DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE BUREAU OF FISHERIES HUGH M. SMITH, Commissioner SOME PLANTS OF IMPORTANCE IN POND- FISH CULTURE By EMMELINE MOORE, Pu. D. APPENDIX IV TO THE REPORT OF THE U. S. COMMISSIONER OF FISHERIES FOR 1919 Bureau of Fisheries Document No. 881 PRICE, 5 CENTS Sold only by the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1920 Se a ee a ee < Se ee ee et Cer bes te Sl ey IE ete he oes eAr2 oe aera ers Pm pate Aiea har ncnpethn nr Aart nA leicester alin fie mre rs be é “te . Pubes 2 y | -” ' 4 ¥ 4 x fs Bi vs ah * : a. ef * =“ CMM WA Se B wp Da th - - 4 ‘ rf he ris , t Petre din vot lead td bet to held ea ncaa - ae ea sho i Poy ample ey pe eae any Ss CONTENTS. Page. JESSE ELE NEN STUD a ea en ene Seek Ue eee ee 5 bass eb ironomiG, ang aiecal relations: — 2500 eee ee ee 6 iniporniance on alealemats as) forage! = ahs eh re 8 Bield characters! of various algal matss22 22 os ow a ee 8 pina nO VOlVOXs ASSOCMTOM 2 a Se Sak a 9 Neapuoleperis and Mougeotiay association = =~. 2 10 Daphnia and Aphanizomenon. association. oo 11 Mev SpIMeb he fOOOl Ol ASS eee eee = eect See St eee 13 Thenairect function: of ‘plants* in’ fishponds: 252 2252--. ss 13 RSS SEEN LD Ais Veins neeee ae ee et i Meh pe) ie a! Ware! ae Ee Se te 14 TESS) a 2 EINES DD nO POR 14 BREE Nae UTES ee ce er a aS Sh a 2 19 er ir Gt : De ahi yee ie mB ys Melaatap hi apenas aetna A raga pase Fier Se ‘lsiptan enoga bam ir aia 77 sc chy iuipcetean sn ‘ eT et mae Tr | 1 om) eee Ve Oe fe ek a L 1 oe ae ae AR iets Pe om ae pe ev ale nl we a he dik, tte et er ch SOME PLANTS OF IMPORTANCE IN PONDFISH CULTURE. By EMMELINE Moore, Ph. D. Contribution fronf the U. S. Fisheries Biological Station, Fairport, Iowa. INTRODUCTION. It is a matter of importance in the production of pondfish to con- trol the growth of aquatic vegetation. This can not profitably be done until it is known what plants enter directly into the fish dietary or contribute indirectly to the support of the various animal forms upon which fish feed. There is little precise knowledge of the natural food of the ad- vanced fry and young fingerlings of our ponds and streams. Nearly all of the examinations of the food content of fishes refer to the ad- vanced fingerling stages or to adults. The importance from an economic standpoint of securing information about the natural forage of very young fish is seen at once. So far as we know, only a small percentage of the fry reach maturity, and by more or less vague explanations the failure has been referable to our lack of knowledge of the food relations in their environment. This investigation, conducted at’the U. S. Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Fairport, Jowa, refers primarily to the aquatic vegeta- tion in the food of fish which are reared in ponds and considers the problem from the following standpoints: What plants contribute directly to the food of the advanced fry and fingerlings? What plants contribute indirectly to their food by providing forage for the various animal forms upon which fish feed? The investigation covers the period of the summer months during two seasons, June 20 to August 31, 1917 and 1918. The data presented illustrate the dependence of the young fish on food, mostly animals, which in turn feed on plants. The determina- tion of these plants, which are the basic source of the food supply in the ponds, forms the chief contribution of this paper. Numerous examinations have been made of the food content of young fish, in which the direct use of plants by them is revealed. The results have been formulated into tables (p. 14) which supplement the data al- ready at hand in the researches of Forbes (1880), Pearse (1918), Reighard (1915), and others, and indicate plant values among the Seine plants, the filamentous alge, and various microscopic plants. The method pursued has been to study the plant population and, correlatively, the contents of the digestive tract in various species of 5 6 PLANTS IN PONDFISH CULTURE. young fish. An inventory (Table 1) was taken of the plant popula- tion in certain ponds,* covering all forms, the larger rooted aquatics, the floating forms, including the filamentous alge, and the plankton. Simultaneously with the inventory an examination was made of the food found in the digestive tracts of the young fish taken from the ponds at regular intervals. By this means it has been possible not only to identify the food but to determine the character of the forage grounds of the fish and to consider the various plants and the animal associations of importance in the economy of the pond. Collections of fish were made at weekly intervals and, if not ex- amined at once in their fresh condition, were kept in an alcohol- formalin preserving fluid until needed. In examining the food the method of Pearse (1918) was employed, that is, the food content of the digestive tract was pressed out upon a glass slide, moistened, and examined under the dissecting and compound microscopes. All figures in the tables referring to food content represent volumetric percentage estimates. Measurements in lengths are given in milli- meters and exclude the caudal fin. A brief and general description of the ponds under investigation will assist in making the interpretation. The accompanying map from an earlier publication of the Bureau shows clearly the position and arrangement of the ponds at the Fairport station. They are grouped in six series, A, B, C, D, E, and F, respectively, the ponds in each series being numbered independently. The investigations here recorded were concerned only with series B and D, the former composed of six small, the latter of nine somewhat larger dirt ponds. The areas of the specific ponds studied, that is,16B and 1,2,3,8, and 9D, vary from 0.22 to 0.85 acre. Water is supplied to each through inlet pipes connected with a large reservoir, which in turn is supplied from the Mississippi River. The depth varies from about 6 inches near the inlet pipes to 7 or 8 feet at the outlet. Plants common to the ponds of the region have been introduced; marsh plants such as cat-tails, Sagittaria, Bidens, and Eleocharis occupy the shallower portions; sedges bind the borders of the deeper por- tions; and floating and rooted aquatics flourish within the pond area. Various aquatic insects and other animal forms have found their way into the ponds, and practically natural conditions prevail. BASS, CHIRONOMID, AND ALGAL RELATIONS. It is shown in Table 2 that the chironomid larve are among the most important single items of food taken by the young of the largemouth black bass during the summer. The larve of a certain species of the chironomids removed from the digestive tract were identifiable and later checked up with specimens taken from the ponds. These proved to be Orthocladius nivoriundus Fitch., a species com- mon in the ponds and the one upon which the bass chiefly fed. The body walls of this larva are thin and transparent, and when lightly crushed under a cover glass the food content can be readily deter- mined with the microscope. It was this identification of the alga in the crushed specimens taken from the bass that gave the clue to the chain of food relations subsequently to be described. “See accompanying map showing topography of the ponds under investigation. U.S. B. F—DOC. 881, be me 066A. SCALE } ] 140188°—20. @ Sis nd ene vat ¢ U. S. B. F.—DOC. 881, Se OUP CISTERN Sa ea a ee te es! cee = - 4 PONDS SERIES E S. Area 036A ——#..0 € KN SLAIN 0 . & POA CL ClGs eee eae = PONDS SERIES B | Soar House Pump ._House WY, = YG, ZZ Store va Slacksinith Shop ho Py abs PY Rump House Quarry Ford len a eee 140188°—20. (‘To face p. 6.) ane eek: & pa in erry vhed phy: the pdeit seh ia: “fea pecti boty ey mh: & ws B ant: ie 16e ays: a Tie up| ne a sree yor, WL ped © ieee, Sp sesceneeeitre rth rita! = Ni formes Nae ” ara cond ekonah Bl Teal; ‘egie are AMO} the your bie lary Se Ss. : al 79 nee i) banat aati fea Pent, wi od | when } eat he cit a: “ go oe me tha a 1 PLANTS IN PONDFISH CULTURE. 7 Previous to the identification of this chironomid in the fishponds the inventory of the plants had disclosed the interesting association of the larval stage of this insect with the alga, Mougeotia genuflexa. The alga was exceedingly abundant and produced a most remark- able and beautiful formation. This formation, or algal mat, as it may be called, was composed of delicate, light-green filaments of gossamer-like threads which were interwoven intricately in the form of loose-meshed rolls suspended near the surface of the water. The author’s attention was attracted by a large number of elliptically- shaped bags, or cases, lightly held in the meshes of the algal mat. These proved to be the larval cases of the chironomid in question. While foraging for food the larve move in and out of their cases, retaining their hold, meanwhile, by their caudal hooks. In feeding they draw toward them filaments from the loose meshes of Mou- geotia, or they forage directly from the outer walls of their cases, to which this alga is applied in the construction of the case, renew- ing the filaments as fast as they become depleted. The larve con- tinue to feed upon this alga as long as the supply lasts, which is generally only until the middle of July, for by that time this species of alga, which flourishes during the early part of the season, has passed the stage when floating mats are readily formed. There- after it becomes scattered through the partial disintegration or break- ing up of the filaments. It is at this time that the characteristic “knees” or swellings in the cells occur which give to this form of Mougeotia its specific name, genuflewa. It is while engaged in these feeding operations that the larve fall prey to the bass. Several hundred larvee of Orthocladius nivoriundus were examined to determine to what extent other algve contributed to their food supply. The determination is a-simple matter. The larve are lightly crushed under the cover glass by a slow, forward movement of the thumb, a slight pressure being sufficient to push out the con- tents of the digestive tube. The material is teased out under the microscope, and the problem becomes one of identification of the alge. Almost without exception larve taken from the mats of Mougeotia showed a forage value of 100 per cent of this alga. From larve taken at random in pond 3D, from habitats in which other alge were the chief constituents and Mougeotia appeared only as a small factor in the heterogeneous assortment, this alga again formed the bulk of the food. Specimens of O. nivoriundus were hatched in a watch glass to which had been added a variety of algze as well as Mougeotia, and it is interesting to note that the young selected the latter invariably. It is not surprising, for Mougeotia is one of the most delicate of the filamentous forms and possesses a brittleness which apparently recommends it to the larve, for when observed in their feeding operations they were seen to snap off filaments in one- cell and two-cell lengths with great rapidity. This preference for Mougeotia was observed in the very earliest stages of larval growth, and it continued to be shown to pupation. Later broods of Orthocladius nivoriundus, of which there appeared to be three during the summer, found their natural forage among other algze which succeeded Mougeotia genuflewa, such as Mougeotia spherocarpa, Spirogyra nitida, S. majuscula, CGadogonium, Hydro- dictyon rveticulatum, Lyngbya, and various microscopic forms present in the algal mats. 8 PLANTS IN PONDFISH CULTURE. IMPORTANCE OF ALGAL MATS AS FORAGE, The larva of the chironomid, Orthocladius nivoriundus, forms an important item in the dietary of the largemouth black bass. In turn the alga Mougeotia and other filamentous types supply forage for the chironomids. Thus these common pond plants contribute in a material way to the support of the bass. Nearly all of the aforementioned alge are commonly distributed in ponds. Where they do not occur and the region is within their range, they can easily be introduced into the ponds by trans- ferring a roll or wad of the alga before it dries out. If the alga is to be transferred by mail it should be rolled in a wet cloth, wrapped in thick paper, and dispatched at once. Unfortunately the notion exists that algal mats serve no useful purpose, and wasteful practices prevail in the seining operations. Without discrimination they are raked out, thrown upon the bank, and left to decompose, regardless of kind or function in the economy of the pond. The author’s observations thus far on the value of algal mats, which may be called locally “ moss,” “ moss blanket,” or “water moss,” lead to the conclusion that discrimination must be exercised if the ponds are to be properly stocked with useful forage plants. For help in such discrimination the species which com- monly produce the algal mats, or “moss,” floating on the surface of ponds, are given as follows: Cladophora crispata, Hydrodictyon reticulatum, Pithophora edogonia var. vaucherioides, E’'dogonium martenicense, Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum, and Spirogyra species. Generally not one form alone produces the mat or blanket but a com- bination, as Cladophora and Pithophora; Hydrodictyon, Cidogo- nium, and Cladophora, etc. Blankets in which Cladophora, Pithophora, and Rhizoclonium are the prominent forms appear to be least desirable, though the subject warrants further investigation. This blanket complex re- produces and forms a coarse, thick mat which readily covers a pond and shuts out the light. Under control, however, this mat may be regarded as useful. It should be conserved near the edges only. FIELD CHARACTERS OF VARIOUS ALGAL MATS. The following field characters will assist in discriminating the different kinds of algal mats or blankets: Mougeotia genufleca when abundant forms a loose, filmy, floating aggregation of delicate, light-green, gossamerlike threads lightly suspended near the surface of the water and easily wafted about by the wind. It is as difficult to scoop up in the hand as a floating spider web would be. This alga does not accumulate in sufficient quantity to become detrimental, since its filaments are so delicate and form so loose a mesh that light is not appreciably shut out by it. Mougeotia spherocarpa is also a delicate alga, though a little less so than I/. genuflewa, and its growth habit is different. It has a light yellow-green frothy look and floats on the surface of the water as a thin film. It is found in the sheltered places usually, though it may spread over a small pond as a surface film when undisturbed by the wind. The frothy appearance is due to the very active photo- synthetic capacity of the alga, the oxygen bubbles being confined, ¥ Rs Be. PLANTS IN PONDFISH CULTURE. 9 meanwhile, in the meshes of the filaments. This alga compares favorably with J/. genujflewa as a food producer. It appears in abundance in the ponds later in the season than the foregoing species and has been observed repeatedly in the examination of the larval food of Orthocladius, Pseudochironomus, and Stratiomyia. Spirogyra species are generally a vivid green. They more often form a part of an algal complex, though they may occur nearly pure in round mats of varying size. They can be identified easily by the slimy, silky feel of the single threads or filaments. When held out of the water the single threads drip and curl up on drying. Spirogyra webert may develop in a pure stand enveloped in a mass of transparent jelly. @dogonium martenicense often forms the upper layer on the mat of Cladophora. Upon aging, it fades to a pale yellowish color and acquires a soft cottony feel. Chironomids are active feeders upon it. @. sp.“ does not form a mat but occurs as an epiphyte on the larger aquatics and on the coarser filamentous alge. The slender naias (Naias flexilis) and the water-weed (Hlodea canadensis) may become completely swathed in it by midsummer. It isanextremely small form of Gidogonium which in the aggregate takes on an olive- green look. It has the characteristic cottony feel. All things con- sidered, it doubtless affords forage to a greater number of pond herbivores than any other alga of the ponds. Chireonomids, snails (Planorbis and Succinea), and the blunt-nosed minnows, as indi- cated by their food contents, show a preference for this alga. Pithophora edogonia var. vaucherioides consists of short filaments which on aging look and feel like coarse, dark hair. It is generally to be found with Cladophora and in the mat-forming stage occupies the stratum beneath it or becomes interwoven with it. Cladophora crispata forms the coarsest and thickest algal mats in our ponds. The mats, or portions of them, have a coarse, heavy look and a harsh feel. When the mat is lifted out of the water it feels tough and gives one the impression of handling wet, coarse, brown paper or coarse loosely-woven cloth. Hydrodictyon reticulatum, or water-net, is easily distinguished when floated out on the hand by means of the characteristic four to five sided meshes. It may form in sufficient abundance to produce a heavy mat covering the surface of small ponds. These “rough and ready” field characters should assist the un- initiated in discriminating the most common and widely distributed representatives of the mat-forming alge of our pond waters. It is recognized of course that the microscope, together with keys and il- lustrations, is the only sure method of identification. BOSMINA AND VOLVOX ASSOCIATION, The plankton studies in pond 2D showed a conspicuous association of the small cladoceran, Bosmina longirosiris, and the green alga, Volvox, species perglobator and spermatosphwra. The association of these organisms, Bosmina and Volvox, is important in terms of fish food. The Bosmina afford a direct means of subsistence to the young bass; and the Volvox, through their contribution to the food supply of the Bosmina, an indirect one. «A valuable forage species unidentified to date but probably near howardii. 140188°—20-—2 10 ‘ PLANTS IN PONDFISH CULTURE. By reference to Table 2, it is seen that the young bass find in the small Bosmina a favorite natural food. It was selected by them from a varied and abundant zooplankton consisting of cladocerans, copepods, and rotifers. In the smallest fry examined the Bosmina content reached 100 per cent. For example, in the examination sev- eral specimens under the average of 12.2 mm. measured 10 mm. and 11 mm., and in all cases, the smaller the fry taken from the environ- ment of Volvox, the larger the percentage of Bosmina in the food content, indicating that this is not only the earliest but the pre- ferred natural food of the young bass. It was found that Bosmina occupied the upper stratum of water in the open areas as well as the more sheltered weedy portions of the ponds. Their presence is indicated to the naked eye by the appear- ance, as it were, of a fine sprinkling of dust particles continually gyrating in the surface film of water. They oceur in the greatest numbers just below the surface, and in this location they are accessi- ble to the fry as they rise to feed. The Volvox accumulated also in the upper stratum of water. The pulse of this alga coincided with that of Bosmina, but declined before any distinct diminution of Bosmina was noted. Further observa- tional studies disclosed the direct dependence of Bosmina upon Vol- vox for subsistence. Plankton catches from the upper stratum were taken repeatedly, and the feeding habits of Bosmina observed under the compound microscope. It was rarely possible to identify the food once taken into the digestive tract, because in most cases the mandibles grind the food particles beyond recognition. Occasionally, however, par- ticles slip by whole, and when these could be seen through the trans- parent body walls the animal was lightly crushed under a cover glass to make the identification more sure. Bits of broken ccenobia of Volvox were identified, and these graded into the ground material characteristic of the digestive tract. In most cases the feeding hab- its were observed directly by watching the maneuvers of the living animal. Volvox was in the reproductive stage, and organisms with antherozoids, or sperms, were exceedingly abundant. The Bosmina in their feeding operations attached themselves to a bundle of ripe antherozoids, and by a rapid movement of the legs, characteristic of all cladocerans, winnowed the sperms within the body walls, from whence they were wafted into the mouth. This continued until the bundle of antherozoids was appreciably diminished, and the Bosmina whirled off to other feeding grounds, in which the constituents were often too small to identify as they were wafted into the body. Vol- vox, however, continued to remain a source of nutriment until its decline. This interdependence of the organisms, Bosmina and Volvox, was observed in pond 1D also, but the plankton pulse was not manifested by so large a quantity of Bosmina in this pond. SCAPHOLEBERIS AND MOUGEOTIA ASSOCIATION. It was found that Scapholeberis mucronata, a larger cladoceran, succeeded the Bosmina in the food of the older fry, and investigation followed to determine its food relations among the alge of the ponds. PLANTS IN PONDFISH CULTURE. 11 Plankton catches showed a larger percentage of Scapholeberis in pond 1D than in all others. Attention was then concentrated upon this pond. Plankton studies were made from various regions in the pond to determine the specific plant habitat of the cladoceran. This proved to be the scum or film produced by the alga, Mougeotia spherocarpa, in the quieter portions of the pond. In these regions the algal complex teemed with Scapholeberis, the feeding grounds being conspicuously localized in the region of the Mougeotia fila- ments. The examination of the food content in the digestive tracts of Scapholeberis revealed a miscellaneous diet of small unicellular and palmelloid alge which abounded in the Mougeotia complex. The most common forms were small diatoms, and such green alge as Spherocystis, Odcystis, Celastrum, and Schizochlamys. The association of this cladoceran with the Mougeotia complex adds another point in favor of the introduction and cultivation of Mougeotia to supply a natural forage in fishponds. The Scapholeberis pulse in pond 1D attained its maximum in late July and early August. At that time it supplied a fair percentage of the food of the largemouth black bass (Table 2) and a high per- centage of the food of the bluegill (Table 3). Ponds 1D and 2D have differed in the contribution they made to the food supply of the young fish in the matter of quantity as well as variety. ‘This was particularly true of the Bosmina pulse which occurred in both ponds simultaneously but to a lesser degree in pond 1D. Birge and Juday (1911) state: “ The answer to the question of why different bodies of water differ so widely in productivity is wholly beyond our knowledge.” In these ponds, however, a partial explanation may be sought in the difference in kind and quantity of living plants as well as in the accumulations of débris during suc- ceeding seasons. In physical features the ponds are similar. They are equally deep, and they are surrounded by a similar vegetation. They have been treated alike, that is, they have been wintered full, not dry. Such draining as has been necessary to conduct the seining operations has been temporary only. Physiologically, however, they are more or less distinct because of the dissimilar character of the vegetation in them. Pond 1D has been richly stocked with floating alge which at times have covered the surface. Few of the larger rooted aquatics are present. Pond 2D has no algal mats or blankets, but fully one-tenth of the surface area has been covered by the large-rooted aquatic, Potamogeton illinoensis, interspersed in places with the nonrooted Ceratophyllum, or hornwort. In these ponds are present, apparently, the requisite conditions to produce a conspicuous plankton pulse of great economic value in terms of the natural forage of fish fry by supplying in quantity organisms which are preferred by the fry during the early days of feeding. DAPHNIA AND APHANIZOMENON ASSOCIATION. Data in the tables show that a high percentage of food is supplied by the daphnids. They are recognized herbivores in the ponds, and it remains to explain their particular plant preferences and associa- tions. 12 PLANTS IN PONDFISH CULTURE. A remarkable illustration of such an association. was presented dur- ing the present season in the studies connected with pond 9D, in which Daphnia pulex, one of the largest of the daphnids, was pro- duced in enormous quantity by natural means. The blue-green alga, Aphanizomenon flos-aque, contributed directly to its support and proved to be the most desirable food of a heavy, natural culture of . Daphnia pulex. The author’s first observation of this association in the pond oe- curred on June 21, 1918. At this time a “bloom” of the Aphani- zomenon was approaching its maximum. It was so abundant that the water appeared blue-green and oily. A few hand strokes of the dip net would bring up a quart of it in concentrated form. The _ individual colonies are ordinarily microscopic, but during the acceler- ~ ation of growth in “ bloom ” production the colonies are considerably augmented and become readily distinguishable. 'Phey appear as . flocculent masses, 7 to 16 mm. long and less than half as wide. They are delicate and tissuelike and assume the form of flattened spindle-shaped masses lightly suspended in the water at all depths, from the surface to the bottom of the pond. Practically a pure stand had developed, for there were few representatives of other floating alge present. The station records noted the presence of the alge in May. From that time until June 21, the date of the author’s first - observation, multiplication must have taken place with great rapidity, and it continued to do so until the maximum was reached in the interval of July 24 to 30, when the alge could be rolled up from the bottom like mush. This conspicuous growth of alge in the pond was attended by one equally remarkable in the number of Daphnia produced. The Daphnia swarmed among the alge, forming practically a pure cul- ture of Daphnia pulex. A rough estimate by volume, obtained by the gravity method, showed approximately 75 cc. per cubic meter. Accurate determinations were difficult because of the accompanying algal débris in the concentrations. When the algal maximum was attained the Daphnia pulse had already begun to decline. Cypris, copepods, and rotifers increased in the zooplankton and Clathro- cystis, Volvox, and Pleodorina in the phytoplankton. The daphnids fed continuously upon the Aphanizomenon. The entire process of feeding could be observed easily by placing them in a watch glass or in a hollow glass slide and observing them with the compound microscope. The flocculent masses of the alga were wafted into the open walls of the body and fed forward toward the mouth by the action of the legs in the manner so aptly described by Birge (1918). During the feeding operations the Daphnia were offered a mixed plankton, but invariably they retained only the Aphanizomenon in the food current streaming toward the mouth. Observations on the feeding habits were continued from time to time during a period of five weeks, and it was easily seen that the abun- dant natural forage provided in Aphanizomenon was one of the de- termining factors in the high productivity of Daphnia pulex. By reference to Tables 4 and 5 it is seen that Daphnia formed a high percentage of the food content in the orange-spotted sunfish and catfish with which the pond was stocked. Data are not at hand for the very young catfish since it was desirable not to disturb the ponds PLANTS IN PONDFISH CULTURE. 13 by seining during the breeding period, but the large size of the fingerlings (Table 5) at the date recorded seems worthy of note and Hira explainable in terms of an abundance of desirable natural ood. The succession of causes, physical and physiological, which have led to the remarkable acceleration of growth in the alga, Aphani- zomenon, and the accompanying culture of daphnids is not easy to explain; yet it is desirable to record the method of treatment of the pond which has produced this extraordinary development. The pond covers an area of 0.66 acre and is free from floating plants. In the shallow portions there are submerged aquatics such as Naias and Pota- mogeton pusillus,; and around the edge, a little of the blanket-form- ing alga, Cladophora crispata. In general it is an open pond free from the larger aquatics or their accumulations. It could easily have become “seeded down” by spores of Aphanizomenon through inlet waters from the supply reservoir which in turn receives the river water. This alga is common in the supply waters and is distributed in season to the ponds. Daphnia pulex are also common in the ponds. A contributing cause of the great “wave” of Daphnia is possibly due to the fact that the pond has been wintered dry during successive seasons, the freezing and drying processes affecting the winter eggs of the daphnids beneficially. MAYFLIES IN THE FOOD OF BASS. Reference to Table 2 indicates the importance of mayfly larve in the food of the young largemouth black bass. The mayflies are herbivores. The researches of Needham (1905), Morgan (1913), and Clemens (1917), on the life histories of these insects have shown that they subsist on a variety of plants in our lakes and streams, the familiar articles of diet being diatoms, unicellular and filamentous alge, and the larger aquatic plants, the latter generally in a partial state of disorganization. Unfortunately, time has not permitted in- vestigation of the plant associations of this group of insects in small ponds. From the few records of examination, however, it may be forecasted that an important habitat preference of some species of the larvee is among the larger potamogetons. THE DIRECT FUNCTION OF PLANTS IN FISHPONDS. The tables show a forage value of plants which can not be regarded as merely accidental. By reference to Table 7 it becomes evident that the young of the buffalofish favor an admixture of animal and plant substance. The absence of grit in the digestive tract and the presence of plant materials, such as the staminate flowers of Elodea, for ex- ample, which are found only at or near the surface of the ponds, illus- trate the wide range of their feeding habits. The high percentage in the food content of the flagellate plants, Pandorina, Eudorina, and Pleodorina, is suggestive of the value of the small things among the pond plants. The most conspicuous function of plants in the fishpond is found in their indirect relations, in their contribution to the forage of myriads of animal forms upon which fish feed. This paper has emphasized this function of plants in its consideration of animal- 14 PLANTS IN PONDFISH CULTURE. plant associations, and it is through a more complete understanding of such associations that the method of rationing the ponds to in- crease their productivity by natural means can be approached. SUMMARY. 1. Chironomid larve are among the most important single items in the dietary of young bass. 2. The identification of the food content and plant associations of the chironomids indicates the importance of cultivating certain algal forms in the ponds to provide adequate forage requirements. 3. Mat-forming alge of certain types provide valuable forage areas for chironomids and cladocerans. 4. The Bosmina-Volvox association is of special importance in providing the first forage materials for the bass fry and the young bluegill. 5. The Scapholeberis-Mougeotia association is important in pro- viding a later food for the advanced fry stage. 6. The Daphnia-Aphanizomenon association develops a heavy cul- ture of daphnia. 7. Plants are of importance directly in supplying a high percentage of food to the advanced fry of the buffalofish. 8. The blunt-nosed minnow in a pond habitat subsists mainly upon dlants. : 9. The rationing of ponds for a continuous and abundant supply of natural forage must depend upon a more precise knowledge of the animal and plant associations. TABLES. [Notp.—All figures in the tables referring to food content represent volumetric per- centage estimates. Measurements in lengths are given in millimeters and exclude the caudal fin.] TABLE 1.—INVENTORY OF AQUATIC PLANTS IN CERTAIN PONDS OF SERIES B AND D, FAIRPORT, lowa.% [P means present; A means present in abundance.] June, 1917. June, Aquatic plants. Pond Pond Pond Pond Pond Pond ND 2D. 3D. 8D. 16B. 9D. Flagellates: Euglena sanguinea...........|--.------- P Blue-green alge: Aphanizomenon flos-aque.......-..-.- MICTOCYStiSs weeraa-peres -esetesoet Ss CIBUNTOCY SUIS. aa:-)egere siesereteee = -reieeleeis ae Coelospheerium:: 2226-2 52228 -ooe sock MerismoOpediumiee =. ee. sence dae Oscillatoriaecn ees. Lass. Soe Lyngbya martensiana.. ..-- Anabeena circinalis......... Anabeena flos-aque......-.-.-.------- | RivUlarig MAtanse «cr. seen. tees == a Tnventory not exhaustive but sufficiently detailed to serve as a working basis. PLANTS IN PONDFISH CULTURE. ue TABLE 1.—INVENTORY OF AQUATIC PLANTS IN CERTAIN PONDS OF SERIES B AND D, Fairport, Ilowa—Continued. June, June, 1917. 1918. Aquatic plants, Pond Pond Pond Pond Pond Pond 1D. 2D. 3D. 8D. 16B. 9D. Green alge: Cosmarium pyramidatum...........-- A ieee ait ot P P i A Gindulatume. .oh5 4 S35. J. aah Se P P PB 12 P P HEL Pilea es eee soso tae. 5 cena see eRe te beaten tetas ecco sccfes os cee denlsoseccn ase P Closterium moniliferum............... TMD Pugin :----.--50. sc seee2 sesh M. spherocarpa. - .- Chlamydomonas. .- IPanGoninsd MOnuin a2 --- = ches sen. Pleodorina californica Tid Ce TSS ARE Ss a tr ll ga oll Bt ane | Doglncoel SAM ole ie Ft: LG

) ° 5 = ° 3 ° ‘4 a oY n <4 OQ in 1S) 'é) a io 3) 1S) No. | Mm 3D CSA 20 2 lot aalooc acc |Pocae clase elec ce el nase cee OF sS.lscetee 3D 2cBL FP lssesechi cd. ©.) 25: o-|asdens|) SRilsssse5). See eee ap 0h is 3 (ea ee PN os es (a: Ne Ree Mr Fe ok 2 16 0.9 3D Gil SBN ec oS PP Ta seeees| 2: en Al oo ee 1D 5427 | cc) IB. 2 [sec ene| Ble 12)” a. we te ee rere col oe 2D SPO S) 18633) 2) e838 Sn. AR BD ae Sone | eee Ea eee 3D 15 3D 5 3D 4 3D 5 R Animals—Continued. Plants. 1 = é ; g 3 & 8 3 5 as) : E IS g a Date. 5 & a 3 # nls . a So a eta ee Pee ee ere = al/e¢\@\@|219/4 |se\e= a|s|8 = b> | oO a 3 a 8 |g8|83| # iS a Me oe 8 | S13) ee heel eam Sel Bs | So) a ela | ee) sol ee aS a ach< FE BS |b leo Ss Senn a Bosmina and Volvox association, b Scapholeberis and Mougeotia association. c Chiefly Orthocladiusand Cricotopussp., Tanypus decoloratus Mall,and Pseudochironomus richardsoni Mall, The identifications of chironomids were made by Dr. R. A. Mutkowski and Dr. O. A. Johannsen. é Mainly Dytiscid beetles. e From H. F. Schradieck’s unpublished reports. The larve in the food content were identified as Orthocladius nivoriundus, The alge upon which these chironomids had fed consisted of 100 per cent Mougeotia genuflexa, PLANTS IN PONDFISH CULTURE. 17 TABLE 3.—F oop CONTENT OF BLUEGILL (LEPOMIS PALLIDUS), ADVANCED FRY AND FINGERLINGS, IN CERTAIN PONDS AT Farrport, Iowa. Animals. 1s) Cladocerans. R : “a 3 g Date. ee wn n S = fe > ios) va 5 a 3 R . =| BES 1S 7) uo) = a o eS) as Q = z dq = : 2e)ge 5 | a 3 2 © S |eealeag|o = 5 Ss = : | = Sil es HY SKS eh ee | = a BE 2 B a 3 s | a Gives = a — iS) a =| cb) o a o 3 S 5 =] Cy ds q mb iS a > S) €9g/4 ES 3 iS ‘q 3 3 Ay D < A In = < Z 16) S) A = 1918, No. | Mm. IEA AP ho a i 2D. SOE 41 66:9) |e ees 1S Sl eee LO ee ass 11 Lil |p af 2a ae DOeses5s nc et - 10 Bee 18 | 18.9] 9.4 | 17.2 | 28.4 | 31.1 |...... COS Se) (NC Seg ee PANE Pe ee om sia cee 2D es 2511324.) 43.6) |o2-25: 19 9 6.1 Stein (UG heed fa eed |e [SE aE Se, ehh na acre 2D.. iieiovour song ieee. Lac Sli by Oh ee eri | ah lS op eee ae AIP eae 288 3 Seed 2 52 i De ES SSE | ee: Sets Sa | 52 1 eras 4 ll 2 5 Se EE eee Animals—Contd. Plants 8 = AE 3 Date. g g : z 3 g a Es a b= a a y We |e cea ee nee ely) & a i oe ees s | 2 (ele lelSs (ela lelS/816/8] « 2 3 ° Co) [3 a) o ° g Sq 30 0 oO gis (Zi(Ble/aleisi/3/elelsié Bee ee bp | pupae Sate. | stots |B] oF rae 1918 i iON SD eel Sones See eee = eel Bee Gl SSB] ER SAS ESE Go coS) IGScie) Sacre! (te Re SOA! SSS Secs eae GISer Sie 3) =i > er Ses dg Sal eel Eee ema eens th US07 t Poe rea Lee OrariGscdr acces eM E (OW i Soka ig eye A pee | CE 0.6 | 0.8 | 0.4 |... 0.3 | 4.4 |..... att | ea asl Besos RR ee Set a econ cl memts foes Sl Cee al ce ae See OSG |e RRL 1.2 2.9 Pi a ee eee eee 2 ee OE 3) be Sac Roar ase ss|] = = q =| i] = s e R= 2Q r) a} = = 8 a S © je S 3 =| x) » EI Ber lee. is os i} west eon Se |S 3 (2) ~~ @ —_ ° q mt oO oO 8p ~~ SiSel/EIE | EI/2/68/5 |/2/S1S/28/8 18 os — — o = 4q/Felboaj2 };A}S |}o |56 jz lieiSi/eH/8 la Mm, DU eshks ANG a eal tar aor cll eratarctaftorarara cee loratorarate | svar Oral eee Sell tet ol Saro eee ee 71 NO) SE SS= bs come lecaclacteemmice 10 BOs Sec Ud Seo Agee eee eee AR GYRO, aes 6 9 El Sees 25 = (| aoc aes Meneame ae 25.6 | 31.9 | 18.4] .8] 12 19.5 SCO nae ea ee ee ee eee ie ad be 2200) | 82 6 1.5 Bt 0 oy As ee 6.5 | 3.1 0.6 | 0.9 | 0.6 ae Zoi | Died | 20c4 | eel WS Rae! QHRG7)| F259 i. Cd Seater Sear tl eae tapes : 42.5 6 Gel itso: 3 14.5 | 12 iY eed eee Paes Oe ote eee 2 } a Daphnia and Aphanizomenon association. Animals. PLANTS IN PONDFISH CULTURE. LINGS, IN PoNnD 9D, Fatrport, Iowa. TABLE 5.—Foop CONTENT OF CHANNEL-CaT (ICTALURUS PUNCTATUS), FINGER- de 18 Z, ooh ins ne *BAIC] 900g ae ia “BOpOl A iS Lal . euo[sng ees “Bapol reat = nt 5 pa re. . 7 7 ni mM rial ey . sited a > toe abana paris ca *SIPIJ09M040 NV ici | ane ee is : E Ay snoeyg | : cpa ST[IXO] SVIVN i ted ae 1 gle 4 re itp a -ds umpreuisog tin z, “411 | ine ‘ds ummos0psp a Aprosureq | i ee 4 |‘dsurmre4sop9 a hurt a ; SSN wo “ednd 0 69 g a a cin “ds umntreursog 0010 ue BAIe 506 & nor 4 “slIq9P JOOsUT en ’ : : Pass pe, shat BAS a sos rss a me 3 ds UInF10}S0T) BANS uGuee a= py ; | -epayeutyoed 98 ace securercoaad | : : sad | evict : 18 Sq lS | sosiseaomg| ic a ae ee tas “sul0q tI tas as 8 8 ar ao ut Rs 4g *slIvoy - oR ‘ *sUIOIeIC, | iSReN spodedog acs in ~ -yooo voinny or 2 ange aa 3 *s1ysA00I4}8 + tod ee, a | fo “ 16310 ye rt of “BAIR | ‘i 8 eurpnaidg | ale BRO aa) Fach 29 pruouoi1yg 3 oes a4 Seats ; “040 ee eg 4 -euaqeny | hee 19 00. Ke) ‘ ‘ Nod 15 ~o toi spraac| net || 8 Sse da a aa ‘spraydeq | an iS ra ———_| ¢ =: | @e oe ecamsr| | Be Sere *sarjooe hig! : : y)3ue] eseI0Ay €2 2% 2 seyooe’y fale ° : wsuop oFeseAy | Socigd sy g caus oa *BI10JBT[IOSO 7 Os a) i : 4 5 SAAN OH ' ‘sueutoedg | S . F *eT]oTBAH ime a es ‘suetjoedg | :S r : s 4 T1°1 tt B z= ~ pat Eau “snoo0000I119 | ‘* ae Pie aaRe a pis ae fx 4 *puog lortorye he a) Dae tS or na ye ren oy a — ie his ae zo rae ae WE Lae ee eI ae aes aap eee Gaui = ioe kee ne fat ets vi, bag Sie Bie eich ss eee 5 Beas star .t 3 Bi! $ ae ollie Gm g are A wes A Seen 3 F ae ee a Oy anaes Age fetes a . aaa Ba Do io eas | A erie fees Siete wre re cS ner ae es gas gas s Bios eros 524 baa | a b<<< Ba<< PLANTS IN PONDFISH CULTURE. 19 TABLE 7.—F 00D CONTENT OF BUFFALOFISH (ICTIOBUS BUBILUS AND I. CYPRINELLA), ADVANCED F'RY AND F=NGERLINGS, IN PoNnD 16B, Fatrport, Iowa. | Animals. Plants. z= | F d S4|./5_/¢ Date. 3 = w : RK ae a|@| 4 [#2] 2/82/28] g | « Hl e|a12| 8) s |\S8| 8 |88\23| 2 | & me PeLecwey eee lee stabs | & | 8 Smee Oat a hae a oO hea | oT A 1917. No. | Mm. Set Velie ees ees See ee oa be te Rj 5 2D gil | eee Eee at ete i (fal [ees 0151 tal ee 5.5 WL VRAES: = Cece Seek ote 20 | 19.9 | 3.1) 15.2 7 Shite hil oe See 1.3 3.1 Rib ol eee 3 A eae ee eee ted Shs 3 15 | 29.6 Gi2* | 2osSG. & We: 2h Osboss 22 LEI 6.4 2 3.2 Plants—Continued. an “a F , 3 | ag Pate. : gi¢|4 Z Al | 8.183 = » 5 a 7 + 3 3 | oe] as a 2 3 = 5 = 3 ® | oo irae : ne bo & S us) qd Es a a = a. = a2 =) S 2 = a ro) S o go >