THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA

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THE AUTHOR (1919).

THE SNAKES OF
SOUTH AFRICA

THEIR VENOM

AND THE

TREAT M E NT
OF SNAKE BITE

BY

F. W. FITZSIMONS, F.Z.S., F.R.M.S.

ETC.

DIRECTOR, PORT ELIZABETH MUSEUM

T. MASKEW 'MILLER

CAPE TOWN
[Copyright^

OTHER BOOKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR

The Natural History of South Africa

(In Four Volumes)

The Monkey-Folk of South Africa

The House Fly, a Slayer of Men

Birds : Their Value to Man (in the Press)

These books are all profusely illustrated
Published by

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.

39, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON, E.G.

Write to Mr. T. Maskew Miller, Adderley Street,
Cape Town (the South African agent) for particulars

((

-v'^^'^^^>\

NOV 15 1965

Xi?*S/ry OF T0«0J>

1 0 2 2 0 1) 9

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BV WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED
LONDON AND BRCCLES

PREFACE

Outside the realm of science little is known about snakes, and
still less of their venom. The most innocent snakes are con-
founded with the most venomous.

Beyond a few isolated contributions to various journals,
there is no current literature on the snakes of South Africa,
their venom, and the treatment of snake bite. The Kafir and
Hottentot traditions and beliefs have been handed down and are
accepted as facts by Colonists, hence erroneous ideas and beliefs
prevail in regard to snakes, their venom, and the treatment of
snake bite, and in consequence large numbers of useful Hves are
cut off annually — lives which, in the majority of cases, might
have been saved. I have met many people who have lost their
lives or been more or less invalided for hfe through the ignorant
treatment appHed for snake bite. A man of my acquaintance,
in Rhodesia, was bitten on the hand by a venomous serpent.
His friends immediately ligatured his arm in several places,
poured a quart bottle of whisky neat down his throat, and then
belaboured liim unmercifuhy with sjamboks with the view of
keeping him awake, the idea being that, if he were allowed to
sink into a state of coma, he would die. The man was six
months in hospital. His arm, owing to the long-continued appli-
cation of the ligature, became gangrenous and had to be
amputated. The Hning membrane of his stomach was severely
burned, and much of it irretrievably destroyed by the strong
spirit, and to-day this man is minus his right arm, and is,
moreover, an incurable dyspeptic.

Again, the scientist Fontana, nearly a hundred years ago,
conclusively proved that the outward and inward use of
ammonia, as well as injecting it direct into the veins, was
utterly useless as a curative agent for snake bite. Yet, from
that time to the present day, the belief in its antidotal power
in cases of snake bite has been, and is, well-nigh universal.

vi THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Here in South Africa the native population for generations
past has had unquestioning faith in the antidotal effects of
a substance known as isibiba. This behef is also commonly
accepted among colonials. Yet this substance, when subjected
to a careful series of experiments, was proved to be valueless
as an antidote. In fact, it in no way retarded a fatal issue.

If the results of these and other experiments had been con-
tributed to a scientific publication only, tliis baseless behef would,
perchance, not have been known by the public as such for a
generation or more.

The same argument holds good in regard to the Boomslang,
wliich is a snake common all over South Africa, and which has
been universally regarded as non-venomous, or only to so slight
a degree as not in any way to be feared by man. If the results
of the experiments wliich disproved this belief had been confined
to a scientific journal or technical book, this popular behef would
not have been dispelled.

I have not enlarged upon the experiments which I have con-
ducted from time to time during many years past, except w^hen
calculated to serve a useful end. Many experiments were under-
taken with a view of testing the accuracy or otherwise of asser-
tions made in literature, both scientific and otherwise, in regard
to the venom of snakes, its nature and effects.

The pioneers of investigation into the nature of snake
venom were Doctors Fayrer, Brunton, and Rogers, in India ;
and Dr. Weir-Mitchell, in America. On the foundation laid
down by these men, a number of scientists have been busily
building.

I am fully conscious that the erudite reader may consider I
have indulged in unnecessary repetition in places in this volume ;
that T have introduced irrelevant matter, and possibly been
guilty of some banality. However, I would ask him, if he
conceives such an opinion, to bear in mind that a relatively
small percentage of the general public receive a higher college
education, for statistics show that up to the present time (1919)
80 per cent, of the European children in South Africa leave
school after passing Standard V., and that even in the more
advanced standards none of the subjects written about in this
book are taught.

This work is the outcome of many years of practical study

PREFACE. vii

of the snakes of South Africa, in their haunts, in captivity, and
a long series of experiments with their venom.

The majority of the illustrations are from direct photographs
of living snakes, and specially prepared anatomical preparations.

If I should succeed in arousing an increased interest in this
branch of Nature Study and in stimulating others to enlarge
the knowledge collected, my object in writing this book will be
fully attained.

The Author.

Port Elizabeth Museum,
1919.

PREFATORY NOTE

One of the great obstacles to a popular study of Natural History
in a comparatively new country is the absence of books specially
devoted to the forms of life one encounters. The naturalist in
the older countries of Europe and in the United States, whether
interested in birds, reptiles, fishes, shells or insects, has ready at
hand popular works, beautifully illustrated, describing all the
forms he is likely to collect. From these he readily attains the
satisfaction of identifying his specimen, and then learns some-
thing of their habits and structure, and thereby becomes stimu-
lated to further endeavour. In newer countries such knowledge,
even if available, is in such a form as to be of assistance only to
the speciahst, not to the ordinary observer with but a general
interest in the forms of life around him.

The reason for this is not far to seek. In the newer country
nature students are few, pioneering work has to be done by them
in the technical description of the many new forms encountered,
or the trained investigator is obliged by force of circumstances
or from a sense of duty to devote his abilities to the many pressing
questions of practical and economic importance. The more
human, cultural side of natural history comes with the maturity
of a country, and flourishes only where some of its followers reach
the stage of leisured reading.

The difference is strongly enforced when one endeavours to
introduce the study of nature into schools. In the older countries
a crowd of writers have adapted the facts of nature to the in-
teUigence of the young and provided the teacher with material
arranged in suitable form. A school literature of natural
history becomes available. In the newer countries the teacher
is at once faced with the difficulty of an absence of facts, and
unless capable of supplying this from his own training and
experience, can make no progress. Before much ad\-ance can
be made the student of Nature must have contributed his share.

ix

X THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

It is considerations like the above which lead one to view with
satisfaction the production of such a work as the present, devoted
to the popularization of a group of animals famihar, unfortunately
at times too familiar, to all in South Africa. For years the writer
has made a special study of snakes, their habits and instincts, and
has done much to popularize a rational interest in them and other
groups of animals ; indeed, it may truly be said that no one in
South Africa has within recent years more successfully laboured
to bring the facts of Nature in an attractive form before a people
naturally responsive to them. It is to be hoped that the book
will succeed in stimulating a still wider intelhgent interest in this
special group of animals, and also give encouragement to the
production of further works devoted to other groups These will
then serve as means for introducing Nature knowledge to the
rising generation in an attractive form, as well as for supple-
menting the experience already gained by those of more mature
age.

J. E. DUERDEN.

Rhodes College, Grahamstown,
Cape Colony.

I

NOTE.

South Africa, in a zoological sense, is that portion of Africa
south of the Zambesi and Cunene rivers. It is true the
boundary is a very artificial one, but it is convenient, and serves
a good and useful purpose. Great numbers of the species of
living creatures which inhabit various parts of South Africa also
occur further north.

The distribution of each species of snake mentioned in this
volume is given so far as it is at present known. We are con-
stantly adding fresh localities to species of snakes. Because a
snake is not recorded as occurring in any given place, it must
not be assumed that it does not occur there. There are
many portions of South Africa which remain well-nigh unex-
plored from a zoological point of view. Since the publication
of the first edition of tliis volume, many new localities for snakes,
and several new species, have been discovered. People who are
resident in the wilder parts of South Africa can do much to further
our knowledge of the distribution of South African snakes
by placing collections of them in spirit and forwarding them to
one of the public museums of the country. The Government
permits all specimens for the museums in South Africa to be
carried free by rail or post.

The nomenclature in this volume is according to the cata-
logue of snakes in the British Museum, compiled by that well-
known authority G. A. Boulenger.

It is also from this source I obtained the scientific descrip-
tions of the Genera and Species wliich are, in the majority of
cases, copied verbatim.

In giving the lengths of the various species of snakes, a general
average of those measured has been taken. It is not claimed
that the measurements given are the maximum lengths attain-
able by any of the South African snakes. Snakes of the same

xi

xii THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

species differ materially in coloration and length in the different
parts of South Africa, especially so where climatic and other
conditions are largely dissimilar.

The Author and Publisher both wish to acknowledge gratefully
their obligations to the following : The British Museum (Natural
History) Authorities for the use of a few illustrations from the
British Museum Catalogue of Snakes, also for Dr. Boulenger's
classification list of Snakes from the same source ; Messrs. Blackie
for the use of certain illustrations from their Physiology ; Sir Ray
Lankester and Messrs. Constable and Company, Ltd., London ;
Messrs. F. W. Warne & Co., for kindly allowing the use of
illustrations from their " Royal Natural History " ; Messrs.
Funk & Wagnall for diagrams ; Messrs. Harmsworth ; Prof.
Seeley for his pictures " Dragons of the Air " ; also Messrs.
Harmsworth, for illustrations from their "Natural History,"
and "Cliildren's Encyclopaedia."

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

PAGE

Classification and Evolution of Snakes ...... i-ii

CHAPTER II.
History, Distribution, and General Habits of Snakes . . 12-49

CHAPTER III.

The Blind Burrowing Snakes [Typhlops and Glauconia) . List of the
South African species, habits, colouration, average length, and
distribution. The South African Pythons, their life history,
description, and various anecdotes ..... 50-79

CHAPTER IV.

The Aglypha, or Solid-toothed non-venomous snakes. List of the
South African species, their habits, colouration, average length
and distribution ........ 80-114

CHAPTER V.

Opisthoglypha or Back-fanged snakes, all of which are venomous.
These snakes are in the transition stage of fang and poison gland
development. List of the South African species, habits, coloura-
tion, average length and distribution .... I I 5-1 55

CHAPTER VI.

The Proteroglypha or Front-fanged typically venomous snakes of the
Hydrophinae and Elapinae Sub-families, viz. the Sea Snakes,
Cobras, Mambas, Coral Snakes, Garter Snakes, etc. List of the
South African species, habits, colouration, average length and
distribution .... .... 156-212

CHAPTER VII.

The Solenoglypha section of the Proteroglypha or Front-fanged
venomous snakes, viz. the Adders and Vipers — Family ViperidcB.
List of the South African species, their habits, colouration,
average length and distribution ..... 213-245

xiii

xiv THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

PAGE

CHAPTER VIII.

Snake Charmers. A Port Elizabeth Snake Catcher. Can snakes
fascinate their prey ? What really happens. Heroism of birds.
Wrong conclusions. Captive snakes and birds. Paralysed
with fear. Hypnotism. Advice to Campers Out. Horse hair
ropes. Snakes and their mates. Catcliing Uve snakes. How
to collect and preserve snakes. Kafir superstitions. An
exciting incident. Feeding snakes on live animals . . 246-282

CHAPTER IX.

Human Physiology.

The brain and nervous system. The blood and how it is made. The
science of health. A self-acting pump. Ehxir of life. How we
poison our blood. White corpuscles that eat up disease
microbes. The Lymph and Lymphatics. How venom gets into
the blood 283-308

CHAPTER X.

Alleged Snake Bite Cures.

Results of experiments with a large number of so-called antidotes 309-341

CHAPTER XL
Poison apparatus of snakes. Snake venom, its nature and effects 342-381

CHAPTER XII.

The Scientific treatment of snake bite. Permanganate of Potash.

Results of Experiments. Serum Treatment . . . 382-440

CHAPTER XIII.

Latest Systematic List of South African Snakes for the use of
Museum Curators and Scientific Students. By Dr. G. A.
Boulenger, F.R.S., V.P.Z.S., of the British Museum . . 441-462

CHAPTER XIV.
Items of Snake Knowledge. Miscellaneous Information . 463-480

Index 537

Index to Illustrations . . . . . . 545

ADDENDA.

A. Experiments at the Government Veterinary Research

Laboratories, Pretoria ......

B. Venom of the Schaapsteker .....

C. More about Ringhals .......

D. A Boomslang Bite .......

E. The Isolation of Madagascar and Australia

F. Potency of Mamba Venom ......

G. Anaphylaxis ........

H. Intravenous versus Subcutaneous Injection of Serum

I. The Saline Solution. An Emergency Measure .

J. Injecting Ammonia for Snake Bite ....

K. Why do Snakes' Fangs Differ in Length ? Experiments
L. Items of Snake Knowledge .....

PAGE

483
486
490
492

494
496

499

504
506
508
510
514

ILLUSTRATIONS IN ADDENDA.

FIG.

A. Python ........

B. Boomslangs in cage at Port Elizabeth Museum

C. Schaapsteker's head and fangs

D. A handful of Schaapstekers ....

E. Homalosoma snake and young

F. Ringhals Cobra shamming death ...

G. Ringhals Cobra with hood expanded and contracted
H. Ringhals Cobra rearing, showing side and back view
I. Boomslang inflating its throat
J. „ with body inflated ....

K. „ and its eggs

L. ,, showing close view of inflated neck and body

M. Egg-eating snake and eggs . . . ' .

XV

484
487
490

493

495

497
500

505
507
509
511
515
518

XVI

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

FIG.

N. Herald or Red-lipped snake after swallowing a large toad

O. Ringhals Cobra with eggs

P. Feeding a Puff Adder with meat

Q. A remarkable Cape Cobra

R. A Cape Cobra in the act of shedding its skin

S. Claws and bones of the rudimentary hind legs of pythons

T. (i) Olive-blacf House snake

T. (2) Ditto

U. Puff Adder in act of striking

V. Bhnd Burromng snake

W. Snipping off the fangs of a Puff Adder

X. Skulls of snakes

Y. (1) Collecting venom from a Puff Adder

Y. (2) Ditto

Y. (3) Ditto

Y. (4) Feeding a Puff Adder

Y. (5) A cannibal Puff Adder

Z. Catching snakes on the veld

PAGE
520

522

524
525
526

527
528

529
532

533
534
535
536

>l

THE

SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

CHAPTER I.

Classification.

Snakes belong to the great class of living creatures known as
reptiles, which include all the living orders of crocodiles, turtles,
tortoises, and lizards. The frog and salamander orders are,
generally speaking, also reptiles, but owing to certain important
differences in their anatomy and breeding habits they are
separated into a class called Amphibia, from the Greek word
Amphibios, which means " leading a double life," because these
creatures live both on land and in water. They constitute the
link between Reptiles and Fishes.

All Uving creatures are classified into classes, orders, sub-orders,
genera, and species, according to their anatomy. All creatures
of the same species are practically identical, not only in their
anatomy, but also in their habits. If a species, owing to various
circumstances, such as a difference in food, climate, the presence
or absence of enemies, etc., should become slightly modified in
colouration or structure, we term it a variety, or sub-species.
For instance, our well-known Bushbuck {Tragelaphus) has been
divided into several sub-species, because it is found to differ
slightly in colour and shape in the various districts of South Africa.

The Boomslangs, or Tree Snakes {DisphoUdus), are in every
case anatomically similar, but differ considerably in their coloura-
tion, even in the same districts. They are separated into six
varieties, so in describing them we refer to them as variety A,
variety B, and so on.

I B

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

What Classification means.

To give a clearer idea of what we mean by classification, we
will take the Boomslang or Tree Snake as an example. We will
assume it is the first time I have seen or heard of a Boomslang.
I know at a glance it belongs to the Ophidia or snake order. I
examine its dentition and discover it possesses a set of grooved
teeth longer than the rest, set a good way back in the upper jaw,
therefore I know it belongs to the division of snakes known as the
Opisthoglypha, which means snakes with hind fangs. Then I
count the number of the upper and lower teeth and note the
shape and number of the shields on the head, and reckon the
number of rows of scales round the body. After examining
the shape of the head and body, its colouration, etc., I identify
and classify it as follows : —

Order : Ophidia.

Division : Opisthoglypha.

Family : Coluhridce.

Sub-family : Dipsadomorphince.

Genus : Dispholidus.

Species : Dispholidus lypus.

Common name : Boomslang or Tree Snake,

Distribution : Tropical and South Africa.

When any new tiling, whether a microbe or a large creature,
is discovered, it is carefully examined and classified immediately.
Without this S5^stem of classification it would be impossible to
make any progress in science. In every department of human
activity, classification is necessary. If you went into a museum
and wanted to find a certain flesh-eating animal — a Leopard or
a Mungoose, for instance — you would not look for it among the
hoofed animals or the fishes. You would expect to find it among
the group of creatures classified as Carnivora.

A synonym in natural history means a scientific name, as of
a genus or a species, superseded or discarded, as by the law of
priority.

When any new creature is discovered, it is given a scientific
name, and recorded.

The recognized scientific name for the Boomslang is Dis-
pholidus iypus, but it has been named by various authors
Dispholidus lalandii ; Dendrophis colubrina ; Bucephalus capensis ;

EVOLUTION OF BIRDS. 3

Dendrophis pseiidodipsas ; but Dispholidiis typiis is the name by
which it is now known. The others are synonyms.

Evolution.

The birds of the present day do not seem to have anything
in common with reptiles, and it would seem absurd to think they
have evolved from such dissimilar creatures. However, it is
now known that their remote ancestors were reptiles, because
men of science have found the fossil remains of birds in
various strata of rocks, which show them in the transition stages,
half reptile and half bird. So close is the relationship between
reptiles and birds that the late Professor Huxley says, " Birds
can be correctly termed glorified reptiles."

Snakes can therefore claim relationship with our beautiful
feathered friends.

It would seem that, many millions of years ago, some kinds
of reptiles, owing doubtless to changes in their surroundings
wliich made it difficult to procure a sufficiency of food, and being
beset by enemies, were modified in their structure according to
the great law which Darwin called the " Law of the Survival of
the Fittest." As the ages rolled past, these reptiles slowly
but surely evolved into birds with feathers. Everything upon
tliis earth seems to be subject to a great law of the Creator, which
we term Evolution. Even in the study of the science of Astro-
nomy we find this great law at work. In everything upon this
httle speck we call Earth, as well as in the mighty Universe, it
is quite apparent there is an intelligent, all-powerful Force or
Will at the back, that great mysterious power — God the Creator.
It is not for us to lay down dogmatically and ignorantly why
the mighty Creator should or should not create what we see
around us here, and in the heavens.

Reptiles came into existence upon this earth long ages before
the birds and mammals, which are both highly-evolved creatures,
warm-blooded and possessing more highly specialized organs,
nervous systems and brains than the reptiles. In the very early
strata of sedimentary rocks, laid down milhons of years ago,
and known in science as the Cambrian System, we find the fossil
remains of very low forms of backboneless creatures, such as
worms, jelly-fish, molluscs, etc. Then, as we ascend into the
strata of rocks known as the Ordovician Silurian Systems, we

4 THE SxVAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

find more highly-evolved creatures, such as fish without bony
backbones, or backbones composed of cartilaginous matter.
These are known as the Silurian fishes, of which our present-day
Shark Family is an example.

As we slowly ascend we find the fishes gradually becoming
more highl}^ developed or specialized ; and when we reach what
is known as the Devonian S5''stem, or, in other words, the time
in the earth's history many milUons of years ago when the old

Fig. I. — These arc Flying Reptiles or Winged Dragons. They lived millions of years ago.
Their fossil remains have been found preserved in the oolitic rocks. Some of them measured
i8 feet across the expanded wings. These Winged Dragons and the reptile ancestors of
birds doubtless sprang from the same common stock, viz. some form of Flying Reptile.
(From " Extinct Animals " by Sir Ray Lankester.)

Red Sandstone was deposited as sediment and formed into hard
rock, we discover the higher order of scaled fishes with real true
backbones of hard bony matter. These were the first to evolve
real bony skeletons, i.e. forms of life with true backbones.
Their ancestors had soft skeletons, but were slowly evolving
a bony structure. We find, too, in the Silurian period
already referred to that the creatures we call Silurian fish
abounded, and that these fish were the link between the true

EVOLUTION OF REPTILES.

mailed or scaled fishes with backbones and their more remote
ancestors of the Ordovician Epoch.

Later we find some of the denizens of the ocean beginning to
take to land and developing reptile characteristics, and through-
out that vast stretch of time, known as the Carboniferous Period,
when what is now coal was
living vegetation upon the
surface of the Earth, the
reptiles were slowly but
surely evolving from Am-
phibians to true reptiles
of a higher order. When
we arrive at the Mesozoic
Period we find fossil re-
mains in more or less pro-
fusion of great dragon-like
reptiles, some of which were
nearly a hundred feet long.
These fossil remains have
been put together, and
are now to be seen in
some of the great mu-
seums in Europe and
America.

In the Tertiary Period
the reign of mammals
proper begins, and the large
reptiles were superseded by
large mammals such as the
Arsinoitherium, Dinoceros, Tetrabelodon, Three-toed Horse, and
others. Ascending higher into the most recent strata known as
the PHocene, we find the fossil remains of such animals as the
Mastodon, Woolly Rhinoceros, Irish Deer, Giant Sloth, and Mam-
moth, the immediate descendants of which are now living upon
the surface of our Earth. As the ages roll on many of the species
of animals now living will in turn become extinct ; some of their
remains will be covered up and serve as evidence to future races
of men. These creatures will, however, not be replaced bj^ higher
forms of their kind, for man will eventually overrun the whole
of the habitable earth, and all the large fauna will either become
extinct or be domesticated for man's use or pleasure.

Fig. 2. — The fossil remains of a real bird known as
the Lizard-tailed bird ox Archceopteryx. It was
found in the Solenhofen limestone of Bavaria.
This strata of rock dates back to the Jurassic
Period, therefore the bird lived on the surface
of the earth millions of years ago. This is a
more recent creature than the Flying Reptiles,
but still retaining reptilian characteristics.
The ArchtEopteryx was feathered. The back-
bone, however, does not terminate at the root
of the tail like the birds of to-day, but extends
the entire length, the feathers jutting out at the
sides. From specimen in Berlin Museum.

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Reptiles Living and Extinct.

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(i) Crocodiles.

(2) Dinosaurs (extinct).

(3) Flying Dragons (extinct).

(4) Tortoises and Turtles.

EVOLUTION OF REPTILES.

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THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

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EVOLUTION

Relative Lengths of Epochs.

TERTIARY. 1600 ft.

CRETACEOUS. 2500 ft.

JUKA5SIC. 5000 ft.

TRIA5SIC. 3000 ft.

PERMIAN. 1500 ft.

CARBONIFEROUS.

12,000 ft.

Earliest reptiles. Large amphibians.
20 to 30 million years ago.

DEVONIAN. 4000 ft.

Earliest amphibians, Lung fishes. Ganoid

fishes.

30 to 40 million years ago.

SILURIAN.

7000 ft.

Primitive fishes.
40 to 50 million years ago.

ORDOVICIAN.

15,000 ft.

Earliest vertebrates.
50 to 65 million years ago.

CAMBRIAN.

12,000 ft.

Invertebrates.
65 to 80 million years ago.

ARCH/EAN OR
PRE-CAMBRIAN.

Extent unknown.

No organic life.

OF REPTILES.

PLATE II. This diagram gives a rough
idea of the crust of the earth. The section
named Pre-Cambrian is partly composed of
the igneous fire-formed rocks. This is the
base or bottom strata. Below this is whilc-
hot liquid lava.

The Cambrian is stratified rock. It was
formed after the earth was cool enough for
the gases in the air to condense and fall as
water on the earth. This water formed the
oceans. Stratified, or in other words Sedi-
mentary Rocks, are made by Sand, Silt, Ooze,
etc., falling to the bottoms of oceans, lakes,
and rivers. In this Cambrian formation we
find the first forms of organic life, such as
the very lowest types of aquatic creatures.
There is no trace of vegetation, fish, reptile,
bird, or animal life.

As we enter the Ordovician, we find fossil
remains of Marine Scorpions, Crabs, and other
Crustaceans, but no fish or land life.

Proceeding to the Silurian, we come across
traces of higher forms of ocean life, such as
the Silurian Fishes. As we emerge into the
Devonian we discover fossil remains in
abundance of the higher scaled fishes, with
true backbones and hard skeletons. Still
proceeding upward, we enter the great Car-
boniferous Period. It was during this Epoch
that the surface of the land was covered with
a vast growth of rapidly-growing vegetation
of fern-like and mossy nature.

All vegetation grew with fungus-like
rapidity, without any periods of rest, for
there were no alternate hot and cold seasons
then. The earth itself and the waters were
warm and steaming ; the air was charged
with warm water vapour.

This vegetation lived, died, formed thick
layers, and to-day we dig it up as coal and
burn it. It represents so much storcd-up
heat, energy, and sunshine. This is how the
all-wise Creator provided for our needs.

During the Carboniferous Period, the first
land animals began to evolve in the shape of
Amphibians, which developed later into true
reptiles.

As we pass upward through the other
layers to the Earth's surface, we find reptiles
gradually evolving into warm • blooded
animals, such as birds and mammals.

The most recent life upon our world is
Man, the Masterpiece. He is the latest pro-
duction, and the highest. To-day he is very
lowly in comparison to what he will be in ages
to come.

It must be clearly understood the various
stratified rocks do not now lie evenly over one
another all over the earth. They are more
or less broken, tilted, cracked, and upheaved
by the intrusion and pressure of molten rock
from below, and the natural shrinkage due to
the progressive cooling of the Earth's crust.

10

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

(5) Pleisosaurians (extinct).

(6) Lizards and Snakes.
{7) Fish-lizards (extinct).

(8) Beaked Lizards or Tuateras.

(9) Mammal-like Reptiles (extinct).

REPTILES LIVING AND EXTINCT.

II

The beaked Lizards or Tuateras are extinct, with the exception
of one soHtary species {Sphenodoji pimciatum) which inhabits
New Zealand. These hzards grow to the length of two and a
half feet, and can claim to be the last survivors of the race.

Fig. 7. — (i This is one of the largest of the snakes which are popularly supposed to possess
two heads. It is known as the Twee-kop slang or Two-headed snake (Typhlops
schlegelii). This belief has arisen owing to the head and tail being superficially
similar to each other. These snakes burrow in the loose sandy soil, eat insects, are
harmless and blind. -Length of this specimen is 2 feet 3 inches. (2) The head and a
portion of the body, viewed from below. (3) The tail end viewed from below.

CHAPTER II.

History and Distribution of Snakes.

It is from the history of the stratified rocks of the Earth,
and the countless number of fossil remains of animal and vege-
table life which are treasured up within their substance, that we
know that living creatures existed upon this earth millions of
years ago.

Fossil remains of snakes have been found in the later Cre-
taceous and early Tertiary periods in the world's history.

The fossil remains of a snake twelve feet long, of the Python
family, was unearthed at Stepney [London]. Remains of extinct
specimens of Boa Constrictors twenty feet in length were found
at Bracklesham. The backbones are perfect. They belong to
the fossil genus PalcBophis. In later deposits during the Tertiary
Epoch, fossil remains of a venomous snake were discovered.

In the lower Tertiary deposits of North America, the fossil
remains of great numbers of snakes have been found.

In the Western States of America the remains of different
species of Boa Constrictors and other kinds of snakes have been
brought to light in the freshwater Eocene deposits.

Fossil snakes have also been discovered in the Tertiary deposits
of India. Portions of the backbone and head of an extinct
species of P5''thon [Gigantophis garstini) have been dug up. From
the size of the fossil remains it is estimated this species of Python
attained a length of fifty to sixty feet, and is the largest serpent
so far known.

The Cretaceous strata of rocks, when not pushed up by volcanic
eruptions, earth movements, or disclosed by weathering, etc., are
at a distance of about 2600 feet below the Earth's surface. The
time it took for their formation can be roughly estimated at about
two and a half millions of years. It is estimated to be over 8
millions of years ago since these rocks were deposited as mud and

12

HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION. 13

ooze, at the bottoms of rivers, lakes, and oceans. In tlie rock
strata below the Cretaceous we find no traces of fossil snakes,
so we naturally conclude that snakes were evolved from reptiles
with legs about this period, or Epoch, in the history of the Earth.

From Cretaceous times up to the present, snakes have evi-
dently been on the increase, not only in numbers, but species,
judging by the comparatively few fossil snakes found. There
are at present about 2000 species or kinds of snakes scattered
over the countries of the world, with the exception of New
Zealand, where they have never been known to exist. Snakes
are most abundant in the tropical and semi-tropical portions of the
globe, in districts where forests and rank vegetation abound, for
it is there they find an abundance of food and suitable shelter, as
well as the necessary warmth to quicken their sluggish vitality.

Extinct species of snakes of the Cobra family have been found
in the Lower Miocene rocks in Germany. Others of non- venomous
species have also been discovered in the same formation. In
Turkey and America fossil remains of snakes of the Crotaline
sub-family have been unearthed.

Snakes and Lizards.

In outward appearance the limbless lizards resemble snakes
in possessing tapering snake-like bodies, and being destitute of
legs. Nobody would mistake a lizard with legs for a snake ;
but to those people who have not made a study of the anatom\^
of snakes and lizards, those lizards which are destitute of legs are
invariably mistaken for snakes. ■

The general appearance of any ordinary snake is such that
a person of average intelligence will immediately recognize it
correctly. There are, however, families of snakes known as the
TyphlopiidcB and Glauconiidce, which are very worm-like in
appearance, and might easily be mistaken for legless hzards or
worms. In fact, the older naturalists classified them as lizards.

Snakes differ from lizards in the following ways : —

(i) The two parts of the lower jaw are attached in front by
elastic ligaments, permitting the separation of the two halves of
the lower jaw, for the purpose of permitting large prej' to be
swallowed. In the lizards these bones are sohdl}' united in
front.

14 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

(2) The upper jaw and palate in the vast majority of snakes
are more or less movable, which, with the distensible lower jaw,
allows the snake to swallow comparatively large prey.

(3) The tongue can be completely withdrawn into a sheath
in the mouth.

(4) The presence of additional articulations to the vertebrae.

(5) No snakes possess movable eyehds. There is a fixed trans-
parent scale over the eyeball,

(6) Snakes have no external opening to the ear.

(7) Large transverse shields are on the underpart of the body
on the great majority of snakes. These are never present on
legless hzards.

Eyes, Ears, and Tongues of Snakes.

Snakes have no eyehds. The eye is protected in front by a
transparent scale — in appearance like a watch-glass — wliich is
firmly attached to the surrounding sldn. The eye is thus
shielded from all external injury, unless, of course, this window
pane gets broken. The eyes themselves are movable to a
limited extent. Little glands secrete tears, wliich are for the
purpose of lubricating the eyes, the fluid being drained off into
the cavities of the nose by two little channels or ducts. Odd-
coloured eyes are sometimes seen in snakes. This is particularly
noticeable in the house snakes (Boodon).

The ears of snakes have no external opening, but beneath the
skin is an intricate mechanism which registers the sound-vibra-
tions and conveys them to the brain ; and in spite of having no
external ear openings, snakes have very fair hearing. They hear
mainly by vibrations carried through some solid substance such
as the ground. Sharp, high-keyed sounds have an exciting effect
upon snakes. The tongues of most snakes are black, except
towards the root portion, which is flesh colour. In a few it is
fleshy or red. It is bifid, which means forked. The tongue is
exceedingly sensitive, and is used mainl}' as a feeler. It is quite
innocent of any " stinging " powers. When at rest it is
contracted, and withdrawn into a sheath in the centre of the
lower jaw.

A few days previous to the skin-shedding process, the eye
scales become opaque, and the snake is temporarily blind, but
can find its way about fairly well by means of its very sensitive

I III \M\I \l I ADD! K' oj 1

Mm-

Fig. 8. — i. The Animal Ladder of Life, showing the gradual development of ocean life to Amphibians,
reptiles, birds, and mammals (Children's Encyclopedia). When the creatures of the ocean began to
take to land habits, it seems they divided into two great branches. One branch evolved the Mammals
such as the Kangaroos, Antelopes, and Apes. Mammals are creatures which are warm-blooded \
and suckle their young. The other branch evolved on from Amphibians to Crocodiles, Turtles,
Lizards, Snakes, and lastly birds.

*. This is a common South African Lizard, which has lost its legs. It has two tiny rudimentary front legs.
The back legs have vanished. On dissection, the pelvis only is found. This lizard is in the inter-
mediary stage of development between a lizard and a snake. There is another common South
African Lizard (Acontias mcleagris), which burrows in the ground. It has lost all vestiges of legs, but
has a rudimentary pelvis, shoulder girdle, and movable eyelids, so it is still called a Lizard.

15

i6

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

tongue. I have satisfied myself of this on many occasions, by
observing captive snakes. At these times when touched, snakes
lunge out \vildly with gaping jaws, but owing to their semi-blind
condition their aim is not accurate.

When molested, a snake darts out and vibrates its tongue,
evidently with the purpose of intimidating its enemy.

Snakes shed the outer layer or horny Epiderm of the skin
several times annually, differing in frequency with the species,
and the abundance or otherwise of food. Captive snakes which
refuse all food, usually moult only once, although they may
survive a year before dying ultimately of starvation. The

Fig. 9. — Cast skin of head and neck of snake. Note inverted eye scales, like watch glasses

with concave side uppermost.

moulting process usually begins a few days after birth and con-
tinues throughout life. The skin peels off more or less entire.

The shedding or casting of the old skin begins at the lips.
The skin around the mouth curls up, and by pushing itself against
twigs, crawling through tufts of grass, etc., the snake gradually
draws itself right out of its skin. This comes off inside out, like
a tight glove being pulled off the hand from the wrist portion.

The cast skin is often perfect, without a crack, tear, or loss of
a single scale — even the transparent eye scales come away. The
main reason why snakes cast their skins is to provide for increased
growth. The skin of a snake does not grow with the growth of

CHANGING THE SKIN.

17

the body, as is the case with warm-blooded animals. So, when it
begins to get too tight, it is discarded. With fully adult snakes,
it is often thrown off when it gets shabby, dirty, and injured.

Naturally before the old skin is shed, a new skin has formed
beneath, and the snake on emerging from its old covering looks
clean, silky and bright, the markings and colours showing up to
perfection. The new skin, for some hours after, is thin, soft, and
sensitive, particularly so immediately following the casting process.
I tried once to assist a captive snake to shed its skin, but somehow

Fig. 10. — A Boomslang in the act of casting its skin amongst the branches of a tree. The
snake's tail-end has not yet been withdrawn from the old skin.

pulled the skin it was casting too fast or clumsily, which resulted
in the new skin beneath being badly torn, and exposing the flesh.
The old skin," when being shed, is not actually loose. The
operation of shedding the skin is similar to pasting down a strip
of ribbon with a strong adhesive, and slowly peeling it off again
before it is dry. The old skin of the snake adheres closely to the
new one beneath, but seems to peel off very easily. Snakes in
captivity should have tufts of grass, bundles of twigs, or loose
stones in their cage to provide the necessary frictional resistances
in the skin-casting process.

c

SNAKES' EGGS.

Fig. II.— 5a. Egg of a Python (/VAon s<-6fr), wpiRht si oz., >izc of a Goose Egg. 2. Egg of a Boomslang or
Tree Snake (Disphohdusty pus), s.iic of a Pigeon's Egg. 3. Egg of Brown Water Snake (/lWa6o^/ii
ru/ulus). More elliptical than that of the Boomslang. Same bulk. 4. A young Brown Uat. 1
Snake, hatching out. 5. Egg of Green Water Snake (Chlorophis hoplogaster). Same size and shap'
as No. 3. 6. The " shell " of a snake's egg. It is not hard and brittle, it is soft and tough. 7. Egg
of a Night Adder {Causus rhombealus). 8. Showing the progressive development of the embryo of a snake.

5B A pile of Snakes' Eggs, and the broken skin of another. These are the Eggs of the Brown House Snake
(Ahlabophis rufulus), two-thirds natural sire. The "shell" is soft, tough and leathery. The contents
are of a very light yellow colour. There is no separate yolk and albumen (white).

18

OVIPAROUS AND OVO-VIVIPAROUS.

19

Oviparous and Ovo-Viviparous.

Some kinds of snakes lay eggs, which are quite fresh and are
hatched or incubated outside the body, usually by the heat
generated by their surroundings, such as decaying vegetation,
manure, or the sun-heated ground. Certain snakes are believed
to coil round their eggs and incubate them, but this is uncertain,
except in the case of the' Python. * Those snakes which lay eggs
are known as oviparous snakes.

In some snakes, such as the Schaapsteker and Night Adder,
the eggs are incubated to a certain degree in the parent's body
before they are brought forth.

There are other
snakes which give birth
to fully developed
young. In these cases
the eggs are developed
full size within the
parent'sbody, and they
incubate there until
the young are com-
pletely developed.
They are then born,
each enveloped separ-
ately in a transparent
membraneous bag,
which their active
struggling ruptures.
There is no albumen

surrounding the yolk. The yolk entirely fills the shell. Snakes
begin to breed when about 4 years of age. The number of eggs
or young depends on the age and size of the parent. These are
ovo-viviparous snakes.

The temperature of a gravid snake is slightly increased,
otherwise the embryos or foetal young would not develop satis-
factorily. In the wild state the gravid female hes as oft«n as
possible in the sunshine. In captivity she invariably lies on the
part of the floor where the sun happens to shine.

* The only other I have observed doing so is the spotted or Rhombic
Schaapsteker.

Fig. 12. — Night or Demon Adders hatching out. Two
are out, others are seen in the act of breaking the egg
shells.

20 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

At the old Port Elizabeth Museum the sun only shone for an
hour or so daily into the cages, owing to their situation. In con-
sequence the female puff adders frequently produced their young
in an incomplete state of development. In others, the embryo
died and the egg hardened resulting in the death of the parent.

The incubation period is about three months. In oviparous
species the baby snake is provided with an egg-tooth for making
a slit in the shell. The tooth then disappears.

Sense of Smell and Breathing Apparatus.

The sense of smell in snakes is very well developed, as will
be seen on dissection of the apparatus of the nose. In the family
of grass snakes this sense of smell is particularly good.

Snakes are thus enabled to find their prey and guard against
their enemies by the senses of sight, touch, smell, and hearing.

Snakes breathe by means of lungs. The left lung is much
smaller than the right one, and in most cases it is rudimentary,
or entirely absent.* The right or functional lung often reaches
to the centre part of the body. The lung is a sort of long hollow
tube or bag, with thin walls, in which are embedded the honey-
comb-Uke respiratory "cells" and blood vessels which take up
the oxygen of the inspired air. Snakes, owing to their low
temperature and slow blood circulation, do not require to breathe
as frequently, or inhale such pure air as birds or mammals. The
breathing is slow and quiet, except when the serpent is alarmed
or enraged, when it will inhale a great volume of air and expel
it forcibly, producing the characteristic hiss.

Hissing, Progression, and Sex.

The hissing of a snake is caused by the long sac-like lung
being inflated with air, which is forcibly expelled through the
glottis and nostrils, causing that well-known hissing sound which
warns us of the proximity of a snake.

The Puff Adder makes the loudest and most prolonged hiss of
any South African snake. Hissing is the only sound snakes are
capable of producing, except the American Rattle Snakes, which
have a horny substance in loose sections or segments at the end of
the tail, which, when shaken, emits a hollow kind of rattling noise.

* A few snakes, such, for instance, as the Herald Snakes, Pythons, and
Boas, have two functional lungs^the right in all instances being the larger.

HISSING AND PROGRESSION. 21

When alarmed, snakes hiss \vith the object of frightening off
their enemies. If snakes were not able to make their presence
known, they would be frequently trodden upon and injured by
the various creatures of veld, forest, and mountain. For long
ages the wild animals have, from bitter experience, learned
to avoid snakes. The instinct has been so strongly developed
that it is transmitted from parent to offspring. This instinct
persists in a greater or lesser degree, even in domesticated
animals whose ancestors, perhaps for scores of generations, have
never seen a snake. Thus an animal will often manifest the
wildest alarm at sight of a snake, or on hearing a snake liiss,
although it has never before come in contact with one of these
reptiles. This power of transmitting experiences is a wonderful
provision of Nature, for if every living creature had to learn
entirely by personal experience to avoid its enemies, and find out
what kinds of foods were wholesome, or the reverse, a great
number of species would rapidly become extinct.

Venomous snakes invariably give a warning hiss, if suddenly
and unexpectedly approached or trodden upon. If the latter
should occur, they instantly bite the oftender.

Nature has therefore evolved the power of hissing as a means
of protection to the snake, and as a warning to other creatures
that a reptile capable of inflicting serious mischief upon them is
in dangerous proximity.

Snakes progress or crawl about by means of their ribs and
belly scales. They also propel themselves by making forward
wriggling movements. This method is employed when they
move rapidly. The tail aids considerably in propelling the
body. The backbone of a snake is wonderfully constructed, and
is capable of being t\\dsted and curved in a great variety of ways
without fear of dislocation. There are a great many vertebrae
to the backbone, often nearly three hundred. To each of
these sections a pair of ribs is attached, one on each side. The
heads of the ribs are loosely attached to the backbone sections,
and they can thus be moved forwards and backwards wth the
greatest of ease. The extremities of the ribs are attached to the
scales or horny shield-plates of the abdomen. When the snake
crawls, the ribs along one side of its body move forward, the edges
of the scales gripping the rough surfaces of the ground, tree, or
object the snake may be crawling over. Then the ribs on the

I

22

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

opposite side are brought parallel with the other set, dragging up
the hinder part of the body, and propelhng the upper or anterior
part. All tliis is done so smoothly and equally that the snake
crawls with the greatest ease, and moreover is exceedingly
graceful in its movements. A snake cannot crawl upon a perfectly

(1)

Fig. 13. — I. A snake crawls over the ground like this, propelled by its abdominal shields

the tips of which grip uneven surfaces.
2. The erroneously popular idea of how snakes progress over the ground.

smooth surface, such as a sheet of polished plate glass, it can
only succeed in wriggling in a random sort of way. The scales
of snakes partly o\'erlap each other. The abdominal sliields can
be partially raised bj' certain muscular attachments.

The male snake has two sex organs. These lie in cavities in
each side of the base of the tail. When protruded they turn
inside out, and erection is accomplished by a flow of blood into
them. The female usually has two vaginal cavities.

The Teeth.

Snakes' teeth are recurved ; that is, they are curved inwards
towards the throat. Non-venomous snakes, with the exception
of the blind burrowing snakes, have two rows of small teeth in
the upper jaw, and one row in the lower jaw. The teeth are not
set in sockets in the jaw, but are cemented to the bone. If, on
examination, these teeth be found to be all solid, without any
trace of grooving, then the snake is certain to be of a non- venomous
species. But in a great number of snakes with two rows of
upper teeth it will be found that one, two, and even three of the
teeth in the outer row, usually about half-way back in the jaw,

ti

FANGS OF SNAKES.

Fig. 14. — I. The Upper

Jaw of a South Afri-
can Python (Python

seba) showing the

double row of solid

recurved teeth. 2.

Side view of the skull

of a Python (Python I

sebct), showing the re-

curved teeth. There

is an outer and an inner row

in the top jaw. These teeth

are solid. The Python is

non-venomous. The skull

is that of a nine-foot Python.

3. Lower jaw of a Python

(Python seba) showing the

recurved teeth. 4. Dissected

head of a Pufi Adder (Bitis
arietans) showing the active
pair of poison fangs, the
duct, and the poison gland
which lies beneath, and „ «a.jj

behind the eye. 5. The erect fangs of a Putt Adder.
These are raised to the proper angle for stnking.
When the mouth is closed the fangs are depressed
and lie along the jawbone. 6. The fangs of a Putt
Adder showing the protecting membraneous sheath.
When at rest the fangs are enveloped in this sheath.
7. Head and fangs of the Cape Cobra (Naia flaya).
They are small, sharp, and grooved. 8. The poison
gland, duct and fang of a Pu2 Adder. 9. Ihe
anterior maxillary bone of a Puff Adder dissected
out, showing the duplicate sets of fangs attached.
There is this number on each side of the upper ]aw.
10. Skull of a Puff Adder showing the active pair
of fangs, and the next pair .which would work for-
ward and take the place of the former if they were
drawn, or otherwise lost. 11. Head of Mamba

\., 4 5 «

(Dendraspis angusticeps)
showing the fangs, duct
and poison gland. The
fangsare deeply grooved,
and exceedingly sharp.
12. Head of a Boom-
slang or Tree Snake
(Dispkolidus typus)

showing fangs and
poison gland. The
gland is set close to the
root of the fangs. There
is no long duct. 13. Skull
of a typical harmless snake
showing the rows of solid
teeth. 14. The bifid tongue
of a snake.
No. 5 is a type of the Protero-
glypha, or front-fanged
snakes. These are all
venomous.
No. 12 is a type of an Opistho-
glypha, or back - fanged
snake. The snakes of this
division are in the transition
staee of fang development. They are more or less
venomous No. 13 is a type, of the A glyph a or
^olid-Toothed snakes. This division of snakes are all

on the opposite side of the jaw.

23

24 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

are longer than the rest, and more or less grooved. Such snakes
should always be regarded as venomous to a greater or lesser
degree. The Boomslang or Tree Snake {Dispholidiis typus) is one
of these latter, and it was shown, on experimentation, to be
highly venomous. The poison fangs and other teeth when shed
or accidental!}^ lost are replaced at short intervals.

The Circulation of the Blood.

The heart of a snake has three cavities — one ventricle and two
auricles, not two of each, as is the case with all warm-blooded
creatures. The heart pumps the blood through blood-vessels in
the ordinary \\2cy. The blood corpuscles are both red and white,
as is the case with the higher animals. The red corpuscles are
elliptical, flattened, and bi-convex. The circulation of the blood
is very sluggish, and its temperature is much below that of the
mammal class of animals. Hence the reason they are termed
" cold-blooded." Reptiles are all " cold-blooded," and mammals
are without exception " warm-blooded." The temperature of
the blood is the same as that of the surrounding air or heat
absorbed from the sun or hot surfaces. The temperature of the
blood is thus determined by external circumstances, and is not
fixed as in warm-blooded animals.

The blood circulation of snakes being very sluggish, they
do not require nearly so much ox3'gen as do animals of the
warm-blooded class such as mammals and birds, hence the reason
they are able to live and thri\e in air charged with carbonic acid
gas, and other gaseous impurities given off by decaying vegeta-
tion and stagnant water. Snakes, if entirel}' deprived of air,
will continue to live, in many instances, for several hours. I
have seen ordinary land snakes, such as the Puff Adder, sink
themselves in a shallow pool and remain immovable at the
bottom for nearly half an hour, I sat one day and watched a
Python for one and a half hours Ijdng coiled up at the bottom of
a clear spring of water, without once raising its nostrils to the
surface. If corked up in a bottle of water, a snake will die in
one to two hours as a general rule. When swimming upon the
surface of water, a snake inflates its lung, which makes it very
buoyant. When swimming upon tlie surface they wriggle with
a wave-hke motion. 1 have watched snakes stretched out

THE POISON FANGS.

25

motionless upon water, apparently lying on it as lightly as a cork,
sunning themselves in the hot rays of the midday sun. On being
alarmed, they instantly sank out of sight without any apparent
muscular effort. This is partly accomplished by expelling the air
from the long, tube-like lung, whereupon the body sinks, being
then denser than the water.

The Poison Fangs.

In the typical venomous snakes, the outer row of upper teeth
has vanished, with the exception of fangs, more or less large,
and set in the front part of the upper jaw. These fangs are

ANATOMY OF THE HEAD OF A VENOMOUS SNAKE.

Fig. 15. — A. Duct from the poison gland, the end of which is bent upon itself and
resting in the hole at the base of the fang into which the venom is squirted.

B. Digastric muscle which opens the jaw.

C. Poison gland.

D. Point of junction of the squamosal and quadrate.

E. Anterior temporal muscle.

F. Posterior temporal muscle.
H. The bifid tongue.

I. Lower jaw in which some solid recurved teeth are set.
d. Trachea or windpipe.

either deeply grooved or hollow, and are connected by a channel
or duct with the poison glands, which secrete the venom. The
poison glands, with but one or two exceptions, lie one on each side
of the head, just below and back of the eyes. These glands are
almond-shaped, and vary in size according to the species of snake.
In the Puff Adder they are about the size of a small almond.
The venom is secreted by the cells composing the gland, and is
expelled through the duct, down the grooved or hollow fangs
into the punctures when the snake bites. The venom is driven
out of the glands by the constriction of certain muscle fibres
which compress the glands violently.

26 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

The Use of Snakes.

In hot countries, insects, reptiles, batrachians, and rodents
swarm. The snakes are the natural enemies of these creatures,
and act the part of Nature's agents in checking their too rapid
increase. Owing to snakes not being so dependent on oxygen
as the more highly-evolved creatures, they are able to exist
where most birds of prey and carnivorous animals would die.
They are, by virtue of their specially modified organism, able to
penetrate into the morasses, jungles, swamps, and dense over-
grown vegetation of the tropics where the smaller reptiles swarm
in vast numbers. These latter reptiles reproduce their kind at
a very rapid rate, and if not preyed upon by many enemies
would soon become a plague.

Snakes are active agents in keeping down the numbers of
these quick-breeding creatures, as well as those pests known as
rats and mice. Owing to their long tapering bodies, snakes are
enabled to penetrate into the innermost haunts of these destruc-
tive rodents and swallow parents and their young.

Snakes are frequently found in and about the dwellings of
man, attracted thereto by the presence of rats and mice ; and in
the autumn they find some cosy place in the thatch, under a
floor, down a hole, in a stack of timber, dung heap, or fodder, in
order to hibernate during the winter months.

Enemies.

Snakes produce a dozen to about ninety eggs or young, once
yearly, according to their kind, and in consequence of this fast
breeding, nature has provided many enemies. Birds of prey and
many of the smaller carnivorous animals feed upon their young,
and frequently attack and devour grown snakes. Manj^ species
of snakes are cannibals, and do not hesitate to swallow their
own young or those of others.

There are several species of mungoose, meercat and muishonds
in South Africa, all of which readily' devour snakes. None of
them are, however, immune from snake venom. These little
animals rely upon their quickness and activity in avoiding
being bitten when attacking a venomous serpent. The nature
of their hair is also a protection. I have frequently kept the
different kinds of mungoose and meercats in captivity and

' ENEMIES. 27

introduced snakes into their cages. If the cage happened to
be rather small, the animal would show much alarm, but when
given a large roomy cage in which to operate, no fear was shown.

In the "Cambridge Natural History" volume on Reptiles, it
is stated that " several well-known mammals and birds are im-
mune by nature against snake venom, but most of them avoid
being bitten. Some birds induce the snake to strike and bite
frequently into their spread-out wings. Such more or less
common creatures are the Mungoose, Hedgehog, Pig, Secretary
Bird, Honey Buzzard, Stork, and probably other snake-eaters."

None of these creatures are immune to snake venom. If
the venom is injected under their skins artificially, or naturally
by a snake, they die. The hedgghog, owing to its spine-covered
body, is not likely to be bitten when attacking a snake. Pigs
are not actually immune. If a snake should drive its fangs into
the thick layer of fat under the skin of a pig, there is httle
probabihty of its being absorbed, except at such an exceedingly
slow rate that the animal suffers little or no inconvenience.
Pigs, which are allowed to range in a semi- wild condition under
natural conditions, develop a tough leathery hide, which the
fangs of snakes cannot easily penetrate. I have found that if
snake venom is injected into the tissues of a pig, among the
capillary blood vessels and lymphatics, the venom is absorbed
and produces characteristic symptoms of snake venom poison-
ing, as in other animals. The Secretary Bird, when attacking
a snake, defends itself with its spread-out wings, which it holds
in front of it hke a shield. The instant the snake lunges at the
quills, the bird throws the wings violently forward, casting the
snake backwards with great violence. If the reptile should
appear to be dazed, the bird at once seizes it by the neck in its
powerful bill, and, with a severe nip, crushes the backbone, and
thus incapacitates the snake. These birds often use their long
stilt-like legs like arms, beating the snake to death with a quick
succession of blows. The feet and legs of the Secretary Bird, as
far up as the knee joint, are hard, brittle, horny, and well-nigh
impervious to the fangs of a snake.

Snake-eaters all owe their comparative immunity to death
from snake-bite to their agihty, methods of attack, and natural
defensive coverings.

28

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Duels with Snakes.

The following instance will illustrate how the Mungoose attacks
and destroys snakes. The Mungoose {Herpesles pulverulentus)
manoeuvred around the snake, and the instant he saw his oppor-
tunity, closed in on it, and with lightning-like rapidity seized
the reptile in his jaws, crushed its vertebrae, and sprang away
again. So quick were his movements, my eyes could hardly
register the details. After eyeing the snake with his little, keen,
black, wcked-looking eyes for a period, he was evidently satisfied

M

Fig. i6. — The Muishond or Stink Cat (Ictonyx capetisis), who boldly attacks, kills and devours

the most venomous of snakes.

the snake was incapable of further fight, as it no doubt was, for
it was apparent that its body was paralysed by the injury to
the backbone. He again ran at it, but this time retained his
hold, and having mangled the head, chewed it from the body and
swallowed it. Being then satisfied that the dangerous part of his
foe was safely disposed of, he leisurely dined off the remainder of
the body. Removing the Mungoose, I replaced it with a hungry.
Slender-tailed Meercat {Siiricata suricatta), and introduced a
large Puff Adder. The Meercat darted about nervously for a
while, ran quickly forward, dodged the stroke of the snake, and
seizing it by the neck, crushed the vertebrae. Then the Meercat
deliberately nipped it in various parts down the spine, before

ANIMALS THAT EAT SNAKES.

Fig. 17. — ^These are a few of the natural enemies of South African Snakes. The two small animals in the
centre are Meercats (Suricata suricalta). The one on the left is the Bushy-tailed .Meercat, called
the Geel or Rooi Meercat by Colonists {Cyniclis penicillata). The animal on the right is the Grey
Mungoose or Pepper and Salt Cat (Mungos pulvnulenlus). None of these animals are naturally
immune to snake venom. They escape being bitten by their extreme activity, and the thick nature of
their hair and under-fur.

29

I

30 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

starting to eat it, evidently with the intention of smashing the
backbone and thus preventing the snake from wriggUng about,

1 then experimented with a Striped Muishond (Ictonyx cajyen-
sis) . I placed a Cape Cobra in its cage. The Muishond instantly
ran into a corner and faced the snake, which was on guard with
raised body and hood expanded, ready to do battle with his foe.
Suddenly the Muishond darted into another corner of the cage.
Like a flash the snake swerved and again faced him. The
Muishond repeated the manoeuvre, but the snake was not to be
flanked. He faced his foe ever}^ time. Finding these tactics
of no avail, the Muishond began badgering the snake by snapping
and snarling at him. At last the reptile, in a fury, lunged fiercely
forvvard. His intended victim nimbly sprang aside, thus avoiding
the blow, and before the snake could recover himself the Muishond
seized him by the back of the neck, and holding on tenaciously,
inflicted serious damage by lacerating his victim's flesh. His
endeavour was, evidently, to crush the snake's backbone, which
he very soon did. He seemed to know quite well that the Cobra
was now helpless, for he let go and rested a few moments. Then,
seizing the reptile's head, he chewed it up and swallowed it,
and then satisfied his appetite on a portion of the body.

Hearing a grunting noise near a mimosa tree, under which
a friend and I had camped out for the night in the Natal bush-
veld, we took a small bull's-eye lantern, and proceeded cautiously
to investigate. Presently a shrill, ear-splitting yell broke the
stillness of the night. Flashing the hght of my lantern in
the direction of the noise, there, within two yards of us, was a
striped Muishond, with his paws firmly planted on an adult
Black-necked Cobra {Naia nigricollis). The Muishond stood
facing us menacingly, daring us to approach, and making the
forest ring with his sharp penetrating yells, launched out at
us at intervals. Thinking he had intimidated us sufliciently,
he began, with a succession of low growls and snarls, to eat
the still-living snake, eyeing us suspiciously wnth his keen
little eyes all the time.

After satisfying our curiosity, we retired and left the plucky
little fellow to finish his well-earned meal in peace.

I have allowed Meercats {Suricaia siiricatta), Striped
Muislionds [Ictonyx capensis), Qxey Mungooses [Mimgos pulveru-
lenius), and the Large Grey Mungoose [Mtingos caffer) to be

DUELS WITH SNAKES. 31

bitten by Puff Adders or Cape Cobras, or injected with their
venom. In every instance these animals died of the usual symptoms
of snake venom poisoning in from ten minutes to several hours
in time, according to the size of the snake, its species, its con-
dition, time of year, or quantity of venom artificially injected.

A Grey Mungoose, which I had in captivity, once fought and
killed a Puff Adder. However, the snake, wdth a last expiring
effort, lacerated the lip of its foe with one of its fangs. The
Mungoose dropped the snake, retired to a corner, and after a
short time began to mope. It died in seven hours. Tlie reason
that it lingered so long was because a small quantity only of
venom had been discharged into the wound.

On another occasion a Puff Adder was introduced into the
cage containing a Striped Muishond. The Muishond made a few
feints, then darted at the snake before he could recover himself.
Although the Muishond crushed the snake's head in its sharp
teeth, immediately the reptile was released it struck out blindly
and bit the Muishond with both fangs on the skull. The latter
retired to a corner and faced the snake, but died in forty-five
minutes.

The Rev. Father Bruno, of Kolbe, Cape Province, informed
me that he and some friends witnessed a fight between a Cape
Cobra [N aia flava) and a Muishond. The latter circled round the
snake, who stood with reared body and expanded hood, after
the manner of all cobras when irritated. Eventually the snake
seemed to get bewildered or tired with turning round so frequently
and at such short intervals, for a cobra will never allow attack
in the rear if he can avoid it. Lunging forward, he failed to
recover himself in time, and the Muishond had him by the neck
and quickly shattered his backbone with its sharp teeth. As
in the former instance, it first ate the snake's head, and then
dined off the body.

When in Natal I possessed an old Tom Cat, who was a mighty
Nimrod. He scoured the neighbouring forest nightly. When-
ever he made a capture of anything worth while, the old fellow,
who was a great pet of mine, came scrambling in through my
open bedroom window and, after placing his prize upon the floor,
he would set up a musical crooning noise, like cats do when tliey
call their kittens. He seemed quite pleased when I got out of
bed, lit the lamp, and inspected his prize. Many a time I have

32 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

obtained really good specimens for my collections in this way.
Sometimes he would bring in snakes still writhing and wriggling.
Just before dusk one evening, I was wandering round with old
Tom at my heels, when a Puff Adder hissed warningly. Tom
sprang forward and faced the snake. Knowing he was well able
to take care of himself, and that he was by no means a tenderfoot,
I moved back a few paces and watched. He started by making
feints at the snake, which induced it to strike out furiously.
Old Tom seemed to be a mass of the finest springs. The agile
manner in which he sprang about and avoided the fierce forward
lunges of the snake filled me with admiration for him. After
about fifteen minutes the snake began to tire. Tom knew it
too, full well, for he now began to grow bolder, and struck two
or three severe blows with his forepaw. Once more the snake
lunged with gaping jaws and erect fangs. Missing its aim, its
head struck the earth with a thud. It was evidently spent, for
it made no attempt to draw back in readiness for another lunge.
Tom quickly finished it off by delivering a smashing blow
■wdth his forepaw, which seemed to daze the reptile, for it allowed
the cat to seize it by the neck without showing further fight.
Dragging the snake's bod}?- along, my pluck}' old hunter laid it
at my feet, purring with evident pride.

A few months after this event, Tom came home one evening
with a tremendously swollen head. He had evidently tackled
an adder which proved more than a match for him. We did
all we could for him, but he died within two hours.

Snakes Eating Eggs.

A story was published some j^ears ago in a boys' journal, of
a Cobra which disturbed a setting hen and swallowed five of her
eggs. The Cobra was killed, the unbroken eggs removed from
its interior, and replaced in the nest. Those eggs, in due time,
hatched out into fine healthy chicks.

Unlike the usual stock snake stories, this one happens to
be true. I have the pleasure of knowing the gentleman who owned
the hen and the eggs. He was farming in Bechuanaland, and
had procured a setting of a specially good strain of Black j\Iinorca
eggs at considerable expense from Capetown. Observing the hen
walking about the farmyard in an unusually excited condition
and wondering why she did not return to her eggs, he got anxious.

CONSTRICTION. 33

and went to the hen-house and peeped into the box containing
the eggs. A large cobra, with a fierce hiss, made a ferocious
lunge at his face. The man, being active and quick-witted,
dodged the stroke. Summoning assistance, he returned to
find the cobra making the most desperate efforts to disgorge
several eggs, the shape of which could plainly be seen in
the reptile's body. The eggs, however, were too smooth,
slippery, and heavy for the disgorging mechanism of the snake
to grip and expel, so the robber, perforce, was held captive,
because the five eggs in his stomach weighted him effectually
down. Rigging up a noose, my friend got it round the snake's
head and carefully dragged it forth. An assistant seized the
tail ; the other placed the heel of his heavy boot on the reptile's
head and smashed it. Then, taking out his penknife, he cut open
the cobra's abdomen and recovered his property. Washing the
slimy mucus off the eggs, they were replaced in the nest, and the
hen was coaxed to return. These five eggs hatched out properly,
and the chicks grew up into five fine Black Minorcas, one of which,
for many years, was cock-in-chief of the farmyard fowls.

Snakes cannot suck eggs, but some swallow eggs whole, the
powerful digestive juices dissolving the egg-shell usually within
twenty-four hours. Sometimes the remains of the shell are cast
up, or perhaps it is completely dissolved or broken up very fine
and passed with the excreta. The Boomslang {Dispholidus
typus) I have frequently observed swallows birds' eggs, which
lodged in its stomach, the fragments of the shells of which, if at
all hard, were cast up the following day. Pigeon's eggs frequently
remained whole inside the snake for a couple of days.

There is, however, a species of true egg-eating snake which
has been provided by Nature with a special set of enamel- tipped,
tooth-like bony projections in the throat, for the purpose of
samng through egg-shells and releasing the contents, which are
squeezed down the throat of the snake, the crushed shell being
spat out afterwards.

Constriction.

The majority of the non-venomous snakes kill their prej'
by constriction. The snake, with unerring aim, makes a dart,
seizes its prey with its jaws by a leg, the body, or head, and
instantly coils around it, crushing its hfe out within a few

D

34 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

minutes. Two coils, sometimes three or even more, are thrown
round the body of the victim. A well-known naturalist
states that snakes never throw more than two coils round their
prey. This is not true. The number of coils depend upon the
size of the victim. The constricting power of snakes is very
great. I have held ]\Iole Snakes by the neck between my finger
and thumb, allowing them to throw their coils round my wrist.
Within five minutes the hand would grow cold and numb, the
blood circulation having been almost entirelj^ stopped by the
pressure of the snake's constrictor muscles upon my wrist. The
constricting power of the African Python is tremendous. I have
seen a Duiker Buck squashed by a Python into a sausage-like
shape within ten minutes.

So rapidly is the victim seized and constricted that the eye
can barely follow the various movements. The snake remains
quite motionless until the prey is within striking distance. Then,
with a movement so rapid that the eyes can but distinguish a
kind of blur, the serpent seizes its victim, and next instant its
coils are doing their deadly work.

So swiftly and silently does a snake strike and constrict, that
the nimble quick-witted rat and mouse, or the active bird are
powerless to escape. I have frequently seen House Snakes seize
mice which were leaping past them at top speed.

Hearing a squeak under the table when I was once having my
evening meal, I looked to see what was the matter. A House
Snake had seized and was constricting a mouse. For years I
kept these House Snakes, which are quite non-\enomous, in my
house, not only because I was fond of harmless snakes, but because
they were of practical use, for those snakes were better than any
house cat in keeping down the mice. Finding my House Snakes
too small to tackle big rats, I tamed a Mole Snake, and let him
loose under the floor. Within a month the rats had evacuated
the premises. Later on, my snaky pets had to go, not because
my wife objected, for she knows mucli about snakes and
rather likes them, but because we could not manage to keep any
servants. The servant class in Natal are kafirs as a rule, and all
raw kafirs have a holy horror of snakes. It is of no use trying to
convince them that any snakes are harmless. To them the bite
of a snake is thought to be death for certain, unless some kafir
" mooti " (medicine) is taken.

REMARKABLE EXPANDING POWER OF JAWS. 35

One day we were feeding a captive Python. It was rather
a bulky fellow, a little over sixteen feet in length. One man held
it by the neck between his knees, which is a convenient way to
force open the jaws and ram down the lumps of meat or dead
rats. The second man held the snake near the tail-end, to prevent
it wrapping itself round the person who was feeding it against its
will. Somehow famiharity breeds contempt, or I suppose the
man who was -responsible for the tail of the python thought its
lighting days were over. Anyway, he allowed it to get its tail
free, whereupon in his attempts to recover it the snake managed
to throw a coil right round the man's neck. Hearing a weird
sort of gurgling sound, the fellow in front threw a glance over his
shoulder, and saw his friend lying on the ground with his tongue
hanging out of his mouth, the blood-vessels of his face swollen,
and his eyes bulging almost out of their sockets. So tight was
the Python's grip that great force had to be employed to remove
the coil from the almost-strangled man's neck.

Remarkable Expanding Power of Jaws.

Snakes, with the exception of those of the burrowing and more
or less worm-like kind, possess the power of expanding their
jaws to a remarkable extent. The power varies a good deal, but
seems to be possessed in about the same degree by most kinds
of snakes. In all other vertebrate creatures the two portions of
the jaw-bone are knit sohdly together in front. On the contrary,
these two parts in snakes' jaws are attached by strong but elastic
ligaments. The skin of the head, neck, and body is elastic also,
and the various bones composing the skull are loosely attached.
The whole mechanism of the head, in fact, is of such a nature
that expansion of all the parts is easy.

Snakes never chew their food. When about to swallow a
comparatively large victim, the snake usually starts operations
at the head. The jaws are lapped over the nose. By slow degrees
the body of the victim is forced into the mouth by powerful
P forward movements of the snake's body muscles, assisted by the
jaws, which grip the prey, and by means of the recurved teeth
force it down into the throat. The whole swallowing process is
a succession of gulps. Gaping its jaws to their utmost capacity,
the snake pushes forward, taking a fresh grip and worrying the

35

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

victim's body as far down as possible. Then there is a short
rest, followed by another expansion of the jaws and the same
contraction of the muscles of the head. Slowly, but surely, the
prey is seen to vanish from sight. When the hindquarters have
disappeared into the throat of the snake, the task is easy. The
muscles of the body set up a series of contractions which force
the creature down the gullet into the stomach tube. When it
gets to the middle part of tlie snake where the real stomach is
situated, the victim's body goes no further, until digested or
disgorged. Sometimes a snake will seize a large rat, toad, or
frog and begin by swallowing one of the hind legs. Finding that

I'IG. i8. — A PuS Addi I -\\ ill. >\\ inf; a l.n>;i' Hani Rat. Niitc li'n\ ilu Miakc makes use of
his fangs to help to get the body of his victim into his mouth.

eventually he cannot make much progress, he rejects the swallowed
leg and moves round to the head and begins again.

I have seen a Puff Adder in captivity swallow three rats in
succession. So powerful were its digestive juices that it com-
pletely digested them all. Boomslangs will, at times, swallow
seven to a dozen frogs in rapid succession. When the prey
is of small bulk, it is quickly swallowed. A Puff Adder takes
from half an hour to a full hour, and sometimes longer, to swallow
a large rat.

Power of Disgorging Prey.

It is popularly supposed that snakes cannot release their
prey once it is well within their jaws, owing to the nature of their
teeth, which are curved backwards. On the contrary, when

SNAKES' CLIMBING POWERS. 37

alarmed or irritated, a snake invariably disgorges its prey, either
during the swallowing process or after. A snake, when in the
act of swallowing a bulky victim, is in a helpless state, for its
jaws are distended enormously, and it is, moreover, unable to
crawl away. Therefore it can neither defend itself nor effect its
escape. So, if danger threatens, the victim is instantly disgorged.
Snakes in poor condition often swallow prey so bulky that the
gastric juices are unable to dispose of it, and the snake gets indi-
gestion. But, if the process of digestion is not proceeding
satisfactorily, the victim is disgorged.

In captivity, when several snakes are kept in the same cage,
it is a common occurrence for two of them to start swallowing a
toad, frog, or rat from opposite ends. When their noses meet
at the centre of the victim's body, one of the snakes usually
reverses his swallowing mechanism and disgorges the portion
he has succeeded in getting into his throat and mouth. Some-
times both stubbornly hold on. In this case the larger or more
active snake laps his jaws over the other's head, and calmly and
deliberately pushes him, as well as the object of dispute, down his
throat. He then retires to a cosy corner, if he be not too bulky
to move, and dozes for a week or two until his digestive juices
have dissolved his huge meal.

I was lying hidden in a clump of thick bush one day, watching
a big yellow Cobra swallowing a rat. I was not the only watcher,
however, for it seemed that a Mungoose had been carefully keeping
the snake under observation, waiting until the reptile had the
rat well within its jaws, when like a flash it sprang from the thicket
upon the helpless snake, and with a vicious bite smashed the
Cobra's backbone at the neck. Hearing me move, it vanished.
I examined the snake and found the vertebrae of the neck quite
broken, and the surrounding flesh mangled.

Snakes' Climbing Powers.

Most snakes are excellent climbers, although the majority of
the species pass most of their hves upon the ground. The Cobras,
Puff Adders, Night Adders, Schaapstekers, Herald Snakes, Water
Snakes, and many other South African kinds climb trees with
ease. In the snake cages at the old Port Elizabeth Museum tliere
were branches of trees fitted in, on which the snakes climbed.
The only snakes which never attempted to climb trees were the

38 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Burrowing Snakes and House Snakes. j\Iole Snakes in captivit}'^
never attempt to climb. Occasionally, in the wild condition, I
have found them basking in the sun on the tops of creeper-clad
shrubs.

The snake whose natural home is in trees, such as the Mamba,
Boomslang, and Bird Snake, glides with tremendous rapidity
through the foliage, appearing barely to touch it in their rapid
flight. In fact, they seem at times to glide through the branches,
twigs, and leaves without touching them. These Tree Snakes move
by gripping the twigs, bark, and branches with the sharp corners of
their abdominal sliields, which are, in turn, worked by means of
the ribs and muscle attachments. The snake's body is twisted
in and out, under and over the branches and twigs. Snakes never
climb by coiUng round a branch as is often depicted in pictures.

Puff Adders ascend trees occasionally, but only in excep-
tional circumstances. Sometimes during heavy rains their
haunts get flooded, whereupon they climb up the nearest tree.
Occasionally they make their home in a patch of dense bush, which
may perhaps cover acres of land. Being unable to get to the
beloved sunshine on the ground, they ascend the trees on warm
sunny days and lie among the twigs at the tops and bask in the
warm rays. Puff Adders frequently do this in the forest belt
known as the " Dene," Port Elizabeth. This forest is very
dense. The trees were planted by Government with the object
of fixing the drifting sand which threatened to cover up the
southern portion of Port Elizabeth. These adders cannot,
however, ascend a perpendicular tree trunk.

Pythons are expert climbers, although they are usually of
such huge bulk. They follow the arboreal Vervet and Samango
monkeys to their leafy lairs and levy toll upon tliem in the even-
ing by lying motionless among the leafy twigs and darting out
with gaping jaws, like an arrow from a bow, when the monkeys
are passing on their way to bed.

Snakes' Food.

Snakes prey upon many kinds of living creatures, chief among
which are rats, mice, birds and their eggs, toads, frogs, lizards,
insects and their larvae. Many kinds of snakes prey upon other
snakes, and even those of their own species. Pythons, of course.

SNAKES SWALLOWING THEIR PREY.
Fig. 19. — On the left is a Brown House Snake (Boodon lineatus) constricting a half-grown Barn Rat.
The snake is 2 feet 1 inch long. It is just proceeding to swallow the rat. It is starting at the nose
The illustration on the right is a Red-lipped or Herald Snake, 2 feet in length, in the act of
swallowing a frog. This picture is taken from life.

39

40 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

being so large, prey mostly upon ]\Ionkeys, Cane Rats, Hares,
and Dassies, as well as the smaller antelopes and the larger birds.

Each species of snake has its own favourite food. The Puff
Adder is fond of rats, mice, young birds, and lizards ; the Cobra
prefers toads, rats, mice, hzards, and other snakes ; Water
Snakes like fish and frogs; Tree Snakes prefer birds, birds' eggs and
their j^oung, chameleons and other tree lizards. Ringhals are
partial to toads ; Schaapstekers to lizards ; House Snakes to
young rats and mice ; Egg-eating Snakes to fresh eggs ; Mole
Snakes like rats, birds, and other snakes' eggs.

Snakes, in the wild state, probably never eat any creature
which they might find already dead. They hunt living prey.
In captivitj^ they can usualty be induced to eat dead animals
and reptiles. After the snake has become fairly tame and used
to its surroundings, it wll sometimes seize and swallow a dead
creature which is dangled in front of its nose, or gently laid
there. Sometimes we suspended the dead bodies of birds, rats,
mice, frogs, or toads, by a fine silken thread from the top of the
snake-cage. The slightest vibration caused the bpdies to twist
and turn. In this way the snakes were deceived into the belief
that the creatures were alive, whereupon they seized, and de-
voured them. Snakes can easily be tamed and taught to take
food from the fingers. Several of the live snakes at the old Port
Elizabeth Museum were fed by an assistant in this manner. A
friend of mine had a tame Boomslang which took chameleons
and frogs from his fingers. It was so tame that he allowed it
out of its cage. It delighted to explore the room. If a stranger
entered, or there happened to be anj^ other cause for alarm, it
instantly sought refuge in its cage. When my friend held a
chameleon up in front of the cage, the Boomslang would work
itself up into a tremendous state of excitement. When the
door was opened, it darted out like a flash, threw a coil or two
of its tail round my friend's neck and arm, and gently took
the chameleon into its mouth and proceeded forthwith to
swallow it.

In those days we considered Boomslangs to be practically
harmless, and in consequence handled them freely. However,
our safety lay in our habit of always being gentle in handling
snakes. It is the only way to tame them. Even the sluggish
and surly Puff Adder can be tamed by frequent handling, but 1

ADAPTATION TO SURROUNDINGS. 41

always prefer to remove his supply of poison fangs, of which he
has several duplicate sets in each jaw, previous to starting any
Puff Adder or Cobra taming experiments.

Snakes which are kept in suitable enclosures out of doors
where they can bask in the sun's rays, often take dead food.

Adaptation to Surroundings.

Adaptation of habits and colouration to surroundings is
possessed in greater or lesser degree by all living creatures. This
provision of Nature operates in two ways. It serves as a pro-
tection against enemies. On the other hand, it is of immense
service to flesh-eating animals in capturing their prey. The
tree-climbing snakes are so alike in colouration to the branches
and foliage that they have 'little difficulty in getting within
striking distance of birds. I have seen Tree-snakes remain per-
fectly rigid, twisting their bodies to represent tree branches, and
have watched birds hop right up to them, and even perch upon
their bodies, mistaking them for twigs. A bird once within
striking distance of a Tree Snake has very little chance of escape,
so rapid are the snake's movements. I have seen Boomslangs
and Green Mambas make off into small trees scantily clothed
with leaves and instantly vanish from sight. On close inspection,
they would be found to be entwined among the branches, quite
rigid, relying upon the blending of their colouration with
their surroundings to escape detection.

The colour of nearly all snakes blends with their surroundings.
A Puff Adder, for instance, lying upon the leaf and twig-strewn
earth is practically invisible to any one not specially on the look-
out for it.

In the various parts of South Africa snakes of the same
species vary more or less in colour to suit the nature of their
surroundings. The natural habitat of the Boomslang is in trees
and shrubs. Its body is, therefore, specially evolved for climb-
ing and rapid gliding movements through dense foliage. In the
Eastern Province of the Cape Colony I have frequently seen and
captured female Boomslangs, which are of a chocolate-brown
colour, on the ground. When alarmed they invariably glide off
and seek refuge down holes, among refuse, or shrubs. I seldom
find them in trees.

Mr. James Williams, the man who captures snakes for me,

42 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

tells me that he nearly always finds these female Boomslangs on
the ground. Occasionally he has found them in shrubs, but their
usual habit is to hunt for their prey, which consists mainly of
lizards, on the ground.

The Horned Adder is dingy, and when lying on the sand or
parched reddish soil of its native habitat it is practically invisible.
The Berg Adder amongst the grey and brown pebbles of the
hillside, with body flattened, is so inconspicuous that even the
warj^ rat will unsuspectingly run over it. Nature has adapted
them to their surroundings by changing the colour of their
skins. This adaptation of colouration of the various creatures
to their surroundings is wonderful and mysterious. It is most
certainly not induced by any thought-power, or desire in the
snake's brain. It is abundantly, evident there is a protecting
force or Law at work which operates ^\'ithout any conscious
desire or wish on the part of the creatures whom it seeks to
benefit, by making them as inconspicuous as possible to their
enemies and their intended prey. This great Natural Law is
quite impartial, as are all the Laws of God. It makes the colour
of one creature blend so perfectly with its surroundings as to
enable it to steal upon its intended victim unawares, but it also
seeks in a similar manner to render the intended prey as difii-
ciilt to see as possible. This is one of the methods by which
Nature forces all living creatures to exert themselves mentally
and physically. For it is only by mental and physical activity
that the evolution of life proceeds.

Fresh-water Snakes.

The Fresh- water Snakes haunt the \-icinity of rivers, pools, and
marshes, swimming and diving with the greatest ease and grace.
They live mostly upon aquatic creatures such as tadpoles, frogs,
and fish. Specimens kept in captivity readily seize and eat
small live fish placed in their water-pan. These snakes do not
five habitually in the water. In fact, they only enter the water
in search of prey. If a frog or fish be seized in the water, the
snake will swim to land with it. I have seen Green Water Snakes
carry frogs several yards up a sloping bank. The snake holds
its prey in its jaws and raises the head and fore part of the body
off the ground when thus employed.

MIGRATION AND HIBERNATION. 43

The true water snake has the nostrils placed on the top of
the snout.

Salt-water Snakes.

These snakes inhabit the ocean, and feed upon fish and
other marine creatures. They are all very venomous. The Salt-
water Snakes are distinguished from all other snakes in having a
keel-like tail, flattened at the sides, which they use as a propeller.
They possess no fins and are true snakes, and therefore real sea
serpents. They are all ovo-viviparous, and the gravid female
\asits the shallow waters of rocky coasts and gives birth to her
jT'oung in the rock pools. Sea snakes are usually brilliantly
coloured. They are seldom found in mid-ocean. Some attain
a length of six feet. Their venom has an almost instantaneous
fatal effect on fish.

Migration and Hibernation.

Snakes do not migrate from one locality to another, unless
forced by hunger or a change in their surroundings, such as an
unusually heavy rainfall, rendering the ground more or less
marshy, or the slow change brought about by the prolonged
droughts which occur from time to time in various districts.
They always remain in the same locality as long as food is pro-
curable. Most species have some favourite spot to which they
retire when desiring to rest, or to escape from their enemies.

Snakes hibernate during the colder months of each year.
They do this for two good reasons. Food is scarce during
the winter months. Snakes are largely dependent for their
vitality on the temperature of the surrounding air, their bodies
being unable to accommodate themselves to rapid changes of
temperature owing to the very slow circulation of their blood
and consequent low normal temperature. In the tropics and in
favourable situations in temperate cUmates, snakes often remain
active all the year round. In certain locahties in South Africa
several species of snakes do not hibernate. Others hibernate
only when the daj^s are very cliilly, but if a warm breeze should
blow, and the temperature of the air rises a few degrees, they
will often issue out of their lurking places to bask in the sunshine.
I have examined snakes quite stiff and rigid, and apparently dead

44 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

with the cold, but on the application of heat they soon regained
all their vigour and vitaUty.

The live snakes at the old Port Elizabeth Museum cages were
most active when the air is warm, and grew torpid in propor-
tion to the lowering of the temperature of the air. When their
cages were artificially heated they immediately revived.

If a snake should find a cosy retreat, and provided there is
sufficient sustenance in the neighbourhood, he will make that
spot his headquarters, from which he will issue forth when hungry
and scour the neiglibourhood in search of food ; or else bask in
the warm sunshine ready to beat a retreat on the least sign of
danger. When the leaves begin to fall and the air grows chilly,
a drowsy feeUng begins to pervade his body which warns him it
is time to seek out a cosy shelter for his long sleep. So he crawls
into the innermost recesses of his lair, or seeks out a better one.
Coiling himself up, he sinks into a condition of torpor.

Many species of reptiles have the power of suspending anima-
tion and lying in a death-like trance through the winter months,
when the food on which they live is either very scarce or quite
unobtainable. When animation is more or less suspended, an
exceedingly small quantity of food-material is used up to keep
the creature alive ; whereas if it were active all the A\inter, it
would require an abundant supply. This would mean that most
species of reptiles would die of starvation. Those which had found
enough food to tide them over till the summer season would not
be in sufficient numbers to keep down the armies of living creatures
which constitute the diet of reptiles. Thus the balance of Nature
would be upset.

Parasites on Snakes.

Snakes are frequently infested ^vith parasites. Ticks often
fasten themselves upon the skin between the scales.

There once occurred an unusual mortality amongst the collection
of live snakes at the Port Elizabeth Museum, which are kept in
a long row of cages each four feet square and the same height,
with plate-glass on the four sides. Noticing minute parasites
upon one of the dead snakes, I made a microscopical examination
of them, and found they were a species of lice somewhat smaller
than fowl lice. On close observation of the living snakes I

THE HABITS OF SNAKES. 45

discovered they were all swarming with these tiny vermin, which
harboured under and between the scales. I immediately caused
the snakes to be thoroughly oiled all over, and the cages washed
out with disinfectant. The parasites had been introduced by a
snake which had, in the wild state, been infested with them. To
keep the captive snakes clean we are obliged to oil them about
once every four months. Ordinary salad oil with a little parafhn
in it is the most suitable application.

The Habits of Snakes.

When we study the habits of various creatures, we find that
their customs are regulated by their food supply, the necessity
for avoiding enemies and climatic conditions.

Snakes come forth in search of their prey, with but few ex-
ceptions, during the daytime only. In the heat of the day
they issue from their various retreats to bask in the sun's warm
rays, for their blood is cold, and they love the heat. It means
life and vitality to them. Tree Snakes hunt during the day-
time, both among the foliage and upon the ground, for their
food. The Cobra, Puff Adder, Ringhals, and various other snakes,
whose chief diet consists of toads, rats, and mice, usually issue
forth toward sundown, and actively scour the neighbourhood,
knowing that the creatures on which they prey are in the habit
of going out about that time and during the early evening.
When the temperature of the air is fairly warm, snakes may be
seen at any hour of the day. As a rule, they do not wander
about at night, but on warm moonlight nights they sometimes
come out to look for food.

Snakes strongly dislike cold and wet, and on the approach of
rain, or if the temperature of the air falls, they hasten SLway to their
snug retreats, and await the return of bright and warm weather.

Beetles, slugs, and other insects, which constitute the chief
food of toads, invariably go out about sundown to feed upon
other insects or vegetation. The toads, knowing this, come out
from their lairs at these times. The crafty Cobra, knowing he
is most likely to find a good fat toad for his supper about sundown,
also comes forth and spies around. Because the vegetation is
damp and succulent after sunset, the insect prefers to eat it
at that time. The toad comes out and eats its prey, then the

46 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA

Cobra comes along and swallows the toad. Lastly, man follows
and captures or kills the Cobra.

The habits of the same species of snakes chffer in accordance
with their environment. In some localities snakes are never
seen at night, because the air is invariably cold after sundown.
In other locahties it is just the reverse. At Port Ehzabeth Puff
Adders and Night Adders are frequently met with at night.

Finding themselves under strange and abnormal conditions
when placed in cages, most snakes refuse to eat, although
they will regularly drink water and actively crawl around.
I have never succeeded in keeping snakes ahve for more than
a year in ordinary cages indoors, or in other situations where
there was a lack of sunshine or a heating apparatus for keeping
the temperature at about 80".

It is only occasionally that Boomslangs under these con-
ditions will take food. The majority take no notice if chame-
leons, lizards, or nests containing fresh pigeons' and other birds'
eggs are placed in their cages. Puff Adders will eat a rat on
occasion. As likely as not it will be disgorged the following
day. Frequently they strike and kill the rats, but take no
further notice of them. Mole Snakes invariably refuse all food,
and prefer to perish by starvation.

Snakes, if kept in an enclosure twelve or more feet square,
out in the open air, with suitable cosy corners, nooks, and crannies
provided, and plenty of fresh water, will live, thrive, and breed.
In such a large enclosure many species of snakes may be kept
together. It is true they sometimes swallow each other, but
that is not of much consequence if they are of common species,
for they can easily be replaced. The only really aggressive
snakes are the Cobras, especially those species which grow to a
large size, such, for instance, as the Cape Cobra {Naia Jfava).
These big fellows are bold, active, and aggressive, and often
deliberately attack other snakes. However, after being a few
months in captivity, they calm down, and will not interfere, as
a rule, with other species of snakes, except the smaller kinds,
which they attack, overcome, and swallow when hungry.

The only drawback I have found in keeping a large number
of different species of snakes in one large enclosure is that if one
should seize and begin to swallow a toad, etc., anotlier will often
come along and start operations at the opposite end of the

THE HABITS OF SNAKES.

47

victim, and thus in many cases one snake is swallowed by
another.

Of course, it is not desirable to keep the bulky Python with
the other kinds of snakes. He is an inoffensive fellow, but his
huge bulk, which he cannot help dragging along with him, is
apt to injure snakes over which he might happen to crawl. Also
he has a habit of poking about and endeavouring to thrust him-
self out of sight into small holes and crannies, and in this way he
makes chaos of the little interior arrangements of the enclosure
designed for the convenience of the smaller reptiles.

A snake-house should be so situated as to be well sheltered from
wind and rain, and so arranged that the sun may at all times
of the day, from sunrise to sunset, shine into some portion of it.
Great care should be taken that the snakes have cool places into
which to retire when the sun is very hot. Free access to air
must be given, so that the snake-house may not get unduly
heated.

I once lost a large collection of snakes by allowing the air to get
too hot inside the snake-house. The sun heated the glass and
wooden partitions, which naturally had the effect of raising the
temperature of the air considerably. Every snake perished with
the heat, although they were not subjected to direct sunshine.
Testing the degree of heat with a thermometer, I found the air
registered a hundred and six degrees Fahr.

If you hold the belief that snakes are very tenacious of life,
abandon that belief, for they are not. When mangled they may
twist, writhe, and squirm for many hours, but nevertheless a
snake is very easily killed. A slight injury will cause death, not
necessarily at once, but perhaps a week or a month later. At the
Port Ehzabeth Museum I used to wonder why we had such a great
mortality amongst our live snakes which were sent us by kind
friends in various parts of the country. On skinning them my
assistant discovered various discolourations, showing that they
had been struck or otherwise knocked about when being captured.
At first I used to dissect out the fangs, and sometimes the maxil-
lary bone on which they are fixed. I found that in the majority
of cases abscesses formed which caused the snake to cease eating.
When fed artificially the mouth invariably bled, the abscesses
grew worse, and the snakes pined and died.

In some experiments which I conducted with a view of

STUDY PLATE FOR SCIENTIFIC STUDENTS

Fig. 20. — I. A. The scales of the back. O.O. Parietal shields. V. Interparietal shield. F. Anterior and
posterior frontal shields. S. Supraocular shield. R. Rostral shield.

2. N.N. Nasal shield. L. Loreal shield. A. Prcocular shield. P. Postocular shield. U.U. Upper
labial shields. T. Temporal shields. M. Mental or median lower labial. C. Chin shields.

3. A. The abdominal plates or shields which are movable. These are used in locomotion. Their
edges grip uneven surfaces. B. The chin shields. C. Lower labial shields. D. Upper lip.

48

IDENTIFICATION OF SNAKES.

49

ascertaining if certain species of snakes were immune to Puff Adder
venom, I allowed tiie adder to bite tliem, either in the neck or
somewhere in the region of the abdomen. In nearly all cases the
bitten snakes died a week or so later. However, I subsequently
discovered that tlie deaths were often caused not by the venom,
but by the actual mechanical injury caused to the internal parts
of the bitten snakes, by the large fangs of the Puff Adders.

Identification of Snakes.

In the identification of the species of snakes the colouration
is a most uncertain guide. The systematic Zoologist examines
the dentition to ascertain to what division the
specimen belongs. There are three main divisions,
viz. the AGLYPHA, or solid-toothed non-veno-
mous snakes ; the OPISTHOGLYPHA, or hind-
fanged, more or less poisonous snakes ; and the
PROTEROGLYPHA, or front-fanged, typically
venomous snakes.

After finding out what family, sub-family, and
genus the specimen is a member of by means of
the general formation of the body, scales, and
shields, the zoologist identifies the species by
examining the shields on the head and abdomen.
The number and shape of the head and abdominal
shields differ in the various species of snakes.
Sometimes they merely shghtly differ in a species.
In these cases we term it a sub-species, if the
difference is observed to be constant.

If you compare the head shields of two
different species of snakes, you will notice they
differ in shape. If the abdominal (ventral) shields
are counted they will differ in number. So also
will those from the vent to the end of the tail
(sub-caudals). In some species of snakes the shield
(anal) over the vent is divided. In others it is entire. So also with
the sub-caudals. In some snakes they are in one row, and in others
they are in two rows. Their number also differs with the species.

Fig. 2 1.- — A. Ven-
trals or abdominal
shiclclii. They ex-
tend from throat
to vent.

B. .^nal shield. In
some snakes this
shield, which
covers the vent,
is divided. In
others it is entire.

C. Sub-caudal.
These shields in
some snakes are
in two rows ; in
others in a single
row.

I

CHAPTER III

The Blind Burrowing Snakes.

Family I. — Typhlopid.e.

These snakes are worm-like in appearance, with cylindrical
bodies and blunt tails. They are covered with tiny closely-
fitting scales, and their eyes are more or less rudimentary.
They burrow in the ground, especially in soft loamy and sandy
soils, and feed upon small lizards, ants, larvae, worms, beetles and
other insects. They are usually found under stones, loose soil,
and decaying leaves and wood. Occasionally, after a shower of
rain, they appear above ground in search of insects, which issue
forth from their retreats at this time. The jaws of this family of
snakes are not capable of much distension, as is the case with the
more highly evolved or specialized snakes, consequently they
cannot swallow large prey. Their upper jaws are armed with
small, sharp teeth, but the lower jaws are toothless. They are all
quite non-venomous and can be safely handled. They make nice
pets, and soon grow very tame, and thrive if kept in a box con-
taining sand in which they may burrow, and supplied with water
and insects, especially termites and their larvse. If the cage be
placed out in the sun they come to the surface to bask, their
bodies glittering like burnished metal.

All the different species lay eggs, which are large in proportion
to the size of the snake. This family of snakes, and the following
famil}^ {Glauconida) constitute the hnk between the more highly-
specialized snakes and lizards from which snakes have evolved.
There are over lOo species or kinds of Typhlops snakes inhabiting
various parts of the world, ten of which live in South Africa, south
of the Zambesi. These Burrowing Snakes still possess rudiments
of a pelvis, which indicates that their remote ancestors had legs.

50

THE BLIND BURROWING SNAKES.

51

Those ancestors, in fact, were lizards. The fact that these snakes
have blunt tails and the vent situated almost at the end, has given
rise to the popular behef in " Two-headed " Snakes. When ex-
amined casually they certainly have the appearance of possessing
a head at opposite ends of the body.

They are known to Dutch-speaking people as the Tweekop
Slang. (See illustration, page 11.)

Genus TYPHLOPS.

A single Genus in South Africa.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

r. Typhlops verticalis. — Snout rounded ; 22 or 24 scales round the body.
Preocular much narrower than the ocular, in contact with the
second and third labials ; diameter of body 42 to 45 times in
total length.

SKULLS OF TYPHLOPS OR BLIND BURROWING SNAKES.

Fig. 22. — (i) Side view showing situation of teeth. (2) Skull viewed
from above. (3) Skull showing roof of the mouth and row of teeth.
These are the only teeth a Typhlops Snake has. {Brit. Mus. Cat.
Snakes.)

2. Typhlops fornasinii. — Snout rounded ; 22 or 24 scales round the

body. Preocular a little narrower than the ocular, in contact
with the second labial only ; diameter of body 23 to 30 times
in total length.

3. Typhlops mossambicus. — Snout with obtusely angular, not trenchant,

I

52 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

horizontal edge ; 24 scales round the body. Preocular in con-
tact with the second and third labials ; diameter of bod}' 30
times in total length.

4. Typhlops ANCHiETiE. — Snout with obtusely angular, not trenchant,

horizontal edge ; 30 or 32 scales round the body. Preocular in
contact with the second labial only ; diameter of body 24 times
in total length ; eye not distinguishable.

5. Typhlops bibronii. — Snout with obtusely angular, but not trenchant,

horizontal edge ; 30 to 34 scales round the body. Preocular in
contact with the second labial (rarely second and third) ; diameter
of body 28 to 36 times in total length ; eye distinct.

6. Typhlops delalandii. — Snout not hooked (in profile). Snout with

sharp, trenchant, horizontal edge ; 28 to 30 scales round the
body ; diameter of body 35 to 50 times in total length.

7. Typhlops mucroso. — Snout not hooked (in profile). Snout with

sharp, trenchant, horizontal edge ; 30 to 38 scales round the body ;
diameter of body 25 to 35 times in total length.

8. Typhlops dinga. — Snout with sharp, trenchant, horizontal edge.

Snout not hooked (in profile) ; 34 to 40 scales round the body ;
diameter of body 42 to 46 times in total length.

9. Typhlops schlegelii. — Snout with sharp, trenchant, horizontal edge.

Snout not hooked (in profile) ; 40 to 44 scales round the body ;
diameter of body 25 to 30 times in total length.
10. Typhlops schinzi. — Snout hooked. Snout with sharp, trenchant,
horizontal edge ; 24 to 26 scales round the body ; diameter ot
body 45 to 57 in total length.

TYPHLOPS.

Ten species in South Africa.

Typhlops verticalis. The Yellow-brown Blind Snake. Geel-bruin

Slang.
Synonym — Onychocephahts verticalis.
Colour — uniform brownish-yellow.
Average length — 6 to 8 inches.
Distribution — Western Province of Cape Colony.
Typhlops fornasinii. East African Blind Snake.
Colour — bluish or grej'ish. Anal region yellowisli.
Average length — 6 to 8 inches.
Distribution — Delagoa Bay ; Portuguese East Africa.

Typhlops mossambicus. Mossambique Blind Snake.
Synonym — Onychocephalus mossambicus.

Colour — Dark brown ; lower surface of head and anal region yellowish.
Average length — 6 to 7 inches.

Distribution — Z«luland ; Northwards to Portuguese East Africa.
Typhlops anchiet.-e. Anchieta's Blind Snake.
Colour — Pale yellow, with greyi.sh-brown blotches.
Average length — 6 inches.
Distribution — Transvaal ; Angola.

Typhi. oi's hibkonii. Variously known as the Blind Snake; Two-
headed Snake ; Ground Snake ; Aard Slang ; Tweekop Slang
Synonym — Onychocephalus bibronii.

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54

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Not recorded north

Not re-
the Zam-

The Vari-

Colour — Brown above ; yellow on the underparts.
Average length — i foot to i foot 6 inches.
Distribution — Common throughout South Africa,
of the Zambesi.
6. Typhlops delalandii. Delalandi's Blind Snake.

Colour — Pale brown above (.ach scale, with a darker central spot ;

yellowish on the under-
parts.
Average length — i foot.
Distribution — Occurs all over
South Africa,
corded north of
besi.
Typhlops mucroso.
able Blind Snake.
Synonym — Onycliocephalus

mucroso.
Colour — Upper parts variable in
colour; lower parts uniform
yellowish.
Average length — i foot to i foot

6 inches.
Distribution — Transvaal ; De-
lagoa Bay ; Rhodesia ;
Zambesi Regions ; North
to East and Central
Africa.
Typhlops dinga. The Rusty-
red Blind Snake.
- Synonym — Onychocephalus
dinga.
Colour — Rusty red above, with

confluent black spots.
Average length — 2 feet to 2 feet

6 inches.
Distribution — Southern Rho-
desia ; Portuguese East
Africa.
Typhlops scHLEGELii. Schlegel's
Blind Snake.
Synonym — Onychocephalus

schlegelii.
Colour — Uniform olive - brown
above, or parti - coloured
yellow and ohve-brown, the
latter colour forming ir-
regular blotches ; lower
parts uniform yellow.
Average length — i foot 6 inches
to 2 feet.
Portuguese East Africa ; Central

•ja

HEADS AND TAILS OF TYPHLOPS

SNAKES, SHOWING ARRANGE-.

MENT OF SCALES.

Fig. 24. — 3c. Head and lower jaw.
^d. Tail, showing the spine at the tip B.
5a. Head viewed from above.
56. Head viewed from the side.
5c. Head viewed from below.
$d. Tail showing spine at end.
Vent is at part marked A. Eyes are covered
by scales. (From Brit. Mus. Cat. Snakes.)

-Southern Rhodesia

Distribution
Africa.
10. Typhlops schinzi. Black-spotted Blind Snake.
Colour — Yellowish above, with small black spots.
Average length — 8 inches.
Distribution — Northern parts of Cape Colony ; Little Namaqualand

THE BLIND BURROWING SNAKES.

55

Family II. Glauconid^.

These snakes are very similar in general structure to the
former family {TyphlopidcB), and their habits are more or less
alike. They are placed in a separate family because they are
anatomically somewhat different, viz. they have teeth in the lower
jaw only, the upper jaw being quite toothless. They possess four-
teen rows of scales round the body. The typhlops snakes, on the
contrary, have teeth in the upper jaw, but none in the lower
jaw, and they have at least eighteen rows of scales round their
bodies. The Glauconidce snakes are blunt-tailed like the former
family, and are, like their cousins, often popularly termed " Two-

FiG. 25. — A life-size Glauconia or Blind Burrowing Snake [Glauconia nigricans).

headed Snakes." People have occasionally brought snakes to
me in excitement, claiming to have discovered a snake with
a head at each end of the body. In all cases they turned
out to be Bhnd Burrowing Snakes. Like the former family,
the Glauconidce are all quite non-venomous, and are easy to
keep alive. These Burrowing Snakes are very useful in the
economy of Nature in keeping down the too rapid increase of
insect life.

There are about thirty species of these snakes, six species of
which are known to inhabit South Africa.

56

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Genus GLAUCONIA.
A single Genus in South Africa.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

1. Glauconia nigricans. — Supraocular present. Rostral separated from

the supraocular by the upper part of the nasal ; diameter of
body 40 to 60 times in total length.

2. Glauconia conjuncta.— Supraocular present. Rostral in contact

with the supraocular ; Rostral not more than twice the width
of the nasal, extending to, or slightly beyond a line connecting
the posterior borders of the eyes. Diameter of body 47 to 60
times in total length.

2 P\

prru

Ut,

■^w^>

rw

.V

f^

y-.d

-A

..cor

prv

SKULLS OF GLAUCONL\ SNAKES.

Fig. 26. — I. Side viiw showing the teeth in the lower jaw. There are
none in the upper jaw.

2. Skull seen from above.

3. Skull seen from below showing toothless palate. A. Lower jaw.

(lirit. Mus. Cat. Snakes.)

3. Glauconia gracilior. — Differs from the former in having the diameter

of the body 90 to no times in total length. Body very slender.

4. Glauconia scutifrons. — Supraocular present. Rostral, very large,

at least twice as broad as the nasal and extending beyond a hne
connecting the posterior border of the eyes ; diameter of body
50 to 80 times in total length. Snout rounded.

5. Glauconia distanti. — Supraocular present. Snout with preoral part

concave, appearing slightly hooked in profile.

6. Glauconia lapialis. — No supraocular. In all the other species the

supraocular is present.

THE AFRICAN PYTHON. 57

GLAUCONIA.
Six Species in South Africa.

1. Glauconia nigricans. Black Blind Snake. Zwart Blind Slang.

Synonyms — Typhlops iiigncans ; Stenostoma nigricans.
Colour — Brown or blackish, with scales edged with lighter.
Average length — 6 inches.

Distribution— Both provinces of Cape Colony ; Natal ; Orange Free
State, Transvaal.

2. Glauconia conjuncta. The Intermediate Blind Snake.

Synonyms — Stenostoma conjimctimi ; Stenostoma nigricans ; Stenostoma
groittii. This species connects G. nigricans with G. scutifrons.

Average length — 6 inches.

Distribution — Both provinces of Cape Colony ; O. F. S.*; Basutoland ;
Natal ; Zululand ; Transvaal ; Northwards to East Africa.

3. Glauconia gracilior. The Slender Blind Snake.
Colour — Uniform brownish-black.

Average length — 8 inches.

Distribution — Western Province, Cape Colony.

4. Glauconia scutifrons.

Synonyms — Stenostoma scutifrons ; Glauconia latifrons.
Colour — Brown or blackish above ; whitish beneath.
Average length — 6 to 8 inches.

Distribution — Eastern Province of Cape Colony; Natal; Zululand;
O. F. S. ; Transvaal ; Southern Rhodesia ; Northwards to Angola.

5. Glauconia distanti. Distant's Blind Snake.

Colour — Uniform blackish, the borders of the scales lighter.

Average length — 5 to 6 inches.

Distribution — Transvaal ; Bechuanaland ; Southern Rhodesia.

6. Glauconia labialis.
Distribution — South West Africa.

The Python or Rock Snake (Python Seb^).
Family IH. Boid^. Genus Python.

The Python belongs to a family of snakes known as the
BoidcB. There are nine species or kinds of Pythons, three in
Africa and the rest in the Malay Archipelago, India and Aus-
tralasia. Belonging to the same family is another sub-famiJy of
snakes called Boas, chief among which is the terrible Anaconda
of America, which is stated to attain a length of over thirt}^ feet.
None of these Boa-constrictors inhabit Africa.

The largest snake on record is the Malay Python [Python
reticulatiis) which is just under thirty-three feet in length.

The African Python.
The South African Python, also known as the Natal Rock
Snake [Python sehce),\s common in the Southern portion of Africa,
mostly towards the East side. In West Africa it is replaced by

* O. F. S. throughout this volume stands for Orange Free State.

58 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

another species known as the West African Python {Python regiiis) ,
and in South \\'est Africa by Anchieta's Python [Python anchieta).
The Rock Snake or Python is fairly common in Rhodesia, Natal,
Zululand and Eastern Transvaal. I have also obtained specimens
from Bechuanaland.

The statements in regard to the length attained by these

Fig. 27. — Head and neck of a South African Python (Fylhon seba).

Pythons is very conflicting. Sir Andrew Smith, in his " Zoology
of South Africa," mentions one twenty- five feet long, which he
personally examined and measured. I have examined a consider-
able number, and the longest was twenty feet. The average length
seems to be about sixteen feet, the circumference at the thickest
part being about eighteen inches.

I. Python .sEB.ii. The South African Python, also known as the Natal
Rock Snake.

Synonyms — Coluber seba: ; Hortidia nataleusis.

Colour^Palc brown above, with dark brown, black-edged, more or less
sinuous cross bars which are usually connected by a continuous,
or interrupted dark stripe running along each side of the back ;
sides with large spots, and finely dotted with black ; a large tri-
angular dark brown blotch occupying the top of the head,
bordered on each side by a light stripe, beginning at the end of
the snout above the nostril, and passing above the eye. A dark
stripe on each side of the head, and a dark sub-triangular blotch
below the eye ; upper surface of tail with a light stripe between
two black ones. Belly spotted and dotted with dark brown.

Average length — 16 feet. Said to attain a length of 25 feet.

Distribution — Natal ; Zululand ; Eastern Transvaal ; Eastern portion
of Bechuanaland ; Southern Rhodesia ; Portuguese East Africa ;
Tropical Africa.

A PYTHON AND ITS SKELETON.

Fig. 28. — The African Python or Natal Rock Snake. [A/Ur Smith.) These snakes attain a length of 20

feet and over. Colour, light brown, with irregular cross bands and squares of dark brown.

Yellowish beneath, usually spotted and dotted with dark brown. 2. The complete skeleton of

a South African Python (Python seba) 16 feet in length. This skeleton was prepared at the Port

Elizabeth Museum, and is on exhibition there,
number of ribs, and sections of the backbone.

59

It is bored and wired throughout. Note the huge

6o THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Their Haunts, Diet, and Age.

Pythons frequent moist rocky valleys, plantation and bush-
covered lands, and are rarely found far from water. Their prin-
cipal diet is birds, mammals, such as Dassies, Hares, Cane Rats,
the smaller antelopes, monkeys, etc.

Along the coastal districts of Natal there are extensive sugar-
cane plantations, where these Pythons delight to dwell, as there
is abundance of food in the shape of Cane Rats, otherwise known
as Ground Pigs {Thryonomys swinderenianits). These Cane Rats
attain the size of full-grown Dassies or Rock Rabbits. They are
not real rats. Their nearest relation is the porcupine. These
Cane Rats are very destructive to the sugar-cane, so the planter
regards the Python as his best and most useful ally.

When seeking food the Python usually lies in ambush in some
place where animals are likely to pass. When the intended
victim is within striking distance, the snake lunges forward, seizes
its startled victim in its jaws, which are armed with fairly large
recurved teeth. Then with lightning-like rapidity its body is
thrown around the terrified and struggling animal, which is
rapidly crushed to death.

The age to wliich snakes live has not been ascertained.
P\i;hons have been known to live in captivity for twenty-five
years.

Swallowing the Prey.

The snake begins at the head and swallows the body, after the
manner of other snakes, as previously explained. H the captured
animal be large, the snake crushes it so effectually that it is
converted into a sausage-shaped mass, which naturally makes
the swallowing process so much easier.

During deglutition the salivary' glands are very active, and
an abundance of saliva is excreted which enables the snake to
swallow the prey with comparative ease. The snake does not,
however, smear its victim with saliva before starting to swallow
it. The saliva only comes in contact \\dth the portion of the prey
which is within the mouth. Sometimes a little escapes from the
sides of the mouth. Snakes never " slime " their -prey previous
to swallowing it.

This popular belief that snakes cover their prey with a
slimy secretion previous to swallowing it, is incorrect. What
evidently gave rise to this belief, is the custom of snakes to

SWALLOWING THE PREY.

61

prey if irritated or alarmed. Naturally the
cast-up body of the victim is covered with a shmy secretion

disgorge their

Fig. 29. — A South African {Python scba) 17 feet in length, basking in the
sun. Photographed in its native habitat.

with which it became covered during the swallo\ving process,
and while in the digestive tract.

A large Python can swallow an animal the size of a full-grown
Duiker Buck (Cephalophus grinimi). When out hunting one day

62 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

in Natal with a friend, we came across a huge Python in a small
cave at the foot of a krantz. After killing it, we dragged its body
out into the light, and discovered that a pair of Duiker Buck
horns were sticking fully an inch and a lialf through its ribs and
skin. It had evidently swallowed the buck, horns and all, and
the latter worked their way through the skin. The Python would
probably not have died through the injury. These reptiles have
such powerful digestive juices that the whole body, bones and all,
of the buck, would gradually have been digested, and the horns
would eventually have dropped out. On a second occasion I was
present when a Python, Avith the horns of a Duiker ram sticking
out of its skin, was killed. In this case the skull had evidently
been dissolved by the snake's gastric juices, for the horns came
away very easily when pulled, leaving two small round holes in
the snake's side, which doubtless would have healed in a very
short time.

One day when lying under the shade of a big forest tree near
Table Mountain, in Natal, I heard the terrified cries of an animal.
On emerging from the bush, I saw a Python with a Duiker Buck
in its deadly folds. Having no gun, I converted the branch of a
tree into a cudgel, and rushed up the incline at the snake. How-
ever, on seeing me approaching, it quickly disengaged its jaws,
unwound its coils, and made off amongst the bush-covered rocks,
leaving the buck in a dying state upon the ground.

On another occasion my Fox Terriers gave tongue. Climbing
over rocks and stubbly bush in the direction of the sound, I saw a
Python of average size with head and neck distended enormously.
On seeing me it made desperate efforts to disgorge, but its jaws
were so dreadfully stretched that it was apparently powerless to
reverse its mechanism. I rapidly tied one end of a stout cord
round the snake's middle, and the other end to a tree, and ran
back to get a strong linen bag from a satchel, which hung from my
saddle. Returning, I found the Python had succeeded in dis-
gorging its prey, which was a half-grown Duiker. The reptile
was worked up into a great state of excitement by the badgering
of the terriers, and its inabihty to escape. Holding out the spread-
out bag, the Python lunged forward and seized it. The snake's
recurved teeth got entangled in the material, and without a
moment's delay I enveloped its head, and then seized it by the neck.
Wrapping the bag round its head, I tied it with a cord. I then

CAPTURING A PYTHON. 63

sat down and waited patiently until the Python had expended
its strength in blindly tumbhng and rolhng around. At last it
ceased to fight. It felt it was vanquished. I advanced and
carefully removed the bag which was blindfolding it. Opening
the mouth of it, I thrust in the snake's head. Instantly it
began to crawl forward, thus aiding me in bagging it.

Slinging the bag over my shoulder, I staggered off witli nearly
a hundredweight of P5^thon.

My pony was an old trusty friend and companion of countless
excursions, and was used to the sensation of various kinds of
wriggling things on his back, so he did not mind when I strapped
my load to the saddle and led him along to my Dutch friend's
farm, five miles distant.

Pythons on the Watch.

The favourite haunt of the Python is the rocky, wooded
valleys, in the vicinity of water. They love water, and delight
to wallow in it, often lying submerged for hours, with only the
nostrils above the surface.

They are excellent climbers, twisting in and out amongst the
branches. The popular idea is that snakes climb by twisting
their bodies in spiral fashion round the branches after the manner
of a rope being twisted, strand above strand round the trunk of
a tree. This is not so. No snake ever climbs in this manner.
These huge Pythons often lie along the branches of trees with
their stony-looking, unwinking eyes fixed upon the ground below.
If something good to eat comes along, the snake merely drops
upon it, the end of the tail gripping tight to the branch, or to a
twig. When the animal is large and strong, the Python prefers
some leverage for its tail in the shape of a shrub, branch, tuft of
grass, or a projection of rock, to give its body muscles more
power to act. As a rule, however, these snakes just envelop
their prey with their folds, and then proceed to squeeze the life
out of it.

Capturing a Python.

Pythons are not venomous ; they are destitute of poison fangs
or poison glands.

The teeth of Pythons are all quite solid, without any signs of

64

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

grooving. They are recurved, which means they are curved
backwards. These teeth are capable of inflicting a nasty wound.
I was trying to capture a Python one day amongst some rocks

in one of those beauti-
ful tropical - looking
valleys, so abundant
in Natal. I got it
cornered, and tried to
get a noose over its
head. In desperation,
I suppose, it made
a fierce lunge and
seized my left hand in
its great jaws and held
as tight as a steel rat
trap. I yelled out to
my companion, but he
was awa}' in the bush
somewhere. Fearing
the Python would
want to take the
liberty of embracing
me, I dragged my
liand out of its mouth,
the hand, of course,
being minus most of its
epidermis. You want
to know what I did
then ? Well, I re-
treateddown the rocks.
x\fter my friend had
bandaged my hand, we
crawled up again and
shot the Python, and
t lien retrieved my gun,
satchel, and hat.

Pythons become
very tame and docile in captivity. For many years past
I have kept them in cages. I had one big fellow eighteen
feet long, and so tame did he become that one day I coiled

Fig. 30. — A baby pylhon .iikI a baby boy.

THEY HANKERED AFTER HIS GALL. 65

liim round a lady's neck and waist, and photographed her with
the python.

A Sensation.

This Python escaped one night, and I solemnly warned a
relative to keep the fact a dead secret. She confided the fact to a
neighbour, binding her to strict secrecy, but of course that secret
was known in a very short while over the whole neighbourhood.
Anyhow, for a month or two nobody would venture out of doors
in that suburb after dark. Whenever children were a little late
in coming home from school, their mothers were in horrible
suspense lest the Python had interviewed them en route. When-
ever any domestic animals were missing, of course the Python
got the blame. Why, they even blamed it for doing away with

a man. It seems Mr. • suddenly disappeared from his home,

and no trace of him could be found, and the poor old Python
was blamed, but I knew that man had a shrew of a wife, with
a dreadful temper, who preferred gossip to looking after her
domestic affairs, so I guessed the real reason of his disappearance.

They Hankered after his Gall.

The Kafirs believe that the gall of a man who has killed a
Python will confer on the person who swallows it wonderful
vigour, courage and longevity.

Prior to the advent of Europeans into South Africa, and the
introduction of their irksome laws, the Kafir who was known to
have killed a Python stood little or no chance of living to an old
age. The Cliief of the tribe coveted his gall. So did others, but
they lay low, for they well knew that to thwart the desires of the
Chief meant retaliation, swift, sure, and cruel, upon themselves.

Now, when any of the old-time powerful native chiefs coveted
anything, he got it by fair means or foul, if it were at all procurable.
Summoning the Witch-doctor he declared, wii\\ many groans,
exclamations, and lamentations that he felt ill, frightfully ill, and
raising his voice aloud, proclaimed that he had been bewitched.

66

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Then in a whisper to the Witch-doctor he named the man whose
gall he coveted, adding that he was the fellow who had killed a
Python. The cunning and unscrupulous Witch-doctor instantly
took the hint. Going forth, she proclaimed in exaggerated and
excited language, and with wild gestures, that the Cliief had been
bewitched. The men of the tribe were, in due time, summoned,
and commanded to sit in a circle. The apparently sick chief or

Fig. 31. — An Indian Python constricting an antelope. The squeezing power of a large
Python is enormous. The ribs of the victim are crushed and the body elongated.
It is then swallowed head first. {From Warne's Royal Natural History.)

king is brought forth and laid upon a mat, supported and attended
by a bevy of his wives.

Then the serious part of the business begins. The Witch-
doctor, with horrible yells and mutterings, bounds into the circle.
A weird and repulsive-looking object she generally is. She is
not necessarily old and shrivelled. On the contrary, those I
have seen were usually stalwart women of unusual height, with
a commanding, bold aspect.

The face is smeared with daubs of white, and other paints.
Strings of the claws of birds, bones of human beings and animals.

Fig. 32. — Two South African Pythons on the rocks in their native liabitat. These were photographed as
they were trying to escape up the rocks. One is 14 feet, the other 15 feet 6 inches in length. They
fought savagely when we tried to capture them.

67

68 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

bits of medicinal bark, and small bladders filled wtli various
substances are suspended round her neck and waist ; her wool is
long, unkempt, and adorned with many blown-out gall bladders
of animals. Sometimes her whole person is decorated with a
miscellaneous array of gruesome-looking things.

Crouching down, she crawls around, sniffing each man. Then,
working herself into a frenzy, her features become distorted,
she writhes, twists, mutters, yells. In fact she does every-
thing in her power to inspire awe, reverence, and extreme fear
in the minds of the onlookers, each of whom is already in an
abject state of terror, lest he should be the victim of her atten-
tions. Eventually, with a succession of yells, she leaps high
into the air, and \vith her wand, points to one of the men in the
circle. Those in his vicinity instantl}" shrink away in horror
from him. The liitherto terrified savages, now become ferocious
and demoniacal, and gather around the victim, uttering the most
appalling threats. However, the Witch-doctor knows her busi-
ness. She wants the man's gall for the Chief ; so, commanding
the men to retire, she consults the Chief. Announcing that he
has given instructions as to the disposal of the man, he is dragged
off and done to death in a horribly brutal and agonizing manner.

In due time the dead man's gall is privately conveyed to the
Chief by the Prophetess, who then receives an ample reward.
These " smelhng out " cases were of frequent occurrence in former
times. If any of the Chief's cattle should sicken and die, if any
one should get ill from any cause, if misfortune in any shape or
form should visit the tribe, this gruesome " smelling out " business
was usually resorted to in order to unmask the wizard with the
evil eye, who by his bewitching powers had caused the trouble.
If the good folk in the Mother Country knew the conditions
under which the natives of South Africa lived before the advent
of the Dutch and the British, they would have less to say about
the " poor, ill-treated, down-trodden, sweated blacks." A former
Chief Magistrate of East Griqualand writes me as follows : When
I came to Tembuland in 1876 there was living here a white man
named King, who was married to a native woman. This man
had killed a very large Python in the Dwesa forest. On informa-
tion received from his wife through her relatives, he was assured
that the chief Kuli was secretly laj'ing plans to do him to death and
secure his gall, so he precipitately^ fled. In those da^'s a refugee

AN EXCITING ADVENTURE. 69

from a neighbouring tribe was as securely protected as such
people were in the old Highland clans.

The Python is the most popular " famiUar " of the Kafir
Witch. On this ground alone the average Kafir would never
dream of interfering with it.

These " Witch-doctors " may be of either sex. Colonists
usually make no distinction in the name.

An Exciting Adventure.

I was staying at the farm of a Boer friend, and one morning
accompanied him down to his rabbit hutches to help feed the
rabbits ; and in one of those hutches we found a sixteen-feet
Python asleep, with a big Belgian hare inside of it. It had
squeezed itself between the iron bars, swallowed the rabbit,
and finding it could not get out, made itself comfortable and
dozed off. We pushed it into a sack, and I rode a twenty-mile
journey home, with it strapped to the front of the saddle. On
the way it got alarmed, and began to struggle. My pony turned
his head, sniffed the sack, and next instant sped across the hillside
at break-neck speed. The sack got loose and fell. However,
when my frisky pony had worked off his surplus energy, I re-
turned, packed up my sackful of Python, and wended my weary
way homeward. My troubles were not over, for on arrival home
late in the night I told my native groom to take off the sack and
put it on the ground and stable the pony. Presently I heard a
most awful yell, and rushing out, was just in time to see my Python
making off into the darkness, and the Kafir lying on his back
bawling at the top of his voice in Zulu for his mother and his
father, as is their custom when frightened, or in pain. It seems
the silly fellow, in removing the sack from the saddle, went and
undid the cord binding up the mouth of the sack — at least, that
was his explanation. The real fact was he thought there was some
buck meat inside the sack, and wanted to make sure, so as to be
prepared to beg some when I came out again to see if mj' horse
had been rubbed down and properly fed, as was my custom. I
never saw that Python again, but somehow the news got about,
and I was voted a nuisance, and people talked of petitioning
Government to remove me from the neighbourhood.

70 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Python's Eggs.

In the wild state, when the female Python desires to lay her
eggs, she selects some secluded spot amongst tangled brushwood
down an Aard-vark hole, or in one of the innermost crevices of a
rugged krantz. She lays her eggs in a heap, coils her body

I'lc. 33. — A South African Python about to swallow a Klip Dassie (Procavia capensis),
which it has captured and constricted.

around them, fold above fold, with her head on top, completely
concealing the eggs. During the incubation period, the snake's
temperature rises to about 96° Fahr., which seems to be a pro-
vision of Nature for the hatching of the eggs. I am by no means
sure whether the eggs would not hatch just as well, if laid in
some warm, moist place, and left to incubate by themselves, as
is the case with most other egg-laying snakes. One reason which

AN ADVENTURE. 71

undoubtedly prompts the female Python to coil around her eggs
is to protect them from being eaten by wild animals, such as
mungooses, rats, and mice, and by Nilotic Monitor Lizards, other-
wise known as " Leguans," misnamed " Iguanas."

One blazing hot summer day in Natal, we came across a Python
basking in the sun. On seeing us approach it vanished down a
hole, which proved to be that of an ant-eater, otherwise known
as an Aard-vark [Orycteropus afer), which is an animal as big as
an adult pig. We filled the entrance with boulders, and wandered
away. Returning anon with some muscular Zulus, we dug
vigorously for a couple of hours or so. Eventually we came
across the snake coiled up in front of a pile of eggs at the end of
the hole, in the lair formerly occupied by the Aard-vark. We
captured the mother Python alive, and counted the eggs, which
numbered forty-eight. Breaking open two we found them to be
partly hatched. There were indications which showed the
Python had been lying coiled up in front of her eggs for some
time.

We kept a large Python in captivity in the Port Elizabeth
Museum, during the month of November, and it laid a batch of
forty-four eggs. These eggs were elliptical and about the size of
those of a goose, and contained a yellowish substance similar to the
yolk of fowls' eggs, but lighter in colour. They weighed 5| ounces.
The " shell " was not hard and brittle like the shells of birds' eggs.
It was soft and leathery in texture, and creamy-white in colour.

When the young Pythons hatch out, the mother takes no
apparent heed of them, and moves off, her maternal duties being
ended. The young scatter in different directions, their instinct
impelling them to seek for food, which at this time consists of
small fry in the shape of mice, rats, birds, lizards, frogs, etc.

An Adventure.

One day, when meandering wearily along with a gun under
my arm amongst the rugged, rocky, shrub-covered mountains in
Natal, I kicked my toe against something soft and tumbled over
on to it, when, to my horror, that big soft mass began to wriggle
and uncoil, and for a moment or two I saw nothing but a succes-
sion of huge coils. Then those coils resolved themselves into the
form of a great Python about twenty feet long. He made off

72 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

into the bush as fast as his ribs and scales would propel him,
evidently as mucli terrified as I was. When I was able to collect
my thoughts I looked around for my gun and hat, and wandered
off, calculating whether the Python could have managed to
swallow me whole or not.

The Python and the Cock.

Sitting on the stoep of a Dutch farmhouse listening to the
tales of a tough old Boer hunter, a rooster suddenly began to
cry out in evident distress, down amongst the foliage in the garden-
We made off in the direction of the sound, and there in a shady
glade was a tremendous Python doing his mightiest to constrict
the fowl. The rooster's head was sticking out in one direction,
his tail in another, and his legs and wings were north, south, east
and west. The Python had him enveloped in his great coils,
but the fowl's body was comparatively so small, and the Python
so large, that he somehow could not get a sufficient grip to squash
the rooster. In the meantime the cock was crying out for aid,
assisted by his wives, who kept at a safe distance and cackled.

We darted back to the house, procured a mealie sack, and from
three points of the compass sneaked the Pytlion like a stealth}'
Red Indian. A signal was given, and we simultaneously rushed in
and assaulted him. In his bewilderment he raised his head to
take in the situation. Before he could decide how to act, the
Dutchman clapped the mouth of the sack over the Python's
head ; his son and I threw ourselves on the huge bod}', and after
about fifteen minutes' tumbling and rolling around, we managed
to get him safely lodged inside the sack, which he almost filled.
We kept this Python alive in a cage in the grounds of the Natal
Museum for a long time.

Buck-Hunting Incident.

At the big buck hunts in Natal, it is the practice to gather
together from fifty to a hundred kraal natives, with their dogs.
These natives would spread themselves out crescent-fashion and
enter the dense bush, and the fellows with the guns would go away

BUCK-HUNTING INCIDENT.

73

ahead and keep on the qui vive for any bucks that broke cover.
At such hunts, Pj'thons are frequently killed. The dogs locate
them in the bush, and bring them to bay. At one of these hunts
a big torpid-looking fellow broke away and came crawling
sluggishly over the rocks. We killed him, whereupon two or
three of the natives became very officious in volunteering their

Fig. 34. — An African Python swallowing a bird. (From Warnc's Royal Xalural Hnlory.)

services in skinning him for me without the usual fee, so I willingly
agreed. When they were taking the skin off, one of them pulled
the remains of a Duiker Buck from the snake's interior. It was
a pulpy shapeless mass, covered all over with slime. The Kafir
laid it carefully aside. I inquired : " What are you going to do
with that ? " " Eat it, boss." " What ! eat that shmy thing
—ugh ! " " Yes, boss, why not ? It's good meat. We will
wash it in the stream and skin it, and have a feast to-night."

74 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

A Crafty Python.

I was fortunate enough once to witness a most remarkable
occurrence. I was lying concealed in the midst of some tangled
scrub near a still pool in a densely wooded valley, studying the
habits of various species of birds, and all was as silent as the grave,
with the exception of the occasional twittering and calls of birds.
Suddenly a Red Natal Duiker Buck {Cephalophus nalalcnsis)
emerged from amidst the leafy shrubs, right opposite to where I
lay. It cautiously and timidly looked around to make sure all
was safe, stooped and began drinking. Suddenly the water was
lashed into foam. Considerably startled, I rushed to the edge
of the pool, and there at the other side was a Python in the shallow
water with the buck in its coils. The struggle was fearful, but
it ended in the snake smothering the antelope. When the
victim ceased to resist, the snake laboriously dragged it to the
shore, and after resting awhile, constricted it afresh, evidently
to elongate the body to make the swallowing process as easy as
possible, and then began eating at the head. After the head, neck
and shoulders had disappeared down the snake's throat, I carefully
crept round through the bush, and pouncing upon the Python,
smashed its head and backbone with a quick succession of blows
from a stout stick.

The Python had evidently submerged itself in the water, and
was effectually concealed from view by the various water plants.
On the approach of the buck it had silently sunk its head under
the level of the surface of the water, and when the buck bent
its neck to drink, those cruel recurved teeth had seized it, and
next instant the victim was in the deadly coils of the serpent.
We ate some of the buck at our camp that night, and a leopard
sneaked off the rest. However, we got even with it next day,
for we traced it to its lair with the aid of our fox-terrier dogs,
killed it, and took its hide off as a trophy.

Pythons Swallowing People.

I have read and heard many travellers' tales about Pythons
swallowing people, but I have never known of a case which was
thoroughly authenticated. I have been told scores of times by

FEEDING A PYTHON. 75

natives, prospectors and hunters of instances, but I always took
them aim grano salts.

One instance, however, came ^vithin my experience which
might have resulted in a Jonah-Hke performance. A plucky
little Kafir boy, of twelve years, attacked a Python with his
kerrie. In endeavouring to deal it a blow on the head, it got a
grip of his leg wth its tail, and was instantly round his body.
His cries brought us to the spot. We unwound the Python, and
beyond a dreadful fright, the boy was Httle the worse, except for
a bite on the shoulder. The snake was only twelve feet in
length. If it had been larger it would have doubtless crushed
the boy's ribs before our arrival.

Pythons will show fight when wounded or cornered, and at
these times it is distinctly dangerous for a man, if alone, to tackle
them.

A friend of mine wounded a Python, and in his excitement
rushed forward to despatch it, but it came at him \vith gaping
mouth. He involuntaril}^ put up liis hands to save his face. The
Python seized his hand, and in his terror, my friend dragged back
with all his might, and, before we could release him, the sharp
recurved teeth lacerated his hand dreadfully. The wounds
eventually healed all right.

Feeding a Python.

Pythons in captivity as a general rule refuse to eat, and
consequently they have to be fed artificially. At various times
we have had live Pythons at the Port Elizabeth Museum, but in
no single instance have we ever succeeded in inducing them to
eat. At the Natal Government Museum we also kept P3^tlions,
but were obliged to feed them artificially. I kept them for years
at my residence, with like results. However, I have found lately
they will, if kept cosy and warm, often seize and swallow young
chickens and fowls. Then after some time they wdll readily
seize, constrict, and devour rabbits, guinea pigs and rats. None
of these creatures show the slightest alarm at the presence of a
Python in the same cage. When captured and constricted death
is rapid and painless. At the Port Elizabeth Museum it was our
practice to feed them once a fortnight. The Python was carried
outside. One man seized its tail, another the middle part of

76

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

its bod}^ and a third held it by the neck, opened its mouth and
gently pushed lumps of raw meat down its gullet with the aid of
a smooth, rounded stick. The second man meanwhile worked

60

a

u

o

o

n
to

the meat down to the middle part of the snake. After about ten
pounds of beef had been lodged in the snake's stomach, a hgature
was applied above the meat — that is, between the meat and the
snake's mouth. This was to prevent the snake disgorging the

WHAT THE PYTHON DID. 77

food, as it would other\\dse have done every time. The snake
was then placed out in tlie warm sunshine for half a day, the
ligature was removed, and it was then put back into its cage
again until next feeding time,

Crockery-Smashing Python.

When out hunting one day in Natal we captured a Python,
about seventeen or eighteen feet long. My Dutch friend brought
it in next day to me in a mealie sack. He dumped it down in
my chemical room at the Museum, the walls of which were covered
with shelves on which hundreds of jars of specimens in spirits,
and lots of empty glass jars, were stored. We could not get a
cage ready that day for the Python, so, thinking he would be
safe in the sack till the following day, I locked him up and went
home.

What the Python did.

You want to know what the Python did ? Why, he somehow
or other got out of the sack during the night, and explored every
inch of each shelf in the room, seeking some hole through which
to escape. Finding none, he coiled himself up in a ball on the
topmost shelf and went to sleep. He left an odd bottle here and
there on the shelves, thinking I might need a few, but all the rest
had been pitched in a heap on the floor. We let him sleep for
half a day, until we had sorted out all the specimens from the heaps
of broken glass which half filled a cart, then we tackled him.
We thought we were going to have quite an exciting time, but we
were woefully disappointed, for the Python was as drunk as a
mediaeval fiddler. What ! a Python drunk ? How did he get
drunk ? Why, quite easily. Those bottles he knocked down
from the shelves were full of 70 per cent, strength alcohol, and the
concentrated fumes of the spirit in that closed-up room got into
his blood through absorption from the air breathed by him.
When he got sober he found himself imprisoned in a wire
cage, where he was forced to do a year's solitary confinement.
Then he escaped, and a newspaper reporter finding it out,
he reported in the leading daily paper a marrow- freezing
account of how Pythons swallow people as easily as we dispose
of oysters.

78

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Fasting Powers.

Pythons have been known to fast for two and a half years. I
have kept Pythons in captivity which Hved from six months to
a year and a half without food. I did not purposely starve them.
I offered them their natural food from time to time, but never
succeeded in inducing them to eat. I dare say those I kept
would have lived much longer, but I did not care to see the
creatures starve to death, so began feeding them artificially. I
must admit, however, that after a year and a half of starvation,
they did not appear to be much emaciated. Although snakes
can fast a long time, they will die, as a rule, after a month or
two if deprived of water, except during the winter months, when
they will frequently coil up in a warm corner of their cage and
Ue dormant for three or four months.

A Boa has been known to fast four years and one month, and
a Viper three years.

Rudiments of Legs.

Most Pythons still retain traces

At ^l^^^l

n^^^

-''^'^^^^^1

^^1^*^^

.^^■:.<'^'''^

._^^^^^^*^^

^^BSSj^^

''^^^■HH

■V'^^H

^Ki^J^^ B^H

El^i^^«

Vr Kg

■■ fl^M

^^r !!?

BONES ^mCS^I

)he ^^^3^^|

W^'*, Cl'Iw

*^89sKH

^^■flwjfe

I'lG. 36. — Part of the flattened skin of a South African
Python showing the claws and bones whicli
indicate that the remote ancestors of Pythons
possessed legs. (From liritish Museum Guide.
Reptiles.)

of the legs their remote
ancestors possessed, but
gradually lost, because
they did not use them
sufficiently. On exami-
nation, two horny spurs
will be found near the
vent, which are the ex-
ternal rudiments of hind
legs. Internally a por-
tion of the pelvis bones
still remain. Pythons
are doubtless the de-
scendants of huge pre-
historic lizard-like crea-
tures which lived upon
the surface of the
earth millions of years
ago.

Stupid Indifference.

Once I had a Python in captivity, and the perverse thing
would not eat. I introduced a big barn rat into its cage. The

PYTHON STEAK. 79

rat showed no fear of the snake. I allowed it to remain for a
couple of weeks, feeding it regularly. The rodent invariably
sought refuge within the Python's coils when alarmed ; and at
other times would sit on top of the coiled-up Python, and busy
itself cleaning its whiskers. One morning I was astonished to
observe that the flesh had been eaten for several inches along the
back of the snake near the tail, exposing many sections of the
backbone. The rat had evidently dined off the Python during
the night, and the beast had seemingly not resented the liberty,
for the rat was sitting in a corner with an expression of content-
ment upon his cunning visage. Now, although the Python had
not tasted food for fourteen months, this extensive wound healed
up completely.

Pythons in Cape Colony.

Pythons could not have been very common in Cape Colony,
at least in fairly recent geological times, as most parts are not
particularly favourable to their existence. The old Hottentots
and Bushmen, however, when questioned, declare that they
existed when they were boys, in the warm, moist regions of the
Colony. However, they are now supposed to be extinct within
the borders of the Cape Colony. It is possible, however, that
there may be a few individuals left. They seem to be fairly
plentiful in the neighbourhood of Palapye Road, in Bechuanaland,
as Mr. Paul Jousse has sent me several from that locality.

Python Steak.

Snakes are really good wholesome food, and P^^thon steak
grilled in the red glowing wood fire of the hunter's camp is not
to be despised. One day when hunting, we killed a Python,
and two of our men, who were a mixture of several breeds — the
Hottentot element predominating — after skinning the reptile,
carried the carcase off to camp. When we arrived many hours
later, gameless and famishing with hunger, our men were all
squatting round a fire, each one with a lump of Python flesh impaled
upon the sharpened point of a freshly-cut stick, and holding the
meat in the fire. It smelt so savoury that I set the example and
ate a piece, and liked it so much that I tried another piece, for
it was really nice, tender and juicy.

CHAPTER IV.

Division I. Aglypha. The Solid-Toothed Snakes.

Family IV. COLUBRID^.

Sub-family I. Colubrin^.

There are about looo species or kinds included in this sub-
family of snakes, scattered over the various temperate and
tropical regions of the world. Of this great number only twenty-
eight species inhabit South Africa. All of this sub-family are
known as the Aglypha, because their teeth are quite solid,
showing no traces of grooving. They are consequently all
non- venomous, and should not be interfered with, for they do
an immense amount of service in ridding the country of rats,
mice, and noxious insects. Some species are oviparous, that is,
they lay eggs. Others are viviparous, which means they give
birth to young.

After reading this book and carefully studying the pictures
showing the heads and teeth of the three typical kinds of snakes,
viz. the solid-toothed non-venomous snakes ; the back-fanged
more or less venomous snakes ; and the front-fanged, typically-
venomous snakes, it should be quite easy for any student, by
means of a strong magnifying glass, or low power microscope,
to identify a snake of any of these three divisions. If grooved
or hollow fangs are found in the front of the top jaw, then the
snake is one of the typical venomous kind. If there are two or
three grooved fangs at the posterior end of the upper row of teeth,
the snake belongs to the back-fanged kind, which are all more or
less poisonous. All those snakes possessing solid teeth, without
any pronounced grooving, are as harmless as lizards, as far as
venomous properties are concerned.

80

THE SOLID-TOOTHED SNAKES.

8i

Sub-family COLUBRIN^.
SYNOPSIS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN GENERA.

This sub-family are without grooved fangs in the upper jaw.
are quite solid. No trace of poison glands.

Their teeth

1. Genus Tropidonotus. — Scales smooth in 19 rows. Pupil round;

posterior maxillary teeth longest ; internasal not entering the
nostril ; snout rounded.

2. Genus Pseudaspis. — Scales smooth in 27 to 31 rows ; internasal

entering the nostril ; snout with vertical sides, more or less
prominent. Pupil round. Posterior maxillary teeth longest.

5-

Fig. 37. — Skull and teeth of a typical snake of the non-venomous division
(Aglypha).

1. Skull showing the teeth in both jaws, all of which are without grooves.

2. Top of the skull and lower jaw (C).

3. View of roof of mouth showing the two rows of upper teeth.

(A.) Maxillary teeth. (B.) Palatine teeth. [Brit. Mus. Cat. Snakes.)

Genus Ablabophis. — Scales smooth, in 19 rows; Pupil vertically

elliptic ; anal entire. Frontal at least once and a half as long

as Broad ; maxillary teeth equal.
Genus Lamprophis. — Scales smooth, in 19 to 23 rows ; frontal broad

and short ; posterior maxillary teeth shortest ; Pupil vertically

elliptic or sub-elliptic. Anal entire.
Genus Boodon. — Scales smooth in 23 to 33 rows, with apical pits;

anterior maxillary teeth strongly enlarged. Vertically cUiptic

pupil. 18 to 24 maxillary teeth.
Genus Lycophidium. — Scales smooth, with apical pits in 15 or 17

rows. Tail short (sub-caudals not more than 50 pairs). I'upil

vertically elliptic ; rostral small ; anterior maxillary teeth longest.

G

82 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

7. Genus Prosymna. — Scales smooth, in 15 or 17 rows. Pupil vertically

elliptic ; rostral very large, with angular horizontal edge ; pos-
terior maxillary teeth strongly enlarged. Maxillary bone short
with 7 or 8 teeth.

8. Genus Homalosoma.- — -Scales smooth in 15 rows. Pupil round ;

rostral small ; nasal single ; anterior maxillary teeth longest.
Maxillary short, with 10 to 12 teeth. Tail short, sub-caudals in
two rows.

9. Genus Chlorophis. — Scales smooth with apical pits in 15 rows.

Tail long (sub-caudals more than 80 pairs) ; pupil round ; posterior
maxillary teeth longest. Sub-caudals not keeled, and in 2 rows.

10. Genus Philothamnus. — Scales smooth with apical pits, in 13 or 15

rows, disposed obliquely, at least on thb anterior part of the body.
Sub-caudals keeled and notched, like the ventrals. Tail long.

11. Genus Simocephalus. — Scales keeled, without pits, in 15 or 17 rows ;

those of the vertebral row enlarged and bi-carinate ; anterior
maxillary teeth longest. Pupil vertically elliptic.

12. Genus Dasypeltis. — Scales in 23 to 27 rows, laterals very oblique,

and with serrated keels ; teeth very small and few. Pupil
vertically elliptic.

Genus TROPIDONOTUS.

Two Species in South Africa.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Ventrals 162-180 ; anal entire. Scales smooth Tropidonotus IcBvissimus.
Ventrals 1 31-149 ; anal divided. A single an-
terior temporal . . . . . . . . Tropidonotus olivaceous.

1. Tropidonotus l^vissimus. Watermeyer's Black Snake.
Synonyms — Matrix Icevissimus ; Grayia lubrica.

Colour — Dark shining black above, a narrow yellow line on cither side
of the head behind the ej-e ; below, yellow, with a narrow ill-
defined dark line running the whole length of the body along
the centre of the ventrals. The two outer rows of scales spotted
and blotched with black.

Average length — 3 feet.

Distribution — Eastern Province, Cape Colony ; Natal.

2. Tropidonotus olivaceous. Banded Olive Snake ; Olyfen Slang.
Synonym — Coronella olivacea.

Colour — Olive or brown above, with a more or less distinct darker
vertebral band 4 or 5 scales wide, bordered on each side by a
series of whitish dots ; flanks and ends of ventrals olive ; upper
lip yellowish, the sutures between the shields black ; ventrals
vellowish, sometimes edged with olive.

Average length — 2 feet.

Distribution — Southern Rhodesia ; North to Tropical Africa.

Genus ABLABOPHIS.
One Species in South Africa.

Scales smooth with apical pits, in 19 rows.
Frontal at least once and a half as long as
broad; maxillary teeth equal .. .. .. Ablabophis rufulus.

THE SOLID-TOOTHED SNAKES. 83

Ablarophis rufulus. Olive-brown Water Snake; Olyfen-Bruin Water

Slang.
Synonym — Coronella rufiila.
Colour — Uniform dark olive-brown or blackish above ; upper lip and

lower parts, light pink.
Average length — 2 feet, to 2 feet 6 inches.
Distribution — Occurs all over South Africa. Has not been recorded

north of the Zambesi.

Genus LAMPROPHIS.

Four Species in this genus, all of which inhabit South Africa.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Scales in 23 rows. Internasals a little shorter

than the prefrontals ; loreal a little longer

than deep. Two pairs of chin shields . . Lamprophis aurora.

Scales in 23 rows. Internasals much shorter

than the prefrontals ; loreal at least nearly

twice as long as deep . . . . . . . . Lamprophis inornatus.

Scales in 23 rows. Internasals longer than the

prefrontals ; loreal as long as deep, or a

little longer than deep. A single pair of chin

shields .. .. .. .. .. .. Lamprophis fiskii.

Scales in 19 rows .. .. .. .. .. Lamprophis fuscus.

1. Lamprophis aurora. The Night Snake ; Nacht Slang.
Synonym — Coluber aurora.

Colour — Olive or pale brown above, uniform or speckled with black ;
the scales of the vertebral series bright yellow or orange ; lower
parts white ; yellow streak along each side entire length of body.

Average length — 2 feet.

Distribution — Both provinces of Cape Colony ; O. F. S., Transvaal.

2. Lamprophis inornatus. The Brown Snake ; Bruin Slang.
Colour — Uniform brown above ; brownish white below.
Average length — i foot 6 inches.

Distribution — Both Provinces of Cape Colony.

3. Lamprophis fiskii. Fisk's Snake.

Colour — Lemon yellow on the five median rows of scales, with large
blackish-brown spots forming a single series anteriorly, a double
alternating series posteriorly. Head lemon yellow above, with
symmetrical blackish-brown markings, viz. an oblique band
on each side of the occiput, a horseshoe-shaped band passing
through the eyes and across the snout, and a bar across the
frontal. Lateral scales of body and tail brown in the centre
and yellowish-white on the borders. Upper lip and lower parts
white.

Average length — i foot 6 inches.

Distribution — Western Province of Cape Colony.

4. Lamprophis fuscus. The Yellow-lipped Snake ; Geel-lip Slang.
Colour — Uniform brown above ; upper lip, two outer rows of scales and

lower parts yellowish.
Average length — -2 feet.
Distribution — Western Province of Cape Colony.

84 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Genus BOODON.

Four Species in South Africa.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Scales in 23 or 25 rows. Three labials entering the eye.
Two postoculars ; preocular not extending to upper
surface of head ; ventrals 175-196 . . . . Boodon infernalis.

Scales in 23 or 25 rows. Three postoculars ; preocular
extending to upper surface of head ; ventrals
196-210; sub-caudals 72 .. .. .. .. Boodon guttatiis.

Scales in 27 to 33 rows. Ventrals 192-237. Two
(rarely three) labials entering the eye ; two pairs
of chin shields in contact with each other . . Boodon lineatus.

Scales in 27 to 33 rows. Three labials entering the
eye ; only one pair of chin shields meeting on the
median line . . . . . . . . . . . . Boodon mentalis.

1. Boodon infernalis. Olive House Snake ; Zwart Huis Slang.
Colour — Dark olive or black above ; lower parts whitish.
Average length — 2 feet 6 inches.

Distribution — Both provinces of Cape Colony ; Natal ; O. F. S.,
Transvaal ; Southern Rhodesia ; East Africa.

2. Boodon guttatus. Spotted House Snake ; Stippel Huis Slang.
Synonyms — Lycodon guttatus ; Alopecion annulifer.

Colour — Yellowish-brown above, with several rows of reddish-brown
spots with umber-brown borders, the two rows of spots along
the middle of the back almost circular, and largest ; a dark
brown blotch on each side of the back of the head, and a pair of
dark longitudinal streaks on the nape ; under- parts pale yellow.

Average length — i foot 6 inches.

Distribution — Both provinces of Cape Colony.

3. Boodon lineatus. Brown House Snake ; Bruin Huis Slang.
Synonyms — Lycodon geometricus ; Boodon geometricus.

Colour — Uniform brown above, white below. A whitish line (sometimes
absent) running from base of head through the eye to the nostril,
and a second similar line below the eye. Back sometimes varie-
gated with yellowish. The colour varies in different parts of the
country more or less. Eye brown with a vertical pupil.

Average length — 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet 6 inches.

Distribution — Common all over South Africa ; Extends north to Tropical
Africa.

4. Boodon mentalis. Striped House Snake ; Streep Huis Slang.

Colour — Pale brownish above ; two yellow lines on each side of the

head ; lower parts white.
Average length — i foot 6 inches.
Distribution — Damaraland .

Genus LYCOPHIDIUM.

Two Species in South Africa.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Ventrals 164-208; sub-caudals 30-45 .. Lycophidium capense.

Ventrals 146-156 ,, 30 . . . . Lycophidium semiannulis.

I. Lycophidium capense. Cape Wolf Snake ; Steel Snake.

Synonyms — Lycodon capensis ; Lycophidion horstockii.

THE SOLID-TOOTHED SNAKES. 85

Colour — Brown, purplish or olive above ; sides of head speckled or

venniculate with whitish.
Varieties —

A. Brown or dark purple above, the lateral scales tipped with whitish ;

lower parts whitish.

B. Dark purplish brown above and below, lateral scales and vcntrals

with a whitish edge ; throat white (Port Elizabeth).

C. Dark grey above, the scales edged with blackish ; two series of black

spots along the back, the anterior confluent into crossbars ; throat
white ; ventrals and sub-caudals blackish-brown, edged with whitish.

Average length — i foot 6 inches.

Distribution — Eastern Province of Cape Colony ; O. F. S., Transvaal ;
Southern Rhodesia ; Natal ; Zululand ; Delagoa Bay, and
northwards to Tropical Africa. (Moist, damp localities among
dead leaves, and under decaying logs.)
2. Lycophidium semiannulis. Northern Wolf Snake or Steel Snake.

Colour — Greyish blue or purplish above, with irregular black cross-
bars ; snout and sides of head yellowish, speckled with black ;
blackish-brown beneath, the shields edged with yellowish.

Average length — i foot.

Distribution^Zululand ; Portuguese East Africa.

Genus SIMOCEPHALUS.
Two Species in South Africa.
KEY TO THE SPECIES.
Frontal a httle shorter than the parietals ; two

postoculars ; ventrals 203-241 . . . . Siniocephaliis capensis.

Frontal much shorter than the parietals ; a single

postocular ; ventrals 1 71-185 .. .. Siniocephaliis nyassce.

1. SiMocEPHALus CAPENsis. Three-comcred or File Snake; Driekant

Vijlslang.

Synonym — Heterolepis capensis.

Colour — Scales blackish-brown and separated from one another, the skin
between each showing light purple. Ends of abdominal shields
blotched with blackish. The two last rows of scales on the sides
tipped with white. Upper lip and abdomen white. The middle
part of the vertebral scales white, starting from the neck and
running down to the tail, giving the appearance of the backbone
being exposed. Eyes black. Tongue flesh colour.

Average length — 4 to 5 feet.

Distribution— Natal ; Transvaal; Southern Rhodesia; Delagoa Bay;
Portuguese East Africa ; • Central Africa.

2. SiMocEPHALus Nyass^. Northem Three-comcred or File Snake ; Noor-

delijke Driekant Vijlslang.
Colour — Blackish-brown above, paler brown below, the cliin and the

lateral ventral keel yellowish or white.
Average length — 4 feet. Attains a length of 5 feet.
Distribution— Natal ; Transvaal ; Delagoa Bay ; Portuguese East

Africa ; Central Africa.

Genus PSEUDASPIS.
Genus is represented by one Species only.
KEY TO THE SPECIES.
Scales smooth in 27 to 31 rows. Internasal entering
the nostril ; snout with vertical sides, more or less
prominent . . . . . . . . . . • . Pseudaspis cana.

86

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

I. PsEUDASPis Cana. Mole Snake; Zwart Slang; Lui Slang ; Molslang.

Synonyms — Coluber cane ; Coronella cana ; Coronella phocaritm ;
Duberria cana ; Cadmus cuneiformis.

Colour — The young are pale brown above, with dark brown white-
edged spots forming four longitudinal series ; sometimes a
darker vertebral line ; lower parts yellowish or purplish brown,
uniform or spotted with black.

Fig. 38. — Head and neck of the harmless Mole Snake (Psatuaspti cmta).

Adults are very variable in colour, brown or reddish, with

more or less distinct spots ; often uniform dark brown or shiny

black.
Average length — 4 feet. These snakes sometimes attain a length of

over 7 feet.
Distribution— All over South Africa ; North to Angola and British East

Africa.

Genus CHLOROPHIS.

Fotir Species in South Africa.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Ventrals without keels. Two labials entering the

eye ; sub-caudals 85-107 . . . . . . Chlorophis hoplogaster.

Ventrals with distinct lateral keels. Two labials

entenng the eye ; a single anterior temporal ;

sub-caudals 77-114 Chlorophis neglectus.

THE SOLID-TOOTHED SNAKES. 87

Ventrals with distinct lateral keels. Two labials
entering the eye ; usually two superposed
anterior temporals ; sub-caudals 114-140 .. Chlorophis natalensis.

Ventrals with distinct lateral keels. Three labials

entering the eye ; sub-caudals 94-133 .. Chlorophis irregularis.

1. Chlorophis hoplogaster. Green Water Snake ; Groen Water Slang.

Synonyms — Ahcetulla hoplogaster ; Chlorophis oldhami ; Fithothamnus

hoplogaster.
Colour — Uniform bright green, sometimes with an olive tinge above ;

greenish-yellow on the undcrparts.
Average length — 3 feet.
Distribution — Cape Colony; O. F. 3., Transvaal; Natal; Zululand ;

Rhodesia ; East and Central Africa.

2. Chlorophis neglectus. East African Green Snake.

Synonyms — Pithothamnus neglectus ; Ahcetulla neglecta.

Colour — Green above ; greenish-yellow beneath. Some specimens have

purplish-brown blotches on the anterior part of the body.
Average length — 3 feet.
Distribution — Southern Rhodesia ; East Africa ; British Central

Africa.

3. Chlorophis natalensis. Natal Green Snake ; Natalsche Groen Slang.

Synonyms — Dendrophis natalensis ; Philothamnus natalensis.
Colour— Olive-green above, usually some of the scales with a white spot

on the outer border, and the skin between the scales black ;

greenish white below.
Average length — 3 feet.
Distribution — Generally distributed over South Africa ; North to Central

Africa.

4. Chlorophis irregularis. Northern Green Snake; Noordeiijke Groen

Slang.

Synonyms — Coluber irregularis ; Philothamnus irregularis ; Philotham-
nus guentheri.

Colour — Green or olive above, scales often with a white spot at the
base, with or witliout a black upper border ; skin between the
scales black ; sometimes with black spots or irregular cross-bands
on the anterior part of the body ; greenish-yellow below.

Average length — -3 feet.

Distribution — Southern Rhodesia ; North to Tropical Africa.

Genus PHILOTHAMNUS.
A single Species in South Africa.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Scales in 15 rows. Ventrals 169-207, anal
divided. Sub-caudals keeled and
notched .. .. .. ., .. Philothamnus semivariegatus.

I. Philothamnus semivariegatus. Bush Snake ; Bosch Slang.

Synonyms — Philothamnus punctatus ; Dendrophis semivariegatus ; Aba-

tulla bocagii ; Leptophis punctatus.
Colour — Green or olive above, with or without black spots or cross-bars ;

greenish-yellow below.

88 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

A. Irregular black cross bars ; some of the scales with a whitish spot.

B. No black spots or bars ; some of the scales with a whitish spot.

C. With black spots, at least on the anterior part of the back.

D. Spots and bars absent or very indistinct.
Average length — 3 or 4 feet.

Distribution— Delagoa Bay ; Portuguese East Africa ; Rhodesia.

Genus PROSYMNA.
Five Species in South Africa.
KEY TO THE SPECIES.
Scales smooth in 15 rows. Internasal paired;

two superposed anterior temporals . . . . Prosymna sundevallii.

Scales smooth in 1,5 rows. Internasal single ; a

single anterior temporal. Width of the frontal

not half the width of the head ; ventrals 167 ;

sub-caudals 50 . . . . . . . . . . Prosymna frontalis.

Scales smooth in 15 rows. Ventrals 131-153;

sub-caudals 19-34 • • .... . . . . Prosymna amhigna.

Scales smooth in 15 rows. Width of the frontal

more than half the width of the head ; ventrals

169-1S5 ; sub-caudals 38-49 . . . . . . Prosymna bergeri.

Scales keeled in 17 rows ; a single internasal . . Prosymna jani.

1. Prosymna SUNDEVALLII. Coppery Snake ; Koperachtig Slang.
Synonyms — Temnorhynchus sundevallii ; Rhinostoma cupreum ; Tem-

norhynchus frontalis.

Colour — Pale brown above, each scale edged with darker ; head
yellowish, with a more or less distinct brown band between the
eyes and a large dark brown crescentric blotch bordering the
parietals posteriorly ; two rows of small brown spots along
the back ; uniform whitish inferiorly.

Average length — i foot.

Distribution — Both provinces of Cape Colony ; Natal ; Orange Free
State ; Transvaal.

2. Prosymna frontalis. Northern Coppery Snake.
Synonym — Temnorhynchus frontalis.

Colour — Very similar to the former.

Average length — i foot.

Distribution — South- West Africa ; Angola.

3. Prosymna ambigua. Grey-Spotted Coppery Snake.
Synonym — Ligonirostra stuhlmanni.

Colour — Blackish above, each scale usually greyish in the centre ; lower

parts whitish or brown.
Average length — i foot.
Distribution — Zululand ; South-West Africa ; Southern Rhodesia ;

Angola ; East Africa.

4. Prosymna bergeri. West African Coppery Snake.
Average length — i foot.

Distribution — South-West Africa.

5. Prosymna jani. Black-headed Coppery Snake.

Colour — Pale reddish-brown above ; the greater part of the upper
surface of the head and nape black, leaving a pale sponton,
each supraocular and a cordiform one on the middle of the nape ;
a black cross bar on the neck, followed by a double series of black

HARMLESS GREEN SNAKES. (After Smith.)

Fig. 39. — i. Eastern Green Snake. Natalsche Groen Slang (C/(/oro^/iis nalalensis). Average length 3 ft.
Eye large. Body long. Colour: Parts above are bright green, sometimes olive tinge. Usually
some scales have white spot on outer border, and skin between scales is black. Parts below are
greenish-white. Distribution : All over South Africa. More abundant eastwards. 2. Northern
Green Snake. Noordelijke Groen Slang (Chlorophis irregularis). Average length 2-3 ft. Eye large.
Body tapering. Colour : Green or olive above, scales often with white spot at base, with or without
black upper border. Skin between scales black. Sometimes black spots or irregular cross-bands on upper
part of body. Greenish-yellow below. Distribution : Rhodesia to Central Africa.

89

go THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

spots along the anterior two-thirds of the back ; yellowish-white

below.
Average length — i to 2 feet.
Distribution — Zululand ; Portuguese £ast Africa.

HOMALOSOMA.

Two Species in South Africa.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Ventral 1 15-144 .. .. .. .. .. Homalosoma tutrix.

Ventrals 97-110 .. .. .. .. .. Homalosoma variegatum.

1. Homalosoma LUTRix. The Homalosoma Snake ; Rooi Slang.

Synonyms — Coluber lutrix ; Homalosoma shira)ium.

Colour — Colouration very variable ; under-parts and lower surface of
tail uniform yellowish in the middle, and greyish on the sides,
usually with a regular lateral series of black dots.

The following is the description of the various varieties: —

A. Pale Brown or yellowish above, with a vertebral series of black

dots ; greyish olive or plumbeous on the sides, which are limited
above by a series of black dots ; lateral ventral dots large.

B. Reddish brown above, blackish olive on the sides, greyish towards

the belly ; a fine black vertebral line ; lateral ventral dots large.

C. Like the preceding, but the vertebral line and the ventral dots

indistinct.

D. Uniform olive brown above, passing to greyish on the sides ; the

lateral ventral dots very small.

E. Reddish brown or brick red above, grey on the sides ; lateral

ventral dots well marked. (Eastern Prov. C. C.)
Average length — i foot.
Distribution — Western and Eastern Provinces of Cape Colony ; Natal ;

O. F. S. ; Transvaal ; Rhodesia ; North to East and Central

Africa.

2. Homalosoma variegatum. The Variegated Snake ; Bont Slang.
Colour — The colour varies.

A. Dark brown above, with irregular hchen-like, brownish-white

variegation.

B. Olive-brown above, with three series of dark brown spots. Under-

parts in both varieties reticulated black and whitish.
Average length — i foot.
Distribution — Zululand ; Delagoa Bay ; Portuguese East Africa.

Sub-family RHACHIODONTINiE.

Genus DASYPELTIS.
A single Genus in South Africa.

Scales in 23 to 27 rows, laterals very obUque and with serrated keels ;

teeth rudimentary.
Dasypeltis scabra. The Egg-eating Snake ui Eier Vreter, or Eier Slang.
Synonyms — Coluber scaber ; A nodon lyptis ; Rachiodon scaber ; Tropi-

donotus scaber. Dasypeltis inornata.

OLIVE WATER SNAKE.

91

Colour — The colouration varies considerably according to the locality of
the species —

A. Vertebral spots elongate and more or less confluent into a zig-zag

vertebral band ; a black stripe along upper surface of tail ;
under-parts spotted with blackish.

B. A dorsal series of large squarish or rhomboidal dark spots, sepa-

rated by light intervals, alternating with a lateral series of spots
or cross bars ; under-parts spotted or dotted only at the sides.

C. Pale reddish-brown above with the markings very much effaced.

Intermediate between B. and F.

D. Dorsal markings as in B. but ventrals edged with blackish.

E. Dorsal spots confluent with lateral ones, forming cross bands ;

belly unspotted.

F. No spots or markings of any kind (Natal).
Average length — 3 feet.

Distribution — Generally distributed over South Africa ; ranges as far
north as Sennar and Sierra Leone.

"• ;-*,•

^*« ;''-', ^M •.^^•

►'1; "»» saA *» *i^ \L' X • "vVi

r>-,.--v,"si^..

Fig. 40. — Brown House Snakes hatching

Olive Water Snake.
[Ablahophis rufulus.)

This well-known snake is common in suitable localities all
over South Africa. It is invariably found in the neighbourhood
of swamps, vleis, and the banks of rivers and pools. It is an expert
swimmer and diver, as well as climber. In captivity it prefers
frogs to any other food, showing great expertness in their capture.
I have, on several occasions, observed these Olive Water Snakes
chase frogs into the water and dive down and secure tliem at the

92 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

bottom of the pond. In captivity they will seize and devour
live fish. In the neighbourhood of Port Elizabeth they are
common. We have a dozen or more at the Port Elizabeth
Museum which thrive well on their diet of frogs. They attain
an average length of about 2 feet. The under-parts are of a
beautiful light pink tint, wliich rapidly fades to a yellowish hue
when a specimen is placed in alcohol.

These snakes when constricting their prey will often throw as
many as five coils round it.

The Green Water Snakes.

There are four species of Green Water Snakes, two of which are
common in the southern parts of South Africa, and the other two
in the northern parts near the Zambesi. In Natal these Green
Water Snakes are frequently mistaken for Green Mambas, for
although partial to water they are in reality Tree Snakes living
largely in the foliage of trees, since they are expert climbers. These
Water Snakes have long tapering bodies and large eyes. They
frequent marshes, ponds, rivers and damp localities in search of
frogs, which are their favourite food. They swim and dive with
the greatest ease, and cause much alarm to bathers by popping
up almost under their noses. They are perfectly harmless,
being quite destitute of poison glands or poison fangs. If one
of these snakes should capture a frog or fish in the water it swims
ashore, and holding its head some inches above the ground, glides
up the bank, and, finding a suitable place, swallows its prey.
The Green Water Snakes are equally expert at swimming, diving,
climbing trees, and travelling on the ground.

I kept some Green Water Snakes and Boomslangs in the same
cage. One day one of the latter swallowed a Water Snake.
After about fifteen minutes I forced the Boomslang to disgorge
its victim. When thrown up, the Water Snake was none the
worse, and instantly glided off and almost immediately afterwards
caught a frog and swallowed it.

The House Snakes.

There are four species of snakes known as House Snakes,
classed under the genus Boodon. The Olive House Snake, and

THE HOUSE SNAKES.

93

the Brown House Snake, are the two best known. Tliey are called
House Snakes because they are so frequently found in and about
the dwellings of man, attracted thereto by the presence of mice
and young rats on which they feed. In return for this great
service men ignorantly kill them at sight, although they are as
harmless as any innocent lizard. These snakes are simply
invaluable about farmhouses, and are much more serviceable
than cats, for they can follow the destructive little rodents right
down to their secret hiding-places. House snakes are quite
harmless, and it would be well for all farmers to learn to identify
them with a view of protecting and shielding them from harm^
In the House Snake the farmer has a very valuable ally against
his enemies the rats and mice.

Late one night at a certain dwelling in Port Elizabeth, close
to my house, there was
a great commotion.
It seems three of the
inmates returned
about midnight from a
party. Arriving on
the landing half-way
up, they saw the form
of a snake by the light
cast by the candle.

Holding a con-
sultation, the three
retired below to seek
weapons. Meanwhile the landlady, hearing the unusual com-
motion, sallied forth, accompanied by her two daughters.
Cautiously peering down the stairs, they descended step by step.
Without previous warning, a loud hiss struck upon the strained
ears of the ladies. The form of a snake rapidly vanishing from
view behind a pedestal, caused such a succession of shrieks that
I bounded out of bed, hurried on a dressing-gown and rushed
out of my house to the rescue, fully beheving some burglars
were committing murder. I did not knock. I just went in.
Cautiously stealing up the stairs were three young men armed with
weapons. I was much relieved to learn the trouble was only a
snake.

By the time it was killed there was many a dent in the

Fig. 41.

-A tame Brown House Snake swallowing a
young dead rat.

94 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

stair rails, and sundry ugly cuts in the wallpaper caused by the

wild blows aimed at the reptile.

Hauling the mangled body out in triumph, one of the fellows

declared he would take it to the museum the follov^ing day.

I quietly assured them it was only a common Brown House

Snake, that it was perfectly harmless, — as harmless as a lizard,

and that it was evidently intent upon catching mischievous,

thieving mice.

House snakes soon become quite tame, if gently handled at

frequent intervals. Those in our cages are taken out, and while

being held in the hand, they take dead mice from the fingers, and

swallow them.

One evening when walking in St. George's Park, at Port

Elizabeth, I attempted to capture a snake, which I noticed on
the path. In the darkness I bungled, and the reptile bit my hand.
I felt the sting of its teeth. Being too dark to identify the
species, I seized it firmly and hurried off to the nearest electric
light. I was much relieved to find that, instead of a Night
Adder, it was a harmless Brown House Snake. Now, if I had
known nothing about snakes I should probably have rushed off
for help in a great state of alarm and nervous dread, and doubtless
have been dosed with some popular snake bite remedy, and ever
afterwards advocated it as a cure for snake bite.

Much Ado about Nothing.

The following appeared in a certain Cape Colony newspaper,
and was telegraphed all over the country : —

" Our Louwsburg correspondent writes : — An extraordinary
affair occurred last night, when the inmates of the local gaol —
situated four miles away — were thrown into commotion by the
entrance of a snake into one of the two cells which a paternal
Government has provided for the accommodation of prisoners
and witnesses alike. About ii p.m. one of the prisoners heard
a rustling noise near him, and, thinking it was a mouse, put out
his hand to drive it away. His fingers came into contact with the
body of a snake, and he was immediately bitten on the hand.
The shouts of the prisoners brought out the warders, but when
they entered the cell the snake had already retired into its hole.
The bitten man was suffering severel}-, and a messenger was

HARMLESS HOUSE SNAKES. (AlU-i Smith.)

Fig. 42. — Spotted House Snake. Stippel Huis Slang. (Boodon guttatus.) Average length li ft. Colour:
Yellowish-brown above, with several rows of reddish-brown spots, two rows of spots along middle of
back almost circular. A dark brown blotch on each side of back of head, and pair of dark longitudinal
streaks on nape. Under-parts pale yellow. {Brit.Mus.Cai.Snakes.) Distribution: CapeColony. 2. Brown
House Snake {Boodon lineatus), and young specimen of same. Bruin Huis Slang. Average length
2i ft. Colour : Brown above, uniform, or variegated with yellowish, lateral streak passing through eye.
Head dark brown with two more or less distinct lines on sides. Lower parts yellowish, {Bril. Mus.
Cat. Snakes.) Distribution: All over South Africa, N. to Cent. Africa.

95

96 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

immediately despatched for the District Surgeon. Fortunately,
the snake was not of a kind whose venom acts promptly, for the
messenger had to ride four miles, and the doctor four miles
ere medical assistance could be rendered to the sufferer.
Dr. Wildish took wdth him the anti-venom discovery of the
Pasteur Institute, and its effects have so far been successful."
Subsequently, water was poured down the hole where the snake
was seen to disappear, and behold ! out crawled a half-drowned,
harmless Brown House Snake.

Three-Cornered or File Snakes.

These snakes, although found in most parts of South Africa,
seem to be rather rare every\vhere. Although large and formid-
able-looking, the}^ are perfectly harmless. Their average length
is three to five feet. They are not easily mistaken for any other
genus of snake owing to their peculiar vertebral scales and
triangular-shaped body which has given rise to the name. The
row of scales along the backbone are bicarinate, wliich means
double-keeled. These scales have a groove longitudinally down
the centre. The colour of the middle part of these scales is
white, forming a long line from the head to the tail of the snake.
These backbone scales are rounded and larger than those on the
rest of the body. The colour of the upper parts is blackish
brown. The edges of the abdominal shields are blotched with
black, and the two last rows of scales on the sides are tipped
with white. Upper lip and abdomen white. Two species are
officially recognized in South Africa, viz. Simocephalus cnpensis
and Simocephalus nyasscB. The reason for separating them into
two species was because S. capensis was supposed to have two
postocular shields and 203-241 ventrals, and S. nyassce only a
single postocular and 171-185 ventrals. However, I am not
convinced that this difference is constant. I have examined
several specimens and find that the above characters which
are supposed to distinguish them, were not constant. In some
there were two postocular shields and 170 to 180 ventrals. In
others a single postocular and 203 to 240 ventrals, thus show-
ing|that these characters cannot be relied upon. I have found
the same thing to hold good with other species of snakes.
This frequent creation of new species in Zoolog}^ is being carried

I

I. THE BUSH SXAKE. 2. THREE-CORNERED OR FILE SNAKE. {After Smith.)

Fig. 43. — Bush Snake or Bosch Slang {Philothamnus scmivariegalus). Average length 3-4 feet. Large
eye, slender shape, tapering tail. Colour varies in different specimens. The variations are : (a) Colour
above, green or olive, with irregular black cross bars ; some scales with whitish spot. Greenish-
yellow below. (6) No black spots or bars ; some scales with whitish spot. Ground colour green above,
and yellowish below, (c) With black spots, at least on anterior part of back, {d) Spots and bars
absent, or very indistinct. — {Brit. Mus. Cat. Snakes.) Note. — The prevailing colour is always green or
olive green, and yellowish below. 2. Three-coinered Snake or Vijlslang (Simoccphalus capensis).
Average length 3 ft. Colour : Dark brown above, with olive shade. Upper lip and scales along top of
backbone yellowish. Light yellow below.

97 H

98 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

to an extreme and will doubtless create endless confusion and
labour in the future, if continued. In the case in point the
difference is probably a matter of variation which is by no
means constant. Naturall}', if a large series should be ex-
amined, and if the difference be seen to be constant, then there
is justification for the creation of a new species and sub-species,
not otherwise.

The generic name Simocephalus has been previously used for a
genus of Crusiaceansi, and will require to be altered.

The Mole Snake.
Also known as the Zwart Slang, Lui Slang, Mol Slang.

{Pseiidaspis cana.)

The Mole Snake is widely distributed over South Africa.
It varies considerably in colour. Some specimens are shiny black,
others brick red, or brown spotted with black. The Mole Snakes
and House Snakes can be regarded as typical examples of non-
venomous snakes. Young Mole Snakes are brown, with irregu-
lar black markings. Many of these about two feet long are light-
brown with wavy black markings on the back, and are also spotted
and blotched with white. Adults are usually found most
abundantly about the haunts of moles, mole-rats, field-rats and
vlei otomys, in sandy soil, sparse^ covered with scrubby bush.
The young liaunt stony hillocks, and rough, rock-strewn ground,
in pursuit of lizards, on which they mostly feed. In captivity.
Mole Snakes usually refuse all food. Occasionally I have induced
them to eat, and have observed them constrict and swallow mice
and rats.

Mole Snakes, when surprised, will show fight, boldly facing
the intruder and making desperate lunges in his direction, with
gaping mouth and slightly raised body. This habit of raising
the fore part of the body and head, and general outward similarity
to the Cape Cobra, causes them to be mistaken usually for the
latter. Apart from the difference in the formation of the teeth
and scales, Mole Snakes can easih' be distinguished from cobras.
Their heads are narrow, and join the body without any narrowing
at the neck region. Their bodies are nicel}^ rounded (cylindrical),

MOLE SNAKES.

Fig. 44. — The Mole Snake (Pscudaspis cana), ako known as the Zwart Slang and Lui Slang. Average length
3 to 4 feet. Mole Snakes vary remarkablv in colouration. There are six pronounced varieties of
colouration which are as follows: i. Glossy black, shading into purple on the uuder-p.irts. No
trace of spots or markings. (Zwart Slang.) 2. Brown, covered with blackish, irregular, more or
less rounded markings. Under-parts yllowish. 3. Uniform dark brown. Lighter on the undor-
parts. No trace of markings. 4. Brick red in colour, covered with more or less rounded blackish
markings. Under-parts yellowish. 5. Half-grown young. Sometimes lik,? No. z and No. 3. I
have examined specimens from Eastern Province of Cape Colony, which are light brown, with a
succession of lateral markings from the tip of the tail to the head. These are niadeiup of alternate
black and white spots. The spots over the backbone are the largest, and form a continuous line of
black, running lengthwise. 6. Young, from birth to 3 months of age. Brown, with wavy cross-
markings of blackish. These markings are edged with white, and, the whole form four longitudinal
seiies.

99

100 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

and not flattened like those of the cobras. They possess no power
of elevating the skin of the neck in the form of the \vell-kno\vn
" hood " of the cobra. If any snake expands a hood, and at the
same time raises its head and the fore part of its body above the
ground, you may rest assured it is one of the venomous cobra
family.

Mole Snakes are Harmless.

The Mole Snake is quite non- venomous. It always kills its
prey by constriction. The power which it can exert is very
great. I have frequently held Mole Snakes between my finger
and thumb, and allowed them to coil round my wrist. In a few
minutes the blood circulation was arrested, and the hand grew
cold and numb, so great was the power of constriction exerted
by the snake.

In captivity Mole Snakes rarely climb. They only seem to
do so when exploring their place of confinement, soon after being
placed therein. After a day or two they never attempt to climb
the branches in the cage, and most of the time lie buried in the
sand with the head protruding, which they instantly withdraw
if disturbed. In the wild state I have occasionall}^ found them
high up above ground in thick creepers, such, for instance, as
the honeysuckle, grenadilla, and creeper-covered bushes. It
is a common sight to see Mole Snakes basking in the sun near
rat or mole holes, into which they instantly retire if disturbed.

The Mole Snake is viviparous, giving birth to a great number
of young, usually from thirty to forty-five.

We procured one which measured seven feet three inclies, and
it gave birth to eighty-four young, which is the maximum number
ever recorded. This specimen was, however, much larger than
the average of Mole Snakes, which are usually from three to four
feet in length.

It is a grave mistake to kill Mole Snakes, for they are as harm-
less as lizards, and are the farmer's great allies, aiding him most
efficiently in killing off rats and mice. They have been known
to take fowls' eggs and young chickens. Out in the bush veld,
pasturage and the cultivated fields, however, they do no harm
at all.

MOLE SNAKES ARE HARMLESS.

lOI

fj /

'i

wm

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: -M

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j3

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H

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Jl

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102 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Harmless Snakes.

It is unnecessary to notice in detail each of the SoUd-toothed
Snakes, the names of which are given above. They are, one
and all, entirely non-venomoiis, possessing no vestiges of poison
glands, and their teeth show no signs of grooving.

It is very desirable that the general pubhc should become
acquainted with the different species of snakes in order that the
present indiscriminate slaughter of these innocent and exceed-
ingly useful reptiles should be checked. Through lack of know-
ledge of the habits and ways of these creatures of the earth, a bitter
warfare has been waged against them, and great numbers of
species of exceedingly useful reptiles have been, and are being,
exterminated.

The Egg-eating Snakes.
Sub-family II. RACHiODONXiNiE.

The Egg-eating Snake or Eier Vreter.
{Dasypeliis scabra.)

The Egg-eating Snake is truly a remarkable creature, and
serves to bring forcibly home to us the wonderful and awe-
inspiring workings of Nature. In the study of Nature we see
the operation of a mighty All- Wise Intelligence. It reveals to us
the fact that there are great and mighty forces at work which we
call Laws, and through the operation of these great forces or
Laws, the Creator works. The student of Nature sees the results
of the operation of this mighty Power or Intelligence in everything.
In the Egg-eating Snake we have a living example of how Nature
takes away that which is no longer required, or which through
neglect or indolence is not used. We also see how wonderfully
she provides for tlie altered habits and en\'ironment of the
creatures of the Earth.

The only species which represents this sub-family of Colubrine
snakes is the Egg-eating Snake of Africa. It is different from all
other snakes in having only five very rudimentary teeth in the
upper jaw, and four in the lower jaw, situated about the centre
part of the mouth. Tn fact, practically speaking, its jaws are

MOLE SNAKES CONSTRICTING RATS.
Fig. 46. — The snake seizes the rat by the nose, whenever possible, and throws two or three coils round
its body. So powerfully does it constrict, that the rat is unable to breathe, and dies rapidly. The snake,
after constricting its prey in the manner seen in the picture, lies perfectly quiet for a few minutes,
and then proceeds to swallow the victim whole. The coils are, at this time, somewhat loosened, but
remain in a position ready for instant contraction, should the prey show any signs of life. It is stated in
certain scientific books that snakes only throw two coils round their prey ; this is not so, at least with
South African constricting snakes. The number of coils depends upon the size of the victim. I have
seen as many as five coils thrown round the prey. [Photograph taken from life at the Port Elizabeth
Museum.]

103

104 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

toothless. The Egg-eating Snakes vary a great deal in colour-
ation, according to the district in which they are found. On
account of such differences, they have been divided into six
varieties. Four out of the six varieties are found south of the
Zambesi, the other two occurring in Central and Northern Africa.
The sub-family name applied to the Egg-eating Snake is Rackio-
dontincB, which means having enamel-tipped tooth-like pro-
jections in the spine, penetrating the gullet. These snakes are
found in all parts of South Africa, but are nowhere common.
Their average length is three feet.

Evolution of the Egg-Breaking Mechanism.

In proportion to the degree in which this species of snake
took to feeding upon eggs, its teeth dwindled in size and number,
and to-day it only possesses a few, which are quite rudimentary,
and cannot be detected unless the snake's jaws be dissected.
In the act of swallowing eggs, teeth were of no use to the snake ;
in fact, they were a distinct hindrance, so Nature took them away,
and specially provided for the altered habits of this creature in
a most wonderful and unique manner. It reads almost like a
fairy tale, but it is nevertheless true that the Egg-eater actuall}-
has teeth in its backbone. For all practical purposes they are
teeth, but in a strict scientific sense they are little bony pro-
jections jutting out from the backbone of the neck. They
project forwards, and downwards into the gullet, and are tipped
with enamel. There are about thirty altogether. The smaller
" teeth " start from the base of the skull, and in full-sized snakes
continue for two and a half to three inches down the backbone,
terminating in six or seven others a little more prominent, and
more freely coated with enamel. These larger " teeth " are for
the purpose of sawing through strong hard shells which the smaller
teeth cannot negotiate. Below these, there are seven bon}^
projections almost a quarter of an inch long. These are not
tipped with enamel. They, like the others, project into the
gullet, pointing at an angle towards the mouth. When the
snake swallows an egg, it, by means of these projections,
keeps the egg in position until it is sawn through by the other
teeth. They are also used as an aid in helping the snake to
cast out the crumpled egg-shell, and ensuring that no pieces

EGG-EATER AT WORK.

Fig. 47. — An Egg-eater doing his best to find a way into a Weaver bird's nest. This is the nest of Smith's
Weaver Bird (Sitagra capensis) which youngsters know as a Bottle Fink. This crafty Fink builds its
nest at the extreme end of a branch, so that its enemies, the wild cats and snakes, may not be able
to reach it. As an additional security, it makes a long tube to the nest so that, even if a cunning serpent
should reach its home, as was the case in this instance, it could not get inside, because if it tried to
climb down the tube, it would fall off to the ground. The second picture shows an Egg-cater robbing
the nest of a Warbler in an " Evergreen" bush, his head and neck are inside the nest. The third picture
shows an Egg-eater, from Natal. This specimen is 2 feet 10 inches long. Its upper parts are of a dull
reddish-brown colour, with a slight tinge of olive. The under-parts are light yellow. This is one of the
varieties of Dasypeltis scabra. In the corner of the picture is seen a portion of the backbone, and
also a section of the gullet, showing a few of the gular teeth protruding.

ic>5

io6 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

should slip down into the stomach. There is no other species
of snake in the world which possesses these wonderful backbone
or gular "teeth."

Egg-Swallowing Process.

The expanding elastic-like power of the Egg-eater's lower jaw
and skin of the throat is really immense, as will be noticed in the
illustration. The snake seizes the egg at one end and proceeds
to swallow it by a succession of slow and deliberate gulps,
accompanied by a pushing-forward movement of the body.
In fact, the snake's mouth seems just to spread slowly over the
egg, so smoothly and evenly does the process act. When
the egg has been worked down into the throat, the snake raises its
head and neck an inch or two above the ground, and by working
its backbone backwards and forwards, saws the egg-shell right
through longitudinally, just as a person would do with a very
fine fret-saw. Then the neck-muscles are put into operation,
and the snake moves its neck from side to side, constricting the
egg until all the contents have been squeezed out and down the
gullet. Then raising its head a little higher, the Egg-eater spits
out the crumpled shell.

An Egg-eating Snake with a head the breadth of a man's
forefinger can swallow a bantam's egg. The largest varieties can
manage a domestic fowl's egg.

Egg-eaters in Captivity.

Egg-eating snakes are interesting reptiles to keep in captivity.
Unlike most other snakes, they are not only quite non-
venomous, but, having no teeth, other than a few rudimentary
ones in the mouth, they are unable even to scratch the skin.
Knowing this, they never attempt to bite when handled, even
when first captured, as do many non-venomous snakes.

No species of snake is more interesting to observe and study
than the Egg-eater in captivity. He is different from the usual
snake , as he has a gentle, innocent look about him. After being in
captivity for a month or two, and gently handled at intervals, he
seems to become affectionate with whoever fondles him. However,
I fear a snake's tiny spot of a brain is not sufficiently evolved to

EGG-EATERS IN CAPTIVITY. 107

be capable of disinterested affection. The reason why snakes get
to hke being handled and carried about in a person's pocket, is
because of the warmth, which is exceedingly pleasurable to them.
The normal temperature of a snake is many degrees below that of
our bodies. Moreover, their temperature largely depends on
that of the atmosphere with which they are surrounded. They
generate heat so slowly Avithin themselves that, unlike us, their
vital organs are quite unable to adapt themselves to a sudden rise
or fall of the temperature of the air.

So, when held in the hand, the warmth of our skin imparts an
enjoj^able and pleasant feehng to a snake ; therefore, if gently
handled, snakes soon lose all nervousness and fear, and will lie
contentedly in the hand, or make explorations up the sleeves,
down the back, and all around the body, popping out occasionally
to take their bearings.

This reminds me of an amusing incident. One of my Egg-
eaters was a special favourite, because he was so tame that he
took eggs from my fingers, and when I allowed him to wander
about my person he always seemed reluctant to be taken back
to liis cage. He was real company for me in my study. It
made me less lonely to feel him crawling up my trouser leg,
exploring my back, diving down my neck, or suddenly
popping out of my sleeve to see what I was up to. My aunt
had a standing grievance against me, because I so rarely
put in an appearance in the drawing-room when she had
visitors.

Once she was having some special friends in the evening
to see her, so I promised I would join the party. Taking a
walk around the grounds, to see if my Zulu servant had fed
my small menagerie of domesticated wild animals, and after
taking down a pet Python which I allowed to crawl up
a tree in the yard to bask in the warm sunshine and dream
dreams all day long of his former free, wild life in the rocky,
forest-clad, moist valleys of the Eastern Transvaal, I meandered
into my study, took out my Egg-eater snake, and, after
fondling him for a few minutes, pushed him into my pocket
to get warm. I was startled presently by the voice of my
aunt at the door complaining of my unsociable and selfish
conduct. With many regrets, I hurried after her, and was soon
absorbed in conversation with her friends, or rather answering

AN LGG-LATliK KUBBl.NC, A NEST.
Fig. ^^i (a). — This plate illustrates a very pathetic incident, (i) Shows a Cape (Juail on its
eggs, and its mate keeping it company. (2) Shows the approach of an Egg-eating
Snake. The quail is seen reluctantly retiring before this formidable enemy. The snake
proceeds to make a meal of the eggs. (3) The snake an egg in its mouth. (4) The
snake is busy sawing an egg in its throat.

108

THE ROBBER ESCAPING. THE QUAIL'S GRIEF.

48 (6). — Continued. — {5) Having eaten the eggs, the wily serpent retires to the foliage. (6) The mother
and father quails return to find crumpled up egg shells. In illustration (7), the Cape Colony variety of
the Egg-eater is shown, in comparison with the Night or Demon Adder {Causus rhombcatus). The top
one is the Night Adder. Although they are both brown with black markings, the Egg-eater can
easily be distinguished. His body is not so flat or broad as that of the Night .Adder. It tapers more,
the black markings are different in shape, the scales are rough, and the iris of his eye is white, whereas
that of the Night Adder is black. Why ? The easiest way to find out is to open the mouth and feci
with your finger inside. If no teeth, it is a harmless Egg-eater. If a couple of fangs should stab you,
then it is a venomous snake. This bird's-nest robbing Egg-eater met with a violent end. One day
he got out of his cage, and a tame Secretary Bird gobbled him up like a worm (8).

109

' \.

\

AN EGG-EATING SNAKE DINING.

Fig. 49. — Here we have a wonderful picture taken from life, the only known one of the kind in the world.
This is an Egg-eating Snake (Dasypdtis scabra) in the Port Elizabeth Museum. We placed an ostrich
egg before it, but it realized it was useless attempting to swallow it. We then (236) put a fresh fowl's
egg before it, and it at once proceeded to swallow it. 23C shows it getting the end into its mouth.
In 23D the egg is well on the road. Now comes the wonderful part, for, in the next picture, we see
the snake busy sawing the shell with those marvellous " teeth " mentioned in the text. In 23F the
shell is collapsing and the reptile is working its neck-muscles from side to side to crumple up the shell
in as small a space as possible, and at the same time squeezing the contents down its throat.

IIO

Ife\

r-T^ajMauBSBF". _

X

^

4

16'^

i6«

THE SNAKE CASTS UP THE SHELL.

50- — -Continued. Behold him casting up the riumplcd egg-shell. In lOC (figure three) we see him coiling
himself up for a nap after his meal. The last picture shows the skull, and part of the back-bone of
3n Egg-eater. The sharp enamel-tipped sawing apparatus, in appearance like a long row of teeth, is
seen on the lower portion of the backbone. There is one on each section of the backbone. They
protrude into the top portion of the gullet. The rather long projections at the opposite end to the
skull are not enamel-tipped. They hold the egg in position whilst the sawing operation is in progress.

Ill

112 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

the variety of questions asked me, and listening to some wonderful
snake stories which I was assured were perfectly true.

But when an old lady was in tlie middle of a thrilHng tale
about a dreadfully venomous snake darting at her with open
mouth and long forked tongue, I was startled to observe her face
take a dismal hue. Her eyes were fixed in a glassy stare, and
her jaw hung limp. Starting from my seat, I prepared to
advance to her aid, when with a scream she lurched back-
wards. I glanced hastily around, and was about to summon
the other ladies to come and help, when my words were checked
by observing them rush with gestures of terror out of the
room.

Just then mj^ aunt threw hght upon the bewildering scene by
ordering me to leave the room instantly, and take away my
loathsome snakes. Then it all came like a flood of light into my
mind. It seems as I was listening intently to the old lady talking,
that Egg-eater, which I had forgotten all about, suddenly popped
his head and a few inches of his body from under the neck
portion of my coat out into the full glare of light. That explained
the whole m3^stery.

I retired to my study in disgrace !

Egg-eaters are Crafty Snakes,

The Egg-eater is not altogether a fool. You cannot trick him
about things which his ancestors for untold generations have
learned from experience and transmitted to him in the form of
a remarkably acute sense of smell, wliich is ver}- necessary for
him in his profession of an egg-eater. Being short of fresh
pigeons' eggs once, I went to my cabinet and took the clean
blown shells of a few doves' eggs. Beating up the contents of
a fresh fowl's egg, I syringed it into the empty shells, and care-
fully pasted tiny bits of tissue paper over the holes. Placing
these in the Egg-eaters' cage, I watched, expecting the snakes
to swallow them as they always did the other eggs. First one
Egg-eater advanced. Touching each egg gently in turn, with
the tip of his nose or the point of his forked tongue, he crawled
away in disgust. Another, and yet another eagerly advanced,
repeating the performance and duly retired. I began to get

EGG-EATERS ARE CRAFTY SNAKES. 113

interested. Leaving the eggs, I returned in a few hours' time to
find them still there. For two whole weeks these eggs remained
in the cage untouched, although I refrained from giving the
snakes any others. Then, procuring some fresh pigeons' eggs
I put them into the cage. The snakes approached, touched
them with their noses or tongue and instantly began to swallow
them. I tried this experiment a second time with the same
result. Frequently I have noticed that the snakes would eat
some of the eggs given them, but reject the others. On breaking
the latter open I alwaj^s found them either addled, or with a
more or less developed young bird inside. I could never induce
an Egg-eater to swallow an egg, other than a fresh one.

The Egg-eater is an expert climber, and liis sense of smell
being acute he is able to discover birds' nests with the greatest
facility. It seems that he possesses a peculiar kind of smell-
sense which enables liim to detect the proximity of eggs. The
odour given out by eggs evidently has an affinity for his sensitive
nerves of smell. If an old, empty bird's nest be placed in the
cage of an Egg-eater he takes no notice of it, unless perhaps
occasionally for the purpose of utilizing it as a cosy bed. How-
ever, if fresh eggs be placed within it, he instantly detects their
presence, although hidden from sight.

If the Egg-eater had to depend entirely upon his senses of
sight and hearing, he would procure but a lean living, for birds'
nests, as a general rule, are effectually concealed from view.
Having a toothless mouth and a special set of egg-sawing
tools in his gullet, this snake is able to subsist mainly, if
not entirety, on birds' eggs. It is probable, however, he will
swallow the young of birds, as well as various soft-bodied creatures,
such as lizards, worms, and various larvcs. But I have not ascer-
tained for certain if he eats the living young of birds, for, some-
how, I could never harden myself sufficiently to rob innocent
parent birds of their young, and allow these little creatures to
be swallowed or otherwise perish miserably, for, having studied
their ways and habits in their native homes, I have grown to
love birds.

Most Egg-eaters are light brown, spotted and lined with black,
and are, in consequence, frequently mistaken for Night Adders
{Causus rliombeaius). In Natal and along the East Coast, the
colour is invariably a uniform pale reddish, or olive-brown above,

I

114 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

with no black spots or markings. This sub-species is known as
Dasypeliis scahra inornata.

This variety of colouration in the same species of snake in
the different parts of South Africa, leads to considerable confusion
in the public mind. If any one is in doubt about the identity
of an Egg-eater, open its mouth, and if no teeth are present,
then he may be certain it is a true Egg-eating snake, and quite
harmless.

The Egg-eater bites viciously in imitation of a venomous
snake when attempts are made to capture it. This is un-
doubtedly a ruse to intimidate its aggressor, for this species of
snake is incapable of even puncturing the skin owing to the
absence of teeth in the mouth. When alarmed or annoyed, it
coils up and moves its body rapidly, making a scraping soimd by
bringing the scales on the sides of its body in contact. Also it
remains in the same spot all the time it is making this curious
noise.

i

CHAPTER V.

Division II. Opisthoglypha.
{The Back-fanged Snakes.)

Sub-family III. Dipsadomorphinae.

This third sub-family of the Colubrines belongs to a division or
series of snakes known as the Opisthoglypha, which means a
class of snakes with the posterior (back) maxillary teeth
grooved. There are about 300 species of them to be found in
the temperate and tropical parts of the world, with the
exception of New Zealand.

This family of snakes possesses one or more pairs of grooved
teeth situated in the upper jaws, midway between the front and
base of the jaws. They are set in the posterior or back maxil-
lary bone, which is more or less movable. Above these grooved
teeth there are glands which secrete a venom sufficiently strong
to paralyse prey preparatory to swallowing it. Owing to the
more or less rudimentary appearance of these glands, and the
absence of ducts, as in the typical venomous snakes, it has been
assumed by naturalists that all this sub-family of snakes are
practically non-venomous as far as man is concerned, the fluid
secreted not being thought of sufficient quantity or quality to
affect animal life seriously, other than the small creatures on
which these snakes prey.

This belief has recently been shown to be erroneous, — at least,
in the case of two of these Back-fanged Snakes, viz., the Boom-
slang {Dispholidiis typus) and Schaapsteker {Trimerorhinus rliom-
beatus) of South Africa, an account of which is given later on.

The Back-fanged Snakes should all be regarded as venomous
to a greater or lesser degree, and liberties should therefore not
be taken with them.

"5

ii6 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

These snakes stand midwa}' between the harmless soHd-
toothed {Aglypha) and the tj'pically-venomous snakes which,
without exception, have the fangs placed in the front of the jaw,
and properly connected up with poison glands and ducts.

The Opisthoglypha snakes have grooved fangs, which are
situated so far back in the jaw that wounds cannot readily be
inflicted with them.

I have always found that these Back-fanged Snakes will never
attempt to bite unless in self-defence. I have frequently handled
most of the South African species, including the now dreaded
Boomslang, and they never showed any disposition to bite.
When kept in captivity for six months or more, and habituated
to the presence of human beings, they can be picked up and
caressed, and show little or no fear. However, when attempting
to capture them in the wld state they show fight, and will bite
if opportunity offers. Some of these Back-fanged Snakes are
arboreal, others terrestrial, although all are fairly good
climbers.

There are twenty-six species or kinds of this Back-fanged
family of snakes in South Africa, south of the Zambesi and
Cunene Rivers.

Sub-family DIPSADOMORPHIN^.
SYNOPSIS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN GENERA.

This sub-family of the Colubrine Snakes have grooved fangs at the posterior
end of the upper jaw. They are, without exception, more or less
venomous.

Genus Pythonodipsas. — Maxillary teeth 13, third to sixth longest,
followed after a very short interspace, by a large grooved fang ;
second to fifth mandibular teeth strongly enlarged, fang-like.
Head distinct from neck ; eye moderate with vertically clhptic
pupil ; nostril directed upward, pierced between a nasal and
a supranasal ; parietals broken up into small shields. Body
cylindrical ; scales smooth or very obtusely keeled, with apical
pits in 21 rows ; ventrals rounded. Tail moderate ; sub-caudals
single.

Genus Tarbophis. — Maxillary teeth 10 to 12, anterior longest gradually
decreasing in size posteriorly, and followed after an interspace
by a pair of enlarged, grooved fangs situated below the posterior
border of the eye ; anterior mandibular teeth strongly enlarged.
Head distinct from neck ; eye moderate with vertically elliptic
pupil. Body cylindrical or slightly compressed ; scales smooth,
oblique, with apical pits, in 19 to 23 rows; ventrals rounded.
Tail moderate ; sub-caudals in two rows.

DIVISION OPISTHOGLYPHA.

117

Genus

Leptodira. — Maxillary teeth 15 to 18, gradually and feebly
increasing in length, followed after an interspace by a pair of
enlarged grooved teeth situated just behind the vertical of
the posterior border of the eye ; mandibular teeth, anterior

slightly

enlarged.

Head distinct from neck ; eye large with

vertically elliptic pupil ; posterior nasal concave. Body cylin-
drical or moderately compressed ; scales smooth or faintly keeled,
with apical pits in 17 to 25 rows ; ventrals rounded ; sub-caudals
in two rows.

Genus Cham.^tortus. — Maxillary teeth 12, gradually and feebly increas-
ing in length, followed after a short interspace, by a large grooved
fang situated below the posterior border of the eye ; mandibulai
teeth sub-equal. Head distinct from neck ; eye large with
vertically elliptic pupil ; posterior nasal concave ; loreal entering
the eye. Body compressed ; scales smooth with apical pits,
in 17 rows ; ventrals obtusely angulate laterally. Tail long ;
sub-caudals in two rows.

or 13,
grooved

gradually

tooth ; mandibular

eye moderate with

cylindrical ; scales

Genus Amplorhinus. — Maxillary teeth 12
in size, followed by an enlarged,
teeth sub-equal. Head distinct from neck
round pupil ; nasal semi-divided. Body

smooth or feebly keeled, with apical pits, in 17 rows ; ventrals
rounded. Tail moderate ; sub-caudals in two rows.

Genus Trimerorhinus. — Maxillary teeth 10 to 12, sub-equal, followed
after an interspace by a pair of enlarged, grooved fangs, situated
below the posterior border of the eye; anterior mandibular teeth
strongly enlarged. Head distinct from neck; eye moderate, with
round pupil ; nostril crescentric, between two nasals and the
internasal. Body cylindrical ; scales smooth, with apical pits, in
17 rows; ventrals rounded. Tail moderate; sub-caudals in two
rows.

Genus Rhamphiophis. — Maxillary short, with 6 to 9 teeth gradually
increasing »in length and followed, after an interspace, by a
pair of very large grooved fangs situated below the eye ; anterior
mandibular teeth longest. Head distinct from neck, with
projecting snout ; rostral large, hollowed out beneath ; eye
moderate with round pupil ; nostril crescentric in a divided
or a semi-divided nasal. Body cylindrical ; scales smooth,
■with apical pits, in 17 or 19 rows. Ventrals rounded. Sub-
caudals in two rows.

Genus Psammophis. — Maxillary teeth 10 to 13, one or two in the middle
much enlarged, fang-like, preceded and followed by an inter-
space, the last two, large and grooved and situated below the
posterior of the eye ; anterior mandibular teeth very strongly
enlarged. Head distinct from neck, with angular canthus
rostralis ; eye moderate or large, with round pupil ; frontal
narrow. Body cylindrical ; scales smooth, more or less oblique,
with apical pits, in 11 to 19 rows; ventrals rounded. Tail
long ; sub-caudals in two rows.

Genus Dispholidus. — ;\Iaxillary short, widening behind, w-here it arti-
culates with the forked ectopterygoid ; teeth small, 7 or 8,
followed by three large grooved fangs situated below the eye ;
mandibular teeth sub-equal. Head distinct from neck, with
distinct canthus rostalis. Eye very large with round pupil ;
nasal entire. Body slightly compressed ; scales very narrow,
oblique, more or less strongly keeled, with apical pits, in 19

ii8

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

or 21 rows; ventrals rounded or obtusely angulate laterally.
Tail long ; sub-caudals in two rows.

Genus Thelotornis. — Maxillary teeth i6 or 17, gradually increasing
in length, followed after a short interspace by two or three
enlarged grooved teeth situated below the posterior border
of the eye ; anterior mandibular teeth strongly enlarged. Head
distinct from neck. Eye large, with horizontal pupil ; nasal
entire. Body cylindrical, very slender. Scales narrow, very
oblique, feebly keeled, with apical pits, in 19 rows ; ventrals
rounded. Tail long ; sub-caudals in two rows.

I

(Brit. Mus. Cat. Snalus.)

Fig. 51. — Skull of typical Back-fanged Snake.

1. Side view showing the position of the fangs (B).

2. Top of head and lower jaw (C).

3. Roof of the mouth (A). Showinp: position of the fangs at posterior

end of outer row of upper teeth.
The inner row of teeth are the palatines.

Genus Amblyodipsas. — Maxillary very short, with 5 teeth gradually
increasing in size, and followed, after an interspace, by a large
grooved fang situated below the eye ; mandibular teeth decreas-
ing in size posteriorly. Head small, not distinct from neck ;
eye minute, with round pupil ; nostril in a single very small
nasal ; no internasals ; no loreal ; no preocular ; no anterior
temporal. J3ody cylindrical. Scales smootli, without pits, in
15 rows; ventrals rounded. Tail very sliort, obtuse; sub-
caudals in two rows.

Genus Calamelaps. — Maxillary very short, with 3 or 4 teeth
gradually increasing in size and followed, after an interspaoe,
by a large grooved fang situated below the eye ; anterior mandi-
bular teeth enlarged. Head small, not distinct from neck ;

4

'

DIVISION OPISTHOGLYPHA. 119

eye minute, with round pupil ; nostril in a divided or semi-
divided nasal ; no loreal ; no preocular ; no anterior temporal.
Body cylindrical. Scales smooth, without pits, in 17 or 19
rows. Ventrals rounded. Tail very short, obtuse ; sub-
caudals in two rows.

Genus Macrelaps. — Maxillary short, with 4 moderately large teeth,
followed by a very large grooved fang situated below the eye ;
anterior mandibular teeth enlarged, third to fifth longest. Head
small, not distinct from neck ; eye minute with round pupil ;
nasal divided ; no loreal ; no preocular ; prefrontal entering
the eye. Body cylindrical ; scales smooth, without pits, in
25 or 27 rows ; ventrals rounded. Tail short ; sub-caudals
single.

Genus Aparallactus. — Maxillary short, with 6 to 9 small teeth,
followed by a large grooved fang situated below the eye ;
anterior mandibular teeth longest. Head small not distinct
from neck ; eye small, with round pupil ; nasal entire or divided,
no loreal. Body cylindrical ; scales smooth, without pits, in
15 rows; ventrals rounded. Tail moderate or short; sub-
caudals single.

Genus PYTHONODIPSAS.

This Genus is represented by a single Species.
{For Scientific Description, see Synopsis of Genera of the Dipsadomorphimz .)

I. PYTHONODIPSAS cARiNATA. — Kccled Soakc ; Driekant Slang. (Kiel
Slang.)

Colour — -Sand-coloured or pale buff above, with a double alternating
series of square grey spots, a few of which may coalesce to form
transverse bars ; lips with vertical grey bars ; lower parts
white.

Average length — -Two feet.

Distribution^Damaraland ; Zambesi Regions.

Genus TARBOPHIS.
A single Species in South Africa.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Scales in 19 rows ; anal divided. Three labials

entering the eye. Ventrals 206-242 . . Tarbophis semianiiulatus.
I. Tarbophis semiannulatus. Tiger Snake ; Tijger Slang. (Tier Slang.)
Synonyms — Telescopus semiannulatus.

Colour — Yellowish or pale brown above, with 24 to 34 dark brown
or blackish transverse rhomboidal spots or cross-bars on the
body ; head without any spots or markings ; yellowish-wJiite
beneath.
Average length — -a feet 6 inches.

Distribution — Natal ; Basutoland ; Orange Free State ; British Bechu-
analand ; Transvaal ; Delagoa Bay ; Portuguese East Africa ;
Central and East Africa.

120 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Genus LEPTODIRA.
A single Species in South Africa.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Anal entire ; scales in 19 (exceptionally 17) rows ;

ventrals 144-180 ; sub-caudals 32-54 . . Leptodira hotamhceia.

I. Leptodira hotambceia. The Herald or Red-lipped Snake; Roode-
lip Slang. (Rooi-lip Slang.)
Colour — Brown, olive or blackish above, uniform or with whitish
dots, like fly's eggs, more apparent when skin is stretched. A
black band on the temple, usually connected with its fellow
across the occiput ; upper lip bright red, or orange red ; under-
parts whitish.
Average length — 2 feet.

Distribution — General all over South Africa ; North through Tropical
Africa to Senegambia and Nubia.

Genus CHAM^TORTUS.

This Genus is represented by only one Species.
[For scientific description see the Synopsis of Genera of the Dipsadomorphincs.)

I. Cham^tortus aulicus. The Cross-barred Snake.

Colour — Brown above, the back with numerous whitish, dark-edged
cross-bars, the sides spotted with whitish ; head whitisli, spotted
and marbled witli brown, and with a brown streak on each
side passing through the eye ; labials edged with brown ;
beneath white.

Average length — 2 feet 6 inches.

Distribution — Transvaal ; Southern Rhodesia ; Portuguese East Africa ;
East and Central Africa.

Genus AMPLORHINUS.

A single Species in South Africa.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Scales in 17 rows, feebl}'^ keeled on the
posterior part of the back and at the
base of the tail. Ventrals 133-149;
anal entire ; sub-caudals 60-86. Ros-
tral moderate ; nostril in single semi-
divided nasal .. .. .. .. Aniplorliiiuis nntltiniaculalits.

I. Amplorhinus MULTiMACULATus. Cape Many-spottcd Snake ; Kaapsche

Stippel Slang.
Colour — Olive or brown above, with two more or less distinct yellowish

stripes and longitudinal rows of black spots ; bluish-grey or

olive beneath. Some specimens uniform bright green above,

and lighter green beneath.
Average length — i foot 6 inches.
Distribution — Cape Colony ; Transvaal (High veld).

DIVISION OPISTHOGLYPHA. 121

Genus TRIMERORHINUS.

Two Species in South Africa.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Eye as long as its distance from the nostril . . Trimerorhinus rhombeatiis.
Eye shorter than its distance from the nostril Trimerorhinus trittsniatus.

1. Trimerorhinus rhombeatus. Rhombic or Spotted Schaapsteker ;

Bont Schaapsteker.

Synonyms — Coluber rhombeatus ; Psammophis longementalis.

Colour — Colouration variable. Greyish, yellowish or pale olive-brown
above, with brown black-edged markings which may form
three or four longitudinal series of round or rhomboidal spots,
or be partially or entirely confluent into three undulous or
straight longitudinal bands ; a yellow vertebral line sometimes
present ; a dark band on each side of the head passing through
the eye, widening behind and often joining its fellow on the
occiput, sometimes broken up into spots ; upper lip yellowish-
white, uniform or with black spots ; tail with three dark stripes ;
lower parts white, dotted or spotted with bluish grey or black.

Average length — 2 feet to 2 feet 6 inches. Attains a length of 3 feet.

Distribution — Both provinces of Cape Colony ; Orange Free State ;
Transvaal ; South West Africa ; Southern Rhodesia ; Angola.

2. Trimerorhinus trit.^eniatus. Striped Schaapsteker ; Streep or

Gestreepte Schaapsteker.

Synon^mi — -Rhagcrrhis tritcBniatus.

Colour — Greyish or pale brown above, with two or three dark brown,
black-edged bands originating on the head and extending to
the end of the tail, the outer passing through the eye, the verte-
bral sometimes rather indistinct or absent ; a fine yellowish
line sometimes divides the vertebral band ; the sides below
the bands white with a pale brown or red streak running along
the outer row of scales ; upper lip and lower parts white.

Average length — 2 feet 6 inches.

Distribution — Occurs all over South Africa ; Common near Port
Elizabeth ; North to the Equator.

Genus RHAMPHIOPHIS.
A single Species in South Africa.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Snout short, pointed. Scales in 17 rows.
Ventrals 155-168. Anal divided.

Sub-caudals 31-40. Rostral large . . Rhamphiophis multimaculatus.
I. Rhamphiophis multimaculatus. Damaraland Many-spotted Snake ;
Stippel Slang.
Synonym — Coroiiella multimaculatus ; Dipsida multimaculata ; Rhagcr-
rhis multimaculata.
Colour — Pale buff or sandy grey above, with three or five scries of
regular brown spots, the vertebrals broader than long ; a \-
shaped brown marking on the occiput ; an oblique brown
streak behind the eye ; lower parts white.
Average length — i foot 6 inches to 2 feet.

Distribution — Northern parts of Cape Colony ; Orange Free State ;
South West Africa.

122

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Genus PSAMMOPHIS.
Ten Species in South Africa.
KEY OF THE SPECIES.
Scales in 17 rows ; ventrals 154-198. Anal
entire ; four lower labials in contact
with chin shields ; two preoculars ;
sub-caudals 81-104 . . . . . . Psammophis notostictus

Scales in 17 rows ; Ventrals 154-198. Anal
divided (rarely entire). Preocular ex-
tensively in contact with the frontal ;
forehead concave ; two labials enter-
ing the eye ; snout short

Psammophis furcatus.

DIVISION OPISTHOGLYPHA

123

Scales in 17 rows; Vcntrals 154-198.
Preocular narrowly in contact with
or separated from the frontal.
Two preoculars ; rostral considerably
broader than deep, 8 upper labials, 3
entering the eye

Scales in 17 rows ; sub-caudals 132. 9
upper labials, 2 entering the eye

Scales in 17 rows; Ventrals 161-173. 9
upper labials, 3 entering the eye.
Snout nearly twice as long as broad ;
anal divided ; sub-caudals 109-127 . .

Scales in 17 rows; Ventrals 154-198. A
single preocular ; rostral as deep as
broad or slightly broader than deep ;
two labials entering the eye. Frontal,
in the middle, narrower than the sup-
raocular ; sub-caudals 90— 116

Scales in 17 rows; Ventrals 153-163.
Frontal in the middle nearly as broad
as the supraocular ; sub-caudals 64—95

Scales in 15 rows. Preocular extensively
in contact with the frontal ; Ventrals

165-177

Scales in 15 rows. Preocular not reaching
the frontal ; 8 upper labials (rarely
seven); Ventrals 136-155

Scales in 11 rows. Ventrals 141-155; sub-
caudals 57-81

Psammophis transvaaliensis.
Psammophis trigrammus.

Psammophis bocagii.

Psammophis sibilans.

Psammophis brevirostris.

Psammophis jallae.

Psammophis crucifer.
Psammophis angolensis.

Psammophis notostictus. Dapple-backed Sand Snake ; [Appel Bont
Zand Slang.

Colour — Pale brown or olive above, with a pair of more or less dis-
tinct lighter stripes, and with or without small black spots ;
each vertebral scale often yellow in its posterior half ; head
with dark spots but no longitudinal streaks ; upper labials
and usually pre- and postoculars yellowish white ; anterior
labials often spotted with black ; lower parts and whole or
part of outer row of scales yellowish white, or olive with lateral
yellowish stripe ; anterior ventrals often with small black spots.

Average length — 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet.

Distribution — Both provinces of Cape Colony ; Orange Free State ;
Basutoland ; South West Africa ; Angola and Lower Congo.

Psammophis furcatus. Fork-marked Sand or Grass Snake ; Whip
Snake; Vurk-merk Zand Slang. (Vurk-gemerkde.)

Synonym — Psammophis monoliger.

Colour — Brown above, the scales edged with darker, a narrow yellow
vertebral line bifurcating on the occiput, its branches extending
to the anterior border of the frontal shield ; a broader yellow
streak on each side, from the eye to the end of the tail ; upper
lip, lower half of the outer row of scales, and lower parts j-ellowish
white with or without an interrupted blackish Une on each side
of the ventrals.

Average length^3 feet.

Distribution — Both provinces of Cape Colony ; Orange Free State ;
Transvaal ; Southern Rhodesia ; South West Africa ; North to
Angola and Lower Congo.

I

124

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

PsAMMOPHis TRANsvAALiENsis. Gough's Sand Snake.

Colour — The seven middle rows of scales dark brown, tipped or edged
with black. The top third of the row of scales fifth from middle
of back, black ; lower two-thirds of fifth row and upper two-
thirds of sixth row, cream-coloured ; outer third of this row
black. The seventh and eighth rows dark brown, almost black
at the tips. Upper half of outer row black ; lower cream.

A black line along each side of the vcntrals, the space between
the black lines yellow. Lips and chin cream, with black dots
and markings ; a black Une runs along the upper edge of the
labials, across the rostral. Upper surface of head light brown
with darker black-edged markings, a lighter transverse band
on the nape. The yellow lateral stripes originate at a short
distance from the head, the portion of the neck anterior to
them with indistinct cross bars.

Average length — 2 feet 6 inches.

Distribution — Transvaal.

Fig. 53. — Head and neck of a Sand Snake, also known as a Whip Snake
[Psammophis /urcatus).

PsAMMOPHis TRiGRAMMus. Namaqualand Sand Snake.

Colour — Pale olive above, ^^ellowish posteriorly, the scales on the
vertebral line black-edged, forming a stripe posteriorly ; a
rather indistinct dark lateral stripe running along the outer
row of scales ; upper lip, pre- and postoculars yellowish white ;
lower parts and lower half of outer row of scales yellowish white,
the vcntrals clouded with olive in the middle.

Average length — 3 to 4 feet.

Distribution — Namaqualand.

PSAMMOPHIS BocAGii. Bocage's Sand Snake.

Colour — A broad, reddish-brown black-edged vertebral band seven
scales broad separated from the sides, which are grey or reddish
brown, by a yellow streak ; a black line along the middle of
the outer row of scales ; head with rather indistinct yellow,
black-edged cross-bars ; a black line along the upper border of
the labials, which are dotted with black ; lower half of outer
row of scales and lower parts pale yellow, with a black line on
each side.

Average length — 3 feet.

Distribution — Southern Rhodesia ; Angola.

DIVISION OPISTHOGLYPHA. 125

6. PsAMMOPHis siBiLANS. Hissing Sand Snake ; Blaas Zand Slang.

Synonyms — Coluber sibilaiis ; Psaminophis thomasi.
Colour — Colour very variable.

A. Olive or brown above, the scales mostly black-edged ;
a more or less distinct narrow yellow vertebral line and a broader
yellow streak along each side of the back ; head with yellow,
black-edged longitudinal streaks in front, and transverse ones
behind, which markings, however, may become very indistinct
in the adult ; upper lip yellowish white, uniform or with a few
brown or black dots on the anterior shields ; lower parts including
the lower half of outer row of scales yellowish white, uniform or
with a faint brown lateral line.

B. As in A, but no trace of a light vertebral line.

C. Uniform brown or greyish-olive above, the markings on
the head very indistinct ; upper lip and lower parts, including
lower third of outer row of scales, uniform yellowish white.

D. Brown or olive above, with lateral streaks and head
markings as in A. Vertebral line absent or reduced to a series
of yellow dots, one on each scale ; upper lip with brown or
black dots ; lower parts including lower half of outer row of
scales, white, with a continuous or interrupted black longitudinal
line on each side of the belly.

E. Uniform brown or olive above, with more or less distinct traces
of the markings on the head ; upper lip yellowish, with brown
or blackish dots ; lower parts including lower third or lower
half of outer row of scales, yellowish, with a brown or black
line on each side of the belly.

F. Olive above, which colour extends down to the ends of
the ventrals, uniform or dotted with blackish, or with most of
the scales black-edged ; sometimes in the young with traces of
Ught longitudinal stripes ; upper lip yellowish, spotted or speckled
with black ; belly yellowish or pale olive, uniform or dotted
with black on the sides, the dots sometimes confluent into longi-
tudinal lines.

Average length — 4 feet. Some specimens attain a length of over

5 feet.
Distribution — Both provinces of Cape Colony ; Natal ; Zululand ;

Transvaal ; Southern Rhodesia ; North through Tropical Africa

to Egypt.

7. PsAMMOPHis BREVRiosTRis. Short-snoutcd Sand Snake ; Kort-snoet

Zand Slang.

Synonym — Psanwiopiiis sibilans.

Colour — Brown or dark olive on the back (7 rows of scales), pale olive
on the sides down to the ventrals, the two shades separated by
a more or less distinct lighter streak ; a yellowish black-edged
spot usually present on each ■ vertebral scale ; head uniform
olive brown in the adult, in the young with a yellowish streak
along the frontal, and yellowish cross-bars behind ; yellowish
white beneath, with a series of olive or blackish dots or short
streaks along each side.

Average length — 4 feet. Some specimens attain a length of over
5 feet.

Distribution — Both provinces of Cape Colony ; Natal ; Zululand ;
Transvaal ; Angola.

8. PsAMMOPHis jALL^. Sand Snake.
Distribution — Southern Rhodesia.

126 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

9. PsAMMOPHis cRuciFER. Crosscd Grass Snake ; Kruis Gras Slang.

Synonym — Coluber crucifer.

Colour— Pale olive or brownish above, with a black-edged dark verte-
bral band, three scales wide which extends to the head, giving oil
one or two transverse bars on the nape, and enclosing a light
spot or streak on the suture between the parietal shields ; sides
of head with large dark blotches, the pre- and postoculars
yellowish ; a more or less distinct band along each side of the
body, with a white streak below it on the lower half of the outer
row of scales and the outer ends of the vcntrals ; lower parts
yellow or reddish orange, uniform or iinely speckled with blackish
with a dark streak or series of small spots on each side.

Average length — 2 feet.

Distrilaution — Both provinces of Cape Colony ; Basutoland ; Natal ;
Zululand ; Orange Free State ; Transvaal.

10. PSAMMOPHIS ANGOLENSIS.

Synonyms — Amphiophis angolensis ; Coluber crucifer; Ablabes home
yeri ; Dromophis angolensis.

Colour — Pale olive above, with a dark olive or blackish vertebral
stripe three scales wide, finely edged with black and yellow ;
head dark olive in front ; blackish behind, with three yellow
transverse lines, the first behind the eyes, the third behind
the parietal shields ; two black cross-bands may be present on
the nape of the neck, separated by a yellowish interspace ;
labials and preoculars yellowish white ; one or two more or
less distinct dark lines or series of dots along each side ; lower
parts whitish.

Average length — 2 feet.

Distribution — Orange Free State; Angola; East and Central Africa.

Genus THELOTORNIS.
This Genus is represented by one Species.
KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Scales in 19 rows, feebly keeled. Ventrals 1 47-1 81. Anal divided
Sub-caudals 11 7-1 70. Pupil horizontal; eye large; body slender.
Tail very long and slender.
I. Thelotornis kirtlandii. Bird Snake ; Vogelvreter Slang.
Synonym — Leptophis kirtlandii.

Colour — Greyish or pinkish-brown above, uniform or with more or less
distinct darker and lighter spots and cross bands ; head green
above, with or without some patches of pinkish, speckled with
black and a pinkish black-dotted streak on each side of the head,
passing through the eye ; upper lip cream-colour or pink, uniform
or spotted with black ; one or several black blotches on each
side of the neck ; greyish or pinkish beneath, speckled or striated
with brown.

There are two varieties, which are coloured as follows : —

A. Head uniform green above and on the sides ; black
blotches usually forming cross bands on the neck.

B. Head with black dots above and on the sides ; no cross
bands on the neck.

Average length — 4 feet.

Distribution — All over South Africa in forest clad parts, excepting Cape
Colony ; Northwards to East and Tropical Africa.

I

DIVISION OPISTHOGLYPHA. 127

Genus DISPHOLIDUS.

This Genus is represented by one Species.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Scales keeled in 19 or 21 rows. Eye very large. See

synopsis of genera of Dipsadomorphinae . . . . Dispholidus typtis

I. Dispholidus typus. Tree Snake or Boomslang.

Synonyms^B lice phaliis typus ; Dispholidns lalandii ; Bucephalus

capensis ; Dendrophis pseudodipsas.
Colour — The colour is variable. The colourations of the various varieties
are as follows : —

A. Brown above, upper lip and lower parts yellowish or greyish ;

young with darker and lighter spots, and the belly speckled
with brown.

B. Olive-brown above, yellowish beneath, scales and shields edged

with blackish.

C. Green above, uniform, or scales narrowly edged with black.

D. Green or olive above, all the scales and shields edged with black ;

head often much spotted with black.

E. Black above, each scale with a yellowish or greenish spot ; head

spotted or marked with black ; ventrals and sub-caudals yellowish
edged with black.

F. Uniform black above, blackish grey beneath.

G. Brownish-black above. Light yellow beneath. The abdominal

shields blotched with dark brown on their sides, and edged with

a narrow line of brown.
Average length — 4 to 5 feet. Some specimens attain a length of 7 feet.
Distribution — Common all over South Africa in bush-clad localities;

North to Tropical Africa.

Genus AMBLYODIPSAS.

This Genus is represented by one Species.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Scales in 15 rows. No internasals ; sub-caudals in two rows; head
small, not distinct from neck. Refer to synopsis of the genera of
the sub-family Dipsadomorphinae.
I. Amblyodipsas microphthalma. The White-lipped Snake.
Synonym — Calamaria microphthalma.

Colour — Dark brown above ; upper lip, two outer rows of scales, outer
ends of ventrals, and lower surface of head and tail white ; a
dark brown stripe along the middle of the belly.
Average length — i foot 6 inches.
Distribution — Zululand ; Portuguese East Africa.

Genus CALAMELAPS.

Two Species in South Africa.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Scales in 19 rows ; ventrals 161-174 . . . . . . Calamelaps warreni.

Scales in 17 rows ; ventrals 133-134 . . . . . . Calamelaps concolor.

I. Calamelaps warreni. Warren's Snake.

Colour — Uniform plumbeous grey.

Average length — i foot.

Distribution — Zululand.

128 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

2. Calamelaps concolor. Purple-glossed Snake.

Synonyms — Chorisiodo)i concolor ; Calamelaps mironi.

Colour — Greenish black above, with a purple gloss ; pale blackish

purple beneath, the shields margined behind with livid white.
Average length — i foot.
Distribution — Natal, Caffraria.

Genus MACRELAPS.

There is only one Species in this Geni(s.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Scales in 25 or 27 rows ; no preocular. Refer to synopsis of the genera

of the sub-family Dipsadomorphinaj.
I. Macrelaps microlepidotus. Natal Black Snake; Zwart Slang.

Synonym — Uriechis microlepidotus.

Colour — Uniform black.

Average length — 2 feet 6 inches.

Distribution — Eastern parts of Cape Colony ; Natal.

A. guentheri (side view). A. guentheri (top of head).

Genus APARALLACTUS.
Two Species in South Africa.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Nasal divided ; ventrals 153-180 . . . . Aparallactus guentheri.

Nasal entire ; ventrals 138-166 . . . . Aparallactus capensis.

1. Aparallactus guentheri. Guenther's Snake.
Synonym — Uriechis capensis.

Colour — Blackish brown above, a little lighter beneath ; chin and
throat yellowish white ; a deep black collar, edged with yellowish
white in front and behind, narrowly interrupted dn the throat.

Average length — i foot.

Distribution — Southern Rhodesia ; Angola ; East and Central Africa.

2. Aparallactus capensis. Black-headed Snake; Zwart-kop lang.

Synonyms — Elapomorphiis capensis ; Uriechis capensis.

Colour — Yellow or pale reddish brown above, with or without a blackish
vertebral Une, yellowish white beneath ; upper surface of head
and nape black, with or without a ja'llowish cross-bar behind
the parietal shields, the black of the nape descending to the
sides of the neck ; sides of head yellowish, the shields bordering
the eye, black.

Average length — i foot.

Distribution — Eastern parts of Cape Colony ; Orange Free State; Basuto
land ; Zululand ; Transvaal ; Southern Rhodesia ; East Africa.

Fig. 54. — (36 A.) The coiled snake top right of picture is a Striped Schaapsteker (Slrecp or Gcstrcepte
Schaapsteker). Average length 2 feet. Grey or pale brown colour above, two or three dark brown
black-edged bands on head extending to tail, the outer passing through eye. Often a fine yellowish
line running along backbone. Upper lip and lower parts white. Thin snake in centre, a Grass or
Sand Snake, or Whip Snake. Average length 3 feet. Tail brittle, easily breaks. The two larger
snakes and small one are Spotted Schaapstekers. (36) Spotted Schaapsteker. Average length 2 feet
Greyish or pale olive colour above, black-edged or brown markings. Tail has three dark stripes.

129 K

130 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

The Schaapstekers, Grass Snakes, and Sand Snakes.

The Schaapstekers, or Sheepstickers, are well known to all
South African colonists. Their favourite haunts are the grassy
stunted-shrub-covered districts, dry plains and veld. On the
Karoo they are common. They are frequently found on the
grazing grounds and about the sheep kraals, drawn thither by
the mice, lizards, beetles, larvae, and other living creatures wliich
accumulate in and about the excrement of sheep and cattle.
Now and again a villainous Cobra, or Ringhals, gets irritated at
the presence of sheep feeding on his hunting grounds, and bites
one or two. The cobra is a crafty fellow, and can take good care
of liimself. After doing all the damage he can amongst the sheep,
he retires discreetly to his hole, or into the tangled bush. The
farmer, or his herdsman, comes along, finds the dying sheep, and
seeing Schaapstekers about, immediately concludes they are the
guilty parties, hence the name Schaapsteker, which means
"sheepsticker."

They are delicate snakes, and do not thrive well in capti\ity,
unless the conditions under which they are kept are such as they
were accustomed to in the wild state.

The Schaapstekers, Grass Snakes, and Sand Snakes will rarely
attempt to bite unless roughly handled or trodden upon. More-
over, being Back-fanged Snakes, their bite is not much to be
feared, unless they take a full mouthful of bare flesh, and are
allowed to retain their hold for a few seconds in order to worry
the flesh. A bite from any of these Back-fanged Snakes through
the sleeve or trouser would, in most instances, not develop any
poisonous symptoms at all. Even if a barefooted person should
tread upon a Schaapsteker, and ifbit him, the chances are that he
would only be slightly poisoned, for the first instinct of a bitten
person is to jump aside, or instantl}' shake the snake off ; so, it
is apparent that in most cases of bites by ordinary Back-fanged
Snakes, there is little real risk.

My snake collector, Mr. James Williams, has such a contempt
for them tliat he sometimes brings me a pocket-full, and pulls
them out with his bare hand, one by one. Now and then
he is bitten. He instantly sucks the wound, and makes a couple
of slight cuts over the punctures and rubs in a few permanganate
crystals. Sometimes he feels a slight headache for an hour

THE SCHAAPSTEKERS, GRASS SNAKES, ETC. 131

afterwards, but no alarming poisonous symptoms have ever
manifested themselves.

I have experimented with the Spotted or Rhombic Scliaap-
steker, and find that a full bite on the bared thigh of a rat will
cause death in two hours. .Fowls bitten by full-sized Schaap-

FiG. 55. — A Rhombic or Spotted Schaapsteker (T. rhoinbeatus) photographed from above

just after laying a batch of eggs in the Port Elizabeth Museum.

The Schaapstekers lay their eggs in the Port Elizabeth Snake Park late in December. The

eggs are invariably partly (about one month) incubated before they arc laid.

stekers died in from seven to ten hours. For the first couple of
hours the fowls seemed none the worse. Then drowsiness slowly
set in, which was progressive, terminating in paralysis and death.
Post-mortem examinations showed all the organs to be apparently
normal. There was no sign of haemorrhage anywhere. It was
evident that death was due to paralysis of certain nerve centres.

132 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

The Back-fanged Snakes, known as tlie Grass Snakes and
Sand Snakes {Psammophis), are, if anything, less venomous than
the above-named Schaapsteker. Half-sized specimens when
allowed to bite fowls, produced only slightly poisonous effects.
When full-sized specimens were allowed to bite fully, and worry
the flesh for a few seconds, the fowls died, usuallj^ in from eight
to twelve hours. A further series of experiments confirmed
these results, some of which are recorded in the Addenda at the
end of this book.

A Battle — and the Result,

One day I introduced a Lineated Schaapsteker Snake, two feet
three inches long, into a cage containing an Olive House Snake,
which was two feet five inches in length. The latter began
to examine the intruder with his black forked tongue, which
he vibrated incessantly. He was evidently working himself up
into an excited condition. Presently he made a lightning-like
grab, and instantly lapped his jaws over the head of the Schaap-
steker. He gripped tenaciously, but made no attempt at con-
striction. The victim, realizing his danger, coiled, lashed, and
struggled mightily. After tumbling over and over, and tjang
and untvdng themselves in a series of knots, the Schaapsteker
began to weaken. The House Snake still kept the same grip.
His jaws had not shifted in the least. He made no attempt
to get the head of his victim further into his mouth.

After holding on thus for over an hour, he proceeded slowly
to swallow the, now limp, Schaapsteker. I timed him, and found
he took four and a half hours before the end of his victim's tail
disappeared down his throat. Then he yawned half a dozen
times. Opening the cage door, I lifted him carefully out and
placed him in cotton wool in a cosy little box, and left him to his
slumbers, for he was now torpid and helpless. I peeped in at
him every day, but, beyond raising his head and sticking out his
tongue at me, he made no attempt to move. In five days' time
he began to revive, and moved around at times ; but he had not
yet completed the digestion of his victim, for, on feeling his ribs,
I could detect the remains of the Schaapsteker in his digestive
tract. However, in seven days' time the Schaapsteker had

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134 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

been completely digested, and the now plump and sleek House
Snake became as active as ever.

The Red-Lipped or Herald Snake. Roode-Lip Slang.
{Leptodira holamhceia.)

This is one of the best-known and most \Nide-spread snakes
in Africa, It is found from the Cape, right away through the
continent to the northern states of Africa.

It is known in the Eastern Province of the Cape Colon}' as the
Herald Snake, being named such b}' Mr. J. M. Leshe, who was
the first to discover it in these parts. It was named in honour of
the Eastern Province Herald.

The Herald Snake haunts gardens in the \icinity of houses,
taking refuge under pieces of timber, old tubs, rubbish, etc. It
usually ventures out about sundown, and may frequently be seen
on garden paths and public roads on moonlight nights. If
attempts be made at capture, it will bite fiercely. If trodden
upon it will instantly bite. Its fangs, however, are set far back
in the jaw, and are comparatively small, so it is seldom an\'
serious harm results from a bite. The food of these snakes
consists of mice, small garden toads, lizards and insects. The
average length of the Herald Snake is about two feet. It is
olive-brown in colour, sometimes uniform, but usually the upper
parts are flecked with tiny white dots, in appearance like flies'
eggs. These are very apparent when the skin is distended. The
under-parts are wliitish. Two broad bands of shin}' purplish-
black run from the snout to the base of the head, where they
join. The upper lip is a bright coral red or orange red. No
other South African snake has these red streaks along the upper
lips, and they consequently serve as a sure means of identi-
fication.

It is one of the back-fanged snakes, with the venom glands in
the transition stage. I have experimented on fowls and rabbits,
both by forcing it to bite them, and also by pounding the glands
in water and injecting them under the skin. The animals, in
all cases, showed signs of poisoning to a greater or lesser degree,
according to the size of the snake and the season. The bitten
animals invariably recovered after appearing more or less lethargic
for a day or two.

THE RED-LIPPED OR HERALD SNAKE.

135

In some recent experiments with a large freslily caught
Herald Snake, some of the bitten fowls died about twelve

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hours after the snake was allowed to obtain a full grip and press
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136 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

was bitten moped for a day and a half, but recovered

eventuall3^

When allowed to bite through ordinary trouser cloth, and if
not permitted to hang on, the fangs of Herald Snakes and
Schaapstekers in most instances failed to penetrate the flesh. It is
not because the fangs are not sufficiently long. The reason is
that with back-fanged snakes the poison fangs are at the back
of the upper jaw. It is, therefore, necessary for the snake to
ensure a mouthful before he can succeed in driving the fangs
fully home.

Persons must never take liberties with any of these back-
fanged snakes. Under ordinary conditions the momentary bite
of most of tliis family of serpents is not likelj^ to have any serious
results, especially so if the punctures be scarified and rubbed with
permanganate of potash. It must be remembered, however, that
if allowed to bite and hold on, they will work sufficient venom
into the flesh to cause serious symptoms of poisoning, and even
death.

Although the venom of a snake may not be in sufficient
quantity to destroy life by its direct action upon nerve centres
or blood, it is quite likely that it may be tlie indirect cause of
death by setting up a state of sepsis, or ordinary blood-poisoning.
Those addicted more or less to the habit of drinking alcohohc
liquor are strongly predisposed to contract blood-poisoning, and
die as the result of the injection of even a fractional dose of
snake venom into their tissues.

The Boomslang or Tree Snake.
{Dispholidus iypus.)

A Cannibal.

This is the snake which recent events have made famous in
South Africa. Recently, one bit an assistant in our Museum,
with nearly deadly effect ; then another in our collection
of living snakes deliberately swallowed another of its own
species, almost as big as itself. These incidents caused heated
discussions everywliere, as, in the first place, the Boomslang has
been regarded as a non-venomous snake, and, secondly, it has
hitherto been believed that when snakes swallow each other it

A CANNIBAL.

'^n

is of the nature of an accident — as, for instance, when two
snakes seize and attempt to swallow a frog, rat, or other prey,
neitlier caring to let go, the bigger snake naturally engulphs
the smaller. In the case of the Boomslang referred to, the act
was deliberate in every sense of the word.

Some live frogs were introduced into the cage containing five
of these tree-snakes, one of which managed, by superior agility,

Fig. 58. — a Cannibal Boomslang. Photographed from Hfe at the Port Elizabeth Museum.
He is in the act of taking another mouthful of his victim.

to capture and swallow several of the frogs, much to the annoy-
ance of one of its fellows. The latter worked itself into a state
of great excitement, and attacked its companion viciously, seizing
it in various parts of the body. Eventually it gripped the other
firmly by the neck and gradually worked its head forwards until
it reached the other's jaws, whereupon it began deliberately to
swallow it with a succession of spasmodic gulps, accompanied by
heaving, forward movements.

After a lapse of twenty minutes it had swallowed one-half of
the struggling, writhing victim. I then had it removed and photo-
graphed, and, during the process, so intent was it upon the work

138 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

it had in hand, that the swallowing process went merrily on, and
the photograph shows it in the act of raising its jaw in order to
take another mouthful. Being desirous of preserving these
specimens as evidence of the occurrence, I remo^'ed a little
tobacco- juice Avith a feather from a dirty pipe and passed the
feather between the jaws of the Boomslang.

Almost instantly a curious vibratory thrill passed through the
snake from head to tail, the muscles relaxed, and the snake lay
a lifeless mass within two minutes of the introduction of the
tobacco-juice, demonstrating the rapid prussic-acid-like action
of this poison upon the vital functions.

This Boomslang was a striped, black and 3'ellowish-green
male, measuring four feet nine inches, whilst the victim was a
female three feet eleven inches long.

What Naturalists Say.

The Boomslang is placed in the British IMuseum Catalogue
of Snakes by G. A. Boulenger in the family Colubrince, series
OpistJioglypha, sub-family Dipsadoniorphince. The definition of
the Opisthoglypha is " a division of snakes Avith one or more of
the posterior maxillary teeth grooved." Most, if not all, are
regarded as poisonous to a slight degree, sufficiently so only for
paralysing their prey before deglutition.

Now, this is a very important point to bear in mind, viz., one
of the Opisthoglypha has been classified in many text-books of
science as practicall}^ a non-\"enomous snake, or one not at all
dangerous to man.

Sir Andrew Smith, in his " Zoology of South Africa," remarks :
" As this snake, in our opinion, is not provided with a poisonous
fluid to instil into wounds wliich these fangs may inflict, they
must consequently be intended for a purpose different to those
which exist in poisonous reptiles. Their use seems to offer
obstacles to the retrogression (retention) of living animals, such
as birds, etc., while they are only partly within the mouth ; and
from the circumstances of these fangs being directed backward
and not admitting of being raised so as to form an angle with the
edge of the jaw, they are well fitted to act as powerful holders
when once the}'' penetrate the skin and soft parts of the prey
which their possessors may be in the act of swallowing.

NO ORDINARY VENOM GLANDS. 139

Without such fangs escapes would be common ; with such they
are rare."

He goes on further to say : " The natives of South Africa
regard the Boomslang as poisonous, but in their opinion we cannot
concur, as we have not been able to discover the existence of any
glands manifestly organized for the secretion of poison. The
fangs are enclosed in a soft, pulpy sheath, the inner surface of
which is commonly coated with a thin glairy secretion. This
secretion may possibly have something acrid and irritating in
its qualities, which may, when it enters a wound, occasion pain
and even swelling, but nothing of greater importance."

This belief is held by naturalists to the present day, viz., that
the back-fanged division of snakes possessed these posterior
fangs only for the purpose of aiding them in retaining their
struggling prey, and as an extra aid in the swallowing process.
Sir Andrew Smith's explanation that the sticky fluid observed in
the faug capsules was merely capable of exerting a paralysing
influence upon such creatures as small birds and lizards has up
to now been the opinion of zoologists.*

Naturally, I accepted tliis generally current belief, and, in
consequence, I and m}'- assistants freely handled these snakes,
taking no precautions against being bitten, deeming such to be
superfluous until Mr. James Wilhams, my assistant, was bitten,
and came within a hair's-breadth of losing his life.

No Ordinary Venom Glands.

I carefully cUssected the heads of several Boomslangs. In every
case I discovered a small gland on each side of the head, lying
immediately behind and above the grooved fangs. It could clearly
be seen that it had a connection with the ca\dty at the root of the
grooved fangs, and that it was the gland which secreted the
sticky fluid in the sheath enveloping them.

The next step was to ascertain if the organ was really a
gland capable of secreting any fluid, whether venomous or not.
Dr. Robertson, of the Veterinary Institute at Grahamstown,
made a microscopical examination of its structure, and reported
it to be undoubtedly glandular and capable of secreting.

* Dr. Calmette, in his recent work entitled "Venoms," says, "The
longest teeth (in Back-fanged Snakes) are grooved, and serve for the better
retention of prey, and also to impregnate it with sahva ; but they are not
in communication with the poison glands."

140

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Subsequent experiments by myself bear out this opinion, and,
moreover, under the microscope, a sticky, colourless fluid, identical
with that found in the sheath, was observed in the structure of
the glands, and was pressed out upon the microscopical slide with
the tip of a lancet. Small pieces of these glands were cut up and
inserted under the skin of rabbits, and slight pressure applied
for an instant. Within fifteen minutes the rabbits were dead.

•
0

p

W-j^*'^-'^

f^f^

5c ' i>T'>A

■ ^

•

\m

1^

■

. ^^'^.

Fig. 59. — Head of a Boomslang (Displiolidus lyf>us), showing the poison fangs. The
centre one is usually the longest.

One was stricken with complete paralysis within five minutes of
the insertion of the fragment of gland.

BOOMSLANGS ARE HIGHLY VENOMOUS.

These and other experiments, mentioned in detail a few pages
further on, conclusively prove these glands to be capable of
secreting a very virulent venom, and that the glands produce the
glairy sticky fluid within the sheaths enveloping the fangs. The

A MAN BITTEN.

141

poison-glands are comparatively small — a fifth the size of tliose
of a Puff Adder. That they secrete a venom, potent and virulent,
in proportion to their size, does not admit of a doubt. Dr.
Calmette claims that the fangs are
simply used for the retention of
the prey, such as birds, which
would otherwise escape. This is
partly, but not wholly so. When
a Boomslang seizes a live bird, it
grips with great tenacity. The
bird struggles frantically for a
minute or two, and is then over-
come by the potent action of the
venom injected through the snake's
grooved fangs. It then leisurely
proceeds to swallow the bird,
feathers and all. Boomslangs
never constrict their prey.

A Man Bitten.

During November, 1907, we
had occasion to transfer our col-
lection of live snakes to their
new apartments, and Mr. WilHams
was carrying a large male Boom-
slang when it suddenly buried its
teeth in the muscles of his bared
forearm, just below the elbow-
joint. It gripped with great
power, and held on firmly. We
disengaged its ja^^'s, and I sug-
gested treating the wound, but
he would not hear of such a
thing, and believing, as I did at

Fig. 60. — This is Mr. James Williams,
who was bitten by a Boomslang, referred
to in the text. The parts, coloured
black, were the portions of his body
where the blood flowed out through the
walls of the blood vessels, and accumu-
lated in the tissues, causing dark purple
patches, which were very much swollen
and inflamed. The right eye and the
surrounding tissues were immensely
swollen, disfiguring Williams' face
almost beyond recognition. In fact, the
man presented a terrible and never-to-
be-forgotten sight. Blood oozed from
his mouth and no4r. Haemorrhage
also took place in his stomach and
bowels. His recovery was little short
of miraculous. It was evidently due
to his vigorous constitution, the result
of very abstemious habits.

the time, that it was practically
a non-poisonous snake, I did not insist. The wound smarted
a little, and he went on working. Within an hour a throb-
bing headache had manifested itself, accompanied by oozing of

142 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

blood from the mucous membranes of tlie mouth, followed by
vomiting.

Meanwliile tlie wound was also slowly oozing blood, and the
muscles in the \icinit3^ were somewhat swollen. He was then
taken tp Dr. Bruce, who declared him to be suffering unmis-
takably from the effects of virulent poison, which was seriously
affecting the blood and mucous membranes. During the night
Williams' condition graduall}^ became more alarming, and he
was taken to the Provincial Hospital the following day in a
state of utter collapse. He steadily grew worse, and blood
oozed continuously from all the mucous surfaces, \dz. the mouth,
nose, stomach, bladder, and bowels. Then the blood began to
accumulate in the tissues, and caused large blackish-purplish
swollen patches under the skin. One eye and its surrounding
tissues, both forearms for two-thirds their length, a portion of
the abdomen, hip, and thigh, were all charged with' extra-
vasated blood, presenting a dreadful sight. Other parts, in-
cluding portions of the back, left eye, and cheek, were slightly
discoloured.

The venom of the Boomslang evidently contains a poison
wliich acts upon the endothehal cells lining the capillaries. This
action is particularly characteristic of the poison of the CrotalincB
(Rattlesnakes), and is most marked after poisoning by the
South American vipers of the genus Lachesis, and S. African
adders.

Flexner has given the name " hctmorrhagins " to the con-
stituents of poisons possessing this action, and regards them as
special cytohsins for endothelial cells.

Between Life and Death.

WilUams rapidly grew worse after the second day in hospital,
severe abdominal pains setting in and inability to retain even
water in the stomach. From this time he rapidly grew worse,
and on the evening of the tliird day after being bitten I went to
the hospital, accompanied by Mr. \\'illiam Armstrong, J. P., who
took what he believed to be liis djdng deposition, the doctor
declaring him to be in an extremely critical condition, which
might result in death before the morning. He lingered on in

ANOTHER INSTANCE.

143

this state, bordering between life and death, till about the sixth
day, when a slow improvement began to manifest itself. From
this time onward his condition rapidly improved, and in three
weeks he was discharged from the hospital still in a weak,
debilitated state, and altliough he gradually regained strength, he
had relapses of slight bleeding from the mucous membranes of

Fig. 61. — The Boomslang which bit Williams. It died about six months
afterwards, and is now pickled in a jar o£ spirit.

the mouth, and one eye was occasionally affected. Even three
months after the accident, slight discolouration in the tissues
surrounding one of his eyes showed itself for a few days. Apart
from this, he has otherwise entirely recovered his health and
strength. There was no anti-venomous serum available at the
time, and consequentl}^ the venom exerted its full poisonous
properties in Williams' body.

Another Instance.

Some years ago a local gentleman was bitten by a Boomslang,
and died a few days later, but the general behef was, and is, that
he died of blood-poisoning consequent upon pricking and irritating
the wound with some foreign substance. A well-known gentle-
man, who saw him shortly after being bitten, says : " I questioned
him as to whether he had experienced any effects from the bite,
and he certainly gave me to understand that he had not, and
attributed the whole trouble to the rash use of a needle, and
making too deep a puncture with it. He told me that he felt

144 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

quite well as far as his health was concerned, and I was surprised
to hear a few days afterwards that his death was attributed to
the bite of the Boomslang ; I had always been under the impres-
sion it was a case of ordinary blood-poisoning."

I have made very careful inquiry into tliis case, and it seems
the gentleman at first showed no very apparent signs of constitu-
tional disturbance, but subsequently symptoms set in very similar
to those exhibited by Williams, viz. oozing of blood from the gums
and extravasation of blood into the tissues on various parts of
the body, then death. This would seem to indicate that in this
case there was a smaller dose of venom discharged into the
wounds than was the case with Wilhams, which took a longer
period to manifest its effects. Medical men who saw the gentle-
man before he died declare his symptoms were by no means those
of ordinary blood-poisoning. The medical man who attended
him informs me there is no doubt at all about the fact that he
died of the effects of the venom of the snake which bit him.

I closely cross-questioned Williams, and he admitted that
witliin half an hour of being bitten he felt a curious, restless,
dizzy, and languid feehng, but refused at the time to own it, think-
ing it to be due to some other cause, and beheving so fully that
a Boomslang was perfectly harmless. However, in W'illiams'
case the symptoms were such as to leave no possibility of a doubt
that he suffered directly and unmistakably from some extremely
potent venom, and local medical opinion was unanimous on tliis
latter point.

The Experiments.

It now became imperative to demonstrate whether Boomslangs
were really venomous or not, as this individual case of Williams
would not by any means be accepted by scientific men as proof
positive. Naturalists and others handle these snakes and make
pets of them under the belief that they are non-venomous, and,
moreover, in the pubhc interest this question had to be decided
for all time, especially so as the Boomslang is one of the commonest
of South African snakes.

The following are the results of the experiments : —
A large brown female Boomslang was held by the neck
an'd induced to bite the bared thighs of three fowls in quick

THE EXPERIMENTS. 145

succession. The first fowl died in thirteen minutes, the second
in fifteen minutes, the third in three hours and four minutes.

A \'ariegated male Boomslang bit the bared thighs of two
fowls within the space of one minute. The first fowl died in nine
minutes, the second in forty-five minutes.

A fowl bitten slightly lived two days and died, the wound
oozing blood, and the mucous membranes of the moutli being
inflamed and congested.

A male (greenish-yellow and black) Boomslang bit a fowl
on the thigh. I killed the snake and injected some of its blood
into the victim. No curative effect followed. The fowl died
in twelve minutes.

A female Boomslang bit a fowl on the thigh. I killed the
snake and injected contents of its gall into the fowl, which died
in eleven hours.

Another fowl was bitten and injected with the serum of the
blood of the snake that bit it. No curative effect ; it died in
fourteen minutes.

A female Boomslang bit a duck on the thigh. Progressive
exhaustion ; slight oozing of blood in mouth ; rapid heart's
action ; paralysis ; deatli in seventeen minutes.

A second duck was bitten by the same snake immediately
after the first one. Same symptoms ; died in thirty-five minutes.

A male Boomslang bit a duck on the neck. Within three
minutes it fell on its back completely paralysed ; it remained
still for another five minutes ; struggled feebly when touched.
Died in nineteen minutes.

A male Boomslang bit a large cock fowl on the comb.
Blood oozed from the cock's nostrils one minute after being
bitten. It began to mope, then suddenly sprang four feet straight
up into the air and fell a dead mass, three minutes after being
bitten.

The venom gland of a male Boomslang was rubbed up with a
little water and injected with a hypodermic syringe into a vein in
a live and active Cape Jackal. The animal died before tlie needle
could be withdrawn. It perished as quickly as if shot through
the head with a buUet. The venom, being injected into a vein,
reached the heart almost immediately, and instantly paralysed
its action.

146 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Conclusively Proved.

These experiments were repeated over and over again with
all sizes and both sexes of Boomslangs. In all cases death
occurred within twenty minutes of the first bite ; the fowls and
ducks which were subjected to the second bite from the same snake
usually lived from fifteen minutes to two hours ; not a single fowl
recovered.

The fowls and ducks seemed to suffer little or no pain beyond
irritation at the seat of puncture for a minute or two. Within two
or three minutes they showed unmistakable signs of collapse
and with a spasmodic jerk or two would suddenly expire.

A few higher animals of greater vital tenacity were also ex-
perimented with, and the characteristic slow oozing of blood
from the fang-punctures and mucous surfaces was noticeable, as
was the case with Wilhams. The animals in every case gradually
grew worse, and after about twelve hours were chloroformed,
it being evident they were slowl}^ sinking under the potent effects
of that subtle, death-dealing venom.

Experiments to Save Human Life.

Some folks will regard these experiments as cruel, but they
were conducted in order that human life might be saved, for in
no other way could I have rapidly and conclusively demonstrated
to the pubUc that the Boomslang is not only venomous, but
exceedingly so. I can go further, and claim that the venom of the
Boomslang is stronger in its death-dealing power to that of the
dreaded Cobra [Naia flava) and Ringhals {Sepedon hamachates).
I forced these snakes (Cobra and Ringhals) to bite several fowls
by baring the thigh and holding the snakes' heads between
finger and thumb close up against the flesh.

In all cases I made tlie snake give a second bite to make
absolutely sure a lethal dose had been injected. The fowls all
died in from five to twenty minutes — the average being fifteen
minutes. In most cases fowls bitten twice on the bared thigh by
Puff- Adders [Bilis arietans) survived from four up to twelve hours,
some recovering completely. The majority bitten by Night-
Adders {Caiisus rhomheatiis) were very sick for a couple of days,
then reco\-ercd, one or two dying after twelve hours.

HOW BOOMSLANGS BITE. 147

It will be seen by the results of the above experiments that
the bite of the Boomslang destroys the life of a fowl more rapidly
than that of tlie Cobra, and that the venom of the Puff- Adder is in
comparison very slow in its action and not nearly so virulent.

The fraction of a drop of Boomslang venom is rapidly fatal
to a fowl, guinea pig, or rabbit.

How BOOMSI.ANGS BlTE.

There are two reasons why the Boomslang does not alwaj^s
inflict a venomous bite. The fangs are grooved and comparatively
small, and if the bite is delivered through clothing the venom is
absorbed by the material, and the fangs barely scratch the flesh.
Secondly, the fangs are set half-way back in the upper jaw, and
are three in number on each side, exactly under tiie eyes, and
naturally, unless the Boomslang's grip be full and complete, these
fangs do not penetrate the flesh. During my experiments, I
observed that the Boomslang in every case took as good a grip
as possible on the animal, then almost instantly, with a heaving,
forward movement and disengagement of the teeth of the upper
jaw from the victim's flesh, it would take a fresh and more secure
hold, the upper jaws in which the fangs are set being capable
of being pushed downwards, exposing the fangs and forcing thejr
points forward ; the jaw then closes with a snap, and the snake
worries the flesh, with tlie evident intention of forcing the venom
into the punctures, as well as enlarging them for the freer ingress
of the poison.

A medical correspondent from Barkly, Eastern Province of
Cape Colony, wrote me that a short time ago he lost a favourite
dog from a bite by a Boomslang. The dog attacked the reptile,
w^hich bit its foe on the leg. The dog died a few liours after being
bitten.

A stock farmer at the Vaal River told me that one of liis oxen
was bitten on the hp by a large Boomslang. The ox was eating
the foUage of a tree, and had evidently disturbed the snake.
The herd-boy saw the affair, and called the farmer, who was at
his waggon, a httle distance aw'ay. He says he saw and shot the
snake, which was a green and black male Boomslang. He applied
what is known as " Jesse Shaw's" cure, but the ox died three-
quarters of an hour after.

Since the publication of the first edition of this book I have

I4.S THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

received several accounts from well-known farmers, and two by
medical men, of natives being bitten by Boomslangs which, with
the exception of two of the cases, terminated in death.

An instance was related to me by a gentleman who is a keen
naturalist. He says he was quite unaware that tlie Booraslang
was venomous. In fact, he was inclined still to be sceptical,
owing to an experience which he had with this species of snake.
Being anxious to capture one alive, one day he pursued a large
Boomslang of the variegated variet}^ which escaped up a small
tree. There being no other trees near, the snake ascended to
the top, and, on his approach, showed fight. In attempting to
seize it, the reptile bit him severely on the forefinger. Grasping
the snake by the neck, he quickly unhooked its small recurved
teeth, which were embedded in his skin. No symptoms of poison-
ing set in, although his finger bled a little from the various
punctures. He regarded this as proof that the Boomslang was
non-venomous. The fact of the case was, the snake, in its
haste, merely gripped the finger of the man with the front portion
of its jaws, and did not succeed in getting its fangs into a suitable
position to drive home before it was dragged off the flesh.

Boomslangs and Their Habits.

The word " Boomslang " is Dutch, and means Tree Snake.
Boom = tree, and Slang = snake.

Boomslangs vary considerably in colouration, as will be noticed
on reference to the description of the colouration of this species
of snake given at the beginning of this chapter, in the hst of the
snakes of the back-fanged division.

The round and long tapering body of the Boomslang is
specially adapted for gliding swiftly and silently through the
foliage of trees. Like other snakes, Boomslangs tend to vary in
colouration according to their environment and habits. In
districts more or less bare of forests and wooded kloofs, Boom-
slangs are gradually taking to a terrestrial mode of life. Not
being able to gain sufficient food in the trees and shrubs, they are
compelled to take to the ground and hunt frogs, lizards, ground
birds, and various other creatures. Inconsequence of this modi-
fication of environment and habits, their colour undergoes a
change, eventually developing into blackish olive or light
purplish brown, which is eminently suitable, blending perfectly

r
I

BOOMSLANGS AND THEIR HABITS.

149

with the earth, dead leaves, branches, stones, etc., over and
through which they hunt their prey. When the skin of a

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young Boomslang is distended, most of the scales are seen to
be tipped with bluish white, which has a very beautiful appear-
ance. These spots are, however, not always present.

150 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

The favourite food of the Boomslang consists of chameleons,
birds and their fallow young, and eggs. The latter are swallowed
whole, the powerful gastric juices of the snake dissolving the
shell. They often descend to the ground and hunt for other
species of snakes, lizards, and frogs.

My captive Boonislangs often swallowed pigeons' eggs, wliich
remained in their stomachs intact, sometimes for twelve to
twenty-four hours. In one instance a snake swallowed two
pigeons' eggs, wliich remained unbroken in its stomach for
three weeks. The reptile, being in poor condition at the
time, its gastric fluid was e\adently too weak to dissolve the
shell. When the eggs were removed after the death of the snake,
I noticed the shell had been somewhat roughened by the action
of the acid fluids of the snake's stomach.

Chameleons, other tree lizards, caterpillars, and various
larvae are sought after and eaten by Boomslangs. So closely
does the colour of these reptiles' skins blend with the fohage, that
I have known birds to hop upon their bodies, mistaking them for
branches. These snakes can imitate the branches of a tree to
perfection. The body is contorted and twisted amongst the
leaves, and is perfectly rigid. For hours a Boomslang will he
amongst the leaves and twigs, its large unwinking eyes keenly
on the alert. If an unwary bird should approach within striking
distance, the forepart of the snake's body is shot out as swiftly
as a stone from a catapult, and next instant the bird.strugghng,
is in its jaws. In a minute or two the victim ceases to move,
for the deadly venom has paralysed its nerve centres. Then
the snake assumes a comfortable position, and swallows its
prey.

When a Boomslang is seen by birds in the vicinity of their
nests, they become intensely alarmed and excited, flying rapidly
to and fro, hopping from twig to twig, fluttering their wings
and making various other excited demonstrations. Hearing the
noise, other birds come along and join in the effort to scare away
the intruder. The snake is in no way alarmed. It remains
as still as a statue, its head drawn back and its body at an angle
suitable for a rapid and long forward thrust. Presently one
of the birds, in wild excitement, approaches ^vitllin striking
distance. Instantly, with unerring aim, its body is launched
forth and a bird loses its life.

BOOMSLANGS AND THEIR HABITS.

151

Once a Boomslang seizes its pre}^ it is loth to let go. Holding
on, it makes no effort to swallow or constrict its victim. It

Fig. 63. — A female Boomslang dissected to show how the eggs
lie. These eggs are fully developed, and were being laid when
the snake was killed to obtain this picture. The shapeless-
looking white substance about the eggs is fatty tissue.

knows only too well the power of the fluid which is distilled by
the glands in its head. It is well aware that the venom will rapidly
reduce the struggling prey to a limp, dead mass, easy to swallow.
These snakes may often be suq^riscd on the ground himting
for prey or sunning themselves on a dry exposed bank or patch

152 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

of ground. When alarmed the}^ make off with great rapidity
into the nearest cover, or ghde up a tree and are instantly lost to
sight in the foliage. Sometimes they vanish down holes or into
crevices. On the bare ground or amongst low shrubs and grass
they can easily be overtaken and captured, but once they get
into the trees it is hopeless to try to follow them.

One day I was riding over the veld, when a Boomslang of
yellowish-green and black colour darted across my path and
took shelter in a small thorn tree about five feet in height,
sparsely covered with narrow, feather-like leaves. I could see
through the small tree quite easily, for it was only about three or
four feet in diameter. I walked round and round the bush, and
examined it up and down for some minutes without seeing a
trace of the snake. Then, starting at the bottom, I examined
every twig and followed each branch to its end. Eventually,
half-way up the tree, I saw the snake. Its body was con-
torted and twisted at exactly the angles at which the branches
and twigs jutted out. The yellow-green of the skin blended
perfectly with the leaves, the effect being considerably
heightened by its black, uneven cross markings. Approach-
ing within two feet, I eyed it for a time, and not once
during that time did it make the slightest movement. When
I attempted to capture it by putting a bit of string with
a noose at the end round its neck, it got angry, and sought
to intimidate me by puffmg out the throat, making its head
look twice or more its natural size.

After being captured and kept for some hours in a dark bag,
most Boomslangs will permit themselves to be freely handled
without sliowing any disposition to bite. However, if one should
suddenly touch the face or bare hand or arm with its nose, it
sometimes bites, and holds on till you forcibly remove it. If
handled carefully and gently, they will rarely bite.

The sex of a Boomslang can be determined with some degree
of certainty by the coloxir. I used to think that the female of
the yellowish-green variety was not so yellowisli as the male,
but recently I have examined a large series of them, and find
them all to be males. All the chocolate coloured ones so far
examined have been females. Over one hundred of these have
been dissected at the Port Elizabeth Museum.

In captivity, Boomslangs will readily eat frogs. Toads

BOOMSLANGS AND THEIR HABITS. 153

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154 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

down their throats and then putting them gently down, else
they \\dll vomit the food. The best way is to hold the snake
in j^'our hand for five minutes or so after feeding it, and then lay
it very gently down in a warm cage.

Dead frogs and bits of raw meat may be pushed gently into
the snake's throat and worked down with the fingers.

Boomslangs often descend to the ground to lay their eggs,
in a Starling's nest in a hole in a bank, or among the tangled
roots of a forest tree. At other times the eggs are placed in
the hollow interior of an old tree or in a deserted woodpecker's
nest. Warmth, and moisture are necessary for the incubation
of the eggs. On hatching out, the young Boomslangs almost
immediately take to an arboreal life and lead an existence
entirely independent of their parent.

Some Boomslangs seldom descend to the ground, while others
are more or less terrestrial in their habits. This depends upon
the food supply and nature of the environment. For some con-
siderable time I had a Boomslang alive which was intermediary
between the variegated green and the dark-brown varieties. This
specimen was blackish above, through which traces of greenish-
yellow were visible in places. The " blackishness " on the back
shaded off on the sides and abdomen to yellowish green. The
specimen was a female, and laid thirteen eggs during the month
of October.

On several occasions brown Boomslangs have laid batches
of eggs var3nng in number from a dozen to twenty-three,
containing a yellowish fluid, with no sign of incubation
having already begun. The eggs are laid during midsummer,
usually October, November, and December. On many occasions
I have noticed the Boomslangs, which I have kept in captivity,
swallow domestic pigeons' eggs whole. These eggs are not
crushed in the throat, as is the case with the Egg-eating Snake
{Dasypeliis). They lodge in the stomach and remain there until
the gastric juices dissolve the shell and release the contents, which
sometimes takes several days. Delicate shelled eggs are crushed
in the mouth and the contents allowed to flow down the throat.

Conclusions.
The Boomslang is a member of the Opisthoglypha or Hind-
fanged snakes, which have hitherto been regarded by some

BERG BOOMSLANG. 155

authors as non-venomous, and others as only very slightly
venomous. Now, the fact of the Boomslang liaving been proved
to be very highly venomous sliows that at least one of this class
of Hind-fangcd snakes possesses highly-specialised venom capable
of destroying human life, therefore it is reasonable to assume a
good many of the others would be found, on investigation, to
be equally venomous. Until each individual snake of this class
has been carefully experimented with, it would be unwise to lead
the pubhc to infer they are only venomous to a very slight
degree, so slight as to be practicaUy harmless to man and the
larger animals. Tliis opens up a wide field for experimental
work, for there are over three hundred species of the Back-
fanged Division of Snakes in the various snake-infested countries.

Berg Boomslang.
There is a Boomslang which is found on the treeless mountains
in Somerset East District of the Cape. It is larger and more
brilliant in colour than the others which inhabit the bushlands.
It is often encountered a mile and even two miles away from
bushlands or wooded kloofs. Mr. Athol Brown tells me it is
rather aggressive, and he has known it to attack natives and
stock animals. One of these snakes attacked and bit two goats.
They died in eighteen and twenty-four hours respectively. Both
animals were bitten high up on the back legs. Mr. Brown shot
one of these Berg Boomslangs which measured nine feet. They
prefer the long grass, but are sometimes seen in very short grass
on the hills and mountains.

CHAPTER VI.

Division III. Proteroglypha,

[The Front- fanged Snakes.)

Sub-family IV. Hydrophin^.

The Sea Serpents belong to the division of snakes known as the
Proteroglypha, so called because they have fangs in the front
part of the upper jaw. These fangs, which are set in the anterior
maxillary bone, are deeply channelled or grooved, the sides of
the channels showing a tendency to unite and form a complete
perforated or hollow tooth similar to the hollow fangs of the
Viper family. These are the typical poison fangs. Independent

I'IG. 65. — Head and neck of the poisonous Black and Yellow Sea
Snake of the African Coast (Hydrus platuius).*

of the fangs there is a set of small solid teeth, also set in the front
part of the upper jaw.

The sub-family Hydrophina; are all Sea Snakes. There are
about fifty-five species or kinds known.

* Sea Snakes have small scales on theunderparts of their bodies. Land
Snakes, on the contrary, have broad shields running right across from side
to side.

156

HABITS OF SEA SNAKES.

157

All are highly venomous and inhabit the ocean, except a single
species {Distira scmperi), which is only found in a fresh-water
lake at Luzon, in the Philippines.

The Sea Snakes can bq distinguished from all other snakes by
the flattened oar-like tail, which is used as a rudder and propeller,
for they have no fins.

Sea Snakes shed their skins very frequently, but the old skin

Fig. 66. — Skulls and poison fangs of Black and Yellow Sea Snakes {Hydrus platurus). There
are two fangs in each jaw (Brit. Mus. Cat. Snakes.)

peels off in pieces, and does not come away entire, as is the case
with their terrestrial cousins.

Habits of Sea Snakes.

Although living in the water, they breathe air. Their nostrils
are situated on the top of the snout. Most species are brilliantly
and beautifully coloured. Their food is fish and other marine
creatures. Although most species are helpless, and perish if cast

158 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

up on shore, there are some which make frequent inland excur-
sions, sometimes to considerable distances over the land, usually
at night, when the vegetation is moist. Sea Snakes are most
abundant in the Tropical portions of the Indian Ocean and
Western Pacific. Some species congregate in great shoals, and
swarm in the cracks and crannies of ocean rocks which are sub-
merged at high tide. If poked with a stick they bite viciously,
after the manner of venomous land snakes.

Sub-family HYDROPHIN^E.

The various Genera and Species of Sea Snakes belong to the above sub-family .
They are all very venomous, possessing grooved fangs at the anterior end
of the upper jaw.

Genus HYDRUS.
This Genus is represented by only one Species.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Rostral as deep as broad or a little broader than deep ; frontal large,
at least as long as the snout or the parictals, one or two pre- and
two or three postoculars ; one or two suboculars sometimes present ;
temporals small and numerous ; seven or eight upper labials, second
in contact with the prefrontal, fourth, fifth ; or fourth and fifth
usually entering the eye ; chin shields small and indistinct ; 45 to
47 scales round the body, smooth in the female and young ; laterals
and ventrals rough, with one, two, or three small tubercles in the
male.
I. Hydrus platurus. Black and Yellow Sea Snake.

Synonyms — A nguis platurus ; Hydrus bicolor ; Pelamus bicolor ; Pela-

mus platurus.
Colour — Markings very variable.

A. Yellow, with brown, black-edged cross bands ; black bars between

the cross bands, on the sides of the belly.

B. Anterior third of the body with a black dorsal stripe ; further

back a series of transverse dorsal rhombs on the baclv, and black
spots on the sides and belly.

C. Dorsal region black ; sides and belly yellow, with a lateral series

of black spots which may be partly continent into a stripe ; tail
with dorsal and lateral spots.

D. Dorsal region black, ventral region brown, the two separated by

a yellow lateral stripe ; tail spotted as in the preceding.

E. Black above ; sides of belly yellow ; the two colours do not

blend. There is a distinct line of demarcation. Tail spotted
as in the preceding.

F. Y''ellow, with a black vertebral stripe, broken up into spots poste-

riorly ; no lateral spots on the body or tail.

G. Yellow, with a vertebral band and spots on the tail pale brown

or olive.
Average length — 2 feet.
Distribution — Coast of South Africa ; Indian Ocean and Tropical

Pacific.

BLACK AND YELLOW SEA SNAKE.

159

Black and Yellow Sea Snake.

{Hydrus platurus.)

The only species of Sea Snake which inhabits the ocean about
the coasts of South Africa is the Black and Yellow species. It is
often seen in the shallow pools amongst the rocks on the sea-
shore, left stranded there by the out-going tide. It is very
necessary that the general public should become acquainted wdth
the appearance of this snake, as many fatalities have occurred

Fig. (i;. The Black and Yellow Sea Snake {Hydrus j>laUtiu:>) whieli livi..-^ in the ocean, and is
often left stranded in the rock pools along the South African Coast. It is highly venomous.
(Royal Natural History.)

by people mistaking it for an eel and catching hold of it. A
naval officer was thus bitten recently, and lost his life. He died
four hours after the bite. Another instance is recorded of a sailor
being bitten and dying in two and a half hours after. A coloured
man once brought me one in a tin containing sea water. He
said he had caught it in a small pool on the beach. He fooUshly
pulled it out of the tin, remarking what a fine eel it was. Before

iCo THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

I could warn him it had bitten his hand, but I instantly ligatured
his arm, scarified the wound, rubbed in permanganate of potash,
and injected serum. He recovered.

This species of Sea Snake is black above, and bright yellow
beneath, the two colours being distinctly separated — the line of
demarcation being very pronounced. Some specimens have a
profusion of black spots over the abdomen, and the tail is mottled
whitish and black. The average length is two feet to two feet
six inches.

The poison apparatus of all the Sea Serpents is highly special-
ized, like that of the Cobra.

I have frequently found these snakes cast upon the shore of
Algoa Bay, or in pools left amongst the rocks by the outgoing
tide. They have also been recorded from Durban Bay, Simons-
town, False Bay, and Table Bay. I have several times tried to
keep these snakes alive in an aquarium, but they always died
after a few days. I have no doubt, however, that they would
live and thrive in a properly constructed aquarium if the water
was kept at about the temperature they are accustomed to.
Hydrus piaiurus is divided into seven varieties, owing to the
differences in colouration in the different localities it inhabits.
The one marked Variety E, is the kind we find at Algoa Bay.

South African Terrestrial Front-Fanged Snakes.

COBRAS, MAMBAS, CORAL SNAKES, GARTER SNAKES,

Etc.

Sub-family V. Elapin^.

The snakes of this sub-family are all highly venomous.

This important sub-family of Colubrine snakes include the
most dreaded of all snakes, viz., the Cobras and Mambas.

There are about one hundred and forty species known, which
are scattered over the Southern part of North America, Central
and South America, Africa, and Southern Asia to Australia.
These highly-venomous snakes belong to the division known as
the Proteroglypha, having fangs set in the front part of the upper
jaw, in the bones known as the anterior maxillarj^ bones. The
fangs are usually deeply grooved or channelled. In some species
the sides of the grooves show a tendency to unite and form

Crotalinae.

MAPS SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF TYPICAL VENOMOUS SNAKES.

Fig. 68. — i. Distribution of the Colubrine family of snakes, viz. .Africa, Southern .■Vsia. to .\ustralia,
Central and South .America. The true Cobras {Naja or \aia) inhabit .-Vfrica, Southern Asia
and the Malay Archipelago only.

2. The parts coloured black show the distribution of the Viper, otherwise known as the Adder
family of snakes.

3. The parts coloured black show the distribution of the Pit Vipers to which the Rattlesnakes
belong (Crotalince).

New Zealand is the only country in the semi-tropical regions in which snakes do not occur.
There are snakes in Madagascar of the Aglypha and Dipsadomorphine kinds, but no
Proteroglypha or front-fanged snakes.

161 M

i62 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

hollow fangs. In some, this union of the two edges of the channel
is well advanced, having firmly united in places. These snakes
all possess a highly-specialized poison apparatus.

Most species of the ElapiucC are viviparous.

There are fourteen species or kinds of snakes belonging to
the above sub-family which inhabit South Africa south of the
Zambesi.

SYNOPSIS OF THE GENERA.

Genus Naia. — Maxillary extending beyond the palatine, with a pair of
large grooved poison-fangs, and one to three small faintly -grooved
teeth near its posterior extremity ; mandibular teeth, anterior
the longest ; head not, or but sUghtly, distinct from the neck ;
eye moderate or rather large, with round pupil ; nostril between
two nasals and the intcrnasal ; no loreal. Body cylindrical ;
scales smooth without pits, disposed obliquely in 15 to 25 rows
(or more on the necl) ; ventrals rounded. Tail moderate ;
sub-caudals all or greater part in two rows.

Genus Sepedon. — Maxillary extending forwards beyond the palatine,
with a pair of largo grooved poison fangs ; no other maxillary
teeth ; mandibular teeth, anterior longest. Head not distinct
from neck ; canthus rostralis distinct ; eye moderate with round
pupil ; nostril between two nasals and the internasal ; no loreal.
Body slightly flattened ; scales oblique, keeled, without pits,
in 19 rows ; ventrals rounded. Tail moderate ; sub-caudals
in two rows.

Genus Aspidelaps. — Maxillary extending forwards beyond the palatine,
with a pair of large, grooved poison fangs ; no other maxillary
teeth ; mandibular teeth, anterior longest. Head slightly
distinct from neck ; eye moderate with round or vertically
elliptic pupil ; rostral shield very large, detached on the sides ;
nostril between two or three nasals, and the internasal ; no
loreal. Body cylindrical ; scales oblique, smooth or keeled,
without pits, in 19 to 23 rows ; ventrals rounded. Tail short ;
obtuse. Sub-caudals in two rows.

Genus Elapechis. — Maxillary bone extending forwards as far as the
palatine, with a pair of large grooved poison fangs, followed by
two to four small teeth ; mandibular teeth anterior longest.
Head not distinct from neck ; eye small with round pupil ;
nostril between two nasals ; no loreal. Body cylindrical ; scales
oblique, smooth, without pits, in 13 to 15 rows. Ventrals rounded.
Tail very short ; sub-caudals all or most in two rows.

Genus Homorelaps. — Maxillary extending forwards beyond the palatine,
with a pair of large poison fangs, pterygoids toothless ; mandi-
bular teeth few, sub-equal. Head small, not distinct from neck ;
eye very small with round pupil ; nostril in a single nasal ; no
loreal. Body cylindrical ; scales smooth without pits, in 15
rows ; ventrals rounded. Tail short ; sub-caudals in two rows.
No postfrontal bone ; prefrontals widely separated from each
other and in contact with the parietals, excluding the frontals
from the orbital periphery.

PROTEROGLYPHA OR FRONT-FANGED SNAKES. 163

Genus Dendraspis. — Maxillary bone curved upwards, with a strong
posterior process directed backwards and outwards ; a pair
of large poison fangs, not fissured, not followed by other teeth ;
a large fang-like mandibular tooth, followed by a considerable
toothless space. Head narrow, elongate ; eye moderate, with
round pupil ; nostril between two shields ; no loreal. Body
slightly compressed ; scales smooth, narrow, very oblique, without
pits, in 13 to 23 rows ; ventrals rounded. Tail long ; sub-caudals
in two rows.

Fig. 6g. — Skulls of typical snakes of the Front-fanged Elapina sub-family.
I. Side view showing the fangs and rows of harmless teeth.

A. Anterior maxillary bone to which the fangs are attached.
Back of skull and lower jaws.
Roof of mouth.

B. Poison fangs.

C. Lower jaw. [Brit. Mus. Cat. Snakes.)

2.
3-

Genus NAIA. (Typical Cobras.)
Fouy Species in South Africa.
KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Sub-oculars separate the eye from the upper labials.

21 or 23 scales across neck, 19 or 21 across middle

of body
Sub-oculars separate the eye from the upper labials

by a series of sub-oculars. 17 scales across neck,

as well as across body. Rostral as deep as broad

Naia haie.

Naia anchietcD.

i64 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA

Third, or third and fourth upper labials entering the
ej'e. Sixth upper labial largest, and in contact
with postoculars ; 23 scales across neck . . . . Naia flava

Usually six upper labials. Rostral one and a half as
broad as deep. Third upper labial deepest, sixth
not in contact with postoculars ; 23 to 29 scales
across neck . . . . . . . . . . . . Naia nigricollis.

1. Naia haie. Egyptian or Banded Cobra ; Koper Kapell.

Synonyms — Coluber haie ; Cerastes candidus ; Naja haje.

Colour — Yellowish or olive to dark brown or black above, uniform or
with darker or lighter spots ; lower parts yellowish, with a
brown or black band on the neck, or dark brown to blackish ;
head sometimes blackish.
Colouration varies as follows : —

A. Brown above, yellowish beneath, with or without brown spots.

B. Dark brown above, with yellowish spots ; dark brown beneath.

C. Blackish brown above and beneath.
Average length — 5 feet.

Distribution — Natal ; Zululand ; Transvaal ; Rhodesia ; Delagoa Bay ;
Northwards to Palestine.

2. Naia anchiet-s. Anchieta's Cobra ; Anchiela's Kapell.

Colour— Brown to blackish above ; end of Snout and sides of head
yellow ; yellow or pale brownish beneath, with or without
brown spots, and with a brown or black cross-band under the
neck.

Average length — 5 feet ; attains a length of seven feet.

Distribution — North West Rhodesia ; South-West Africa ; Angola.

3. Naia flava. Cape Cobra ; Geel Kapell ; Bruin Kapell ; Spoeg Kapell

(Spuug).

Sjmonyms — Vipera flava ; Naja nivea ; Naja nigra.
Colour — Colour variable. There are five distinct varieties : —
(i) Uniform gamboge yellow usually with a few scales coloured
reddish-brown.

(2) Reddish-brown and yellow, the former predominating.

(3) Very dark umber approaching to black. A few scales coloured

yellow.

(4) Light olive brown with a tinge of dull yellow. Some are dun

colour with a shade of olive yellow.

(5) Shiny purplish-black. For fuller description see account of

Cape Cobra.
Average length — 5 feet ; attains a length of nearly 7 feet.
Distribution — Whole of Cape Colony ; South-West Africa. Black

variety does not occur in Eastern parts of Cape Colony.

4. Naia nigricollis. Black-necked Cobra ; Zwart-nek Kapell ; " M'fesi "

(Zulu).

Synonym — Vipera haje.

Colour — Colour variable, as follows : —

A. Brown or olive above, some or all of the scales black-edged, the

skin between the scales black ; yellowish beneath, the ventrals
speckled or edged with brown or blackish ; lower surface of
neck with black cross bars. (Mossambique variety.)

B. Uniform brown above, yellowish beneath ; lower surface of neck

brown in the adult ; young with a broad black ring round the
neck.

PROTEROGLYPHA OR FRONT-FANGED SNAKES. 165

C. Dark olive to black above ; lower surface of head and neck black ;

sub-caudals and posterior ventrals black, the remainder black

and yellow.
Average length — 5 to 6 feet ; attains a length of over 7 feet.
Distribution — All over South Africa, excepting the Southern parts of

Cape Colony ; Northwards to Senegambia and Upper Egypt.

Genus SEPEDON.

This Genus is represented by one Species.

Scales strongly keeled, without pits, in 19 rows ;
ventrals 11 6-1 50; anal entire. Sub-caudals
33—44 .. .. .. .. .. . .Sepedon hcsmachates.

I. Sepedon h^machates. The Ringhals or Spitting Snake ; Ringhals
Slang.
Synonyms — Coluber hcsmachates ; Vipera hcsmachates ; Naja hcsma-

chaetes ; A spidelaps hcsmachates.
Colour — Black above, spotted, variegated or irregularly barred with
pale brown or yellowish-white ; or brown spotted with black ;
black beneath, usually with one or two whitish cross bands on
the neck.
A. Jet black above and below, with a white cross band on the throat.
Sometimes the white band is entirely absent, or else only slightl}'
developed.
Average length — 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet. Sometimes grows to 4 feet

in length.
Distribution — Cape Colony ; Natal ; Zululand ; Orange Free State ;
Basutoland ; South- West Africa ; not recorded from Rhodesia
or north of Zambesi.

Genus ASPIDELAPS.

Two Species in South Africa. shield Snake [A^piddaps

scutalus). Rostral shield very

TCTTV TO TMTT QTaTTPTTTC large and detached on the

ivil i 1(J InrL Sirildilb. sides. Internasals separated

by the rostral. A, rostral
Internasals in contact behind the rostral ; third shield.
and fourth upper labials entering the eye ;

scales all smooth ; ventrals 146-176 .. A spidelaps lubricus.

Internasals separated by the rostral ; fourth
upper labial entering the eye ; scales on
posterior part of body keeled ; ventrals
115-135.. .. .. .. .. .. Aspidelaps scutatus

I. Aspidelaps LUBRICUS. Coral Snake ; Koraal Slang.

Synonyms^N atrix lubrica ; Coluber latonia ; Elaps lubricus ; Naja

lubrica.
Colour — Orange or red with black annuli, which are slightly angular

on the back ; a black bar below the eye ; sometimes a black

cross bar between the eyes, and an oblique band on the temple ;

upper surface of head sometimes entirely black.
Average length — i foot 6 inches to 2 feet.
Distribution — Both provinces of Cape Colony ; Orange Free State :

South-West Africa ; Rhodesia ; Zambesi Regions.

i66

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

AspiDELAPs scuTATus. Shield Snake ; Schild Slang.

Synonyms — Cyrtopsis scutatus ; Naia fula-ftda.

Colour — Pale greyish-brown above, with transverse dark spots or cross
bands ; head and about two inches of the neck black ; chin
and throat white, separated by black irregular blotches ; under-
parts whitish.

Average length — i foot 6 inches to 2 feet.

Distribution — Cape, east from Graaff Rcinet; Bechuanaland Pro-
tectorate ; Natal ; Orange Free State ; Transvaal ; Delagoa Bay ;
Southern Rhodesia ; Portuguese East Africa.

Genus ELAPECHIS.

Three Species in South Africa.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Portion of rostral visible from above, not half
as long as its distance from the frontal,
which shield is a little shorter than the
parietals ; diameter of eye less than its
distance from the nostril in the adult. Scales
in 13 rows. Snout broadly rounded

Elapechis guentheri.

I'lo. 70. — Head and mck of the Coral Snake {Asf^idclaps lubricus).
Colour, coral-red or orange-red, banded with black. A rather
large shield curving back from the nose.

Scales in 13 rows. Portion of rostral visible
from above, as long as its distance from
the frontal, which shield is much shorter than
the parietals ; diameter of eye less than its
distance from the nostril in the adult

Snout obtusely pointed. Portion of rostral
visible from above, at least half as long as
its distance from the frontal, which shield
is much shorter than the parietals ; diameter
of eye equal to its distance from the nostril

Elapechis sundevallii.

Elapechis decosteri.

PROTEROGLYPHA OR FRONT-FANGED SNAKES. 167

I. Elapechis guentheri. Guenther's Garter Snake;
(Kouseband Slang). Synonyms — Elapsoidea guentheri ;
anymlata.

Kousband Slang

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i68 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

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of some of the scales ; lower parts dirty white or brownish, grey,
or blackish.

Average length — 15 inches.

Distribution — Transvaal ; Northwards to Tropical Africa.

2. Elapechis sundevallii. Sundevall's Garter Snake; Kousband Slang.
Synonyms — Elaps sunderwallii ; Elapsoidea sundevallii.

Colour — Reddish brown above with yellow cross bands, the scales
on which are edged with reddish-brown ; upper lip, outer row
of scales, and lower parts yellow.

Average length — i foot 6 inches.

Distribution— Griqualand ; Basutoland ; Natal.

3. Elapechis decosteri. De Costa's Garter Snake; Kousband Slang.
Synonym — Elapsoidea decosteri.

Colour— Dark grey above, each scale edged with black ; outer row

of scales and lower parts white.
Average length — 14 inches.
Distribution — Zululand ; Vryheid District ; Delagoa Bay ; Portuguese

East Africa.

Genus HOMORELAPS.

Sundevall's Garter jjyo Species in South Africa.

Snake. '^ -'

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Ventrals 160-209 ; sub-caudals 2642 .. .. Homorelaps lacteus.

Ventrals 219-226 ; sub-caudals 25-28 . . . . Homorelaps dorsalis.

1. Homorelaps LACTEUS. Southern Garter Snake ; Kousband Slang.
Synonyms — Coluber lacteus ; Cerastes lacteus ; Elaps lacteus ; Vipera

lactea ; Elaps hygece ; Aspidelaps lacteus.
Colour — Colouration variable, but vertebral line constantly bright
red, yellow, or orange, even if crossed by black annuli ; head
black, with yellow or orange markings, sometimes with two
yellow dots close together behind the frontal shield.

A. Yellowish-white with more or less regular black bars or annuli ;

belly black, or with a continuous or interrupted black stripe.

B. As in the preceding, but ventrals uniform white.

C. Black, with small round yellow spots forming various markings ;

a series of large orange spots along the spine more or less con-
fluent into a band ; ventrals black at the base, yellow behind.

D. Black, each scale with a yellow dot ; an orange or citrine vertebral

stripe ; ventrals black at the base, yellow behind.
Average length — i foot 4 inches.
Distribution — Both provinces of Cape Colony ; Natal ; Griqualand ;

Orange Free State ; Transvaal. '

2. Homorelaps dorsalis. Striped Garter Snake ; Streep Kousband Slang.
Synonym — Elaps dorsalis ; Pcecilophis dorsalis. X
Colour— Black above with a yellow vertebral stripe extending to the 1

tip of the snout ; lower parts and three outer rows of scales

white.
Average length — i foot.
Distribution — Eastern Province of Cape Colony ; Orange Free State ; M

Vryheid District ; Natal ; Transvaal. "

PROTEROGLYPHA OR FRONT-FANGED SNAKES. 169

Genus DENDRASPIS.
Two Species in South Africa.
KEY TO THE SPECIES.
Scales in 19 to 23 rows in the middle of the body ;
second and third upper labials much
deeper than the first ; 8 upper labials ;
upper anterior temporal not longer than
the lower

Dendraspis angusticeps.

Fig. 72. — These are Southern~Garter Snakes (Homurdaps lacteus). They vary more or less
in their markings, but the orange or coral-red line down the middle of tiie back is always
present Average length, one foot.

lyo THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Scales in 25 rows. 9 upper labials ; upper
anterior temporal twice as long as the
lower . . . . . . . . . . . . Dendraspis mamba.

1. Dendraspis angusticeps. Mamba or Tree Cobra,

Synonyms — Naja angusticeps ; Chlorcechis angusticeps ; Dendraspis

intermedins ; Dinophis angusticeps.
Colour — Green, olive or blackish, uniform or some of the scales edged

with black ; yello\vish or pale green beneath ; caudal scales

and shields not black-edged.

A. Uniform dark olive or blackish above. Yellowish-white beneath.

B. Uniform leaf-green above, shading into lighter green below.

Some specimens are bright greenish-blue.
Average length — 6 to 9 feet. Attains a length of 13 feet.
Distribution — Natal ; Zululand ; Transvaal ; Southern Rhodesia ;

West Africa, south of the Congo ; East and Central Africa.

2. Dendraspis mamba. Cough's Mamba.

Colour — Dark oUve-green above, bluish-green below, skin between the

scales very dark purple.
Distribution — Transvaal.

The Cape Cobra {Naiaflava).

Also known as the Geel Slang, Bruin Slang, Zwart Slang,

Spoeg Slang.

The Cape Cobra is common all over the Cape Colony. Farther
north in Natal, Transvaal, and more northern parts of South
Africa, tlie Banded or Egyptian Cobra, Black-necked Cobra, and
Anchieta's Cobra take its place.

The Cape Cobra is universally feared, and well it might be,
for it is a highly venomous, bold and courageous snake. When
molested it instantly faces its foe, with body reared and hood
expanded. If tormented it works itself up into a furious rage,
and will not hesitate to attack its aggressor. During the pairing
season the male is particularly aggressive, and will boldly face
and often chase dsvy one intruding into its haunts. As a general
rule, when molested, the Cobra will rear in a threatening manner,
and, seizing its opportunity, glides off amongst the grass, under-
growth, or into crevices or holes. If chased it will always rear
and face its enemy whenever he gets within a few yards of it.

A friend once ventured into a kloof in search of wild flowers.
He was suddenly confronted by a large yeUow variety of Cape
Cobra. He lost his nerve and ran. The Cobra followed, and he.
not being able to make much progress in the tangled bush, was
overtaken and bitten. We saw him staggering towards the

FATALITIES. 171

homestead like a drunken man. When we reached him he
cohapscd, and died an hour afterwards. The Cobra, however,
usually contents itself with a demonstration which is intended
to frighten its aggressor. It then turns and endeavours to find
a place of concealment. Should its enemy return to the attack
it will again boldly turn and face him.

To be bitten by a Cobra is a common occurrence in South
Africa, and many deaths result. The unshod and bare-legged
natives are the principal sufferers. Cobras are frequently found
in and about farmsteads. Many farm-houses and outbuildings
are roofed with straw, the walls being made of " wattle and daub,"
viz. two rows or walls of twigs entwined or interlaced, with a
space between. These are plastered over with mud. Cobras
frequently take up their quarters in the thatch, in the hollow
spaces in the walls, and down rat holes, and in the crevices of the
stone walls of the cattle kraals. The abundance of rats and mice
about farmsteads attract the Cobras.

Fatalities.

Many instances are on record of Cobras actually getting into
bed with the sleeper, attracted there by the warmth ; and many
are the cases of people being bitten in this way.

Two European children were once fatally bitten by a Cobra,
both of whom died. It was a very sad case. They were spending
their holidays with a relative in the country. One night a Cobra
crept into their bed. One of the children evidently moved in his
sleep, whereupon the Cobra instantly bit him on the face. The
terrified boy sat up and screamed, and before his little brother
could realize what had happened, he too was bitten. The uncle
and aunt, hearing the cries, rushed to the room. One of the
children, a manly little fellow, recovering his presence of mind,
cried to his relatives not to come into the room, but to get
a light and a stick, for there was a snake inside. A candle and
weapons were hastily secured, and there, right in the middle of
the room, was a large Cobra, reared and ready to strike. Both
the children died before morning.

Dogs and monkeys, if bitten by an adult Cape Cobra, will
usually die within an hour. A Vervet Monkey which was bitten
on the forearm died in seven minutes. Some venom injected

172 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

direct into a vein killed another monkey instantly. The monkey
was dead before the syringe needle could be withdrawn.

Chasing a Cobra.

One day I came across an adult Cobra in the bush. I followed
it up through the tangled undergrowth, but every time I got
within striking distance it veered round and showed fight.
Finally I got in a blow, but it evidently only sUghtly wounded
it, for it instantly swerved, and with extended hood made a
quick dash at me. I aimed a wild random blow which missed, and
next instant it was upon me. I felt a thud against my leather
gaiter, and before it could strike again I smashed it.
Examining my legging, I found the fangs had scored the leather,
but had not penetrated it. The spot where it struck was
bespattered with venom.

A Terrifying Experience.

Cobras frequently climb trees in search of birds' eggs and their
young.

A friend, who, like myself, was studying native birds and
accumulating facts about the colour, sizes, etc., of their eggs, was
out with me on an expedition. Spying a Sparrow Hawk's nest
in the topmost branches of a great tree, he climbed up to see if
there were eggs in it. Reaching the nest he peered over its
edge, when, to his horror, a Cobra reared therefrom, and with a
fierce hiss lunged at his face. In his endeavour to avoid the
blow he lost his hold and came crashing down through the
branches to the ground, and lay stunned and bleeding. However,
he got off very lightly ^vith a broken arm and a multitude of cuts
and abrasions. For many nights afterwards he would start up
in his sleep with a terrifying cry and a blanched face. The
sudden apparition of the Cobra had evidently made a strong
mental impression which was slow to wear off.

Cobras vary in Colour.

Cape Cobras vary considerably in colour, causing much con-
fusion in the pubUc mind. Although so diverse in colouration

BROWN COBRA. BRUIN KAPELL.

173

they are all of the one species. The reason for the diversity of
colouration in these snakes is evidently not entirely due to their
environment and food supply, for I have found all the varieties
living under the same conditions. From Selbome, Addo, in the
Uitenhage Division, for instance, 1 have procured Cape Cobras
which represent every variation of colour known to exist in these
reptiles.

Variety A.

Yellow Cobra. Geel Kapell.

Bright yellow, sometimes tinged with reddish. In some of

the individuals a few of the scales are rich umber brown, giving

the reptile a speckled appearance. Some adult specimens which

Fig. 73. — A Yellow Cape Cobra. (Photo by W. C. Scully.)

I have examined and measured, were over six feet in length, and
bright yellow, without any darker markings.

In young specimens there is a rich shiny chestnut or umber-
brown patch, sometimes divided, on the throat. This either
becomes very indistinct or fades from view when the snake reaches-
maturity, although I have found if the scales be removed, it is
still clearly visible beneath. When kept long in captivity the
Yellow Cobra invariably becomes much darker, and more hke
the Brown variety. The eyes are reddish brown. The young
Cobra has a laige chestnut patch on its throat.

Variety B.

Brown Cobra. Bruin Kapell.

Bright umber -brown, changing to duller brown. Some
individuals are mottled with lighter tints of a gamboge-yellow

174 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

colour. In captivity the colour usually fades to uniform reddish
brown, and the sliiny gloss is not so apparent.

Variety C.

Light olive brown, \vith a yellowish tinge. Skin between
the scales light yellow. A few odd scales a rich umber brown.
(This variety is uncommon.)

Variety D.

Black Cobra. Zwart Kapell.

Shiny purplish black. The livid purplish tinge is more pro-
nounced on the under parts. This variety is said to possess
the power of spitting, but this Cobra is frequently confused with
the black variety of Ringhals which is known to discharge
showers of venom finely sprayed, and the belief that this Black
Cobra spits is probably erroneous.

Variety E.

Dark mahogany with a blackish tinge. Speckled sparingly
with yellow. (This variety is uncommon.)

The Cobra's Hood.

The Cobra does not expand its hood b}' puffing out the skin
'with air, as most people believe. In the region of the neck, the
ribs are elongated, lengthening to their maximum length, then
gradually shortening, forming a sort of crescent on each side of the
neck. The skin of the neck is loose and flabby. When the snake
is at rest the ribs are depressed, the skin falls into folds, and no
hood is visible. If the reptile be irritated or alarmed, the head
and fore portion of the body is reared, the ribs in the neck-region
are raised, which in turn elevate and spread the skin, and we see
the " hood." It is evidently intended by Nature to aid the
Cobra in frightening off its enemies. With hood expanded and
bright glistening eyes and skin, rearing amongst the stubble and
ready to strike, the Cobra is truly a terrifying sight.

THE COBRA'S HOOD, 175

The Cobras, which include the Ringhals, are the only South

African snakes which expand a " hood." If a snake is seen

176 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

rearing the fore part of its body perpendicularly above the
ground, and expanding the skin of its neck in the well-known
manner of Cobras, you may be perfectly sure it is one of the
Cobras, and that it is a very highly venomous serpent.

The Poison Apparatus.

The Cobra has strong poison fangs in the upper jaw — one on
each side with duplicates. These fangs are deeply grooved down

Fig. 75. — This picture shows the elongated ribs of the neck of a Cobra with
the muscle attachments. By means of these long ribs and muscles the
hood is spread. The head is on the right.

their front surface. In some individuals the sides of the channels
meet and form hollow fangs. The grooves or channels are for the
conveyance of the venom from the poison glands into the wounds
made by the fangs. The bite and the compression and contraction
of the poison glands is simultaneous.

The fangs of Cobras are set in front of the upper jaw, in a bone
called the anterior maxillary. This bone is not very movable.
On the contrary, with the Viper family of snakes it is mobile, and
hinge-like in its movements.

CANNIBAL COBRAS. 177

Cobra and Mungoose Fight.

Once whilst resting under some thick fohage one hot summer's
day, and hearing a rusthng noise, I peered carefully through the
dense curtain of leaves and saw in the glade about ten yards
distant from where I was, a Grey Mungoose {Mungos caffer) in
combat with a large Brown variety of Cobra. The snake was
erect, with hood expanded, keenly watching every movement of
its enemy, and so quick was it that the Mungoose failed to get
it at a disadvantage. Suddenly the wily Mungoose changed its
tactics, and instead of making feints, it began circling round the
Cobra with quick, springy movements. The snake turned round
and round, facing its enemy bravely, but eventually it either got
giddy or the muscles ceased to act, for it toppled over, and before
it could recover, the Mungoose leapt upon it and crushed its head
and neck between its sharp-toothed jaws. It then chewed off
the head, ate it, and began to dine off the body.

Billy, the Meercat.

I once had a tame Meercat known to my friends as " Billy."
This fearless little fellow would devour any snakes I threw to him.
Several times I threw live snakes down in front of him, which he
instantly pounced on and devoured. So quick were liis move-
ments that he even overcame and killed a fair-sized Ringhals
Cobra wliich I placed before him. He ran straight at it, seized
it by the head, crushed its cranium between his jaws, and bit it
severely along the vertebrae of the neck. Then he ate the head
and a portion of the neck. The skin of the Meercat is tough and
the fur dense, consequently it is rare for a snake to drive its fangs
fully home.

Cannibal Cobras.

If the Mamba is lord of the arboreal realms, assuredly the
Cobra reigns supreme over terra firma. He is ever ready for a
fight. He fears no foe but man. Even man has good cause to
be wary when tackling him. He will instantly face his enemy,
ready to deliver a thrust with his channelled fangs, which, if
driven home, leave behind them a fluid so potent that two
drops will kill the strongest man. Swiftly and powerfully it

N

178

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

CANNIBAL COBRAS. 179

attacks and overcomes the cells of certain nerve centres in the
brain, causing rapid paralysis and death. True, the Mungoose,
Muishond, and Meercat attack him at times, and succeed in over-
coming and devouring him. He is never afraid of them. With
a third of the anterior part of his body erect, he boldly and
defiantly faces them and fights on till death overtakes him.

When on the prowl for provender, a hungry Cobra ^vdll attack
and devour any snake he may meet. So bold, fierce and strong
is he, that he is able to overcome and swallow a full-grown Puff
Adder, as seen in the illustration. Lying still as if dead, he keeps
a sharp watch with his shiny brown eyes upon the beaten track
of a field rat or Vley Otomys. The rat, all unconscious of
danger, trots along his usual road on his quest for food, when,
without a second's warning, he receives a blow on the back.
Instantly a stinging pain shoots through his network of nerves ;
he cries out, attempts to escape, but a deadly numbness grips
him, and he is dead.

The bare-legged Kafir, wending his way along one of those
well-known, single-file, native foot tracks across the bush-veld,
his mind maybe full of the prospective delights of a beer drink
and feast of meat at a neighbouring kraal where a wedding is in
progress, feels a prick upon his calf, followed instantly by a sharp
burning pain. With a hoarse yell he leaps into the air, glances
back, sees a Cobra in menacing attitude reared in the grass
adjacent to the path. A benumbing sense of terror seizes the
man. He staggers off to the nearest kraal, and collapses in a
more or less paralj'-sed condition. If the Cobra has succeeded
in dehvering a full bite, then there is no hope for him. He is
doomed. If not, and if his constitution is able to put up a
successful fight against the paralysing power of the venom, he
eventually recovers, and ever afterwards extols the virtues of
some " cure " which the hastily summoned native medicine-man
has given him to swallow, or applied to the bitten part.

When spring is advancing into summer, the Cobra joins his
mate. The male snakes seek out the females only at the breed-
ing season, which is during the advanced spring and summer.
The sexes do not remain together and form a lasting union, as
do many species of birds and mammals. Their instincts are of

* The nerve centres which control the breathing are paralysed — also
the end plates of the Phrenic nerves of tlie diaphragm.

i8o

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

a low order, and they, like most other reptiles, show little or no
solicitude for their young or affection toward one another. Indeed
the Cape Cobra will not hesitate to make a meal of the young of
even its own species. The baby Cobras sally forth and scatter to
take up the struggle for life all alone. A fierce struggle it is, too.
He is beset and encompassed around by enemies. Creatures wliich
would flee from an adult Cobra boldly attack and eat him up.
Even his parents, if he subsequently crosses their path, know him
not, and devour him. Snakes of other species attack and over-
power him. Food, perchance, is scarce, and winter is fast
approaching. If a certain amount of fat is not laid by in his
interior, he knows untaught that the chills of winter will freeze
his sluggish blood and destroy liis life. He, perhaps, is successful

Fig. 77. — How to hold a venomous snake. The specimen is a Cape Cobra (A'aia flava).

(Dark-brown variety.)

in his hunting excursions, and, sleek and fat, he retires into the
innermost corner of a crevice, hole, or under some decaying
leaves, to sleep out the winter. Even here he is not safe.
Carnivorous animals and rats find him out and devour him.

A Cobra in a Schoolroom.

Some time ago, when a lady principal was in the middle of
a school lesson, she heard a slight rustling noise near her elbow.
Glancing down, she was horrified to see the head and forepart of
a yellow variety of Cape Cobra in the act of climbing up her
chair. Vacating the chair with more haste than dignity, she
joined the crowd of coloured school-children who were making

DEATH FROM COBRA BITE. i8i

for the door. The news soon spread, and within half an hour an
army of Malays, Chinamen, and folk of every shade of colour,
from white to ebony black, had gathered round the building,
and were excitedly discussing the situation. Not one had the
boldness to enter. The Cobra held the fort until a European
arrived on the scene with a shotgun. Cautiously peering in at the
open doorway, he observed the snake endeavouring to climb a
partition. He entered the schoolroom and blew it to pieces with
a charge of shot. The remains were brought to me for identifica-
tion. The Cobra measured five feet eleven and a half inches.

The superstitious parents of the cliildren refused to allow them
to return to the school, declaring that the Cobra's mate was sure
to be somewhere in hiding under the floor or elsewhere in the
building, and that it would issue forth to avenge its mate. The
school principal was in a dilemma. The School Board Secretary
advised her to come to me. Sending a message to Mr. Williams,
the snake catcher, I asked him to go along and search eveiy part
of the school. He did so, but found no widow Cobra or any other
kind of snake. Instead, he discovered a horde of rats, which was
strong circumstantial evidence there were no snakes inhabiting
the cellars of the school. This inspection reassured the parents,
who allowed their children to return.

This incident occurred m Port Elizabeth.

Death from Cobra Bite,

A sad case occurred near Graaff Reinet of the death of the
wife of a well-known farmer from the bite of a Cape Cobra.
She was walking in the vegetable garden, and happened to tread
upon the tail of a Cobra which instantly bit her on the ankle.
One of the fangs punctured an artery, and the blood spurted
out in jets. In five minutes' time she was bhnd, and within
ten minutes was in a state of complete collapse. She died in
forty minutes from the time the snake bit her. Shortly after
death the whole body turned bluish-black. This was due to
mortification which rapidly sets in after death, caused by the
poison destroying the antiseptic properties of the blood. When
snake venom enters the circulation direct, as some of it did in
this instance, death often occurs within ten minutes. A post-
mortem instance came imder my notice of a man who died five
minutes after being bitten on a vein on the back of the hand.

l82

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

I

THE RINGHALS COBRA, OR SPITTING SNAKE. 183

Three Cannibal Cobras.

One day we secured three fine Cape Cobras of the yellow
variety. I put them in one of the snake cages at the old Port
Elizabeth Museum. I conceived the idea of keeping certain
lizards, etc., alive ; so, to make room for them, I collected the
smaller live snakes, viz. the Night Adders, Schaapstekers, Garter
Snakes, and several others, and put them along with the Cobras,
as their cage was big and roomy. One day I happened to be
passing, and saw a Yellow Cobra chasing a Spotted Schaapsteker.
Presently it overtook and bit it. The Cobra held on firmly for
some seconds, and was seen to push its fangs deep down into its
victim's body. The Schaapsteker, within five minutes, began to
grow limp. The Cobra, taking the head in its mouth, slowly
swallowed the unfortunate Schaapsteker. Opening the door of
the cage, I searched in the various corners and nooks for the
other small snakes, and found that the Cobras had, within the past
two weeks, swallowed about a dozen of them.

I was rather glad that the Cobras had started eating volun-
tarily, for these perverse reptiles often refuse food, and have to be
fed artificially, which is dangerous to the feeders, and besides,
it is not very satisfactory. Tlie snakes do not tlirive nearly so
well as when they eat willingly. So, summoning Williams, I
told him to scour the neighbourhood for small snakes. These
we put into the Cobra cage. In due time they vanished from
sight to undergo the process of digestion and assimilation inside
one or other of those three cannibal Cobras. In our live Snake
Park at the new museum the Cobras feed principally on snakes
of other species, and rats.

The Ringhals Cobra, or Spitting Snake.
{Scpedon hcemachates.)
The Ringhals Cobra, although belonging to the Cobra fajuily,
is a good deal different in its scale formation to its cousins of the
genus Naia. The Ringhals is classified under the genus Sepedon,
and is the only species in the world under that particular genus.
The Ringhals Cobra is common throughout South Africa. It
extends from Cape Colony as far north as Namaqualand and
Damaraland. There are three varieties, the difterence being

i

I

Fig. 79- — (27a) A Ringhals or Spitting Snake, with hood expanded. She gave birth to 28 young. In
colour they resembled the mother. Note white band across throat of parent. This is why these
snakes arc called Ringhals.
(27B) The large black Ringhals referred to in text. This snake is fierce and aggressive. It is alive in
a snake cage at the Port Elizabeth Museum.

184

HOW ONE WAS CAPTURED. 185

in colouration only. The typical kind is black above with
irregular cross markings of brown. The abdomen is livid black,
witli sometimes a few of the shields white. The throat is banded
with one, two or more, white or yellowish bands across the neck
— lience the name Ringhals, which is a Dutch word meaning
Ring-neck.* A peculiarity of the Ringhals is that the abdomen
is very shiny, and the back dull, rough, and dingy. Another
variety is termed the Zvvart Ringhals, which means Black
Ringhals. The colouration is entirely black often without any
trace of the white collar or transverse brown bands on the back.
In some of the specimens a few odd shields on the abdomen are
blotched with white. This black variety attains a greater length
and thickness than the former.

I kept a large specimen under careful observation, and
immediately it shed its old skin I removed it from its cage and
examined it in a strong light, and counted over half a dozen of
the wav}^ brown markings across its back. Within a week,
however, these faded from view. This goes to show the typical
Ringhals is the one with the wavy brown markings, and that the
black one is a modification or variet}^ having lost its brown
markings, due doubtless to climatic conditions.

A third variety, which is common in the Transvaal, is uniform
brown above with several broad, more or less irregular, patches
of white on the throat.

How ONE WAS Captured.

Mr. Godlonton, at Fort Beaufort, Cape Colony, captured a
magnificent specimen of the Black Ringhals. It measured four
feet eleven inches. He came across it on liis farm. It lay
basking in the sun at the entrance to a hole, down wliich it glided
on observing him. He summoned assistance, and after tracing
the hole for over seven feet, he came across the snake about a
foot from the surface of the ground. He pinned it down with a
forked stick, and seizing it by the neck, between his finger and
thumb, thrust it into a biscuit tin and despatched it alive to me.

It looked quite a giant in comparison with the other Ringhals
in the cage. For the first couple of weeks it fiercely resented the
visitors who peered at it through the plate glass of the cage.
From time to time it would send a shower of venom at them,

* In sonic specimens this white throat band is absent.

i86 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

which bespattered the glass. For some time it was so fierce, the
assistant was obHged to be exceedingly careful when opening the
door to renew the water in the drinking vessel, for the snake
would either dart at him, or send a shower of venom in the
direction of his face.

How WE Photographed this Ringhals.

" Fine specimen that Ringhals is, sir ! " quoth my assistant.
" Yes, rather ! We must have a photograph of him before he
loses his fire and energy." So I summoned my snake photo-
grapher and departed one fine morning for the adjacent veld
with our Ringhals in a box.

The camera was rigged up. We donned our goggles, grasped
each a stick with a fork at the end, and then released the snake.
Out he darted, and on seeing us, with a ferocious series of hisses, he
faced about and stood at bay. A magnificent sight he was, with
his glittering black eyes, shiny under surface, and fuhy expanded
hood. Then the fun began. That snake conceived a special
hatred for the camera. Evidently he considered it to be a more
formidable enemy than ourselves. He had often seen our species
before and watched them scuttle off when he reared and hissed.
The camera was an unknown foe. " I say, Ullyett ! I want
him taken as large as possible. No ! that won't do. Get
closer." "But, sir, won't he bite ? " " Never j^ou mind about
that. We will keep him off." But we didn't. When Ulyett's
head was hidden under the camera cloth, the snake suddenly
dropped his liitherto raised head and body on to the ground,
and made a charge at the photographer's legs. " Look out,
Ullyett ! " I called. Ullyett sprinted back without loss of time.
Then the snake changed his tactics. Instead of making short
rushes at us, he bespattered us with his venom, which lie sent
out in showers, finely sprayed. We did not mind, for our eyes
were safely protected. Ullyett was rather nervous after such a
narrow escape of being bitten. Every time he got his camera
near enough, the snake made unpleasant demonstrations. I
began to grow weary of it all. The troublesome thing was deter-
mined not to allow us to obtain a good photo of it. " Look here,
Ullyett, I have an idea. Just focus your camera on this spot,
and have it ready to take a snap shot." When the camera was

A RINGHALS PHOTOGRAPHED. 187

focussed, we pinned down the snake, lifted him up by the neck
and tail, and, holding him down on the focussed spot, suddenly
released him and sprang away, the photographer at the same
instant taking his photo just when the snake reared, as seen in
the picture. Trying again, he reared as usual, but in an instant
was down and on his way to UUyett's legs, which were within
four feet of him. Snapping the shutter, the photographer
sprinted off. Luckily the picture turned out well, as you see it
in the illustration.

That Ringhals, somehow, seemed bent upon doing some
damage to the photographer. My assistant picked up the snake,
and, holding it securely between finger and thumb, walked off
with the intention of thrusting it into its box. Ullyett was
walking behind and had removed liis glasses, thinking there was
no further occasion for them. Suddenly there was a fierce hiss,
and Ullyett uttered an exclamation of alarm. He had received
a dose of venom on his throat, chin, and mouth. Being so close
the venom had not sprayed much, and luckily, none had entered his
eyes. We wiped the poison off his face, and assured him he would
come to no harm unless any portion of his skin happened to be
scratched. He had shaved that morning, and his skin was
tender, and he feared lest some might get absorbed ; but
fortunately it did not do so.

Many of the photographs in this volume have only been secured
after considerable risk, expenditure of time, and waste of very
many photographic plates. It all seems so easy in theory, but
it is not so in practice.

The Ringhals, as a general rule, like other species of snakes,
is anxious to avoid an encounter with man. The black variety
of the inland districts is the most courageous. Those found in
the coastal parts are invariably timid, owing probably to having
learned by frequent experience that man is a creature to be
avoided. When a Ringhals is surprised in his native haunts
with liis mate during the breeding season, he will occasionally
become somewhat aggressive, but cannot overtake a man running.
The prevalent belief that a Cobra or a Ringhals can overtake a
man riding on a horse at a gallop is imtrue. Should a large
Cobra of any species give chase to 'a man on foot amidst tangled
brushwood or long grass it might possibly overtake him, but out
on the open any active man on foot can easily get safely away.

Fic. S'l. — (2Saj '11ii> i> a blicct of pl.ite glass 4 by 4 fi-cl. brspalttrt'd with vcnoiii spat by a IJlack
Riiighals. For a week or two after capture, it sent a shower of venom at every visitor. There is
enough venom on glass to kill 100 men. (28B) The appearance of glass when free from venom.
Note how transparent it is. The accumulation of venom on glass in top picture is so great that,
although several snakes are on the stump of a tree behind, nothing can be seen of them. When
actually looking at the glass, the contents can be dimly discerned. This snake cage was in the
old Port Elizabeth Museum.

188

RAPID SECRETION OF VENOM. 189

One day I came across a Ringlials out on the veld. He
instantly reared and remained on the defensive. I kept out ol
reach of any venom he miglit spit at me, and adopting the Mun-
goose plan, began circling around him. As I moved he turned
and faced me, but after some time his brain grew dizzy ^\dth
the rapid revolutions, and, observing him wobble, I shielded
my face with my hat, rushed forward and captured him.

How THEY Spit.

Various are the theories in regard to the nature of the fluid,
and the manner in which it is ejected or " spat out " by the Ring-
lials, all of which are more or less incorrect. I have had excep-
tional opportunities for closely studying snakes and their habits,
having kept live snakes in captivity for many years in Natal, and
at the Port Elizabeth Museum.

I have scores of times purposely irritated our captive Ringhals
snakes, and closely observed the manner in which they ejected
the fluid. The fluid is not saliva, as generally supposed, but pure
venom ejected in two streams from the poison fangs. When the
snake struck the glass in the act of spitting (see Fig. 80), the
venom was ejected from the fangs in two streams which ran
down the glass, but if a couple or more feet away, the venom
would be sprayed in a fine shower. This spraying of the venom
is accomplished by the expulsion of air from the lung sac,
simultaneously with the ejection of the venom from the fangs.
The air is expelled very forcibly, and is accompanied by a short
but loud hiss. The muscles which squeeze the glands are
specially modified for expelling the venom in small oft-repeated
jets, and the poison glands are unusually large.

Rapid Secretion of Venom.

The venom is evidently secreted at a very rapid rate when the
snake is enraged, for I observed that a large Black Ringhals dis-
charged five showers of venom within as many minutes. For the
first day or two of a Ringhals' captivity, it spits at every one who
approaches. A single snake covered a sheet of plate glass four
feet by four feet all over with venom in a day.

The venom on exposure rapidly hardens, cracks irregularly,
and assumes a straw- yellow colour. When first ejected it is
almost colourless, and is of the consistency of glycerine.

iQO THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Experiments with the Venom.

On many occasions I have scraped the ejected venom from
the glass of the Ringhals' cage and injected it into animals. It,
in every case, proved fatal to them, killing them off as rapidly as
if the snake had bitten them. Venom which had been on the
glass in a dry state for two 3^ears was found to be quite as
poisonous as fresh venom. If the venom was kept moist for
a short time it decomposed, and lost its toxic or poisonous
properties.

An Astonishing Fact,

The Ringhals is well aware of its spitting power, and its value
as a weapon of defence, which is proved by the intelligent way in
which it goes about the business.

I have experimented many scores of times, and know for
certain the Ringhals always directs its venom at the face of its
foe. It is unnecessary to go into detail as to all my methods
to ascertain this fact.

It seems wonderful that the snake should possess the instinc-
tive knowledge that unless the fluid enters the eyes it is innocuous,
for it has no effect whatsoever upon the unbroken skin. This
spitting power has undoubtedly been evolved as an extra weapon
of defence, the serpent's object being to blind its foe and then
make its escape.

The Black -necked Cobra {Naia nigricollis) or "M'fesi" also
possesses the power of " spitting."

The Effect upon the Eyes.

The first effect of the entry of the venom into the eyes is
intense smarting, quickly followed by inflammation and partial
or total blindness. If the eyes are promptly and efficiently
treated, the inflammation subsides and sight is recovered. The
eyes should be well washed without delay, with milk, water, or
better still, water slightly coloured with permanganate of potash,
and olive, castor, or some other bland oil dropped in. If no
milk or water be obtainable, the saliva should be tinged puq^le
with a speck or two of the potash and rubbed into the eyes. Be

CONSEQUENCES OF BEING BITTEN. 191

very careful not to apply a strong solution of the potash, as it will
seriously burn the delicate membranes of the eyes. Several
cases have come under my observation of total and permanent
blindness ensuing after the entry of the venom into the eyes. As
a general rule, the sight is either wholly recovered or partially
so. I have known several instances of Europeans and natives
who partially recovered their sight, and after two or three months
the cornea of the eye became opaque and the sight was per-
manently lost. I met a miserable-looking, blind old Hottentot
one day, and on inquiry, his friends informed me that about
twenty years ago a Ringhals spat in his eyes and blinded him.
I noticed the corneas of his eyes were opaque.

It is quite a common occurrence for dogs to lose the sight of
one or both eyes. When out in the veld one da3^ my pointer dog
became suddenly rigid and " pointed." Advancing to investigate,
a Ringhals reared up, lunged forward, and the next instant the
dog was running about and crying out piteously. I did not
know in those days what to do in such emergencies, so I got the
dog home as best I could, but the poor beast never recovered his
sight.

The venoms of all snakes, especially of the Adders and
Vipers, produce acute inflammation if sprayed into the eyes of
any warm-blooded animal.

Consequences of being Bitten.

If an adult Ringhals bite a man, and if the bite be full and
complete, and no efficient antidotal measures be immediately
taken, death is certain to take place, even if the person
bitten be hale and healthy. A Ringhals is capable of in-
jecting five to fifteen drops of venom at a time. Two drops will
kill a man.

The fangs of the Ringhals, Hke those of the Cape Cobra, are
grooved and short, and if one of these reptiles bite a man through
his trousers, a certain amount of the venom will probably be
absorbed by the cloth. In other cases, only one fang inflicts a
wound, or the fangs may barely scratcli the skin. In these
instances recovery is very probable, even if no preventive measures
be taken. Many worthless substances obtain a bogus reputation
as antidotes in consequence.

192

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

'*^l:^^ u^v'^-

Fig. 81. — (qa) If you want
to capture a venomous
snake alive, and if it be
too active to be noosed,
then pin it down by press-
ing a forked stick on the
back of its neck. Ad-
vance carefully, sliding
your hand down the stick
until you reach the rep-
tile. Seize it firmly by
the throat between your
finger and thumb, as seen
here. With the other
hand grasp its tail, to
prevent its coiling round
the arm. It is dangerous
toallowa venomous'snake
to do this, for if it should
manage to jerk its head
free, it will bite the hand
or arm, perhaps many
times, before it can be
cast away. The second
picture (93) shows more
clearly how to grasp a
snake. When held in this
manner, it is quite power-
less. In this instance the
snake is a Black variety
of Ringhals, 5 feet in
length, which had just
been captured. A bite
from this reptile would be
fatal within a very short
space of time. It is now
alive in the Port Eliza-
beth Museum. In no case
do we remove the fangs
of the snakes. When
we require fangs for any
special purpose, we ex-
tract them. The business
is a dangerous one, even
when great care is exer-
cised. Snipping fangs out
in a rough manner with
a pair of scissors usually
results in injury to the
mouth and jaw, which
induces abscesses, and the
snake languishes and
dies.

A RINGHALS FEIGNS DEATH. 193

The Ringhals Gives Birth to Young.

The Ringhals gives birth to young, which are of the same
colour as the adult, viz. black with wavy brown cross-bands.
One in the Port Elizabeth Museum gave birth to as many as
twenty-eight. Immediately after being born, the young, if
irritated, rear, expand their hoods, and attempt to bite. Their
poison glands are active, and capable of secreting venom. The
bite of a baby Ringhals two hours after birth will kill a fowl.

The number of young given birth to by a large female Ringhals
varies from about thirty to over sixty. Sixty-three is the largest
number I have known. The young are produced at Port
Elizabeth during the months of January, February, and March.

A Ringhals Feigns Death.

Ringhals are the only snakes I know which actually feign
death. I have killed, captured, and kept in captivity nearly
all the other South African snakes, but have never seen any
attempt to feign death in this way, except with this species of
snake. That the Ringhals does so I am certain. Mr. Wilhams,
of Boomslang fame, captured an adult Ringhals. When handling
it, the snake suddenly became limp. It was placed on the
ground, and immediately turned over and lay on its back. We
moved off and hid. Presently it turned over on its abdomen,
cautiously raised its head, looked round, and then began moving
off. We captured it, and again it feigned death. We presently
placed it on the ground upon its back, and once more
secreted ourselves. After the lapse of five or ten minutes, the
snake again showed signs of life, turned over, looked around,
and then endeavoured to escape. This clever ruse, however, is
not always resorted to. Often the Ringhals will fight bitterly
to the last, and in captivity he is ever ready for a fight. A
series of photographs of a Ringhals simulating death are shown
elsewhere in this book.*

A medical correspondent writes me as follows —
" In a fatal case of Ringhals' bite, where the patient could not
swallow, I used whisky subcutaneously (under the skin), which
only ralhed the insensible patient's pulse for a short time ; but

* After being in captivity a week or two the Ringhals usually shams
death when handled, but will instantly liite if anything soft be brought in
contact with its nose when gripped by the neck with linger and thumb.

O

194 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

hypodermic injections of one-tenth grain doses of strychnine had
a better and more lasting effect, as he seemed on the point of
recovering consciousness. After twenty-eight hours' treatment,
and thirty-one hours after the bite, paralytic congestion of the
lungs supervened, and carried him off in an hour, to the surprise
of the assembled Enghsh, Dutch, Kafir, and Hottentot bystanders,
who all averred that tlie Ringhals was not poisonous. I had no
serum, otherwise I might have saved the man."

The Deadly Mamba.

{Dendraspis angusticeps.)

Imamba Emnyama or Black Mamba : Imamba Eluhlaza or

Green Mamba (Zulu).
In Natal the most dreaded of all snakes is the Black Mamba,
and a report of one being in the neighbourhood sends a thrill of
fear through people living in the vicinity. And well it may,
for during the pairing season these snakes are very aggressive,
and will at times boldly attack any one courageous enough to
venture into their haunts. They often prowl around the habita-
tions of man, drawn thither by the presence of chickens, rats, and
mice. If attacked they will show fight, and so quick are their
movements that the aggressor must have all his wits about him,
and be well armed, else the chances are he will lose his hfe.

Black and Green Mambas.

There are two varieties of the Mamba. One is vivid leaf-
green, the other is olive or brownish-black. However, these
shades vary somewhat. I noticed those procured from the thick
tangled woodlands in the moist valleys were bright leaf-green
above, mth a paler shade of green, or yellowish-green below.
On the contrary, I noticed the Green Mambas, which frequented
localities more exposed to sunlight, were of a darker bluish tint.
A picture from the photo of the skull of a Green Mamba, which I
killed after keeping it alive for a couple of months, is shown
elsewhere in tliis volume. The characteristic Mamba fangs are
clearly seen.

There is no anatomical difference between the two varieties.
The Green Mamba is often confounded by amateur naturalists
with the green variety of the Boomslang [Dispholidus iypiis) or
the Eastern Green Tree Snake {Chlorophis natalensis). I have
frequently kept Green Mambas in captivity for the purpose of

1

Fig. 82. — No. i. The Black Mamba (Dendraspis angusticeps) enjoying the morning sun'srays on a rock.
North Coast, Natal.
No. 2. The Black Mamba coiled on the ground and keenly on the alert for prey or danger
Table Mountain, Natal.

195

196 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

studying their habits. They are at first exceedingly active, and
evince a disposition to bite if approached. However, they soon
lose all spirit, and will allow themselves to be freely handled
without showing any alarm. Those I kept in captivity were
bright grass-green at first, but gradually darkened in colour. I
was unable to keep them alive long enough to ascertain if they
would eventually have changed to olive-brown or blackish. The
existence of a green variety of Mamba is either doubted or posi-
tively denied by most Colonists. There is no doubt at all of its
existence. I have examined many. Their poison fangs, other
teeth and scale formation were similar to these distinguishing
characters in the Black Mamba.

I have never met with the green variety of Mamba anywhere
but the coastal districts of Natal in the dense forests. In the
uplands of Natal and Zululand I have only seen the Black variety.

A controversy has been, and is, waged as to whether the
Green Mamba remains green all its life, or gradually darkens in
colour with age. The so-called Black Mamba is usually olive-
black in colour, varying in its degrees of intensity. Some speci-
mens are uniformly dark olive or olive-black, others have the tips
of the scales edged with black. Green Mambas of all lengths up
to eight and nine feet have been frequently observed.

On the contrary. Black Mambas have been killed which
measured thirteen feet from nose to tip of tail. It is almost a
daily occurrence for Black Mambas, averaging eight to nine feet
in length, to be killed in Natal, Zululand, and Transvaal.

Green Mambas are always found in the forests, clumps of
tangled creeper-covered bush, and wooded valleys.* Tlie Black
Mamba is often found in more open situations, and wanders far
afield, and even penetrates the dwellings of man. It is quite a
common occurrence for Black Mambas to be found in the thatch
of old farm buildings, or amongst the refuse near by, drawn there
by the presence of rats and mice. I have several times seen and
killed Black Mambas in trees on the outskirts of the forests, or
on branches overhanging beaten tracks, where they lie watching
for rodents and other prey, but I found them more abundantly
on the ground basking in the sun on the bare sloping sides of
streams and dongas. On being alarmed, they rapidly glided off
to a hole, into which they vanished.

* Their favourite lairs are the hollow interiors of old forest trees.

BLACK AND GREEN MAMBAS. 197

Their habits vary according to the nature of the country.
In those parts of Natal, Zululand, and Transvaal which are
covered with forests, and where there is an abundance of food,
the Black Mamba rarely leaves the precincts of his leafy home,
except for an occasional terrestrial hunting excursion. In
sparsely-wooded districts, or where the bush grows in isolated
clumps, the Black Mamba scours the neighbourhood for food.
It is at these times he is usually observed, for in his retreat
amongst the branches of thick-foliaged trees, it requires a keen
and practised eye to detect him. In these situations his hiding-
place has frequently been revealed to me by the excited chattering
of forest birds, intent upon scolding and intimidating him, with
a view of getting him to remove his dangerous person from the
neighbourhood of their nests. It has not yet been satisfactorily
ascertained what shade of colour the young of the green variety
of Mamba produces. If the black and the green varieties pair
indiscriminately, then it is reasonable to assume the young would
vary in colouration, some being dark and others green. However,
it has not, to my knowledge, been conclusively shown that the
Black Mamba pairs with the Green Mamba, or whether all the
green ones are females,

Mr. W. E. Jones, who collected Mamba venom for research
purposes, has frequently seen young Black Mambas from eighteen
inches to two feet in length. He says they are innocent, in-
offensive Httle creatures, with a fine " bloom " on their tender
jet black skins. At this time of hfe they do not seem to realize
danger, at least, from the human animal, for they permit one to
inspect them closely while they he along a branch intently alert.
Doubtless they are prompted by the instinct which impels them
to lie immovable with the object of escaping detection.

A young Black Mamba, eighteen inches long, possesses venom
sufficiently strong to kill a large rat in an hour.

For the first year they grow rapidly, attaining a length of
close upon six feet.

Mr. Jones informs me he has killed Mambas containing eggs
in all stages of growth, from the size of a pin's head to an inch
and a half in length. The latter size do not number more than a
dozen or fourteen. The eggs at this stage show on one side a
black patch wliich is the embrj'o in its first stage of foetal
development.

198 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Mr. Jones has counted over sixty eggs, large and small, in a
single snake. Mambas are very sociable, several males and
females being frequently found inhabiting the same hollow in the
trunk of a tree, a crevice among boulders, or a hole in a bank.
Mr. Jones tells me he has found as many as half a dozen pairs
inhabiting the same hole. He says they have no objection to
residing beside the true Cobras, as he has often found Black
Mambas and Cobras {Naia nigricollis) sharing the same retreat.
I have found them at times with other species of snakes in the
broken and abandoned hills of Termites (" White Ants ").

How AND Why they Change Colour — A Theory.

The female Mamba lays its eggs in hollow tree tmnks
and in holes in banks in the dense bush, where the young,
when hatched, will have fewer natural enemies than if in
more open localities. The young take to the trees, and would,
most likely, haunt the woodlands until nearly adult, when the
struggle for existence becoming keener, they or many of them,
would wander further afield for food, which had hitherto been
chiefly birds, their young and eggs, chameleons and other tree
lizards. On leaving the dim, moist, and shady forest, and
venturing out into the open country, the strong actinic rays of
light from the sun would very soon cause the vivid green pigment
of the skin to assume an olive tint, which would subsequently
darken and become the characteristic colour of the Black Mamba.
In Mamba infested forests in Zululand where Black Mambas
abound, there are many open bare spaces upon which Black
Mambas bask in the hot sun. This habit of lying exposed to the
strong rays of sunlight might have been a contributing cause to
the determination of their colour.

Green, especially the more vivid shades, is rapidly acted upon
by strong white light. The fresh skin of a Green Mamba, if placed
in a strong light, will rapidly change to blue or olive, then to
olive-black. If dried in a dark place, rolled up and packed away,
it will retain its green colour.

It is stated there are males and females amongst the green
and black varieties of Mambas, and that eggs have been found in
both varieties.

The question of colouration in snakes is a very puzzling one.
We find Mole Snakes {Pseudaspis cana) of several colours. Some
are uniform shiny black, others are reddish-brown, brownish-

HOW AND WHY THEY CHANGE COLOUR. 199

black, or brown mottled and waved with black, and sometimes
spotted and lined with white.

J3

H

CO '2
^^ >

3 «
n

■Ci.S

■E.-2

to . ^

art"-

o cs c

> rt

0) a

< o

■ n
o >

3 0-

H

The Boomslang or Tree Snake {Dispholidus typus) also differs
considerably in colouration, some specimens are imifonn dull red

200 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

or purj)lish-bro\vn. Others arc yellowish-green streaked laterally
with black. Others again, are uniform green. The degrees of
light and shade, climate, colouration of the surroundings, and
nature of the diet, seem the most likely factors in determining
this variety in colour. It is the male which differs mostly in
colouration in the case of the Boomslang.

A Difficult Problem.

The diversity of opinion is very great as to whether the Green
Mamba changes colour when it attains the full adult stage. Many
colonists assert most positively that the Green Mamba has never
been known to attain a length over nine feet, and that no Black
Mamba has ever been seen of a lesser length than eight feet.
Some say the green variety changes colour, others assert the con-
trary, while others claim to have seen and killed young specimens
of both varieties. However, I usually found on inquiry that most
of the opinions were put forth without any actual knowledge.
Other persons confused different species of snakes with the Mamba.

A well-known gentleman living at Stamford Hill, Durban,
writes to me as follows : " Mambas are generally found amongst
roots and rubbish, especially the exposed roots of the bamboos,
which have been grubbed round and left after having been cut
down. Those I have seen have been from eighteen inches
upwards, and when disturbed will attack at once. They make
straight for you."

Matthew Bedlington, Esq., of the Berea, Durban, says :
" Some eighteen months ago I saw a young Black Mamba about
five inches in length. Colour glossy black, eyes disproportionately
large, and ver\^ glittering. Again, only a few months ago, I killed
a young Black Mamba, length seven inches. About the same
time two Black Mambas were killed, length eight feet each. I
have not seen or heard of a Green Mamba exceeding eight feet,
while Black IMambas of twelve feet and upwards are common."

The late Mr. C told me that he was once out shooting

attended by a Kafir, when the latter, who happened to be some
distance in front, ran back shouting " Mamba, Baas ! " and Mr.

C saw the snake chasing the native, but, owing to the

man's position, he was unable to shoot. The Mamba reared
up and struck the Kafir at the back of his neck, and he shortly
afterwards died. I merely mention this incident as proof of the

A DIFFICULT PROBLEM. 201

statement that a Black Mamba will chase a person. (The
gentleman referred to was a prominent citizen of Pinctovvn,
Natal.)

Mr. W. A. Lutman, of Durban, writes : " I have had con-
siderable experience with Mambas in my various shooting ex-
peditions, being bitten on one occasion by a Green Mamba, and
on several occasions I have killed Black Mambas under six feet
long. It is quite true that the Green Mamba when aged, turns
colour, but not anything like the colour of the Black Mamba.
The colour is something like steel blue, such as is seen on clock
springs, turning, as the snake gets older, to dark navy blue, but
only along the back, the sides retaining sufficient green to dis-
tinguish the snake. The natives assert that both the Black and
the Green Mamba, on attaining a certain age, develop a crest of
feathers on their heads. For this I cannot vouch. I have shot
both green and black ; the last Green Mamba that I shot
measured nine feet two inches, and was just turning steel-blue at
the back of its neck ; no sign of feathers. The last Black Mamba
I shot measured seven feet four inches, and was, I believe, laying,
or had already laid eggs, because it chased me, and it was only
by a lucky shot that I was prevented from being bitten."

Mr. H. W. Bell-Marley, of Durban, who is a keen observer,
and who has had much experience of Mambas, says : " The first
signs of this snake losing his green coat is between eight and nine
feet, when, instead of his being brown, he is of a greenish-brown
colour, which soon changes as he ages to black. I think when he
is eleven feet in length he is what we might term an adult, or at
his largest dimensions."

H. W. James, Esq., of Zwelle Estate, Verulam, Natal, says :
" I have lived for many years in this part of Natal, which is fully
supplied with Mambas. My parents have also resided here since
the early sixties. I can certainly state, both from hearsay and
also from my own experience, that Mambas of the green variety
grow to a large size, and I have myself shot one over nine feet in
length, and my parents killed one in the early days which, \\hen
measured, proved to be fifteen feet long. As regards Black
Mambas, a few years ago I found a newly-hatched lot of just one
dozen, and as lately as January of this year (1910), when cutting
cane, killed one nine feet long, and a few minutes later, within a
yard or two, killed a young one of about two feet long."

202 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

A District Native Commissioner's Evidence.

John L. Knight, Esq., District Native Commissioner, District
No. I, Natal, writes me the following interesting and seemingly
convincing letter : " The individual habits and characteristics
of the Black and Green varieties of Mambas are so distinct,
numerous, and marked, as to leave no manner of doubt in my
mind whether the Green Mamba ever changes and becomes a Black
Mamba. The Green Mamba spends the most of its life in the
boughs of trees, and I cannot call to mind ever having seen one
on the ground, until killed. On the other hand, I have never
seen a Black Mamba in a tree.

" I have probably killed, or seen killed, as many of each
variety as any person in South Africa, having lived in ' Mamba
country ' practically all my life. I have killed, or seen killed,
Black ]\Iambas measuring about eighteen inches in length up to
fully twelve feet, and the only difference in colour is that the full-
grown creature is slightly deeper black.

" On the other hand, I have had the same experiences with
Green Mambas, the latter, however, never reaching so great a
length as the Black — say not more than eight feet to nine feet.
In this case also the only difference in the colour being that the
larger ones are a slightly deeper green than the young ones.

" When both black and green have recently sloughed, their
colour is brighter, and approximates nearer to the young of each
variety. I have seen and had many cases of Mamba bite by
both varieties come under my notice — the bitten consisting for
the most part of natives, with a few Europeans, and also animals,
such as horses and cattle. When the bite has been by the Black
Mamba the result is almost invariably fatal. When by the Green
Mamba, it is seldom, if ever, fatal. There is a somewhat mythical
snake in Natal and Zululand, known to the natives as Indhbnhlo,
said to have a feather in its head. Europeans believe this to be
only a very old Black Mamba, whose head has become tinted
with a grayish powdery pigment, which, at a distance gives the
optical delusion of a feather."

A Durban lady, whose father was an enthusiastic amateur
naturalist, and whose special hobby was the collection of specimens
of snakes preserved in spirit, and who naturally was well acquainted

CRESTED MAMBAS. 203

with the different species of snakes found in the vicinity of
Durban, writes me as follows : —

" During our travels, we once found a mass of eggs of some
sort. Father, thinking they would probably turn out chameleons,
or something equally harmless, kept them till they hatched. We
watched the gradually darkening mass, having a peep every day,
until one day, on lifting the lid of the box they were in, out popped
thirteen very lively ' Black Mambas '—quite black. As far as
I can remember, they were about four to six inches in length.
My father knows a Black Mamba when he sees one, so do my
brothers. There is a black snake very like the Black Mamba,
but it is distinguished from the Mamba by its tail and shiny
coat." I have examined several of the black and the green
variety which measured from two feet to three feet in length.

Crested Mambas.

The natives of Zululand and Natal firmly believe there is a
Mamba possessing a feathered crest, which it spreads out like a
fan when disturbed. Many colonists also hold this belief. For
years I was on the look-out for a snake with some sort of a crest,
but in vain. Believing that most popular beliefs and legendary
tales have, or had, some foundation in fact, I was quite prepared
to believe that there might be a snake with elongated scales or
something of the sort on its head. Mr. H. W. Bell-Marley's
explanation is as follows : — " I am told by the natives near the
kloof that there is an old Mamba that has been there since their
fathers' time, and hves by himself, being most vicious. When
he is angry he raises his head and spreads a feather behind. For
some time I tried to find out what they alluded to, as it was a
common belief amongst all, and given me quite bona fide. One
day, when looking for some Sun Birds, I heard a rustling close by,
and was just in time to raise my breech-loader and fire at a
retreating Mamba. I shot him badly in the neck and head, and
found, although he did not exceed thirteen feet, that he was quite
black in appearance, and the scales behind the head, for four
inches down in line, had so grown together that they formed a
ridge or crest. Some of the scales were larger than others. The
Mamba was the largest I had killed so far, and the oldest, judging
by its appearance. This ridge of skin and scales was evidently

204 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

the origin of the bchef of the feather-crested snake. It would,
I suppose, when the snake raised its head, spread into a file,
giving him the appearance of wearing a feather. The snake when
casting his skin had been unable to rid himself of the neck-skin,
and this had accumulated for years. It must be sometimes a
source of great annoyance to the owner, making him vicious. I
showed the natives this skin, but they would not be convinced
about its being an explanation of the feather business. They
told me their fathers wouldn't kill the Mamba, as it would have
provoked tlie wrath of the mighty Umtagati (God)."

This explanation of Mr. Marley's seems to offer a fairly reason-
able explanation, but it is not, I think, the one which accounts
for this widespread belief amongst the natives of the existence
of a Crested Mamba.

Mr. W. F. Jones is a gentleman who has lived for years in
those parts of Zululand most frequented by Black Mambas. He
has hunted them daily for the purpose of collecting their venom
for scientific purposes. He has been responsible for the deaths
of many hundreds. He writes me as follows : — " It may not be
generally known, but Black Mambas have the power of apparently
inflating the greater portion of the body and neck. The neck is
not distended in the manner of the Cobra family, but the sides
appear to be compressed together so that when seen straight on,
this section of the body presents the appearance of a narrow
ridge. When viewed sideways it gives the creature with its
very small head a grotesque appearance. The full distension is
rarely resorted to. It moves deliberately and even awkwardly,
and quite unlike itself when the distension is complete, and it
would be a very dangerous proceeding to molest one at such
times. A nine to twelve foot Mamba at this time looks twice its
usual girth, and is a startling object. Before there is time to
recover from the surprise, the snake has achieved its purpose,
and vanished. This is merely a temporary ruse to cover retreat
over ground exposed to the view of an intruder. The moment
the snake is out of sight the body assumes its usual outline, and
either glides off rajndly, or remains perfectly still and intensely
vigilant. Undoubtedly, the snake wishes you to believe it has
gone to ground, and it is safest that you should so believe, and
cross it no more for that day. Though it is a comparatively
rare occurrence for the Black Mamba to assume this guise, the

KILLED BY A BLACK MAMBA.

205

Fig. 84. — Skull and poison apparatus of
a green variety of Maniba (Dcndraspis
angusticeps). The Mamba has dupli-
cate pairs of fangs. Poison gland is
seen behind the eye. It is connected
with the base of the fang by a tube or
duct.

fact must frequently have been observed by the Zulu, who has
mistaken the semblance of size for the bodily reality. This is
sufficient to account for the ex-
aggeration they betray when
recounting their experiences of
these reptiles."

Mr. Jones' explanation seems
to explain satisfactorily the
orierin of the belief in Crested
Mambas.

I have killed and been present
at the killing of many, but have
not been fortunate enough to
witness the phenomenon de-
scribed by Mr. Jones. However,
I noticed that one which I kept
in captivity, when irritated,
assumed this flattened appear-
ance to a certain degree.

The Boomslang has a somewhat similar habit. When
unusually excited, it dilates its throat considerably, giving the
liead a weird and uncanny appearance. In the Addenda at the
end of the book, photos recently taken show this wonderful
phenomenon.

Killed by a Black Mamba.

Some of the favourite resting places of Mambas are the
branches of thick foliaged trees. Entwining themselves amongst
the twigs they lie perfectly still. They frequently select branches
of trees overhanging the Kafir paths which wind through the
forests in various directions. These Kafir paths are made by the
natives, who always walk single file. They are merely tracks
worn by the feet of the natives. Man}^ a native has met his
death by being bitten on the head, neck, or shoulders whilst
passing under a branch in the foliage on which one of these
venomous snakes lay concealed.

One day, when out buck-hunting, I was leisurel}^ riding along
a Kafir path in the outskirts of a forest, when suddenly a black
streak shot out from a clump of stunted bush a few yards ahead,
and next instant I saw it was a great Black Mamba, and that it
had buried its fangs up to the hilt in a burly Zulu's bare shoulder.

206 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

The native, with a hoarse yell, bounded into the air, fell,
recovered himself, and rushed away at full speed down the path.
Making a detour to avoid the snake. I came upon the man, ten
minutes later, in the throes of death.

Naturally, in all cases death would not have been so startlingly
sudden, but the man received a full bite in the shoulder-nmscles
by a large and vigorous snake, and running at such great speed
the blood coursed with tremendous rapidity through his blood
vessels, and quickly carried the venom to every part.

Another day when out on horse-back, away in the wilds of
Natal, I noticed a movement in a large tree overhead, and detected
a Green Mamba. Moving further away, I sent a charge of No. 6
shot at him. Down he tumbled on to the grass, but alas ! my
favourite terrier dog darted forward at the wounded snake, and
was instantly bitten in the side. I quickly killed the reptile, and
attended to the dog, but in spite of every effort to save his life,
he died in fifteen minutes.

The Mamba does not deliberately take up a position in a branch
overhanging a Kafir path with the intention of viciously biting
some unwary passer-by. He is cither there with the purpose of
sunning himself, to escape from the terrible closeness of the forest
air on a hot summer's day, or with the object of watching out for
a meal. These Kafir paths arc much frequented by small rodents
and forest birds, and it is these which the Mamba is anxious to
secure for a meal. Naturally, if l3ang concealed amongst the
foliage of a low branch, and if suddenly aroused from slumber, or
approached too closely or actually brushed against, when he is
lying wide awake, and intent upon watching for prey, the Mamba
will strike.

The stroke is invariably fatal, for it is received usually upon
the head, neck, or shoulders.

A favourite position assumed by the Black Mamba when
sleeping, is a coilcd-up attitude upon some twigs, with the head
tucked away under or between one or two folds of the body. In
this position it will lie for hours, relying upon its protective
colouration to escape detection. At these times it may easily
be approached and secured alive with a large butterfly net, if
the branch should happen to be in a situation easy of silent
approach, and sufficiently near to the ground. The slightest
vibration of the branch, or the cracking of a twig will cause it

THE KING OF SOUTH AFRICAN SNAKES 207

instantly to awake, whereupon it silently glides out of sight
among the foliage.

On these occasions if you happen to be between the reptile
and its retreat, the chances are you will be bitten. The snake
gives you no time to think. The thinking and acting must be
simultaneous. A sudden uncoiling, a blur, and next instant the
smart of the venom is felt in face, arms, or legs. An impotent
struggle of the will against the subtle, paralysing power of the
venom, then the cold chills of death are felt stealing through the
frame, followed by oblivion and the passing of the spirit into the
Beyond.

A Faithful Dog.

Near the Tugela River, a Zulu girl was once busy with her duties
of rolling up the sleeping mats and brushing out the hut which
was the usual circular grass structure, when, to her horror, a large
Black Mamba dropped out of the thatch on to the floor. The
girl screamed and crouched in a corner, the snake being between
her and the small door. Just at that critical instant her pet dog
rushed in through the doorway, and, seeing the Mamba advancing
upon the girl, he instantly tackled it. The Mamba rained blow
after blow upon the dog, who grimly held the snake between his
jaws. In a minute or two the venom began to exert its well-
known deadly effects. The faithful dog staggered and collapsed,
but, with a last expiring effort, he so effectually mangled the
snake that it was powerless to escape or attack the girl, who
slipped past it and escaped.

The King of South African Snakes.

Many and varied are the stories told of the terrible Mambas.
Sitting within tlie cheerful glow of camp fires, after a da3''s tough
riding and climbing, I have passed many a happy hour listening
to thrilling, if legendary tales, of the evil po^^•ers and fierce
aggressiveness of the Mamba. I think there is no happier
life than to live for months at a time away from all the
cares, bickerings, conventionalities, and empty vanity with
which town life is so permeated, and with a companion or
two, a favourite horse, a few affectionate and devoted dogs.

2o8 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

and a couple of trusty Zulu servants, to go right into the wilds,
away from all civilization, and live surroiuided by Nature, and
study the ways of her creations-. . v

So great is the dread of the Mamba in the native mind, that
if one be known to inhabit any particular locality, few, if any,
natives will venture there. In fact, a wide detour is always
made. As a general rule, the more we learn about snakes and
their ways, the less fear we have of them. This is usually not so
with the Mamba. The more one learns of his ways, the greater
grows the dread of him. He, without doubt, is the king of snakes
in South Africa. For quickness, aggressiveness, and the deadly
nature of his venom, he has no equal.

After two or three encounters with large Black ]\Iambas, I
learned to be wary. I found that even a gun was not always a
protection, so quick and sinuous were his movements. A Black
Mamba should never be attacked in the bush or long grass. I
have frequently startled Mambas out of a nap on the Kafir paths
in the bushy parts of Natal. Sometimes they would glide off
and away into the undergrowth, but as likely as not the Mamba
would slide up a shrub at the side of the path, and remain on the
defensive. If a stone be thrown at him, or if he be wounded, he
will, as likely as not, make straight at his aggressor, and with
body raised, bite him.

I once lost a Zulu servant in this way. He had lost most of his
superstitious fear of Mambas, having been with me on many
expeditions, and witnessed numbers of these reptiles being killed.
Disregarding the advice of the other natives, he ventured up a
kloof in search of a duiker buck which was seen to enter. He
came back, foaming at the mouth, and gasping out the word
" Mamba ! " and, pointing to the upper part of his thigh, he was
seized with terrible convulsions and died. I jpiourned for long
over this boy, for he was so true, so brave, so simple, so devoted.
For there is no savage upon the face of the earth to equal a real
uncivilized Zulu of the kraal type, unstained and free from the
degrading and soul-blighting influences of tlie lower stratum of
humanity often inhabiting towns.

The quickness of movement, grace, and ease with which the
Mamba glides about in his native habitat is very lucidly summed
up by Mr. W. F. Jones, of Zululand. " The ]\Iamba is essentially
partial to trees, and thorns mak^ no difference to the ease of its

i

A FARMER'S EXTRAORDINARY EXPERIENCE. 209

movements. Our large dongas are matted iu })laccs with a
dense network of bramble-like growths, which extend search-
ingly in long, sinuous branches, which are studded with
formidable thorns, curved like the claws of a cat. Whatever
road he elects to take, whether on the top or along and
through this cruel maze of brake, it is the same to this graceful
creature. To see a startled Mamba making for his home along
the crown of one of these thickets is a marvel of perfected
movement. The small head, with its full prominent eyes, the
long body, partially raised and sweeping from side to side with a
forward throw, so swift and sudden as to bewilder one into
believing that the creature is bounding along with ten-feet gaps
between the curves. And as the tail disappears into the dark
cavity edging the donga, there follows immediate stillness and
peace. But, on the first sunny day, we steal along with a gun
charged with No. 6 shot, and midway in the passage home
this time there is a sharp decisive pause. We are using smokeless
powder, and, without taking the eye off the line of the barrels,
the lightning turn of the head can be followed as it darts viciously
back at the gaping wound halfway down the body. Realizing
its impotence, it strikes hither and thither at leaf or branch.
In a few moments we see the jaws opening widely, the writhe of
the contorted body showing the clean white belly, and we know
that the end of so much beauty and menace has come."

A Farmer's Extraordinary Experience.

Mr. T. Braithwaite, senr., had (says the Natal Witness) a
most remarkable experience at his farm " Gracelands," in Muden,
on Wednesday last. To have a snake up the leg of one's trousers
is a most unenviable experience, and to stand perfectly calm and
still while it remained in such close proximity was an act of
amazing presence of mind. The story is best related in Mr.
Braithwaite's own words : —

" I sent two natives to clear an irrigation furrow with sickles.
They returned after the lapse of about one hour, and informed me
that they were afraid to continue working there, as they had seen
a large green Mamba in the vicinity. I took my D.B. and went
back with them.

" We searched some time without success, tlie grass and other

P

210 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

herbage being very long and luxurious, when suddenly I felt a
great commotion in my left trouser leg, and knew at once that a
snake was there. Another snake at the same time darted away
from my feet.

" The one in my trousers went up as far as the pocket, and
then turned downwards. I could see by the shape it gave my
trousers, and feel by its strength, that it was no small one.

" I kept perfectly still, and called to a native who was a safe
distance away to come and catch hold of the snake's tail and jerk
it out. But he would not come. The snake then poked its
green snout and shining eyes out below my trousers. On looking
at it I discovered that I was treading on it about a foot from the
end of its tail.

" I gently raised my foot, and the reptile immediately glided
away, and so quickly that I could not get a shot, although my
gun was at the ' ready.'

" We afterwards found and shot one of the two snakes, a
greyish-green Mamba, about five and a half feet long, but
whether it was the one who had ' worn the maister's breeks,' I
cannot say."

The following appeared in the Eastern Province Herald,
June 27th, 1911 : —

Young Surveyor's Sad Death.

"The many friends of Mr. Claud ('Punch') Moller, who so
ably played full back for the Gardens Rugby Football Club,
Capetown, were grieved to hear of his death from the bite of a
Mamba. The sad event occurred some sixty miles from Malapyre,
Bediuanaland, and details of the occurrence have just come
to hand.

" Mr. Moller left Capetown for Rhodesia some two months back,
on a surveying trip, as assistant to Mr. Hector M. Shaw, Govern-
ment Land Surveyor. On Sunday, the nth inst., he and Mr.
Shaw were sitting at a camp table alongside of the wagon, writing
letters. Young Moller had just finished a letter to his mother
when he heard a shot fired close to the camp. Knowing that the
natives were in search of another buck, the skin of which would
complete the required number to make a kaross which he wanted,
Mr. Moller folded the letter with the remark to Mr. Shaw :

THE RUSH OF THE MAMBA. 211

Please address this to my mother,' and grabbing his gun, he
started for the spot where the natives had fired the shot. About
sixty yards from the camp, and a few yards away from where the
natives stood, Moller had his eyes fixed on the latter when he
suddenly put his foot on a large black Mamba snake, measuring
over six feet long. In a moment the snake reared and put its
fangs in his foot above the left ankle. Moller, with presence of
mind, cut away the part bitten with a penknife, and tightly tied
a bootlace above the wound and another strap below the knee.
Mr. Shaw came upon the scene immediately, and two more
ligaments were put on. Everything possible was done, and
remedies were applied as well. Moller apparently recovered,
and the poison was stayed. Preparations were then made to
go into Malapyre, but just as they were starting, some six or
seven hours afterwards, Moller's left side suddenly became
paralysed, and in a few minutes he had expired."

The Rush of the Mamba.

The Black Mamba, as a general rule, has some secure retreat
to which it decamps when alarmed. If a Mamba be surprised
when out in the open, and if you happen to be between it and
its retreat, it will not rush off in an opposite direction, as most
animals would do, but will instantly dart off at terrific speed,
apparently charging right at you. If a Mamba should act in
this manner, and if you are not prepared to defend yourself,
your safest plan is to sprint off without an instant's delay.
Whilst travelling at great speed, a Mamba can strike right
and left with consummate ease, without apparently abating
its speed in the slightest. To stand in the path of a Mamba
rushing off to its lair, is fraught with the gravest danger,
even if well armed. At such times the nerves are none too steady,
and it is as Hkely as not that even an expert with the gun will
miss his aim. There is no time for reloading, and often not even
time to take a second aim should the gun be a double-barrelled
one, before the snake has swept past, and in the passing deposited
its death-dealing venom.

When making off through the bushveld, the Black INIamba,
with a rapid and continuous succession of forward propulsions,
glides over the stubble, the head and anterior part of its body

212 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

being sometimes several feet off the ground. When a bush fire
is raging Mambas may be seen escaping in this way at a swift
pace. Viewed at a distance they seem to be ghding over the
tops of the long grass and low shrubs. Cases are on record of
men being bitten as high up as the thigh, when mounted on
horseback.

Distribution.

The Mamba {Dendraspis angusticeps) is abundant throughout
the wooded districts of Natal, Zululand, Eastern Transvaal,
British Bechuanaland, Rhodesia, and West, Central, and East
Africa.

Another species of Mamba has recently been discovered in
the Transvaal by Dr. Gougli. It is named Dendraspis Mamba.
This makes two species found in South Africa.

Note. — Mr. W. A. Campbell of the Natal Sugar Estates, Ltd., has
informed me that two adult Green Mambas were recently {1919) killed
while in the act of copulating. Also that Mr. Innis of the Berea killed a
Black Mamba and a Green Mamba under similar circumstances.

. i

CHAPTER VII.

The Proteroglypha or Front-Fanged Snakes,
(solenoglypha.)

Family V. — Viperid^.
Adders, Vipers and Pit-Vipers.

The Viper family of snakes, with one or two exceptions, are
different in appearance to those of the Colubrine family, to which

:T^

^---'^' ^^n- V4

z^ .,-. ^^IK^^A

'M'^^m ^

i^.>a

i^-^^>iattfl||l|H|

FiG. 85.— The life-size head and poison fangs of the typical viper of South Africa, viz.

the Puff Adder {Bitis arictans).

the Cobra belongs. They have flat heads, usually more or less tri-
angular, bodies thick and plump, and tails short. All are venomous.

213

214 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Apart from the outward form, the Viperine snakes differ from
the Cohibrines in the formation of the upper jaw bones. The
maxillary bones in which the fangs are set are mobile, allowing
erection and depression of the poison fangs, which are large,
recurved and hollow, like the needle of a hypodermic syringe.
Behind the front fangs several duplicate sets of fangs arc stowed
away, graded in size down to mere specks. These are the Viper's
reserve set of weapons. H the front active pair of fangs be
shed or lost accidentally, the first pair of the reserve set take their
place, and become connected with the ducts communicating
with the poison glands. The supply of these reserve fangs is
indefinite. If those which are visible are removed, others develop.

Numbers and Distribution.
There are about forty-two species of Vipers, and sixty-four
species of what are known as Pit-Vipers. The Vipers inhabit
Africa, Europe and Asia. The Pit-Vipers are unknown in Africa,
but occur all over Southern Asia, Central and South America.
The Rattle-snakes of America are Pit-Vipers. They are termed
such because of a pair of deep pits in the fore part of the head,
between the eyes and nostrils. The Pit-Vipers are classified
under the Sub-Family Crotalinse. In South Africa we have
ten species or kinds of Vipers.

SYNOPSIS OF THE GENERA.

Genus Causus. — Head distinct from neck, covered with symmetrical
shields ; nostril between two nasals and the internasal ; loreal
present ; eye moderate, with round pupil, separated from the
labials by suboculars. Scales smooth or keeled, with apical
pits, oblique on the sides, in 15 to 22 rows; ventrals rounded.
Tail: short, sub-caudals in two rows or single.

Genus Bixis.^Head very distinct from neck, covered with small im-
bricate scales ; eye moderate or rather small, with vertical
pupil, separated from the labials by small scales ; nostrils
directed upwards, or upwards and outwards, pierced in a single
or divided nasal, with a deep pit or pocket above, closed by a
valvular, crcsccntric supranasal. Postfrontal bone very large,
in contact with the ectoptergoid, which has an outer, hook-
shaped process. Scales keeled, with apical pits, in 22 to 41 rows ;
lateral scales in some species slightly oblique ; ventrals rounded.
Tail very short ; sub-caudals in two rows.
Genus Atractaspis. — Poison fangs enormously developed ; a few teeth
on the palatines, none of the pterygoids. Head small, not dis-
tinct from neck, covered with large symmetrical shields. Nostril
between two nasals ; no loreal. ]£ye minute, with round pupil.
Postfrontal bone absent. Body cylindrical. Scales smooth,
without pits, in 17 to 37 rows ; ventrals rounded. Tail short.

NUMBERS AND DISTRIBUTION.

215

Genus CAUSUS.

Two Species in South Africa.
KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Snout obtuse, more or less prominent ; vcntrals
120-155. Poison glands considerably elon-
gated

Snout pointed, prominent, more or less turned up
at the end ; ventrals 113-125 ..

Causus rhombeatus.
Caustis defillippii.

Fig. 86. — The venomous Hornsman or Honied .-Vcldcr (Bilis cornuta) of the sandy
inland parts of South Africa. Tliere arc two species. The chief difference is
that the one known as Bitis cornuta has several small, erect horn-like scales
over the eyes, while the other (Bitis caudalis) has only one erect horn-like scale.

I. Causus rhombeatus. Night or Demon Adder ; Nacht Adder.

Synonyms — Sepedon rhombeatus ; Distichunts maculatus ; Aspidelaps
rhombeatus.

Colour — Olive or pale brown above, rarely uniform, usually with a
dorsal series of large rhomboidal or V-shaped dark brown spots
which may be edged with whitish ; usually a large dark j\-shapcd
marking on the back of the head, the point on the frontal, and

2l6

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

an oblique dark streak behind the eye ; labials usually dark-
edged ; lower parts yellowish white or grey, uniform, or the
shields edged with black.

Average length — 2 feet.

Distribution — All over South Africa ; North to Tropical Africa.
2. Causus DEFiii.ippii. Snouted Night Adder ; Snoet Nacht Adder. (Gesnoet
Nacht Adder.)

Synonyms — Hctcrodon defillippii ; Causus rostratus.

Colour — Grey or brown above, vertebral region darker, with a scries
of large rhomboidal or V-shaped dark brown spots ; a large
jY-shaped dark brown marking on the occiput, the point on the
frontal ; an oblique dark streak behind the eye ; upper labials
dark edged ; yellowish white beneath, uniform, or with small
greyish-brown spots.

Average length — -i foot 0 inches.

Distribution — Griqualand ; Natal ; Zululand ; Transvaal ; Southern
Rhodesia ; East and Central Africa.

\

A

Fig. 87. — The poisonous Night or Demon Adder (Causus rhombcalus).
Note the characteristic triangular blackish mark on its head.

Genus BITIS.
Six Species in South Africa.
KEY TO THE SPECIES.
Nostrils directed upwards ; scales in 31 to 41 rows . .
Nostrils directed upwards and outwards ; scales in 21
to 31 rows. Supraocular region not raised, with-
out horn-like scales ; sub-caudals well developed
and smooth in both sexes. Outer row of scales
smooth . . ....

Same as the former except that outer row of scales are

keeled . . ....

Supraocular region raised, without horn- like scales;

sub-caudals well developed and smooth in both

sexes . .

I

Bitis arietans.

Bids peringueyi.
Bitis atropos.

Bitis inornata.

NUMBERS AND DISTRIBUTION. 217

Supraocular region usually with horn-like scales ;
sub-caudals, in females, small and scale-like,
more or less distinctly keeled. Two or more
supraorbital horns . . . . . . . . . . Bitis cornuta.

Supraorbital region with only one horn-like erect scale.

Sometimes it is not present . . . . . . Bitis caudalis.

1. Bitis ariet.\ns. Puff Adder ; Pof Adder.

Synonyms — Vipera arietans ; Cobra lachesis ; Clotko arietans ; Echidna
arietans.

Colour — -Yellow, pale brown, or orange above, marked with regular
chevron-shaped dark brown or black bars pointing backwards,
or black with orange or yellow markings ; a large dark blotch
covering the crown, separated from a smaller interorbital blotch
by a transverse yellow line ; an oblique dark band below, and
another behind the eye ; yellowish white beneath, uniform, or
with small dark spots.

Average length — 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet. Attains a length of 5 feet.

Distribution — All parts of South Africa. Northwards through Tropical
Africa to Arabia.

2. Bitis peringueyi. Peringuey's Adder.
Synonym — Vipera peringueyi.

Colour — Pale buff or greenish olive above, with three longitudinal
series of grey or blackish spots, the outer ocellar, enclosing a
white centre ; head sometimes with a trident-shaped dark
marking on the crown, followed by a cross and two large markings
on the occiput ; whitish beneath, with small dark spots.

Average length — i foot.

Distribution — -Kalahari ; South- West Africa ; Angola.

3. Bitis atropos. Berg Adder.

Synonyms — Coluber atropos ; Cobra atropos ; Vipera atropos ; Clotho
atropos : Echidna atropos.

Colour — -Brown or greyish brown above, with four longitudinal series
of large dark brown, black and white edged spots, formed by
the breaking up into two of the two series of sub-circular spots ;
a continuous or interrupted whitish streak running between,
and dividing the spots on each side of the back, and another
lower down on the sides ; two large dark markings on the head,
from the nape to between the eyes ; an oblique, light, dark-
edged streak from behind the eye to the mouth ; belly grey or
brown, spotted with darker.

Average length — i foot 6 inches.

Distribution— Both provinces of Cape Colony ; Basutoland ; Griqua-
land ; Orange Free State ; Natal ; Zululand ; Transvaal.

4. Bitis inornata. The Cape Puff Adder ; Kaap Pof Adder.

Synonyms — Echidna inornata ; Vipera atropoides ; Vipera inornata.
Colour — Variable.

A. Dark yellowish-brown above, with faint traces of darker markings,

brownish-yellow beneath, with a few dark dots ; head marbled
with dark brown.

B. Brown above, with two dorsal series of dark brown, black-edged

spots.

C. Reddish brown above, marked as in Bitis cornuta.
Average length — 18 inches.

Distribution — Both provinces of Cape Colony. (Very uncommon.)

2l8

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

5. HiTis coRNUTA, Homsman or Horned Adder ; Hoornsman.

Synonyms — Vipera cornuta ; Vipera armata ; Cerastes cornuta ; Clotho
cortmta ; Cerastes lophophrys.

Colour — Greyish or reddish brown above, with dark brown spots, often
edged with whitish, disposed in three or four longitudinal series,
with or without light spots between them ; head with more or
less distinct symmetrical markings ; an oblique dark streak
from the eye to the mouth ; yellowish white or brownish beneath,
uniform or spotted with dark brown.

Average length — i foot to i foot 6 inches.

Distribution — Both provinces of Cape Colony, including British Bechu-
analand ; South-Wcst Africa. (Partial to sandy regions.)
5A. BiTis CAUDALis. Homed Puff Adder; Hoorn Pof Adder. Also called
Hornsman.

Synonyms — Vipera ocellata ; Cerastes ocellatus ; Vipera caudalis ;
Cerastes caudalis ; Vipera schneideri.

Angola.

l"ic. 88. — Head and neck of the Horned .Adder (IJilis caudalis).

A pair of erect horn-like scales on the head. Body

rough-looking and dingy. Head flat and broad.

Colour — Pale buff, reddish or sandy grey above, with two series of
brown spots with light centres, and frequently a vertebral series
of narrower spots ; the spots may be edged with yellow ; yellowish
white beneath, uniform or with small blackish spots on the sides.

Average length — 14 inches.

Distribution — -Eastern Province of Cape Colony ; Orange Free State and
Transvaal ; Soutliern Rhodesia ; South-West Africa ;
6. Bins GABONicA. The West African Adder.

Synonyms — Cerastes nasicornis ; Echidna gahotiica ; Vipera rhiuo-
ceros ; Clotho rhinoceros ; Bitis rhinoceros.

Colour — Brown above, with a vertebral series of elongate, quadrangular
yellowish or light brown spots connected by hour-glass shaped
dark brown markings. A series of crescentic or angular dark
brown markings on each side ; head pale above with a dark
brown median line ; a dark brown oblique band behind the
eye, widening towards the mouth. Yellowish beneath, with
small brown or blackish spots.

Average length — 3 to 4 feet.

Distribution — Amatongaland ; Damaraland ; South Central Africa.

Fig. 89. — The internal organs of a Puff Adder {Bilis arietain;). (i) Figure on the left, the lung. The
dark line running down over the surface is the windpipe (A). The tube opens into lung-sac on under
surface. Higher up at B is topof lung. C isentrance to the windpipe. D is the extended portion which
snake can protrude from the jaws in order to breathe when swallowing large prey, which causes great dis-
tension of jaws. (2) Gall bladder. (3) Liver. (4) Heart. (5) Figure on right, the whole digestive tract.
The top is entrance to gullet leading from mouth down to stomach, wliich is the largest portion in
centre. Lower portions marked E are intestines. The slightly larger part at end of bowels is the
cloaca, and vent. Central figure is a Puff Adder laid open, (i) Fang. (3) Lower jaw. (6) Poison
gland. (7) Tongue. (9) Windpipe. (10) The stomach (coloured white) showing gullet leading down
from mouth. The black-looking parts on which it rests are masses of yellowish fat. (11) Beginning
of the intestines (covered with fat). (12) Heart. (13) Veins and arteries. (14) Lung (coloured
black). White streak along it is the windpipe. (15) Windpipe on surface of lung. (16) Liver.
(17) and (18) Intestines. These are enveloped in fat. (19) Vent. (If the numbers appear
indistinct, use a small magnifying glass.)

210

220 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Genus ATRACTASPIS.

Two Species in South Africa.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Ventrals 221—260 . . " . . . . . . . . Atractaspis bibronii.

V'entrals 199 . . . . . . . . . . Atractaspis ditcrdeni.

1. Atractaspis bibronii. Oviparous Adder; Ei-leggend Adder. (Eier-
leggend slang.)

Synonyms — Atractaspis inornatus ; Atractaspis irregularis.

Colour — Dark purplish-brown above, yellowish or pale brown beneath.

Average length — 2 feet.

Distribution — Cape Colony ; Orange Free State ; Griqualand ; Natal ;

Zululand ; Transvaal ; South- West Africa ; Angola ; Delagoa

Bay ; Portuguese l-iast Africa.

2. Atractaspis duerdeni. Duerden's Adder.

Colour — Cream coloured above, lighter below.
Average length — i foot 6 inches.
Distribution — North-East Kalahari.

The Puff Adder.
[Bitis arielans.)
Zulu : ihnlnlu.

The Puff Adder is South Africa's t\^pical viper, being one of
the commonest and most widespread snakes in the sub-continent.
It is exceedingly venomous and dangerous to man, owing to its
habit of haunting the vicinity of dwelhngs, enticed thither in
search of rats, mice, and chickens. It is quite a common occur-
rence to find Puff Adders actually crawling about the rooms.

One day a lady at Walmer, adjacent to Port Elizabeth, went
to her kitchen-dresser for a dish, and there amongst the plates
was a large li\'e Puff Adder. Aided by her daughter, she captured
it alive, and brought it in triumph to me.

Once I was staying with a friend for a few days one winter in
Natal. He and his \vife proposed a walk. She retired to put
on her bonnet, w'hen presently she rushed forth and fell into her
husband's arms in a fainting condition. It seems that a venture-
sorrie Puff Adder had gained access to the house, found the ward-
robe door ajar and no lid on the bonnet box, and forthwith settled
himself to hibernate for the winter in the bonnet, evidently
congratulating himself on finding so cosy a place. Unlike the
majority of other species of snakes, the adders are frequently
met with abroad on warm moonlight nights.

HOW THEIR YOUNG ARE BORN. 221

The Hiss of the Puff Adder.

It can hiss loudly, and many a man has cause to be grateful
that Nature has provided the Puft Adder with that mode of warn-
ing its enemies.

The Puff Adder hisses by drawing air into its sac-like lung
and forcing it out rapidly through the glottis and nostrils. These
and most other snakes have only one active lung, which is in the
form of a long bag with a lining of cellular tissue.

The Fangs.

The dentition of the Puff Adder is elaborate. The poison
fangs are long and powerful. They are hollow, not grooved
like those of the Cobra family. Naturally, if such large
fangs were fixed solidly in the jaw like those of the Cobra, the
snake could not close its mouth. Nature has provided against
this, and furnished it with fangs with hinges. The fangs are
set in the anterior maxillary bone, which can be moved backwards
and forwards like a hinge. So, when the mouth closes, the fangs
lie along the sides of the upper jaw, enveloped in a protecting
sheath, known as the mucous capsule or vagina dentis. The
small teeth in the back part of the upper jaw, and in the lower
jaw, are for the purpose of helping to hold the captured prey, and
aid in forcing it down the gullet. They are solid and harmless
teeth, as far as venom is concerned. To render a Puff Adder
harmless the front fangs and the duplicate sets must all be
removed, as well as the anterior maxillary bone, otherwise more
will develop in time.

How their Young are Born.

Eggs are developed inside the body of the female Puff Adder.
These grow full size and incubate within the body. They lie in
two long rows on each side of the backbone. Each embryo
is enclosed in a thin transparent membraneous sac in which they
are born. Their active struggles, however, soon rupture this
sac and they crawl away and lead an existence quite independent
of the mother who pays no heed to them. The almost universal
belief in South Africa that the young bore their way out of the
sides of the parent is untrue.

222

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

The young Puff Adders average seven inches in length at
birth. They are venomous as soon as born, and will strike fiercely
if irritated. Mice bitten by them died within a few minutes. I
have made them bite full-grown rats, which died in half an hour.
A friend was bitten on the hand by a young Puff Adder a day or
two old. His arm swelled, and there was a good deal of con-
stitutional disturbance, but he recovered in a few days.

During April of 1910, five Puff Adders gave birth to young in
the Port Elizabeth Museum. Three of the Adders brought forth
the whole of the young alive. The other two gave birth to many
fully-developed ones, as well as about a dozen only two-thirds

4
4

l-ic. 90. — (i) Tlie egg of a Puff Adder. These eggs develop inside the snake, and lie in two long rows. They
incubate within the body of the parent. (2) A young I'uff Adder just born, but only partly developed.
In the front is seen sonic of the egg still unabsorbed. The embryo is enveloped in a membraneous
bag. (3) A young I'uff Adder, fully developed, just born. It is struggling out of the transparent
nienibraneous sheath in which it was born. Its head is protruding. (4) A young Puff .Adder, half an
hour after birth, 7J inches long. One hour after birth it bit a rat. The rat was dead ia fifteen
minutes. They do not take food until the skin is shed, which takes place soon after birth.

matured. I have frequently noticed on dissecting Puff Adders
that the young are not alwa3's developed to the same degree.
Sometimes the eggs fail to incubate. In this case they harden,
and are sometimes passed out. In other cases they remain in
the snake, and their presence eventually kills her.

Puff Adders have given birth to young a great many times
in our snake cages at the old Port Elizabeth Museum during the
months of March, April, and May. This would lead us to conclude
that the development of theeggsandincubationperiod within the
mother is about seven months, as the Puff Adders begin coming
forth from their winter retreats mostly during September and

I

4

PUFF ADDERS IN CAPTIVITY. 223

October in this district, and it would be about this time or a
little later that impregnation of the female would take place.

I have noticed that captive Puff Adders are active in the
pursuit of the females in October, November, and December,
and that during the autumn they show no inclination.

Young Puff Adders will live in apparent health for as long as
three months after birth without food. They also grow larger
in girth and increase in length sometimes by as much as two
inches. I have noticed this on several occasions. I have at
present a batch under observation. They refuse all food. It is
now two months since they were born, and yet they do not show
any signs of emaciation. Some have increased half an inch,
others up to one and a half inches in length. All are slightly
larger in girth than when born.

On the 24th June, 1911, I captured a large female Puff Adder,
which appeared to be gravid. I killed the reptile, and, on opening
it, found eleven fully-developed eggs lying in a row along one
side of the backbone and sixteen on the other. I carefully
examined these eggs, but could not find the slightest signs of an
embryo. Whether they were impregnated or not I cannot say,
June is mid-winter in South Africa, and if these eggs were im-
pregnated then it must have occurred during the previous
autumn, as this snake was hibernating when I secured it.

In July another large female Puff Adder was captured, which,
when killed and opened was found to contain twenty-four fulh^-
developed eggs. They lay in two equal rows on each side of the
backbone. There was a good deal of fat in flaky masses covering
the eggs, although the winter was well advanced. There were
no signs at all of the eggs having been impregnated. It seems
to me to be very likely that at least in the case of Puff Adders,
the eggs develop during the period of hibernation, as snakes are
nvariably very fat and in excellent condition late in the autumn.
Then, when the female issues forth in the spring, she is im-
pregnated by the male, and the eggs forthwith begin to incubate.
I have found that Puff Adders always give birth to their young
in the autumn. Subsequent observations have confinned this.

Puff Adders in Captivity.

These snakes in captivity thrive if kept in natural conditions,
but unless they have plenty of sunshine, and the temperature of

224

HOW THEY KILL THEIR PREY. 225

the air in the cage be warm, they become sluggish, refusing all
food, and die of starvation. After swallowing a rat, a Puff Adder
will rarely take food again for at least a month. I have succeeded
in keeping Puff Adders alive for considerable periods by artificially
feeding them. An oiled glass tube is slipped down the reptile's
throat and the contents of fowls' eggs are squirted down into the
stomach by means of a syringe. The glass tube can be dis-
pensed with, and the nozzle of the syringe inserted into the
snake's throat. An easy plan is to insert the tube of a glass
funnel into the reptile's throat and pour the liquid food into the
funnel. If it does not run down freely, it may be worked down
by manipulating the snake's throat with the fingers.

The cages in which snakes are kept should be weU ventilated
and the air in the interior should not be allowed to fall below
75^ Fahr.

How They kill Their Prey.

A Puff Adder can swallow the largest of barn rats with ease.
Whenever a live rat is introduced into a cage containing Puff
Adders, whichever of them is in a mood for feeding will wait till
the rat approaches sufficiently close, then, with a SA\dnging side
stroke of lightning-like rapidity, the fangs are driven home.
Although rats are exceedingly nimble, the stroke is so rapid that
the rodent has no time to spring away. Disengaging its fangs, the
snake keeps the rat in view, but makes no attempt to capture it,
evidently well aware its victim is incapable of moving far away.
The stricken rat runs about at random in a dazed sort of way for
a minute or two, then the back legs become paralysed, and the
victim rapidly dies. The instant the victim ceases to move, the
snake leisurely advances, investigates with its sensitive forked
tongue, and finding the head, fortlnvith begins the swallo\\dng
process, which, in the case of a very large rat, lasts half an
hour or so.

Rats, when introduced into a cage containing venomous
snakes, show little or no fear. On several occasions I have
allowed rats to remain with Puff Adders and other venomous
snakes overnight, and in the morning discovered one, sometimes
several, snakes dead, and parts of their bodies eaten, the rats
sitting in corners or on the branches in the cage, quite contented,
and fast asleep. Rats will even kill the fierce Cobra at times.

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226

A GRUESOME SIGHT. 227

When a venomous snake bites its prey, the nervous system
is rapidly benumbed, and all sensation lost ; therefore, practically
speaking, the victim does not suffer pain.

The favourite food of the Puff Adder is rats and mice. It
will, when its choice food is scarce, eat toads, lizards, and other
creatures. When making a meal of a toad, the Puff Adder
simply seizes it by the head, without bothering to strike it first,
and proceeds to swallow it alive.

A Modern Jonah.

One day, away in the wilds of Zululand, I was sitting in a
dreamy mood on an ant heap, when out of a shrub hopped a
toad followed by a Puff Adder, which seized it. My natural
prompting was to rescue the toad, but my investigating instinct
got the better of me, so I just sat still and watched the snake
swaUow the toad. It took about half an hour, because the latter
was a big one. At last it finished, and yawned several times,
like the man who dines not wisely, but too well. Then m}^ turn
came, and I shot him. With my hunting knife I carefully dis-
embowelled him, disinterred the toad, and laid it on the ground.
It was an elongated thing of the nature of a sausage, covered all
over with slime.

Presently the slimy object moved. It inhaled a breath of
air. It got broader. Its limbs began to come back into their
natural positions, and it sat up, opened its eyes and looked
around in a dazed sort of way. Then it gave a few preliminary
jumps, and finding its limbs to be serviceable, hopped off into
the bush, apparently not a bit the worse for its Jonah-like
adventure. This incident happened many years ago, and since
then I have had similar experiences on several occasions. A
toad, like most amphibians and reptiles, is tenacious of life, and
can exist for a considerable time without breathing. It is not
possible for any warm-blooded creature, such as a mammal or
bird, to exist alive after being swallowed by a snake, because
immediately the breathing is arrested the creature dies.

A Gruesome Sight.

Once I observed an enormous swarm of those dreaded pests,

the Red Ants. They seemed to be actively employed, so I went

closer, and discovered they were swarming over a Puff Adder.

The snake was wriggling and stmggling furiously. I retired out

228

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

i

4.

Fig. 93. — 1. I'ufI Adder braced up and on the defensive ready for a forward thrust.

2. The first movcmint in the act of striking. The head and anterior part of the body is thrown

backward wilh lightning rapidity.

3. Then with gaping jaws the snake makes a rapid forward stroke.

4. If he does not succeed in driving his fangs home in the object aimed at, he falls the whole length

of his body, as seen in this picture.

THE SEXES. 229

of the way of the ants, of which I had ah-eady very painful
experiences, and sat down on a faUen tree to watch. In about
an hour the ants had cleaned every particle of flesh from the
snake's skeleton, leaving it beautifully white and clean.

A Terrifying Experience.
When out seeking for a Cheetah or Hunting Leopard, which
had been carrying off the farmers' stock in the neighbourhood,
my two Dutch friends and I cast ourselves down upon the grass
under a tree, for the sun was very hot. I was busy looking over
my notes, and my friends were meditatively smoking their
pipes, when one hoarsely whispered, " Hendrik, don't move !
Don't move an inch, I say ! " I glanced at his face. It was
deathly white. Following his gaze, a shiver of fear crept over
me, for there, with its head and a foot of its body up the
other Dutchman's trouser-leg, was a Puff Adder. The other
man was a hardy old Boer, whom I had seen in many a
tight fix, but who never for an instant lost his nerve. He
silently, and with a swift movement, seized the reptile's tail,
gave a terrific jerk, and sent it hurtling a score of yards away.
Then he picked up his gun, sought out the snake, and shot it.

Puff Adders vary in Colour.
Puff Adders vary considerably in coloration, although the
shape of the markings is always the same. The nature of the
surroundings seems to determine the shade of colour. The pre-
vailing colour is dull brown, with yellow and black markings. Just
after the skin-casting process they are at their best. The markings
are then bright yellow. A large female Puff Adder, which was
captured amongst some town refuse near Port Elizabeth by Mr.
J. Williams, had the usual brown ground colour, but the markings
were all pure white instead of yellow. There was not a trace of
yellow on the snake. Numbers of others similarly marked have
since been captured.

The Sexes.
In the great majority of snakes there is no outward sign by
which the sexes of snakes may be determined. A male snake
may be distinguished by firmly pressing the thumb or finger on
the under part of the tail-region, two inches below the vent.
Continue to press firmly, and at the same time slowly slide the

230

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

finger or fingers up towards the vent, whereupon, if the snake
be a male, two roundish, slender, soft-looking appendages will
protrude themselves. In average-sized snakes these are about
two inches long. If the snake be dead, then, instead of pressing
the fingers as stated, cut open the skin on the underpart, from the
vent towards the tail. Partly remove the skin and lay the flesh
bare. If a male, these two vascular, elongated bodies will be
observed lying side by side, reaching up to the lower edge of the
vent. These are the male generative organs. In the female
they are lacking. The anal scent glands of all female snakes
are active during the mating season.

Fatalities.

The number of deaths from the bites of Puff Adders is con-
siderable, especially amongst the native population. European

Fig. >/4. — I. Male Pufi Adder. 2. Female Puff Adder (.Adults). 3. Young Female Puff Adder just
born. 4. Young Male ditto. In the male the tail is more elongated ; that of the female comes
to a rather abrupt end. The distance from the vent to the end of the tail is greater in the male
than in the female.

children are often bitten and die. Children are far more likely
to be victims than adults, for the reason that, when playing, they
rush about excitedly and tread upon Puff Adders before these
reptiles are able to emit their characteristic warning hiss. When
disturbed, the Puff Adder endeavours to escape observation by
coiUng up and lying still. If trodden upon, or if the foot be placed
near one when in such a position, it immediately delivers a
powerful forward stroke. The head is drawn back with a jerk
to gain more power for the forward thrust, the mouth gapes
enormously, and in the twinkling of an eye the long, curved
poison fangs are buried deep in the victim's flesh. There is.

FATALITIES. 231

indeed, a poor chance of recovery if a Puff Adder succeeds in
driving both his fangs home and getting a grip, which he assuredly
will do, if he possibly can. He knows full well that if he can
succeed in hanging on for a few seconds, he will be able to drive
the whole of his stored-up venom into the wounds. A full
discharge of venom will often amount to fifteen drops, four of
which arc sufficient to cause death in a robust man.

The little daughter of a farmer friend of mine lost her life by
the bite of a Puff Adder. She trod upon the tail of the reptile,
whereupon it made a fierce lunge, striking her leg just behind
the knee. One of the fangs lacerated an artery, and the parents,
not knowing what to do, she rapidly bled to death.

In Natal, a native labourer was once gathering up a pile of
brushwood. A Puff Adder happened to be lying concealed
beneath it. The instant his hand touched the reptile, it struck
and buried its fangs in his arm. With a hoarse cry, he summoned
his fellow-labourers, but within two minutes of being bitten, the
man was dead. The post-mortem showed that one of the snake's
fangs had penetrated the vein which lies just beneath the skin
on the inner side of the elbow. A charge of venom had been
injected therein, which caused almost instant clotting of the blood,
and death. Happily, such cases of direct injection of venom into
a vein by a snake are uncommon.

I was driving a two-horse Cape cart one day along a country
road, followed by my two fox terriers. Presently I spied a Puff
Adder sluggishly crawling across the road about forty paces
ahead. One of my terriers, seeing it, made a dash, but, failing
to swerve aside sufficiently, the reptile coiled, and shot forward
like a released steel spring. The force of the blow knocked the
dog on his side. However, he was quickly up, and tried to
run off, but the snake held on firmly. By this time the horses
had taken alarm, and attempted to bolt. Three minutes later,
when I had succeeded in pulling them up, the stricken terrier
came bounding up to me, apparently all right. Without the
slightest warning, however, he suddenly turned a somersault,
gave a few gasps, and lay dead.

The snake had evidently discharged a large dose of venom
into him, which caused clotting of the blood, and consequent
rapid death.

232

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

THE NIGHT OR DEMON ADDER 233

The Night or Demon Adder.
{Caiisus rhoniheatiis.)

Zulu : Inhlangwana.

The range of the Night Adder is very widespread in South
Africa. Moist, vegetation-covered locahties are its favourite
haunts. It is frequently found about and in the habitations of
man, owing to its fondness for mice, which haunt dwehings,
especially old outhouses, piles of wood, and refuse. It scours the
kitchen garden in search of the common garden toad. Many a
time I have surprised a Night Adder in my garden in Natal
almost choked with the effort to swallow a great fat toad, too
large even for the distensible maw of a snake. I found one of
these snakes dead one day, with a large toad firmly wedged in
its mo.uth. The reptile, in its efforts to swallow the toad, had
evidently stretched its skin so taut that it was powerless to
disgorge the victim, and so died of suffocation. The toad was
still alive, but in a very feeble condition. I put it aside, but it
died shortly afterwards. Toads, although susceptible to the
venom of snakes, owing to their sluggish blood-circulation and
tenacity of life, sometimes live for days after being bitten
by a venomous snake. Frogs, on the contrary, die almost
instantly.

When the Night Adder finds himself in a house in his
quest for mice, he seeks to conceal himself in whatever place
is handiest. Consequently, where Night Adders are com-
mon, as in Natal, it is quite an everyday occurrence to find
them in cupboards, under beds, chests of drawers, and various
other hiding-places in houses. When turning out lumber from
old outhouses, I have often killed a dozen or more Night Adders,
and many scores of young ones.

I have always found these snakes to be exceptionally in-
offensive. Unless hurt or irritated by rough handling, or very
much frightened, they never attempt to bite. Those which I
have kept in captivity became so tame that if lifted up gently
they showed no disposition whatever to bite.

One day I was helping my men to renew some fencing-posts,
which those pests the " White Ants " [Termites) had eaten up.
Kneeling down, I thrust my hand into a hole from which an old

234 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

post had been witlidrawn, and pulled out a handful of rubbish,
amongst which a Night Adder was coiled. It did not attempt
to bite. The one idea was to escape. One of these snakes
nearly got its fangs into my hand one day. Riding across the
veld, I spied the cast skin of a snake in a tuft of grass. Dis-
mounting, I examined it, and seeing that it was unbroken, I
determined to secure it.

Inch by inch I disengaged it, when, simultaneously as I
pressed something soft, I heard a hiss. A dark body shot
forward, and, with a thud, its forepart struck the ground violently.
A Night Adder was in the act of casting its skin, and when
I inadvertently pinched its tail, it waxed wrathful. It aimed
straight enough, but my hand was not there, for I had jerked
it away quickly.

The Venom of the Night Adder.

The Night Adder is greatly dreaded, the prevalent belief being
that a bite from one of these snakes will certainly prove fatal
unless antidotal measures are promptly taken.

After a series of experiments on animals I have found that
its venom, although potent, is not nearly so powerful as that of
the Cobra, Mamba, Puff Adder, or Boomslang. Animals bitten
by Night Adders usually recovered completely after moping for
two or three days. Local swelling and more or less haemorrhage
took place. In recent experiments I found that when a large,
well-nourished Night Adder was allowed to bite the leg of a fowl
or rabbit, and retain its grip for two seconds, the victim died in
from half a day to a day. In the majority of the cases when
the snake was allowed to bite fully, but not to retain its hold,
the animals recovered in a couple or three days. A strong,
vigorous man would not be likely to die if bitten by one of these
snakes in the ordinary way.

In the Eastern Province Herald, February, 191 1, the following
account of the death of a well-known man in these parts is
reported : —

" Private telegrams were received in town early yesterday
morning conveying the sad news of the demise of Mr. R. C-
Parkin, of Bluegum Avenue, one of the oldest and most respected
farmers in the district.

NIGHT ADDER LAYING EGGS.
Fig. o6. — A Night or Demon Adder {Causiis rliombeatus) at Pt. Elizabeth Museum, laying Eggs. It
laid 1+ eggs, and remained several days, until disturbed by the assistant. Eggs are laid mostly in
Nov., Dec, and Jan., and hatch about March.

235

236 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

" It appears that at about eleven o'clock on Tuesday morning,
Mr. Parkin was bitten in the thumb by a Night Adder, and follow-
ing the usual course adopted in such cases, he immediately pro-
ceeded to suck the poison out. This seemed to have the desired
effect, and to all appearance it seemed as though the puncture
had been a slight one.

" Later in the afternoon, however, his face and head com-
menced to swell up, and Mr. Parkin's condition became exceed-
ingly alarming. Every possible deterrent available was tried,
but to no effect, and death ensued at seven o'clock in the
evening.

" It is thought that some of the poison injected by the fangs
of the Adder sucked from the wound had re-entered Mr. Parkin's
system by means of a scratch or bruise in the mouth or tongue,
but this is mere surmise."

On making inquiries, I ascertained that Mr. Parkin's head
and throat were greatly swollen, and the muscles of the mouth,
eyelids, and face were paralysed. The throat continued to swell,
and he eventually died of suffocation. If an air-tube had been
inserted in the windpipe below the swelling, his life might have
been saved, as the swelling would gradually have subsided.

There can be little doubt that the deceased gentleman was
suffering at the time from inflammation of some portion of the
lining membranes of his mouth, or perhaps the teeth were decayed
or the gums ulcerated or otherwise injured, which allowed
some of the venom to be absorbed. These parts are so intensely
susceptible to the action of venom, that a very small quantity
will cause extensive swelling of the mouth and throat. In
medical literature, cases are recorded of men dying of suffocation
caused by extensive swelling of the throat consequent upon tlie
sting of a hornet, wasp, or bee, which had been accidentally
swallowed with some beverage, and, in passing, stung the back
of the throat.

If sucking is resorted to in cases of snake bite, when the
person is not sure his mouth is in good condition, he should put
a tiny pinch of crystals of permanganate of potash in the palm
of liis hand, spit on them, mix and lick it, just previous to applying
his mouth to the wound. The permanganate will kill any venom
sucked up. Of course, if permanganate is rubbed into the
wounds, and if they are subsequently sucked, there will be no

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238 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

danger of the venom being absorbed by the mouth, for the sucked
up venom will be mixed with blood, mucous, and permanganate.
The presence of the latter will render the poison harmless.

An acquaintance of mine was bitten on the little finger by a
Night Adder. He instantly undid a bootlace and ligatured the
finger at the base. Sitting down, he scarified the wound, and
started sucking it. The snake bit him at lo a.m. in his garden.
At 3.30 p.m. we found him still sucking the wound. He said
that he had been sucking it at short intervals ever since being
bitten. He was in a state of partial collapse, which I attributed
to nerve shock, believing as he did that a bite from a Night Adder
was almost certain to terminate fatally. The following day he
had recovered, but the finger suppurated, and refused to heal
for four months. A year later it again broke out, and a large
dark scab formed over the site where the snake had bitten him.
The skin of the whole finger sloughed off, and the wound healed.
The following year it again broke out and did likewise. The
third year the same thing occurred, but to a lesser degree. Since
then there has been no recurrence of the symptoms.

In cases of bites by Puff Adders I have known the same thing
often occur. The popular belief is that this periodic ulceration
at the site of the bite will continue until the death of the snake
which inflicted the bite. This, of course, is quite without
foundation. The origin of this superstition can be traced to the
natives, w'ho are firm believers in it. I have known Kafirs to
seek for days for the snake which had bitten one of their friends,
in order to kill it, so that the wound would quickly heal.

Remarkable Poison Glands.

The typically venomous snakes have their poison glands
situated at the sides of their heads, just beneath and behind
the eyes. The glands are almond-shaped. The Night Adder is
an exception to this general rule. Its poison glands are very
long, and lie on each side of the backbone of the neck-region
communicating w^ith the poison fangs in the mouth by means of
the usual duct, which is also unusually long. The illustration
shows this apparatus (Fig. 97).

The Night Adders are the most interesting of all South
African snakes to keep in capti\'ity. They are bright and active

REMARKABLE POISON GLANDS. 239

and become very tame, and, moreover, unlike most other snakes,
they will feed very freely. I have kept several for many years,
some of which have grown considerably since their capture.
They are fed upon frogs and toads.

There is always great danger of treading upon and getting
bitten by Night Adders, because they are very sluggish, and do not
make much effort to get out of the way, often preferring to lie
quiet, seeking to escape observation by that means. The danger
is increased by their habit of lying across pathways, their colour
harmonising with that of the ground. They are termed Night
Adders because they usually issue forth from their lairs about
dusk.

Although belonging to the Viper family, the Night Adders
are oviparous ; that is, they lay eggs. Those I have kept in
captivity laid batches of eggs varying in number from a dozen to
twenty-five, during the summer months. None of the eggs
showed any signs of incubation. The parent in most instances
coiled round her eggs and remained there several days, but
eventually abandoned them owing to being repeatedly disturbed
by the other snakes, and the attendant who cleaned out the cage
and renewed the water in the water- vessel. In nearly every case
the parent showed the desire to incubate the eggs, and from this
I infer they often remain coiled round the eggs, until they are
incubated, in the wild state. The eggs of snakes can easily be
hatched by placing them in damp earth and putting them in a
chicken incubator. A farmer gave me some Night Adder eggs
which he ploughed up in a field. I placed them in a box of damp
earth and dead leaves and left them out in the sun. In a month's
time they hatched out. These, however, were partly incubated
before I received them. Snakes' eggs take from two to three
months to hatch according to the degree of incubation which
has taken place before the eggs are laid.

In the " Cambridge Natural History on Amphibia and
Reptiles," by Gadow, page 638, there is the following : "All
the Viperidse are very poisonous, and all except the African
Atractaspis are viviparous."

Fayrer, in his " Thanatophidia of India " says : " All the
Viper family of snakes, as their name implies, are viviparous."

The Atractaspis snakes, viz. the Oviparous Adder and Duerden's
Adder, lay eggs, but the Night Adder [Caiisus rhombeatus) does

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Fig. 98. — I. Nighlor Demon Adder {Causus rhombcalus) about to seize a toad (Bufo rcgularis).

2. The victim is secured.

3. The snake works its way to its victim's head.

240

THE HORNED ADDER, OR HORNSMAN. 241

also. Doubtless the other species of the Genus Causus are also
oviparous.

The Horned Adder, or Hornsman,

The Hornsman is a small adder with the characteristic
flattish body and broad head of the Viperine family of snakes.
These vipers are usually about a foot to one foot six inches in
length. There are two species, the only notable difference
between them being that the one known as Bitis cornnta has two
or more erect horn-like scales over each eye, while the other,
which is known as Bitis caiidalis, never has more than one erect
horn-like scale over the eye. The former occurs chiefly in the
sandy districts of the Western Province of the Cape Colony and
northwards to West Africa. The latter is found in both provinces
of Cape Colony, and extends to Rhodesia and West Africa. They
have a habit of burying their bodies in the loose sand, the head
only being above. In this position they will lie for hours, often
for a whole day on the watch for lizards and other small creatures
on which they feed. Being practically invisible when thus
concealed, they are especially dangerous to the bare-footed native,
who is bitten immediately he places his foot upon one, unless he
luckily happens to step right upon its head. Even then the
chances are the snake will extricate its head in time to deliver a
bite before the foot has been withdrawn. These snakes are
capable of inflicting a bite which will cause death to a man.
However, the chance of a fatal issue is considerably less than if
bitten by a Puff Adder or Cobra. This adder gets its name of
Hornsman from the fact of its having one or more erect scales
on its eyebrows, which look like tiny horns.

Unless kept in captivity in a large cage out in tlie open in
which plenty of sand is strewn, these snakes will not live, as they
refuse to eat, and die in a short time. They are, moreover, very
susceptible to a change of environment. I have obtained scores
of them {Bitis caiidalis) from the Karoo and only succeeded in
keeping them alive at Port Elizabeth for a few months. The
atmosphere is evidently too moist for them. The dry sandy
wastes are their natural habitats.*

* Horned Adders give birth to from eight to twenty young — the average
is twelve to fourteen. Several batches have been born in our cages in the
months of February and March. Several specimens of Bitis corniita have
been procured from the sand dunes at Port Elizabeth.

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Fig. 99. — The venomous Berg or Mountain^Addcr {Bilis atropos) on the defensive, and on
the move. Berg Adders, as their name implies, are not confined to the mountainous
parts of the country. They are coirmon in the coastal forests of the eastern part of
the Cape Province.

242

i

THE ATRACTASPIS VIPERS. 243

The Berg Adder.

{Bit is atropos.)

The Berg Adder, as its name implies, is a snake which inhabits
mountainous regions. It is not, however, conlined to these
mountainous parts. It has been found as high up as the summit
of Mount Aux Sources, 11,000 feet high, and at the sea shore.

This Mountain Adder inhabits the mountain ranges of the
whole of South Africa. In these parts it is frequently met
with out on the bare hillsides prowling round in search of lizards
on which it principally feeds. When the occasion presents itself,
the Berg Adder will devour the fallow young of birds which build
their nests upon the ground. The chicks of the Mountain
Partridge or Francolin frequently fall victims to this crafty
Adder, who lies as still as the stones and earth which he so closely
resembles. Mice, rats, the larger larvae of insects, etc., are also
eaten by it. The Berg Adder is as venomous as the Puff Adder.
They do not thrive in captivity unless the cage is out-of-doors
where the snakes can bask freely in the sun's rays. Several have
been kept at the Port Elizabeth Museum for long periods and fed
on toads and mice. They are not uncommon in the demarcated
forest on the southern side of Port Elizabeth, and amidst the
sand dunes. Several have recently given birth to batches of
young, in each instance during the month of March. The number
at a birth averaged from ten to fifteen. Berg Adders often
attack and swallow other species of snakes.

The Atractaspis Vipers.

These snakes, although classed with the Viper family, are
altogether different in shape from most other members of this
family. Their bodies are cylindrical, head small and not distinct
from the neck, eyes very small, and scales smooth and close-
fitting. In fact, any one is apt to mistake these vipers for harm-
less BHnd Burrowing snakes {Typhlops) , for, in addition to their
outward appearance being somewhat similar, their habits are
more or less the same as those of the Blind Burrowing snakes, or
Acontias or Legless Burrowing Lizards. There are eleven species
of these Atractaspis snakes in Africa, two of which inhabit South
Africa, viz., Bibron's Adder and Duerden's Adder.

A remarkable thing about them is the development of their

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I

THE ATRACTASPIS VIPERS.

245

fangs. Tlie fangs are abnormally developed, so much so that I
do not think it possible for the jaws to be opened sufficiently wide
for the snake to inflict a bite. Most of the solid teeth have dis-
appeared, or are in a rudimentary condition. There can be little
doubt but that these Atractaspis vipers once had the general
appearance and habits of other members of the family, but
owing to their taking to burrowing habits, their outward form has
gradually been undergoing a change, and doubtless in course of time
the fangs will disappear or become considerably smaller. Owing
to its habit of burrowing, this genus of snake is seldom found.

The Atractaspis Vipers furnish us with an illustration of what
Darwin means by the Evolution of species. Here we have a
Viper which, through changing climate and other conditions, took
to burrowing habits. The whole anatomy of the creature has
been slowly modified to suit its new environment.

Fig. ioi (a). — 35B. Fangsof an Atractaspis Adder. Its nose is sharp and hard, and suited for digging
in soft ground, and its body is smooth and formed for ghding through loose earth and sand
with the minimum amount of resistance and friction.

Fig. ioi (6).— Bibron's Adder (Atractaspis hibronii).

CHAPTER VIII.

Snake Charmers.

Snake charmers havti existed for long ages in India. They are
referred to in ancient Sanskrit books.

The typical dress of a snake charmer is yellow clothes and a
great turban. The musical instrument which they allege is
an indispensable adjunct in charming snakes is a double pipe
mounted on the dry shell or rind of a calabash or gourd. It is
known as a " Tubri." The sound produced is somewhat similar
to that of the Highland bagpipes.

Snakes are very susceptible to strong vibrations of sharp
penetrating sound. The effect of the high-keyed notes produced
by the snake charmer's instrument, causes intense uneasiness and
alarm in wild snakes. Even snakes which have been kept for
a long period in captivity, and which have been habituated to the
sound, will invariably become active and assume a defensive
attitude when this instrument is played.

When released from its dark prison in the snake charmer's
basket, a Cobra will always rear, expand its hood, and be in-
stantly on the defensive, if sharp and shrill music be played near
it. The onlookers imagine the music has charmed the snake.
The snake charmer fully understanding the ways and habits of
the Cobra, can therefore anticipate its movements. By swaying
the instnmient and his body from side to side, he can apparently
make the serpent imitate his movements. This swaying of the
reared portion of the snake's body is natural to the Cobra. When
reared and on the defensive, the Cobra carefully watches his enemy
and follows his every movement. By sitting on the ground in
front of a reared Cobra and gently swaying the body from side
to side, any one can made the reptile do likewise. When a Cobra
is alarmed, his first instinct is to face his aggressor and continue

246

SNAKE CHARMERS. 247

facing him, for the snake is well aware that he is at a serious
disadvantage if taken in the rear. If you start walking round a
Cobra you will find he will face you all the time. He carefully
turns his body to time with your degree of speed. By walking
round and round a Cobra for some time, he can be completely
exhausted.

I have, many times, succeeded in doing with Cape Cobras
what the Indian snake charmers do with their Cobras, but the
snakes were by no means charmed or hypnotized, for the simple
reason, as already stated, that it is a natural habit of the Cobra
to follow any sudden or rhythmic movements of the hands, head,
or body. The snake charmers usually render the snakes they
handle harmless by removing their fangs, either by snipping them
off or dissecting out the anterior maxillary bone to which they
are attached. This latter operation prevents any subsequent
development of fangs. Sometimes the glands are destroyed with
a white-hot wire or the connecting duct burned and the fangs
left intact. The snakes do not survive this drastic and cruel
treatment for long.

I have examined the collections of snakes of a considerable
number of snake charmers, and found that most, and sometimes
all the snakes belonged to the harmless species.

The snake charmers always positively refused to allow me to
examine the mouths of the reptiles, hypocritically pretending that
I would be bitten and die.

However, the fangs are not always removed. It is a fact that
the more daring and fatalistic snake charmers freely handle the
deadly Indian Cobra. These men are, from long observation,
thoroughly acquainted with the natural movements of this snake,
and are exceedingly dexterous in the use of their hands, for they
all practise the conjuring art, which mainly takes the form of
deceiving the eye by the rapid movements of the hands.

Although apparently careless in handling these deadly
serpents, the snake charmers are, nevertheless, keenly on the
alert, knowing full well that a bite will probably result in death.
Many cases are on record of snake charmers having lost their
lives by being bitten by the snakes they professed to charm.

These men profess to charm snakes from houses and other
retreats. What they really do is to conceal one or more snakes
about their persons, the fangs of which, of course, they have

248 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

carefully removed previousl}^ Sleight-of-hand work being their
profession, they invariably find it an easy matter to withdraw one
of the concealed snakes and surreptitiously place it in the spot
desired. Then the charming begins and the snake is discovered.
These snake charmers often have allies who place a snake in the
spot required prior to the advent of the charmer.

When a snake charmer is kept under careful and close scrutiny,
these snake-charming operations fail. A gentleman tells how
he detected one of these men. Raising a great noise he declared
to his Indian servants that a Cobra was in his study. He sent a
messenger to the village snake charmer to come immediately and
charm out the snake. He arrived in due time and began opera-
tions by playing upon his pipes at intervals, and poking about
amongst the furniture. Suddenly he began playing \'igorously
in a corner of the room, near some bundles of books and magazines
on the floor. From amongst them the head and neck of a Cobra
reared itself. The gentleman advanced and flourished a stick,
pretending he was anxious to kill the reptile. The charmer
interfered and barred the way, declaring that he wanted to capture
the snake and keep it alive. He was firm in his refusal to permit
tlie gentleman to advance. Then, stooping down, he began
blowing his pipes again, and the instant the Cobra reared he seized
and transferred it to a bag amidst the horrified exclamations of
the Indian servants. Needless to say the alarm was a bogus one.
The snake was one which had been secretly dropped by the charmer
when he was fussing about the room on his hands and knees.

When one becomes familiar with the habits and ways of snakes,
and if due care is exercised in handling them, there is little real
risk of being bitten. For twenty years past I have freely handled
snakes, and have only been bitten a few times, but the bites have
never been full ones. Naturally one is apt to become careless
when frequently handling snakes, and so reasonable precautions
are neglected.

To those more or less unacquainted with snakes, these reptiles
are regarded with extreme horror, and the most ludicrous beliefs
are entertained in regard to them ; so much so, that any one
handling venomous snakes freely, and apparently in a careless
way, is thought either to exercise some hypnotic power over the
creatures, or else he is taking appalling risks. Snake charmers,
knowing this, take advantage of it. The traditional love of

THE PORT ELIZABETH SNAKE CATCHER. 249

serpents for music is a myth. The only effect music has is to
frighten, irritate, or excite the curiosity of snakes. A snake will
frequently protrude its head from its place of concealment in a
hole, crevice, or amongst the herbage when shrill music is played,
or even the clinking of a chain, or beating a steel triangle. Sounds
of high pitch excite it. Low muffled sounds or the beating of a
drum it pays little or no heed to.

The Port Elizabeth Snake Catcher.

The snake charmers of India would pale into insignificance
when compared with Mr. James Williams, the Port Elizabeth
Snake Catcher, who for some years past has captured venomous
snakes for my experiments, and for exhibition in the Port Eliza-
beth Museum. He makes no pretence of exercising any hypnotic
power over these reptiles. From the very beginning he evinced
a keen interest in snakes. Nothing pleased him so much as to be
helping with my experiments. He gloried in holding venomous
snakes between his finger and thumb while I extracted their
venom for experimental purposes. He is an Irishman, and like
the majority of that nationality, always willing to take big risks.

He knows all about the ways and habits of the local snakes,
and therefore can find and capture snakes almost at any time.
I must admit, however, that the doings of Mr. Williams, and
his absolute fearlessness, in fact I may say recklessness,
startle even me. As will have been read elsewhere, he was
once bitten by a Boomslang and lay apparently dying for a
couple of weeks, with huge dark purple patches caused by
haemorrhage, all over his body. He lay there suffering agonies
of pain, due to acute inflammation of the mucous surfaces of his
bowels and other parts, and for a considerable time after rising
from his sick-bed he felt the after-effects.

Yet James Williams will come sauntering along to me, and
with a tired and indifferent voice observes : " Sir, I managed to
catch two fine Boomslangs to-day." Diving his hand into a
satchel or linen bag, he forthwith drags out the writhing, struggling
reptiles, and allows them to twist and coil about his arms and
neck. He just smiles and remarks that Boomslangs seldom bite
if they are handled gently when they have once been captured
and kept for a time in a dark bag.

250 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

He brings along Puff Adders, Cobras, Ringhals, Night Adders,
and in fact every kind of snake obtainable in Port Elizabeth
district. As often as not he has his pockets stuffed full of live
snakes, which are prevented from escaping by the lapels being
pinned down. If pins are not available, he utilizes the sharp
thorns of the Mimosa tree.

Long ago I carefully instructed him w'hat to do in case of
being bitten. He instantly sucks the wound if there be no abra-
sions of skin in his mouth. ]\Ieanwhile, he is feeling for his pen-
knife, with which he scarifies the flesh over the punctures, rubs
them full of permanganate crystals and immediately applies a
ligature at a convenient place between the wound and the heart.
He then encourages the wound to bleed by manipulating the
surrounding flesh \vith his fingers, and if the snake be a very
venomous one, such for instance as a Ringhals, Cape Cobra, or
Puff Adder, he severs two or three of the veins in the ligatured
leg or arm as the case may be and thus lets out some of the
poisoned blood before taking off the ligature. Then the ligature
is momentarily loosened at intervals, until, after an hour or so, it
is discarded.

When assisting with experiments and artificially feeding our
captive snakes, he has been bitten three or four times ; but, owing
to prompt treatment, he got off with only slight constitutional
disturbance in each case. There is a saying " A pitcher which
often goes to the well gets smashed." Williams, in handling a Puff
Adder in my laboratory, once was badly bitten, but fortunately
I had a sufficiency of anti- venomous serum at hand to cure him.

Bent on Collecting.

\\'iinams sets out, armed with a forked stick about five feet
in length, and a rather large linen bag similar to an ordinary
pillow case, and tramps the country for a score of miles, visiting
all the favourite haunts of snakes. A serpent once sighted has
little chance of ultimate escape. Even the swift Boomslang is no
match for him. Knowing its habit of darting into the thick
foliage and vanishing in an instant, he cautiously stalks it as it
lies basking in the sunshine out in the open upon the ground.
With a swift rush he is upon it. Before the bewildered snake can

BENT ON COLLECTING.

251

252 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

put its three hundred odd ribs and scales in motion to effect its
escape, he has secured it. If it should succeed in getting into
the bush, he follows without a second's delay, plunging headlong
in its wake. The very impetuosity of his onslaught is a safeguard,
for the snake is usually too bewildered or terrified to think of
turning upon him to bite. Swinging his captive round and
round by the tail, he opens the mouth of his bag and drops
the dizzy reptile therein. Picking up his stick he resumes his
quest.

Spying a Puff Adder or Cobra vanishing into the thick tangled
scrub, he springs forward, grabs its tail, and carefully pulling it
out gives it a few swings round his body at arm's length, and then
bags it. Puff Adders he has a great contempt for. He lays hold
of the tail, and without any preliminary swinging drops the reptile
into his bag. All the snakes captured during the day's excursion
are consigned to the same receptacle.

The next morning he brings them along to me. " Well,
Williams, any luck yesterday ? " " Yes, I got a few." Opening
the mouth of the bag, and drawing out a Puff Adder by the tail,
or with his finger round its throat, and his thumb pressing its
neck just behind the head, he holds it up for inspection, observing,
" It's a beauty, isn't it ? " He heeds not my warnings. I
continually assure him he will die a miserable death from snake
bite one day, away out upon the lonely bush-veld ; but he merely
smiles and says that he has got to die some day anyway, so as
well from the bite of a snake as sickness or old age.

Whenever Indian snake charmers visit Port Elizabeth,
W'illiams amuses himself by stepping out from the assembled
crowd of onlookers, picks up and examines the dentition of the
snakes which the Indian has been charming, and which he has
assured the people are highly venomous. Finding the snakes to
be of the harmless species, or the fangs removed, he thrusts his
finger into the mouths of two or three.

Indian snake charmers in Port Elizabeth have a bad time when
Williams is about, for, somehow, coins do not flow in so readily
from the onlookers when they find out the snakes are, after all,
quite harmless.

One evening during a lecture on snakes to farmers, who firmly
l:)elieved that every snake was venomous, Williams handled a large
number of non-venomous Mole Snakes and House Snakes. At

Fig. 103. — Williams has returned from a snake hunt, and is showing me his captives. The
snakes at his feet are Puff Adders; in his right hand, Mole Snakes; in his left,
Boomslangs.

253

254 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

the conclusion of the lecture I counted sixteen bites on his bared
arms, hands, and neck.

An American Snake Catcher.

I was much amused to read an illustrated article in a well-
known magazine of the " daring and perilous " exploits of a snake
collector in America. This brave man who " ran the most appalling
risks " of death from snake bite, issued forth on his snake-catching
excursions clothed in a leather shirt, a pair of tough leather
breeches, top boots, gauntlet gloves and a mask. What a brave
man he was, and what a perilous occupation was his ! Williams,
the South African snake catcher, sallies forth in a cotton shirt,
slouch hat, rolled up sleeves, and as likely as not a pair of thin
khaki trousers. Occasionally he wears leather gaiters. These
latter he dons for protection against the thorny shrubs which
abound in the South African veld, more than as a safeguard
against snake bite.

Can Snakes fascinate Their Prey ?

That snakes are able to exercise some kind of mesmeric or
hypnotic power and so paralyse the movements of their intended
victims, is almost universally believed throughout the Western
world, except amongst those few naturalists who have made a
close study of the subject. Popular literature is teeming with
anecdotes and essays on the power of snakes to fascinate birds,
small mammals, and even human beings.

In all literature, ancient and modern, frequent references are
made to snakes. In Egypt there are many ancient carvings of
the Egyptian Cobra on the old ruins of a past civilization.

The fact that a snake carries a subtle, potent fluid, and an
apparatus by which, at any moment, when least expected, a death
wound may be inflicted, has caused mankind to invest snakes with
the most magical and diabolical of powers, leading to snake-
worship and the belief that serpents are the incarnation of all that
is evil and demoniacal. The Cobra is an object of veneration and
superstitious dread even to-day among the natives of India.

CAN SNAKES FASCINATE THEIR PREY? 255
Owing to the death-dealing powers of serpents, and the heredi-

FiG. 104. — The contents of Williams' bag — Puff Adders, Boomslangs, Mole Snakes, Cobras.

tary influence upon our minds of the behefs and fears of our

256 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA

ancestors, we have come to regard snakes with the profoundest
awe and dread. Writers have not been slow to profit by this
universal interest in snakes and their venom, and thrilling anec-
dotes and other writings have been the outcome. Remarkably
interesting and imagination-stirring articles have frequently been
written on the powers of fascination supposed to be exerted by
snakes.

Practically all the popular beliefs in regard to snakes have very
little foundation in fact. This belief, however, is so widespread,
and its truth insisted upon so strongly, that many naturalists
have unquestioningly accepted it as true, and recorded it in
literature as being truth.

Now, I have had much experience of snakes, and have made it
my business to observe carefully their habits and ways, both in
their natural condition in the wild state and in captivity, and in
no instance have I ever known a snake to fascinate an animal
in the manner it is alleged they do.

I have seen Boomslangs and Mambas many a time in trees,
surrounded by a crowd of fluttering, chattering, excited birds.
The birds were not fascinated by the snake ; they were endeavour-
ing to intimidate it in order to frighten it from their haunts.

What Really Happens.

Carefully concealing myself one day, I watched a Mamba
{Dendraspis angiisticeps) surrounded by several chattering birds,
mostly Bulbuls and Flycatchers. The snake, with elevated head,
and body bent in a favourable position for a forward spring,
remained amongst the branches as immovable as the Sphinx, its
lidless, unwinking, shiny eyes giving forth a stony stare. Pre-
sently a Bulbul, which had worked itself up into a frenzy of excite-
ment, fluttered within striking distance. Like a stone from a
catapult, the head and forepart of the snake shot forward,
and next instant I saw the struggling bird in the serpent's
jaws. The rest of the birds instantly fled. Now, the snake did
not throw out any mysterious, mesmeric or hypnotic power.
It simply awaited its opportunity, cool and collected, and
captured an excited and venturesome bird. The bird was

THE HEROISM OF BIRDS. 257

evidently unaware of the power of the snake to propel its coiled-
up body. I once saw a Green Mamba coiled up on a branch, and
quick as thought, propel itself full length, and seize a bird in its
jaws, meanwhile gripping the branch with its tail. The instant
it seized the bird it swung head downward until the victim ceased
to struggle. The snake then raised itself, assumed a comfortable
position, and swallowed its prey.

Birds, with few exceptions, have highly impressionable and
excitable nervous organizations, as is proven by their hot blood,
quick circulation, fine texture brain, and intricate nervous
system. Now, we all know how birds will mob an owl which
ventures into their haunts during the daytime, but wc never think
of investing the owl with any powers of fascination.

Birds recognize snakes as their enemies, and if a bird discovers
a snake in its haunts, particularly in the vicinity of its nest, it
instantly sets up a shrill chattering and flies and hops excitedly
round the intruder. Its cries and actions attract its mate and
other birds, until eventually there may be as many as a score
around the snake. Their noisy demonstrations are sometimes so
great, and their demeanour so threatening, that the serpent loses
nerve and retreats, much to the relief and satisfaction of the birds
who pursue him for some distance.

In most cases, however, the serpent remains immovable until
one of the birds, in the excitement of the moment, or braver than
the rest, approaches within striking distance.

It is quite possible, and even very probable, that a bird may
work itself up into such a frenzy of excitement, as temporarily to
lose the power of flight, and so fall a victim. Others, in their
terror, may actually rush at the snake, particularly so if in
defence of their homes and young.

The Heroism of Birds.

I have witnessed several instances of the heroism of birds
in defence of their eggs and young. In Natal, one hot mid-
summer day, I lay on my back resting under the shade of a
great forest tree. Hearing a noise above, I looked up, and high
up in the branches I espied a pair of Sparrow Hawks near their
nest endeavouring to beat off a Green Mamba, which was evidently

s

258 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

intent upon securing their eggs or babies. Presently the snake
reached the nest, whereupon one of the hawks flew fiercely at the
serpent and gripped it with claws and bill. Instantly the snake
struck out, again and again, and threw a coil or two round the
bird. Down came the two, hurtling through the branches to the
ground. The bird was either killed by the fall or the snake's
venom, but its powerful claws were still embedded deep in the
reptile's flesh. The snake struggled fiercely to release itself, but
before it could succeed I killed it.

On another occasion, hearing a noisy clamour in a tree, I crept
silently forward and saw a Boomslang or Tree Snake approach a
nest and seize a fluffy baby bird. The youngster screamed and
struggled frantically, whereupon the parent bird, in a frenzy of
fury, flew at the snake. The reptile dropped the young bird, but,
alas ! it instantly gripped the brave mother. I ran forward,
but the crafty serpent glided off amongst the leafage and vanished
from sight with its victim.

Wrong Conclusions.

The ground-frequenting venomous snakes, such as the Cobras
and Vipers, frequently strike their prey and immediately release it,
knowing the potent action of their venom, and realizing the stricken
creature will be quickly overcome by the poison. When a rat is
introduced into a cage containing a Puff Adder or Cobra, the snake,
after striking the victim, releases it, and contents itself with
keeping it under observation. The rat, after being struck, grows
dizzy, runs here and there at random, and is quickly overcome by
the virulence of the venom. Often the bitten creature is instantly
paralysed. At other times the prey is gripped and held until it
is dead.

Now, if a bird, whilst feeding upon the ground, is struck by a
venomous snake which has been lying in ambush, the victim
invariably flics up to the nearest branch or twig, screams,
flutters, sways unsteadily, and within a few minutes, being no
longer able to retain its hold, flutters down dying to the expectant
snake below, which in all probability, is intently watching its
movements. Sometimes, after being bitten, the bird instantly
loses the power of flight, and remains on the ground in front of the
snake, fluttering and screaming.

HE WAS PARALYSED WITH FEAR. 259

Seeing a bird in either of these positions would seem to the
casual observer proof positive that it was being fascinated by the
snake.

If a rat is cornered by a snake it often loses all presence of
mind, and facing the reptile it simply squeals. This, however, is
more usually the case after the snake has bitten it.

If a water snake should swim toward a frog sitting on the
bank, the latter, whose dominant instinct is to dive into the water,
becomes paralysed with fear, and, sitting quite passive, it emits
a series of squeaks.

Captive Snakes and Birds.

British and European birds, having no snake enemies, are in
consequence not at all afraid of these creatures. If placed in the
same cage with snakes, they will confidently hop amongst the
reptiles, and even perch on their bodies.

If birds of this country be placed in an aviary with snakes, they
show little or no alarm if they are able to fly up to perches out of
the reach of the snakes. After a few days they get quite indifferent
to the presence of the reptiles, and will not hesitate to feed upon
the ground within a few inches of their enemies. Perches have
been so arranged that the birds were just out of reach of the snakes,
and in no single instance did any of the various species of snakes
ever exercise any fascinating power over them. Any bird which
became over-confident and approached within striking distance
was invariably bitten if the snake was in a mood for eating. If
not, the birds were not molested. Practically all the popular
beliefs about snakes in South Africa are more or less untrue.
Most, if not all, of these erroneous beliefs have originated from
the natives. If they were all collected they would fill a large
volume, and provide entertaining reading to lovers of fiction.

He was paralysed with Fear.

A friend had just arrived from the Homeland. I took him
out to show him the luxuriant semi-tropical vegetation which is so
profuse in Natal. Meandering along a kafir track through a
forest, I paused for a moment to examine a curious insect. On

26o

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

stejipins forward again, I noticed my friend was standing stiff
and still. Tiicn my eyes caught a glint of yellow, and a blackish
patch. Yes, it was a Black-necked Cobra or Imfezi {Naia
nigricollis) with forepart of body reared nearly two feet vertically,
and hood fully expanded. There it stood, rigid, except for a
slight, gentle movement from side to side. Its shiny black eyes

Tic. 105. — A juvenile snake charmer with his collection
of pet Mole and House Snakes.

were intently fixed upon my friend. Becoming alarmed for my
friend's safety, I hastened forward and killed the snake with my
staff.

Glancing at the young man's face, I was amazed to observe that
it was fixed and set, the eyes staring rigidly in the direction of the
Cobra.

I grasped his arm and shook him, whereupon a tremor ran
through his frame, and, with a gasp and a succession of deep sobs,
he collapsed and lay quite limp.

HYPNOTISM. 261

When he had suflicieiitly recovered, he told me he had never
seen a snake in the wild state before. He had only seen half-dead
looking specimens behind thick sheets of glass in a Zoo. When
he suddenly saw the form of a six-foot Cobra, with hood expanded,
facing him threateningly, he instantly lost all power of movement.
He said he seemed to freeze. He essayed to cry out, but his
tongue and larynx were paralysed. In fact, the sudden shock
and fright had temporarily paralysed the nerve centres in his brain
which controlled the movements of his muscles. He was un-
conscious to all else but the Cobra. Its keen shiny eyes and
threatening aspect monopolized his senses. In a dim far-off way
he wondered when it was going to bite.

The man was certainly completely fascinated, but the con-
dition was induced by the sudden shock of extreme fright to
his nervous system, not by any hypnotic power exercised upon him
by the snake. The sight for the first time of a large Cobra, with
hood expanded, and reared ready to deliver a deadly thrust,
shocked his motor nerve centres into a state of temporary paralysis.

Hypnotism.

It is quite possible for a person to induce a condition of self-
hypnosis by focussing or concentrating his mind upon some object,
such as a bright coin, or staring fixedly at the reflection of his
eyes in a mirror and suggesting to himself that he is growing
sleepy, more sleepy, asleep. He may not be able to induce a con-
dition of actual unconsciousness in this way, but this concentra-
tion of the mind and repeated suggestion of sleep will make him
very susceptible. Self-suggestion is a great aid in helping to
overcome bad habits and nervous diseases. I have known
people, who, by intently watching some object and excluding
everything else from their minds, lose all power of movement.
They remained, sometimes for half an hour, staring fixedly, and
when the condition of hypnosis passed off, or when aroused by
being shaken, they declared they either could not remember
anything, or had only a glimmering of consciousness after con-
centrating for five minutes upon whatever object was selected.

There is no reason to doubt that this condition can be induced
by intently watching a snake, particularly so if it be a Cobra

262

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

reared, with expanded hood, keenly fixing the watcher with its
shiny, black, unwinking eyes. Many individuals are very sensi-
tive to self-induced hypnosis, as well as suggestions or mesmeric

Fig. 106. — Some live snakes of difierent species.

passes by another person. Because there are individuals who can
intentionally or unintentionally lapse into a hypnotic condition,
this is no argument in favour of a snake possessing hypnotic power.
It may certainly be the negative cause of self-hypnotization.

ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE

263

Apart from actual hypnotism
and acute paralysing fright, some
persons' minds are so constituted
that when faced with a sudden
and unexpected emergency they
lose all self-control, and act in a
variety of ways. Some remain
rigid, with bulging eyes. Others
become hysterical ; others again
gibber and talk utter nonsense.
The lower animals are apt to act
similarly.

It must be borne in mind that
humanfolk, as a general rule,
regard snakes with extreme dread
and horror, and when unexpectedly
confronted by one, the working
power of all the brain centres is
apt to become temporarily para-
lysed, as is frequently the case with
the lower animals when suddenly
faced by a much-dreaded foe.

Acquiring Knowledge.

One night I spread my tired
body under my blankets near our
camp fire, and in stretching my
legs to get the blankets all round
me, my leg touched something cold,
which hissed. I shot out of my
blankets like the release of a
coiled steel spring. The cause of
the bother was a Cobra who
had made himself comfortable
among my blankets. I learned
from that experience to shake
out my bed-clothes carefully before
lying down on the veld.

One day I thrust my hand and

264 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

arm into the nest-hole of a Spreeuw (Starling) in a bank. Instead
of my fingers touching the eggs as I expected, they closed
around a snake's body. He was evidently too cramped up to
bite quickly, but I never put my arm into a Spreeuw's nest-
hole again ! Snakes have a great fondness for concealing them-
selves in holes owing to the warmth and security from danger a
hole in the ground or a bank affords.

Snakes strongly object to the smell of disinfectants. When
snakes are kept in captivity, great care has to be taken when
disinfecting their cages to allow the smell to evaporate before
putting the snakes back into the cages, for the fumes given out
will in all likelihood kill them. Those who have occasion to
camp out in tents should dip a piece of rope or plaited cloth in
sheep dip, creosote, or carbolic acid, and lay it round the outside
of the tent. This will often prevent venomous snakes, spiders,
scorpions and centipedes from crawling inside.

Horsehair Ropes.

When a boy I revelled in the stories of the adventures of the
cowboys and frontiersmen of the backwoods of America ; and
used to read that these men often carried a horsehair rope with
them, and regarded it as a valuable possession. When camping
out at night, they would lay it in a ring upon the ground and lie
down and sleep within that magic circle, quite confident that no
venomous serpent would molest them. They had not the slightest
idea why the hair rope should prevent serpents from creeping in
under their blankets and snuggling up for warmth about their
persons, but they, nevertheless, had firm faith in the serpent-
repelling properties of their hair ropes.

Naturalists ridicule the idea of the hair rope being efficacious.
Now, just let us review the evidence. A plaited horsehair rope is
bristling with hundreds of little hair-points sticking out in all
directions. A snake progresses by means of his ribs, which are
worked by sets of muscles. Each pair of ribs is attached to one
of the abdominal shields. These shields or scales are moved
forwards, and elevated for the purpose of gripping the ground or
whatever surface the snake may be crawling over. Now, each

COW-MILKING SNAKES. 265

time the shield or scale is moved forward, the tender skin between
it and the next one is exposed, so when a snake tries to pass over
the rope, the little bristles prick his abdomen, and if he were foolish
enough t(# crawl right over that rope he would be pricked all
along his body, from his neck to his tail. Naturally, if a snake
made the attempt to crawl over a hair rope and got pricked, he
would instantly turn back.

At other times, doubtless, the snake would investigate the
rope with his sensitive forked tongue, and ascertain by that means
it was not a desirable object to pass over.

So, you see, there is some reason after all for believing that
hair ropes are useful to keep snakes out of our tents and other
sleeping-places, when out in the veld or bush.

Cow-milking Snakes.

Farmers have often told me about snakes sucking the teats of
cows. I have read many accounts in books, in newspapers, and
have before me several letters by well-known farmers who posi-
tively declare that there is no doubt at all about the truth of it.
Some of them allege they actually witnessed Cobras and Ringhals
sucking cows' and goats' teats. The belief is very general. It
puzzles me. I do not say it is untrue, but I cannot bring myself
to believe it. The thing is apparently so unreasonable. It
would require a great deal of evidence to establish it as a fact.
Now, when you come to consider, it seems very absurd that
a snake would be able to suck milk from a cow's udder. In
a physiological sense it is practically impossible. Venomous
snakes would, in most cases, at least scratch the udder and cause
poisoning. A snake is very low in the scale of intelligence. And
such an act as sucking a cow's udder implies a good deal of intelli-
gence. Animals all have more or less an instinctive dread of snakes.
In most of the accounts there is a serious flaw. It is invariably
stated that the cow or goat comes home milklcss. Now, even a big
Cobra could not swallow more than about half a pint of milk. If
it did, the milk would be forced out again by the natural pressure
of the distended skin, muscles, and ribs. I have tried it on captive
snakes. I injected various quantities of milk. So long as I held
them in my hand head upwards, and body hanging, the milk was

266 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

retained, but as soon as they were placed on the ground, most of
the milk ran out of the mouth.

I have often been told that snakes were killed, and the milk
came out when their bodies were smashed up. What really took
place, I expect, was, when the snake's body was shot to pieces or
pounded with sticks or stones, the eggs which were in it got
smashed, and the creamy-white contents were mistaken for
milk.

Snakes and Their Mates.

In South Africa the belief is widespread that if a snake is
killed its mate will, sooner or later, appear upon the scene of the
tragedy, and wreak vengeance upon the slayer. So strong is
this belief that if a venomous snake should be killed in or
near a dwelling, the occupants are in a state of nervous dread
for many days afterwards. In Natal many a time my native
servants have positively refused to kill a snake, fearing lest its
mate would seek them out during the darkness of the night, or lie
concealed in some lurking place and deal them a revengeful fatal
thrust.

Like most popular beliefs, this particular one has some slight
foundation in fact. It is a case of facts being misinterpreted and
grossly exaggerated.

During the summer season, which is the time when snakes lead
an active existence, they are frequently found in pairs, or the
male may be observed in search of the female. When a snake is
killed near a habitation, the occupants, believing the mate will
turn up on vengeance intent, either make a careful search of the
neighbourhood, or else are keenly on the alert. If the mate should
be somewhere near, it will probably be found. Any one who has
hunted snakes in a systematic manner, knows that when these
reptiles are not specially sought for, they are seldom seen.
Naturally if a systematic hunt be organized for the supposed mate
of a slain snake, one of the same species is likely to be discovered
somewhere in the vicinity.

Snakes find their mates mainly by the sense of smell. A male
snake is able thus to follow the spoor of a female for considerable
distances. I have frequently watched Puff Adders and Night
Adders which I kept in captivity in large enclosures, following in

CATCHING LIVE SNAKES. 267

the wake of a female which had vanished from sight. Wherever
the female crept, the male would be observed following. She
would creep into some crevice or tuft of herbage and be quite
concealed from view, yet the male would be seen slowly creeping
along the track which she took.

S. W. Smith, Esq., J. P., of Griquatown, told me an interesting
experience in this connection. He said a female Puff Adder was
killed in his flower garden under a geranium bush. The following
day a male Puff Adder was seen and killed within a few feet of the
spot where the female had been killed. Mr. Smith says that he
and a native traced the spoor of the two snakes in the soft sandy
soil for a couple of hundred yards and found that the male had
followed the trail of the female, his spoor blending most of the
time with that made by the female. This occurrence was quite
fresh in Mr. Smith's mind, it having taken place shortly before he
saw me. He says he knows the spoor of a Puff Adder in the sand,
and is positive the two spoors were not made at the same time,
for one was partly obliterated and the other quite fresh.

Catching Live Snakes.

Unless the snake collector is quite certain of the identity of
snakes he should not take liberties when capturing them.
If you know for certain they are of the harmless division such as
the Mole Snakes, House Snakes, Green Water Snakes and others,
then you may boldly advance and seize them. The only damage
they are capable of doing is to puncture the skin slightly with their
numerous small solid teeth. To avoid being bitten, hold a hand-
kerchief in front of the snake, and when it bites the material,
instantly seize it by the neck.

Venomous snakes may be safely secured by pinning them down
to the earth with a long stick with forks at the end of about an
inch or less in length.

If a snake is pinned down with a forked stick to the ground it
is quite powerless, and can then be gripped by the neck and trans-
ferred to a bag or box. Grip the neck just at the base of the head.
Then let go the stick with the other hand and grasp the reptile's
tail. It is then utterly powerless. It is risky to hold a venomous
snake by the neck and allow it to coil round the hand and arm. By

268 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

the leverage thus obtained it can sometimes jerk its head free,
and before it is possible to shake it off, it may have the opportunity
of inflicting two or three bites. On the other hand, if you are
holding the snake's tail in one hand, and if by chance the head
should slip from the fingers of the other hand, the reptile can
be instantly dropped or cast away before it is possible for it
to bite.

A snake when gripped by the neck just behind the head
cannot possibly turn and bite.

When dropped into a bag, the captive snake does not struggle.
It coils up and lies quite still. It makes no attempt to bite
through the bag.

Puff Adders may be safely approached from behind and
noosed, as shown in the illustration. It is not true that they are
able to bite by casting themselves backwards. The idea has
arisen through the habit of the Puff Adder of throwing back his
head and portion of the body to obtain a greater impetus in order
to cast himself forward when about to bite. Be careful when
standing in front of a Puff Adder, especially if he be coiled up, for
he is able to cast himself forward the full length of his body and
even a little further. Keep at least twice the length of his body
from him. A Puff Adder nearly bit my photographer by springing
forward at him. The reptile shot out the full length of its
body, making a desperate lunge at the man's legs with its great
fangs. Quick as thought it coiled, and again launched itself
forward, but the photographer happened to be young and active
and sprang aside. If I were to tell you all that we did to obtain
the facts and photos for this book, and how we collected venom
for all the experiments, it would make your blood feel as cold as
that of a snake.

Many kinds of snakes may be captured simply by putting the
end of your walking stick across the neck and pressing it down.
The snake may then be taken by the neck with the finger and
thumb. Tree snakes should be chased until you get them into an
isolated tree, or away from trees altogether. If cornered in a tree
they assume the defensive attitude and can then be noosed from
the end of a long stick. If a snake is noosed in the way shown
in the illustration, it can be carried for quite a long time without
injuring it if you hold its tail firmly so that its body lies along
the stick. Never allow a snake's body to dangle, as this will very

269

270 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

soon strangle it, or $o injure its neck that it will die later of the
injury. To disengage a snake from the noose, grip it by the neck
and tail and, with the disengaged fingers, relax the cord and slip
the noose over its head. Snakes may be securely captured in a
butterfly net made of strong material. Tree snakes are often
captured in this way.

When out snake hunting, wear a pair of strong leather gaiters
or top boots. Thick gauntlet gloves may be worn, but they have
the disadvantage of making the fingers feel clumsy. Besides, it
is rather awkward carrying a big pair of gloves about.

A snake cannot bite through a pair of leather gaiters of average
thickness. In capturing a Ringhals Cobra, take care it does not
discharge a shower of venom into your eyes.

How TO Collect and Preserve Snakes.

The collection and preservation of snakes is a most interest-
ing hobby. Provide yourself with some permanganate of
potash, a sharp penknife, and a ligature in case of a chance
bite from a snake ; also some good receptacle for your
specimens. Take also a long forked stick, the points of
which should be sharpened. When a snake is observed, it is
usually quite easy to pin him down with the forked end of the
stick, by pressing down on the back of his neck. Then apply
some oil from the stem of an old tobacco pipe to the end of a
wand and rub it in the snake's gaping mouth. This will either kill
him outright or put him in a trance-like condition. To make sure
he does not revive later, make a tiny incision at the back of
neck and sever the connection of the spinal cord with the base of
the skull. By employing these methods you will obtain a perfect
specimen.

Another method is to strike the snake sharply across the back
near the head with a stick. This invariably dislocates or breaks
the backbone. Then the creature may be killed with the pipe
oil. It is, however, never wise to injure a snake bj^ striking it if
it can be avoided, as subsequently, on immersion in the preserva-
tive fluid, the injured part gets jniffy, and the scales come off.

Fig. log. — He opens its inoutli. The operators then stand well back, as the snake often
struggles hercely, and venom is often forcibly squirted from the fangs. To avoid this
getting into the eyes, the snake's mouth is turned sideways. Then the glass syringe is
charged with the beaten-up contents of eggs or milk. The nozzle is pushed into the
snake's throat and the contents squirted down. Sometimes two or three doses are given.
A glass funnel may be used instead of a syringe. The method we employ of picking up
snakes is to thrust a forked stick over the neck, or press the head down with the bent
end of a stick and seize the reptile by the neck with the forefinger and thumb.

271

272 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

How TO Preserve Snakes.

The preservative fluid commonly used is alcohol of 70 per cent,
strength ; Cape Dop brandy, or any other kind of strong alcohol,
will do. Lay out your specimen, abdomen uppermost ; make an
incision of one to two inches along the middle part of its abdomen
longitudinally. Search for and remove the gall. On reference to
the illustration of dissection of a Puff Adder you will find the
locality of the gall. It is a roundish bag of greenish-yellow fluid
attached to the liver. If there be anything in the alimentary
(food) tube, remove it. It is not necessary to remove the gall-
bladders of small snakes. It is advisable to do so with large
specimens, as gall frequently escapes into the spirit and discolours
it. The next operation is to inject some spirit into the snake's
body, through the incision. An ordinary glass syringe will do.
Plug up the incision with cotton-wool, and, if necessary, bring the
edges together with a few stitches. After washing the snake
clean, place it for one or two days in a jar or bottle of spirit
to soak. The object of this preparatory pickling is to allow of
the spirit taking the place of the natural water of the snake's body.
The reason snakes so frequently go bad in pickle is because this
precaution is not observed. The water from the snake's body
naturally weakens the preservative fluid, and sooner or later the
specimen decays. The permanent specimen jar or bottle should
be of clear glass, and with a glass stopper if possible. For private
collections ordinary round bottles will serve the purpose. In
museums these are no longer used, as they distort the specimens.
Jars with flat sides are better. Do not cram the specimen into
the bottle carelessly. Arrange its body neatly in coils. Open
the jaws and erect the fangs, if the snake be a venomous one.
Fill your bottle up with spirit and cork it. Your next business is
to write its name, the locality where it was captured, and the
date. Affix the label on the bottle and write the same data on a
small neat tag and drop it into the bottle in case the other label
should peel off and get lost. This is an important detail. Valuable
collections have been rendered practically valueless by neglecting
to do this. Keep a catalogue of your specimens, and write
down everything of interest connected with them. Write all the
interesting information about them which you can cull from
books or discover by jicrsonal observation. If you cannot

Fig. iio. — I. Oui- (it tin- gr.»-.> liut> in the I'mt lili/ab.-th Su.ikr I'.uk sluiuiny ^uiir' of the
snakes which inhabit them.
2. An aloe in the same park covered witli live snakes. The snakes roost in
scores amongst the leaves. There are nineteen on this aloe;

273 T

27-1 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

identify your specimen, take or send it to the nearest museum,
and ask for information. The best plan is to collect two specimens.
Keep one for yourself, and send the other to a museum as a
donation, and ask the museum officials to let you know its name.
If they cannot identify it themselves, they will send it to some
authority on snakes, who will be able to tell them.

First of all, learn to recognize the three great divisions — the
solid-toothed, harmless snakes ; the intermediate, back-fanged
snakes ; and the typically venomous, front-fanged snakes.

In the preservation of snakes, a wood-spirit known as formalin
is frequently used. It is sold by all chemists. It has the advan-
tage of being quite colourless, and it does not dissolve out the
colouring matter of the specimen to the same extent as does
alcohol. However, it often partly dissolves the bones of the
specimen, making it useless for dissection at any future time. I
have kept various reptiles in formalin for fifteen years, and they
are to-day as fresh as ever. The reptile should be injected
with pure formalin before pickling. Inject down the throat and
into several places in the abdomen with a syringe. The less light
which reaches the specimens the better, as light bleaches them.
The collection may be kept in a dark cupboard or on a shelf
in a feeble light, or with a curtain on rings hanging in front.
Formalin, if used, should be diluted. For the preservation of
snakes, add ten to fifteen parts of water to one of formalin.
It can be diluted to a greater extent if the specimen has had a
preparatory soaking for a few days, as mentioned above.

To skin a snake with the intention of stuffmg it, the best plan
is to turn it inside out by removing the skin from around the lips,
working it down to the neck, and slowly drawing it off. Then
dust it over with a preservative mixture consisting of one-third
white arsenic and two-thirds burnt powdered alum, and carefully
turn the skin right side out again. Fill the body with fine saw-
dust to the proper dimensions, insert a piece of putty into the
neck, and replace the skull, after winding a little cotton wool on
it to replace the muscles and glands which have been removed.
Putty or modelling clay is, however, better than cotton wool.
Fasten the lips with tiny pins or a few stitches, as naturally as
possible. Put in a pair of artificial eyes, mould the body into its
natural shape, coil it in the position desired, and leave it aside to
dry. When quite stiff and dry, take out the pins or stitches from

Ifc-

Fig. III. — Some tame Mole Snakes. They like to be carried out into the warm sunshine.

275

276 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

the lips, clean off any loose bits of clay, etc., and give the whole
skin a coating of gold-size varnish. Place it upon a board prepared
for the purpose, and finally put it in a glass cabinet or case. A
nice attractive stand can be made by imitating the natural sur-
roundings of the snake.

If you dip the snake's head in a solution of permanganate of
potash before beginning to skin it, and during the process, there
will be little, if any, danger of getting poisoned. A safer plan
when skinning a venomous snake is to make a longitudinal
incision in the throat a few inches from the head. Skin round
the body, then sever it and skin off the neck and head first. Then
remove the body portion of the snake.

Flat skins may be made by ripping the abdomen from chin
to end of tail and removing the body. Rub the preservative
mixture on the inner side of the skin and tack it out on a plank,
until dry. Then turn it over and give it a coating of gold-size
varnish. When quite dry, roll up and put away.

To make a skin permanently proof against the attacks of moths
and mites, steep it for ten minutes or so in methylated spirit, or
ordinary alcohol in which a pinch of powdered corrosive sublimate
(Bi-chloride of mercury) has been dissolved. It is best to have
a stock bottle of it. Take a pint of methylated spirit and put as
much powdered corrosive sublimate into it as will lie heaped on
a three-penny piece. Shake, and allow to stand for a day. It
is then ready for use. Instead of soaking the skin in the solution,
it may be painted on with a brush. Be sure that both sides of
the skin are well painted. This substance will cure a skin as
well as render it insect proof. A presentable skull showing
the fangs can be made by boiling it for a minute and carefully
picking the meat off with a strong needle or point of a small
pen-laiifc. Instead of this, ants may be allowed to clean it.

Kafir Superstitions.

The Kafirs are intensely superstitious. The instinct of
reverence when rightly trained, and guided by an educated
intellect, strongly impels the individual to be genuinely and
truly reverent and religious. It gives a strong desire for, and
belief in, continued existence after physical death.

KAFIR SUPERSTITIONS.

277

In the Kafirs this emotion runs riot. It impels them to
perpetrate the most diaboHcal cruelties.

They believe that the spirit of a dead Kafir has the power of
influencing the survivors of his own family for good or evil. So
far the belief is reasonable enough, but the Kafir firmly believes
that if cattle, goats, fowls, etc., are sacrificed to this spirit relative,
then their spirits go to him and help swell his herd of spirit cattle,
etc., in the shades below. He does not mind his friends feasting

Fig. 1 12. — Applying the test to see if the snake is obsessed by the spirit of
a beloved relative or a foe. (After J. G. Wood.)

upon the flesh of the sacrificed animal. All he covets is the
spirit of the creature. If he considers that his friends on earth
are neglecting him, he pays them a visit, and afflicts them
or their domestic animals with disease. If the disease should
be severe, then the relatives imagine that nothing short of the
sacrifice of a cow or ox will appease the indignant deceased
relative. If the sickness should be a minor one, then a goat is
thought to be adequate. Sheep never seem to be used for these
sacrifices.

These dissatisfied or revengeful spirits sometimes come in
their own form, but usually they appear in the form of some

278 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

such creature as a snake. If a snake should enter a Kafir's hut
he concludes that it is possessed by the spirit of a friend or foe.
To determine satisfactorily for what intent the spirit has visited
him, he takes a stick, and covering his face with one hand, lays
the stick gently over the back of the serpent. If it should not
show any sign of anger or resentment, he is assured it is the spirit
of a beloved dead ancestor. If this is the case, he instantly goes
forth and sacrifices an ox, if he has one to spare. If not, a goat
or two serves the purpose. He argues that the spirit of a dead
ancestor would not take the trouble to visit the earth and appear
to him, unless as a warning to be more careful in future, and treat
him with greater respect by offering sacrifices more frequently
to him.

If the serpent should show irritability or anger, the Kafir makes
up his mind it is the spirit of an enemy who is intent upon doing
him some grave hurt. He therefore abandons the hut, at least
for a period. As a consequence of this belief, Kafirs, as a rule,
have a strong dislike to killing snakes in the vicinity of their
dwellings, for fear they may be offering an insult to an ancestor,
who will revenge himself upon them. If the snake should be
possessed of the spirit of a foe, and be killed, the hatred of
that enemy is increased an hundred fold.

Contact with Europeans, however, is rapidly undermining
these old traditions and beliefs of the Kafirs.

On an occasion when I was camping out at a Kafir kraal, a
Puff Adder crawled through the doorway into the centre of the
hut. The usual testing took place to ascertain if it were an
ancestor, or a bitter enemy. It proved to be the former. The
friends of the owner of the hut gathered around him, and brought
all their influence to bear upon him to sacrifice a cow forthwith.
I ridiculed the whole affair, and told him that his friends were
trying to scare him into killing a fat cow so that they might
participate in a glorious feast. I offered to kill the snake and
bring the penalty upon myself. No, he would not permit
that, because his ancestor would be doubly furious with him
for allowing a white man to interfere and insult him. The
simpleton was utterly terrified by the forecastings of his friends,
if he did not appease the ancestor with the spirit of a good cow.
Consequently, that night there was much feasting and beer-
drinking in the kraal.

AN EXCITING INCIDENT.

279

From the light thrown on occult matters b>' eminent men of

science of late years it would appear the Kafir " witch doctors
are not altogether fraudulent in their spiritism practices.

28o THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Feeding Snakes on Live Animals.

It is popularly supposed that if rats, mice, rabbits, guinea-
pigs, wild birds or domestic fowls are placed in a cage containing
live snakes, that they will suffer agonies of fear. This is not so.
Wild birds, when introduced into a snake cage, immediately
fly out of reach of any snakes which may be present ; but if their
food is placed upon the ground, they will after a few hours
readily fly down and begin eating, utterly oblivious of the presence
of their enemies. In a few days they take no notice at all of the
snakes, and even hop about on their bodies. However, it is not
pleasant to contemplate that such lovely and bright little creatures
should be devoured by these reptiles. I could never bring myself
to feed snakes with live birds, although there is no actual cruelty
involved.

Rats, mice, rabbits, guinea-pigs, and fowls, when put into a
snake cage, are timid at first, owing to the strangeness of their
surroundings, but in a very short time they are quite at home,
and do not show the least fear of the snakes. If a snake, such
for instance as a pj'thon, is disposed to dine, with a sudden
and unexpected movement he seizes his victim, and next instant
his deadly coils have done their work, and it is limp and dead
— killed so rapidly that death is practically painless. All
constrictor snakes kill their prey very rapidly. A rat will be, per-
chance, nibbling some food, and the spectator sees an instant
later a confused mass of coils, and realizes a snake has the
rat in those coils, and already its life is fast ebbing away. If
the snake be a venomous one, the poison rapidly benumbs the
victim, and, although it may not die immediately, it does not
suffer any pain beyond a momentary smart when the fangs
penetrate the skin. The venom has the property of narcotizing
the sensory nerves.

Although snakes may be kept alive in captivity for prolonged
periods by artificially feeding them, such a plan is not nearly so
satisfactory as allowing them to kill and cat their food in a natural
way. The mortality among artificially fed snakes is great. When
made to swallow against their will, the food frequently fails to
digest, putrifies in the alimentary canal, and so poisons the
reptile. Others develop abscesses in the mouth, from which
they usually die.

FEEDING SNAKES ON LIVE ANIMALS.

281

If a snake can once be induced to eat of its own accord, there
is no further difficulty, for it afterwards feeds freely if the air in

Fig. 114. — The Royal Python {Python resius) of Senegambia and Sierra Leone.

its cage is genial and warm. Such a snake, if placed in a cage with
others which have previously refused to eat, will often induce
them to make a beginning.

282 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

With the exercise of a httle time and patience many species
of snakes can be induced to take the dead bodies of the creatures
on which they are in the habit of fccdinj::. They seldom take
and retain food, however, if the temperature of the air in their
cage is lower than 75" Fahr. Snakes will even accept the prey
when it is in a stale condition, and after a time they usually
prefer dead to living food.

A temperature of from 80° to 90'' Fahr. in the snake cages
keeps the reptiles active and keen to take and digest food. In
South Africa snakes can, of course, be confined in enclosures out-
of-doors during the warm season of the year. They should have
access to the sim's rays.

The snakes in the Snake Park at the Port Elizabeth IMuseum
feed freely. They however seldom take dead prey.

CHAPTER IX.

The Brain and Nervous System.

In order to understand clearly what has been written in this book

on the effects of snake
venom and the treat-
ment of snake bite, some
elementary knowledge of
the circulation of the
blood, the digestive
organs, brain, and ner-
vous system is desirable.

A chapter on human
physiology, therefore, has
been introduced, as the
aim of this book is to
make knowledge of
snakes, their venom, and
the treatment of snake
bite, as practical and as
understandable as pos-
sible to the average man
and woman living in
countries swarming with
venomous snakes.

Owing to lack of
knowledge of the circula-
tion of the blood, the
digestive apparatus, the
brain, nervous system,
etc., methods in the treat-
ment of snake bite are em-
ployed which are utterly

ridiculous, alarming, and manifestly absurd to those possessing

283

Fig. 115. — The brain, spinal cord and nerves which run
to every part of the body. They are the telegraph
wires of the brain, and form a vast network all
over the body. (From Blackie's Physiology.)

284 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

an elementary knowledge of physiology. The patient is often
liberally dosed with drastic drugs in large quantities — drugs
which a doctor would hesitate to prescribe even in small doses.
Many other methods even more harmful and pernicious are resorted
to, and worthless so-called snake bite remedies command a
ready sale among the ignorant.*

The Functions of the Brain.

The brain is the source of all thinking and feeling powers
possessed by us. All intelligence lies in what is known as the
grey matter, which is composed of a layer of greyish cells, which
covers the entire brain.

The body is a machine with marvellously intricate machinery,
but it is utterly devoid of intelligence. It is merely the medium
through which the brain operates upon physical matter. The
body carries out the commands of the brain and mind. When we
see the dead body of a man, we do not say it is the man himself.
We say it is his dead body. The spirit which worked the cells
of the brain, which in turn operated upon the various parts of the
body, has fled, never to return. The bacteria of decay then assume
command, and convert the body back to its original elements.

The motor of the wonderful human machine is the brain,
which is enclosed in the skull. The brain is divided into two
parts, the main portion being known as the Cerebrum. The other
part is the Cerebellum, which lies at the base of the skull, behind
the ears. Both the Cerebrum and the Cerebellum are divided
into two parts, which are known as hemispheres. These parts
are united at the base by nerve fibres. The brain is really a great
mass of nerve matter. The average weight of the brain of an
adult male is about forty-nine and a half ounces, and forty-four
ounces in females.

The brain is covered, first by the skull, then with a tough
membrane known as the Dura Mater. This membrane is charged
with blood vessels which supply nourishment to the brain and skull.

Under this tough covering is a delicate membrane, not unlike
a fine spider's web in appearance, known as the Arachnoid
membrane. Yet another membrane envelops the brain ; it is
known as the Pia Mater. It lies right upon the substance of the

• A little elementary health advice is inserted here and there. This is
relevant because the more robust the health the greater is the chance of
complete recovery after being bitten by a snake.

THE SEAT OF INTELLIGENCE.

285

brain, and is composed mainly of blood vessels which run down
into the brain matter.

The right side of the brain supplies the left side of the body
with nerves, and vice versa. This is why an injury to the motor
centres of the right side of the brain will paralyse the body on the
opposite side.

The Seat of Intelligence

When all the membranes covering the brain are removed, its
surface is seen to be covered with deep depressions. This is due

Fig. 116. — Section of thi human brain showing one hemisphere of the Cere-
brum and Cerebellum. The part on the right is the forehead portion.
Note the foldings or convolutions. (From Blackie's Physiology.)

to the foldings of the outer layers of brain matter. These foldings
are known as convolutions. The object of these depressions and
foldings is to provide as large a surface as possible, without unduly
enlarging the brain and skull. This extensive surface is covered
with a layer of nerve cells of a grejdsh colour. The thickness of
the grey matter is determined by the degree of mental evolution
of the individual. This layer of microscopically small cells of a
greyish colour, which is usually only about the eighth of an inch
thick, gives rise to every thought, every desire, and every emotion

286

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

which stirs us, every hope and ambition which thrills us, the
glow of love which goes out from us, the pain, the anger and
the worries of life. Yes, all these and more, have their birth in
the groups of cells which are formed in this thin grey layer which
covers our brain like a cloth.

THE HUMAN BRAIN.

Fig. 11". — I. The layer of Grey Matter composed of tiny cells where all intelligence, emotions

and desires have their origin. This is the " Book of Life " — the phonographic record.

2. Interior portion of the brain composed of vast numbers of nerve fibres which conduct

messages to and from the Grey Cells.

3. The Cerebellum or Little Brain cut in half to show nature of its substance. It is the seat

of various physical functions.

4. Top of the Spinal Cord known as the Medulla Oblongata showing nerves branching out

from it.

5. Top of Medulla Oblongata known as the Bulbs. This and the former are strongly ailected

by Cobra N-enoni.

6. The Cerebrum (left hemisphere) showing the convolutions or foldings of its surface.

7. Right side or hemisphere of the brain.

(

The grey cells which envelop the brain-substance follow the
convolutions down into all their foldings. This wonderful grey
coating is known as the Cortex, which means bark.

AN ELABORATE TELEPHONE SYSTEM.

287

The inner part of the brain is whitish-cream in colour, and is a
vast mass of nerve fibres for the transmission of the commands of
the grey cells to the various parts of the body.

According to phrenology, there is a special centre in the brain
for the manifestation of each of the great variety of thoughts,
desires, and emotions, in addition to the nerve centres which

Fig. 118. — Brain cells which are paralysed and destroyed by poisons such as snake venom, narcotic
drugs and alcohol. The one to the left is a healthy normal cell, showing the nucleus clear
and distinct. The next one is swollen and sickly. The third is dead, the nucleus having been
entirely destroyed by alcohol. Free indulgence in alcohol damages and kills these brain cells.
Those which are destroyed are never replaced.

control all movements, etc., of the body, and which carry out
the commands of the brain centres.

An Elaborate Telephone System.

The grey matter of the brain is a great collection of groups of
nerve cells, each group having a special function to perform in
controlling and directing the vital functions, and the generation
of thoughts, emotions and desires. From each group of grey
cells, nerve fibres run out and are connected up with other
brain groups and nerves running to the various parts of the
body.

The marrow or spinal cord enclosed in the backbone is the
main cable from the brain. From this great cord, which can be
compared to a telephone cable composed of great numbers of
wires, nerves — just like telephone wires running out at intervals

288

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

from a telephone cable — branch off, divide and sub-divide, until
^^ the whole body, from the tips of the

toes to the crown of the head, is a com-
plete network of nerves. These are the
telephone or telegraph wires of the brain.
Within the brain, as it were, the intel-
ligent operator lives ; the nervous system
is his means of communication with the
remotest parts of his body. From his
dwelling-place within the skull, he can
control every part of the human engine
to the very smallest detail.

The world-famous medical author,
Dr. J. H. Kellogg, says —

" The brain is the great centre from
which emanates the nerve force which
vitalizes and energizes every part of the
body. It is the seat of government in
the vital domain, the nerves being its
servants through which it receives in-
formation of the external world, and by
means of which it is able to execute its
mandates in all parts of its province,
even extending beyond itself and the
limits of the body, and operating upon
external things through the medium of
its instruments."

Snake Venom and the Nerve Cells.

Every nerve thread, when examined
under a microscope, is seen to be com-
posed of a number of nerves, all of

Fig. iiQ. — The human power i • i i , • , , ■, ,.

house (the brain) and the which are cncIoscd m a sheath. In fact,

main cable or spinal cord, „_ _ .i j • , -n ■ r

showing the large telegraph cvcry Hcrve thread IS a bundle of nerves

wires or main nerves which u^...,,! j. „a1 j r h i ,11

run out from it, dividing and bouud together and carefully sheathed.
b';^dy.'1&2l;Uv/4^ The nerves themselves are composed of
""'"sy-) tiny cells of nervous matter.

It is these cells which are poisoned when snake venom gets
into the blood. The venoms of the different kinds of snakes

HOW OUR BLOOD IS MADE. 289

do not all have the same pathological effect. One kind of venom
will have a specially poisonous effect upon certain groups of
nerve cells and nerve centres, while another kind of venom will
exert little or no poisonous, paralysing influence upon those
nerve centres, but will act with powerful effect upon some other
groups. For instance. Cobra venom poisons the nerve centres
which control the automatic movements of the lungs and
diaphragm. Puff Adder venom does not have this effect. This
venom and that of the Boomslang act powerfully on the nerve
endings, blood-vessel walls, and blood, causing more or less
extensive haemorrhage into the tissues.

A strong man is far more difficult to overthrow than a weak
one. So, too, is the nervous system and brain. If you have
strong, healthy nerve and brain cells, snake venom or disease
microbes will be far less likely to kill than if the brain and nerve
cells are weak, sickly, or inflamed.

The chief cause of this unhealthy condition of the cells of the
brain and nerves, is the habitual indulgence in alcoholic liquor.
It has been established as a fact in science, after exhaustive
experimentation and observation, that alcohol poisons, weakens,
distorts, inflames, and kiUs these cells. Dead nerve cells are
never replaced.

How OUR Blood is Made — A Marvellous Process.

It is blood which builds up the tissues of all living creatures
upon our world, ourselves included. It is the blood which supplies
every particle of nourishment required for our bones, muscles,
brain, nerves, nails, and hair.

Where does the blood come from, and how is it made ? Yes,
we all know it is made from the food we eat, and the water we
drink — but how ? Has it never struck you that the process
must be a marvellous one which converts beef, potatoes,
bread, and all our foods, into blood ? It is the digestive
apparatus which performs this wonderful feat. The lowest
forms of animal life upon our world are tiny creatures which
live in the ocean. They are simply living stomachs. We human
folk, too, are stomachs — with appendages.

Well, now let us carefully trace the journey taken by our
dinner, and see what becomes of it.

u

290

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

The Salivary Glands and Teeth.

We are provided with incisor or front teeth for biting and
tearing our food ; and molars for the purpose of carefully grind-
ing up the food before it is swallowed. True, we have canine
If teeth, with which our primitive ances-

^^^N^ tors fought their enemies, before they

^ y 11 evolved the idea of using branches of

trees as clubs, and stones as weapons.
The instant food enters the mouth, the
saUvary glands pour out their secretion,
which is known as saliva. This saliva
is very important, for it performs a
work which the stomach is unable to
do. The saliva has the power of
changing the starchy parts of the food
into quite another substance. In fact,
it partly digests and prepares it for
another process which will take place
later in the stomach and bowels.

It is very important that we should
chew up our food thoroughly before
swallowing it. Parents should take
the greatest possible care of their
children's teeth. The teeth should
be cleaned, and the mouth washed
every morning, and at bedtime. The
mouth-wash should contain some anti-
septic which is not irritating to the
gums. Washing or rinsing is not
sufficient. It is necessary to use a tooth
brush and an antiseptic dentifrice.

apparatus of a human"being. WithOUt gOOd teeth, the food CaUUOt
It IS about 30 feet in length. ?"

(From Biackie's Physiology.) be properly prepared for the stomach.
Good teeth and a healthy stomach are a child's greatest asset.

The Stomach.

When the food is swallowed, it goes down a long tube called
the gullet or (Esophagus. The instant it enters the stomach,
the gastric nerves receive a stimulus, and digestion begins. The
stomach is a large, hollow, muscular bag. Embedded in its

Img. 120. — TheJiwholc digestive
a

THE INTESTINES.

291

inner walls are millions of tiny glands which are known as gastric
glands. These little glands become excited, and pour out a
sticky juice, which is known as gastric juice. It oozes out, just
like perspiration upon the skin. The muscular walls of the
stomach are meanwhile twisting, writhing, and turning, with
the object of swishing and swirling the food round its inner walls,
so that the gastric juice may be washed off. This gastric juice
mingles with the food,
and begins to break it
up. The churning
process goes on for
four to five hours,
until the whole of the
food has been broken
up into a creamy-
looking, liquid mass.
It then passes out into
the first part of the
intestine, called the
duodenum. Its pre-
sence excites certain
nerve ends, which
cause the bile from the
gall bladder to run
out into the food.
The secretion known
as the pancreatic j uice,
manufactured by the
pancreas or melt, is
also poured into the
food for the purpose
of completing its
digestion.

Fig. 121. — The organs of the human body, in 5j7m, the
abuse of which induces disease, suffering and pre-
mature death. (From Blackie's Physiology.)

The Intestines.

By a sort of squeezing process performed by the muscular walls
of the intestines or bowels, and which is known as the peristaltic
movement, the food is worked slowly down. As it proceeds, more
juices are poured out to complete the digestion of any parts of

292 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

the food which may have escaped perfect digestion by the other
fluids. Then the food is ready to be taken up and converted
into blood. In the inner walls of the bowels there are millions
of tiny mouths, which greedily suck up the digested food. These
little suckers are called lacteals. There is another set known
as venous absorbents. Some of the absorbed food is carried
to the liver to be filtered and purified before finding its way into
the blood stream. The portion which does not need to be acted
upon by the liver, is carried through a long slender tube known
as the thoracic duct, and poured into a large vein.

Converted into Blood.

The liquid food mingles with the venous blood and eventually
pours into the right side of the heart, and is pumped up into the
lungs. Here a marvellous change takes place. The air we
breathe contains a large amount of oxygen, if it be fresh and pure.
This oxygen gas instantly combines with the venous blood,
and a wonderful change takes place. The blood corpuscles
throw off a load of poisonous waste matter and absorb oxygen.
The blood is then returned to the heart, but this time to
the left half. From here it is pumped all over the body
through vessels known as arteries. These divide and subdivide
until they become mere threads, so tiny that they are invisible
to the naked eye. These are known as capillaries. So numerous
are they that you cannot prick your flesh anywhere with the
finest needle-point without rupturing several of them.

Health Laws.

There are laws governing every department of Nature. To
disobey any of these natural laws means punishment in some
shape or form. These laws work automatically. Whether
violated wilfully or ignorantly the punishment is the same.
There is no escape. We may perhaps escape the consequences
of the breaking of man-made laws, but not the laws of God.
They are self-acting.

Science is finding out more about these great natural laws, and
how they work. In proportion to our knowledge of the workings

HEALTH LAWS.

293

of Nature's laws, so shall we be able to avoid suffering and sorrow.
If a man knows there are treacherous bogs at each side of the
road he is travelling, he will be doubly careful to keep from
straying off the road. If we have been instructed in the

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Fig. 122. — I. One of the most common species of bacteria which
cause suppuration {Micrococcus pyogenes).

2. Spheroidal bacteria arranged in pairs {Difilococcus).

3. Spheroidal bacteria grouped in cuboidal masses (Sarcina).

4. Spheroidal bacteria grouped in chains {Streptococcus). These

produce erysipelas.

5. Diplococci slightly lance-shaped and surrounded by a

capsule. These cause acute pneumonia.

6. The bacteria which cause typhoid fever.

7. Bacilli with cilia.

8. These bacilli with spores produce lockjaw.

9. The bacilli of consumption.

10. The bacteria of diphtheria.

11. The microbes of .-Vsiatic cholera.

12. The microbes of recurrent fever. (From Standard Dictionary.)

knowledge that certain habits and acts are violations of natural
laws, and that punishment in some form is bound to follow, the
fear of consequences, if no higher motive, will keep us in the
straight path. The very things most essential for every grown

294 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

up boy and girl to know are usually concealed from them.
Surely it seems a most essential thing for boys and girls to be
taught how to keep the mechanism of their bodies in good
going order. Have you ever seriously asked yourself the question,
" Why do I eat certain foods, and swallow certain drinks ? Are
they good or bad for me ? Do they suit my constitution, my
habits of life, and do they contain the right elements of food-
material necessary for the nourishing of brain, bone, and
muscle ? "

The Science of Eating.

The science of eating includes not only the study of the food
values of the various articles of diet, and how to prepare them.
It is necessary also to understand the physiology of digestion ; to
know exactly what takes place after the food is swallowed.
If we make a study of this, we shall find out just how long it takes
the various kinds of food to digest. We shall know that well-
cooked rice is digested in an hour and a half. Pork from five to
six hours, and possibly not at all if the stomach is not strong.
We shall know that an average meal takes about five hours to
digest, and that to swallow fresh food when the last meal is still
digesting, will sooner or later weaken the strongest digestive
system, because it is a violation of a natural law.

What a Famous Physician Says.
In this connection, it will not be out of place to quote what
Dr. J. H. Kellogg, a famous medical author, says : " Eating
between meals is a gross breach of the requirements of good
digestion. The habit many have of eating fruit, confectionery,
nuts, sweetmeats, etc., between meals, is a certain cause of
dyspepsia. No stomach can endure such usage. Those who
indulge in this manner, complain of httle appetite, and wonder
why they have no relish for their food, strangely overlooking
the real cause, and utterly disregarding one of the plainest laws
of Nature. This evil practice is often begun in early childhood.
Indeed, it is too often cultivated by motliers, and the would-be
friends of the httle ones, who seek to gratify them by presents
of confectionery and other tit-bits of various sorts. Under

A LIVING, SELF-ACTING PUMP.

295

such a regimen it is not singular that so many thousands of
children annually fall victims to stomach and intestinal diseases
of various forms. In great numbers of cases early indiscretions
of this sort are the real causes of fully developed dyspepsia of
later years."

A Living, Self-Acting Pump and the Elixir of Life.

Poets and lovers wax eloquent about the heart, as though
it were capable of thought. We love with our heart, so we are
told. Well, the heart, in reality, is nothing more or less than a
self-acting pump, composed of four chambers, and has not any
sense at all. Love is the rousing into activity of certain brain
centres. The heart is a power-
ful muscle, or rather a combi-
nation of muscles. The two top
chambers are the auricles, the
bottom ones are the ventricles.
The purpose of the heart is to
pump the blood through the
body. The human heart, in
size and shape, is almost identi-
cal with that of a pig's heart.
The heart is situated just under
the breast bone, in the chest
cavity, which is known as the
thorax. It is turned slightly to
the left side.

The weight of the heart averages 8 to 10 ounces in women,
and 10 to 12 ounces in men. We really have two hearts joined
together. The right side of the heart is for the purpose of
pumping the blood up into the lungs. The left side is for driving
it all over the body, hence the reason that the ventricle on the
left side is three or four times as thick as that on the opposite
side, because it has to pump the blood to the most distant parts
of the body ; whereas its companion only has to drive the blood
a very short distance. The Dugong, a warm-blooded animal
which lives in the ocean, and which has given rise to the mermaid
myth, has two hearts, quite separate, with two chambers in
each.

Fig. 123. — A section of the human stomach
which is the most abused and overworked
part of the mechanism of the body.
(From Blackie's Physiology.)

296

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

The Elixir of Life.

Connected with the heart is an endless system of tubes,
which carry the blood all over the body.

The blood is the elixir of life. The stomach, with the aid
of the liver, pancreas, bowels, and lungs, changes the food
which we eat into blood, in a most marvellous way. The blood
is composed of tiny bodies, known as corpuscles and a watery
fluid known as the Plasma. There are red, and there are

tiG. 124. — Exterior view of the human heart and the great
blood vessels. The heart has four chambers — two auricles
and two ventricles. (From lilackic's Physiology.)

white corpuscles. The red corpuscles are those which make
the blood appear red. They and the Plasma carry food to
every cell of the body. In fact, they are living food— the
elixir of life. They renew the wasted cells. They are the
builders. As quickly as the cells of the body are broken down,
so they build up more. The white blood corpuscles are also
known as Phagocytes or Leucocytes. They attack and eat up
disease microbes, and repair wounds.

THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD.

297

The Circulation of the Blood.

Now, let us follow the blood as it comes rushing along from
the various parts of the body, and pours itself into the right
auricle of the heart. From this chamber it is forced down into
the bottom chamber, on the same side, and is prevented from
rushing back by a wonderful
system of valves, which allow
it to rush down, but not back
again. From the ventricle,
the heart-muscles pump the
blood up into the lungs.
Here it spreads out into
smaller and smaller tubes,
until they are so small they
cannot be seen with the
naked eye. This blood,
which the heart has pumped
into the lungs, is called
Venous blood, because it is
full of poison gathered up
from all over the body.
The body is constantly
burning. The cells which
compose it are dying in mil-
lions every second of life.
Their dead bodies fall into
the blood and are carried
away to the heart and
pumped into the lungs. Now,
when we take in a breath
of fresh air, we breathe in
a quantity of gas, called
oxygen.

The lungs contain mihions of little hollow bags, known as
sacs. Around these, the tiny blood vessels are embedded. They
are gorged with blood. Their walls are very thin, so that when
the air rushes into these tiny bags, the oxygen is sucked up into
the blood through the thin walls of the blood vessels. It in-
stantly mixes with the poisons in the blood, and a wonderful,

Fig. 125. — From the artery the blood runs
into smaller and smaller channels, so
small that they can only be seen with a
strong microscope. They again run to-
gether and pour their contents into a
vein. {From Blackic's Physiology.)

298

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

and marvellous change takes place. It has combined with the
poisons, and has changed them into a gas. This gas is called
carbonic-acid gas, or carbon-di-oxide. This we breathe out, and
thus get rid of many of the poisons in our blood. This air we
breathe out is poison in a gaseous form. If we could condense
it, we should see a mass of putrid lilth.

Now, think carefully over this wonderful mechanism which
God has provided for the casting out of poisons, and purifying

Fig. 126. — The pipes which carry air to and from the lungs.

, They divide and sub-divide and penetrate to every part
of the lungs. They terminate in little bags or sacs. There
are millions of them. {From Blackie's Physiology.)

our blood, and remember if you want your blood to be pure,
you must breathe fresh air. You cannot get fresh air if you
live indoors, and shut out the pure air. You are breathing
poison when you do this. You are re-breathing your own breath,
or that of other people, and poisoning your blood, instead of
purifying it. Remember always to breathe pure, fresh air.
Flood your dwellings, offices, and workshops with it. Fresh
air and cool breezes don't give a " cold." That belief has been
exploded. " Colds " are caused by the attacks of microbes

HOW WE POISON OUR BLOOD. 299

which can only breed in your throat when your blood is
impure.

A Remarkable Change.

When the oxygen has combined with the poisons in the
blood and removed them in the form of carbonic acid gas, the
blood, instead of being a purplish colour, is now bright red. It
has been changed from venous blood, to arterial blood. It is
now pure again, loaded with oxygen. The tiny blood vessels
gradually merge one into another, like a multitude of little rivulets
running together. Larger and larger become the vessels or tubes,
until they all merge into great channels through which the blood
is poured into the auricle or top chamber of the left side of the
heart. From here it runs down into the ventricle or bottom
chamber, and with a mighty throb, the heart drives it all over
the body. It rushes out, dividing and sub-dividing into smaller
and smaller channels, until they are so small that a strong micro-
scope is needed to see them. Through the walls of these tiny
blood vessels nourishment is supplied to the cells of the body,
and the dead used-up material absorbed ; so that, as it slowly'
makes its way along, it gives off all the nourishment it is capable
of for the time being, and with its load of poison, it hurries away
back to the heart, to be pumped once again into the lungs, to
be re-vitalized, cleansed, and purified by the oxygen in the air
we breathe.

How WE Poison our Blood.

There are more ways of poisoning our blood than breathing
impure air. A good many of the liquids and foods which we
swallow also poison the blood. People make themselves ill by
eating wrong foods, or too much food, and instead of fasting
they swallow great quantities of poisonous drugs. Drugs should
not "be taken, unless by a physician's orders.

If the foods which we eat are not thoroughly digested they
ferment and become putrid, especially animal food, in the
bowels. The liquid portion of this putrid mass is sucked up by
little vessels known as lacteals, and poured into the blood, fouling
and poisoning it. The phagosytes or white blood corpuscles are

300

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

thus benumbed, and rendered incapable of killing off disease
microbes, which multiply and cause a disease peculiar to their
species or kind. If you disregard the laws of eating and drinking
then 3'ou should not blame Providence if the machinery of your
body gets out of gear, and disease microbes attack it.

How TO Keep your Blood Pure.

The first essential is to breathe plenty of oxygen, and inhale
deeply. A great many people get into the habit of breathing

in a very shallow way, inflat-
ing only a portion of their
lungo. Boys and girls who
have flat chests should be
compelled to take systematic
club, dumb-bell, or other suit-
able physical exercises for en-
larging the chest and lung
capacity. The exercises should
not be discontinued until the
chest becomes convex.

Practise deep breathing
until it becomes a habit. Sit
in a chair with a straight back,
bolt upright. Slowly breathe
as much air into your lungs as
you are able to force down.
Retain it till you count five,
then slowly exhale it. Con-
tinue this for fifteen minutes,
twice a day if possible. At
first you will feel a trifle
giddy with the unaccustofned
amount of blood which gets
into your lungs, but this soon
wears off. Breathe through
your nose. It is a microbe

Fig. 127. Rough diagram showing liow the
blood circulates through the body. I'oison-
ladcii blood runs to the heart from all
over the body. It is then pumped into
the lungs and purified by the air we
breathe. It returns to the heart to be
again pumped to the remotest corners of
the body. (From lUackie's Physiology.)

and dust filter, and warms the air also.

EATING AND DRINKING.

301

Eating and Drinking.

Be careful to eat good, plain, wholesome foods. It takes an
ordinary meal fully four to live hours to digest. While food is
digesting no more should be put into the stomach, therefore
three meals a day are suflicient, unless of course in cases, under
a medical man's care, where special measures are necessary.
The ancient Greeks and Persians only ate twice daily. The

Fig. 128. — These are the Phagosytes which help to make up the blood of our
bodies. They look like bits of jelly, and are so small that it requires a powerful
microscope to see them.
The top row is what they look like when they are swimming in the liquid part of
the blood.

A. This is the nucleus from which radiates the life-prmciple of the
phagosyte.

B. This is a tiny cavity which holds liquid.

The second row shows a Phagosyte attacking, seizing and digesting a disease

microbe.
There are countless millions of Phagosytes in our blood. They attack and eat

up disease microbes which get into the blood. They repair wounds and build up

parts of the body.

C. This is a disease microbe.

Alcohol and the nicotine in tobacco shrivels up and kills these microbe-killmg
phagosytes when it gets into the blood. Those it does not kill, it cripples.

Romans did likewise, until they grew into luxurious ways of
living.

When there is anything wrong with the digestive organs or
their appendages, such as ordinary indigestion, catarrh, bilious-
ness, or constipation, then careful dieting or a temporary fast
is necessary, else the blood will be rendered foul by the poisons
released from the decomposing food.

302 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Exercise.

Regular exercise of the body in the fresh air daily, is neces-
sary to increase the heart's action ; and to draw the blood into the
muscles, and thus relieve the congestion of the brain and internal
organs which occur when the muscles are not regularly used.
The increased circulation drives the blood with greater speed
through the sluggish capillaries, and carries an unusual amount
of poison out of the body. The nervous system is also aroused,
the internal organs become more active, and an all-round improve-
ment thus takes place.

To keep the blood pure, and to have good sound health, it
is necessary to eat plain, wholesome food at regular intervals
only. Lead a temperate life, abstaining from all that which
is harmful. Breathe fresh air. Be out as much as possible
in the sunshine. Take plenty of exercise out of doors. Breathe
deeply and develop the chest.

How Food, Drink, and Poisons are Conveyed to the Cells

OF THE Human Body.

The blood in our arteries is charged with the digested food
which we eat, and the liquids we drink, as well as the oxygen
gas we breathe. But how does this food, drink, and oxygen
get into contact with the countless millions of tiny cells which
compose our bodies ? The blood, as we know, is enclosed in
channels or tubes. These tubes divide and sub-divide until
they form an exceedingly fine network of tiny blood vessels so
thickly permeating the flesh, that the finest needle-point cannot
puncture the skin without penetrating and tearing a great many
of them. But how does the nourishment in the blood get out-
side the membraneous walls of the vessels which enclose it ?

Imagine, if you can, a great swamp full of rushes, reeds, and
grasses. This vegetation sends out roots in all directions, which
permeate the ooze in a fine network. Imagine this network of
roots to be the blood vessels in your body, and the water which
surrounds those roots on all sides to be a colourless fluid known
as lymph. This water-looking lymph saturates the tissues of
the body and surrounds the capillary blood vessels. You all
know what lymph is. It is the watery, colourless fluid which

THE LYMPHATICS. 303

accumulates under the skin, and forms blisters when you get
badly sun-burned.

What the Lymph does.

Well now, a most marvellous thing occurs within our bodies.
This lymph which saturates the body like water in a bog, sucks
from the blood its oxygen and digested nourishment through
the walls of the blood vessels, and so feeds the cells of our
bodies. Our bodies are burning all the time. We are con-
stantly using up the cells of our bodies. They burn away in
countless millions every instant of time, and are replaced by
new cells created from the nourishment supplied indirectly by
the blood, and directly by the lymph. The dead cells, when
burned up within the body, take the form of carbonic acid.
This gas is sucked up by the lymph, and through the walls of
the tiny capillary blood vessels. The latter carry it away in-
stantly to the larger veins which in turn pour into yet larger
ones still, until the poison-laden blood reaches the heart. This
human pump then forces it up into the lungs where it is changed
by the oxygen gas we inhale. The poisons are thus breathed
out and escape from the body.

The Lymphatics.

You wonder, perchance, how the watery lymph, laden with
impurities, is drained away. Like a thick network, countless
numbers of tiny tubes spread out under the skin, and amongst
the tissues. These are known as lymphatic vessels, because
they carry lymph. The blood vessels are unending. They pro-
ceed from the heart, divide and sub-divide until they form a
fine network of tiny tubes. These small blood vessels have no
blind or open endings. When their work is done in supplying
the lymph with their load of nourishment, and when they have
sucked up as much poisonous dead matter as they can from
the lymph, they begin to run together, forming larger and yet
larger channels which conduct the blood back to the heart to
be once again pumped into the lungs. On the contrary, the
lymphatics have open mouths. The lymph, which saturates
the tissues, is drained off by these httle lymphatic tubes, the
open mouths of which suck it up and hurry it along into larger

304

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

and larger 13'mphatic vessels, until at last it is poured through
two big tubes in the neck into two large veins, and thence to
the heart to be pumped, along with the venous or impure blood,
into the lungs to get rid of its load of poison.

How Snake Venom is Sucked up.

This vast network of absorbent lymphatic vessels and capil-
laries, which spread out under the skin, and in all directions

I'iG. 129. — This drawing serves to show how an artery breaks up into
small channels which are called capillaries. They are so small that
they cannot be seen except with a microscope. After nourishing the
cells, they run together again, and form what is known as a vein.
The little bodies in the spaces are the cells of the tissues. They are sur-
rounded by lymph. The black lines are the Lymphatics which have open
mouths to suck up the lymph and all it might contain, and carry it away
to the blood.
A. Artery. V. Vein. L. Lymphatics.

through the tissues of the body, sucks up any fluid which may be
injected, or otherwise find its way under the skin, or into
the muscles. Drugs are frequently administered thus. They
find their way more rapidly and efficiently into the general
circulation when hypodermically injected, than if swallowed.

Ordinary cases of blood poisoning occur in this manner. The
poison is sucked up from the wound. Microbes of various
diseases gain an entry into the blood also in this manner, hence
the reason why all wounds, and even slight abrasions of the

DESTROY THE VENOM AT ONCE. 305

skin, should be cleaned and dressed with a germ-killing substance,
such as boracic acid.

When a snake drives its fangs through the skin, the venom
is discharged into the watery lymph and amongst a close net-
work of lymphatic tubes, the absorbent mouths of which are
intensely irritated by the venom. Being thus stimulated, they
and the small blood vessels rapidly suck it up. In a
marvellously short space of time it is distributed throughout
the body by means of the blood vessels. Not being convertible
into a gas by the lungs the latter have little or no power of ex-
pelling it with the exhaled breath, as is the case with ordinary
tissue waste matters.

Destroy the Venom at once.

Now, it is apparent if the spot where the fangs entered is
well scarified and allowed to bleed freely or sucked, the venom,
or at least some of it, will be washed out or drawn out by suction.
Permanganate of potash kills snake venom, if brought into actual
contact with it, so it is obvious that if this salt is rubbed into the
scarified part within five minutes of being bitten by a snake,
more or less of the venom will be destroyed in the wound. This
method naturally does not always save the bitten person's life,
because, when a large and very venomous snake, such as a Cobra,
inflicts a full and complete bite, enough venom is sucked up
within a minute or two into the body to cause death, although
the permanganate might have destroyed two-thirds or even
more of the quantity injected by the snake.

It is unwise to rely entirely upon permanganate of potash
in the treatment of snake bite, even if it be applied within a
minute of being bitten, especially if the snake be a Cobra,
Mamba, or large Puff Adder. The victim should be injected
with Anti-venom Serum, which men of science now prepare
for the treatment of snake bite, and which is fully discussed
elsewhere in this book.

A series of experiments which I conducted during the past
ten years all go to show that none of the popular South African
" cures " retard death in the least when applied in cases of snake
bite on animals.

X

3o6

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Knowing how the venom is carried into the general circula-

tion, it will be apparent that a

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ligature applied above the
wound would considerably
retard the flow of the blood
and lymph into the body.
However, great care must
always be exercised so as not
to allow a very tight liga-
ture to remain on for more
than twenty minutes to half
an hour, else the limb may
mortify. The ligature should
be slightly loosened for a
moment at intervals, so as
to allow the venom to get
into the circulation so slowly
that the vital functions may
be able to cope with, over-
come, and cast it out before
it can succeed in paralysing
the nerve centres, and thus
cause death. Some of the
poison-charged blood may
be got rid of in the ligatured
part, by opening one or two
of the veins which look like
blue lines under the skin.

There is no risk of bleed-
ing to death from an ordi-
nary surface vein. It is the
arteries which are difficult to
stop bleeding when severed.
They, however, lie deep down
in the tissues, not just under
the skin, except at places
such as the ankle and skull
where the muscles are thin

or absent. All the blue-looking blood channels seen under the

skin are veins.

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HOW VENOM GETS IN AND OUT OF THE BLOOD 307

How Venom gets in and out of the Blood.

The nourishment and other substances held in solution in
the blood pass out through the walls of the microscopically
small capillary blood vessels into the lymph by means of which
they reach the cells to nourish, paralyse or kill them, according
to the nature of the substance. Now, suppose you take a glass
bottle without a bottom. Over the bottom part stretch a piece
of bladder and tie it securely. Make a solution of sulphate of
copper and place it in the bottle. You will find it will not ooze
through the bladder membrane.

You then place the bottle in a glass of
water. Presently you will observe the water
becoming blue. This shows that the copper
sulphate is oozing through the bladder into
the water. This is called Osmosis, and
shows exactly how nourishment, poisons,
etc., pass through the walls of the blood
vessels into the watery lymph by which
they are surrounded, and reach the cells
to rebuild or poison them. At the same
time the water from outside will ooze
through the membrane over the bottom
of the bottle, and mingle with the contents,
until the solution inside and outside the
bottle is of the same density. Now, when
a snake discharges its venom into the
watery lymph amongst the blood vessels
under the skin, a portion of it oozes
through the walls of the tiny capillary
blood vessels and enters the blood-stream.
It is carried along with the blood, and if
it be Viperine (Adder) venom, it will at once begin to attack the
capillary walls and the blood, dissolving the red colouring matter
out of the red corpuscles, and otherwise breaking it up, causing it
to ooze out through the blood-vessel walls and spread in dark
bluish-black patches under the skin, and amongst the muscles. If
it be Cobra venom it will ooze out through the walls of the blood
vessels, and be absorbed by the cells of various nerve centres
in the brain and top of the spinal cord, and poison them.

Fig. 131.

3o8 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

U snake venom in solution with water, instead of sulphate
of copper, is placed in the bottle shown in the illustration, it
will not ooze out. But if the bottle is placed in a glass of water
it will begin to ooze through, and vice versa until the water
inside and outside the bottle will be equally poisonous.

It can thus clearly be seen that if snake venom has been
sucked up and has already acted extensively upon the blood
and nerve cells previous to the injection of an antidote, the latter,
even if administered copiously, may fail to avert a fatal issue.
It is obvious that if the nerve cells be extensively poisoned, or
the blood broken up beyond recovery, there cannot be any other
result than death. It is well-nigh impossible for us to judge
whether the patient has passed the border-line or not, unless he
is actually dying and the fact is patent ; therefore in these cases
we always recommend injecting two or three times the ordinary
dose of an ti- venom serum. Place no reliance upon any quack
so-called cure. If the snake serum will not save the patient
from death, nothing else will. I wish to impress this fully upon
the minds of readers, for the majority of people have some kind
of worthless cure which they have such faith in, that nothing else
would be used if a case of snake bite should occur.

In ])laces in this volume there may seem to be unnecessary
reiteration. \\'henever I have dwelt more than once upon the
same topic it is with the definite purpose of impressing the
n.inds of readers with matters which are of grave importance.

In this chapter a few paragraphs touching on general hygiene
have been introduced. To some readers these may seem out of
place in this volume, but it must be borne in mind that
physiology or hygiene are often not taught in our public schools,
and that, knowing little or nothing of these subjects, it is difficult
to endeavour to destroy faith in the many absurd methods
of treatment of snake bite, or to get a man to follow a rational
method of treatment. Remember, too, that the chances of
recovery from snake venom poisoning are largely determined by
the victim's condition of healtli nt the time he was bitten.

CHAPTER X.

Alleged Snake Bite Cures — Results of Experiments.

In all countries where venomous snakes abound, so-called anti-
dotes to snake bite spring up like crops of weeds upon a rank
soil. In India at least a score of alleged antidotes were largely
advertised and otherwise advocated. Each " cure " had its
adherents, many of whom testified to its power to cure snake
bite. Doctors Fayrer, Brunton, Rogers, and other eminent
experimenters exhaustively tested the alleged antidotes in use
in India, and found them one and all to be of little or no value.
Colonists in South Africa invariably attach much importance
to the assertions of the natives in regard to alleged snake
bite remedies. This faith has, doubtless, been considerably
strengthened by the crafty " Kafir doctors' " tactics.

How Beliefs are Spread.

These " doctors " tell of the wonderful virtues of some
favourite remedy for snake bite, and when urged to divulge its
nature, make a profound mystery of it, declaring that fabulous
sums would not tempt them to disclose the secret. Naturally
the inquirer is impressed, more or less. Many of these " doctors "
have accomplices, who pretend to be suffering seriously from snake
bite. With much mystery and fuss, the doctor appears upon the
scene and applies his remedy. The man makes an apparent
rapid recovery, and the " cure " is heralded all over the neigh-
bourhood. I have, however, met many of these native doctors
who, I have every reason to believe, had firm faith in the anti-
dotal properties of their snake bite " mooti " (medicine).

309

310 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Apparent Cures.

In the past I have treated, and seen treated, many cases of
snake bite. It was in the days when Httle or nothing was
known of the present approved methods of treatment. I had
strong faith in alcohol, strychnine, ammonia, and one or two
proprietary substances, the active principle of which, I after-
wards ascertained, was either ammonia or strychnine, or both.
Many of the cases so treated were practically " cured " twelve
or twenty-four hours after treatment. I have often seen the
same thing occur when native " cures " were applied.

The Reason Why.

However, when I began the serious study of snakes and
their venom, I found that a large percentage of the snakes of
South Africa were non- venomous, many others were only veno-
mous to a slight degree, and others powerfully venomous. Now,
a harmless snake or a slightly venomous one will, in nearly all
cases, instantly bite if trodden upon or roughly handled. Some
of them are actually vicious, and will lunge fiercely at any one
coming near to them. The commonest place to be bitten is
upon the hand. In gardening work, removing lumber, and in
a multitude of other out-of-door occupations, the hands are em-
ployed in moving, turning over, carrying, etc. If the fingers
should touch a snake, or the hand come within striking distance
of it, the reptile wiU often lunge with gaping jaws and inflict a
wound. The victim sees the snake bite him. That is enough
for him. He rushes off in terror, forthwith swallows all the
brandy, whisky, or gin he is able to imbibe, or perhaps other
" cures " are applied. If the strong spirit does not poison
him, or cause acute inflammation of the stomach and death,
he recovers and swears ever after that he drank a bottle or
two of spirits and it cured him. If the cure should happen
to be some simple remedy, such as native " mooti," or
something else recommended by a neighbour, and he finds he
is none the worse for the bite, he is never weary of advocating
the treatment, whatever its nature might have been, although
in all probability the snake which bit him was one of the harmless
species.

THE REASON WHY. 311

Even when bitten by highly venomous snakes, it does not
follow that death, or even serious illness, will result. If a
poisonous snake should succeed in inflicting a full and complete
bite, and if that snake should happen to be a healthy one of
adult size, then if death does not take place, very serious con-
stitutional effects are bound to follow. Often, however, the
venom, or most of it, is absorbed by the clothing, or the skin is
barely scratched. In other cases a partial bite with only one
fang is inflicted. It is impossible to know for certain whether
any alleged cure is what it claims to be or not, unless tested
under proper conditions. The conditions must be such as to
leave no possibility of doubt as to the identity of the snake used
for the purpose. In experimental work one test is not sufficient.
A series of experiments are necessary.

It by no means follows that a fatal dose, or even a dose suffi-
cient to cause noticeable symptoms of poisoning, will be injected
even if a snake should puncture the flesh with both fangs. Often
the snake miscalculates its distance, and the venom squirts out
before the fangs penetrate the skin. In these cases only a
fractional dose is injected. At other times a fierce thrust is
made which either misses or strikes the boot or clothing at an
oblique angle. Like a flash a second blow is delivered. This
time the fangs, perchance, are driven home. In such cases as
these the venom would be driven out of the poison glands and
shed by the first thrust, leaving very little for injection by the
second bite. In fact, I have often found that the masseter
muscles, which squeeze the glands and expel the poison, do not
always respond a second time, unless there is a pause between
the first and second bite.

During the course of my experiments it was abundantly
evident that a bite from a venomous snake did not always mean
the injection of a fatal dose of venom. I will give one instance
from scores in my note book.

A large Puff Adder which had been in captivity five days,
was held by the finger and thumb and allowed to bite the lower
part of the thigh of a Cape Jackal which was as large as a full-
grown Pointer dog. The snake drove both fangs into the flesh.
It bit a second time, but only one fang penetrated halfway.

Five minutes later a second Puff Adder was held to the thigh
of the Jackal. At first it refused to bite, but when its nose was

312

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

violently rubbed against the Jackal's leg, it bit rapidly and let

(

go, leaving two punctures. Again it bit in exactly the same way,
leaving two punctures which bled slightly.

All that day, and for three days following, the Jackal showed

THE QUANTITY OF VENOM INJECTED. 313

no outward symptoms of poisoning. There was no swelling,
and the animal fed as usual, and was as lively as ever.

On the fourth day I extracted three drops of venom from
one of the Puff Adders which had bitten the Jackal. This was
mixed with a teaspoonful of pure water and injected into the
muscles of the other thigh of the Jackal, by means of a serum
syringe. One hour later the Jackal was dead. A post-mortem
showed the limb swollen twice its normal size. The flesh
of the whole limb from the toes up to the junction with the
body, was saturated with blood which had oozed through
the walls of the blood vessels into the surrounding tissues.
The muscles of the whole body were more or less stained with
extravasated blood, and the heart was also affected.

The limb was then examined which had been bitten by the
two Puff Adders. All about the sites of the bites the muscles
were much discoloured with blood, which had oozed into the
tissues. This was traced up the leg and half-way along the side.
It was apparent that venom had been injected when the snakes
inflicted their bites, but not in sufficient quantity to cause
swelling or other noticeable symptoms. Now, if I had relied
upon this case as a demonstration of the efficacy of some
favourite " cure," I should have been altogether wrong in my
conclusions.

The Quantity of Venom Injected.

When a venomous snake inflicts a full bite it drives its fangs
into the flesh and retains its hold for a moment or two, at the
same time gripping hard. Now, in most cases of snake bite
with human beings and the larger animals, the victim generally
sees the snake lunge and springs away or shakes off the reptile
the moment it bites. If he does not happen to see it strike he will,
on the instant, leap, kick, or otherwise disengage the snake's
fangs before it is able to grip the flesh and press in a full charge
of venom. I have frequently made snakes bite animals with
the object of demonstrating that if a snake is allowed to get a
full grip and hold on for a second or two, the amount of venom
injected is double and often ten or more times greater than if
the reptile struck and instantly disengaged its fangs. This is
ascertained by observing the length of time the animals survived.

314 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

In many cases when the snake was allowed simply to puncture
the flesh for an instant, the animal recovered. Often the
symptoms of poisoning were only comparatively slight. In all
cases when a Cobra, Puff Adder, or Boomslang was allowed to
inflict a full bite, death followed. The fangs of the Cobra family
of snakes are short and the channel down which the venom
flows is very small. I have carefully tested and found that the
Cobra, Ringhals, and Mamba, expel their venom at the rate of
about a drop from each fang in one second. With the available
constricting power exerted on the poison glands, the venom is
pressed out with great power, but the channels down which
the venom is forced are so small that it issues in a very fine
stream. The Puff Adder and others of the adder family have
larger fangs, the Night Adders [Causus) are an exception, and
their venom, moreover, beipg thinner than that of the Cobras,
they are, in consequence, able to inject it at a more rapid rate.
The reason Nature has not evolved larger grooves through which
to drive a bigger dose of venom into the victim in the case of
the Cobras and Mambas is that it is not at all necessary, for
weight for weight. Cobra and Mamba venom exceed Puff Adder
and other adder venom in its death-dealing properties. One
drop of Cobra venom will kill a large dog in forty minutes,
sometimes less. The same quantity of Puff Adder venom causes
constitutional disturbances which are invariably recovered from.

Alleged Cures.

Every native " cure " submitted to me so far has proved,
upon experimentation, to be absolutely worthless. I have also
tested some alleged South African cures, which are proprietary,
with equally disappointing results. An owner of a certain pro-
prietary " cure " was very anxious that I should experiment
with it. He evidently had a good deal of faith in it himself. I
intimated that such experiments cost money. 1 was quite
willing to bear such cost in the interests of science, but I pre-
sumed he would have no objection to allowing me to publish
the results. No, he could not permit such a thing until he first
learned the result. Then he would decide. I asked him in the
event of failure would he be prepared to withdraw his " cure "
from the market ? " No, of course not." Many a valuable life

THE FAMOUS ISIBIBA CURE. 315

is lost in South Africa, not to mention stock which have cost
the owner large sums, because of his faith in the efficacy of
these bogus cures for snake bite.

The base of nearly all of these proprietary " cures " is
strychnine and ammonia. Those drugs, especially the former,
are occasionally of some service as heart and nerve stimulants,
but unless administered very carefully they are apt to do more
harm than good. In cases of Colubrine snake bite (Cobra family) ,
strychnine in medicinal doses might be of some little service in
rousing certain nerve-centres.

A heart stimulant is rarely, if ever, required in serious cases
of snake bite. Cobra venom itself acts as a powerful heart
stimulant. So strongly is the heart stimulated that, for several
minutes after the lungs have ceased to act and somatic (physical)
death has taken place, the heart is still beating. Cobra venom
tends to paralyse the nerve centres, and strychnine injected
under the skin, or nux vomica swallowed with a little water,
might prove somewhat beneficial. Electric shocks would pro-
bably be more efficacious.

Adder venom, as a rule, acts largely upon the blood,
dissolving out the red colouring matter (haemoglobin) from the
red corpuscles, and relaxing the walls of the blood vessels. It
is, therefore, apparent that a heart stimulant in these cases
would result in the blood being pumped through the vessels
with greater force and pressure, resulting in increased haemorrhage
into the tissues and under the skin. This is what we should
seek to avoid.

The base of one of the popular South African proprietary
cures is extract of Male Fern Root. This is an excellent remedy
for tape worm, but not for snake bite.

The Famous Isibiba Cure — Results of Experimentation.

Isibiba (Zulu), Mahlivinyoka (Swazi).

In South Africa, particularly in Rhodesia, Transvaal, Swazi-
land, Zululand, and Natal, there is an alleged native remedy
for snake bite known by the native names of "Isibiba" and
" Mahhvinyoka." This cure is, according to the native doctors,
an infallible remedy for snake bite. Natives have absolute faith
in their doctors. These doctors claim this substance to be

31 6 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

an antidote ; therefore, in consequence, the same beHef is held
by the native population. Large numbers of colonists also have
unquestioning faith in its efficacy.

A certain well-known South African journal, in a leading
article on " Isibiba," voices the public belief in this substance
as follows : — " We have been assured by Native Commissioners
and other men of position in the Transvaal that they have per-
sonally witnessed marvellous cures worked by this substance.
A very small quantity — as much as will cover the point of an
ordinary penknife — taken internally, and a little of it rubbed
into the wound and into small incisions on the wounded limb
above the wound, has been known to restore the bitten man to
complete convalescence within twenty-four hours after his con-
dition had been so precarious that he had already become un-
conscious, and also blind from the consequences of a Puff Adder's
bite.

"Other unquestionable evidence could, if necessary, be adduced
to bear out the assertion that ' Isibiba ' is not a mere palliative,
but a sure and indubitable cure for snake bites. From what
plant or substance ' Isibiba ' is prepared by the native doctors
is as yet a secret which they have managed strictly to
preserve." This alleged antidote is also believed to confer abso-
lute immunity to snake venom.

Experiments with Isibiba.

The Hon. F. W. Reitz, Ex-President of the Orange Free
State, and a former State Secretary of the Transvaal, and Presi-
dent of the Senate of the Union of South Africa, who takes a
keen interest in the quest for a reliable snake-bite antidote other
than serum, sent me a phial of genuine fresh " Isibiba," to
enable me to carry out a series of experiments. This " Isibiba,"
on examination through a microscope, appears to be the root
of a plant. The root is finely pulverized, and is of a reddish-
sandy shade in colour. A subsequent examination has shown it
to be a mixture of certain herbs and desiccated snake-flesh.
Realizing the unsatisfactory nature of experiments of this kind
on small creatures, such as rats, guinea-pigs, rabbits, etc., I
procured a large male Vervet Monkey {Cercopithecus pygerythrus)
in the fullest vigour and health. Mixing a heaping egg-spoonful

FURTHER EXPERIMENTS. 317

of " Isibiba " with a piece of banana, 1 gave it to the monkey.
After an interval of fifteen minutes, a four-foot Brown Cape
Cobra, or Bruin Kapell [Naia flava), which had been in captivit}^
a year, and was in poor condition, bit the animal on the tail,
one foot from the root, on a spot previously shaved. Within
one minute the site of the bite was scarified thoroughly, and
" Isibiba " powder rubbed in. Other incisions were made
between the site of the bite and the heart, and more " Isibiba "
rubbed in. After an interval of two minutes, more of the
remedy was applied to the incisions. Each incision was
smothered with it. As is usual in cases of bites from Cobras,
the animal did not suffer any pain. The only pain was a momen-
tary twinge when the rapid incisions in the skin were made with
a sharp lancet. The animal did not show the least sign of any
inconvenience for fifteen minutes. Then it began to get drowsy.
This was due to the paralysing action of the Cobra venom on
the nerve centres. This increased progressively until the animal
became unconscious. It died in forty minutes. After breathing
ceased, the heart beat vigorously for five minutes, then gradually
slowed and stopped after another two minutes. This is not
unusual in cases of death from Cobra venom. It has always
occurred in my experience, hence the reason I advocate the
adoption of artificial respiration methods, if breathing should
cease suddenly. On dissection, it was clearly evident the animal
had died of Cobra venom poisoning, and not from any possible
toxic action of the " Isibiba." Subsequent experiments of a
conclusive nature have confirmed the negative results of the
first case. It is unnecessary to give them in detail.

Further Experiments.

After the publication of the results of the Isibiba experiments
in the several South African Agricultural Journals, I received
the following communication from a well-known gentleman in
Natal. He wrote : "I have discussed your direct statement
with regard to Isibiba I have witnessed both animals and human
beings bitten by Puff Adders and Night Adders. In all these
cases Isibiba was used, both internally and externally, with un-
qualified success. I mention this, because I have seen the snakes
which caused the bites, and the antidote, and knew it to be
Isibiba."

3i8 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

I procured some of the Isibiba, which was such an infalHble cure,
from this gentleman, who assured me he obtained it direct from
a native medicine man. On examination, the stuff appeared
to be exactly the same as that which had been supplied to me
by the Hon. F. W. Reitz, for my first series of experiments.

It is needless to detail the experiments. It is sufficient to
say, although the Isibiba was applied as directed, both internally
and to the incised wound, it did not delay a fatal issue. In no
case did it even prolong life.

Another communication was received from a prominent
farmer in the Transvaal. He stated that all the farmers in his
district carried a " Snake bite cure " in a small bag sewn to their
belt or braces. The women carried it stitched to a garter.
These people believe the substance to be a certain cure for snake
bite, and in consequence display absolute fearlessness w^hen in
the presence of snakes. He was given a small bag of this cure
and told to carry it about with him always, because it was a
certain cure, provided the wound was scarified, and the powder
rubbed well in, and a small quantity swallowed. He says it is
also believed that if the skin is cut in several places once yearly,
and the powder rubbed in, it will give absolute immunity for
at least a year. My correspondent is prepared to contest this
cure against any other. A sample of this wonderful powder
was sent to me. It turned out to be Isibiba. Again I conducted
a series of experiments, with the same results as before. I carried
out the instructions carefully, viz. putting a little of the Isibiba
at the back of the tongue, scarifying the site of the bite, and
rubbing some of the powder well in. In other cases I scarified
the flesh in three or four places and rubbed the powder into the
cuts. Rubbing some on a piece of meat, I gave it to a Jackal.
After a lapse of fifteen minutes, to give the Isibiba every chance
of being absorbed into the blood, the Jackal was bitten on the
thigh by a Cape Cobra. The site of the punctures was scarified
and smothered with the stuff. The Jackal died in less than an
hour.

Further Proofs.

Another gentleman from the Transvaal wrote suggesting that
the first sample of Isibiba I experimented with, might not have
been the genuine article. He wrote as follows : "I had a fair

FURTHER PROOFS. 319

quantity of Isibiba some time back which came from the heart
of Swaziland. It turned out to be the real stuff, so I was very
soon relieved of most of it by my neighbours. However, the
following two cases came under my notice which made me believe
it to be the genuine stuff. A neighbour of mine had the misfortune
to be bitten by a Puff Adder, on the instep. He was barefooted.
He ran to his house, a distance of about a hundred yards.
Reaching the dining-room, he practically collapsed. Fortunately,
his Kafir cook was at hand, and on hearing the news, imme-
diately broke a bottle, and with a piece of the glass scarified
right and left across the punctures. He rubbed in a quantity
of Isibiba (not very much), and the bitten man swallowed a
quantity, as much as would cover the point of an ordinary
penknife. Nothing else was done. For two days the leg was
considerably swollen, but on the third, it went down, and the
man in question recovered.

" The second case was with a dog. My pointer one morning,
under my very nose, was bitten, also by a Puff Adder, on the
lower lip. He gave a startled yelp, and at once scratched his
head most violently with his fore paws. Within five minutes
his whole body contracted into large bumps, and his head assumed
most startling proportions, so much so that the eyes could not
be seen. As I usually carry Isibiba with me, and a sharp Gillette
Safety Razor blade, I called a boy, who held the dog down. I
examined his head, found two large punctures on the lower lip.
These I scarified and rubbed in Isibiba, and gave him a good dose
also. After two hours he seemed very bad, so I gave him a half
cup of French brandy with a little water, after which he lay
quite still. The next day the swellings on his body were gone.
His head was still a bit swollen, but he was otherwise none the
worse for the bite.

" These two cases are quite genuine. I have about a sufficient
quantity of this Isibiba left for a cure, which I will willingly
forward if you are prepared to test it upon animals bitten by
Puff Adders. Let the bite be on the hind-quarters, thereupon
immediately scarify the wounds, rub in a fair quantity of the
Isibiba, and give the rest internally. This Isibiba has cured two
cases to my knowledge, and should you be successful, I think
that would be sufficient proof that it is a positive cure."

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

The Tests.

A quantity of this Isibiba was procured and forwarded
to me.

A large domestic tom-cat was chosen for the first experiment,
for the reason that cats resist the action of snake venom much
more successfully than any other animal of the same size with
which experiments have been made. A large pinch of the powder
was dropped into the cat's open mouth, which fell into the throat
and was swallowed. A Puff Adder was then allowed to inflict
one full bite on the upper part of the cat's back leg. The spot
was instantly scarified, three cuts being made. The wounds
were rubbed thoroughly with Isibiba. After an interval, more
was applied. Later, the wound was rubbed with a third dose.
The cat died in one hour twenty-seven minutes after.

Some of this Isibiba was mixed with the venom of a Puff Adder
and rubbed into a cut in the leg of a fowl. The fowl died in half
an hour. Isibiba was mixed with three drops of Puff Adder venom
and some water and allowed to stand a whole day. The mixture
was rubbed into a cut in a fowl's leg. The fowl died. Other
experiments followed, with similar results.

A full-grown Vervet or Blue Ape, similar to the one used in
the original experiment with Isibiba, was obtained. I inserted
a fair quantity of the Isibiba powder supplied by Mr. Reitz, and
some of that which was supposed to have cured the man and the
dog when bitten by Puff Adders, into a piece of banana. The
monkey ate the banana. Allowing an interval of fifteen minutes,
I caused a Puff Adder to bite the monkey in the lower part of
the back leg. The site of the punctures was instantly scarified
thoroughly, and the wounds smothered with a mixture of the
two samples of Isibiba. The monkey, within five minutes of the
bite, showed signs of poisoning. The symptoms steadily deve-
loped, until death took place twenty minutes after the infliction
of the bite.

The Puff Adder was a fresh one which I had captured a week
previously. The bite it inflicted was a complete one. It was
held by the neck and allowed to retain its hold two seconds.

Samples of Isibiba from the Transvaal, Swaziland, and Natal
were mixed together, A teaspoonful of water and six drops of

MISPLACED CONFIDENCE. 121

J"

Puff Adder venom were added. The mixture was thoroughly
mixed and allowed to stand six hours. It was then carefully
strained. The liquid, which was reddish-brown in colour, was
divided into two portions and injected under the skin of the thighs
of two fowls. Both fowls died in less than two hours.

Since writing the foregoing a friend has succeeded in obtaining
a sample of Isibiba from a Kafir medicine man in Swaziland.
He stated it to be the pulverized bark of a root mixed with the
powdered remains of the entire head of an adult Puff Adder. It
seems the head is first thoroughly dried and then pounded with
the bark. This preparation is supposed to be a certain cure
for the bite of a Puff Adder. The directions of the medicine man
were, to place a pinch or two on the tongue and swallow it ; to
scarify the wound and rub some into the cuts. Truly this was
a curious sort of " cure." A moment's reflection would make
it clear that the application of the pulverized head of a venomous
snake to a wound would simply increase the poisonous symptoms,
for snake venom does not lose any of its poisonous properties
if dried, unless allowed to decompose before drying it.

However, I experimented with the substance in the usual
way, but, like the other samples of Isibiba, it had no curative
effect. Some was rubbed into incisions made in the legs of fowls
which had not been previously bitten or otherwise injected with
snake venom.

The fowls showed slight symptoms of viperine poisoning.

Misplaced Confidence.

So, it seems after all, the confidence of the public has been
misplaced, and that of the native population as well. " Isibiba,"
which, since the advent of the white man to South Africa, has
been regarded as an absolute cure for snake bite, has proved to
belong to those many popular " cures " which have failed utterly
when tested under proper conditions. Personally, I am in no way
prejudiced in favour of or against any alleged remedy. Rightly
or wrongly, I think it a duty to test these alleged snake bite
cures. It is a pity that it should be necessary that living creatures
should have to be sacrificed that we may be in a position to prove
conclusively whether alleged snake bite remedies are genuine or
not. However, there is no other way we know of. Provided

Y

322 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

experiments are conducted as humanely as possible, the end, I
think, more than justifies the means. In this case thousands
of colonists and tens of thousands of natives, if not millions, have
absolute faith in the antidotal properties of " Isibiba," The
inevitable result is that, instead of approved remedies being
applied, such, for instance, as those advocated in this book, this
worthless " Isibiba " or some other equally useless stuff is
administered by the victim's friends, a native " doctor," or
applied by himself. No other treatment is thought to be neces-
sary. Thus valuable human lives are lost — lives which could
easily be saved.

As far as I can ascertain, " Isibiba " contains no medicinal
substance which is of a nature to be rapidly absorbed by the
mucous membrane of the stomach, or the absorbent vessels
under the skin. When mixed with snake venom it does not
destroy its poisonous properties. If it has not this effect outside
the body it would not be likely to have the contrary effect within
the body.

Since the above was written, further supplies of Isibiba have
been received and experimented with. The results were precisely
the same as the others.

Knowledge is Power.

If people would only make themselves acquainted with the
nature of snake venom, approved antidotes, the treatment of
snake bite, the nature of the venom of each species, how to
distinguish venomous from sliglitly venomous or non-venomous
snakes, fewer deaths would take place amongst human beings
and stock from snake bite, and the almost universal fear and
dread of snakes would be much lessened. So strong is this dread
of snakes and their venom that many cases are on record of
people collapsing and dying after being bitten by non-venomous
snakes. I have not seen cases of people actually dying, but I
have seen them in a state of great nervous collapse simply through
fear and dread, induced by the firm belief that death was likely
to occur.

Isibiba, I am informed, is known by different names in various
parts of the country. What those synon3ans are I have been
unable to ascertain. Colonists, or most of them who keep some
of this alleged snake-bite remedy, simply call it " Kafir mooti."

CROFT'S TINCTURE. 323

Croft's Tincture.

A full-grown Cape Jackal {Canis mcsomelas) was bitten by a
Cape Cobra on a portion of the thigh previously shaved. A
rubber tube was thrust into the gullet of the animal and a dose
of Croft's Tincture, properly diluted, was injected into its stomach
by means of a syringe. The site of the bite was at once scarified
and the undiluted tincture was well rubbed in several times.
The Jackal was dead in twenty-two minutes.

Another Jackal was taken. A dose of Croft's Tincture was
pumped into the creature's stomach. After five minutes' interval,
a Puff Adder was made to bite the animal on the bared thigh.
The wounds were promptly scarified, and the undiluted tincture
rubbed in three times. The Jackal died in seventy minutes.

In February, 1911, Mr. Robert Parkin of Thornhill, near
Port Elizabeth, was bitten on the hand by a Night Adder [Causus
rhomheatiis). He immediately sucked the wound, scarified it
and applied pipe oil. Shortly afterwards Mr. Newton appeared,
and administered Croft's Tincture. Mr. Parkin was bitten in
the morning. He slowly sank and died at 7.30 p.m., notwith-
standing the administration of Croft's Tincture.

The following is the account of the incident, as related in the
Eastern Province Herald.

" On Tuesday morning, after breakfast, Mr. Robert Parkin
was working in his garden, when a Night Adder bit him on the
finger. He immediately sucked the wound, scarifying same,
and applied nicotine. Shortly afterwards Mr. Newton arrived
and administered Croft's Tincture ; Mr. Parkin appeared to get
better, but later in the afternoon his face and throat began to
swell, and despite all efforts, he got worse, and expired at 7.30."

Taking half a spoonful of undiluted Croft's Tincture I added
three drops of snake venom, and put it aside for several hours.
The tincture to which the venom had been added was then diluted
with water, and a small amount of it injected into the thigh of a
fowl which died of the usual symptoms of snake venom poisoning.
Other tests of a similar nature resulted in the death of the
creature every time. It is therefore apparent that the tincture
in no way destroys the poisonous properties of the venom even
when mixed with it in full strength. If Croft's Tincture is
incapable of destroying venom when mixed with it in this

324

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

THE ALCOHOL CURE FOR SNAKE BITE. 325

way, it would not be likely to do so if rubbed into a wound or
swallowed. Both colubrine and viperine venoms were used in the
experiments.

The Alcohol Cure for Snake Bite.

Of the many popular " cures " for snake bite, alcohol is one
of the most widespread. In South Africa it is universally
believed to exert a strong curative effect in cases of snake bite.
In Australia and America the popular faith in this substance
is equally strong. Unfortunately, however, when subjected to
careful scientific experimentation alcohol is found to have no
antidotal power in snake venom poisoning. The belief in
alcohol is so strong that if it be at hand, no other means of
averting a fatal issue is thought of. The patient is plied with
brandy or whisky until he is unable to swallow any more. Often
one, and even two bottles of brandy are given, and as likely
as not without being previously diluted with water. The idea
is that if the patient can be intoxicated, he will be saved. In
cases of snake bite the nervous centres are more or less benumbed,
and the stomach is often incapable of absorbing much, if any
liquid which may enter it. If the nerve centres are already
benumbed by snake venom, the alcohol will naturally fail to
have any effect upon them. If the stomach is inert through
the paralysis of the gastric nerve centres, then all or most of the
alcohol will lie in the stomach unabsorbed. This is why alcoholic
intoxication does not always follow after the administration of
even a whole bottle of brandy. However, if the snake venom
symptoms be only slight, or if the patient is beginning to rally
from the effects of the venom, then the alcohol will begin to
produce intoxication, and the patient will soon be drunk and
incapable. If the alcohol does not succeed in destroying his
life, he will in due course wake up from his drunken stupor,
apparently cured.

The administration of large doses of alcohol to any one
whose body has not been accustomed to strong doses of this
poisonous drug, will either cause death or serious damage. The
delicate lining membrane of the stomach may be so extensively
burned that subsequent inflammation of that organ may cause
death ; or if recovery should take place, the digestive powers
are ruined for life, owing to the destruction of large patches of

326 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

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THE ALCOHOL CURE FOR SNAKE BITE. 327

are often destroyed in such numbers and the rest so shrivelled
and otherwise damaged, that the functions of the brain are,
ever afterwards, impaired even to the degree of permanent
weakening of the intellect.

All these terrible risks are taken because of the belief that
alcohol cures snake bite.

Alcohol has no curative effect. When brandy or whisky is
mixed with snake venom and injected into animals, the poisonous
properties of the venom are in no degree lessened. The animals
die just as rapidly as if the venom had been injected pure.

Animals have been made incapably drunk with alcohol and
injected with snake venom. Others have been injected with
exactly the same dose of venom, but were not treated with
alcohol. Those previously made drunk died just as soon, often
sooner, than those not so treated. I have measured out doses
of venom and injected it in equal proportions into two animals
at a time. One was then dosed freely with alcohol, the other
was kept warm and left to itself. The creature treated with
alcohol died first. These experiments were repeated several times.

When snake venom is mixed with absolute alcohol, a white
precipitate is thrown down, but the poisonous properties which
have been thrown out of solution are just as soluble as ever,
and if injected into the blood, exert the same poisonous effects
as venom direct from a snake. If alcohol had the power of
rendering the poisonous parts of snake venom insoluble, or
changing its nature, then if the blood was saturated with alcohol
it would have some curative effect, but this is not so. Even
overproof spirit does not lessen its poisonous properties when
mixed with it. The only good effect of alcohol in the treatment
of snake bite is its power in somewhat deadening the patient's
sense of fear and dread. In this connection it is often useful,
for in many cases the shock to the nervous system through fear
is more to be dreaded than the venom. Naturally when the
nervous system is more or less benumbed through shock due to
terror, the vitality is at low ebb, and the natural resistance of
the body to the venom is considerably lessened.

However, large doses are never justified. In fact, the only
times when alcohol is suggested is in slight cases of snake bite,
to blunt the patient's sense of fear. It is valueless as an actual
antidote. In all serious cases, particularly those suffering from

328 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

the venom of the Adders, or Boomslang, it is distinctly dangerous
to administer strong doses of alcohol, as it would increase the
haemorrhage into the tissues and under the skin. Given hot,
diluted with water in small quantities, it may exert a helpful
influence in case of bites by Cobras. When serum is used for
treatment, alcohol must be absolutely forbidden as it hinders the
action of the former.

Horniball's Patent Wonderful Extract.

In the Eastern Province of the Cape Colony, " Horniball's
Patent W'ondcrful Extract " is in great favour as a remedy for
snake bite.

In appearance it is a blackish substance of the consistency
of vaseline. It smells like extract of male fern.

It is stated to be specially efficacious in cases of bites by Puff
Adders.

Taking a quantity of this extract, I diluted it slightly with
water and added two drops of Puff Adder venom, stirred it well in,
and left the mixture for several hours. It was then injected under
the skin of a large fowl. The fowl underwent the usual symptoms
of poisoning by snake venom and died in three-quarters of an
hour. The leg was swollen and saturated with extra vasated blood.

Smaller quantities of snake venom were mixed with the
extract and injected after the mixture had stood several hours.
The fowls died as rapidly as when the same quantities of venom
were injected with pure water.

If this extract can e.xert no neutralizing effect upon snake
venom when actually mixed with it, even in a concentrated
form, it most certainly will not exert any curative power if applied
to the punctures, and it is not conceivable that it would have
any better effect if swallowed.

The Stockholm Tar and Fowl Flesh Cures.
I have always been willing to submit any popular so-called
South African antidote to a fair trial, but some of the " cures "
which I have been assured even on oath are absolute antidotes
for snake bite are absurd and ridiculous, showing that those who
believe in them have not even a rudimentary idea of human
physiology. A farmer's wife called on me one day and said
she wanted me to make it known through the medium of my

STOCKHOLM TAR AND FOWL FLESH CURES. 329
" Science Notes " in the press, of a certain cure. She assured

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me that everybody in her district, both white and black, had

330 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

firm faith in it. Snakes had bitten her, she declared, and she
had proven the remedy to be genuine. " All you have got to do
is, if a snake bites you on the foot, to get some good Stockholm
tar and smear a ring of it round your leg on the skin between the
bitten spot and the heart." " You see," said the lady, " the tar
on the skin prevents the poison going past. It drives it back,
and it runs out with a lot of black blood from the wounds in-
flicted by the snake." This wasn't all. She had another sure
cure. " If a snake should bite you, catch a fowl or a pigeon,
split it open, and hold its warm flesh to the site of the bite. The
flesh will draw out all the poison." This latter " cure " I have
found to be firmly believed in by a large section of the farming
class. This belief comes up through the ages from the classic
times of Pliny, who says, " Cocks' flesh applied while still warm
neutralizes the venom of snakes."

So-called Cures which Kill.

To the medical man it is alarming how the public swallow
drugs without knowing anything of their properties. Great
doses of most potent medicinal substances are taken with
the object of curing some complaint, or for the treatment of
snake bite. There can be no doubt that considerable numbers of
people are killed, and others ruined physically for life by swallow-
ing drastic dnigs, the properties of which, and their effects upon
the organs and tissues of the body, they are profoundly ignorant.

In treating cattle, farmers will often make a concoction of
the most poisonous of substances and pour it into the sick beast.
If the animal should eventually recover, the farmer triumphantly
heralds his cure all over the neighbourhood.

Some so-called snake bite antidotes which I have been told
are often administered, would certainly seriously upset the
individual to whom any of them were given, if they did not
actually kill him. One of the antidotes is the drinking of a
mixture of paraffin, Stockholm tar, and salt. Another is pipe
oil, and a bottle of brandy neat.

Eau-de-Luce.
Eau-de-luce at one time was generally believed to be the
finest thing known for the cure of snake bite. It was adminis-
tered by the medical profession. Any one doubting its efficacy

IPECACUANHA, LIQUOR POTASS.E, CAUSTICS. 331

would have been regarded as an enemy of mankind, especially
so if he made his opinions public. The faith in this supposed
cure waned as the years went by. Dr. Fayrer, the great experi-
menter with Indian snakes, made full and complete experiments
with this eau-de-luce, and found it to be quite worthless. It did
not delay death in the slightest degree. Experiments which I
have made with South African snakes showed that it was of no
antidotal value. The animals died just as quickly as when no
so-called cure was given. If you have eau-de-luce in your house,
use it as smelling salts, or put it in your private collection of
curiosities, but do not rely upon it to cure cases of snake bite.

A European boy named J. Jackson was bitten on the calf
of the leg by a Black Mamba at Umgeni, near Pietermaritzburg.
A. E. Gayer, Esq., who was present, gives me the details which
are as follows : " The boy ran a little way after being bitten.
Two bottles of eau-de-luce were administered to him according
to directions. He suffered agony at first until mortification
started to set in. He died peacefully the evening of the day he
was bitten."

Ipecacuanha, Liquor Potass^, Caustics.

Ipecacuanha has long been considered an excellent remedy
for snake bite. It has been carefully tested and found to have
no antidotal value. It may possibly be of some slight service in
secondary treatment, owing to its stimulating effects upon the
liver, bowels, and kidneys. It, however, exerts a depressing
influence upon the heart, which causes a slowing down of the
circulation. When administered to animals into which snake
venom has been injected, it seems to hasten death somewhat.

Ipecacuanha is the dried root of Psychotria ipecacuanha.
The active principle is in the bark; the inner or woody part
contains but little. It is obtained from South America.

Liquor potassae is a solution of potash. This substance has
long been believed to have a curative influence in cases of snake
bite. It has in the past been very extensively used in India
and elsewhere. Applied to the incised wounds it was supposed
to destroy the vitality of the part, and kill the snake venom.
Dr. Fayrer tested liquor potassae as a curative agent against
the bites of Indian venomous snakes. After a long series of
experiments he pronounced it to be of no value. In all cases

332 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

it did not retard a fatal issue in the least. Its effect is nil when
applied to the bitten parts of animals injected with the venom
of South African snakes. Even if applied within a minute of
the injection of venom it fails to exert any curative influence.

Carbolic acid is largely used in cases of snake bite. If applied
to the incised wounds immediately after the infliction of the bite
it helps slightly to prevent the absorption of the venom. Its
influence, however, is so small that it is, practically speaking^
valueless.

The actual burning of the scarified bitten part with a red-hot
iron, coal, or exploding gunpowder, destroys the venom in the
wounds, but unless done within five or ten minutes of the in-
fliction of the bite it is of no value at all. At best it is a dread-
fully drastic remedy. Dr. Fayrer in experiments with the venom
of the Indian Cobra found that the poison was so rapid in its
action that, although he thoroughly cauterized the wounds with
two white-hot needles plunged into the punctures within a second
of the infliction of the bite, and although he then quickly burned
the flesh with a hot iron and ligatured the limb, the animal died.
I have found the venom of the South African Cobras, notably
that of the Cape and Black-necked Cobras, to be equally swift
and deadly under similar circumstances. At least three cases
came under my observation of Kafirs being bitten at buck hunts,
and the hunter resorted to cutting open the wounds and flashing
gunpowder in them.

Bluestone is another substance largely used, which is of no
value at all in the treatment of snake bite.

Strychnine and Ammonia.

The bases of most projirietary cures for snake bites are
strychnine and ammonia. Neither of these substances is of
any value in neutralizing the poisonous properties of snake
venom. Ammonia is of no use whatsoever when taken in-
ternally, injected into a vein, or applied to the bite. It does not
delay death in the slightest. If mixed with venom it does not
destroy or neutralize its poisonous properties in any way. Ex-
periments have been carried out which conclusively prove that
this is so. As a stimulant it is not to be recommended.

In cases of Colubrine snake bite (Cobras), strychnine in

QUININE, TANJORE PILLS, VINEGAR, WATER. 333

medicinal doses administered internally or by injection under
the skin might possibly be of some little service as a nerve
stimulant, although on experimentation with animals I found
it useless. The animals died as rapidly as when no treat-
ment had been administered. Strychnine is a dangerous sub-
stance in the hands of most people. It should never be used,
unless by or under the direction of a medical man or some one
else who thoroughly understands its use, and the exact dose.

Although Fontana nearly a hundred years ago showed that
ammonia was of no value in cases of snake bite, it continued to
be used extensively all over the snake-inhabited world, and is
still being relied upon. The reason is, that scientific discoveries,
as a general rule, are published only in scientific journals which
the generality of people never read, or if they did read them
they would, in all probability, not understand them, owing to
the technical terminology usually employed when writing about
simple facts.

Quinine, Tanjore Pills, Vinegar, Water.

Quinine, whether administered internally or applied to the
bitten part, is of no curative value, although it is largely em-
ployed in the treatment of snake bite.

Fig. 136. — -Death Head or Potato Moth, which Dutch colonists call Motdij, popularly believed
to be venomous. It is armed with two hook-like claws on front feet, which sometimes
prick the skin when moth is handled, but they do no harm, as the creature is not venomous.
These moths have yellow bodies banded with black. \ white mark resembling a human
skull is prominent on the back. This moth frequents bee hives. (Life size.)

334 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA

A remedy commonly used in the East, mostly in India, and
known as the TanjorePill, has a great reputation as a snake bite
antidote. It is an arsenical preparation. Doctors Fayrer and
Brunton have shown that the belief in this famous cure is without
any foundation.

Vinegar is another popular remedy which has failed when
scientifically tested. Swallowed, rubbed into the scarified sites
of the bites, or as fomentations, it has proved valueless.

In Australia the natives have great faith in the water cure
for snake bite. They, or a great many of them, believe that if
the bitten part is immersed in cold water, or better still, if the
whole of the body be submerged for an hour or more, the venom
will be drawn out through the skin. This water cure is believed
in by numbers of Australian colonists. Cold water has no effect
in drawing any substance from the blood through the skin. The
application of hot water, on the contrary, would open the pores
and cause perspiration to issue forth. In this way it is possible
some of the venom might be drained out.

Momentary cold plunges, or dashing cold water over the
skin would have the effect of stimulating the nerves and in-
creasing the activity of the brain and other organs, but beyond
this, cold water can have no actual curative influence in cases
of snake bite.

Dried Snake Venom Cure.

A medical friend from Bechuanaland writes me as follows :
" Dried snake poison is used by Bushmen as an antidote for
snake bite, as they have implicit faith in its efftcacy. I never
saw a case of its being used, but reliable European Kalahari
Desert hunters assured me that with a supply of this they feared
no snake bite ; that they had repeatedly used it with the most
satisfactory results. It is rubbed into a scarified surface over
the site of the punctures inflicted by the snake."

I have heard of this " cure " in many parts of South Africa.
A sample was sent me. It consisted of the pulverized poison
glands of a Puff Adder. When mixed with water a little was
injected into several animals. They all showed symptoms of
snake venom poisoning, although they eventually recovered,
owing to the small quantity of venom in the solution.

The venoms of all species of snakes, when dry, have exactly

ROOTS, BARK, AND HERBS. 335

the same poisonous properties as when fresh. In scores of my
experiments I have used the dried venom. Its effects are as
powerful as the venom just extracted from the snake. Even
after a great many years its poisonous properties seem in no way
diminished. To rub dry snake venom into a cut with the idea
that it will cure a case of snake bite, is simply idiotic. Such an
action would materially lessen the chances of recovery, for the
simple reason that an extra supply of venom was being intro-
duced into the blood. The venom of one species of snake has
absolutely no neutralizing effect upon that of another. If several
venoms are mixed and injected into an animal it dies rapidly.

Colonists would be well advised to leave all native " cures "
severely alone. Some are harmless enough, but others are dis-
tinctly hurtful and lessen the chances of recovery. There is
one thing quite certain. If you desire to make the recovery
of a person bitten by a snake impossible, then rub in plenty
of this famous dried venom " cure " in which thousands of
colonists and natives profoundly believe.

Roots, Bark, and Herbs.

In all countries where venomous snakes abound the majority
of the popular remedies are preparations of roots, bark, or herbs.

In the East Indies a plant is largely used in the treatment
of snake bite. It is known as the Mungoose Plant {Ophiorrhiza
mimgos) of the order " Rubiaceae."

In North America the following are in great demand — the
roots of Aristolochia reticulata, or Texas Snake Root, Liatris
spicata and Eryngium acquaticum, known as the Button Snake
Root, also Eupatorium altissimum, or White Snake Root.

The active principles in these roots are substances which
stimulate the skin and kidneys {Diaphoretic and Diuretic).

The various preparations in South Africa, of vegetable origin,
are of no use at all as antidotes to snake venom. Tinctures and
decoctions prepared from them cause various constitutional dis-
turbances. The main effects are stimulation of the kidneys,
skin, or bowels. If any one is desirous of producing the same
effects as these vegetable preparations which are usually sold
at a high price, he has only to go to a chemist's shop and ask for
a medicine which increases the action of the skin or kidneys, or
bowels, and for sixpence he will obtain as much as he would

336 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

otherwise pay los. for, with the additional advantage of getting
the stuff in concentrated form and the exact dose.

The Snake Blood and Gall Cure.

There is a widespread behcf in South Africa that if the snake
which inflicted the bite can be killed, and its blood or gall obtained,
that cither of these will prove antidotes to the venom. The
natives are strong believers in the snake gall cure. The contents
of the gall are swallowed. Usually the gall bladder, with its
contents is swallowed entire. It is regarded as a certain cure.
If a little of the blood of the snake which inflicted the bite, or
even of the same species, be swallowed, it is also reckoned to
be a sure cure. I have given animals the blood and gall, both
internally and rubbed it into the scarified sites of the fang
punctures, but in no case did it have any curativ^e effect.

I have mixed the contents of a snake's gall bladder with
three drops of its own venom, and injected it into a fowl. I
repeated this. In each case the fowl died. I did the same with
the blood. Drawing the venom from a Puff Adder I then killed
the reptile and collected an ounce of its blood in a wineglass.
To this I added six drops * of the venom, taken from the same
snake, and mixed it thoroughly with the blood. The mixture
was allowed to stand for several minutes. It was equally divided,
strained, and injected under the skin of the thighs of two fowls.
The fowls died as rapidly as if the pure venom had been injected.

Snake Stones.

Snake stones for the cure of snake bite have, for centuries,
been in great demand. They are regarded by millions of Indians
with awe and reverence. To them it is blasphemy to doubt the
efficacy of a Snake stone. Of all snake bite " cures " the Snake
stone is regarded as the most effective. Its power of drawing
the poison out of the wound does not admit of a doubt. The
man who expresses disbelief in its wonderful powers is regarded
witli contempt. Such is the belief which has fastened itself
upon millions of minds.

Professor Faraday examined a famous Indian Snake stone
and said : " It is a piece of charred bone which has been filled

• Wherever "drops" are mentioned in this book they mean chemists'
•* minims."

SNAKE STONES. 337

with blood, perhaps several times, and then carefully charred
again."

Doctor Davy examined several of these Snake stones, and
his opinion coincided with that of Professor Faraday. The
monks of Manilla manufacture and supply Snake stones to Indian
merchants, and the trade is very lucrative.

The stones vary in composition. Some are of charred bone,
pieces of chalk, or a combination of vegetable matter. Those
which are prized most highly, however, and which are handed
down from father to son, usually originate from cysts of tape-
worms in sheep, A tape-worm egg is swallowed by a sheep. It
hatches, and the embryo passes into the abdominal cavity of the
host through the intestine wall and forms a bladder-worm or
large cyst. It is shaped like a bean i^ inches long by I5 inches
broad, and a little over one-eighth of an inch thick. After the
death of the embryo the cyst forms ii:ito a white chalky substance,
composed of phosphate of lime with a little carbonate. When
found in sheep they are a great puzzle to farmers, as to how they
got there.

It is alleged that the stone, when applied to the site of the bite,
will draw out the venom. This would prove so to a certain
degree, if applied within a few minutes of being bitten, provided
the stones were powerfully absorbent, but they are not so. The
small quantity of blood which penetrates their substance has
little or no influence for good. The advocates of Snake stones
assert that it is not even necessary to scarify the flesh prior to
applying the stone. That the stone has the power of drawing
all the venom out through the two tiny punctures made in the
skin by the snakes' fangs.

When a snake drives its fangs into the flesh it injects a
quantity of venom which spreads out and is rapidly sucked up
by the numerous absorbent vessels known as Lymphatics, and
hurried away to the large blood-vessels. If fully bitten by a
large Cobra, enough venom is absorbed into the circulation
within one minute to cause death, unless 20 to 50 cubic centi-
metres of Anti-venom Serum are injected before paralysis of the
nerve centres takes place.

Nothing short of powerful suction with the mouth, a vacuum
tube, or pump, is sufficient to draw out the venom in sufficient
quantity to be of any practical value.

z

338 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Snake stones being rather expensive, they are naturally in
the hands of the few, consequently if a man is bitten his friends
rush of^ with all speed for the nearest possessor of a Snake stone.
It is in these cases practically impossible for it to be applied
within live minutes or so, therefore even admitting it possessed
the virtues attributed to it, the venom would already have
entered the general circulation, and no amount of suction at the
site of the bite would draw it out again.

The belief in Snake stones, the application of the palpitating
flesh of fowls and pigeons to the site of the bite, and other
popular remedies are dangerous delusions.

When the Dutch first settled at the Cape and established a
Station there as a sort of half-way house in their East Indian
trade, which was conducted by the East Indian Netherland's
Company, sometime about the year 1652, they brought a few
of these Snake stones from the Indies, principally Malabar.

Some of these stones are, to the present day, in the possession
of old Boer families, whose faith in their efficacy for the cure of
snake bite is unshakeable.

Swallowing Snake Venom.

It is a general belief amongst the natives, and a large section
of the colonists of South Africa, that, if snake venom is swallowed
it will confer immunity to snake bite. In consequence the
j)igmy Bushmen, Hottentots, and Kafirs, after killing a venomous
snake, cut out its venom glands and swallowed them.

I have met many colonists who were so sure of their immunity
that they offered to allow me to inject them with snake venom.
The offers certainly were tempting, but my conscience and the
law would not permit it.

At intervals during the past ten years or so I have fed various
sjXicies of animals, domestic and otherwise, on the venoms of
different kinds of South African snakes. When any of these
creatures were bitten by a snake or injected with its venom by
means of a hypodermic syringe, they died just as rapidly as
animals which had not been fed upon snake venom.

The following is one instance from a score in my note-book.
An adult Caj)e jackal, the size of a spaniel, was fed for six weeks
with Puff Adder venom. Every second day half a dozen Puff

SWALLOWING SNAKE VENOM.

339

Fig. 137. — Jackal Buzzard (Butco jakal). He is a great pest to the farmer because he is so
fond of chickens ; but he also kills and devours snakes and rats.

340 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Adders were forced to bite a lump of raw meat, which was imme-
diately afterwards given to the jackal. On three occasions the
venom from six Puff Adders, viz. forty drops, was collected in
a wineglass and mixed with raw meat. This the jackal at once
ate. Whenever a Puff Adder was killed its poison glands were
inserted into a bit of meat and given to the jackal. Puff Adders
were allowed to bite dead birds freely, until the flesh was reeking
with venom. These were fed to the jackal.

Then we decided to apply the test. Surely, we thought, if
swallowing venom will confer immunity, this jackal should be
absolutely }")roof, for it had during the six weeks swallowed
enough Puff Adder venom to kill a couple of hundred men.

A Puff Adder was held by the neck and allowed to bite the
jackal on the thigh. It bit twice, but only pecked. Refusing
to bite again, we procured another and forced it to bite the same
part of the leg, twice. We did not previously shave the hair,
and although in each case the reptiles punctured the flesh, we
noticed they shed a good deal of venom on the fur, and did not
bite eagerly. One, two, three, four days went by and the jackal
showed no outward symptoms of poisoning. It was as lively
as ever, and ate as usual. No swelling was apparent. " I told
you, Sir," quoth my now jubilant assistant, "that the jackal
would prove to be immune." " No, I am not at all satisfied,"
said I. " There's something wrong. Those snakes didn't
inject enough venom. Come along, we will make sure this
tinie." So we forthwith seized a big Puff Adder and levied toll
on his store of poison. Measuring out three drops, I mixed it
with about a teaspoonful of water and injected it by means of
a serum syringe, into the muscles of the unbitten thigh of the
jackal. A Puff Adder was allowed to give one quick bite, but
was not permitted to hang on or worry the flesh. In five
minutes' time the jackal began to show symptoms of poisoning.
In slightly less than one hour it was dead.

Removing the skin from the thigh and cutting into the flesh,
it was found to be charged with extravasated blood from the
toes right up to the junction with the body. The whole flesh
of the limb was saturated with blood, which had oozed through
the walls of the blood vessels. The limb itself had swollen to
three times its normal size. Opening up the body I found that
blood had oozed out into the muscles covering the abdomen and

SWALLOWING SNAKE VENOM. 341

ribs, giving them a patchy blood-stained appearance. The
heart-muscles were also affected, small irregular red patches
covering them. The lungs were not visibly damaged. Re-
moving the skin from the thigh which the Puff Adders had bitten
without apparently producing any poisonous effects, I found the
muscles in the vicinity of the punctures to be very much dis-
coloured with blood, which had oozed into them. This dis-
colouration was traced up, and half-way along the muscles of
the ribs on one side. Growing fainter and fainter, it disappeared.
It was quite apparent that those Puff Adders had not succeeded
in injecting sufficient venom to cause serious symptoms. If the
jackal had not been dissected, the extravasated blood would
have been absorbed by degrees without any outward symptoms
being apparent. An examination of the jackal's stomach and
intestines showed them to be perfectly normal. Evidently the
copious internal dosing with venom had not produced any ill-
effects.

I kept a half-grown Chacm.a Baboon for four months, which
was fed at intervals with Cape Cobra venom. The venom pro-
duced no poisonous effects, although it must have swallowed
something like a quarter of an ounce of it. However a sub-
cutaneous injection of three drops of Cobra poison killed it.

This is contrary to the published statements in regard to
Cobra venom.

Many people think that experiments on animals arc not
satisfactory. They seem to think that the human animal is
altogether different in his composition. This is by no means
so. The structure of a human being is exactly the same as that
of a warm-blooded lower animal (mammal). The mechanism
of his body works in the same way in all respects. Like the
various species of lower animals, man differs in shape, but that
does not alter the fact that he is physiologically the same as they
are. Man differs in a physical sense from all lower animals in
having a larger and more complex brain. He has evolved
faculties of the mind which none of the lower animals possess.
True, he has brain organs similar to theirs, but he has added
many more which make him what he is.

CHAPTER XI.

Snake Venom, its Nature and Effects.

Venomous Snakes and their Poison.

The three great sub-families of highly venomous snakes of
South Africa are the Sea Snakes {HydrophiincB) ; the Cobras,
Mambas, Coral Snakes, etc. {Elapince) ; and the Adders (Viperince) .
The only Sea Snake which frequents the South African coasts
is the Black and Yellow species {Hydriis platnrns) which sometimes
gets stranded among the rocks on the sea-shore, and is usually
mistaken for an eel. In South Africa south of the Zambesi
there arc fourteen species or kinds of Cobra {Colubrine), and
eleven of the Adder {Viper ine) family.

I. The Aglypha.

There are three great classes or divisions of snakes, viz. those
which have solid teeth without any trace of grooving. These
snakes are all quite non-venomous. They are known as the
Aglypha, which means snakes with solid teeth.

II. The Opisthoglypha.

The second division are what are termed Hind-fanged Snakes,
having one or more of the back teeth in the upper jaw more or
less grooved, and possessing ductless poison glands. These snakes
were formerly regarded as either non-venomous, or only venomous
to a slight degree.

They arc known as the Opisthoglypha, which means having
the posterior or back maxillary teeth grooved.

III. The Proteroglypha.
The third division are the typical highly venomous snakes,
having the grooved or hollow fangs set in the front of the upper

342

POISON APPARATUS. 343

jaw in the bone known as the anterior maxillary. All this class
are venomous. They are known as the Proteroglypha, which
means snakes with the anterior (front) maxillary teeth grooved
or hollow. The Viperine snakes are more correctly known as
the Solenoglypha.

Result of Investigation.

Our well-known Boomslang or Tree Snake [Dispholidus typus)
is a member of the Opisthoglypha or Hind-fangcd Snakes, which
is generally believed to be at most very slightly venomous — only
sufficiently so to enable it to paralyse its prey before deglutition.

The reasons for this belief are based on the fact of the snakes
of this class possessing imperfectly developed poison glands
which are not connected with the grooved teeth by well-defined
poison ducts, as is the case with the typical venomous snakes ;
hence they are wrongly considered to be in a more or less rudi-
mentary or transition stage.

The results of the experiments with the Boomslang, given in
detail in a former chapter, have, I think, conclusively shown
that one member at least of this class of so-called slightly venom-
ous snakes is as highly venomous as the Cape Cobra or Puff
Adder. It is reasonable, therefore, to assume a good many of
the others would, on investigation, be found to be equally
venomous. Therefore, until each individual of this large division
of snakes has been carefully experimented with, it would be unwise
to lead the public to infer they were either practically harmless
or only slightly venomous. In South Africa we have twenty-six
species of these Hind-fanged Snakes so far recorded.

Poison Apparatus.

The venom of snakes is secreted by a pair of glands lying on
each side of the skull beneath the skin, situated just under and
behind the eyes. The Night Adder {Causus rhombeatus) is an
exception to this rule. The venom glands are almond-shaped,
and are composed of great numbers of cells. Within the glands
are cavities known as Alveoli. These are lined with short
columnar cells. In these cavities the venom is stored until
squeezed out by the contraction of the gland by certain muscles,
masseters, temporals, and pterygoids. The glands are termed

344

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Racemose Glands because the cells are clustered together like
a bunch of grapes — racemose meaning " arranged in grape-like

A STUDY PLATE FOR SCIENTIFIC STUDENTS.

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Fic. 1 18.— The skull of a typical non-venomous snake (Boa) and that of a typical venomous snake
{Lrolalus) seen from the side and somewhat from above.

AT— Nasal. Pr/— Prefrontal. /•>.— Frontal. /V— Post frontal. Pa— Parietal. Pe~
I etrostral. Os— Supra-occipital. Sy— Sauamosal. Q— Quadrate. //—Ear bone. Pt—
Pterygoid, /'jr— Prf-maxilla. M*— Maxilla. Pa/— Palatine. Tr— Transverse bone, i—
2 — 3 — Bones of lower jaw.

clusters." These venom glands were once upon a time ordinary
salivary glands, and under that mysterious law of God which

POISON APPARATUS. 345

we term Evolution, these harmless salivary glands underwent a
gradual change, and the fluid they secrete is now of a totally
different character. In scientific terminology they are " the
homologues of the parotid salivary glands in other vertebrate
creatures."

We find the venom glands and fangs of snakes in various
stages of evolution. In the division known as the Aglypha, we
do not find any trace of grooved fangs or poison glands. The
teeth are all solid. In some of the species a few of the teeth are
fang-like, being longer than the rest, but these also are quite
solid. In the second division of snakes, which are known as
the Opisthoglypha, the fangs are in various stages of develop-
ment, and are situated half-way back in the upper jaw. There
are usually two or three fangs, which are grooved. However,
there are no well-defined poison glands with ducts, consequently
this division of Hind-fanged Snakes has been regarded as practi-
cally non-venomous. The Boomslang {Dispholidus typiis) is a
member of this division of snakes.

In the third division, known as the Proteroglypha, we find
the fangs and poison glands in a high degree of development.
All of this class of snakes are known to be venomous to a greater
or lesser degree.

The fangs of the viper family are long and recurved, and the
bone they are set in is very mobile and works like a hinge. This
provision of Nature is very necessary in order to elevate the
fangs to allow of their points striking the victim at a proper
angle. When the mouth closes, the fangs are automatically
drawn back, and lie along the sides of the upper jaw, enveloped
in a membranous sheath, known as the Vagina dentis.

The fangs of Cobras are small in comparison with those
of the Adders, and are incapable of much movement, such
not being necessary for their effective use. They are enveloped
in a membraneous covering when at rest.

When the snake's mouth is closed, the end of the poison
duct becomes disconnected with the hole in the top or base of
the fang, but the instant the mouth is opened to strike, the end
of this duct, by means of an intricate and delicate apparatus,
completes the connection with exactness.

The instant the fangs penetrate the flesh of the victim, the
snake closes its jaws over the bitten part and presses strongly,

346

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

tlius forcing the maximum amount of venom into the punctures.
Many snakes, such as tlie Ringhals Cobra and Boomslang, hang
on and worry the flesh if allowed.

Inserted into the tough fibrous capsule of the poison glands
are some of the fibres of the masseter muscles. The instant the
snake bites, these muscle fibres contract powerfully, and the
gland is wrung after the manner of twisting and wringing a wet
rag to remove its moisture. A comparatively large lymph space
surrounds the gland, and so permits of this wringing. The

flG. 13'). — The slicathcd fangs of a Puff Adder. When lying back in this position they are
enveloped by a protecting membrane or sheath known as the Vagina dentis.

temporal and pterygoid muscles also aid in compressing the
poison glands. The venom which is stored up in the numerous
little cavities within the glands is thus driven with considerable
power into the channels or conducting tubes which communicate
with the bases of the hollow or grooved fangs. It rushes down
the grooved or hollow fangs and issues out in two fine streams.

The bringing together of the end of the poison duct with the
hole at the base of the fang is completed with marvellous exact-
ness. By a wonderful arrangement of muscle-fibres, the harder
the snake presses his jaws when biting, the tighter does the

POISON APPARATUS. 347

papilla at the end of the duct plug the hole in the fang. In fact,
the hole at the base of the fang is actually corked, with the
difference that the papilla cork allows the venom to stream
through it into the grooved or hollow fang. Unless the snake is
able to deliver a full bite and close its jaws firmly over the bitten
part, a full charge of venom is not delivered. It can thus be
clearly seen that recovery may take place without any antidotal
treatment after being imperfectly bitten by a snake whose full
bite is fatal. In this way faith is established in various worthless
so-called snake-bite " cures."

However, it must be borne in mind that highly venomous
snakes such as Cobras, Mambas, and Puff Adders, are able to
inject far more venom at a single full bite than is sufficient to
kill a man. An instance in point is given by Dr. Hanna. He
says, " The gentleman, who was the writer's co-worker in India,
was one day cleansing the mucus from the mouth of a Cobra,
which was being held by a snake charmer preparatory to ex-
pressing the poison, when he inadvertently pushed the top of
his thumb against the fang. He fancied that as the Cobra had
not bitten him he had not received any poison, although the
fang had penetrated deeply ; he did no more therefore than
suck the wound. In about two hours he had weakness of the
limbs, drowsiness, vomiting, and was unable to feel in his thumb
and first two fingers. The parts swelled, and it was only after
considerable time he recovered by energetic treatment with anti-
venom serum. He ultimately lost the top of his thumb as a
result of necrosis and death of the tissues."

Here we have an instance of a man who was wounded by only
one fang which could not have discharged much venom for there
was no pressure exerted by the snake, yet if the venom had not
been neutralized in time in the man's blood by the injection of
liberal quantities of anti-venom serum, he would undoubtedly
have died.

Half a drop of Cobra venom is the smallest dose which ^vill
kill a man, but it often takes two drops to kill a vigorous
healthy person. In collecting venom for research purposes I
have drawn fifteen drops at a time from a six-foot Cape
Cobra. If this Cobra had bitten a man, and had been allowed
to retain its grip for a couple of seconds, it was capable of in-
jecting something like six to ten fatal doses into him.

348 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Four drops of Puff Adder venom is enough to cause such
extensive hemorrhage into the tissues of a man as to kill
him. Unless driven deep into the muscular tissue, a healthy
man would in the majority of cases recover. It would take a
subcutaneous injection of five to six drops to cause certain death.

In a man whose blood is altered by habitual indulgence in
alcohol even in moderation, less than a drop might suffice to
kill him. In monkeys which have been given a fair quantity of
alcohol daily for a month, a drop of Puff Adder venom is
sufficient to kill them. Often the site of the injection turns
black. This mortification of the tissues at the site of the entry
of the venom, spreads into the body and causes death.

Discharging Venom.

It is stated that the act of gaping the jaws and erecting
the fangs causes an automatic action of the muscles controlling
the poison glands forcing the venom out. This is not so. The
poison is not expelled every time the snake gapes its jaws.

Puff Adders frequently yawn, gaping their jaws widely.
Sometimes both fangs are erected to their fullest extent. At
other times, the snake raises and depresses them in turn. This
is done carefully and deliberately, seemingly for the purpose of
exercise. The occasional raising of the fangs evidently gives
some measure of relief or satisfaction to the snake. It is rare
for Cobras to yawn, except after a meal. The Adders do it at
various times.

When artificially feeding Puff Adders, venom frequently
squirts from the fangs when the mouth is forced open and the
fangs erected. In these cases, the reptiles are naturally in a
state of irritation. This causes the constriction of the glands
the instant the fangs assume the erect posture. At these feeding
times I have collected as much as eleven drops of venom from a
single Puff Adder.

Care has to be exercised at feeding times to hold the snake's
head in such a position that the fangs point away from the faces
of the operators. My assistant one day received a full charge
of venom over his mouth, moustache, and chin. Luckily, none
entered his eyes, else there would have been trouble.

DISCHARGING VENOM.

349

The venom, on these occasions, is sometimes discharged a
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containing several Puff Adders. Two were lying sleeping on the
top of an old tree stump. The rat, in springing upon the stump,

350 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

suddenly disturbed their slumbers, whereupon both simul-
taneously struck fiercely at the intruder. Both missed their
aim, and four streams of venom struck one of the plate glass
sides of the cage and ran down the glass. The venom, when
ejected, is watery, more so than that of the Cobra.

In the process of collecting venom by forcing a snake to bite
over the rubber-covered rim of a watch-glass or wine-glass, the
fangs are often erected and remain so, but no venom flows until
the glands are compressed with the fingers.

It was amply demonstrated in this manner that the erection
of the fangs did not cause an automatic constriction of the
masseter muscle fibres. To eject a full charge of venom, the
snake is obliged to grip and compress its head strongly. The jaws
of Puff Adders may be extended to their fullest extent yet
the fangs are not elevated unless the reptile so desires. I have
frequently distended the jaws of Puff Adders and watched them
elevate and depress their fangs. The anterior maxillary bones
to which the fangs are attached are worked independently of any
other parts of the mechanism of the jaws.

Taking twelve Puff Adders, I made each in turn bite over the
thick rim of an ice-cream glass. The instant the rim of the
glass touched the snake's nose it bit fiercely, both fangs darting
up at the proper striking angle, and then descending with great
violence against the inner side of the glass. Each snake was
made to bite three or four times. The fangs in each instance
would strike the glass and slip upwards towards the rim. Not
even the fraction of a drop of venom was shed by five of the
snakes. One yielded about three drops, and the rest a very
small quantity. From the twelve snakes, I collected seven
drops of venom. I tried this experiment several times and found
that, although the snake bit the side of the glass freely, either no
venom, or only a very small quantity was shed. On the con-
trary, when I covered the top of the ice-cream glass with a
rather thick piece of sheet rubber, these same Puff Adders in
biting through it, shed an average of three to five drops and even
ten drops each, into the glass.

In the former experiments, I was careful to examine the
reptiles' mouths to see if venom by any chance had been shed
within the mouth, but, with one or two exceptions, there was
not a trace of venom to be seen.

DISCHARGING VENOM.

351

This, I think, clearly demonstrates that, although a snake
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be ejected. I have found that if the snake is allowed to bite
through some soft substance like sheet rubber loosely stretched
over the mouth of a wine-glass, a limited amount of venom is

352 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

shed, but that if the same snake is allowed to bite into the leg
of a dead fowl or a lump of meat, and provided the reptile is
allowed to grip like a dog and compress its jaws strongly, from
two to four times the amount of venom is discharged, compared
with the amount usually obtained by allowing the snake to bite
through rubber or Battiste cloth stretched over a glass.

H a man be hungry and you give him a piece of dry cork or
wood to bite or chew, little if any salivary fluid will flow into his
mouth ; but if you give that same man a morsel of appetizing
food to bite or chew, an abundance of saliva will flow, and the
salivary glands will receive a powerful stimulus, and will instantly
exert themselves to manufacture more saliva. So it is, in a
sense, with venomous snakes. By the same pyschological in-
fluence their venom glands, and the nerves which work them,
are roused into intense activity when the snake, with malice
intent, dchberately bites the flesh of an enemy or some substance
which deceives him into that belief or which tends to impart the
same feeling.

Now and then when a snake lunges and misses its aim, the
entire contents of the venom glands are shed, but in these cases
the reptile has been wrought up to the highest pitch of excite-
ment, and in the act of lunging the glands are compressed violently,
there being no time to counteract the impulse imparted, as is
the case with a man who aims a blow with his fist at some object
which dodges just at the critical instant. The man is unable
to counteract the command sent to the muscles of his arm to
deliver a blow.

When a snake is dead, the venom oozes from the fangs on
the slightest pressure on the glands, and can be easily collected
by elevating the fangs and compressing the venom glands.

Nature of Snake Venom.

Snake venom is a slightly acid fluid * of about the same
consistency as glycerine, and tinged more or less with yellow
according to the species of snake. However, on exposure
to the air and light, it gradually loses its fluidity. When
exposed over calcium cliloride it quickly dries and cracks

* The acid in the venom causes smarting in the wounds inflicted by the
fangs and facilitates rapid absorption.

X 3

Fig. 142. — A. Section of a Viperine Fang. i. Canal through which the venom runs. 2. The
central pulp of the tooth. B. Section of a Colubrine Fang. i. Groove down which the
venom runs. 2. Central pulp of the tooth. C. Fang of a Viperine Snake, i. Hole
through which the venom enters the canal. The end of the duct from the poison gland is
connected with this hole. 2. The outlet of the hole near the end of the fang through
which the venom escapes. The outlet is oblique, and is not at the extreme tip of the fang.
3. The direction of the canal through the tooth. la. Skull of a Viperine Snake, showing
the position of the bones, muscles, and fang when the mouth is closed, ib. A diagram
showing principle how the fang is worked. In this figure the fang is depressed to
represent the mouth closing, na and iib. Position of the apparatus when the mouth
is opened widely ; the spheno-pterygoid muscle (Pe) is contracted : the Pterygoid (Pt)
is pulled forwards, the transverse bone or Ectopterygoid (Tr) pushes the Maxillary (M)
rotates it, and thereby causes the Poison Fang (J) to assume an erect position. (Di)
Digastric Muscle, contraction of which lowers, or opens the lower jaw. (J) Poison Fang,
(M) Maxillary, (P) Palatine, (Pe) Spheno-pterygoid Muscle, (Pm) Pre-maxillary, (Pt)
Pterygoid, (Q) Quadrate, (Sq) Squamosal, (Ta) Insertion of the anterior temporal muscle,
by contraction of which the mouth is shut. D. The whole poison apparatus of a Viperine
Snake, i. Articular-maxillary ligament. 2, 3, and 4. Temporal Muscles. 5 and 6,
Constrictor Muscles of Poison Gland. 7. Duct. 8. Outlet of Duct. This is the point
where the venom enters the canal in the fang. 9. Maxillary Bone. 10. The canal
through the fang. Nos. 5 and 6 are the Constrictor Muscles which wring the poison gland,
and cause its contents to run along the duct into the hollow fang. The mechanism of
Colubrine snakes is the same, excepting that their fangs are usually grooved, instead of
being hollow.

353 2 A

354 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

like gum, but does not crystallize. The acid, being of a volatile
nature, disappears, leaving the dry venom neutral. Venom
when properly dried will retain its toxic or poisonous properties
a great number of years. Dried venom will readily dissolve
in tepid water. When kept in solution in water, snake venom
decomposes and loses its poisonous properties in a short time.
On the other hand, if venom be mixed with glycerine it will
keep indefinitely. Dr. Weir Mitchell kept venom for thirty-two
years, and Dr. C, J. Martin for thirteen years without it losing
any of its poisonous properties. I have also found that after the
lapse of years its effect is just as potent upon animals as when
injected fresh. Snake venom is a mixture in variable proportions
of proteid substances and salts dissolved in from 65 to 80 percent,
of water. The albumins in snake venom are devoid of poisonous
properties. The active principles of venom are proto- and hetero-
albumoses. Snake venoms are very complex and varied in their
action. The composition, nature, and effects of venoms differ
considerably. Pure Puff Adder venom, if allowed to stand in a
glass tube, deposits a white flocculent mass. The rest of the
venom becomes light amber in colour and sets to the consistency
of jelly a few hours after being drawn from the snake. If mixed
with water and stirred, the white precipitate is dissolved. Cobra
venom remains in a transparent condition.

Dr. C. J. Martin, Director of the Lister Bacteriological Insti-
tute of London, says : — " The analysis of the physiological
action of venoms has proved them to be made up of a great
many more constituents than would be imagined from their
chemical examination. Different venoms have been found to
contain one or more of the following : (i) a powerful fibrin-
ferment ; (2) an anti-fibrin ferment ; (3) a proteolytic ferment ;
{4) various cytolysins capable of acting upon red blood corpuscles,
piiagosytes, endothelial cehs of blood vessels, nerve cells, and
the cells of various other tissues. In addition to the above,
various other more remote pathological conditions are induced."

The various venoms being so different in their combination
or " make up," it naturally follows that the venoms of various
kinds of snakes would induce symptoms more or less dissimilar.
This is the reason the scrum from an animal immunized to the
venom of only one species of snake fails to act as a sufficiently
satisfactory antidote in all forms of snake bite.

NATURE OF SNAKE VENOM. 355

The difference in the constituents of venom is so great that
the venom of each species of snake differs in its action, even with
those belonging to the same genus. For instance, the serum of
an animal rendered immune to the bite of a Cape Cobra {Naia
flava) proved on experimentation to be an antidote to the bite
of this particular species of snake, but only had a partial
antidotal effect upon the venom of another species of Cobra, a
larger dose being necessary to neutralize the venom injected.
Tested on animals bitten by Puff Adders, or injected with fatal
doses of their venom, this serum had very little curative power.

The poisonous substances in snake venom may be separated
into three main parts.

(i) Neurotoxins, or nerve poisons. These combine with the
nerve cells and paralyse them. Neurotoxins are present in all
venoms, but are strongest in the poison of Cobras.

The nerve poisons of some species of snakes will cause
paralysis of the nerve centres controlling the breathing, resulting
in collapse of the lungs. Each variety of nerve poison acts with
greater or lesser power upon the various groups of nerve centres,
according to its nature. The nerve poison in one species of
snake will cause complete paralysis of a certain set of nerve
centres, while the nerve poison of another kind of venom will
have little or no poisonous effect upon that particular nerve
centre, but will concentrate its benumbing power on a group of
nerve cells which the former venom has either not affected at
all, or only to a slight degree.

In severe cases of Cobra poisoning, a certain amoimt of
structural change takes place in the nerve cells, numbers of them
being broken up and destroyed. However, death is not usually
caused by wholesale destruction of nerve cells, but by the para-
lysing action of the neurotoxin upon the cells. This neurotoxin
predominates in all Cobra venoms.*

(2) H^MORRHAGiNS, or blood poisons. This portion of the
venom acts upon the endothelial cells, phagosytes, and red
corpuscles of the blood. The endothelial cells are the cells of
a membrane which lines the inside walls of blood vessels. The
cells are thin and flat. The venom alters their shape, changes
and expands their structure sufficiently to allow the altered

* Adder venoms contain a comparatively small proportion of neuroto.xin
or nerve poison.

356 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

blood to escape through the walls of the blood vessels into the
surrounding tissues. The phagosytes are the white corpuscles
of the blood. They are altered, damaged, and often more or less
dissolved by the action of the haemorrhagin principle in snake
venom. The chief action, however, is upon the red corpuscles
of the blood. The haemorrhagin attacks these corpuscles, dis-
solving out their colouring matter and rendering them spherical
and sticky. This dissolved colouring matter then escapes
through the expanded walls of the blood vessels and finds its
way into the tissues, spreading out under the skin and causing
purple blotches more or less extensive. Red corpuscles, un-
changed, also escape through the expanded blood vessel walls.
The escape of blood into the tissues is greatest near the various
small arteries which branch off and terminate in a fine network
of capillaries. The reason is that, at these points, the pressure
of blood upon the capillaries is greatest.

The brokcn-up blood also oozes out through the mucous or
lining membranes of the moutli, nose, lungs, stomach, bowels,
and bladder. This blood-destroying poison predominates in
Adder venom. Recent experiments, however, tend to show that
the venom of the Puff Adder acts chiefly if not entirely on the
endothelial cells, and not on the blood corpuscles.

(3) Fibrin-ferments. These cause the fibrin of the blood
to solidify, which produces clotting. Fibrin ferments are usually
strongest in Viper venoms, although they are present in lesser
or greater degree in the poisons of all snakes.

When human subjects are bitten by Vipers (Adders) the
fibrin-ferment does not cause coagulation of the blood, unless
injected in an unusually large quantity, or direct into a vein
(intravenously). In the latter cases, coagulation of the blood and
death may occur at any instant. When injected direct into a
vein even in small quantit}^ death occurs within a few moments.

However, when the small animals on which snakes feed, such
as rats, mice, or birds, are bitten by Adders, the fibrin-ferment
in the venom almost instantly coagulates their blood, causing
rapid death. This is due to the relatively large dose of venom
injected. In the case of man or the larger mammals, sufficient
of the fibrin-ferment principle in the venom does not usually
enter the blood all at once to cause clotting, as is usual with small
creatures. In the case of Cobras, the neurotoxin or nerve poison

NATURE OF SNAKE VENOM. 357

is the principal factor in causing the rapid death of their prey.

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The majority of snake venoms contain all three of the above-
mentioned poisons. In each species of snake they are not only

358 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

different more or less in their physiological action, but they are
in varying proportions, hence the reason of the differences in
the effects on the human body and the symptoms arismg from
those effects.

The nerve poison (neurotoxin) can be separated from the
blood poison (hsemorrliagin) of snake venom, by adding lecithin
dissolved in chloroform, with a solution of venom, and shaking
vigorously. The blood-poison combines with the lecithin to
form an active lecithide which dissolves in the chloroform and
can be afterwards precipitated by ether.

The neurotoxin or nerve-poisoning principle of the venom
remains in the liquid solution. The part which has been precipi-
tated, if injected into animals, destroys the red corpuscles of
their blood, inducing haemorrhage into the tissues. Its action is
very rapid, especially when a concentrated solution is used, being
then much more active than before separation from the neuro-
toxin.

Weight for weight, the venoms of the different species of
snakes vary considerably. The venoms of the Mamba, the
Cobra, and Boomslang have as powerful poisoning effect as
three to five times the weight or bulk of Puff Adder, Berg
Adder, or Night Adder venom.*

The poisonous effects of all venoms vary according to the
size and vital resistance of the victim. For instance, a cat is of
about the same weight, or even less, than a large fowl or rabbit,
yet its power of resistance to the poisonous action of venom is
considerably greater. A Boomslang was forced to bite the
bared thigh of a domestic cat of adult size, and was permitted to
retain its grip for half a minute. The cat gradually developed
symptoms of poisoning and died in thirty hours. Large cock
fowls and rabbits bitten by the same snake died within fifteen
minutes. An interesting feature of these Cases was the different
symptoms. The cat was strongly acted upon by the blood-
poisoning principle of the venom, for the wound oozed blood
all the time, and the mucous surfaces discharged blood ; and after
death, extravasated blood was found in various tissues. On
the contrary, no such symjitoms were apparent in the fowls
and rabbits. The neurotoxin or nerve-poisoning principle in

* I lo drops of Piiff Adder venom after being dried over calcium chloride
yielded 24^ grains of dry extract.

EFFECTS OF SNAKE VENOM. 359

the venom caused almost instant paralysis of the motor nerve
centres. After death, little or no alteration to the blood could
be detected.

It must, however, not be inferred that the cat is as strongly
immune to all venoms, for cats bitten by Cape Cobras died in
fifteen to twenty minutes.

Snakes kept in captivity, unless under strictly natural con-
ditions out-of-doors, and in their native country, do not thrive,
and their venom becomes less in quantity although not usually
poorer in quality. I have noticed that snakes which have been
subjected to different climatic conditions to those of their native
habitat deteriorate the most. In fact, they invariably refuse all
food and die in a short time. Some species of snakes are so
susceptible to a sudden change of environment that they perish
in a month or so, although the temperature of the air be main-
tained at that of their native haunts.

Effects of Snake Venom.

According to Eraser, about 30 mgrms. (about half a drop) of
Indian Cobra venom is sufficient to kill a man. This means that
a full-sized Cobra would be able to eject enough venom at a
single full and complete bite to kill about twenty men.

Dr. Hanna and others state that the Indian Cobra yields as
much as twenty drops of venom. Dr. Hanna mentions having
obtained as much as twenty-eight drops.

In experiments with the venom of the Cape Cobra I found
that one drop diluted in a little water and injected into the
tissues of the leg of a large monkey killed it in half an hour's
time. A fraction of a drop was sufficient to kill a rat and
a fowl within half an hour. One drop was sufficient to kill
adult Chacma Baboons within one hour. Judging from the
effects of Cobra venom on the higher animals such as monkeys,
I consider that one full drop is a fatal dose for a strong
healthy man. This fact makes the treatment of snake bite a
most complicated one. It will clearly be seen that if a Cobra or
Mamba should succeed in delivering a full bite, many times a
fatal dose is hkely to be injected; therefore, in spite of prompt
applications of permanganate of potash, ligatures and the
injection of serum, the victim might die. The only hope in these
cases is the copious intravenous injection of anti-venomous serum.

36o THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Cobras and Mambas are far more to be dreaded than Vipers
because their venom acts so rapidly on the nerve centres, often
causing death or reducing the person bitten to a condition im-
possible of recovery before there is time to apply any remedial
measures.

However, the venoms of all snakes of the Colubrine family do
not act in this rapid way upon the nerve-centres in the brain
and medulla. The venoms of many act primarily on the blood
and secondarily on the nerve centres, as for instance in the case
of the Boomslang, which is a member of the Colubrine family,
although in classification it is placed in a sub-family with other
back-fanged snakes.

When a dose of viper venom is injected into a vein, even if
the quantity be small, death rapidly results from clotting of the
blood, chiefly in the pulmonary arteries. In animals, if a small
fraction of a drop is injected direct into a vein, death quickly
follows from clotting of the blood caused by a poisonous principle
in the venom known as Fibrin-ferment.

In these cases no remedial measures arc of any avail.
The venoms of the different species of snakes differ con-
siderably in the blending of the nerve poisons (neurotoxins),
blood poisons (haemorrhagins), and blood-clotting poison (Fibrin-
ferment). This being so, the symptoms vary more or less
widely. The venoms of two different species of snakes which
apparently produce the same outward physiological effects are
found, when examined, to be more or less dissimilar in their
composition. However, when the victims are subjected to
post-mortem it will be discovered that the venom of one snake
has produced internal effects considerably different from the
other.

The venoms of the Colubrine (Cobra) family of snakes and
the Viperine (Adder) family differ most widely in their nature
and effects. Generally speaking, we can say that the venom
of the typical Cobra family of snakes acts rapidly and chiefly on
the nerve-centres, causing nerve paralj-sis and death ; while the
venom of the Adders, although causing severe nerve depression,
exerts a powerful poisonous influence on the blood and walls of
blood vessels.

Snake venom, when mixed with ammonium sulphate or
absolute alcohol, causes the poisonous substances (proteids) to

EFFECTS OF SNAKE VENOM.

361

be separated. These fall to the bottom but retain all their
original poisonous properties.

The solution (filtrate) is not poisonous. The poisonous
principles of the venom which have been precipitated, if injected
under the skin of an animal, will cause death just as rapidly as
if the pure unaltered venom had been injected. It will thus be

Fig. 144.

Dissection of head of Puff Adder showing poison gland, duct, and fang in situ.

Head of a Puff Adder showing the front active pair of fangs covered with the
protective sheath, known as the Vagina Dcntis. When at rest the active
fangs, and dupHcates, lie carefully covered up within this sheath.

Back view of the head of a Cape Cobra {Xaia flavci).

Head of a Cape Cobra showing the grooved fangs, which are small in comparison
with those of the Puff Adder.

seen that alcohol, even if it were possible to drink it in the absolute
or pure form, would not destroy the venom in the slightest.

The venoms of all snakes are rendered harmless after boiling
several hours. Adder poison is destroyed more or less after a
few minutes' boiling, but Cobra venom resists the action of heat
much longer.* When boiled in solution with water, or raised to

* The haemorrhagin in Adder venom is destroyed when heated to 75° C.
for a few minutes.

362 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

a temperature of 70° to 80° C, snake venom throws down a
white flocculent precipitate. After the removal of this sediment
the solution is found in the case of Cobra venom to be quite
or almost as deadly as before boiling. Several hours' boiling,
however, entirely destroys the poisonous properties of Cobra
venom. When heated beyond 100° C, the toxic power of all
venoms is destroyed.

It will thus be seen how very sensitive the venoms of Adders
are to heat when in solution, and how strongly Cobra venom,
under similar conditions, resists heat.

Venom, in a dry condition, may be heated to 100" C. or a
little over without any alteration in its poisonous properties.

If a blood vessel be punctured and the venom enters the
circulation direct, the effect is practically instantaneous, and
death occurs within a few moments. I found when the venoms
of the Boomslang and the Cape Cobra were injected direct into
the veins of animals, they were stricken with death as swiftly as
if shot through the brain. In one instance death occurred while
the dose was being injected.

However, in cases of snake bite, the venom is usually deposited
in the muscular tissues and is absorbed by the small capillary
blood vessels and lymphatics adjacent to the bitten part, and
finds its way into the general circulation at a much slower rate.*

The symptoms of snake bite vary according to the quantity
of venom absorbed, and its nature.

Dr. Calmcttc states that the venom of the Lachesis genus of
snakes, which inhabit Asia and America, when swallowed sets up
acute inflammation of the gastric mucus membrane, and the
animals speedily succumb to attacks of gastro-intestinal haemor-
rhage. For several years, at intervals, I have fed animals by
administering as much as fifty times a fatal dose of venom daily
in their food for several days, without any apparent bad effect.
I have fed rats, fowls, cats, dogs, jackals, mungoosesand monkeys
on the venoms of South African snakes without any symptoms
of poisoning ensuing. The Ptyalin of saliva and the gastric and
pancreatic juices destroy the poisonous properties of snake
venom.

It is a common practice of the Kafirs and Hottentots to

* The volatile acid in fresh snake venom causes smarting in the wound
and hastens the absorption of the poison. Dry venom is neutral and is
absorbed more slowly when dissolved and injected.

EFFECTS OF SNAKE VENOM. 363

swallow snake venom under the mistaken belief that it renders
them immune to snake bite.

The South African Bushmen poisoned their arrow heads with
snake venom for the purpose of killing animals for food. They
were in the habit of eating the animals killed in this way without
previously draining out any of the blood, and only partially
cooking the flesh, often eating it practically raw. All they did
was to cut out and throw away the discoloured flesh around the
site of the poisoned arrow wound.

The blood of an animal which has died of snake bite will kill
if introduced into the blood of another. Dr. Fayrer transmitted
the venom through three animals with fatal results. That is,
he injected venom into one animal. Then he inoculated the
second animal with the blood of the first. When this second
animal was dying he took some of its blood and injected it into a
third animal. All three died.

When introduced into the eye, snake venom causes intense
smarting and acute inflammation, often so severe as to cause the
victim, if human, to faint with pain. Blindness ensues, but if
the eyes are promptly and efficiently treated, sight is ultimately
restored. The venom of Adders acts with greater intensity on
the eyes than Cobra venom. The effect of the latter, however, is
severe enough.

Venom acts on cold-blooded animals, viz. reptiles, but not
so rapidly as is the case with warm-blooded creatures. Birds
and small animals usually die within a few minutes of being
bitten by a very venomous snake.

Dr. Fayrer says the venom of adult deadly snakes does not
affect each other. This is only sometimes so, not by any means
always. Experiments in proof of this are detailed elsewhere in
this book.

On several occasions I have removed the poison glands from
dead Cobras and Puff Adders after the bodies had become
slightly stale, sufficiently so to give off a disagreeable odour.
The venom was squeezed out of the glands and injected into
fowls under the skin of the thigh and wing. No poisonous
symptoms followed. I concluded from these experiments that
after the death of a snake the venom rapidly deteriorates and
entirely loses its toxic properties when decomposition of the flesh
of the reptile begins.

364 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Dr. Giinther says : " The degree of danger depends but
little on the species of snake which has inflicted the wound, but
rather on the bulk of the individual, on the quantity of its poison,
on the temperature and on the place of the wound."

On the contrary, there is a considerable difference in the
poisonous properties of the venoms of the different species of
snakes. The venom of a Cape Cobra or Mamba, for instance, is
swift and sure. That of the Puff Adder is slow in comparison.
In toxic power, one drop of the venom of the Cape Cobra, Mamba,
and Boomslang is equal to five drops of Puff Adder venom.
Fayrer, Brunton and several others claim that Cobra venom
is as poisonous in its action when swallowed as when injected
under the skin.

I have experimented upon a variety of animals, including
Chacma Baboons, by introducing the venoms of the various
South African snakes into their food. In no case were they
affected in the slightest degree. The venoms of all the typically
poisonous snakes were used. The Cape Cobra and the Puff
Adder, being typical representatives of the Colubrine and Viperine
families of snakes, their venoms were selected chiefly for these
experiments. Thirty drops of freshly-drawn Cobra venom
introduced into about an ounce of food was given on several
occasions without any poisonous symptoms supervening.

If venom taken into the stomachs of such highly evolved
animals as Baboons produces no poisonous effects, it is fairly
safe to assume that it would act similarly in the healthy human
organism. In fact, this has been sufficiently demonstrated by
the fact that the Bushmen of the past ate the venom-poisoned
raw and half-raw flesh of animals.

An Australian scientist, in a recent article on the Snakes of
Australia, declares positively that the venom of the Colubrine
(Cobra) family of snakes is rendered harmless by the gastric
juices when swallowed, but that Viperine (Adder) venoms, on
the contrary, are not so destroyed. Gadow states that, with the
exception of Cobra (Colubrine) venom, all venoms are not ab-
sorbed by the mouth or alimentary canal, unless there be
abrasions.

On the contrary, Drs. C. J. Martin, G. Lamb, and Weir
Mitchell, all of whom arc recognized authorities on snake venom,
declare that all venoms are destroyed by the gastric and

VENOM IS DIGESTED. 365

pancreatic juices. Some are acted upon by the gastric juices ;
others, which these juices have no power to neutrahze, are
rendered harmless by the pancreatic fluids.

Venom is Digested.

Snake venom when swallowed is completely digested by the
digestive juices. It has been frequently demonstrated that the
secretion of the Pancreas, known as the pancreatic juice, which
pours into the Duodenum during the process of digestion,
entirely destroys snake venom. This pancreatic juice, when
taken from an animal and mixed with snake poison, will com-
pletely destroy its toxic or poisonous properties if heated to the
normal temperature of the body. In fact, the venom is digested
and chemically changed. Careful analysis of the excreta of
animals fed with snake poison has failed to show any trace of
venom, therefore it must have been destroyed by the digestive
juices, or else absorbed into the blood unchanged, in which case
it would have set up characteristic symptoms of snake venom
poisoning. Very young animals are not immune.

It is, however, unsafe for human beings to swallow venom,
as the digestive organs of the majority in civilized communities
are in anything but a healthy state, and it is quite possible a
state of catarrh of the inner walls of the stomach or intestines
may exist. Then, again, if the digestive organs be weak, the
gastric and pancreatic juices may not be sufficiently abundant
or concentrated to digest the venom, which would pass down
into the intestines, and may possibly get absorbed into the blood.

If the stomach be ulcerated or otherwise inflamed, snake
venom is capable of finding its way into the blood through these
inflamed surfaces. In this case it will have the same effect as
if injected direct into the blood.

In most cases of serious illness the digestive apparatus is
rendered torpid to a greater or lesser degree. This means that
the Liver, Pancreas, and gastric glands secrete little or no di-
gestive fluid; consequently, if venom is swallowed at such a
time, it is either only partially neutralized, or not acted upon
at all. If it should pass the stomach and enter the small
intestines without being previously digested by these glandular
secretions, especially the pancreatic juice, it will probably be
sucked up by the tiny mouths known as Villi, millions of which

356 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

line the intestine walls. In due time it will find its way into
the blood and cause poisonous symptoms, the same as if it
had been absorbed in the ordinary way in cases of snake bite.
This can be demonstrated by introducing snake venom direct
into the small intestines of animals, when in an empty condition.
Cobra venom in this way is absorbed and acts more rapidly than
Adder venom.

Adder venoms are destroyed by the digestive juices. The
neurotoxins of Cobra venoms are not affected until they come in
contact with the pancreatic juice.

Fig. 145.- — Harmless little Gcko Lizard of South Africa, popularly supposed to be highly
venomous, and in consequence is killed whenever seen. It eats insects which are a
Pest to man, and ought therefore to be protected. (Life size.)

Action of Colubrine Venom.

Colubrine (Cobra family) venom acts directly and speedily
upon the nervous system. Viperine venom is slower, and
operates both upon the nervous system and blood. If a fatal
dose of Cobra venom be injected direct into a vein, it is speedily
carried to the heart, instantly stopping the action of that organ,
and causing death in a few moments. A dose injected into a
vein in the tliigh of a dog caused instant death. This effect,
however, is only produced when the venom is injected direct into
the veins. When Cobra venom is injected into the tissues, as
invariably happens in ordinary cases of snake bite, the poison is
absorbed less rapidly, and instead of stopping the heart's action,
it has a contrary effect, stimulating it into increased activity.

SYMPTOMS OF COBRA VENOM POISONING. 367

The venom acts directly upon the nervous system, causing
gradual cerebro-spinal paralysis. If a fatal dose has been intro-
duced and absorbed into the blood, the nerve centres controlling
the automatic action of the lungs are paralysed, and breathing
ceases, although the heart is unaffected and continues beating
for some time, which clearly shows its vasomotor nerve
centres are unaffected by the venom.* The lungs having ceased
to act, the blood quickly becomes charged with carbonic acid,
due to the accumulation of the waste products of the body.
This vitiated blood slowly stops the beating of the heart, and
extinguishes life. The object of breathing is to inhale air, the
oxygen in which combines with the blood, burning up and con-
verting the impurities contained therein, giving off in the process
carbonic acid gas, which is breathed out. The importance of
this blood-purifying process is so great that if the lungs cease to
act, death or a trance-like condition ensues within a few minutes.
In the treatment of a patient bitten by a Cobra, Ringhals
or Mamba, be very vigilant. If the breathing should suddenly
cease, instantly resort to artificial breathing and keep it up until
the patient breathes of his own accord. If necessary, continue
this artificial breathing process for a couple of hours. In dealing
with the treatment of snake bite later on, artificial respiration
methods will be more fully explained.

Cobra venom contains an anti-fibrin ferment and prevents
the coagulation of the blood.

Symptoms of Cobra Venom Poisoning.

The special principle known as neurotoxin or nerve poison
is particularly strong and active in Cobra venom. This
neurotoxin causes structural changes and paralysis of various
groups of nerve cells in the spinal cord and medulla. How-
ever, when death ensues within four or live hours after the
injection of the venom, no changes in the nerve cells take place,
death being due to rapid paralysis of the main nerve centres.
Cobra venom also acts upon the blood cells, but its principal and
most dangerous action is on the nervous system.

The general symptoms of Cobra poison are : burning peiin
for a few moments at the seat of injection of the venom. Numb-
ness of the bitten part rapidly sets in. Sometimes in the early

* The end plates of the phrenic nerves in the diaphragm are also
paralysed.

368 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

stages this numbness extends all over the body and causes sjmcope
and fainting fits. The victim slowly but steadily sinks into a
profound state of drowsiness and an irresistible desire to sleep
steals over him. Pupils of eyes contract. The breathing
becomes increasingly difficult. The legs grow numb and limp.
The coma and difficulty of breathing become more profound, the
pulse steadily weakens. Saliva runs from the mouth ; the tongue
and larynx are paralysed with inability to speak.

Vomiting, involuntary emissions of urine and foecal matter
happen, and the breathing becomes more difficult. The heart's
action is quickened. The pupil of the eye remains contracted and
reacts to light up to the last moment. At length breathing ceases,
and the heart continues to beat after respiration has ceased. This
all takes place in from one to seven hours. Should the patient
survive, he returns rapidly to complete health.

After death the only outward sign of Cobra poisoning is
discolouration around the site of the fang punctures. There is
no swelling or extensive subcutaneous luemorrhage, as is the
case with Adder venom poisonmg.

ViPERiNE Venom.

The venom of Viperine snakes, of which our Puff Adder,
Horned Adder, and Berg Adder are examples, differs considerably
in its physiological action from that of the Cobra (Colubrine)
family. The neurotoxins or nerve poisons in it are not nearly
so potent in their action as is the case with the nerve poisons in
Cobra venom. But, whereas Cobra venom causes increased
action of the heart and consequent increased blood pressure,
Viperine venom slows down the pulsation of the heart and
circulation of the blood. This narcotic power of the venom
extends to the general nervous system, bringing about a state of
nerve depression more or less severe according to the amount of
venom injected.

Cobra venom acts powerfuU}' upon the nerve centres con-
trolling the breathing functions, and tends to stop the action of
the lungs, Viperine venom, on the other hand, exerts no special
effect upon these nerve centres. The neurotoxin in Viper venom
acts on the vaso-motor centre causing a variation of blood
pressure. On the contrary, the neurotoxins of Cobra venoms
powerfully stimulate the heart.

HEMORRHAGE INTO THE TISSUES. 369

General Tendency of Viperine Venom.

The tendency of Viperine venom is to produce a gradual and
general paralysis of the nerve centres which causes a feeble action
of all tlie vital functions. If the dose injected be a fatal one,
this slowing-down action progresses steadily but surely until
death takes place. Tlie venom of Viperine snakes contains a
powerful poison known as a fibrin-ferment causing the blood to
clot. There are a few exceptions, for instance, some North
American Crotalinae. If the venom be injected direct into a
vein in sufficient quantity in reptile, mammal or man, coagulation
or clotting of the blood takes place, followed at once by death.

However, when the venom is injected into the muscular
tissues, as is usually the case in bites from snakes, the poison is
not absorbed with sufficient rapidity to cause coagulation until
after death except in small animals.

Nature's Resistance.

Nature sets up a resistance against all foreign substances
when introduced into the body, endeavouring to overcome and
cast them out again. In those cases where she fails, the dose
has been too large, or the vitality and mechanism of the body
is more or less impaired by disregard of the laws of hygiene.
The habitual indulgence in alcohol is a potent factor in the
breaking down of the natural inherent power of the body to
withstand and overcome any form of disease or poisoning.
Habitual moderate drinkers of alcoholic liquors succumb rapidly
even to a small dose of snake venom — a dose not sufficient to
produce serious symptoms in a non-drinker. Animals dosed
with alcohol for a few months, given in regular doses, died
rapidly when injected with a small dose of snake venom, sho\ring
clearly that alcohol destroys the inherent vital resistance to
snake venom, as medical science informs us it does with all
forms of disease or ordinary blood-poisoning.

Hemorrhage into the Tissues.

A characteristic action of Viperine venom is to cause hae-
morrhage into the tissues in various parts of the body. A toxic
property in the venom acts upon the walls of the capillary blood
vessels, causing expansion of their cells, or, to put it in scientific
terms, " a dissolution of their continuity." This effect of the

2 B

370 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

venom upon the walls of the blood vessels allows the blood to
ooze through and into the tissues, causing purplish blue patches
under the sldn. The escape of blood through the walls of the
capillaries is always greatest near the small arteries owing to
the increased blood pressure at these places. The effect of
Viperine venom upon the circulatory system seems to be three-
fold— the red corpuscles are in most cases acted upon, causing
them to release their hsemoglobin or colouring matter, and to
distort and alter their natural shape ; the phagosytes or white
blood corpuscles are more or less broken up ; the cells composing
the walls of the smaller blood vessels are caused to expand,
allowing the blood to escape into the surrounding tissues.

Effects of Viperine Venom.

In Viperine poisoning, such as is occasioned by the bite of the
Puff Adder, th^re is always grave danger of death supervening
from gangrene or extensive suppuration, owing to the haemorrhage
into the tissues in various parts of the body. Death may occur
from these causes a week or more after the infliction of the bite.
The haemorrhage or extravasation of blood into the tissues occurs
more or less extensively in patches, causing bluish-black dis-
colouration. There is also oozing of blood from the mucous
surfaces of the mouth, lungs, bowels, kidnej's, bladder and
stomach ; and sometimes suffusion of blood into the brain
tissues. If this latter should take place death follows at once.

I have many times examined natives with large cavities in
the calves of their legs, due to the sloughing away of the flesh
around the site of the bite of a Puff Adder. Other cases have
come under my observation where the flesh sloughed to a certain
extent around the part bitten, then healed, only to break out
again later and discharge a quantity of matter, and remain in a
suppurating condition for a month or two, and finally heal. This
suppuration and subsequent healing of the wound occurred at
intervals, in one case extending over a period of three years. In
this latter case most of the calf of the man's leg had sloughed
away. Yet he eventually recovered. Now and then men and
domestic animals after recovery from Adder venom poisoning
permanenth' lose their senses of sight, hearing, and smell. This
has never been known to occur when anti-venomous serum has
been freely used.

SYMPTOMS OF VIPERINE VENOM POISONING. 371

372 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Symptoms of Viperine Venom Poisoning.

. The s^'mptoms of Viperine poisoning are as follows : —
Intense but not prolonged smarting, discolouration, and swelling
at the site of the fang punctures. Within twenty minutes the
venom begins to bring about constitutional symptoms such as
giddiness, and irregular fluctuating pulse. The skin grows cold
and clammy, the pupils of the eyes are dilated, followed by intense
nausea and vomiting, often accompanied with evacuations from
the bowels. If death fails to take place within twelve hours, the
swelhng becomes more extensive. If the bite be on the lower
part of the leg, the swelling gradually extends upwards and into
the body. At the same time haemorrhage from the walls of the
capillary blood vessels takes place, causing purple patches, more
o,- less large, to appear in various parts of the body. Oozing of
blood from the mouth, lining membrane of stomach, bowels,
bladder, and eyes occur.

The swelling is progressive, and extends up into the body.
There is intense thirst and great dryness of the mouth and throat.
Pupil of eye dilates. The breathing becon\es difficult, then
stertorous, with loss of consciousness and death. The heart con-
tinues to beat for ten or fifteen minutes after breathing ceases.

How to Collect Snake Venom.

One of the best ways to collect quite pure Cobra venom for
purposes of experimentation and chemical analysis is to procure
a large and strong watch-glass, as convex as possible. Obtain a
piece of sheet rubber or thin glazed cloth, preferably the latter.
Stretch this loosely over the rim of the concave side of the
watch-glass, bunch it up and tie it at the centre of the convex
side. Hold the live snake by the neck, the forefinger of the
right hand (unless you are left-handed) round its throat, and the
tliumb pressed firmly on the back of its neck, just behind the head.
Seize the tail firmly in the left hand. If the watch-glass can be
fitted into some fixture, all the better and safer. Faihng this, an
assistant holds it with his fingers and presses its edge against
the front of the lower jaw of the snake. The reptile instantlj'
bites, its fangs penetrate the stretched rubber or cloth, and
the venom is discharged on the concave side of the glass. If
it should show a desire to grij) fnml}^ and hold on, quickly

HOW TO COLLECT SNAKE VENOM.

373

374 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

transfer the tail of the snake to the free fingers of the right
hand. Tlien, with two fingers of the left hand, gently but
firmly, press each side of the head behind the eyes, working
your finger-tips forward. In this way you \\dll succeed in press-
ing out most of the venom remaining in the glands. Put the
snake away, and repeat the process in a day or two. Remove
the rubber from the watch-glass and allow the venom to dry on
the glass by placing it in a current of air, or in some warm, dr}^
place. Use the same glass repeatedl}^ until sufficient venom has
been collected to make it worth while to transfer it to a bottle
with a good tight cork. Before putting the venom into the
bottle, be sure that it is perfectly dry, else it will decompose and
lose its poisonous properties. It may be very effectually dried
in a desiccator over calcium chloride. It dries rapidly at i6^ to
20° C. Store it in a dark place as white light reduces the poisonous
properties of venom. Just previous to transferring the dry venom
to a bottle for storage, it would be advisable to dry (desiccate) it
over calcium chloride. However, in South Africa I have seldom
had occasion to use calcium chloride. The air dries the venom
rapidly. Then, if the stopper of the bottle is a good one,
the venom will keep dry indefinitely. With Puff Adders
and most other Vipers, a claret or wne-glass is better than a
watch-glass, owing to the long fangs rendering it more or less
difhcult to operate with so shallow a receptacle as a watch-glass.
Moreover, it is much safer.

Another method, which was employed in India by Dr. W.
Hanna, M.A., M.B., is explained as follows : — Having shaken
or pulled the snake, be it Cobra or Viper, out of the box
to the ground, he allows it to make off, and following, he grasps
its tail with his left hand and elevates it, so that the snake is
unable to turn upon him — it simply liisses loudl}^

He allows it to steady its head on the ground, and while so
doing, he gently but firmly places a strong slender stick across its
neck, pinning its head down. He now lowers his left hand
and places the tail under his naked left foot, and with the
left hand grasps the neck firmly, close to the head, the stick
keeping the head steady until he has accompUshed his object.
By taking the tail in his right hand he has now complete control
of the snake. His first object is to take the poison from the
snake. After washing the mouth (if mucus or dirt be present)

HOW TO COLLECT SNAKE VENOM. 375

with a fine stream of water from a wash bottle, the snake man,

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steadying the tail under his toes, compresses the poison glands

376 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

gently and gradually, with the thumb and forefinger of his right
hand. The poison is forced along the ducts, and issues from the
moutli in drops ; these are received into a clean watch-glass
held underneath.

If a snake is freshly killed, the glands may be dissected out
and the duct tied. Unless this operation is carefully and gently
performed, nearly all the venom will be squeezed out and lost.
It is better to remove tlie skin from the nose, raise the poison
ducts with the tip of a penknife, tie them with fine thread, and
then proceed to remove the glands. If the poison ducts be tied
in this manner, little or no venom will be lost.

If the glands are quickly dried and stored in a well-corked
bottle, the dry venom with which they are charged will remain
active indefinitely.*

The quantity of venom collected at one time from a freshly
caught adult Cape Cobra varies from six to ten drops — some-
times a httle more. When the weather is moist and warm, the
glands secrete venom rapidly. A snake, which has been kept
in captivity, even for only a few days and which has been handled
freely, ^vill not give nearly so much venom as one freshl)' caught
unless it is angered by rough handling.

The reason is, the former is in a fierce state of anger and fear.
This condition is exceedingly favourable for the rapid secretion
and ejection of venom. Snakes, when often luindled, become
increasingly passive, even refusing to bite under the strongest
provocation. I have frequently, with finger and thumb, opened
the jaws of snakes and placed them over the rim of the rubber-
covered glass, but they persistently refused to bite. The only
thing to do in these cases is to elevate the fangs with a bit of
pointed wood and compress the head and manipulate the poison
glands. Meclianical pressure of the glands is not nearly so
successful in expelling the venom as the natural action of the
Masseter muscle fibres which wring the glands, when the snake
desires to bite. In very large freshly caught Cobras, as much as
fifteen drops of venom may be collected within ten minutes by
allowing the reptile to retain its hold, meanwhile irritating it
now and then by rubbing its nose Nnth a bit of blunt stick. Dr.
Hanna mentions having obtained as much as twenty-eight drops

* It is best to snip off the ducts and press the venom out into a watch-
glass, gently squeezing the gland from the base forwards.

HOW TO COLLECT SNAKE VENOM. 377

of venom from a fresh Indian Cobra. In captivaty he found
tlie same species of snakes only yielded from five to ten drops.

I was holding an average-sized Puff Adder by the neck on my
table when, with an unexpected tug, it jerked its head free and
aimed a blow at my left hand which I succeeded in jerking away
in time. The snake's head struck the table with a loud thump
and a quantity of venom was ejected upon the glossy American
leatlier cover. I collected eight drops and calculated that two
or three more drops remained which could not be removed from
the cloth. The average quantity of venom obtained from a
large freshly caught Puff Adder is about ten drops by allowing
it to discharge venom voluntarily and by squeezing the glands
with the fingers. Puff Adders, after being kept in captivity for
two or three months, yield an average of four or five drops of
venom. Sometimes only a drop or two can be obtained. I
have noticed that when a snake makes a full bite on a living
animal, usually no poison oozes out of the punctures. The
reason is that the venom is driven into the tissues with great
force, and at the same time the punctures are plugged by the
fangs, consequently the venom spreads out into the tissues
around the wounds. This being so, it is desirable, if an attempt
is being made to suck out the poison by mouth suction, that the
flesh be previously well scarified over the site of the punctures.
Of course, while the knife is being got ready, the punctures
should be sucked meanwhile, as tliis retards the absorbing power
of the capillary blood vessels and lymphatics, which lie in a
thick network under the skin and among the muscles.

Snake venom is shghtly acid. Sometimes it is found to be
more or less alkaline. Tliis is due to admixture with the secre-
tions of the mouth. Cobra venom is intensely bitter. Viper
venom is more or less tasteless. The specific gravity of Cobra
venom, according to Martin, averages ii'io ; that of the Daboia
(Indian Adder), 1077. The amount of sohds contained in these
two venoms corresponded with the specific gravity — the per-
centage of solids in Cobra venom averaged 31 "5 and in the poison
of the Daboia 24-4. C. J. Martin states that the variations are
considerable in the case of the Cobra, being from 23 to 38 per cent.
Pure venom, when examined microscopically, reveals nothing.
If it be contaminated with the fluids of the snake's mouth,
salivary corpuscles, bacteria, and epithelial cells are seen.

378 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Venom may be extracted from a snake once fortnightly in
the intervals of feeding and moulting. Venom will keep in-
definitely if mixed in equal parts with pure glycerin. It cracks in
all directions when dried, and after scraping it together it presents
the appearance of yellow sugar or granules and flakes of gum.

Effect of the Venom of one Snake upon other Snakes.

The venom of the Puff Adder apparently has no poisonous
effect upon those of its own species imless injected in large doses.
Of fifteen Puff Adders inoculated with varying doses of from
four to eight drops of their own venom only two died. Subse-
quent experiments showed that these snakes varied in their
degree of resistance to venom. Five-drop doses of Night Adder
(Causus) venom produced no poisonous symptoms.

Five drops of venom were taken from a Puff Adder; six from
another; seven from a third. The venom was injected into the
snakes from which it was taken. All remained unaffected. The
experiment was repeated ; one which received five drops of its
o\vTi venom died in six days, and a second, which had eight
drops, died on the fifth day. Six more were tested — one died.

Puff Adders occasionally die when bitten by snakes of other
species such as the Cobra, Ringhals, Mamba and Boomslang.
Extreme internal haemorrhage occurred in two bitten by a
Boomslang. However, it is only now and then that Puff Adders
die when bitten by other venomous snakes. I have several
times injected Puff Adders with Cape Cobra venom, and in other
cases allowed the reptile to inflict a full bite in the tail region. I
have injected five drops at a time under the skin of a Puff Adder
without poisonous effect. This means that in these cases the Puff
Adders withstood enough Cobra venom to kill three or four men.

It will thus be seen that the venom of the Puff Adder is not
poisonous to itself or those of its own species, or even if one be
allowed to bite itself, or if its venom be collected and injected
hypodermically into it imless the dosage is comparatively heavy.
This would seem to indicate that the blood of a Puff Adder
should be an antidote to its own venom, and others of its
species. Strange to say this is not so. Collecting the venom
from a Puff Adder I measured out three drops, and kiUing the
snake, I took half an ounce of its blood and mixed the three
drops of venom with it and allowed it to stand five minutes.

CAPE COBRAS AND RINGHALS. 379

Stirring it well, I injected it under the skin of the thigh of a fowl.
The fowl died in four hours. Other tests ended similarly. Mixing
the gall of the same snake with two drops of the venom, I in-
jected it into another fowl. The fowl died in six and a half hours.

Cape Cobras and Ringhals.

I have demonstrated by repeated experiments that the venom
of the Cape Cobra produces inflammation of the tissues and
eventual death in those of its own species when the venom is
injected under the skin or when another of its own species is
allowed to dehver a full bite. Cobras which were forced to bite
themselves also died, but with adult specimens death did not
take place for a week, or even two or three months.

For some considerable time we kept a large collection of
live snakes at the Port Elizabeth Museum. In one cage we had
seven Cape Cobras of the yellow and brown varieties. These
snakes ranged from four feet to six feet five inches in length.
One day they were stirred up by the introduction of a fresh
specimen and began to fight fiercely with each other. They
were all bitten, some several times. The bites were mostly
about the head and neck.

Three lingered for a week and died. One lived a month.
The other three survived for nearly four months. During the
whole time their heads were swollen and inflamed, particularly
in the region of the venom glands. After four weeks the scales
were shed from the head and the inflammation increased. The eye
scales grew opaque and the reptiles became blind. They remained
in this condition till death took place — no new scales forming.

Subsequent experiments conclusivel}^ proved that the venom
of the Cape Cobra was invariably fatal to those of the same
species, causing necrosis and death. Young specimens died
within a few hours to a day or two of being bitten or injected.
The adults survived for one week to three or even four months.
The heads in all cases swelled, the shields were shed and the
mouth became inflamed. Usually from two weeks to a month
after being bitten or injected, the eye scales became opaque.

I conducted several experiments with the Ringhals Cobra.
On four occasions I allowed an adult Ringhals to bite the tail end
of another of the same species, after scraping away the scales
from the part. I also made two bite themselves and injected

38o THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

one with its own venom. In none of these cases did any poisonous
S3''mptoms follow. I also allowed Puff Adders, Boomslangs, and
Night Adders to bite Ringhals snakes in the tail region, but in
no case did any of them seem the worse.

Being desirous of knowing if the venom of the Ringhals would
have any poisonous effect upon non- venomous snakes I made one
bite a Mole snake several times, drawing blood. The Ringhals was
a large specimen of the black variety. No bad effects followed,
although I kept the Mole snake for several months afterwards.

I once also caused a Puff Adder to bite a Cape Cobra in the
tail region. It gave two full bites, driving its fangs deep into
the flesh. Care was taken that the bite should be in the muscles
between the vent and the tip of the tail, as sometimes the mechani-
cal injury of the large fangs of a Puff Adder will cause death, if
the bite should be over the parts containing the vital organs.
The bitten snake died the following da}'. On two subsequent
occasions I diluted eight drops of Puff Adder venom with a little
pure water. Dividing this mixture into portions I injected it
under the skin of two Cape Cobras, each four feet in length.
The Cobras showed no symptoms of poisoning and continued to
remain in their normal condition during the six weeks they were
under observation.

Non-Venomous Snakes.

The experiments on non-venomous Mole snakes were some-
what contradictory. Two adult Cape Cobras bit two Mole
snakes, each four feet in length. The bites were full ones,
being in the muscles of the tail region on spots from which the
scales had been removed. The Mole snakes did not develop any
symptoms of poisoning.

Taking two more adult Mole snakes I allowed large yellow
Cape Cobras to bite them effectually in the tail region. I then
made two small incisions and introduced some Cobra venom on
the point of a penknife. The Mole snakes died within fifteen
hours. One died in twelve hours and the other in fourteen
liours. Careful dissection showed no traces of haemorrhage.
Many other experiments followed which showed that sometimes
Mole snakes died after being bitten, but more usually they
exhibited no symptoms of poisoning. Six drops of Cobra or
Puff Adder venom was usually fatal to Mole snakes.

NON-VENOMOUS SNAKES. 3S1

The venom of the Cape Cobra is usually fatal to small snakes
of the non-venomous species. Frogs die almost instantly.
Toads linger a long time and often make a complete recovery.

Srhaapstekers die in about fifteen minutes when bitten by
Cobras and Boomslangs.

Six drops of Puff Adder venom were injected into a large Mole
snake, four feet six inches long. The injection was made in the
middle part of the back under the skin. The Mole snake survived
three days and died. Another lived nine days. If a large dose
(six drops) is injected right into the abdominal cavity, it is in-
variably fatal within twelve hours.

A Mole snake was also bitten by a variegated variety of Boom-
slang in the muscles of the back a few inches above the tail, on
a spot from which the scales had been scraped off. The Boom-
slang was allowed to hold on for three or four minutes and worry
the flesh. The venom shed on the skin was then scraped up and
rubbed into a cut in the back of the Mole snake. No poisonous
effects followed.

Five drops of venom were taken from an adult Puff Adder
and injected under the skin of the same reptile. It grew in-
creasingly sluggish, and died on the sixth day.

A Berg Adder [Bitis atropos) was forced to bite a Night Adder
[Causns rhomheatiis) . The fangs were driven well home in the
muscles in the tail region. The Berg Adder was none the worse
for the bite.

A Puff Adder which was introduced into a cage containing
Mole snakes bit one of the latter. The victim died the following
day. The body was very much swollen ; blood oozed from the
vent and the mouth. An internal examination showed that the
blood had oozed in considerable quantity into the abdominal cavity.

A Ringhals bit another in one of our snake cages and held
on tight, worrying the flesh of its victim for fifteen minutes. No
symptoms of poisoning followed. The victim lived for many
months afterwards.

These and subsequent experiments have shown that although
venomous and non-venomous snakes are resistant in varying
degrees to snake venom, they will all die if a sufficiently large
dose is injected, and that, although some snakes are resistant to
their own venom to a greater or less extent, yet an exceptionally
large dose of their own poison will prove lethal.

CHAPTER XII.

The Scientific Treatment of Snake Bite.

Permanganate of Potash — Results of Experiments —
The Serum Treatment.

Experiments by Doctors Brunton. Fayrcr, Rogers, Martin,
Lamb, Richards, Lacerda, and other eminent authorities show
that perchloridc of platinum, chloride of gold, and permanganate
of potash arc all chemical antidotes to the venom of snakes.
It was found that if any one of these three salts was mixed with
an equal weight of venom it instantly neutralized it. Perman-
ganate of potash being the cheapest and easiest to apply was
selected, carefully tested, and found to have the power of imme-
diately destroying the toxic properties of snake venom. It was
found to be equally effective with the venom of a great number
of venomous snakes — in fact all kinds of venom. By experi-
mentation I have found it kills the poisonous properties of the
venom of all South African snakes, and that of venomous insects.
The potash was mixed in equal proportions with various snake
venoms and injected direct into the veins and tissues of animals,
and no symptoms of poisoning followed. This has been tested
on various species of animals by many other experimenters.*

In the work on the " Poison of Venomous Snakes," by
Doctors Brunton, Rogers, and Fayrer, there is the following
interesting account of some experiments by Dr. V. Richards : —

" In the winter of 1881 a number of experiments were made
by Dr. Vincent Richards, who founds like the previous experi-
menters, that Cobra venom was completely destroyed by per-
manganate of potash when mixed with it in vitro, so that death
did not follow the injection of the mixture either hypodermically
or into a vein. He found also that when Cobra poison was
injected into a dog and the injection made cither immediately

* A one percent, solution of permanganate of potash or chloride of gold
will neutralize snake venom.

382

PERSISTENLY TESTED. 383

or after an interval of four minutes into the same part by a
hypodermic injection, of a solution of permanganate of potash, no
symptoms of Cobra poisoning resulted, but after the develop-
ment of symptoms of Cobra poisoning, permanganate of potash
failed to have any effect whether injected locally, into a vein,
or both."

These results were also obtained by Lacerda (Couty and
Lacerda, Comptes Rendus, Vol. xcii., p. 465), and by Richards.

Persistently Tested.

Many experimenters at first were very discouraged and
inclined to think permanganate of potash was of no practical
value, for it was found that when rabbits, pigeons, and fowls
were injected with venom and the wounds immediately scarified
and permanganate rubbed in, the creatures in most cases died.
It must, however, be borne in mind that these species of animals
are extremely susceptible to the poison of snakes, and that in
these experiments, doses of venom averaging from five to fifty
fatal doses had been administered at one injection. Such a
comparatively large quantity of venom being introduced caused
enough to get into the general circulation to kill these highly-
susceptible animals, in spite of the permanganate neutralizing
the venom not yet absorbed from the site of the injection. It
was noted, however, that the application of the permanganate
delayed death in most instances.

Much more satisfactory results were obtained with animals
of a higher order whose bodily organizations were more akin to
those of human beings, such, for instance, as monkeys, cats, and
dogs. Dr. Lauder Brunton and several others found that cats
recovered when permanganate was rubbed into the incisions
made over the site of the injection, although ten ordinary fatal
doses of venom had been given, or in other words enough venom
was injected at a dose into each cat to kill ten cats, and when
permanganate was applied the animals recovered.

These experiments were carried out extensively, and in all
but two or three cases the animals recovered.

In Dr. Brunton's experiments the venom was first injected,
a ligature apphed, the flesh over the site of the injection deeply
scarified, and permanganate rubbed into the tissues. After five
minutes the ligature was removed. The animals experimented

384 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

on received an average of five to ten ordinary fatal doses at a
single injection, yet they recovered.

In exprrinients which I conducted, the results were more
or less similar to the above. I found that in all cases when
symptoms of poisoning had started, the local application of
permanganate was of no use, a fatal dose of venom having
evidently got into the circulation before the application of the
permanganate.*

Various Experiments.

Mr. James Williams, a temporary assistant at the Port
Elizabeth Museum, captured a full-sized Berg Adder {Bitis
atropos) and brouglit it to me. In carelessly handling it the
snake succeeded in imbedding its fangs in the ball of his fore-
finger, and gripped with great tenacity and power. He tore it
away, and in doing so the fangs slit the flesh, leaving a spurt of
venom along the slit. It was evident a strong dose of venom had
been injected, for the pain was very intense, and the wounds
began to grow congested almost immediately. Within five
minutes I had ligatured the wound and injected a solution of
pcrmanganate'of potash into and around the punctures. I then
scarified the wounds and forced as much blood out as possible,
and in half an hour's time I removed the ligature. The arm
swelled somewhat, the glands under the armpit were tender and
swollen, and there was slight constitutional disturbance. Within
two days all symptoms of poisoning had subsided, and the man
was quite well.

On another occasion he and I were artificially feeding some
Puff Adders when one got partly loose and made a drive at his
hand, imbedding one of its long fangs in the ball of his thumb.
Within two minutes I scarified the wound and rubbed in per-
manganate crystals. A ligature was applied, and as much blood
as possible forced out of the wound by manipulating the thumb.
Williams then sucked the wound for five minutes, and I removed
the ligature. The symptoms of poisoning which followed were
slight. I have been partially bitten several times, and have
also applied venom to wounds, and the prompt application of
permanganate of potash has in every case proved effective.

* A fresh solution of hypochlorite of lime is recommended by Dr. Cal-
mcttc. This is not practical for the layman, and it necessitates waste of
precious time.

VARIOUS EXPERIMENTS. 385

It is quite unnecessary to mention my various experiments
in cxtenso. I found that when permanganate of potash was
immediately rubbed into free incisions made over the site of
the injection of snake venom, or the direct bites of venomous
snakes, recovery frequently took place when higher animals
were experimented on. Success was in proportion to the quantity
of poison injected, the time which had elapsed between the appli-
cation of the remedy and the time of the injection of the venom.
If the potash was applied five minutes or more after the injection
of venom, it was unsuccessful, and death always occurred. In
every case animals showed absolutely no signs of poisoning
when I injected a mixture of venom and permanganate. In many
instances I mixed fifty times a fatal dose of Cobra venom with a
little permanganate and injected it without any poisonous effect.

The permanganate of potash was found to be useless in the
case of highly susceptible animals such as fowls and rabbits,
these creatures often dying within five minutes after the entry
of the venom into their tissues. On experimentation I found
that fowls and rabbits died rapidly if even a very small dose
of venom was injected into them — a dose not nearly sufficient
to cause death in higher animals. They were particularly
susceptible to Cobra, Ringhals, and Boomslang venom, usually
dying within ten minutes — sometimes instantly. It was
apparent that when these animals were bitten, enough venom
was at once taken up into the blood vessels to cause death, hence
the reason the potash did not avert a fatal issue.

This can be better realized when it is learned that a Cobra
is able to inject a hundred or more fatal doses into a small
animal at a single full bite. In experiments on Vervet monkeys
and half-grown Baboons with Cape Cobras I found that if a full
bite was inflicted, it was useless ligaturing and applying perman-
ganate to the scarified wounds. The reason was that sufficient
venom got absorbed to cause death before it was possible to apply
any treatment for the purpose of retarding the absorption of the
venom, or destroying it in the wound. A full bite is understood
to mean when the snake grips like a dog and holds on for a few
seconds.

Judging from these experiments, it is reasonable to conclude
that if a person be bitten by a venomous snake, and if he rubs
permanganate of potash into incisions made over the site of the

2 c

386 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

punctures and a ligature applied within five minutes of the in-
fliction of the bite, and if proper secondary treatment is carried
out, he would, in most instances, recover. It must be remembered,
however, that some people die of blood-poisoning even if an
exceedingly small quantity of venom should enter their bodies,
particularly if they are of intemperate habits.

COUTY AND LACERDA.

Drs. Couty and Lacerda carried out a series of experiments
with permanganate of potash and snake venom, and found that
this salt not only destroyed the poisonous properties of the
venom when mixed with it, but also proved an antidote when a
one per cent, solution was injected into the tissues at the site
of the injection of the snake venom.

They also found that when both permanganate and venom
were separately injected into a vein, no symptoms of poisoning
followed ; but if the venom got a start and had already pro-
duced symptoms of poisoning the injection of permanganate
into a vein had no curative effect. The same result occurred
when venom was injected into the tissues and the salt injected
after symptoms of poisoning had begun to manifest. Dr.
\'incent Richards' experiments and those of Drs. Fayrer, Brunton,
and many others bear out the findings of Couty and Lacerda.

However, it has recently been shown that the injection of
solutions of permanganate of potash direct into the veins may
cause serious harm if not death, therefore injections of this salt
direct into the blood-stream should never be attempted.

Two Important Facts.

Two very important facts to be remembered are : perman-
ganate, if swallowed, has no effect upon snake venom which
has got into the blood, except that it causes a flow of watery
substance into that organ and any venom carried with this liquid
is rendered inert by the digestive juices. If injected or rubbed
into the tissues at the site of the wound ten or more minutes
after the infliction of the bite, it is of little or no use as an
antidote, although it is useful in cauterizing and disinfecting the
bitten part.

Power of Permanganate of Potash.
A large Cobra, Ringhals, Mamba, or Puff Adder is capable

ABSORPTION OF VENOM. 387

of injecting many times a fatal dose if the bite be full and com-
plete, but as I have already pointed out the snake does not always
get an opportunity of driving both its fangs right home into the
flesh of a human being.

However, experiments by Dr. Brunton and other well-known
investigators have shown that although even ten fatal doses be
injected into a cat or monkey, if the wound be instantly scarified,
treated with permanganate of potash and ligatured, recovery
usually took place. The only conclusion we can arrive at from
the results of these experiments and those of a similar nature which
I have conducted is, that if a human being be bitten by a veno-
mous snake, and even ten ordinary fatal doses of venom injected,
the person would recover if instantly treated with permanganate
of potash and ligatures. I cannot, however, claim that the
prompt application of permanganate and ligatures always saved
the lives of the bitten knimals. About sixty per cent, recovered.
Those not treated always died. The animals which usually died
were those fully bitten by Cobras or injected with from ten to
fifteen fatal doses of their venom.

Absorption of Venom.

It has been asserted that the venom, after injection into the
tissues, enters the circulation so rapidly that local applications
would be futile. This has been proven to be the case with such
animals as fowls, rabbits, and guinea pigs, whose organizations
are extremely sensitive to the venom of snakes, but not neces-
sarily so with higher animals, except, of course, when a vein
is punctured, or an unusually large dose of venom is injected.

When venom is injected into the tissues, for the first few
seconds rapid absorption takes place, owing to the intense
irritation of the venom on the surrounding tissues and the mouths
of the lymphatics.

However, the tissues around the punctures quickly become
congested, and absorption of the venom then occurs more slowly.
The application of permanganate of potash not only destroys
all the venom it actually comes in contact with in the wounds,
but owing to its cauterizing action, the power of absorption from
the parts thus treated, is practically stopped and the wounds
sterilized.

B

I'lc. 140. — A. Section of the human skin highly magnified.

1. A hair showing its root and oil gland.

2. One of the pores of the skin showing the sweat gland at the end. There arc millions of

these in the skin.
■\. The Epidermis or outer skin in which there are no nerves or blood vessels. It is made
of tiny srale-Iikc cells.

4. The Malpighinn layer of skin on which lies a layer of cells containing colouring matter

or pigment. In coloured folk this is where the pigment lies.

5. The nerves of sensation, showing the bulbous end just under the skin.

6. The Dermis or under skin, which is full of tiny blood vessels and absorbent lymphatic

vessels. These suck up snake venom when it is injected.

7. Layer of fatty cells which lie under the Dermis, and which also is full of small blood

vessi-ls and lymphatics.
.S. Muscle or red flesh which lies beneath the skin, and which also is full of blood vessels and

lymphatics.
9. Blood vessels and lymphatics which divide and sub-divide. The latter suck up snake

venom.
H. t. The fang of a snake.

2. The Epidermis or outer skin.

3. The under skin or Dermis and layer of fatty cells. This is teeming with tiny blood vessels

and lymphatic channels.

4. The muscles or red flesh beneath the skin.

5. These tiny dots show where the snake venom is usually lodged when a snake drives its

fangs home. The force with which the venom is discharged causes it to spread in the
tissues, hence the reason why it is essential to scarify the site of the punctures freely
before rubbing in permanganate of potash.

388

A FACT TO BE REMEMBERED. 389

When venom was injected direct into the veins of animals,
death always took place within a few minutes. The animal
would often drop dead immediately after the injection. However,
if the same quantity was injected into the muscles or under
the skin, death- did not usually occur for hours, sometimes days.

These experiments would seem to show the venom is not all
instantly absorbed, as some writers so positively assert.

The experiments of Doctor Brunton and other eminent men
have also demonstrated this to be a fact, for it was found that
the animals often recovered if the seat of the injection of venom
was scarified and permanganate of potash applied within five
and occasionally ten minutes after the injection of the venom.

A Fact to be Remembered.

It must be distinctly understood that permanganate of potash
is not an antidote. It is of the nature of a " First Aid Treat-
ment." It will destroy any venom it actually comes in contact
with if rubbed into incisions made over the site of the bite.
It is absolutely useless unless applied immediately after the bite.
If the snake's fangs happen to penetrate a vein and the venom
be discharged therein, the poison is instantly carried into the
general circulation, and local applications of permanganate of
potash would be valueless. This permanganate salt should
always be carried, so as to be available for first-aid treatment.
But anti-venomous serum should be in the home of every farmer,
so that a cure may be available. The permanganate of potash
should not be relied on too much. It is practically useless as a
treatment for snake bite in domestic animals, for it is seldom
an animal is seen to be bitten. The first indication which causes
suspicion of snake bite is local swelling, trembling, and exhaus-
tion. If serum be at hand and the animal injected freely with
it, its life would be saved, even many hours after the infliction
of the bite. Unless, of course, the damage done to the nerve
centres and blood is too great to make recovery possible.

In scarifying the site of the bite the incisions should be made
freely, because the venom is injected so forcibly, that it often
spreads out under the skin for about half an inch around the
site of the fang punctures. Then again, a snake may, when

390 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

biting, drag the loose skin of the bitten part so much that most
of the venom will be shed perhaps half an inch from the site
of the punctures. So, to guard against these eventualities, be
careful always to scarify freely so that the permanganate will
come into contact with as much of the venom as possible.

The Serum Treatment for Snake Bite. Results of
Scientific Experimentation.

Failing to find any antidote to snake bite amongst known
medicines, either vegetable or mineral, men of science began
investigations in another direction. Quite independent of each
other. Doctors Fayrer and Calmette conducted a series of experi-
ments with snake venom.

Animals, preferably horses, were injected with minute doses
of Cobra venom, and on the symptoms of poisoning subsiding, a
larger dose would be injected. This immunizing process was
carried on from one to two years, the dosage being progressively
increased until 50 to 200 fatal doses could be injected at one
dose without any apparent harmful effect. Some of the blood
of the horses was then withdrawn, the serum separated and
injected into animals bitten by snakes of the same species to
the venom of which the horses had been rendered immune-
The effect was magical, for almost instantly the venom was
neutralized, the symptoms subsided, and the animals recovered.
It is well known in medical science that any poison, however
potent, if taken into the human body in carefully graduated
doses, confers a peculiar mysterious tolerance to that particular
poison. The same holds good with all medicinal substances.
After repeated dosage the ordinary prescribed quantities fail
to have the desired effect. An acquaintance of mine was a
victim of the opium habit, and took sufficient opium in the
course of the day to kill twenty men not accustomed to its use.
Inveterate smokers will take into their bodies daily sufficient
nicotine and other tobacco poisons to kill off half a dozen non-
smokers. Naturally, however, if poisonous drugs be persistently
introduced into the body, they, in time, will shatter the toughest
constitution. Two drops of the oil from a tobacco pipe placed
upon a dog's tongue will kill it within one minute. A few
specks of strychnine will have the same effect. Tobacco oil

VENOMS DIFFER IN THEIR ACTION.

391

from an old pipe stem will, if a small quantity be placed in
a snake's mouth, instantly paralyse it. It grows utterly limp
and ceases to breathe, but sometimes revives in about an hour's
time. This fact should be remembered by collectors.

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Venoms differ in their action.

The venom of every species of poisonous snake, as has already
been pointed out, is different in its composition, although its

392 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

various parts cannot be chemically separated as efficiently as
we would wish.

We have, however, abundant evidence of this fact by extensive
observations of the effects of the different venoms on animals.
In Australia a professional snake-catcher rendered himself
immune to the bite of a common highly venomous snake, and
in the presence of men of science allowed himself to be bitten
repeatedly. No poisonous symptoms supervened, although the
bite from this particular species of snake would, in most cases,
cause rapid death in any one not immunized.

This man acting under the impression that in consequence
he was immune to the venom of other species of snakes, once
carelessly handled a Denisonia siiperba, but was bitten, and died
the following day.

How TO BECOME ImMUNE,

A man can, with patience, render himself immune to the
bites of venomous snakes. For instance, if he desires to be
immune from the venom of a Puff Adder and Cape Cobra, it
would be necessary for him to inject under his skin an exceedingly
small dose (the fraction of a drop) of the mixed venoms of these
two snakes, and after the lapse of a fortnight or longer, inject a
slightly larger quantity, and continue the process every two weeks
with increasingly large doses, until he is able to tolerate enough
venom at a dose as would kill half a dozen men. The operation
would, however, be very tedious and prolonged, and would have
to be repeated over again with the venom of other species of
venomous South African Snakes if he desired to be quite immune
to the venoms of them all. If, however, a man was immune
to the venom of the two typical representatives of the great
snake families, viz. the Cobra and Puff Adder (Colubrine and
Viperine), he would not be likely to die if bitten by any other
species of South African venomous snake. Such experiments
are fraught with danger, for if the individual be in the habit
of drinking alcohol, or if, through over-eating or indulgence in
a too free meat diet, his blood should be in an inflammatory and
impure condition, then gangrene would as likely as not set in
at the point of the injection, and if death did not occur, sloughing
of the flesh, more or less extensive, would supervene.

COLLAPSE THROUGH FEAR. 393

Variety of Venoms.

The venoms of many of the Indian, Austrahan, American
and African snakes differ widely in their poisoning properties,
and therefore it is clear that the scrum treatment of snake bite
is beset with many difticulties. However, if the authorities in
each of these countries set themselves in real earnest to immunize
animals to the venom of the most poisonous of the snakes of the
country, a first-class serum of high anti-toxic power could be
prepared and sold to the public. The greatest difficulty seems
to be the collection of sufficient venom for the purpose. Those
who collect venom for sale frequently adulterate it with gelatine
or gum, and it is often otherwise impure and even inert.

Hyper-sensibility.

A remarkable and mystifying fact in the immunizing of
animals against snake bite by the injection of graduated doses
of venom is, that when an animal becomes highly immune and
is able to tolerate a very great number of ordinarily fatal doses
without showing any symptoms of poisoning, this high degree
of immunity often becomes suddenly reversed, and a condition
of extreme sensitiveness (hyper-sensibility) to snake venom
sets in, and the animal will succumb even to a very small quantity
of venom.

There seems to be a point beyond which tolerance to any
poison cannot go, and some sudden physiological change takes
place, doubtless in the cells of the brain, the nerves, and the
constituents of the blood, making the body susceptible to the
toxic action of only a small quantity of the poison to which
the system was hitherto immune, even when given in very large
doses.

It is ever thus in scientific research, when one mystery is
solved others arise, and so it will be to the end.

Collapse through Fear.

A case came under my observation of a native woman who
was bitten on the calf of the leg by a large Mole Snake {Pseu-
daspis cana) which she took to be a Cobra. Now, in spite of
the fact of the Mole Snake being quite harmless, the woman

394 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA

rapidly collapsed, and much alarm was expressed at her con-
dition. I was called and found her in a condition of nervous
collapse, the circulation sluggish, pulse feeble and heart's action
dangerously slow. Her skin felt cold and clammy, and she
shivered. Glancing at the snake which had bitten her, and
which her friends had subsequently killed, I realized at once
it was a case of shock due to fear. Mixing a little permanganate
with water, I made her drink it, and told her it would positively
cure her within a few minutes. I repeated the suggestion
several times that she was " getting better, much better." In
ten minutes' time she was on her feet, declaring she was quite
cured, and marvelling at the magical powers of the " antidote " I
had given her. Next day I found myself to be an " Inkos
m'kulu " (Big Chief) amongst her tribe.

Another case occurred of a European woman who was bitten
on the hand by a slightly venomous snake, and it was doubtful
if the little grooved back teeth had even scratched the skin,
However, she showed alarming symptoms of nervous collapse,
and was dosed by her friends with brandy till she was senseless.
She fortunately recovered from the alcoholic poisoning after
two weeks of severe gastric inflammation, due to the action of
the strong spirit on the delicate mucous lining of her stomach.

Why People recover.

During the hottest season of the year the venom of snakes
reaches its highest degree of virulence, waning in toxic power
and quantity as the chilly weather approaches.

Full-grown snakes are naturally more likely to inflict a fatal
bite than young specimens. The venom of snakes in good
vigorous health is far more abundant but not so poisonous as in
those in poor condition. The venoms of different species of snakes
vary so considerably in toxic power that a full and complete
bite of some species would rarely cause death in a healthy man,
whilst such a bite given by a Cobra. Ringhals, Mamba. or Puff
Adder would mean certain death, if prompt and energetic
treatment was not resorted to. In striking at the clothed leg
of a man, a good deal of the venom is usually arrested by the
clothing, which also prevents the fangs being driven fully home.
This is especially so with the Cobras and Mambas which have

ANTI-VENOMOUS SERUM. 395

comparatively short grooved fangs. In other cases only one
fang penetrates the flesh, or perchance the skin is only scratched.
It will thus be seen that even if no treatment be applied a large
percentage of cases would recover.

FiTzSiMONs' Snake Bite Outfit.

I have found from long experience that the vast majority of
people, other than medical men and veterinary surgeons, do not
know how to handle a serum syringe, and regard the process of
injecting serum as quite beyond them. They seem to be nervous
and lack confidence in themselves, even after the process has
been carefully explained, unless it be done by actual demonstra-
tions or carefully prepared illustrations, accompanied by simply-
worded instructions.

During my lecturing tours, many a farmer has shown me
a bottle of anti-venomous serum which he has treasured up for
years, and in many cases had no syringe at all, or perhaps
produced a large rusty veterinary syringe, or a small ordinary
hypodermic one.

Twenty years of such experiences have convinced me that
to make the serum treatment for snake bite of real practical,
lasting value to the general public, and especially to the farming
community, it is essential that a thoroughly effective and com-
plete outfit be available. As there is no really efficient serum
outfit for the treatment of snake bite known to me, I have
patented a complete first-aid and serum treatment outfit, with
an illustrated sheet of instructions which any child can under-
stand.*

Anti-Venomous Serum.

Anti-venene, anti- venom, and anti-venomous serum are all one
and the same substance.

Of course anti-venomous serum has its limitations. It will
not perform miracles. It has the power of neutralizing the
poisonous properties of snake venom if mixed with the poison in
sufficient quantity. If injected into the blood it will destroy the

* See advertisement of " FitzSimons' Snake Bite Outfit," by the dis-
tributing agent, at the end of this book.

396 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

poisonous properties of the venom therein, in proportion to the
amount injected.

It is quite apparent that if the nerve centres have been
poisoned and benumbed beyond the possibiHty of recovery,
or if the blood corpuscles be broken up, and extensive haemorrhage
into the tissues has taken place, the injection of anti-venene
would be useless. However, it is practically impossible to
know for certain if the venom has acted upon the nervous
system, brain and blood, sufficiently to make death a cer-
tainty, therefore while life remains the anti-venene should be
injected.

In all cases where serious symptoms of poisoning have
developed, the anti-venene should be injected direct into a vein
so that it may enter the circulation with the least possible delay,
for at such a critical time every moment is precious. When
life's forces are slowing down, the absorbent or sucking-up
power of the small blood vessels [capillaries) and lymphatics is
sluggish, and in some cases suspended.

If the fangs of a venomous snake should puncture a vein
and venom be discharged therein, the poisonous effects are
so rapid that death takes place in spite of the injection of anti-
venene. In fact in these cases the patient is usually dead
before the serum can be injected, even if it be at hand. Fortu-
nately such cases are not common.

Anti-venene, if injected, will render a man more or less immune
to snake bite for several days. Its antidotal power, however,
grows less daily. In no case does it confer any degree of
immunity for more than three weeks. If a man has at some
previous time been injected with serum, a subsequent dose may
cause pains in the jomts, swellings, constriction of the throat,
and some degree of fever (Anaphylaxis).

Anti-venene is a watery fluid, and when injected, is absorbed
and mingles with the natural serum of the blood. Many have
expressed fear lest its injection might do harm if introduced
into a person and it happened that the snake which bit him was
a harmless one. It does no harm at all.

Many also imagine that so large a quantity of scrum as a dose
of 25 c.c, viz. I ounce, cannot possibly get absorbed into the blood
from under the skin. On the contrary, large quantities of fluids
are capable of absorption into the blood in this way. In serious

PENNY WISE AND POUND FOOLISH. 397

cases of poisoning by acids when the stomach is so severely
burned as to make it impossible for the patient to swallow,
water is injected under the skin. Instances are on record in
medical literature of as much as four pints of water being
absorbed in this way in a day. Owing to no preservative being
used in the serum provided in the outfit already mentioned, it
can safely be injected in excess.

Penny Wise and Pound Foolish.

It is strongly recommended that in all cases of snake bite when
even slight poisonous symptoms have manifested, that at least
two doses of anti-venene serum of 10 c.c. each or one dose of
25 c.c. be injected in several places under the skin of the arms,
legs, shoulders, or abdomen. It is always preferable to inject
to excess. An extra dose or two will frequently turn the scale
from otherwise certain death to life and health.

The lack of intelligence of some people is really surprising.
Rather than expend a few shillings on a reliable remedy for
snake bite, they trust to the most absurd methods of treatment,
or pin their faith to some worthless popular proprietary " cure,"
or a mysterious Kafir mixture. Others are content to stock a
single dose of serum, trusting to luck that it will effect a cure.
Some foolishly rely entirely upon the local application of per-
manganate of potash and ligatures.

20 or 25 c.c, at least, of anti-venene and a serum sjTinge
should be in the home of every country resident, and others
whose occupations take them where there is risk of being bitten
by a venomous snake. In fact, all who can afford it should have
as much again handy, and when a case of snake bite occurs,
inject a dose, under the skin or into the muscles, and then care-
fully watch the effects. If the patient seems to be growing worse,
inject the second dose, then if it be possible for him to recover,
he will soon begin to rally.*

The serum should be kept in a cool dark place — the cooler
and darker the better. It should be examined every now and
again, and if the fluid be observed to be getting increasingly

* A layman must not attempt to inject direct into a vein unless he
thoroughly understands the process.

398 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

milky and flaky in appearance, it is a certain sign that it is
deteriorating. It must then be thrown away as it is useless, and
a fresh supply obtained. If kept cool and in a dark place, it
will keep good for two or three years. I have had a bottle for
five years, and it is still in good condition.*

When kept for some time and not moved, a flaky sedi-
ment forms at the bottom of the bottle. This is not a sign
of deterioration. The sediment will partially re-dissolve if the
bottle be shaken. If the cork be withdrawn or tampered with
in any way the content of the bottle must be thrown away as
it will not keep if air gets to it, for it contains no chemical
preservatives.

The anti-venene is sterilized and, provided no bacteria gain
entry, there is no reason why it should not keep for years.
But, although it may not actually go bad, it deteriorates in
strength the longer it is kept, as is the case with the anti-
toxin serums in use in the treatment of various diseases. The
fresher the anti-venene is the better, therefore it is advisable
to obtain a fresh supply every eighteen months or two years.
If the previous supply should still appear to be sound, then
do not throw it away. Keep it also for use, as you cannot
have too much of it. You may need three or four doses at
any time. A valuable human life, or stock costing large sums
of money, may be saved by a liberal injection of the anti-
venene, even if bitten fully by the deadliest South African
serpent.

Valuable stock, and a considerable number of human lives
are annually lost in South Africa from snake bite. It is there-
fore a necessity to have some means at hand by which this
mortality may be checked. Hardly a farmer in the country
has not had serious losses in stock from the bites of venomous
snakes.

The universal faith in one or more of the many popular,
so-called cures, prevents reliable measures being taken to combat
the effects of snake venom. Elsewhere in this volume the
results of experiments with most of those remedies have been
given. He who pins his faith to any of them is unwise. His

* An anti-v'enomous serum in dry form is now prepared for the treat-
ment of bites by African snakes, but it is rather troublesome to dissolve.

THE SERUM TREATMENT AND ITS LIMITATIONS. 399

faith is misplaced in spite of apparent recoveries from snake
bite after the administration of one or other of these " cures."

The Serum Treatment and its Limitations.

The serum treatment of snake bite has been made highly
efficient of late. However, many difficulties still beset the path
of the scientific investigator. The main obstacle is the difficulty
of obtaining sufficient venom, and the extreme care which is
required to be exercised in the process of rendering animals
immune. Even with the greatest care, the horses and mules
which are usually used do not always survive the ordeal. At
other times frightful ulcers form at the seat of the injection of
venom, and frequently the flesh sloughs away more or less
extensively. The aim is to make the animal immune to as large
a dosage of the mixed venoms of various species of snakes as
possible.

For instance, the serum from a horse which has been rendered
immune to a hundred ordinarily fatal doses of venom is twice
as strong in its venom-killing powers as the serum from a
horse which is immune to fifty ordinarily fatal doses of venom.
Every year progress is made, and there can be little doubt
that before long a better method of immunizing animals will
be discovered, and a serum of equal strength in smaller volume
will be prepared.

The anti-venene now prepared is the only substance which
is of any value in destroying snake venom' after it has entered
the blood circulation. The more copiously it is injected the
better chance there will be of recovery. If the venom has begun
its onslaught upon the nerve centres or blood, or both, liberal
quantities of serum will need to be injected to overtake and
neutralize its death-dealing powers. I would advise medical
practitioners to inject not less than 20 c.c. direct into a vein
if bad symptoms of poisoning have set in, and to inject a
second dose after an interval. Those, other than medical men,
should carefully practise injecting water into dead animals'
veins and under the skin, so that they may know exactly what
to do and how to do it should occasion arise. A dead plucked
fowl is a good subject to practise upon. If a little permanganate
is added to the water previous to injection under the skin, it

400 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

will prove a good object-lesson in showing just how the serum
would spread, if injected.

Knowledge makes a man confident. It is the lack of knowing
just what to do when faced with an emergency that makes him
" lose his head."

Anti-venene serum is the only substance for secondary
treatment recommended by science as possessing curative value
in cases of snake bite, and which can be injected under the
skin without any risk. There is an element of risk in injecting
it direct into a vein. This will be explained later.

If bitten by an unknown snake, it is advisable to inject a
dose of serum if any be at hand. It will do no harm if the snake
should happen to be a harmless one, and will serve the purpose
of allaying the nervous dread of the bitten person. It is at times
difficult to distinguish the symptoms produced by nerve-shock
exhibited by most people bitten by snakes, and the real symptoms
of snake venom poisoning, especially that of the Cobra which
acts mainly upon the nervous system.

Anti-venomous serum for the treatment of any kind of African
snake is now available. It is known as polyvalent serum.

The Treatment of Snake Bite.
What to do if bitten.

The most practical thing to do if bitten by a snake is to
prevent the absorption of the venom into the general circula-
tion. If a large dose of venom should get into the body it will
be pumped by the heart to the remotest parts. So we must
immediately attack the venom at the spot where it has been
injected.

There is very little chance of preventing at least some of the
venom getting into the blood circulation, but that will not matter
provided a fatal dose has not been absorbed. Every moment
is precious, as the venom after its injection under the skin is
being greedily sucked up and carried into the body by the
absorbent vessels.

Knowing that permanganate of potash destroys any venom
it may actually come in contact with, it is presumed you will
have some at hand. A sharp penknife and a small tube or
pill-box full of permanganate should be carried by everybody
who runs any risk of snake bite. In a country like that of South

THE TREATMENT OF SNAKE BITE. 401

Africa every country resident should have some permanganate
and a penknife upon his person. Then, if he or any of his
native labourers, or stock should get bitten by a snake, curative
measures can be promptly taken. Brunton's First Aid instru-
ment is usually carried. This, however, is not a satisfactory
instrument for the reason that with the lancet the punctures
cannot be deeply and freely scarified without using undue force,
which is likety to snap the lancet or make unsatisfactory cuts.
Secondly, the permanganate is apt to be spilled and lost at the
critical moment by unscrewing the wrong end in error, or
bungling when removing the capsule. For bites by long-fanged
snakes, the lancet is of small practical value. To meet the
need, I have patented a complete First Aid Outfit, which is put
up in a small flat metal box, and can be carried without the
slightest inconvenience in the waistcoat pocket so as to be ready
for instant use. The outfit includes a specially designed lancet-
knife, stout ligature, and some chemical tabloids which will
instantly neutralise snake venom, and at the same time render
the scarified parts antiseptic. This outfit may be had from the
publisher of this book, and all chemists, for a trifling sum. Full
instructions are included in the outfit. From twenty years of
experience of snakes and snake bite, I can safely say this " First
Aid Outfit " will meet the needs of the public in all snake-infested
countries.

We will presume that you have been bitten upon the leg a
few inches above the ankle. Without one instant's delay, make
three or four cuts about a quarter of an inch deep, and half
to three-quarters of an inch long, over each fang puncture.
There can be no difficulty in finding it, for there will be consider-
able smarting, and the punctures will be slightly discoloured.
If the bite be actually on the muscles, then cross cuts could be
made in addition to the others, as no harm can very well be
done. When, however, the bite is upon the back of the hand,
wrist, or front surface of the foot, cross cuts should never be
made, or you will probably sever one or more sinews and
cripple the hand or foot permanently.

Open the incisions with your fingers and fill the wounds
with permanganate crystals and rub them vigorously in. A
good plan is to spit on the hollow palm of your hand, pour some
permanganate crystals into the fluid, work it into a paste and

2 D

402

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

then rub it into the wounds. If a friend be at hand he must be,
meanwhile, applying a ligature, or else you can be doing this
while he attends to the scarifying and permanganate applica-
tion. The ligature must be applied between the wound and
the heart at a spot best calculated to compress the blood vessels
(veins) and lymphatics. If bitten on the foot or ankle-region, a
ligature just above the knee is best. If on the forearm or hand,
apply the ligature above the elbow joint. To tighten the ligature,
a strong twig, a lead pencil, or a broken walking-stick, should
be inserted in a loop in the ligature and twisted up, but not

Fig. 151. — The ligature is best applied above the knee, because there is only one bone, con-
sequently the pressure is more uniform all round the leg. The black crossed lines above
the sock are the incisions over the site ot the fang punctures.

sufficiently tight to cause pain. Tie the stick against the leg or arm
as the case may be, to prevent it reversing itself after you let it
go. If a syringe be handy, a tcaspoonful of solution of per-
manganate with water may be injected obliquely under the skin
over the site of the fang punctures.

It is a doubtful point whether the scarifying and application
of the potash,* or the ligature should be applied first. If the per-
manganate can be applied almost instantly, then it is preferable
to scarify and apply it first. If there is any delay, or if no

* Drv pulverized anti-venomous serum, if available, is more efficacious
than the potash if rubbed into the incisions over the site of the bite.

\

THE TREATMENT OF SNAKE BITE.

403

crystals be at hand, then instantly alfix the ligature. A good
plan is to jerk out your handkerchief and tie it as tightly as you
can with your hands, and then scarify the punctures and apply
your potash. Afterwards the ligature can be tightened to a
greater degree by the insertion of a stick.*

If a friend is at hand, then both operations may be carried
out simultaneously.

As a general rule, if a ligature can be applied within a minute
of the infliction of the bite, it is best to affix it first, then apply

Fig. 152. — Should a snake inflict a bite on the forearm apply a ligature above the elbow
joint, and boldly scarify the flesh over the site of the fang punctures and rub in
permanganate of potash. Then gradually and progressively loosen the ligature and
remove it after an hour. This must only be regarded as a lirst-aid remedy. Anti-
venomous serum should be injected as soon as possible.

the potash as soon after as possible. Everything depends upon
expertness and promptness.

After the permanganate has been applied, and the limb
ligatured, press and rub the parts about the incisions with the
fingers, with a view of forcing out as much blood as possible.
The severing of two or three small veins in the ligatured member,
helps to get rid of the poisoned blood. If there should be no

* Do not tighten the hgature too much or you will crush the llesh and
cause injury and severe pain. A very tight ligature is not necessary or
desirable.

404

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

-r 3 n o c;

I. o.!«.£3

't? (U o u <«

6

THE TREATMENT OF SNAKE BITE. 405

permanganate at hand, apply a ligature instantly, and scarify the
site of the bite. If there are no cuts, abrasions or ulcers in the
mouth or on the lips, the wound can be safely sucked. If the
part bitten be laid open and well cauterized by flashing gun-
powder in the wound, some of the venom may thus be destroyed.
This, however, is useless unless done within five to ten minutes
of the infliction of the bite. Ammonia and tobacco juice are
useless, — the latter is dangerous.

There is no possibility of bleeding to death if any of the
small veins are severed. The veins are the blood vessels
which carry the venous blood to the heart. The blood moves
along sluggishly in them. On the contrary, the blood in the
arteries courses along at a great rate, and if one of these vessels
be cut, the blood squirts out powerfully in jets. Nature, however.

Square Knot Granny Knot

Fig. 154. — When you tie a knot do not make a Granny Knot, or else it will be sure to slip and
come loose. Tie the Square Knot like this. The harder it is pulled the tighter it will
get. It cannot slip.

has carefully guarded these important blood-vessels from injury
by burying them deep in the tissues. The only places where
arteries come near the surface are where they pass over the ankles
and skull. The blue lines just under the skin are all veins.
In the ligatured limb they will stand out like cords. Select two
or three of those which apparently lead from the vicinity of
the bite, and make small longitudinal incisions in them. Never
cut them across. Cut along the course of the vein. By bleeding
the ligatured limb, some of the poison will be got rid of. A
vein, unless a very large one, will usually stop bleeding itself
after a time. If not, then place a little hard pad over the
bleeding part and bind it down tightly. If permanganate of
potash has been promptly used, bleeding of the ligatured part
will be quite unnecessary.

4o6 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Elevating the limb will often stop the bleeding, or sewing
up. the wound with two or three fine stitches.

If a snake should inflict a bite upon the face, head, neck or
trunk, scarify the punctures freely to make as much blood as
possible flow out, and then apply permanganate of potash. If
a friend be at hand, get him to suck the wound if no permanganate
be available. Before sucking, the punctures should be scarified
to facilitate the withdrawal of the venom.

Bear in mind, especially, that there is grave danger of
mortification of the limb setting in, if a ligature is left on too
long. After half an hour, or as soon as j^ou have applied potash
or bled the limb, slacken the ligature very slightly for just
one instant, and tighten up again. Repeat this operation every
five minutes or so for half an hour to an hour. The object of
this is to allow only a small quantity of the poisoned blood at
a time into the body and thus give Nature's resistant forces a
chance to cope with, overcome, and expel the poison before a
fresh supply enters. Should there be a good deal of venom in
the blood of the ligatured limb, it is obvious that if allowed all
at once to rush into the body, it would be likely to overcome
Nature's resistance and cause death.

About a yard of strong rubber of about the calibre of a
lead pencil makes a splendid ligature, or a strong strip of linen
t'd\)e. Rubber grips the flesh uniformly all round the limb, and
if twisted round a couple or more times its constricting power
would be very great.

A red cross bandage is also highly serviceable.

One ligature, as a general rule, is sufficient, but if enough
material is at hand to convert into several ligatures, it is desir-
able to be more thorough, and apply ligatures as shown in the
accompanying illustrations. When a snake bites, it often injects
venom into the muscular tissues. In the case of the Puff Adder
the fangs may penetrate about half an inch. In these cases it
will be necessary to scarify the punctures to that depth. As a
general rule, it is advisable to make the cuts about a quarter of
an inch deep. The venom often spreads out in the tissues, hence
the necessity of freely cutting the site of the bite so that the
permanganate of potash, when rubbed in, may reach all the
venom, or most of it. Now, when snake venom is injected into
the tissues it is rapidly sucked up and carried to the larger blood

THE TREATMENT OF SNAKE BITE.

407

Fig. 155. — If bitten by a venomous snake on the fingcrscarify the site of the punctures as
here shown, not across the finger lest you sever the sinews. The same applies to
the second illustration. In the third, the bite is on the muscles of the forearm. In
this case the cuts may be criss-crossed. The reasons why more than one ligature is
desirable are mentioned in the text. If the bite is not a complete one by an adult
highly venomous snake, the punctures need not be scarified so freely as shown in
third illustration. A longitudinal slit over each puncture will suffice.

408 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

vessels to be subsequently pumped all over the body by the
heart. It is, therefore, obvious that if a ligature is appUed as
close above the punctures as possible, it will tend to delay the
absorption of the venom and confine it to that region of the limb.
Then, if another is appHed higher up it will act as a second safe-
guard. A third ligature would also tend to help. The use of
two or three ligatures is highly desirable in cases of poisoning
by all the species of snakes whose venom acts mainly upon the
blood and its vessels — such snakes for instance as the Boomslang
and the Adder family, which includes the Puff Adder, Horned
Adder, Berg Adder, and Night Adder.

I have recently arrived at this conclusion after experiments
on animals. I found that by applying a hgature just above the
site of the bite I was able to prevent the venom acting upon the
muscles above the ligature. Now, for instance, if a man were
bitten on the instep and he applied one ligature above the knee
the muscles of the leg from the foot to the ligature would probably
be charged with extravasated blood, which later might result
in mortification of the limb.

In applying a hgature, the object is to prevent the return
of the venous blood and lymph from the site of the entry of the
venom. The object is not to constrict an artery.

In conclusion, it must be borne in mind that hgaturing and
appl3ang permanganate of potash is of little or no antidotal
value if not applied within ten minutes of the infliction of the
bite. In the majorit}^ of cases if not applied within five minutes,
death will ensue, should a fatal dose of venom happen to have
been injected.

Ligaturing is at best but a first-aid, temporary measure,
the object being to gain time for other remedial measures, such
as the injection of anti-venomous serum, which is, as I have
already mentioned in this book, the only antidote recognized
by science, and the only one which I have found to be of value
among all those with which I have experimented.

The Serum Treatment — Methods of Injection.

The next thing to do is to procure and inject anti-venomous
serum with the least possible delay.

^^'ith a suitable serum syringe inject the serum under the

METHODS OF INJECTION.

409

tissues which compose the walls of the abdomen on the riglit or
left side. The serum is more rapidly absorbed when injected
into the loose skin covering of the abdomen than anywhere else.
Other suitable, but not so desirable, sites are the forearms, legs,
and between the shoulders. Some medical men prefer to inject
the serum into the thick muscles of the hip, thigh, or arm. The
subcutaneous abdominal injection should always be employed for
preference. Take hold of the skin with your fingers, pull it up
in the form of a ridge, and run the needle inTrom one end. After
the injection carefully withdraw the needle with a rapid movement,
put your finger on the puncture and press for a moment along the
direction traversed by the needle. This prevents any serum escap-

Fic. 156. — Injecting][thc"serum into the forearm with a scrum syringe. The skin is held up,
the needle inserted, and the serum forced in. Always inject upwards toward the root of
the limb.

ing from the needle-puncture. A 10 c.c. or 20 c.c. serum syringe'
can be used. A neat little syringe can be obtained to hold eighty
drops, and it is sufficiently large to contain enough serum to inject
at one spot. The syringe in " FitzSimons' Snake-bite Outfit " is
specially designed to suit the purpose. Be careful not to use a
small hypodermic syringe, as the aperture of the needle is so
small that it is likely to get clogged. After using a syringe, boil
it in water in which some borax has been added. The borax
will prevent subsequent rusting of the metal. Always see that
your syringe is scrupulously clean.

A bottle containing 20 c.c. (cubic centimetres) should be
injected in three or four places. Two to three teaspoonfuls of

410

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA

serum may conveniently be injected at one spot. More may be
introduced under the skin in one place, but it is absorbed more
rapidly when injected in several places. The arms and legs are
usually selected because the skin does not adhere firmly to the
muscles on those parts, and it is therefore easier to inject the
serum under the skin. Moreover, it circulates much better.
After the serum has been injected, gently rub the injected part
to make the serum dissipate under the skin.

If the bite has been promptly treated with permanganate
and the part ligatured within five minutes of being bitten and
no symptoms of poisoning have set in, then 20 or 25 c.c. anti-

I'lG. 157. — Injecting scrum under the skin of the thigh. .Always thrust the needle point up
towards the body. Do not inject into a ligatured limb below the ligature.

venene may be injected. But if, after an interval, dangerous
symptoms appear, then inject a second dose, and even a third
or fourth. It can do no harm, and will probably make all the
difference and save the life of the patient. At such critical times
it is extremely false economy to withhold an extra dose or two
of serum. Always bear in mind that the more you inject, the
better the chance of a complete recovery.

If serious symptoms of poisoning have set in, the serum should
be strained carefully and injected direct into a vein so that it
may be carried as rapidly as possible throughout the circulation.

METHODS OF INJECTION.

411

When symptoms of poisoning have begun to appear, it means
that the poison has started its deadly work of benumbing
the nerve cells, or destroying the blood, or both ; therefore it is
imperative that there should be as little delay as possible in
bringing the serum into actual contact with it. Anti-venene
serum, if injected direct into the blood-stream, is considerably
stronger in its power of neutralizing the venom than if injected
under the skin. This must be carefully borne in mind.

To medical men and others, experienced in the use of a serum
syringe, I would recommend that in all serious cases the serum be

Fig. 15S. — Injecting serum into a vein in the forearm. Select
one of the surface veins at the back of the hand, arm or
leg. Push the needle point into the vein along its course,
and slowly inject. .-Mways inject the serum upwards in
the direction of the heart.

injected direct into a vein. The vein in the forearm near the
elbow is a suitable one. Before selecting a vein for injection,
apply a temporary ligature to make the veins bulge. Grip the
vein between the finger and thumb to steady it, and carefully
thrust in the point of the needle. Always inject in the way the
blood runs, viz. towards the heart. Should a swelling occur
when injecting the serum, it indicates it is escaping into the
tissues. Remove the needle and try again. Another plan is
to use an empty springe, and when the needle is inserted, draw
out a little blood into the syringe to make certain the vein has

412 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

been punctured, remove the ligature, fill the syringe and inject
the serum.

Inject the serum slowly but forcibly. Here I would
warn the operator to see that no air-bubbles or particles of solid
sediment are injected into the blood, as they might cause serious
mischief, and even death. It is safest to strain the serum if it
is to be injected direct into a vein. Draining it through butter
muslin will do. Remember the syringe should be completely
filled with serum so as to allow no space for air. Do not inject
the whole of it. Leave a little in the syringe. This will prevent
any chance of air-bubbles being injected. It is well to put a
piece of butter muslin in the box with the serum so as to be
ready for use.*

In drawing up the serum into the syringe, pull the piston rod
slowly. Do not jerk it up rapidty, because air is likely to get in.
Sometimes the knob of the piston rod does not fit the barrel
sufficiently tightly to cause a full charge to be sucked up. But
it usually gets tight enough when a little serum is taken up, as
the fluid causes it to expand. The syringe which I have designed
for the purpose is made in such a way that it cannot possibly go
wrong. Ordinary syringes cannot be relied on.

Of course, the syringe and needle must be scrupulously clean.

Sometimes a kind of nettle rash appears where the senim has
been injected, but this need cause no alarm. It will disappear
in a day or two.

If the serum be injected direct into a vein in sufficient quantity

before any symptoms of poisoning have set in, it will neutralize

the poison and no poisonous symptoms will appear. If very

alarming symptoms of poisoning have set in, such as extensive

swelling, subcutaneous haemorrhage, nausea, clammy skin, or

coma before the injection of serum, then it is advisable to use a

double dose. In a case which came under my observation where

the man was in a state of insensibility and sinking fast, 50 c.c. of

serum were required to save his life. 100 c.c. is the largest dosage

I have known to be given. Provided sufficient serum has been

injected, and if the patient's nervous system is not paralysed,

or his blood damaged beyond recovery, then he should begin

slowly to mend. From hour to hour he will improve, until

* Hold the syringe with needle upwards. Then by gently pushing the
piston until the liquid oozes out, any air there may be in the barrel will be
driven out.

EXPERIMENTS WITH ANTI-VENENE SERUM. 413

complete recovery takes place. If there be extensive swelling
it will slowly disappear. It will in no case subside all at once.

The effect of the anti-venene, when injected in sufficient
quantity, is to stop the development of any further symptoms of
poisoning. Therefore it is apparent that if the patient is not
already too far gone to make recovery possible, he should quite
recover. Recoveries which occur without serum treatment fre-
quently leave more or less distressing after-effects.

Treatment of Animals.

The treatment of snake bite in animals is the same as that in
the human subject. It has, of course, to be modified according
to circumstances, and the kind of animal treated. Do not
attempt to force the syringe-needle through the thick parts of
the hide. Select the soft parts on the inner portions of the
thighs and forelegs for injection. The dosage is the same as
that for the human subject. A child or small animal needs as
large and often larger dose than an adult.

Animals, when injected with ten fatal doses of venom, will
not develop serious symptoms of poisoning if the serum treat-
ment be given directly afterwards. If injected in sufficient
quantity into a vein after unmistakable signs of poisoning
have set in, the serum checks the symptoms and saves the
creature's life.

As a general rule, snakes are not seen to inflict a bite on
animals, unless it be a dog. Invariably in the case of cattle,
sheep, goats or ostriches, the attention is first drawn to the
swelling and hajmorrhage, or a more or less paralysed con-
dition of the creature. If the bite be that of a Puff Adder
there will be swelling arising from the site of the entry of the
venom. If a Cobra, there will be little or no swelling. In both
cases the victim will stagger or lie upon the ground in more
or less an exhausted condition ; therefore in nearly, if not in all
such cases, it is best to inject a dose of serum. Since the publica-
tion of the second edition of this book I have received letters
from scores of farmers and others, reporting of men and stock
animals being cured by the timely injection of serum.

Experiments with Anti-Venene Serum,
Mr. T. Norsworthy, the station master at Thornygrove,

414 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Somerset East, who is an enthusiastic advocate of scientific
methods for the treatment of snake bite, determined personally to
test the anti-venene serum which is now specially prepared for
the treatment of snake bite.

Procuring a kid (goat) five months old, he allowed a large
Puff Adder, which had been freshly caught, to bite it upon the
thigh. The snake gripped hard and hung on, worrying the flesh
for one minute. It was then removed, and a bottle of anti-
venene containing 25 c.c, which is almost an ounce in bulk, was
injected under the skin of the bitten animal. It died in an hour.
In this case the snake bit fully, and was permitted to retain its
hold for the space of a minute. Being a fresh snake, something
like ten or fifteen drops of venom must have been injected. Three
drops of the venom were sufficient to kiU the kid within a few
hours. One dose of anti-venene serum was not sufficient to
neutralize enough of the venom in this instance to avert a fatal
issue.

I explained this to Mr. Norsworthy, and he decided to try a
more satisfactory test.

Taking a tough old goat, an adult male Puff Adder which had
been in captivity a few weeks, was induced to bite it. It struck
the goat on the hind leg just above the hoof and instantly with-
drew. It struck again near the same spot. Both bites were
of the nature of pecks. The snake did not grip or retain its hold
for more than an instant.

About an hour later the limb began to swell from the site
of the punctures. The swelling gradually extended upwards and
along the abdomen. The leg swelled to three times its normal size.

The goat was bitten at 11 a.m. and was kept in a warm shed.
At 7.30 p.m. haemorrhage began near the site of the bites and
up the limb. At 7 a.m. the following morning, the swelling
had extended all along the abdomen and between the forelegs,
and the haemorrhage had spread nearly all over the body, the
swollen skin being now purplish-black owing to the extensive
haemorrhage through the walls of the capillary blood-vessels.
The goat remained in this condition until it died twenty-six
hours twenty-five minutes after being bitten. It fell down
on the ground one and a half hours before death and did not
rise again. Yet it ate food at intervals until shortly before
it died.

OTHER EXPERIMENTS. 415

Bitten and injected with Anti-Venene.

Mr. Norsworthy caught an adult female Puff Adder, which
was forced to bite the hind legs of an old goat at 11 a.m. Four
full bites were given. The snake was allowed to retain its hold
and firmly grip and worry the bitten parts.

Two bottles of anti-venene serum were then injected in
several places under the skin of the inner parts of the legs and
between the shoulders. Each bottle of serum contained nearly
an ounce, viz. 25 c.c. Shortly after being bitten, the leg swelled
slightly. After six hours the leg swelled somewhat more and
the sites of the bites looked inflamed. The goat seemed in its
usual health and continued so. After eight or nine hours, the
swelling began to subside. There was no sign of haemorrhage
under the skin. The goat made a complete recovery. Mr.
Norsworthy informs me that several prominent farmers witnessed
these experiments, and all agreed that the bites inflicted were
full and complete ones. In fact, Mr. Norsworthy complained
that they were too exacting.

A freshly caught adult Puff Adder is capable of injecting at
least ten drops of venom at a single bite. When a snake is in a
state of extreme anger, as was the case with the one which bit
the goat, the glands manufacture venom at an exceedingly
rapid rate, therefore it is fairly safe to assume that the snake
injected ten to fifteen drops of venom into the goat, four of
which were sufficient to kill it.

Mr. E. Burls, a well-known farmer who witnessed the experi-
ment and who is the owner of the goat, writes to Mr. Norsworthy
as follows : — " The goat has quite recovered. I defy any one to
detect anything wrong with her. You can safely tell FitzSimons
that the serum cured her. She had a rough time of it, but that
was, I believe, owing to her having four bites, and the broken
teeth at the fourth bite were not taken out."

Other Experiments.

I have made numbers of experiments with anti-venomous
serum. This serum is polyvalent, and is made by immunizing
horses and mules to the mixed venom of African snakes. It is
equally strong in its action against the venoms of the Cobra and
Adder groups of snakes.

I found that if a Puff Adder was allowed to deliver one full

4i6 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

bite on the leg of a full-grown Chacma baboon or a large dog,
and if 25 c.c. of anti-venene was immediately afterwards injected
under the skin, the animals recovered, although a certain degree
of haemorrhage and swelling occurred. The animals were some-
times in a state of nerve depression for a couple or three days.
If five drops of Puff Adder venom were injected with a syringe
under the skin, and a dose of 25 c.c. of anti-venene was
injected in a similar manner before poisonous symptoms had set
in, the animals recovered in all instances, although in some cases
they showed symptoms of poisoning such as haemorrhage,
swelling, and nerve depression. The hair in some instances came
off for several inches around the site of the injection of the venom,
and the skin was shed, along with dried blood and dead tissue.

When 20 c.c. of anti-venene were injected direct into
a vein immediately after the injection of the venom into the
tissues, the only parts affected were the vicinity of the punctures.
One of the animals was killed after it had apparently made a
complete recovery, and it was found that there was rather
extensive haemorrhage about the site of the entry of the venom
and along the leg for a short distance. By the appearance of the
tissues, it was evident the dead blood was being absorbed, and
the injured tissues were beginning to assume their normal
appearance.

When 25 c.c. of serum (nearly one oz.) were injected direct into
a vein after symptoms of poisoning had set in, the animals in all
instances recovered, although they seemed to have rather a bad
time. But after pronounced signs of poisoning appeared, I
found that, although the injection of 25 c.c. in several places
under the skin delayed deatli, it did not in every instance
avert a fatal issue.

From these experiments, therefore, I was convinced that
unless two doses, each of 20 or 25 c.c, were injected sub-
cutaneously death would sometimes occur in the human subject
if very serious symptoms of poisoning had already set in.

The small animals usually died if a Puff Adder delivered a
full bite, or if six or eight drops of the venom were injected into
the muscles with a syringe followed by an injection of 10 c.c.
of anti-venene under the skin. In these cases, 10 c.c. of the
anti-venene was evidently not sufficient to overtake and neutralize
enough of the venom in time to save the lives of the creatures.

EXPERIMENTS ON FOWLS. 417

Experiments with anti-venene on animals bitten by Cobras,
or injected with their venom, were less satisfactory, the reason
being that the venoms of these snakes act so rapidly on the
nerve-centres of the smaller animals, destroying life before the
serum could combine with and destroy the poison. If four drops
of Cobra or Mamba venom were mixed with 20 c.c. of the anti-
venene and injected into the leg of a dog, or an average-sized
monkey, it did not avert a fatal issue. If a Cobra or Mamba
(green variety) delivered one full bite and was allowed to retain
its hold for a few seconds, the injection under the skin of two
doses, viz. 40 c.c. of anti-venene, did not always prevent death.

From the results of these and many other experiments, I
would strongly advise that 30 to 50 c.c. (cubic centimetres) of
anti-venene be injected in these cases into the human subject.
In fact, in the treatment of very serious cases of Cobra, Ring-
hals, and Mamba bite, as much as 100 c.c. (roughly 3I ounces)
may be injected. In the great majority of cases I have no
doubt that 40 c.c. or even 20 c.c. would save the hfe of the
bitten person, as it is not often that a snake is able to dehver
a full bite and inject a maximum amount of venom. However,
it may do so, and it is as well for everybody to know that
40 c.c. of anti-venene may possibly not suffice to effect a cure.

Experiments on Fowls.

As already mentioned, the anti-venene which was especially
strong in its power of neutrahzing Puff Adder venom, was again
experimented with on fowls. I made a freshly caught adult
Puff Adder bite through a piece of sheet rubber stretched over
the mouth of a wineglass, and thus obtained exactly six drops
of venom, absolutely pure. I mixed this with 20 c.c. of anti-
venene which had just been received from the laboratory and
was in the freshest possible condition, being perfectly transparent.
The mixture was thoroughly stirred up and allowed to stand
for one hour. It was again stirred up and divided into two
equal parts. One part was injected into the muscles of a full-
grown healthy fowl, namely, in both thighs and under one wing.
The other half was injected in a similar manner into another fowl.

This was done at 11 a.m. Five hours later, one fowl began
to sicken, and its injected wing hung rather loosely. The other
fowl seemed quite sound. The follo\ving morning both fowls

2 E

4i8 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA

seemed sick and weak. I examined them and found that the
injected thighs and wings were swollen to nearly twice their
normal size, and considerable haemorrhage in those parts had
taken place.

For three days the fowls remained in about the same con-
dition, when one recovered its normal cheerfulness and seemed
well. I examined it and found that the swellings had sub-
sided, and the \dcinity of the injections were not so purphsh as
before. . Three days later the parts were greenish-yellow in
appearance, indicating that the dead blood under the skin and
in the muscles was being rapidly re-absorbed.

The other fowl did not fare so well. Evidently it had re-
ceived a shghtly larger dose of venom than the other fowl, or
else it was more susceptible to the poison. Both its limbs
became paralysed, o\\ing mainly to extensive hsemorrhage under
the skin of the thighs.

On the sixth day after the injection, it began to recover
the use of its legs. I then killed it and made a careful
examination. I found that the skin on both thighs was dead
and came away when I pulled it, revealing a mass of coffee-
coloured matter, practically dry, underneath. This was the
residue of the blood which had oozed out of the blood-vessels.
The flesh under this, for nearly a quarter of an inch deep, was
dark brown, and in a jelly-like condition. Beneath this layer
the flesh was perfectly sound. The healing processes were well
proceeding, and the fowl would have, no doubt, made a complete
recovery. On examination, the flesh of the breast was stained
with blood in small patches, o^ving to shght haemorrhage through
the capillary blood-vessels of those parts.

The anti-venomous serum which is now prepared is of higher
efficiency m destroying snake venom, and 20 c.c. are sufficient in
the majority of cases of snake bite if treatment has not been
unduly delayed. If very serious symptoms have already set in
40 c.c. ought to be injected in different parts of the body imder
the skin.

Anti-Venomous Serum and its Preparation.

The preparation of anti-venomous serum is slow, tedious,
and expensive, and the revenue received for serum disposed of
seldom covers the cost of its production.

ANTI- VENOMOUS SERUM AND ITS PREPARATION. 419

Fig. 159. — When a charge of anti-venomous serum is taken up mto the barrel of a
syringe previous to injecting the content under the skin or direct into a vein, air
is often drawn up also. To oxpel the air, hold the syringe with the point upwards
and gently press the piston till the serum begins to ooze from the point of the
needle

420

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Horses, and sometimes donkeys and mules, are used for the
purpose. The normal fatal dose of snake venom for a horse is
carefully ascertained, and the immunizing operations are begun

Fig. i6o. — i. A dissection sliowinj^ the remarkable venom ^;laIKIs oi the Night or Demon
Adder {Causus rhombcalus). These are 3J inclies long.
2. When dissecting this Night .Adder, only one venom gland was found. There
was no trace whatever of another, although both fangs were intact. The
specimen was an exceptionally large one. The dissection shows the single
gland and the space where the other should have been.

by injecting the animal with considerably less than a fatal dose.
The dosage of venom is gradually increased until the animal is
able to withstand eighty to one hundred ordinary fatal doses at

ANTI-VENOMOUS SERUM AND ITS PREPARATION. 421

a single injection without showing any signs of poisoning. When
this high degree of tolerance has been reached, which takes about
one and a half years to accomplish, the animal is considered to
be sufficiently immune for the preparation of anti-venomous
serum for the treatment of snake venom poisoning. The follow-
ing is the process of extraction of blood and preparation of the
anti-venomous serum employed at the Lille Institute, and ex-
plained by Dr. Calmette in his classical work on " Venoms."

"The bleeding is arranged in the following manner: Twelve
days after the last injection of venom the horse is bled for the
first time to the extent of eight litres (roughly seven quarts) ;
five days later it is bled for the second time to the extent of six
litres (about five quarts) ; five days later still the third bleeding
takes place when six litres are again withdrawn.

"The animal is then allowed to rest for six months and supplied
with strengthening food, and during this period two grammes of
venom are again injected on two occasions at the end of a
month, followed a month and a half later by the injection of
two more grammes. The anti-toxic power of the scrum is thus
maintained approximately at the same standard.

' ' The serum drawn off at each bleeding must be severely
tested, which is done by gauging its anti-toxic power in vitro
when mixed with venom, and also its preventive effect.

" An anti- venomous serum maybe considered to be utilizable
when a mixture of i c.c. of serum with o'ooi gramme of Cobra
venom produces no intoxicating effect in the rabbit, and when
a preventive subcutaneous injection of 2 c.c. of serum into a
rabbit of about two kilogrammes enables it to resist, two hours
later, subcutaneous inoculation with one milUgramme of venom.
The preventive power may be quickly tested by injecting a
rabbit in the marginal vein of the right ear, for example, with
2 c.c. of serum, and injecting five minutes afterwards in the
marginal vein of the left ear, eight milligrammes of venom. A
dose of one milligramme generall}- kills the control rabbits in
less than thirty minutes when introduced into the veins, and in
from two to three hours when injected beneath the skin."

There is no rapid way of rendering animals or man immune
to snake venom. In all snake-infested countries the natives
and colonists have implicit faith in various substances, mostly
of a vegetable nature, all the best known of wliich in South

422 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Africa proved useless when I carefully tested them, some indeed
were actually poisonous. Many a human life has been lost
through the poisonous effects of alleged snake-bite antidotes.

Usually a man who has recovered after, being bitten once or
twice by a venomous snake, imagines himself to be immune to
the poisons of snakes, but he is not so. Should he have been
seriously poisoned, his body will certainly be more resistant to
venom than a man who has never been bitten, but it must be
borne in mind that a snake is capable of injecting many times
a fatal dose of venom. Should a man have rendered himself
immune to, say, one ordinary fatal dose of snake poison, and a
snake injects two ordinary fatal doses into him, he will recover
for the reason that his blood serum is capable of at once
neutralizing half of the poison, and the resistance set up by the
natural defensive forces of the body will destroy about one-half
of the remainder, and so prevent a fatal issue. However, if two
and a half ordinary fatal doses of venom have been injected, his
body will not succeed in overpowering sufficient of the poison to
render recovery possible.

Again, should a man have recovered after being three or
four times bitten by one of the Adder family of snakes, he will
only be slightly resistant to Cobra venom, for the reason that
the latter is a neurotoxin or nerve poison, while the former is
mainly a hcBmorrhagin or blood poison, and the small amount of
nerve poison it contains would not have been sufficient to have
rendered the man's body strongly resistant to Cobra venom.
On the other hand, should he have recovered even many times
from bites by Cobras, or from artificial injections of their venom,
he will be in no way immune to the blood-poisoning and
haemorrhage induced by the venoms of Adders, although he
would eventually recover unless he had received an unusually
large dose of poison, which, of course, would cause haemorrhage
under the skin and into various organs of too serious a nature
for the defences of the body to overcome.

It must be remembered, however, that the neurotoxin or
nerve poison in snake venom is the portion which is the most
virulent, and if this element is neutralized in Adder venom, there
is far less likelihood of the victim dying.

By injecting increasingly large doses of venom extending
over a long period, the body is able slowly to brmg about a

ANTI-VENOMOUS SERUM AND ITS PREPARATION. 423

change in the nature of the blood serum, making it capable of
entirely destroying the poisonous properties of snake venom.

Taking advantage of this fact we immunize animals to snake
venom to a very high degree, and use their serum for injection
into other animals and men bitten by venomous snakes, and
thus men and animals may be saved which would otherwise
have certainly died.

When immunizmg animals it is distinctly dangerous to
attempt to hasten the process, for the animals usually die if
injected at too frequent intervals. The greatest care must be
taken to see that only absolutely pure venom is used, otherwise
septicaemia is likely to supervene and cause the death of the
animal. The venom from a dead snake should not be used
unless the reptile has been freshly killed, as I have found that
the venom in the glands begins to decompose immediately the
dead snake gets stale ; and if used for experiments the results
are contradictory, for the reason that the animals experimented
on sometimes die of septicaemia, and not by the snake venom
injected. Those who use snake venom for experimental purposes,
or for immunizing animals, or in the treatment of disease in the
human subject, should be careful to obtain their venom from
living snakes by making them bite into a glass through anti-
septic cloth, as outlined and illustrated elsewhere in this book.

The horses used for the purpose are fed on the very best of
foods ; are kept in well-littered, warm stables, and do no manner
of work, which is aU the return we can make to them for the
blood which they periodically part with for the saving of human
lives and the lives of domestic animals.

Some anti-vivisectionists, I am aware, condemn this practice
of immunizing horses for the purpose of preparing an anti-
venomous serum ; but should a dearly beloved wife, husband,
or child of one of them be bitten by a venomous snake, I do
not for one moment doubt but that his or her conscientious
scruples would instantly vanish. If such a case should arise
and anti-venomous serum was deliberately withheld, then I
should unhesitatingly denounce the anti-vivisectionist as a
murderer if the bitten person died. The anti-vivisectionist
movement is a good and useful one, for it acts as a check on
the tendency to inflict torture on animals in the name of science
when no purpose calculated to be of lasting benefit to human

424 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

and sub-human life is likel}^ to ensue. The ravages of plagues,
which in the past have prematurely swept off millions of human
beings and animals, have been checked and ultimately conquered
by the efforts of scientists who, however, were obliged, as a
general rule, to experiment on animals to discover the life
history of the microbes, nature of the disease, and the physio-
logical action of various substances when an antidote was being
sought.

Polyvalent and Special Anti-venomous Serum.

Anti-venomous serum is made polyvalent as a general rule,
viz. capable of neutralizing the venoms of the Cobra and Viper
families of snakes. This necessitates the injection of horses with
the venoms of both Cobras and Vipers. The venom of the
Cobra is an intensely virulent poison known as neurotoxin. On
the contrary, the venom of the Adders acts on the blood and
blood vessels, causing bleeding under the skin, mto the muscles,
vital organs, and from the mucous membranes. It is, in con-
sequence, technically called hcemorrhagin.

Although neurotoxin is predominant in Cobra venoms, and
haemorrhagin in Adder venoms, yet all snake poisons contain
what is known as a fibrin ferment, which causes clotting of the
blood under certain circumstances. This is present in Cobra
venoms, but is much stronger in the venoms of Adders. When
snake venom is injected direct into a vein, this fibrin ferment
causes the blood to clot, and in these instances even anti-
venomous serum is powerless, and death rapidly ensues — some-
times within five minutes of the infliction of the bite. Fortu-
nately, however, a vein is seldom punctured by the fang of a
snake when it strikes. Special serums are also prepared, one
for use in the treatment of bites by all species of Cobras and the
deadly Mamha, and another for the treatment of the bites of all
species of Adders. It is possible to raise the immunity of a
horse to a very high degree by injecting with only one form or
kind of snake poison, either a neurotoxin or a haemorrhagin
separately. Hence the desirability of having these special
serums available. If the symptoms of Cobra and Adder venom
poisoning are carefully studied, it is easy, as a general rule, to
diagnose whether the bite is from one of the Cobra sub-family
of snakes, or one of the Adder group.

SPECIAL ANTI-VENOMOUS SERUM. 425

The key to the symptoms of Cobra venom poisoning are :
Contraction or shrinkage of the pupils of the eyes ; slight puffi-
ness or swelling at and around the seat of the bite, but not
elsewhere ; no signs of bleeding under the skin except perhaps
a trifle at the fang punctures.

Adder venom poisoning : Pronounced dilatation of pupils of
the eyes ; swelling, starting from the seat of the bite and slowly
but surely extending. If the bite, for instance, is on the ankle,
the foot will swell, and the swelling will extend up the leg, being
more or less pronounced in accordance with the quantity of
venom injected ; bleeding under the skin in patches more or
less extensive — these patches soon become dark purple; slight
oozing of blood from the membranes of the mouth. When no
doubt exists in the diagnosis, and if the special serum for the
treatment be available, it is preferable to use it instead of the
polyvalent serum, owing to its greater anti-toxic strength against
the venom for which it is specially prepared.

Mr. T. Maskew Miller, Cape Town, who is the publisher of
this book, has a limited supply of polyvalent anti-venomous
serum ; serum for the special treatment of bites by Mambas and
Cobras ; and another special serum for the bites of any species
of Adder. Provided with these three kinds of serum a man is
practically safe from death by snake venom poisoning, and he
has in his possession an antidote which may at any time save
valuable domestic animals. Owing to no antiseptic now being
used in these serums, it is necessary to renew them about once
in two years. The serum does not always become unfit for use
within this period, but it is the best all-round plan to obtain a
fresh stock at these intervals. The reason it is undesirable to
put an antiseptic into the serum of sufficient strength to keep it
good indefinitely, is that it would tend to make it poisonous, and
thus would not permit of it being injected in large doses, which is
often essential in order to save the life in a bad case of snake bite.

Those who prepare anti-venomous serum should always keep
in mind that it is the neurotoxin or nerve poison which is the
chief cause of death, and not the haemorrhagin, although, of
course, if a large dose of the latter is injected it will cause bleed-
ing under the skin and into the substance and cavities of the
vital organs, as well as serious lesions, and cause death.

However, if we succeed in destroying the neurotoxin of which

426 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Cobra venom is almost entirely composed, and which Adder
venoms have a small percentage of, there is comparatively little
danger of a fatal issue to a healthy man, or large animal such
as a horse or ox. Therefore polyvalent serums should always be
of as high neutralizing power against the neurotoxin as possible.

Cobra venom is more difficult to procure in South Africa
than Adder venom, and should the operator fall short of it, he
can easily procure enough neurotoxin by heating Adder venom
to 75° C. when the haemorrhagin is destroyed, leaviiig the nerve
poison portion unchanged.

The serum, otherwise known as plasma, is the liquid portion
of the blood, and is transparent and almost colourless, changing
to straw yellow on exposure to light. Slightly more than one-
half of the blood is serum, the rest is made up of corpuscles.
To obtain the serum the blood is allowed to stand in a pail till
it has clotted firmly. It is then a firm red mass composed of
fibrin and corpuscles, the serum or liquid portions having been
squeezed out.

Instructions in Brief for the Use of Anti-venomous

Serum.

(i) Anti-venene * is the serum of horses highly immunized
with Cobra and Viper venoms {Colubrme and Viperine).

Its curative properties have been tested on animals against
these venoms and found to be highly effective.

{2) In case of either Cobra or Viper bite when the patient is
at hand and before symptoms have set in, 20 to 30 c.c. of
anti-venene should be injected under the skin into any part
of the body where the skin is loose, such as in the region of
the flanks. For preference inject into the loose tissues or
folds of the abdomen at the sides between the last rib and
pelvis. Cliildrcn require as large a dose as adults — often larger.

(3) In a case when a patient is not seen until symptoms
of poisoning have set in, the same amount of serum may be
given by injection direct into a vein. But when the snake is
large and the bite is a full one with both fangs, an extra dose
is desirable if given under the skin or into the muscles.

(4) If serum lias been injected under the skin, and if the

* Anti-venene is another name for anti-venomous serum.

SUMMARY. 427

patient seems to be developing alarming symptoms, it indicates
that an unusually large dose of venom has been injected.

(5) For intravenous injection, a vein of the forearm should
be selected for preference. The vein sliould be made prominent
by pressure above. The syringe and needle should be held
almost parallel to the vein, keeping the oblique opening at the
point of the needle upwards. The operator steadies the vein with
his left hand and introduces the needle. When the needle is kept
parallel to the vein mth the slant at the point upwards, steady
pressure carries it into the vein without difficulty, and avoids
puncturing both walls of the blood-vessel. As soon as the needle
is in the vein, remove the pressure above, and slowly inject the
serum. A local subcutaneous sweUing appearing during the
operation of injection shows that the needle is not in the vein,
and a fresh attempt should be made to introduce it.

(6) If there are any albuminous deposits or flocculi in the
bottle, the serum should be filtered through the corner of a clean
linen pocket-handkerchief or a piece of clean rag into a wine-
glass or other convenient receptacle, previous to using it. This
is not essential if injecting under the skin.

If boiling water be at hand, dip the cloth into it and wash
out the vessel before straining. A one per cent, solution of per-
manganate of potash or boracic acid would do instead of boiling
water, for sterilizing the cloth and vessel.

(7) The serum syringe should be perfectly clean. The best
plan is to boil it in water to which some borax has been added.
Then oil and put it away in its case, ready for use. Examine it
occasionally to see that the needle is not getting rusty.

If any antiseptic such as strong alcohol or permanganate
in solution be at hand, wash the site of the proposed injection
with it. If no antiseptic is to be had, then rub the spot clean.

(8) An albuminous precipitate in the bottle does not indicate
contamination, and would be quite harmless if given subcu-
taneously.

For obvious reasons, it would not be safe to inject a preci-
pitate of any kind direct into a vein, hence the necessity for
filtering the serum through a clean cloth or muslin before in-
jection into a vein.

(9) Be sure that your syringe is in good working order, so
that it will take up a charge of serum without any difficulty.

428 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

(lo) The seram contains no toxic or poisonous substances
of any kind.

(ii) It does no harm if injected, and it is subsequently dis-
covered that the snake which inflicted the bite was a harmless one.

(12) The bottles of serum should be kept in the dark, and in
the coolest place in the house. Heat and light are the two chief
causes in bringing about a deterioration in the strength of the
antitoxic properties of the serum.

(13) When kept in a dark and cool place, the serum loses very
little of its antitoxic properties in a year — probably not more
than 5 per cent., even if as much. An increase of dose would
make up for this loss.

(14) Sometimes a kind of nettle-rash appears on the skin
after the subcutaneous injection of serum. This will disappear
in a day or two, and need cause no alarm.*

(15) Serum injected in excess does no harm. Sometimes
what is known as serum sickness (anaphylaxis) supervenes,
if the patient has been injected with serum at some previous
time.

(16) If nervous about injecting serum direct into a vein, then
inject copiously under the skin in bad cases. Use even as much
as 50 cubic centimetres (nearly 2 oz.) if necessary.

(17) It is advisable to renew Hquid serum every two years.

Secondary Treatment for Snake Bite, effective in
ALL Serious Cases.

We will suppose the punctures have been thoroughly scari-
fied, permanganate of potash rubbed in, a ligature applied,
and the patient is now at home, and has been injected with
anti-venomous serum and the ligature removed. He must be
stripped and put into bed at once, and kept warm. Apply
hot-water bags to his feet, stomach, and abdomen. If none
are available, fill stone jars, bottles, or anything handy
which will hold hot water. Wrap these separately in flannel,
or some other kind of cloth, to prevent them burning the

* If an abscess forms at the seat of injection, it indicates the syringe
was not in an aseptic condition, or the skin at the point of entry of tlie
needle was dirty.

SECONDARY TREATMENT 429

patient, and place them at his feet, sides of the body, and
back of the neck. If no water-bottles are available, boil a
quantity of water and get flannel cloths ; failing these, big
towels wall do. Seize the ends and twist them up. Then dip
the middle part in the boiling water, wring thoroughly and wrap
the patient's feet in one of these hot cloths ; put another over
his abdomen and one at the back of his neck. These should be
renewed after ten minutes or so. Be careful not to burn the
patient's skin. To avoid this, spread a thin cloth over the parts
previous to the application of the hot fomentation. If the
patient seems to be sinking, apply hot and cold fomentations
alternately. Keep each on for five minutes, and persevere for
half an hour or more, as this treatment tends strongly to rouse
the patient's nerve centres. These fomentations should be
applied over the lower portion of the abdomen, the stomach,
the back of the head, and the feet. At aU of these centres the
nervous system can be effectually acted upon. Cover up your
patient immediately you apply the fomentations.

In the early stages of snake venom poisoning, in addition to,
or in the absence of any drug or serum treatment, the patient
should be made to vomit any food there may be in his stomach.
This can be accomplished by giving him a teaspoonful of mustard,
or salt, stirred in a pint of warm water. If there is no mustard
or salt, or any means of heating water, then make him drink a
lot of water and thrust his finger down his throat, so as to irritate
the entrance to the gullet. This will induce vomiting. The
mustard and warm water is the best, for it strongly irritates the
lining membrane of the stomach, causing it to pour out a watery
mucous, in wliich there may be some of the venom, which is
harmless when inside the stomach. Then a quick-acting pur-
gative should be given, such as castor oil. This flushes out the
bowels, and also causes a watery discharge through the walls
of the intestines, which will also tend to drain off some of the
venom in the blood. Then every effort should be made to induce
perspiration. The patient can be soaked in a bath of hot water,
adding still hotter water, as he is able to bear it. The water
should be as hot as he can endure. In ten or fifteen minutes
take him out, and instantly cover him with blankets.

430 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA

Stimulants.

In cases of Cobra and Mamba bite, teaspoonful doses of hot
brandy and water will do no harm.* The aim should be to pre-
vent the poison from benumbing the nerve centres beyond the
possibility of recovery. In all cases of Adder and Boomslang
venom poisoning alcohol is distinctly harmful. Nux vomica,
which is a preparation of strychnine, administered internally
in medicinal doses will tend temporarily to rouse the nervous
system. So, too, will the injection of strychnine. This, however,
is dangerous unless the operator knows the exact dosage. Tab-
loids containing the proper dose for injection may be obtained
from any chemist. It has, however, no antidotal power.

The best nerve stimulant at these times is a fresh, hot infusion
of tea. Make it very strong, but do not allow it to infuse more
than two to three minutes. Tea contains a powerful alkaloid
drug, known as Theine, which powerfully stimulates the nerve
centres. If the tea is brewed for live minutes or longer, the
infusion certainly gets strong, but it is then impregnated with
tannic acid, which is highly injurious. Give the tea to the patient
in small sips, so as not to upset or overburden his stomach, which
at this time is apt to reject anything swallowed. Give the hot
tea off and on at intervals, so as to keep up the stimulation.
Strong coffee may be used in place of tea.

Never dose the patient with large doses of alcohol or ammonia,
and do not on any account rub pipe oil (nicotine) into the wounds
made over the site of the bite, or allow it to be swallowed.

If you keep the patient warm and apply the hot bottles or
fomentations, and give small repeated doses of very strong
freshly brewed tea, that is all that you can do to aid Nature.

If no serum has been injected, then carry out all the fore-
going secondary treatment, if possible, more energetically. If
the patient continues to shiver, and if the surface of his body
feels clammy and cold, it would do him good to soak his body in
a bath of hot water now and then for five minutes at a time.
After such a bath he must instantly be put back in bed and
covered up.

When the patient shows signs of reviving, and seems on the

* Alcohol should not be given when senim has been, or is going to be,
injected, as it seriously hinders its venom-neutralizing properties.

ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION. 431

road to recovery, cease to administer stimulants, or give them
at longer intervals.

The scarified site of the bite must be regularly washed with
an antiseptic and carefully bandaged, after smothering it with
boracic acid. This must on no account be neglected. Do it
twice a day.

During convalescence from snake bite the diet should be
very light, such as hot milk taken in small sips, milk puddings,
artificial infants' food, rusks soaked in milk, soft ripe fruit, well-
cooked rice and milk, etc. Do not give meat or meat soups,
or any food containing added fat, or fried foods. The organs of
the body at this time must be handicapped as little as possible,
for if the venom be that of an Adder or Boomslang there will be
more or less extensive haemorrhage. This dead blood will require
to be reabsorbed and cast out of the body by the various organs,
else mortification and death will occur.

Many cases have been related to me of remarkable cures
having been effected by certain roots, herbs, tinctures, alcohol,
etc., but on close investigation it was evident the patient would
have recovered just as quickly if nothing had been adminis-
tered. When snake venom does not kill, recovery is usually
very rapid, and this is invariably attributed to something in the
way of an antidote given the patient. No known medicine
taken internally is a remedy for snake bite.

Paralysis of the Respiratory Nerve Centres.
What to do ij the breathing should suddenly stop.

The venom of the Elapinae or sub-family of snakes to which
the Cobra belongs acts powerfully upon the nerve-centres, and
tends to paralyse their action. Its principal effect is upon the
nerve-centres controlling the automatic movements of the lungs
and diaphragm. By paralysing these nerve-centres the lungs
collapse, breathing ceases, and the patient dies.

If you are nursing a person suffering from the bite of any
one of these snakes, and if you observe the breathing to grow
shallow and hurried, carefully watch him. Then, if the breathing
should cease altogether, you should instantly resort to artificial
respiration methods, and keep them up without a pause for
an hour at least, or until a medical man teUs you to desist.

432

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

The easiest and most efficient method to apply is as
follows : Place the patient straight out upon his chest and
abdomen on a fairly hard and flat surface, turn his head slightly
to one side, so that his mouth and nose may be free. Kneel
beside his legs, facing his head. Place the palms of your hands
flat upon the lower parts of his ribs, one hand on each side, and

Fig. i6i. — This is the best way to perform the artificial breathing operation which

is fully explained in the text.

press gently but firmly, not with a sudden jerk. Pause a second
or two, and then draw your hands back, raising the patient's
chest an inch or so with your fingers as you draw back (see Fig. 2
of picture). When you press the rib-region downwards, you are
driving the air out of the lungs. The moment you let go, the lungs
again expand, and air rushes in. Time your movements, so that
they may be as near as possible to the ordinary breathing of a

ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION.

433

person. This artificial breathing metliod should be instantly em-
ployed in all cases of accident, such as drowning, suffocation by
gases, smoke, or a blow over the region of the stomach, which often
deprives the victim of the power of breathing, and who might

Fig. 162. — Another method of performing the artificial breathing operation. If the patient is lying
on his back as in this case, his tongue must be pulled forward and fastened, to prevent it
sagging back and blocking up the air passage to the lungs.

otherwise die of suffocation. This sometimes happens on the
football field. Of course, you must always use careful judgment.
The sooner artificial breathing is resorted to after normal breathing
ceases, the better chance there is of a recovery. The advantage

2 F

434 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

of the above method over others is that there is no necessity to
pull out and secure the tongue to prevent it blocking the entrance
to the windpipe. When the patient lies on his abdomen and
chest, and the head slightly turned aside, the tongue naturally
falls forward, and any froth, mucous, or water will run out of
the mouth or nose without in any way obstructing the air
passages.

The second method is as follows. It is, however, not so
practical and simple as the first.

Place the patient flat upon his back, put a pillow under his
shoulder-blades, let his head hang slightly back, pull his tongue
forward and fasten it, kneel over him, as shown in the illustration,
seize his elbows in your hands, and with a quick movement bring
his arms over his head, as far as they will go, so as to expand the
chest to the uttermost, pause an instant, then bring them forward
and press gently but strongly against his ribs to expel the air
in his lungs. Keep on doing this without pausing. The quicker
you start the process after natural breathing ceases the
better.

The instant the patient starts to breathe of his own accord,
cease your manipulations and massage his legs and body vigor-
ously. As soon as he is able to swallow, give a little very strong
freshly brewed tea, or a few sips of hot brandy and water. If
you should notice the breathing beginning to cease, or if it should
suddenly stop, then at once resume the artificial breathing
operations. These efforts should be kept up for an hour at
least, or until a medical man pronounces life to be extinct.

Hope of Recovery for the Apparently Dead.

The venoms of all species of Cobras exert a poisonous, para-
lysing influence upon the nerve centres, and nervous system
generally, differing more or less in their pathological effects
according to the species.

However, although the venoms of the different species of
Cobras vary more or less in their effects, yet they, one and all,
act as powerful nerve poisons. It has been urged by some
writers and lecturers that a dose of venom sufficient to kill a
healthy man will assuredly prove fatal if serum has not been

POSSIBLE RECOVERY. 435

injected until after coma has set in, for the reason that the venom
destroys the nerve centres beyond the possibihty of recovery. In
other words, the venom actually annihilates the life of the nerve
centres, by so altering the structure of their cells that it is quite
impossible for recovery to take place.

Others ridicule the idea of a man's life being saved after
breathing has ceased. Consequently they maintain that in
cases of snake bite it is useless to resort to artificial respira-
tion.

In animals injected with fatal doses of Cobra venom no
destruction of the nerve cells was observed if they died within
six hours. But in all cases where life was prolonged for twelve
hours or more, it was noticed that preparations of nerve-substance,
stained by Nissel's method, showed that the venom had acted upon
considerable numbers of nerve cells. In some instances the outer
coating of the cell had vanished ; in others the whole cell was
completely destroyed. This was particularly noticeable in the
spinal cord.

However, except in extreme cases due to an excessive dose
of Cobra venom, sufficient nerve cells are not destroyed to be the
actual cause of death.

Snake venom, like hypnotic drugs, benumbs the nerve centres
in the brain, medulla oblongata and spinal cord, more or less
in accordance with the nature of the poison and the quantity
introduced into the blood. Alcoholic liquor also causes exten-
sive destruction of nerve cells, but does not usually destroy
sufficient to be a direct cause of death.

Animals which have been paralysed by snake venom often
recover. I have kept such animals for many months, and in
no case have they showed any symptoms afterwards of damaged
nervous systems.

Human beings who recover from snake bite become healthy
and strong again. I have seen men lying insensible and appar-
ently too far gone to recover. Yet they rallied and made
complete recoveries. The case of Mr. James Williams, my
assistant, is an excellent illustration. He was bitten by a
Tree Snake or Boomslang {Dispholidus typus), and was as near
death as it was possible for a man, and yet he lived. He lay
for days almost insensible and completely paralysed from head
to foot.

436 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Now, if snake venom permanently destroys the nerve centres,
rendering them for ever incapable of resuming their functions,
how comes it that Williams made a complete recovery ? I
have kept him under observation for seven years, and have
failed to detect any harm having resulted to his nervous
system. His mental functions remain unimpaired. Physically,
he is as vigorous as he was prior to being bitten. For some
months there were some slight after-effects, such as giddiness,
but this can be attributed to the terrible benumbing influence
which the venom exerted upon his whole nervous organization,
and the mucous membranes of his body. It is a matter of surprise
to all that he made so rapid a recovery, for the condition he was
in for a week or two was most serious. To be realized fully it
had to be witnessed. He was not treated with serum.

When snake venom does not kill men, recovery invariably
takes place rapidly. I have observed the same rapid recovery
in animals. Those which I injected with a small amount of
venom appeared as though about to die. After a time they
rallied, and soon were as well as ever, excepting perhaps for
local swellings, or patches of blood which had oozed from the
small blood-vessels and accumulated under the skin. Rapid
recoveries, however, are not usual with men who habitually
use alcoholic liquor. In these cases I have observed more or
less serious after-effects supervene, such as the sloughing of
the flesh at and near the site of the bite, and even mortification
which necessitated amputation. This sloughing of the flesh at
the site of the bite sometimes occurs at intervals for two or
three years.

CuRARi AND Snake Venom.

Curari is a powerful poison of vegetable origin,* used by the
natives of the northern parts of South America for poisoning
the tips of their arrows. Curari acts upon the nerve centres in
very much the same manner as snake venom. Like the latter,
it is harmless if swallowed, providing, of course, there are no
abrasions of the mouth, or catarrhal conditions of the stomach.
When introduced into the blood through a scratch, puncture, or
wound, it causes paralysis of the nerves of the respiratory organs.

* Aqueous extract of a tree {Strychnos toxifera).

ELIMINATION OF THE POISON. 437

It is well known in medical science that, in cases of poisoning
by curari, if artificial respiration methods be resorted to after
the patient has ceased to breathe and lies apparently dead, he
can be restored. This clearly demonstrates that the poison
benumbs the nerve centres, but does not destroy them.

Now, if patients can be restored by artificial respiration
methods after being poisoned with curari when natural breathing
has ceased and they lie apparently dead, such recoveries may
also take place with those poisoned by snake venom, especially
so, knowing that the heart in Cobra venom poisoning continues
to beat for a long time after respiration has ceased.*

Elimination of the Poison.

So long as the patient is breathing, the vital functions are
active, and the venom is being slowly overcome and cast out of
the body in a variety of ways ; but the instant the breathing
ceases, the functions of the body are suspended, the blood becomes
charged with poisonous waste matters, and the patient soon
dies, unless artificial respiration is resorted to in order to supply
the blood with oxygen from the air.

If the victim of a Cobra bite sinks into unconsciousness, and
the breathing ceases, it indicates that the venom has completely
paralysed the nerve centres controlling the lungs.

Now, if we instantly resort to artificial respiration methods,
or if a cannula be inserted into the windpipe, and the lungs be
inflated and deflated regularly, then, if the patient be not actually
dead, the blood will begin to circulate, the vital functions will
show signs of recovery, and natural breathing may, sooner or
later, commence.

The object of artificial breathing in cases of snake bite is to
keep the body alive long enough for it to oxidize sufficient of the
venom to make recovery possible. As in cases of serious illness from
other causes, so with snake bite. A crisis comes on, and if the
patient can be kept alive while this terrible struggle between
life's forces and death is going on, by helping the resisting powers

* According to Dr. Calmette the heart sometimes continues to beat for
as long as two hours after respiration has ceased. The powerful stimula-
tion of the centres of the heart nerves may cause this in spite of the absence
of oxygen in the blood.

438 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

of the body, then it is possible for recovery to take place when
otherwise death would have ensued.

If considerably more venom is taken into the body than is
sufficient under normal conditions to kill, artificial respiration
would be useless, but no man can know just how much the snake
has injected, and therefore it is desirable to resort to artificial
respiration when the victim of snake bite has ceased to breathe,
particularly so if serum has been injected.

Experiments on Animals.

Experiments have been made on animals by injecting them
with snake venoms and resorting to artificial respiration im-
mediately breathing ceases. In this way life has been prolonged
many hours. In one notable case a dog w^as bitten by a Sea
Snake. Two hours later it ceased to breathe, apparently dying
in convulsions. Artificial respiration was resorted to. This was
kept up for some hours. A galvanic current was then applied,
but no muscular contractions were aroused, and the eyes con-
tinued to be glazed, dry, and insensible to the touch.

The animal seemed as dead as it was possible for it to be. No
sign of life remained. Any medical man would have pronounced
it so. The last spark of life seemed to have gone out. But
artificial respiration was kept up by relays of assistants.
After sixteen hours the dog showed signs of life. The galvanic
battery was again applied. This time the muscles contracted,
and caused various movements of the body. The bowels and
bladder acted. Another five hours showed still more advanced
signs of recovery in the dog. The eyes were no longer dry and
glazed. Tears were secreted, and suffused the eyes. Saliva
flowed. The eye-lids closed and opened when the now sensitive
cornea was touched, or when drops of water were poured into
the eyes. The dog made attempts to swallow when w^ater was
poured into its mouth. It eventually partially recovered its
senses, and moved its body and w-agged its tail. Twice the
animal relapsed, and artificial breathing was again resorted to.
However, after twenty-four and a half hours, when recovery
seemed certain, the dog began to sink. The heart slowed down,
and eventually ceased to beat. All subsequent attempts at
resuscitation failed.

EXPERIMENTS ON ANIMALS. 439

Although this dog was, to all intents and purposes, dead,
yet under artificial respiration methods it revived, and recovered
the use of its muscles, brain, and nervous system to a certain
degree. Yet although the dog did not eventually recover, the
experiment demonstrated clearly that an animal apparently
dead of snake venom could at least be temporarily revived.
The dose of venom was evidently too great in this case to
make recovery possible. In the case of curari the same thing
happens. If the dose is large, artificial respiration methods
fail to revive the victim.

The power of resistance to snake venom is much greater in
vigorous, healthy human beings than it is in most animals such
as dogs, monkeys, goats, sheep, rabbits. A full bite from an
adult Cobra will kill a large dog or monkey within an hour. In
my experiments some died in ten minutes. A healthy human
being would survive from two to six hours.

Dr. Vincent Richards succeeded in keeping a man bitten by
an Indian Cobra alive for thirty hours by means of artificial
respiration after normal breathing had ceased. If it is possible
to keep a man alive for thirty hours in this way, it is quite
possible to save his life, because if anti-venene has been in-
jected in sufficient quantity into a vein, it will neutralize the
poison if the victim can be kept alive long enough. If a sufiicient
dose of anti-venene has been injected into a man and he should
cease to breathe an hour or two later, it indicates that the remedy
has not had sufficient time to penetrate into the lymph, and
come into sufficiently close contact with the poisoned nerve
centres and endings to exert its venom-neutralizing properties.
Therefore if the patient can be kept alive for a few hours by
means of artificial respiration and so give the anti-venene time
to act fully upon the poison, there is no reason why he should
not make a complete recovery.

440

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Fig. iiij. -Injtctinj; strum uinkr the skin of the abdomen. I'ull up the loose skin and run
the needle point for half an inch obliquely under the skin and slowly inject the content
of the syringe. Inject each syrinfielul of serum in a difirent place. Withdraw the
needle with a quick movement, and rub a little coUodin, pure alcohol, iodine, or other
antiseptic over the puncture.

CHAPTER XIII.

Systematic List of South African Snakes for the Use
OF Museum Curators and Scientific Students.

Compiled by Dr. G. A. Boulenger. F.R.S., V.P.Z.S., of the

British Museum.

(Inserted by kind permission of the British Museum Authorities

and Dr. Boulenger.)

Part II.— OPHIDIA.

Synopsis of the Families represented in South Africa.

I. Worm-like, with the eyes under the more or less

transparent head-shields ; mouth very small,

either the upper or the lower toothless ; body

covered with uniform scales.
Lower jaw toothless ; ocular shield not bordering the

mouth ; at least 20 scales round the body . . . . Typhlopidcs.

Upper jaw toothless ; ocular shield bordering the mouth ;

14 scales round the body . . . . . . . . GlauconiidcB.

II. Eyes exposed ; both jaws toothed ; enlarged ventral

shields usually present.

A. Maxillary bone horizontal, not vertically movable;

poison-fangs, if present, small or rather small.

Praemaxillary bone toothed ; rudiments of hind limbs,
usually appearing externally as a claw-like horny
spine on each side of the vent ; labial shields with
pits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BoidcB.

No praemaxillary tooth ; no rudiments of hind limbs ;

labial shields without pits . . . . . . . . ColubridcE.

B. Maxillary bone very short, vertically movable,

bearing only the poison-fangs, which are usually

very large Viperidcs.

Family TYPHLOPID.E.
A Single Genus in South Africa.
I. TYPHLOPS.
Schaeid. Hist. Amph. ii. p. 339 ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. i. p. 7.
Ten Species in South Africa.

I, Snout rounded ; 22 or 24 scales round the body.
Prseocular much narrower than the ocular, in contact
with the second and third labials ; diameter of body

42 to 45 times in total length

T. verticalis.

441

442

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Praeocular a little narrower than the ocular, in contact
with the second labial only ; diameter of body 23
to 30 times in total length

II. Snout with obtusely angular, not trenchant, hori-

zontal edge.
24 scales round the body ; praeocular in contact with the

second and third labials ; diameter of body 30 times

in total length . .
30 or 32 scales round the body ; praeocular in contact

with the second labial only ; diameter of body 24

times in total length ; eye not distinguishable
30 to 34 scales round the body ; praeocular in contact

with the second labial (rarely second and third) ;

diameter of body 28 to 36 times in total length ; eye

distinct . .

III. Snout with sharp, trenchant, horizontal edge.
A. Snout not hooked (in profile).

28 to 30 scales round body. ; diameter of body 35 to 50

times in total length . .
30 to 38 scales round body ;

times in total length

34 to 40 scales round body
times in total length .

40 to 44 scales round body
times in total length .
B.

diameter of body 25 to 35
diameter of body 42 to 46
diameter of body 25 to 30

T. fornasinii.

T. mossambicus.

T. a)whietcB,

T. bibronii.

T. delalandii.
T. mucriiso.
T. dinga.
T. schlegelii.

Snout hooked ; 24 or 26 scales round body ;
diameter of body 45 to 57 times in total length T. schimi.

1. TyPHLOPS VERTICAI.IS.

Onychocephahts verticalis. Smith, 111., Rept. pi. liv.
Typhlops verticalis, Bouleng., t.c, p. 32.
Interior of South Africa.
Malmesbury (H. Gird).

2. Typhlops fornasinii, Bianconi, Spec. Zool. Mosamb. p. 13, pi. iii.

fig. I ; Bouleng., t.c, p. 38.
Portuguese East Africa.
Delagoa Bay (De Coster).

3. Typhlops mossambicus.

Oiiychocephalus mossambicus, Peters, Mon. Berl. Ac, 1854, p. 621.
Typhlops mossambicus, Bouleng., t.c, p. 41.
Portuguese]East Africa, Zululand.

4. Typhlops anchiet;e, Bocage, Jorn. Sc. Lisb. xi. 1886, p. 172;

Bouleng., t.c, p. 40.
Angola, Transvaal.

5. Typhlops bibronii.

Onychocephalus bibronii. Smith, III., Rept. pi. li. fig. 2, and liv. figs.

.5-8.
Typhlops bibronii, Bouleng., t.c, p. 44.
Cape Colony, Basutoland, Natal.
Cape Colony : Malmesbury (Gird) ; Bathurst District (Becker) ; Port

St. Johns (Shortridge) ; Matatiele, East Griqualand (Tyrrel) ;

Little Namaqualand (Peringuey).
Basutoland : Mori j a (Dyke).
Transvaal : Lydenburg (I^lgour).

6. Typhlops delalandii, Schleg. Abbild. p. 38, pi. xxxii. figs. 17-20;

Bouleng., t.c, p. 45.

*

LIST OF SOUTH AFRICAN SNAKES.

443

Cape Colony, Natal, Orange River Colony, Transvaal, Southern
Rhodesia.

Cape Colony : Cape Peninsula (Fairbridge, de Souza, Purccll) ;
Malmesbury (Gird) ; Burghersdorp (Kannemeyer) ; Tulbagh
(Kleinschmidt) ; Prince Albert (Purcell) ; Knysna (Maritz) ;
Port Elizabeth (Wcale, Drege) ; Middelburg (Piers) ; Calvinia
(Leipoldt) ; Calcdon (Burger) ; Worcester (Purcell, Paynter) ; Stel-
lenbosch (Lightfoot) ; Robertson (Melle) ; Hanover (Schreiner) ;
Graaff-Reinet (Paynter) ; Touw's River, Worcester District
(Purcell) ; Little Namaqualand (Peringuey).

Orange River Colony: Smithiield (Kannemeyer).

7. Typhlops mucruso.

Onychocephaliis mucruso, Peters, Mon. Bed. Ac, 1854, p. 621.

Typhlops mucruso, Bouleng., t.c, p. 46.

Tropical Africa to Portuguese East Africa, Southern Rhodesia, and

Transvaal.
Transvaal: Barber ton (Rendall).
Southern Rhodesia : Salisbury (Darling, Marshall).
Portuguese East Africa : Delagoa Bay (De Coster).

8. Typhlops dinga.

Onychocephaliis dinga, Peters, Mon. Berl. Ac, 1854, p. 620.
Typhlops dinga, Bouleng., t.c, p. 45.
Portuguese East Africa, Southern Rhodesia.

9. Typhlop.s schlegelii, Bianconi, Spec. Zool. Mosamb. p. 13, pi. iii.

fig. 2 ; Bouleng., t.c, p. 44.
East and Central Africa to Portuguese East Africa and Southern

Rhodesia.
Delagoa Bay (De Coster).

10. Typhlops schinzi, Boettger, Ber. Senck. Ges., 1887, p. 154, pi. v.
fig. I ; Bouleng., t.c, p. 47.
Northern parts of Cape Colony.
Little Namaqualand (Turle) ; Carnarvon (Hanau).

L

Family GLAUCONIIDiE.
A single Genus in South Africa.

I. GLAUCONIA.
Gray, Cat. Liz. p. 139 ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. i. p. 59.

Six Species in South Africa.

Supraocular present.
A. Rostral separated from the supraocular by the
upper part of the nasal ; diameter of body 40

B.

to 60 times in total length

Rostral in contact with the supraocular.

a. Rostral not more than twice the width of the

nasal, extending to or slightly beyond a
hne connecting the posterior borders of the
eyes.
Diameter of body 47 to 70 times in total length
Diameter of body 90 to no times in total length

b. Rostral very large, at least twice as broad as

the nasal and extending beyond a line
connecting the posterior border of the
eyes ; diameter of body 50 to 80 times in
total length.

G. nigricans.

G. conjuncta.
G. gracilior.

444 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Snout rounded . . . . . . . . . . . . G. scutifrons.

Snout with the praeoral part concave, appearing sHghtly

hooked in profile . . . . . . . . . . G. distanti.

II. No supraocular . . . . . . . . . . . . G. labialis.

1. Glauconia nigricans.

Typhlops nigricans, Schleg. Abbild. p. 38, pi. xxxii. figs. 21-24.
Glauconia nigricans, Bouleng., t.c, p. 67.
South Africa.

Cape Colony : Kentani (Kolbe) ; Swellendam (Fr}') ; Engcobo (Weis-
becker) ; Port Ehzabeth (Weale, Drege).

2. Glauconia conjuncta.

Stenostoma conjunctum, Jan, Arch. Zool. Anat. Phys. i., 1861, p. 189.

Glauconia conjuncta, Bouleng., t.c, p. 67.

South and East Africa.

Cape Colony : S\%-ellendam (Fry) ; Engcobo (Weisbecker) ; Aliwal

North (Weisbecker) ; Burghersdorp (Kannemeyer).
Basutoland : Korokoro (Sclater).
Natal: Umvoti (Frj').
Transvaal: Lydenburg (Fry) ; Modderfontein (Purcell).

3. Glauconia gracilior, sp. n.
Cape Colony.

Van Rvnsdorp (.\. W. Rogers) ; Matjesfontein (Purcell) ; Clanwilliam
(I.eipoldt).

4. Glauconia scutifrons.

Stenostoma scutifrons, Peters Mon. Berl. Ac, 1854, p. 621.
Glauconia scutifrons, Bouleng., t.c, p. 68.

Glauconia latifrons, Sternfeld, Sitzb. Ges. Nat. Fr. Berl,, 1908, p. 94.
South Africa, Angola.

Cape Colony : Burghersdorp (Kannemeyer).
Natal : Umvoti (Fry).
Transvaal : Pietersburg (Daneel).

Southern Rhodesia : Bulawayo (Kolbe) ; Matoppo Hills (Pillans)
Salisbury (Marshall).

5. Glauconia distanti, Bouleng. in Distant, Nat. Transv. p. 175, fig.,

and t.c, p. 62.
Transvaal, Southern Rhodesia, British Central Africa.
Transvaal: Pretoria (Gough) ; Pietersburg (Daneel).
Southern Rhodesia : Palapye, Bechuanaland (Fry)

6. Glauconia labialis, Sternfeld, t.c, p. 92.
South- West Africa.

Family BOID^.
A single Genus in South Africa.

1. PYTHON.

Daud. Hist. Rept. v. p. 266 ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. i. p. 85.

I. Python seb.e.

Coluber sebce, Gmel. S. N. i. p. 11 18.

Python sebcd, Bouleng., t.c, p. 86.

Natal, Zululand, Transvaal, Southern Rhodesia, Portuguese East

Africa, Tropical Africa.
Natal : Durban (Bowker).
Southern Rhodesia: Salisbury (Thomas).

LIST OF SOUTH AFRICAN SNAKES.

445

I

Family COLUBRID^.
Synopsis of the South African Genera.

I. Aglyphee, without grooved fangs in the upper jaw. —

Harmless.

A. Scales smooth, in 19 rows or more.

1. Pupil round ; posterior maxillary teeth longest.
Scales in ig rows ; internasal not entering the nostril ;

snout rounded . .
Scales in 27 to 31 rows ; internasal entering the nostril ;
snout with vertical sides, more or less prominent . .

2. Pupil vertically elliptic or subelliptic ; anal

entire.

Scales in 19 rows ; frontal at least once and a half as
long as broad ; maxillary teeth equal

Scales in 19 to 23 rows ; frontal broad and short ; pos-
terior maxillary teeth shortest

Scales in 23 to 33 rows, with apical pits ; anterior
maxillary teeth strongly enlarged

B. Scales smooth, in 15 or 17 rows.

1. Tail short (sub-caudals not more than 50 pairs).
Pupil vertically elliptic ; rostral small ; anterior maxil-
lary teeth longest

Pupil vertically elliptic ; rostral very large, with angular
horizontal edge ; posterior maxillary teeth strongly
enlarged

Pupil round ; rostral small ; nasal single ; anterior
maxillary teeth longest

2. Tail long (sub-caudals more than 80 pairs) ;

pupil round ; posterior maxillary teeth

longest.
Sub-caudals not keeled
Sub-caudals keeled and notched . .

C. Scales keeled ; pupil vertically elliptic.

Scales in 15 to 17 rows, of vertebral row enlarged and
bicarinate ; anterior maxillary teeth longest

Scales in 23 to 27 rows, laterals very oblique and with
serrated keels ; teeth very small and few . .

II. OpisthoglyphcB, with grooved fangs at the posterior

end of the upper jaw. — More or less poisonous.
A. Eye moderate or large ; head more or less distinct
from neck.

1. Subcaudals single ; pupil vertically elliptic ;

parietals broken up into small shields

2. Subcaudals in pairs.

a. Pupil vertically elliptic ; scales in 17 or
19 rows.
Anal divided ; loreal separated from the eye by the prae-
ocular ; maxillary teeth decreasing in size pos-

teriorly
Anal entire ;

ocular ;

teriorly
Anal entire :

loreal separated from the eye by the prae-
maxillary teeth increasing in size pos-

loreal entering the eye
b. Pupil round.

a. Scales smooth (or feebly keeled on
the posterior part of the back) in
13 to 17 rows.

Tropidonotus.
Pseudaspis.

Ablabophis.

Lamprophis.

Boodon.

Lycophidium.

Prosymna.
Homalosoma.

Chlorophis.
Philothamnus.

Simocephalus.
Dasypeltis.

Pythonodipsas.

Tarbophis

Leptodira.
Chamcetortus.

446

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Rostral moderate ; nostril in a single, semidividcd nasal
Rostral moderate ; nostril between two nasals and the

intcrnasal ; maxillary teeth subequal
Rostral large, projecting, snout pointed . .
Rostral moderate ; nostril between the nasals ; one or
two middle maxillary teeth much enlarged

/3. Scales keeled, in lo or 21 rows ; eye
very large . .
c. Pupil horizontal ; eye large ; scales in
19 rows ; body very slender . .
B. Eye small or verj' small ; head not distinct from
neck.

1. Sub-caudals in pairs ; no praeocular.
Scales in 1 5 rows ; no internasals

Scales in 17 or 19 rows ; internasals present

2. Sub-caudals single.
Scales in 23 to 27 rows ; no praeocular

Scales in 15 rows ; nasal in contact with a praeocular . .
III. Protcroglypha, with grooved fangs at the anterior
end of the upper jaw. — Poisonous.

A. Tail compressed, oar-shaped ; head narrow and

elongate ; no distinctly enlarged ventrals (Sea-
snakes)

B. Tail cylindrical, ending in a point.

1. Head short.

a. Scales in 17 rows or more ; internasal

bordering the nostril.
Rostral moderate ; scales smooth
Rostral moderate ; scales strongly keeled
Rostral very large, detached on the sides ; scales smooth
or keeled on posterior part of body . .

b. Scales in 13 or 15 rows.

Nostril between two nasals ; scales in 13 rows ; eye

small
Nostril in a single nasal ; scales in 15 rows ; eye very

small

2. Head narrow, elongate ; scales very oblique,

in 19 to 23 rows ; body slender

A mplorhintis.

Trimerorhinus.
Rhamphiophis.

Psammophis.

Dispholidus.

Thelotornis.

Amblyodipsas.
Calatnelaps.

Macrelaps.
A parallactus.

Hydrus

Naia.
Sepedon.

Aspidelaps.

Elapechis.

Homorelaps.

Dendraspis.

A.—AGLYPH.E.

I. TROPIDONOTUS.

Kuhl, Bull. Sc. Nat. ii., 1824, p. 81 ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. i. p. 192.

Two Species in South Africa.

Ventrals 162-180 ; anal entire . . . . . . . . T. IcBvissmus.

Ventrals 1 31-149 ; anal divided . . . . . . . . T. olivaceus.

I. TrOPIDONOTUS L^EVISSIMUS.

Natrix Iccvissima, Giinth. Ann. & Mag. N. H. (3) ix., 1862, p. 124,

pi. ix. fig. 4.
Tropidonotus lavissimus, Bouleng., i.e., p. 226.
Grayia hibrica, W. Sclater, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. i., 1898, p. 109, pi. V,

fig. I.
Cape Colony, Natal.
Tsomo, Transkei District. — Type of Grayia lubrica.

LIST OF SOUTH AFRICAN SNAKES. 447

2. Tropidonotus olivaceus.

Coronella olivacea, Peters, Mon. Berl. Ac, 1854, p. 622.
Tropidonotus olivaceus, Bouleng., t.c, p. 227.
Tropical Africa to Southern Rhodesia.
Mashonaland : Salisbury (Marshall).

2. ABLABOPHIS.
Bouleng. Cat, Sn. i. p. 318.

I. AblaboPhis refulus.

Coronella rufiila, Lichtenst, Veru. Doubl. Mus. Berlz. p. 105.

Ablabophis rtifulus, Bouleng., t.c.

South Africa.

Cape Colony : Cape Town (de Souza, Oakley) ; Robben Island (Fisk) ;
Stellenbosch (Peringuey) ; Knysna (Groom) ; Port St. Johns
(Shortridge) ; Touw's River, Worcester (Le Fevrc) ; Prince
Albert (Purcell) ; Burghersdorp (Kannemeyer) ; Clanwilliam
(Leipoldt) ; George (Leipoldt) ; Port Elizabeth (Drege, Moor-
house) ; Albany District (French).

Natal : Durban (Bowker, Sanderson).

Transvaal : Modderfontein (Haagner).

South- West Africa: Damaraland (Palgrave).

3. LAMPROPHIS.

Smith, 111., Rept. ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. i. p. 320.

Four Species.

I. Scales in 23 rows.

Internasals a little shorter than the praefrontals ; loreal

a little longer than deep . . . . . . . . L. aurora.

Internasals much shorter than the praefrontals ; loreal at

least nearly twice as long as deep . . . . . . L. inornatus.

Internasals longer than the praefrontals ; loreal as long as

deep or a little longer than deep . . . . . . L. fiskii.

II. Scales in 19 rows .. .. .. ., .. L.fuscus.

1. Lamprophis aurora.

Coluber aurora, Linn. S. N. i. p. 379.
Lamprophis aurora, Bouleng., t.c, p. 321.
Cape Colony, Orange Free State, Transvaal.

Cape Colon}' : Cape Town (Stevens, Gardiner, E. A. Morris), Burghers-
dorp (Kannemeyer).
Orange Free State : Smithfield (Kannemeyer).
Transvaal : Modderfontein (Haagner).

2. Lamprophis inornatus, Dum. & Bibr. Erp. Gen. vii. p. 464.
Cape Colony.

Cape Town (French). Also 2655.

3. Lamprophis fiskii, Bouleng. P.Z.S., 1887, p. 398, pi. xxxiv., and t.c.

p. 322.
Cape Colony.
Worcester (Le Fevre).

4. Lamprophis fuscus, Bouleng. Cat. Sn. i. p. 322, pi. xx., fig. 4.
Cape of Good Hope.

448

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA

4. BOODON.

Dum. & Bibr. Mem. Ac. Sc. xxiii., 1853, p. 460 ; Bouleng, Cat.

Sn. i. p. 327.

Four Species in South Africa.

I. Scales in 23 or 25 rows ; three labials entering the eye.
Two postoculars ; pracocular not extending to upper

surface of head ; ventrals 175-196 . . . . . . B. infernalis.

Three postoculars ; praeocular extending to upper surface

of head ; ventrals 196-210 . . . . . . . . B. guUatus.

II. Scales in 27 to 33 rows ; ventrals 192-237.

Two (rarely three) labials entering the eye ; two pairs of

chin-shields in contact with each other . . . . B. lineaius.

Three labials entering the eye ; only one pair of chin
shields meeting on the median line . .

2.

B. mentalis.
Bouleng., t.c, p.

330.

BooDON INFERNALIS, Giinth. Cat. Col. Sn. p. 199

pi. xxi. fig. I.
East and South Africa.
Cape Colony : Cape Town (Southey, Oakley) ; Cape Division (Layard,

Southey, Oakley, Sclatcr) ; Robben Island (Denysson, P6ringuey) ;

Knysna (Groom) ; Port St. John's (Shortridgc) ; Kimberley

(French) ; King William's Town (Godfrey).

BOODON GUTTATUS.

Lycodon guttatus, Smith, 111., Rept. pi. xxiii.
Boodon guttatus, Bouleng., t.c, p. 331.
Cape Colony.

Cape Town (Layard) ; O'okiep (Howard) ; Burghersdorp (Kanne-
meyer).

BooDON LiNEATUS, Dum. & Bibr. Erp. Gen. vii. p. 363 ; Bouleng., t.c,

V- 332.

Tropical and South Africa.

Cape Colony : Cape Division (no history) ; Burghersdorp (Kanne-
meyer) ; Port St. John's (Shortridge) ; Knysna (Groom) ; Touw's
River, Worcester Division (Le Fevrc, Purccll) ; Beaconslicld
(Paynter) ; Robertson (Melle) ; Hanover (Schreiner) ; Beaufort
West (Haagner) ; Ograbis, Little Namaqualand (Strauss).

Natal: Durban (Bowker, Sanderson).

Transvaal : Modderfontein (Haagner) ; Potchefstroom (Gilchrist) .

Rhodesia : Mazoe (Darling) ; SaUsbury (Darhng, Marshall, Thomas) ;
Livingstone (Sykcs).

Portuguese East Africa : Delagoa Bay (De Coster).

BooDON MENTALIS, Giinth. Ann. & Mag. N. H. (6) i., 1888, p. 331, pi. xx.

fig. A ; Bouleng., t.c. p. 335.
Damar aland.

5. LYCOPHIDIUM.

Dum. & Bibr. Mem. Ac. Sc. xxiii., 1853, p. 462 ; Bouleng. Cat.

Sn. i. p. 336.

Two Species in South Africa.

Ventrals 164-208; sub-caudals 30-45
Ventrals 146-156; sub-caudals 30

L. capense.

L. semiannulis .

LIST OF SOUTH AFRICAN SNAKES. 449

Lycophidium capense.

Lycodon capensis, Smith, S. Afr. Quart. Journ. No. 5, 1831, p. 18.
Lycophidium capense, Bouleng., t.c, p. 339.
Tropical and South Africa.

Cape Colony : Grahamstown (Schonland) ; Port Elizabeth (Moor-
house) ; Burghersdorp (Kannemeyer).
Natal : Durban (Bowker).
Transvaal : Johannesburg (Elleman).
Southern Rhodesia : Mazoe (Darling) ; Salisbury (Marshall, Thomas).

Lycophidium semiannulis, Peters, Mon. Berl. Ac, 1854, p. 622 ;

Bouleng., t.c, p. 339.
Portuguese East Africa, Zululand.

6. SIMOCEPHALUS.
Giinth. Cat. Col. Sn. p. 194 ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. i. p. 344.

Two Species in South Africa.

Frontal a little shorter than the parietals ; two post-
oculars ; ventrals 203-241 . . . . . . . . S. capensis.

Frontal much shorter than the parietals ; a single post-
ocular ; ventrals 1 71-185 .. .. .. .. S. nyassce.

t. SiMOCEPHALUS CAPENSIS.

Heterolepis capensis, Smith, 111., Rept. pi. Iv.

Siniocephalus capensis, Bouleng., t.c, p. 345.

Central Africa, Portuguese East Africa, Southern Rhodesia, Natal.

Natal : Durban (Bowker) ; Southern Rhodesia : Salisbury (Marshall).

2. SiMOCEPHALUS NYASS^, Giinth. Ann. & Mag. N. H. (6) i., 1888, p. 328;
Bouleng., t.c, p. 347, pi. xxiii. fig. 2.
East and Central Africa, Portuguese East Africa, Natal, Transvaal.
Natal: Durban (Bowker).
Portuguese East Africa : Delagoa Bay (Pcringuey).

7. PSEUDASPIS.
Cope, Proc. Ac. Philad., 1864, p. 168 ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. i. p. 373.

I. PSEUDASPIS CANA.

Coluber cana, Linn. S. N. i. p. 382.

Pseudaspis cana, Bouleng., I.e.

South Africa to Angola and British East Africa.

Cape Colony : Cape Division (Smith, Bishop, Layard, Southey, Oakley,
Kolbe) ; Tzitzikamma River (Harrison) ; Beaufort West (Jack-
son) ; Graaff-Reinet (Kannemeyer) ; Burghersdorp (Kanne-
meyer) ; Middelburg (Piers) ; T.somo, Transkei (Watermeyer) ;
Port EUzabeth (Drege, Moorhousc) ; Port NoUoth (Howard) ;
Hanover (Schreiner) ; Worcester (Payntcr) ; Little Namaqua-
land (Peringuey, Christensen, Scully).

Natal (Sanderson).

Orange Free State : Smithfield (Kannemeyer).

Transvaal: Johannesburg (Ross) ; Modderfontein (Haagner).

Southern Rhodesia: Mazoe (Darling); Salisbury (Thomas).

2 G

450 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

8. CHLOROPHIS.
Hallow. Proc. Ac. Philad., 1S57, p. 52 ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. ii. p. 91.
Four Species in South Africa.

I. Vcntrals without keels.

Two labials entering the eye ; sub-caudals 85-107 . . C. hoplogaster.

II. Ventrals with distinct lateral keels.

Two labials entering the eye ; a single anterior temporal ;

sub-caudals 77-114 . . . . . . . . . . C. neglecius.

Two labials entering the eye ; usually two superposed

anterior temporals ; sub-caudals 1 14-140 . . . . C. natalensis.

Three labials entering the eye ; sub-caudals 94-133 . . C. irregularis.

1. Chlorophis hoplogaster.

Ahcctulla hoplogaster, Giinth. Ann. & Mag. N. H. (3) xi., 1863, p. 284.
Chlorophis hoplogaster, Bouleng., t.c, p. 93, pi. v. fig. 2.
South Africa, Central and East Africa.

Cape Colony : Wynberg ? (Gardner) ; Port Elizabeth (Cregoe, Moor-
house) ; Port St. Johns (Shortridgc) ; Knysna (Baimbridge).
Natal: Durban (Bowker, Sanderson).
Transvaal : Barberton (Kendall).

2. Chlorophis neglectus.

Philothamnus neglectus, Peters, Mon. Berl. Ac, 1866, p. 890.
Chlorophis negltctus, Bouleng., t.c, p. 94.
East Africa, Southern Rhodesia, British Central Africa.
Southern Rhodesia : Salisbury (Marshall).

3. Chlorophis natalensis.

Dendrophis natalensis. Smith, 111., Rcpt. pi. Ixiv.

Chlorophis natalensis, Bouleng., t.c, p. 94.

South and Central Africa.

Cape Colony : Mossel Bay (Layard) ; Port St. Johns (Shortridge) ;

Port Elizabeth (Moorhousc) ; Kimberley (French) ; Tsorao

(Watermcyer).
Natal: Durban (Sanderson).
Transvaal : Lydcnburg (Kilgou).
North-Westcrn Rhodesia : Kafue River (Drury).

4. Chlorophis irregularis.

Coluber irregularis, Leach, in Bowdich, Ashantce, p. 494.

Chlorophis irregularis, Bouleng., t.c, p. 96.

Tropical Africa, Southern Rhodesia.

Southern Rhodesia: Mazoe (DarUng) ; Salisbury (Marshall, Thomas).

9. PHILOTHAMNUS.

Smith, 111., Rept. ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. ii. p. 98.

A single Species in South Africa.

Philothamnus semivariegatus. Smith, op. c, pis. lix. and Ix. ;

Bouleng., t.c, p. 99.
Tropical and South Africa.
Cape Colony : Douglas (Orpcn).
Transvaal : Barberton (Rcndali).

Rhodesia : Salisbury (Thomas, Darling) ; Livingstone (Stephenson) .
Portuguese East Africa : Delagoa Bay (De Coster).

LIST OF SOUTH AFRICAN SNAKES. 451

10. PROSYMNA.

Gray, Cat. Sn. p. 80 ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. ii. p. 246.

Five Species in South Africa.

I. Scales smooth, in 15 rows.

A. Internasal paired ; two superposed anterior

temporals . . . . . . . . . . . . P. sundevallii.

B. Internasal single ; a single anterior temporal.
Width of the frontal not half the width of the head ;

ventrals 167 ; subcaudals 50 . . . . . . . . P. frontalis.

Width of the frontal more than half the width of the

head; ventrals 131-153 ; subcaudals 19-34 •• P- ambigua.

Width of the frontal more than half the width of the

head ; ventrals 169-185 ; subcaudals 38-49 . . P. bergeri.

II. Scales keeled, in 17 rows ; a single internasal . . P. jani.

1. Prosymna sundevallii.

Temnorhynchus sundevallii, Smith, 111., Rept., App. p. 17.

Prosymna sundevallii, Bouleng., t.c, p. 247.

Cape Colony, Natal Orange Free State, Transvaal.

Cape Colony : Burghersdorp (Kannemeyer) ; ClanwilUam (Slabber) ;
Hanover (Schreiner) ; Graaff-Reinet (Paynter) ; Tulbagh (Light-
foot) ; Little Namaqualand.

2. Prosymna frontalis.

Temnorhynchus frontalis, Peters, Mon. Berl. Ac, 1867, p. 236, pi. — ,

fig- I.
Prosymna frontalis , Bouleng., t.c, p. 248.
South-West Africa, Angola.

3. Prosymna ambigua, Bocage, Jorn. Sc. Lisb. iv., 1873, p. 218 ; Bouleng.,

t.c, p. 248.
Southern Rhodesia, Zululand, East Africa, Angola.

4. Prosymna bergeri, Lindholm, Jahrb. Nassau. Ver. Iv., 1902, p. 57.
South- West Africa.

5. Prosymna jani, Bianconi, Mem. Ace. Bologna (2) i. 1862, p. 470, pi. i. ;

Bouleng., t.c, p. 249.
Portuguese East Africa, Zululand.

II. HOMALOSOMA.

Wagler, Syst. Amph. p. 190 ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. ii. p. 273.

Two Species in South Africa.

Ventral 1 15-144 .. .. .. .. .. .. H. tutrix.

Ventrals 97-110 .. .. .. .. .. .. H. variegatum.

I. Homalosoma lutrix.

Coluber lutrix, Linn. S. N. i. p. 375.

Homalosoma lutrix, Bouleng., t.c, p. 274.

Homalosoma shiranum, Bouleng., t.c, p. 276.

South Africa, Central and East Africa.

Cape Colony : Cape Town (Oakley) ; East London (Wood) ; Caledon

(Burgess) ; Port St. Johns (Shortridgc) ; Knysna (Groom) ;

IBurghersdorp (Kannemeyer) ; Middelburg (Piers) ; Paarl (Purcell) ;

Port Elizabeth (Moorhouse) ; Little Namaqualand (Peringuey).
Transvaal: Barberton (Rendall).

452 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

2. HoMALOSOMA VARiEGATUM, Pctcrs, Mon. Bed. Ac, 1854, p. 622;
Bouleng., t.c, p. 276.
Portuguese East Africa, Zululand,
Delagoa Bay (De Coster).

12. DASYPELTIS.

Waglcr, Syst. Amph. p. 178 ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. ii. p. 353.
A single Species in South Africa.

I. Dasypeltis scabra.

Coluber scaber, Linn. S. N. i. p. 384.

Dasypeltis scabra, Bouleng., t.c, p. 354.

Tropical and South Africa, Egypt.

Cape Colony : Cape Town (Pillan.s) ; Swellendam (Cairncross) ; Wor-
cester (Le Fevre) ; Murraysburg (Tyson) ; East London (Wood) ;
Port St. Johns (Shortridge) ; Burghersdorp (Kannemeyer) ;
Clanwilliam (Schlcchtcr) ; Hanover (Schreincr) ; Graaff-Reinet
(Paynter) ; Port Elizabeth (Drege) ; Little Namaqualand
(Warden).

Basutoland : Morija (Dyke).

Natal : Durban (Bowker).

Transvaal : Johannesburg (Ross) ; Modderfontein (Haagner).

Southern Rhodesia : Salisbury (Thomas, Darling).

Portuguese East Africa : Delagoa Bay (De Coster).

B .—OP IS THOGL YPH.E.

13. PYTHONODIPSAS.

Giinth. Ann. & Mag. N. H. (4) i., 1868, p. 425 ; Bouleng. Cat.

Sn. iii. p. 45.

I. Pythonodipsas carinata, Giinth., t.c, p. 426 ; Bouleng., I.e.
Zambesi, Damaraland.
Damaraland (Nightingale).

14. TARBOPHIS.

Fleischm. Dalm. nov. Serp. Gen. p. 17 ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii. p. 47.

A single Species in South Africa.

I. Tarbophis semiannulatus.

Telescopus semiannulatus, Smith, 111., Rept. pi. Ixxii.

Tarbophis semiannulatus, Bouleng., t.c, p. 51.

Basutoland, Transvaal, Rhodesia, Portuguese East Africa, Central and

East Africa.
Basutoland : Scsheke (Jella).
Transvaal : Barberton (Randall).
Portuguese East Africa : Delagoa Bay (De Coster).

15. LEPTODIRA.

Giinth. Cat. Col. Sn. p. 165 ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii. p. 88.

A single Species in South Africa.

I. Leptodira hotambceia.

Coronella hotambceia, Laurenti, Syn. Rept. p. 85.

LIST OF SOUTH AFRICAN SNAKES. 453

Leptodira hotambaeia, Bouleng., t.c, p. 89.

Tropical and South Africa.

Cape Colony : Cape Town (dc Souza) ; Port Elizabeth (Moorhouse,

Drege) ; Burghersdorp (Kannemeyer) ; Clanwilliam (Leipoldt) ;

Worcester (Purcell) ; East London (Wood) ; Port St. Johns

(Shortridge) ; Hanover (Schreiner) ; Kimbcrlcy (French) ;

Little Namaqualand (Schlechter).
Basutoland : Morija (Dyke).

Natal : Pine Town (Bowker) ; Malvern (Bowker).
Transvaal : Barberton (Rendall).
Southern Rhodesia : Salisbury (Marshall).
Portuguese East Africa : Delagoa Bay (De Coster).

16. CHAM^TORTUS.

Giinth. P.Z.S., 1864, p. 310 ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii. p. 98.

I. ChAM/ETORTUS aulicus.

Giinth., I.e., pi. xxvi. fig. 2 ; Bouleng., I.e.

East and Central Africa, Portuguese East Africa, Transvaal.

Leydsdorp, Transvaal (Norton).

17. AMPLORHINUS.

Smith, 111., Rept. ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii. p. 124.

I. Amplorhinus multimaculatus, Smith, op. c, pi. Ivii. ; Bouleng., t.c,
p. 125.
Cape Peninsula.
Cape Peninsula (de Souza, Sclater).

18. TRIMERORHINUS.

Smith. 111., Rept. ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii. p. 138.

Two Species in South Africa.

Eye as long as its distance from the nostril . . . . T. rhombeatus.

Eye shorter than its distance from the nostril . . . . T. triteeniatus.

1. Trimerorhinus rhombeatus.
Coluber rhombeatus, Linn. S. N. i. p. 380.
Trimerorhinus rhombeatus, Bouleng., I.e.

Psammophis longementalis, Roux, Zool. Jahrb., Syst. xxv., 1907, p. 736,
pi. xxvii.

South Africa, Angola.

Cape Colony : Cape Peninsula (Finlay, Sclater) ; Tulbagh (Klein-
schmidt) ; Touw's River (Le Fevre) ; Knysna (Groom) ; Burghers-
dorp (Kannemeyer) ; Robertson (Melle) ; Worcester (Payntcr) ;
Clanwilliam (Schlechter) ; Middelburg (Piers) ; George (Leipoldt) ;
Caledon (Burges) ; Uitenhage (O'Neil) ; Port Elizabeth (Moor-
house) ; Kimberley (French) ; Tsomo, Transkei (Watcrmcyer).

Orange Free State : Harrismith (Ross).

Transvaal : Lydenburg (Kilgour) ; Krugersdorp (Watson).

2. Trimerorhinus trit^niatus.

Rhagerrhis iritcsniata, Giinth., Ann. & Mag. N. H. (4) i., 1868, p. 423.

pi. xix. fig. H.
Trimerorhinus tritcsniatus, Bouleng., t.c, p. 139.
Northern parts of Cape Colony, Transvaal, Tropical Africa.
Cape Colony : Barkly West (Tucker) ; Kuruman (Moffat).
Southern Rhodesia : Salisbury (Marshall).

454 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

19. RHAMPHIOPHIS.

Peters, Mon. Bed. Ac, 1854, p. 624 ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii. p. 144.

A single Species in South Africa.

I. RHAMPHIOPHIS MULTIMACULATUS.

Coronella multimaciilata, Smith, 111., Kept. pi. Ixi.

Rhamphiophis multimaculatns, Bouleng., t.c, p. 148.

Northern parts of Cape Colony, Orange Free State, South-West Africa.

Cape Colony : Little Namaqualand (Howard) ; Kenhardt (Schlechter) ;

Hanover (Schreincr) ; 13uriihersdorp (Kannemeyer).
Orange Free State : Smithficld (Kannemeyer).

20. PSAMMOPHIS.
Boie, Isis, 1827, p. 521 ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii. p. 152.
Ten Species in South Africa.

I. Scales in 17 rows ; ventrals 154-198.

A. Anal entire ; two prasoculars . . . . . . P. notostictus.

B. Anal divided (rarely entire).

1. Praeocular extensively in contact with the

frontal ; forehead concave ; two labials

entering the eye . . . . . . . . P. furcatus.

2. Praeocular narrowly in contact with or

separated from the frontal.

a. Two prajoculars ; rostral considerably

broader than deep.

8 upper labials, 3 entering the eye . . . . . . P. transvaaliensis.

9 upper labials, 2 entering the eye . . . . . . P. trigrammus.

9 upper labials, 3 entering the eye . . . . . . P. bocagii.

b. A single praeocular ; rostral as deep as

broad or slightly broader than deep ;
two labials entering the eye.
Frontal, in the middle, narrower than the supraocular ;

sub-caudals 90-116 .. .. .. .. .. P. sibilans.

Frontal, in the middle, nearly as broad as the supra-
ocular ; sub-caudals 64-95 . . . . . . . . P. brevirostris.

II. Scales in 15 rows.

Praeocular extensively in contact with the frontal ;

ventrals 165-177 .. .. .. .. .. P. jalla.

Praeocular not reaching the frontal ; ventrals 136-155 P. crucijer.

III. Scales in 13 rows ; ventrals 141-155 . . . . P. angolensis.

I. PsAMMOPHis NOTOSTICTUS, Pcters, Mon. Berl. Ac, 1867, p. 237 ;
Bouleng., i.e., p. 156.

South Africa, Angola, Lower Congo.

Cape Colony : Cape Town (Rosser, Lightfoot) ; Stellenbosch (Francke);
Grahamstown ; Middclburg (Piers) ; Victoria West (Piers) ;
Touw's River (Le Fcvre) ; Beaufort West (Jackson) ; Graatf-
Reinet (Paynter) ; Burghcrsdorp (Kannemeyer) ; Malmesbury
Division (Kisd) ; Ceres (Purcell) ; Caledon (Burges) ; Robertson
(Melle) ; Hanover (Schreincr) ; Port St. Johns (Shortridge) ;
Little Namaqualand (Schlechter).

Orange Free State : Smithfield (Kannemeyer).

South-West Africa : Damaraland (Nightingale).

I

I

)

LIST OF SOUTH AFRICAN SNAKES. 455

2. PsAMMOPHis FURCATUS, Peters, i.e., p. 236 ; Bouleng., t.c, p. 164.
Cape Colony, Transvaal, Southern Rhodesia, South-West Africa.

Cape Colony : Cape Town (Fisk), Burghersdorp (Kannemeyer), Little
Namaqualand (Peringuey, Schlechter), Ograbies (Strauss).

Psammophis leightoni, Bouleng. P.Z.S., 1902, i. p. 126, pi. xii., I now
regard as not separable from P. furcatus, the chief difference
being that the dark and light markings on the back of the head
are transverse in the former, longitudinal in the latter.

3. Psammophis transvaaliensis, Gough, Ann. Transv. Mus. i., 1908,

p. 31. fig-
Transvaal.

4. Psammophis trigrammus, Giinth. Ann. & Mag. N. H. (3) xv., 1865,

p. 95, pi. ii. fig. E. ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii. p. 159.
Namaqualand.

5. Ps.A.MMOPHis BOCAGii, Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii. p. 161, pi. viii. fig. i.
Southern Rhodesia, Angola.

Victoria Falls (Sclater).

6. Psammophis sibilans.

Coluber sibilans, Linn. S. N. i. p. 383.
Psammophis sibilans, Bouleng., I.e.

Psammophis thomasi, Gough, Ann. Transv. Mus. i., 1908, p. 30, fig.
Egypt, Tropical Africa, northern parts of South Africa.
Cape Colony : Little Namaqualand (Strauss).
Transvaal : Leydsdorp (Norton) ; Irene (Taylor).

Rhodesia : Salisbury (Thomas) ; Mazoc (Alston) ; Kafue River
(Drury).

7. Psammophis brevriostris, Peters, Sitzb. Ges. Naturf. Fr., 1881,

p. 89 ; Bouleng., t.c, p. 166.
South Africa, Angola.

Cape Colony : Cape Division (F. L. Alcock) ; Tulbagh (Kleinans).
Natal : Durban (Bowker) ; Pine Town. (McKerr).

8. Psammophis jall.e, Peracca, Boll. Mus. Torin. xi., 1896, No. 255, fig.
Southern Rhodesia.

Importuni District (Pillans).

9. Psammophis crucifer.

Coluber crucifer, Daud. Hist. Rept. vii. p. 189.

Psammophis crucifer, Bouleng., I.e., p. 169.

South Africa.

Cape Colony : Cape Peninsula (Fisk, Taylor, Howes, Southey) ; StcUcn-
bosch (Purcell) ; Knysna (Groom) ; Port Elizabeth (Moorhouse,
Weale) ; Burghersdorp (Kannemeyer) ; Beaconsfield (French) ;
Grahamstown (Jupp) ; Beaufort West (Rice) ; Little Namaqua-
land (Scully, Schlechter).

Transvaal : Krugersdorp (Watson) ; Johannesburg (Cregoe) ; Lydcn-
burg (Kilgour).

Basutoland : Mori j a (Sclater).

10. Psammophis angolensis.

Amphiophis angolensis, Bocage, Jorn. Sc. Lisb. iv., 1S72, p. 82.

Psammophis angolensis, Bouleng., t.c, p. 170.

East and Central Africa, Angola, Orange River Colony.

456 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

21. THELOTORNIS.

Smith, 111., Rept. ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii. p. 184.

I. Thelotornis kirtlandii.

Leptophis kirtlandii, Hallow. Proc. Ac. Philad., 1844, p. 62.

Thelotornis kirtlandii, Bouleng., t.c, p. 185.

Tropical Africa, Southern Rhodesia, Portuguese East Africa, Zululand,

Natal.
Natal : Durban (Bowker).

Portuguese East Africa : Delagoa Bay (De Coster).
Southern Rhodesia : Irome (Blackbeard) ; Zambesi (Chapman).

22. DISPHOLIDUS.

Duvernoy, Ann. So. Nat. xxvi., 1832, p. 150; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii.

p. 186.

I. DiSPHOLIDUS TYPUS.

Bucephalus typus, Smith, Zool. Journ. iv., 1829, p. 441.

Dispholidus typus, Bouleng., t.c, p. 187.

Tropical and South Africa.

Cape Colony : Cape Peninsula (Layard, Howes, Sclater) ; Knysna
(Groom) ; Burghersdorp (Kannemcyer) ; Port St. Johns (Short-
ridge) ; Port Elizabeth (Moorhousc).

Natal : Durban (Bowker).

Portuguese East Africa : Delagoa Bay (De Coster).

Southern Rhodesia : Salisbury (Darling) ; Mazoc (Darling) ; Shangani
District (Pillans).

23. AMBLYODIPSAS.

Peters, Mon. Bed. Ac, 1856, p. 592 ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii. p. 244.

I. Amblyodipsas microphthalma.

Calamaria microphthalma, Bianconi, Spec. Zool. Mosamb. p. 94, pi. xii.

fig. I.
Atnblyodipsas microphthalma, Bouleng., I.e.
Portuguese East Africa, Zululand.

24. CALAMELAPS.

Giinth. Ann. & Mag. N. H. (3) xviii., 1866, p. 26 ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii.

P- 245.

Two Species in South Africa.

Scales in 19 rows ; ventrals 161-174 . . . . . . C. warreni.

Scales in 17 rows ; ventrals 133-134 . . . . . . C. concolor.

1. Calamelaps warreni, Bouleng. Ann. Natal Mus. i., 1908, p. 234, fig.
Zululand, Basutoland.

Scsheke, Basutoland (Jallc).

2. Calamelaps concolor.

Choristodon concolor, Smith, 111., Rept., App. p. 18.
Calamelaps concolor, Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii. p. 246.
Calamelaps mironi, Mocquard, Bull. Mus. Paris, 1905, p. 77.
Caffraria, Natal,

LIST OF SOUTH AFRICAN SNAKES.

457

25. MACRELAPS.

Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii. p. 255.

I. Macrelaps microlepidotus.

Uriechis microlepidotus, GQnth. Ann. Sc Mag. N. H. (3) v., i860, p. 168,

pi. ix.
Macrelaps microlepidotus, Bouleng., I.e.
Natal, Eastern parts of Cape Colony.
Cape Colony : Port St. Johns (Kannemeyer).
Natal: Durban (liowker).

26. APARALLACTUS.

Smith, 111., Kept., App. p. 15 ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii. p. 255.

Two Species in South Africa.

Nasal divided ; ventrals 153-180 .. .. .. A. guentheri.

Nasal entire ; ventrals 138-166 .. .. .. A. capensis.

1. APARALLACTUS GUENTHERI, Bouleng. Ann & Mag. N. H. (6) xvi., 1895,

p. 172, and t.c, p. 259, pi. xi. fig. 2.
East and Central Africa, Angola, Southern Rhodesia.

2. APARALLACTUS CAPENSIS, Smith, Op. c, p. i6 ; Bouleng., t.c, p. 259.
South and East Africa,

Cape Colony : East London (Eondt) ; Burghersdorp (Kannemeyer).
Transvaal: Leydenburg (Kilgour) ; Modderfontein (Haagner).

C.—PROTEROGL YPHA .

27. HYDRUS.

Schneid. Hist. Amph. i. p. 233 ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii. p. 266.

I. Hydrus platurus.

Anguis platurus, Linn. S. N. i. p. 391.
Hydrus platurus, Bouleng., t.c, p. 267.
Indian Ocean and Tropical Pacific ; coast of Cape Colony.
Table Bay and False Bay (Stockdale, Fisk) ; George ; Cape Agulhas
(J. van Breda).

28. NAIA.
Laurenti, Syn. Rept. p. 90 ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii. p. 372.
Four Species in South Africa.

I. Suboculars separate the eye from the upper labials.
21 or 23 scales across neck, 19 to 21 across middle of

body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N. haie.

17 scales across neck as well as across body . . . . N. anchietcB,

II. Third or third and fourth upper labials entering

the eye.

Sixth upper labial largest and in contact with post-
oculars ; 23 scales across neck . . . . . . N. flava.

Third upper labial deepest, sixth not in contact with

postoculars ; 23 to 29 scales across neck . . N. nigricollis.

458

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

East Africa, Southern Rhodesia,

Salisbury

1. Naia haie.
Coluber haie, Linn. S. N. i. p. 387.
Naia haie, Bouleng., i.e., p. 374.
Southern Palestine, North and

Zululand, Transvaal.
Portuguese East Africa : Delagoa Bay (Dc Coster).
Southern Rhodesia : Hunyani River (Thomas, Darling)

(Darling).

2. Naia ANCHiETiC, Bocage, Jorn. Sc. Lisb. vii. 1879, p. 89 ; Bouleng., t.c,

P- 387-
Angola and South-West Africa, North- West Rhodesia.

Livingstone, North- West Rhodesia (Sykes).

3. Naia flava.

Vipera flava, Mcrrem, Tent. Sj'st. Amph. p. 154.
Naia flava, Bouleng., t.c, p. 376.
Cape Colony, South-West Africa.
Cape Town (Fairbridge) ; Worcester (Le
(Kannemeyer) ; Douglas (Orpcn) ;

Fevrc) ;
Calcdon

Burghersdorp
Rivcrsdale ;

Knysna ; Port Elizabeth (Moorhouse) ; &c.

Naia nigricollis, Reinh. Vid. Selsk. Skrift. x. 1843, p. 269, pi. iii.

figs. 5-7 ; Bouleng., t.c, p. 378.
From Senegambia and Upper Egypt to Angola, South-West Africa,

Little Namaqualand, Southern Rhodesia, the Transvaal, and

Natal.
Cape Colony: Little Namaqualand (Schlechter).
Natal : Victoria Countj' (Bowker).

Transvaal : Barberton (Rcndall) ; Modderfontein (Haagner).
Southern Rhodesia : Mazoe (Darling).
South-West Africa : Damaraland (Hutchinson).

29. SEPEDON.
Merrem, Tent. Syst. Amph. p. 146 ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii. p. 388.

SePEDON HiEMACHATES.

Coluber hcemachata, Lacep. Hist. Scrp. ii. p. 121.

Sepedon hamachates, Bouleng., t.c, p. 389.

Cape Colony, Natal, Orange Free State, Transvaal, South-West Africa.

Cape Colony : Cape Peninsula (Bishop, Howes, Turlcy, Carr) ; Tulbagh
(Kleinschmidt) ; Tsomo, Transkei (Watermeyer) ; Beaufort West
(Rice) ; George (Leipoldt).

Basutoland : Morija (Dyke).

Transvaal : Johannesburg (Fry) ; Krugersdorp (Watson) ; Modder-
fontein (Haagner).

30. ASPIDELAPS.
Smith, 111., Rept., App. ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii. p. 390.
Two Species.

Internasals in contact behind the rostral ; third and
fourth upper labials entering the eye ; scales all
smooth; ventrals 146-176 .. .. .. .. A. lubricus.

Internasals separated by the rostral ; fourth upper labial
entering the eye ; scales on posterior part of body
keeled; ventrals 11 5-135 .. .. .. ..A sculatus.

LIST OF SOUTH AFRICAN SNAKES. 459

1. ASPIDELAPS LUBRICUS.

Matrix lubrica, Laurenti, Syn. Rept. p. 80.

Aspidelaps lubyicus, Boulcng., I.e.

Cape Colony, South-West Africa, Rhodesia.

Cape Colony : Cape Town (Layard) ; Durbanville (Schabort) ; Malmes-
bury (Gird & Lightfoot) ; Robertson (Hodges) ; Burghersdorp
(Kannemeyer) ; Clanwilliam (Lcipoldt, Smolke, Lightfoot) ;
Middelburg (Piers) ; Upington ; Hanover (Schreiner) ; Port
NoUoth (Howard) ; Namaqualand (Peringuey).

Zambesi (Chapman).

2. Aspidelaps scutatus.

Cyrtophis scutatus, Smith, 111., Rept., App. p. 22.
Aspidelaps scutatus, Bouleng., t.c, p. 391.
Natal, Portuguese East Africa, Southern Rhodesia.
Portuguese East Africa ; Delagoa Bay (De Coster).

31, ELAPECHIS.
Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii. p. 358.
Three Species in South Africa.

Portion of rostral visible from above not half as long as
its distance from the frontal, which shield is a little
shorter than the parietals ; diameter of eye less than
its distance from the nostril in the adult . . . . E. guentheri.

Portion of rostral visible from above at least half as long
as its distance from the frontal, which shield is much
shorter than the parietals ; diameter of eye less than
its distance from the nostril in the adult . . . . E. sundevallii.

Portion of rostral visible from above at least half as long
as its distance from the frontal, which shield is much
shorter than the parietals ; diameter of eye equal to
its distance from the nostril . . . . . . . . E. decosteri.

1. Elapechis guentheri.

Elapsoidea guentheri, Bocage, Jorn. Sc. Lisb. i., 1866, p. 70, pi. i. fig. 3.
Elapechis guentheri, Bouleng., t.c, p. 359.
Tropical Africa, Transvaal.

2. Elapechis sundevallii.

Elaps sundevalli, Smith, 111., Rept. pi. Ixvi.
Elapechis sundevallii, Bouleng., t.c, p. 360.
Natal.
Estcourt.

3. Elapechis decosteri.

Elapsoidea decosteri, Bouleng., Ann. & Mag. N. H. (6) ii., 1888, p. 141.
Elapechis decosteri, Bouleng., t.c, p. 360.
Portuguese East Africa, Zululand.
Delagoa Bay (De Coster). — Type.

32. HOMORELAPS.
Jan, Rev. et Mag. Zool., 1858, p. 518 ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii. p. 408.

Two Species.

Ventrals 160-215 . . . . . , . . . . . . H. lacteus.

Ventrals 219-244 . . . . . . . . . . . . H. dorsalis.

46o THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

1. HOMORELAPS LACTEUS.

Coluber lacteus, Linn. S. N. i. p. 381.

Homorelaps lacteus, Bouleng., t.c, p. 409.

Cape Colony, Natal, Orange Free State.

Cape Colony : Cape Peninsula (Southey) ; Worcester (Lycett) ;

Robertson (Hodges) ; George (Frere) ; Piquetburg (Watermeyer) ;

Calcdon (Burgess ; Port Elizabeth (Matcham) ; Kimberley

(French).
Natal (Ellman).
Transvaal : Ermclo (Watermeyer).

2. Homorelaps dorsalis.

Elaps dorsalis, Smith, 111., Rept., App. p. 21.

Homorelaps dorsalis, Bouleng., i.e., p. 410.

Eastern parts of Cape Colony, Natal, Orange Free State.

Orange Free State : Brandfort (Haagner) ; Smithfield (Kannemeyer).

33. DENDRASPIS.
Schleg. Versl. Zool. Gen. Amsterd. 1848 ; Bouleng., Cat. Sn. iii. p. 434.

Two Species in South Africa.

Scales in 19 to 23 rows in the middle of the body ; 8
upper labials ; upper anterior temporal not longer
than the lower . . . . . . . . . . . . D. angusticeps.

Scales in 25 rows ; 9 upper labials ; upper anterior tem-
poral twice as long as the lower . . . . . D. tnamba.

1. Dendraspis angusticeps.

Naja angusticeps. Smith, 111., Rept. pi. Ixx.

Dendraspis angusticeps, Bouleng., t.c, p. 437.

Natal, Zululand, Transvaal, Southern Rhodesia, East and Central

Africa.
Natal : Durban (Butler) ; Zululand (Jones).

2. Dendraspis mamba, Gough, Ann. Transv. Mus. i., 1908, p. 37, fig.
Transvaal.

D.—SOLENOOL YPHA .

Family VIPERID^E.

Synopsis of the South African Genera.

Eye moderate, with round pupil ; head covered with

large symmetrical shields ; loreal present . . . . Causus.

Eye moderate or small, with vertical pupil ; head covered

with scales . . . . . . . . . . . . Bitis.

Eye minute, with round pupil ; head small, covered with

large symmetrical shields ; loreal absent . . . . Atractaspis.

I. CAUSUS.

Wagler, Syst. Amph. p. 172 ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii. p. 465.

Two Species in South Africa.

Snout obtuse, more or less prominent ; ventrals 120-155 C. rhombeatus.
Snout pointed, prominent, more or less turned up at the

end; ventrals 11 3-1 25 .. .. .. .. C. defilippii.

LIST OF SOUTH AFRICAN SNAKES. 461

1, Causus rhombeatus.

Sepedon rhombeatus, Lichtenst. Verz. Doubl. Mus. Bed. p. 106.

Causus rhombeatus, Bouleng., t.c, p. 467.

Tropical and South Africa.

Gape Colony : Cape Peninsula (Tinley) ; Knysna (Oakley) ; Burghens-
dorp (Kannemeyer) ; Tsomo, Transkei (Watermeyer) ; George
(Leipoldt) ; Port St. Johns (Shortridge) ; Kimberley (French).

Basutoland : Mori j a (Dyke).

Natal : Durban (Bowker).

Transvaal : Barberton (Rcndall) ; Krugersdorp (Watson).

Southern Rhodesia : Salisbury (Marshall) ; Mazoe (Darling).

2. Causus defilippii.

Heterodon defilippii, Jan, Arch. Zool. Anat. Phys. ii. 1862, p. 225.

Causus defilippii, Bouleng., t.c, p. 469.

Natal, Transvaal, Southern Rhodesia, Central and East Africa.

Natal : Pinetown (Bowker).

Transvaal : Barberton (Rendall).

Rhodesia : Salisbury (Thomas) ; Livingstone (Sykes).

2. BITIS

Gray, Zool. Miscell. p. 69 ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii. p. 492.

Six Species in South Africa.

I. Nostrils directed upwards ; scales in 31 to 41 rows . . B. arietans.

II. Nostrils directed upwards and outwards ; scales in

21 to 31 rows

A. Supraocular region not raised, without horn-like

scales ; sub-caudals well developed and smooth

in both sexes.
Outer row of scales smooth . . . . . . . . B. peringueyi.

Outer row of scales keeled . . . . . . . . . . B. atropos.

B. Supraocular region raised, without horn-like

scales ; sub-caudals well developed and smooth

in both sexes . . . . . . . . . . B. inornata.

C. Supraocular region usually with horn-like scales ;

sub-caudals, in females, small and scale-like,

more or less distinctly keeled.
Several supraorbital horns . . . . . , . . B. cornuta.

Supraorbital horn, if present, single . . . . . . B. caudalis.

1. BiTis arietans.

Vipera arietans, Merrem, Tent. Syst. Amph. p. 152.

Bitis arietans, Bouleng., t.c, p. 493.

Tropical and South Africa, Arabia.

Cape Colony : Cape Peninsula (Oakley) ; Paarl (Hugo) ; Port St. Johns

(Shortridge) ; Port Elizabeth (Moorhousc) ; Little Namaqualand

(Peringuey).
Basutoland : Morija (Dyke).
Natal : Victoria County (Bowker).
Southern Rhodesia : Mazoe (Darling) ; Hunyani River (Thomas) ;

Salisbury (Thomas).
Sou th- West Africa : Damaraland (Fairbridge).

2. BiTIS PERINGUEYI.

Vipera peringueyi, Bouleng. Ann. & Mag. N. H. (2) ii., 1888, p. 141.
Bitis peringueyi, Bouleng., t.c, p. 495.
South-West Africa, Kalahari, Angola.
Walfisch Bay territory (Nightingale), type.

462 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

3. BiTIS ATROPOS.

Coluber atropos, Linn. S. N. i. p. 375.

Bitis atropos, Bouleng., t.c, p. 495.

Cape Colony, Transvaal.

Cape Colony : Cape Peninsula (Fairbridge, Layard, Lightfoot) ; Knysna

(Oakley) ; East London (Wood) ; Port Elizabeth (Drege.

Moorhouse).
Transvaal: Lydcnburg (Kilgour).

4. Bitis inorn.\ta.

Echidna innorata. Smith, 111., Kept. pi. iv.
Bitis innorata, Bouleng., t.c, 496.
Cape Colony.

5. Bitis cornuta.

Vipera cornuta, Daud. Hist. Rept. vi. p. 188.

Bitis cornuta, Bouleng., t.c, p. 497.

Cape Colony, South-West Africa.

Cape Colony : Cape Peninsula (Oakley, Ogilvie) ; Calvinia, Clanwilliam
(Schlechter) ; Worcester (Le Fevre, Paynter) ; Serowe, Bechuana-
land (Schonland) ; Little Namaqualand (Turle) ; Tulbagh
(Klcinschmidt).

6. Bitis caudalis.

Vipera caudalis, Smith, 111., Rept. pi. vii.

Bitis caudalis, Bouleng., t.c, p. 498.

Angola to the north part of Cape Colony and Southern Rhodesia.

Cape Colony : Little Namaqualand (Hirsch, Scully, Thomas, Turle) ;

Victoria West (Piers) ; Serowe, Bechuanaland (Blackbeard).
Southern Rhodesia : Insiza (French).

3. ATRACTASPIS.

Smith, 111., Rept. ; Bouleng. Cat. Sn. iii. p. 510.

Two Species in South Africa.

Ventrals 221-260 .. .. .. .. .. A.bibronii.

Ventral 199 .. .. .. .. .. .. A. duerdeni.

1. Atractaspis bibronii. Smith, op. c, pi. Ixxi. ; Bouleng., t.c, p. 515.
Cape Colony, Natal, Zululand, Transvaal, Portuguese East Africa,

South- West Africa, Angola.
Natal : Durban (Bowker).
Transvaal : Barber ton (Kolbe).
Portuguese East Africa : Delagoa Bay (De Coster).

2, Atractaspis duerdeni, Gough, Albany Mus. Rec, ii., 1907, p. 178, fig.
North East Kalahari.

DESCRIPTION OF NEW SPECIES.
Glauconia gracilior.

Snout rounded ; supraocular present, not much larger than the frontal,
a little broader than long ; rostral about one-third the width of the head,
hardly twice the width of the nasal, not extending posteriorly beyond the
level of the eyes, in contact behind with the frontal and the supraoculars ;
nasal completely divided into two ; ocular bordering the lip, between two
labials, the anterior of which is very small. Body very slender, its diameter
90 to 110 times in the total length, 14 scales round the body. Length
of tail 10 to 15 times in total length. Uniform blackish brown. Total
length, 230 mm.

Numerous specimens from various localities in Cape Colony (Van
Rynsdorp, Robertson, Clanwilliam, Matjesfontein).

CHAPTER XIV.

Items of Snake Knowledge.

a summary in brief form of the contents of the book
and additional information.

Snakes evolved from Lizard-like creatures with legs.

Fossil remains of Flying Reptiles have been discovered. They had
membraneous wings and tails, Uke those of bats. Their long bill-like
jaws were toothed.

Birds evolved from reptiles. The reptile developed membraneous
wings. Later, feathers were evolved.

Snakes are reptiles. Birds evolved from reptiles, therefore birds are
relatives of snakes.

Snakes are found all over Tropical and Temperate portions of the
world, excepting New Zealand.

No traces of snakes have ever been found in New Zealand.

In South Africa there are Bun-owing Lizards which have no trace of
legs. They shine like burnished copper. Their tails arc blunt. They
are usually mistaken for snakes.

Some snakes lay eggs. Others give birth to young.

Snakes' eggs have no hard shell like those of birds. The covering of
the egg is soft, but tough and leathery.

Snakes lay their eggs in warm places, such as holes in the ground, and
amongst decaying vegetation. When vegetable matter is decaying it
generates heat sufficient to hatch snakes' eggs.

Snakes only have one active lung. It is a long hollow tube.

A snake's heart will continue beating, sometimes for fifteen minutes or
more, after its removal from the body.

If a snake's head be cut otf, its heart will continue to beat, often for
a whole day.

Snakes hiss by expelling air forcibly through the glottis and nostrils.
They do not make any actual sound.

Snakes crawl by moving their ribs. Also by wriggling. The ribs
operate the shields on the abdomen. These shields are elevated and their
edges grip the ground, tree, or whatever the reptiles crawl o\'cr.

A man may become immune to the bite of any particular kind of snake
by injecting himself with venom of the same species. He must start
with a very small dose, and gradually increase it. Such an experiment
is not to be recommended. It might prove fatal.

463

464

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

The Grass and Sand Snake, when alarmed, ghde off over the stunted
herbage and grass with quick undulating motions. So quick are the
movements that, to the eye, they seem to be bowling along like a hoop.
Colonists know these as Whip Snakes.

When a Puff Adder is about to strike he w-ithdraws his head and
bunches up his body. He can propel himself the full length of his body.

'^;i^T»^-^^ife^

■7 -^ ■■■•■-■ • "^

Fig. J64. — Three great chums — a Black Mole Snake, a baby Python, and a baby boy.

Puff Adders do not strike backwards. In the act of striking they throw
the head well back, then forwards or sideways.

There is no such reptile as a Two-headed Snake. People often call
the blind Burrowing Snake (Typhlops), a two-headed snake because of its
blunt tail, which has the appearance of a head.

ITEMS OF SNAKE KNOWLEDGE.

465

Tlie Ringhals Snake, althou!=;h belonging to the Cobra family, has
keeled scales like those of the Puff Adder.

A snake strikes with its fangs so quickly that the eye cannot follow
the movement of the head.

Snakes eat rats, and these rodents in turn devour young snakes and
snakes' eggs.

A large barn rat introduced into a cage containing seven Puff Adders,
killed three of them by biting them at the back of the neck. It ate a
portion of one.

Puff Adders have several pairs of duplicate fangs. The active pair of
fangs sometimes attains a length of three-quarters of an inch.

A Puff Adder possesses about 150 pairs of ribs.

Snakes are the most graceful of all reptiles. The Siamese call them
" Sunbeams."

Most Pythons possess two horny spurs in the tail region. These are
the last vestiges of legs. They are useful for gripping purposes when the
reptile climbs or swings from branches.

Fig. 165. — Young snakes emerging from the eggs. They rupture the soft shell with the nose.

All snakes can swim.

During a recent flood in Baaken's River Valley, at Port Elizabeth,
a great number of snakes were washed out to sea. The incoming tide
cast up their dead bodies in hundreds.

The nostrils of Sea Snakes are placed on the top of the snout.

The lung of a Sea Snake extends nearly the whole length of its body.

When on land, Sea Snakes are helpless and blind.

The scales of Sea Snakes are, in shape, just like the wax cells of the
honey bee (six-sided).

Many cases are on record of people dying after being bitten by Sea
Snakes.

The existence of a sea serpent of monstrous size still remains unproven.

The rattle of a Rattlesnake is a number of hollow horny segments at
the end of the tail. These are loosely joined together, and when vibrated
make the characteristic rattling sound.

The horns of the Hornsman Adder are upright scales above the eyes.

2 H

466 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

The word Sepedon, which is the generic name of the Ringhals Snake,
means " Noxious tooth, or a tooth causing putridity."

If the active pair of fangs of a snake be extracted, another pair will
take their place in about a month's time, sometimes less or more.

If they are naturally shed, the new fangs are ready for action in a few
days.

The American Boa, known as the Anaconda, is stated to attain a length
of 36 feet.

Carvings of serpents are found on nearly all the ancient Egyptian
sculptures.

In India, carvings and drawings of serpents are to be seen everywhere.

From pre-historic times, the favourite personal adornments, such as
rings, bracelets, clasps, etc., have been fashioned after the form of a
serpent.

Most savages attribute great virtues to the various portions of a snake's
anatomy. Portions are utilized as charms, and as medicine.

The ancient temples of Mexico were beautifully ornamented with
carvings of snakes.

Snake worship in India amongst the low-caste Hindoos is still very
common. In consequence, they will not kill a serpent.

If a serpent should intrude into a house, the Indian reverently entices
it into a vessel and carries it away to the jungle.

In Africa many natives refuse to kill Pythons, as they think such an
action would bring many evils upon them.

Indians are great believers in snake stones, spells, sacrifices, and herbs
for the cure of snake bite.

In South Africa there are dozens of so-called cures, which are of little
or no value.

Many people die, not of the effect of the snake bite, but of the treatment
for the cure of same.

One of the South African " cures " is to sjambok the victim to keep
him awake.

In classic times, ancient doctors were great believers in soups, decoctions,
etc., of Vipers. We read of such things as viper wine, viper broth, viper
salts, powdered viper, viper oil, etc., prescribed for various human ailments.

Snakes hear chiefly by vibrations of sound conveyed through solid
substances.

t

When travelling along beaten foot-tracks through snake-infested bush
or grass by day or night, it is a good plan to carry a jingling stick, and
strike the ground with it every few steps. Snakes hearing the noise will
crawl out of the way.

Horses, dogs, and most warm-blooded animals seem to possess a
power of intuition which warns them of the proximity of a snake, although
it may not be visible.

The hiss of a snake will cause alarm in ail warm-blooded animals.

I caused a snake in a box to hiss loudly near a cage containing a dozen
Cape Baboons and Vcrvct Monkeys. They instantly showed signs of wild
alarm, and set up an unearthly chattering.

Snakes in captivity suffer a great deal from ulcerated mouths.

ITEMS OF SNAKE KNOWLEDGE.

467

They frequently injure themselves through striking their heads against
the glass of the cage, when lunging at spectators.

Snakes do not thrive in captivity, unless their places of confinement
are more or less the same temperature as their native haunts.

Snakes do not grow a new tail if theirs should be accidentally cut off.
Many lizards, on the contrary, grow new tails.

Pythons which refuse food may be fed once a week on lumps of beef
and dead rats. The food must be forcibly pushed down the throat of the
reptile Avith a smooth rounded stick. It can then be easily worked down
to the stomach with the fingers.

To prevent the Python disgorging the meat, tie a ligature between the
meat and the mouth. Keep it on for about half a day. Don't tie it too
tightly.

Fig. 166. — Back view of head and neck of the venomous Shield Snake (Aspidelaps
scutatus), so-called because of the large curved shield on its snout.

Pythons in captivity become very sluggish and allow themselves to be
handled without any protest, beyond an occasional hiss.

Pythons have been known to fast for at least two years.

Many of the native tribes of South Africa will devour the flesh of the
Python whenever opportunity offers. The flesh is tender, and has a nice
flavour when grilled.

The Aglypha snakes are those whose teeth are solid, without any trace
of grooving. They are all harmless.

Mole snakes vary in coloration more than any other species of South
African snake.

The Dasypeltis snake, or Eier Vreter, is the only snake in the world
which has a special apparatus in its backbone for sawing the shells of eggs.
This consists of a long row of bony processes tipped with enamel, jutting
into the gullet in the neck region.

468 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Opisthoglypha snakes are those which possess fangs set halfway back
in the upper jaw. This division of snakes is all more or less venomous.
They are in the transition stage of fang development.

The Boomslang has been proven to be as venomous as the Cobra.

Boomslangs are timid, and retreat into trees or other herbage on the
least alarm.

Boomslangs and Mambas are tree-frequenting snakes.

During November, 1907, Mr. James Williams was bitten by a Boom-
slang, and nearly died.

During 1909, seventy-eight cases of deaths from snake bite were regis-
tered in South Africa. This docs not include Basutoland, Bechuanaland,
and most of the native territories.

The fluid spat out by the Ringhals or Spitting Snake is pure venom.

The fluid will kill just as rapidly if injected subcutaneously as the venom
taken from the gland of the snake.

Black and yellow Sea Snakes are often cast up on shore by the tides
along the South African coasts. Beware how you handle them. They
are highly venomous.

They are bright yellow on the underparts and sides, and black
above.

There are four varieties of Cape Cobra. They all belong to the same
species. They differ in colour only. In captivity Cobras often iight and
kill each other.

The neck ribs of the Cobra are longer than the rest. They form a rough
half-circle on each side of the neck, when raised.

The neck skin of a Cobra is loose. When irritated a Cobra elevates
the ribs of its neck, forming what we term a hood.

Seven Cobras had a pitched battle in a cage in the Port Elizabeth
Museum. They were all bitten and died. Some lingered for two
months.

The fangs of the Cobras are not nearly so long or curved as those of
the Adders.

Ringhals or Spitting Snakes frequently feign death when attempts are
made to capture them.

If a Ringhals should spit in your eyes, get them washed immediately
with a very weak solution of permanganate of potash. If there is no
permanganate at hand, wash well with water, and put bland oil into the
eyes.

The Mamba is the most dreaded of all South African snakes.

Never attack a Mamba in the bush unless you arc well armed, and
are prepared to shoot it dead. If you only wound it, you will surely be
bitten.

Mambas are very plentiful in the bushy parts of Natal, Zululand and
Eastern Transvaal.

The Green and the Black Mambas are of the same species. They
differ in colour only.

ITEMS OF SNAKE KNOWLEDGE.

469

I

The green variety of the Boomslang is frequently mistaken for a Green
Mamba. The Mamba's head is more triangular-shaped than that of the
Boomslang. Its fangs are right in front, whereas those of the Boomslang
are halfway back in the jaw.

There are fourteen kinds or species of the Cobra family, and eleven of
the Adder family of snakes in South Africa.

The Puff Adder hisses more loudly than any other South African snake.
It is the typical viper of South Africa.

A snake's heart has three cavities — one ventricle and two auricles.

Snakes are called cold-blooded creatures because the temperature of
their bodies is so much lower than that of the mammal class of
animals and birds, all of which are what we term warm-blooded.

All reptiles are "cold-blooded." Their temperature rises and falls with
that of their surroundings.

Snake venom, if swallowed, is harmless, unless there is some abrasion
of the mouth and throat, or if the stomach and bowels be inflamed. In

I

Fig. 167. — Snake stone, showing the concave side which is applied to
the scarified site of the bite of a snake. It is it inches long by
ij inches broad, and a little over one-eiKhth of an inch thick. It
is a calculus from the abdominal cavity of a sheep, and is com-
posed of phosphate of lime and a little carbonate.

this case it might be absorbed through the broken surfaces direct into the
blood.

Snake poison, when swallowed, is digested just as food is.

In case of snake bite instantly scarify the wounds with a penknife or
lancet and rub in permanganate of potash crystals. Then apply a ligature
above the bitten part to prevent the poisoned blood getting into the general
circulation.

Snakes cannot crawl over perfectly smooth surfaces.

The fangs of snakes are either hollow, or else grooved on their front
surface.

If a snake has no grooved or hollow fangs in its mouth, it is one of the
harmless kind.

The typical Adders have long hollow fangs.

The Cobra Family have grooved fangs, not nearly so long as those
of Vipers.

470 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

All the Viper and Cobra Family of snakes are venomous.

One of the Viper snakes of South Africa has taken to burrowing in
the ground. In consequence, its body has become quite round (cylindrical) .
The poison glands of these snakes are situated one on each sMe of the head.

These glands manufacture the venom and store it up.

When a snake bites, certain muscles wring the poison glands, causing
the venom to run through a narrow channel, and down the hollow or
grooved fang.

The Night Adder of South Africa is a remarkable exception to the
general rule. Its poison glands extend for about three inches down its
back. They lie on each side of the backbone, as seen in the illustration.

Snakes eat rats and mice in great numbers. Rats and mice breed
very quickly, and would soon become a great plague to us if their numbers
were not kept in check.

The Mole Snake and House Snake are quite harmless. They are both
good rat-catchers. They are our friends, and should never be killed.

Some snakes swallow eggs whole. They cannot suck eggs.

The stomach juices dissolve the shell and release the contents.

The Dasypeltis or Egg-eater Snake of South Africa has teeth in its
backbone. These are its saw. It swallows an egg, saws the shell, and
spits it out.

Snakes have many natural enemies. Mungooses, Meercats, and
Muishonds eat them. So do most of the birds of prey.

Most snakes are cannibals. They not only eat those of other species,
but of their own too.

Snakes do not chew their food. It is swallowed whole.

Snakes do not cover their prey with saliva before starting to swallow it.

Saliva runs abundantly into the mouth during the swallowing process,
and lubricates the prey as it passes down the throat.

When injured or alarmed, a snake will usually disgorge anything it
may have swallowed.

Pythons, Mole Snakes, House Snakes, and some other kinds of non-
venomous snakes kill their prey by throwing two or more coils round it,
and crushing it to death.

Venomous snakes never constrict their prey. They kill or paralyse it
with their venom.

The forked tongue of a snake is not its sting. The tongue is very
sensitive and acts as a feeler, like the tips of your fingers, or a cat's whiskers.

Most snakes live upon the ground, although the majority can climb.

Others live almost entirely in trees. They are known as arboreal or
Tree Snakes.

Some kinds of snakes live entirely in water. All the Sea Snakes live
in the ocean, and feed on fish and other marine creatures.

The Sea Snakes are all poisonous. They have a flattened oar- like tail
for propelling themselves through the water. They breathe air like other
snakes.

ITEMS OF SNAKE KNOWLEDGE. 471

Snakes eat many kinds of living creatures, mostly rats, mice, lizards,
frogs, toads, and birds.

Snakes are not migratory.

On the approach of winter, snakes crawl away into crevices, holes,
under refuse, behind the bark of trees, etc., and lie dormant, more or less,
till the springtime. During this time they do not eat or drink.

Snakes love warmth and sunshine. It is life to them.

Snakes strongly dislike the smell of disinfectants. The fumes kill
them.

The oil from the stem of a tobacco pipe, if put into the mouth of a
snake, will almost instantly kill or paralyse it.

One drop of this highly poisonous oil will kill the largest serpent.

Some snakes are quite blind. They burrow in the ground, and look
more like worms than snakes. The head and the tail look nearly alike.
Some people say they are two-headed snakes.

Most of these burrowing snakes have a small spine on the end of the
tail. None of them are venomous.

South African Pythons grow to 25 feet in length. They prefer rocky
moist valleys, where there is plenty of water.

A Python can swallow a full-sized Duiker Buck.

A snake's mouth and throat can stretch enormously. The bones of
the lower jaw are not joined in front, consequently they can be pushed
wide apart. The skin of the mouth and throat stretches like indiarubber.

Pythons often refuse to eat in captivity.

South African Pythons lay as many as 50 eggs. They average 5J oz.
in weight.

A Python was dug out of an Aard Vark's hole. It was found coiled
up around a large batch of eggs right at the bottom of the hole. It was
hatching them.

Some snakes kill their prey by constriction. Others by poison. Some,
such as the Green Water Snakes, simply swallow their victims alive.

The bones of a snake's head are loose. That means they are not
firmly joined together in the rigid manner of those of the higher animals.
Snakes' teeth are for grasping or holding their prey.

The teeth are recurved. They are sharp and pointed.

There are three classes of snakes — the Front-fanged or typical venomous
snakes, the Back-fanged snakes which are more or less venomous, and the
Solid-toothed snakes, which are harmless. The latter do not possess any
grooved teeth or venom glands.

A Boa Constrictor in the London Zoo swallowed her blanket. When
it was pulled out it looked like a huge sausage, and was wet and slimy.

Snakes' eyes are protected from injury by a transparent scale in front,
which is like a tiny watch-glass in shape.

A Boomslang in the Port Elizabeth Museum swallowed a full-grown
Green Water Snake. It was irritated with a stick, whereupon it disgorged
its victim, which was none the worse, for, within a minute of being cast
up, it caught and swallowed a frog.

On another occasion a Boomslang swallowed another, and was forced
to disgorge. It began again and swallowed it a second time, and was
again made to disgorge. The victim was as lively as ever, and did not
seem unduly alarmed.

472 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

In the Port Elizabeth Museum two snakes will often seize a frog. Both
start swallowing. When their noses meet, the larger usually engulphs
the smaller and swallows him whole, frog and all.

The study of snakes is called Ophiology.

People speak of the " Wisdom of the Serpent." They have no more
wisdom than a lizard.

Snakes are animals, inasmuch as they belong to the great Animal
Kingdom.

Snakes are classed as Reptilia, of the Order Ophidia.

Snakes can be divided into five groups, viz., Burrowing Snakes, Tree
Snakes, Fresh-water Snakes, Sea Snakes, Terrestrial or Ground Snakes.

Snakes hunt for their prey mostly during the daytime, and the early
part of the evening.

They also issue forth on warm moonlight nights. On the slightest
approach of chilliness of the air they retire to their retreats.

Snakes have been known to live over two years without food.

Young Puff Adders, born in the Port Elizabeth Museum, grew two
inches in length and a quarter of an inch in breadth, without food. From
the moment they were born, till three months later, they refused all food,
yet they grew in length and girth.

As soon as the young'of the snakes are born they shift for themselves.
Their mothers take no heed of them.

Snakes are not very hardy. When injured, even slightly, they fre-
quently develop abscesses and die.

If a snake's brain and its heart, or either, be removed, it will squirm
a long while.

After severing the head the body of a snake will wriggle, coil and quiver
for many hours.

If the nose be irritated, the jaws of the severed head sometimes open,
the fangs spring erect, and the mouth closes with a snap.

Snakes can penetrate into the innermost retreats of rats and mice,
hence their great value as vermin destroyers.

Learn which are the harmless kinds of snakes, and protect them.
They are your friends. If you want to make certain, send them to the
author of this book, and he will be pleased to tell you.

Snakes in captivity when kept warm will accept dead food.

Snakes hunt chiefly by sight and smell.

In Bcchuanaland, a Cobra was found in a fowl house with five whole
hens' eggs inside it. The Cobra was killed, the eggs taken out and set
under a hen. They all hatched out into health)^ chickens.

Another Cobra was discovered in a hen's nest. It immediately dis-
gorged six eggs entire, there not being a crack in any of them.

Indians sometimes catch Cobras by placing fowls' eggs inside a wire
cage in the snakes' haunts. The Cobra enters between the wires, swallows
one or more eggs whole, and consequently cannot escape.

The author had a pet ICnglish canary. One morning he found a snake
coiled up inside the cage, asleep. It had swallowed the bird whole, and
CO jld not get through the wire bars of the cage.

ITEMS OF SNAKE KNOWLEDGE.

473

set a wire rat-trap,
found

Next morning a half-grown Black-

One night he
necked Cobra was
inside the cage, witli a rat
in its stomach.

The Mole Snakes and
Boomslangs in the Port
Elizabeth Museum some-
times swallow pigeons'
eggs whole. The shell is
dissolved within twenty-
four hours or so by the
snakes' gastric juices.

The gastric or stomach
juices of a snake can digest
bones, skin and horn.

Snakes drink by suck-
ing the water into their
mouths.

Snakes do not suck
eggs. If egg-shells are
found with a portion
bitten out and the con-
tents gone, probably a
Leguan, Meercat or a
Mungcose has done it.
Snakes cannot bite bits
out of egg-shells, or bore
holes into them.

The tongue of a snake,
when in repose, is with-
drawn into a sheath in
the lower jaw. The end
of the windpipe lies over
this sheath.

Snakes cast their skins
regularly. It comes oft
inside out in a complete
condition, even to the
transparent eye scales.

Pythons often sink
themselves in water with
the nostrils only above the
surface. In this position
they lie and watch for
animals coming to drink.
The victim is seized by the
nose when it stoops to
drink.

Natural History know-
ledge in the i8th century
was evidently at a low ebb.
An author in 1796, in
writing about a snake,
says ; " He hisses like a mountain eagle, and he bellows like a bull."

474 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Snakes are living barometers. They grow active, lively and strong
when the air is warm and the sun shining. In the degree that the air
grows cold, they, in that degree, become sluggish.

A snake may be quite stiff, and to all outward appearances dead, but
on being warmed it will revive.

The suspension of the vital forces in reptiles during the cold season
can be compared to that which vegetation undergoes in winter.

When snakes hibernate, they live upon the fat they have accumulated
during the summer. This fat accumulates in the abdomen in little cakes,
connected with tissue.

Python fat is in great request among South African natives as a
lubricant for rheumatism and pulmonary complaints.

A Python has about 300 sections to its backbone, and 150 pairs of ribs.

It is not true that Cobras suck cows and goats. They are found in
cattle and sheep kraals, drawn thither in search of rats, and the warmth
given off by the animals.

A young snake will live four months, sometimes longer, without food.
Most of them, however, die within two months after birth, if not fed.

Snakes have strong prehensile or gripping power in their tails. In
the Pythons and Tree Snakes it is highly developed.

There is a widespread belief in South Africa that a snake, known as
the Hoop Snake, swallows its tail and bowls itself along like a hoop. This
is not a fact.

Permanganate of potash is of little or no use unless applied within ten
minutes of being bitten.

Permanganate of Potash has no antidotal effect if swallowed.

Don't keep a ligature on for more than half an hour to an hour. If you
do, there is grave danger of mortification.

The only scientific antidote for snake bite is a scrum. It is made
polyvalent, and is prepared from the venoms of African snakes. This
special kind is of high antidotal power.

The active principle of practically all the patented "cures," except
the serum and permanganate of potash, is strychnine and ammonia.
These are nerve and heart stimulants only. They do not possess any
antidotal power. Some of these so-called antidotes have certain herb
extracts in them. All, which I have tested, have been quite worthless.

Don't waste your money on these, and risk loss of life.

Provide yourself with the proper serum, permanganate, lancet and
serum syringe, and you are safe.

The Bushmen of old in South Africa used snake poison largely in the
poisoning of their arrow-heads.

They first enraged the snake, for in doing so the glands got full, and
the venom was more virulent.

To prevent the snake wasting his venom, they held it down by pressing
its head against the ground and preventing it opening its mouth.

Cobra venom acts rapidly on the nerve-centres, causing paralysis and
rapid death.

ITEMS OF SNAKE KNOWLEDGE.

475

Fig. 169. — A happy family basking in the genial South African sunshine.

476 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Adder venom acts chiefly on the blood and the walls of its vessels,
causing haemorrhage into the tissues.

Adder venom acts much more slowly than Cobra venom.

The venom of every species of snake differs somewhat in its action.

The widest difference is between the Cobra family and the Adder
family of snakes.

A serum is now prepared by immunizing horses to the venoms of the
different classes of snakes.

It is, therefore, an antidote to the bite of any kind of venomous
snake.

The mortality in India from snake bite, until lately, has averaged
20,000 a year.

All the popular antidotes in India have been proved to be worthless.

Dosing a man with large quantities of alcohol for snake bite is dangerous.

The mythical Dragon is believed to have had its origin in the Python,
of which there are many species inhabiting Asia and Africa.

In a Chinese work entitled " Shan Hai King " dating from 350 a.d.,
a great snake is referred to which possessed two pairs of wings.

In China and Japan, the mythical Dragon is represented as being more
or less snake-like, but in the other parts of the East and the West it differs
more or less in shape.

The Greek word " drakon " actually meant a large snake, and is so used
by Aristotle and other classical writers.

On a Greek vase is the painting of a great serpent called a Dragon
guarding the tree in the garden of the Hespcrides on which grew the
golden apples, in quest of which, according to Greek legend, the hero
Hercules went. The figure represents a large horned serpent coiled round
the trunk of a tree on which the golden apples are hanging, while the
figures of the Hesperides and Hercules are shown standing near.

According to Bible history it was a great serpent who guarded the
forbidden fruit and which tempted Eve to take and eat.

The serpent was worshipped from exceedingly remote times, long
before the origin of the Jewish nation.

The ancient Egyptians worshipped a great serpent-god called " Ha-her "
or " great Lord of fear and terror." They believed that to him the wicked
would be handed over and frightfullj- tortured.

The much-feared Evil Spirit of the Scandinavian mythology was a
great snake.

In Revelation xx. i, 2, it says, " The dragon that old serpent which is
the Devil and Satan."

In the East even at the present day the serpent is regarded as being pos-
sessed of an evil spirit and used by unseen powers for purposes of vengeance.

Herodotus and Pliny believed in the existence of winged snakes. The
belief in winged snakes probably arose from eels, which are snake-like
in sliape and possess fins, which would on drawings and carvings take the
shape of wings.

In Dutch Guiana the negroes believe that if the leaves of three species
of trees are taken, pulverized and applied to the scarified site of the bite,
it is a certain cure for snake bite.

ITEMS OF SNAKE KNOWLEDGE.

477

The Cobra {Naia tripiidiaris) is considered to be the most venomous
species of snake in India. The Krait {Bungarus coeruletis) comes ne.xt.

In South Africa the Mamba and the larger species of Cobras are the
most venomous species. Their venom is swift and potent in its poisonous
action upon the nerve centres.

Dried snake venom looks like light straw-coloured gum arable. It
does not actually crystallize. It assumes the pseudo-crystalline form.

When snake venom decomposes it gives off carbonic anhydride gas,
becomes dark brown in colour, and smells disagreeably.

Fig. I/O. — .A young Mole Snake (Pseudaspis cana). These Snakes are brown with squarish black
spots and white dots running in rows the whole length of the body. They change colour
when adult.

Mineral • acids when added to snake venom produce a gelatinous
sediment.

Snake venom when mixed with pure alcohol throws down a white
sediment. Its poisonous properties are, however, not lessened.

Some common .symptoms of snake bite in a dog are vomiting, saliva
running profusely from the mouth, and a " staring coat."

One drop of Cobra venom will kill a man.

An adult cobra can eject ten to fifteen drops of venom at a time. The
usual quantity, however, is about six drops.

An adult Indian Cobra will yield as much as 20 drops of venom. Some
give 25 to 28 drops.

478 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Snakes kept a few months in captivity yield less than one-half the venom
that they are capable of in the wild condition.

Cobras and Mambas are far more to be dreaded than Adders, because
their venom acts so rapidly.

Adder venom being much slower, there are better opportunities of
applying remedial measures with success.

Solutions of venom in pure glycerine will keep indefinitely.

In a liquid condition it will keep good a couple of weeks in a corked
bottle. It then decays and loses its poisonous properties.

Cobra venom specially paralyses the nerve centres of respiration in
the top of the spinal cord, known as the Medulla Oblongata.

Most snake venoms act upon the nerve cells of the central nervous
system.

One drop of the venom of a Cape Cobra injected into the hind leg of a
dog killed it in one hour five minutes.

Boomslang venom, bulk for bulk, is as powerful as Cobra venom. One
drop will kill a large dog or a monkey.

Curari, a South American poison of vegetable origin, like snake venom,
has no bad effect if swallowed, but if injected under the skin acts Uke
snake venom.

There are people in South Africa who actually believe that if a man be
inoculated with snake venom, no poisonous serpent will ever attempt
to bite him. They say the snake knows by instinct he is proof, so they
refuse to waste their venom. Snake " instruction " is evidently badly needed.

Snake venom dissolves readily in water. It is usually injected in
.solution with water when experimenting.

Snake venom may be dried between slips of glass and stored away
in a dry, dark place. It will keep fresh for a lifetime.

One of the methods of treating snake bite in India is to sit round the
bitten person and chant charms.

For technical details of the anatomy of Snakes, see " Encyclopaedia
Britannica."

Snakes are not as a rule proof against their own venom, but it usually
takes a big dose to kill an adult snake.

Snakes often die when bitten by other snakes, or if venom is artificially
injected in very large doses.

The poison of one snake is not an antidote to the venom of another.
If rubbed into the wound it considerably increases the chances of death.

The head of a venomous snake is often dried and pulverized. It is
popularly supposed to be a cure for snake bite. It is the very reverse.

Quinine is of n<j antidotal value as a remetly for snake bite, either
injected or applied to the wound.

If a large Cobra bites a dog or other animal, and if the bite be full and
complete, enough venom gets into the circulation within t\so seconds to
cause death. Permanganate of potash and ligaturing fail to avert a
fatal issue.

An exce.ssively minute quantity of Cobra venom is sufl&cient to kill
a fowl or rabbit.

ITEMS OF SNAKE KNOWLEDGE.

479

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48o THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Permanganate of potash, if injected in solution direct into a vein, is
attended with grave danger.

The Bird Snake {Theltornis) is oviparous.

The Cape Wolf Snake {Lycophidium capense) is oviparous. One laid
a batch of eggs in the Port Elizabeth Museum on 8th December, 1909.

The popular belief is untrue that snakes will not pass under geranium
bushes. I have often seen them do so. A Puff Adder was actually
killed lying asleep under a large geranium bush.

When Mole Snakes shed their skin it comes off in pieces, not in one
whole piece. This is owing to their small heads and comparatively large
bodies.

All snakes can swim, and are fond of water. Many tra\'cl long distances
on rivers, drifting down with the current.

Most species of South African snakes retire to their retreats when dark-
ness sets in.

The Adders are exceptions. They are frequently encountered abroad
at night.

ADDENDA.

The letterpress and illustrations in the Addenda, with con-
siderable additions, were to have been incorporated in this book in
their proper places, but the cost to the publisher was prohibitive
owing to the abnormally high price of paper and printing.

481 2 I

A.

Some Experiments at the Government Veterinary
Research Laboratories, Pretoria.

Dr. Theiler, the able Director of the Veterinary and Research
Departments of the Union of South Africa, has recently started
a series of experiments with the object of ascertaining the exact
pathological effect of the venom of each species of South African
poisonous snake. For this purpose I have supplied him with
various venomous snakes. The experiments are in their initial
stages ; but Dr. Theiler has kindly sent me the following instructive
article by his assistant, Mr. W. Horner Andrews.

A Baboon bitten by a Boomslang.

The Baboon was bitten on the shoulder by a Boomslang at
noon on December 29, 191 1.

On the following day there was considerable cedematous
swelling at the site of the bite, extending down to the elbow.
The Baboon was at first fairly active, but later became dull and
depressed. By 5 p.m. she was lying down, although still able to
stand and walk, but still very depressed.

On the morning of the 31st the Baboon was very poorly,
refused food and water, and lay for a long period on one
side.

In the evening she was more inclined to cat and drink, but
was very weak.

January ist saw a very decided improvement, although still
weak and depressed. After this there was a very rapid recovery.

She was again bitten by a Boomslang at 12.33 P-^"- oi
January 23. The snake bit exceptionally well, seizing a fold
of skin over the abdomen, holding on for about four minutes,
and worrying it.

483

484

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

At 4 p.m. there was a distinct swelling at the site of the bite,
and this swelling increased in size and extent until the following
morning.

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No general symptoms were shown until about 5 p.m. (4I hours
after the bite), when there was slight dullness. This depression

RESULTS OF OTHER EXPERIMENTS. 485

increased slowly, but at 11 p.m. the Baboon was still playing
languidly.

The followng morning she was lying down, ^^^th the eyes
closed, and unable to rise or move to any extent, although quite
conscious.

At 3 p.m. the animal was very weak, and respiration was
slow and stertorous.

Death occurred at 3.20 p.m. (twenty-seven hours after the bite).

Before death the skin showed a large livid area over the
abdomen.

In the post-mortem, the most striking points were —

(i) Haemmorrhagic infiltration occurring subcutaneously in
patches, quite remote from the bite.

(2) Haemmorrhage into the caecum and colon.

(3) Apparent degenerative changes in the liver (not yet

studied histologically) .

(4) Excessive anaemic pallor of most parts.

Results of Other Experiments.

In experiments on the effects of Snake Venom on domesti-
cated animals, undertaken recently at the Veterinary Research
Laboratory, Onderstepoort, Pretoria, I have subjected some
twenty-five horses, mules, and sheep to the actual bite of Cobras
{Naia flava and nigricollis), Boomslangs, l^nghals, and Puff
Adders.

Amongst the animals bitten by each species of snake, there
have been some showing an acute onset of sjmiptoms, ending
rapidly in death, some taking a more chronic course, but with
a fatal termination, and others ending in recovery.

In these cases, blood has been taken at intervals, and examined
with the following results : —

(i) No appreciable diminution has ever been seen in the
number of red corpuscles, as determined by the
haematocrite.

(2) In no case has any haemoglobin coloration of the plasma

or serum been observed ante-mortem.

(3) In a few cases there has been a marked difference in the

coagulabihty of the blood.
Thus in cases of two sheep dying fairly quickly as a result

486 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

of Boomslang bites, blood taken before death appeared ,to have
lost entirely the power of coagulating, and this was also seen
in one case (out of six) of Puff Adder bite. Partial loss of co-
agulability was seen ante-mortem in one case of Cobra bite in
a sheep, and in several cases post-mortem coagulation appeared
to be incomplete.

It would appear from our experiments that, in the majority
of cases of snake bite in larger animals, no structural alterations
in the blood can be observed during life. There may, however,
be a diminished coagulative power, and this is seen especially
as a result of the bite of a Boomslang.

It will be necessary to confirm and ampUfy these results by
further investigations.

W. Horner Andrews.

B.

The Venom of the Schaapsteker.
{Another back-fanged Snake.)

The Schaapsteker is one of the back-fanged division of snakes.
The fangs are set halfway back in the upper jaw. They are
grooved, and Uke all the back-fanged snakes the Schaapstekers
possess poison glands. These glands, however, are not some
distance from the fangs nor connected wth them by tiny ducts
or tubes, as is the case with front-fanged snakes. The glands
are situated immediately under tlie skin. One end of the poison
gland comes against a hole in the upper jaw in which the fangs
are set, and the venom oozes down through this hole into a
mucous sheath which envelopes the fangs. The venom is of
greater consistency than that of the typically venomous front-
fanged snakes. It collects in this mucous sheath. When the
snake bites, in order to get the venom into the wound, it is
obliged to take a firm grip and press the fangs strongly into the
flesh. The longer it is allowed to grip and worry the flesh, the
more venom it will force through the fangs. It is generally
believed that the Schaapsteker, as its name implies, is in the
habit of biting sheep. The fangs of these snakes are so small
that even if a full grip were obtained on a sheep's leg, they.

THE VENOM OF THE SCHAAPSTEKER.

487

except perhaps in a very few instances, would not penetrate
the tough skin of the animal. I have tried repeatedly by allowing
Schaapstekers to bite the legs of sheep, but in no instance was

Fig. B. — Somelive Boomslangs inoneof the snake cages at the old Port Elizabeth iMuscum.
These cages were each 4 feet square, with plate glass on the four sides. The door was
covered with strong wire gauze, and a strip was inserted in the roof of the cage. This
provided sufficient ventilation. A gas apparatus and hot-water pipes supplied heat.

488 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

there any appearance of the fangs having penetrated through
the skin, nor was there the shghtest symptom of poisoning
manifested in the animal. Many times I have been bitten on
the bare hands by Schaapstekcrs, but in no case did I give the
reptile time to get a full grip so as to work its fangs well home.
Slight discoloration of the part bitten, and a certain amount of
pain in the glands of the armpit supervened. However, in the
majority of cases there was not the slightest symptom of
poisoning.

Startling Results of Experiments.

I allowed five newly-captured Schaapstekers [Trimerorhinus
rhombeatus) to bite the bared legs of five fowls. Each snake
was permitted to take a full grip and hold on for several seconds.
Three of the fowls showed no symptoms of poisoning. One
became drowsy and died in about six hours. The other moped
for a day, but recovered completely. The flesh for an inch
around the site of the bite was a light greenish-yellow, and the
whole leg was slightly swollen. Taking another batch of fowls,
six in number, I caused six different Schaapstekers to bite them
on a part of the thigh previously bared. Each snake was allowed
to hold on for several seconds. In two of the fowls it was noticed
that immediately under the two punctures made by the fangs
slight discoloration occurred, showing that the fangs had really
gone through the skin and ruptured some capillary blood-vessels.
In both these instances the fowls died. One died in ten minutes,
the other in seventeen minutes.

These experiments were repeated until it was clearly proven
to me that, should the Schaapsteker succeed in fully penetrating
the skin, and should it be able to force a little venom through,
its toxic effects were very powerful and rapid. The poison is
evidently more or less akin to that of the Cobra, for no haemor-
rhage occurred in any part of the body. This shows that the
poisonous principle which kills in the Schaapsteker venom is a
powerful neurotoxin.

It is a difficult matter to collect venom direct from back-
fanged snakes. However, I succeeded and discovered that,
weight for weight, Schaapsteker and Boomslang venoms were
more poisonous than those of the dreaded Cobra or Mamba.

Here we have two species of snakes of the back-fanged

SCHAAPSTEKERS COMPARATIVELY HARMLESS. 489

division which distil a venom of a nature surpassing in its death-
producing power that of the well-known Cobra.

The Schaapstekers experimented with were the Spotted or
Rhombic species {T. rhombeatus). Although some other snakes
are termed Schaapstekers, the Spotted or Rhombic species is
the typical Schaapsteker of South Africa.

Schaapstekers Comparatively Harmless,

Although it has been shown that the Schaapsteker has a venom
which, in strength, exceeds that of the Cobra, it is not a snake
which we need fear overmuch. The fangs are small, and being
set halfway back in the jaw, the reptile is obliged to get a full
grip before venom can be ejected. The venom is not driven out
forcibly by the violent constriction of the venom glands, as is
the case with the front-fanged, typically venomous snakes. The
venom is like glycerine in consistency, and the snake is obliged
to press the fangs fully home, and at the same time compress
the jaws forcibly and worry the flesh before a fatal dose of poison
can be worked into the wounds.

A Schaapsteker is incapable of doing harm if it should bite
at a man's leg clothed in thick trousers. Even if the sock be of
average thickness, the chances of poisoning are remote.

Bare-legged natives, although frequently bitten by Schaap-
stekers, seldom come to any harm, for the reason that the instant
the snake strikes and grips the skin, it is violently kicked off.

James Williams, of Boomslang fame, has many times in my
presence been bitten by Schaapstekers, but no symptoms of
poisoning supervened. In these instances the snakes merely
pecked and inflicted a sHght wound with the teeth, but failed to
get a strong grip and hold on. However, it must be borne in mind
and not forgotten, that if an adult Schaapsteker should obtain
a full grip and succeed in driving its fangs through the skin and
be allowed to compress its jaws for a moment or two, it is capable
of injecting sufficient venom to cause death in a man within six
to twelve hours.

Therefore, let all take warning and be careful how they handle
these snakes. In fact, every snake of the back-fanged kind
should be handled as carefully as those of the typically venomous
front-fanged species, such as the Cobra and Puff Adder.

490

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

More about Ringhals — A Crafty Dodge.

The cunning Ringhals Kapcll not only sends out a shower
of venom at its enemy to blind him, and thus effect its escape
while he is suffering agonies of pain and is staggering about

in a dazed and blinded
condition, but it actually
simulates death. When
the Ringhals Kapell
realizes that escape is
impossible, it frequently
pretends to be dead. Its
body becomes limp, it
turns partly or wholly
over on its back, its jaws
gape, and to all intents
and purposes it is dead.
You may turn it over and
over with a stick, but not
a sign of life will it show.
It will lie in the position
m wliich it is thrown.
However, tliis deadly ser-
pent is wide awake all the
time. Through its trans-
parent eye scales, its un-
winking eyes register every
move of the enemy, and
should he be unwise enough to approach A\ithin striking dis-
tance, this apparently dead snake becomes electrified. With a
fierce forward thrust, it drives its fangs home with deadly
effect. Should the I^nghals Kapcll succeed in deUvering a full
bite, it is capable of injecting eight to ten drops of venom into
its victim. A single drop is a fatal dose for a man.

Once I was anxious to get a good photograph of a specially
fine Ringhals which w^e had at the Port Elizabeth Museum, so,
thrusting it into a box, we carried it out to the neighbouring
veld. Casting it upon^^the ground, we got our apparatus ready

Fic. C. — Head of a Spotted or Rhombic Schaap-
stckcr (7". rhombcaius) showing the fangs.
These are situated halfway back in the upper
jaw under the eyes. (Natural size.)

BITTEN BY A RINGHALS. 49T

to take a photo when it reared, for we desired its photograph
with hood expanded. The reptile would not do anything of
the kind. It lay as though dead. Its mouth gaped, and its
head and neck were twdsted in the attitude of a snake which
had recently died. We prodded it with long sticks and turned
it over and over, but not a sign of life did it show.

Becoming bolder, my .assistant ventured rather near. Then,
in a second the snake reared a foot and a half of the anterior
part of its body, and the venturesome man received a shower of
finely-sprayed venom on his face and coat. Fortunately he had
pre\dously donned a pair of curved spectacles, so none got into
his eyes. We carefully inspected his face to see if there were
any abrasions. He felt rather nervous because he had shaved a
few hours previously and his skin was tender in places. A few
minutes later I noticed thousands of tiny specks of venom,
glistening in the sun, on his blue serge coat.

After this ineffectual attempt to blind its aggressor, the
Ringhals glided away, endeavouring to find some place of con-
cealment. Getting annoyed, I prodded it with my stick, where-
upon it again reared and, this time, sprayed my face, neck and
coat with venom. I too wore spectacles, so no harm was done.

Bitten by a Ringhals. Injecting Normal Salt Solution.

Dr. H. Claude Wright, Medical Superintendent of the Victoria
Cottage Hospital, Wynberg, Cape Province, writes me as
follows : —

" A railway labourer was admitted to hospital at 2 p.m.,
having been bitten by a Ringhals at 11 a.m. He was collapsed,
livid, and semi-conscious — almost pulseless, which was very
rapid and uncountable. He was approaching death. I adminis-
tered a large dose of brandy, and immediately transfused him
in the left median vein to the extent of three and a half pints of
Normal Saline Solution, at the same time opening the median
vein in the right arm. At first very little blood flowed out, but
as the dynamic pressure asserted itself due to the saline, he bled
freely to the extent of a quart by measure, some being lost in
the bed. His condition thereupon improved, and, with the
addition of plenty of hot boric and brandy, by the night he was
much better. His convalescence was uneventful with the

492 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

exception of mortification of the finger, which I subsequently
amputated. There had been no Hgature placed around the
finger, so the mortification was not due to strangulation. The
finger, on admission, was soaked in strong carbolic solution,
and subsequently in strong permanganate of potash. There was
evidence that the snake was a Ringhals, and as the man was so
near death when admitted, I presume the remedy was successful."
The Normal Saline Solution injected by Dr. Wright is made
as follows : 7875 grs. sodium chloride (common salt) dissolved
in 20 ozs. of sterilized water.

D.

A BooMSLANG Bite.

Mr. G. W. Pretorius was one day walking among some prickly
pear bushes at Uitcnhage, when he disturbed a Brown Boom-
slang in the grass. It struck out at him and gripped the calf
of his leg. He endeavoured to kick it off, but failed. Stooping
down he seized it by the body, plucked its head away and threw
it from him. Although he had ordinary trousers on, the fangs
penetrated them and made two jmnctures in his skin. He
improvised a ligature and applied it. Dr. McPherson, the
District Railway doctor, was soon in attendance. He scarified
the wound freely and otherwise treated him. Some hours after
the infliction of the bite, Pretorius fainted away, and remained
insensible for some time.

The ligature was kept on for some days, being slightly loosened
at short intervals. Tlie bitten limb swelled considerably, and
extensive haemorrhage occurred in it. Blood slowly oozed
from all the mucous surfaces, particularly the nose and mouth.
For a month Pretorius lay in bed in a critical condition. For
the first week his stomach rejected all food. For some days
water was vomited when swallowed.

For ten days and more, he suffered severely from pains in
the bowels. In fact, his symptoms were similar to those described
in the case of James Williams, except that the haemorrhage was
chiefly confined to the leg wliich was bitten ; also the mucous
membranes. This was doubtless due to the ligature which pre-
vented the venom passing into the general circulation in sufiicient
strength to cause subcutaneous haemorrhage in other parts, as

A BOOMSLANG RITE. 493

was the case with Williams. For two years after recovery,

Fig. D. — A few of the author's live Schaapstckcrs, by the aiil of which he demonstrated that

their venom, weight for weight, was as potent in its death-dealing properties as that of

the Cobra.
The two with straight lines down their bodies arc commonly known as Crossed Grass Snakes

(Psaminophis crucifcr). The others are Rhombic or Spotted Schaapstckcrs {Trimcro-

rhinus rhombeaius) .

Pretorius suffered from giddiness and mental torpor whenever
the weather was unusually warm. To prevent himself falling

494 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

he was obliged to lie down for hours at a time. These symptoms
grew less and less severe as time wore on, and have now almost
disappeared, although at times when he is out for long in the
hot summer sun, he feels faint and dizzy.

Although the snake escaped, there is no doubt about it being
a Boomslang, as Pretorius knows a Boomslang as well as I do.
He informs me that the snake ghded up a dense mass of prickly
pears and rapidly slid away out of sight amongst them. Tliis
is rather remarkable when it is rcaUzed that a hedge of prickly
pears is smothered with long, sharp, straight thorns sticking out
at all angles.

E.

The Isolation of Madagascar and Australia.

There is very strong evidence for believing that Madagascar
was, in remote times, joined to the mainland of Africa, and that
Austraha was a part of Asia. Now, even the study of snakes
helps us in coming to such a conclusion, and even suggests the
period at which the separation took place.

In Madagascar there are no front-fanged [Proteroglypha)
snakes such as the Vipers and Cobras. They are all of the
hind-fanged {Opisthoglypha) and sohd-toothed {Aglypha) species.
This indicates that snakes had not evolved a typical poison
apparatus prior to the separation of Madagascar from Africa,
otherwise we should have found them there, for Africa is teeming
with the front-fanged species of snakes. This fact leads us to
conclude that ^Madagascar was isolated at a very remote period
of time, and that the separation of Australia from the mainland
of Asia occurred at a more recent period, because we find numbers
of species of front-fanged, typically venomous snakes in tliat
country. We thus infer it was isolated after snakes had fullj^
evolved their poison apparatus.

^Moreover, in Australia, there are no snakes of the viper (adder)
family, although there are plenty of them on the mainland of
Asia. Tliis fact would seem to indicate that the viper family
of snakes have evolved at a more recent period than the Colubrine
group of venomous snakes.

Further, snakes have never been known in New Zealand.

ISOLATION OF MADAGASCAR AND AUSTRALIA. 495

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496 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

We miglit reasonably infer from this that New Zealand was
isolated prior to the evolution of snakes from lizards or lizard-like
creatures. It is reasonable to assume, too, that if New Zealand
had been joined to Australia or any other snake-infested territory
we should find snakes still living there.

F.

Potency of Mamba Venom.

Mr. Hector McKenzie-Shaw, Government Land Surveyor,
related to me the details of the sad death of the well-known
young farmer referred to in the chapter on the Mamba. He
was present when the deceased was bitten by the Mamba, and
remained with him till his death. His account is as follows :
" We had been out hunting, and on returning to the wagon,
which was about a hundred yards distant, my friend trod upon
a large Black Mamba which instantly bit him on the front
part of the left foot, just above the top of the boot. Without
an instant's delay we tied hgatures above and below the
punctures, scarified the part and rubbed the wounds full of
permanganate of potash crystals. I then put on another
ligature above the knee, and yet another at the top of the thigh,
tightening them with a stick and screwing it round. Arriving
at the wagon, I sucked the wound thoroughly and gave him half
an ordinary tumbler of brandy, and placing him on a mattress,
covered him up with blankets and kindled a large fire at his side
to keep him warm. At intervals we gave him doses of brandy.
In all, he drank about half a bottle of it. The snake inflicted
the bite about three o'clock in the afternoon. For the first hour
my friend was somewhat excited, and talked and laughed with
us. Then he calmed down, and was perfectly normal apparently,
and complained of nothing except diarrhoea and an unpleasant
twitching of the muscles of the mouth and tongue. Hour after
hour went by, and we chatted away beside the cheerful fire,
planning out many things for the future, never dreaming for one
moment that this was the last day for my friend, who seemed
none the worse for the bite. A little before 9 p.m. I noticed
he was less talkative, and that his eyeUds were getting puffy.
From this time onward he seemed to be rather tired. Then,

POTENCY OF MAMBA VENOM.

497

I

I

I'iG. F.— A Ringhals Cobra shamming death.

Sending three showers of finely-sprayed venom in quick succession at my face, and realizing

it had net blinded me as it hoped, it forthwith turned over on its back and pretended

to be dead.
The pictures sLow it in various death-like attitudes.

2 K

498 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

at 10 p.m. without any warning he clutched his throat desperately
and sprang with a bound to liis feet, threw liis arms out, gripped
his throat again, and with a desperate effort tried to speak to
me, but as he was uttering my name his breath failed and he
collapsed upon the ground, struggled, and was dead in five
minutes. All this came upon us with such startling suddenness
that we were appalled. In laying him out I noticed that the
entire left side of his body \Vas stiff and rigid, while the right
side was quite relaxed. He evidently had had a paralytic
stroke just before death. On remo\ang the clothes from the
body I noticed an irregular line of dark purple of varying
diameter up to two inches, running from the site of the bite up
the left side, over the left shoulder, up behind the ear to the base
of the skull. There was no swelling or discoloration other than
this livid band anj^vhere about the body, nor was there any
haemorrhage from the mucous surfaces. Diarrhoea was more or
less pronounced from the time he was bitten till his death. I
mentioned this livid line running from the wound up to the
skull to some medical men, but they seemed to be rather sceptical
about it, but I assure you it is exactly as I have stated to you.

" My friend wa^ exceptionally strong and muscular. In fact,
he was remarkable for his physical strength. He was within
two or three days of being twent3^-one years of age. He was
one of the most fearless and daring of men, but strange to say
he had an absolute horror and dread of snakes. About a week
before his death he stumbled over a Puff Adder and declared that
if he should have another such experience it would be his last, he
would clear out of the country, for he could not stand the sight
of snakes. Poor fellow, liis next experience was indeed his last."

It will be noticed from the above narrative that the per-
manganate of potash and the ligatures were applied almost
instantly after the infliction of the bite. Mr. McKcnzic-Shaw
says not more than a minute or two could have passed before
both operations were completed. The wounds were thoroughly
incised, and permanganate rubbed in freely. We must therefore
conclude that sufficient venom reached the general circulation
within a minute of the infliction of the bite to cause death. It
will thus be seen how potent is the venom of the Mamba.

The symptoms in this case indicate that the venom did not
cause pronounced nerve depression. The actual cause of death

ANAPHYLAXIS OR SERUM SICKNESS. 499

was doubtless the paralysis of the lungs, owing to the poisoning
of the nerve centre in the medulla oblongata which controls
their action.

G.
Anaphylaxis or Serum Shock.

When anti-venomous serum is injected into a man for the
first time in small or large doses, it neutralizes the snake venom
m the blood, and is afterwards cast out of the body without
inducing any constitutional disturbance. However, if a second
dose is given months or years afterwards, serum shock or Ana-
phylaxis often occurs. Anti-venomous serum is made from the
blood of horses rendered highly immune to snake venom. Horse
serum of any kind, if used more than once, will produce serum
shock or serum siclmess. Doctors now use specialized serum for
the treatment of certain diseases, such as diphtheria, plague,
lockjaw, chronic ulcers, etc. ; and to stop persistent bleeding after
an operation.

If a person happens to be bitten by a venomous snake, and if
he has been injected with serum (not vaccine) at any previous
time in his life, anti-venomous serum should not be too hastily
administered. It must be borne in mind that non-venomous
snakes will readily bite if trodden on, or otherwise irritated. A
number of South African species of snakes are only venomous to
a slight degree. The fangs of these are set far back in the jaw,
and when they inflict a bite, as likely as not, the skin will only
be punctured by the solid harmless teeth. Even when a typical
venomous snake bites, it by no means follows that it has inocu-
lated its victim with a fatal dose of venom. In many instances
the quantity of venom injected is so small that recovery occurs
without any treatment. If the symptoms do not warrant an
immediate full injection of serum, then ten drops of the serum
should be injected at once to lessen the subsequent danger from
serum shock when a full dose is subsequently given. The
patient should be watched, and if sure signs of snake venom
poisoning are developing, then inject 10 c.c. of serum. If
this proves sufficient to arrest the developing symptoms of
poisoning, then do not give any more. If, however, the patient
is getting worse, inject a second bottle of 10 c.c, and even
more if the case is a very serious one, especially so if treat-
ment has been long delayed, or the bite is from any species

500

THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

CASES OF SNAKE BITE. 501

of Cobra. Sometimes serum sickness develops within twenty-
four hours, and at other times it docs not appear for three or four
days after the injection. It takes various forms. A sort of
nettlerash appears on the skin in the vicinity of the injection, or
on other parts of the body. This is usually followed by itchiness,
more or less intense. It may be relieved by dabbing the parts
with a cloth soaked in vinegar. Slight swellings, nettlerash, and
the desire to scratch the skin to relieve the irritation are of no
consequence, and soon pass off.

Anaphylaxis.

Severe serum sickness, however, sometimes develops. Swelling
occurs at or near the site of the injection of scrum, and often in
other parts of the body. Sometimes the joints swell and become
painful, and the temperature of the body rises above normal. In
very grave cases of anaphylaxis or serum shock stricture of the
throat develops, and there is more or less difficulty in breathing.

If this symptom does not subside and the breathing becomes
embarrassed, the spasm may be relieved by inhaling a small
quantity of the vapour of chloroform. There is no danger in
administering this, for the reason that the stricture or spasm will
be relieved long before the chloroform produces insensibility.
Should the spasm by any chance cause complete stoppage of the
breathing, artificial respiration must be resorted to.

If one grain of calcium chloride in solution with a little
sterilized or boiled water is injected anywhere under the skin, it
will invariably cut short any symptoms of serum sickness. Should
one dose prove insufficient, give a second dose the following
day. It is, on the whole, the safer plan to give an injection
of calcium chloride a few hours after the injection of the anti-
venomous serum, if the patient has had an injection of serum of
any kind at some previous time during his life, not otherwise,

Cases of Snake Bite.
Those who have read the book, " The Snakes of South Africa,
their Venom and the treatment of Snake Bite," will call to mind
Mr. James Williams. He was bitten by a "Boomslang" and
nearly died. Some time later he was severely bitten by a Puff
Adder in the fleshy part of the palm of his hand. The fangs
were driven home fully half an inch, and both broke off in the
flesh. Williams must have received about two fatal doses of

502 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

venom, for he completely collapsed within twenty minutes and
was sinking into a condition of insensibility. This does not
occur with Puff Adder venom poisoning unless an exceptionally
large dose has been injected. To make absolutely certain of his
recovery, I injected 40 c.c. of the specialized serum I have caused
to be prepared from the venoms of South African snakes. The
following day he was out and about, with his arm in a sling,
smiling his characteristic tired sort of smile. This occurred seven
and a half years ago.

In January, 1920, he was assisting me with some operations
on snakes in the Snake Park at the Museum, and was unfortunate
enough to get severely bitten on the hand by a large Puff Adder.
I subsequently injected him with 10 c.c. of what is now known
as FitzSimons' serum. This cured him completely of the snake
venom poisoning, and all went well for four days. Then serum
sickness set in. His hand and arm at the sites of the two injec-
tions became hot and swollen. Some hours later his mouth and
one eye swelled considerably. When his flesh was pressed, white
blotches appeared and remained for some little time ; a tickling,
itchy feeling started at the feet, slowly advanced up to the crown
of the head and passed off ; a catch occurred in his breath now
and then, and he felt generally weak and ill. These symptoms
reached their maximum within twenty-four hours, and then began
to subside, leaving tiny red spots like flea or mosquito bites on
the skin.

On the contrary, one of my men was bitten and treated suc-
cessfully with 10 c.c. of serum. After an interval of four months
he was again bitten, and I injected him with 20 c.c. of serum.
In this instance there was no subsequent serum sickness, and not
even a rash.

However, it must be carefully borne in mind that if horse
serum of any sort, anti- venomous or otherwise, has been given
at some previous time, the patient will possibly suffer more or less
from serum sickness if again injected. In serious cases of snake
bite it is absolutely necessary to use serum, as there is no other
antidote, or even partial antidote, for snake venom poisoning.

Foreign Sera.

Serum prepared from horses rendered immune to the venoms
of foreign snakes is so weak in its antidotal powers against the

SERUM AND VACCINE. 503

poison of South African snakes that 30 c.c. are needed for the
rapid recovery of even a mild case of snake bite, while a serious
case requires the injection of 60 c.c. and often more. This is
alarming, for the reason that if a dose of 30 c.c. are injected at
one dose without any preliminary treatment, into a person who
is hypersensitive to serum owing to having been previously
injected for snake bite, or for the cure of some disease, it will
possibly kill him.

The urgent need for a serum prepared from the venoms of
the various poisonous snakes of this country is, therefore,
apparent. Ten c.c. of this serum is equal to at least 30 c.c. of
any of the foreign sera.

A dose of 10 c.c. of this specialized serum brought Mr. James
Williams, and two assistants at the Museum, out of the shadow
of death. If Williams, who was hypersensitive to serum, had
received a dose of 30 c.c. of the foreign serum which is being
sold freely in South Africa, the serum sickness which supervened
would have killed him without the shadow of a doubt. If
foreign sera of weak antidotal strength against the venoms of
South African snakes is largely used here there will be more
deaths caused by it from anaphylaxis, or serum sickness, than
cures of snake venom poisoning.*

Serum and Vaccine.

Serum is usually confused with vaccine, both being thought
by many people to be one and the same substance. Serum is a
product from the blood of horses. Vaccine is a culture made
from microbes. Colonies of these are bred and aftcnvards killed.
After many careful and skilful processes have been gone through,
the dead microbes or germs, with their toxins or excretions, are
graded into doses. When finally sterilized and prepared, the
product is termed vaccine.

Vaccines are now used for the purjDose of reinforcing our
bodily resistance against disease, and also for the actual treat-
ment of disease conditions. The injection of the vaccine culture
causes the body to manufacture a potent substance which blends

* Anaphylaxis is the shock which sometimes follows the injection of a
dose of horse serum into a person who has had an injection at some
previous time. It occurs at once or within 24 hours. Serum sickness or
serum poisoning, on the contrary, may develop, as in Williams' case, two
or three days after the injection.

504 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

with the liquid (serum) part of the blood, and acts as a poison to
disease genus. The injection of increasingly large doses of snake
venoms into a horse act in a similar manner, only to a far more
powerful degree. We can, within two years, make a horse
immune to a hundred times an ordinary fatal dose of venom.
The potent venom-killing essence is all in the scrum of the horse's
blood. This is why we use the senim. Serum and vaccine are,
therefore, totally different.

People who have been inoculated at various times with
vaccine do not suffer from anaphylaxis or serum sickness if a
dose of serum is injected into them for the first time.

H.

Intravenous versus Subcutaneous Injection of Serum.

It must be borne in mind that serum injected intravenously
(direct into a vein) is on an average fifty times greater in its
curative effects than if injected subcutaneousl}^ (under the skin).
This is highly important to remember in the treatment of snake
venom poisoning, for the reason that if the scrum comes in
contact with the venom while it is yet in the blood, it will render
it harmless in proportion, of course, to the quantity and quality
of the anti-venene seiTim used. In the case of the Cobras, the
venom, after a time, leaves the blood and enters into combination
with the nerve cells, notably those composing the nerve centres
controlling the movements of the lungs. In the viper (adder)
family of snakes, including the Boomslang, which is a Colubrine
snake, the venom seriously affects the walls of the capillary blood
vessels, causing such changes in the cells as to allow the blood
to flow out into the various tissues. Now, it is obvious that if
the venom has, previous to the injection of the serum, acted upon
nerve cells, and the cells of the blood vessel walls, the serum
cannot repair the damage done. All it is capable of doing is to
neutralize whatever venom remains in the circulation, and so
prevent further mischief. Then, if the damage is not beyond
repair, the inherent curative power of the body will build up new
cells, absorb and cast out the dead blood, and restore the body
to its normal condition. A good all-round plan is to have at
least enough anti-venene serurft on hand for two full treatments,
viz. about fifty cubic centimetres. Then if any one is bitten,
inject one full dose of say twenty-five cubic centimetres in two

RINGHALS KAPELL OR SPITTING SNAKE 505
or three places under the skin, and instantly send for a doctor,

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and then, if he considers the case a grave one requiring more

5o6 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

serum, he can inject the second dose, or some of it, direct into
a vein. Of course in tliose cases where it is impossible to obtain
the services of a medical man or a veterinary surgeon within
a reasonable time, the most capable person in the house should
undertake the injection of the serum into a vein in the manner
stated previously in this volume, if the symptoms are sufficiently
serious to justify this operation.

Residents in snake-infested countries should take a few
lessons in injecting serum into veins and under the skin.

I.

The Saline Solution. An Emergency Measure.

In severe cases of poisoning by the venoms of the Adders
and the Boomslang, extensive haemorrhage occurs. This means
that blood oozes out through the dilated w-alls of the capillary
blood vessels into various parts of the body — mostly into the
muscular tissue and under the skin. Now, it must be remembered
that when the blood thus escapes from the blood vessels it cannot
get back again, and very soon dies.

To keep the heart beating vigorously, it is essential that it
should be supplied with a sufficiency of fluid to give it something
substantial to grip, otherwise it will slow down and eventually
stop. In proportion, too, as the heart becomes less energetic,
so do the various organs of the body decUne in activity and
power to generate an anti-toxin, and also to cope with the venom
and the dead blood and cast them out of the body.

In these cases death is hkcly to occur from lack of sufficient
fluid in the blood vessels. It is advisable in these instances to
inject into the left median vein of the patient, a solution of
common salt and sterilized (boiled) water. This solution is
known as " Normal Sahne " or " Physiological Salt Solution,"
viz. 78 grammes of common salt (Sodium Chloride) dissolved in
20 ounces of sterihzed water. From one to two pints of this
solution may be injected.

The left median vein is the largest vein in the left forearm,
and the right median vein is a similar one in the right forearm.

If extensive haemorrhage has not taken place, or if the snake
which inflicted the bite was one whose venom is a neurotoxin
or nerve poison, then the right median vein of the patient should
be opened and the blood allowed to flow out freely. At the same

THE SALINE SOLUTION.

507

time the left median vein should be opened and a pint or two of

the saline solution injected. By this means a great deal of the

5o8 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

venom is got rid of and its place taken by the salt solution, which
keeps the heart beating vigorously until the body is able to
manufacture a fresh supply of blood to replace that which has
been drained out. Many valuable lives have, in this way, been
saved in cases of ordinary haemorrhage, from a severed artery
for instance. The principal immediate danger of the loss of
blood is nothing more nor less than the loss of fluid to keep the
heart stimulated.

Pure water is never injected, either direct into a vein or under
the skin for any purpose, for the reason that it cau-cs pain and
irritation. Salt must always be added to it.

When any parts of the body of an animal are required for
study, such as nerves or portions of muscles, if they are placed in
pure water they soon die, but if immersed in a saline solution they
will keep alive for hours, only to die of starvation eventually.
For instance, if a snake is killed and the heart is at once taken
out and placed in pure water, it wall very soon cease to beat,
but if put into a saUne solution it will continue to beat for a long
time — often a whole day.

Thus it will be seen what a valuable aid we have in the saline
solution, in the treatment of snake bite, in the absence of anti-
venene serum.

J.

Injecting Ammonia for Snake Bite.

The Eastern Province Herald, Port Elizabeth, recently had the
following : " Lecturing recently at Durban before the Natal
Scientilic Society on ' Some Snakes and their Poison,' Dr. Schulz
explained that while alcohol applied externally and internally
had been proved ineffective, and caustic potash injected on the
bite also failed to cure, the strongest solution of ammonia diluted
to one-half with water had scored unfailing success as poison
destroyer. He mentioned three cases of cure by this means,
and had no failures to record. A hypodermic syringe and two
half-ounce bottles of diluted ammonia, the second a reserve
bottle, could be packed up in the space occupied by a match-box."

Result of Experiments on this Theory.
Diluting the ammonia, as stated above, I tested the solution
on various animals, but it exerted absolutely no curative effect.
If an animal was injected with a fatal dose of venom, it always

RESULT OF EXPERIMENTS ON THIS THEORY. 509

died, although the ammonia solution was injected effectively
in and around the site of the punctures.

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Then, taking three drops of Puff Adder venom, I mixed it
with half an ounce of the strongest ammonia, diluted with half
an ounce of water. This solution was stirred and allowed to

5IO THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

stand fifteen minutes. It was then injected into the muscles of
a large fowl. Three drops of Puff Adder venom were at the same
time mixed with some pure water and injected into another fowl.
Both fowls manifested the same symptoms of poisoning and died
within five or ten minutes of each other.

Other more or less similar experiments were made, but in all
cases the treatment with the ammonia solution did not delay death.
The symptoms were the same as those shown by the control animals

Being desirous of ascertaining if pure ammonia would in any
way destroy the poisonous properties of snake venom, I mixed
a teaspoonful of the strongest liquid ammonia with three drops
of Puff Adder venom and allowed it to stand for half an hour.
The solution was then dissolved with one-half water and injected
into the muscles of a large cock fowl. The symptoms of poisoning
developed in the usual manner, and the fowl died, the ammonia
not, apparentl3^ delaying death in the least. From this experi-
ment it was made evident that even the strongest ammonia
exerted no venom-destroying power, even M'hen actually mixed
in solution with the poison.

K.
Why do Snakes' Fangs Differ in Length ?

Why should the Adder family of snakes have long curved
fangs, and those of the Cobra family be so "comparatively small ?
This problem vexed my mind. Nature has a fixed and definite
purpose in all she does. Those great fangs of the Puff Adder
were not evolved without a distinct purpose. True, they enable
the reptile to inflict severe mechanical injuries upon the small
creatures which are the prey of these snakes. But then, why
should not the Cobras have also evolved large recurved fangs,
for their prey also consists of the same species of creatures.
The viper often grips its prey and holds on till the creature is
dead. So also do the Cobras and other venomous Colubrine
snakes. At other times they strike and instantly withdraw
their fangs, reljdng upon the venom to paralyse their victim
before it can escape out of their reach.

The fangs of a large Cobra are only about a quarter of an
inch long, while those of a Puff Adder are three-quarters of an
inch in length. When the Cobra delivers a full bite, the venom is
shed, mostly on the muscles just under the skin. The Puff Adder, on
the contrar}', drives its fangs deep down into the muscular tissue.

SURPRISING RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS. 511

Surprising Results of Experiments.

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Collecting a quantity of venom from some Cape Cobras and
Ringhals, I carefully measured out doses averaging from half a
drop to two drops. A dose
was injected deep into the
muscular tissue of the thigh
of a fowl. A similar dose
was injected just under the
skin on top of the muscular
tissue. This experiment was
repeated several times. The
poisonous effects were the
same in all cases. Death oc-
curred just as rapidly when
the venom was injected into
the muscles as when it was
placed just under the skin.

I carried out a series of
similar experiments with the
venom of the Puff Adder
wdth surprising results.
Several fowls were injected
with half a drop of the
venom, mixed with a little
water. This was inserted
under the skin of the thigh
with a hypodermic syringe.
The solution spread out over
the muscular tissue, and was
still further diffused by
manipulations with the
finger. The fowls in all cases
recovered. When one drop
of venom was injected,
the fowls, with the exception
of two small weaklings, fully
recovered.

Two drops were then injected into each fowl. All the larger
and more vigorous of the fowls recovered. Those which died

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512 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

did not mope much. They ate and drank as usual, and were
as lively as ever after the first day. Some died in two days,
others survived for a week and eventually died. Selecting the
most robust fowls I could get, I injected into each three drops
of Puff Adder venom, as usual under the skin of the thigh, and
caused it to spread out by rubbing with a finger. Some of the
fowls died after twelve hours. Others Hved for two, three to
four days and died. An average of one-half of those injected
eventually survived.

Taking another lot of healthy fowls, I injected into each
four full drops of Puff Adder venom under the skin of the thigh.
Seven cUed after surviving for periods averaging ten to forty-eight
hours. Most of those which died were, during the first twelve
hours or so, rather dejected, but afterwards apparently recovered
and ate and drank as usual. The injected leg, however, was
in every case hot and swollen. Those which died were hens
and cockerels. Three large healthy roosters made complete
recoveries. After the first day or two they ceased to mope and
showed a disposition to fight and quarrel with each other. From
day to day the injected leg grew less and less congested. After
eight days all swelling had subsided, the temperature was normal,
and com])lete recovery had taken place. No subsequent sloughing
occurred at the site of the injection.

Absence of Usual H.emorril^ge.

When a Puff Adder drives its fangs home into its victim,
the chief symptom is extensive luemorrhage in the muscle tissues
in tiie vicinity of the part bitten. This hc-emorrhage extends
up into other parts and frequently affects the various organs of
the body. Haemorrhage also often takes place into the body
cavities. In animals I examined which died after being bitten
by Puff Adders, the muscles for some distance from the site of
the bite presented the appearance of a soft, pulpy, bloody mass,
very similar to ficsh which had been horribly bruised. It was
apparent that extensive haemorrhage had taken i)lacc from the
capillaries which suppUed the muscle fibres with blood. Often
the whole limb was in this pulpy, spongy, red condition. After
death, when the flesh was incised, the blood ran out copiously.

Strange to say, in all the fowls which died after being injected

VENOM INJECTED INTO THE MUSCLES. 513

with Puff Adder venom under the skin, the muscles were not
affected at all, and there was no hsemorrliage in any of the organs
or into the body cavities. The only haemorrhage which occurred
was between the skin and the muscles of the thigh which had
been injected. In some cases the haemorrhage could be traced
to the top of the thigh and a little way up the side. Even in
those fowls which were injected with four drops of venom, and
which subsequently died, there was a total absence of haemorrhage
into the muscles of the injected part, or of other parts of the body.
This cannot be attributed to the fowls dying too rapidly, or the
full effect of the haemorrhagin principle of the venom to exert
a toxic influence, for the majority survived from twelve hours to
three and even four days.

Venom Injected into the Muscles.

A number of fowls were taken, and into the thigh of each
three drops of Puff Adder venom, mixed with a teaspoonful of
pure water, was injected deep into the muscular tissue. Some
of the fowls died in two hours, and none survived more than
four and a half hours. In all cases from the first five minutes
after injection till death, the fowls moped, but were not insensible
till the last five minutes of Hfe. Several other fowls were injected,
each with two drops of venom mixed with a Httle pure water.
The fowls all died within seven hours. Most of them were dead
in four hours.

In the post-mortem on those which were injected with three
drops of venom, severe haemorrhage was seen to have taken place
into the muscles of the injected leg, as well as up the side and into
the body cavities. The muscles of the leg were saturated with
blood which had oozed through the walls of the vessels, and
presented a soft, pulpy horrible appearance, as is the case when
the Puff Adder inflicts a normal bite into the muscles of its victim.
In those which were injected with two drops of venom, the
haemorrhage, although extensive, botli in the muscular tissue
and under the skin, was not so great, owing to the lesser quantity
of venom.

Conclusions.

These experiments go to show that Puff Adder venom if
injected just under the skin, and not into the muscular tissue, is

2 L

514 THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

comparatively mild in its poisonous effects. Fowls are highly
susceptible to snake venom, and succumb easily. It will be seen
that several fowls actualh' recovered in a week's time after four
drops of pure fresh venom had been injected into them. The
poisonous action appeared to be comparatively slight, for the
only haemorrhage was that which occurred in the injected thigh,
and this was by no means extensive, and moreover, it was all
under the skin, and not in the muscles. L^mipli was the principal
fluid which accumulated. If those fowls had been larger creatures
capable of being }:)roperly treated by draining off this lymph and
blood, and if antiseptics, fomentations, and other restoratives
had been applied, I am assured that many of those which died
would have recovered. Nothing at all was done for them. They
were simply left in their cages and fed and watered.

Why the venom should behave so very differently when
injected under the skin, and when injected deep down into the
muscular tissue, I know not. It is probable that this viperine
venom when introduced under the skin, is not absorbed so rapidly
as when injected into the muscles, and that the vital forces of
the body have time to generate anti-toxic substances to cope
with it as it enters the general circulation, or that the excretory
organs have more time to eliminate it.

In the above-mentioned experiments, the venom was collected
from Puff Adders recently captured. The venom was, in every
case, used within an hour after being shed by the snake. The
manner of collecting the venom was as seen in several illustrations
elsewhere.

The subject is an interesting one for scientific men to pursue.

I think I have solved the problem which puzzled me, viz.
why a Puff Adder should have such long fangs? It is because
the nature of its venom is such that, to have its full poisonous
effect, it must be injected deep into the muscular tissues.

L.

Items of Snake Knowledge.

A Ringhals examined on October i6, 191 1, which is the spring
time in South Africa, had two rows of eggs, thirty in number, the
size of peas, lying along each side of its backbone. These would

ITEMS OF SNAKE KNOWLEDGE.

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have developed full size and hatched within the body. The young
would have been born in the early autumn.

Snakes are often infested with intestinal worms. On several
occasions I have removed a score or more of slender wiry-looking
worms, three to four inches long, from the stomachs of Puff
Adders.

A mother, even if suffering in a slight degree from snake
venom poisoning, should not attempt to suckle lier infant, else
it may die in convulsions. The reason is, that the digestive
fluids of an infant have not the power of chemically changing
the venom.

Statistics show that the mortality among the people of India
in the year 1910 from bites by snakes amounted to the great
total of 22,478. This was owing to extra heavy rains flooding
the jungles and other favourite haunts of the serpents. They
were, consequently, driven out upon the open plains and hillsides
frequented by mankind. Statistics show that in India, for every
one hundred persons bitten by venomous snakes, an average of
twenty-five to thirty die. The average time the venom takes
to kill is from two to twelve hours.

The dreaded Hamadryad {Naja bungarns) of India has been
known to bite a full-grown elephant which, in consequence,
died in three hours.

I made sixteen Puff Adders bite the covered top of a wine-
glass, each snake deUvering one full bite. The result was eighty
drops of venom, which averages five drops per snake. Two
drops is usually a fatal dose for a healthy man. Therefore the
sixteen Puff Adders shed sufficient venom to kill forty men.
When dried, the venom weighed a httle over a gramme, viz.
II I grammes.

There are fewer deaths from snake bite in South Africa than
in India, because the population is less dense, not because the
snakes are less venomous. As the population increases so will
the death rate from snake bite be proportionately great, if the
people will persist in pinning their faith to the various popular
so-called antidotes.

The Ancient Egyptians worshipped the Cobra {Naja haje),
recognizing that it kept the rats from becoming a plague. The
snake was allowed to live and breed unchecked in their cornlands.
The effigy of tliis Cobra is engraved on monuments and stones.

¥

I

ITEMS OF SNAKE KNOWLEDGE. 517

and its embalmed remains have been found. Thus did the
Egyptians show their gratitude for services rendered.

In ancient times when Greece was a great power, the priests
pretended to cure diseases by allowing serpents to crawl over the
patient, by waving them to and fro, and by holding them against
the diseased part, meanwhile muttering some formula. Hippo-
crates, who was born about 460 B.C., and who is commonly styled
" the father of medicine," denounced these priests and their
methods.

The venom of snakes kept in captivity, and which refuse to
eat, is smaller in quantity, but much more poisonous than those
recently captured.

Never attempt to feed artificially a snake when it is showing
signs of wanting to moult (cast its skin).

In certain districts of South Africa the cattle plague, known
as East Coast Fever, has swept off nearly all the cattle. The
result of this is, the grass has grown thick and rank, and the
herbage has developed unchecked. Snakes, in consequence of
the increased protection of luxuriant vegetation, have increased
considerably in numbers.

5i8

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THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

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the snake and slowly pour egg flip down his throat. Meanwhile work the food down to
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THE SNAKES OF SOUTH AFRICA.

INDEX.

Ablabophis genus, 82

Adaptation of snakes to surround-
ings, 41

Adders, 213

Aglypha snakes, 80

Alcohol for snake bite, 325

Alleged cures for snake bite, 309

Amblyodipsas, 127

American snake catcher, 254

Ammonia cure, 332

Amplorhinus, 120

Anatomy of head of venomous
snake, 25

Ancestors of birds, 4-8

Animal ladder of life, 15

Animals, how they are rendered
immune, 391
that eat snakes, 29

Anti-venene serum, 390

Anti-venomous serum, 397
instructions, 426

Aparallactus, 128

Apparently dead, hope of recovery,

434

Artificial respiration methods, 432-

433
Aspidelaps, 165
Atractaspis adder, 220

vipers : habits of, 243

B.

Back-fanged snake, 118

snakes, list of, 116-
128
Berg adder, 232
figure of, 240
another figure of, 242
habits of, 243
Bewitched snakes, 278
Bird that eats snakes, figure of, 339 1

Bitis, key to the species, 216
Black and yellow sea snake, 15G

fangs of, 157
Blood, how it is made, 289

we poison it, 299
its circulation, 300
Boodon, 84
Boomslang, a cannibal, 136

a man bitten, 141, 147
another man bitten,

144
dissected, 152
effects of being bitten,

142
experiments, 145
that bit Williams, 143
Boomslangs, a handful of, 154

and their habits, 148
are highly venomous,

140, 146
just captured, 149
the fangs of, 141
what naturalists say,
13S
Boulenger's systematic list of

African snakes, 441—462
Brain and nervous system, 283
its functions, 284
the seat of intelligence, 285
of a man, 286
cells showing poison, 287
and the spinal cord, 288
Breathing apparatus, 20
Bruin slang, 170
Brunton's first-aid instruments,

401
Burrowing snakes, 50
Bush snake, 97

Calamelaps, 127
Cannibal boomslang, 264
cobras, 177

537

538

INDEX.

Cape Cobra, 170

Captive snakes and birds, 260

Capturing a python, 63

Carbolic acid cure, 332

Catching live snakes, 268

Caustics, 331

Causus, key to the species, 215

Centipede, 312

Chamaetortus, 120

Changing the skin, 16

Chlorophis, 86

Circulation of blood of snake, 24

the blood, 297
Classification of animal life, i

what it means, 2
Climbing powers of snakes, 37
Cobra and meercat, 177
mungoose, 37
mungoose fight, 177
bites children, 171
experiences, 172
hood-expanding apparatus,

176
in a schoolroom, 180
on the watch, 179
poison apparatus, 176
swallowing puff adder, 178
venom symptoms, 367
yellow variety, 173
Cobras, dentition of, 163

fed with other snakes, 183
hoods, 174

key to the species, 163
synopsis of genera, 162
yellow variety, 182
Collapse through fear, 394
Collecting snakes, 270

venom from cobra, 371
Columbrine venom, 3G6
Constriction, 33
Coral snakes, 195
Cow-milking snakes, 265
Cross-marked snake, 122
Crust of the earth, 9
Curari and snake venom, 436
Cures for snake bite, 309
whicii kill, 330

D.

Dasypeltis, 90
Death from cobra bite, iSi
Death-head moth, 312
Demon adders, 233
Dendraspis, 169

Desmond FitzSimons and his

snakes, 261
Digestive organs of a man, 290
Dipsademcrpliina;, 115

synopsis of S. African genera,
no
Disgorging prey. 36
Dispholidus, 127
Distribution of snakes, 12
Dried snake \'enom cure, 334
Duels with snakes, 27

E.

Ears of snakes, 14
Eating, tlic science of, 294
Egg-breaking mechanism, 104
Egg-eating snakes, 102

eater at work, 105
dining, no

eater robbing a bird's nest,
108

eaters in captivity, 106

eater's sense of smell, 112

swallowing process, 106
Eggs of snakes, 18
Eier vreter, 102
Elapechis, 166
Elapinaj, 160
Elixir of life, 295
Enemies of snakes, 26
Evolution of birds, 3

reptiles, 3
Exciting incident, 279
Exercise, 302

Expanding power of snake's jaws, 35
Experiments, 309

with alcohol, 325

with anti- venomous serum,

witli artificial respiration, 432
with cobras, 378
with Croft's Tincture, 323
with Horniballs Patent Won-
derful Extract, 328
with permanganate of potash,

382
with Isibiba, 315-322
with snake venom, 340
on animals, 438
Eyes of snakes, 14

F.

Fangs of snakes, 23, 344

for comparison, 36 1
Puff Adders, 349

INDEX.

539

Fascination, how it is done, 257

wrong conclusions, 258
Feeding animals on venom, 362

snakes on live animals, 280
Fibrin ferments, 356
File snakes, 96
FitzSimons' first aid instrument, 401

snake bite outfit, 395
Food converted into blood, 292

of snakes, 38
Formalin for pickling snakes, 274
Fowl flesh cure for snake bite, 328
Fresh water snakes, 42
Front fangcd snakes, 160

G.

Gall of snake cure, 333
Garter snake, 195
snakes, 169
Geel slang, 170
Geko lizard, 312
Glauconia snakes, 55

skulls of, 56

list of, 57
Grass snakes, 130
Green water snakes, 92

H.

Haemorrhage into tissues

Habits of snakes, 45

369
and mortification, 370
Haemorrhagins, 355
Hankered after his gall, 65
Harmless snakes, 81, 102

key to the species, 82-90

list of, 82
Health laws, 292
Herald or Red-lipped snake, 134
Heroism of birds, 258
Hibernation of snakes, 43
Hissing, how it is done, 20
History and distribution of snakes,

12
Homalosoma, 90
Homorelaps, 168
Honey ratel, 324
Hope of recovery for apparently

drowned, 430
Horned adder, 215

figure of, 240

habits of, 241

head and neck of, 218
Horniball's Extract, 328
Horse-hair ropes, 265
House snake, adventure with, 93

House snake, bitten by, 94

swallowing rat, 93
House snakes, 92

pictures of, 95
How to catch live snakes, 251

collect venom, 371-373

become immune, 392
Human heart, 296

physiology, 283

pipes that carry air, 298

stomach, 295
Hydrophina;, 156 .

key to the species, 158
Hydrus platurus, 158-159
Hypersensibiiity, 393
Hypnotism, 262

Identification of snakes, 49
Immunizing animals to snake

venom, 391
Intestines, 291
Ipecachuana cure, 331
Isibiba cure, 315

K.

Kafir superstitions, 277
Knots, how to tie them, 405

L.

Lady witli armful of snakes, 263
Lamprophis, 83

Lancet and permanganate com-
bined, 401
Legless lizards, 53
Leptodira, 120
Ligaturing the arm, 403

leg, 402
Liquor potassa^, 331
Living self-acting pump, 295
Lycophidium, 84
Lympathics, what they arc, 303

that suck up venom,
306
Lymph, what it does, 303

M.

Macrelaps, 128

Mamba, 194

a kafir killed, 205
bit and killed a kafir, 208
distribution of, 212
do green ones turn black,
202

540

INDEX.

Mamba, farmer's extraordinary ex-
perience, 209
green variety, 199
how a dog protected its

owner, 207
how he rushes, 211
killed Mr. Claude Moller,

210
king of S. African snakes,

207
poison apparatus, 205
, sleeping, 206
Mambas, black and green, 196

how and why they change

colour, 198
their habits, 197
crested, 203-204
inflating body, 204
Meercats and snakes, 30
Methods of injecting serum, 408
Microbe eaters, 301
Microbes of disease, 293
Migration of snakes, 43
Mole snake, 98

and its young, loi
and boy, 464
young specimen, 477
snakes and how to handle
them, 275
and snake venom, 381
are harmless, 100
as pets, 275
constricting rats, 103
heads of, 86
Muishond or Stink Cat, 28
Muishonds fighting snakes, 30

N.

Naia, 163

Nature's resistance, 369

Nerve cells and snake venom, 288

Nervous collapse, 394

Neurotoxins, 355

Night adder, 215

bit and killed a man,
236
Night adder, habits of, 233
head of, 216
laying eggs, 235
venom of, 234
wonderful poison
glands of, 237
Night adders, 232

are oviparous, 239
hatching, 19

O.

Obsession, 278
Olive-brown water snake, 91
Opisthoglypha, 115
Organs of the human body, 291
Outfit for treating snake bite, 395
Oviparous adder, 245
snakes, 19
Oxygen, what it does for the blood.
299

P.

Paralysis of respiratory nerve

centres, 431
Paralysed with fear, 260
Parasites on snakes, 44
Permanganate of potash treatment,
382
tested, 383
Phagosytes devouring microbes,

301
Philothalmus, 87
Poison apparatus, 343

and how it works,

353
fangs, 25

its elimination, 437
of snakes, 359

its effects on other
snakes, 378
Poisonous snakes, 342
Poisons, how they are conveyed to

the cells of the body, 302
Port Elizabeth snake catcher,

250
Preserving snakes in spirit, 272
Progression of snakes, 21
Prosymna, 88
Proteroglypha, 156, 213
Psammophis, 122
Pseudaspis, 85

Puff adder and batch of young ones,
224, 471
a modern Jonah, 227
dissection of, 219
eaten by red ants, 227
extracting its venom,

373-375
head, and vagina dentis,

346
how it strikes, 228, 350
of South Africa, 220
adder's fangs, 213, 221
adder swallowing a rat, 36,
226, 232, 357

INDEX

541

Puff adder up a Dutchman's trouscr
leg, 229
ddcrs, deaths by, 230

egg and young, 222
how they kill their

prey, 225
how the young are

born, 221
in captivity, 223
poison apparatus, 237
the sexes, 229
vary in colour, 229
Python, an adventure, 71
and buck, 74
and buck-hunting incident,

72
and his boy chum, 464
and his boy friend, 64
and Klip Dassie, 70
and the cock, 72
an exciting adventure, 6g
a sensation, 65
constricting a buck, 66
figure and skeleton of,

59

head of, 58

smashing crockery, 77

steak, 79

swallowing a bird, 73
Pythonadipsas, 119
Pythons, 57

and kafir superstitions, 65

artificial feeding, 75
Pythons' eggs, 70
Pythons' fasting powers, 78

legs, 78

in Cape Colony, 79

on a krantz, 67

on the watch, 63

their haunts and diet, 60

R.

Red-lipped or Herald snake, 134
Reptiles living and extinct, 10
Rhachiodontinse, 90
Rhampiophis, 121
Ringhals, 175

experiments with, 378
cobra, 183

and young, 184, 193
bespattered glass with venom,

188
consequences of being bitten,

191
effect of the venom upon the
eyes, 190

Ringhals, experiments with the
venom, 190

fierce and aggressive, 187

how one was captured, 185

how they spit, 189

how to hold it, 192

how we photographed him,
186
Roode-lip slang, 134
Royal Python of Senegambia, 281

Salivary glands and teeth, 290
Salt-water snakes, 43, 157
Sand snakes, 124
Scarifying, how to do it, 404
Schaapsteker, a battle, 132
Schaapstekers, 130
and eggs, 131
Scorpions, 326
Sebiba cure, 315
Secondary treatment of snake-bite,

426
Sense of smell, 20
Sepedon, 165

Serum, and how to get it, 395
FitzSimons' outfit, 408
how to inject it into arm,
406
into leg, 4O9
into vein, 419
instructions in brief, 426
its effects, 396
polyvalent, 424
treatment and its imita-
tions, 399
treatment of animals, 413
treatment of snake bite,
390
Shield snake, 195
Shields on snakes' heads, 48
Simocephalus, 85
Smelling out a man, 65
Snake blood and gall cure, 336
catcher at work, 251
charmers, 246

at work, 248
charming explained, 249
eating bird, 339
houses, 47

knowledge in brief, 463-480
stones, 336
venom, 352

effect if swallowed,
338

542

INDEX.

T.

Tanjorc pills, quinine, etc., cure, 333
Tarbophis, 119
Teeth of snakes, 22, 344
Thelotornis, 126
Three-cornered snakes, 96
Tonpues of snakes, 14, 361
Treatment of snake bite, 400
secondary, 42<S

Snake venom, how it is sucked up,

304
how to collect it,

372
its nature and effects,

342
Snake-killing Tom cat, 31
Snakes and lizards, 13

and their mates, 266

can they fascinate their

prey, 256
changing their skin, 16
eating eggs, 32
hatching, 463
how to capture them, 268-

269
how to collect and preserve

them, 270
how to feed them, 271
how to pickle them, 276
how to stuff them, 276
in captivity, 282
in houses, 34
not tenacious of life, 47
sucking eggs, 33
swallowing their prey, 39
their uses, 25
Solenoglypha, 213
Solid toothed snakes, 80
Special first aid instrument, 401
Spirits of ancestors in snakes, |

279
Spuug slang, 170
Stockholm tar cure, 328
Strychnine cure, 332
Surroundings of snakes, 43
Symptoms of cobra venom poison-
ing, ?,(^7
viper venom poison-
ing, 369-370
Systematic hst of S. African snakes,
441-462

Trimerorhinus, 121
Tropidonotus, 82
Typhlops snakes, 31

heads and tails, 54

list of species, 52

skulls, 51

V.

Vagina dentis, 346
Venom, Colubrine, 366

different kinds, 366
effects on non-venomous

snakes, 380
effects on other snakes, 377
how it gets in and out of

the blood, 307
how it is absorbed, 388
how it is discharged, 348
how it poisons the nerve

cells, 288
how to destroy it, 305
is digested, 365
its constituents, 355
Viperine, 368
Venomous snakes and their poisons,

342
distribution of,

161
synopsis of genera ,
162
Venoms differ in their pathological

action, 392
Vinegar cure, 333
Viperidae, 213
Vipers, synopsis of genera, 214

their distribution, 214
Viviparous snakes, 19

W.

What to do if bitten, 400

Whip snake, 124

Why people recover wlicn bitten by

snakes, 394
Williams, the snake catcher, 252
with bag of snakes, 255
Williams with captive snakes, 253

Z.

Zwart Kinghals, 185
slang, 98

INDEX TO ADDENDA.

A.

Anaphylaxis, 499

Ammonia as an antidote for snake bite, 508
experiments with, 50S

B.

Boomslang, bitten by a, 491

Experiments with venoms at Government Researcli Laboratory, Pretoria,

483
surprising results of, 4S3

F.

Fangs of snakes, why they differ, 510
First aid treatment, 506

M.

Mamba, young farmer's fatal bite from Mamba, 496

N.
Normal salt solution, 506

Puff Adder, venom injection under the skin, 509-10

venom injection into the muscles, 509, 513

R.

Ringhals simulates death, 490

spat in a man's face, 491

bitten by a, 490

bite treated with normal salt solution, 491

543

544 INDEX TO ADDENDA.

s.

Schaapstekcrs, venom experiments, 488
highly venomous, 488
starthng results of experiments, 488
comparatively harmless, 489

Snakes in Madagascar and Australia, 494

Snake knowledge in brief, 514-517

Serum sickness, 499

Intravenous versus Subcutaneous injection, 504

Saline solution as an emergency measure, 506

Stimulants, 430

T.

Treatment of snake bite, 426, 502, etc.

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.

[N.B. — For list of ilhisirations in Addenda, see p. xv.]

A.

Animal ladder of life .....
Animals that eat snakes ....
Applying the test to a snake— a kafir superstition
Artificial respiration .....
Atractaspis adder and skulls of .

PAGE

15
29

• 277
430-431

• 245

B.

Bacteria — diagrams
Berg adder

Bibron's adder .

Bird that eats snakes — Jackal Buzzard

Brain of man in section

showing grey matter

cells ....

and spinal cord
Boomslang — dissection of, showing eggs
Boomslang— head dissected .
Boomslang — head of .
Boomslang swallowing another
Boomslangs — a handful of .
Boomslangs — how to hold them
Boy and snakes .
Bronchial tubes .
Brown House snake
Bush snake

• 293

• 232

240

242

• 245

.

• 339

• 285
. 286

. 287
. 288

s in situ

• 151

• 391
140

• 137. 263

• 153

• 149

• 464
. 298

93. 351

• 97

Cannibal Boomslang ....
Cast skin of a snake ....
Casting its skin — Boomslang in process of
Centipede

Chart showing snake distribution
Circulation of the blood

137.

263
16

17
312

i6i

297.

300

545

2 N

546

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.

Cobra, Cape species, yellow variety
,, black variety

young .
dissection of neck
how to hold one
swallowing a Puff adder
Cape species
Collecting venom from Cobra

>, ,, ,, Puff adder

Coral snake

,, ,, head and neck of
Cross-marked snake (PsammopJiis)

another process

PAGE

• 173

• 175

• 175
176

. i8o

. 178

182

• 371

• 373

• 375
166, 195

. 166
122

D.

Death Head moth ......... 333

Dentition and fangs of snakes ...... 23, 344

Diagram showing how venom is absorbed by the blood and lymphatics 304
Digestive apparatus of man ....... 290

Egg-eater snake (Dasypeltis)

anatomy of
and Night Adder
robbing quail's nest
swallowing an egg

Elapinae — sub-family, skulls of . . .

105
III
109
108-9
no
163

Family group and some tame snakes
Family group and their snake pets
Fang embedded in skin
Fangs and venom glands of snakes
Feeding a snake

File snake .....
Flying reptile — reconstruction of .
Flying reptiles ....
Fossil remains of a lizard-tailed bird in a rock
,, ,, remote ancestors of birds

473
275
388

353

273

97

7.8

4
5
6

G.

Garter snake .......

169, 195

Gcko lizard .......

. 366

Glass bespattered with Ringhals venom

. 188

Glauconia snake ......

53

Green water snake ......

. 89

Guentheri ........

. 128

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.

547

H.

Heart of man

Herald snake

Honey Ratcl

Horned adder

Horned adders' heads

House snakes

How to catch snakes

How venom spreads out under the skin

Human body — organs of . .

PAGE

. 296

• 135

• 324
215, 218, 240

. 218

95

. 269

. 388

291

I.

Ideal landscape of Carboniferous period
Internal organs of man
Injecting serum under skin of arm

thigh

10

. 291

409. 411, 440

. 410

J-

Jackal Buzzard

339

Knots — how to tie them

405

Lady with handful of snakes

. 262, 475

Legless lizard ......

. 53

Leucocytes ......

. 301

Ligaturing arm ......

. 403, 407

leg ......

402, 404

Lungs of man ......

. 298

Lymphatics of the human arm

• 306

M.

Mamba — black .

,, green variety

,, head and fangs of

Many-spotted snakes .
Map showing distribution of snakes
Method of progression of a snake
Microbes and disease .
Mole snake — young

„ snakes

,, „ heads of
Mungoose — -attacking Ringhals

195
199
205

133
161

22

293

475

99

86

279

548

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.

N.

PAGE

Nervous system .......

. 283

Night Adders hatching .....

19

,, adder .......

216, 232

,, adder — dissection of poison glands

. 237

,, adders and eggs .....

• 235

,, adder — seizing toad .....

240

venom glands. ....

. 420

Noosing a snake ......

. 269

o.

Olive-brown water snake .....
Osmosis — to explain how venom passes into the blood
Oviparous adder ......

91

307
244

Pet snakes and boy

Phagosytes

Poison apparatus of snake .

of Puff Adder, Cape Cobra, and Boomslangs
Psammophis genus of snakes — (cross-marked snakes)
PuflE adder — fangs of .
head of .
dissection of
eggs and young of
and batch of young
swallowing a rat
how it bites
how it strikes .
the sexes
swallowing prey

dissection of poison glands and fangs
collecting venom of
Puff adders and Mole snakes
,, adder and her young .

,, after swallowing a rat
Python — head of

,, and its skeleton

,, in its native habitat

,, and a boy

,, constricting a buck .

,, on a krantz

about to swallow a Khp Dassie
,, swallowing a bird
,, — feeding one in captivity
,, — claws and rudimentary legs

Regius ....
,, after swallowing a pig

. 462

• 301
25

• 361
122

213. 349

• 346
. 219

222

224, 473
36, 226, 479

357
228
230
232
237, 361

375
467

471
477
58
59
61
64
66
07
70

73

76

78

281

329

R.

Relative lengths of Epochs
Respiration methods .

9
432, 433

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.

549

Ringhals cobra

and young .
black variety
venom on glass

PAGE

184

184
188

S.

Sand Snake {P sammophis) .
Schaapstekers ....

and eggs
Scorpions ....

Sea snake {Hydrns platurus) — head of

,, dentition of

,, black and yellow .

Section of human skin, and how venom
Serum injection into arm

,. leg
,, vein .
how to inject .
Shield snakes ....
Skull of typical back-fanged snake
Skulls of front-fanged snakes

,, of non-venomous and venomous
,, of Typhlops snakes .
,, of Glauconia snakes .
,, and dentition of non-venomous
Snake casting its skin
Snakes' eggs ....

in act of swallowing their prey
,, heads for comparison
Snakes — how to hold them
Snake-like lizard
Snake pets

stone
Stomach of man
Study plate of snakes' heads

is driven in

snakes

snakes

skin

167. I

124

129

131
326

156
157
159
388
409
410
411
419

95. 465. 467
118

163

344

51

56

81

17
[8, 465

39
361
192

15

260
469

295
48

T.

Typhlops Snake (bHnd burrowing Snake)
„ ,, arrangement of scales

53. 55
• 54

Veins and arteries ....
Venom of Ringhals, how collected .
Venomous snakes — mode of capture
Ventrals, anals and sub-caudais of a snake
Viperine fangs . . . • ■

Viscera of man . . . • •

297, 304

312, 371. 373. 375
. 269

49

• 353

291

550

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.

W.

Water snakes, olive brown .
Whip snake

White corpuscles of the blood
Williams, bitten .

,, the snake catcher

,, holding some venomous snakes

PAGE

91

. 124

. 301

• 141. 143

. 251

; snakes

• 253

r's collecting

• 255

Young snakes hatching

• 463

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^66 The snakes of South Africa

06F55

fiioJogical