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SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING
reEANTS

ELEMENTARY BOTANY FOR
SOUTH AFRICA

THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL

By HENRY EDMONDS, B.Sc. (Lond.), and
RUDOLF MARLOTH, Ph.D., M.A.

NEW EDITION thoroughly revised by
J. BRETLAND FARMER, D.Sc., F.R.S.

Professor of Botany in the Royal College of Science, London

With 282 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 4s. 6d.

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND

LONDON. NEW YORK, AND BOMBAY

SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING
PLANTS

FOR THE USE OF BEGINNERS, STUDENTS
AND TEACHERS

iY

REV. PROFESSOR G. HENSLOW, M.A.
PLS. FG, Bie.

AUTHOR OF
**ROTANY FOR BEGINNERS,” ‘HOW TO STUDY WILD FLOWERS,” ‘* FLORAL
DISSECTIONS,” ‘‘THE MAKING OF FLOWERS,” ‘* POISONOUS

PLANTS OF FIELD AND GARDEN,” ‘‘ PLANTS
”

‘4 OF THE BIBLE, ETC., ETC.

LIBRA

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CoO.
39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
NEW YORK AND BOMBAY

29°53

All rights reserved

INTRODUCTION

THE objects of the present book are (1) to enable
Beginners in Botany to take some interest in the wild
plants of Cape Colony and elsewhere, and to show
them how they are to be studied. The number of
plants in South Africa is so great that all that can
be done is to understand the structure of a certain
number only, and the phenomena of their plant life.!

But to be merely able to distinguish plants by the
structure of their flowers, or to know their names, is
by no means enough. We require to know, if possible,
why their leaves, as well as their flowers, are so
different from each other. This leads to the study of
their habits in association with their surrounding con-
ditions ; and we find that the structures of roots, stems,
leaves, etc., are just what is best for the plant, whether
it be living in a dry country like South Africa, or
in a humid one as England, or entirely in water.

1 The plants that I selected have been approved of by Dr. Schon-
land, who kindly suggested a few more which I have incorporated ;

and I take this opportunity of thanking Professor MacOwan for
numerous suggestions which I have embodied.

vl INTRODUCTION.

We shall then see how every plant is adapted to
its position in life, and how it has acquired the pecu-
liarities which characterize each kind respectively.

(2) The Student who may be somewhat more ad-
vanced, and may be working by himself, should care-
fully dissect every flower he meets with. Then let
him write down the particulars of structure, as well
as make sketches of the different parts in his note-book.
This procedure impresses the details strongly on the
mind, which is apt to forget minute points of structure
after examining many flowers.

When he discovers that there are often an immense
number of “species,” such as the different kinds of
Heath—of which botanists reckon the amount to be
some five hundred—he may wonder how Nature has
made so many, as well as how the various shapes or
forms of flowers have arisen. So I have added sections
dealing with these matters.

It is most important to understand clearly the
structure of flowers, because the classification of plants
is almost entirely based upon it; and although they
look so different, flowers can be easily grouped upon
a few very simple “elements of variation,” as one
might call them.

(3) I have entitled this book as also intended for |
Teachers as well as Beginners and Students, because

yf

it is most important that they should encourage their
pupils to look at plants and their flowers themselves,

INTRODUCTION. Vii

and understand their relations to the surroundings;
and not merely regard the practical school lesson in
Botany as only concerned with structure. This latter
-is usually done by means of the Floral Schedule, an
invention of the late Rev. J. 8. Henslow, formerly
Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge,
England. It isan admirable means for securing accuracy
both in observation and recording.

But I should like the teacher to do much more,
and show the pupils (who, if young, should be entirely
taught practically without any book) why one plant
is hairy or woolly; why another is quite smooth; why
some flowers are “regular,” others “irregular ;” how
it comes about that some plants are spiny, others not
at all, etc.

Then such matters as insectivorous habits and
climbing powers, parasitism, epiphytal modes of life—
not to add the various adaptations in flowers for wind-,
insect-, and self-pollination—should each and all in
turn be discussed in the lesson as occasion arises.

All these and other additional matters to the “lesson
proper” will excite the interest and enthusiasm of the
pupuls.

Another thing which the teacher should do is to
encourage the pupils to bring to school all the examples
they can find of the various parts of the plants treated
of in any particular lesson—such as adaptations of
flowers for pollination, of fruits and seeds showing

Vili INTRODUCTION.

special contrivances for dispersal. Thus they would
be accumulating materials for the School Museum.

Of course, all success depends upon the teachers,
who must teach con amore, advise, encourage, and
reward the children’s efforts by any means they may
think best. |

If they do this, they will find the subject not
only interesting to themselves, but fascinating to their
pupils.

The school should have a small Museum of Fruits
and Seeds, and a Herbarium of dried plants of the
neighbourhood, containing selected types of the different
genera, When such have many species. The pupils'should
be encouraged to collect the specimens, which should
be properly dried and mounted under the superin-
tendence of the teacher.

The teacher, or elder pupils, should make enlarged
drawings of everything of importance in the structure
of flowers. These should be inserted with and by the
side of the dried specimens. Wall-drawings and the
blackboard should be freely employed.

It is impossible to make Botany so simple that
a child will be able to follow the details without
assistance. It is, indeed, quite a mistake to suppose
that it can be written like a Story-book, or even —
like History. Botany requires a considerable effort,
as much as any other subject—say, Grammar—taught
at scheol. In fact, the teacher should in all cases

INTRODUCTION. 1X

provide the pupils with the flowers described when-
ever they can do so, in order that they may see for
themselves the details in each case.

The pupils should be taught how to make “ Floral
Diagrams,’ of which there are several examples in
this book. The best way is to procure a flower only
half-opened, so that it can be seen how the sepals
or petals overlap one another ; then the exact positions
of the stamens -and honey-glands, with the relative
positions of the cells of the ovary, must be carefully
added.

One other item should be carefully observed, and
that is, the insistence upon the correct spelling of every
botanical term, especially when it is used for the first
time. It should be written large upon the blackboard,
and copied some half-dozen times by the pupils.

The reader will find many statements repeated in
this book. Experience has taught me the advisability
of the use of repetition.

In order to start fair with a general knowledge of
plant structure, it is necessary to begin upon some
common plant, and examine all its parts in order. For
this purpose I have selected the common South African
Sorrel, Oz’alis cer'nwa, and shall devote the first sections
to a description of this plant.

BfoIN CE ES Nl Tees

PAGE

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SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING
PLANTS

THE PLANT AND ITS PARTS.

The Vegetative Organs of Ox’alis cer’nua, the South
African Sorrel—To be a botanist, it is not enough to
read about flowers, but you must always examine the
living plants themselves ;* so, as soon as you can, get
each of the plants referred to in this book, and compare
it with what I have to say about it.

One of the commonest flowers which appears after
the rains is the yellow-flowered Oz'alis called cer'nua,
because of its drooping flowers, as that is the meaning
of the Latin word cer'nwa (Fig. 1).

Dig the whole plant up, and we will begin by
studying those parts which keep the plant alive and
enable it to grow, and indeed, in the case of this plant,
to multiply it as well. Botanists call all such parts

* It is advisable for the beginner to be provided with a penknife

and a pocket-lens, for dissecting and examining the smaller parts
of flowers.

B
i)

2 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

as roots, stems, branches, leaves, and bulbs the Vegeta-
tive Organs, since any part of a plant which has some-
thing to do is called an Organ.

It is usual to call the flowers and fruit the Repro-
ductive Organs, as their use is to make seed with which

Fie. 1.—I. Oz'alis cer'nua at day-time. Flowers and leaflets spreading.

to raise new plants; but this Oz'alis can and does also
propagate itself by means of little bulbs, which are
formed upon a long underground stem, and so this
process is called Vegetative Muitiplication.

If a plant of this Oz‘alis be growing among loose

THE PLANT AND ITS PARTS. 3

stony soil, the tuft of leaves arises from the top of a
long slender stem which has grown straight up from
a bulb. From this slender stem true. roots arise of a
fine thread-like character, and spread horizontally.

A bulb of this plant consists of two or more tiny,

Fig. 1.—II. At night, flowers closed ; leaflets depressed.

thick, and fleshy scales ; they are really shortened and
thickened leaf-stalks, without any blades, which con-
tain a quantity of nourishment, chiefly starch, for the
bud which is in the middle to live upon when it be-
gins to grow, and until it has produced roots of its own.

4 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

The. leaf consists of the stalk, or Petiole, and the
lade, which has three Leaflets. Such make a
compound leat (Fig. 1).

Simple leaves have only one blade.

Their behaviour at sunset should be watched, for
while they are spread out horizontally by day (1.) the
three leaflets drop down at night (II.), so that they hang,
back to back, against the stalk. Many plants with
compound leaves fold their leaflets up. This is called
the “sleeping of leaves.” Its object is to avoid injury
from chill, as the blades, being heated by day, part
with the heat at night more quickly and to a greater
extent if the blades be horizontal than when they stand
erect or hang downwards.

In England, as the weather is often cold when the
trees open their buds, the expanding leaves are always
either pressed together, or one half of a blade is
folded upon the other half, like a sheet of note-paper.
The leaves then place themselves for a time in a
vertical position, by the stalk curling downwards or
upwards. For it appears that the wpper surfaces must
be particularly protected, as well as the whole leaf, by
being placed erect or pendulous.

In tropical countries, where very intense heat
occurs, leaves behave very much in the same way in
order to avoid the excessive heat, just as they do to
avoid a chill from great cold in England.

When the dry season comes on, the underground

THE PLANT AND ITS PARTS. 5

stem of the Ow'alis may continue to grow downwards
almost as fine as a thread; but after a certain distance,
it suddenly increases in size, forming a short rod-like
structure, from 14 to 2 inches in length, which termi-
nates below with a bulb.

The use of this rod is to store up water, so that
when the time comes for the bulb to start into growth,
it will have a supply of water to draw from, until it can
get it from the rain by means of the roots in the soil.

This long erect underground stem, which can grow

lig. 2.—Runner of Strawberry (/raga'ria ves'ca).

first upwards and then downwards, enables this plant
“to climb up,” so to say, between the loose stones of
walls built wp without mortar. This is often the case
in Malta, where Oz'alis cer’nwa abounds. Many of the
stones of the walls there are fringed all round with
the little green leaves.

When growing in a wet, rich soil, it will produce
long rwnner's, i.e, branches creeping along the ground ;
but they do not root at the nodes, or joints, as may be
seen in the strawberry runners (Fig. 2).

6 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

The runners of the Oz‘alis make little bulbs
instead, so that plants soon spread over the ground,
and in a few years cover large spaces.

To show how extensively it can spread, a few bulbs
were sent to the Botanic Gardens in Malta in 1804; it
has multiplied to such an extent that this plant now
covers large tracts in Malta, not only by the roadsides,
but forms “lawns” in front of houses instead of grass.
Some of the fields show a mass of golden yellow colour
in January, for it flowers there from December to May,
the dry season being the reverse of that at the Cape.

Not only is it abundant in Malta and the adjacent
island of Gozo, but it has found its way to Egypt,
Algiers, and Morocco; and from Gibraltar to the Greek
Islands, as Zante.

It has thus spread during a hundred years all round
the Mediterranean Sea, by means of its little bulbs,
as Ox'alis cer'nwa has never been known to bear any
pods with seeds in the northern hemisphere, as it does
at the Cape.

The Uses of the Vegetative Organs.—We must first
consider the use of the fine thread-like roots. These
serve to draw up water and some mineral matters called
“salts” from the soil, by means of which plants are
partially nourished. Some plants have roots specially —
constructed to store up prepared food made by the
leaves; the garden carrot, parsnip, radish, and turnip
do this. In these it is principally sugar.

THE PLANT AND ITS PARTS. 7

The stem, excepting the runners, is entirely under-
ground in Ox'alis cer'nua, Its use is to develop leaves
and flowers as well as to produce the little bulbs for
multiplying the plant.

The leaf is one of the most important parts of a
plant, for by means of it the plant can “digest” its
mineral food, which has been partly drawn up by the
roots, dissolved in water; but it also takes in and lives
upon the impure air (called carbonic acid gas) which we
breathe out of our lungs, and as long as the sunlight
lasts, leaves and other green parts of plants continue to
purify bad air by breathing out in exchange the pure
air (oxygen gas) which we require to breathe in.

This process of Assimilation, as it is called, consists
in decomposing carbonic acid, which is made up of the
two elements Carbon and Oxygen, of which the plant
retains the carbon, uniting it with the elements of
water, and so makes starch. The oxygen is, as stated,
set free into the atmosphere. If some very delicate
leaf of a water-plant or of a moss which has been
exposed to bright sunlight for some hours be brushed
over with a camel’s-hair brush dipped in tincture of
iodine, the leaf will turn to a violet colour. This
indicates the presence of starch. If a slice of potato
be treated in the same way, it turns of a violet colour
too, as starch has been stored up in the cells to a very
large extent in potatoes.

There is another important use of leaves, called

8 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

Transpiration. The water absorbed by the roots by
ordinary leafy plants is usually in excess of the plant’s
requirements, except in dry countries like South
Africa, as the amount of mineral matters taken up is
extremely minute. This water is disposed of under
sunlight by means of the leaves. It is not the same
thing as Hvaporation, which is caused by heat. If a
few fresh leaves be put into two tumblers, and one be
placed in the sun, upside down, on a table, the other
being put in total darkness, dew will quickly appear
upon the inside of the first tumbler, but not on the
other.

Cape Colony being remarkable for drought, nature
adopts various means, as we shall see, to stop the too
ereat loss of water, and to store it up in various ways
against the dry season. Leaves can also absorb dew by
means of the hairs with which many are provided.

Reproductive Organs.—The flowering process of
plants is called the Jnflorescence. The flowering shoots
of some plants bear only one flower at a time, as the
Rose and Water-lily ; but others have many grouped
together in several ways on a common stem. Thus
each flower of Oz'alis cer'nua has its own little stalk or
Pedicel ; but all the pedicels proceed from the end of the
main stalk, or Peduwnele, together. Such an arrangement
is called a simple Umbel. If they radiate twite, it is
called a compound Umbel, as in the carrot.

Now let us examine a flower. First there is the

THE ‘PLANT AND ITS PARTS. 9

green Calyx, composed of five little pointed pieces
called the Sepals. Then follows the yellow Corolla of
five Petals. Observe that they are alternate in position
with the sepals. Next come two sets of Stamens, one
set of five being shorter than the other set. Each
stamen consists of a thread-like stalk, or Filament,
bearing a two-chambered <Anther at the top. These
two chambers, or Anther-cells, contain a powder called
Pollen. The continuation of the filament between the
two cells is called the Connective. |

In the middle of the flower is the green Pistii.
This is composed of five Carpels, which are united
below into a bag-like Ovary. In this will be found
five chambers, called the Ovary-cells, each containing
two rows of Ovules, which are destined to become Seeds.
The projections upon which the ovules are situated are
called the Placentas. Above the ovary arises a rod-like
structure called the Style, which branches near the top,
each branch terminating in a knob-like Stigma.

Such are the parts of the five Floral Whorls. In
most flowers there are only four whorls, but Oz'alis
cer'nua happens to have two whorls of stamens instead
of one only, as is usually the case in flowers.

In addition to the actual parts of a flower making
up the floral whorls, there are contrivances for secreting
honey. These are knobs called Glands on the Floral
feceptacle, the name given to the enlarged end of the
flower-stalk, or pedicel.

10 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

Sometimes a complete ring is formed all round
within the flower. This is called the Disc, from which
the honey may be poured or “secreted” as we say.
Honey may also occur in some part of the floral whorls
themselves. Thus, it is at the bottom of the sepals in
Abu'tilon, Hibis'cus, and Mallow, or in “pockets,”
‘spurs,’ and other processes on the petals. Occasion-
ally the stamens supply it, and not infrequently the
external base, or it may be the top of the ovary which
provides the honey. In all flowers, however, it is just
where the insects can most easily reach it.’

The Uses of the Reproductive Organs.—Let us now
see what are the uses of all these parts. The calyx
was of use before the flower opened, as its five sepals
wrapped up the young stamens and pistil, and so pro-
tected them in the bud. The corolla is of use for
making the flower very bright, and easily seen by
insects which come for honey or pollen as food. The
stamens shed the dust-like pollen from the anthers,
and this powder is a most important substance, for
without it there can be no seed; since it is found that
some of the pollen-grains must be applied to the top of
each stigma, which is rough and sticky so as to retain

' In all cases the teacher should make the pupils write down
every technical term, so that the correct spelling be ensured at onee ;
for if an error is made at starting, it is very apt to cling to the pupil
for a long while. The teacher must decide as to the number of
technical terms to be learnt at each lesson. I would suggest not
more than four or five at most, at least for the younger pupils.

ae PEANT: ANDY ITS PARTS. II

it. When the pollen-grains have become fixed upon
the stigma, they begin to grow by sending out little
tubes, called the pollen-tubes (Fig. 3).

The tubes grow down the style (Fig. 4, c) till they
reach an ovule (gm) within the ovary (d). In the

Fic. 3.—Pollen grains putting
out their pollen-tubes: 4,
Teasel; B, Gourd.

figure the ovary contains only
one central ovule, so the

: Fic. 4.—Longitudinal section through
pollen-tube passes directly the ovary of Polyg'onum Convol/vu-

“ - 2 lus at the time of flowering: a,
downwards into a little hole stigma; b, pollen grains; ¢, pollen-
tube ; d, wall of the ovary ; gm, the

at the upper end ot ‘ib: «It erect ovule; se, its embryo-sac ; ch,

chalaza: two pollen-tubes have

1 at Jag x47 penetrated through the style, one of
carries down a I é1 tilizing which has entered the ovule, the

other, not.

body which meets another in
what is called the Himbiyo-sac (sc), a large cell or cham-
ber within the ovule. This ovule has two coats as
shown in the figure, called the Primine, the outer, and
Secundine, the inner. These surround the solid central
body in which les the embryo-sac (se).

12 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLA

The ovule stands upon a stalk called the Funiele ;*
where this terminates in the ovule, that part of it is
called the Chalaza (ch).

The result of the fusion of the above-mentioned
two bodies, each of which is known as a Nuelcus, is the
formation of the Himbryo. To understand the parts of
an embryo, take a bean or an almond, soak it in water
to remove the skin, or Zesta. The whole of the body
within is the embryo. It will easily split in half, but
the two halves, called Cotyledons, are united by little
stalks, because they are really leaves, but having to
store up nourishment, they take quite a different form.
Still, in many plants, when they have surrendered all
their food to the germinating plant, they turn green, as
in mustard and cress. Next observe a little bud nest-
ling between the cotyledons. This is the Plumule,
which will grow into the stem above ground. Lastly,
there is a little tail protruding at one edge. ‘This is
the Radicle. It is not the root, which is only formed
from the end of it when it germinates.

In many seeds, as we shall see, the embryo les
buried in Albwinen, or Endosperm (Figs. 8, 10, 26, 35),
a tissue abounding in starch, etc., upon which it lives
when it begins to grow; but in beans, peas, mustard,
and cress, the embryo carries its own food in the tissue of
the cotyledons. While the ovule enlarges and becomes
the seed, the ovary has its part to do; for its wall (7)

! Te. “a little cord.”

7

Gk PLANT AND ITS PARTS, 13

keeps pace with the growing seed and embryo within it ;
so that when it is quite ripe, it is called the Pericarp,
and takes on a variety of forms, as shown by the innumer-
able sorts of Fruits in nature. The application of the
pollen to the stigma is called Pol/ination, and the forma-
tion of the embryo is called Fertilization. The former
may take place, but the latter does not always follow.

There are different ways by which pollination may
besecured. First, by means of the wind. This applies
to several plants with inconspicuous flowers, which
have the pistil in one, and the stamens in another
flower. This is called “ Wind-pollination.” Secondly,
the pollen may be unwittingly carried off by bees and
other insects; sometimes even birds, as the South
African sun-birds do it; and then, when they visit
other flowers of the same kind, the stigma hits them
just where the pollen will be on their heads or else-
where. This is called the Crossing of flowers, and is
described as Jnsect-pollination.

Lastly, the pollen may be applied to the stigmas of
the same flower in consequence of the anthers being
situated in close contact with them. Such is called
Self- or Close-pollination.

If it be asked which of the three kinds of pollina-
tion is the best, the question is, what do we mean by
“best” ? There are only two matters which concern a
plant—one is to live a healthy life till it dies, and then
to leave an abundance of good seed.

14. SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

The first, or a healthy life, follows all three methods
equally well, provided the outside conditions be all that
are required. | |

As to the quantity of seed set, as the chance of not
being pollinated by insects or the wind is always
present, but never so in the last, the probability of
their being the best off would seem to le with self-
fertilized flowers. When we look to see what happens
in Nature, we find such to be by far the most prolific.
Shepherd’s-purse and Chickweed, imported from Europe,
are examples. If they be allowed to grow and seed in
a garden, they will soon smother everything in it.

Crossing, whether by insects, or if it be done arti-
ficially, as practised by florists, has the effect of
stimulating the plant to produce larger and more
brightly coloured flowers. Consequently, it is much
practised in gardens, but it is often done at the expense |
of fertility ; for it is found that after some years the
amount of good seed, which will reproduce the best
flowers, diminishes, so that the experimenter gets to
the end of his tether, and he may even lose his whole
stock altogether from the seed entirely failing.

I will now describe more in detail each of these
three methods of pollination. There isa fourth, namely,
when the pollen is conveyed by water, as of the sea-
grass, a submarine flowering plant, but it is very rare
for flowers to be fertilized in this way.

METHODS OF POLLINATION.

Wind-pollination—The chief thing all beginners

have to do, in order to understand the ways of plants,

is to study their flowers, and
to learn how it has come
about that there are so many
different sorts of sizes, shapes,
colours, scents, etc. We shall
see as we go along how this
is due to the various means
by which they get pollinated.

There are, as we have
seen, three methods of secur-
ing pollination: by means of
the wind, by the aid of insects,
and by self-pollination.

In the case of wind-polli-
nation, the stigmas are often
long and hairy, so that they
can easily catch the pollen

Fie. 5.—Cliffor'tia. I. Male flower.
IL. Vertical section through female
flower,

and hold it. Look out for any grass that may be ,
in flower, and examine its two feather-like stigmas.

Cliffortia (Fig. 5) is a good example. This last-named

16 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

plant requires two figures, because the many stamens
are all in one flower (I.), and the pistil (II.) is in another.
Moreover,’ they are not even on the same plant; and
as the flowers have nothing to attract an insect, they
must depend upon the wind.

There are other families besides Grasses which have
no attractions, such as the “Sedges” and the family

Fic. 6.—Res'tio. I. Male flower. II. Pistil of female flower.

called Restiacee. This latter abounds in Cape Colony
and Australia, but is quite unknown in England.
Fig. 6, I. is a male flower with stamens only; II. is
the pistil of the female flower, having two very long
hairy stigmas. They belong to a fes'tio, the genus
which gives the name to the family. Pines and their
kith and kin, such as the Yellow-woods and South
African “ Cedars,’ have an enormous amount of pollen.

METHODS OF POLLINATION. Ly

The stamens and stigmas not being together, the latter
can only be pollinated by the wind blowing the pollen
on to them. Ina high wind the pollen may-often be
seen forming a perfect cloud of a yellow colour dis-
persing on the breeze. Indeed, occasions have occurred
when ignorant people thought it must be sulphur from
some volcano, but it was only pollen from some

il

Bie
\i y/

neighbouring pine trees ! }

Insect-pollination Flowers which ) y|
are regularly visited by insects possess UY |
various means of attracting them, such

as bright colours or by being white.
It is sometimes the scale-like Bracts, as
they are cailed, outside flowers, as of
“Everlastings,’ which are _ coloured.

Sometimes the calyxis white or coloured, \
as of Clem'atis and Anem'one. Generally — \\ if \ ~
it is the corolla which invites them. hs

Besides colour, there is often a sweet MG, 7-—Puuibaigo.
scent, as in roses, etc. Some flowers, %™*™’ Pst
such as of the Stapelias of the Karroo, smell like
putrid meat, so that flies come and lay their eggs
upon the corollas by mistake! They never, however,
turn to grubs. Then, again, many flowers secrete
honey. This is done by what are called Glands, i.e.
small knob-like growths on the floral receptacle as in
Plumba'go (Fig. 7), or else by a dise which is a thick
ring all round the flower, as in Rhus (Fig. 8). These

C

18 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

secrete liquid honey, and it is easy to imagine an
insect thrusting its head into the middle of the flower
of Rhus, when the pollen from the five anthers would
fall upon it.

Now let us examine a peach blossom. You will
notice that there is a sort of cup round the pistil in
the middle (Fig. 9). This cup has grown out of
the flower-stalk, and carries the sepals, petals, and
stamens on the rim. You will notice that it is

Sie

tt,

Sy =

po

Fig. 8.— Rhus. Vertical section
of male flower. Fig. 9.—Peach. Vertical section of flower.

thickened inside at the bottom. This is the honey-
disc, of an orange colour.

If you get any flower of any one of the numerous
kinds of Mesembrian'themum, as the Hottentot Fig,
you will find that the cup has grown on to the surface
of the ovary (Fig. 10), so that by cutting the flower
down as in the figure, the sepals, the many petals, and —
many stamens are all standing on a level with the top
of the ovary, two cells of which are seen cut through.
The honey will be found to be secreted on the top

METHODS OF POLLINATION. 19

of the ovary, just within the innermost stamens, and
the bee standing on the flower burrows down among
the stamens to get in.

Once more, examine the flower of the common
foel'la (Fig. 11). The top of the ovary (which is
united to the “cup” as in the last) secretes the honey ;
but it is carefully covered over with the broad bases
of the five filaments, which make a dome over it.

Fie. 10.—Mesembryan’themum. - Vertical section of flower.

The way in which bees secure the honey is by
entering the flower head downwards, clinging to the style
in the middle. Now, the anthers were at first pressed
against the style, the hairs of which “collect” the rough
pollen (III.). The anthers then shrivel and fall down,
as shown in I. The stigmas are not yet ready to
receive the pollen; but as soon as the style is well
covered with pollen, the stigmas spread out, as shown
in If. A bee which has visited No. L., and got well
dusted with pollen on its underside, now flies to the

20 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

flower No. II.; and, alighting on the outspread stigmas,
dusts them with the pollen brought from No, I.

No. IV. is a Diagram of the flower. It is supposed
to stand for the cut edges of the parts of a flower cut

if; 1H

Fie. 11.—Roel'la cilia'ta. I. Section of flower in its first (male) stage, one stamen
removed (3). II. Flower in its second (female) stage (4). III. Pollen grain. IV.
Diagram of flower.

across, to show their relative positions. The outer
brackets stand for the sepals, and, being all united in
one circle, shows that the five sepals are coherent. ‘The
smaller brackets stand for the petals, which are also
coherent. The black spots represent the anthers, and

METHODS OF POLLINATION. 21

<=

the central figure shows that the ovary has two cells;
the margins of the two carpels have met in the
middle ;! and the enlarged placentas are covered with
ovules.”

It is a very usual occurrence with conspicuous
flowers, constantly visited by insects, to have the pollen
ready to be taken away before the stigmas are prepared
to receive it; so that such flowers must be “ crossed,”
or they would set no seed, unless the pollen remains
in the flower long enough, 7.¢. until the stigmas are

mature. The former condition, we shall see, is what
occurs in Pelargonium.

All the flowers thus far referred to have the parts
of each whorl exactly alike, and they are, therefore,
said to be Regular. Whenever this is the case, the
insects can visit the flower on any point of the circum-
ference, and the honey-glands are situated at recular
intervals, as in Plumba'go, or else the disc runs all
round the flower, as we have seen in Rhus. There are
a great number of flowers in which the corolla,
especially, is Jrregular, in that the petals are not all
the same in size or shape. This is easily seen in the
flower of the Sweet-pea (Fig. 46), and of Polygalas
(Fig. 36), in which South Africa abounds. But as that

1 This will be fully explained hereafter.

2 Pupils should always be taught and encouraged to draw
diagrams of flowers. It is best to observe the flower when half
expanded, as it can then be seen how the sepals and petals overlap
one another, respectively.

22 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

flower is very complicated, I will not now describe it. We
will begin with Pelargo'niwm, or “ Heron’s-bill,” of which
South Africa has some 160 different kinds or species.
Get a blossom of the largest kind you ean find,
such as the one here figured (Fig. 12). You will
notice that the petals which stand up at the back are

iff

Fic. 12.—Pelargo'nium cuculla'tum. I. Section through flower, 23 sepals and 24
petals being removed ; Sp, hollow spur of upper sepal. II. Style and stigmas of
a flower in the second (female) stage. IIL. Diagram of flower.

larger and often streaked with a deeper colour than
the other three. It is a usual thing for irregular
flowers to be streaked or spotted in certain places only; |
but they occur just over the passage leading to the
honey; hence they have been called ‘“ honey-guides,”
or “ path-finders,” showing the insects where they are

to search without any hunting.

METHODS OF POLLINATION. 2

Oo

In some kinds of Pelargo'nium the front petal is
wanting, the nourishment required to make it having
been drawn away in order to enlarge the back petals.

Next we notice that only seven stamens bear
anthers, as shown in the plan or diagram (III.); the
three little rings stand for three filaments, which bear
no anthers. Now observe how, instead of the filaments
standing round the pistil, as in regular flowers, they all
bend downwards in front. Next notice how the style
stands out underneath the stamens like a rod with
a blunt end (I.). The meaning of this is that although
the anthers are quite ready to shed their pollen, the
five stigmas are not ready to receive it; so that the
flower must invite an insect to take the pollen away
and put it upon the stigmas of some other flower of
the same kind of Pelargonium which are ready to
receive it (as shown in Fig. 42, IL.).

The slanting, or declinate, stamens afford a good
landing-place for the insect to stand upon. It thus
gets dusted on its underside. But where is the honey
to be found ?

If you look well into the flower, at the back,
you will find a hole just in front of the hindermost
sepal, as shown in the diagram (III.). Now look at
the stalk behind; and the hole leads into a long
~ “honey-tube,” or Neetary, which you can split down
to the bottom.

But this is not all. As soon as the anthers have

24. SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

shed their pollen, they shrivel up and fall off. By
this time the stigmas are ready, and the style curves
upwards and spreads out its five stigmas (II.) just
where the anthers stood; so that they sweep off the
pollen from the next insect that comes, which has
previously visited some other flower in the earlier stage.

You must look for flowers of Pelargo'niwms in

these two stages ; you will easily detect them.

Fic. 13.—Duvernoi'a. I. Flower. II. Ditto with bee.

Now you will understand how all the parts of
the flower are fitted to receive the visitor, which, in
return for the free gift of honey, pollinates the flowers.

Irregular flowers very often have their stamens
grouped together but standing erect facing the front
of the flower and not declinate.

Thus, those of a tree or shrub often cultivated in
South Africa, and called Duvernoi'a (Adhatoda), shows
this.

Look at Fig. 13, and you will see how the two

METHODS OF POLLINATION. 25

anthers stand under the hood-like petal, at the back,
with the stigmas close to and between them (1.). But
the stigmas are not yet ready to receive the pollen.
The large “lip,” as the front petal is called, forms the
landing-place for the bee. Unlike Pelargo'nium, the
petals are all “coherent” into one piece and not free.
The use of their all being joined is to add strength to
the corolla so as to bear the weight of the insect.

Now turn to figure (II.), and it is easy to see how
the bee’s big body exactly fits the flower, as if the
latter were made specially for it; and so, too, it is
believed to have been, for flowers have the power
of altering, not all at once, but in several generations.
How many are necessary is unknown; but that if
the same kind of insect habitually visits the same
kind of flower, this gradually becomes adapted to it,
as has evidently been the case here.

Notice how the bee’s legs grip the ridges on the
lip; so that it can rest comfortably while it is rifling
the flower of its honey, which is secreted by a gland
at the bottom. |

- There are many more wonderful contrivances than
this. One of the commonest kind of South African
herbs 18 the Lobe'lia. It is obvious that the corolla
is very irregular (Fig. 14). The stamens have their
anthers coherent into a tube (I. and II.), through
which passes the style of the pistil. Up the middle
of the stamens stands the pistil (I.). It has two

26 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING “PLANTS.

stigmas pressed together with a hairy fringe below
them (IIT.). Now, as the style elongates, the fringe
sweeps out the pollen, which is shed inside the
anther-tube (I. and II.), and so brings it out at the
top. Not till then do the two branches of the stigma
spread out, just as in Roel'la (Fig. 11). Although
the pollen cannot readily fall on the spread-out sticky

IN)

Why
MT}
HHH
HI
i)! i
1

Fic. 14.—Lobe'lia. I. Vertical section of flower. II, Stamens, anthers closed over
stigma. III. Style and stigmas.

stigmas, which are above the fringe, on which will

be the pollen, yet it has got it out all ready for an

insect to carry it off to some other flower in which

the stigmas are outspread to receive it. .

Precisely the same method occurs in the “ florets”

P]

of the so-called “Flowers” of the great family of
Composites, as will be seen from the figures given of

that family.

METHODS OF POLLINATION. 27

The Sal'via, or Sage, of which there are several
kinds occurring in South Africa, has a more wonderful
contrivance still. Fig. 15 (1. and IL.) will explain
it. There is a large lip to the corolla which supplies
the landing-place for a bee. Then the stamens, of
which there are only two perfect, together with the
style, are concealed under the hood at the back (IL. ;
this hood is removed in I.). To understand the
structure of the stamens, the first thing to note is

Fic. 15.—Sal'via. I. Corolla, the hood removed. II. Ditto with bee.

that the very short filament seen arising from the
front part of the corolla-tube springs from the tube
to which it is “coherent.” At the upper end of the
filament is a curved rod bearing one anther-cell at
the top, while the other is at the bottom; hence
the curved rod is really the “connective.” The bottom
anther-cell has no pollen, or is abortive, as we say.
Now, the rod-like connective swings up and down on
a sort of pivot, where it is attached to the filament ;

28 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLEAS

and as the pivot is not in the middle of the rod,
but much nearer the lower end, if you touch the
spoon-like, empty anther-cells and force them down-
wards a little way, the two upper anther-cells will
swing down a very long way, as shown by their
positions at the end of the dotted lines in Fig.
Lost):

This is exactly what a bee does. It alights on
the lip, puts its head down to reach the honey at the
bottom of the tube of the corolla, depresses the lower
anther-cells, and the upper ones filled with pollen
come down and strike the bee on the back, giving
it a shower of pollen in so doing (I1.).

On its retiring the anthers swing back again into
the place under the hood.

Then the forked stigma projecting forwards is
pretty sure to hit the bee just where if has received
the pollen from some other flower.

In the Desert near Cairo there are some Salvias,
but as there are very few insects, the Salvias have
learnt to do without them, for the two stigmas have
grown very long, and curl backwards till they are
touching the anthers, which thus pollinate them at
once. This is called “self-fertilization,’ of which I
shall say more presently.

The common yellow- flowered Oz‘alis cer'nua
described in the introduction is remarkable for having
three kinds of flowers. Though the corollas are the

METHODS OF POLLINATION. 29

~

same in each, the stamens and styles are of different
lengths, so that they have been called the “short-
styled,” ‘mid-styled,’ and “long-styled” flowers.
These three different kinds are always on different
plants (Fig. 16).

No experiments have been made with this plant,
but the celebrated Mr. Charles Darwin tried all sorts

Fie. 16.—Trimorphic stamens and pistils of Ox’alis cer’nwa. ‘The arrows
indicate the legitimate combinations.

of combinations of pollinations between three similar
kinds of flowers of an English plant of a very different
family. He found that the best way was to cross
each pistil with pollen from the stamens of the same
form, as shown by the arrows in the figure. When he
pollinated the tall styles with the shortest stamens, he
got little or no seed; but by pollinating the mid-styled
form by either, he got a certain amount. Moreover, of

30 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

all sorts of crosses the mid-styled proved to be the
most prolific.

The form of this Oz'alis described as occurring in
the Northern Hemisphere around the Mediterranean
Sea is the short-styled form only. It might be thought
that the pollen must fall upon the stigmas; and no
doubt it does, but it cannot fertilize the ovules, though
it may pollinate those stigmas.

This impotence to fertilize has been discovered in
other flowers. Thus there is a kind of flax, wild in
England, which has not three, but only two forms of
flowers, which will not set seed unless they be crossed.
If pollen be placed upon the stigma of the same flower,
it fails to set seed, but it sets the full amount, 7.c. ten
seeds, if used for the other kind.

As an example to show that these differences can
be broken down, an Englishman, who settled in
Pennsylvania of the United States of America, took
a plant of this flax with him. As he had only one
kind, it never set any seed for fourteen years. In the
fifteenth year he was surprised to see a rod of pods
on one branch. Examining the flowers, he found that
the style and stamens were the same length, and that
the anthers were pollinating the stigmas, producing
self-fertilization. Why they suddenly acquired this
power he could not find out. :

In this respect it became like the true Flax plant,
which supplies the fibre for making linen; for this

METHODS OF POLLINATION. 31

species has not two forms of flowers, and can set seed
on its own account.

I will describe one more example. The common
Lucerne is now grown so extensively in the Colony
-that you will probably have little difficulty in pro-
curing some flowers. ‘The little purple flowers belong
to the pea and bean family ; there are five petals—the
large one at the back is called the “ standard,” the two
at the side are the “wings,” and the two (coherent)
petals form a boat-like structure, called the “ keel.”

_ The stamens and single carpel are lying concealed
within the keel. If you thrust a pencil-point down
the groove of the standard, in imitation of a bee, the
flower suddenly explodes, for the stamens rise up and
curl towards the standard; so that if a bee is in front
of it, it gets a shower of pollen.

Some of the Polygalas, of which you can easily get
flowers, as they are very common, behave in the same
way. The blossoms are not unlike that of a pea in
appearance, though their real structure is very different.

A great many other ways of pollinating flowers by
insects exist; and you will find it a very interesting
amusement to examine all sorts of flowers and trying
to discover how it is done in each case.

Self-pollination We must now turn to the third
method of. pollination—that is, by a flower’s own
stamens. Asa general rule, such flowers as are never,
or very rarely, visited by insects are small, inconspicuous,

32° SOUTH .AFRICAN FLOWERING FLA

often without any corolla or any honey, possessing
nothing, in fact, wherewith to attract msects. Some-
times they are open, but they often remain closed as buds;
but the anthers, being actually resting upon the stigmas,
the pollen at once pollinates them. Such plants as
Shepherd’s-purse (Fig. 35), Groundsell, Chickweed,
Knot-grass (Fig. 87), imported from Europe, as well as
native kinds, all of which are now common weeds
in the Colony, illustrate this method very well.

It may be noticed what a large quantity of pods
and seeds these self-pollinating and _ self-fertilizing
plants yield; so that it is no wonder how they will
smother the flowers in a garden if they be not ex-
terminated when in flower or before. There is a Little
plant, a common weed by roadside and waste places,
throughout the Colony, called “ All-seed.” This well
shows what an advantage self-fertilization is to plants.

It must also be added that by far the greater
number of flowers, even when very specially adapted
to insects, can still pollinate themselves as well. It
is a curious fact that the violet never bears seed
with its sweet-scented, purple flowers in England,
though it may do so in some warmer countries, yet
after the flowering is over, if you search below the
leaves, you will find numerous tiny buds. Every one
of these sets a quantity of seed, but they never open.
Indeed, the anthers do not burst, but the pollen-grains
set to work to make their tubes while «side the

METHODS OF POLLINATION. 33

anther-cells, which they actually penetrate, and so
get to the stigma, upon which the anthers are closely
applied.

There are a great many other plants of various
families which possess these self-fertilizing buds,
termed Cleistogamous, a word meaning “concealed
union.” Another common flower which is self-
fertilizing is that of Cas'sytha (Fig. 17), a plant which
is remarkable for its leafless, thread-
like stems, which are parasitic upon
the bushes about which it entwines
itself in a tangle-like mass; but I
shall have occasion to describe this
flower and the plant’s peculiar habit
later on.

It often happens that a flower

Fie. 17.—Cas'sytha,
invites insects at first, then turns — Vertical section of

flower.

to self-pollination afterwards. Thus,

in many flowers when in bud, the anthers are all
turned inwards; but when the flower expands, the
filaments bend outwards ready to dust the insect
visitor as soon as it comes. Afterwards, the filaments
curl inwards again, and the pollen can drop upon the
stigmas of the pistil in the middle of the flower (see
Fig. 10 of the peach).

One of the British Clovers, of which Fig. 18 is an
illustration, is a case in point. It is particularly
adapted to some wild “humble-bees” in England, and

; D

34 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

in unfavourable seasons, when such bees are scarce,
much clover fails to produce seed.

When it was first introduced into our Colonies in
the Southern Hemisphere, complaints arose of its
failure, so the English humble-bee was imported. This
was said to overcome the difficulty. But it appears
to have failed only in some places ;
for in others reports were received
that there was no difficulty in
getting seed, but whether by
native bees or by acquired self-
fertilization was not stated.

It may be mentioned that it
was thought at one time that self-
fertilization was injurious, and that
plants habitually setting seed by
their own pollen grew weaker and
weaker, and finally died out. This was due to an
error of observation. They are mostly insignificant
flowers; but for health, vigour, and abundance of good
seed, the plants are not to be surpassed. Moreover,
self-fertilizing “weeds” are far more widely dispersed
over the globe than the plants which display brighter
and larger flowers, but are dependent upon the
capricious visits of insects for fertilization. ,

Mr. Darwin made a large number of experiments
in “crossing” some and “self-fertilizing” others, arti-
ficially, of the same kinds of plants. He then compared

Fre. 18.—Clover.

METHODS OF POLLINATION. 35

the offspring in all sorts of ways, as to heights and
fertility. He generally found that with the first two
or three generations the “crossed” plant beat the
“ self-fertilized.”

But he rarely continued the experiments for a
sufficient number of years. For crossing is a temporary
stimulus ; and after a few years the continually self-
fertilized gradually gain upon the intercrossed, and then
far outstrip them in fertility.

Florists corroborate this result. By constantly
crossing to procure finer flowers, after a time fertility
rapidly decreases, and it is often next to impossible to
get the finest flowers to set any seed at all. Just as
pigeon-fanciers say the best pigeons always die in
the nest, so a certain florist lost his whole stock of
valuable primulas from this cause.

On the other hand, self-fertilizing weeds as Ground-
shell, Shepherd’s-purse, Black Solanum, Chickweed,
etc., are sturdy little plants, terribly prolific, and an
intolerable nuisance in the garden.

THE STEMS AND FOLIAGE OF PLANTS
CHARACTERISTIC OF Dry REGIONS.

As we are going to study plants of a region charac-
terized by great drought, we will now pay a little
attention to the general features of the vegetative organs
of the natives of such a country, as their special
adaptations to a dry soil and air, and a paucity of
water during the summer, are very pronounced both in
the stems and leaves of many plants.

After the rainy season, plants which maintain a
show of foliage only during the period of seasonal rains,
and dry off with the advance of drought, exhibit quite a
different sort of leaves from those borne by plants which
persist all the year round, and therefore have to
withstand a long period of drought. Take the many
species of Oz'alis. They have thin and bright green
leaves; but think of the shrubs in January. They
bear leaves almost leathery in character, such, for
example, as the Sugar-bush and Wagen-boom. Their
toughness is due to the thick skins they have, which
prevent water escaping too quickly in the dry summer,

THE STEMS AND FOLIAGE OF PLANTS. 37

Plants growing in dry places, which cannot get
enough water, are often unable to make full-sized
leaves. The result is that while the “mid-rib” and
the side ones are developed, the pieces of the leaf
which ought to fill up the interspaces are not formed,
so that the whole leaf may be deeply cut down in
appearance. There is a common shrub used for hedges
about Cape Town and elsewhere, the leaves of which are
like a double comb. It is called Ha’keu, and came
from Australia. It is a member of the same family as
the Sugar-bush.

One general result of a dry climate is to reduce the
size of the leaves greatly. Hence so many plants in the
Colony look like heaths, of which there are some
500 different kinds; but as one goes eastwards to
Port Elizabeth and beyond, the climate is moister, and
they are much less numerous, partly from this, as well
as other causes, till they cease to occur altogether.

The next thing to notice is, how often leaves are
hairy. Thus those of the silver tree are densely clothed
with silky hairs. In many cases the hair makes a
coating of wool, as on some of the Everlastings. The
use of hair is to reduce the heat from sun, to lessen the
loss of water, and also to absorb dew for the benefit of
the plant when the rain or dew falls.

Another result of drought is the hardening of the
woody parts so that the tips of leaves are often sharp
pointed; and the shoots also are checked in their growth,

38 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

and end in sharp spines, as in the Kei-apple tree, and
of the tree shown on Fig. 19.

But besides this hardening effect of drought and
heat, many plants have adopted a plan of storing up
the water when the rain falls. Thus the very common
plants known as Mesembrian'themum have thick, fleshy

lig. 19.—Spines of Celas'trus Tig. 20.—Stape'lia. Stem and
buaifolius, L. flowers.
leaves, full of water, and protected by a thick skin ;
one species, called the ‘“ Ice-plant,’ is covered with
little bladder-like projections on the leaves, each of
which is like a miniature bottle of water without a neck,
Many of the Cras'sula family are similarly provided ;
while others, as the fleshy Huphorbias and Stapelias,
store up water in their stems (Fig. 20). Hence all

THE STHMS AND FOLIAGE OF PLANTS: 39

these and many others always look fresh and green
during the very hottest months.

There is yet another plant which must be mentioned,
and that is the Aloé. There are many kinds in Africa.
They have thick, massive, sharp-pointed leaves a yard
or more in length, forming a huge rosette. If one cuts
a leaf across, it will be seen to be full of a soft mass
abounding in fluid. This is water held in reserve, while
special vessels contain a resinous substance, which,
when boiled down, the drug called “bitter aloes” is
made out of it.

Now, in Mexico similar plants grow, in just the
same kind of places, dry and rocky, and they are called
“ American Aloes,’ but when the flowers are in blossom
they prove to be of quite a different family; so just as
the Mexican Cac'tus resembles the South African Zuphor-
bias, so the Aga've, as it is called, resembles the Aloé of
Africa, showing that quite different plants can put on
precisely the same forms, when growing in similar
climates, because those forms are best suited for them
under the circumstances.

A substance often secreted on the surface of plants
in dry countries is wax. It forms the “bloom” on
grapes and plums, and on the Cape “ Wax-berry;” but
on the surface of leaves it helps to prevent the loss of
water. Dr. Marloth, of Cape Town, thus describes a
very remarkable instance. The plant is known as
Sarcocau'lon, a word meaning “fleshy stem.” He says

40 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

“the stems will burn even when green, because the
outer bark consists of cork well saturated with wax.’
On the older branches this layer is about one-tenth of
an inch thick; but if one extracts the wax, the layer
is composed of several years’ growth, glued together by
the wax, and forms a solid mantle entirely enveloping
the stem.” Palms, which mostly live in hot, moist
countries, do not as a rule produce wax; but there is
one called the “ Wax-palm,” which happens to grow on
the mountains of South America.

1 It appears to be more like copal, and brittle, being soluble in
alcohol. ;

THE ORIGIN OF THE VELD AND KARROO
PLANTS.

WE now enter upon a new botanical field altogether.
It is nothing less than to discover how Nature makes
new plants out of old ones.

Consequently we have to consider what happens
when fruits and seeds have been carried away to more
or less great distances from their old homes.

Of course we all know that the climates, by which
we mean different amounts of heat or cold, dryness or
moisture, different kinds of soil, as sandy, clay, rocky,
or limestone, slate, granite, etc., make up the “sur-
roundings” of the plant which has to live among them.
Just as one tribe of man lives comfortably in the hot,
damp forests of Central Africa, another in drier velds,
etc., so do some plants thrive best in one kind, others
in another kind of soil and climate ; but the question
is, supposing a plant suited for the dry veld or Karroo
be suddenly transported to a damp or wet bog, will it
live ?

If we took the Water-lily out of a lake and planted
it in our garden, would it thrive and grow and blossom

42 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

just as well? Probably the result would be that it
would be dead in a week or more. How, then, are we
to account for plants being swited to their surroundings,
so that we can talk of water plants, veld plants, Karroo
plants, desert plants, Alpine or high mountainous
plants, and even Arctic and Antarctic plants? That is
to say, when we study all the plants found in these
very different kinds of surroundings, we find they can
live and thrive there; but many of them will not live
at all if transferred from one place to another, especially
if the heat and cold, wet and dry surroundings, be very
different in amount.

The Distribution and Evolution of plants all over
the world is done as follows :—

First, we have to disperse the fruits and seeds; as
when they were first brought by birds, wind, or water
into Cape Colony, for they could not have come north-
wards out of the sea. The plants came from hotter,
tropical and moister regions into a dry country, in
which rain falls chiefly at certain seasons, and not at
intervals all the year round, as it does in England.
All those beautiful plants with bulbs, for which the
Cape is so noted, many of which are cultivated in
Europe and elsewhere, really prefer moisture; but a
great number have spread into the dry regions of South
Africa, where they now not only abound, but keep them-
selves alive during the long dry weather. The way
they do it is by making bulbs. ‘Though the flowers and

ORIGIN OF VELD AND KARROO PLANTS. 43

green leaves seen after the rains die, the bulbs remain,
because the thick scales of which they are composed
store up water which keeps them from drying up, and
enables them to start into growth when the proper time
comes round.

It is not only nearly all the lily-like plants which
have bulbs, but many make them, which one would not
expect to find doing so, as
certain kindsof Pelargoniums,
which frequent dry and rocky
places. All others of this
kind of plant, growing in
good soil and plenty of
moisture, never have any
bulbs at all.

Sometimes it is the under-

ground stem which swells
into a globular mass, looking
much like a bulb; such is
called a corm. This occurs
in the numerous kinds of 5,217 Tiuleirtie! a, ail
Gladiolus,

As plants with bulbs and corms are very abundant
in Cape Colony, it will be as well to illustrate and
explain their differences.

Fig. 21 is the bulb of an onion cut down through
the middle, showing the thick, conical base of the stem,

6, and the central flowering stem at the top. Two

44. SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

leaf-blades ave seen, one on each side of it. All the
rest are the bulb-scales; they completely wrap round
each other, and are called tunicated, so, when cut across
they look like rings. They are really the bottom parts
of the leaves without the blades above. «a, a@ are little
bulbs or bulbils, which, when sufficiently large, will
fall off and become new plants. The bulk of the bulb
is therefore composed of bulb-scales. There is a kind
of onion growing in the intensely hot sand of the
desert near Cairo, which, to keep the innermost scales
fresh, hardens the outer ones till they feel like wooden
coverings. The temperature of the sand may be 130°
Fahr. |

Many bulbs have scales which do not surround the
stem, but grow like the scales of a fir-cone, Webi nn
one another, as do those of lilies.

A corm, as shown in Fig. 22, of a Glad'iolus con-
sists mainly of the globular base of the stem, b; the
scales, being dried up, form a thin covering, d, ¢
being the flowering stem in the middle. The new corm,
b, is formed on the top of the old one, «. This
supplied the nourishment for the flower, and then
shrivelled. The fresh leaves then set to work to make
starch, which is stored up in the cells of the new corm,
which keeps getting larger to receive it.

Fig. B is the corm with the skins removed ; 4, 0,
c, d, are the same as in Fig. A, but y is a bud on
the top of the new corm, which will flower next year ;

ORIGIN OF VELD AND KARROO PLANTS. 45

zis an extra little corm arising from the new one; «
are the roots.

Some of the corms are edible, and called “ Uintjes.”
The cultivated leek is an instance of a plant which
has a bulb when wild, but has lost it under cultivation.

In many plants the roots swell into nodules, and

) A Pal

Fie. 22.—Corm of Glad'iolus. A,.Longitudinal section: a, last year’s, b, this year’s
corm; ¢, flower stem; d, scales; xz, roots. s, After removal of the enveloping
scales: ¥, bud, which will develop into next year’s corm; z, bulbil.

act as reservoirs of water and nourishing matters.
Fig. 23 illustrates a South African kind of Aspar'agus
which has swollen nodules on its roots, most probably
for this purpose.

Fig. 24 shows an elongated form of root. This
closely resembles the swollen end of the underground
stem of Ozx'alis cer'nua, described above.

46 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS

It is, then, by making bulbs, etce., that so many
plants can manage to “adapt” themselves to endure
the dry season.

Fig. 23.—Aspar‘agus undula'tus. Rhizome, with nodulose roots.

Similarly, it is by “ acquiring,’ as we say, fleshy
stems, as of Huphorbias, or fleshy leaves, as of the

ORIGIN OF VELD AND KARROO PLANTS. 47

Hottentot fig and many others, that they can live and
thrive in South Africa.

The peculiarities of leaves, mentioned in the last
chapter, have likewise all been acquired in adaptation
to the prevailing drought.

It was Darwin who gave us the clue to the “ origin

Fie, 24,—Anthe'ricum, with long fleshy

of species” as above described. He called this in-
fluence of the surroundings “ the direct action of the
conditions of life,” the result, or effect, of which was,
that aii the plants affected by it varied alike, ic. in
adaptation to the new conditions of life, and so a “ new
variety ” would arise.

THE STRUCTURE OF FLOWERS.

THE next matt& for consideration is to discover how
differences can arise in the structure of flowers.
These may be grouped under the following headings:
Number, Cohesion, Adhesion, Insertion, and Form.
Number.—With regard to the number of parts in
each whorl, they may vary from one to twelve—all such
numbers are said to be definite (see Figs. 6, 7, 8, 12) ;
but if there are more than twelve, sometimes very many,
such are regarded as being indefinite (Fig. 9, stamens
many; Fig. 10, petals and stamens many), and is repre-
sented by the mathematical symbol for infinity, 0 .
Some numbers are commoner than others, as fives and
threes ; fours are less common, and twos are rare.
The multiples of these occur, so that there may be
eight, ten, or twelve in a whorl.
Any one, two, or more whorls may be wanting
altogether ; so that a flower may be reduced to stamens
(Figs. 6, I.; 8), or a pistil only (Figs. 5, II.; 6, I1.). On
the other hand, the calyx and corolla may exist without
the stamens or pistil. Such a flower is then said to be
neuter, as of the garden Hydrangeas.

THE STRUCTURE OF FLOWERS. 49

If a flower has a pistil without any stamens, it Js
called female (Fig. 5, I1.); and if there be the latter
without any pistil, it is said to be male (Figs. 5, L;
6,1.). Such flowers are wnisexual.

If both these organs are present the flower is
bisexual. If the sexes are in separate flowers on the
same plant, this is said to be monwcious,' as the Fig-tree,
Myri'ca, Euphor'bia, and Melons ; if they be on separate
plants, such are called diwcious,? as Res'tio (Fig. 6)
and the English stinging nettle (Urti'ca dioica),
naturalized at the Cape, as well as Cliffor'tia (Fig. 5).

If two or more whorls be composed of the same
number, or are multiples of the same number of parts,
the whorls are said to be symmetrical. If they have
different numbers the whorls are called wnsymmetrical.

If a flower has both stamens and:a pistil, it is said
to be perfect, whether it has a calyx or corolla or not ;
but without these it is incomplete.

Freedom and Cohesion.—A1l parts of a flower really
partake of the nature of leaves, as may be proved by
the “green rose,” in which every petal, stamen, and
carpel is replaced by a smali green leaf. And as leaves
on a long shoot are all separate, so a flower has been
constructed by shortening the stalk and bringing all .
the leaves to the, usually, enlarged end of it, now
called the floral receptacle. So, all parts of the flower,
like leaves, were quite free and separate. This was

1 Te. “ one-housed.”’ ? I.e. “ two-housed.”

E

50 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

. undoubtedly the original condition of flowers, and
can be now seen in Ranun'culus, Knowlto'nia, and
Anemo'ne.

Hence, in looking for such a condition, one turns to
the family Ranwnculacee, to which these three plants
mentioned belong, as best illustrating it; and this
Order or Family always stands first in the usual
systems of classification. Thus Ranun'culus pinna'tus,
or Knowlto'nia, has five free sepals, five or more free
petals, oo free stamens and o free carpels, every one
of these parts ultimately falling off by itself.

Now, starting from an original freedom, any one
or more whorls may have its parts grown together,
respectively, into a single piece. They are then said
to cohere. Thus, in Heaths, while the four sepals are
very nearly, and the eight stamens are all quite, free
from each other, the four petals and the four carpels
have cohered together, in each case. In oel'la the
five sepals cohere and the five petals cohere, as shown
in Fig. 11, I, IL, and the diagram IV.

In the common plant, Struth'iola virga'ta, with
white, scented flowers, of the order Zhymelacee,* and
of any plant of the large order Protcacew,' the four sepals
are coherent into a short or long tube, the tips of the
sepals being alone free, constituting the /imb. As there
is no corolla in these plants, the flowers are said to be
encomplete.

1 Tllustrations will be found under these families.

THE STRUCTURE OF FLOWERS. 51

Again, the filaments of the stamens may cohere,’
as in most flowers of the pea family, Leguminose, in
which the anthers are free, but in the great family well
known for its Everlastings (Composite), this condition
is reversed, in that the filaments are free from each
other, but the anthers alone cohere, forming a little
cylinder (Fig. 67, IL., III.), through which the style
passes. It is the same in Lobelia (Fig. 14, II.).

In the majority of flowers the carpels of the pistil
cohere. This is easily seen by cutting the ovary
across, when two or more cells will be usually seen.
In the many bulbous plants? the ovary will almost
invariably be found to have three cells. In Pelargo'nvwm
there are five (Fig. 12, III.), and in the bell-like flower
of Roel'la, only two (Fig. 11, IV.).

In some few flowers there is only one ovary-cell,
though it may be composed of two or more carpels.
This is explained by taking, say, three pea-pods,
splitting them down, along one edge only, called the
placenta, which carries the peas; then placing the three
together, edge to edge, a hollow chamber would be
formed having three rows of peas (really six, each
being composed of two). In some such ovaries there
is only one ovule which arises at the base of one of
the placentas ; so it appears to spring from the middle

1 The ten stamens of Oz'alis cer’nua are slightly joined at the
base of the filaments (Fig. 16).
For figures, see under the family Liliacez.

52 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

of the chamber. This always occurs in Composites,
and also in Polyy'onum (Fig. 4).

In most flowers, as.of Pelargo'niwm, the carpels are
united and already closed up, like unopened pea-pods,
being coherent side by side; so that the rows (of two
in each) now stand in the middle (Fig. 12, III).

Adhesion—The second change is seen when one
whorl is united to another and a different whorl, in
which case they are said to adhere. Thus the stamens
of Struth'iola (Thymelacee), or of Leucosper'mwm
(Proteacee),! appear to grow upon the inside of the
tube of the calyx. They really arise from the stalk
or receptacle, but the filaments are adherent im various
degrees from bottom to top of the sepals by their
filaments.

The almost universal condition prevails of the
stamens being adherent to the corolla whenever this
whorl has its parts coherent, as in all Composites,
Convol'vulus, and the potato blossom. Heaths and
Roel'la (Fig. 11, 1V.), however, represent two families
in which the stamens are quite free from the corolla.

Receptacular Tube.—The third peculiarity among
the changes of structure in flowers resides in a peculiar
growth of the receptacle. This end of the flower-stalk
is often or generally enlarged, as in Ranuwn'culus, and
very much so in a strawberry ; for the receptacle of
this fruit swells into a great rounded mass, and carries

1 See under these orders for figures.

FHE STRUCTURE OF FLOWERS. 53

many separate carpels as minute seed-like fruit, called
achenes,

In many flowers, including the strawberry, the
floral receptacle expands horizontally, as in Rhus (Fig.
8), forming a sort of dish, so that the sepals, petals,
and stamens are carried outwards to a little distance
away from the pistil, and so stand “around the ovary ;”
the technical term for the petals and stamens (but nof
for the calyx) is then periqgynous.'

The space between the perigynous stamens and
pistil is occupied by a honey-secreting surface, forming
a little trough in the blackberry (Rubus).

As this expansion of the floral receptacle often
takes the form of a cup or tube, as in the flower of
the peach (Fig. 9), rose, and Cliffortia (Fig. 5), it is
called the Receptacular Tube, on the elevated rim of
which are the sepals, petals, and stamens. The single
earpel, in the case of the peach and plum, and the
many carpels of the rose, remain quite free at the
bottom of the cup.

A still further advance is seen in an adhesion
between this ¢wbe and the ovary of the pistil within it.

This occurs in apples, pears, loquats, in the
“florets” of the Composite, in Roel'la of Campanulacee,
etc. In these cases it will be noticed that the parts

1 Tf there is no such outgrowth, the petals and stamens arise from,
or are “inserted” upon, the receptacle, below the ovary, as in
Pelargo'nium. They are then said to be hypogynous, that meaning
“ under the ovary.”

54 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

of the flower (sepals, petals, and stamens) appear to
spring from the top of the ovary of the pistil. . This is
well seen in Fig. 10, which is a vertical section of the
flower of Mesembrian'themwm ; the interpretation, how-
ever, is as stated. In these cases botanists speak of the
calyx as being superior and the ovary inferior, while
the petals and stamens are described as epigynous.!

Honey-glands, etc.—A fourth peculiarity in the
majority of flowers is the provision for supplying honey
or “nectar”? to insects. This is done by a superficial
group or layer of “ cells,” forming a gland, which pours
out this sweet fluid. It may occur on any part; but it
is always just where the insect can most readily reach
it with its tongue or proboscis.

A few examples will illustrate this. In Abu'tilon
and Hibis'cus it is the base of the calyx which
secretes it. A difference in the appearance of
the surface at that place is easily perceptible to the
eye if the calyx be turned backwards. The English
Lime tree has little boat-like sepals, each of which is
full of honey, much sought after by bees. In South
Africa, Grew'ta, of the same family as the lime
(Tiliacee), has a nectary at the base of the petals, just
as in Ranun'culus.

In some few plants the stamens secrete it.

1 Le. “upon the ovary.” In all flowers in which there is no such
adherent receptacular tube the calyx is “inferior” and the ovary
“ superior ” (Figs. 5, 8, 9).

THE STRUCTURE OF FLOWERS. 55

It is, however, the floral receptacle which is the
usual source of honey. In the Plumba'go (Fig. 1) there
are five glands swelling up between the stamens ; and
if the flower be looked at from above, it will be seen
that there are five passages, down which the insect’s
proboscis would go, directly over the glands.

In Gera'nium there are also five little knob-like
glands (Fig. 41, I.), of which one stands in front of each
sepal; but in Pelargo'nium, of the same family, there is
a single honey-tube or nectary at the back of the flower
running down the pedicel, as described above (Fig. 12).

In some flowers a complete thick ring within the
corolla completely surrounds the pistil. This is called
a Disc, and is characteristic of a large group of families
known as Disciflorw, of which, for example, Rhus
(Fig. 8) and the wilde Kastanien (Caloden'dron) belong.
Again, of the Labiate family, Zeono'tis Leonu'rus* has a
thick, ring-like disc below the four-lobed ovary. It is
rather elevated on the anterior side, just where the
proboscis of an insect will reach it.

The use of the receptacular tube is also to secrete
honey. Thus, where it is free from the pistil, its upper
or inner surface, as of the cup of the peach flower
(Fig. 9), has a thickening which secretes it.

When the receptacular tube is adherent to the
ovary (Fig. 1), then it is usually the top of the ovary,
the only part of it exposed, or the base of the style

' See figure under Labiutzx (IV.).

56 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

which swells into a honey-secreting body, as of the
Umbellifers,!

Regularity and Irregularity.—The fifth and very
important point, referred to under Insect-pollination, to
note, is that while all flowers are supposed ‘to have
been at first regulav—that is, the parts of each whorl
were exactly alike—many flowers
are now wiregular, 1 having the
parts of one or more whorl of
different forms. Thus, a flower of
Gera'nium or Ox'alis is perfectly
regular, but that of Pelargo'’niwm
(all these being of the same family)
is irregular, since the petals are not
all of the same size and shape.
Similarly, the corolla of Duvernoi'a
(Fig. 13), Lobelia (Fig. 14), and
Leono'tis are highly irregular, having
a sort of “hood” behind and a
“Jip” in front. That the ancestors
of irregular flowers had regular

Fic. 25.—Sal'via, with
l e ] 7x d a. 2 an
regular calyx and corolla. © oyollas is to be inferred from the

fact that flowers of these plants are sometimes pro-
duced with a trumpet-shaped corolla, having a limb
of five equal-sized lobes, thus being perfectly regular.
Thus Fig. 25 is a regular flower of a Sal'via, which

1 Observe the two oval bodies below the two styles in the middle
of the flower of Bu'bon.

THE STRUCTURE OF. PLOWERS. 57

should be compared with the usual form (Hig.
$5041,).

Moreover, the fifth or posterior stamen is restored
in these flowers, being usually wanting in all such
irregular flowers, as of Labiates.

Degradations.—As a sixth condition, it must be
observed that in a large number of plants some or
more of the floral whorls are wanting.

In Struth'iola and Pro'tea, for example, there is no
corolla, only a calyx (white, green, or of some other
colour), stamens, and pistil. In others, even the calyx
is suppressed, as in Euphorbias, in which, indeed, one
stamen only represents a male flower. These degrada-
tions are regarded in most cases as indicative of their
having descended from plants which possessed both
calyx and corolla; but these whorls have been lost in
their evolutionary history.

A few incomplete flowers are thought to be possible
descendants of primitive types, representing the earliest
stages, when Nature had not yet contrived to make
either a corolla or calyx. Such, ey.,is the wax plant
(Myri'ca), of which there are eight species in South
Africa. Casuari'na, the “ Beefwoods” of Australia, is
perhaps another; and the willows and poplars of
England are descendants of some very early types; but
the majority of incomplete flowers are undoubtedly
degradations from more complete flowers.

Form.—In endeavouring to speculate as to how and

58 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS,

why flowers are so different in their shapes and colours,
why they vary in the numbers of! their parts, or why
some one or more may differ in size or shape from the
rest of the parts of one and the same whorl, one asks,
what are the causes which have given rise to the
infinite diversity which exists among flowers ?

Again, we see some flowers with all their parts
perfect, their corollas very large, brightly coloured or
white, often strongly scented, and producing much
honey. On the other hand, many flowers are exceed-
ingly minute, with a very small corolla, or even none
at all, totally wanting in scent, and producing no honey.

Collectively, in many instances, one describes these
latter features as “ degradations,” since in many cases :
they have “rudimentary organs,’ as they are called,
being of no use now, but representing ancestral states,
when they doubtless were possessed of perfect functions.
Thus a remnant of a pistil often exists in male flowers.

To try and solve this problem we must observe
what goes on in Nature. The first thing to note is
that insects are habitual visitors of many flowers,
either for pollen or honey, or both as food. As they
generally visit the more conspicuous flowers, which
are white or coloured, or else discoverable by their
scent, as Mignonette, one concludes that there is some
“ correlation ” between such flowers and insects.

On the other hand, innumerable small flowers may
be, and indeed are, never visited at all; in these one

THE STRUCTURE OF FLOWERS. 59

observes very minute petals or none. Moreover, they
may have no honey-glands atall. Very often the flower-
buds do not open, and yet they can produce plenty of
seed.

In looking for correlations between flowers and
insects generally, one observes that nearly all regular
flowers are either terminal, zc. at the ends of flower-
ing stems, or, at least, they are so situated that insects
can extract the honey from any point of the cir-
cumference.

On the other hand, irregular flowers are mostly so
placed upon the stems that they can only be approached
from one side, 7.¢. in front.

In addition to this fact one finds a great number of
features all in correlation to the presence of insects.
Thus, ¢g., in Sal'via (Fig. 15, II.) there is the strengthen-
ing of the calyx to support the slender tube of the
corolla, since the front petal is greatly enlarged to
carry the weight of the insect; while the stamens
and style are modified and the honey-gland developed,
so that all are in adaptation to the insect-visitor.

If no petal happens to be in front, then the stamens

9

and style are “declinate,” 7.c. inclined downwards and
then upwards, thus forming a convenient and sufficient
resting-place instead, as in Pelargo’niwm (Fig. 12).

In regular flowers, as of the group Discifloree, the
circular, fleshy, honey-secreting disc, as in the wilde

Kastanien tree, or the five separate honey-glands in

60 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

(era'niwin, can be reached from any parts; but in the
Labiates, ete., a single gland is often developed at only
one spot, at the bottom of the canal or passage, down
which the proboscis of the insect finds itself conducted.
When, therefore, one finds not one only, but many
points of coincidence in all the four whorls of a flower,
as well as in the position of the honey-glands, one is
quite justified by “inductive evidence,” 7.c. the accumu-
lation of many points of agreement, in concluding that
some one common cause has brought about these many
correlations or adaptations in unison together.
Moreover, since Evolution forbids the idea of any
structure being formed at first in anticipation of the
needs of another being, and as there is no evidence of
spontaneous evolution without external agencies, we are
driven to the conclusion that it is the ¢sects themselves
which first stimulate or irritate the flower, and then |
all the above adaptations follow suit in response to the
irritations. Such is the theory based on these and
many other facts. It is that the lving Protoplasm is
endowed with a power to respond to the mechanical
forces brought to bear upon the several organs of the
flower by the insect itself, 7.c. by its weight and thrusts."
We know from Nature and from experiments that
such a response is common enough everywhere in the

1 This is more fully explained in my works, “The Origin of Floral
Structures ” (International Scientific Series: Kegan Paul, Trench, &
Co.), and a little book, “* The Making of Flowers” (S.P.C.K.).

THE STRUCTURE OF FLOWERS. 61

vegetative system of plants, wherever organs are
subjected to strains; and assuming that it is equally
so in flowers, we have a key to the origin of all the
phenomena of floral structures in plants, in that they
are supposed to be the direct results of the superficial
iritations set up by the insects themselves.

Next, with regard to the inconspicuous flowers. If
conspicuous flowers cease to be visited by their usual
insects—as by the seeds having been carried away
into other districts or countries—then the cessations of
the irritations is presumably sufficient to account for
the degradations in such flowers. All the above-
mentioned correlations, having been brought into ex-
istence through the irritating action of insects, will now
presumably degenerate when the cause ceases to act.
Just so the eye—the result of the stimulus of light
‘upon animal protoplasm—atrophies until the owner
becomes blind in continual darkness, as do animals
at the bottom of a very deep sea or in pitch-dark caves.

But while degradations may go on in one direction
in flowers, fresh adaptations arise in others, which
bring about self-fertilization instead. The corolla, not
being wanted, dwindles or disappears; but the anthers
(no longer stimulated to develop themselves in advance
of the stigmas) mature simultaneously with these, and
remain closely applied to them as they are in bud;
hence the result is a sure and certain pollination with
an abundance of seed.

CLASSIFICATION.

WHEN we gather a quantity of wild flowers, there is
at once seen to be a very great amount of differences
in their shapes, sizes, and colours; so that it may
seem to be a difficult matter to arrange them. When,
however, we come to examine them carefully, strong
points of likeness will easily be found between many
as well as unlikenesses; so that botanists can make
many groups of flowers of which the resemblances
exceed the unlikenesses. The next way to under-
stand how this is done is to examine for yourself
as many flowers as you can, and then write down
their points of structure as I shall explain; and what
all beginners must aim at is to be able to recognize the
Families, or Natural Orders, as botanists call them.
If they be large, they are often divided into Sub-orders,’
Tribes, and Sub-tribes. Then it will be seen how the
Orders are divided into Genera,” and these into Species.
It is as well to begin with the last two terms, as all
classification is really built up upon them.

1 “Sub” is often added to words to mean * somewhat.”
2 Genera is the plural of Genus.

CLASSIFICA TION. 63

I have taken the common Oz'alis cer'nua as an
example of a flowering plant in general. Now, there
are several kinds of Oz'alis, so like O. cer'nua in the
structure of the flower and fruit, as well as the leaf
(this being mostly trifoliate, v.e. of three leaflets), that
botanists agree to call them all by the same name,
Oz'alis ; but they differ in having their corollas red,
purple, white, or streaked, as well as yellow. Again,
in some the peduncle or main flower-stalk carries only
one flower, as 0. gla'bra with a violet-purple corolla.

Again, like 0. cer'nua, a species may have an umbel
of flowers, but of a flesh-colour instead of yellow, such
as OJ liv'ida.

I have mentioned only one or two points of
difference, but there are others. If they amount to,
_ say, five or six, then botanists maintain that any two
with so many differences should be regarded as distinct
species. With less than that, they should be recognized
as varieties only. Since, however, all the important
points in the structure of the flowers and fruits is the
same, they all constitute one Genus. Hence is the
necessity of giving two names to every plant, the
“generic,” as Oux'alis, and the “specific,” as cernua.
Botanists have now named upwards of a hundred
species of the genus Ow'alis in South Africa alone, while
there are other species elsewhere. In England there
is one with white flowers called the wood-sorrel.

The student must learn the true meaning of

64 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

these two words, Species and Genus, for they lhe at the
root of all classification. He is familiar with the fact
that there is an immense number of different kinds of
Heath. Without being a botanist he recognizes that
there is a strong likeness among them. They constitute
a geius, but each of the different kinds is a species.
There are many South African genera besides the
Heath, which have a large number of species, as
Aspal'athus (Leguminose), More'a (LIridew), Disa
(Orchidee)}

The question is, how must we distinguish one
species from another? It is not enough to do so by a
single, two, or very few features, but they must be com-
pared throughout the entire plant, and then each
species will be known by a collection of constant?
features called their “specific characters.”

How do these differences arise? The answer is
that all plants possess “variability ’ or the power to
change; and this power is brought into action by —
changes in the external conditions of the plant; so
that when the seeds of any plant get transplanted by
wind, birds, etc., to a distance where the soil and
atmosphere are different, the seeds germinate, but grow
up slightly different from the parent, and more in
harmony with the new conditions; the next generation
carries on the “ adaptation ;” then, after afew years, the

' See these families for figures.
2 I.e. by heredity.

CLASSIFICATION. 65

plant is greatly changed in general appearance, and
botanists call it a new species.!

Then, whatever was the orginal species of Erica,
or Heath, which came to South-West Africa, it has
been probably long extinct; but as its seeds became
scattered about and found different conditions in
different places, the plantlets grew up, altering their
features, and so gave rise, first to “ varieties ;” then these
became “species,” as the degrees of differences in-
creased which finally qualified them to become species.
It is a common thing to find South African species of
the many bulbous plants, as Orchids, etc., to be localized
in particular spots, probably where they were originally
evolved. ' :

On the other hand, the Bracken Fern (Pte'ris
aquilina), common over all the slopes of the Table
Mountain range, is just like the English plant, and
does not appear to have varied here any more than
it has in Europe.

So, too, Oz'alis cer’nua, as mentioned, is common in
various places all round the Mediterranean Sea; but
it is known to have been introduced about 1804, so
that after a hundred years or so it has never altered
in the least in the Northern regions.

There is, in fact, no. necessity for plants to change,
if their constitution can accommodate itself to the new
localities ; but if it cannot, it must die.

1 See above, p. 64,

66 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

How readily a species will change is often well
seen under cultivation. Thus there are two species of
Ar'abis (Crucifere) in Switzerland, one of which lives
in crannies of rocks, and has thin “ papery ” leaves, and
is called A. anchoret'ica ; the other has thicker leaves, and
is known as A. alpina. When, however, the former
was grown in the public gardens at Kew, it assumed
all the features of the latter. As another example,
there is a spiny plant known as “Rest-harrow” in
England, common in dry, waste places, called Ono'nis
spino'saw ; but plants raised from seed in a border kept
constantly moist ceased to produce spines, and assumed
the characters of the spineless species, O. re'pens.

Plants by the seaside often have somewhat fleshy
leaves; but if they be grown far away inland, they will
sometimes produce thin leaves like other plants of the
same neighbourhood; and if garden-cress, ete., be watered
with salt and water, their leaves then become fleshy,
resembling maritime plants.

Many other such illustrations could be given; but
these will be sufficient for the reader to understand
that new varieties and species come into existence by
the power of adaptation which the living protoplasin }
of plants possess, in vesponse to the direct action of the
external conditions of life.

It is in consequence of this that a// water plants of

1 This is the name given to the living substance of animals and
plants.

CLASSIFICATION. 67

rivers, lakes, etc., agree, in possessing a number of pecu-
liar features in common, which are the result of living
submerged, though their flowers retain the generic cha-
racters by which the plants are at once distinguished.

As the beginner will understand the reasons for
framing the higher groups, such as Families, after
having studied the flowers themselves, I shall presently
begin to describe the chief natural orders or families
with the one which botanists always place first of all,
namely, Ranwneulacee ; and this will supply us with
materials for answering the question, How are plants
to be classified ?

It will be advisable, however, to give here a tabulated
scheme of Classification to refer to. I shall follow in
the main the arrangement given in the Flora Capensis,
consisting of a description of every species in the
Colony. It is being prepared at Kew, but is at present
unfinished.

PHANEROGAM, OR FLOWERING PLANTS.

SECTION I. . : . Gymnosperme
Il. ‘ ’ . Angiosperme
PEASS Ley. : . DICOTYLEDONS
Division I. Thalamiflore
Roar : : Discrflore
sy Calyciflorce
nog & 48 Gamopetale
en! ons Incomplete

68 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

Opmnas 1.) : : . MoNnocoTyLEDONS
Division TI. ; Petaloidee
i: vd; 1 Glumacee

CRYPTOGAMA, OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS.

I will now add a few particulars about these
classificatory terms, though they will be better under-
stood after flowers have been examined belonging to
each group.

First of all, the Vegetable kingdom can be sharply
divided into two “Sub-Kingdoms,” as they are some-
times called, namely, plants which bear flowers having
stamens and pistils, and those which have none, but
are provided with corresponding organs, which take the
names of antheridia, i.e. “ anther-like,” and pistilidia,
i.e. “pistil-like.” The bodies corresponding to the
anther and pollen-grains are called microsporangia* and
microspores ; 7 while those corresponding to ovules are
called macrosporangia,®? which produce macrospores.*

The macrospores escape from the macrosporangia
in OCryptogams;° but they remain within them in
Phanerogams and form seeds. Hence one fundamental
difference between these two sub-kingdoms is, that
one produces “spores,” the other bears “ seeds.”

1 Le. little spore-vessels. ? T.e. little spores.

’ Te. large spore-vessels. * I.e. large spores.

° Such plants as ferns, mosses, lichens, seaweeds, and fungi are
“ Oryptogams,” with which I am not concerned in this book.

CLASSIFICA TION. 69

The next difference to be noticed is that between
Gymnosperme,! which includes the Kaffir Bread, the
“ Vellow-woods ” and “ Cedars” of South Africa—and
Angiospermae. In the former the ovules are on the
edges or base of a so-called ovuliferous scale, It used
to be called a “carpellary”’ scale, because it seems to
take the place of a carpel; but it is never closed over
the ovules, which are quite exposed, and receive the
pollen without any stigma on a style, down which the
pollen-tubes can grow; but these at once enter a
little hole, called the micropyle (i.e. little gate) in the
ovule itself.

Gymnosperms and Cryptogams were the earliest
terrestrial plants known, and composed our coal.

Ciass I. Dicotyledons.—All members of this group
are known by the following characters, allowing for
a few exceptions :—

1. The parts of some, if not of all the whorls of
the flowers are generally in fours, fives, or many.

2. The wood of such as are shrubs or trees shows,
when cut across, concentric circles, really the cut
cylinders of wood, having a distinct pith, or medulla,
in the middle and radiating medullary rays (well seen
in oak-wood, and called the “ silver-grain” by
carpenters). Outside is a separable bark.

3. The leaves are net-veined, or reticulated. This
means that the framework, composed of “ribs” and

1 Te. “‘naked-seeded.” 2 Le, “ seeds in a vessel,” or pericarp.

70 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

“veins” as they are fancifully called, of woody matter,
branches indefinitely, the branchlets being all con-
nected in an irregular net.

4, The embryo of the seed has two Cotyledons, or
“ seed-leaves,” as seen in mustard and cress when
germinating, as they then turn green, or in beans,
peas, acorns, which remain underground.

5. When germinating, an embryo produces an
axial or tap-root, as of the carrot, parsnip, radish, ete.

Division I. Thalamiflorew, i.e. the corolla and
stamens arise from the thalamos (the old name for
the floral receptacle, as the extremity of the flower-
stalk, or pedicel, is now called), and are polypetalous,
z.e. With all the petals separate or free. The petals
and stamens are /hypogynous, or “under the ovary,’
arising directly out of the receptacle.

Division IL. Disciflorw.—The only difference be-
tween this division and the first is in the presence
of several knob-like honey-glands, as in Gera'niwm,
or a thick ring or disc (from the Latin discus, a “ quoit’’),
as in Baros'ma.

Division III, Calyciflore.—The corolla is poly-
petalous as in the two previous divisions, but now
stands on the edge of a receptacular tube This con-
sists of an outgrowth from the receptacle below the
pistil. It is sometimes dish-like, as in strawberry and

1 This will be further alluded to under the Rose Family, in which
it forms a characteristic feature. See above, p. 52.

CLASSIFICA TION. 71

blackberry, or cup-like, as in cherry and peach (Fig. 9). —
The sepals, petals, and stamens are on the rim; the
petals and stamens are said to be perigynous, 1.c. “ around
the ovary,” as they are carried out to a little distance ©
from it; but this word does not apply to the calyx.

If the receptacular tube be adherent to the ovary,
then the petals and stamens are said to be epigynous,
ze. “apon the ovary” (Figs. 10 and 11).

Division IV. Gamopetale, i.e. the corolla has the
petals “ coherent,’ and is said to be gamopetalous,
ze. “petals united.” The stamens are usually epipeta-
lous, v.e. adherent to the corolla.

Division V. Incomplete, i.e. the flower is “incom-
plete”’ in having no corolla. Sometimes there is no
calyx as well. The stamens and pistil are often in
different flowers.

Crass II. Monocotyledons.—1. The parts of the
whorls of the flowers are usually in threes.

2. The wood, as of asparagus and palms, is in
separate cords running down the softer “ ground

2

tissue ;” and there is no bark, and no cylinders of
wood, as in Dicotyledons.

9 “cc = 7 ?

3. The leaves are, as a rule, “ straight-veined,” as
of all grasses, lilies, etc.; or else shghtly curved.

4. The embryo has only one Cotyledon, as seen
in mealies or maize, and in an onion, which, when it
germinates, appears above ground as a loop till the

tip is freed from the seed.

72 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

5. The seed produces no permanent axial or tap-
root ; instead of it, or superseding it, adventitious roots
arise in ascending series from out of the base of the
stem, as seen in germinating maize or date. These two
plants develop a temporary tap-root.

Division I. Petaloidce, i.e. the Leaves of the Perianth,
are petal-like, as of the Belladonna.

The term “Perianth” is mainly used for Mono-
cotyledons, because the two whorls are mostly alike,
the parts being called “ leaves.’ The outer is some-
times regarded as the calyx and the inner as the
corolla, whenever there are marked differences be-
tween the outer and inner whorl of the perianth, as
in Orchids.

Division II, Glumacee, i. the leaves of the peri-
anth, are chaff-like, and called glwmes, from the Latin
gluma, “ chaff,’ as in Res'tio, Sedges and Grasses.

CLASS I.—DICOTYLEDONS.
DIVISION I.—THALAMIFLOR AS,
Ranunculacee.

THE BuTTERCUP FAMILY.

This natural order or family contains upwards of
1200 species of 30 genera in 5 tribes. They are

PHR:; BULTERCUP FAMILY. 73

almost entirely extra-tropical, many occurring in the
cooler regions and on mountains.!

There are only five genera in South Africa, which will
be sufficient to explain why they are grouped together.

Ranun’culus pinna'tus.—This is not an uncommon
Buttercup, as the species are called in England,
occurring in meadows, etc. It is a perennial herb, with
very hairy leaves, more or less divided into three
or five pieces or segments, 1.c. im one or two pairs with
a terminal one; such is described as being pinnately
divided or Jobed, meaning “feather-like.” The stalk
widens and forms a sheath at the base.

The flower has five reflexed sepals, five yellow
petals, many or © stamens, as botanists represent the
word, and oo free carpels, constituting an apocarpous
pistil. All parts of the flower are perfectly separate or
free.

When the pistil becomes a fruit, the sepals, petals,
and stamens fall off or are deciduous; but the carpels,
by drying up, closely invest the seeds within them,
so that they do not burst or dehisce in any way. They
are called Achenes. |

The accompanying figure (Fig. 26) will give all the
details of the structure of the flower of any species
of Ranun'culus.

ae YN) give the reader some idea of the relative sizes of the orders,
I will always add their approximate number of species and genera in
each case.

74 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

In the flowering and fruiting shoot, («) represents
Practs. These are rudimentary leaves reduced to one
or a few segments only. ()) is the sepals of the calyx.
The petal (1) shows the little notched flap in front
of the honey-secreting nectary. (2*) is a front and
(2) a back view of a stamen, showing how the con-

Fie. 26.—Ranun'culus (Buttercup). (For description, see text.)

nective forms the continuation of the filament between
the anther-cells, which burst down the sides. (3) is
a vertical section of the flower; the inferior sepals,
hypogynous petals, and most of the stamens being
removed. The pistil is formed of many separate
carpels. (4) is a carpel, showing (a) the ovary, (0) the
style, and (c) the rough stigma. (5) is a vertical section

VHE: BOULTTERCUP . FAMILY. 75

of a carpel, showing the very young ovule at the base
of the ovary. (6) is a ripened fruit called an Hterio,
or cluster of achenes. (7) is a single achene; and
(8), one cut vertically, shows the seed now completely
filling the ovary, and invested by the carpel, now
called the Pericarp. The white substance is Lndosperm,
sometimes called A/bwmen, and is the nourishment laid
up for the minute embryo lying
at its base. (9) is the embryo
detached. (10) is a side view of
it, showing the two cotyledons,
the rounded end being the radicle.

There is a species of Ranwn’-
culus which grows in ponds and
rivers, probably introduced from
Europe, called &. aquat'ilis (Fig.
27). It has white petals with a
yellow base. If it grows in still

water, it bears two kinds of frie. 27.—teaves of the Water
Crowfoot (Ranunculus

leaves ; some are floating and aquat'ilis): the floating leaves
complete ; the submerged

completely formed, while others 1° fmely divided.

are under water. ‘These are always’ dissected or have
fine thread-like segments.

This is a consequence of living submerged, as
many other water-plants of quite different families
have similarly dissected leaves. If the plant grow in
rapid streams, the dissected, submerged leaf is the only
kind usually formed.

76 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS,

An experiment was made by an American botanist
with an aquatic plant of the United States called
Proserpin'aca, which bears complete leaves in the air,
but dissected ones under water. He added certain salts
to the water; by this means the excess of water
was withdrawn from the protoplasm, and the plant
then bore complete leaves under water.

Anemo'ne. — A. capen'sis is a herb, common on
Table Mountain. The flower-stem has two or three
leafy bracts forming an Jnvolucre, or “ wrapper.” Like
Ranun'culus, it has all the parts of the flower quite
free. It has no corolla, but many rosy-white coloured
sepals. There are many stamens and carpels, which
turn into achenes ; but while the styles remain as little
curved points in those of Buttercups (Fig. 26, 4), they
erow out into long feathery tails by forming hairs
along them, in the achenes of Anemo'ne. They
probably assist in dispersing the fruit.

Clem'atis—This genus has only four white or
coloured sepals, no corolla, but oc stamens and
carpels, all being /7ce, and a fruit of co achenes.

It differs from all others in being a woody stemmed
and climbing plant. It climbs by means of its leaf-
stalks, or petioles; for these are very sensitive to
touch, and as soon as they come in contact with the
shoots of other plants, they twist round them, and
finally grasp them tightly. ‘Then the petioles grow
much thicker and stronger; nor do they ever fall off,

LITE BOUT PERCUP.. FAMILY. 77

as do those of leaves which do not happen to catch
anything.

You must make a point of observing everything
you read in this book, and make experiments, such
as placing a petiole of this plant in contact with a
twig, and seeing how it will have become bent after
some hours, and finally coiled round it.

Knowlto'nia.—This genus is peculiar to South
Africa. It has five sepals, © petals, co stamens, and
co carpels, and a// free. It differs from all the other
genera in its carpels, becoming succulent and juicy,
instead of dry achenes.

Like all the members of this family, it has a more
or less poisonous juice, which will raise a_ blister;
hence the commonest of the five known species is
called K. vesicato'ria, 7.¢. “ blistering.”

You will now see from the foregoing few facts why
these four kinds are called by separate names, as
genera, They all agree in the features italicized; but
each differs from the others in certain important
particulars.

Of course each of these genera has several species.
Thus Clem'atis has four, Knowlto'nia five, and Ranun’-
culus six, in South Africa.

Besides these three, there is one other genus,
Thalictrum, with two South African species; but it
only occurs in Caffraria and Natal.

I will suppose that you have examined a plant

78 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS,

of each of these genera, and written down all you have
noticed about them under the headings Root, Stem,
Leaves, Flowers, and Fruit, in addition to the very
few points I have stated. ‘

Then you will be able to see in what particulars
they all agree, which will account for their all being
members of the same family or order, Rawwn'culacee,

as follows :—

General Description of the Family or Order

Ranunculacee.

Herbs (excepting Clematis)'—With a more or less
poisonous juice.

Leaves—Muech divided into segments, with the
stalk sheathing the stem at the base.

Flowers—Sepals and petals, various in number and
colours, but peculiar to each genus; stamens, many ;
carpels, many.

Fruit — Achenes (exception, fleshy in Knowlto'nia
only) or follicles (as in the cultivated Columbine
(Aquile'gia)).

All parts free.

It may be noticed how very hairy, almost woolly,
many of these plants (as well as many others) are in
South Africa. This is a common feature in a dry
climate. On the other hand, all water-plants, and,

‘ In all families any description may have exceptions, but it
refers to the great majority.

THE WATER-LILY FAMILY. 79

as a rule, all growing in wet places, are nearly or
quite hairless, like the water Ranwn'culus,; the fact
is that hairy plants can absorb water, such as rain
and dew, when the supply from the soil is deficient in
the dry seasons,

Nympheacee.
THe WATER-LILY FAMILY.

The members of this family, some 35 species in
all, of 8 genera in 3 tribes, are wholly aquatic, and
mostly to be found in the Northern Hemisphere, such
as the Nelum'bium, or “ Lotus,” of India. The largest
flowering is the Victo'ria re'gia, discovered growing in
the river Amazon, in Bolivia, about 1800. It first
flowered in England in 1849. The leaves are six feet
across, and strong enough to bear a child.

Nymphe’a stella'ta~—-The blue Water-lily is the
only South African plant of this family, and appears
to be the same as one growing in the Nile. The
structure of the flower explains how petals are made
out of stamens; for a perfect transition will be found
between them, as shown by the illustration (Fig. 28,
1, 2,3, 4). The petals begin with a broadening of the
filament, while the anthers decrease in size till they
disappear altogether—that is, in passing from the
inside of the flower to the calyx, outwards.

80 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

The next point to notice is the outgrowth or dise
from the floral receptacle which invests the ovary in
the middle, at the same time carrying the stamens ())
and the petals (~) on the outside, as shown in (2).
(5) is a cross-section of the ovary and disc, showing the
numerous ovary-cells, each containing many ovules.

“IN. =
i AK Y ) gi

‘| ee NY

Fic. 28.—Nymphea (Water-lily). (For description, see text.)

As the carpels are coherent, they make a syncarpous}
pistil.

As we have not had this condition before, I will
explain how it comes about. Take a pea-pod as a
single carpel. Now, suppose half a dozen to be stand-
ing erect in a circle, m touch by their edges which

1 Te. carpels “ together ” (syn).

THE WATER-LILY FAMILY. 81

carry the peas. Then let them be compressed till their
sides are in contact together. Now imagine them as
grown together by their sides as in (5).

If the whole were now cut across, six chambers
would be seen with two rows of peas on the “ marginal
placentas,” forming the inner angles of the ovary-cells.
They then thus would form a syncarpous pistil.

There may be any number of carpels, but two,
three, four, and five are the commonest among flowers.
In the Water-lily the ovules are in a somewhat
exceptional position, being all over the sides of the
divisions, and not exclusively in the angles.

The circular leaf, so characteristic of this family, is
seen also in some other aquatic plants not belonging
to this order, and it also occurs in some marsh plants
which were probably once aquatic, as Ranun'eulus
Mey'eri* and Hydrocot'yle verticilla'ta.?

If the petiole of a leaf, or the flower-stalk of the
Water-lily, be cut across, and then slightly wetted with
indian ink, good impressions can be made on paper
showing the long Lacuna, or “ air-chambers,” always to
be found in submerged plants. It is the air in these
hollow tubes which enables the flower-stalks and
petioles to stand erect in the water. It will be also
noted how feeble is the wood in all submerged stems.
The reason is that stems growing in the air have to

1 Found at Kat-berg.

* An “ Umbellifer ” occurring in wet places near Cape Town.

G

82 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

support themselves ; consequently, to prevent falling,
they put on “ supportive tissues,’ of which wood-fibres
are the most important. But as the water helps to
support a submerged stem, which is also filled with
air, there is no necessity for much, if any, wood. As
a result it is not developed. The general effect of a
submerged life is a “ degeneration ” by the arrest of the
formation of internal supportive tissues, and in other
ways.

The Water-lily’s leaves and flowers arise from a
thick, horizontal stem called a Rhizome. If a section
of this be made, the “woody bundles” do not form a
ring, but are scattered about, like those in a stick of
asparagus, or as described in speaking of the stem of
Monocotyledons."

General Description of the Water-lily Family.

Herbs—Aquatic, with thick rhizomes.
Leaves—Mostly floating, with cordate? or peltate®

blades.
Flowers—Petals numerous, passing into stamens ;

carpels, numerous, syncarpous, within a fleshy disc.

See p. 71. 2 T.e. heart-shaped.
° T.e, shield-like, the petiole entering the middle of the blade.

THE. POPPY FAMILY. 83

Papaveracee.
THE Poppy FAMILY.

This order contains 160 species of 24 genera in
3 tribes.

The members of this family are characterized by
having a milky white, yellow, or red juice; that of
the poppy when hardened forms the opium of commerce, ~
which yields useful drugs, especially for sleeping
draughts.

Papa'ver aculea'tum.—This is the only South African
plant of this order. It occurs in sandy ground near
rivers in the north and east districts. One called
Papa'ver hor'ridum in Australia appears to be nearly
the same. It has orange-scarlet coloured flowers.

The illustration (Fig. 29) explains the structure of
the flower of a Poppy as follows: All poppies have
only two sepals (1), which fall off as the bud opens,
and are therefore said to be fugaceous, i.e. “ flying off.”
The petals are corrugated or crumpled up in the bud in
consequence of their developing a little too fast within
it. The stamens are very numerous (A). The pistil
consists of a variable number of carpels coherent by
their edges, each to each, so they make a single chamber
(3), while outgrowths from the placentas, which are
parietal, being on the wall,’ project like erect plates,

1 Latin paries, a “ party-wall.”

84. SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

but do not meet in the middle (3 and 6). There
is no style, but the stigmas lie over the top of the
ovary (compare 2, 3, and 6), so that the pollen tubes
can grow downwards inside the soft tissue of these
plates till they reach the ovules upon them (5 and 6).
The tissues of the styles in flowers, which are especially

Fic. 29.—Papa'ver (Poppy). (For description, see text.)

adapted for conveying the pollen tubes, are called con-
ducting tissues. The fruit is a dry Capsule, known as
the “poppy-head.” It opens by holes, or pores, at the
top (5, a) to let the seeds (7) fall out. The seeds
when cut through show a tiny embryo (8, 0) buried in
an oily endosperm (8,a). (4) is a stamen.

As the poppy-head stands on a tall stem, the

THE STOCK AND CABBAGE FAMILY. 85

advantage of having the pores at the top and not the
bottom of the “head,” is that the seeds do not fall out
close to, and all about, the plant; but as the wind
blows and sways it, the seeds are thrown to a distance.

The whole of the “sub-order,’ which contains the
poppy and its allies, have a thick juice, white, yellow,
or red, which is more or less poisonous. The opium
poppy is commonly cultivated as a garden plant, the
opium of commerce being the dried milky juice obtained
by making cuts on the green poppy-heads. The seeds
are oily, but do not contain opium.

A Mexican intruder, Argemo'ne Mexica'na, has
become a great pest on the waste-heaps at Kimberley,
and is spreading elsewhere.

General Description of the Poppy Family.

Herbs—With milky or coloured poisonous juice.

Flower—Sepals, 2, deciduous ;! petals, 4, crumpled
in bud (poppy); stamens, »; pistil with 2-2 ® carpels,
with parietal placentas and dissepiments.

Crucifere.
THE STOCK AND THE CABBAGE FAMILY.

This order contains some 1200 species of 172
genera in 10 tribes. The greater number are in the
Mediterranean regions and Asia Minor.

1 Tie. falling off. * Le. varying from two to many.

86 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

The name of the family means “ Cross-bearers,”
because the four petals make a cross; but you must
not suppose that a// flowers with four petals belong to
it.. Of the seventeen genera in South Africa, eleven
are also English. The two following will illustrate the
family.

Helioph'ila—This genus is only known in South
Africa, and has sixty-one species. Observe how the
expanded flowers surround the closed buds in the
middle; and as fast as the latter burst into bloom,
the stem continues to grow. Hence the old flowers are
left behind, and soon form long pods, so that you will
see fruit-pods below, flowers in the middle, and buds at
the top. ach is carried on its own little pedicel, all
springing from the main stalk, or peduwnele. This
particular kind of inflorescence is called a Raceme; but
as long as it 1s flat-topped, it is known as a Corymb.

It is usual to find in most plants a tiny leaf-like
bract, or reduced leaf, from the awl of which (that is,
the corner between it and the stem) a flower arises, and
it is said to be bractcate ; but in Crucifers it is always
wanting. The inflorescence of Crucifiers is, therefore,

2)

characterized by being ebracteate (the “e” meaning
“ without ”’).

Now let us dissect a flower carefully, and you will
find there are four sepals; the front and back ones
(that is, as you look at a flower while still upon the

peduncle) overlap the two side ones. Whenever the

THE STOCK AND CABBAGE FAMILY. 87

parts of any whorl overlap one another by their edges
they are said to be imbricate.

The side or lateral sepals have little pouches at the
bottom to contain a drop of honey (Fig. 30). Remove
the sepals very carefully. The four petals will now be
seen to be fixed by slender stalks called claws. In
some flowers they are much longer, the broader part
above being called the limb of the petal. Before we
remove the petals look at them from the sides and you
will observe a little hole at the
bottom just over the pouch of the
side sepals. It appears to be
fringed. Now, if we remove the
petals, we shall discover what that
fringe is. It is composed of three
parts; one is on the stamen, and

one on each of the two adjacent
3 E Fig, 30.—Cruciform flower,
petal-claws. The honey-gland is at withsaccate, ¢.c. ‘* pouched”

sepals and clawed petals.
the spot where that stamen arises.
This is formed by a_ superficial swelling on the
receptacle. The hole not only allows the honey to
escape into the pouch of the sepal, but the proboscis of
an insect can pass through the hole to get it.

Next observe there are six stamens; the two side
ones (Fig. 31, I., a) are usually shorter than the four
others (4). The stamens are said to be tetradynamous,
a word meaning “four in power,” in reference to the
four tall ones.

88 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS:

Now remains the pistil. The lower part is the
ovary, the short contracted piece above it is the style,
while the stigma is the somewhat rounded rough top.
The pistil is composed of two carpels as the diagram
(Fig. 31, II.) will show. This is supposed to represent
a flower cut across. The four outer crescents stand for
the sepals, the four inner the petals, the six black

Fie. 31.—I. Tetradynamous stamens and pistil of a Crucifer:
a, shorter, b, longer stamens. II. Floral diagram.
spots are the anthers, and the oval in the middle is the
ovary of the pistil, the little projections being the
ovules. It will be observed that these are not in
the middle of the ovary, but on the wall, while the
parietal placentas, or the thickened margins of the
carpels, are connected by a plate, half of which has
grown out from each side and united in the middle.
In order to understand how this cohesion’ between the

1 The word cohesion is used when the parts of any whorl are

THE STOCK AND CABBAGE FAMILY. 89

two carpels has taken place, the best way is to take |
two pea-pods, split them open, but down the edge only,
namely, that which carries the peas ; half the peas will
be found clinging to one edge and half to the other
edge. Cut a second pod in the same way, and now
place them face to face. If the two pairs of edges
which now meet be supposed to grow together, we
should have an ovary such as that of
Crucifers, though wanting the extra
growth forming the plate, which occurs
in all members of this family.

As this peculiar structure is much
better seen when the pistil has ripened
into a fruit, we will examine the long
pod, now called a Stliqgua’ (Fig. 52),
and you will see how two strips from
the backs of the two carpels peel off
' from below upwards. These are called

Valves. There then remains a sort of
F Fig. 32.—Wallflower.
a long, narrow framework carrying the _ Siliqua dehiscing from
P : below, upwards,
plate upon which are the seeds. This
plate is called the False Dissepiment, or Division-plate,
being the extra growth spoken of above. “True dis-
sepiments,” or septa, of an ovary are formed by the
walls of the carpels themselves, as explained under
Nymphea, or the Water-lily.

united together. Adhesion applies to the parts of a whorl when united
to a different whorl. * Latin for a “ bean-pod.”

99 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

I will now compare the flower of Helioph'ila with
that of a very common introduced weed called the
Shepherd’s-purse, in Latin Cupsel'la Bur'sa-Pasto'ris.
The accompanying figure (Fig. 33) supplies all the details
as follows: (1) is a complete flower. In (2) the calyx
and corolla are removed. ‘The stigma (1, 2, 5) is rough

FIG, 33.—Capsel'la (Shepherd’s-purse). (For description, see text.)

and globular, such being usually the case with regularly
self-fertilizing flowers of this family. (3) is a trans-
verse section of the ovary, showing a very narrow false
dissepiment, and as the pod is so small it is called
a Silicula ; (4) is an ovule; (6) is a ripe silicula, (a, a)
being the valves—()) is the remains of the style—which

THE STOCK AND CABBAGE FAMILY. gI

‘separate from the frame-like placentas (7 and 8); (7)
shows the seeds attached to them in four rows, two
rows being on each side; (8) is the same with the
seeds removed; (9) is a ripe seed; (10) is a vertical
section, showing the embryo, the vadicle being on the
right and the cotyledons on the left ; (11) is a seed cut
across or transversely, (a) being the radicle and (0, 0)
the cotyledons.

The radicle is not a true root, but develops a
root from its tip, and from it arises the first stem !
above upwards. The two cotyledons are really the
first pair of leaves, but only turn green when they
come up into the ight, as of mustard and cress when
fit to eat. Between the two cotyledons is a minute
bud, which will in time grow up into the new plant.

Such vegetables as all sorts of cabbages and kales,
the radish, turnip, etc., of this family, show how plants
change under cultivation, for they are all raised from
seed of wild plants, the roots of which are small, tough,
and wiry, but as soon as they grow in a rich soil, they
begin to get larger and “ fleshy.” Then by taking the
seed from those which have the best roots, i.c. “select-
ing” for about six years, fine garden vegetables are
secured, the seed always reproducing the good root, or
whatever it is that has been turned into a garden
crop.

1 The first stem is called the Hypocoty], i.c. “ below the cotyledons.”
If the plumule forms the stem, it is called the Epicotyl.

92 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLATS

Similarly, wild potatoes in Peru are no bigger than
hazel nuts; but we now get magnificent tubers half a
pound in weight. It is all done by carefully selecting
the best only for propagation.

General Description of the Crucifer Family.

Herbs—N on-poisonous.

Inflorescence—Corymbs passing into racemes of
ebracteate flowers.

Flowers—Sepals, 4; petals, 4, clawed; stamens, 6,
tetradynamous ; pistil of 2 carpels, syncarpous.

Frwt—A_ siliqua or silicula, with a false dis-
sepiment, dehiscing by two valves, and with four rows
of seeds.

No plants of this family are poisonous, and many
are useful for food. The cabbage is wild on the chalk
cliffs of the South of England, and is the origin of all
the many sorts of that vegetable. The turnip and
rape, mustard and cress, horseradish and radish, etc.,
all belong to it. |

Of garden flowers, the wallflower, stock, candytuft,
natives of Europe, are grown in gardens.

Capparidee.
THE CAPER FAMILY.

This family has 300 species of 23 genera in 2 tribes
in all, and 25 species in South Africa, of which the

THE CAPER FAMILY. 93

eaper (Cap'paris) has 9, principally in the Eastern
districts. |

Cap'paris (Fig. 34).—Like Crucifers, this genus has
four imbricate sepals, four petals, but many stamens,
and two to eight carpels in different species, forming a
syncarpous pistil. This is supported on a long stalk
’ called a Gynophore, 1.e. “ pistil-bearer ” (Fig. 34, I., IT.),
arising out of the middle of the flower. The ovary is one-
celled with several false dissepiments, as in poppies
(IV.). It forms a capsule (III.), and the seed (V.)
has no endosperm. ‘There is a long embryo (VL).

The capers used in sauces are the unopened flower-
buds of C. spino'sa, a species common on rocks and
walls on the Mediterranean shores. The caper is
mentioned in Scripture (Eccles, xi. 5), “ The caper-berry,
shall fail,” 7z.¢. no longer act as a stimulant to the
aged man. It is referred to by Pliny in the first
century, who says, “The seed of the caper is a well-
known article of food, and is mostly gathered with the
stalk.” Of course he means the buds.

One Cape species of Caper (C. albitrun'ca) has a
white bark and wood useful for yokes, etc.

General Description of the Caper Family.

Trees, shrubs, or herbs.
Leaves—Simple or compound.
Flowers—Sepals, 4; petals, 4-8 or more, clawed ;

94 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING FLAG

II. Vi igs

Fic. 34.—Cap'paris. I. Flowering branch. II. Vertical section of flower. III.
ee IV. Transverse section of fruit. V. Seed. VI, Embryo, coiled up in
seed.

THE SUNDEW FAMILY. 95

stamens, 4, 6, or 0, not tetradynamous ; pistil of 2-3
earpels, parietal placentas.
Fruit—A capsule or berry.

Droseracez.
THE SUNDEW FAMILY.

This order has 110 species of only 6 genera.

The members of this family, which abound in
Australia, and are two in number in South Africa, are
remarkable for not only catching insects by their’ sticky
glands, but for absorbing nourishment out of their prey.

The accompanying illustration will give the details
of an example of sundew.

Dros'era.—This genus, called Sundew in England,
has eight species in South Africa. Some have elongated
leaves, others, as the one figured (Fig. 35, 1), have round
blades, but covered with red glandular hairs both on
the surface and margins. (2) represents one of the
round blades; the “tentacles” on the circumference
will be seen to be much longer than those on the
middle. (3) is one of the tentacles enlarged; it is
composed of a gland at the top, while the stem is
built up of brick-shaped cells containing a coloured
fluid. (4) is a fringed sheath formed by the Stipules!

' Stipules are two appendages at the base of the petiole in many

plants. If present, the leaf is said to be stipulate; if wanting, the
leaf is exstipulate.

96 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

as the base of the petiole; (5) is a complete flower ;
(6) represents a vertical section of the pistil with three
of the five sepals. The styles and stigmas are six in
number (6, @), as two belong to each of the three
carpels. (7) is a bursting capsule ; (8, 9, 10) are seeds ;
(8) shows the loose seed-skin, or festa. This contains

Fig. 35.—Dros'era (Sundew). (For description, see text.)

a sort of kernel (9) filled with a large quantity of
endosperm, at the base of which is a small embryo (10).

It is an interesting experiment to transfer some
plants with moss to a bowl, keeping them well
moistened. Then, if minute fragments of hard-boiled
ege or biscuit be placed upon the middle of the leaf,

THE SUNDEW FAMILY. 97

the tentacles, after some hours, bend over and bring
their head-like glands down upon the object; a fluid
is secreted by them which gradually dissolves the
egg, etc., and its nourishing matters are absorbed.
The cells of the glandular hairs are red at first, but
become paler, from above downwards, when consuming
food; for the colouring matter becomes clotted into
little droplets, leaving clear spaces in the cells. After
all the nourishment has been extracted, the uniform
red colour is resumed, from below upwards, throughout
the tentacles, which now spread away as before; and
any undigested débris, as of a fly, ete., is left behind.

Rorid’'ula—This genus differs from Dros'era in
having a three-celled ovary with a solitary seed in each
cell, instead of many seeds. It is a much larger plant,
quite a shrublet, with larger and divided leaves.

Dr. Marloth has made the interesting discovery that
the flowers are fertilized by small insects, which also
pierce the stems for sweet juices as food; but, at the
same time, they can run over the plant regardless of
its sticky glands, which have no power to arrest, much
less consume them as food.

There are two species, natives of the Western district.

General Description of the Sundew Family.

Herbs—F requenting marshes.
Leaves—Covered with sticky glandular hairs or

tentacles for catching insect prey.
H

98 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

Flowers—Sepals, 5, persistent; petals, 5; stamens,
5; pistil of 1, 3, or 5 carpels; ovary, one-celled, with
1-5 parietal placentas ; flowers sometimes cleistogamous,
or self-fertilizing buds.

Frwit—Capsule.

Polygalacee. |
THE MILKWworT FAMILY.

This order contains 400 species of 15 genera, of
which 4 occur in South Africa.

Polyg’ala.—The structure of the flower of the Milk-
wort, as it is called in England, is very peculiar. It
would be best to examine one of the larger flowered
species, as P. myrtifolia, as many of the forty native
species have small blossoms. |

Fig. 36 will supply all the details: There are five
sepals, very unequal or iwregular in size, as the two
lateral ones are much larger than the other three, and
usually violet in colour, at least inside (2, 0, ¢). They
all remain or are persistent, turning green when the
fruit is forming. When sepals do this they assist the
leaves in making nourishment, as starch, for the benefit
of the fruit and seeds. The five petals very much
resemble a pea-blossom, and the corolla has been called
falsely papilionaccous, as this word is applied to members
of the pea family, a word meaning “like a butterfly.”

THE MILKWORT FAMILY. 99

It is particularly ‘noticeable in the flower of /P.
myrtifo lia.

The five petals are all somewhat united together
(2, d, e, and 3, 6, ec) by being adherent to the split tube
of the coherent filaments of the stamens (3 ; 4, ; 5, a).
The largest petal has a fringe or a white crest at the

\i \ )
ae ee

Woz by il

a .

Fic. 36.—Polyg'ala (Milkwort). (For description, see text.)

summit (3,¢;4,c). There are eight anthers, four (4 and
5, b) on each side of a spoon-shaped extremity of the
style’ (7, c). The single stigma is a knob (7, /) at
the base of the spoon, which represents the other
stigma. The two anther-cells of each of the eight

‘ This may be well seen in P. bractea'ta, a common species with
linear leaves.

100 6=SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

stamens become confluent, so that they resemble four
short fingers of a glove with the tips cut off (4, a;
5, 6). The ovary is supported by a little stalk, or
eynophore, and is two-celled (8). Each cell contains a
pendulous ovule (8).

An insect on inserting its proboscis to the base of
the flower for honey passes it over the sticky knob-like
stigma; and on withdrawing it carries away the pollen
which has dropped into the spoon-like apex of the
style. Then it transfers it to the next flower visited
in the same way.

After fertilization the two large violet or purple
sepals, as stated, turn green, and enclose the pistil.
The capsule dehisces at the top (9, a, 6). The seeds
have an excrescence, or caruncle (10, a). (11) is a
vertical section of a seed, showing the embryo, with
large cotyledons ()) lying in endosperm.

Mund'tia spino’sa—In this genus the spoon-like
process of Polyg'ala is reduced to a little point. The
fruit differs in being fleshy. The flower of this common
spiny plant is apparently self-fertilizing.

Mural'tia—This endemic! genus has some fifty
species, and is remarkable for its five sepals, being
almost equal in size, and its capsule has four little
horns upon the top. The front petal is purple and
the upper ones white. There is a peculiar irritability
in the stamens; for it will be found, on inserting a

‘ Le. peculiar to the country.

THE PINK FAMILY; IOI

pointed instrument, that the stamens spring up against
the upper petals. A similar spring-lke action occurs
in some members of the pea family (Leguminose), as
in the much-cultivated lucerne. The spoon-like ex-
tremity of the style of Polyg'ala is reduced to a pomt
in Mural'tia. The anthers all cluster round the stigma,
and are one-celled in consequence of a fusion of the
original two. Like Mund'tia, this is probably self-
fertilizing.

General Description of the Mikwort Family.

Herbs or shrubs,

Flowers—Irregular ; sepals, 5 unequal, 2 lateral,
petaloid ;1 petals, 5, adherent to the filaments, the lower
(keel) enclosing the stamens and pistil; stamens, 8,
filaments, monadelphous,? anthers, with pores.

Fruit—Capsule or drupe (7.¢. with a stone).

Caryophyllee.

THE PINK FAMILY.

This order contains 1200 species of 35 genera in 3
tribes. It consists entirely of herbs, many being little
weeds. They all have opposite leaves arising from
somewhat enlarged nodes, or the joints of the stem. It

1 Te. “like petals.”
2 Le. © one brotherhood,” the filaments being coherent.

1002 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

>

is a very large order in the Northern hemisphere ; and
8 species out of the 33 genera in South Africa have
been probably introduced.

Dian'thus.—There are nine South African species of
this genus, which supplies all the pinks, carnations,
and picotees of gardens.

Fic. 37.—Dian’thus (Clove-pink), (For description, see text.)

In the illustration (Fig. 37) observe the two
opposite leaves, the joint, or node, of the stem being
swollen. At the base of the flower are two pairs of
bracts (4, a). The calyx is a long tube with five
points, as shown by the bud on the middle figure.
(1) is a fringed petal. In some species there is no
fringe, the blade being simply rounded. It has a

THE PINK FAMILY. 103

long claw. (2) consists of the ten stamens and pistil
standing on an internode (a)—-or space between two
joints or nodes—or gynophore, as in the Caper-plant ;
(3) is the pistil composed of two carpels, the ovary
being cut open to show the ovules arising from a
central support. This results from the two divisions,
or septa, having ceased to grow at an early stage, so
that the column made up of the four margins com-
bined remains in the middle. This is called the “ free,
central placenta.” (4) is a ripe capsule, as any dry,
bursting fruit is called, dehiscing by four teeth at the
top. It remains included within the calyx and the
four bracts (2). (5) is a ripe seed; (6) is a seed cut
through vertically, showing the straight embryo; (7)
is the embryo extracted.

The embryo in other plants of this family is
usually coiled round the endosperm or reserve food-
stuff, as shown in (A, a), the seed of Chickweed.

Sile’ne.—This genus has thirteen species in South
Africa. Like pinks, it has a united calyx and a gyno-
phore. The petals have long claws, with a limb
either entire, cleft, or fringed. It has, however, three
styles, showing that the pistil is made of three
earpels. A troublesome cornfield weed introduced
from Europe is S. gallica, called the ‘“ Gunpowder
weed” by the colonists, its black seeds resembling it.

Agrostem’ma.—-This is another introduced plant.
It is tall, with large purple-red flowers, and long,

104 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

almost leafy, tips to the sepals. It is called “ Corn-
cockle ” in England, and is common in cornfields.

Stella‘ria me’dia (Chickweed).—This troublesome
weed has been introduced from Europe, and occurs
frequently in cultivated ground. It has the sepals
distinct, no gynophore, and each petal is rather deeply
cleft. The number of stamens varies from 10, 8, 5
to 3, generally 8 to 10 in Cape plants. In England
they are usually 3. The corolla varies in size, as in
South Europe it is sometimes very large, and the name
grandiflo'ra has been given to it, but only as a variety.
The petals are generally about as long as the sepals.
In some plants the buds never open, especially in
cold weather; but the pollen fertilizes the ovules
just as well, as, though in sunny weather insects
get a little honey secreted by a honey-gland at the
bottom of the filaments, it usually is self-fertilizing,
and is one of the most abundant of seed-makers.

A line of hairs runs from leaf to leaf, but on
opposite sides of the stem on alternate internodes—
that is, the portion of the stem between each pair of
leaves.

Lepig’onum.— LZ. margina'tum is a plant with clusters
of awl-shaped leaves, and almost transparent scarious,
or colourless and dry, stipules at the nodes. The stem
and leaves are covered with glandular hairs... The

1 These are hairs composed of a single cell, or rows of cells, termi-
nated with a globular cell which contains some peculiar fluid.

THE PINK FAMILY. 105

flower has five pointed sepals, five pointed petals, ten
stamens, and a pistil with three styles. One variety
when growing in very wet places is much less hairy
than those growing in dry spots. It is found every-
where in salt, damp ground near the seashore,
throughout the Colony. ‘The seeds
are round, flat, and smooth, with a
broad, white, marginal wing.

The last two plants illustrate
very well the prevailing type of
Inflorescence in this family. It is
definite in kind, in that the main
peduncle “ends” ina flower. When
an inflorescence does not do so, it
is called indefinite ; and the particu-
lar form in plants of the order

Caryophyllee is called a “cyme”?™ ye. BA TACT AD cae
fle, 28). (lesia- also said toc bei 7 MO
dichotomous, v.c. “ twice-cut,” or forking, as we say. It
will be seen that the lowest flower, now in fruit, termi-
nates the primary peduncle. Then from two opposite
bracts, secondary peduncles arise, each terminated by
a pedicel with its flower. Hence the order of blossom-
ing may be represented thus: 4, 3, 4, 2, 4, 3, 4, 1, 4, 3,
4, 2, 4, 3, 4.

1 From the Greek kuma, “a wave;” but the connection is not

clear.

10 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

General Description of the Pink Family.

Herbs—With stems having thickened nodes.

Leaves—Opposite, and entire—that is, with a smooth
edge.

Flowers—Regular ; sepals, coherent or free; petals,
clawed or not; stamens, often twice the number of
petals; pistil, with coherent ovaries, but with styles
free.

Fruit.—A capsule with a free, central placenta bear-
ing many seeds.

Malvacee.
THe MAuitow, Hipiscus, AND Corton FAMILY.

_ This order contains 700 species of 59 genera in
4 tribes; 10 genera are in South Africa. The only
mallow (Mal'va) is an introduced plant (JZ. parvi-
flo'ra). It is cultivated in Egypt and elsewhere as
a pot-herb, but is a common weed by roadsides. No
member of this family is poisonous.

Hibis’cus—This genus has twenty species in South
Africa, of which H. Athiop'icus occurs on grassy hills
throughout the Colony. Itis a dwarf plant with five to
seven stipulate, dentate, or toothed-edged leaves, covered
with stellate—that is, star-shaped hairs. The flower has
numerous little bracts round the base of the calyx.

MALLOW, HIBISCUS, AND COTTON FAMILY. 107

This has been called an epicalyx, i.e. “upon the calyx,”
as shown in the diagram (Fig. 39, IT.).

The five sepals meet by their edges, but do not
overlap; when this is the case with sepals or petals,
they are called valvate. If the calyx be turned back,
a honey-secreting surface will be found at the base;
an insect in searching for it passes its proboscis between
the bases of the petals, and so reaches the calyx.

Fic. 39.—Hibis’cus. I. Corolla, with petals adherent to Fie. 40.— Mona-

monadelphous stamens. II. Diagram. delphous stamens
of Mal’va.

The five petals are «wmbricate, overlapping one
another in a spiral manner, or contorted, in the bud,
as shown in the diagram (II.).

They will be found to be adherent to the cylinder
formed of the co filaments (Fig. 59, L.), the tops of
which are free, each bearing a one-celled anther; seen
also in Fig. 40 of the Mallow.'

The pistil will be found to be quite free inside the

1 When all the filaments cohere, the stamens are called mona-
delphous, i.e, “ one brotherhood.”

108 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

staminal tube. This must be split open from top: to
bottom. The fruit is a capsule, and the seeds are
downy. It is composed of five carpels, as shown in
the diagram.

In the Mallow the fruit breaks up into separate
one-seeded pieces (i.c. the carpels, which remain
indehiscent, each tightly covering a seed).

One of the most ornamental, cultivated species is
H. Ro'sa-sinen'sis. It forms large shrubs, with usually
scarlet flowers. It is a native of China. The flowers
are often double, by the numerous stamens being
replaced by petals, and these are then multiplied.
They have varied much under cultivation, being some-
times white or even yellow or purple. The flowers
have a juice which turns black, and is used by the
Chinese ladies for blackening the hair, and in Java
for blacking shoes; hence it has been called the
“ Shoe-flower.”

A much more useful member of this family is
the cotton plant, of which every seed is covered with
long, twisted hairs supplying the cotton of commerce.
Some species of Gossyp'iwm are natives of Peru, others
occur in India as the tree cotton (G. arbor'ewm). Cotton
is mentioned once in the Bible, Esther i. 6, where
“oreen”’ is a mistranslation for “ cotton.”

Two genera have no involucre, Si'da and Abu'tilon.
In the former the ovules are solitary, but in the latter
there are three or more in each carpel. Some of the

THE GERANIUM FAMILY. 109

many species of Si'da, which are found in both tropical
and sub-tropical regions of both worlds, have excellent
fibres. Thus the Chinese use that of S. tiliefo'lia, it
being as good as hemp.

Several specimens of Abu/tilon are cultivated as
handsome shrubs; and several hybrids have been
raised. There are two or more species in the eastern
parts of Natal.

General Description of the Mallow Family.

Herbs, shrubs, or trees—None poisonous.

Leaves—Stipulate, simple, often with stellate hairs.

Flowers—Calyx, 5 cleft, valvate in bud, mostly
with an epicalyx or involucre, the base secreting
honey; petals, 5, twisted in bud, and adherent to
the stamens; stamens, o, united into a tube by the
filaments; 3 to oo carpels, syncarpous, within the
stamens; seeds with a curved embryo and plaited
cotyledons.

DIVISION II.—DISCIFLORZ.
Geraniacee.
THE GERANIUM FAMILY.

This order contains 750 species of 16 genera in 7
tribes.

The flowers are sometimes quite regular, i.c. every

110 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS..

part of each whorl is exactly alike; im some, as
Pelargonium, they vary in shape, colour, size, and
number, so that whenever the parts of a whorl are
not all alike, it is said to be irregular.

There are seven genera in South Africa, of which
Ox'alis has more than 100 species and Pelargo'niwm
about 160. The others have very few, as from one to
eight species only.

Of the four South African genera with regular
flowers, Monso'nia and Sarcocau'lon have fifteen stamens,
Gera'nium has ten, and Ero'diwm five.

Monso’nia has the fifteen stamens grouped in five
parcels, each containing three stamens. ‘There are
eight Cape species.

Sarcocaulon is remarkable for secreting a great
quantity of wax, so that the stem burns like a candle,
emitting a pleasant odour at the same time. The stem
is succulent and spiny, a common result of living in
very dry regions, as that of the north-western districts,
ete., where it grows.’

Gera‘nium (“Crane’s Bill”).—There is a common

species, called G. inca'num, from the “ hoary ” or white
appearance: in consequence of the dense, silky hairs
upon the stems and lower sides of the leaves. It
occurs in the Cape flats on the Peninsula and else-
where in the western district. The blades of the
leaves are palmately divided from the base, consisting

' See p. 39 for a description of it.

THE GERANIUM FAMILY. IIL

of five somewhat narrow segments, like fingers from
the palm of the hand. The flower is quite regular,
having five minutely pointed, or mucronate, sepals, five
white or rosy-tinted petals, ten stamens in two whorls.
There are five honey-glands on the receptacle, one in
front of each sepal.

When a flower is regular it can always be visited
by insects from any point, so that the glands are
regularly situated; but when
flowers are irregular, as we
shall seein Pelargo'niwm, then

,
Bice tite

the honey is located at one
spot, wherever it is most
easily accessible.

The pistil is composed of
five carpels, the long styles
of which form a “beak” in

i " A i : - \\
the ripened stage, the ovaries ern

being very small, each con- ric. 41.—Gera’niwm. I. Pistil with
=i 4 : honey-glands below the ovary.
taining a single ovule (Fig. II. Carpels splitting from the central
5 5 3 column of coherent margins.
41, 1.).

When ripe the five carpels split off from the
coherent margins of the carpels from below upwards
(II.); and as the ovary bursts at the same time, the
elastically curling style throws the seed to a distance.

Ero’dium (“Stork’s Bill””)—This genus differs from
Geranium in having pinnately divided leaves (from
pinna, a “ feather”), as in Ranun'culus pinna'tus. It has

112 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

also only five stamens bearing anthers; on the other
five filaments there are none, hence these are called
staminodes.' There are five Cape species, of which two
are endemic and three introduced from Europe.

The species of these two genera, especially that
described of Geranium, are examples of many South
African plants provided with a clothing of hair, as an
“adaptation” to drought. It not only checks the loss
of water by transpiration, but can absorb dew in the
rainless time.

Pelargonium (“Heron’s Bill”).—This genus is
almost entirely South African, having a great variety
of habit of growth, some being small bulbous plants,
others large shrubs, etc. There are some 170 species
in all. They have five sepals; just within the back,
or posterior, sepal is a honey-tube, or nectary,” running
down the pedicel. The number of petals vary from
two to five, the posterior pair being the larger ones,
the single anterior petal is suppressed when there are
four only (Fig. 42).

There are ten stamens, but as a rule seven only
bear anthers (III.). They are often bent downwards in
front, together with the style, and are then called
declinate (I.). The object is to provide a landing-place
for the insect, which then passes its proboscis down the

1 The fruit being like that of the Heron’s Bill (Pelargo'nium), the

same description will apply.
2 This is the name given to altered sepals, petals, ete., which

secrete honey. The honey-gland, or disc, is on the receptacle.

THE GERANIUM FAMILY. 113

honey-tube at the back. The bee thus gets dusted on
the under side and conveys the pollen to another flower.
But it will be noticed in the photo (1.), that the style is
below the stamens, and ends abruptly. The reason of
this is that the anthers in this flower mature before the
five stigmas are ready to receive the pollen. A flower

Fie, 42.—Pelargo'nium. I. Vertical section of flower in first, or male stage. II. Style
and stigma in second, or female stage. III. Diagram. (See p. 22, /f.]

in this condition—and it is the usual one with con-
spicuous flowers—is called protandrous, isc. “ male
first.” In the second stage of the flower, the filaments
with their shrivelled and pollenless anthers, become
depressed, to get out of the way, so to say, when the
style rises up into their position (II.). The stamens
are represented as protandrous in the photo. Then
5

114. SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

the five curling stigmas spread themselves out, ready
for the pollen to be brought to them.

In some flowers, usually small ones and not attrac-
tive, the stigmas mature before the anthers. Such are
called protogynous, v.c. “ female first.”

When the fruit is ripe, it has a long beak as in the
other genera, but each style has sometimes a row of
silky hairs upon it where the carpels separate. This
possibly enables it to fly to a distance, but it has
another use. It will be noticed how each carpel has
its style curled up like a corkscrew. The same feature
is seen in Hro'diwm. The seed does not fall out of the
ovary, as this does not open, but it is provided with a
sharp point below, and is covered with short hairs
pointing upwards. |

Now, when a carpel falls and finds moisture, the
screw absorbs the moisture and uncoils, while the long
hairs on the style with the short ones on the ovary
catch among grass, etc., and so enable the fruit to gain
a support, or “ purchase,” while the screw by uncoiling
buries the fruit in the soil. The “awn” of the oat
behaves much in the same way.

There is another plant of the same family as Oz'alis,
Geranium, and Pelargo'nium, known as the Balsam.
There are one or two kinds in the Eastern district and
Natal, but several sorts are cultivated. The pod looks
just like that of Oz'alis, but when ripe the slightest
touch causes it to explode; for the “ valves” curl up

CAPE CHESTNUT AND ORANGE FAMILY. 115

rapidly, on the instant, into little corkscrew-like pieces,
and fling the seeds to a great distance in doing so.

Ox’alis—This genus has been dealt with so fully
that I need only refer the reader to “ The Plant and its
Parts” for a full description. Its name is derived
from a Greek word meaning “sharp,” because the juice
is acid, which renders it unfit for food; even goats
refuse it in Malta.

General Description of the Geranium Family.

Herbs—Often hairy.

Leaves—Stipulate.

Flowers—Mostly regular, with whorls of fives ;
sepals persistent; stamens, 5 or 10, sometimes
coherent ; pistil of 5 coherent carpels.

Frut—With long “ beaks.”

N.B.—Pelargo'niwm is irregular.

Rutaceez.
THE CAPE CHESTNUT AND ORANGE FAMILY.

This order contains 650 species of 83 genera
in 7 tribes, of which only 3 are represented by 14
genera in South Africa, They are trees and shrubs,
but rarely herbs, having the leaves dotted with oil-
glands, which give them a strong scent. The glands
are well seen in the rind of an orange.

Caloden'dron.— C. Capen'se, the Cape chestnut, is a

116 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

fine tree, a native of the Eastern side. It has ever-
green, dotted leaves and clusters of white and purple
flowers. The calyx has five sepals; there are five
petals, five perfect stamens, and five without anthers,
being staminodes. The syncarpous pistil has five
carpels. There is a disc for secreting honey between
the stamens and the pistil. The disc is only a super-
ficial outgrowth from the receptacle, just as are the five
glands of Gera'niwm. The fruit is a capsule.

Fic. 43.—I. Section through flower of Baros'’ma crenula’ta after the removal of the
petals (magnified): st, fertile stamens; sto, barren stamens (staminodes); d, lobes
of disc. Il. Diagram of flower: sto, staminodes; «, disc.

Barosma.—This is so called from its “ heavy scent.”
There are fifteen species of small shrubs, some, such as
B. crenula'ta, are called “ Buchu,” the leaves being used
in medicine.

The diagram (Fig. 43, II.) shows the five sepals
and five petals, both being imbricate. The petals are
really much larger than the sepals; then follow five
perfect stamens and five staminodes, 7. filaments
with no anthers ; then there is the circular, crenate, or

CAPE CHESTNUT AND ORANGE FAMILY. 117

scalloped dise with five rounded lobes. Lastly, is the
synearpous pistil of five carpels, forming a five-celled
capsule, when in fruit.

Agathos'ma.—Of this genus there are some 100
species bearing flowers clustered at the ends of branches.
Like the water-lily, this shows the connection between
petals and stamens, as the staminodes have anthers
replaced by an oval limb. The whole closely resembles .
the long clawed petals.

Dios'‘ma.— Eleven species are known; the illustration
(Fig. 44) is that of D. longifo'lia (1.), with small heath-
like leaves, as so many South African plants have
them. The petals in this genus are not clawed, nor
are there any staminodes as in Agathos'ma,; but the
anthers have the apical glands (II.), and there is the
usual cup-shaped disc with its crenate or wavy
margin (II.). The fruit breaks up into its separate
carpels called cocci (IIL). (IV.) is a seed showing a
peculiar crest at the top.

As the orange and lemon trees belong to this
family, I will here add one or two peculiar features of
these familiar fruits, The orange has a sweet juicy
flesh within the rind; but this is not really the inner
part of the pericarp, as the ripened fruit is called ; for
while in flower the ovary-cells of the orange are hollow,
but long and short ais with swollen ends grow into
and fill up the hole, and the juice is contained in the
swollen ends. These fit together one with another, so

118 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

that they quite fill up the ovary-cells, and cover the
pips or seeds in the middle, where all the margins of

the carpels meet together.

Fic. 44.—Dios'’ma. I, Flowering shoot. II. Vertical section of flower. III. Fruit.
IV. Seed with terminal crest.

General Description of the Cape Chestnut and Orange
Family.
Trees or shrubs.
Leaves—Dotted with oil-glands and _ strongly
scented.
Flowers—Sepals and petals, 4 or 5; stamens around

THE “ WILD PLUM” FAMILY. 119

a thick honey-dise, equal to or twice as many as the
petals, free or monadelphous ; carpels, 2 to 5.
Fruit—Capsule or berry.

Anacardiacez. -
THE “WILD PLUM” FAMILY.

This order contains 450 species of 40 genera.
They consist of trees and shrubs, sometimes with a
milky juice. The flowers are small, in clusters and
usually wnisexual, .c. having the stamens and pistil
in separate flowers. Several have edible fruits, as the
Mango. There are 7 genera in South Africa.

Rhus.—This genus has upwards of fifty species
in South Africa; some are common, as on the slopes of
Table Mountain. It bears minute flowers (Fig. 45, I.)
and orange-coloured berries the size of a peppercorn.

Fig. 45, II. is a section of a male flower, showing
the'thick disc within the stamens and the rudiment of
the pistil. (III.) is the diagram, in which the disc is
not represented.

The female flower has no stamens, but a perfect
pistil of three carpels, with three stigmas; but the
ovary is only one-celled.

The presence of the remains or rudiment of the
pistil in the male flower shows that this unisexual
condition has resulted from the separation of the
sexes in different trees.

120 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

Several species of Rhus are useful. Thus R.
vimina'lis, growing by rivers, is used by the Kaffirs

Fig. 45.—Rhus. I. Flowering shoot. II. Vertical section,of maie flower with
abortive pistil. Diagram‘of male flower.

for making the frame of their beehive huts. JZ. lu'eida
supplies a good bark for tanning. 2. Thunber'qia

THE PEA FAMILY. I2I

>

has a good hard wood suitable for furniture. It
erows at Stellenbosch.

A species in Japan, R. verimcif'cra, supplies the
celebrated varnish for Japanese lacquer-work, while
‘the oil of the seeds is used for lamps. Some species
in North America are very poisonous, and are known
by such names as poison-wood vine and oak.

Harpephyllum Caffrum.—The only species is a
smooth tree of the Eastern district and Kaffraria.
The wood is useful for household furniture, and the
edible fruit is called the “ Wild Plum.”

General Description of the “ Wild Plum” Family.

Trees or shrubs—With a balsamic or gummy juice.

Flowers—Complete, polygamous’ or unisexual ;
sepals. coherent; petals free, enlarged after flowering ;
honey-dise forming a ring; stamens, twice as many
as petals; ovary, one-celled.

DIVISION IJJ.—CALYCIFLORA.
Leguminose.
THE PEA FAMILY.

This order is one of the largest in the world,
containing between 6000 and 7000 species of 400
genera in 23 tribes.

1 A plant is called “ polygamous,” 7.e. “many unions,” when it
bears male, female, and bisexual flowers.

122 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

Some members are to be found in nearly all parts
of the world, excepting the very cold antarctic islands.

ite

Fic. 46.—Lath'yrus (Sweet-pea), I. Leaf and flower.

It includes some of the smallest herbs as well as
gigantic trees. In the great majority the leaves are
compound, and have a pair of stipules at the base

THE PEA FAMILY. 123

of the stalk. These take the form of thorns in

Acacias, ete.
The order is first divided into three “ Sub-orders ”
as follows, each of which has its “ Tribes ” :—

VEE

Fie. 46.—Il. Calyx, III. Vertical section of flower. IV. Stamens and
pistil. V. Diagram. VI. Legume.

I. Papilionacee.—This tribe is so called from the
fancied resemblance to a butterfly (Latin papilio) in
the irregular corolla.

II. Cesalpinee.—Though the flowers are irregular,
they are different in form from those of the first. ,

124 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

IIL. Mimosee.—The flowers are regular, very minute,
and clustered in small tufts.

All three agree in having the fruit a pod or
legume, from the Latin word for bean, legumen (Fig.
46, VI.). It bursts down both edges into two pieces,
or valves (Fig. 47).

The legume is a most characteristic feature of

. a 2
Fic. 47.—Legume of Pea split length- Fie. 48.—Spirally Fig. 49.—Lo-
wise: E outer, EN :inner, layer of twisted legume mentum of
the pericarp; L, placenta; F, funi- of Lucerne (Me- Hedys'arum.
culus; 0, seed. dica'go sativa).

this family, but it may take special forms. That of
the pea is the usual or typical character; but in the
lucerne it coils up as shown in Fig. 48, or it may
cling tightly to the seeds so that it breaks up with-
out separating from them; each piece has one seed
(Fig. 49).

The seeds have large embryos without any en-
dosperm, their reserve food being stored up in the

THE PEA FAMILY. 125

cells of the two cotyledons, as in peas, beans, lentils,
etc.

As this is a very important family, it is desirable
to examine some flower of considerable size to under-
stand all its parts, so I will take the garden sweet-
pea as a good example. The kitchen-pea would do
equally well.

Fig. 46, I., shows a leaf, a blossom, and a young
pod just beginning to form. There are a small pair of
stipules at the base of the leafstalk. These are very
large, like two leaf-blades, in the kitchen-pea. The
leaf has only two perfect leaflets, the rest being changed
into sensitive tendrils. These are continually “bow-
ing around,” or circumnutating, so as to catch hold
of twigs; for as soon as they feel the pressure, they
coil round them, and so firmly support the plant.

Now let us examine a flower. There is an
irregularly shaped calyx of five coherent sepals (II.),
‘an irregular corolla of five petals named as follows,
already referred to in speaking of Lucerne; but I
will repeat them here. The large petal at the back
is the Standard ; the two at the sides are the Wings ;
the two in front, united along the lower edge, form
the boat-like Keel. These latter include the ten sta-
mens and the pistil as shown in (III.), which is a
vertical section through the flower.

The ten stamens have nine united with one free
above (IV.). This enables fthe bee to get to the

16 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

honey secreted within the tube of cohering filaments.
(V.) is a diagram showing the relative position of all
the parts of the flower. (VI. and Fig. 47) is the pod
or fruit, a /egume, characteristic of the family.

Podaly'ria.— A genus of silky leaved shrubby plants
with simple leaves and small deciduous stipules. The
peduncles are few-flowered: The flowers are purplish.
There are nearly twenty species in the west and south-
west.

The calyx is bell-shaped with a five-pointed me
showing the five sepals. 3

The stamens are ten in number, and all quite
free in this flower; but in by far the greater number of
this group they are united, and in three different ways.
The commonest is to have nine coherent by their fila-
ments, or diadelphous, meaning “two brotherhoods,”
the uppermost filament only being separate (Fig. 46,
IV.), as in the garden-pea. Another method is to have
all the stamens coherent, but the tube split down,
above. The third method is for the tube not to be split
at all.

Crotala'ria.—This is a large South African genus
having some twenty-four species. The calyx is some-
what two-lipped, the upper having two points and the
lower three, making the five sepals. The corolla is
large, having yellow petals as a rule, the keel being
sharply beaked. The pod is turgid with very convex

valves

THE PEA FAMILY. 127

It differs from the preceding genus in having all
the stamens united together into a tube, which is,
~ however, cleft above. |

Many others have the tube cleft to the base; but,
unlike genera of England, none appear to have the
tube entirely united from bottom to top and not cleft.

Aspal'athus.—This large genus with about 150
species frequents dry, stony, and sandy places; and
in consequence of a deficiency of water are often of
a heath-like form and spiny.

Erythri‘na—This plant has handsome scarlet

flowers, the standard (Fig. 50, I. and IL. s) being very
large in comparison with the size of the wings (w)
and keel (%). This has resulted from the dwarf-
ing of the latter since the stamens are not included,
but form the landing-place for the insect. They
are declinate, just as described in Pelargo'nium. The
stamens are united as in the pea. ;
From the photo, it will be seen how an insect
alighting on the projecting stamens will get dusted
below, when crawling into the flower. Subsequently,
on entering another flower in the same way, the
stigma (st) will hit it just where the pollen has been
retained from the previous flower visited.

Medica’go (Lucerne).—This plant is not indige-
nous, but is so largely grown that it is worth while
repeating a peculiarity which can easily be observed.
It bears numerous little purple flowers. If a pencil-

128 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

point be thrust down in imitation of an insect, the
flower explodes. This is caused by the stamens,
which lay concealed horizontally within the keel,
suddenly rising upwards and assuming a_ curved
position, at the same time, it may be supposed, dust-
ing the bee with pollen. A similar explosion takes
place in some of the Polyg'ala family.

! V

! k

.
k. : II

Fic. 50.—Hrythri'na caffra. I. Flower. If. Diagram: s, standard; w, wings ;
k, keel; c, calyx; st, style.

Cas'sia.—This is a good type of the second sub-
order. Fig. 51, IL, is a section through the flower
of C. arachov'des, and (I.) is a diagram of the same.
If this be compared with that of Hrythri'na, it will be
seen that the posterior petal or standard in Hrythri'‘na
overlaps the wings, while the keel petals are united

below; but the posterior petal is included within

THE PEA FAMILY. 129

the others, and there is no true “ keel.” The stamens

are irregular, being unequal (s.a. and s.b.), some being

reduced to staminodes (s.c.). The fruit is a pod or

legume, as in the first sub-
order.

Aca'cia.—This is a
eood type of the third
sub-order. The flowers
are minute, forming dense
yellow clusters ; they are
quite regular, The calyx
forms a little tube (Fig.
52, I.); the five petals
do not overlap, but just
meet by their edges, being
valvate (I.). The stamens
are numerous, and the
pistil forms the character-
istic legume common to
the whole family (Fig.
92, 111).

The species consist of
trees and shrubs; the
majority have no leaf-
blades, but only petioles,

Fic. 51.—Cas'sia arachoi/des. I. Diagram
of flower. II. Vertical section of flower;
sa, large stamens; sb, small stamens;
se, staminodes,

which, however, are flattened in a vertical position, and
called phyllodes. The use of this, as stated with
regard to the sleep of plants (p.4), is to avoid loss

K

130 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

of heat by radiation, or as a protection against too
great heat.

Many species have spines instead of stipules.
These have suggested the name “ Wait-a-bit” thorn
to the common species, A. hor'rida, the Karroo thorn.
Some species have compound blades, but the Austra-

Fie. 52.—Aca’cia hor'rida. 1. Flower-bud (x 3).
II. Section through flower (x 5). JL. Diagram
of flower.

han Wattle cultivated at the Cape has no blade; the
petiole is flattened into a “ phyllode,’-and stands with
its edges turned towards the sky and earth.

The tough wood of the Wait-a-bit thorn renders
it useful for building purposes, as well as for wheels,
poles, yokes, and turnery.

Any plant of this family will be found to bear

THE PEA FAMILY. 131

nodules on the roots. It has been discovered that
they always contain minute fwngi, generally called
microbes (a word meaning “small living beings”). These
are enabled in some unknown manner to absorb the nitio-
gen gas from the air (which consists of about four-fifths
of nitrogen and one-fifth of oxygen, with about 5. per
cent. of carbonic acid gas). No flowering plant is capable
by itself of taking up this beneficial element from the
air, but only from mineral ingredients in the soil
called “nitrates,” as compounds of ammonia (smell-
ing salts). The consequence is that leguminous plants
are found to contain more nitrogen than any others,
so that while, ¢g., a potato has only 2 per cent. of
“nitrogenous” matters, peas, beans, and especially
lentils, have about 24 per cent. Nitrogen must be
present in our food for building up the brain,
muscles, nerves, bones, and blood, so that no other
vegetables are so important in this respect as those
derived from the order Leguminose.

General Description of the Pea Family.

Herbs, shrubs, or trees.

Leaves—Compound, rarely simple, stipulate, some-
times as tendrils.

Flowers—Calyx coherent; petals irregular (except
sub-order Mimosee) ; stamens, free, monadelphous or
diadelphous ; pistil of one carpel.

Fruit—A legume.

132 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

Rosacez.
THE Rose FAMILY.

This family contains 1500 species of 71 genera in
10 tribes; but there are only 11 genera in South
Africa, and these have mostly one, two, or very few
species.

Cliffor'tia, confined to South Africa, has 40. Three
genera are introduced from Europe.

The ten tribes are not all represented in the
Colony, but are best known by their different kinds of
fruits, as also by the different forms of the receptacular
tube. This arises as an expansion of the floral
receptacle, so that the sepals, petals, and stamens are
carried out toa little distance from the pistil; hence
the last two whorls are said to be perigynous, or
“around the pistil” (see Fig. 53, IL.).

Tribe, Prunee.—The type genus is Pru'nus, which
supplies us with the so-called “ Stone-fruits,”’ as peach,
apricot, nectarine, almond, plums, cherries, etc. In
the flowers of these the receptacular tube takes the
form of a cup, lined with an orange-coloured honey-
dise, at the bottom of which is a single carpel (Fig. 53,
II.). Although the calyx is now elevated upon the
tube, it is still called “inferior,” because this term has
no reference to height, but only to freedom from the
ovary. We shall see that it becomes adherent to it

THE ROSE FAMILY. 133

ef W WH

I. IIL.

Fre. 53.—Pru/nus (Peach). _ I. Flowering shoot. II. Vertical section of flower.
ILI. Diagram of flower. IV. Transverse section of ovary. V. Fruit (drupe).
VI. Vertical section of stone, with kernel.

134 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

in the tribe Pomew, where the calyx becomes superior,
and the resulting fruit inferior.

The single carpe! of the peach contains two ovules
(Fig. 53, IIL., [V.), but as a rule one only becomes a
kernel or seed (VI.). The carpel becomes the fruit (V.),
consisting of three distinct layers, the skin, or epicarp,
the edible flesh, or mesocarp, and the stone, or endocarp,
the three together making the pericarp. There is no
wild species of the genus Pru’nus in South Africa,
but one tree Py'gewm, is in
Kaffraria.

Tribe, Rubee.—This con-
tains one genus only, Ru'bus
—the blackberry and rasp-
berry. There are five species

Fria, 54.—Fruit of Bramble (Ru'bus). S \
J. Natural size. IT. oe of - in the Colony. The recepta-

setae cular tube takes the form of
a little trough. The fruit is a dense head of miniature
drupes called drupels (Fig. 54, I.). IL. is a vertical
section of a drupel, showing the embryo.

Tribe, Potentillee.—One European species, Poten-
til'la swpi'na, has been introduced. , The fruit consists
of a cluster of achenes, as seen in the strawberry.
But as the edible part of this is not the fruit at all,
the whole is called a pscudocarp, or “false fruit” ; the
achenes upon it are the real fruits. The following is
the description of the details of Fig. 55 :—

The trifoliate leaf will be seen to have a pair of

THE ROSE FAMILY. 135

adnate stipules (1, a); (2) represents a vertical section
of the flower, the petals being removed ; (a, a) are the
sepals ; behind and alternate with the sepals are five
bracts, as shown on the back of the flower figured by
the fruit on (1). These constitute the epicalyx
(described under Hibis'cus of the Mallow Family).

— I.
“fi MP (2.
4

YS

y/

Fic. 55.—Frag'area (Strawberry). (For description, see text.)

The honey-secreting receptacular “ tube,’ but really
only a lateral expansion of the stalk, is seen above
(c,c) in (2). The petals and stamens arise from its
outer rim (0, 6). (5) and (4) are front and back views of
a stamen. (5) is a carpel, showing the ovary (a), the
style (>) arising from near the base of the ovary, with
its stigma (¢c); and (6) is a ripe fruit, or pseudocarp,

136 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

consisting of the enlarged top of the floral receptacle,
and bearing numerous free achenes (a). (7) is a ripe
achene, the style being removed; and (8) is an achene
opened to show the single seed within it. (9) is’ the
seed extracted, and (10) the embryo removed from
the skin.

Tribe, Poteriee.—The Agrimony
has been introduced from Europe,
but Cliffortia with forty species is
peculiar to South Africa. The
flowers of members of this tribe
have little receptacular tubes, at
the bottom of which are situated
two free carpels (Fig. 56, II.) ; but
while the Agrimony has a yellow
corolla with scented flowers, the
Cliffortia has no corolla and no
scent. It is also dicecious.

Fig. 56, L., is a male flower, con-

Pig, §6-—-Ciifforitia, 1. sisting of three sepals and 2 sta-
fal ecotion of female mens; II. is 4 female flower (in
section), showing two sepals on the

receptacular tube and two carpels with long styles.
Tribe, Rosee.—There is no wild rose native of
South Africa, but the Dog-rose of England has been
introduced, and occurs wild in the Peninsula. The
rose has very many species, many of which, as well as

humerous hybrids, are cultivated. It has a_ thick

THE ROSE FAMILY. 137

receptacular tube forming the “hep.” This includes
many free carpels, and carries the sepals (free), the
petals, and many stamens on the rim above (Fig. 57).
The rim is orange-coloured, and looks like a honey-disc ;
but it seems to have lost the power of secreting honey.

Tribe, Neuradee.—One genus represents this tribe
in South Africa, Grielum. It has only ten stamens

Fic. 58.—Vertical sec-
tion through the flower
of the Pear, showing
the ovaries really free,
embedded in the re-

Fig. 57.—Vertical section of flower of Rose. ceptacular tube.

and a short tube adherent to the ovary. Hence the
latter is now inferior. The petals are large and yellow.
The carpels vary from five to ten. The species grow
in sandy places and in salt ground.

‘Tribe, Pomee.—This tribe is wanting in South
Africa; but the fruit is familiar in apples, pears (Fig.
58), loquats, and is called a “ pome.”

As in Gric'lum, the receptacular tube invests the
ovary, but becomes fleshy; so the above fruits might
be called pseudocarps, as the edible part is really the
flower-stalk.

138 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

General Description of the Rose Fanwly.

Herbs, shrubs, or trees.

Leaves—Simple or compound, stipulate.

Flowers—Regular, sepals coherent; petals, 5;
stamens oo, both being on a receptacular tube; carpels,
free, l-co , within the free or adherent tube.

Fruits—Achenes, drupes, or drupels, pomes, ete.

Crassulacee.
THE CRASSULA FAMILY.

This order contains 400 species of 14 genera. It
is a very characteristic family of South Africa; since
the country, especially the western half, is always
marked by great dryness, many plants possess the
means of storing up water for months, till the rains
come again. The commonest way is to make the stems
or leaves thick, fleshy, and massive. This is done by
the cells of the interior being very thin-walled, and
filled with gummy water or a milky fluid. This is
protected by a tough rind or skin, so that the loss of
water by transpiration is greatly retarded.

There are two tribes, one in which the stamens are
as many as the petals, as in Cras'sula and Roch'ea—in
South Africa there are five genera in this tribe; the
other, in which the stamens are twice as many as the

THE CRASSULA FAMILY. 139

| petals, as in Cotyle'don, Kalancho'e and Bryophyl'lum,
the only three in South Africa.

Cras'sula.—The calyx has five sepals very slightly
coherent below. The petals are five, free or coherent ;
stamens five; there will be found some scales, probably
honey-secreting, and lastly, five carpels, as a rule
nearly free, so they become follicles with many seeds
(Fig. 59).

Fig. 59.—Cras'sula. I. Flower (X 2). II. Diagram.

Cotyle’don.—In this the corolla has all its petals
coherent, which carries ten stamens adherent to it.

Bryophyl'lum.—This genus has one species growing
near Delagoa Bay; but another has spread over the
warmer regions of the North, B. calyci'nwm, which is
remarkable for propagating itself by its leaves. These
are oval and crenate, or scalloped on the margin, 1.
indented and rounded between the indentations. The
leaves are fleshy, and fall before being decayed. Roots

' The follicle resembles the legume, as of a pea; but bursts down
one edge only, not both, as in the legume.

140 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

soon appear at the notches, and buds follow, each of
- which then becomes an independent plant.

General Description of the Crassula Family.

Herbs.

Leaves—Succulent.

Flowers—Regular, sepals nearly free; petals, free or
coherent ; stamens, equal to or twice as many as petals ;

carpels nearly free.
Fruit—F ollcles.

Bruniacez.
THE BRUNIA FAMILY.

This family of 40 species of 9 genera is exclusively
South African. It consists of heath-like shrubs. The
leaves are small or needle-like, and crowded together,
with a hard tip. The flowers are minute, white or
red in clusters (Fig. 60, I.), rarely solitary. The plants,
like true heaths, are eminently characteristic of a dry
climate, Many other South African plants of several
different families put on a similar appearance. It is
the want of sufficient moisture which prevents leaves
of little herbs growing large, so that a great number
remain heath-like, or the short needle-like leaf may be
still further reduced, fill it becomes very minute and
closely pressed against the stem, asin Brunia nodiflo'ra

THE BRUNIA FAMILY. 141

(Fig. 60,1.). A similar result occurs in the dry regions

of Australia.

NV. VI.
Fic. 60.—Bru/nia. I. Flowering shoot. II. Flower with three bracts. III. Vertical
section of flower. IV. Diagram. V Vertical section of fruit. VI. Vertical section
of seed.

142 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

Brunia.—This genus has ten species. Outside the
flower there are three little bracts (Fig. 60, I1.). The
calyx has five sepals, the corolla five petals (II.) with
five stamens (III., IV.), all standing on the rim of a
receptacular tube, which is only half adherent to the
ovary (III.). This is, therefore, said to be “ half-
inferior,’ and the calyx “half-superior.” The petals
and stamens are accordingly “half-epigynous.” (V.)
is a vertical section of calyx and pistil. (VL) is the
seed cut vertically to show the embryo at one end of a
mass of endosperm. ‘Though there may be four ovules,
Bru'nia has only one seed.

Staa'via—This genus has six species; the fruit is
dehiscent, and not indehiscent, as in Pru'nia. Some
species have a scarious or dry involucre at the base
of the flowers, so that the “head” might be readily
mistaken for a composite.

General Description of the Brunia. Family.

Shrubs—Small.

Leaves—Heath-like, sessile.

Flowers— Calyx, half or quite superior, of 5 sepals;
petals and stamens, 5, upon the receptacular tube;
ovary, 1 to 3-celled.

THE CUCUMBER FAMILY. 143

Cucurbitacez.
THE CUCUMBER FAMILY.

_ This is a very large order comprising some 470
species of 68 genera grouped into 8 tribes. South
Africa has 13 genera, of which I will select two.
All the species are herbs, either prostrate or climb-
ing by tendrils. The flowers are always unisexual,
sometimes monececious, as of melons and cucumbers,
and sometimes dicecious, as some species of the berry-
fruited Zehne'ria.

Cu'cumis (Melon) (Fig. 61).—The male flower has
five coherent, superior sepals ; a corolla of five coherent
petals ; five stamens (IIL), the filaments being more or
less united, and the anthers in two coherent pairs, the
fifth being free and alone (IV.). The anthers are
usually curved like an §, and are called sinwate (III).

In the female flower there are, of course, no stamens,
but the ovary of the pistil is peculiar. The structure -
can be best seen in a thin slice of cucumber held up to
the light. What one observes is the seeds facing
inwards, and suspended on an anchor-shaped support
(VIL). To account for this, we must first consider the
three carpels as having their margins united edge to
edge, making a single chamber; then, suppose the
united pairs of edges to grow inwards, till they touch,
but without cohering, in the middle. Now let them

144 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

turn outwards again, till they reach the.wall of the
ovary. Once more let the edges separate and turn

Fic. 61.—Melon. I. Flowering branch, with male and female flowers.

round again, facing the middle, and then stop. This

THE CUCUMBER FAMILY. 145

aT Wir
uy
Q

SUIT

VII.

Stamens, IV. Diagram of male
VI. Style and stigmas of female

Fie. 61.—IL. Vertical section of male flower. III,
flower. V. Vertical section of female flower,
flower. WII. Diagram of female flower,

L

146 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

will account for the anchor-like appearance (VII.)* and
the seeds pointing inwards. The next thing is for the
inner tissues of the carpels to become thick and
succulent, and so completely embed the seeds; and we
get the solid cucumber. In melons and gourds a
cavity is often left in the middle. As the calyx, etc.,
are situate on the top of the ovary, this is, of course,
really invested by the receptacular tube, which goes to
form a certain amount of the fruit. :

Zehne'ria.—This is a perennial climber with simple
thread-like tendrils. The flowers are small and white,
the calyx is bell-shaped with five minute teeth, the corolla
having five divisions. There are only three stamens,
the anthers having a large, round, and hairy con-
nective; the anther-cells are nearly straight, and not
sinuate. The fruit of the female forms a small globular
berry.

As the calyx, etc.,; fall off, the fruit Jooks as if it
were superior, but it is really inferior, as will be at
once seen from the flower of the Melon.

Now let us examine a tendril. It resembles in
form that of a Passion-flower. If either be carefully
watched, they will be found to move round and around,
taking several hours to complete a circle. This is
called circwmnutation, a word meaning “ bowing around.”

1 In the diagram the first ingrowth from the circumference to the 7
centre is omitted. The three radiating lines represent the coherent
edges on the return journey to the circumference.

THE CUCUMBER FAMILY. 147

This movement enables the tendril to search for a
support. If the little hooked end catches a twig, the
tendril at once begins to coil round it, and at the same
time grows thicker, and coils up into a spiral. But it
will be noticed that it coils in opposite directions two
or three times, with straight pieces between the
opposite groups of coils. This prevents the tendril
from breaking under tension. It can be imitated by
fixing one end of a piece of string, pulling it tight, then,
by twisting the other end for some time and sub-
sequently relaxing it, the string will suddenly twist
upon itself the opposite way, till it comes to rest. You
have put force into it which, to be in equilibrium, must
be balanced by twisting in the contrary direction. The
tendril does a precisely similar thing.

Of other genera, the reader will be familiar with
the Water-melon (Citrul'lus vulga'ris) and the Luf"fa,
which produces a dry and fibrous fruit, often used in
baths and for various other purposes. The Bottle-gourd
(Lagena'vria vulga'ris) has a globular top with a con-
tracted base. ‘This is due to the fact that the ovules in
the lower (stalk end) part were not fertilized; as the
result of fertilization is not only the development of
the embryos in the seeds, but the formation of the
fruit which contains them.

Gourds and pumpkins belong to another genus
(Cucurbita).

————at OC

148 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

General Descriptiom of the Cucumber Family.

Herbs—Climbing by tendrils.

Leaves—Simple.

Flowers—Unisexual; sepals, 5, coherent; petals,
5, coherent; male, stamens monadelphous or in
groups (2 + 2 + 1), anthers sinuate, or S-like; female,
pistil of 3 carpels, ovary inferior.

Fruit—An inferior berry, pepo or gourd.

Mesembriacez.
THE MESEMBRIANTHEMUM FAMILY.

This large family is specially characteristic of South
Africa. It contains some 450 species of 22 genera.
There are 8 genera in South Africa, of which
Mesembrian'themum has some 300 species alone.
The thick, fleshy leaves of the greater number, lke
those of Cras'sula, are due to the effects of the dry
climate, enabling the plants to store up much water
against the hot and rainless season. The leaves
assume various forms, some being three-cornered, often
of a round, rod-like shape, but always fleshy (Fig. 62).

Mesembrian'themum.—This genus is so named from
the fact that the flowers require the full midday sun
for opening, many closing as soon as the direct sun-
light is off them; hence they are called “midday
flowers,” for that is the meaning of this compound

THE MESEMBRIANTHEMUM FAMILY. 149

Greek name. The illustrations will explain the
structure of the flower as follows :—

The ovary is obviously inferior and the calyx
superior, consisting of five thick sepals (diagram IV.).
The petals and stamens are numerous, or indefinite, i.e.
more than twelve at least, being epigynous on the
top of the receptacular tube (II.). This secretes honey
within the stamens. These often have fringes at the
base (III.). The pistil has from four to twenty carpels,
according to the species (V—VII.), and as many cells
to the ovary.

The fruit is a capsule (V.-VII.) bursting along the
stigmatic ridges on the top. The outer skin separates
from the inner tissue (or mesocarp), but the triangular
valves only rise up (VI., VII.) when the whole has
absorbed moisture, and by spreading themselves out,
they open little slits leading into the chambers wherein
are the black seeds (VII., VIII).

The great majority of capsules, i.e. of plants in
general, only burst in dry weather; but certain plants,
like those we are considering, and the so-called Rose
of Jericho, a little crucifer of the desert near Port
Said, do so when they are moist—an appropriate
arrangement, as it is only at such time that the seeds
will germinate. The pods retain the power of opening
and closing for ever, so that the reader should procure
some dry capsules and place them in water. If he
watch them he will perceive how they open in about

130 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

three to five minutes, till they radiate in a star-like
manner. The narrow opening to the seeds lies between
each of the rays. (VIIT.) is a seed with a tuberculated

(
- i (ag
\\"' Is ' = 7

i

Fig. 62.—Mesembrian'themum. 1. Flowering shoot. II. Vertical section of flower.
IIT. Stamens. IV. Diagram.

testa, and (I1X.) the same cut through to show the
embryo curved round the endosperm.

The fruits of some species, as Jf. edu’le, are edible,
called the Hottentot fig. The ice-plant, M. erystalli'num,

THE MESEMBRIANTHEMUM FAMILY. 151

has been introduced into South Europe and grown as

Vil. Vint: 1D-&

Fia. 62.—V. Nearly ripe fruit. VI. Ripe fruit dehiscing. VIi. Vertical section
ofsame. VIII. Seed. IX. Vertical section of seed.

a decorative plant; for it is covered with globular

1532 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

hairs, filled with water, which give it a frosty appear-
ance. This is another method of storing water not
uncommon in desert plants.

General Description of the Mesembrianthemum Family.

Herbs, or small shrubs,

Leaves—Fleshy and thick.

Flowers—Sepals, 4 to 8, coherent; petals, 0 or oo ;
stamens, few or o free; ovary, inferior, 2- to o -celled.

Frwit—Capsule, opening when wet.

Umbellifere.
THE CARROT AND PARSNIP FAMILY.

This is a large order of some 1300 species of 152
genera in 9 tribes. In South Africa there are 35
genera. The structure of the flower and fruit is so
uniform that when one example is thoroughly mastered,
any member of the family will be recognized at once.

The species, as a rule, excepting, for example, the
money-wort, as it is called in England (Hydrocot'yle),
have divided or compound leaves, their petioles more
or less sheathing the stem. The inflorescence of by
far the greater number is easily known, as being a
compound wmbel, z.c. the flowers on their pedicels form
a stmple umbel, but many of these radiate again from
the end of the main peduncle, so making a compound
umbel.

4

THE CARROT AND’ PARSNIP FAMILY. 153

Bu'bon.—This has compound leaves with lobed
seoments, the petioles being channelled above, in that
the two side ridges give strength to the stalk, on the
same principle as in “ Fox’s patent stays” of an
umbrella. They are, in fact, “flanges” of a “girder.”
Engineers and others often imitate Nature by adopting
her methods of strengthening stems, etc., so that they
can support the heavy weight of foliage and branches.
This is partly effected by the petiole more or less
sheathing the stem, thus securing a large base. In
palms the sheath goes completely round the stem, and
is made of interlacing fibres, thereby supplying great
strength to support the enormous weight of gigantic
palm-leaves, ,

The flower (Fig. 63, I.) will at once be seen to have
an inferior ovary, upon which the five petals and five
stamens stand. As a rule, the calyx is either repre-
sented by five minute points or is wanting altogether—
a common occurrence when small flowers are massed
together. On the top of the ovary will be seen two
cushion-like masses or honey-discs, between which
arise the two short styles. The petals may often
have “inflected points” (I.), along which, as in a
little groove, the proboscis of an insect can glide so
as to reach the honey.

The diagram (II.) shows the arrangement of the
whorls with a synearpous pistil of two carpels, having
one (pendulous) ovule to each ovary-cell.

154 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

When the fruit ripens, it is called a eremocarp, or
“hanging fruit,’ because the two carpels (the single
seed of each being invested by the pericarp) separate
along the line of junction called the commissure, and

a

Cy — |

ee Tih iio

1 | HAN
fh jee
Im =|
Se

—"‘'+
)

LH Ye

Fic. 63.—Bu'bon Galba'nu, (For description, see text.)

at first hang on the two branches of a Y-like support,
as shown in that of the Fennel (Fig. 64).

The Y-like carpophore, or “ fruit-bearer,’ is formed
out of the four margins of the two carpels which have
met and united in the middle. Each half of the fruit
is now called a mcricarp, «.c. “divided fruit” (Fig. 63,

THE. CARROT AND PARSNIP: FAMILY. (155

IV.). A usual feature is the presence of five primary
ridges on each mericarp, shown as slight elevations in
Bu'bon (Fig. 63, IV.) and as points in the Hemlock |
-(V.), but are much stronger in the Fennel (Fig. 64).

On some fruits there are four secondary ridges
between the primary. They are prominent in the
fruit of the carrot, in which they take the form of
a row of spines like a comb (Fig. 65).

Some fruits have no ribs at all, being quite smooth
all over.

The next point to notice is the presence
of oil-sacs called vittw. The usual number
is six in each mericarp, four on the outer
surface (Fig. 63, IV., v) and two on the inner
or commissural surface (wanting in Bu'bon). :

The seed fills up the ovary-cell, and “of the Femel.
consists of a mass of endosperm (IV., V.,a).
The embryo is embedded in it, but is not seen in the
sections (IV., V.), as, unless this be made high up, the

embryo is missed in cutting it across.

Hydrocot’yle.-—This genus has seventeen species.
Some have long, /inear, i.e. narrow and grass-like, leaves ;
‘in others they are quite round or heart-shaped, or
again peltate, the petiole supporting the blade in the
middle like a round “shield.” It differs from most
members of the order in having its flowers in sessi/e—
that is, stalkless, or “ seated ’’—clusters, or as simple
umbels. The fruits have no vitte.

156 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

Sanic’'ula—S. Hurope'a has been introduced. It is
a common weed in woods in Europe, and has its
flowers in globular, simple umbels.

A’pium.— A. grave'olens, the wild celery, is another

introduction from Europe.

Petroseli’num.—P. sati'vwm, or parsley, is naturalized

from Europe.

Fenic'ulum.—/” officina'le (Fennel), well known by
its finely divided leaves and
strong scent, is naturalized

( in various places in the

(S Colony.
’ } * Pastna’ca.—P. sati’va is
Y

“a | the parsnip.

i
Dau'cus.— D. Caro'ta is
I. I. the wild carrot (Fig. 65).
Fig. 65.—I. Fruit of Carrot. II. Trans- :
verse section of a mericarp. These last two mentioned

are common wild flowers
in England, with slender, spindly roots. The large
garden roots were obtained by sowing the wild seed
in a rich soil, and then by selecting the seed, year after
year, from those plants which showed the largest roots. —
Tn about five years a permanent “ race ” was established. .
Thus the best parsnip in the English trade is known .
as the “Student.” It was raised by the Professor of
Botany at the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester,
between 1847 and 1851. It was issued to the trade,

and has ever since been the best parsnip in England.

THE CARROT AND PARSNIP FAMILY. 157

The carrot was “ennobled” in the same way, and
was changed from an “annual” into a “biennial” by
sowing the seed late in the season. This prevented
it from flowering the same year. The leaves had
therefore a season and a half to do work in, and so
made more food (starch, sugar, etc.) than was wanted.
The root had to enlarge in order to store it up. Then,
by selecting seed, year after year, from the plants which
flowered latest in the season, the permanent race was
established, which, though sown in the spring, refuses
to flower in the autumn of the same year, but makes
large, fleshy roots instead.

Another interesting fact was discovered, and it ap-
plies to rape or turnip and radishes as well. If the seed
be sown in a loose, sandy, or light soil, long, tapering
roots are formed ; but if in a stiff, cloggy soil, then there
will be more of the stunted, globular roots produced.

Finally, by selecting seed from those of any
particular shape, various races of long, round, truncated
“horn” carrots have been established, and now “ come
true” by seed as garden races.

It should be borne in mind that though many
members of the “umbellifers” are harmless, such as
these kitchen vegetables, and others like dill and
aniseed, several are very poisonous. Indeed, wild green
celery is far from wholesome, and should be blanched by
earthing it up, as the deleterious principle is not then
developed.

158 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

Coni'um.—The hemlock, a common plant in England,
of which there is one species in South Africa (chwro-
phyllov'des), growing in the Eastern district, is very
poisonous (Fig. 63,V.). The Greek philosopher, Socrates,
was compelled to drink the juice of the hemlock.

Her’mas.—This has five South African species, of
which H. gigantea has woolly leaves, and, known as
“Tondel blaren,” is used for tinder.

General Description of the Umbellifer Family.
Herbs.

Leaves—With sheathing petioles, simple or com-
pound leaf-blades.

Inflorescence—Usually simple or compound umbels.

Flower —Sepals, as 5 minute!teeth, or wanting ;
petals, 5, often with an inflected tip; stamens, 5,
incurved in bud; pistil with 2 carpels; ovary,
inferior, having 2 honey-discs above.

Frwit—A cremocarp of two mericarps, supported

on a carpophore.

Cornee.
THE HASSAGAYWOOD TREE FAMILY.

This is a small family of 12 genera and 75 species,
represented in South Africa by one plant only.
Curtis'ia.—C. fagin'ea, the only species, occurs in

THE GARDENIA AND COFFEE FAMILY. 159

forests throughout the Colony. It grows to forty feet
in height, with a dark-coloured smooth bark. The
leaves are ovate, i.c. broad towards the base, or “egg-
shaped,” and dentate, i.e. toothed along the margins.
The flowers are small in terminal clusters.

The wood is described as solid, very tough, heavy,
and close-grained and durable, resembling mahogany,
being very useful for waggons, etc.

The flower will be at once seen to have an inferior
ovary and a superior calyx of four small triangular
sepals. There are four petals, hairy outside and
valvate in the bud, and four stamens.

The exposed part of the ovary at the top forms
a honey-disc, from the middle of which rises the style
with four stigmas.

_ The fruit is a drupe* with four cells, having one
seed in each cell, the lining of which is stony.

DIVISION IV.—GAMOPETALZ.
Rubiacez.
THE GARDENIA AND COFFEE FAMILY.
This order contains 4100 species of 337 genera in
25 tribes; but South Africa has only 25 genera. It
‘ This applies to many South African woods. It is due to the
dryness of the climate.

* Le. a “stone fruit” having a soft, fleshy exterior part and a hard,
stony interior, as a peach or plum.

160 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

is a family mainly characteristic of tropical countries
of both hemispheres; but one section of herbs, called
Stellate, because the opposite leaves with intermediate
leaf-like stipules make a whorl or “ star-like” arrange-
ment, is extra-tropical, and is represented in South
Africa by two genera. }

It is the first order to be considered which has the
petals coherent into one piece. Hence the corolla is
called Gamopetalous, giving the name to the Division.

Garde‘nia.—Of the trees and shrubs which abound
in this order this plant is a great favourite under
cultivation, when it is often “double.” The flower
will be at once seen to have an inferior ovary. The
corolla is trumpet- or funnel-shaped, with five or more
petal-lobes. Stamens, as many as the petals, epipe-
talous, the rule with gamopetalous corollas, Heath,
Campanulacee and Plumba'go affording exceptions.

The pistil is composed of two carpels, but the
ovary is one-celled, as the two placentas do not meet
in the middle, but remain parietal.

The fruit is a somewhat fleshy, inferior drupe, as
it has a hard internal shell.

Of shrubs and trees of importance of this family are
species of coffee, natives of Abyssinia and Liberia ; the
medicinal cinchonas of South America, supplying the
invaluable drug “Quinine ;” and the native “ Peach”
of Africa, which is the fruit of Sarcoceph'alus esculen'tus.

Hedyo'tis.—This genus consists of small herbaceous

THE GARDENIA AND COFFEE FAMILY. 161

plants with a long-tubed corolla and a _ two-celled
capsule. ‘The parts of the flowers are usually in fours ;
and the two opposite leaves have small stipules
between them. It supplies a sort of passage to the
tribe Stellate, of which Ru'bia, which used to supply
the red colour known as Madder, and Ga'liwm belong ;
the first has its flowers usually in fives and the second
in fours. Ru'bia peregrina, the only English species,
has been introduced into the Colony.

Ga'lium.— G. Apari'ne, which is now growing through-
out the Colony, is an introduction from Europe. It is
excessively common in England, clambering over
hedges by means of its little hooks, and dispersing
its fruit by their clinging to dogs, sheep, etc. The
full details of the plant are given in the accompanying
illustration.

The so-called leaves make a whorl of six to eight in
number (Fig. 66), but only two are true leaves, of
which one has the branch arising from its axil, and the
other is exactly opposite to it. All the rest of the
whorl are stipules. The reasons for saying so are,
first, that all other members of the order, other than
those of the tribe Stedlatw, have small and unmistak-
able stipules between the opposite leaves. Secondly,
stipules never issue out of a stem in the same way
as do leaves; and,as this can be readily seen in
Gallium, it may be explained here. If a stem be cut
across just above a node, but as close as possible to the

M

162 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

whorl, and again just delow it, so as to cut out a thin
slice carrying the whorl, and if it then be held up
to the light, a circle of ‘woody cords will be noticed,
surrounding the central pith.

A cord passes out of this circle into each of the
two opposite leaves, but not so to the stipules. A

Fie. 66.—Ga'lium (Cleavers). (For description, see text.)

zone will be seen connecting the two leaves, outside
the circle of woody cords. Then, the cords which
enter the stipules, forming their middle lines, or
mid-ribs, arise from this so-called “stipular arc,” or
zone. In all cases of stipulate, alternate leaves the
fibro-vascular cords entering stipules arise from the
outermost cords which enter the petiole of a leaf.

THE COMPOSITE FAMILY. 163

We will now examine the structure of the flower.
(1) represents a complete flower; (1, 2, a) is the disc
on the summit of the inferior ovary, which has two
cells with one ovule in each. Unlike Garde'nia, the
placentas are fused together and become azile. (3) is
one of the four epipetalous stamens ; (4) is a ripe fruit,
consisting of two more or less globular halves (the two
carpels) covered with hooked bristles ; (5) is a vertical
section of one of the carpels, showing the albuminous
seed and curved embryo embedded in the endosperm ;
(6) is the embryo; (7) is half a leaf, showing the point
at the apex. The calyx is wanting, or obsolete.

General Description of the Gardenia and Coffee
Family.

Herbs, shrubs, or trees.

Leaves—Opposite, entire, stipulate; stipules leaf-
like in the tribe Stedlate.

Flowers—Regular; stamens, on the corolla tube;
ovary, 2-celled, inferior.

Frut—Various.

Composite.
THE COMPOSITE FAMILY.

This and the Grasses are probably the largest
families of flowering plants in the world. It is
supposed to contain some 12,000 species of nearly

164 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

770 genera in 13 tribes, scattered all over the world.
In South Africa there are 153 genera.

The distinguishing features are in the flowers, called
fiorets, from their minute size, being clustered into
heads; but this alone is a not uncommon feature in
other plants, as in Bru'nia (Fig. 60). But the five
stamens, which are adherent to the tube of the corolla,
always have their anthers coherent into a little cylinder,
supported by the five free filaments. The style passes
freely up the middle of it. This condition of the
anthers is called syngenesious, a word meaning “grown
together.” ;

The heads of florets always have numerous im-
bricated bracts below them, collectively called an
involuere (meaning a “wrapper”). In most of the
composites there are two kinds of florets in a head,
those forming the central disk, which have corollas
with a small five-toothed limb, and the florets on the
circumference, constituting the ray, with broad, strap-
shaped, or /igulate, corollas. Sometimes the entire head
is composed of one or other of these two kinds of
florets.

Ger'bera.—Fig. 67, I. represents a head cut down
through the middle, showing bracts of the involucre
or the outside, the large ray florets at the back and
the disk florets in front. (I1.) is a separate disk floret.
First notice the hairy inferior ovary. Upon it is the
peppus, or ring of hairs surrounding the corolla. This

tt
aie
ve
ee So ee nee

THE COMPOSITE FAMILY. 165

is really in the place of the superior calyx; for in
some plants the five sepals are well developed, as in

Fic. 67.—Ger’bera asplenifo'lia. I. Section through head. IL. Disk floret.
III. Stamen.
Spheno'gyne (Fig. 68), in which they form five large,
-obovate, milk-white scales.
The corolla is epigynous, gamopetalous, and has the

166 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

five stamens adherent to it. The united anthers can be
seen in Fig. 67, IL, just above the corolla-lobes. The
style, with its two spreading stigmas, protrudes above.

Each anther is provided with two tails (IIL).
Similar appendages to the anthers will be found in
many Heaths. If we extract a ray floret, we shall
find that a pistil is present but no stamens. The
corolla has really only three petals, but is much larger
than the five-pointed little
corolla of a disk floret.

It seems that in changing
from the latter into a ray
floret, the stamens had to be
sacrificed to allow for the en-
largement of the corolla. In-
deed, in some kinds the pistil

goes too, so that the floret is
oan ey ae |

In many garden flowers
of this family the flowers have become “double,” but
this is not the same as the doubling of any ordinary
flower, which consists, first, of the substitution of petals
instead of stamens and carpels; and then, secondly, in
greatly multiplying the number.

In all composites, the so-called doubling consists
of the conversion of tubular florets of the disk into
ligulate ones, like those of the ray.

In those composites, which have no ray at all, as

THE COMPOSITE FAMILY. 167

Athana'sia, of which genus there are forty species in
South Africa (A. parviflo'ra, with clusters, of flat-topped,
yellow heads, is very common), all the florets have
tubular corollas.

Sene’cio.—This is an enormous genus of about 900
species, some 180 being Cape plants. They vary in
size from small herbs to trees. The flowers are yellow
or purple. The involucre of the heads is one-seriate,
often having the tips of the scales dark, with. or
without small bractlets at the base. The general
receptacle is naked. The style-arms of the disk-
florets are truncated. The pappus is of several series
of pilose, slender and roughish hairs. The name is
from the Latin senex, “an old man,” in reference to the
white “down,” or pappus, on the achenes. A genus,
called Klei'nia, closely agrees in its flowers with Sene’cio,
but has fleshy stems for storing water. There are
eighteen Cape species.

One tribe, called Cichoree, after the genus Cichor'ium,
which supplies us with Chicory, has all the florets
ligulate, but they retain the five petals, as shown in
Fig. 69, of the common Sow-thistle (Son'chus olera'ceus),
introduced from Europe.

When the fruit is mature, it forms a one-seeded,
inferior achene, with or without a pappus. This may
be sessile, i.e. “seated,” as in Gerbera and Son'chus

1 Te. of simple hairs. If the hairs branch like a feather, the
pappus is said to be plumose (Fig. 71).

168 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

(Figs. 67, IL., 69), or it may be stipitate, or “stalked ”
(Figs. 70, 71). This means that the receptacular tube
which clothes the ovary below, grows beyond and above
it as the fruit ripens, and so elevates the pappus. It
then spreads out horizontally, and aids, like a parachute,
in conveying the fruit to a distance.

Fig. 71, — Plumose
Fig. 70.—Pilose stalked sessile pappus of
Fig. 69.—Floret of Sow-thistle. pappus of Dandelion. Tragopo'gon.

- The method of securing pollination in the Composites
is peculiar.

Of course the pollen is shed from the anther-cells
into the tube formed by them. Fig. 67, III. shows the
open anther-cells as seen from within. The “style-
arms” are pressed together when inside the anther-
tube, and by the growth of the style they push up the
pollen, and by so doing bring it out at the top of the
anther-tube. Then the style-arms separate, and insects,

THE COMPOSITE FAMILY. 169

crawling over the head, get dusted with pollen, which
finds its way on to the “stigmatic surface,” on the upper
surface of the style-arms; or else on those of other
heads to which the pollen-carrying insect may fly.

Many florets manage to fertilize themselves. One
way is to keep the stigmas within the tube, but slightly
separating them there, so the pollen is applied directly
to them. This can easily be seen in the Groundsel.
Another way is for the style-arms to curl backwards,
so that the tips are plunged into the pollen brought
from below (Fig. 69).

As a rule, there are many florets in one head; but
in the genus Corym'hium, of which there are seven
species, the cylindrical involucre of very few bracts
contains a single floret. They also have a curious
silky root-stock with linear, grass-like leaves.

General Description of the Composite Family.

Herbs, shrubs, or trees.

Leaves—V arious.

Flowers—In heads within an involucre of bracts.

Florets—With a superior pappus (calyx) or none ;
petals coherent, tubular, or ligulate, epigynous ; stamens,
5, upon the corolla, filaments free, but anthers coherent
(syngenesious).

Fyuit—Inferior achene, with or without a pappus.

170 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

Campanulacee.
THE ROELLA AND LOBELIA FAMILY.

This order contains 1000 species of 58 genera in
3 tribes. In South Africa there are 20 genera.
Wahlenber'gia has 46 species, and oel'la 11, while
Lobe'lia has nearly 30.

The genus Campan'ula, which gives the name to
the order, is absent from South Africa, being widely
dispersed in the northern hemisphere; but Wahlenber'-
gia has only one species in England. Blue and white
flowered Canterbury Bells (a species of Campan'ula) are
cultivated in South African gardens.

Wahlenber’gia.—It will be readily seen in this or
any other member of the family that the ovary is
inferior, the sepals arising from the summit. Within
them is the ygamopetalous corolla, forming a tube
generally bell-shaped, but sometimes spreading. The
stamens arise from within it, but are not adherent to
the corolla, a most unusual condition when the petals
are coherent. The same occurs in the Heaths, but is
very exceptional.

The bases of the stamens are broad, and all five
together form a dome over the honey-secreting top of
the ovary.

The capsules open by slits, holes, or pores in
different genera. Thus, while in Campanulas they are

THE ROELLA AND LOBELIA FAMILY. 171!

at the base, in Wahlenber'gia they are at the top of the
ovary, and by valves. oel'la has no valves.

Lightfoot'ia—The capsule of this has five valves,
but the corolla is almost polypetalous, v.c. with the
petals nearly free. There are twenty-five species.

-Prismatocar'pus.—This has fourteen species, and its
capsule splits from top to bottom.

Lobe'lia.—This is a large genus scattered over the
world, twenty-six species being in South Africa. It
differs from the preceding in having an irregular corolla
(Fig. 72).

The method of pollination agrees with that described
for Composites.

The calyx has five sepals, and is superior, the ovary
being inferior. The corolla of five petals is epigynous,
being “upon the ovary.” The stamens are five in
number (V.), coherent by their anthers, or syngenesious
(IIL.). Some of the filaments usually cohere slightly
to the corolla (II.). The style has a ring of hairs just
below the two stigmas, which are pressed together at
first ([V.). By the style elongating the hairs sweep
the pollen upwards, and bring it out beyond the anthers,
just as in Composites.

When the stigmas separate, they are ready to receive
any pollen brought by insects from some other flower,
as the pollen, being behind the stigmas, will not readily
reach them, if at all. Hence, Zobde'lia is a regularly
insect-fertilized flower.

172 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

Fic. 72.—Lobe'lia. I. Flowering shoot. II. Vertical section of flower. III. Stamens
with syngenesious anthers closed over stigmas in bud. IV. Style and adpressed
stigmas from III. V. Diagram of flower. VI. Transverse section of fruit.

THE ROELLA AND LOBELIA FAMILY, 173

In (II.) and (IIT.) the anthers are in an early stage,
and closed at the top by continuations of the connectives.
(IV.) represents the early stage of the stigmas, which
are adpressed together, and the fringe of hair below
them, which sweeps out the pollen.

In (II.) the style and closed stigmas are seen within
the anther-tube.

When the stigmas have escaped, they separate as
in Composites, like a pair of ram’s horns.

(V.) is a diagram. The spot represents the stem to
show the posterior and anterior sides. The corolla is
split on the posterior side. The pistil is composed of
two carpels, with a large axile placenta bearing many
ovules (VI.).

There are some twenty-five species in South Africa.
L. Erin'us, with blue flowers and slender stems, as well
as L. lu'tea, with yellow flowers, are common about the
peninsula. The former is much “improved” by
cultivation, and is grown as a “bedding-out” plant in
England; both were introduced there about 1775.
A tall one, growing about three feet, bright with
scarlet flowers (ZL. cardina'lis), was introduced from
Virginia in 1629. ZL. infla'ta, called “ Indian tobacco,”
is used in medicine, but is a violent poison; indeed,
all the Lobelias are probably more or less injurious.

174 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

General Description of the Roella and Lobelia Family.

Herbs—Often with a milky juice.

Leaves—V arious.

Flowers—Sepals, 5, superior; petals, 5, coherent,
regular, or irregular; stamens, 5, free or partly
adherent to corolla, filaments with a broad base;
anthers, free or coherent; ovary, 2 to 10-celled, inferior,
with a honey-dise above.

Fruit

Capsule or berry.

Ericacez.
THE HEATH FAMILY.

This order contains some 1000 species, divided into
5 tribes; but only one tribe is represented in South
Africa, containing 10 genera, of which the Heaths are
some 500 in number, and very characteristic of the dry
climate of south-west districts. Indeed, the foliage is
imitated by many other plants which do not belong to
the family at all.

The tribe Lricee is divided into two sub-tribes—
Euericece, in which the ovary is four to eight-celled, there
being two or more ovules in each cell, of which the
true Heaths are the best example; the other sub-tribe
is Salaxzidew, named after the genus Salaz‘is, in which
the ovary is one- to four-celled and the cells one-ovuled.

THE HEATH FAMILY. 175

Eri'ca.—Fig. 73 (1) is a flowering spray of the plant.
(2) is a flower showing the four sepals (a) and the globular
corolla with four small teeth or lobes. (3) shows the
eight stamens, which are free and hypogynous, not
being adherent to the corolla, as is the rule when this
is gamopetalous. Plwmbago affords another exception.

Fic. 73.—Eri'ca (Heath). (For description, see text.)

Each filament carries a purple anther, with two distinct
lobes, shaped like the two prongs of a fork, and opening
by a hole, or pore (5, a), at the summit (4 and 5 are
back and front views). (6) is the pistil with the ovary
cut through vertically, showing the central placenta,
where the eight edges of the four carpels meet, carrying

176 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

many ovules. (7) is a bursting, ripe capsule ; the four
valves break away from the central placenta (a). The
countless seeds are very small, and often terminated by
little crests or wings (8,9). (9, @) is the embryo buried
in endosperm. The two features particularly to be
remembered are the hypogynous stamens, and the anthers
dehiscing by pores. The anthers in many Heaths are
provided with two little tails, as in Ger'bera (Fig. 67,
III.); but they are wanting in the species here figured.
The use of these appendages is regarded as connected
with pollination, for at first the eight anthers are
arranged close to the style (3), the pores pressing
against it; but when an insect thrusts its proboscis
down to the bottom (where the honey-dise or glands
form a ring round the base of the ovary), it pushes its
way between the “ tails,” and so dislocates the whole ;
the pollen then falls out of the pores upon its head.
On entering another flower, the sticky, knob-lke stigma
strikes the head where the pollen was deposited. There
is, however, much variety in the lengths of the filaments
and position of anthers among the numerous South
African species, since they have become specially
adapted to several different species of insects.

Young botanists should make a point of observing
what sort of insects visit flowers, and how they go to
work to get the honey ; and then notice how the flower
is adapted to receive them.

THR OLIVE FAMILY. 177

General Description of the Heath Fanuly.

Shrubs—Small.

Leaves —Exstipulate, evergreen, very often small.

Flowers—Sepals and petals, 4, coherent; stamens,
4, 8, not adherent to corolla, anthers with pores ;
ovary, free, and 1-, 2-, 4-, or 8-celled.

Frwt—Capsule.

Oleacez.
THe OLIVE FAMILY.

This order has 18 genera in 4 tribes, with 280
species altogether. The most important genera of the
4 in South Africa are the Olive and Jasmine. All
the members of the order have opposite leaves.

O'lea.—This has about eight species in South
Africa. The calyx is gamosepalous, with four valvate
lobes to the limb, «ec. the edges meet but do not
overlap. ‘The stamens are two only, epipetalous ; and
the pistil has two carpels. The fruit is a drupe, with
one seed. The olive is the species, 0. ewropa'a, which
has purple drupes when ripe, the flesh being very oily,
from which the oil is expressed.

Three species of South African Olea supply wood
suitable for cabinet-makers, waggons, ete.

Jasminum (Jasmine, Fig. 74).—There are about six
species in South Africa, The calyx and corolla have

N

178 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

five- to eight-lobed limbs; the stamens, two (2); and

the ovary two-celled (3). The fruit is a berry (4, 5).
The genus has about 100 species in number, spread

over Asia, Africa, and Australia, with one in South

Europe.

Fic. 74.—Jas'minum (Jasmine). (For description, see text.)

General Description of the Olive and Jasmine Family.

Trees or shrubs.
- Leaves—Opposite, entire, simple, or compound.
Flowers—Sepals, 4, coherent ; petals, 4, coherent ;
stamens, 2, adherent to corolla; pistil carpels, 2; ovary,
2-celled.
Fruit—Berry, drupe, capsule, or samara (a winged
indehiscent fruit, as of the Acridocar'pus of Natal).

THE PRIMROSE FAMILY. 179

Primulacez.
THE PRIMROSE FAMILY.

This order has 250 species of 21 genera in 5 tribes ;
but there is no representative of the genus Prim'ula,
the Primrose, in South Africa, where there are only 3
genera.

Anagal'lis—Pimpernel, or the poor man’s weather-
glass, so called because it only opens its flowers in
bright sunshine.

It is an annual with opposite leaves and scarlet
or blue-purple flowers. It has been introduced from
Europe, but there are two or three native species as
well in the Eastern district.

The calyx is almost polysepalous; the corolla is
gamopetalous, with the five stamens adherent to it, but
situated in front of the five lobes, instead of being
alternate with them.

This is explained by the suppression of an outer
whorl of five stamens. In Sam’'olus, of which one
species with small white flowers is common on muddy
seashores, there are five staminodes Jetween the lobes
of the corolla, being rudiments indicating a lost whorl
of stamens.

The fruit of Anagal'lis is a capsule which bursts by
a circumscissile dehiscence, t.c. by splitting horizontally,
the top falling off like a lid. The seeds all stand ona

180 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

free, central placenta. There are really five carpels ;
and the way this central column appears to have been
made, is by the carpels having their basal parts only
growing up to form the column, no ovules being borne
by the parietal margins, which are coherent to form the
single chamber, as in the violet and poppy.

General Description of. the Primrose Family.

Herbs.

Leaves—Opposite or alternate.

Flowers—Calyx and corolla, 4- to 5-lobed ; stamens,
4 to 5 adherent in front of the petals; staminodes
sometimes present; ovary, free, 1-celled, with free,
central placenta.

Fruit—Capsule.

Asclepiadee.
THE STAPELIA FAMILY.

This order contains some 1300 species of 146
genera in 7 tribes, scattered over the warmer regions
of both hemispheres; but especially abundant in South
Africa, where it has 48 genera, of which Stapelia has
about 90 species.

Many of the genera are stem-climbing plants. This
is done by all stem-climbers in much the same way.
The shoot continues to circumnutate, and as it lengthens

THA SLAPELTA FAMILY. 181

the tip describes a wide circle, and so comes in contact
with some plant. By continuing “to bow around,” it
twists itself spirally round the support.

Several genera of this family, as well as of another
to be described hereafter (Huphorbiacee), are specially
adapted to live in the dry climate of South and West
Africa, by having acquired a thick, fleshy stem, in
which much gummy or milky fluid is stored up. The
surface forms a tough, rind-like covering which prevents
the loss of water by transpiration.

As the climate of Mexico is of a similar nature,
plants of a quite different family, Cactacew, put on a
similar external appearance. Thus, stems of some
members of this family are just like those of Stapelia
(Fig. 75, 1.), as also of Euphorbia, being thick, many-
angled, fleshy, and leafless, the leaves being replaced
by spines.

The fact is that this peculiar form of stem of both
Cac'tus and Stape'lia and others, is the actual result of
living under similarly arid conditions of the localities
where they grow. The plants respond to the external
influences; and in the course of several generations
form the remarkable structures which become a
permanently fixed feature.

Stapelia (Fig. 75).—The flowers of all members
of this order are somewhat difficult to understand ; but
the beginner must look for the following details
carefully :-—

182 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

The calyx has five sepals, gamosepalous ; the corolla
is gamopetalous (II.), with honey-glands at the base of
the lobes.

There is a sort of double corona,’ as the petals
carry five deeply lobed appendages, together with five

Fic. 75.—Stape'lia. I. Stem and flowers. II. Flower. III, Pollen mass.

interior scales, adherent to the base of the anthers, and
prolonged into horn-like structures.

It has often a very disagreeable odour, which is
deceptive to flies, who lay their eggs upon it, apparently

! This term is used for a fringe or separate appendages round the
mouth of the tube of a corolla, ete.

THE STAPELIA . FAMILY. 183

under the impression that it is carrion; but the eggs
never hatch.

The stamens are five in number, fixed to the base
of the corolla, the filaments being in contact, if not
actually united. The anthers le upon or are partly
immersed in the large pentangular stigmas, upon which
are five usually dark-coloured bodies over the space
between the anthers.

The pollen grains, instead of being a loose powder,
as in most flowers, form a wax-like, solid mass, by
being all united together in each anther-cell. Then the
pollen masses of two adjacent cells, zc. belonging to
different stamens, become united by a secretion which
hardens into an arch-like structure (III.), fixed to
corpuscles, or “little bodies,” on the stigmas, and
having the above-mentioned structure, it thus
enables an insect to lift the two masses out together.
Then, on entering another flower, the masses are
pushed up against the stigma lying in the depression
between the anthers. There are five of these “stigmatic
surfaces,’ though the pistil, having only two carpels,
should have but two stigmas, if they were not so
peculiarly modified to form a great five-angled summit.
This ultimately falls off, and the two carpels become
free follicles, not having cohered at all below.

The seeds have a silky tuft of hairs, which spread
out as the carpels burst ; so that they push one another
out, and then can be wafted away by the wind.

184 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

General Description of the Stapelia Family.

Hlerbs—Some climbing, many with milky juice;
many leafless with succulent stems.

Leaves—Opposite, entire, in some represented by
short spines.

Flowers—Calyx, 5-parted; corolla, 5-lobed, with a
corona of various forms; stamens, 5, adherent to corolla,
filaments coherent ; anthers with pollen masses, fixed to
corpuscles on the stigmas.

Fruit—Two follicles.

Gentianez.
THE CHIRONIA FAMILY.

This order contains 520 species of 49 genera in
4 tribes. In South Africa there are 9 genera only.
The genus Gentia'’na embraces a very great number of
species with yellow, red, and blue flowers on the Alps
of Switzerland; one of which (G. /u'tea) supplies the
bitter root used in medicine. There are several species
in England, but Gentians are not known in the southern
hemisphere.

Chiro‘nia—This is a genus, confined to South
Africa, having red or purplish flowers. The leaves are
opposite. The gamosepalous calyx has five lobes. The
corolla is gamosepalous, and also has five lobes con-
torted or twisted up in bud ; andas it remains on when

THE CHIRONIA FAMILY. 185

- withered, it is said to be marcescent. The stamens are
epipetalous, alternate with the lobes of the corolla,
the pistil having usually two carpels. The fruit is a
capsule. They are all perennial herbs or half-shrubs,
forming profusely flowering tufts with rose-red, hand-
some blossoms. ;

One tribe contains aquatic plants of two genera,
with alternate leaves, viz. Villar'sia and Limnan’-.
_themum. The first has ovate leaves on long petioles,
and bears groups of yellow flowers. The only species
is V. ova'ta, common throughout the Colony. Limnan'-
themum has two species ; they have cordate, i.c. heart-
shaped or else peltate, leaves, resembling a miniature
leaf of the water-lly. The flowers are yellow. Both
species are in the Eastern districts. This round form
of leaf occurs in some aquatic plants in both Dicotyle-
dons and Monocotyledons. From mathematical calcula-
tions, 1t has been found to be the best form for resisting
the strains caused by running water, so as not to rupture
the leaves. The commoner method is to subdivide the
blades into fine threads, which then can lie in the
direction of the running water, as described under
Ranun'culus.

General Description of the Chironia and Gentian
Family.

Hlerbs—W ith a bitter juice.
Leaves—Opposite or alternate.

186 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

Flowers—Sepals, 5, persistent; corolla, regular,
petals coherent, and withering on; stamens adherent
to corolla; ovary, 1-celled with opposite placentas,

Fruit—Capsule.

Convolvulacez.
THE CONVOLVULUS FAMILY.

This family is largely made up of climbing herbs.
There are about 800 species of 32 genera in 5 tribes. In
South Africa there are 11 genera.

Some have a milky juice, and one yields a drug
known as “ Jalap,” as it comes from the town Xalapa in
Mexico. Another from South Europe is also medicinal
under the name of “Scammony.”

The sweet potato is the underground stem of a
species of Batatas, a name which became corrupted into
“potato” in the sixteenth century. The Natal cotton-
plant is another species of this genus, the seeds being
covered with long hairs, as the seeds of the true cotton-
plant (Gossyp'iwm) are. Most of the members of this
family climb by their stems, but some species living
out in hot desert-land are little woody, shrub-like plants,
without any climbing powers at all, while closely allied
ones may be found climbing in forests, ete. This has
suggested a probable origin of this habit. Where plants
grow under shade they get “drawn,” as gardeners say ;

THE CONVOLVULUS FAMILY. 187

and bowing around as they grow, they have become
climbers by twisting about other plants, till the habit
became a fixed feature.

It can be held in abeyance, for French beans, like
scarlet-runner beans, climb by their stems. Yet dwarf

Fic. 76.— Zpome'a.

non-climbing beans have been established. They will,
however, occasionally revert to the habit of climbing.
Ipome'a.—Fig. 76 gives the details of a species of
Ipome'a, of which there are several dispersed through
the Colony.
The calyx of five sepals is gamosepalous but deeply
divided (1 and 5), The corolla is spirally twisted up in

188 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

bud (1). There are five stamens (3), as usual, epipeta-
lous. The pistil is composed of two carpels (2, 4, 5),
the ovary being two- or four-celled (4) with two ovules
in each, as seen in the ripe fruit (5). The style ends
with two long stigmas (2); or in some species the
stigma is globular. (6) is a seed. (7) is a seed cut
through to show the embryo with large leaf-like, folded
cotyledons within the endosperm ; (a) is the radicle.

Cus’cuta.—This genus, known as “ Dodder” in Eng-
land, has several species at the Cape, and is entirely
parasitic—that is, after having attached itself by suckers
on to a “host-plant,’ it derives all its nourishment
from, and not infrequently kills it. It forms entangled
masses of yellow and red thread-like stems over herbs
and bushes. It has no leaves, but dense clusters of
minute flowers, white or pinkish. The little globose
corolla is provided with toothed scales within it. It
has a capsular fruit, the seeds being very minute, with
a coiled-up, rod-like embryo, without cotyledons. This
germinates in the soil, and as soon as the little stem
can catch hold of anything, it coils round it, and makes
suckers at various points in contact with the host.
Through the middle of a sucker a root penetrates, and
so fixes the parasite’ on to the host-plant. It soon
loses all connection with the soil.

We shall see under the order Zhymelee how
another plant can closely imitate the Cus'cuta as far as
its parasitic, thread-like stem is concerned; but the

THE. POTATO. FAMILY. 189

flowers are quite different, showing how the vegetative
parts of plants acquire similar forms under like
conditions, as explained of Stape'lia (Fig. 90, p. 227).

General Description of the Convolvulus Family.

Herbs—Mostly climbing by the stem, parasitic in
Cus'cuta.

Leaves—Various, wanting in Cus'cuta.

Flowers—Mostly large, handsome, parts in fives ;
corolla funnel or bell-shaped, petals twisted in bud;
stamens adherent to corolla; ovary, 2- or 4-celled, with
honey-dise below.

Fruit—Capsule.

Solanacee.
THE POTATO FAMILY.

This order contains some 1250 species of 65 genera
in 5 tribes. In South Africa there are 8 genera.

Many of this family are poisonous, as the thorn-
apple, Datu'ra Stramo'nium, easily known by its long,
tubular white flowers and prickly capsules, which is a
naturalized weed at the Cape.

The Tobacco plant, Henbane, and Deadly Night-
shade are useful plants for medicine, but are all
dangerous herbs. The Mandrake, which was supposed
to shriek when torn out of the ground, but of which
the root was a charm against evil spirits, is a species

1909 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

allied to the Deadly Nightshade. But of all plants
the Potato is the most useful. Even this is not harm-
less in the green state; and tubers should never be
allowed to be exposed to the sun when growing, for
that reason. It is a native of South America, and in
the wild state produces tubers about one inch in
diameter. ©The chief use of this vegetable is on
account of the large amount of starch which it contains,
some 15 per cent. Water amounts to about 75 per
cent., and the most nutritious (nitrogenous) ingredient
only 2 per cent.; whereas this, which supples muscle,
bone, and brain-forming matter, amounts to over 20
per cent. in beans, peas, and lentils of the leguminous
family. Hence potatoes are an excellent accompani-
ment to meat, but taken alone, would furnish a very
poor diet indeed.

Sola’‘num.— There are thirty-three Cape species.
The illustration (Fig. 77) is that of S. nigrum, a
common weed in English cultivated gardens, which is
found not only widely dispersed by man, but wild in the
most out-of-the-way places, as the Galapagos Islands,
two hundred miles off the west coast of South America.

The inflorescence has the peculiarity of rising mid-
way between the leaves on the stem. (1) is the corolla
laid open to show the adherent stamens; the anthers,
(a), open by pores, as in Heaths. (2+) represents the
calyx and pistil only; (2++) is a transverse section
of an ovary with the much-enlarged axile placentas

PHE POTATO FAMILY. IQ

carrying numerous ovules; (3) is a cluster of berries ;
(4) and (5) are seeds, (5) a seed cut vertically, showing
the coiled cotyledons of the embryo included within
the endosperm.

The edible potato was introduced by Sir Walter
Raleigh into Europe in the sixteenth century. It is

‘i

was Me Od
ATTA. \\yhhielzce,,
1 \\" —
Fie, 77.—Sola/num. (For description, see text.)
e

known as S. tubero'swm, or perhaps S. Mag'lia is the
original species. It is unfortunately liable to be attacked
by a parasitic fungus, which sometimes will ruin whole
crops. A great deal of the starch, however, can be
saved, for the starch is easily extracted by grating the
tuber and washing the pulp in cold water through a
sieve. It is often made into an imitation of sago.

1922 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

~

S. Sodome'um is a common wayside species about
Cape Town, recognizable by its thorny leaves, purple
flowers, and yellow “apples.” It is an introduction
from the north.

Physa'lis.—This is best known by the species P.
Peruvia'na, the “Cape Gooseberry,’ which is natural-
ized throughout the Colony.

Lyc'ium.—The species of this genus are small trees,
which are often spiny. They have rather small
flowers, the corolla being funnel-shaped, the anthers
open by longitudinal slits in the usual way. The fruit
is a berry. They are grown as hedge-plants, ete.

General Description of the Potato Family.

Herbs, shrubs, or trees—Often with a poisonous juice.

Leaves—V arious, alternate.

Flowers —Regular, bell-shaped, or rotate, 2.2. “ wheel-
like ;”’ whorls in fives ; pistil of 2 carpels.

Frwit—Capsule or berry.

Scrophularinee.
THE NEMESIA AND HARVEYA FAMILY.

This large order contains 1900 species of nearly 160
genera in 12 tribes. In South Africa there are 42
genera in 10 tribes.

The order consists of herbs, shrubs, and trees.

THE NEMESIA AND HARVEYA FAMILY. 193

Several species are cultivated in gardens, as the Snap-
dragon (Antirrhi'num), a native of South Europe, and
the Foxglove (Digita'lis), wild in England. On the
other hand, species of South African Neme'sia are
grown in England.

The corolla is always irregular, very often ringent,
or gaping widely, as of Harveya; as well as personate,
with a closed mouth, as of the Snapdragon and
Lina'ria. It is sometimes rotate, 2.e. flat and “ wheel-
like,” as of Veron'ica.

The number of sta-
mens is usually four, of
which one pair has longer
filaments than the other
pair. The fifth stamen is Fie, 78.—Lina'ria (Toad-flax).

almost always suppressed, but would lie between the

posterior pair.

The stamens are said to be didynamous (i.e. “ two
in power”), because two are longer than the other
two. |

The pistil is, in this order, always composed of two
carpels, one behind the other, the ovary having a large
central, or axile, placenta bearing many ovules.

Fig. 78 represents a flower of the Toad-flax
(Lina'ria), showing the “lip” pressed against the
posterior petals, thus closing the “ mouth,” and making
the flower to be personate, v.c. “ mask-like.”

The longer stamens will be seen to arise from the

O

194 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

anterior side of the corolla, an almost invariable rule
with irregular flowers, such as this is.

The section cuts the two cells of the ovary from
back to front, showing the invariable position of the
cells, one being posterior and the other anterior.

The front petal is prolonged into a spur into which
the honey passes, being secreted by a dise at the base
of the ovary. This is one of the flowers from which
bees often extract the honey by “burglary,” for instead
of entering it in the legitimate way by the mouth, they
bore a hole through the corolla at the base, and so
get it with less trouble: but of course no pollination
is effected by them. Smaller bees, etc., which are not
strong enough to cut a hole, take advantage of the
stronger sorts, and so get the honey through the hole
which their predecessors have made.

The corolla of the Snapdragon only differs from that
of Lina'ria in having a “pouch” instead of a “spur; ”
but the way the capsules burst is different. In the
former the posterior cell has one pore and the anterior
two ; but there is one to each in the Lina’ria.

Neme’sia.—This has a five-parted calyx, a personate
corolla, which may be yellow, white, violet, or parti-
coloured, the upper lip being four-cleft, and the
throat prolonged into a pouch or spur. The two
longer stamens curve round at the base and clasp the
upper ones. The anthers are one-celled, somewhat
cohering in pairs. When the capsule bursts, the two

THE NEMESIA AND HARVEYVA FAMILY. 195

carpels separate from each other. There are nearly
twenty species in South Africa, and the genus does not
appear to be known elsewhere.

Halle‘ria.—This genus has three species in South

Africa, They are smooth-leaved shrubs with red
flowers. °

Fig. 79 (1. to IV.) shows the flower to have a
nearly regular corolla (I.), but the stamens are still

Fic. 79.—Halle'ria.

in two pairs of different lengths (II.). The diagram
(III.) gives the relative positions of the parts of the
four floral whorls. The “lip” (or usually enlarged
front petal) is the one in front, while the “hood”
(wanting in Halle'ria) will be seen to be made of two.
(LV.) illustrates very well the two ovary cells and
large placentas covered with ovules.

One species (7, lucida), called the “White Olive,’’
has a fine-grained wood,

Harvey'a.— This is a very handsome flowering

196 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

parasite, with a large white or rosy, ringent corolla, as
seen in Fig. 80.

There are twelve South African species. The genus
is named after Dr. Harvey, the great South African
botanist, who commenced the Flora Capensis, now
being completed at Kew.

When the root comes in contact with that of the

Fic. 80.— Harvey'a.

host-plant, it swells by the growth of tissue beneath
the epidermis, or skin, while this last also begins to
crow at the spot, forming a sort of sucker. It then
sends out a kind of root, which penetrates down into
the root of the host, and becomes thoroughly engrafted
upon it. 7

It is thus able to extract nourishment, and may in
time kill its host. The process of parasitism has a
degenerating effect upon the parasite, for, not requiring

THE BLADDERWORT FAMILY. 197

to make its own food out of carbonic acid gas (as
described in the Introduction), it gradually loses the
power to do so, these green-leaved parasites being in
this condition. After many generations, it loses it
altogether, and at the same time the chlorophyll, or
green matter, ceases to be made, when all power to
decompose carbonic acid is gone, and the parasite
becomes white or tinted with yellow, red, etc., but not
green.

General Description of the Nemesia Family.

Herbs, shrubs, or trees.

Leaves—Simple, opposite or alternate.

Flowers—Sepals, 4 or 5, free or coherent ; petals, 4
or 5; corolla, irregular, forms, various; stamens, 4,
didynamous or 2; ovary, 2-celled, with a terminal
style.

Fruit—Capsule, with many seeds in each cell.

Lentibularinez.
THE BLADDERWORT FAMILY.

This order only contains 4 genera, widely dispersed
over the warmer and temperate regions of both worlds.
Many are remarkable for catching living animals and
deriving nourishment from them, but by a different
method from that described under the Sundew
_ (Droseracee).

198 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

In South Africa two genera only occur, Utricula'ria,
the Bladderwort, and . Genlis'ca. The Butterworts
(Pinguic'ula) abound in the northern hemisphere.
They have got the English name of “ Butterwort” for
a peculiar property of curdling milk. It is said the
Laplanders use the leaves for that purpose in preparing
the milk of reindeer, Their oval, spoon-like leaves are
covered with glands, which secrete fluids much in the
same way as described in Dros'cra, but are immovable.

Utricula'ria.—The species are either aquatic and
submerged plants, with finely divided leaves (as de-
scribed under Lanwn'culus aquat'ilis), provided with
“traps,” or else they are marsh plants, with entire
narrow leaves without the bladder-like traps. The
late Mr. Darwin has given us an elaborate account of
the structure of the traps in both these genera, as well
as of Dros'era+

In Utricula'ria the bladder-like traps, which sug-
gested both the Latin and English names, are little
oval or pear-shaped hollow bodies on short stalks.
They can be opened at one end only, but are usually
closed by a flap. A minute water creature lifts up the
flap, in its investigations in search of food, and so
enters the bag-like trap. The flap instantly falls down
on its rest, and the creature cannot escape. It soon
dies, and when it decays, club-shaped cells projecting
inward from the inner surface of the wall of the trap,

1 « Tnsectivorous Plants.”’

THE BLADDERWORT FAMILY. 199

generally grouped in fours, have the power to absorb
the animal juices, and carry the nourishment to the
interior of the plant. Various details are here passed
over, as the student, itis hoped, will be able some day
to read Darwin’s account in full.

With regard to the flower, the calyx is two-lobed ;
the corolla is personate and spurred. There are only
two stamens, and the syncarpous pistil is composed of
two carpels.

Genlis'ea.— G'. Africa'na, the only South African
species, has a very different leaf from that of the other
genera. The lower part has a long tube enlarged at
one place into an oval bladder. At the upper end of
the tube, where it opens above by a slit, are two spiral
arms. The tube is lined with many rows of stiff hairs
pointing downwards, which Darwin compared to a paper
of rows of pins rolled into a tube. Among these are
both four- and two-celled absorbing processes, as in the
Bladderworts. Insects crawl down the tube, and the
hairs completely prevent them escaping backwards.
After their death, all nourishment capable of being
absorbed is taken into the plant by means of the
glands.

With regard to the flower, this has a five-parted
calyx; the corolla is personate, the lower lip being
three-lobed with a spur at the base. The flowers are
yellow or violet. There are only two epipetalous
stamens.

200 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

The structure of the flower thus shows its agree-
ment with Utricula'ria, but the foliage is very different,
having become modified in a different way, though both
genera have doubtless descended from some common
ancestor.

General Description of the Bladderwort Family.

Herbs—Marsh or aquatic plants.

Leaves—Crowded on the ground or submerged and
dissected, often with traps or glands for securing insect
prey, etc.

| Flowers—Sepals, 2- or 5-parted ; corolla, 2-lipped,
spurred or pouched ; stamens, 2, adherent to the corolla ;
anthers, 1-celled ; ovary, 1-celled.

Fruit—Capsule.

Acanthacee.
THE ACANTHUS FAMILY.

This is a large order, mainly in the hot regions of the
world, becoming scarcer in the cooler, temperate regions
of both north and south hemispheres. There are in all
about 1350 species of 120 genera in 5 tribes. South
Africa has 23 genera.

Justic'ia.— Taking this as a type, the species are herbs
and shrubs, often with handsome flowers, many being

THE ACANTHUS FAMILY, 201

cultivated. The calyx is five-parted. The corolla-
tube is short, and two-lipped. There are only two
stamens, projecting forwards. There are about twenty
species, chiefly Eastern.

Duvernoi'a.— D. Adhatodoi'des is a Natal shrub often
cultivated, and illustrates how the corolla has become
perfectly adapted to bear the weight of the large bee
which visits it, as will be.seen by the accompanying
illustration.’

Fic. 80A.—Duvernoi'a. I. Flower. II. Ditto with bee.

Looking at (I.) above (supposing we know nothing
of insect visitors), one might ask—For what use is this
great irregularity of the corolla? Why and how has
it come into existence? And no answer is forth-
coming. Now, turning to (II.), we at once see a use.
The weight of the bee must be very great; and the
curious shape of the lip with its side ridges is evidently

1 From a paper by Mrs. Barber, Jowrn. Lin. Soc., vol. xi. p. 467.

”

202 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING FLAN:

not only an excellent landing-place, but is so con-
structed as to bear that weight. Moreover, the two
walls slope off, and are gripped by the legs of the bee,
so that it can evidently secure an excellent purchase,
and can then rifle the flower of its treasures at its
ease ; as has been more fully described on page 25.

Hypoes'tes—This has only two species in the
Eastern districts and Natal; but there are some forty
in all scattered round the Indian Ocean, from South
Africa, Madagascar, East Indies, China, Malay Archi-
pelago, and Australia, showing, as several other plants
do, a former land connection, across which plants came
from India, ete., to South Africa.

The genus Acan'thus, which gives the name to the
family, has one species in South Europe. Its leaves
are large and “incised,” or cut down with pointed
segments. Itsuggested the form of the capital in the
Corinthian style of pillars.

General Description of the Acanthus Family.

Herbs or shrubs (chiefly tropical).
Leaves— Opposite.
- Flowers—Calyx, 4- to 5-parted, persistent; corolla,
irregular, 2-labiate ; stamens, 4, didynamous or 2, with
staminodes; ovary, 2-celled, with a honey-dise.

Fruit—Capsule, with 2 or few seeds in each cell.

THE VERBENA FAMILY. 203

Verbenacer.
THE VERBENA FAMILY.

_ There are three families, according to some botanists,
agreeing very closely in many respects, which others
group together as sub-orders, or tribes, of the above-
named. As this is so in Dr. Harvey's “Genera of
South African Plants,” I will follow his arrangement.

The first sub-order is Verbenew, containing the lone-
cultivated Verbe'na, from South America, as well as
Cleroden'dron, Lanta'na, Vi'tex, etc., of which there are
_ species in South Africa.

The second sub-order is Sti/bew, from the genus
Stil'be, in South Africa, with one other genus.

The third sub-order is Selaginee, containing eight
genera, of which five are entirely in South Africa.*

Verbena is chiefly South American, but V.
Bonarien'sis, with dense clusters of small purple
flowers, and V. offcina'lis, a tall, wiry, branching herb,
of European origin, are naturalized at the Cape.

The calyx is five-parted, the corolla being tubular
with an irregular border; the stamens are four, didy-
namous. ‘The pistil is composed of two carpels, the
ovary being four-celled (by the two carpels being

1 Bentham and Hooker, in their “Genera Plantarum,” regard
Verbenex and Stilbex as 2 out of 8 tribes of Verbenacex, Selaginex
being a separate order. Verbenacex has 700 species of 59 genera ;
Selaginex has 140 species of 8 genera.

204 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

deeply lobed), forming four nwtlets in fruit. The style
arises from the top of the ovary, not from the base, as
in the Labiates, which have a very similar pistil and
fruit.

Stil'be—This genus consists of heath-like shrubs
(Fig. 81). The calyx is five-parted, with equal lobes,
hairy without and valvate in bud. The corolla has five
scarcely unequal lobes (II.). The stamens are four,
with a rudiment of the posterior one—not represented
in the diagram (II., III., [V.)—and are equal, or very
nearly so, in length.

The pistil has two carpels, the posterior one being
abortive, as shown in the diagram (IV.) and (VL.).

The fruit is a one-seeded capsule, one ovary-cell
being empty (VII.).

The regularity of the outer whorls shows that this
flower is indicative of a more ancestral type than those
genera with irregular corollas.

Sela'go (Fig. 82).—This is a large South African
genus, having some seventy species, one being called
Aarbschje. They consist of herbs or under-shrubs with
small leaves, due to drought. The flowers are in heads,
or spikes, i.e. sessile along the peduncle, as in the figure
(1.). The calyx is cleft more or less deeply. The
corolla (II.) is irregular (III. laid open). The four
stamens are didynamous (II.). The two anther-cells
are fused into one at an early stage (IV.). The pistil
has two carpels, the ovary-cells (V.) having one ovule

Fie. 81.—Stil/be. I. Flowering shoot. IL. Flower. III. Ditto, calyx removed.
. Diagram, V. Pistil. VI. Vertical section of ovary, showing abortive cell and
single ovule. VII. Transverse section of ovary. 7

2066 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

in each cell (omitted in diagram V.). When ripe,
the carpels are easily separated.

Fic. 82.—Sela’go. I. Flowering shoot, 11. Flower, III. Corolla and stamens
laid open. IV. Stamen. V. Diagram.

General Description of the Verbena Family.

Herbs, shrubs, and trees.
Leaves—Opposite or alternate.

THE PLUMBAGO FAMILY. 207

Flowers—Calyx, 5-parted; corolla, more or less
labiate; stamens, 4, didynamous; ovary, free, 2- to
4-celled.

Fruit—Separating into 4 nutlets, 2-parted (Sela‘qo),
or juicy.

Plumbaginez.
THE PLUMBAGO FAMILY.

This order contains 200 species of only 8 genera in

2 tribes, represented in South Africa by 2 genera in one,
and 1 genus in the other tribe.

— Plumba’go.— P. Capen'sis is familiar to all for its blue
flowers, and by being so often grown as hedges, ete.

The calyx is tubular, having glandular hairs (Fig.
83, II.), the corolla-tube being much elongated. The
stamens, as in Heaths, are hypogynous, and not adherent
to the corolla-tube (IL, III.). The ovary is one-celled
(LV.), but the five free stigmas indicate the presence of
five carpels (III.). There are five honey-glands on the
receptacle (III.). (IV.) is the diagram of the flower.
The single ovule is suspended on a long cord (II.),
called the funicle, or “ little cord,” as the word means.
The micropyle, or orifice, to the ovule is at the top, and.
a sort of plug comes down from the style, bringing the
pollen-tube with it directly into the micropyle.

Statice —This genus represents the other tribe in

208 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

South Africa. The English species is called Sea-

Ne

Te

Fic. 83,—Plumba'go. I. Flowering shoot. II. Vertical section of flower.
III. Stamens, pistil, and honey-glands. IV. Diagram.

lavender, as it grows in salt marshes. The calyx is

TRE SEELIOTROPE: FAMILY. 209

peculiar in being scarious and petaloid, 7c. coloured
like a corolla. The petals, unlike those of Plumba'go,
are generally quite free or polypetalous, when the
stamens are epipetalous in being adherent to the claws
of the petals.

Many species are cultivated on account of their
brightly coloured calyx, and though the flowers are
small, they are massed together in clusters.

General Description of the Plumbago Family.

Herbs or half shrubs—Some maritime.

Leaves—Various, sometimes tufted (Stat'icc).

Flowers—Calyx, persistent; corolla, regular and
tubular, or of 5 free petals ; stamens, 5, in front of the
petals, free from corolla when tubular, but adherent to
the free petals (Stat'ice). ;

Fruit—A capsule; indehiscent (Stat'ice).

Boraginee.
THE HELIOTROPE FAMILY.

This order contains 1200 species of about 70 genera
in 4 tribes, widely dispersed over the globe. In South
Africa there are 14 genera, of which two are cultivated,
the Heliotrope (Heliotro'pium) and Forget-me-not
(Myoso'tis). The flowers are nearly always regular, the
whorls (excepting the pistil of 2 carpels) being in fives.

P

210 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

E'chium, called Viper’s Bugloss in England, is irregu-
lar, with declinate stamens. The foliage is often very
rough, with stiff hairs arising from a thick base.

Anchu'sa.—This genus has two or three South
African species. The one figured, called <Alkanet, is
used for a purple dye.

Fig. 84.—Anchu'sa (Alkanet). (For description, see text.)

The inflorescence (Fig. 84) is characteristic of the
family. It is ascorpioid or coiled peduncle on which are
two rows of flower-buds; as these open, they become
separated; and the stalk continues to elongate and
straighten itself. As a rule, the flowers of this family
have no bracts (as was the case with Crucifers, described
above); but sometimes they are present, asin Anchu'sa

THE HELIOTROPE FAMILY. 211

(1) shows a corolla laid open, revealing the scales, or
corona, in front of the petals, and the stamens alternat-
ing with the petal-lobes. (2) is the gamosepalous
five-toothed calyx. The pistil (3) is peculiar in having
the twogcelled ovary deeply four-lobed, the style arising
from the bottom between the lobes. These when ripe
break up into four nutlets (4), each of the four seeds
being invested with one quarter of the pericarp. (5)
is one of the nutlets cut vertically to show the embryo,
(a) being a thickened ring round the point of attach-
ment. The large embryo is seen within, the radicle
being towards (0).

Loboste’‘mon.—This is a genus of forty species dis-
persed through the Colony, and entirely South African.
They consist of herbs or shrubs, with scattered,
sessile, entire, and pointed leaves. The corolla is pink,
blue, or purple in colour, funnel-shaped, with a slight
tendency to be irregular. The stamens mostly project
beyond the corolla, or are exerted, as it 1s called.

Each filament has at the base a hairy-bordered
scale. The style is slightly inclined, or swb-declinate.
The nutlets are wrinkled.

The flowers show the commencement of irregularity,
which is more pronounced in Z'chivm, in which the
stamens are decidedly declinate, this position being
the best for insects to alight upon when searching for
honey, which is secreted by a gland, or disc, on the
receptacle just below the ovary. A peculiarity resides

212 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

in the colour of several plants of this order, in that they
are red when first opening; but the colour changes to
blue or purple afterwards.

This individual alteration is supposed to correspond
with the development of colours in the floral world.
The primeval colour was probably yellow; next
followed reds, then purples, and finally blue. When a
red chrysanthemum or other plant throws out a yellow
blossom, called a “sport,” it is said to revert to the
ancestral, or original, colour.

Lithosper’mum.—This genus is so called from the
polished, stone-like fruits. This is due to the secretion
of lime in the ovary-walls which tightly invest the seeds.
There are seven or eight South African species consist-

ing of herbs or under-shrubs. ‘The flowers are mostly
small, of various colours.

General Description of the Heliotrope Family.
Herbs, shrubs, or trees.
Leaves—Alternate, with rough or bristly hairs.
Flowers—On scorpioid racemes ; calyx, 4- to 5-parted,
persistent ; corolla regular, often rotate, or irregular

(E'chium); stamens, as many as petals and adherent
to corolla; ovary, of 2 carpels, but 4-lobed.

Fruit—Separating into 4 nutlets or drupe-like.

THE LABIATE FAMILY. 213

Labiate.
THE LABIATE FAMILY.

This order contains 2600 species of 136 genera in
8 tribes. There are 19 genera in South Africa. It is
one of which the members, as a rule, can be readily
recognized. First, the square stem and opposite leaves
are universal. These features, coupled with the flowers
being clustered in the axils of the leaves or bracts,
looking as if they formed a whorl all round the stem,
must be noted. The flowers thus make a “false”
whorl, or Verticillaster, each of the two clusters being a
glomerule, or sessile cyme, and therefore “ definite,” for
the order in which they expand may be thus expressed :
3, 2, 3, 1, 3, 2, 3 (Fig. 85, I.). It is the same as in the
dichotomous cyme of Chickweed, described under the
family Caryophyllee.

The flowers are always irregular and lipped, much
resembling many flowers of the orders Verbenacce,
Scrophularinee, Acanthacew, and others; but each
order is, of course, known by a collection of characters,
and not by the shape of the corolla alone.

Leono'tis.—The calyx has five sepals, and has strong
“vibs” down it. The significance of these will be
explained under Sa/'via. It is slightly irregular or
divided into two halves, the posterior portion having
three sepals, the anterior two. The corolla has a

214. SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

prominent “lip” in front and a hood-like structure
behind, composed of two petals (IL.) ; but the lip, which
has three lobes in other flowers, is really the single
middle petal (III.-IV.). In (III.) the lip is cut in
two. The stamens are didynamous, the front pair
having, as is the rule, the longer filaments (III.), taking
a bend over to the back, and, as in most of the genera,
stand erect by the side of the shorter, or posterior pair.
The pistil has two carpels (IV.), the ovary of which is
deeply four-lobed, as in Boraginee, and the style arises
from the base and not the summit of the four lobes of
the ovary, and is therefore called gynobasie.

When the ovary becomes the fruit this is then
deeply four-lobed, and breaks up into four nutlets (V.),
as in Boraginee, etc., and does not form a many-
seeded capsule, as in the Scrophularince. This plant is
called “ Wild Dagega,” the corolla of which is of a bright
scarlet colour and a velvety texture. The leaves are
smoked by the natives; but, unlike Indian hemp and
tobacco, no member of the “ Labiates” is poisonous.
Hence, many are grown as kitchen-herbs, especially on
account of the strong perfumes they possess, due to
elandular hairs, which secrete scented ethereal oils, such
as lavender, thyme, mint, sage, etc.

Men'tha.—There are four species of ‘ Mint” in
South Africa, occurring along watercourses. The flowers
are very small, and are not so irregular as those of most
of the genera (Fig. 86).

LL ——— ~~

Ik III. Vv.

Fria. 85.—Leono'tis Leonu'rus. I. Flowering branch. II. Flower. IIT. Corolla
opened. IV. Diagram of flower. V. Fruit, with honey-disc.

216 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

Tt will be observed that the sepals and petals are
nearly regular. The stamens, though one pair is longer
than the other, the fifth being suppressed, stand out in
a spreading manner. Comparing this flower with that
of Leono'tis, it will be seen that in the latter the insect.
enters one flower at a time, the anthers are above and
strike the bee on the back, covering it with pollen.
On entering another flower, the forked stigma pro-
truding from the top of the hood strikes
the bee where the pollen was deposited.
In the Mints, however, as the flowers
are very small and densely clustered
together, the bee walks over them and
gets dusted anywhere ; the stigmas (just
visible in Fig. 86) thus easily get

dusted.
er ee ee The garden mint is a cultivated
Porm variety of a South European species.
Peppermint is another, and the drug
“Menthol” is obtained from a Chinese species (JZ.

piperascens),

Sal'via—This genus, of which S. officina'lis is the
garden sage, has many Cape species, both herbs and
shrubs, dispersed through the Colony. I have already
described the curious instance of a mechanical adapta-
tion to bees for pollination, as the accompanying
illustrations will show."

1 See p. 27.

RHE LABIA TE FAMILY, 217

I will here call attention to a few additional facts.
First observe the number of “ribs” of’ the calyx, say,
of the very common species, S. panicula'ta. We may
represent this as follows: Being composed of five
sepals, and each sepal stands for a leaf, let d be their
mid-ribs, then where the margins are united there
would be none, as leaves have none there. But since
the weight of the bee is all on the lip in front, and the
slender tube of the corolla has to be supported, Nature
has run up, so to say, additional columns to strengthen
it ; and we shall find they are distributed as follows :—

oF
oF

mm

where @ stands for dorsal, 7.c. the back or mid-rib of the
sepals, while m stands for marginal.

Now, it will be noticed that the calyx is two-lipped.
The meaning of this is that there has been a tendency
to tear the calyx across. To prevent this the insertion
of marginal cords was made; but in front, where the
strain is greatest, two cords (mm) have been added.
In another species (S. pa'tens), with blue flowers, there
are two marginal cords at the sides, and a third is
inserted between the two in front. Moreover, the
cords are branched at their upper ends where the calyx
expands.

218 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

The number of cords varies in different plants,
according to their requirements,

Plectran'thus.—There are several species, herbs and
shrubs, of this genus, and the method of pollination
differs from the preceding, in that the stamens and
style lie along the horizontal lip, instead of standing
erect, under the hood; so that an insect gets dusted
with pollen below, instead of above, its body. It thus
resembles the flowers of Zequwminose and some kinds

of Pelargo’nium.
feneral Description of the Labiate Family.

Herbs or shrubs —With 4-angled stems; none
poisonous.

Leaves—Opposite.

Flowers—In short, whorl-like, axillary glomerules,
or in terminal clusters; calyx, 2-lipped, persistent ;
corolla, irregular, labiate; stamens, 4, didynamous ;
ovary, 4-lobed ; style arising from their base ; stigmas, 2.

Frwit—Separating into 4 nutlets.

DIVISION V.—INCOMPLET ZL.
Polygonacee.
THE Dock FAMILY.

This order contains 600 species of 30 genera in
6 tribes. In South Africa there are only 4 genera.

THE DOCK FAMILY. 219

Buckwheat (Fagopy'rum) and Rhubarb (Rhe'wm) are
members of this family.

They are herbs with peculiar stipules. Each leaf
has two, such being usually the case with stipulate
leaves. They are not, however, separate, but have
their edges united both in front of the leaf—i.e.
between the blade and the stem—and on the opposite
side as well, making a complete sheath round the
stem, often with a fringed upper edge. It has been
called an Ochrea (i.e. a boot) (Fig. 87, 2, a).

Ru'mex.—The common English name for the
species of this genus is “ Dock,” of which there are
several in South Africa. Most of the species have a
calyx of two whorls of three sepals to each ; there is no
corolla and six stamens. ‘The ovary has three stigmas.
The fruit is a one-seeded nutlet surrounded by the
calyx, of which the three outer sepals become much
enlarged, carrying one or more tubercles on the back of
them. Two species are dicecious ; one of them is intro-
duced as a weed (ft. Acetosel'la), known as Sheep’s Sorrel.
The leaves are acid to the taste, like those of Oz'alis,
which is called “ sorrel” in South Africa,

Polyg’onum.—One of the commonest species in
England, and introduced into South Africa as a
roadside prostrate weed, is the Knot-grass (P. Avicula're)
(Fig. 87).

The flowers (3) are very small. The five sepals
are green with a pink edge and gamosepalous. There

220 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

are seven or eight stamens adherent at the base (4).
(5) is the pistil, the ovary being cut open vertically to
show the ovule arising from the base, and three styles
and stigmas above. (6) is a ripe, three-cornered fruit
invested by the persistent calyx. (7) is the seed seen
in section, showing the embryo on the surface of the

Fic. 87.—Polyg’onum (Knot-grass). (For description, see text.)

endosperm. It is the presence of a large quantity of
this “ farinaceous ’’—that is, “ starchy ”—endosperm that
makes buckwheat so valuable for poultry, etc.
There is a native species very much resembling it,
with slender flowering shoots, called P. serrula'tum.
Rhubarb is a genus found in the northern hemi-
sphere, the species occurring in Russia, Siberia, and

THE GOOSE FOOT FAMILY. 221

north of Thibet. One has long been a_ familiar
medicine, and another a useful plant for its leaf-stalk,
which, cut into short portions, makes a so-called “ fruit-
tart.”

General Description of the Dock Family.

Herbs or shrubs —With swollen nodes ; often with an
acid juice.

Leaves—With ochreate or sheathing stipules.

Flowers—Bisexual or polygamous; calyx, 3- to 6-
parted, persistent, often enlarging in fruit; stamens,
adherent to calyx ; ovary, 1-celled, free.

Fruit—Achene or nutlet, rarely fleshy.

Chenopodiacee.
THE GOOSEFOOT FAMILY.

This order contains some 520 species of 80 genera
in 12 tribes. In South Africa there are 9 genera.
Many species of the two above-named plants are weeds
of cultivation, and have been probably introduced
from Europe.

Several frequent salt-marshes, and have acquired
peculiar forms, as salt induces a fleshiness of the stem
and leaves, eg. Salicor'nea herba'cea, the Marsh
Samphire of England, which is a fleshy-stemmed herb
without leaves, and occurs in the Cape Flats. The

222 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

Canna-bosch (Carozylon) is a prickly but fleshy-leaved
herb, occurring on the shores of the Peninsula, ete.
Chenopo'’dium.—The leaves and sepals of species of
this genus are often more or less covered, specially
when young, with a white, mealy appearance. ‘This

Fig. 88.—Chenopo'dium (Goosefoot). (For description, see text.)

is due to the presence of minute cells filled with water
(Fig. 88, 1, 2). The flowers are minute and densely
clustered.

The calyx (3) has five sepals. The corolla is want-
ing, but the five stamens standing in front of them show
that the flower has been derived from one in which a
corolla was present, and would have alternated with

THE GOOSEFOOT FAMILY. 233

them, probably from the order Caryophyllew. The
pistil (4) has two styles, but a single ovary-cell, in
which is one ovule (5) attached to the bottom by
a cord or funicle. The seed-vessel forms a thin
membranous bag, bursting irregularly when mature,
and contains a single black, flattish seed (6). (7)
shows a section of the seed with the embryo coiled
round the endosperm, a condition also seen in most
of, the Caryophyllew, as Chickweed (Fig. 37, A, p. 102),
but it is straight in Dianthus, this being an exception
(Fig. 37, 6). C.al'bum is a troublesome annual on
cultivated land.

Several plants of this family have been used as
spinach, but the true species is Spina'cia olera'eea. It
is dicecious. The native country is unknown; as it
has been long cultivated, it has become different from
any known wild plant.

General Description of the Goosefoot Kamualy.

Herbs—Many maritime.

Leaves—V arious or wanting.

Flowers—Calyx, 5-parted, often changing in fruit ;
stamens, equal in number to and opposite the sepals,
adherent to calyx.

Fruit—Utricle or membranous capsule, within the

persistent calyx.

224. SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

Thymelacee.
THE STRUTHIOLA FAMILY.

This order has 360 species of about 36 genera in
3 tribes. In South Africa there are 10 genera.

Those most characteristic of Cape Colony are un-
known in other countries, but are “represented” by
some different species in Australia of a very similar
appearance.

The South African species are often heath-like from
the small pointed leaves, but the flowers are, of course,
very different.

Struth'iola—This genus has nineteen species, being
heath-like shrubs or under-shrubs, mostly with long,
slender branches, and opposite, linear, or narrow leaves.

The flowers are often sweetly scented. 8S. virga'ta is
a very common species, having a white calyx, and
blossoming in the early months of the year.

Fig. 89 will explain the structure. Thus the
calyx has four pointed sepal-lobes, with a long tube
below them (III.). At the mouth of the tube are
eight “glands,’ two in front of each sepal,+ with
four stamens alternating in position with the sepals.
This indicates the loss of four outer ones which ought

1 Not correctly placed in the diagram (II.); but in (III.) the two

in the middle (g) are in front of the opposite sepal, and the side ones
belong to the lateral sepals ( p, p).

THE STRUTHIOLA FAMILY. 225

to be in front of the sepals (III., s¢). In other genera,
as Gnidia, the complete number, eight, is present.

The question arises—What do the so-called glands
represent? They are not always present. They are
wanting in Arthroso'len and Passeri’na, Again, in

Fie. 89.—Struth'iola.

Gnidia, the glands look like solid anthers or else
like little petals ; so that one is tempted to think that
that is just what they once were, but that they have
“degenerated” into their present form. A common
feature of the calyx in these genera is to “split

Q

226 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

around,” in a circwmscissile manner, just above the
ovary; when this ripens, the lower portion closes over
the nut-like fruit. The stigma is capitate, 7.c. forming
a globular head.

Passeri'na filiform'is—This has a tufted stigma, a
very usual condition with “wind-pollinated”’ flowers,
as the long projecting cells, called papilla, readily catch
the pollen.

Chymococ'ca.—The fruit of this is called “ Dronk-
besjes,” and differs from the others in being succulent.

General Description of the Struthiola Family.

Herbs, shrubs, or trees—-With a very tough, stringy
bark.

Leaves—Entire, sometimes heath-like.

Flowers—Inflorescence capitate, umbelled or race-
mose; calyx, petaloid, tubular, 4- to 5-lobed, with
glands or scales, 4 to 8, free or united into a cup;
stamens, 4 or 8 upon the calyx; ovary, free, 1-celled.

Fruit—Nut or drupe.

Laurinez.
Tort CINNAMON AND CAMPHOR FAMILY.

This family contains some 900 species of 34 genera
in 4 tribes, scattered over all tropical countries, a few
being extra-tropical, as the Laurel or Bay-tree of South

THE CINNAMON AND CAMPHOR FAMILY. 227

Europe (Lauw'rus no'bilis), which gives the name to the
order. In South Africa there are only 3 genera, but
one (Cas'sytha) is peculiar in being a leafless parasitic
climber, closely resembling the Dodder (Cus'cuta) of the
Convolvulus family (see p. 188).

Fie, 90.—Cas’sytha. I. Twining and parasitic flowering shoot. II. Vertical
section of flower. III, Diagram. IV. Fruit.

Cas'sytha. — Fig. 90 illustrates a flower which is
very small (I.) and very peculiar. The receptacular
tube carries a calyx of six sepals in two whorls (II,
III.). Then there is a whorl of six stamens (III.).
The three standing in front of the three outer sepals
have three others in front of them; but the anthers

228 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS. ©

of the outer six burst inwards, or are introrse ; the three
inner burst outwards, or are extrorse.

The anthers open by little flaps which rise upwards,
and not by slits, as is usually the case (see Fig. 904
of the Bay-tree).

Each of the three innermost stamens has two
glands at the base, apparently consisting of abortive
stamens,

Each of the stamens in front of the
inner whorl of stamens has also a gland
at the base (III.), so that we may write
down the whorls of the flower in order
thus—

Bract, two bracteoles (see diagram
III.); sepals in two whorls; three
stamens (introrse); three stamens

Fie, 90a.—Stamenof (eXtrorse) with one gland ; three stamens
B Lau'rus no'- : Sis
Daley with two (extrorse) with two glands ; pistil of one
glands at the base
of the filament, the carpel.
anther opening by
mecurecd wale: The flowers are self-fertilizing and
almost cleistogamous.
The fruit (IV.) is a pseudocarp, as the fleshy re-
ceptacle is not adherent to the ovary (IL).
Oreodaph’ne.—This genus is chiefly American. One
only is a Cape species, 0. bulla’ta, known as “ Stink-
wood,” as it smells disagreeably when cut, but is a
durable wood for cabinet-makers. The white variety

has been used for shipbuilding.

THE. SILVER-TREE FAMILY. 229

General Description of the Cinnamon and Camphor
Family.
Herbs, shrubs, or trees—Chiefly Asiatic and American
tropics.
Leaves —Entire or wanting (Cas'sytha).
Flowers—Bisexual or unisexual, small; calyx, free,
6-parted ; stamens adherent to calyx, 5 to 4 rows, or
partly staminodes and anthers opening by pores with
lids; ovary, free from the receptacular tube, 1-celled.
Fruit—Dry or fleshy.

Proteaceez.
THE SILVER-TREE FAMILY.

This order contains 950 species, and mainly occurs
in South Africa and Australia, There are 49 genera in
7 tribes. In South Africa there are 11 genera. Though
the flowers are very simple, yet there is an immense
diversity in the foliage. It was this which suggested
the name from Proteus, a god of the sea, who continually
changed his form. He was the keeper of Neptune’s
sea-calves.

The leaves are in some, needle-like (Spatal'la), or
divided into fine segments (Servw'ria). They may be
linear or lanceolate, as in the Silver-tree, or even very
broad, as of some species of Leucosper'mum.

It will be noticed how often the foliage is of a

230 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

leathery, or coriaceous, texture. In some the surface is
covered with hair, as the Silver-tree, and others
secrete wax, etc.; but in all cases both the surface and
the interior structure are adapted to great drought.
This is a common feature both in South Africa and
South-West Australia, where members of this family
abound ; but there is no single species common to both
countries.

Leucosper'mum.—The illustrations (Fig. 91, A, I-
III.) will show the structure of the flower, which is
very simple and much the same throughout the family.

It consists of a calyx of four sepals only (III),
joined into a tube below, and having the four free
portions above. Upon each of these sepals lies a
stamen, the filament being adherent to it (IL.).

The pistil is in the middle and quite free (II.); its
ovary is, therefore, superior.

Pro'tea.—The flowers of this genus are like those
of the preceding, and arranged in heads. The involucre
consists of persistent coriaceous bracts, sometimes
coloured. The fruit retains the long style as an
appendage ; the ovary, being covered with stiff hairs,
forms an achene.

The Sugar-bush (P. melliffera) and Waageboom
(P. grandiflo'ra) are common species.

Pro'tea grandiflo'ra.—This is known as the “ Wagon-
tree,” the wood being useful for various purposes. The
leaves contain a good deal of tannic acid, so that they

THE SILVER-TREE FAMILY. 231

are useful for tanning, and make good ink with salts

of iron.
Leucadendron. Fig. 92 is the inflorescence and

Ill.

Fic. 91.—Leucosper’mum. (Kor description, see text.)

foliage of the Silver-tree. It differs from the preceding
in being dicecious. The small flowers (II.) have a

gamosepalous calyx, with four stamens adherent to the

232 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

sepals ; but the pistil is abortive, with a sterile style
and stigma. The female has four sepals, but no
stamens. The fruit is a globose nut in LZ. argen'tewm,

i

Fig, 92.—Silver-tree. I. Male inflorescence (1). IL. Single flower with barren style
(x 2). III. Nut with persistent style and calyx, the latter split at its base and
prevented from slipping off by the knobby stigma.

the Silver-tree. The style remains, and when the calyx
is detached at the base, it is prevented from slipping

EUPHORBIA AND CASTOR-OIL FAMILY. 233

off by the knobby stigma, as shown in (III.). The
female inflorescence develops into a cone formed of the
hardened and persistent bracts.

The wood is of inferior quality, and is more
commonly used for fuel.

General Description of the Silver-tree Family.

Shrubs or trees.

Leaves—Very various, coriaceous.

Flowers—Capitate, spiked, or axillary; calyx, 4-
parted, lobes valvate in bud; stamens, 4, adherent to
sepal lobes ; ovary, free, 1-celled.

Fruit—Nut or drupe.

Euphorbiacee.
THE EUPHORBIA AND CASTOR-OIL FAMILY.

This order certainly contains some 3000 species of
nearly 200 genera in 6 tribes, which are again divided
into sub-tribes. In South Africa there are 23 genera.
The greater proportion of members of the order are
found within the tropics of both worlds. They are
altogether wanting in Arctic and Antarctic regions, as
also in the higher regions of the European Alps.

The temperate forms of the type genus Huphor'bia
are very different from those of the hotter and drier
regions of South Africa.

234. SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

The former are herbs with a milky juice known as
“ Spurges,’ and several have been introduced as weeds of
cultivation, The typical Euphorbias of the hotter parts
of Africa are leafless, with thick, angular, massive, and
fleshy stems. In this respect they resemble Stapelias
(see Fig. 75, p. 182) and the Cactuses of Mexico, but
the flowers invariably show the genus and order.

These three plants—but others might be mentioned
—go to prove how plants can acquire outward forms
together with internal structures, in adaptation to the
conditions of soil and climate in which they live; for
the fleshy stems and leaves (as of Crassulacew) are
really storehouses of water against the dry season when
no rain falls.

Euphor'bia.—The illustration (Fig. 93) will explain
the structure of one of the small herbaceous species
which have been introduced, and are now common
about Cape Town. (1) is the terminal part of a plant
bearing inflorescences (and not one flower only). In
the fork of the branches (1, a) is an inflorescence. (2) is
the same enlarged, consisting of a coherent, cup-like
involucre (3, 5, laid open), with crescent-like glands
(3, @) on the rim. In the common, fleshy-stemmed,
finger-like EL. Ca'put-Medu'sw, the glands are of a
dull purple colour, with a green-and-white appendage
between them. ,

The involucre contains many male flowers (3, ¢) and
one female flower (2, 0); only the pedicel is left in (3).

EUPHORBIA AND CASTOR-OIL FAMILY. 235

These flowers require further explanation. It will
be noticed that the stamens in (3) are of different
lengths (c), indicating different stages of growth. Each
stamen (4) has a joint (at a). The interpretation of
this is, that the lower part () is the pedicel, while the
upper part (c) is the filament. Hence each stamen 1s

Fig. 93.—Euphor'bia (Spurge). (For description, see text.)

all that exists to represent a male flower. In some
species there is a little bract at the base of each
stamen, which would also tend to prove that each stamen
is a flower.

(5) is a section through the three-celled ripening
ovary, showing one seed in each cell.

(6), the ripe capsule, bursts elastically with three

236 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

valves, liberating the seeds and throwing them to a
distance. The seeds (7) are slightly downy and
spotted. There is a white protuberance at one end
called a caruncle (7, a); a very similar structure
occurs in Polyg'ala (Fig. 36). (8) is a section of the
seed, showing the embryo in the middle of endosperm.
This often contains oil instead of starch, as Castor-oil
and Croton-oil.

There are two or three species of Cro'ton in the
Eastern district and Natal.

Ricinus commu'nis, the Castor-oil plant, is com-
monly grown, and is partly naturalized, throughout the
Colony.

All the Euphorbias are poisonous in varying degrees.
Children have been poisoned by eating the fruits of

some species of spurges.

General Description of the Euphorbia Family.

Herbs, shrubs, or trees—Often with an acrid, milky
juice.

Leaves—Alternate, sometimes replaced by spines.

Flowers—Unisexual; calyx, 4- to 6-parted, or want-
ing (Luphor'bia) : male flower, stamens, definite or free,
or united ; female flower, ovary, 2-0 celled, styles free.

Fruit—Capsule, or carpels separating into what
are sometimes called cocci.

‘ %
STINGING NETTLE AND FIG FAMILY. 237

Urticacee.
THE STINGING NETTLE AND Fic FAMILY.

This is a large order, with about 1500 species of
108 genera in 8 tribes. In South Africa there are 10
genera in 3 tribes. The flowers are mostly unisexual,
either moncecious or dicecious ; but while members may
be very different in appearance, as a nettle is from a
mulberry and fig tree, yet the structure of the flowers are
so closely in agreement that they must be united, though
arranged in different tribes. Many species are provided
with stinging hairs. These, on close examination, will
be seen to be pointed cells, with a bulbous: base,
within which is the irritating fluid. When the point
enters a pore of the skin, it breaks off, and fluid is
injected by the pressure. As it is too minute in
quantity to be analyzed, it is impossible to say what
its exact nature is.

Urti'ca.—If we take the common perennial netile,
U. diov'ca, naturalized from Europe, it will be seen that
the male flowers (all on one plant) have a calyx of
four sepals with four stamens. These have their
filaments curled inwards in bud, so that as soon as
the sepals separate, they spring up and curl outwards,
flinging the pollen into the air, by the filaments being
under a great state of tension while they were kept
down by the sepals.

The female flowers on separate plants have also

- »
ae

238 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

a calyx of four sepals, with a pistil of one carpel in
the middle, with a tuft-like stigma.

This stigma consists of a tuft of papillae, or short
hairs, which are thus enabled to catch the pollen
wafted to them by the wind, the nettles being “ wind-
pollinated” plants.

Ficus.—The fig is a pseudocarp, in that the edible
part is only an expanded flower-stalk.

If a young fig in the flowering stage be cut down
from top to bottom, it will be found to have a little
opening at the top, but closed by many minute bracts.
In nearly all cultivated varieties of fig the whole of
the interior chamber is covered with female flowers,
consisting of a calyx of three or more sepals, and a
pistil having a forked stigma. The ovary is only one-
celled with one ovule. This, however, never becomes
a seed, and therefore never develops an embryo. In
fact, these female fiowers are more or less abortive.
Moreover, there are no stamens.

In some figs, as the so-called “Wild Fig,” or
Caprificus, of the Mediterranean regions, stamens form
a cluster just inside the orifice, hanging downwards.

Now, although, as stated, hundreds of different
sorts of figs become edible fruits without any pollina-
tion, certain kinds (such as the Smyrna figs) do require
it, or they will fall off prematurely.

The “caprification ” is effected by minute wasp-like
insects which breed in the wild fig, their grubs living

THE CATKIN-BEARERS. 239

in the ovaries of the pistils. They then escape and
fly to the others, enter the hole, and convey the pollen
to the female flowers below. These then enable the
figs to mature without prematurely falling.

There are several species of fig, natives of the
Eastern districts and Natal The fibre of the bark is
used for ropes of certain species, but the fruit and
wood are of no use.

General Description of the Nettle Family.

Herbs, shrubs, or trees.

Leaves—Opposite or alternate, often with stinging
hairs, stipulate.

Flowers—Mostly unisexual; calyx, cleft; stamens
as many as sepals inflexed in bud, sometimes with
spring-like filaments ; ovary, free, 1-celled.

Fruit—Nut or achene, free, or in a fleshy receptacle
(Fig), or fleshy calyx (Mulberry).

Amentace2.
THE CATKIN-BEARERS.

This is not strictly an order or family, but is a
group of plants, having the male, and sometimes the
female, flowers clustered on long stalks forming cat-
kins. The chief native genus, which has 9 species at
the Cape, is called the Wax-berry, Myri'ca, giving the

240 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

name to a family, MJyricacee, containing only this
single genus.

The introduced trees are the following :-—

The Poplar (Po'pulus) ; species of the Willow (Sa’liz),
of which there is one native species, S. capen’szs, with
a silky-leaved variety (Airsu'ta).

These two genera make up the order Salicacece.

The Walnut (Jug'lans re'gia) represents another
order, Juglandacea, with five genera.

The Oak and edible Chestnut represent the order
Cupulifere, or “cup-bearers,” in allusion to the cup
of the acorn and prickly covering to the chestnuts.
This order has ten genera in three tribes. It contains
400 species, scattered over the north temperate regions
of the whole world. Four only are British, the Oak,
the Beech, the Hazel, and the Hornbeam.

Sa'lix.—The willows are dicecious. The male tree
has its flowers in a dense elongated catkin. Each
flower consists of two or more stamens only in the
axil of a bract. The female tree has its flowers also
in catkins, each flower consisting of a pistil of two
carpels. The seeds have a tuft of silky hairs at one
end.

Quer’cus.—The Oak, familiar to all in the Peninsula,
has been long introduced (Fig. 94). A is a young
branch with three slender “interrupted ” male catkins,
i.e. there are marked intervals on the peduncle between
the flowers. Each consists of a gamosepalous calyx of

THE CATKIN-BEARERS. 241

a variable member of lobes (I.). Stamens usually
about ten (but only six are given in I.). The female
flowers are on the same tree, the oak being moncecious.
First to be noticed is the little cup composed of over-
lapping or imbricated scales (IL). Within this is the

A.

Fic. 94.—A. Catkin of the Oak. JI. Male flower of Oak. II. Female flowers.
(Both X 3.) III. Female flower, cut vertically.

female flower. It consists of a pistil of three carpels,
as shown by the three-lobed stigma, the ovary being
invested by a receptacular tube, and is, therefore,
inferior.
The calyx limb is almost imperceptible, being a
R

242 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

little jagged rim only, not represented in (I1.), but
visible below the stigmas in (III.).

The three cells of the ovary contain two ovules
each, but when it becomes an acorn only one ovule
is developed into a seed; this enlarges so much that
the other two ovary-cells are pushed to one side. The
large embyro with its two massive cotyledons quite
fills the interior. The cup grows at the same time,
so that it is always large enough to hold the acorn as it
continues to increase in size (III.).

Myrica (Fig. 95).—The species consist of shrubs
often with a balsamic odour, They are moncecious or
dicecious, in catkins. There is a bract, sometimes with
two bracteoles, or minute bracts, to the male flower.
The bracteoles are wanting in (II., III). This consists
of two to eight stamens, some being often abortive.
The anthers are extrorse (III.). The female flower has
from two to three scales. There is no calyx, only a
pistil with a one-celled ovary, having a solitary erect
ovule. There are two stigmas, possibly indicating two
carpels (IV.). The fruit is somewhat “ drupaceous ”
and one-seeded (V., VI). The fruit is covered with
little round papillw, or hemispherical protuberances,
which are often covered with wax (IV.). When a
fruit, as the grape, is covered with a very thin layer
of wax, this is called the “ bloom” of the fruit.

The reader may wonder why it is that some orders
have an immense number of genera and species, such

THE CATKIN-BEARERS. 243

as the Composite, Leguminosae, etc., or some one or more

Fic. 95.—Myri‘ca. I. Flowering shoot. II. Monecious inflorescence; female
flowers above; male, below. III. Bract and stamens of male flower. IV. Pistil
of the English I. Ga/le, Sweet Gale. V. Transverse section of fruit. VI. Embryo.

genera of a family may abound in species, as the Heath ;

244 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

while other orders, such as those included in the
Catkin-bearing group, have very few genera, even two
or one, as the Myri'ca. The interpretation accepted by
botanists is that an order with one, two, or very
few members is a very ancient one, and the few that
remain are the last relics of a long-lost family, whereas
when there are many in an order, such a family is
of a much more modern origin. Indeed, it seems
probable that Myri'ca and Casuarina, the “ beef-
woods” of Australia, may represent some of the very
earliest plants which possessed pistils, for the next
families to be considered, the “ Gymnosperms,’ have
no prstul at all.

GYMNOSPERM 4.

This peculiar group of plants contains only 3
orders: (Gnetacew, with 3 genera, one of which is the
extraordinary plant Welwit'schia, so called after its
discoverer, Dr. Welwitsch, only found in Damaraland,
near Waalvisch Bay, and northwards to Cape Negro;
Cycadacee, with 9 genera, of which two, Hncephalar‘tos,
the “ Kaffir-bread,” and Stange'rza, occur in the south-
east sub-tropical part of South Africa. The third order
is Coniferw, a very large one having some 300 species
of 32 genera in 6 tribes. Two genera only occur in
South Africa, viz. Podocar'pus, the “ Yellow-wood,”
and Cal'litris (also called Widdringto'nia), known as
the “ Cedars” of the Cedarberg Mountains.

THE PINE AND YELLOW WOOD FAMILY. 245

Conifere.
THE PINE AND YELLOW-WoopD FAMILY.

Pi‘nus.—This genus has 70 species dispersed over
the cooler regions of the northern hemisphere. Two
are now abundant on the north side of Table Mountain,
etc., making woods of some extent. These are P.
pin'ea, the “Stone Pine,” a native of the Mediterranean
regions of South Europe, and P. pinas'ter, the “Cluster
Pine,” a native of the south-west of Europe. The only
species native in Great Britain is P. sylves'tris, the
“Scotch Fir.”

The fruit of all these are cones (Fig. 96, VI.), hence
the name “conifers,” or cone-bearers. They are borne
in abundance by the trees in Cape Colony.

The illustrations (Fig. 96, L., II.) represent the male
and female inflorescences from the same tree, as pines
are moncecious. The former consist of a dense cluster
of little oval catkins, arranged all round a shoot, which
continues to grow at the top. Each of the catkins
consists of stamens (III.) spirally arranged around it.
The pollen grain is of a peculiar shape (IV.), as it has
two pouches, one on either side; their use is not known.
The little female catkins (II.), which develop into cones,
consist of a number of female flowers also arranged
spirally. Each flower consists of a roundish bract
or scale with another, the ovuliferous scale, in front of

246 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

it (z.c. on the side next the middle or axis). This scale
_is so called because it has two ovules at the base (V.) ;
but it is never closed over the ovules as a pea-pod is,
but always flat, so that the ovules are exposed. They
hang downwards, but have very large openings, called
the micropyle, a word meaning “little gate,’ so that
pollen grains fall down between the scales and alight
upon these orifices, where they are retained by a gummy
juice exuded by the ovules. These thus become fertilized
without the aid of stigma and style as in all angiosperms.
(V.) represents one of the scales with the two ovules
at the base.

When the catkin becomes a cone, the rule is for the
bract to disappear; while the ovuliferous scale grows
very long and its tip swells into a four-sided knob as
shown in (VI.). The two ovules at the same time
(now concealed by the ‘hardened scales being pressed
together during growth) increase in size, usually
developing their wings, which some think are out-
growths from the surface of the ovules ; but others say
that they are formed from the inner surface of the
scale.

When the seeds are quite ripe, the elongated, rigid,
and now woody scales separate again, and by so
doing somewhat abruptly, on a hot day, jerk the seeds
out ; their wings now are of use, for a breeze will send
them off whirling away to a distance. When they fall,
the wing becomes detached from the seed, which then

THE PINE AND VELLOW-WOOD FAMILY. 247

Fic. 96.—Pi/nus. I. Male inflorescence. II. Female inflorescence. III. Stamen of
Pinus sylves'tris, with longitudinal dehiscence. IV, Pollengrain, V. Ovuliferous
scale bearing two ovules. VI. Cone of the Scotch Fir.

248 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

germinates. Thousands of seedling pines may be seen
in the woods below Table Mountain.

II III 1V

Fig. 97.—Yellow-wood. I. Branch (4) with 3 male catkins. II. Female inflorescence
(x 3). III. Section through the latter, showing one ovule. IV. Ripe pseudocarp :
7, fleshy receptacle; b, seed enclosed in green resinous scale.

Podocar'pus—This genus represents the pines in
South Africa (Fig. 97). The flowers are both moncecious

THE PINE AND YELLOW-W0O0OD- FAMILY. 249

and dicecious in different species, of which there are
forty at least, only found in the southern hemisphere,
but of both worlds. The male flowers are in catkins
forming a cylindrical column (I.) ; the anthers are sessile,
z.e. without filaments, arranged spirally. The connective
is prolonged into a small appendage above the anthers.

The female flower consists of a solitary ovule, its
peduncle being adherent to the ovuliferous scale.
Another faces it, and sometimes carries an ovule as
well. These with the axis form a fleshy support to
the seed (II.-IV.). This is globular or ovoid
and “ drupaceous,” having a fleshy exterior and
“crustaceous ” or hard and brittle interior lining.

The tree Yellow-wood is P. Thunber'gii, with a dark-
blue receptacle. P. elonga'ta is the Outeniqua Yellow-
wood, with narrower leaves than the former. The
receptacle is bright crimson. It is common in the
Knysna and Eastern forests. (II-IV.) represent the
ovule protruding above the sub-coherent ovuliferous
scales, with two linear bracts below. (III.) is a
vertical section showing the inverted ovule, its single
coat and large orifice looking downward. (IV.) is the
ripe condition of the pseudocarp, and shows the fleshy
receptacle formed of the axis.

Cal'litris or Widdringto'nia (the “Cedar” of
Cedarberg Mountains).—This has closely set leaves.
In the young plant they are needle-like, but more
scale-like in the adults.

230 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

The male catkins have many stamens; the filament
is short, extending into a sub-peltate, scale-like
connective bearing two anther cells. The female has
four ovuliferous scales; there are from five to ten
ovules at the base of each scale.

The fruit is a globose cone, or galbulus, four-valved,
the valves being woody. The seeds are winged. The
wood of both the “Cedar” and Yellow-wood is useful,
forming timber for shipbuilding and houses, ete.

The name “Cedar” is, of course, incorrect. The
true cedars belong to the genus Cedrus, of which there
are three species—the cedar of Lebanon, one on the
Atlas Mountains of North Africa, and one called the
“ Deodar” on the Himalayas.

Cycadacee.
THE KAFFIR-BREAD FAMILY.

This order has 75 species of 9 genera in 2 tribes, in
Asia, Africa, Australia, and America.

Two genera occur in South Africa. They have
short trunks, unbranched, and carrying a crown of
foliage at the top, not unlike a tree-fern.

The flowers are unisexual. The male consists of
a cone-like structure composed of spirally arranged
antheriferous scales, thick and leathery in consistence.

The female cone is terminal, and also composed of

THE ORCHID FAMILY, 251

scales, called ovuliferous, as they bear ovules, but
naked on the margins below the apex, which is more
expanded. The seeds are more or less globose.

There are twelve species of Kaffir-bread and one of
Stange'ria in Natal.

CLASS II.—MONOCOTYLEDONS.

DIVISION I.—PETALOIDEZ.
Orchidez.
THE ORCHID FAMILY.

This order contains, perhaps, the most curiously
constructed flowers ofall. It has some 5000 species in
334 genera, divided into 5 tribes. Each tribe, except
one, has several sub-tribes. In South Africa there are
38 genera.

Di'sa.—This has many species in tropical and South
Africa, of which D. grandiflo'ra is called the “Glory of
Table Mountain.”

Fig. 98 will explain the structure. The first
thing to notice is the inferior ovary and _ superior
perianth. The ovary in many orchids is often so
twisted that the flower is really upside down. In
others it is very slightly or even not at all twisted, but
the flower may be still inverted, as it bends over to
the opposite side of the stem.

252 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING Flan,

To understand the true position of the parts of the
flower, a line should be traced from the bract up the
ovary, following its curvature, if any, and then the leaf
of the perianth, which is strictly anterior, v.e. im-
mediately over the bract, will be discovered.

Next, notice the three outer leaves (sepals) of the
perianth. These may be all of the same simple form,
or one of them may be “hooded,” ‘ bag-lke,”
“spurred,” etc.

Then follow the three petals of the inner whorl of
the perianth. .

In many “ Orchids,’ as any plants of this family
are called in popular language, it is the posterior petal
which takes on some one of the above forms, instead
of a sepal. It is then called the Jabellum. In (1.)
it appears as a very minute body, and situated below in
front (/.) ; but by comparing this with the diagram (I1.),
the labellum (5) stands on the posterior side of the
flower next to the stem (z.). Consequently, the bract
will be behind the sepal (0.s.) on the anterior side; but
as the flower bends over to the opposite side of the stem,
it is really inverted in (1.).

Within the perianth, of which the other two petals
are shown in (III.), there is a solid body called the
column. This is really composed of the filament. of
the single stamen adherent to the style; so that while
the anther (/f.a.) is on one side only, the two stigmas
are below it (s.?.). These should, of course, be three ;

Bi Vil.

Fic. 98.—Di'sa uniflora. I. Two flowers and one bud. IJ. Diagram of flower. In specimens
with more than one flower the lip (7) is turned away from the stem (#) through a twist in the
ovary. 1, 2,3, 4, undeveloped or greatly modified stamens ; x, stem of plant; s.s., side sepals;
0.8., odd sepal; s.p., side petals; 7, odd petal (labellum); f.a., fertile anther. III. Column (side
view) with anther and two lateral petals: st, stigma; 7, rostellum. IV. Pollen masses of an
Orchid. VY. ‘Transverse section of an ovary. V1. Capsule dehiscing by three valves. VII. Seed
(X 20).

254. SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

but the third is modified to form a projection (7.),
called the rostcllum. As this stands between the anther
and the stigmas, by far the greater number of orchids
are prevented from self-pollination.

In a few the rostellum is scarcely developed when
the “ pollen masses ’—for the pollen grains are all
coherent into a so-called pollinium (IV.) of a different
orchid—can fall over it on to the stigma, and some few
orchids are cleistogamous; all such do not require
insects to move the pollen masses. (IIL. sp.) is one of
the side petals.

When an insect alights in search for honey in
orchids, the pollen masses become withdrawn from the
anther cells by a sticky secretion which fixes them
upon the head of the insect. On entering another
flower, the pollen mass then hits the stigma, the
glutinous surface of which retains it, when the insect
retires. Numerous differences exist in the methods of
pollination in orchids, many of which are described
by Darwin, in his book “ The Fertilization of Orchids.”

(II.) is a diagram suitable for by far the greater
number of orchids, showing the position of the three
sepals and three petals (i.c. six “leaves” of the superior
“yerianth”’); the labellum is the petal (5) next to the
stem or axis (x.), and therefore posterior. There should
be six stamens, but only one bears pollen; the others
are only detected as ridges on the perianth leaves.
Their positions are indicated by rings and a dot.

THE ORCHID. FAMILY. 255

Although the structure is the same in all orchids
but one genus (not in South Africa), there is an infinity
of shapes and corresponding adaptations to insects, In
many the ovary or its pedicel is so greatly twisted
that the flower is completely reversed in position, so
that the labellum, which we have seen is really the
posterior petal (since it is on the side of the flower
opposite to the position of the bract), actually becomes
the front petal, and then grows out into a large one to
receive the insect as its resting-place. In Pterygo'diwm,
of which there are some ten species in South Africa,
the lip is in front, and forms a slipper-like structure.

The structure of the ovary should now be observed.
By cutting it down, it will be found to be one-celled,
but with three large parietal placentas projecting
inwards, and carrying an immense number of ovules
(V.). When some of these are fertilized, the fruit forms
a capsule, which, when ripe, bursts by three valves,
leaving a framework behind (VI.). The seeds are very
minute and imperfect, consisting of a loose skin with an
undeveloped embryo within it (VIL).

It not infrequently happens that, when plants are
habitually propagated by underground tubers, bulbs,
etc., they seem to lose the power of setting seed by
their flowers. Such is the case with the garden Horse-
radish, the species of Cro'cus cultivated for saffron,
which consists of the dried style and stigmas, and with
a very common species of Ranun'culus in England,

256 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING Fiza

called the Lesser Celandine, which is multiplied
enormously by underground buds with tuber-like roots,
similar to those of many terrestrial orchids ; but it rarely
sets any seed. Such is the case with Du'sa grandiflo'ra.

The swollen roots of many of these orchids used to
be collected, and a drink made from them called
“Salep,” and sold in the streets of London, until the
beginning of thelast century; but salep has been replaced
by coffee. tis still made in the East in Persia.

Satyr'ium.—This genus has many Cape species,
several being cultivated. The lower lip of the perianth
is formed by the regular sepals and petals. The upper
lip is made of the labellum, which has two spurs or
pouches. The anther is bent back, or reswpinate, the
glands being separate and naked. The stigma is two-
lobed, the upper lobe being the larger. Many have
handsome flowers of an orange, pink, crimson, or
greenish colour.

The great majority of orchids of the south-west regions
are terrestrial and propagating by means of underground
buds. These buds arise from the base of the stem, and
carry a globular or other shaped swollen root in which
is stored a quantity of nourishment for its growth.
Sometimes the bud is at the end of a short branch, so
that the new plant which arises from it is at some little
distance from the parent plant. Such is the case with
Di'sa grandiflo'ra. Tt is a remarkable fact that all the
various kinds of elaborate structures in adaptation to

THE ORCHID FAMILY. 257

insects’ visits, and all the attractive features of colour,
honey, and scent, result in a quite disproportionate
amount of seed. It has been observed that a species of
Dendro'bium, growing in its native home in Australia,
bore thousands of blossoms ; but was found afterwards

Fic, 99.—Epiphyte in the Eastern forests,

to bear only one pod. The same observer, however,
discovered certain orchids to be cleistogamous, never
opening their flower-buds at all; and these were all
fully fertile.
In tropical forests the orchids are usually epiphytal—
S

258 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

that is, they grow “upon plants,” mostly trees—but
they are not parasites, for they derive no nourishment
from their supports. They are provided with long,
aérial roots, by means of which they fasten themselves
to the branch of the tree, and also absorb water, etc.,
from the surface. Fig. 99 illustrates one species of
an epiphytic orchid of South Africa, from the Eastern
forests, known as Mystacid'ium gracile.

Angre’cum.—This is another epiphytal genus.
Species are found both on the east and west sides of
South Africa, as well as Madagascar, where A. sesqui-
peda'le occurs, having a long slender spear, sometimes
reaching about fourteen inches in length. The sepals
' and petals are nearly equal, spreading and free; the
flowers are mostly white.

General Description of the Orchid Family.

Herbs—Terrestrial or epiphytal.

Leaves—Simple, entire, sheathing, forming psewdo-
bulbs, or thickened internodes, if epiphytal.

Flowers—Perianth irregular, superior; stamens, 1
or 2 (Cypripe'dium) ; pollen, coherent in masses, with
viscid disk or 0; stigmas, 2, effective, 3rd, a rostellum ;
ovary, inferior, 1-celled, with 3 parietal placentas.

Frwit—Capsule, bursting by valves, rarely succulent
(Vanilla).

THE MORZA AND GLADIOLUS FAMILY. 259

Iridex.
THE Mor#A AND GLADIOLUS FAMILY.

This order has 700 species of nearly 60 genera in
3 tribes. In South Africa there are 20 genera. They
all agree in having only three stamens, whereas, except-
ing orchids, other orders of the Petaloideze have almost
always S1x.

The ovary is inferior, and the perianth superior, in
all members.

More’a.—There are many species of this genus in
South Africa. The flowers are quite regular (Fig. 100,
I.). In the figure the outer leaf of the perianth facing
the observer has been removed, showing one of the
three epigynous stamens behind it (sta.). Behind the
stamen rises one of the style arms; but just above the
anther (where the horizontal shading terminates) is a |
little ledge constituting the stigma. The honey-tubes
are at the base of the filaments. An insect alights
in the expanded sepal (o.s.), depresses it, and while
searching below for honey, gets dusted on the head, as
the anther bursts outwards (extrorse). Then, on
entering over another sepal, the ledge scrapes off the
pollen. (II.) shows the positions of the leaves of the
perianth, the three stamens in front of the outer ones
(sepals), and the pistil of three carpels, which cohere in
the middle.

260 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

(III.) is a bursting capsule, dehiscing loculicidally—
that is, through the back of the cell.

Glad'iolus (Fig. 101).—This has a somewhat irregular
flower; while the three stamens stand erect at the
back. Three of the perianth leaves are spread out

II.

Fic. 100.—More’a edulis. I. Flower after removal of one outer and two inner seg-
ments of perianth: os., outer segments ; 7.s., inner segments; sta., stamen; stt.,
petaloid stigmas; sc., scars of removed segments ; 0, ovary; 0, bract. I. Diagram
of flower. III. Loculicidal capsule of More’a edu'lis.

in front, forming a sort of false lip, as a landing-place.
The style with the three sub-petaloid stigmas stand over
the three anthers; so that the insect, having got dusted
on the back or its thoraz, thrusts it against the projecting
stigmas on entering another flower.

THE MORZA AND GLADIOLUS FAMILY. 261

If the reader will compare the flower of Glad'iolus
with that of Zeono'tis (Fig. 85), it will be seen that the
modification for pollination is precisely the same, as
well as in Duvernoi'a (Fig. 13), and indeed in many
other flowers of quite different families.

The cultivated kinds of
Glad'iolus are in many cases
hybrids between wild South
African species, and bear much
larger and handsomer flowers
in consequence.

General Description of the
Morea and Gladiolus Family.

Herbs—With bulbs, corms,
or rhizomes.

Leaves-—Narrow,. ensiform,

Fig. 101.—Glad'iolus.

or “sword-like.”
Flowers—Perianth, superior, tubular, limb regular or
irregular ; stamens, 3, free or united, and adherent to
the perianth; anthers, extrorse ; ovary, inferior, issuing
from a sheathing bract.
Fruit—Capsule, 3-celled.

262 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

Amaryllidacee.

THE BELLADONNA FAMILY.

This contains some 650 species of 64 genera in
5 tribes. South Africa has 21 genera in 2 tribes. It
differs from Jridew in having six stamens, but with

Fic. 102.—Neri/ne Sarnien'sis (Guernsey
Lily).

a similar inferior ovary.
This last feature is the
only one which separates
it from: the Lily family
(Liliacee), in which it is
superior.

Neri‘ne. — There are
several species, of which JV.
Sarnien'sis, the “ Guernsey
Lily,” is common about
Table Mountain. It ob-
tained this name in conse-
quence of a ship having
been wrecked on the shore
of Guernsey in 1680;
quantities of the bulbs

which formed part of the cargo were thrown ashore, so
it became cultivated there and known as the Guernsey

Lily (Fig, 102).

The flower of this, as of all the members of the order,
is very simple. The inferior ovary and superior perianth

THE BELLADONNA FAMILY. 263

must be first observed, to distinguish any members
from the Lily family. The perianth may be in six
separate leaves or coherent into a tube. The six stamens
will be adherent to the tube, with introrse anthers,
never extrorse as in Jridew. In some genera with a
polyphyllous perianth (¢.c. with free perianth leaves),
the stamens are free from the perianth tube, and are
epigynous,

The fruit is usually a capsule, or sometimes a
berry.

Heman'thus.—This genus has its very small flowers
massed into a large head surrounded by brightly.
coloured bracts, thereby imitating a single flower; but
an examination of one of the tiny flowers reveals the
structure as identical in main features with all other
members of the family, which differ in the lengths of
the tube and border, how they are expanded, etc. |

Some genera have the stamens connected by a
petaloid band, called a corona, This is seen in Pan-
cra'tium. It is very characteristic of the English
Daffodil, in which it forms a long trumpet; but in the
Poet’s Narcissus, it is reduced to a little purple rim.

Amaryl'lis Belladon’na.—This plant gave the name
to the order and one tribe. It is the only species of
the genus; it has just a slightly curved perianth, with
not much difference in the size of the leaves; but it
well illustrates another adaptation to insects in having
the stamens and style declinate, or lying down in front.

264 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

As the separate perianth leaves do not afford a safe
landing-place, the stamens have undertaken to provide
one. This is a common feature in many flowers of
Dicotyledonous plants, as in certain species of Pelar-
gonum, in Plectran'thus (Libiate), described above
(p. 213), ete.

The interpretation is that the flower had originally
erect, spreading stamens; but as insects always came
from one side and depressed them in visiting the flower
for honey, they finally and permanently assumed this
dependent or declinate position.

The second tribe is called Hypoxidew, and has three
genera in South Africa, of which two have only one
species each, but Hypox'is has many. The flowers are
not in umbels as are those of Amaryllidee. The seeds
have a hard black coat. ;

Hypox'is.—Fig. 103, I. illustrates the characteristic
appearance of the flower. (II.) is a vertical section of
a flower-bud, showing the elongated inferior ovary and
the hairy perianth. The diagram (III.) shows the flower
to be perfectly regular and ¢hree-merous,-¢.e. whorls in

threes.

General Description of the Belladonna Family.

Herbs—Bulbous, or fibrous rooted.
Leaves—Ensiform.
Flowers—Perianth superior, regular or irregular,

Fic. 103.—Hypox'is. I. Inflorescence and leaf. II. Vertical section of flower-bud.
III. Diagram.

266 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

free or coherent; stamens, 6, adherent to perianth or
free ; ovary, inferior, 3-celled.
Fruit—Capsule or berry.

Liliacez.
THe Lity FAMILY.

This is an order containing some 2100 species of
187 genera in 20 tribes. South Africa has 31 genera.
It takes its name from the genera Lil'twm, which has
about 45 species, all natives of the northern hemisphere.
The order only differs from Amaryllidee by having the
perianth inferior and the ovary superior ; for, as in that
order, the six leaves may be free or coherent, and the
stamens may be free or adherent to the perianth. All
have six stamens with introrse anthers and a fruit,
either a capsule or a berry.

Ornithog’alum.—This genus has many South African
as well as foreign species; one, called the “Star of
Bethlehem” (0. uwmbella'tum), is not uncommon in
England. The perianth is six-parted, and spreading
in flower (Fig. 104, IL). The stamens are at the base
of the perianth leaves. It has a membranous capsule.

The flowers are white, orange, or scarlet, rarely
yellow.

Aloé.—This is a very large genus recognized by its
massive and fleshy leaves. It is sometimes almost
tree-like, with a simple or branched stem. The flowers

Fig. 104.—Ornithog'alum thyrsoi’des. I. Raceme (4). II. Flower. The filaments
of three stamens are winged at their base.

268 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

are in racemes, often brightly coloured. There are
upwards of 80 species, natives of dry places.

The aloes of Africa are imitated by the so-called
“ American aloe,” which is really Aga've, a native of
Mexico, and belongs to the order Amaryllidew, but in
consequence of growing under similar arid conditions,
during the course of many generations, the leaves
have acquired precisely the same form and structure
as of the true aloes. The use of the thick leaf is to
store up water; the whole interior is made of large
cells full of water saturated with a gummy or other sub-
stance. From special vessels is extracted, from certain
species, the so-called “ Bitter Aloes” of the chemists.
Fig. 105 (1.) shows a branch of one species. (IIL)
is a section of a flower. In this genus the stamens
happen to be free from the perianth. (II.) isa diagram
showing the relative positions of the parts.

Aspar'agus (Fig. 106).—This genus is remarkable
for producing tufts of, apparently, leaves at the nodes ;
but they are thought. to be branches in the cultivated
plant, and are called cladodes, from the Greek word for a
branch. In some species they are, however, developed
into true leaves, but may still be of the nature of
flattened branches, called phylloclades, i.e. “ leaf-branch.”

The young edible shoot is called in botanical
language a turio. Some species indigenous to South
Africa are eaten. One with oval, pointed phyllociades
is much used for table decoration. It used to be called

THE LILY FAMILY. 269

Myrsiphyl’lum, but is regarded now as a species of
Aspar'agus. That it bears no true leaves may be seen

Fig. 105.—Aloé cilia’ris. I. Flowering-branch. II, Diagram of flower.
III. Vertical section of flower.

from the fact that each phylloclade issues from the axil

270 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

of a minute scale. This 2s, in fact, the leaf, but reduced

to a mere rudiment.

Vi.

Fic. 106.—Aspar’agus. I. Flowering-shoot. II. Vertical section of flower. III.

Transverse section of ovary. IV. Diagram. VY. Fruit. VI. Seed. VII. Vertical

section of seed.

The following are the details of a flower of

Aspar'agus :—

THE WATER-UINTZES FAMILY. 271

The flower has six perianth leaves (II., IV.), slightly
coherent at the base with the six stamens adherent to
them ; the ovary is, as usual, three-celled (III.), while
the fruit is a berry (V.); and the seed (VI.) with much
endosperm around the embryo (VII.). If the diagram
(IV.) be compared with that of Hypou'is, it will be
seen to be almost identical. In fact, the only distinctive
feature between the orders Amaryllidee and Liliaceae,
is the inferior ovary of the former and the superior one
of the latter.

General Description of the Lily Family.

Herbs, shrubs, or trees—Bulbous, or fibrous rooted
rhizomes, etc.

Leaves—Mostly linear or with broad blades.

Flowers—Mostly regular, perianth inferior; perianth-
_ leaves free or coherent; stamens, free from or adherent
to perianth.

Fruit—Capsule or berry.

Naiadacez.
THE WATER-UINTJES FAMILY.

This family of water or marsh plants contains about
120 species of 16 genera in 8 tribes. In South Africa
there are only 6 genera.

Aponoge'ton.—The Water Uintjes has a tuber, which

272 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING FEAT

is esculent, bearing oval leaves. From among these
rises the peduncle branching above, and carrying two
rows of white bracts. In the axils of these are two
coloured sepals, six to eighteen stamens, and from three
to five carpels, which become follicles in fruit (Fig.
107, I.). (II.)isa seed with the embryo just beginning
to germinate.

This is the only genus of the tribe to which it
belongs. One species, formerly
regarded as a separate genus
(Ouviran'dra),growing in Mada-
gascar, is remarkable for having
the leaf full of holes, in con-

sequence of the green tissue

not being formed within the

little squares made by the

Fig. 107.—Aponoge'ton. I. Flower. ¢« 1% ”
IJ. Embryo commencing to ribs
germinate.

and “veins” of the
leaf, which go to make the so-
called “skeleton.” Other species are found in tropical
Asia and temperate Australia.

The top of the peduncles, boiled, are eaten. A.
distach'yon is the commonest of the three South African
species. All the other genera are probably introductions
from Europe.

The flowers of Aponoge'ton illustrate a feature
common in the family, namely, of degradation. Several
have either a dwarfed perianth or none at all. This is,
presumably, the result of an aquatic life.

THE “TRUMPET-LILV” FAMILY. 273

Aroidee.
THE “ TRUMPET-LILY ”’ FAMILY.

This order contains 900 species of 98 genera in 11
tribes. In South Africa there are only 3 genera, two
being in Natal, and the third the common “Trumpet
. Lily,” or “Lily of the Hill.” The flowers are mostly
unisexual, and arranged on a peduncle called a spadizx.
This is surrounded by a large white bract called a spathe.
They are often water or marsh plants.

Richar'dia.— LR. Africa'na, also called Calla Aithi-
op'iea, is a common ditch-plant throughout the Colony ;
and its large, fine, white spathe is a familiar object.
The lower part of the spadix carries pistils intermixed
with club-shaped, abortive stamens or staminodes,

The upper part is entirely covered with stamens.
Each stamen has two anther cells, attached to a some-
what cuneate, or wedge-shaped connective, expanded
above; on the top of the cells are pores by which the
pollen escapes. There is no perianth; a pistil, usually
composed of three carpels, together with three stami-
nodes, make a female flower; and three stamens
constitute a male flower.

The leaves and flowering stems arise from a thick
fleshy rhizome.

There are three forms of leaves which are common
in this family—a long, narrow, or linear form terminating

Xe

274. SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

in a point; a similar flat one with a blade at the top,
of the shape of an arrow-head, asin Richar'dia ; thirdly,
the same with the space between the lower points
filled in, so making a peltate, or shield-like leaf.

In a common English plant, called the “ Arrow-
head,” from the shape of the leaf-blades, we discover
that the first kind (without any blade) occurs when
submerged in deep water, the long, narrow form being
caused by its growing, or being “drawn” up, towards
the light above.

When it can reach the surface, the blade begins to
be formed, and is oval in shape; soon, however, it
develops projections’ below, looking like a “spear ”’-
head, and is said to be hastate. These points grow
downwards, making a sagittate, or arrow-shaped blade.

The further condition of a peltate blade does not
occur in this plant, but does in other genera, as
Cala'dvum.

Another:point is important; namely, that the flat
linear leaf is really the leaf-stalk, or phyllode, and as
the veins run parallel to one another in leaf-stalks,
this accounts for the general description applied to
Monocotyledons of having “ parallel or straight-veined ”
leaves. The importance of this is seen in the fact that,
besides several plants of the Avoidew showing these
differences, much the same occur in the Water-lily
family (Wympheacew) of Dicotyledons.

There are, in fact, many more points of resemblance

THE ° TRUMPET-LILY ”. FAMILY. 275

between Monocotyledons and aquatic Dicotyledons.
I have already called attention to the structure of the
rhizome of the water-lily, which closely resembles a
stem of any monocotyledon. Again, when the seeds
germinate, the first, primary, or axial root is soon
arrested, as it always is in Monocotyledons.

Many points in the microscopical structure within
the roots and stems also agree; so that the number of
features in common is so great, that it is thought that
the whole class Monocotyledons has been derived from
some aquatic forms of Dicotyledons many thousands of
years ago.

Many Monocotyledons are, of course, now terrestrial
plants, but they still retain features which are really
characteristic of water-plants.

Another fact may be mentioned, that the percentage
of aquatic Monocotyledonous orders is about eighteen ;
whereas that of Dicotyledons is only four. Again, so
long ago as 1835, a German botanist, who studied South
African plants, came to the conclusion that the dis-
tribution of Monocotyledons over the world was
regulated more by moisture than by temperature, as
Dicotyledons are.

Again, a large number of the beautiful flowers, for
which South Africa is famous, possess large bulbs.
Now, we know that these are special storehouses, not
only of reserve food materials, but also of water; and
it seems probable that when they ceased to be true

276 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

aquatic plants, they assumed this form to meet the
difficulty of having to live out of water.

General Description of the Richardia Family.

Herbs—Sometimes climbing by aérial roots; with
acrid juice.

Leaves—Linear or with ovate, sagittate, or peltate
blades.

Flowers—Usually unisexual, on a spadix with or
without a spathe; perianth, 3- to 6-parted or 0;
stamens, definite or « ; anthers extrorse, or with pores ;
ovary, free, 1-celled.

Frut—Berry.

Juncacee.
THE PALMIET FAMILY.

This order, named from the genus Jwncus, the Rush,
which has nearly 200 species alone, contains about
80 additional ones; many of the southern hemisphere
having only one or two apiece. |

Prionum.—P. Palmi'ta, called the Palmiet, is
remarkable for its thick, trunk-like stem, four to six
feet in height, with a crown of broad serrated leaves,
from the middle of which rises a branched panicle, or
loose cluster of flowers. Like the true rushes, it is a
marsh-plant. The perianth is six-parted, more or less
vlume-like; there are six hypogynous, free stamens, a

THE RESTIO FAMILY. 7

pistil of three coherent carpels, 7.c. syncarpous. The
fruit is a capsule, dehiscing loculicidally, or through
the back of each carpel into the Joculus, or cell.

General Description of the Rush or Palmiet
Family.

Herbs, or half-tree like (Palmiet).

Leaves—F lat, channelled, or jistular (hollow).

Flowers—Petianth, glume-like, persistent ; stamens,
6, on the base of the segments of the perianth ; ovary,
1- to 3-celled.

Fruit—Capsule, 3-valved, loculicidal.

Restiacez.
THE RESTIO FAMILY.

This order contains 230 species, which are mainly
inhabitants of South-West Africa and Australia. There
are 20 genera, 11 of which are South African. They
are perennial herbs bearing annual flowering stems.
The leaves have sheaths, which in most of the genera
remain on the stem after the linear blade has fallen ;
they are split on one side—that is to say, the edges of
the sheath have not united as in Sedges, but resemble
Grasses in this respect.

The flowers have bracts which contain the spikelets,
i.e. little spikes, of sessile flowers.

278 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

Res'tio.—This genus gives the name to the order,
and contains about 100 species. The perianth con-
sists of six unequal glwmes, or chaff-like scales, instead
of petaloid perianth leaves (Fig. 108, ITT.).

There are three stamens in the male flower (III.),
and a pistil of two to three carpels in the female (V.).
The fruit is a capsule.

Do'vea.—This differs from es'tio in having de-
ciduous sheaths instead of persistent ones to the leaves
—that is, they fall off instead of remaining on, forming
the conspicuous dark-coloured tubes round the stems.

D. tector'wm, of the Cape flats, is used for thatching,

as the name implies.

General Description of the Restio Family.

Herbs—With scaly rhizomes.

Leaves—Linear, with persistent tubular sheaths.

Flowers—Dicecious, perianth glumaceous, persistent,
of 6 glumes in 2 whorls; male, stamens, 3; filaments
adherent to base of inner glumes; anthers, 1-celled ;
female, ovary, 1- to 3-celled. =

Fruit—Capsule, 1- to 3-celled, dehiscent, or nut-like,

and indehiscent.

Fic. 108.—Res'tio cuspida/tus. I. Male plant (4). II. Female plant (4). III. Male
flower (X 4). IV. Diagram of male flower without bracts. V. Pistil from female
flower (x 4).

ie)
ive)

0 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

DIVISION II.—GLUMACEZ.
Cyperacee.
THE MATJESGOED AND NuT-GRASS FAMILY.

This is a very large order containing 2200 species
of 61 genera in 6 tribes. South Africa has 30 genera.
These are the true “Sedges,” many being characteristic
of wet places as well as growing in water. They have
leaves with an entire sheath, not “split,” as in Res'tio
and Grasses.

The flowers are in spikelets,
composed of scale-like, dry, or
scarious bracts, called glumes, from
the Latin gluma, meaning “ chaff,”
as they are commonly known in
wheat. Each glume has a solitary
flower in itsaxil.. As a rule, there
is no perianth, but it may be repre-

sented by bristles or hairs, or it

Fie. 109.—Cype'rus.

may be entirely wanting. Within
the glume are usually three stamens, and the pistil is
composed of three carpels indicated by the three
stigmas ; but there is only one ovary-cell, which forms
a single-seeded achene.

Cype’rus.—The spikelets have their glumes arranged
in two ranks. Each flower consists solely of three
stamens and a pistil (Fig. 109).

MATFESGOED AND NUT-GRASS FAMILY. 281

There are many Cape species ; the leaves are grass-
like and mostly flat. The spikelets are usually tufted
in dense clusters. (. tez'tilis is used for thatching.

Ca‘rex.—This is a dicecious, or more usually
moncecious, genus. The glumes are imbricated all

round the axis, and not in two ranks like Cype'rus.

Fie. 110.—Ca’rex. (For description, see text.)

The flowers are very simple; the male consists of
three stamens in the axil of a glume (Fig. 110, 3).
This genus has several species in the Colony. They
are herbs with grass-like leaves. When moneccious,
the female spikelets are below the male. The same
arrangement occurs when both male and female flowers
are in the same spikelet.

282 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING FEATS.

In the species figured (110, 1), the leaves are flat
and hairy; the bract also taking the form of a leaf
(1,4). The female spikelet (1, 2) is sessile or seated in
the axil of the long bract by itself; but the male
(1, a, @) are usually two or three in number. (2) is a
portion of the three-angled stem. (3) is a male flower,
consisting of a bract or glume, with three stamens,
(4) is a female flower, consisting of a pistil of three
carpels, as indicated by the three stigmas, invested by
a bottle-shaped perigone, apparently composed of two
opposite glumes, coherent by their margins. (5) is the
ripened fruit within the perigone ; (6) the three-cornered
fruit extracted from it. (7) is the vertical section of
the ovary showing the single seed, the embryo at the
base being surrounded by endosperm. (8) is the

embryo.

General Description of the Matjesgoed Family.

Herbs—Tufted ; with a creeping rhizome, and three-
angled solid culms.

Leaves—With entire sheaths.

Flowers——In spikelets, with scale-like glumes, each
having a flower in the axil. Perianth, of bristles,
hairs or 0; stamens, 3; ovary, 1-celled.

Fruit—Achene, sometimes within a bag-like en-

velope (Ca'rex).

THE GRASS FAMILY. 283

Graminee.
THE GRASS FAMILY.

This is perhaps the largest order in the world, and
contains some 3150 species of nearly 300 genera in 13
tribes, with sub-tribes. South Africa has about 90
genera. They are all herbs with the exception of
Bamboos, which grow to hundreds of feet in height.
The leaves have a “ split” sheath.

The stem is called a culm, as in Sedges. It is
usually hollow except at the joints, so as to impart
streneth; but the sugar-cane has a solid stem, the pith
of which contains the sugar.

The flowers are very similar throughout the whole
order ; so that when one has been thoroughly mastered,
it is easy to learn how other genera depart from the
typical example.

Bro mus.—This is a large genus; several species are
European, and there are six at the Cape.

In the illustration (Fig. 111), we have all the
important details shown. (1) is a part of a panicle, or
loose cluster of spikelets, z.e. “little spikes,’ of sessile
florets on alternate sides of the axis, called a rachis
(1,4, a). (2) is a section of the culm, or stem, showing
the solid node (a) and the hollow internode. The leaf
arises from the node having a sheath “split” down one
side, embracing the culm. At the top of the sheath

284. SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

whence the blade arises, is a little flap called a ligule.
(3) is a complete spikelet composed of ten florets.
There are two empty glumes at the base (a); (0, 0,5)
are individual florets or flowers, each consisting of the
following elements: First, is the Flowering glume,
wrapping up all the inner parts. It has a certain

Fig. 111.—Bro'mus. (For description, see text.)

number of ribs. The middle one is prolonged into an
aun (3,6). Opposite to it, and overlapped by the
flowering glume, is a smaller glume, called the pale
(4, 7). It usually has two distinct ribs and over-
lapping margins (not represented in the figure, 4, D).
These suggest the idea that the pale has been formed of

THE GRASS FAMILY. 285

two coherent glumes. Next are seen two very small
bodies just inside the flowering glume. They are
sometimes fringed at the top. They are called
lodicules (5, a). A few grasses, as Bamboos, have
three, suggesting the idea that grasses once had a
perianth of six leaves, of which the inner whorl of
three is now reduced to two lodicules. Then follow
three stamens with versatile anthers, as they turn and
swing readily, being attached to the filament at one
point. Lastly, is the pistil (5, 5), with its feathery
stigmas (4, 5, 0), indicating probably two carpels, but
there is only one ovule.

The ripe fruit, or “grain,” is of the nature of an
achene, as the pericarp tightly invests the seed which
contains much endosperm (7, ¢7). This in wheat, when
eround, makes flour. The embryo is found at the base
of the grain just under the skin (6, a, 6), in which (@)
is the plumule and (0) the radicle end below.

The plumule consists of overlapping rudimentary
leaves (7, a), which lie in a depression of the single coty-
ledon (c), sometimes called the scuwtel/wm in grasses, as
it takes the form of a little “shield.” The chief use of
it is to secrete at ferment, by means of which it dissolves
the endosperm (7, @), and absorbs the nutritive matters
for the benefit of the plumule and roots. At () may
be seen the adventitious roots, just beneath the surface,
for the radicle produces no definite or permanent tap-
root, as in Dicotyledons. These details can be best

286 SOUTH AFRICAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

studied in the commencement of germination, as
suggested in the Introduction to this book.

The student should examine some wheat and oats
when in blossom, and he will find the essential features
just the same as in Bro’mus (Fig. 112, —-IIL).

In most spikelets the topmost florets are barren,

I. IL. IIL.

Fig. 112.—I. a, Split leaf-sheath of a Grass; b, ligule; d, part of the blade of the
leaf; c, node of the culm. II. Expanded spikelet of the Oat, with a fertile and a
barren flower, Fs; G, glumes; Pe, flowering glume, with awn, A; Pt, the pale;
within are visible the feathery stigmas. III. Fertile flower with the flowering
glume removed.

consisting only of two glumes. In wheat, the lower-
most florets, usually three, bear grains, but the upper
ones, as of oat and Bro'mus, are abortive.

This most useful of orders has so many valuable
species supplying grain for human beings, corn and
food for animals, that it would be impossible to describe
them; but although the family is so large, there is a

THE GRASS FAMILY. 287

great uniformity in the structure, so that when one, say
wheat, is thoroughly understood, it will form a key to
all other kinds.

General Description of the Grass Family.

Herbs—Rarely arborescent (Bamboos), sometimes
with rhizomes bearing annual hollow culms, solid at
the nodes.

Leaves—Long and linear, with a “split” sheath,
bearing a ligule, or fringe at the top.

Flowers—Uni- or bi-sexual in spikelets, composed
of glumes on opposite sides of the axis, lower glumes
often empty; floret, usually consisting of flowering
glume and pale, 3 lodicules, 3 stamens and pistil, with
2 feathery stigmas.

Frut—A “ grain.”

INDEX

A

Achenes, 73, 169
Adaptation, 41, 64, 181
Adherent, 27, 71
Adhesion, 52, 89
Adnate stipules, 155
Adventitious, 72
Air-chambers, 81
Albumen, 12
Anther, 9
Antheridia, 68
Apocarpous, 74
Assimilation, 7

xial root, 275
Axil, 86
Axile, 163
—— placentation, 195

B

Bisexual, 49

Bloom on grape, 242
Bract, 74

Bracteate, 86
Bracteole, 242
Bulb, 2, 3, 42, 275

C

Calyx, 9
Capsule, 84, 103

TO TERMS (eae.

Carpel, 9

Carpophore, 154
Caruncle, 100, 236
Catkin, 239, 245
Chalaza, 12

Characters, specific, 64
Chlorophyll, 197
Circumnutation, 125, 146
Circumscissile, 226

| Cladode, 268

Classification, 62, 67
Claws, petal, 87

Cleistogamous, 33, 98, 228, 254,

257
Coecus, 117, 236
Cohesion, 20, 49, 88
Column in orchids, 252
Commissure, 154
Conifer, 245
Connective, 9, 27, 146
Contorted, 107
Coriaceous, 230
Corm, 44
Corolla, 9
Corona, 182, 211, 263
Corpuscles in stapelia, 183
Correlations, 58
Corymb, 86
Cotyledon, 12, 70, 91
Cremocarp, 154
Crenate, 116, 139
Crossing flowers, 13, 21

U

ba]

290 INDEX. TO TERMS Asie.

Culm, 283
Cuneate, 273
Cyme, 105, 215

D

Deciduous, 73
Declinate, 23, 112, 263
Degeneration, 82
Degradation, 57
Dehiscence, 73
Dentate, 106, 159
Diagram, 20
Didynamous, 193
Dimorphie, 30
Dicecious, 49

Dise, 10, 55

Discus, 70
Disk-floret, 164
Dissected foliage, 75
Dissepiment, 89
Double composite, 166
flower, 166
Drupaceous, 242, 249
Drupe, 101, 159
Drupels, 134

Ebracteate, 86
Embryo, 12
Embryo-sac, 11
Endocarp, 154
Endosperm, 12
Ensiform, 264
Epicalyx, 107, 135
Epicarp, 134
Epicotyl, 91
Epigynous, 54, 71, 165, 171
Epipetalous, 71
Epiphyte, 257
Evaporation, 8

Exserted, 211
Exstipulate, 95
Extrorse, 228

F

| False dissepiment, 89
| Family, 50, 62

Farinaceous, 220
Female flower, 49
Fertilization, 13
Filament, 9

_ Fistular, 277

Floral receptacle, 49
Floret of composite, 164
— of grass, 284
Follicle, 139, 183
Form, 57

Free, 25, 49, 70

central, 103
Funicle, 12, 207

G
Galbulus, 250

| Gamopetalous, 71, 165, 170
_ Genus, 63

Glandular hairs, 97, 104
Glands, 9, 17, 54, 225, 254
Glomerule, 213

Gluma, 72, 280

Glume, 72, 278, 284
Ground tissue, 71
Gynobasic, 214
Gynophore, 93, 100, 103

H

_ Half-epigynous, 142
_ Half-inferior, 142

Half-superior, 142 a

' Hastate, 274

INDEX TO

Heads of composites, 164
Hep of rose, 137
Honey-gland, 54, 87
Host-plant, 188
Hypocotyl, 91
Hypogynous, 70

Imbricate, 107
Incised, 202
Incomplete, 49
Indefinite, 105
Inferior, 54, 137
Inflorescence, 8
Internode, 103, 283
Introrse, 228
Involucre, 76, 164, 234
Irregular, 21, 56
hritability, 100

J

Joint or node, 5, 101, 283
K

. Keel petals, 31, 125, 129

L
Labellum, 252
Lacune, $1
Leaf, compound, +
, simple, 4
Leaflet, 4

Leaves, sleep of, +
Legume, 124, 139
Ligulate, 164
Ligule, 284

Limb, calyx, 50
Linear, 155

LERMS, ETC.

| Lip of corolla, 25
Loculicidal, 277
Loculus, 277
Lodicule, 285

M

Macrosporangia, 68
_ Macrospores, 68
Marginal placentas, 81
_ Male flower, 49
- Medulla, 69
Medullary ray, 69
Mericarp, 154
Merous, 264
| Mesocarp, 134
Microbe, 131
| Micropyle, 69, 207
Microspore, 68
| Monadelphous, 101, 107
Moneecious, 49, 241
Mucronate, 111

N

Natural Orders, 62
| Nectar, 54
Nectary, 23, 112
Neuter flower, 166
Nitrates, 131
Nitrogen, 131
| Node, 5, 101, 283
Nucleus, 12
Nutlet, 204, 211, 214

O

Obsolete, 163

Order, 50

Organs, 2

** Origin of Species,” 47
Ovary, 9

291

292 INDEX 10 TERMS, Bye.

Ovate, 159 Pollination, wind-, 13, 15
Ovule, 9 Polygamous, 121
Polypetalous, 70, 171
Pp Pores, anther, 175
| . fruit, 84,170

Pale, 284 | Primine, 11
Palmately-lobed, 110 | Protandrous, 113
Panicle, 283 _ Protogynous, 114
Papilionaceous, 98, 123 Protoplasm, 60
Papille, 226, 288, 242 _ Pseudo-bulb, 258

Pappus, 164
Parasite, 33, 188, 196, 258
Parietal, 83 |

Pseudocarp, 134, 135, 238, 249

Path-finder, 22 | :
Pedicel, 8 | Race, 156

Peduncle, 8 Raceme, 86

Peltate, 155, 274 Rachis, 283

Pepo, 148 | Radicle, 12, 285

Perfect flower, 49 | Ray-floret, 164
Perianth-leaves, 72 _ Receptacle, floral, 9
Pericarp, 13, 13 _ Receptacular-tube, 52, 132
Perigone, 282 _ Regular flower, 21, 56
Perigynous, 53, 71, 132 | Resupinate, 256
Persistent, 98 _ Reticulated, 69
Personate, 193 Rhizome, 82, 273

Petal, 9 Ridges on cremocarp, 155
Petiole, 4 Ringent, 193
Phylloclade, 268 — Root, 6

Phyllode, 129, 274 _ Root-nodules, 131

Pilose, 167 | Rostellum, 254
Pinnately-lobed, 111 | Rotate, 193

Pistil, 9 Rudimentary organs, 58
Pistillidia, 68 | Runner, 5
Placenta, 9, 21, 51

Plumose, 167

Ss
Plumule, 12
Pollen, 9 | Salep, 256
Pollen-mass (polliniwm), 183,254 Seale, ovuliferous, 69, 246
Pollen-tube, 11 _ Scarious, 209, 280

Pollination, 13 Scorpioid, 210
, insect-, 13, 17 _ Seutellum, 285
——, self-, 15, 32, 90, 228 Secundine, 11

INDEX TO

Seed, 9, 68

Segment, leaf-, 78, 75
Sepal, 9

Septa, 89, 103

Sessile pappus, 167
Silicula, 90

Siliqua, 89

Sinuate, 143

Spadix, 273

Spathe, 273

Species, 22, 62, 63
Spike, 277, 283
Spikelet, 277, 283
Spine, 130
Spinescence, 37
Spore, 68

Sport, 212
Staminode, 112, 116, 129
Standard petal, 31, 125
Stellate hairs, 106
Stigma, 9

Stipitate pappus, 168
Stipular arc, 162
Stipulate, 95

Stipule, 95, 104, 161
Straight-veined, 71
Style, 9
Sub-declinate, 211
Sub-order, 62
Supportive tissue, 82
Symmetrical, 49
Syncarpous, 81, 277
Syngenesious, 164, 171

TERMS, ETC.

a
Tap-root, 70
Tendril, 125, 146
Tentacle, 95
Testa, 12, 96
Tetradynamous, 87
Thalamos, 70
Transpiration, 8
Trifoliate, 63
Trimorphiec, 29
Tunicated, 44
Turio, 268

U -
Umbel, 8, 152
Unisexual, 49
Utricle, 223

V

Valvate, 107, 129

Valve, 89, 124

Variety, 65

Vegetative multiplication,
Versatile anther, 285
Verticillaster, 213

Vitta, 155

W

Water-storage, 38
Wax, 39, 242
Whorl, 9

Wing petal, 31, 125

i)

we

INDEX

A

Abutilon, 54, 108
Acacia, 129
Acanthacex, 200
Acanthus, 202
ACANTHUS FAMILY, 200
Acridocarpus, 178
Agathosma, 117
Agave, 39, 268
Agrostemma, 103
Alkanet, 210
All-seed, 32

Aloé, 59, 266
Amaryllidacex, 262
Amaryllis, 263
Amentacex, 239
American aloe, 39, 268
Anacardiacex, 119
Anagallis, 179
Anchusa, 210
Anemone, 76
ANGIOSPERME, 69
Angrecum, 258
Antirrhinum, 193
Apium, 156
Aponogeton, 271
Arabis, 66
Argemone, 85
Aroidex, 273
Arrowhead, 274
Arthrosolen, 225

TO*GENERA,- Ea

| Asclepiadex, 180
| Aspalathus, 64, 127

Asparagus, 45, 268
Athanasia, 167

Balsam, 114

Bamboo, 287

Beefwood, 57

BELLADONNA FAMILY, 262
BLADDERWORT FAMILY, 197

| Boraginex, 209

Bromus, 283
Brunia, 140
Bruniacex, 140
Bryophyllum, 139

| Bubon, 153

| Buchu, 116

| Buckwheat, 219

| Burrercur Faminy, 72

C

Cactus, 59, 181
Cxsalpines, 123

| Caladium, 274

Calla, 273

| Callitris, 244, 249

Calodendron, 55, 115
Carrcirior£, 67, 70, 121

| Campanula, 170

INDEX. TO..GENERA,. ETC,

Campanulucex, 53, 170

CAMPHOR FAMILY, 226

Canna-bosch, 222

CarE CHESTNUT
Famizy, 115

CAPER FAMILY, 92

Capparidex, 92

Capparis, 93

Caprificus, 238

Capsella, 90

Carex, 281

Caroxylon, 222

CARROT AND Parsnip FAMILY, 102

Caryophyllex, 101

Cassia, 128

Cassytha, 33, 227 |

CastTor-01L FAmILy, 233

Casuarina, 57

CATKIN-BEARERS, 239

Cedar, South African, 69, 244, 249

——, true, 250

Cedrus, 250

Chenopodiacex:, 221

Chenopodium, 222

Chickweed, 32, 104

Chironia, 184

CHIRONIA FamiILy, 184

Chymococea, 226

Cichorium, 167

CINNAMON AND CampuHor F amity,
226

Citrullus, 147

Clematis, 76

Cliffortia, 15, 49, 53, 132, 136

Clover, 33

Composita, 51, 163

‘Composite FamILy, 163

Conifer, 245

Conium, 158

Convolvulacex, 186

Convolvulus, 52

CoNVOLVULUs FamiLy, 186

AND ORANGE

|
|

Corncockle, 104
Cornex, 158
Corymbium, 169
Cotton plant, 108
Cotyledon, 139
Crassula, 139
CRrassuLaA FAMILY, 138

_ Crassulacex, 138

Crotalaria, 126

| Crucifere, 85
_ Cryptogams, 68

CucuMBER Famizy, 143

| Cucumis, 143
_ Cucurbita, 147

Cucurbitacex, 143
Cupulifere, 240
Curtisia, 158

| Cuscuta, 188, 227

Cycadacex, 244, 25)
Cyperacex, 280
Cyperus, 280
Cypripedium, 258

Datura, 189

Daucus, 156

Dendrobium, 257

Deodar, 250

Dianthus, 102
DICOTYLEDONS, 67, 69, 72
Digitalis, 193

Diosma, 117

Disa, 64, 251

Discrrtore#, 5d, 59, 67, 70, 109
Dock FamILy, 218

| Dodder, 188, 227

Dog-rose, 136
Dovea, 278
Dronkbesjes, 226
Drosera, 95

95

2096 INDEX
Droseracex, 95
Duvernoia, 24, 56, 201

E

Kchium, 211
Encephalartos, 244
Erica, 65, 175
Ericacex, 174
Erodium, 111
Erythrina, 127
Euphorbia, 38, 49, 254

TO GENERA, ETC.

Giuuace#, 72, 280
Gnetacex, 244

Gnidia, 225

Goosreroot Faminy, 221
Gossypium, 108
Graminex, 283

Grass FamILy, 283
Grewia, 54

Grielum, 137
Groundsell, 32

| Guernsey Lily, 262

EUPHORBIA AND CASTOR-OIL FAMILY, |

233
Euphorbiacex, 181, 233
Everlastings, 37, 51

Fagopyrum, 219
Ficus, 238

Fic Fami.y, 237
Fig, wild, 238
Feeniculum, 156
Forget-me-not, 209
Fox-glove, 193
Fragaria, 135

Galium, 161
GAMOPETAL®, 67, 71, 159
Gardenia, 160
GARDENIA AND COFFEE
159
Genlisea, 199
Gentianex, 184
reraniacex, 109
Geranium, 110
GERANIUM Famiy, 109
Gerbera, 164
Gladiolus, 43, 45, 260

FamI_Ly,

Gunpowder weed, 103
GruyosPers.&, 67, 69, 244

H
Heemantlus, 263

Hakea, 37
Halleria, 195

_ Harpephyllum, 121
| Harveya, 193, 195

HassaGAywoop ‘TREE FAMILY,
158

Heatu Faminy, 174

_ Heliophila, 86

| HELIOTROPE FAMILY, 209

Heliotropium, 209

| Hermas, 158
| Hibiscus, 54, 106, 107, 135
Hydrocotyle, 155

Hypoestes, 202
Hypoxidex, 264
Hypoxis, 264

Ice-plant, 38

| Ivcomuper.z, 67, 71, 218
Indian tobaceo, 173

Tridex, 64, 259

INDEX TO GENERA, ETC. 207

J

Jasmine, 177
Jasminum, 177
Juglandacex, 240
Juglans, 240
Juncacex, 276
Justicia, 200

K

KAFFIR-BREAD FAMILY, 250

Kalanchoe, 139
Kei-apple, 38 ~
Kleinia, 167
Knot-grass, 32, 220
Knowltonia, 50, 77

L
Labiatz, 213

LABIATE FAmILy, 213

Lagenaria, 147
Lathyrus, 122
Laurinex, 226
Laurus, 227
Leguminosx, 121
Lemon, 117
Lentibularinex, 197
Leonotis, 55, 213
Lepigonum, 104
Leucadendron, 231

Leucospermum, 52, 230

Lightfootia, 171
Liliacex, 266
Lilium, 266

Lity Fami ny, 266
Lime, 54
Limnanthemum, 185
Linaria, 193
Lithospermum, 212

Lobelia, 51, 56, 171, 173

Lobostemon, 211
Lucerne, 31
Luffa, 147
Lycium, 192

M

| Matitow, Hripiscus, AnD CorrTon

Famiy, 106
Malva, 107
Malvacex, 106

MATJESGOED AND #£NUT- GRASS

Famiuy, 280
Medicago, 127
Melon, 49. 143
Mentha, 214
Mesembriacex, 148
Mesembrianthemum, 18, 38, 54,
148
MESEMBRIANTHEMUM FAMILY, 148
MILKworr F'AMILy, 98

| Mimosex, 124

Mint, 214
MONOCOTYLEDONS, 68, 71,
251, 274

| Monsonia, 110

Morea, 64, 259
Mora AND GLADIOLUS FAMILY
259

| Mulberry, 239

Mundtia, 100

| Muraltia, 100

Myosotis, 209
Myrica, 242
Myricacex, 240
Mysticidium, 258

N

| Natadacex, 271

Nelumbium, 79
Nemesia, 193

298

NEMEsIA AND HaRrRvEYA FAMILY,
192

Nerine, 262

Nettle, 49, 237

Neuradex, 137

Nout-Grass Famity, 280

Nymphea, 79

Nymphzxacex, 79

INDEX TO GENERA ie.

Pink Famity, 101
Pinus, 245
Plectranthus, 218

| Plumbaginex, 207
| Plumbago, 17, 55, 207

PLumBaGo Fami.y, 207
Podalyria, 126
Podocarpus, 244, 248

| Polygala, 98

Polygalacex, 98

| Polygonacex, 218

O
Olea, 177
Oleacex, 177
Olive, 177
OLIVE FaMILy, 177 |
Ononis, 66 |

Orange, 117
OrcuHID F ami zy, 251
Orchidex, 64, 251
Oreodaphne, 228
Ornithogalum, 266
Ouvirandra, 272
Oxalis, 1, 56, 63

P

Palmiet, 276
PALMIET Famity, 276
Pancratium, 263
Papaver, 83
Papaveracex, 83
Papilionacex, 123
Passerina, 225, 226
Pastinaca, 156

Pea Faminy, 121
Peach, 18, 133
Pelargonium, 22, 43, 51, 55, 59
PrraLomeEs, 72, 251
Petroselinum, 156
Physalis, 192

PINE AND YELLOW-woop FAMILY,
245

Polygonum, 52, 219
Pomex, 137

Poplar, 240

Poppy FamtIny, 83
Populus, 240

| Potato Famiy, 189

Potentilla, 134
Potentillex, 134
Poteriex, 136

| Primrose FAmtizy, 179

Primulacex, 179
Prionum, 276
Prismatocarpus, 171

| Protea, 230

Proteacex, 50, 52, 229
Prunex, 132

Prunus, 133

Pteris, 65
Pterygodium, 255

Q

Quercus (oak), 240

R

Ranunculaceex, 50, 72

Ranunculus, 50, 73, 75, 81

Restiacex, 277
Restio, 16, 49, 278

| Restio Famiiy, 277

INDEX’ TO GENERA, ETC. 299

Rheum, 219
Rhubarb, 219

Rhus, 17, 53, 55, 119
Richardia, 273
Ricinus, 236
Rochea, 138

Roella, 19, 50
ROELLA AND LOBELIA FAMILY, 170
Roridula, 97
Rosacex, 132

Rose Famixy, 132
Rose, green, 49
Rosex, 136

Ruhew, 134

Rubia, 161
Rubiacex, 159
Rubus, 53, 134
Rumex, 219
Rutacezx, 115

: S

Sage, 216

Salaxis, 174

Salix, 240

Salvia, 27, 56, 216
Sanicula, 156
Sarcocaulon, 39, 110
Satyrium, 256
Scrophularinex, 192
Sea Lavender, 208
Selaginex, 203
Selago, 204
Senecio, 167
Serruria, 229 —
Shepherd’s-purse, 32
Shoe-flower, 108
Sida, 108

Silene, 103
SILVER-TREE FaMILy, 229
Snapdragon, 193
Solanacex, 189

Sonchus, 167

| Sorrel, South African, 1

Sowthistle, 167
Spatalla, 229
Sphenogyne, 165

| Spinacia, 223
| Staavia, 142

Stangeria, 244
Stapelia, 17, 38, 181
STAPELIA Famity, 180
Star of Bethlehem, 266

_ Statice, 207
Stellaria, 104

Stellatz, 160
Stilbe, 204
Stilbex, 203

| STINGING-NETTLE FAMILY, 237

Stinkwood, 228

| Stock AND CABBAGE FamILy, 85

Strawberry, 135
Struthiola, 50, 57, 224
STRUTHIOLA Famity, 224
Sugar-bush, 36, 230
Sundew, 95

SuNDEW Fami.y, 95

di

TaaLauiriorz£, 67, 70, 72
Thymelacex, 50, 224
Tiliacex, 54

TRUMPET-LILY FAMILY, 273

U

Umbeliiferze, 152
Urtica, 49, 237
Urticacex, 237
Utricularia, 198
V
Vanilla, 258

300 - - INDEX TO GENERA, ETe

VERBENA FAMILY, 203
Verbenacex,, 203
Verbenex, 203
Veronica, 193
Victoria, 79

Villarsia, 185

W

Waageboom, 36, 230

' Wahlenbergia, 170
Walnut, 240
WaATER-LILY FAMILY, 79
Water-melon, 147

WATER-UINTIES FAMILY, 271

Wax-berry, 39, 242
Wax-palin, 40
Welwitschia, 244
Widdringtonia, 244, 249
Wild Dagga, 214

WiLp Pium Famizy, 119
Willow, 248

¥

Yellow-wood, 69, 249

Z

| Zehneria, 143, 146

THE END.

PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES.

| w York Botanical Garden Library

* iam