee lle Die eer amincaboceianiniees 93-245

Pate 8

Prairie Dog Creek ossuary, Upper Republican culture

Fic. 1. Looking north from site down the creek to the Republican River
(village site in cornfield’ to: right)\c---. ee ces seeps ecs cca ws ces ce 103

312

Fic.
Fic.

Fic.

Fic.
Fic.

Fic.
Fic.

Fic.

Fic.
Fic.

Fic.

Fic.

Fic.
Fic.
Fic.

Fic.
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OQ be

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93
Page
. Ossuary, with Indian Huillhin the:backerounds (o.205-. seme ce aces on 103
. Cross-section of the ossuary with deepest, scattered bones pro-
FOCUS Aleit 5.0 e sae ears oe ie es ee Ot Dia eee 107
2) Male Sheer ints Shtthe 2 isis c bec esses aa eh ete © oe emir Cite cee 107
PLATE 9

Rim sherds, Upper Republican culture, and artifacts of bone,
shell and copper

seRinwesherds) oraines oom Cnreelcossliahy ener etieeee een 108
. Bone, shell and copper artifacts, Upper Republican culture, and
(e) toggled harpoon, Nebraska culture (Gilder collection)..... 93-245
PLATE 10

Marshall and Prairie Dog Creek ossuaries

. Marshall site, shell bead ossuary on point of the bluff.............. 116
. Antler bracelet with incised hand and circle design, Prairie Dog
* @reele SOSSUARY, | 5i.bctess oratsie w-aicrateinlarccoe obakste'el Sa es ere tse cra eee III
. Human bones and shell beads mixed at Marshall site.............. 118
. Antler bracelet in situ, Prairie Dog Creek ossuary...:............ III
. Bottom outline of individual ossuary pit at Marshall site........... 118
PLATE II

Shell artifacts and types of beads, various cultures in Nebraska

. Shell artifacts. a, d, e, f, Nebraska culture; b, c, Upper Republican

culture; g, h, i, Indian Hill, Upper Republican culture (?)..... 93-245

. Types of beads from various sites. a, surface of Schuyler site

(Protohistoric Pawnee?) ; b, c, g, Marshall ossuary; d, i, 7, house
1, Lost Creek (Upper Republican culture); h, Prairie Dog
Creek ossuary (Upper Republican culture)..................:: 93-245

PLATE 12

Nebraska culture house sites

: Excavating southend of house 2, Rock Blufts: :.¢...+... 0. des .0+ se 126

.’ House pit-1, Gates: Site, prior tovexcavatiOn, ..0. <2 sce 250s es eae 147

. Excavating house 1, ‘Gates sitenc so... oco% = teen nee iat 147
PLATE 13

Large pot, house 2, Rock Bluffs, Nebraska culture

, Botin-eache-pit (note. white ash’) dm. 6 sae tes eee neon eae eee 132
é Bot restored: sss sce oN crt orchestra Ore 132

NO. 10 NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 313

PLATE 14

Nebraska culture pottery

Fic. 1. a, d, e, f, house 2, Rock Bluffs ; b, c, house 2, Gates site......... 124-184
Fic. 2. From various sites in the vicinity of Omaha (Gilder collection) ..124-184

PLATE 15
Nebraska culture rim sherds

Fic. 1. a, h, house 2, Rock Bluffs; b, c, e, i, house 1, Gates site; d, f, g,

BOtsei 2 GAteS SItOs roiy cus conic «cc Gone inke ME eed eR ee 124-184
Fic. 2. a, b, e, f, g, house 2, Gates site; c, house 1, Gates site; d, Childs
Point (Gilder collection) ; h, i, house 2, Rock Bluffs.......... 124-184
PLATE 16

Nebraska culture ceramics, and types of tobacco pipes from various cultures

Fic. 1. Nebraska culture ceramics. a, b, face pipe, house 2, Gates site; c,
d, e, and f (impress of coiled basketry) house 2, Rock Bluffs. ..124-184
Fic. 2. Types of tobacco pipes from various cultures in Nebraska. Nebraska
culture, a, b, d, f, h, 7 (Gates site), e, o (Rock Bluffs), m
(Gilder collection); Upper Republican culture, c, g, k, n, p;
Sterns Creek culture, 1; Historic Pawnee, / (Hill site)........ 124-184

PLATE 17
Ground stone and large chipped artifacts, various cultures in Nebraska

Fic. 1. Ground stone implements. Nebraska culture, a,c, e, 9g, h, i, 7; Upper
Republican culture, d, f, k; b, surface find, Cass County........ 03-245
Fic. 2. Stone axes and celts. Nebraska culture, c, d, e, f, g; Upper Republi-
can culture, 7, 7, k, 1, m; Sterns Creek culture, h; b, surface find,
Walker Gilmore site; a, surface find, Cass County............. 03-245

PLATE 18
Bone and antler artifact types, various cultures in Nebraska

Fic. 1. Mainly Nebraska culture. Nebraska culture, a, b, ¢, m (Gates site),
f, g, 1, n (Rock Bluffs site), c,h, 7, 7, k, 0, p, g, r, s (Childs Point,
Gilder collection) ; Upper Republican culture, d (house 1, Lost
(Gira) ene eS Peer Prtic adr ols tino o Gane apc oiap amor 03-245
Fic. 2. Sterns Creek culture implements. 0, cut wood; e, chipped stone pick;
remainder of bone or antler (Walker Gilmore site, level 1)... .187-195

314 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93

PLATE I9
Sterns Creek culture, Walker Gilmore site
Page
Fic. 1. a, complete pot; b, restored pot, Sterns Creek culture.............. 187
Fic. 2. Exposure of Sterns Creek culture strata in bank opposite waist of
FRUITNAT TI SULET avers, cise tose srotoetile eiare/onetesmiarartyerontcarere stcenerete iactake tries tere 175
Fic. 3. Similar deep exposure of white ash in hearth (between the two
ERO b RED BA AIROHE GMI BEE CIPO OAS GAO AGE TOL aeaciirkotinlaa Oa Goo Gar 175
Fic. 4. Fragments of Sterns Creek culture pottery near surface at A
(SEE) Map; HE. 24) see OG cn gateeheicl owiehe conte ohne teeta 196
PLATE 20
Mound and quarry trench, Cass County
Fic...“ Mound” aabove Walker, Gilmore: sites sncitisscmyac'a cbet-tdprestee ne 182
Fic. 2. Excavating “mound” 1, above Walker Gilmore site.............. 182
Fie, 3. Old quarry trench: A, Weeping Water Sites... 0. 24.55. 2 .temt eee 203

PLATE 21
Upper Republican culture artifacts from various sites

Fic. 1. a, pot found south of Republican River near Franklin; b, pot from
house 2, Lost Creek; c, d, pipe and bison ulnae tools from house

2, Lost Creek (photographs courtesy of J. P. Spence)........... 101
Fic. 2. Rim sherds from Medicine Creek sites a-d, and from Sweet-water
SUES E CHI aire etre reine eee or tan IT eRe EO oe ere ee 240-242
PLATE 22

Dismal River potsherds; and fossilized, burned bone with artifacts from
Sarpy County

Fic. 1. Potsherds from surface of three sites on the Dismal River, a, b, c,
e, thick, hole-tempered ware; d, f-m, thin, smooth ware; n (?).... 215
Fic. 2. a, excavating in gravel bed containing burned fossil bone and flint
artifacts, Bird Creek, Sarpy County; b-f, i, 7, k, artifacts and flint
fragments; g, h, I-q, fossil bone fragments...............00cs000 217

PLATE 23
Stratified site on the summit of Signal Butte, Scotts Bluff County

Fic. 1. Signal Butte from the east, showing break with main escarpment
of: the"Waldeat: Fills, acecaws acnilon source nm a eraemeone cre ce ae 224
Fic. 2. Cross-section exposure near center of butte (west face of row 1)
showing three levels of occupation (I-III), underlying sands,
and basic capirock (compare with) fig. 20) seen ce or eee enee 227
Fic. 3. Exposure on south edge of butte (north face of section E, east face
of row 5) showing thick, black nature of level I. (Level III over-
lies level II so closely at this point that they are difficult to
distingwish:). ». o/ejs-c:ieile bsouesaherapershotorshoreeve ane whe eee arate eer eee 228

NO. IO NEBRASKA ARCHEOLOGY—STRONG 315

PLATE 24
Artifact types from top level (III) and middle level (II), Signal Butte

Page

Fic. 1. Artifact types from top level (III), Signal Butte............... 229-236
Fic. 2. Pottery from top level (III). a, Upper Republican type; b, Dismal
River (smooth) type; and artifact types’ from middle level (II)

RE GeAIDS Pilar cefos aiken, Gin ae Sahapurere coeietere tera Rr hice ete starr eceutekrs 229-236

PLATE 25
Artifact types from lowest level (I), Signal Butte

Pico 71. omipped stone implement types....i.. 0s osc decode denen sclene avsiecee 229-230

Fic. 2. Bone, antler and ground stone implement types. (The types of
artifacts from Signal Butte are illustrated in rough proportion to
them: relative abundance in) each) level). 54.2. ses cee eco es 229-236

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RESTORED PROTOHISTORIC PAWNEE POTS, BURKETT SITE
(CIRCA 1600)
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PRAIRIE DOG CREEK OSSUARY, UPPER REPUBLICAN CULTURE

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MARSHALL AND PRAIRIE DOG CREEK OSSUARIES

1. Marshall site, on point. 4. Antler bracelet in situ.
2. Antler bracelet, Prairie Dog Creek. 5. Bottom outline of ossuary pit,
3. Ossuary pit, Marshall site. Marshall site.

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NEBRASKA CULTURE HOUSE SITES
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House 1, Gates site.

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NEBRASKA CULTURE POTTERY

1. From Rock Bluffs and Gates sites.
2. Vicinity of Omaha (Gilder collection).

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STERNS CREEK CULTURE, WALKER GILMORE SITE

Pots, Sterns Creek culture.
Sterns Creek canyon.

Deep exposures of white ash.
Shallow exposure at A (fig. 24).

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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 93, NO. 10, PL. 20

MOUND AND QUARRY TRENCH, CASS COUNTY

t. “ Mound” 1 above Walker Gilmore site.
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3. Old quarry trench A, Weeping Water site.

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STRATIFIED SITE ON THE SUMMIT OF SIGNAL BUTTE, SCOTTS BLUFF
COUNTY

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Pa, Cross- section showing three levels.
3. Levei I on south edge.

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INDEX

A

Acknowledgments, 2-4
Aiaouez, 25
Aiauway, 42
“* Algonkian ”’ culture, 285, 288, 295
Algonkian stock, 13, 26
Allen, quoted, 36, 37
Alma site, 122-123, 246
American Philosophical Society, 52
Angus site, 221, 224, 246, 282
Animal life of Nebraska, 33-34, 35, 36
Animals, extinct
association of artifacts with, 271, 280,
282
See also Bison; Mammals; Mammoth
Antiquity
of Signal Butte site, 236-239
of Sterns Creek culture, 195-196
Antler, work in, 60-61, 67, 97-100, 234-235
Apache, 10, 12-13
Apana, 19
Arapaho, 13,
209
Archeological work
in Colorado, 293
in Iowa, 284-289
in Kansas, 283-284
in North Dakota, 289-292
in South Dakota, 3, 289-292
in Wyoming, 292
previous, in Nebraska, 40-55
Arikara, 12-13, 15, 18, 26, 63, 275, 298,
209
arrows, 267
villages, 290, 291
Arkansas River, 12-13
Artifacts
antler, 60-61, 67, 97-100, III, 164, 192,
234-235, 260, 261
bison hair, 61
bone, 54, 60-61, 67, 94-97, 102, I10-III,
121, 136, 142-143, 153, 163-164,
IQI-192, 234-235, 260, 261, 268
Caucasian, 62, 63, 67
chipped stone, 59-60, 66-67, 68, 87-94,
102-103, 109-110, 123, 129-130, 134-
136, 142, 153, 162-163, 166, 190-191,
202, 216, 225-223, 230-234, 241,
260, 267, 269
classes of, 54
copper, 114
from cache pits, 79, 80
from refuse heaps, 81
glass, 61, 62
ground stone, 59-60, 66-67, 68, 8&5, 102,
109, 133-134, 140-142, 152-153, I61-
162, 166, 190, 230, 241, 260, 268,
269
metal, 60, 62
shell, 60, 61, 100, III-I114, 120, I21,
123, 129, 136-137, 235, 262

23

x5, 26; 27, 29, 39; 40, 272;

Artifacts—Cont’d
with extinct animals, 220-224, 271, 280,
282, 293
wooden, 61, 193, 268
See also Basketry; Pottery
“Artifacts,” Pliocene, 53, 54
Assiniboin, 298
Atsina, 26
Aughey, Samuel, 43

B

Bad Land region, Indians of, 39
Baker, Frank C., 3, 113, 120, 194
Bandelier, cited, 10
Barbour, E. H., cited, 2, 44-45, 46, 47, 207,
222
Barbour and Schultz, cited, 221, 222, 281
Basketry impressions, 137, 262
Beads, shell
from Graham site, 111-113
manufacture of, 120
Benrns, Joe E., 141
Bell, Earl He; 35,55,, 66, 172) 0222.8242
Bell and Van Royen, cited, 220, 221, 222,
282
Bellevue, mound near, 208, 210
Bellin, cited, 12-13, 23, 25
Bengston, Nels A., 3
Big Nemeha, 22
Big Sioux River, 12-13, 18
Bilgery, Father Conrad, 223
Bird Creek Canyon site, 217-220, 246, 271
Birket-Smith, cited, 99
Bishop, A. L., 4, 168, 170
Bison
extinct, artifacts with, 219-220, 221,
246, 271, 282, 293, 299
See also Buffalo
Blackbird, grave of, 42-43
Blackfoot Indians, 26, 28, 298
Black Hills, 18, 27
Blackman, E. E.
cited, 28, 43, 45, 47, 144, 199, 203, 204,
206, 208, 209
work of, 4, 47-48
Black Padouca, 25
Blue Earth River region, 22
Blue Springs, Nebr., 16
“Blue Water,” 12-13
Bodmer, 11
Bone, see Artifacts; Skeletal material
Bone work, see Artifacts
Boule, cited, 46, 54
Bourgmont, 10, 212
Brackenridge, I1, 291
Bradbury, 11, 206, 267, 291
Brooking, A. M., 119, 121, 221
Brower, cited, 43, 283-284
Brulé Sioux, 28
Buffalo
extermination of, 10, 37-38
range of, 36

317

318

Buffalo Bill’s Cave, 116
Buffalo skull shrine, 63, 64
Bureau of American Ethnology, 2, 3, 5, 55,
212) 223, 224. 240
Burial customs, 174, 205
Burials, 58, 61, 64, 103, 113, 198-201, 208,
228, 250, 278; 270
summary of, 266
See also Ossuaries; Skeletal material
Burkett site, 43, 48, 62, 63, 64, 67, 246,
273, 297
Burnett, E. A., 2
Burpee, cited, 28
Bushnell, cited, 20, 51, 55, 144, 205, 206,
266
Butte, Nebr., 242
Butte site, 246, 275

Cc

Caches, see Storage pits
Caddoan stock, 7, 12, 39, 287, 292
Camancias, 26
Cannibalism, possibility of, 174, 265
‘iCapahass x7:
Cape, Robert E., 222
Cape site, 282
Carver, 27
Cataka, 26
Cat-a-kah, 26
Catlin, 11, 22
Ceramics, see Pottery
Champe, John, 4
Charlevoix, 10, 12-13, 21
Chaui Pawnee, 57
Cheyenne, 13, 15, 19, 26, 27, 29, 39, 40,
272, 299
Cheyenne River, 12-13, 20, 27, 28
Cheyenne sites, 292
Child’s Point site, 42, 208
Chipped points
change in, 279, 280
classification of, 89
distribution of, 90
Yuma type, 280-281
See also Artifacts; Folsom points
Chipped stone, see Artifacts
Chippewa, 27, 28
Chittenden, cited, 22
Chiwere division, 12, 17, 21, 24, 39, 295
Clarks site, 48, 246
Climate of Nebraska, 38
Clovis, N. Mex., 280
Coffin, G2 .G.; 22
Coffin, Roy G., 223
Collot, 12-13, 14, 19, 26, 27
Colorado,
archeological work in, 293
historic tribes of, 2
Comanche, 10, 12-13, 15, 18, 19, 25, 26, 29,
20, 212, 270; 272, 273, 295
Conclusions, 294-300
Condra, cited, 31
Condra and Keyser, cited, 31
Connelley, cited, 16, 26
Cook, Harold J., 51
Cordage, 100
Corn, see Maize
Coronado, 7
Cottonwood Creek site, 246

INDEX

Coues, cited, 26
Covington, Nebr., 18
Crania, see Skeletal material
Crescent City, mounds near, 209
Crow, 28, 37, 298
Crow earth lodge, 28
Crow migration, 295
Cultural affiliations, with areas adjacent to
Nebraska, 282-294
classification of archeological re-
mains, I, 2
Culture, affected by environment, 30-40
Culture sequence, 271-282, 296
table of, 272
Cultures, summary of, 245-271
Cumro site, 246, 271, 280

Cultural

D ‘

Dakota groups, burial customs of, 266

Dakota migration, 295

Dakota tribe, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, 27, 28, 209,
37-38, 39, 40, 99, 272

Daniels, Lee, 3, 243

Decoration of pottery, 84, 131, 159-160, 188,
229, 240, 243, 244, 247-248, 252,
262, 268, 277, 286

De Land, cited, 267, 289

De I’Isle maps, cited, 12-13, 16, 22, 24, 25

Dent, Colo., discovery at, 223

De Soto, 17

Des Moines River, 12-13, 22, 42

Dhegiha division, 12-13, 14, 16, 17, 20, 24,
39, 206, 295

Dhegiha migration, 19

Dismal River culture, 272

Dismal River region, 212-213

Dismal River sites, 212-217, 246, 270-271

Dixon, cited, 17

Dodge, Richard I., quoted, 37

Dooley, T., 71

Dooley site, 69-103

Dorsey, cited, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21%, 22,
24, 206

Douglas, Ralph, 4, 79, 81, 82, 84

Dunbar, cited, 267, 298

Duncan; ©. A-,, 83

Du Pratz) 12-13. 27, 23525

Du Tisné, cited, 10, 16

E

Earth lodges, 18, 48-49, 57, 62-63, 64, 73-74
development of types, 276-277
excavation of, 63, 74-78, 101-103, 126-

129, 138-139, 147, 151, 154-157;
164-165, 166-167, 172-175
floor plans of, 64, 72, 127, 148, 155
method of excavation, 73-74, 227-228
shapes of, 174-175, 240, 249, 262-266,
274
walls of, 264

Earth lodge sites, extent of, 263

Earthworks, 57, 206

Eastman, 11

Effigy heads, 257, 258

Eiseley, Loren, 3, 241, 242

*« Elephant,” fossil, artifact associated with,

43

INDEX

Elkhorn River,

246, 263
Environment, effect of, on culture, 30-40
Escansaques, 14

Ke-03,, 10, 168, 210," 2435

F

Fenneman, cited, 31, 39

Figgins, cited, 221, 223, 282

Fletcher and La Flesche, cited, 17, 18, 19,
21, 24, 25, 38, 144, 205, 212

Florence, Nebr., 18, 24

Floyd River, 29

Folsom culture, 224, 271, 272, 279, 280,
282, 293

Folsom points, 223, 224, 279, 280, 281, 282

Foreman, Grant, cited, 16

Fort Collins, Colo., 223, 280, 282

Fowke, Gerard, 50, 51, 207, 209-210, 274

Franklin, Nebr., 83

Fremont, J. C., 27, 29

Fremont, Nebr., 48

Fullerton site, 246

Furry, C. J., 83

G

Garcilasso, cited, 17
Gates, Harold, 144
Gates, J. M., 144
Gates site, 143-168, 246, 255, 263
Gazins (Cs ibs, 3; 235
Genoa, Nebr., 43, 48
Genoa site, 246
Gens de la Fleche Collée, 28
Gens de valch, 27
Gens-di-rach, 27
Gifford and Schenck, cited, 89
Gilder, Robert F.
cited, 4, 40, 42, 44, 45, 46, 49, 69, 204,
250, 251, 255, 257, 260, 261, 262
work of, 48, 49, 144, 168, 170, 207, 208
Gilder collection, 98
Gilmore, (Gar t.. 4, 024, 225, 126,130, 175;
189, 198
Gilmore, Melvin H., 3, 143, 187, 193
Gilmore, Walker, see Walker Gilmore site
Glacial area, 35-36, 272, 295
Indians of, 39
Glenwood culture, 251, 287
Graham, Robert, 103
Graham site, 103-114, 116
Grand Island site, 221, 246, 271
Grand Pawnee tribe, 57
Grand River, 12-13, 16
Grand Saline River, 16
Gravel deposits, artifacts in, 217-220
Gray, Glenn W., 3
Gray site, 48, 62
Green, A. L., cited, 16
Green, Thomas L., 4, 224, 225
Green Bay, Wisc., 17
Greenwood Creek, 222
Gregory, W. K., 51, 52, 53
Griffing site, 283-284
Grinnell, George B., cited, 25, 26, 27, 44,
65, 212, 289, 291
Gros Ventre, 298
Ground stone, see Artifacts

319

H

Habitations
Sterns Creek, 184-187
See also, Earth lodges
Handbook of American Indians, 26
Harahey, 7
Harrington, M. R., cited, 113, 261, 276, 284
Harvard University, 3, 50
Hastings Museum, 83, 124, 221, 242
Hayden, cited, 43
Hellman, M., 51, 52
Hennepin, Father, cited, 19, 21, 28
Henry, Alexander, cited, 27
Hertzler, J. O., 2
Hesperopithecus, 51-55
Hicks; J 'D:; 2
Hidatsa migration, 295
Hidatsa sites, 292
High Plains area, 32-34
Indians of, 39
Hill, A. T., 3, 4, 51, 55, 56-57, 73, 80, 117,
UL9;, 2, 122;) 124, 202, 203) 24s
216, 241
Hill site, 56, 57, 59, 246
Hipparion fauna, 52
Hodge, F. W., cited, 10
Holmes, cited, 43, 44, 65, 66, 141
Hopewell culture, 285
Hopi pottery, 131
Horse Creek, 29, 48, 206
Horse Creek site, 246
Horses
introduction of, 10-11, 18, 30, 296, 297,
298
remains of, 62, I0I, 297
House mounds, see Earth lodges
House pits, see Earth lodges
Hooton, cited, 46
Howard, cited, 280
Hrdlitka, cited, 45-46, 47, 207
Hunkpapa, 28
Hyaenarctos, 52

Iberville, 21
Ietans, 26
Illinois tribe, 12-13, 21
Indian Hill, 104, 115
Ionia, Nebr., 18, 24
Iowa
archeological work in, 284-289
tribes of.) 225, 235) 245 205,37
Iowa Point, Kans., mound near, 210
lowa River, 17
Iowa tribe, 12-13, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22,
23, 24, 50, 205
Irving, 11, 206

J

Jackson, W. H., photographs by, 55
Jefferys, cited, 21

Jicarilla Apache, 25

Joliet, 12-13, 22

Jones, cited, 207

Joyner, Newell, 3

320

K

Kaighns Point, 215, 216, 270
Ka-ne-na-vish, 12-13, 27
Kansa tribe, 12-13, 14, 17, I9, 20, 21, 23,
205, 206, 212, 244, 284, 295

Kansas

archeological work in, 283-284

tribes of, 7, 25
Kansas River, 12-13
Kaskaias, 26
Keyes, Charles R., 251, 284, 285, 287, 288
Kiowa, 26, 29, 298
Kiowa Creek, 2
Kirby, Maurice E., 3, 4, 225, 237, 238
Kitkehahki Pawnee, 16, 57
Kroeber, cited, 298
Kurz ir, 044

L

Laboratory of Anthropology, Santa Fe, 3,
224
Lahontan, cited, 21, 28
Lake Michigan culture, 289
La Salle, 19, 62
La Vérendrye, 10; cited, 28
Lehn site, 123-124
Le Raye, cited, 10, 19, 20, 21, 27, 28
Leshara site, 246
Le Sueur, 12-13, 21, 22, 25, 28
Lewis and Clark, cited, 11, 12-13, 20, 21,
Zhe 20, ye 7a Sos Os Ada te ZOOS
212, 291
Lindenmeier site, Colo., 223, 279
Linton, cited, 63
Linwood site, 48, 56, 57, 206, 246
Little Kansas River, 12-13
Llano Estacado, 10
Lodges, see Earth lodges
Loess Plains, 35, 272, 294
Indians of, 39
Logan Museum of Beloit College, 289
Long, Major, cited, 11, 12-13, 20, 21, 27,
29
Long’s Hill mound, 44-47, 51, 207
Lost Creek district, map of, 70
Lost Creek site, 246
Lost Creek village, 69-103
Loup River, 12-13, 123, 124
Loup River Pawnee villages, 55
Lowie, Robert H., 3
Ludlow cave, S. Dak., 291, 297
ugns An ac:
cited, 222, 281
work of, 3, 218, 219
Lugn and Schultz, cited, 281

M

Mackenzie, 27
Maize, 18, 130, 138, 194, 262, 268, 295
Mallet brothers, 10
Malroy, C. W., 242
Mammals, extinct
with human artifacts, 220-22
See also Animals, extinct

INDEX

Mammoth
archeological period of, 299
artifacts found with remains of, 223,

282
reported association of, with artifacts,
221, 246

See also ‘‘ Elephant ”
Mandan, 298, 299
Mandan migration, 295
Mandan sites, 290, 291
Maps
Bird Creek Canyon site, 169
digest of, 12-13, 14
Gates site, 145
Lost Creek district, 70
Rock Bluffs district, 125
Saunders site, 169
showing Nebraska sites, 8
showing Nebraska tribes, 9, 38
U. S. exploring party, 1803, 16
Walker Gilmore site, 176
Weeping Water site, 199
Marquette, cited, 12-13, 19, 21, 22, 25
Marshall site, 116-122, 246
Matthew, W. D., 51, 52
Max, Nebr., site near, 241-242, 246
Maximilian of Wied, Prince, 11, 291
McClaine site, 48, 246
McGee, cited, 21, 22, 23
McGrew, Paul, 3
McKern, 1, 289
Medicine Creek sites, 242, 246
Merrill, Moses, cited, 23, 24
Merrill, Samuel P., cited, 23
Meserve, F. G., 221
Mill Creek culture, 287, 288, 295
Miller, Gerrit S., Jr., 3, 52, 236
Miniconjou, 28
Minnesota, 12-13, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 37
Miocene period, 225
Mississippi River, 28
See also Upper Mississippi culture
Missouri River, 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26,
27, 29, 51, 73, 124, 179, 209, 246,
263, 274
Missouri tribe, 12-13, 15, 17, 22, 23, 205
Molluscan remains, 100-101, 137-138, 194
Monier, Jean Baptiste, 21
Montgomery, cited, 289
Mooney, cited, 25, 27, 29, 39
Moore, cited, 261, 262
Moorehead, cited, 284
Morris, cited, 132
Morrison, Frank, 3
Mounds, 40, 41-42, 44,
274, 290
formation of, 211
problem of, 205-211
Munson Creek site, 123, 246
Murie, cited, 63

170-172, 198-205,

N

Naskapi stonework, 85
National Research Council, 5, 240
N de Fer maps of 1718, 19
Nebraska
geographic areas of, 32
physical classification of, 30-31

INDEX

Nebraska—Cont’d
previous archeological work in, 40-55
tribes of, 9, 14-29, 38-40, 205, 272-273
Nebraska Archeological Survey, 4, 240
Nebraska culture, 49, 50, 177, 180-182, 272,
288, 295
summary of, 250-267, 274-275
Nebraska culture pottery, Sterns’ classifica-
tion of, 254
Nebraska sites, table of, 246
Nebraska State Historical Society, 47, 240
Nebraska State Museum, 49, 119, 251, 261
Nehawka, Nebr., 43, 210
Nehawka quarries, 203
Nelson, N. C., cited, 54
Nemaha reservation, 24
Nemaha River, 12-13, 41, 210
Nemaha site, 50-51
Neosho River, 16
Niobrara River, 12-13, 18
North Dakota
archeological work in, 289-292
Cheyenne in, 2
North Dakota Historical Society, 289
North Platte River, 246
North Platte sites, 246
Nuttall, 11

O

Oglala, 28
O’Heeron, Michael, 3
Ohio River, 206
Oklahoma, 24
Oligocene period, 225
Omaha City, 48, 211, 255
Omaha Creek, 12-13
Omaha Public Library, 49, 98, 260, 261
Omaha tribe, 12-13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 20, 21,
22, 23, 25, 29, 38, 39, 40, 55, 205,
206, 212, 212, 272, 295; 298
Omaha village, 48, 144
Omaha villages, traditional, 18
Omaha World-Herald, 44
Onate, Juan de, 14
O’Neill, Nebr., sites near, 243, 246
Oneota culture, 284, 285, 288
Osage River, 21
Osage tribe, 17, 20, 23, 206, 284
Osage ware, 50
Osborn, Henry Fairfield, 44, 51, 52, 53, 207
Ossuaries
Alma site, 122-123
Lehn site, 123-124
Marshall site, 116-122
Munson Creek, 123-124
Prairie Dog Creek, 103-114
Republican River, 122-123
Saunders site, 168-175
O’Sullivan, J. B., 4, 175, 243, 244
Oto River, 12-13
Oftostribe; 12-135 155 67, 1S) 21, 22, 23, 20,
39, 40, 42, 50, 55, 205, 206, 211,
272, 295, 298
Oto village, 48
Otontas River, 21
Otteaus, 42
Otteauze, 42
Over, W. H., 290, 291
Ozark Bluff Dweller culture, 284

321

P

Padouca, 12-13, 18, 25, 26, 39, 212
See also Black Padouca; White Padouca
Paducar, 26
Pahoutet, 12-13, 25
Paint Creek Site, 283
Palmer site, 246
Pana, 12-13, 19, 22
Paniassa, 19
Panimaha, 19
Panis, 12-13
Panis blanc, 12-13
Panis noirs, 12-13
Panis old village, 16
Panis Piqués, 16
Panis River, 21
Papillion Creek, 20, 48, 143, 144, 208, 263
Park, Edward, 284
Parker, cited, 261
Pawnee 7.) LO T2039.) 05.) 20.2 ean os
29; (375,38; 395, 40, 44, 2055 2725
273, 275, 276, 298
Pawnee burials, 58, 61, 64, 205
Pawnee culture, 55-68, 272, 273-274, 297
Pawnee “ Grand Village,’ 12-13, 26
Pawnee sites, 16, 62
historic, 246
protohistoric, 246
Pawnee villages, 43, 48, 50, 56, 206
Peabody Museum of American Archaeology
and Ethnology, 49, 250, 257, 262-
263
Pénateka, 25
Perrin du Lac, 10, 12-13, 20, 21, 26
Pike, Zebulon, 11, 12-13, 26, 48, 51
Pipes, summary of types of, 259-260
See also Artifacts
Pipestone quarries, Minnesota, 18
Plains Archeological Conference, 287
Plains culture, 299-300
Plains tribes, environment of, 30-40
Plank, Pryor, 284
Plants, native, of Nebraska, 33, 34, 35, 36
Platte) River, 22-13, 20, 22) 23, 26, 27, 225
Pleistocene period, 53, 221, 236, 272, 281,
282, 2904
Pliocene period, 51, 52, 53, 54
Pollard, Isaac, 43
Pomo beadmaking, 120
Ponca; £2-73) 145 25) 27, 18) TO) 205 21,
23, 25, 29, 39, 40, 55, 206, 211,
272, 295, 298
Ponca Creek, 12-13, 21, 206, 208
Ponka, Pawnee, and Oto reservation, 22
Pope, Saxton, cited, 99
Pottery, 44, 50-51, 56, 58-59, 61, 64-66, 68,
82-85, 102, 108-109, 124, 129, 130-
133, 139-140, 151-152, 158-161, 165-
166, 173, 180-181, 187-190, 215-216,
229-230, 240-241, 243, 247, 248,
251-260, 268; 275, 277; 279; 285-
286, 291, 293
Poynter, C. W. M., 46, 168, 170
Prairie Dog Creek district, 104, 116
Prairie Dog Creek site, 246
Prairie Sioux, 28
Prosthennops, 53
Proudfit, cited, 209
Pueblo revolts, Io
Punceas, 21

322 INDEX

Q

Quapaw, 17, 18, 19, 206
Quarry sites, aboriginal, 43-44, 203-205
Quivira, 7, 10

R
Red Cloud, Nebr., 56
Red River, 12-13, 16
Refuse heaps, 81-82, 130
Renaud, E. B., cited, 215, 242, 280, 281,
292, 293
Republic, Kans., 48
Republican Pawnee, 16, 57
village, 48, 51
Republican River, 12-13, 69
ossuaries, 116-123
Reynolds, Robert L., 3, 217
Richardson County, 41
Riggs, A. L., 21
Roberts) He blpda ites a 223, 202, 203
Robinson, cited, 289
Rock Bluffs site, 124-143, 246, 255
Romer, cited, 281
Ruby, Nebr., mound near, 208
Rulo site, 246, 284, 288
Ryan, Michael, Jr., 223

S

Sac and Fox reservation, 22
Saline Creek, 16
Sand Hills area, 34, 39, 272
Sans Arc, 28
Santee, 28
Santee Dakota, 15
Sauk and Fox, 15, 23
Saunders site, 168-175, 210, 246
Savannah, Nebr., 16
Schenck, cited, 89
Schultz, Bertrand, 3, 115
Schultz, C. B.
cited, 221, 222
work of, 103, 132, 189, 220
Schultz and Barbour, cited, 281
Schuyler site, 48, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67, 246,
273, 297
Sears, Paul B., 4, 222, 223, 237, 238
Sedentary Siouan culture, 272
Setzler, Frank H., 1, 3
Shea, cited, 12-13, 22, 25, 28
Shell Creek, 12-13
Shellwork, see Artifacts
Shetrone, 40, 207, 262
Shimek, cited, 43, 45, 46, 47, 207
Shine, Father M. A., 47
Shoshonean stock, 13, 212
Signal Butte cultures, 269-270, 272, 278-280
Signal Butte excavations, method employed
in, 227-228
Signal Butte site, 3, 224-239, 246, 280, 281
Simmerman, L. E., 4
Simpson, E. S., 224
Siouan tribes in Nebraska region, 12, 16,
22, 37; 39
See also Sedentary Siouan culture
Sioux River, 12-13

Sites
classified, 246
excavated, 68-60
grouped according to cultures, 245, 246
stratified, 246
unclassified, 246
Skeletal material
animal, 62, 67, 100-101, 137-138, 153,
173, 194, 219, 220-224, 228, 235-
236
human, 44-46, 47, 106-107, 115, 119,
122-124, 139, 170, 171, 173-174, 183-
184, 201, 228
Skidi Pawnee, 16, 19
Skidi sites, 48, 59
Skinner, cited, 24
Smith, Elliot, 52
Smith, Harlan I., 242, 292
Smith, T. P., cited, 10
Smithsonian Institution, 2
Smoky Hill River, 15, 26
Snake Creek fossil beds, 52, 53, 54
Solomon River, 12-13, 26
South Dakota
archeological work in, 3, 289-292
tribes of, 12-13, 20, 27, 29
South Dakota Historical Society, 289
South Platte River, 27
‘““Spanish Diggings,’? 292
Spavinaw Creek, 16
Spence, Gene P., 4, 79
Spence, Karl L., 4, 71, 82, 101-102
Spinden, cited, 289
Spring Creek site, 221, 246, 271, 281
Sta-e-tan, 26
Standing Rock Reservation, 99
Sterns, Frederick H.
cited, 140, 7445 146) 7403) 69,) 030,807.55
T8r, 182, 184, 203, 207, 208, 220,
252,252, 2555 2575) 200,2ol,eeo2s
276
work of, 3, 49-50, 125, 126, 175, 176,
177, 178, 197, 250, 276, 284
Sterns Creek, 175, 176-177
culture, 50, 180, 184-196, 267-268, 272,
274, 278, 287-288, 295
Stirling, cited, 289, 291
Stonework, see Artifacts
Storage pits, 57, 63, 76, 78-81, 129-130, 157-
158, 228-229, 249-250, 265
Strong, cited, 212, 220, 221, 224, 240
Strong, Schenck, and Steward, cited, 89
Sutaio, 26
Swanson, Ray, 281
Swanton, John R., cited, 3, 16, 17, 27, 28,
208
Sweetwater site, 240-241, 246

Aa

Tappage Pawnee villages, 16
Tetaus, 26

Teton Dakota, 12-13, 28, 29, 298
Thoburn, Jos. B., 284

Thomas, Cyrus, cited, 40
Thompson, cited, 27

Thomson, A., 52, 53

Todd, cited, 43, 199

Tonkawa, 10

Treaties, United States, 20

INDEX

Tribes of Nebraska region, 9, 12-13, 14-29,
38-40, 205, 272-273

Truteau, 10

Two Kettle band, 28

U

Udden, J. A., 283

United States National Museum, 3

University Museum at Vermillion, S. Dak.,
291

University of California, 3

University of Illinois, 4

University of Michigan, 3

University of Nebraska, 2, 3, 44, 48, 218

University of Nebraska Archeological Sur-
vey, 3, 49, 55, 62, 139, 197, 210,
212, 224, 250

University of Oklahoma, 4

University of South Dakota, 289

University of Wisconsin, 3

Upham, cited, 43

Upper Mississippi culture, 2, 289

Upper Missouri area, 289-290

Upper Republican culture, 245-250, 266-267,
272, 274, 275-277, 287, 291

Upper Republican sites, 246

Upson, F. W., 2

Vv

Van Royen, W., 3, 238

Vegetal remains, 143, 193-194, 262, 268

Vermillion Conference of Plains Archeolo-
gists, 289, 290

Vinita, Okla., 16

Von Kuelen maps, 19

Vosy-Bourbon, 53

W

Walker Gilmore site, 49, 69, 175, 210, 225,
246, 267-268, 272, 275
suggestions for excavations at, 196-198

323

Wallace ‘‘ mound,’’ 208, 210
Ward, H. B., cited, 45
Wedel, Waldo, 1, 3, 10, 16, 19, 39, 48, 50,
55, 56, 58, 62, 63, 65, 205, 206, 240,
242, 243, 273, 283
Weeping Water Creek, 22, 210, 211, 263
Weeping Water site, 198-205, 246
Wetmore, A., 3, 236
White Padouca, 12-13, 25
White River, 12-13, 26
Wichita Indians, 7, 12-13, 15, 16, 19, 297
Wildcat Hills, 215
Wilder, cited, 52
Will, George F., 289, 290
Will and Hyde, cited, 2
Will and Spinden, 261, 290
Wilson, Thomas, cited, 89
Winchell, cited, 43
Winnebago, 15, 17, 21
Winship, cited, 10
Wisconsin, archeological work in, 289
Wissler, Clark, cited, 10, 294
Wolcott, R. H., cited, 31, 32, 39
Wolf Creek site, 284
Woodruff, E. G., cited, 204
Woodward, Smith, cited, 52
Woodworking, see Artifacts
Wright, Dana, 290
Wyoming, tribes of, 2
archeological work in, 292

We

Yankton bands, 28

Yankton Dakcta, 12-13

Yankton Dakota village, 29

Yarmouth interglacial stage, 221

Yocum, 168

Yuma type chipped points, 280-281, 293
Yutan site, 12-13, 23, 48, 206

z

Zimmerman, cited, 42, 50, 207, 284

Stee
eens

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