<^ y? TUFTS UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES 3 9090 013 413 865 Webster Family Librai^ of Veterinary Medicine Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at Ms Ltniv&rsity 200 vVestboro Road North Grafton. MA 01536 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF ANIMAIv INDUSTRY. SPECIAL REPORT DISEASES OF THE HORSE. VREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF Dr. D. K. S^LIMON, CHIEF OF THE BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. Drs. Michener, Law, Harbaugh, Trumbower, Liautard, holcombe, huidekoper, and dickson. REI^RINTED BY ORDER OK CONGRESS. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1896. si 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS, Lcftcv of trajismittul. By Dr. D. E. Salmon, Chief of Biireau ~ Methods of administering medicines, ByCH. B. MiCHENER, V. S --- 9 Diseases of the digestive organs. By Ch. B. MiCHENER, V. S 15 Diseases of the urinary organs. By James Law, F. R. C. V. S . --- «1 Diseases of the respirator}] organs. By W. H. Harbaugh, V. S. - -- 89 Diseases of the generative organs, By James Law, F. R. C. V. S 139 Diseases of the nervous systent, ByM. R. Trumbower, V. S --- 187 Diseases of the lieart and. blood vessels, ByM. R. Trumbower, V. S 225 Diseases of the eye. By James Law, F. R. C. V. S - - . - 255 Lameness, By A. Liautard, M. D.. V. S _.-.. 279 Diseases of the fetlock-, anlde, and foot, By A. A. HoLCOMBE, D. V. S 369 Diseases of the skin, By James Law, F. R. C. V. S 433 Wounds and their trecdment , By Ch. B. Michener, V. S 4G1 General diseases. By Rush Shippen Huidekoper, M. D. , Vet. 475 Shoeing, By William Dickson, V. S , . . 545 3 LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Plate I. Digestive apparatus . 59 II. Bots 59 III. Intestinal worms 59 IV. Longitudinal section through kidney 88 V. Microscopic anatomy of kidney _ . . 88 VI. Microscopic anatomy of kidney 88 VII. Calculi and instrument for removal 88 VIII. Instruments used in difficult labor. 18o IX. Normal presentations 185 X. Abnormal presentations 185 XI. Abnormal presentations 185 XII. Abnormal presentations 185 XIII. Abnormal presentations 185 XIV. Anterior presentations 185 XV. Position of the left lung 138 XVI. The nervous system 223 XVII. Interior of chest, showing jiosition of heart and diaphragm 253 XVIII. Circulatory apparatus 253 XIX. Theoretical section of the horse's ej-e 277 XX. Skeleton of the horse 368 XXI. Superficial layer of muscles 368 XXII. Splint 368 XXIII. Ring-bone 368 XXIV. Various types of spavin 368 XXV. Bone-spavin 368 XXVI. Bone-spavin 368 XXVII. Dislocation of shoulder and elbow, Bourgelafs apparatus 368 XXVIII. The sling in use . 368 XXIX. Anatomy of foot 432 XXX. Anatomy of foot 432 XXXI. Foundered feet 432 XXXII. Ring-bone and navicular disease 432 XXXIII. Quarter crack and remedies 432 XXXIV. Sound and contracted feet 432 XXXV. Diseases of the skin 459 XXXVI. Mites that infest the horse 459 XXXVII. General diseases. Inflamnuxtion 544 XXXVIII. General diseases. Inflammation 544 XXXIX. Glanders, nasal septum of horse, right side, showing acute lesions, 544 XXXX. Glanders, middle region of nasal septum, left side, showing ulcers. 544 XXXXI. Glanders, j^osterior half of nasal septum, right side, showing cicatrices 544 XXXXII. Shoeing 557 XXXXIII. Shoeing 557 XXXXIV. Shoeing : 557 LETTER OE TRANSMITTAL Sir: I have the honor to siil)mit herewith a report upon diseases of the horse, whicli has been prepared with great care by a nnniber of the most eminent members of the veterinary profession in the United States. The production of a Avork of this character is a task of such mag:nitude that it could not be undertaken by any one man with a prospect of its early completion. It was deemed best, therefore, to divide the subject into sections and to place the preparation of each section in the hands of a veterinarian whose practical experience and reputation Avould insure a valuable contribution. Bj^ adoj)ting this plan the contents of the volume have been made ready for the printer within a year from the time the work was begun, While, on account of this method of preparation, there may not be quite the same uni- formitj' of style and treatment which would be expected in a volume written by a single author, it is hoped that this will not be found objectionable, and the speedy completion and the co-operation of authors Avho have given special attention to their subjects will prove of great advantage. The need of a work on the diseases of the horse, which could be dis- tributed to farmers as a safe and scientific guide in the treatment of this species of our domesticated animals, either when affected with slight disorders or serious illness, has long been felt. This obvious want has led to the preparation of the present volume, which is designed as the first of a series to cover the diseases of all varieties of farm ani- mals. The writer would not advise the farmer in ordinary circum- stances to dispense with his veterinarian, any more than he would advise him to treat the diseases of his own family, to manufacture his own furniture, or to be his own blacksmith. There are, however, only too many cases in which the veterinarian can not be i^rocured in time fty itself very soon after the commence- ment of feeding, and continues rapidly while eating. Afterwards the passage is slower, and several hours are required before the stomach is entirely emjjty. The natui-e of the work required of the horse must guide us in the selection of his food. Rapid or severe labor can not be performed on a full stomach. For such horses food must be given in small quantitj- and fed to them about two hours before going to their work. Even liorses intended for slow work must never l)e engorged with bulky, innutritions food immediately before going to labor. The small stomach of the horse would seem to lead us to the conclusion that this animal should be fed in small quantities and often, which, in reality, should be done. The disproportion between the size of the stomach and the amount of water drank tells us plainly that the liorse should always be watered before feeding. One of the common errors of feeding, and the one that x^i'oduces more digestive disorders than any other, is to feed too soon after a hard daifs worlc. This must never be done. If a liorse is completely jaded it will be found beneficial to give him an alcoholic stimulant on going into the stable. A small quantity of hay may then be given, but his grain should be withheld for one or two hours. These same remarks will apply with equal force to the horse that for any reason has been fasting for a long time. After a fast feed less than the horse would eat; for if allowed too much the stomach becomes engorged, its walls paralyzed, and ''colic" is almost sure to follow. The horse should be fed three or four times a day ; nor will it answer to feed liim entirely ui)on concentrated food. Bulky food must be given to detain the grains in their passage through the intestinal tract; bulk also favors distention, and thus mechanically aids absorption. To horses that do slow work for the greater part of the time, chopped or cut hay fed with crushed oats, ground corn, etc., is the best manner of feeding, as it gives the required bulk, saves time, and half the labor of feeding. Sudden changes of diet are always dangerous. — "When desirous of changing the food, do so ver}'^ gradually. If a horse is accustomed to oats a sudden change to a full meal of corn will almost always sicken him. If we merel}' intend to increase the cjuantity of the usual feed, this again must be done gradually. The quantity of food given must always be in proportion to the amount of labor to be performed. If a horse is to do less work, or rest entirely from work for a few days, see that he receives less feed. If this was observed even on Saturday night and Sunday there would be fewer cases of " Monday morning sickness," such as colics and lymphangitis. Foods should also be of a more laxa- tive nature w' hen the horse is to stand for some days. Above all things we should avoid feeding musty or moldy foods. These are very fre- quent causes of disease of different kinds. Lung trouble, as bron- chitis and "heaves," often follows the use of such food. The digest- ive organs always suffer from moldy or musty foods. Musty hay is generally considered to i)roduce disorder of the kidneys; and all know of the danger to pregnant animals from feeding upon ergotized grasses or grains. Leaving these somewhat general considerations, I will refer briefly to the different kinds of foods : Haij. — The best hay for horses is timothy. It should be about one year old, of a greenish color, crisp, clean, fresh, andpo-ssessinga sweet, pleasant aroma. Even this good hay, if kept for too great a length of time, loses part of its nourishment, and while it VL\B,y not be positively injurious, it is hard, dry, and indigestible. New hay is difficult to digest, i^roduces much salivation (slobbering) and occasionally purg- ing and irritation of the skin. If fed at all it should be mixed with old hay. Second crop or afiennalh. — This is not considered good hay for horses, but it is prized by some farmers as a good food for milch cows, they claiming that it increases the flow of milk. The value of hay depends upon the time of cutting, as well as care in curing. Hay should be cut when in full flower, but before the seeds fall; if left longer, it becomes dry and woody and lacks in nutrition. An essential point in making hay is that when the crop is cut it should remain as short a time as iwssible in the field. If left too long in the sun it loses color, flavor, and dries or wastes. Smith asserts that one hour more 20 than is necessary in the sun causes a hjss of 15 to 20 per cent in the feeding value of hay. It is impossible to state any fixed time that hay must have to cure, this depending, of course, upon tlie weather, thick- ness of the crop, and many other circumstances ; but it is well known that in order to preserve the color and aroma of hay it should be turned or tedded frequent!}" and cured as quiclx'hj os possible. On the other hand, hay spoils in the mow if harvested too green or when not suffi- ciently dried. Mow-burnt hay produces disorders of the kidneys and bowels and causes the horse to fall off in condition. Musty or moldy hay has often been said to produce that peculiar disease known variously as cerebro-spinal meningitis, putrid sore throat, or choking distemper. The average horse, getting grain, should be allowed from 10 to 12 pounds of good hay a day. It is a mistake of manj^ to think that horses at light work can be kept entirely on hay. Such horses soon become pot-bellied, fall off in flesh, and do not thrive. The same is true of colts; unless the latter are fed with some grain they grow up to be long, lean, gawky creatures, and never make as good horses as those accustomed to grain, with or in addition to their hay. Sfraiv. — The straws are not extensively fed in this country, and when used at all they should be cut and mixed with hay and ground or crushed grain. Wheat, rye, and oats straw are the ones most used, and of these oats straw is most easily digested and contains the most nourishment. Pea and bean straw are occasionally fed to horses, the pea being preferable according to most writers. Chaff. — Wheat and rye chaff should never be used as a food for horses. The beards frequently become lodged in the mouth or throat and are productive of more or less serious trouble. In the stomach and intestines they often serve as the nucleus of the "soft concre- tions " which are to be described when treating of obstructions of the digestive tract. Oat chaff, if fed in small quantities and mixed with cut hay or corn- fodder, is very much relished by horses. It is not to be given in large quantities, as I have repeatedlj^ witnessed a troublesome and some- times fatal diarrhea to follow the practice of ^dlowing horses or cattle free access to a pile of oat chaff. Grains. — Oats take precedence of all grains as a food for horses, as the ingredients necessary for the complete nutrition of the body exist in them in the best i)roportions. Oats are besides more easily digested and a larger proportion absorbed and converted into the various tis- sues of the body. Care must be taken in selecting oats. According to Stewart the best oats are one year old, x^li^mp, short, hard, clean, bright, and sweet. New oats are indigestible. Kiln-dried oats are to be refused as a rule, for even though originallj^ good this drjdng i^roc- ess injures them. Oats that have si^routed or fermented are injurious and should never be fed. Oats are to be given either whole or crushed ; whole in the majority of instances, crushed to old horses 21 and those having defective teeth. Horses, also, that "bolt their feed are best fed upon crushed oats and out of a manger large enough to permit of s^jreading the grain in a thin layer. The average horse requires, in addition to the allowance of hay above spoken of, about 12 quarts of good oats daily. The best oats are those cut about one week before being fully rijie. Not only is the grain richer at this time in nutritive materials, but there is also less waste from ' ' scattering " than if left to become dead ripe. Moldy oats, like hay and straw, not only xn'oduce serious digestive disorders, but have been the undoubted cause of outbreaks of that dread disease in horses, already referred to, characterized by inability to eat or drink, sudden paralysis, and death. Wheat and rye. — These grains are not to be used as food for horses except in small quantities, bruised or crushed, and fed mixed with other grains or haj'. If fed alone, in any considerable quantities, they are almost certain to produce digestive disorders, laminitis (founder), and similar troubles. They should never constitute more than one- fourth of the grain allowance, and should always be ground or crushed. Bran. — The bran of wheat is the one most used, and its value as a feeding stuff is A'ariouslj^ estimated. It is not to be dei^ended upon if given alone, but may be fed with other grains. It serves to keep the bowels ox)en. Sour bran is not to be given. It disorders the stomach and intestines and may even produce serious results. Maize — Corn. — This grain is not suitable as an exclusive food for young horses, as it is deficient in salts. It is fed whole or ground. Corn on the cob is commonly used as the food for horses affected with " lami^as." If the corn is old and is to be fed in this manner it should be soaked in pure, clean water for ten or twelve hours. Corn is better given ground, and fed in quantities of from 1 to 2 quarts at a meal mixed with crushed oats or wheat bran. We must be very particular in giving corn to a horse that is not accustomed to its use. It must be commenced in small quantities and verj^ gradually increased. I know of no grain more likely to produce what is called acute indiges- tion than corn if these directions are not observed. Linseed. — Ground linseed is occasionally fed with other foods to keep the bowels open and to improve the condition of the skin. It is of i3articular service during convalescence, when the bowels are slug- gish in their action. Linseed tea is very often given in irritable or inflamed conditions of the digestive organs. Boots — Botatoes. — These are used as an article of food for the horse in many sections. If fed raw and in large quantities they often pro- duce indigestion. Their digestibility is favored by steaming or boiling. They possess, in common with other roots, slight laxative properties. Beets. — These are not much used as food for horses. Carrots. — These make a most excellent food, particularly during sickness. They improve the appetite and slightly increase the action 22 of tlie bowels and kidneys. They i)ossess also certain alterative properties. The coat becomes smooth and glossy Avhen carrots are fed. Some veterinary writers claim that chronic congh is cured by giving carrots for some time. The roots may be considered then as an adjunct to the ]'egular regime, and if fed in small (iuan titles are highly beneficial. Grasses. — Grass is the natural food of horses. It is composed of a great variety of plants, differing widely as to the amount of nourish- ment contained, some being almost entirely without value as foods and only eaten when there is nothing elseo btainable; others are posi- tively injurious or even poisonous. None of the grasses are sufficient to keep the horse in condition for work. Horses thus fed are "soft," sweat easily, purge, and soon tire on the road or when at hard work. To growing stock grass is indispensable, and there is little or no doubt but that it acts as an alterative when given to horses accustomed to grain and hay. It must be given to such subjects in small quantities at first. The stomach and intestines undergo rest and recuperate if the horse is turned to grass for a time each year. It is also certain that during febrile diseases grass acts almost as a medicine, lessening the fever and favoring recovery; wounds heal more rapidly than when the horse is on grain, and some chronic disorders (chronic cough for instance) disappear entirely when at grass. In my experience grass does more good when the horse crops it himself. This may be due to the sense of freedom he enjoys at pasture, to the rest to his feet and limbs, and for many similar reasons. When cut for him it should be fed fresh or when but slightly wilted. PREPARATION OF FOODS. Foods are prepared for feeding for any of the following reasons: To render the food more easily eaten; to make it more digestible; to economize in amount; to give it some new property, and to preserve it. We have already spoken of the preparation of dr^ang, and need not revert to this again, as it only serves to preserve the different foods. Drying does, however, change some of the properties of food, i. e., removes the laxative tendency of most of them. The different grains are more easily eaten when ground, crushed, or even boiled. Rye or wheat should never be given whole, and even of corn it is found that there is less waste when ground, and, in common with all grains, it is more easily digested than when fed whole. Hay and fodder are economized when cut in short pieces. Not only will the horse eat the necessary amount in a shorter time, but it will be found that tiicre is less waste, and the mastication of the grains (whole or crushed) fed with them is insured. Reference has already been made to those horses that bolt their food, and we need only remark here that the consequences of such ravenous eating may be prevented if the grains ai-e fed with cut hay, 23 straw, or fodder. Long or uncut haj should also be fed, even though a certain amount of hay or straw is cut and fed mixed with grain. One objection to feeding cut ha}^ mixed with ground or crushed grains, and wetted, must not be overlooked during the hot months. Such food is apt to undergo fermentation if not fed directly after it is mixed, and the mixing-trough even, vinless frequently scalded and cleaned, becomes sour and enough of its scrapings are given with the food to produce flatulent (wind) colic. A small amount of salt should always be mixed with such food. Bad hay should never be cut simply because it insures a greater con- sumption of it; bad foods are dear at any price and should never be fed. We have before spoken of the advantage of boiling roots. Not only does this render them less liable to produce digestive disorders, but it also makes them clean. Boiling or steaming grains is to be recommended when the teeth are poor, or when the digestive organs are weak. Of ensilage as a food for horses I have no experience, but am inclined to think that (and tliis opinion is based upon the imper- fect manner in which the crop is often stored) disordered digestion would be more frequent were it extensively fed. DISEASES OF THE TEETH. Dentition. — This covers the period during which the J'oung horse is cutting his teeth, from birth to the age of five years. With the horse more difliculty is experienced in cutting the second or permanent teeth than with the first or milk teeth. There is a tendency among farmers and many veterinarians to pay too little attention to the teeth of young horses. Percivall relates an instance illustrative of this, that is best told in his own words: I was requested to give my opinion concerning a horse, then in his fifth year, who had fed so sparingly for the last fortnight, and so rapidlj- declined in condi- tion in consequence, that his owner, a veterinary surgeon, was under no light apprehensions about his life. He had himself examined his mouth, \A-ithout hav- ing discovered any defect or disease; thougli another veterinary surgeon was of opinion that the difficulty or inability manifested in mastication, and the conse- quent cudding, arose from preternatural bluntness of the surfaces of the molar teeth, which were, in consequence filed, but without beneficial result. It was after this that I saw the horse; and I confess I was, at mj first examination, qiTite as much at a loss to offer any satisfactory interpretation as others had been. While meditating, however, after my insi)ection, on the apparently extraordinarj- nature of the case, it struck me that I had not seen the tusks. I went back into the stable and discovered two little tumors, red and hard, in the situation of the inferior tusks, which, when pressed, gave the animal insufferable pain. I instantly took out my pocket-knife and made crucial incisions through them both, down to the coming teeth, from which moment the horse recovered his appetite and by degrees his wonted condition. The mouths of young horses should also bo frequently examined to see if one or more of the milk teeth are not remaining too long, 24 causing the second teeth to grow in crooked, in which case the first teeth should be removed by the forceps. Irregidarities of teeth. — There is quite a fashion of late years, espe- cially in large cities, to have horses' teeth regularly "floated" or "rasped" by "veterinary dentists." In some instances this is very beneficial, while in most cases it is entirel}^ unnecessar3\ From the character of the food, the rubbing or grinding surface of the horse's teeth should be rough. Still we must remember that the upper jaw is somewhat wider than the lower, and that from the fact of the teeth not being i^erf ectly apposed, a sharp ridge is left unworn on the inside of the lower molars and on the outside of the upper, which may exco- riate the tongue or lips to a considerable extent. This condition can readil}^ be felt by the hand, and these sharp ridges when found should be rasped down by a guarded rasp. Anyone can do this without the aid of the veterinarian. In some instances the first or last molar tooth is unnaturally long, owing to the absence of its fellow on the opposite jaw. Should it be the last molar that is thus elongated it will require the aid of the veterinary surgeon, who has the necessary forceps or chisel for cutting it. The front molar maj" be rasped down, if much patience is taken. In decay of the teeth it is quite common to find the tooth corresponding to the decayed one on the opposite jaw very much elongated, sometimes to that extent that the mouth can not be perfectly closed. Such teeth must also be shortened by the bone for- ceps, chisel, bone-saw, or rasp. In all instances where horses "quid" their food, where they are slobbering, or where they evince pain in mastication, shown by holding their head to one side while chewing, the teeth should be carefully examined. If, as is mostly the case, all these symptoms are referable to sharp corners or projections of the teeth, these must be removed by the rasp. If decayed teeth are found, or other serious difficulty detected, an expert should be called. Toothache. — This is rare in the horse, and is mostly witnessed where there is decay of a tooth. I have observed it only in the molar teeth. Toothache is to be discovered in the horse by the i^ain expressed by him while feeding or drinking cold water. I have seen horses affected with toothache that would suddenly stop chewing, throw the head to one side, and slightly open the mouth. They behave as though some sharp body had punctured the mouth. If upon examination there is no foreign body found we must then carefully examine each tooth. If this can not be done with the hand in the mouth we can, in most instances, discover the aching tooth bj^ pressing each tooth from with- out. The horse will flinch when the sore tooth is pressed upon. In most cases there is nothing to be done but the extraction of the decayed tooth, and this, of course, is only to be attempted by the veterinarian. There is a (leforinitij, known as parrot-mouth, that interferes with prehension, mastication, and, indirectly, with digestion. The upper 25 incisors project in front of and beyond the lower ones. Tlie teeth of both jaws become nnusually long, as they are not worn down by fric- tion. Such horses exi^erience much difficulty in grazing. Little can be done exceiDt to occasionally examine the teeth, and if those of the lower jaw become so long that they bruise the "bars" of the upper jaw, they must be shortened by the rasj) or saw. Horses with this deformity should never bo left entirel}' at pasture. DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. Ldinpas is the name given to a swelling of the mucous membrane covering the hard palate and projecting in a more or less XDrominent ridge immediately behind the upper incisors. There is no doubt but that in some rare instances, and i^articularly while teething, there is a congestion and swelling of this part of the roof of the mouth which may interfere with feeding. In one instance in my practice I found the swelling so extensive that the mucous membrane was caught between the front teeth when the horse attempted to eat. Should this exist the swollen parts are to scarified, being careful not to cut deeply into the structures. An astringent wash of alum water may also be beneficial. Burning of the lampas is cruel and unnecessary, and should never be permitted, as it often causes serious results to follow. It is quite a common ojiinion among owners of horses and stablemen that lampas is a disease that very frequentlj' exists. In fact whenever a horse fails to eat, and if he does not exhibit very marked symptoms of a severe illness, they say at once "he has the lampas." It is almost impossible to convince them to the contrary, yet in a practice extend- ing over fifteen j^ears I have never seen but two or three cases of what is called lampas that gave rise to the least trouble or that called for any treatment whatever. It may be put down, then, as more a disease of the stableman's imagination than of the horse's mouth. Sfomatitis. — This is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the mouth and is produced by irritating medicines, foods, or other sub- stances. In cities it frequently follows from eating out of ash-barrels. The symptoms are swelling of the mouth, which is also hot and pain- ful to the touch; there is a coj)ious discharge of saliva; the mucous membrane is reddened, and in some cases there are observed vesicles or ulcers in the mouth. Tlie treatment is simple, soft feed alone often being all that is necessary. In some instances it may be advisable to use a wash of chlorate of potash, borax, or alum, about one-half ounce to a pint of water. Ilaj', sti-aw, or oats should not be fed unless steamed or boiled. Glossitis, or inflammation of the tongue, is very similar to the above, and mostly exists Avith it and is due to the same causes. Injuries to the tongue may produce this simple inflammation of its covering mem- brane, or, if severe, may produce lesions much more extensive, such as lacerations, abscesses, etc. These latter would require surgical 26 treatment, btit for the simpler forms ol inflammation of the tongue the ti'eatmeut recommended for stomatitis should be followed. PtyaUsiii or salivation consists in an abnormal and excessive secre- tion of saliva. This is often seen as a sj'-mptom of irregular teeth, in- flammation of the mouth or tongue, or of the use of such medicines as lobelia, mercu ry , and many others. Some foods produce this, as clover, and particularly second crop ; foreign bodies, as nails, Avheat-chaff , and corn-cobs becoming lodged in the mouth. If the cause is removed, as a rule no further attention is necessary. Astringent washes may be applied to the mouth as a gargle or by means of a sponge. Pharyngitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining of the pharynx (back part of the mouth). It rarely exists unless accom- panied by stomatitis, glossitis, or laryngitis. In those instances where the inflammation is mostlj^ confined to the pharynx we notice febrile S3'mptoms — difficulty of swallowing either liquids or solids; there is but little cough except when trying to swallow; there is no soreness on i^ressure over larynx (large ring of the windpipe). Increased flow of saliva, difficulty of swallowing liquids in particular, and cough only when attempting to swallow, are the symptoms best marked in pharjmgitis. For treatment, chlorate of potash in half-ounce doses three or four times a day is the best. This may be given suspended in warm water as a gargle, or may be mixed with licorice-root jjowder and honey and given with a strong spoon or w^ooden paddle. Borax or alum water maybe substituted for chlorate of potash in the same-sized doses. Soft food should be given, but I have seen some cases where the animal would eat corn from the cob better than anj'thing else. Paralysis of the ^^liarijnx, or, as it is commonly called, "x^aralj'sis of the throat," is one of the most stubborn diseases of the horse that we are ever called to treat. A horse is suddenly noticed to be unable to eat, and his manger is found to contain much saliva and frothy food that has been returned through his nose. The sympfoms which enable us to tell that paralysis of the pharynx exists are as follows: The owner says he has a horse that "can't eat." That is all he knows. We find the animal with a somewhat anxious countenance; manger, as above described; pulse, respiration, and temperature, at first, about the same as in health ; tlie horse will constantly try to eat or drink, but is unable to do so ; if water be offered him from a pail he will apparently drink with avidity, but, if we notice, the quantity of water in the pail remains about the same; he will continue trying to drink by the hour; if he can succeed in getting ixny fluid into the back part of the mouth it comes out at once through the nose. Foods also return through the nose, or are dropped from the mouth, quidded. An examination of the mouth by inserting the hand fails to find any obstruction or any abnormal condition, except, perhaps, that the parts are too flabby to the touch. These cases go on from bad to worse; the horse constantly and rapidlj^ loses in condition, becomes 27 very much emaciated, the eyes are llollo^^' and lustreless, and death soon occurs from inanition. Treatment is very unsatisfactory. Severe blisters should he applied behind and under the jaw; the mouth is to be frequently swabbed out with alum or chlorate of potash, 1 ounce to a pint of water, by means of a sponge fastened to the end of a stick. Strychnia is the best agent to be used to overcome this paralysis, and should be given in 1-grain doses three or four times a day. If the services of a veter- inarian can be obtained he should give this medicine by means of a h3'i)odermic s\ringe, injecting it deeply into the pharynx. In my experience the blister externally, the freciuent swabbing of the mouth, as above described, and the use of a nerve stimulant are all that can be done. This disease may be mistaken at times for foreign bodies in the mouth or for the so-called cerebro-spinal meningitis. It is to be distinguished from the former by a careful examination of the mouth, the absence of any offending body, and by the flabby feel of the mouth ; from the latter by the animal appearing in perfect health in every i)articular except this inability to eat or drink. Abscesses sometimes form in the pharynx and give rise to symptoms resembling those of laryngitis or distemper. Interference with breath- ing, that is of recent origin, and i^rogression, without any observable swelling or soreness about the throat, will make us suspect the for- mation of an abscess in this location. But little can be done in the waj^ of treatment, save to hurry the ripening of the abscess and its discharge, by steaming with hops, hay, or similar substances. If the abscess can be felt through the mouth it must be opened by the attending veterinary surgeon. DISEASES OF THE CESOPHAGUS OR GULLET. It is rare to lind disease of this organ, except as a result of the in- troduction of foreign bodies too large to pass, or the exhibition of irritating medicines. Great care should be taken in the administra- tion of irritant or caustic medicines that they be thoroughly diluted. If this is not done erosions and ulcerations of the tljroat ensue, and this again is prone to be followed 'by constriction — narrowing — of the gullet. The mechanical trouble of choking is quite common. It fre- quently occurs when the animal is suddenly startled while eating apples or roots, and we should be careful never to suddenly approach or put a dog after horses or cows that are feeding upon such sub- stances. If left alone they \Qvy rarely attempt to swallow the object until it is sufficiently masticated. Choking also arises from feeding oats in a deep, narrow manger to such horses as eat very greedily, or bolt their food. Wheat chaff is also a frequent source of choke. This accident may result from the attempts to force eggs down without breaking or from gi-vdng balls that are too large or not of the proper shape. 28 Whatever object causes the choking, it may lodge in the upper part of the oesophagus, at its middle portion, or close to the stomach, giviiTg rise to the designations of pliaryngeal, cervicaJ, and ihoracic choke. In some cases where the original obstruction is low we find all that part of the gullet abov^ it to be distended with food. The symptoms will vary according to the position of the body caus- ing choke. In 2'>^^<^^^'yngeal cliolxe the object is lodged in the upper p)oriion of oesophagus. The horse will present symptoms of great distress, hurried breathing, frequent cough, excessive flow of saliva, sweating, trembling, or stamping with the fore feet. The abdomen rapidly distends with gas. The diagnosis is completed by manipulat- ing t*Iie upper part of the throat from without and by the introduction of the hand into the back part of the mouth, finding the body lodged here. In cervical choke (where the obstruction is situated at any point between the throat-latch and the shoulder) the object can both be seen and felt. The symptons here are not so severe; the horse will be seen to occasionally draw himself up, arch his neck, and some- times utter a loud shriek; the expression becomes anxious, and attempts at vomiting are made. The abdomen is mostly full and tynii^anitic. Should there be any question as to the trouble a decided conclusion may mostly be reached by pouring water into the throat from a bottle. If the obstruction is complete you can see the gullet become distended with each bottle of water by standing on the left side of the horse and watching the course of the oesophagus, just above the windi:)ipe. This is not always a sure test, as the obstruction may be an angular body, in which case liquids would pass it. Solids taken would show in these cases; but solids should not, however, be given, as they serve to increase the trouble by rendering the removal of the body more difficult. In cervical choke one can always, with a little care, feel the imprisoned object. In thoracic choke the symptoms are still less severe. Our attention will be directed to this part of the oesophagus by food or water being ejected through the nose or mouth after the animal has taken a few swallows. There Avill be some symptoms of distress, fullness of the abdomen, cough, and occasionally the crying or shrieking as heard in cervical choke. The diagnosis is complete if, upon passing the probang (a hollow, flexible tube made for this j^urpose), an obstruction is encountered. Treaiment. — If the choke is at the beginning of the gullet {pharyn- geal) we must endeavor to remove the obstacle through the mouth. A mouth-gag or si)eculum is to be introduced into the mouth to pro- tect the hand and arm of the operator. Then while an assistant, Avith his hands grasped tightly 'behind the object, presses it upward and forward with all his force, the operator must pass his hand into the mouth until he can seize the obstruction and draw it outward. This mode of procedure must not be abandoned Avith the first failure, as Ave 29 may get the obstacle farther toward the moiitli by continued efforts. If we fail with the hand, forceps may be introduced through the mouth and the object seized when it is just beyond the reach of the fingers. Should our efforts entirely fail we must then endeavor to force the obstruction downward by means of the probang. This instrument, which is of such signal service in removing choke in cattle, is decidedly more dangerous to use for the horse, and I can not pass this point without a word of caution to those who have been known to introduce into the horse's throat such objects as whip-stalks, shovel-handles, etc. These are always dangerous, and I have seen more than one horse die from this barbarous treatment. Cervical clioT^e. — In this, as well as in thoracic choke, we must first of all endeavor to soften or lubricate the obstruction by pouring oil or mucilaginous drinks down the gullet. After this has been done we are to endeavor to move the object by gentle manipulations with the hands. If choked with oats or chaff (and these are the objects that most fre- quently produce choke in the horse), we should begin by gently squeez- ing the lower portion of the impacted mass, and endeavoring to work it loose a little at a time. This is greatly favored at times if we apply hot fomentations immediately about the obstructions. We should persist in these efforts for at least an hour before deciding to resort to other and more dangerous modes of treatment. Should we fail, hoAvever, the probang may be used. In the absence of the regular instrument, which must always be flexible and finished with a smooth cup-shaped extremity, we may use a long piece of inch hose. The mouth is to be kept open by a gag of wood or iron and the head slightly raised and extended. The iDrobang is then to be carefully guided by the hand into the upjier part of the gullet and gently forced doMTiward until the obstruction is reached. Pressure must then be gradual and firm. Do not, at first, attemj^t too much force, or the oesophagus will be ruptured. Simply keep up this firm, gentle pres- sure until you feel the object moving, after which you are to rapidly follow it to the stomach. If, again, this mode of treatment is unsuc- cessful, a veterinarian or medical doctor is to be called in, who can remove the object by cutting down upon the gullet, opening it, and removing the offending body. This should scarcely be attempted by a noAace, as a knowledge of the anatomj^ of the parts is essential to avoid cutting the large arter}-, vein, and nerve that are closely related to the oesophagus in its cervical j^ortion. Thoracic clioke can only be treated by means of the introduction of oils and mucilaginous drinks and the careful use of the probang. Some practitioners speak very highly of the value of thick soap-suds, generously horned down the animal's throat. Stricture of the oesopJiagus is mostly due to corrosive medicines, pre- vious choking (accompanied by lacerations, which, in healing, narrow the passage), and pressure on the gullet by tumors. In the majority 30 of cases of stricture wo soou have dilatation of the gullet iu front of the constricted portion. This dilatation is due to the frequent accumula- tion of solid food above the constriction. Little can be done in either of these instances except to feed on sloppy or liquid food. Sacular dilatcdion of tJie cesophagus. — ^This niostl}^ foUoAvs chokinp:, and is due to rupture of the muscular coat of the gullet, allowing the internal or mucous coat to hernia or pouch through the lacerated muscular walls. This sac or pouch gi-adually enlarges, from the fre- quent imprisonment of food, until it presses upon the gullet and pre- vents swallowing. When liquids are taken the solid materials are partially washed out of the pouch. The symptoms presenting them- seh'os ai"e as follows: The horse is able to swallow a few mouthfuls of food without apparent distress; then he will suddenly stoj) feeding, paw, contract the muscles of his neck, and eject a portion of the food through his nose or mouth. As the dilatation thus emjjties itself the symptoms gradually subside, only to reappear when he has again taken solid food. Liquids pass without any, or but little, inconven- ience. Should this dilatation exist in the cervical region, surgical interference may sometimes prove eifectual; if in tlio thoracic portion, nothing can be don^, and the jDatient rapidly i)asses from hand to hand by " swapping, " until, at no distant date, the contents of the sac become too firm to be dislodged as heretofore, and the animal succumbs. DISEASES OF THE STOMACH. Imj^cictioii — Stoniach staggers, or gorged stomach. — These are terms given to the stomach when it is so enormously distended with food that it loses all power of contracting upon its contents. It occurs most frequently in those horses that after a long fast are given a large feed, or in those that have gained access to the grain-bin and eaten ravenously. The jiroportionally small stomach of the horse, as well as his inability to vomit, will account for the frequency of stomach staggers. I have witnessed this trouble most frequently in t^eamstei's' horses and those that are not fed as often as they should be. After a long fast it is the custom to feed abundantly. The horse bolts his food, and the stomach not having time to empty itself becomes dis- tended and paralyzed. To prevent this condition it is sufficient to feed at shorter intervals, to give small quantities at a time, and to seciire the feed-bins so that if a horse gets loose he can not "stuff himself to bursting. " Symptoms. — Percivall says that "a stomach simplj^ surcharged with food, without any accompanying tympanitic distention, does not appear to occasion local pain, but to operate rather that kind of influence upon the brain which gives rise to symptoms, not stomachic, but cerebral. Hence the analogy between this disease and staggers, and hence the appellation for it of ' stomach staggers.' " The horse soon after eating becomes dull and heavy, or drowsy; slight colicky 31 symptoms are obsei'ved, and are eoutinnoiis; lie rareiy lies down, Ijut carries his liead extemled and low, nearly toucliing tlie ground. Dullness rai)idly increases, tlie eyes are partially closed, vision is imi)aired, he presses or thusts his head against the manger or sides of the stall, and paws or even climbs with his fore feet. Respirations are less frequent than in health, tlie pulse slow and sluggish. All these symptoms rajjidly increase in severity; he becomes delirious; cold sweats bedew the bod}'; he trembles violently, slobbers or vomits a sour, fermenting mass, staggers from side to side, or plunges madly about until he drops dead. Usually the bowels are constipated, although (and especially if the engorgement is due to eating wheat or rye) diarrhea has been observed. These symptoms resemble in some particulars those of "blind " or " mad " staggers, but if Ave are careful to get the history of the case, /. e., ravenous eating after a long fast, or gaining access to grain-bins, wc shoidd not l)e in much danger of confounding them. Posi-mortein examinations sometimes reveal rup- ture of the stomach, owing to its enormous distension, and to the vio- len,ce with Avhich he throws himself in his delirium. If not ruptured the stomach will be distended to its utmost. Trecdment for these cases is verj- unsatisfactory. A purgative of Barbadoes aloes, 1 ounce, should be given at once. We should then try to stimulate the walls of the stomach to contraction by giving cay- enne pepper, one-half ounce, or half-ounce doses of Jamaica ginger. Injections into the rectum, last gut, of turpentine 2 ounces, in 8 ounces of linseed oil, may stimulate the bowels to act, and thus, in a meas- ure, relieve the stomach. Cold applications applied to the head may in some cases relieve the cerebral symptoms already referred to, and some recommend bleeding for the same purpose. Tympanik's of the stomach. — This is of somewhat frequent occur- rence, according to my observation, but is not, I believe, as a rule, separatel}' treated of by works on veterinary medicine. It is similar in cause and symiitoms to the above, yet distinct enough to enable the careful observer to readily differentiate between them. In tym- panites of the stomach we find this organ to be greath' distended as before, but in this case its contents are gaseous, or probably a mix- ture of food and gases, like fermenting yeast. This disease of the horse corresponds exactly with "hoven" or "blown" in cattle, and may be due to overloading the stomach with young, succulent, grow- ing herbage, clover in particular, from whose subsequent fermenta- tion gas is liberated in quantities sufficient to enormously distend the stomach. Growing wheat or lye are also fertile causes of this disten- tion if eaten in any considerable amounts. Another very frequent cause of stomach-bloat is overfeeding, particularly if given immedi- ately before hard work. Many people, if the}^ expect to make a long journey, think to fit their horses for the fatigue consequent tliereto by giving an extra allowance of oats or other food just before starting. 32 This is most injudicious. The horse starts to his work feeling full and oppressed; he soon grows dull and listless, and fails to respond to the whip; sweats profusely; attempts to lie down; his head is car- ried forward and doAvnward, and if checked up is heavy on the reins, stumbles or blunders forward, and often falls. If looked at carefully you can not fail to observe that he is unusuallj^ full over the posterior ribs. The flanks may also be distended with gas, and sound like a drum on being struck, though I have seen cases where the gases were entii'ely confined to the stomach. With this condition the pain and distress are constant; the swelling referred to plainly appreciable; head extended and low, retching or even vomiting of fermented food. On placing the ear to tlie horse's windpipe a distinct metallic sound can be heard, as of air rushing through the windpipe. Such cases are rapid in their course and often fatal. Treaiment must be prompt and energetic. An antacid should be given, and, as these cases mostly occur on the road awaj^, i^robably, from all drug-stores, you should hasten to the first house. Get com- mon baking soda, and administer 2 to 4 ounces of it as quickly as pos- sible. One-half ounce of cayenne pepper may be added to this with advantage, as it serves to aid the stomach to contract upon its con- tents, and expel the gas. Charcoal, in any amount; chloride of lime, one-half ounce; carbonate of ammonia, one-half ounce; or any -medi- cine that will check or stop fermentation, or absorb the gases, may be given. A jDhj^sic of 1 ounce of aloes, or 1 pint of linseed oil, should be given to unload the stomach and bowels. Cold water, dashed with force over the stomach, is thought hy some to favor condensation of the gas. This lesson should be learned from one of these attacks — and doubtless will be if, as is often the case, the horse dies — that when a horse or any other animal is expected to do an unusual amount of work in a short time he will best do it upon a spare feed. Curb j^our gen- erosity and humanity (?) for the brute until the journey's end, and even then wait until the horse is thoroughly rested before giving the usual feed. Rupture of the stomach. — This mostly occurs as a result of engorged or tympanitic stomach, and from the horse violently throwing himself when so affected. It may result from disease of the coats of the stom- ach, gastritis, stones or calculi, tumors, or anything that closes the opening of the stomach ijito the intestines, and very violent pulling or jumping immediately after the animal has eaten heartily of bulky food. These or similar causes may lead to this accident. The symptoms of rupture of the stomach are not constant, nor always reliable. We should always make inquiry as to what and how much the horse has been fed at the last meal. Vomiting has, pretty generally, been declared to be a symptom of ru^jture of this organ. I wish to preface what I may say concerning this with the statement that I have observed vomiting when the post-mortem examination revealed 33 rupture; that I have found mixture of the stomacli where vomiting had not occurred ; that I have Avitnessed vomiting where the horse soon after made a rapid recover}', /. e. , when the stomach was not ruptured. In spite of this contradictory evidence, I am of the opinion that, taken in connection with other symptoms, this sign is of value as pointing toward rupture of tlie stomach. This accident has occurred in my practice mostly in lieavy draught horses. A lu'ominent symp- tom observed (though I have also seen it in diaphragmatic hernia) is where the horse, if possible, gets the front feet on higher ground tlian the hind ones, or sits on his haunches, like a dog. This position affords relief to some extent, and it will be maintained for some min- utes; it is also quickly regained when the horse has changed it for some other. Colicky symptoms, of course, are present, and these will vary much, and present no diagnostic value. As the case progresses " tlie horse will often stretch forward the fore legs, lean backwards and downwards until the belly nearly touches the ground, and then rise up again with a groan, after which the fluid from his nostrils is issued in increased quantity." The pulse is fast and weak, breathing hurried, body bathed in a clammy sweat, limbs tremble violently, the horse reels or staggers from side to side, and death quickly ends the scene. In the absence of any pathognomonic symptom Percivall says we must take into account the history of the case; the subject of it; the circumstances attending it ; the swollen condition of the abdomen ; tlie symi^toms of colic that cease suddenly and are succeeded by cold sweats and tremors; the pulse from being quick and small and thready, growing Aveak and more frequent, and at length running down and becoming altogether imperceptible; the countenance donating gloom and despondency of the heaviest character, looking back at the flank and groaning, sometimes crouching with the hind quarters, with or without eructation, and vomiting. There is no freatmeni that can be of any use whatever. Could we be sure of our diagnosis it would be better to destroy the animal a-t once. Since, however, there is alwaj's the possibility of a mistake in diagnosis, we may give powdered opium in 1-drachm doses every two or three hours, with the object of keeping the stomach as quiet as j)0ssible. Gasffifis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the stomach. As an idiopathic disease it very rarely exists; but is mostly seen to be due to mechanical irritation, or to giving irritant and corro- sive i)oisons in too large doses or without sufficient dilution. Tlie sijtiqyfoins are not well marked; there is a febrile condition, colicky pains, and, mostly, intense thirst. When poisons have produced gas- tritis there will be other symptoms referable to the action of the par- ticular poison swallowed. If, for instance, the gastritis is due to a salt of lead, we must exiDect to find difficult or labored breathing, 5901 — HOR 2 34 abdominal i^ains, partial iiaralysis of extensor mnscles primarily, tot- tering gait, convulsions, and death. Where the poisoning by lead is gradual the symptoms differ somewhat. There is a general appear- ance of unthriftiness, loss of appetite, staring coat, constii^ation, watery swellings under the jaws, a gray or blue line along the margin of the gums, and a progressive i^aralysis, noted often at first in the anterior extremities. Colicky symptoms are also observed. Abortion is often noticed during chronic lead-poisoning. In all cases of lead- l^oisoning the stomach, and often intestines, show erosions of its lin- ing membrane, which in other parts is darker in color, and the mucous membrane is easily stripped off. Chronic poisoning by lead is to be expected near paint works, about newly-painted buildings, where paint kegs are left in the fields, where horses take small particles of lead with their food, where soft water runs through new lead l^ipes, and where the drinking Avater is draAvn from wells or cisterns containing lead. Lead can be detected in almost all parts of the body at the post-mortem examination of chronic poisoning. Treatment. — In acute gastritis, due to the careless or accidental administration of large quantities of this poison, we must give sul- phuric acid, oO to GO drops well diluted with water, milk, white of eggs, oils, and demulcent drinks, as linseed gruel or tea. If the gas- tritis is chronic, due to the long ingestion of small j)articles of lead, we must administer from one-half to 1 pound of Epsom salts. Iodide of potassium in 1-drachm doses, twice or thrice daily, are here of mucli service. If much pain exists it ma30)e relieved by giving mor- l)hia in 3 to 5 grain doses, repeated two or three times a daj'. Where arsenic is the poison producing gastritis or gastro-euteritis (inflammation of the stomach and bowels), we have symptoms of abdominal pain, nausea, or vomiting, purging that is accompanied by an offensive odor, staggering gait, quickened breathing, jiaralysis of the hind extremities, and death. On opening a horse that has died of arsenical j^oison we are struck l)y the escape of large quantities of offensive gas. There are patches of inflammation and extravasation of blood in the stomach, and often hi the intestines. Chemical tests should be resorted to before giving a decided opinion that death is due to arsenic. Poisoning from this agent is most common where sheep have been dipped in arsenical preparations for the "scab" and then allowed to run on pasture without first drying their wool. Arsenic is thus deposited upon the grass and is eaten by horses graz- ing thereon, producing the sjnnptoms of gastritis and death. Gas- tritis may also occur from poisoning by copper, the mercurials, and some vegetable drugs. Gastritis produced l)y anj'- of the irritant poi- sons is to be treated with oils and demulcent diinks. Opium may l)e given to allay pain and inflammation. Care should bo observed in feeding for a time, being careful to give only soft and easily digested foods. 35 BOTS — LARV.^. OF THE GAD-FIA'. There are such erronooiis opinious extant concerning the Ijot and the depredations it is supposed to commit upon the horse that a some- what careful study should be made of it. Of the many insect parasites and tormentors of solipeds the gad- flies (G^stridae) are of the most importance. Cobbold, who is the best autlioritj^ on the subject, says: The common gad-fly (Gastrojih Has equi) attacks the anim^al while grazing late in the summer, its object being, not to derive sustenance, but to deposit its eggs. This is accomplished by means of a glutinous excretion, causing the ova (eggs) to adhere to the hairs. Tlie parts selected are chiefly those of the shoulder, base of the neck, and inner part of the fore legs, especially about the knees, for in these situations the horse will have no difficulty in reaching the ova with its tongue. When the animal licks those parts of the coat where the eggs have been placed the moisture of the tongue, aided by warmth, hatches the ova, and in something less than three weeks from the time of the deposition of the eggs the larvae have made their escape. As maggots they are next transferred to the mouth and ultiuiatel}- to the stomach along with food and drink. A great many larvae i^erish during this passive mode of immigration, some being dropped from the mouth and others being crushed in the fodder during mastication. It has been calcu- lated that out of the many hundreds of eggs deposited on a single horse scarcely one out of fifty of the larvse arrives within the stomach. Notwithstanding this waste the interior of the stomach may become completely covered (cuticular portion) with bots. Whether there be few or many they are anchored in this situation chiefly by means of two large cephalic hooks. After the bots have attained perfect growth they vohmtarily loosen their hold and allow themselves to be carried along the alimentary canal until they escape with the feces. In all cases they sooner or later fall to the ground and when transferred to the soil they bury themselves beneath the surface in order to undergo transformation into the pupa condition. Having remained in the earth for a period of six or seven weeks they finally emerge from their pupal-cocoons as perfect dipterous (winged) insects — the gad-fly. It thus appears that bots ordinarily pass about eight months of their lifetime in the digestive organs of the horse. The si^ecies just described infest chiefl}' the stomach and duode- num— small gut leading from the stomach. Another species of oestrus affecting the horse is the O'strus hcemor- rhoidalis. These are found fastened to the mucous membrane of the rectum (last gut), or even outside upon the anus, and occasion mucli irritation and annoyance, and, at times, require to be removed by the fingers or forcejjs. The opinion, almost universally entertained, that bots frequentlj" cause colicky- i)ains, is erroneous. It is very common to liear bystand- ers declare that almost every horse with abdominal pains "has the bots," and their suggested treatment is always varied and heroic. Almost all horses in the country, as well as horses in the cities dur- ing their first jear there, have " the bots." It is in exceptionally rare instances that they produce any appreciable symptoms or disturb- ances. In my own practice I have never known bots to be tlie cause 36 of any serious ailment of tlie hoi-se; and only once lias my father, in a practice extending over fifty years, known bots to be the cause of death. In this instance the bots seemed to have simultaneously loosened their hold xv^on the mucous lining of the stomach, and were forced as an impermeable wedge into the pjdoric orifice, or outlet, of the stomach, and thus, preventing the i)assage of food or medicine, produced death. Were the bots to attempt to fasten themselves to the sensitive lining of the bowels in their outward passage they might cause irritation and expressions of pain in the foi*m of colicky symp- toms, but this they seldom or never do. The opinion frequently expressed at post-mortem examinations, when the stomach is found to be ruptured, that "the bots have eaten through the stomach," is again a mistake. Bots never do this; the rupture is due to overdis- tention of the viscus with food or gases. Some writers on veterinary medicine have even urged that bots, by their presence, stimulated the stomach secretions, and were thus actually an aid to digestion. This opinion is as far from the truth as the more general one referred to above, concerning the harm they do. Bots may, and probably do, when in large enough numbers to be fastened to the true digestive jjortion of the stomach, slightly inter- fere with digestion; the animal may not thrive, the coat stares, and emaciation may follow; but beyond this, with the exception already noted, tliey are harmless. Even were they the cause of trouble, there are no medicines that affect them ; neither acids, nor alkalies, anthel- mintics (worm medicines), nor anodynes cause them to become loose and to pass out of the body. To i^revent them it is necessary to watch for their eggs on the legs and different parts of the body in the late summer and autumn. These eggs are to be carefully scraped off and burned. Horses should not be watered from stagnant ponds, as they frequently swallow the ripening eggs with such water. It is entirely useless to attempt any treatment to rid the horse of bots; they go at their appointed time, and can not be dislodged before this. We should remember that in following their natural course or stages of existence the bots loosen their hold during May and June mostly. They are then expelled in great numbers, and horse-owners, noticing them in the manure, hasten to us saying "my horse has the bots." If we are honest we tell him tliat, in the natural course of events, nature is doing for him that which we can not do. We may say in conclusion, then, that bots seldom produce miy evil effects whatever; that not more than once in ten thousand times are they the cause of colicky symptoms, and that thej'' require no medicine to eject them. INDIGESTION. Indigestion is a term api3lied to all those conditions where, from any cause, digestion is imperfectly performed. It is not at all uncommon to witness in the horse symptoms similar to those of dyspepsia in man. 37 The disturbances of digestion included under this head are not so ])yo- nounced as to jiroduee colic, yet our consideration of diseases of the digestive organs would bo incomplete if we failed to mention this, the most frequent of all digestive disorders. The seat and causes of indi- gestion are found to vary in different horses, or even in the same horse at different times. Apart from tlie indigestibility of the food itself there are many causes productive of indigestion. The teeth are often at fault. Where these are sharp, irregular, or decayed the food is imperfectly masticated and swallowed before there is a proper admix- ture with the saliva. Bolting of the food; the bile — secretion of the liver — may be defective in quality or quantity; there may be lack of secretion of the i^ancreatic juice, or there may be simjily want of per- istaltic movement of the stomach and intestines, thereby causing an interrui)tion of the passage of the ingesta. The lorincipal seat of indi- gestion, however, is in the stomach or small intestines. Whenever, from any cause, the secretions from these i^arts arc excessive or defi- cient, dyspepsia or indigestion must invariably follow. Indigestion is often due to keex^ing horses on low, marshy j)astures, and i^articu- larly during cold weather; wintering an hard, dry hay or corn-stalks, and other bulky and innutritive food; irregular feeding or overfeed- ing (though this latter is more likely to produce engorged stomach, or tympanites of the stomach, which have been described by some as "acute indigestion"). Sy)nptoins. — Indigestion is characterized by irregular appetite; re- fusing all food at times, and at others eating ravenously; the appetite is not only irregular, but is often depraved; there is a disposition on the part of the horse to eat unusual substances, as wood, soiled bed- ding, or even his own feces; the bowels are irregular, to-day loose and bad smelling, to-morrow bound; grain often passed whole in the feces, and the hayi^assed in balls or imi^acted masses undergoing but little change; the horse frequently passes considerable quantities of wind that has a sour odor. The animal loses flesh, the skin presents a hard, dry appearance, and seems verj^ tight (hide-bound). If these symi)toms occur in a single horse in a stable where others are kept we must look not to the feed, but to the animal himself, for the cause of his trouble. Treatment. — It is evident, from the many causes of indigestion and from its protean forms, that we must be exceedingly careful in our examinations of the subject of this disorder. We must commence with the food, i^s quality, quantit}^ and time of feeding; examine the water supply, and see, besides, that it is given before feeding; then we must carefully observe the condition of the mouth and teeth; and, continuing our observations as best we may, endeavor to locate the seat of trouble — whether it is in the stomach, intestines, or annexed organs of digestion, as the liver and pancreas. If the teeth are sharp or irregular they must be rasped down; if any are decayed they must 38 be extracted; if indigestion is due to ravenous eating or bolting the food, "Nve must tben feed from a large manager where the grain can be si)read and the horse compelled to eat slowlj'. In the great majority- of cases I have found a cathartic, aloes 1 ounce, or linseed oil 1 pint, to be of much serAdce if given at the out- set. Any irritation, such as worms, undigested food, etc., that are operating as "causes," are thus remoA'ed, and in many instances no further treatment is required. There is mostly a tendency to disten- sion of the stomach and bowels with gas during indigestion, and I have never found any treatment so effective as the following alkaline tonic: Baking soda, powdered ginger, and powdered gentian, equal parts. These are to be thoroughly mixed and given in heaping table- spoonful doses, twice a day, Ijefore feeding. This powder is best given by dissolving the above quantity in a half pint of water, and given as a drench. INTESTINAL WORMS. Although there are several species of worms found in the intestines of horses, it will be sufficient, in an article like this, to refer only to three or four of the most common ones. Worms are most frequently seen in young horses, and in those that are weak and debilitated. They commonly exist in horses that are on low, wet, or marshy pas- tures and in those that drink stagnant water. The intestinal worm most commonly seen is known as the Lnin- hrk-oid worm. In form it is much like the common earth-worm. It is white or I'eddish in color, and measures from 4 to 12 inches in length, thougli some have been seen that were nearly 30 inclies long. In thickness they vary from the size of a rj-e straw to that of a lady's little finger, being thickest at the middle, and tapering at both ends. They are found singly or in groups or masses, and infest chiefly the small intestines. Another common variety of intestinal worm is called i\\.Q pi}\-irorm, and is found mosth* in the large intestines. These are semi-trans- parent, thread-like worms, measuring in length from 1 to 2 inches. The tape-worm, once seen, is easily recognized. It is white, flat, thin, broad, and jointed. The head is found at the smaller end of the worm. Tape-worms of the horse sonjetimes jneasure from 20 to 30 feet in length. Symptoms of intestinal ivorms. — Slight colicky pains arc noticed at times, or there may only be switching of the tail, frequent passages of manure, and some slight straining, itching of the anus, and rub- bing of the tail or rump against the stall or fences; the horse is in poor condition; does not shed his coat; is hide-bound and pot-bellied; the appetite is depraved, licdcing the walls, biting the wooden work of the stalls, licking parts of his body, eating earth, and being particu- larlv fond of salt; the bowels are irregular, constipation or diarrhea 39 being noticed. Some place much dependence upon llic symptom of itching of the upper lip, as sho^vn by the horse frequently turning it up and rubbing it upon the wall or stalls. Others again declare that whenever Ave see the adherence of a dried whitish .substance about the anus worms are i)resent. The one sympton, however, that we should always look for, and certainty the only one that may not deceive us, is seeing the horse pass the worms in his dung. Treatment. — Remedies to destroy intestinal worms are much more efficient if given after a long fast, and then the worm medicine must be supplemented hy a physic to carry out the Avorms. Among the best worm medicines may be mentioned santonine, turpentine, tartar emetic, infusion of tobacco, and bitter tonics. To destroy tape-Avorms, areca nut, male-fern, and i)umpkin seeds are the best. If a horse is passing the long round worms, for instance, the plan of treatment is to give tAvice daily for three or four days a drench composed of tur- pentine, 1 ounce, and linseed oil 2 or 3 ounces, to be foUoAAed on the fourth day by a physic of Barbadoes aloes, 1 ounce. If the pin- worms are present (the ones that infest the large boAvels), injections into the rectum of infusions of tobacco, infusions of quassia chips, one-half pound to a gallon of Avater, once or twice daily for a few days, and followed by a physic, are most beneficial. It should be borne in mind that intestinal Avorms are mostly seen in horses that are in poor condition; and an essential part of our treatment then is to improA^e the appetite and j^oAvers of digestion. This is best done by giA^ing the A'cgetable tonics. One-half ounce of PeruA'ian bark, gentian, ginger, quassia, etc., is to be giA'en twice a day in the feed or as a drench. Unless some such medicine.s and good food and pure water are given to tone up the digestiA'^e organs the worms will rapidly acciTmulato again, even though they may haAc all been expelled by the worm medicines proper. DISEASES OF THE IXTESTINES. Spasmodic or cramp colic. — This is the name giA'en to that form of colic produced by contraction, or spasm, of a jjortion of the small intestines. It is i:>roduced by indigestible food; foreign bodies, as nails and stones in the boAvels; large drinks of cold Avater Avhen the animal isAvarm; diiA'iug a heapted horse through deep streams, cold rains, draughts of cold air, etc. Unequal distribution of or interfer- ence Avith the nerA'ous supply here i)roduces cramj) of the boAvels, the same as external cramps are produced. Spasmodic colic is much more frequently met Avith in high-l)red, round-l)arreled, nervous horses than in coarse, lymphatic ones. Symj^ton}.^. — These should be carefully studied in order to diagnose this from other forms of colic requiring q-uite different treatment. Spasmodic colic abvays begins suddenly. If feeding, the horse is seen to stop aln-uptly, stamp impatiently, and prol^ably look backwards. 40 He soon evinces more acute pain, and this is shown bj^ pawing, sud- denly lying down, rolling, and getting up. There is then an interval of ease; he will resume feeding, and api^ear to be entirely well. In a little while, however, the pains return and are increased in severity, only to again i^ass off for a time. As the attack i)rogresses these intervals of ease become shorter and shorter, and pain may be con- tinuous, though even now there are exacerbations of pain. Animals suffering from this form of colic evince the most intense j^ain; they throw themselves down, roll over and over, jumj) up, whirl about, drop down again, paw, or strike, rather, with the front feet, steam and sweat, make frequent attempts to pass their urine, and the penis is partially erected. Only a small amount of water is passed at a time, and this is due to the bladder being so frequently emptied, i. e., fliere is hut little water to pass. These attemi)ts to urinate are almost alwaj^s regarded as sure symptoms of trouble of the kidneys or bladder. In reality they are only one of the many ways in which the horse expresses the presence of pain. Allow me to digress slightly, and to assure the reader that diseases of the bladder or kidneys of the horse ar^e exceed- ing! ij rare. The stomach and bowels are affected in a thousand instances where the kidneys or bladder are once. Attempts to pass water and failure to do so are not enough to warrant us in joronounc- ing the case one of "trouble with his water," nor should we, if a horse jields or sinks when pinched over the loins, declare that kidney disease exists. Try this pressure on any horse, and the great majority will be seen to thus yield; in fact, this is rather a sign or sj'mptom of health than of disease. To recapitulate the symptoms of spasmodic colic: Keep in mind the history of the case, the type of horse, the suddenness of the attack, the intervals of ease (which become of shorter duration as the case pro- gresses), the violent pain, the normal temperature and pulse during the intervals of ease, the frequent attempts to urinate, the erection of the penis, etc., and there is but little danger of confounding this with other forms of colic. Treatment. — Since the pain is due to spasm or cramj) of the bowels, medicines that overcome spasms — anti-spasmodics — are the ones indi- cated. Probably there is no medicine better than chloral hj^drate. This is to be given in a dose of 1 ouiK?e in a half pint of water as a drench. A very common and good remedy is sulphuric ether and lau- danum; of each 2 ounces in half pint of linseed oil. Another drench may be composed of 2 ounces each of sulphuric ether and alcohol in 8 ounces of water. If nothing else is at hand we may give whisky; one- half pint in hot water. If relief is not obtained in one hour from any of the above doses, they may then be repeated. The bodj^ should be warmly clothed and persi^iration induced. Blankets dipped in very hot water to which a small quantity of turpentine has been added should be placed around the belly and covered with dry blankets, or 41 the abdomen may be rubbed with stimulating liniments or mustard- Avater. The diificulty, however, of api^ljing hot blankets and keeping them in place forces us in most instances to dispense with them. If the crami:> is due to irritants in the bowels a cure is not complete until we have given a cathartic of 1 ounce of aloes or 1 pint of linseed-oil. Injections into the rectum of warm, soapy water, or salt and water, aid the cure. One word here about injections, or enemas, as they are called. These, as a rule, should be lukewarm and from 3 to G quarts are to be given at a time. They may be repeated every half hour if necessary. Great care is to be taken not to injure the rectum in giving rectal injections. A large syringe is the best means by which to give them. If tins is not to be had, take a large elder, from which the pith has been removed, or a piece of hose. A large hog's bladder is to be filled with the fluid to be injected and tied about one end of the elder or hose. The point to be introduced into the rectum must be blunt, rounded, and smooth. It is to be thoroughly oiled and then carefully pushed through the anus in a slightly ui)ward direction. Pressure upon the bladder will force its contents into the bowel. Much force must be avoided, for the rectum may be lacerated and serious complications or even death result. Exercise will aid the action of the bowels in this and similar colicky troubles, but severe galloping or trotting is to be condemned. If the horse can have a loose box or paddock it is the best, as he will then take what exercise he wants. If the patient be extremely violent it is often wise to restrain him, since rupture of the stomach or displacement of the bowels may result and complicate the troubles. Flatulent colic — Tympanites — Wind colic — Bloat. — Among the most frequent causes of this form of colic are to be mentioned sudden changes of food, too long fasting and food then given while the animal is exhausted, new hay or grain, large quantities of green food, food that has lain in the manger for some time and become sour, indigesti- ble food, irregular teeth, crib-biting, and in fact anything that produces indigestion may produce flatulent colic. The symptoms of wind colic are not so suddenly developed, nor so severe as those of cramp colic. At first the horse is noticed to be dull, paws slightly, may or may not lie down. The pains from the start are continuous. The belly enlarges, and by striking it in front of the haunches a drum-like sound is elicited. If not soon relieved the above symptoms are aggravated, and in addition we notice difficult breath- ing, profuse perspiration, trembling of anterior limbs, sighing respira- tion, staggering from side to side, and, finally, jilunging forward dead. The diagnostic symptom of flatulent colic is the distention of the bow- els with gas, detected by the bloated appearance and resonance on per- cussion. 5961— HOR 2* 42 The treatment for "wind colic differs very materially from that of cramp colic. Alkaliues neutralize the gases formed, and must be promptly given. Probablj' as good a domestic remedy as can be had is baking-soda, in doses of from 2 to 4 ounces. If this fails, give chlo- ride of lime in half-ounce doses, or the same quantity of carbonate of ammonia everj- half hour until relieved. Absorbents are also of serv- ice, and we may give charcoal in any quantity. Relaxants and anti- S23asmodics are also beneficial in this form of colic. Chloral hydrate not only possesses these qualities, but it also is an anti-ferment and a pain-reliever. It is then i)articularly well adapted in the treatment of wind colic, and should be given in the same sized doses and in the manner directed for spasmodic colic. A physic should always be given in flatulent colic as early as possi- ble, the best being Barbadoes aloes in the dose alreadj' mentioned. Injections, per rectum, of turpentine 1 to 2 ounces, linseed-oil 8 ounces, may be given frequently to stimulate the peristaltic motion of the bow- els and favor the escape of wind. Blankets Avrung out of hot water do much to afford relief; they should be renewed every 5 or 10 min- utes and covered with a dry woolen blanket. This form of colic is much more fatal than cramp colic, and requires prompt and persistent treatment. It is entirely unsafe to i)redict the result, some apparenth' mild attacks going on to speedy death, while others that appear at tlxe onset to be very severe yielding rapidly to treatment. Do not cease your efforts until you are sure the animal is dead. I v>-as called, in one instance, and on reaching mj' patient the owner informed me that *' the horse had just died." The heart, however, was still beating, and bj- energetic measures (tapping, etc. ) I " brought him back to lif e, " as the onlookers asserted. In these severe eases puncturing of the bowels in the most prominent (distended) part by means of a small trocar and canula, or with the needle of a hypodemic syringe, thus allowing the escape of gas, has often saved life, and such jiunctures are not followed by any bad results in the majority of instances. Impaction of the large intestines. — This is a very common bowel trouble and one which, if not promptly recognized and proper!}^ treated, results in death. It is caused mostly by overfeeding, espe- cially of grain, and I have noticed that it is much more common where lye is fed alone, or with other grains; old, dry, hard hay, or stalks when largely fed; deficiency of secretions of the intestinal tract, lack of water, want of exercise, paralysis of nerve endings, medicines, etc. Symptoms. — Impaction of the large boAvels is to be diagnosed by a slight abdominal pain, which may disappear for a day or two to reap- pear with more violence. The feces is passed somewhat more fre- quently, but in smaller quantities and more dry; the abdomen is full, but not distended with gas; the horse at first is noticed to paw and soon begins to look back at his sides. Probably one of the most char- acteristic symptoms is the position assumed when down. He lies flat 43 on his side, bead and legs extended, oceasionalh' raising liis head to look toward his flank; he remains on his side for from five to fifteen minutes at a time. Evidently this position is the one giving the most freedom from pain. He rises at times, walks about the stall, paws, looks at his sides, backs up against the stall, which he presses Avithhis tail, and soon lies do\\ii again, assuming his favored position. The bowels have ceased entirely to move. The pulse is but little changed at first, being full and sluggish; later, if this condition is not over- come, it becomes rapid and feeble. I have known horses to suffer from impaction of the boAvels for a week, jet eventually recover, and others have reported cases extending two or even three weeks which ended favorably. As a rule, however, they seldom last over four or five days, many, in fact, dying sooner than this. The irecdment consists of efforts to produce movement of the bowels, and to prevent inflammation of the same from arising. A large cathar- tic is to be given as early as possible; either of the following are recommended : Powdered Barbadoes aloes 1 ounce, calomel 2 drams, and powdered nux vomica 1 dram; or linseed oil 1 pint, and croton oil 15 droxDS. Some favor the administration of Epsom salts, 1 pound, with one-quarter pound of common salt, claiming that this causes the horse to drink largely of water, and thus mechanically softening the impacted mass and favoring its expulsion. Whichever physic is selected it is Cvssential that you give a full dose. This is much better than small and relocated doses. It must be borne in mind that horses require about twenty-four hours in which to respond to a phj'sic, and under no circumstances are physics to be repeated sooner than this. If aloes has been given and has failed to operate at the projier time, oil or some different cathartic should then be administered. Allow the hoi-se all the water he will drink. The action of the physic may be aided by giving, every three or four hours, one-half ounce of tinc- ture of belladonna, or one-half dram of powdered nux vomica. Copious enemas are to be given every hour, and should be varied; giving first soapy water, then salt and water, or the emulsions of turpentine already alluded to in describing other diseases of the bowels. Enemas of glycerine, 2 to 4 ounces, are often l)eneficial. Rubbing or knead- ing of the abdominal walls, the application of stimulating liniments or strong mustard water will also, at times, favor the expulsion of this mass. Walking exei-cise must occasionally be given. If this treat- ment is faithfully carried out from the start the majority of cases will terminate favorably. Where relief is not obtained inflammation of the bowels may ensue, and death follow from this cause. Constipation or costiveness is often witnessed in the horse, and par- ticularly in the foal. Many colts die every year from failure on the part of the attendant to note the condition of the bowels soon after birth. Whenever the foal fails to pass anj^ feces, and in i^articular if it presents any signs of colicky pains — straining, etc. — hnmediate 44 attention must be given it. As a rule, it will only be necessary to give a few injections of soapy water in the rectum and to introduce the finger through the anus to break down any hardened mass of dung found there. If this is not effective, a purgative must be given. Oils are the best for these 3'oung animals, and I mostly select castor oil, giving from 2 to 4 ounces. The foal should always get the first of the mother's milk, as this milk, for a few days, j)ossesses decided laxative properties. If a mare, while suckling, is taking laudanum or similar medicines, the foal should be fed during this time by hand and the mare milked upon the ground. Constipation in adult horses is mostly the result of long feeding on dry, innutritions food, deficiency of intes- tinal secretions, scanty water supply, or lack of exercise. If the case is not complicated with colicky symptoms, a change to light, sloppy diet, linseed gruel or tea, with x^lenty of exercise, is all that is required. If colic exists a cathartic is needed. In very many instances the con- stipated condition of the bowels is due to lack of intestinal secretions, and when so due, must be treated by giving fluid extract of belladonna three times a day in 2-dram doses, and handful doses daily of Epsom salts in the feed. ALIMENTARY CONCRETIONS — GASTRIC AND INTESTINAL. Gastric concretions, calculi {stones) i)i the stomach. — There are jjrob- ably but few symptoms exhibited by the horse that will lead us to sus- pect the presence of gastric calculi, and possibly none by which we can unmistakably assert their presence. Stones in the stomach have been most frequently found in millers' horses. A small i)iece of the mill-stone or other foreign body may serve as a nucleus around which is deposited in layers the calcareous substances which abound in their feed (the sweepings of the mill floor, mixed with good food). I have noticed, and it is generall}^ recorded by veterinary writers, that a depraved and capricious aj^petite is common in horses that have a stone forming in their stomach. There is a disposition to eat the Avood-work of the sta- ble, earth, and, in fact, almost any substance within their reach. This symptom must not, however, be considered as pathognomonic, since it is observed when calculi are not present. Occasional colics may result from these "stomach stones," and when these lodge at the outlet of the stomach they maj' give rise to symi^toms of engorged stomach, already described. I remember one instance in which I found a stone that weighed nearly 4 iiounds in the stomach of a horse. The position that seems to afford the most relief to the afflicted ani- mal is sitting upon the haunches. Constipation may or may not be l^resent. From all this we may conclude that there is reason to sus- pect the i^resence of stone in the stomach, if there is a history of depraved appetite; repeated attacks of colic (and particularly if these have recovered ahruptly) ; and the position sought by the horse while suffering — sitting on the haunches, or standing with the front feet 45 upon some elevation. Dnrini^ the fatal attack the symptoms are sim- ply those of obstruction, followed by those of inflammation and gan- grene, and are not diagnostic. There is, of course, no freatment that will prove effective. AVe can simpl j' give remedies to move the bowels, to relieve pain, and to combat inflammation. Intestinal concretions, calculi {stones) in tlie intestines. — These con- cretions are found mostly in the large bowels, though they are occa- sionally met with in the small intestines. They are of various sizes, weighing from 1 ounce to 25 pounds; they may be single or multiple, and differ in composition and appearance, some being soft (composed mostly of animal or vegetable matter), while others are porous or honey-combed (consisting of animal and mineral matter), and others again that are entirely hard and stone-like. The hair-balls, so com- mon to the stomach and intestines of cattle, are very rare in the horse. Intestinal calculi form around some foreign body as a rule, mostly a nail, piece of wood, or something of this description, whose shape they assume to a certain extent. Layers are arranged concentrically around such nucleus until the sizes above spoken of are formed. These stones are also often found in millers' horses, as Avell also as horses in lime- stone districts where the water is hard. When the calculi attain a sufficient size and become lodged or blocked in some part of the intes- tines, they cause obstruction, inflammation of the bowels, colicky symi)toms, and death. Some veterinarians pretend to diagnose the presence of these bodies during life, but I know of no certain signs or symptoms that reveal tiiem. Recurring colics and character of food and water may enable us to make a good guess at times, but nothing more. The symptoms will be those of obstruction of the bowels. Upon lyost-mortem examinations we will discover these stones, mostly in the large bowels; the intestines will be inflamed or gangrenous about the point of obstruction. Sometimes calculi have been expelled by the action of a physic, or they may be removed by tlie hand when found to occux^y the last gut. Treatment. — As in concretions of the stomach, thei-e can be but little done more than to overcome spasm (if any exists), and to give physics with the hope of dislodging the stone or stones and carrying them on and outward. Intussusception or Invagination is the slipping of a portion of the intestine into another portion immediately adjoining, like a jjartially turned glove finger. This may occur at anj' i)art of the bowels, but is most frequent in the small guts. The invaginated portion may be slight — 2 or 3 inches only — or extensive, measuring as many feet. Treves, who has written a most valuable work on intestinal obstruc- tion in man, maybe quoted in substance, to some extent. He cautions us not to confound what he classes as ' ' obstructive intussusception " with intussusception of the djdng. This latter is often seen upon 46 post-moriem examination of cliildren, or with us in young eolts. These invaginations occur shortly before death, and are due to irreguhir con- tractions of the bowels that take place during the act of dying. Mus- cular actions are, at this time, iri-egular and tumultuous, and it is not surprising that intussusception is i^roduced. "Intussusceptions of the dying" are characterized by the following peculiarities: They are small, fi'co from any trace of congestion, inflammation, or adhesion, and can very easily be reduced by slight traction; the}' are ax)t to l>e miiltiple, and are most frequently directed forward. In obstructive intussusception, on the other hand, the inturned bowel is in the direc- tion of the anus. There are adhesions of the intestines at this point, congestion, inflammation, or even gangrene. Causes of invagination. — This accident is most likely to occur in horses that are suffering from spasm of the bowel or in those where a small portion of the gut is paralyzed. The natural worm or ring-like contraction of the gut favors the passage of the contracted or par- alyzed portion into that immediately behind it. It may occur during the existence of almost Rnj abdominal trouble, as diarrhea, inflamma- tion of the bowels, or from injuries, exposure to cold, etc. Symptoms. — Unless the invaginated portion of the gut becomes strangulated, prol)abl3'' no sj^mptoms will be appreciable, except con- stipation. Strangulation of the bowel may take place suddenly, and the horse die within twenty- four hours, or it may occur after several days, a week even, and death follow at this time. There are no symptoms. positivel.y diagnostic. Colicky i^ains, more or less severe, are observed, and there are no, or but few, passages of dung. I have observed severe straining in some instances of intussusception, and this should l>e given due credit when it occurs. As death approaches the horse sweats profusely, sighs, presents an anxious countenance, the legs and ears become cold, and there is often freedom from pain immediately before death. In some rare instances the horse recovers, even though the invaginated portion of the gut has become strangu- lated. The imprisoned portion here sloughs away so gradually that a union has taken place between the intestines at the ix)int where one portion has slipped into that behind it. The piece sloughing off is found passed Avith the manure. Such cases are exceedingly rai-e, but their possibility should guide us in our treatment. Cathartic medi- cines are more calculated to do harm than good. AVe should treat with anodj'nes and anti-si)asmodics, chloral hydrate, laudanum, and sulphuric ether, and medicines to prevent inflammation. Some prac- titioners favor the administration of powdered opium, 1 to 2 drams, every three or four hours. Injections of salt and water or emulsions of turpentine are given with the somewhat fanciful idea of producing l^eristalsis of the intestines in a direction opposite to the normal one, ■i. e., contraction from the anus forward. If this can be j) rod need l)y these or any other means, it will prove a A'aluable adjunct to other 47 treatment. Soft feed and mucilaginous and nourishing di-inks are to l)e gi^•en during these attacks. li^olvuhis, Gut-tie or Twisting of the Boirels. — These are the terms applied to tlie boAvels when twisted or knotted. This accident is I'ather a conimon one, and frequently results from the violent manner in which A horse throws himself about when attacked by spasmodic colic. The symptoms are the same as those of intussusception and obstruc- tions of the bow'els; the same directions as to treatment are therefore to be observed. Diarrltea is due to eating moldy or musty food, drinking stagnant water, diseased condition of the teeth, eating irritating suljstances, to being kejit on low, marshy pastures, and exposure during cold nights, low, darnj) stables, or to some morbid or inflammatory condition of the intestinal canal or some of its annexed organs. It is more frequently a synijjtom of functional disorder than an organic disease. >Some horses are predisposed toisons, or following from inAagination, twisting of the bowels, etc. In fact, I can not remember ever to have seen but one case of enteritis apart from these or similar causes. It is claimed, however, by some that enteritis may be x)roduced bj' drinking when warm large quantities of cold water, driving through deep streams when the animal is heated, washing the entire surface of the lx)d3" at such a time, and bj' feeding moldy or musty foods, or keej)iug the horse in damp cellar stables. Symptoms. — Febrile symptoms, from the onset, mark all attacks of idiopathic enteritis. The membranes of the nose, mouth, and eyes are congested and reddened, the mouth is hot and dry, respirations are increased, the pulse is hard and rapid, temperature is elevated to 103° or 105° Fall. Colicky pains are continuous. The horse walks about the stall, paws, lies down carefully, and most frequentlj- tui-ns himself uj)on his back by the side of the stall and remains in this posi- tion for some time. Thii*st is present. As a rule, the bowels are sluggish oj" even entirely inactive, but "when this disease is due to irritant foods or medicines i^urging and tymxianites may be present. The inflammatory pulse, high temperature, continuous pain, which is increased upon pressure, position of the horse when down, coldness of ears and legs, etc., will enable us to dignose a case of enteritis. Where enteritis follows as a complication of diseases before described, the symptoms will depend upon the character of the original intestinal disorder. Treatment. — We must rely almost wholly upon opium iuternally. Give 1 or 2 drams of powdered opium every three or four hours. One dram of extract of belladonna should be added to the above doses of opium. Calomel in 1-dram doses twice a day is also recommended. As a rule, purgatives and enemas are not to be given; our object is to keep the bowels as quiet as possible. Hot blankets applied to the l)elly, or counter-irritants to abdominal walls, are ad\isable. Give mucilaginous drinks, as linseed tea, oatmeal gruel, and starch water. Avoid all solid foods that are in the least hard, dry, and indigestible. If, when the sj'mjitoms of inflammation subside, tlie bowels do not act, try to encourage this l)y means of walking exercise and iujections per rectum. Should tliese fail a mild cathartic is indicated. Another form of disease, described by some as enteritis, by others us nnico-enteritis and '''■ (ipopJexij <^>f the large h on-' els," in much uiorc common. It is perhaps the most raj)idly fatal of all l)owel diseases, and is seen most frequentlj' in heavy draught horses. Its causes are hard to determine, but it may follow exposure to cold storms, immers- ing llie body in cold water, and in fact about the same causes that j)ro- duce true enteritis. In this disease we And in the large bowels mostly 51 au extensive effusion or extravasation of blood between tlie mucous and muscular coats, giving a bluish or black color. The intestinal ■walls are thickened by this effusion and sometimes measure from 2 to 3 inches in thickness. The s>jiiipfo)}i.s are severe and i^ersistent x)ain, lalx>red resi)ii*ation, rapid and ireali: pulse, profuse pei"spiration, and paleness of the visi- ble mucous membranes. A peculiar, anxious exi^ression exists that, once seen, is almost diagnostic. Toward the last the horse sighs, breathes stertoroush', staggers and pitches about, and dies in a state of delirium. The}' rarely live more than ten or twelve hours, and often die inside of six hours. Treatment. — This is of but little avail, since the case has mostly made great progress before being seen. Probably the best domestic remedy is white-oak bark tea given in large and frequently repeated doses. Tannic acid, 1 dram, or fluid extract of ergot, 1 ounce, are preferable, if at hand, and can be given everj* half hour until four or five doses have been taken. Hot applicatious to the body — blankets wrung out of hot water and sprinkled with turpentine — are to be ap- plied frequently. Mustard water should be applied with smart fric- tion to the legs. Could we see these cases at their inception general blood-letting might j)rove of service. Her)! la. — There are several different kinds of hernia? that require notice at this j)oint, not all of which, however, produce any serious symptoms or results. Abdominal hernije or ruptures are divided into reducihie, irreducible, and strangidated, according to condition; and into inguincd, scrotal, rentral, umhilicalySind diapliragmatic, according to their situation. A hernia is reducU)Je when it can be easily returned into the aMomen. It consists of a soft swelling, without heat, pain, or any uneasiness, generally larger after a full meal, and decreases in size as the bowels become empty. An irreducible hernia is one that can not be returned into the abdomen, and j'et does not cause any pain or uneasiness. Strangidated hernia is one where the contents of the sac are greatly distended, or whej-e from pressure upon the blood-vessels of the imprisoned portion the venous circulation is checked or stopped, thereby causing extensiA'e congestion, swelling, inflammation, and, if not relieved, gangrene of the part and death of the animal. Hernia may be congenital and accidental or acquired. Congenital scrotal hernia. — Not a few foals are noticed from birth to have an enliirged scrotum, which gradually increases in size up to about the sixth month, sometimes longer. In some instances I have noticed the scrotum of a six-months old colt to be as large as that of an adult stallion, and have been repeatedly asked to prescribe treat- ment for it. This is entirely unnecessary in ninety-nine out of every hundred cases, as this enlargement entirel}' disappears by the time the colt has reached his second year. Any interference, medicinal or surgical, is worse than useless. If the intestine contained within the 52 scrotum slioiild at any time become strangulated., it must then be treated the same as in an adult horse. Scrotal hernia is caused by dilatation of the sheath of the testicle, combined with relaxation of the fibrous tissue surrounding the ingui- nal ring, thus allowing the intestine to descend to the scrotum. At first this is intermittent, appearing during work and returning when the horse is at rest. For a long time this form of hernia may not cause the least uneasiness or distress. In course of time, however, the imprisoned gut becomes filled with feces, its return into the abdominal cavity is i)revented, and it soon becomes strangulated. While the gut is thus filling the horse often appears dull, is disinclined to move, appetite is impaired, and there is rumbling and obstruction of the bowels. Colicky symptoms now suiiervene. I do not wish to imply that strangulation and its consequent train of symptoms always fol- low in scrotal hernia, as I know of an old horse where the scrotum, by weight of the contained gut, forms a pendulous tumor reaching half way to the hock, and yet he has never experienced any serious inconvenience. Inguinal hernia is but an incomplete scrotal hernia, and, like the latter, may exist and cause no signs of distress, or again it may become strangulated and cause the death of the animal. Inguinal hernia is seen mostly in stallions, next in geldings, and very rarely in the mare. Bearing in mind that scrotal hernia is seen onlj^ in horses, we can pro- ceed to detail the synq^torns of both strangulated, inguinal, and scrotal hernia at the same time. When, during the existence of colicky symptoms, we find a horse kicking with his hind feet Avliile standing, or lying upon his back, we should look to the inguinal region and scrotum. If scrotal hernia exists the scrotum will be enlarged and lobulated ; by pressure we may force a portion of the contents of the gut back into the abdomen, eliciting a gurgling sound. If we take a gentle but firm hold upon the enlarged scrotum and then have an assistant cause the horse to cough, the swelling will be felt to expand and as quickly contract again. The history of these cases will materially aid us, as the owner can often assure us of preceding attacks of "colic," more or less severe, that have been instantaneously relieved in some (to him) unaccount- able manner. The colicky symptoms of these herni?e are "not diag- nostic, but, x)robably, more closelj' resemble those of enteritis than any other bowel diseases. Cold sweats, particularly of the scrotum and thighs, are held by some writers to be liathognomonic. The diagnosis can, in many cases, onl}' be made by a veterinarian, when he has recourse to a rectal examination ; the bowels can here be felt entering the internal al^dominal ring. If the reader can be sure of the existence of these hernipp, he should secure the horse ujpon its back, and, with a hand in the rectum, endeavor to catch hold of tlie wandering bowel and pull it gently back into the cavity of the 53 abdomen. Pressure should be made upon the scrotum during this time. I once succeeded in reducing a strangulated scrotal hernia, after having cast the animal, l)y keeping a bag of cracked ice ui3on the scrotum, thus condensing the imprisoned gases and causing con- traction of the swelling. If these means fail a veterinarian must be called to reduce the hernia by means of incising the inguinal ring, replacing the intestines, and castrate, using clamps and performing the "covered operation." Ventral hernia. — In this form of hernia the protrusion is through some accidental ox)ening or rujiture of some of the abdominal coats or coverings. It may occur at any part of the belly except at the umbili- cus, and is caused by kicks, blows, hooks, severe jumping or pulling, etc. Ventral hernia is most common in i^regnant mares, and is here due to the weight of the foetus or some degenerative changes taking place in the abdominal coats. It is recognized by the appearance of a swelling, at the base of which can be felt the opening or rent in the abdominal tunics, and from the fact that the swelling containing the intestines can be made to disappear when the animal is placed in a favorable position. Treatment. — In many instances there is no occasion for treatment, and again, where the hernial sac is extensive, treatment is of no avail. If the hernia is small we may attempt a cure by the methods to be described in treating of umliilical hernia. If we are fortunate enough to be jiresent when the hernia occurs, and particularly if it is not too large, we may, by the j)roper application of a i)ad and broad bandage, effect a perfect cure. Umjjilical hernia is the passing of any portion of the bowel or omen- tum through the navel, forming a "tumor" at this jioint. This is often congenital in our animals, and is due to the imperfect closure of the umbilicus and to the ijosition of the body. Many cases of umbilical hernia, like inguinal and scrotal of the congenital kind, dis- appear entirely by the time the animal reaches its second or third year. Advancing age favors cure in these cases from the fact that the omentum (swinging suj)port of tlie bowels) is proportionally shorter in adults than in foals, thus lifting the intestines out of the hernial sac and allowing the opening in the walls to close. Probably one of the most fre(|uent causes of umbilical hernia in foals is the practice of keeping tliem too long from their dams, causing them to fret and worry, and to neigh or cry by the hour. The contraction of the abdom- inat muscles and pressure of the intestines during neighing seem to open the umbilicus and induce hernia. Accidents may cause umbil- ical hernia in adults in the same manner as ventral hernia is produced, though this is very rare. Treatment. — The treatment of umbilical hernia varies much with different practitioners. We should remember the fact that congenital hernise are often removed with age, but probabh^ congenital umbilical 54 hernia? less frequently tliau others. Among tlie many jjlans of treat- ment are to be mentioned the application of a pad over the tumoi-, the pad being held in place by a l)road, tiglit bandage placed around tlie animal's bodj'. Tlie chief objection to this is the difficulty in keeping the pad in its place. Blisters are often applied over the swelling, and as the skin hardens and contracts by tlie formation of scabs an artifi- cial bandage or i^ressure is produced that at times is successful. Another treatment that has gained considerable repute of late years consists in first clipping off the hair over the swelling. Nitric acid is tlien applied by a small brush, using only enough to moisten the skin. This sets up a deep-seated adhesive inflammation, which, in veiy many cases, closes the oj)ening in the navel. Still another plan is to inject a solution of common salt by means of the hypodermic syringe at three or four i)oints about the base of the swelling. This acts in the same manner as the preceding, but in my experience is not as effectual. Others again, after keeping the animal fasting for a few hours, cast and secure it upon its back; the bowel is then carefullj^ returned into the abdomen. The skin over the opening is to be pinched up and one or two skewers are to be run tlirough the skin from side to side as close as j)ossible to the umbilical opening. The skewers are kept in place by j)assing a cord around the skin between them and the abdo- men and securely tied. Great care must be taken not to draw these cords ioo fiylii, as this would cause a speedy slough of the skin, the intestines would extrude, and death result. If properly applied an adhesion is established between the skin and the umbilicus which effectually closes the orifice. Diaphragmatic hernia. — This consists of the passage of any of the abdominal viscera through a rent in the diaphragm (midriff) into the cavity of the tliorax. It is rather a rare accident and one often impos- sible to diagnose during life. Colicky symjitoms, accompanied by great difficulty in breathing, and the peculiar position so often assumed (that of sitting upon the haunches), are somewhat character- istic of this trouble, though those symptoms, as we have already seen, may be i^resent during diseases of the stomach or anterior j)orti()n of the bowels. Even could we pronounce, with certainty, this form of hernia, there is little or nothing that can Ix^ done. Leading the horse uj) a very steep gangway or causing liim to I'oar up may possibly cause the hernial i)ortion to return to its natural position. Tliis is not enough, however; it must be kept there. Peritonitis is an inflammation of the serous membrane lining the cavity of and covering the viscera contained within the abdomen. It is very rare to see a case of idiopathic peritonitis. It is, however, somewhat common from extension of the inflammatory action involv- ing organs covei-ed by the peritoneum. I*eritonitis is often caused by injuries, as iiunctured wounds of tlie abdomen, severe blows or kicks, 55 or, as is still more common, foUoAving the operation of castration. It follows frequently from strangulated hernise, invagination, rupture of the stomach, intestines, liver, or womb. Sijnipto)ns. — Peritonitis is mostly preceded bj' a chill; the horse is not disposed to move, and if comj)elled to do so moves with a stiff or sore gait ; he paws with the front feet, and probablj' strikes at hisbelh* with the hind ones; lies down very carefully, and as the pain is increased while down he maintains during most of the time the stand- ing position; he walks uneasily- about the stall. Constipation is usu- ally present. Pressure on the belly causes acute pain, and the horse will bite, strike, or kick at you if so disturbed; the abdomen is tucked up; the extremities tine and cold. The temperature is higher than normal, reaching from 102° to KM"" Fall. The pulse in peritonitis is almost, of itself, diagnostic; it is quickened, beating from seventy to ninety beats jyev minute, and is Jiard and icinj. This peculiarity of the puise is characteristic of inflammation of the serous membrane, and if occurring with colicky sjnnptoms, and, in particular, if follow- ing any injuries, accidental or surgical, of the jperitoneum, we may rest assured that peritonitis is present. Peritonitis in the horse is mostly fatal when it is at all extensive. If death does not occur in a short time, the inflammation assumes a chronic form, in which there is an extensive effusion of water in the cavity of the belly, consti- tuting what is known as ascites, and which, as a rule, results in death. The iveatment of peritonitis is to be somewhat like that of enteritis. Opium in powder, 1 to 2 drams, with calomel, one-half dram, is to be given ever}- two, three, or four hours, and constitutes our main depend- ence in this disease. Extensive counter-irritants over the belly, con- sisting of mustard-plasters, turpentine stupes, or even mild blisters, are highly recommended. Purgatives must never be given during this complaint. Should we desire to move the bowels it can be done by gentle enemas, though it is seldom necessary to resort even to this. Ascites, or droi)sy of the abdomen, is mostly seen as a result of sul)- acute or chronic peritonitis, but may be due to diseases of the liver, kidneys, heart, or lungs. There will be found, on opening the cavity of the belly, a large collection of yelloAvish or reddish licxuid; from a few quarts to several gallons may be present. It may be clear in color, though generally it is yellowish or of a red tint, and contains numer- ous hjose flakes of coagulable h'mph. Symptoms. — There is a slight tenderness on pressure; awkward gait of the hind legs; the horse is dull, and may have occasional xevy slight colicky j)ains, shown by looking back and striking at the belly with the hind feet, Oftener, however, these colicky symptoms are absent. Diarrhea often j)recedes death, but during the progress of the disease the bowels are alternately constipated and loose. On percussing the abdominal walls we find that dullness exists /o the same lieighf on both sides of the belly; bj'" suddenly pushing or striking the abdomen Ave 56 can hear the rushing or flooding of water. If the case is an advanced one the horse is pot-bellied to the extreme, and dropsical swellings are seen under the belly and upon the legs. Treatment is, as a rule, unsatisfactory. Saline cathartics, as Epsom or Glauber salts, and diuretics, ounce doses of saltpeter, are to be given. If a veterinarian is at hand he should withdraw the accumu- lation of water by tapping and should then endeavor to i)revent its recurrence (though this is almost sure to follow) l)y giving three times a day saltpeter, 1 ounce, and iodide of i^otash, 1 dram, and by the application of mustard or blisters over the abdominal walls. Tonics, mineral and vegetable, are also indicated. Probably the best tonic is one consisting of powdered sulphate of iron, gentian, and ginger in equal parts. A heaping tablespoonful of the mixture is to be given as a drench or mixed with the feed, twice a day. Good nutritious foods and gentle exercise complete the treatment. DISEASES OF THE LIVER. This organ in the horse is but rarely the seat of disease, and when we consider how frequently the liver of man is affected, this can not , but appear strange to all. There is a difference of the anatomical arrangement of the liver of the horse from that of man that may to some extent account for this rarity of disease in the former. It is very common to hear the would-be veterinarian assert that a horse "has disease of his gall-bladder." He thus displays his ignorance, as the horse has no such biliary reservoir. This absence of the gall- bladder may account to a certain extent for his freedom from liver diseases; as over-distension of this and the presence in it of calculi (stones) in man is a frequent source of trouble. In domestic animals, as in man, hot climates tend to produce diseases of the liver, just as in cold climates lung diseases prevail. Not only are diseases of the liver rare in horses, but they are also A'ery obscure, and in many cases i^ass totally unobserved until after death. There are some symptoms, however, which, when jDresent, should make us examine the liver as carefully as jiossible. These are jaundice (yellowness of the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, and ej^es) and the condi- tion of the dung, it being light in color and j)asty in appearance. Hepatitis, inflammation of the liver, maybe general or local and may assume an acute or chronic form. The symptoms of acute hepatitis are: Dulless; the horse is sufi'ering from some internal pain, but not of a severe type; constipated and clay-colored dung balls, scanty and high-colored urine, and general febrile symptoms. If lying down he is mostly found on the left side; looks occasionally toward the right side, which, upon close inspection, may be found to be slightly enlarged over the posterior ribs, where pain upon pressure is also evinced. Obscure lameness in front, of the right leg mostly, is said by some of the best veterinary writers to be a symptom of hepatitis. 57 The horse, toward tlie last, reels or staggers in his gait and falls backward in a fainting fit, dnring one of which he finally succninbs. Death is sometimes due to rupture of the enveloping coat of the liver or of some of its blood-vessels. Among the causes that lead to this disease we must mention first the stimulating effect of overfeeding, particularly during hot Aveather. Those horses that are well fed and receive but little exercise — old favorites that are being liberally fed and have passed the time of service, pensioned heroes of years of faithful toil — these are the best subjects for diseases of this organ. We must add to these causes the more mechanical ones, as injuries on the right side over the liver, worms in the liver, gall-stones in the biliary ducts, foreign bodies, as needles or nails that have been swallowed and in their wanderings have entered the liver, and, lastly, in some instances, the extension of inflammation from neighboring i^arts, thus involving this organ. Acute hepatitis may terminate in chronic inflammation, abscesses, rupture of the liver, or may disappear, leaving behind no trace of disease whatever. Treatment. — This should consist, at first, of the administration of 1 ounce of Barbadoes aloes or other i^hysic. A large blister is to be applied to the right side, letting it extend from a little behind the girth backward to the last rib and in width about 12 to 14 inches mid- way between the si^ine above and the middle of the belly below. General blood-letting, if had recourse to early, must prove of much benefit in acute inflammation of the liver. The vein in the neck — jugular — must be opened, and from 4 to G quarts of blood may be drawn. Saline medicines, to act on the kidneys, should follow this treatment ; 1-ounce doses of saltpeter or muriate of ammonia, repeated three or four times a day, are jirobably as good as any. The horse is to be fed sx)aringly on soft food, bran-mashes chiefly. If we prove successful and recovery takes place, see to it that the horse afterwards gets regular exercise and that his food is not of a highly nutritious character, or excessive. It will, I think, be useless to attempt much of a description of chronic Jiepatitis, the sj-mptoms of this trouble being so obscure that the veterinary surgeon, in most cases, can scarcely hope to do more than diagnose it by exclusion. True, if a horse has had acute hepati- tis and remains dull for too great a length of time, with occasional slight colicky symptoms, yellow membranes, etc., we may not fear of being far wrong in saying that this disease has passed to the chronic form ; but to diagnose this form of hepatitis, without any such pre- vious knowledge of the case, is, to tell the truth, very often " guess- work " with us. Jaundice — Icterus — llie Yellou-s. — This is a condition caused by the retention and absorption of bile into the blood. It was formerly considered to be a disease of itself, but can not, I think, be accepted 58 as more thau a symptom, or at most as expressing the existence of functional disorder of the liver. "The Yellows" is observed by look- ing at the eyes, nose, and month, wlien it will be seen that these parts are yellowish instead of the pale-pink color of health. In white or light-colored horses the skin even may show this yellow tint. The nrine is saffron-colored, the dung is of a dirty gray color, and consti- pation is mostly present. Jaundice may be present as a sjnnptom of almost any inflammatorj- disease. AVe know that when an animal is "fevered" the secretions are checked, the bile is retained and absorbed throughout the system, and yellowness of the mucous mem- branes follows. Jaundice may also exist during the presence of sim- ple constiiiation, liepatitis, biliary calculi, abscesses, hardening of the liver, etc. Treafmerif. — When jaundice exists we must endeavor to rid the system of the excess of bile, and this is best accomplished by giving purgatives that act \x])o\\ the liver. Calomel, 2 drams, with aloes, 7 drams, should be given. Glauber salts in handful doses once or tAvice a day for a week is also effective. May-apple, rhubarb, castor oil, and other cathartics that act upon the first or small bowels, may be selected. We must be careful to see that the l)owels are kept open by avoiding hard, dry, bulky foods. Eupiure of the liver. — This is known to occur at times in the horse, most frequently in old, fat horses and those that get but little exer- cise. Horses that have suffered from chronic liver disease for years eventually present symptoms of colic and die quite suddenly. Upon posf-morfem examination Ave discover that the liver had ruptured. The cicatrices or scars that are often found upon the liver lead me to think that that organ may suffer smdJl rui)ture and yet the horse recover from it. This result can not obtain, however, if the rent or tear is extensive, since in sucli cases death must quickly follow from hemorrhage, or, later, from peritonitis. Enlarged liver is particularly liable to rupture, and it is not surprising that, when we read of this organ weighing 55 to GO pounds, this accident occurs. The immediate causes of ruj)ture appear to be excessive muscular exertion, sudden distention of the abdomen with gas, or some accident, as falling or being kicked by another horse. The synipioms of rupture Avill dei)end upon the extent of the lacer- ation. If slight there will be simplj' the symptoms of abdominal i^ain, looking back to tlie sides, lying down, etc. ; if extensive the horse is dull and dejected, has no appetite, l)reathing becomes short and catching; he sighs or sobs, visible mucous membranes are pale, extrem- ities cold, pulse fast, small, and Aveak or running down. Countenance noAv shoAvs much distress, he SAveats i)rofusely, totters in his gait, props liis legs Avide apart, reels, staggers, and falls. He may get up again, but soon falls dead. The rapid running-doAvn pulse, paleness of the eyes, nose, and mouth, sighing, stertorous breathing, tottering < .-V .->: St- •': ^ K ^ >> i; ^ V, Ni iT v; :§ t^ PLATE n The adult. A Hoen jCo LitbocausticBaltimon 13 c) ^r s . 1 Bots in tiie stomach . 2 Bots in Mie duodenum . OxuuT^is ciiriuda.. PI. ATE m. SderostomcL armatum^. Haines,del. ^scfiris TnegaLocepftjalo^. A Hoen SCo bth, Baltimore. 59 gait, etc., are the symi)toms by Avhich we kiioAv that the animal is dying from internal hemorrhage. Treaimeui. — But little can be done. Opium in povrder, in doses of 2 drams every two or three hours, maj' be given, with the idea of pre- venting as much as possible all movements of internal organs. If we have reason to suspect internal bleeding we should give large and frequent doses of white-oak bark tea, dram doses of tannic or gallic acid, or the same quantity of sugar of lead, everj' half hour or hour. Fluid extract of ergot or tincture of the chloride of iron, in ounce doses, maj' be selected. Cold water dashed upon the right side or injected into the rectum is highly spoken of as a means of checking the hemorrhage. Biliary calculi — Gall-stone.^. — These are rarely found in the horse, but may occupy the hei^atic ducts, giving rise to jaundice and to colicky pains. There are no absolutely diagnostic symptoms, but should we find a horse that suffers from repeated attacks of colic, accompanied by symptoms of violent pain, and that during or follow- ing these attacks the animal is jaundiced, we may liazard the conjec- ture that gall-stones are present. There is little or nothing to be done excex)t to give medicines to overcome pain, trusting that these concre- tions may pass on to the bowels, where, from their small size, they will not occasion any inconvenience. Diseases of the pancreas and spleen are so rare, or their symi^toms so little understood, that it is impossible to write anj-thing concerning either of these organs and their simple diseases that will convey to the reader information from a worthy stand-point, i. e. , that of experi- ence and observation. It is sometimes well, even for the veterinarian, to know that he does not know. This knowledge has saved my readers an infliction. DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. By JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S., Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University. The iirinaiy organs constitute the main channel through which are excreted the nitrogenous or albuminoid iDrinciples, whether derived directly from the food or from the muscular and other nitrogenized tissues of the body. They constitute, besides, the channel through which are thrown out most of the poisons, whether taken in by the moutli or skin or develoxDcd in connection with faulty or natural digestion, blood-forming, nutrition, or tissue destruction; or, finally, poisons that are developed within the bod}" as the result of normal cell-life or of the life of bacteria or other germs that have entered the body from Vv-ithout. To a large extent, therefore, these organs are the sanitary scavengers and purifiers of the system, and when their functions are impaired or arrested the retained poisons quickly show their presence in resulting disorders of the skin and connective tissue beneath it, of the nervous system, or other organs. Nor is this influ- ence one-sided. Scarcely an important organ of the body can suffer derangement without entailing a corresponding disorder of the urinary system. Nothing can be more striking than the mutual balance maintained between the liquid secretions of the skin and kidneys dur- ing hot and cold weather. In summer, when so much liquid exhales through the skin as sweat, comparatively' little urine is passed, whereas in winter, when the skin is inactive, the urine is correspond- ingly increased. This vicarious action of skin and kidneys is usually kept within the limits of health, but at times the draining ofC of the water by the skin leaves too little to keej) the solids of the urine safely in solution, and these are liable to crj'stallize out and form stone and gravel. Similarly the passage in the sweat of some of the solids that normally leave the bod}', dissolved in the urine, serves to irritate the skin and produce troublesome eruptions. A disordered liver contrib- utes to the i)roduction, under different circumstances, of an excess of biliary coloring-matter, which stains the urine; of an excess of hip- puric acid and allied products, which, being less soluble than urea 61 62 (tlie uorinal protluct of tissue cliango), favor the formation of stone, of taurocliolic acid, and otlier bodies that tend, when in excess, to destroy the blood globules and to cause irritation of the kidneys by the resulting- haemoglobin excreted in the urine, and of glycogen too abundant to be burned up in the system, which induces saccharine urine (diabetes). Any disorder leading to impaired functional activ- ity of the lungs is causative of an excess of hippurie acid and allied bodies, of oxalic acid, of sugar, etc. , in the urine, which irritate the kidneys even if they do not produce solid deposits in the urinary pas- sages. Diseases of the nervous system, and notably of the base of the brain and of the spinal cord, induce various urinary disorders, prominent among which are diabetes, chylous urine, and albuminuria. Certain affections, with imperfect nutrition or destructive waste of the bony tissues, tend to charge the urine with iihosphates of lime and magnesia, and endanger the formation of stone and gravel. In all extensive inflammations and acute fevers the liquids of the urine are diminished, while the solids (waste products), which should form the urinary secretion, are increased, and the surcharged urine proves irritant to the urinary organs or the retained waste products poison the system at large. Diseases of the heart and lungs, by interfering with the free onward flow of the blood from the right side of the heart, tend to throw that liquid back on the veins, and this backward pressure of venous blood strongh- tends to disorders of the kidneys. Certain poisons taken with the food and water, notably that found in magnesian limestone and those found in irritant diuretic plants, are especially injurious to the kidneys, as are also various cryptogams, vrhether i^resent in musty hay or oats. The kidney's may be irritated by feeding green vegetables covered with hoar-frost or by furnishing an excess of food rich in phos- phates (wheat bran, beans, pease, vetches, lentils, rape-cake, cotton- seed cake) or bj^ a privation of water which entails a concentrated condition and high density of the urine. Exposure in cold rain or snow storms, cold draughts of air, and damp beds are liable to fur- ther disorder an already overworked or irrital)lo kidney. Finally, sprains of the back and loins may cause bleeding from the kidneys or inflammation. The right kidnej^, weighing 23^ ounces, is shaped like a French bean, and extends from the loins forward to beneath the heads of the last two ribs. The left kidnej- (Plate lY) resembles a heart of cards, and extends from the loins forward beneath the head of the last rib only. Each consists of three distinct i^arts, («)the external (cortical) or vas- cular part, in which the blood-vessels form elaborate capillar}^ networks within the dilated globular sacs which form the beginnings of the secret- ing (uriniferous) tubes and on the surface of the sinuous secreting tubes leading from the sacs inward toward the second or medullary l^art of the organ; (?>) the internal (medullary) part, made up in the main of blood- vessels, lympluilu-s, aud nerves extending Ix'tween tlie notch on the inner border of the kidney to and from the oviter vascular portion, in which the secretion of urine is almost exclusively carried on; and ((/) a large saccular reservoir in the center of the kidney, into which all uriniferous tubes pour their secretions and from which the urine is carried away through a tube y (ureter), which passes out of thenotcli at the inner 1)order of the kidney and which opens by a valve- closed orifice into the roof of the bladder just in front of its neck. The bladder is a dilatable reservoir for the retention of the urine until the discomfort of its presence causes its voluntary discharge. It is kept closed by circular muscular fibers surrounding its neck or orifice, and is emptied by looped muscular fibers extending in all directions for- ward from the neck around the blind anterior end of the sac. From the bladder the urine escapes through a dilatable tube (urethra) which extends from the neck of the bladder backward on the floor of the pel- vis, and in the male through the penis to its free end, where it oi)ens through a pink conical papilla. In the mare the urethra is not more than an inch in length, and is surrounded by the circular muscular fibers closing the neck of the bladder. Its opening may be found directly in the median line of the fl(X)r of the vulva, about 4i inches from its external opening. General symptoms. — These apjjly especially to acute inflammations and the irritation caused l>y stone. The animal moves stiifly on the hind limbs, straddles, and makes frequent attempts to -pass urine, which may be in excess, deficient in amount, liable to sudden arrest in spite of the straining, passed in driblets, or entirely suppressed. Again, it may be modified in density or constituents. Difficulty in making a sharp turn, or in lying down and rising with or without groaning, dropping the back when mounted or when pinched on the loins is suggestive of kidney disease, and so to a less extent are swelled legs, dropsy, and diseases of the skin and nervous system. The oiled hand introduced through the rectum may feel the bladder beneath and detect any over-distension, swelling, tenderness, or stone. In ponies the kidneys even may be reached. Examinaiion of the urine. — In some cases the changes in the urine are the sole sign of disease. In health the horse's urine is of a deep amber color and has a strong odor. On a feed of grain and hay it may show a uniform transparency, while on a green ration there is an abundant white deposit of carbonate of lime. Of its morbid changes the following are to be looked for: (1) CoJor: White from deposited salts of lime ; bro-rni or red from blood clots or coloring matter; yellow or orange from bile or blood-pigment; pale from excess of water, or variously colored from vegetable ingredients (santonin makes it red, rhubarb or senna, brown; tar or carbolic acid, green). (2) Density: The horse's urine maybe 1.030 to 1.050, but it may greatly exceed this in diabetes and may sink to 1.007 in diuresis. (3) Chemical re-action, 64 as ascertained by blue litmus or red test papers. The horse on vege- table diet has alkaline urine turning red test papers blue, while in the sucking-colt and the horse fed on flesh or on his own tissues (in star- vation or abstinence during disease) it is acid, turning blue litmus red. (4) Organic constituents, as when glairy from albumen coagulableby strong nitric acid and boiling, when charged with microscopic casts of the uriniferous tubes, with the eggs or bodies of worms, with sugar, blood, or bile. (5) In its salts, which may crystallize out spontaneously, or on boiling, or on the addition of chemical re-agents. Albuminous urine in the horse is usually glairy, so that it may be drawn out in threads, but its presence can always be tested as fol- lows: If the liquid is opaque, it may be first passed through filter paper; if very dense and already precipitating its salts, it may be diluted with distilled water; add to the suspected liquid acetic acid drop by drop until it reddens the blue litmus paper; then boil gently in a test tube; if a precipitate is thrown down, set the tube aside to cool and then add strong nitric acid. If the j^recipitate is not dis- solved it is albumen; if dissolved it was probably urate or hii)i)urate of ammonia. Albumen is normally present in advanced gestation; abnormally it is seen in diseases in which there occurs destruction of blood globules (anthrax, low fevers, watery states of the blood, drop- sies), in diseases of the heart and liver which prevent the free escape of blood from the veins and throw back venous pressure on the kid- neys, in inflammation of the lungs and jjleurpe, and even tympany (bloating), doubtless from the same cause, and in all congestive or inflammatory diseases of the kidneys, acute or chronic. Casts of the uriniferous tubes can only be seen by placing the sus- pected urine under the microscope. They are usually very elastic and mobile, waving about in the liquid when the cover-glass is touched, and showing a uniform clear transparency (waxy) or entan- gled circular epithelial cells or opaque granules or flattened red blood globules or clear refrangent oil globules. They may be even densely opaque from crystals of earthy salts. Pus cells may be found in the urine associated with albumen, and are recognized by clearing ui), when treated with acetic acid, so that each cell shows two or three nuclei. DIURESIS — POLYURIA — DIABETES INSIPIDUS — EXCESSIVE SECRETION OF URINE. This consists in an excessive secretion of a clear, watery urine of a low speciflc gravity (1.007) with a correspondingly ardent thirst, a rapidly advancing emaciation, and great loss of strength and spirit. Its causes may be any agent, medicinal, alimentary, or j)oisonous, which unduly stimulates the kidneys; the reckless administration of diuretics, which form such a common constituent of quack horse- powders; acrid diuretic plants in grass or hay; new oats still imper- fectly cured; an excess of roots or other very waterj^ food; a full 65 allowance of salt to animals that have become inordinately fond of it; but, above all, feeding on hay, grain, or bran which has not been properly dried and has become musty and permeated by fungi. Thus hay, straw, or oats secured in wet seasons and heating in the rick or stack is esi^ecially injurious. Hence this malady, like coma somno- lentum (sleepy staggers), is widespread in wet seasons, and especially in rainy districts. Sijmpfoms. — The horse drinks deep at every oj)portunity and passes urine on every occasion when stopped, the discharge being x^ale, watery, of a low density, and inodorous; in short, it contains a great excess of water and a deficiency of the solid excretions. So great is the quantity passed, however, that the small amount of solids in any given specimen amounts in twenty-four hours to far more than the normal, a fact in keeping with the rapid wasting of the tissues and extreme emaciation. The flanks become tucked up, the fat disap- pears, the bones and muscles stand out prominently, the skin becomes tense and hidebound, and the hair erect, scurfy, and deficient in luster. The eye becomes dull and sunken, the sj^irits are depressed, the animal is weak and sluggish, sweats on the slightest exertion, and can endure little. The subject may survive for months, or he may die early of exhaustion. In the slighter cases, or when the cause ceases to operate, he may make a somewhat tardy recovery. Treatment. — This consists in stopping the ingestion of the faulty drugs, poisons, or food, and supplying sound hay and grain free from all taint of heating or mustiness. A liberal supply of boiled flaxseed in the drinking water at once serves to eliminate the poison and to sheath and protect the irritated kidneys. Tonics like sulphate or phosphate of iron (2 drams morning and evening) and powdered gen- tian or Peruvian bark (4 drams) help greatly by bracing the sj^stem and hastening repair. To these may be added agents calculated to destro}^ the fungus and eliminate its poisonous products. In that form w^hich depends on musty food nothing acts better than large doses of iodide of potassium (2 drams), while in other cases ci-eosote, carbolic acid (1 dram), or oil of turpentine (4 drams) i^roperly diluted, may be resorted to. SACCHARINE DIABETES — DIABETES MELLITUS — GLYCOSURIA — INOSURIA. This is primarily a disease of the nervous system or liver rather than of the kidneys, j^et, as the most prominent symptom is the sweet urine, it may be treated here. Its causes are varied, but resolve themselves largely into disorder of the liver or disorder of the brain. Ono of the most prominent functions of the liver is the formation of glycogen, a principle allied to grape-sugar, and passing into it by further oxidation in the blood. This is a constant function of the 5961— HOR 3 6G liver, but in liealtli the resulting sugar is burneu up m the circula- tion and does not apx3ear in the urine. On the contrary, when the sui^ply of oxygen is defective, as in certain diseases of the lungs, the whole of the sugar does not undergo combustion and the excess is excreted by the kidneys. Also in certain forms of enlarged liver the amount of sugar x^roduced is more than can l>e disj^osed of in the natural way, and it appears in tlie urine. A temporary sweetness of the urine often occurs after a hearty meal on starchy food, but this is due altogether to the su]oerabundant sux)ply of the sugar-forming food, lasts for a few hours only, and has no ^pathological significance. In many cases of fatal glycosuria the liver is found to be enlarged, or at least congested, and it is found that the disorder can be produced experimentally by agencies which j)roduce an increased circulation through the liver. Thus Bernard produced glycosuria by pricking the oblong medulla at the base of the brain close to the roots of the pneumogastric nerve, which happens to be also the nerve center (vaso-motor) which presides over the contractions of the minute blood- vessels. The x)ricking and irritation of this center leads to congestion of the liver and the excessive production of sugar. Irritation carried to this point through the pneumogastric nerve causes saccharine urine, and, in keeping with this, disease of the pancreas has been found in this malady, the irritation being conveyed thence to the brain through the i)neumogastric nerve and reflected to the liver through the vaso-motor nerves. The same result follows the reflection of irri- tation from other sources, as from different ganglia (corpora striata, optic tlialami, x>ons, cerebellum, cerebrum) of the brain. Similarly it is induced by interruption of the nervous control along the A'aso- motor tracts, as in destruction of the upper or lower cervical sym- pathetic ganglion, by cutting the nervous branch connecting these two, in injury to the spinal marrow in the interval between the brain and the second or fourth dorsal vertebra, or in disease of the coeliac plexus, which direclt}^ iDresides over the liver. Certain chemical poi- sons also cause saccharine urine, notably woorara, strychnia, morphia, phosphoric acid, alcohol, ether, chloroform, quinia, ammonia, and arsenic. The sympfoms are ardent thirst and profuse secretion of a pale urine of a high density (LOGO and upward), rapid loss of condition, scurfy, unthrifty skin, costiveness or irregularity of the bowels, indigestion, and the presence in the urine of a sweet principle, grape-sugar or ino- site, or both. This maj^ be most i^romptly detected by touching the tip of the tongue with a drop. Sugar may be detected simply by adding a teaspoonf ul of liquid yeast to 4 ounces of the urine and keep- ing it lightly stopped at a temperature of 70° to 80° F., for twelve hours, whe)i the sugar will be found to have been changed into alco- hol and carbon dioxide. The loss of density will give indication of the amount of sugar transformed; thus a density of 1,035 in a urine 67 wliicli was fonuerly LOGO would indicate about 15 grains of sugar to the fluid ounce. Inosite or muscle-sugar, frequently present in the horse's urine, and even replacing the glucose, is not fermentable. Its i)resence may be indicated by its sweetness and the absence of fermentation, or by Gal- lois' test. Evaporate the suspected urine at a gentle heat almost to drj'uess, then add a droj) of a solution of mercuric nitrate and evapo- rate carefully to dryness, when a 3'ellowish residue is left that is changed on further cautious heating to a deep rose-color, which dis- appears on cooling and reapi^ears on heating. In advanced diabetes, dropsies in the limbs and under the chest and bell}^, puffy, swollen eyelids, cataracts, catarrhal inflammation of the lungs, weak, uncertain gait, and drowsiness may be noted. Treatment is most satisfactory in cases dependent on some curable disease of liver, pancreas, lungs, or brain. Thus, in liver diseases, a run at j)asture in Avarm weather, or in winter a warm, sunn}^ well- aired stable, with sufficient clothing and laxatives (sulxDhate of soda, 1 ounce daily) and alkalies (carbonate of potassium, one-fourth ounce) may benefit. To this may be added mild blistering, cupping, or even leeching over the last ribs. Diseases of the brain or pancreas may be treated according to their indications. The diet should be mainly albuminous, such as wheat-bran or middlings, pease, beans, vetches, and milk. Indeed, an exclusive milk diet is one of the very best remedial agencies. It may be given as skim milk or butter-milk, and in the last case combines an anti-diabetic remedy in the lactic acid. Under such an exclusive diet recent and mild cases are often entirely restored, though at the exi)ense of an attack of rheumatism. Codeia, one of the alkaloids of opium, is stronglj^-ecommended by Dr. Tj^son. The dose for the horse would be 3 grains thrice daily. In cases in wiiich there is manifest irritation of the brain bromide of potassium, 4 drams, or ergot, one-half ounce, may be resorted to. Salicylic acid and salicylate of sodium have proved useful in certain cases; also l)hosphate of sodium. Bitter tonics (especially nux vomica, one-half dram) are useful in imj)roving the disgestion and general health. BLOODY URINE — HEMATURIA. As seen in the horse bloody urine is usually the direct result of mechanical injuries, as sprains and fractures of tne loins, lacerations of the sub-lumbar muscles (psoas), irritation caused by stone in the kidney, ureter, bladder, or urethra. It may, however, occur with acute congestion of the kidney, with tumors in its substance, or with papilloma or other diseased growth in the bladder. Acrid diuretic plants i)resent in the food may also lead to the escape of blood from the kidney. The predisposition to this affection is, however, incom- parably less than in the case of the ox or sheep, the difference being 68 attributed to tlie greater plasticity of the horse's blood in connection ■with the larger quantity of fibrine. The blood may be present in small clots or in more or less intimate admixture with the urine. Its condition may furnish some indication as to its source ; thus, if from the kidnej^s it is more likely to be uni- formly diffused through the urine, while as furnished b}^ the bladder or passages clots are more likely to be present. Again, in bleeding from the kidney, minute cylindrical clots inclosing blood globules and formed in the uriniferous tubes can be detected under the micro- scope. Precision also may be approximated by observing whether there is coexisting fracture, sprain of the loins, stone or tumor in the bladder or urethra. The disease being mainlj^ due to direct injury, freatmentvrUl consist first in removing such cause whenever possible, and then in applying general and local styptics. Irritants in food must be avoided, sprains appropriately treated, and stone in bladder or urethra removed. Then give mucilaginous drinks (slippery elm, linseed tea) freely, and styp- tics (tincture of chloride of iron, 3 drams; acetate of lead, one-half dram; tannic acid, one-half dram; or oil of turpentine, 1 ounce). If the discharge is abundant apply cold water to the loins and keep the animal perfectly still. HEMOGLOBINURIA — AZOTURIA — AZOTAEMIA — POISONING BY ALBUMINOIDS. Like diabetes, this is rather a disease of the liver and blood-forming functions than of the kidney, but as prominent symptoms are loss of control over the hind limbs and the passage of ropy and dark-colored urine, the vulgar idea is that it is a disorder of the urinary organs. It in a complex adeetion directly connected with a plethora in the blood of nitrogenized constituents, Avith extreme nervous and muscular dis- order and the excretion of a dense reddish or brownish urine. It is directly connected with high feeding, especially on highly nitrogenized food (oats, beans, pease, vetches, cotton-seed meal), and with a period of idleness in the stall under full rations. The disease is never seen at pasture, rarely under constant daily work, even though the feeding be high, and the attack is usually precipitated by taking the horse from the stable and subjecting it to exercise or work. The poisoning is not present when taken from the stable, as the horse is likely to be noticeably lively and spirited, but he will usually succumb under the first hundred yards or half mile of exercise. It seems as if the aspira- tory power of the chest under the sudden exertion and accelerated breathing speedily drew from the gorged liver and abdominal veins (portal) the accumulated store of nitrogenous matter in an imperfectly oxidized or elaborated condition, and as if the blood, surcharged with these materials, was unable to maintain the healthy functions of 69 the nerve centers and muscles. A peculiar anatomical feature of the horse's liver doubtless contributes to this, namely, the persistence, throughout life, of several considerable veins leading directly from the veins of the stomach and intestines (portal veins) into the posterior vena cava and heart. This condition, common to foetal mammals, persists through life in the solipeds only, among our domestic animals. In all others the portal vein has no communication with the vena cava except through the capillaries of the liver. With the direct channel the rich, crude blood coming from the intestines is drawn at once into the general cir- culation unchanged bj' the secretion in the liver and the chemical changes therein effected. Hence this disease is peculiar to solipeds. It has been noticed rather more frequently in mares than horses, attributable, perhaps, to the nervous excitement attendant on heat, and to the fact that the unmutilated mare is naturally more excitable than the docile gelding. Syviptoms. — ^In the milder forms this affection may appear as a lame- ness in one limb, from indefinite cause, succeeding to some sudden exertion and attended by a dusky-brown color of the membranes of the eye and nose and some wincing when the last ribs are struck. The severe forms come on after one or two days of rest on a full ration, when the animal has been taken out and driven one hundred jjaces or more. The fire and life with which he had left the stable suddenly give place to dullness and oppression, as shown in hea^ang flanks, dilated nostrils, pinched face, perspiring skin, and trembling body. The muscles of the loins or haunch become swelled and rigid, the subject moves stififl}' or unsteadily, crouches behind, the limbs being carried semi-flexed, and he soon drops, unable to support himself. A\Tien down, the body and limbs are moved convulsively, but there is no power of co-ordination of move- ment in the muscles. The pulse and breathing are accelerated, the eyes red with a tinge of brown, and the urine, if passed, is seen to be highly colored, dark bi'own, red, or black, but it contains neither blood clots nor globules. The color is mainly due to haemoglobin and other imperfectly elaborated constituents of the blood. It may end fatally in a few hours or days, or a recovery may ensue, which is usually more sj^eedy and perfect if it has set in at an early stage. In the late and tardy recoveries a partial paralysis of the hind limbs may last for months. A frequent sequel of these tardy cases is an extensive wasting of the muscles leading up from the front of the stifle (those supplied by the crural nerve), and a complete inability to stand. The prevention of this serious affection lies in restricting the diet and giving daily exercise when the animal is not at work. A horse that has had one attack should never be left idle for a single day in the stall or barn -yard. When a horse has been condemned to absolute repose on good feeding he may have a laxative (one-half to 1 pound Glauber 70 salts), and liave graduated exercise, beginning witli a short walk and increasing day by da3\ The treatment of the mild cases may consist in a laxative, graduated dailj" exercise, and a daily dose of saltpeter (1 ounce). Sudden attacks will sometimes promj)tly subside if taken on the instant and the sub- ject kept still and calmed by a dose of bromide of potassium (4 drams) and sweet spirits of niter (1 ounce). The latter has the advan- tage of increasing the secretion of the kidneys. In severe cases, as a rule, it is desirable to begin treatment by a full dose of aloes (4 to 6 drams) with the above-named dose of bromide of potassium, and this latter may be continued at intervals of four or six hours, as may be requisite to calm the nervous excitement. Fomentations with warm water over the loins are always useful in calming the excitable condi- tion of the spinal cord, muscles, liver, and kidneys, and also in favor- ing secretion from the two latter. On the second day diuretics ma}" be resorted to, such as saltpeter, one-half ounce, and]3owdered eolchicum, one-half dram, to be repeated twice daily. A laxative may be repeated in three or four days should the bowels seem to demand it, and as the nervous excitement disappears any remaining muscular weakness or paralj'sis may be treated by one-half dram doses of n»ux vomica twice a day and a stimulating liniment (aqua ammonia and sweet-oil in equal proportions) rubbed on the torj)id muscles. During the course of the disease friction to the limbs is useful, and in the advanced xDaralytic stage the application of electricity along the line of the affected muscles. When the i^atient can not stand he must have a thick, soft bed, and should be turned from side to side at least everj' twelve hours. As soon as he can be made to stand he may be helloed ux) and even supported in a sling. ACUTE INFLAMMATIOX OF THE KIDNEYS — ACUTE NEPHRITIS. Inflammations of the kidneys have been differentiated widel}', accord- ing as they were acute or chronic, parenchymatous or tubal, sui^pura- tive or not, with increased or shrunken kidney, etc., but in a work like the present, utility will be consulted by classing all under acute or chronic inflamiiiaUon. The causes of inflammation of the kidnej'S are extremely varied. Congestion occurs from the altered and irritant products passed through these organs during recovery from inflammations of other organs and during fevers. This may last only during the existence of its cause, or may jjcrsist and become aggravated. Heart disease, throw- ing tlie blood pressure back on the veins and kidneys, is another cause. Disease of the ureter or bladder, jjreventing the escape of urine from the kidney and causing increased fullness and tension in its ]3elvis and tubes, will determine inflammation. Decomposition of the detained urine in such cases, and the ijroduction of ammonia and other irri- tants, must also be named. The advance of bacteria upward from the 71 bladder to the kidneys is anotlier cause. The consumption in hay or other fodder of acrid or irritant plants, including- fungi, the absorj)tion of cantharidine from a surface blistered by Spanish flies, the reckless administration of diuretics, the presence of stones in the kidnej^ exposure of the surface to cold and "svet, and the infliction of blows or sprains on the loins, may contribute to its production. Liver disor- ders which throw on the kidneys the work of excreting irritant prod- ucts, diseases of the lungs and heart from which clots are carried, to be arrested in the small blood-vessels of the kidnej', and injuries and paralysis of the spinal cord, are additional causes. The symptoms are more or less fever, manifest stiffness of the back and straddling gait with the hind limbs, difiiculty in Ij'ing down and rising, or in walking in a circle, the animal sometimes groaning under the effort, arching of the loins and tucking up of the flank, looking back at the abdomen as if from colicky i^ain, and tenderness of the loins to pinching, especially just beneath the bony j)rocesses G inches to one side of the median line. Urine is passed frequently, a small quantity at a time, of a high color, and sometimes mixed with blood or even x)us. Under the microscope it shows the microscopic casts referred to under general symptoms. If treated by acetic acid, boil- ing, and subsequent addition of strong nitric acid, the resulting and persistent precixjitate indicates the amount of albumen. The legs tend to swell from the foot up, also the dependent iDarts beneath the belly and chest, and effusions of liquid ma}^ occur within the chest or abdo- men. In the male animal the alternate drawing up and relaxation of the testicles in the scrotum are suggestive, and in small horses the oiled hand introduced into the rectum may reach the kidney and ascertain its sensitiveness. Treatment demands, first, the removal of any recognized cause. Then, if the suffering and fever are high, 2 to 4 quarts of blood may be abstracted from the jugular vein; in weak subjects or unless in high fever this should be omitted. Next relieve the kidneys as far as i^ossible by throwing their work on the bowels and skin. A pint of castor oil is less likely than either aloes or salts to act on the kid- neys. To affect the skin a warm stall and heavy clothing may be sui)plemented by dram doses of Dover's powder. Boiled flaxseed may be added to the drinking water, and also thrown into the rectum as an injection, and blankets saturated with hot water should be per- sistently applied to the loins. This may be followed by a very thin X:)ulp of the best ground mustard made with tepid Avater, rubbed in against the direction of the hair, and covered up with paper and a blanket. This may be kept on for an hour, or until the skin thickens and the hair stands erect. It maj then be rubbed or sponged off and the blanket reaisplied. When the action of the bowels has been started it may be kept up by a daily dose of 2 or 3 ounces of Glauber salts. 72 During recovery a course of bitter tonics (nux vomica 1 scruple, ground gentian root 4 drams) should be given. The patient should also be guarded against cold, wet, and any active exertion for some time after all active symptoms have subsided. CHRONIC INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. Chronic inflammation of the kidneys is more commonl}^ associated with albumen and casts in the urine than the acute form, and in some instances these conditions of the urine may be the only jjrominent symptoms of the disease. Though it may supervene on blows, injuries, and exposures, it is much more commonly connected with faulty con- ditions of the sj'Stem — as indigestion, heart disease, lung or liver dis- ease, imperfect blood formation or assimilation. In short, it is rather the attendant on a constitutional infirmity than on a simple local injury. It may be associated with various forms of diseased kidney, as shrinkage (atrophy), increase (hypertrophy), softening, red congestion, white enlargement, etc., so that it forms a group of diseases rather than a disease by itself. The symptoms may include stiffness, weakness, and increased sensi- bility of the loins, and modified secretion of urine (increase or sup- pression), or the flow may be natural. Usually it contains albumen, the amount furnishing a fair criterion of the gravity of the affection, and microscopic casts, also most abundant in bad cases. Droj)sy, manifested in swelled legs, is a significant symptom, and if the effusion takes place along the lower line of the body, or in chest or abdomen, the significance is increased. A scurfy, unthrifty skin, lack-luster hair, inability to sustain severe or coutinued exertion, i)oor or irregular appetite, loss of fat and flesh, softness of the muscles, and pallor of the eyes and nose are equally suggestive. So are skin eruptions of various kinds. Anyone or more of these symptoms would warrant an examination of the urine for albumen and casts, the finding of Avhicli signifies renal inflammation. TreatTnent of these cases is not always satisfactory^, as the cause is liable to be maintained in the disorders of important organs elsewhere. If any such coincident disease of another organ or function can be detected, that should be treated first or simultaneously with this affec- tion of the kidneys. In all cases the building up of the general health is important. Hence a course of tonics may be given (phosphate of iron, 2 drams; nux vomica, 20 grains; powdered gentian root, 4 drams, daily), or 60 drops of sulphuric acid or nitro-muriatic acid may be given daily in the drinking water. If there is any elevated tempera- ture of the body and tenderness of the loins, fomentations may be applied, followed by a mustard pulp, as for acute inflammation, and even in the absence of these indications the mustard may be resorted to with advantage at intervals of a few days. In suppression of urine, 73 fomentations with warm water or witli infusion of digitalis leaves is a safer resort than diuretics, and cupping over the loins may also benefit. To apply a cup shave the skin and oil it; then take a narrow-mouthed glass, rarefy the air within it by introducing a taper in full flame for a second, withdraw the taper and instantly apply the mouth of the glass to the skin and hold it closely applied till the cooling tends to form a A^acuum in the glass and to draw up the skin, like a sucker. As in the acute inflammation, every attention must be given to secure warm clothing, a warm stall, and pure air. TUMORS OF THE KIDNEYS — PARASITES. Tumors, whether malignant or simple, would give rise to sjnnptoms resembling some form of inflammation, and are not likely to be recog- nized during life. To parasites of the kidney belong the eehinococcus, the larval or bladder- worm stage of the small eehinococcus tape-woimi of the dog; also the Cysticercus fistularis, another bladder- Avorm of an unknown tape- worm ; but in these there is the possibility of the pas- sage with the urine of a detached head of the bladder-worm or of'some of its microscopic booklets, which might be found in the sediment of the urine. So with Strongylus gigas (giant strongle), the largest of round worms, which has been found in the kidney of the horse, and the presence of which could only be certified by the i^assage of its microscopic eggs or of the entire worm. SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE BLADDER. This affection consists in spasmodic closure of the outlet from the bladder by tonic contraction of the circular muscular fibers. It may be accompanied by a painful contraction of the muscles on the body of the bladder, or if the organ is already undulj^ distended these will be affected with temi^orary j)aral3' sis. It is most frequent in the horse, but by no means unknown in the mare. The causes are usually hard and continuous driving without opi)or- tunity for passing urine, cold rain-storms, draughts of cold air when perspiring and fatigued, the administration of Spanish fly or the appli- cation of extensive blisters of the same, abuse of diuretics, the pres- ence of acrid diuretic plants in the fodder, and the presence of stone in the bladder. As most mares refuse to urinate wliile in harness, they should be unhitched at sui talkie times for urination. Spasms of the bowels are always attended by spasm of the bladder, hence the free passage of water is usually a symptom of relief. The symptoms are frequent stretching and straining to urinate, with no result or a slight dribbling only. These vain efforts are attended by pain and groaning. On resuming his natural position the animal is not freed from the pain, but moves uneasily, paws, shakes the tail, kicks at the abdomen with his hind feet, looks back to the 5961— HOR 3* 74 flank, lies down and rises, arclies the back, and attempts to urinate as before. If the oiled hand is introduced into the rectum the greatly distended bladder may be felt beneath, and the patient ^Yill often shrink when it is handled. It is important to notice that irritation of the urinar}' organs is often present in impaction of the colon with solid matters, because the impacted intestine under the straining of the patient is forced backAvard into the pelvis and presses upon and irritates the bladder. In such case*s the horse stands with his fore limbs advanced and the hind ones stretched back beyond the natural posture, and makes fre- quent eiforts to urinate with varying success. Unpracticed observers naturally conclude that the secondary urinary trouble is the main and only one, and the intestinal impaction and obstruction is too often neglected until it is irremediable. In cases w^here the irritation has caused spasm of the neck of the bladder and overdistention of that organ, the mistake is still more easily made, hence it is imj)ortant in all cases to examine for the impacted bowel, forming a bend or looj) at the entrance of the pebds and usuall}^ toward the left side. The impacted intestine feels soft and doughj-, and is easily indented with the knuckles, forming a marked contrast with the tense, elastic, resil- ient ovcrdistended bladder. It remains to be noted that similar symptoms may be determined by a stone, or sebaceous mass, or stricture obstructing the urethra, or in the new-born by thickened mucus in that duct and the pressure of hardened impacted feces in the rectum. In obstruction, the hard ini pacted body can usually be felt hj tracing the urethra along the lower and posterior surface of the penis and forward to the median line of the floor of the i^elvis to the neck of the bladder. That part of tlie urethra between the seat of obstruction and the bladder is usually distended with urine, and feels enlarged, elastic, and fluctuating. Treatment may be begun by taking the animal out of harness. This failing, spread clean litter beneath the belty or turn the patient out on the dung-heai). Some seek to establish sj'mpathetic action by l^ouring water from one vessel into another with dribbling noise. Others soothe and distract the attention by slow whistling. Friction of the abdomen with wisps of straw may succeed, or it may be rubbed with ammonia and oil. These failing, an injection of 2 ounces of laudanum or of an infusion of 1 ounce of tobacco in water may be tried. -In the mare the neck of the bladder is easily dilated by insert- ing two oiled fingers and slightl}^ parting them. In the horse the oiled hand introduced into the rectum maj^ press from before backward on the anterior or blind end of the bladder. Finally a well-oiled gum- elastic catheter may be entered into the urethra through the papilla at the end of the i)enis and i)ushed on carefully until it has entered the bladder. To effect this the penis must first be withdrawn from its sheath, and when the advancing end of the catheter has reached 75 the bend of the urethra beueatli the anus ii must be guided forward hy pressure with the hand, which guidance must be continued onward into the bhidder, the oiled hand being introduced into the rectum for this iDurxDOse. The horse catlieter, 3|- feet long and one-third inch in diameter, may be bought of a surgical-instrument maker. PARALYSIS OF THE BLADDER. Parah^sis of the body of the bladder with spasm of the neck has been described under the last heading, and may occur in the same waj^ from overdistension in tetanus, acute rheumatism, paraplegia, and hemiplegia, in which the animal can not stretch himself to stale, and in cystitis, affecting the body of the bladder but not the neck. In all these cases the urine is suppressed. It also occurs as a result of disease of the posterior end of the spinal marrow and with broken back, and is then associated mth palsy of the tail, and it may be of the hind limbs. The symjjtoms are a constant dribbling of urine when the neck is involved, the liciuid running down the inside of the thighs and irritat- ing the skin. When the neck is unaffected the urine is retained until the bladder is greatly overdistended, when it may be exjjelled in a gush by the active contraction of the muscular walls of the abdo- men; but this never empties the bladder, and the oiled hand intro- duced through the rectum ma}' feel the soft, flabby organ still half full of urine. This retained urine is liable to decompose and give off ammonia, which dissolves the epithelial cells, exposing the raw mucous membrane, and causing the worst type of cystitis. Suppres- sion and incontinence of urine are common also to obstruction of the urethra by stone or otherwise ; hence this source of fallacy should be excluded by manual examination along the whole course of that duct. Treatment is only applicable in cases in which the determining cause can be abated. In remedial si^rains of the back or disease of the spinal cord these must have appropriate treatment, and the urine must be drawn off frequently with a catheter to prevent overdistension and injury to the bladder. If the paralysis i^ersists after recovery of the sjnnal cord, or if it continues after relief of spasm of the neck of the bladder, apply a pulp of mustard and water over the back part of the bellj' in front of the udder, and cover with a rug until the hair stands erect. In the male the mustard may be applied between the thighs from near the anus downward. Daily doses of 2 drams extract of belladonna, or of 2 grains powdered Sijanish fly, may serve to rouse the lost tone. These failing, a mild current of electricity^ daily may succeed. INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER — CYSTITIS — UROCYSTITIS. Cystitis may be slight or severe, acute or chronic, i)artial or general. It may be caused by abuse of diuretics, especially such as are irritat- ing (cantharides, turpentine, copaiba, resin, etc.), by the presence of 76 a stone or gravel in the bladder, tlie irritation of a catheter or other foreign body introduced from without, the septic ferment (bacterium) introduced on a filthy catheter, the overdistension of the bladder by retained urine, the extrication of ammonia from retained decomj^osing urine, resulting in destruction of the epithelial cells and irritation of the raw surface, and a too-concentrated and irritating urine. Tlie application of Spanish flies or turpentine over a too-extensive surface, sudden exposure of a perspiring and tired horse to cold or wet, and the presence of acrid plants in the fodder may cause cj'stitis, as they inp^y nephritis. Finally, inflammation may extend from a diseased vagina or urethra to the bladder. The symptoms are slight or severe colicky pains ; the animal moves his hind feet imeasily or even kicks at the abdomen, looks around at his flank, and may even lie down and rise frequently". More char- acteristic are frequently repeated efforts to urinate, resulting in the discharge of a little clear, or red, or more commonly flocculent urine, always in jets, and accompanied by signs of pain, which persist after the discharge, as shown in continued straining, groaning, and perhaps in movements of the feet and tail. The penis hangs from the sheath, or in the mare the vulva is frequently opened and closed, as after uri- nation. The animal winces when the abdomen is pressed in the region of the sheath or udder, and the bladder is found to be sensitive and tender when pressed with the oiled hand introduced through the rec- tum or vagina. In the mare the thickening of the walls of the blad- der may be felt by introducing one finger through the urethra. The discharged urine, which may be turbid or even oily, contains an excess of mucus, with flat shreds of membrane, with scaly epithelial cells, and pus corpuscles, each showing two or more nuclei when treated with acetic acid, but there are no microscopic tubular casts, as in nephritis. If due to stone in the bladder, that will be found on examination through rectum or vagina. Treatment implies, first, the removal of the cause, whether poisons in food or as medicine, the removal of Spanish flies or other blistering agents from the skin, or the extraction of stone or gravel. If the urine "has been retained and decomposed it must be completely evac- uated through a clean catheter, and the bladder thoroughly washed out with a solution of 1 dram of borax in a quart of water. Tliis must be repeated twice daily until the urine no longer decomposes, because as long as ammonia is developed in the bladder the protecting layer of epithelial cells will be dissolved and the surface kept raw and irritable. The diet must be light (bran mashes, roots, fresh grass), and the drink impregnated with linseed tea, or solution of slippery-elm or marsli-mallow. The same agents may be used to inject into the rectum, or they may even be used along with borax and opium to inject into bladder (gum arable, 1 dram; opium, 1 dram; tepid water, 1 pint). Fomentations over the loins are often 77 of great advantage, and these may be followed or alternated with the ai)plication of mustard, as in paralj'sis. Or the mustard maj^ be ai)i)lied on the back j)art of the abdomen below, or between the thighs from the anus downward. Finally, when the acute symptoms have subsided, a daily dose of buchu 1 dram, and nux vomica one- half dram, will serve to restore lost tone. IRRITABLE BLADDER. Some horses, and especially juares, show an irritability of the blad- der and nerve centers presiding over it b}^ frequent urination in small quantities, though the urine is not manifestly changed in char- acter and no more than the natural amount is i)asscd in the twenty- four hours. The disorder appears to have its source quite as fre- quently in the generative or nervous system as in the urinary. A troublesome and dangerous form is seen in mares, which dash off and refuse all control bj' the rein if driven with a full bladder, but usually 13rove docile if the bladder has been emptied before hitching. In other cases the excitement connected with getting the tail over the reins is a powerful determining cause. The condition is marked in many mares during the period of heat. An oleaginous laxative (castor oil, 1 pint) will serve to remove any cause of irritation in the digestive organs, and a careful dieting will avoid continued irritation by acrid vegetable agents. The bladder should be examined to see that there is no stone or other cause of irri- tation, and the sheath and penis shovild be washed with soap-suds, any sebaceous matter removed from the bilocular cavity at the end of the penis, and the whole lubricated with sweet oil. Irritable mares should be induced to urinate before they are harnessed, and those that clutch the lines under the tail may have the tail set high by cutting the cords on its lower surface, or it may be prevented getting over the reins \)y having a strap carried from its free end to the breeching. Those prov- ing troublesome when in heat may have 4-dram doses of bromide of potassium, or they may be served by the male or castrated. Some- times irritability may be lessened by daily doses of belladonna extract (1 dram), or a better tone may be given to the parts by balsam copaiba (1 dram). DISEASED GROWTHS IN THE BLADDER. These may be of various kinds, malignant or simi)le. In the horse I have found villous growths from the mucous membrane especially troublesome. They maj' be attached to the mucous membrane by a narrow neck or by a broad base covering a great part of the organ. The syinijtoms are frequent straining, i^assing of urine and blood Avith occasionally gravel. An examination of the bladder with the hand in the rectum will detect the new growth, Avhicli may be distinguished from a hard resistant stone. In mares, in which the finger can be 78 inserted into tli3 bladder, the recognition is still more satisfactory. The polypi attached by narrow necks may be removed by surgical operation, but for those Avith broad attachments treatment is emi- nently unsatisfactory. DISCHARGE OF URINE BY THE NAVEL — PERSISTENT URACHUS. This occurs onl}- in the new-born, and consists in the non-closure of the natural channel (urachus), through which the urine is discharged into the outer water-bag (allantois) in foetal life. At that early stage of the animal existence the bladder resembles a long tube, which is prolonged through the navel string and opens into the outermost of the two water-bags in which the foetus floats. In this way the urine is prevented from entering the inner water-bag (amnios), where it v/ould mingle with the liquids, bathing the skin of the foetus and cause irritation. At birth this channel closes up, and the urine takes the course normal to extra-uterijie life. Imperfect closure is more fre- quent in males than in females, because of the great length and small caliber of the male urethra and its consequent tendencj' to obstruc- tion. In the female there may be a discharge of a few drops only at a time, while in the male the urine will be expelled in strong jets coin- cidently with the contractions of the bladder and walls of the abdomen. The first care is to ascertain if the urethra is pervious by passing a human catheter. This determined, the open urachus may be firmly closed by a stout waxed thread, carried witli a needle through the tis- sues back of the opening and tied in front of it so as to inclose as little skin as i^ossible. If a ]3ortion of the navel string remains, the tying of tliat may be all suf&cient. It is important to tie as early as possible so as to avoid inflammation of the navel from contact with the urine. In summer a little carbolic acid water or tar water may be applied to keep off the flies. EVERSION OF THE BLADDER. Tliis can only occur in the female. It consists in the turning of the organ outside in through the channel of tlie urethra, so that it appears as a red, pear-shap)ed mass hanging from the floor of the vulva and l^rotruding externally between its lips. It may be a mass like the fist, or it may swell up to the size of an infant's head. On examining its upper surface the orifices of the urethra may be seen, one on each side, a short distance behind the neck, with the urine oozing from them drop by drop. This displacement usually supervenes on a flaccid condition of the bladder, the result of paralysis, over distention, or severe compression during a difficult parturition. The protruding organ may be washed with a solution of 1 ounce of laudanum and a teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a quart of water, and returned by i^ressing a smooth, rounded object into the fundus and 79 directiug it into the uretlirti, while careful X)ressure is made on the sur- rounding liarts with the other hand. If too large and resistant it may be wound tightly in a strip of bandage about two inches broad so as to express the great mass of blood, and exudate and diminish the bulk of the protruded organ so that it can be easily pushed back. This method has the additional advantage of protecting the organ against bruises and lacerations in the eifort made to return it. After the return straining may be kept in check by giving laudanum (1 to 3 ounces), and by applying a truss to press upon the lips of the vulva (see eversion of the womb). The patient should be kept in a stall a few inches lower in front than behind, so that the action of gravity will favor retention. IXFLAMMATIOX OF THE URETHRA — URETHRITIS — GLEET. This affection belongs quite as much to the generative organs, yet it can not be entirely overlooked in a treatise on urinarj- disorders. It maj' be induced by the same causes as cystitis (which see), bj" the passage and temiDorarj- arrest of small sfo7ies, or gravel, by the irrita- tion caused by foreign bodies introduced from without, b}^ blows on the penis by sticks, stones, or by the feet of a mare which kicks while being served, by an infecting inflammation contracted from a mare served in the first few days after parturition, or one suffering from leucorrhoea, by infecting matter introduced on a dirtj^ catheter, or by the extension of inflammation from an irritated bilocular cavity filled with hardened sebaceous matter, or from an uncleansed sheath. The symptoms are SArelling, heat, and tenderness of the sheath and penis, difficulty, pain, and groaning in passing urine, which is liable to sudden temx3orary arrests in the course of a micturition, and later a wliitish muco-i^urulent oozing from the papilla on the end of the penis. There is a tendencj^ to erection of the penis, and in cases con- tracted from a mare the outer surface of that organ will show more or less extensive sores and idcers. Stallions suffering in this way will refuse to mount, or having mounted will fail to complete the act of coition. If an entrance is effected infection of the mare is liable to follow. Treatment in the early stages consists in a dose of i^hysic (aloes, 6 drams), and fomentations of warm water to the sheath and x^enis. If there is reason to susiaect the presence of infection, inject the urethra twice daily with borax 1 draui, water 1 quart, using it tepid. Where the muco-purulent discharge indicates the supervention of the second stage, a more astringent injection may be employed (nitrate of silver 20 grains, water 1 quart), and the same may be applied to the sur- face of the penis and inside the sheath. Balsam of copaiba (1 dram daih^) may also be given with advantage after the purulent discharge has appeared. Every stallion suffering from urethritis should be withheld from service, as should mares with leucorrhoea. 80 STRICTURE OF THE URETHRA. This is a permanent narrowing of the urethra at a given point, the result of i^revious inflammation, caused by the passage or arrest of a stone or gravel, by strong astringent injections in the early non-secret- ing stages of urethritis, or by contraction of the lining membrane occurring during the healing of ulcers in neglected inflammations of that canal. The trouble is shown by the passage of urine in a fine stream with straining, pain, and groahing, and by frequent painful erections. It must be remedied bj^ mechanical dilatation, with cathe- ters just large enough to pass with gentle force, to be inserted once a day, and to be used of larger size as the passage will admit them. The catheter should be kept perfectly clean, and washed in a borax solution and well oiled before it is introduced. URINARY CALCULI — STONE — GRAVEL. These consist in some of the solids of the urine that have been pre- cipitated from the urine in the form of crystals, which remain apart as a fine powdery mass or magma, or aggregate into calculi or stones of varying size. Their composition is therefore determined in differ- ent animals by the salts and other constituents found dissolved in the healthy urine, and by the additional constituents which may be thrown off in solution in the urine in disease. In this connection it is impor- tant to observe the following analysis of the horse's urine in health : Water 918.5 Urea - 13.4 Uric acid and urates - _ _ 0. 1 Hippuric acid 26. 4 Lactic acid and lactates 1.0 Mucus and organic matter 23. 0 Siilpbates (alkaline) r 1.2 Phosphates (lime and soda) 0.2 Chlorides (sodium) 1.0 Carbonates (potash, magnesia, lime) 16. 0 1000. 0 The carbonate of lime, which is present in large amount in the urine of horses fed on green fodder, is practically insoluble, and therefore forms in the j)assages after secretion, and its microscopic rounded crystals give the urine of such horses a milky whiteness. It is this material which constitutes the soft, white, pultaccous mass that some- times fills the bladder to repletion and requires to be washed out. In liay-fed horses carbonates are still abundant, while in those mainlj'- grain-fed they are replaced by hippurates and phosphates — the prod- ucts of the wear of tissues — the carbonates being the result of oxida- tion of the vegetable acids in the food. Carbonate of lime, therefore, is a very common constituent of urinary calculi in lierbivora, and in many cases is the most abundant constituent. 81 Oxalate of lime, like carbonate of lime, is derived from the burning nj) of the carbonaceous matter of the food in the system, one impor- tant factor being the less perfect oxidation of the carbon. Indeed, Fiirstenberg and Schmidt have demonstrated on man, horse, ox, and rabbit, that under the full play of the breathing (oxidizing) forces, oxalic, like other organic acids, is resolved into carbonic acid. In keei)ing with this is the observation of Lehmann that in all cases in which man suffered from interference with the breathing, oxalate of lime appeared in the urine. An excess of oxalate of lime in the urine may, however, claim a different origin. Uric and hippuric acids are found in the urine of carnivora and herbivora, respectivel}^ as the result of the healthy wear (disassimilation) of nitrogenous tissues. But if these products are fully oxidized they are thrown out in the form of the more soluble urea rather than as these acids. When uric acid out of the body is treated with peroxide of lead it is resolved into urea, allantoine, and oxalic acid, and AYoehler and Frerrichs found that the administration of uric acid not onlj^ increased the excretion of urea, but also of oxalic acid. It may therefore be inferred that oxalic acid is not produced from the carbonaceous food alone, but also from the disintegration of the nitrogenous tissues of the body. An important element of its j)roduction is, however, the imi^erfect pev- formance of the breathing functions, and hence it is liable to result from diseases of the chest (heaves, chronic bronchitis, etc.). This is above all likely to prove the case if the subject is fed to excess on highly carbonaceous foods (grass and green food generally, pota- toes, etc.). Carbonate of magnesia, another almost constant ingredient of the urinary calculi of the horse, is formed in the same way as the car- bonate of lime, from the excess of carbonaceous food (organic acids) becoming oxidized into carbon dioxide, which unites with the mag- nesia derived from the food. The phosphates of lime and magnesia are not abundant in urinary calculi of the horse, the phosphates being onlj^ present to excess in the urine in two conditions: (a) when the ration is excessive and specially rich in phosphorus (wheat bran, beans, pease, vetches, rape cake, oil cake, cotton-seed cake); and (b) when through the morbid destructive changes in the living tissues, and especially of the bones, a great amount of phosphorus is given off as a waste product. Under these conditions, hoAvever, the phosphates may contribute to the for- mation of calculi, and this is, above all, likely if the urine is retained in the bladder until it has undergone decomposition and given off ammonia. The ammonia at once unites with the phosphate of mag- nesia to form a double salt, j)hosphate of ammonia and magnesia, which, being insoluble, is at once precipitated. The precipitation of this salt is, however, rare in the urine of the horse, though much more frequent in that of man and sheep. 82 These are the chief mineral constitvients of the urine which form ingredients in tlio liorse's calculi, for though iron and manganese are usually present it is only in minute quantities. The excess of mineral matters in a specimen of urine unquestion- ably contributes to tlie formation of calculi, just as a solution of such matters out of the body is increasingly disposed to throw them down in the form of crj'stals as it becomes more concentrated and approaches nearer to the condition of saturation. Hence, in considering tlie causes of calculi we can not ignore the factor of an excessive ration, rich in mineral matters and in carbonaceous matters (the source of carbonates and much of the oxalates), nor can we overlook the con- centration of the urine that comes from dry food and privation of v>^ater, or from the existence of fever which causes suspension of the secretion of water. In these cases, at least the usual amount of solids arc thrown off by the kidneys, and as the water is diminished there is danger of its approaching the point of supersaturation, when the dissolved solids must necessarily be thrown down. Hence, calculi are more common in stabled horses fed on dry grain and hay, in those denied a sufficiency of water or that have water supplied irregularly, in those subjected to profuse iDerspiration (as in summer), and in those suffering from a watery diarrhea. On the whole, calculi are most commonly found in winter, because the horses are then on dry feeding, but such dr}^ feeding is even more conducive to them in summer v,dien the condition is aggravated by the abundant loss of water by the skin. In the same way the extreme hardness of the vv^ater in certain dis- tricts must be looked upon as contributing to the concentration of the urine and correspondingly to the production of stone. The carbonates, sulphates, etc., of lime and magnesia taken in the Avater must be again thrown out, and just in proportion as these add to the solids of the urine they disiiose it to precipitate its least soluble constituents. Thus the horse is very obnoxious to calculi on certain limestone soils, as over the calcareous formations of central and western New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, in America; of Norfolk, Suffolk, Derbyshire, Shropshire, and Gloucestershire, in England; of Poitou and Landes, in France; and Munich, in Bavaria. But the saturation of the urine from any or all of these conditions can only be looked on as an auxiliary cause, and not as in itself an efficient one, except on the rarest occasions. For a more direct and immediate cause we must look to the organic matter which forms a large proportion of all urinary calculi. This consists of mucus, albu- men, pus, hyaline casts of the urTniferous tubes, epithelial cells, blood, etc., mainly agents that belong to the class of colloid or noncrystalline bodies. A horse may live for months and years with the urine habit- ually of a high density, and having tlie mineral constituents in excess, without the formation of stone or gi-avel; and again one with dilute urine of low specific gravity will have a calculus. 83 Rainey, Orel, and others furnish the exphmation. They not only show that a colloid bodj*, like nmcus, albumen, pus, or blood, deter- mined the i^recipitation or the ciystalline salts in tlie solution, but they determined the precij)itation in the form of globules or spheres, capable of developing by further deposits into calculi. Heat intensi- fies this action of the colloids, and a colloid in a state of decomposition is speciallj^ active. The presence, therefore, of developing fungi and bacteria must be looked upon as active factors in causing calculi. In looking, therefore, for the immediate causes of calculi we must consider esx)ecially all those conditions which determine the i^resence of albumen, blood, and excess of mucus, pus, etc., in the urine. Thus diseases of distant organs leading to albuminuria, diseases of the kid- neys and urinary passages causing the escape of blood or the forma- tion of mucus or pus, become direct causes of calculi. Foreign bodies of all kinds in the bladder or kidney have long been known as deter- mining causes of calculi, and as forming the central nucleus. This is now explained b}' the fact that these bodies are liable to carry bacte- ria into the passages and thus determine decomj)ositiou, and they are further liable to irritate the mucous membrane and become enveloped in ji coating of mucus, x)us, and perhaps blood. The fact that horses appear to suffer from calculi, especially on tlie nmgnesian limestones, the same districts in which they suffer from goiter, may be similarly explained. The unknown poison whicli jiro- duces goiter iDresumabl}^ leads to such changes in the blood and urine as will furnish the colloid necessary for precipitation of the urinary salts in the form of calculi. Classification of Urinary Calculi. — These have been named accord- ing to the place where they are found, renal (kidney), uretral (ureter), vesical (bladder), urethral (urethra), n^xid preputial (sheath or prepuce). They have been otherwise named according to their most abundant chemical constituent, carhonate of lime, oxalate of lime, and phosp)hate of lime calculi. The stones formed of carbonates or phosphates are usually smooth on the surface, though they may be molded into the shape of the cavity in which they have been formed ; thus those in the pelvis of the kidne}^ may have two or three sliort branch-like pro- longations, while those in the bladder are round, oval, or slightly flat- tened upon each other. Calculi containing oxalate of lime, on the other hand, have a rough, open, cr3'stalline surface, which has gained for them the name of mulberry calculi, from a supposed resemblance to that fruit. These are usually covered with more or less mucus or blood, produced by the irritation of the mucous membrane b}' their rough surfaces. The color of calculi varies from white to yellow and deep brown, the shades depending mainlj^ on the amount of the color- ing matter of blood, bile, or urine Avhich they may contain. Bcnal Calculi. — These may consist of minute, almost microscoijic, deposits in the urinifei-ous tubes in the substance of tlie kidney, but 84 more commonly thoy are large masses and lodged in the pelvis. The larger calculi, sometimes weighing 12 to 24 ounces, are molded in the pelvis of the kidney into a oylindroid mass, with irregular rounded swellings at intervals. Some have a deep brown, rough, crystalline surface of oxalate of lime, while others have a smooth, pearly white asiDect from carbonate of lime. A smaller calculus, which has been called coralline, is also cylindroid, with a number of brown, rough, crj^stalline oxalate of lime branches and whitish depressions of carbo- nate. These vary in size from 15 grains to nearly 2 ounces. Less frequently are found masses of very hard, brownish white, rounded, pea-like calculi. These are smoother, but on the surface crystals of oxalate of lime may be detected with a lens. Some renal calculi are formed of more distinct layers, more loosely adherent to each other, and contain an excess of "mucus but no oxalate of lime. Finally a loose aggregation of small masses, forming a very friable calculus, is found of all sizes within i\ie limits of the pelvis of the kidne}'. These, too, are in the main carbonate of lime (84 to 88 per cent), and without oxalate. Symptoms of renal calculi are violent colicky pains appearing sud- denly, very often in connection with exhausting work or the drawing of speciall}^ heavy loads, and in certain cases disappearing with equal suddenness. The nature of the colic becomes more manifest if it is associated with stiffness of the back and hind limbs, frequent passage of urine, and above all the passage of gravel Avith the urine, especially at the time of the access of relief. The passage of blood and i)us in the urine is equally significant. If the irritation of the kidney goes on to active inflammation then the symptoms of nei^hritis are added. Uretral Calculi. — These are so called because they are found in the passage leading from the kidney to the bladder. They are simply small renal calculi which have escaped from the i^elvis of the kidney and have become arrested in the ureter. They give rise to symptoms almost identical with those of renal calculi, with this difference, that the colicky pains, caused by the obstruction of the ureter by the impacted calculus, are more violent, and if the calculus passes on into the bladder the relief is instantaneous and complet-e. If the ureter is completely blocked for a length of time the retained urine may give rise to destructive inflammation in the kidney, which may end in the entire absorption of that organ, leaving only a fibrous cap- sule containing an urinous fluid. If both the ureters are similarly blocked the animal will die of ura^mic poisoning. Treatment of Renal and Uretral Calculi. — This is unsatisfactory, as it is only the small calculi that can pass through the ureters and escape into the bladder. This may be favored by agents which will relax the walls of the ureters by counteracting their spasm and even lessening their tone, and by a liberal use of water and waterj^ fluids to increase the urine and the pressure upon the calculus from behind. 85 One or two ounces of laudanum, or two drams of extract of bella- donna, may be given and repeated as it may be necessary, the relief of the pain being a fair criterion of the abating of the spasm. To the same end use warm fomentations across the loins, and these should be kept up persistently until relief is obtained. These act not alone by soothing and relieving the spasm and inflammation, but they also favor the freer secretion of a more Avatery urine, and thus tend to cany off the smaller calculi. To further secure this object give cool water freelj', and let the food be only such as contains a large proportion of liquid, gruels, mashes, turnips, beets, apples, pumpkins, ensilage, succulent grasses, etc. If the acute stage has passed and the presence of the calculus is manifested only by the frequent passage of urine with gritty particles, by stiffness of. the loins and hind limbs and by tenderness to pressure, the most prom- ising resort is a long run at pasture where the grasses are fresh and succulent. The long-continued secretion of a watery urine will some- times cause the breaking down of a calculus, as the imbibition of the less dense fluid by the organic sponge-like framework of the calculus causes it to swell and thus lessens its cohesion. The same end is sought by the long-continued use of alkalies (carbonate of i^otas- sium), and of acids (muriatic), each acting in a different way to alter the density and cohesion of the stone. But it is only exceptionallj^ that any of these methods is entirely satisfactoiy. If inflammation of the kidneys develops, treat as advised under that head. Stone in the bladder. — Vesical calculus. — Cystic ccdculus. — These may be of any size up to over a pound weight. One variety is rough and crystalline and has a yellowish white or deep brown color. These contain about 87 per cent carbonate of lime, the remainder being carbonate of magnesia, oxalate of lime, and organic matter. The phosphatic calculi are smooth and white and formed of thin concen- tric layers of great hardness extending from the nucleus outward. Besides the phosphate of lime these contain the carbonates of lime and magnesia and organic matter. In some cases the bladder contains and may be even distended by a soft pultaceous mass made up of minute round granules of carbonates of lime and magnesia. This, when removed and dried, makes a firm, white, and stony mass. Sometimes this magma is condensed into a solid mass in the bladder by reason of the binding action of the mucus and other organic mat- ter, and then forms a conglomerate stone of nearly uniform consist- ency and without stratification. The symptoms of stone in the bladder are more obvious than those of renal calculus. The rough mulberry calculi especially lead to irri- tation of the mucous membrane and frequent passing of urine in small quantities and often mingled with mucus or blood, or contain- ing minute gritty particles. At times the flow is suddenly arrested, though the animal continues to strain and the bladder is not quite 8G emi)tied. In tlie smootli phosi^liatic variety tlie irritation is mueli less marked, and may even be altogether absent. With the pulla- ceous deposit in the bladder there is incontinence of nrine, Avhich dribbles away continually and keeps the hair on the inner side of the thighs matted with soft magma. In all cases alike the calculus may be felt by the examination of the bladder with the oiled hand in the rectum. The i^ear-shaped outline of the bladder can be felt beneatli, and within it the solid oval body. It is most easily recognized if the organ is half full of liquid, as then it is not grasped b}' the contract- ing walls of the bladder, l)ut majO^e made to move from j)lace to place in the liquid. If a pultaceous mass is present it has a soft, doughy feeling, and when pressed an indentation is left. In the mare the hard stone may be touched by the finger intro- duced through the short urethra. Tlie treatment of stone in the bladder consists in the removal of the offending body. In the mare this is easily affected with the lithot- omy forceps. These are slightlj^ warmed and oiled, and carried forward along the floor of the passage of the vulva for 4 inches, when the orifice of the urethra will be felt exactly in the median line. Through this the forcejjs are gradually pushed with gentle oscillating movement until they enter the l)ladder and strike against the hard surface of the stone. Tlie stone is now grasped between the blades, care being taken to include no loose fold of the mucous membrane, and it is gradualh' withdrawn with the same careful oscillating motions as before. Facility and safety in seizing the stone will be greatly favored by having the bladder half full of liquid, and if nec- essarj^ one oiled hand may be introduced into the rectum or vagina to assist. The resulting irritation may be treated by an injection of laudanum, 1 ounce, in a x^int of tepid water. The removal of the stone in the horse is a inucli more difficult i^ro- ceeding. It consists in cutting into the uretlira, just beneath the anus and introducing the lithotomy forceps from this forward into the blad- der, as in the mare. It is needful to distend the ui^ethra with tepid water or to insert a sound or catheter to furnish a guide upon which the incision maybe made, and in case of a large stone it maybe need- ful to enlarge the x)assage by cutting in a direction upward and out- ward with a probe-pointed knife, the back of which is slid along in the groove of a director until it enters the bladder. The horse may be operated upon in the standing position, being simi)ly i)ressed against a wall by a pole passed from before backward along the other side of the body. The tepid Avater is injected into the end of the penis uniil it is felt to fluctuate under the j^ressure of the flnger, in the median line over the bone just beneath the anus. The incision is then made into the center of the fluctuating canal, and from above downward. AVhen a sound or catheter is used as a guide it is inserted througli tlie penis until it can be felt through the skin at the 87 point wliere the incision is to be made beneatli the anus. The skin is then rendered tense by the thumb and fingers of the left hand i)ress- ing on the two sides of the sound, while the right hand, armed with a scalpel, cuts downward on to the catheter. This vertical incision into tlie canal should escape w^ounding any important blood-vessel. It is in making the obliquely lateral incision in the subsequent dilatation of the urethra and neck of the bladder that sucli danger is to be apprehended. If the stone is too large to be extracted through the urethra it may be broken down with the lithotrite and extracted x^iecemeal with the forceps. The lithotrite is an instrument composed of a straight stem bent for an inch or more to one side at its free end so as to form an obtuse angle, and having on the same side a sliding bar moving in a groove in the stem and oijerated by a scrcAV so that the stone may be seized between the two blades at its free extremity and crushed again and again into pieces small enough to extract. Extra care is required to avoid injury to the urethra in the extraction of the angular frag- ments, and the gravel or jjowder that can not be removed in this way must be washed out as advised below. When a j)ultaceous magma of carbonate of lime accumulates in the bladder it must be washed out by injecting water tlirough a catheter by means of a force T)ump or a funnel, shaking it uf) with the hand introduced through the rectum and allowing the mudd}^ liquid to flow out through the tube. This is to be rex^eated until the bladder is empty and the water comes away clear. A catheter with a double tube is sometimes used, the injection passing in through the one tube and escaiDing through the other. But the advantage is more apparent than real, as the retention of the water until the magma has been shaken up and mixed with it hastens greatly its complete evacuation. To prevent the formation of a new deposit any fault in feeding {dvj grain and hay with privation of water, excess of beans, peas, wheat bran, etc.) and disorders of stomach, liver, and lungs must be cor- rected. Give abundance of soft drinking water, encouraging the aninml to drink by a handful of salt dailj^; let the food be laxative, consisting largelj^ of roots, apples, pumiDkins, ensilage, and give daily in the drinking water a dram of carbonate of potash or soda. Pow- dered gentian root (3 drams daily) will also serve to restore the tone of the stomach and sj^stem at large. Urethral calculus. — Stone in the urethra. — This is less frequent than in cattle and sheep, owing to the larger size of the urethra in the horse and the absence of the S -shaped curve and vermiform appendix. Tlie calculi arrested in the urethra are never formed there, but consist of cystic calculi Avhich have been small enough to pass through the neck of the bladder, but too large to pass through the whole length of tlie urethra and escape. Such calculi therefore are primarilj'- formed eitlier in the bladder or kidney, and have the chemical composition of the other calculi found in those organs. They may be arrested at any jioint of the urethra, from the neck of the bladder back to the bend of the tul>e beneath the anus, and from that point down to the extrem- ity of the penis. I have found them most frequently in the i^apilla on the extreme end of the penis, and immediately behind this. The symptoms are violent straining to urinate, but without any dis- charge, or with the escape of water in drops only. Examination of the end of the penis will detect the swelling of the papilla or the urethra behind it, and the presence of a hard mass in the center. A probe inserted into the urethra will strike against the gritty calculus. If the stone has been arrested higher up its position maj'^ be detected as a small, hard, sensitive knot on the line of the urethra, in the median line of the lower surface of the penis, or on the floor of the pelvis in the median line from the neck of the bladder back t-o the bend of the urethra beneath the anus. In any case the urethra between the neck of the bladder and the point of obstruction is likely to be filled with fluid, and to feel like a distended tube fluctuating on pressure. Treatment may be begun by an attempt to extract the calculi by manipulation of the papilla on the end of the penis. This failing, the calculus may be seized with a pair of fine-pointed forceps and with- drawn from the urethra; or, if necessary, a probe-pointed knife may be inserted and the urethra slightly dilated, or even laid open, and the stone removed. If the stone has been arrested higher up it must be extracted by a direct incision through the walls of the urethra and down upon the nodule. If in the free (protractile) portion of the penis, that organ is to be withdrawn from its sheath until the nodule is exposed and can be incised. If behind the scrotum, the incision must be made in the median line between the thighs and directly over the nodule, the skin having been rendered tense by the fingers and thumb of the left hand. If the stone has been arrested in the intra-pelvic portion of the urethra, the incision must be made beneath the anus and the calculus extracted with forceps, as in stone in the bladder. The wound in the urethra may be stitched up, and usually heals slowly but satisfactorily. Healing will be favored by washing two or three times daily with a solution of a teaspoonf ul of carbolic acid in a pint of water. Preputial calculus. — Calculus in the sheath or hilocular cavity. — These are concretions in the sheath, though the term has been also applied to the nodule of sebaceous matter which accumulates in the blind pouches (bilocular cavity) by the sides of the papilla on the end of the penis. Within the sheath the concretion may be a soft, cheesy- like sebaceous matter, or a genuine calculus of carbonate, oxalate, phosphate and sulphate of lime, carbonate of magnesia and organic matter. These are easily removed with the fingers, after which the sheath should be washed out with castile soap and warm water, and smeared Avith sweet-oil. ^' \ "" m. IT.ATK IV ^^ ^ '>^^ \^^\ ^ ,t'"^ a Jbrfifyi/ for I'ri.fCJiJn/l por-h/)ri ; h,. Ifrflnlhuy /r>r- hihitltif ) ))or-tioii f.l'pjiphi'/nJ porfimi ofthr latter- rl , /ntf/ior- of tfie pflii.s ; if',(J', Ar-nifi offfif ppt7'i\s\ p , Bm-fteT offhp rrf.tf ■ f'fn/iinflifjiilnfn : t/f^vtpr-. Geo Marx .ipl afler 0 Aiboval. p.669. A Haen &Co Lithi.Baltimore LOXOITiniNAI, SPUmoX THKOrCH KIDXKY, PLATE V Structure of the IGdney. Diagrammatir . a ..Mf^dji Urny fat/er,- hBoundrn-i' xo/tf; r,C'ortical kwer, J,Kiy7ffo7i/ fi7hf:^'.f)f)ai i/igontiie mi/nmit ofTennl papilla ;.'i,Fir.'it hrrmrh othifiur-friian . ~'t.Sem7iff 7nxnir7i ofhif7ij'r(ifimt;.xTfiUff hrnjirji ofh7/}irratioTi.;f>.SPrtiyhtc-oUjerfing tnhp: 7,r/nrir finnal hihvJf ; (H^sre/ifliru/ /}orfif>ri of /fpnip's loop; fj. De-sfe/ifJi'Ti// porfinii of /fen If 's loof)/ JO.Lnop offff-n/e; U/'oni 'olutrt/ tahiilf , Ji",. MiilpifflikiJi rm-pn.sr/f, /.'iHf/u/l ar fPT-ir;14,Br-a7tr7> .siipplpiti/; t/ir fj/onif/y)/i ; J,5ylff'f'rf7ii rcs.seJ nfthf (/lo77i4Tiih ; J^> , R/7i/tr/i (joi7i(/ r//rerfli ' It} f?if rap///firif's, //^Sirrfif/ht arfenjo/es cxjrning f/ii-p/tly irinii thf rr/itiJ firtfri,-; /''i.strajf/hi a/ft>/-ioie ctnniTu/ frorrt the afferent > 'psspJ /ff' ihe gh>/iipniTi(s^- J.9, Sfra/i/ht a7tf'7in7(' ro/ni/itj fiymi tfw fiif/i/lar-i' p7e.v//s; '^0,]?7sc//lnr loop of ff If jjp/rinn'rls s'/Ti'ffrr-fnt rrssf-/ of'thf f//imif7-i//iis //o/'/ig fn t/7f r/i/>iff7i/-p ple.T/7s,<''-^/'af)i/t/iTi' plf.m.s of'ffif (j7/>/itf>/-i//aj pa7t of the (•i)7-f7rnf sirhstn/ue ; 23,Cn/rina/i/ p/p.r/is oftfie ptjrfuin'dM nfFfrrein ,- ^4/,fyyr-fitYt/ jtlf. v//s oftttf A-iflriPf: ?S,Vf77/if f^tcU/tfnp, ?0'Jp/7i r/j7/imr/ fioni thornpff/n/'ifsoftfip portf.v; 'J7;Jfitfj- /ohu/ari'piri,- ?i'i,Tp7/i T-pffifuiff t7ip I'Pmif rffffir ,- '.'!l\'e7i(ip 7fr/np. . 1 ofp : 77if s/ta/i/-(/ pi Iff n/ 'fhp iu-i/i/i7-i/ tliirM- rpf/TPsPut tfip pfirf iff H'/u'r/t ffif ppif/ir//iifn is fod/lpfl a7ir/ ofn g/-7i7}iihi7- itppp7i7-ti/ifjp . Tieo Maj-x, after DArbovai p.37Z. A Hoen&Co Lith. Baltimore MICR OSCOPIC AXATOivIY OF KIDNE^^ PI. ATP. VI ^^ \ R.enai Glomerulus. a,Arteri,' ofthe glorneruliMS; b.Brafic?t siipplx/iru/ thf uJfe/-e/if i/esseL ofthe^ glom^rtdus, QAfferent i 'essel oftfie gloTnervCLp , (Z,^/ttery going dfrectli/ to the ccipilZar^iJ plecajs of the cortJ/'ril svLbstftrtce.; e.CapiUary pleazi-s,- f Glomprabis . Renal Glomerulus Avifhits afferent vessels and efferents . a^-anx-h of'T-nuU ai-tK/vj^ b.Affi'jvTif I'essp/ ofthr gJameruhi^, c. GUfrrtf/vjIvs, d^fferejit / 'cssp/ go utg ircto a corpuscle; e, of'.l^/xifjigTu . lieo Marx del. after D Arboval. p 373 A Moen&Co Lith BaHimore MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY' OF KIDN'E^' PLATE Vn. PhospTijotic calculus, uric add nurZeiJS. X 215 (mIcuIos of oocaltzte of Urn p . © 5-\ m '•£'/ Q HeTvod, casts. Some deprived of epttheUum, lU'o are d^efja^ cxjlored, -frorrv the presence of urate, of soda, . Straight forceps used trvTemoving calculi,.. Haiaes del after Hurtrel D'Arboval. A Hoen&Co bth.Bahimore CAI.CULI AND IXST11UME^;T FOR. REMOV.VJ. , DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. By W. H. HARBAUGH, V. S., Richmond, Virginia. Tlie organs pertaining to the respiratory function may be popularly classed as follows: The nasal openings, or nostrils; the nasal cham- bers, through which the air passes in the head; the sinuses in the head, communicating with the nasal chambers; the i^harynx, common to the functions of respiration and alimentation ; the lar^-nx, a com- plicated structure situated at the top of the wind-pipe; the trachea, or wind-pipe; the bronchi (into which the wind-pipe divides), two tubes leading from the wind-pipe to the right and left lung, respec- tively; the bronchial tubes, which penetrate and convey air to all parts of the lungs; the lungs. The pleurals a thin membrane that envelops the lung and is reflected against the walls of the thoracic cavitj^ The diaphragm is a mus- cular structure, completely separating the contents of the thoracic cavity from those of the abdominal cavity. It is essentially a muscle of inspiration, and the principal one. Other muscles aid in the mechanism of respiration, but the diseases or injuries of them have nothing to do with the class under consideration. Just within the nasal openings the skin becomes gradually but per- ceptibly finer, until it is succeeded by the mucous membrane; the lino of demarkation is not always well defined. Near about the junc- tion of the skin and membrane is a small hole, presenting the appear- ance of having been made with a punch; this is the opening of the nasal duct, a canal that conveys the tears from the eyes. Within and above the nasal openings are the cavities or fissures called the false nostrils; if the finger is inserted up into them it will be demon- strated that the superior extremity is blind; just in this situation there is often found a little tumor, to be described hereafter. The nasal chambers are completely separated, the right from the left, by a cartilaginous partition. Each nasal chamber is divided into three continuous compartments by the two turbinated bones. The mucous membrane lining the nasal chambers, and in fact the entire respiratory tract, is much more delicate and more frequently diseased than the mucous membrane of any other part of the body. 89 90 Tlie sinuses of the head are compartments which communicate with tlie nasal chambers and are lined with a continuation of the same membrane that lines the nasal chambers; their presence increases the volume and modifies the form of tlie head without increasing its weight. The horse, in a normal condition, breathes exclusively through tlie nostrils; no air passes through the mouth in respiration. This is one reason why horses probably are affected oftener with colds than other animals. The organs of respiration are more liable to dis- ease than the organs connected with anj' other function of the animal, and, as many of the causes can be prevented, it is both important and I)rofitable to know and study the causes. The respiratory surface in the lungs of the horse is estimated to be from 200 to 500 square feet. The cause of many of the diseases of these organs may be given under a common head, because even a simple cold, if neglected or badl}^ treated, may run into the most complicated lung disease and terminate fatally. In the spring and fall, when the animals are changing their coats, there is a marked predisposition to contract disease, and consequently care should be taken at those periods to prevent other exciting causes. Badly ventilated stables are a frequent source of disease. It is a great mistake to think that country stables necessarily have purer air than city stables. Stables on some farms are so faultily constructed that it is almost impossible for the foul air to gain an exit. All stables should have an unlimited supply of pure air, and be so arranged that strong draughts can not blow directly on the animals. Hot stables are almost always illy ventilated, and the hot stable is a cause of disease on account of the extreme change of temperature a horse is liable to when taken out, and extreme changes of temperature are to be avoided as certain causes of disease. A horse taken from i)as- ture and kept in a hot stable is almost sure to contract a cold; the stable should be thrown open and the temperature gradually increased in such cases, when practicable, to avoid the sudden change. A cold, close stable is invariably damp, and is to be avoided as much as the hot, close, and foul stable. Horses changed from a cold to a Avarm stable are more liable to contract cold than when changed from a warm to a cold stable. Pure air is more essential than warmth, and this fact should be especially remembered when the stable is made close and foul to gain the warmth. It is more economical to keep the horse warm with blankets than to prevent the ingress of pure air in order to make the stable warm. Stables should be well drained and kept clean. Some farmers allow dung to accumulate in the stalls until tliere is hardlj' sufficient room for the liorses. This is a pernicious i)ractice, as the decomposing organic matter evolves poisonous gases that are predisposing or excit- ing causes of disease. When a horse is overheated it is not safe to 91 allow him to dry bj' evaijoration ; rubbing liiin dry and gradually cooling him out is the wisest treatment. When a horse is hot — cov- ered with sweat — it is dangerous to allow him to stand in a draught; it is the best i)lan to walk him until his temperature moderates. In such cases a light blanket thrown over the animal may prevent a cold. Overwork or overexertion often causes the most fatal cases of conges- tion of the lungs. Avoid j)rolonged or fast work when the horse is out of condition or unaccustomed to it. Animals that have been working out in cold rains should be dried and cooled out, and not left to dry by evaporation. "When the temperature of the weather is at the extreme, either of heat or cold, diseases of the organs of respira- tion are most frequent. It is not to be suj)posed tliat farmers can give their horses the par- ticular attention given to valuable racing and pleasure horses, but they can most assuredly give them common-sense care, and this will often save the life of a valuable or useful animal. Xegiect on the j)art of the owner is as often (x^erhai^s oftener) the cause of disease in the horse as neglect on the part of the servant. If the owner properly considers his interests he will study the welfare of his horses so that he may be able to instruct the servant in details of stable manage- ment, as it often hapi^ens that the fault on the i)art of the servant is due to want of knowledge more than to willful neglect. WOUNDS ABOUT THE NOSTRILS. Wounds in this neighborhood are common, and are generally caused by getting snagged on a nail or splinter, or by the bite of another horse; or by getting "run. into," or b}^ running against something. Occasionally the nostril is so badly torn and lacerated that it is impos- sible to effect a cure without leaving the animal blemished for life, but in the majority of instances the blemish or scar is due to the want of conservative treatment on the x)art of the owner or attendant. As soon as possible after the accident the parts should be brought together and held there by stitches. If too much time is allowed to elapse the swelling of the parts will cousiderabl}^ interfere. The skin in this neighborhood is thin and delicate, and therefore it is easy to insert sutures. Never cut awa}' an}" skin that may be loose and hang- ing, or else a scar will certainly remain. Bring the parts in direct aijposition and x)lace the stitches from a quarter to a half inch apart, as circumstances may demand. It is not necessary- to have special surgeons' silk and needles for this operation; good linen thread or ordinary silk thread will answer. The wound afterwards only re- quires to be kept clean. For this purpose it should be cleansed and discharges washed away daily witli a solution made of carbolic acid 1 part, in water 40 parts. If the horse is inclined to rub the w'ound against some object on account of the irritabilit^^.his head should be 92 tied by moans of two halter ropes to prevent him rubbing the wound open. The head should be so tied about ten days, except when at work or eating. TUMORS WITHIN THE NOSTRILS. As before mentioned, a small globular tumor is sometimes found within the false nostril, under that part of the skin that is seen to puff or rise and fall when a horse is exerted and breathing hard. These tumors contain matter of a cheesy consistency, and are simple. If the tumor is well opened and the matter squeezed out nature will do the rest to perform a perfect cure. If the opening is made from the out- side through the skin it should be at the most dependent part, but much the best way to open the tumor is from the inside. Quiet the animal, gently insert your finger uj) in the direction of the tumor, and you will soon discover that it is much larger inside than it appears to be on the outside. If necessary put a twitch on the ear of the horse to quiet him; run the index finger of your lef thand against the tumor; now, with the right hand, carefully insert the knife by run- ning the back of the blade along the index finger of the left hand until the tumor is reached; with the left index finger guide the point of the blade quickly and surely into the tumor ; make the opening large ; there is no danger; a little blood may flow out for awhile, but it is of no consequence. Squeeze out the matter and keep the part clean. COLD IN THE HEAD — CATARRH. Catarrh means a discharge of fluid from the mucous membrane. The form of catarrh under present consideration is at first a congestion, followed by inflammation of the mucous membrane of the nasal chambers — the Schneiderian or pituitary membrane, as it is specifically termed. The inflammation usually extends to, the membrane of the sinuses of the head and often to the membrane of the larjmx and l)harynx, causing the complication of sore throat. Quite frequently the membrane of the eyes is also affected, as evidenced by its congested condition and the flow of tears down over the cheeks; the nasal duct (spoken of before) is lined with a continuation of the same membrane^ and hence the inflammation of the membrane of the eyes is only an extension of the disease over a continuous tract, and not a specific disease as often supposed. The membrane of the nasal duct being swollen, the effect of the congestion or inflammation, tlie tears can not flow freely through it, therefore they escape from the eyes and flow over the cheeks. Symptoms. — The membrane at the beginning of the attack is dry, congested and irritable; it is of a much deeper hue than natural, pink- ish-red or red. Soon a watery discharge from the nostrils makes its appearance; the eyes may also be more or less affected, and tears flow 93 over the cheeks. The animal has some fever, which may be easily detected by placing the finger in the mouth, as the feeling of heat con- veyed to the finger will be greater than natural. To become somewhat expert in ascertaining the changes of temiDera- ture in the horse, it is only necessary to place the finger often in the mouths of horses known to be healthy. After you have become accus- tomed to the warmth of the mouth of the healthy animal you will have no difficulty in detecting a marked increase of the temi^erature. Some veterinarians become so expert in this method of examination that they trust to it in preference to the use of thermometers. The animal may be dull ; he frequently emits a sort of sneezing snort, but does not cough unless the throat is affected; he expels the air forcibly through his nostrils very often in a manner that may be aptly called "blowing his nose." A few days after the attack begins the discharge from the nostrils changes from a watery to that of a thick mvicilaginous state, of a yellowish-white color, and may be more or less profuse. Often the appetite is lost, and the animal becomes debilitated. Treatment. — This disease is not serious, but inasmuch as neglect or bad treatment may cause it to run into a dangerous complication, it should receive proper attention. The animal should not be worked for a few days. A few days of quiet rest, with pure air and good food, will be of greater benefit than medication administered while the horse is excited and exposed to draughts and changes of temperature. The benefit derived from the inhalation of steam can not be overestimated. This is effected by holding the horse's head over a bucketful of boil- ing water so that the animal will be compelled to inhale steam with every inhalation of air. Stirring the hot water with a wisp of hay causes the steam to arise in greater abundance. By no means adopt the pernicious method of steaming — advised by some authors and prac- ticed by many people — by putting the head in a bag with hot water or scalded bran. Common sense would be sufficient to condemn the method, if those who practice it would only think. With the head so closely confined in the bag the horse is compelled to inhale over and over the foul air expelled from the lungs. This is malpractice on a healthy horse, and much worse when the animal is ill, for then it has a greater necessity for pure air. The horse should be made to inhale steam four or five times a day, about fifteen or tAventy minutes each time. Particular attention should be paid to the diet. Give bran mashes, scalded oats, linseed gruel, and grass if in season. If the horse evinces no desii'e for this soft diet, it is well to allow any kind of food he will eat, such as hay, oats, corn, etc. If the animal is constipated, relieve this symptom by injections (enemas) of warm water into the rectum (last gut) three or four times a day, but under no circumstances administer purgative medicines. 94 For simple cases tlie foregoing is all that is required, but if the appe- tite is lost, aud the animal appears debilitated and dull, give 3 ounces of the solution of acetate of ammonia and 2 drams of powdered chlo- rate of potassium diluted with a pint of water three times a day as a drench. Be careful when giving the drench; do not pound the horse on the gullet to make him swallow; be x)atient, and take time, and do it right. If the weather be cold, blanket the animal and keep him in a com- fortable stall. If the throat is sore, treat as advised for that ailment, to be described hereafter. When the inflammatory symptoms subside and the appetite is not regained, give 2 ounces each of the tincture of gentian and spirits of nitrous ether in a pint of water, as a drench, every night and morning for several days. If, after ten days or two weeks, the discharge from the nostrils continues, give 1 dram of i)owdered sulphate of iron three times a day. This may be mixed with bran and oats, if the horse will eat it, but if he will not eat the food with the iron in it, give the iron as a drench, dissolved in a pint of water. It may be objected that rather more space than necessary is devoted to this simple affection ; but when it is known that there is a ten- dency to the extension of the trouble, and that serious complications may ensue, the fact should be appreciated that there is every reason why the common cold should be thoroughly understood and intelli- gently treated in order to i^revent the more dangerous diseases. CHRONIC CATARRH — XASAL GLEET. This is a subacute or chronic inflammation of some part of the membrane affected in common cold, the disease just described. It is manifested by a persistent discharge of a thick, white, or yellowish- white matter from one or both nostrils. The sinuses of the head are the usual seat of the disease. The commonest cause is a neglected or badly treated cold, and it usually follows those cases where the horse has suffered exposure, been overworked, or has not received proper food, and, as a consequence, has become debilitated. Other but less frequent causes for this affection are : Fractures of the bones that involve the membrane of the sinuses; and even blows on the head over the sinuses, of sufficient force to rujiture blood- vessels within. The blood thus escaping into the sinus acts as an irritant, and sets up an inflamination. Diseased teeth often involve a sinus, and cause a fetid discharge from the nostril. Violent cough- ing is said to have forced particles of food into the sinus, which acted as a cause of the disease. Tumors growing in the sinuses are known to have caused it. It is also attributed to matter from disease of the turbinated bones. Absorption of the bones forming the walls of the sinuses has been caused by the pressure of pus collecting in them, and by tumors filling up the cavity. 95 Symptoms. — The long-continued discharge, which varies in quantity according to the attendant circumstances — the cause of the trouble and the part affected — will invariably indicate the disease. Great caution must be exercised when examining these cases, as horses have been condemned as glandered when really there was nothing more ailing them than nasal gleet. This affection is not contagious, nor is it dangerous, although difficult to cure in some instances. In most cases the discharge is from one nostril onl}'^, which signifies that the sinuses on that side of the head are affected. The discharge may be intermittent, that is, quantities may be discharged at times, and again little or none for a day or so. The glands under and between the bones of the lower jaw may be enlarged. The peculiar ragged-edged ulcer of glanders is not to be found on the membrane within the nos- trils, but occasionally sores are to be seen there. If there is any doubt about it, you should study well the sj'mptoms of glanders to enable you to be at least competent to form a safe opinion. The eye on the side of the discharging nostril may have a peculiar appearance and look smaller than its fellow. There may be an enlarge- ment, having the appearance of a bulging out of the bone over the part affected, between or below the eyes. The breath may be offensive, which indicates decomi)Osition of the matter or bones, or, especially, disease of the teeth. A diseased tooth is further indicated by the horse holding its head to one side when eating, or dropping the food from the mouth after partly chewing it. When you tap on the bones between the eyes, below the ej'es and above the back teeth of the upper jaw, a hollow drum-like sound is emitted, but if the sinus is filled with pus or contains a large tumor the sound emitted will be the same as if a solid substance were struck; by this means the sinus affected may be located in some instances. The hair may be rough over the affected i)art, or even the bone may be soft to the touch and the i)art give somewhat to pressure, or leave an impression where it is l^ressed uj)on with the finger. Treatment. — The cause of the trouble must be' ascertained before treatment is commenced. In the many cases where the animal is in poor condition (in fact, in all cases), he should have the most nutritive food and regular exercise. The food, or box containing it, should be l)laced on the ground, as the dependent position of the head favors the discharge. The cases that do not require a surgical ox^eration must, as a rule, have x^ersistent medical treatment. Mineral tonics are of the most value. For eight days give the following mixture : Sulphate of iron, 3 ounces ; i)owdered nux vomica, 1 ounce ; mix and make into sixteen powders. Give one powder mixed with the food twice a day. When all of the foregoing has been administered the following may be tried for eight days: Sulphate of copper, 4 ounces; powdered gentian, 6 ounces; mix and di\ide into sixteen powders. Give one on the food 96 twice a day. If the animal will not eat tlie powder on the food, put the medicine in a pint of water in a bottle, shake well and give as a drench. After this substitute the following: One dram of iodide of iwtassium, dissolved in a bucketful of drinking water, one hour before each meal. Much benefit is often derived from the effect of a blister over the face. The ordinary fly blister plaster of the drug store mixed with one-third its weight of lard is efi&cient. Sulphur burnt in the stable while the animal is there to inhale its fumes is also a valuable adjunct. Care should be taken that the fumes of the burning sulphur are sufficiently diluted with air, so as not to suffocate the horse. Chloride of lime sprinkled around the stall is good. Also keep a quantity of the chloride under the hay in the manger so that the gases will be inhaled as the horse holds his head over the hay while eating. Keep the nostrils washed; the discharges may be washed away for appearance sake, but squirting solutions up the nose is worse than useless, as they do not come in contact with the diseased part. If the nasal gleet is the result of a diseased tooth the tooth must be removed, and the subsequent treatment will be according to indica- tions. The operation of trephining is the best possible way to remove the tooth in such cases, as it immediately oiDens the cavitj^ Avhich can be attended to direct. In all those cases of nasal gleet where sinuses contain either collec- tions of pus or tumors, the only relief is by the trephine; and it is a fact that, no matter how thoroughly described, this is an operation that will be very seldom attempted by the non-professional, although the operation is simple and attended in the majority of instances with success. It would therefore be a useless waste of time to give the modus operandi. An abscess involving the turbinated bones is similar to the collec- tion of pus in the sinuses, and must be relieved by trephining. THICKENING OP THE MEMBRANE. This is sometimes denoted by a chronic discharge, a snuffling in the breathing and a contraction of the nostril. It is a result of common cold and requires the same treatment as prescribed for nasal gleet, viz., the sulphate of iron, sulphate of copper, iodide of potassium, etc. The membranes of both sides may be affected, but one side only is the rule; and the affected side may be easily detected by holding the hand tightly over one nostril at a time. When the healthy side is closed in this manner, the breathing through the affected side will demonstrate a decreased caliber or an obstruction. NASAL POLYPUS. Tumors with narrow bases (somewhat pear-shaped) are occasion- ally found attached to the membrane of the nasal chambers, and are 97 obstructions to breathing through the side in which they are located. They vary much in size ; some are so small that their presence is not manifested, while others almost completely fill up the chamber, thereby causing a serious obstruction to the passage of air. The pedicel of the tumor is generally attached high up in the chamber, and usually the tumor can not be seen, but occasionally it increases in size until it pan be observed within the nostril. Sometimes, instead of hanging down towards the nasal opening, it falls back into the pharynx. It causes a discharge from the nostril, a more or less noisy snuffling sound in breathing, according to its size, a discharge of blood (if it is injured), and sneezing. The side that it occupies can be detected in the same way as de- scribed for the detection of the affected side when the breathing is obstructed by a thickened membrane. The only relief is the removal of the polypus, which, like all other operations, should be done by an expert when it is i^ossible to secure one. The operation is jjerformed by grasping the base of the tumor with suitable forceps and t^visting it round and round until it is torn from its attachment. The resulting hemorrhage is checked by the use of an astringent lotion, such as a solution of the tincture of iron, etc. PHARYNGEAL POLYPUS. This is exactly the same kind of tumor described as nasal polypus, the only difference being in the situation. Indeed, the pedicel of the tumor may be attached to the membrane of the nasal chamber as before explained, or it may be attached in the fauces (opening of the back part of the mouth), which is often the case, and by the body of the tumor falling into the pharnyx it gets the name of pharj^ngeal polypus. In this situation it may seriously interfere with breathing. Sometimes it drops into the larnyx, causing the most alarming symp- toms. The animal coughs or tries to cough, saliva flows from the mouth, the breathing is performed with the greatest difficulty and accompanied b}^ a loud noise ; the animal appears as if strangled and often falls exhausted. When the tumor is coughed out of the larnyx the animal regains quickly and soon appears as if nothing was ailing. These sudden attacks and quick recoveries should lead to the detec- tion of the trouble. The examination must be made by holding the animal's mouth open with a balling iron or speculum and running the hand back into the mouth. If the tumor is within reach it must be removed with forceps by torsion, and the hemorrhage controlled as before advised. BLEEDING FROM THE NOSE. Tliis often occurs during the course of certain diseases, viz., influenza, bronchitis, purpura hemorrhagica, glanders, etc. But it 5961— HOR 4 98 also occurs independent of other affections; and, as before mentioned, is a symptom of polypus or tumor in the nose. Injuries to the head, exertion, violent sneezing — causing a rupture of a small blood-vessel — also induce it. Tlie bleeding is almost inva- riably from one nostril only, and is never very serious. The blood escapes in drops (very seldom in a stream), and is never frothy as when the hemorrhage is from the lungs. (See "Bleeding from Lungs.") In most cases, bathing the head and wasliing out the nostrils with cold water are all that is necessary. If the cause is known you will be guided according to circumstances. If the bleeding continues, pour ice-cold water over the face, between the eyes and down over the nasal chambers. A bag containing ice in small pieces applied to the head is often efficient. If in spite of these measures the hemorrhage con- tinues, try plugging the nostrils with cotton, tow, or oakum. Tie a string around the plug before it is pushed up into the nostril, so that it can be safely withdrawn after four or five hours. If both nostrils are bleeding plug only one nostril at a time. If the hemorrhage is pro- fuse and persistent give a drench composed of 1 dram of acetate of lead dissolved in a pint of water; or 1 dram gallic acid dissolved in a pint of water may be tried. INFLAMMATION OP THE PHAKYNX. As alread}^ stated, the pharynx is common to the functions of both respiration and alimentation. From this organ the air passes into the larynx and thence onward to the lungs. In the posterior part of the pharynx is the superior extremitj^ of the gullet, the canal through which the food and water pass to the stomach. Inflammation of the pharynx is a complication of other diseases, viz. , influenza, strangles, etc., and is probably always, more or less, complicated with inflamma- tion of the larynx. That it may exist as an independent affection there is no reason to doubt, but so closely do the symptoms resemble those of laryngitis, and as the treatment is the same as for the latter disease, it is unnecessary to give it further consideration in a separate article. SORE THROAT — LARYNGITIS. The larynx is situated in the space between the lower jaw bones just back of the root of the tongue, and is retained in this position by the windpipe, muscles, and bones to which it is attached. It may be con- sidered as a box (somewhat depressed on each side), composed princi- pally of cartilages and small muscles, and lined on the inside with a continuation of the respiratory mucous membrane. Posteriorly it opens into and is continuous with the windpipe. It is the organ of the voice, the vocal cords being situated within it; but in the horse this function is of little or no consequence. It dilates and contracts to a certain extent like the nostrils, thus regulating the volume of air pass- ing through it. The mucous membrane lining it internally is so highly 99 sensitive that if the smallest particle of food happens to drop into it from the ijharynx the muscles instantly contract and violent coughing ensues, which is continued until the source of irritation is ejected. This is a wise provision of nature to prevent foreign substances gain- ing access to the lungs. That iirojection called Adam's apple in the neck of man is the prominent part of one of the cartilages forming the larynx. Inflammation of the larynx is a serious and sometimes a fatal dis- ease, and, as before stated, is usually complicated with inflammation of the pharynx, constituting what is i)oi)ularly known as ''sore throat." Symptoms. — About the first symptom noticed is the cough, followed by a difficulty in swallowing, which ma}'^ be due to the soreness of the membrane of the pharynx, over which the food or water must pass, or to the pain caused by the contraction of the muscles necessary to impel the food or water onward to the gullet ; or this same contraction of the muscles may cause a pressure on the larynx and produce the pain. In manj^ instances the difficulty in swallowing is so great that the water, and in some cases the food, is returned through the nose. The mouth is hot, and saliva dribbles from it. The glands between the lower jaw bones and below the ears may be swollen. Pressure on the larynx induces a violent fit of coughing. The cough is very characteristic ; it is easilj^ seen that the animal is ' ' coughing at his throat." The head is more or less "poked out," and has the apx)sar- ance of being stiffly carried. The membrane in the nose becomes red. A discharge from the nostrils soon appears. As the disease advances, the breathing may assume a more or less noisy character; sometimes a harsh rasping snore is emitted with every respiration, the breathing becomes hurried, and occasionally' the animal seems threatened with suffocation. Treatment. — In all cases steam the nostrils as advised for cold in the head. In bad cases cause the steam to be inhaled continuously for hours, until relief is afforded. Have a fresh bucketful of boiling water every fifteen or twenty minutes. In each bucketful of water put a tablespoonful of oil of turpentine, which will be carried along -svith the steam to the affected parts and have a beneficial effect. In mild cases steaming the nostrils five, six, or seven times a day will suffice. The animal should be placed in a comfortable, dry stall (a box-stall preferred), but should have a pure atmosphere to breathe. The body should be blanketed, and bandages applied to the legs. The diet should consist of soft food — bran mashes, scalded oats, linseed gruel, and, best of all, grass, if in season, which should be carried to him as soon as cut, and a fresh supply offered often. The manger or trough should not be too higli nor too low, but a temporary one should be constructed at about the height ho carries his head. Having to reach too high or too low may cause so much pain that the animal 100 would rather forego satisfying what little appetite he might have than inflict pain by craning his head for food or water. A supply of fresh water should be before him all the time ; he will not drink too much, nor will the cold water hurt him. Constipation (if present) must be relieved by enemas of warm water, administered three or four times during the twenty-four hours. A liniment composed of 2 ounces of olive oil and 1 ounce each of solution of ammonia and tincture of cantharides, well shaken together, should be thoroughly rubbed in about the throat from ear to ear, and about 6 inches down over the windpipe and in the space between the lower jaws. This liniment should be applied once a day for two or three da,js. When the animal can swallow without much difficulty, give the fol- lowing preparation: Fluid extract hyoscyamus 1 dram, jjowdered chlorate potassium 2 drams, simple sirup or molasses 2 ounces. Mix all together and drench very carefully. Repeat the dose every six hours. If the animal is breathing with great difficulty do not attempt to drench him, but persevere in steaming the nostrils, and dissolve 2 drams of chlorate of jDotassium in every gallon of water he will drink; even if he can not swallow much of it (and even if it is returned through the nostrils), it will be of some benefit as a gargle to the pharynx. When the breathing begins to be loud great relief is afforded in some cases by giving a drench composed of 2 drams of fluid extract of jaborandi in half a pint of water. If benefit is derived, this drench may be repeated four or five hours after the first dose is given. It will cause a free flow of saliva from the mouth within thirtj^ minutes. In urgent cases, when sufi'ocation seems inevitable, the operation of tracheotomy must be ijerformed. It must be admitted that this oper- ation appears to be (to the non-professional) a very formidable one, but as it is certainly a means of saving life where all other measures have failed, it is the duty of the writer to describe it. To describe this operation in words that would make it comprehensible to the general reader is a much more difficult task than performing the oper- ation, Avhich in the hands of the expert is one of the simplest, and attended with less danger (from the operation itself) than any of the special operations on organs. The operator should be provided with a tracheotomy tube (to be purchased from any veterinary instrument maker) and a sharp knife, a sponge, and a bucket of clean cold water. The place to be selected for opening the windpipe is that i^art which is found, uj^ou examina- tion, to be least covered with muscles. Run your hand down the front part of the windi)ipe and you maj^ easily detect the rings of cartilage of which it is composed ; about 5 or 6 inches below the tliroat it will be the most plainly felt. Right here, then, is the place to cut through. 101 Have an assistant liold tne animal's head still ; no necessity of putting a twitch on the nose. Grasp your knife firmlj'^in the right hand, select the spot to cut, and cut. Make the cut from above to below dii'cctly on the median line on the anterior surface of the mndpipe. Do not attempt to dissect your way in, that is too slow, it annoys the horse and makes him restless, besides it gives a novice time to become nervous. Make the cut about 2 inches long in the windpipe; this necessitates cutting three or four rings. One bold, nervy stroke is usually sufficient, but if it is necessarj^ to make several other cuts to finish the oj)eration do not hesitate. Your intention must be to make a hole in the windpipe sufficiently large to admit the tracheotomy' tube, and you have not accomplished your purpose until you have done so. It is quickly manifested when the windpiiDc is severed, the hot air rushes out, and when air is taken in it is sucked in with a noise. A slight hemorrhage may result (it never amounts to much), which is easily conti*olled by washing the wound with a sponge and cold v.ater; do not get any of the water in the windpii^e. Do not neglect to instruct your assistant to hold the head down immediately after the Oi^era- tion, so that the neck will be in a horizontal line. This will prevent the blood getting into the windpipe and allow it to drop directly on the ground. If you have the self-adjustable tube, it retains its i^lace in the wound without further trouble after it is inserted. The other kind requires to be secured in position hy means of two tapes or strings tied around the neck. After the hemorrhage is somewhat abated sponge the blood away and see that the tube is thoroughly clean, then insert it, directing the tube downwards towards the lungs. To insure the tube being clean, it is best to keep it immersed in a solution of 1 ounce of carbolic acid in 20 ounces of water for about thirty minutes previous to inserting it in the windpipe. The immediate relief this operation affords is wonderful to behold. The animal, a few minutes before on the verge of death from suffoca- tion, emitting a loud wheezing sound with every breath; with haggard countenance, body swaying, i)awing, gasping, fighting for breath, is now breathing tranquilly, and ten to one is nosing about the stall in search of something to eat. The tube should be removed once a day and cleaned with the carbonc acid solution (1 to 20), and the discharge washed away from the wound with a solution of carbolic acid, 1 part to 40 j)arts water. Several times a day the hand should be held over the opening in the tube to test the animal's ability to breathe through the nostrils, and as soon as it is demonstrated that breathing can be performed in the natural way the tube should be removed, the wound thoroughlj^ cleansed with the carbolic acid solution (1 to 40), and closed by inserting four or five stitches through the skin and muscle. Do not include the cartilages of the windpipe in the stitches. Apply the carbolic acid solution to the wound three or four times a day until healed. When the tube 102 is removed to clean it tlie lips of tlie wound may be pressed together to ascertain whetlier or not the horse can breath through the larynx. The use of the tube should be discontinued as soon as possible. It is true that tracheotomy tubes are seldom to be found on farms, and especiallj^ when most urgently required. In such instances there is nothing left to be done but, with a strong needle, pass a wax end or other strong string through each side of the wound, including the cartilage of the wind-pipe, and keep the wound open by tying the strings over the neck. The operation of tracheotomy is not always successful in saving the animal's life, and the principal reason of this is that it is deferred too long and the animal is beyond recovery before it is attempted. During the time the tube is used the other treatment advised must not be neglected. After a few days the discharge from the nostrils becomes thicker and more profuse. This is a good symptom and sig- nifies that the acute stage has x)assed. At any time during the attack, if the hoi'se becomes weak, give the following drench every four or five hours : Spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ounces ; rectified spirits, 2 ounces ; water, 1 pint. When the i)Ower of swallowing is regained and the i)ro- fuse discharge of thick, yellowish-white matter from the nostrils announces the fact of the convalescing stage, administer the follow- ing: Tincture of the iDerchloride of iron, 1 ounce; tincture of gentian, 2 ounces; water, 1 pint. This should be given every morning and evening for about a week or ten days. Good nutritive food must now be given — hay, oats, and corn. Do not be in a hurry to put the ani- mal back to work, but give plenty of time for a complete recovery. Gentle and gradually increasing exercise may be given as soon as the horse is able to stand it. If abscesses form in connection with the disease they must be opened to allow the escape of pus, but do not rashl}- plunge a knife into swollen glands; wait until j^ou are certain the swelling contains pus. The formation of pus may be encouraged by the constant application of poultices for hours at a time. The best iwultice for the purpose is made of linseed meal, with sufficient hot water to make a thick paste. If the glands remain swollen for some time after the attack, rub well over them an application of the following: Biniodido of mercurj^, 1 dram; lard, 1 ounce; mix well. This may be applied once every day until the part is blistered. Sore throat is also a symptom of other diseases, such as influenza, strangles, purpura hemorrhagica, etc., which diseases may be consulted under their proper headings. After a severe attack of inflammation of the larynx the mucous membrane may be left in a thickened condition, or an ulceration of the part may ensue, either of which are liable to produce a chronic cough. For the ulceration it is useless to prescribe, because it can neither be diagnosed nor topically treated by the non-professional. 103 If a chronic cougli reniam.s after all tlie other symptoms have disap- peared, it is advisable to give 1 dram of iodide of potassium dissolved in a bucketful of drinking water one hour before feeding, three times a day, for a month if necessary. Also rub in well the preparation of iodide of mercury (as advised for the swollen glands) about the throat, from ear to ear, and in the space betvreen the lower jaw bones. The application may be repeated every third day until the part is blistered. SPASM OF THE LARYNX. This has been described by some authorities. The symptoms given are : Sudden seizure by a violent fit of coughing ; the horse may reel and fall, and after a few minutes recover, and be as well as ever. The treatment recommended is: Give a pint of linseed oil and after it has operated administer 3 drams of bromide of potassium three times a day, dissolved in the drinking water, or give as a drench in about a half pint of water, for a week. Then give a dram of powdered nux vomica (either on the food or shaken with water as a drench) once a day for a few weeks. CROUP AND DIPHTHERIA. Both of these diseases, it is claimed, afEect the horse. But such cases must be rare, as veterinarians of extended exi)erience have failed to recognize a single ease in their i)ractice. The sjnnptoms are so much like those of inflammation of the larynx that it would be impos- sible for the general reader to discriminate between them. ROARING. Horses that are affected with a chronic disease that causes a loud unnatural noise in breathing are called "roarers." This class does not include those affected with severe sore throat, as in these cases the breathing is noisj^ only during the attack of the acute disease. Roaring is caused by an obstruction to the free passage of the air in some part of the respiratorj"^ tract. Nasal polypi, thickening of the membrane, pharyngeal polypi, deformed bones, paralysis of the wing of the nostril, etc., are occasional causes. The noisy breathing of horses after having been idle and put to sudden exertion is not due to any disease, and is onlj^ temporary. Very often a nervous, excitable horse will make a noise for a short time when started off, generally caused bj-^the cramped position in which the head and neck are forced, in order to hold him back. Many other causes may occasion temporary, intermitting, or per- manent noisy respiration, but after all other causes are enumerated it will be found that more than nine out of ten cases of chronic roar- ing are caused by paralysis of the muscles of the larynx; and almost invariably it is the muscles of the left side of the larynx that are affected. 104 In chronic roaring the noise is made wneu the air is drawn .nto the lungs; and only when the disease is far advanced is a sound produced when the air is expelled, and even then it is not near so loud as during inspiration. In a normal condition the muscles dilate the aperture of the larynx by moving outward the cartilage and vocal cord, allowing a sufficient volume of air to rush through. But when the muscles are paralyzed the cartilage and vocal cord that are nominally controlled by the affected muscles remain stationary; therefore when the air rushes in it meets this obstruction, and the noise is produced. When the air is expelled from the lungs its very force pushes the cartilage and vocal cords out, and consequently noise is not always produced in the expi- ratory act. The paralysis of the muscles is due to derangement of the nerve that supplies them with energy. The muscles of both sides are not sup- plied by the same nerve; there is a right and a left nerve, each supply- ing its respective side. The reason why the muscles on the left side are the ones usually paralyzed is owing to the difference in the ana- tomical arrangement of the nerves. The left nerve is much longer and more exposed to interference than the right nerve. This pair of nerves is given off from its parent trunks (the pneumogastrics) after the latter enter the chest, and consequently they are called the recur- rent larjmgeal nerves, on account of having to recur to the larynx. In chronic roaring there is no evidence of any disease of the larynx, other than the wasted condition of the muscles in question. The disease of the nerve is generally located far from the larynx. Disease of parts contiguous to the nerve along any part of its course vasiy interfere with its proper function. It is not really necessary for the nerve itself to be the seat of disease; pressure upon it is sufficient; the pressure of a tumor on the nerve is a common cause. Disease of lymphatic glands within the chest through which the nerve passes on its way back to the larynx is the most frequent interruption of nerv- ous supply, and consequently roaring. When roaring becomes con- firmed medical treatment is entirely useless, as it is impossible to restore the wasted muscle and at the same time remove the cause of the interruption of the nervous supply. Before the disease becomes permanent it may be benefited by a course of iodide of potassium, when it is caused by disease of the lymphatic glands. Electricity has been used with indifferent success. Blistering or firing over the larynx is of course not worthy of trial if the disease is due to inter- ference with the nerve supply. The administration of strychnia (nux vomica) on the ground that it is a nerve tonic, with the view of stimu- lating the affected muscles, is treating only the result of the disease without considering the cause, and is therefore useless. The opera- tion of extirpating the collapsed cartilage and vocal cord is believed to be the only relief, and as this operation is critical and can only be performed by the skillful veterinarian, it will not be described here. 105 From the foregoing description of the disease it A\dll be seen tliat the name "roaring," by which the disease is generally known, is only a symptom and not the disease. Chronic roaring is also in many cases accomj)anied by a cough. The best way to test Avhether a horse is a " roarer " is to either make him pull a load rapidly up a hill or over a sandy road or soft ground; or if he is a saddle horse gallop him up a hill. The object is to make him exert himself. Some horses require a great deal more exertion than others before the characteris- tic sound is emitted. The greater the distance he is forced the more he will appear exhausted if he is a roarer; in bad cases the animal becomes utterly exhausted, the breathing is rapid and difficult, the nostrils dilate to the fullest extent, and the animal ajjpears as if suffocation is imminent. An animal that is a roarer should not be used for breeding purposes, no matter how valuable the stock. The taint is transmissible in many instances, and there is not the least doubt in the minds of those Avho know best that the offsj^ring whose sire or dam is a roarer is born with an hereditary predisposition to the affection. Grunting. — A common test used by veterinarians when examining "the wind" of a horse is to see if he is a "grunter." This is a sound emitted during expiration when the animal is suddenly moved, or startled, or struck at. If he grunts he is further tested for roaring. Grunter s are not always roarers, but as it is a common thing for a roarer to grunt such an animal must be looked upon with suspicion until he is thoroughly tried by pulling a load or galloped up a hill. The test should be a severe one. Horses suffering with pleurisy, i)leu- rodynia, or rheumatism, and other affections accompanied vnXh much pain, will grunt when moved, or when the pain is aggravated, but grunting under these circumstances does not justifj^ the term of "grunter" being applied to the horse, as the grunting ceases when the animal recovers from the disease that causes the i)ain. I-Ii(jli hlowing. — This term is applied to a noisy breathing made by some horses. It is distinctlj^ a nasal sound, and must not be con- founded Avith ' ' roaring. " The sound is produced by the action of the nostrils. It is a habit and not an unsoundness. Contrary to roaring, when tlie animal is put to severe exertion the sound ceases. An ani- mal that emits this sound is called a "high-blower." Some horses have, naturally, very narrow nasal openings, and they may emit sounds louder than usual in their breathing when exercised. TlliisUifig is only one of the variations of the sound emitted by a horse called a ' ' roarer, " and therefore needs no further notice, except to remind the reader that a whistling sound may be produced during an attack of severe sore throat or inflammation of the larynx, which passes away with the disease that causes it. Thick tuind. — This is another superfluous term applied to a symp- tom. The great majority of horses called " thick- winded " belong 5961— HOR 4* 106 eitlier in tlie class called "roarers," or are affected with "lieaves," and therefore no separate classification is needed. Mares heavy with foal, horses excessively fat, and those that have not been exercised for so long that the muscular system has become unfit for work ; horses with large bellies, and, especially, when the stomach is loaded with coarse, fibrous, or bulky food, emit a louder sound than natural in their breathing, and are called "thick-winded." The treatment in such cases is obvious: "Remove the cause and the effect will cease." AVhile it must be admitted that "thickening of the mucous mem- brane of the finer bronchial tubes and air cells may cause the breath- ing called "thick- winded," it must at the same time be admitted that there is no symptom by which the condition can be distinguished from what will hereafter be described as "heaves," by the general reader, at least. THE WINDPIPE. The windpipe, or trachea, as it is technically called, is the flexible tube that extends from the larynx, which it succeeds at the throat, to above the base of the heart in the chest, where it terminates by dividing into the right and left bronchi, the tubes going to the right and left lung respectively. The windpipe is composed of about fifty incomplete rings of cartilage united by ligaments. A muscular layer is situated on the superior surface of the rings. Internally the tube is lined with a continuation of the mucous membrane that lines the entire respiratory tract, which here has ver}^ little sensibility in contrast to that lining the larjnix, which is endowed with exc^uisite sensitiveness. The windpipe is not subject to any si^ecial disease, but is more or less affected during laryngitis (sore throat), influenza, bronchitis, etc., and requires no special treatment. The membrane may be left in a thickened condition after these attacks. One or more of the rings may be accidentallj^ fractured, or the tube maj^ be distorted or mal- formed, the result of violent injury. After the operation of trache- otomj'" it is not uncommon to find a tumor or malformation as a result or sequel of the operation. In i^assing over this section attention is merely called to those defects, as they require no particular attention in the way of treatment. However, it may be stated that any one of the before-mentioned conditions may constitute one of the causes of noisy respiration described as "roai'ing." GUTTURAL POUCHES. These two sacs are not included in the organs of respiration, but sometimes pus collects in them to an extent that considerably inter- feres AA'ith resi^iration. They are in close x^roximity to the pharynx and larynx, and when filled with matter the functions of the last- named organs can not be prox)erly performed. They are situated above the throat, and communicate with the jiharynx, as well as with 107 the cavity of the tympanum of the ear. They are peculiar to solii^eds. Tliey contain air, except when filled Avitli pus. Their function is unknown. One or both guttural pouches may contain pus. The symptoms are : Swelling on the side below the ear and an intermittent discharge of matter from one or both nostrils, especially when the head is depressed. The swelling is soft, and, if i:)ressed upon, matter will escape from the nose if the head is dei^ressed. As before mentioned, these pouches communicate with the i3harynx, and through this small ojjen- ing matter may escape. A recovery is probable if the animal is turned out to graze, or if he is fed from the ground, as the dependent i^osition of the head favors the escape of matter from the i)Ouches. In addi- tion to this, give the tonics recommended for nasal gleet. If this treatment fails an operation must be i^erformed, which should not be attemi)ted by anj'oue unacquainted with the anatomy of the part. METHODS OF EXAMINATION FOR DISEASES HAVING THEIR SEAT WITHIN THE CHEST. To lay down a set of rules for the guidance of the general reader in discriminating between the diiferent affections of the organs of res- piration situated in the thoracic cavity, is a task hard to accomi)lish. In the first place, it is presumed that the reader has no knowledge whatever of the anatomical arrangement, and i^robably but a meager idea of the jjhysiology of the organs, therefore the use of technical language, which would make the task a simple one, is out of the ques- tion. And, to one who scarcely understands the signs and laws of health, it is difScult to convey in comprehensive language, in an arti- cle like this, an adequate idea of the great importance attached to signs or symptoms of disease. Then, again, the methods used for the detection of symptoms not visible are such as require special culti- vation of the particular senses brought into play. It will be the endeavor of the winter, when describing the symptoms of each partic- ular disease, to do so in such manner that a serious mistake should not be made; but for the benefit of those who may desire a more thorough understanding of the subject a brief review of the various methods employed and an explanation of certain symptoms "vWll be given here. Pulse. — By the pulse is meant the beating of the arteries, which fol- lows each contraction of the heart. Tlie artery usually selected in the horse for "taking the ijulse" is the submaxillary where it winds around the lower jaw-bone. On the inner side of the jaw-bone the artery may be readily felt and pressed against the bone, hence its adaptability for the purpose of detecting each peculiarity. The num- ber of beats in a minute, the regularity, the irregularity, the strength or feebleness, and other peculiarities are principally due to the action of the heart. 108 In the healthy horse the average number of beats in a minute is about forty; but in different horses the number may vary from thirt}- five to forty-five and still be consistent with health. The breed and temperament of an animal have mvich to do with the number of pulsa- tions. In a thoroughbred the number of beats in a given time is gen- erally greater than in a coarse-bred horse. The pulse is less frequent in a dull plethoric animal than in an excitable one. The state of the pulse should be taken when the animal is quiet and at rest. Work, exercise, and excitement increase the number of pulsations. If the pulse of a horse be taken while standing quietly in the stable it will be found less frequent than when he is at pasture. It is not within the scope of a work of this kind to give all the j)ecul- iarities of the pulse; only a few of the most important will be noticed. It should, however, be stated that if the reader would learn something of the i)ulse in disease he must first become acquainted with the pulse in health ; he must know the natural peculiarities before he can detect the deviations caused by disease. By a frequent pulse is meant an increased number of beats in a given time. An infrequent pulse means the reverse. A quich pulse refers to the time occupied by the indi^adual pulsation. The beat may strike the finger either quicMy or slowly. Hence the pulse may beat forty quick pulsations or forty slow pulsations in a minute. The i)ulse is called intermitting when the beat now and then is omitted. The omission of the beat vnsij be at the end of a given num- ber of i)ulsations, when it is termed regularly intermittent, or it may be irregularly intermittent. A large pulse means that the volume is larger than usual, and a small pulse means the opi^osite. When the artery is easily com- pressed and conveys the feeling of emptiness it is called & feeble pulse. When a feeling of hardness and resistance is conveyed to the finger it is termed a hard pulse. A double pulse is when the beat seems to give two rapid beats at once. Besides other peculiarities the pulse may include the character of two or more of the foregoing classes. In fever the pulse is modified, both as regards frequency and other deviations from the normal standard. When a horse is quietly stand- ing at rest, if the i)ulse beats fifty-five or more in a minute, fever is present. Temperature. — The temperature of the healthy horse ranges from about 99i° to 101i° F. The average may be placed at about 100° F. The temperature is subject to slight alterations by certain influences. A high surrounding temj)erature increases the animal temperature, and cold tlie reverse. Exercise increases it. Mares have a higher temperature than males. Drinking cold water lowers the animal temi^erature. It is higher in the young than in the old. The process of digestion increases the temperature. The most accurate method of taking the temperature is by intro- ducing a registered clinical thermometer into the rectum. This 109 instrument can be piircliased from any dealer in surgical instruments. Even the best made may vary somewhat from being exact, but one sufficiently true for the i3urpose is easily obtained. It should be self- registering. The thermometer should remain in the gut for about three or four minutes. Before inserting it you should be sure the mercurj^ is below the minimum temperature. The end containing the mercury should be pushed in gently, leaving only sufficient out- side to take hold of when you desire to withdraw it. In describing the symptoms of "cold in the head" the method of ascertaining an increase of temperature by placing the finger in the mouth is referred to. The method requires considerable practice and a delicac}^ of touch to become expert, but, when a thermometer is not at hand, a little practice will enable a person of ordinary intelligence to detect the existence or absence of fever. Respiration. — In health, standing still, the horse breathes from twelve to fifteen times a minute; work or excitement increases the number of respirations. The character of the breathing is changed by disease. Quick breath- ing refers to an increased number of resi)irations, which may be due to disease or to simple exercise. Difficult hreathing is always asso- ciated with something abnormal, and is often a perfect guide to the trouble. Stertorous hreatliing must not be confounded with the diffi- cult breathing or noisy respiration of sore throat, roaring, etc. By stertorous breathing is meant what, in the human being, is called snoring, which is due to a relaxation of the palate and not to disease of the part. In the horse it is generally associated with brain disease, Avhen the consequent derangement of the nervous functions causes the relaxation of the soft palate. Abdominal breathing is when the ribs are kept as nearlj^ stationary as possible, and the abdominal muscles assist to a much greater extent than natural in respiration; the abdomen is seen to work like a bellows. In pleurisy, owing to the pain caused by moving the ribs, this kind of breathing is always present. Thoracic breathing is the opposite of abdominal breath- ing— that is, the ribs rise and fall more than usual, while the abdom- inal muscles remain fixed; this is due to abdominal pain, such as peritonitis, etc. Irregular breathing is exemplified in "heaves," and often during the critical stages of acute diseases. Secretions. — In the first stages of inflammatory disease these func- tions are noticed with benefit. For instance, in the common cold at the beginning of the attack the membrane mthin the nostrils is dry and congested, which state gradually gives way to a watery discharge, soon followed by a thick mucus. In pleurisy the surfaces are at first dry, which can be easily ascertained by ijlacing the ear against the chest over the affected part, when the dry surfaces of the pleural will be heard rubbing against each other, producing a sound likened to that of rubbing two pieces of paper one against the other. In dis- eases of the respiratory organs the bowels are usually constipated, 110 and tlie urine becomes less in ciuautity and of a liigiier color. Tke skin is usually hot and drj'^, buttliere are instances when perspiration is X) refuse. At the beginning- of the attack there is generally a chill (in most instances unnoticed by the attendant), caused by the con- traction of the blood-vessels in the skin driving the blood internally. Cough. — This is usually a violent effort to remove some source of irritation in the respirator}^ tract. The dry co?/(/7i is heard during the first stages of disease of the respiratory^ organs. In x>leurisy the cougli is a dry one. The cough in x^leurisy is noticeable on account of the apparent effort of the animal to supj)ress it. The moist cough is heard when the secretions (following a dry stage) are re-established. Cough is but a sjnnptom — the effect of a disease. Roaring, heaves, XDleurisy, iDueumonia, etc., have a cough x^eculiar to each affection. AuscuUaiion. — This term is applied to the method of detecting dis- eases of the organs within the chest by listening to the sounds. Gen- erally the ear is placed directly against tlie part, but occasionally an instrument called the stethoscox)e is emxjloyed. The former is the best mode for horses. In order to gain any satisfaction or knowledge by the practice of this method the reader must first become familiar with the sounds in a healthy horse, wliich can only be learned by prac- tice. Much more x)ractice and knowledge are then required to discrim- inate i^roperly between abnormal sounds and their significance. Percussion. — As api)lied to the x)racticeof medicine this term refers to the act of striking on some x)art of the bod}^ to determine the condi- tion of the internal organs by the sound elicited. If a wall of a cavity is struck the sound is easily distinguished from that emitted when a solid substance is knocked on. When x)ercussing the chest, the ribs are struck with the tips of the fingers and thumb held together, or with the knuckles. An instrument called the pleximeter is sometimes laid against the part, to strike on. If the surface is soft over the part to be percussed, the left hand is pressed against it firml}-, and the middle finger of it struck with tlie ends of the fingers of the right hand to bring out the sound. This method of examination also requires much practice on the healthy as well as the unhealthy animal. BRONCHITIS. As previousl}^ described, the windpipe terminates by dividing into the right and left bronchi, running to the right and left lung, respec- tively. After reaching the lungs these tubes divide into innumerable branches, gradually decreasing in size, which xienetrate all parts of the lungs, ultimately terminating in the air-cells. The bronchial tubes are formed much the same as the windpixjc, consisting of a base of car- tilaginous rings Avith a lajev of fibrous and muscular tissue, and lined internally with a continuation of the resxjiralory mucous membrane. Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes. The mucous membrane alone maybe affected, or the inflammation may involve the Ill Avliole tube. Broucliitis affecting tlie larger tubes is less serious tliau when the smaller are involved. The disease may be either acute or chronic. The causes are generally much the same as for other dis- eases of the respirator}^ organs, noticed in the beginning of this article. The special causes are: The inhalation of iiTitating gases and smoke, and fluids or solids gaining access to the parts. Bronchitis is occa- sionally associated with influenza and other specific fevers. It also supervenes on common cold or sore throat. Symptoms. — The animal appears dull; the apiDctite is partiall}^ or wholly lost; the head hangs; the breathing is ver}' much CLuickened; the cough, at first dry, and having somewhat the character of a "bark- ing cough," is succeeded in a few daj's by a moist rattling cough; the mouth is hot; the visible membranes in the nose are red; the i)ulseis frecLuent, and during the first stage is hard and quick, but as the dis- ease advances becomes smaller and more frequent. iVf ter a few days a whitish discharge from the nostrils ensues ; sometimes this discharge is tinged with blood, and occasionally it may be of a brownisli or rusty color. By auscultation or placing the ear to the sides of the chest unnatural sounds can now be lieai*d. The air j)assing over the inflamed surface causes a hissing or wheezing sound v>-hen the small tubes are affected, and a hoarse, cooing, or snoring sound when the larger tubes are involved. After one or two days the dry stage of the disease is succeeded by a moist stage of the membrane. The ear now detects a different sound, caused by the bursting of the bubbles as the air passes through the fluid, which is the exudate of inflamma- tion and the augmented mucous secretions of the membrane. The mucus may be secreted in great abundance, which, by blocking up the tubes, may cause a collapse of a large extent of breathing surface. Usually the mucus is expectorated, that is, discharged through the nose. The matter is coughed up, and when it reaches the larynx much of it may be swallowetl, or, as the case may be, discharged from the nostrils. The horse can not spit like the human being, nor does the matter coughed uj) gain access to the mouth. In serious cases all the symi)toms become aggravated. The breathing is labored, short, quick, \)\\t not painful. It is both thoracic and abdominal. Tlie ribs rise and fall much more than natural. This fact alone is enough to exclude the idea that the animal may be affected with j)leurisy, because, in x)leuris3% the ribs are as nearly fixed as in the power of the animal to do so, and the breathing accomplished to a great extent by aid of the abdominal muscles. The horse persists in standing throughout the attack. He prefers to stand witli head to a door or window to gain all the fresh air possible, but may occasionally wan- der listlessly about the stall if not tied. The bowels most likely are constipated; the dung is covered with slimy inucus. This apjjear- ance of the dung is usually defined by stablemen to be "cold on the bowels," or "dung covered with cold." The urine is decreased in 112 qnautity and darker in color than usual. The animal shows more or less thirst; in some cases the mouth is full of saliva. The discharge from the nose increases in quantitj^ as the disease advances and inflammation subsides. This is rather a good symptom, as it shows one stage has passed. The discharge then gradually decreases, the cougli becomes less rasping but of more frequent occurrence until it gradually disappears with the return of health. Bronchitis, affecting the smaller tubes, is one of the most fatal dis- eases, while that of the larger tubes is never very serious. It must be stated, however, that it is an exceedingly difficult matter for a non-expert to discriminate between the two forms, and further, it may as well be said here that the non-exjiert will have difficulty in discriminating between bronchitis and pneumonia. Therefore the writer will endeavor to point out a course of treatment in each dis- ease that will positively benefit either affection if the reader happens to be mistaken in his diagnosis. The critic may say that this plan is not a truly scientific method of treating disease. The only reply necessary to be made is that this series of articles is intended to be of practical value to the horse-o^^^^ing public, and is in no manner intended as a text-book for experts and those already acquainted with the technical literature on the subject. Scientific terms which would make the work easy for the author would only tend to make it valueless to the general reader. Likewise a different prescription for each form and stage of the affection would only confuse a person who is unable to appreciate the various phases of the disease. Treatment. — Of first importance is to insure a pure atmosphere to breathe, and next to make the patient's quarters as comfortable as possible. A well-ventilated box-stall serves best for all purposes. Cover the body with a blanket, light or heavy as the season of the year demands. Hand rub the legs until they are Avarm, then apply flannel or Derby bandages from the hoofs to the knees and hocks. If the legs can not be made warm with hand rubbing alone, apply the liniment recommended in the treatment of sore throat. Rub in thoroughly and .then put on the bandages. Also, rub the same lini- ment well over the side of the chest, behind the elbow and shoulder- blade, covering the space beginning immediately behind the elbow and shoulder-blade and running back about 18 inches, and from the elbow below to within 5 or 6 inches of the ridge of the backbone above. Repeat the application to the side of the chest about five days after the first one is applied. Compel the animal to inhale steam as advised for cold in the liead. In each bucketful of boiling water put a tablespoonful of oil of tur- X^entinc. This medicated vapor coming in direct contact with the inflamed bronchial tubes is of much greater benefit than can be imagined by one who has not experienced its good effect. In serious cases the steam should be inhaled every hour, and in any case the 113 oftener it is done the greater will be the beneficial results. Three times a ddy admii ister the following drench: Solution of tlie acetate of ammonia, 3 oun..'es; spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ounces; bicarbonate of potassium, one-half ounce; water, 1 pint. Care must be used in drenching. If it greatly excites the horse it is best not to push it. If you see that it does harm do not persist in making the animal worse. Be satisfied with dissolving one-half ounce of bicarbonate of potassium in everj" bucketful of water the animal will drink. It is well to keep a bucketful of cold water before the animal all the time. If the horse is prostrated and has no appetite give the following drench: Spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ounces; rectified spirits, 3 ounces; water, 1 i)int. Repeat the dose every four or five hours if it appears to benefit. When the horse is hard to drench, and if you have some one about who is expert in administering balls, give the following: Pulverized carbonate of ammonia, 3 drams; linseed meal and molasses sufiicient to make the whole into a stiff mass; wrap it with a small piece of tissue paper and it is ready to administer. This ball may be repeated every four or five hours. When giving the ball care should be taken to prevent its breaking in the mouth, as in case of such accident it will make the mouth sore, which may prevent the animal from eating. If the bowels are constipated give enemas of warm water. Do not give purgative medicines. Do not bleed the animal. Depressing treatment onlj" helps to bring on a fatal termination. If the animal retains an appetite a soft diet is preferable, such as scalded oats, bran mashes, and grass if in season. If he refuses cooked food allow in small quantities anything he will eat. Hay, corn, oats, bread, apples, carrots may all be tried in turn. Some horses will drink sweet milk when they refuse all other kinds of food, and especiall}^ is this the case if the drinking water is withheld for awhile. One or two gallons at a time, four or five times a day, will suj)port life. Bear in mind that when the disease is established it will run its course, which may be from two to three weeks, or even longer. Good nursing and iiatience are required. When the sj^mptoms have abated and nothing remains of the disease except the cough and a white discharge from the nostrils, all other medicines should be discontinued and a course of tonic treatment pur- sued. Give the following mixture: Pulverized sulphate of iron, 3 ounces; powdered gentian, 8 ounces; mix w-ell together and divide into sixteen powders. GiA^e a powder every night and morning mixed with bran and oats, if the animal will eat it, or shaken with about a pint of water and administered as a drench. If the cough remains for a length of time that leads you to think it will become chronic, saj^ three or four weeks after the horse is appar- ently well, apply the liniment to the throat and down over the mnd- pipe and over the breast. Rub it in thoroughly once a day until three or four applications are made. Also give 1 dram of iodide of 114 23otassium dissolved in a bucketful of drinking water, one nour before eaeli meal for two or tliree weeks if necessary. Do not put tlie animal at work too soon after recovery. Allow ample time to regain strength. This disease is prone to become chronic and maj' run into an incurable case of thick wind. It has been stated that it will be a difficult matter for the non-i3ro- fessional to discriminate between bronchitis and pneumonia. In fact the two diseases are often associated, constituting broncho-pneumonia; therefore, the reader should carefully studj^ the symi)toms and treat- ment of x^ueumonia. CHRONIC BRONCHITIS. This maj' be due to the same causes as acute bronchitis, or it may follow the latter disease. An attack of the chronic form is liable to be converted into acute bronchitis by a very slight cause. This chronic affection in most instances is associated with thickening of the walls of the tubes. Its course is slower, it is less severe, and is not accompanied with as much fever as the acute form. If the animal is exerted the breathing becomes quickened and he soon shows signs of exhaustion. In many instances the animal keeps up strength and appearances moderately well, but in other cases the appetite is lost, flesh gradually disappears, and the horse becomes emaciated and debilitated. It is accompanied by a cough, which in some cases is a husky, smothered, or muffled excuse for a cough, while in other cases the cough is hard and clear. A whitish matter is discharged from the nose, which may be curdled in some instances. If the ear is placed against the chest behind the shoulder-blade, the rattle of the air passing through the mucus can be heard within. It is stated that the right side of the heart may become enlarged to such an extent that it is easily felt beating by placing the hand against the chest behind the right elbow. Treatment. — Generally the horse is kept at work when he is affected with this form of bronchial trouble, as the owner says "he has only a deep cold." It is true that some authorities express the ox3inion that work does no harm, but they arc mistaken. Rest is necessary, if a cure is desired, as even under the most favorable circumstances, a cure is difficult to effect. The animal can not stand exertion, and should not be compelled to undergo it. Besides, there is a great x)i*obability of acute bronchitis supervening at any time. The animal should have much the same general care and medical treatment prescribed for the acute form; if material benefit has not been derived give the following: Powdered nux vomica, 3 ounces; powdered arsenic, 70 grains; iiowdered sulphate of copper, 3 ounces; mix together and divide into thirty-four powders. Give a i)owder mixed Avith l)ran and oats every night and morning. An application of mustard ai^plied to the breast is a beneficial adjunct. If all other 115 treatment fails, try the following combination, recommended by a good authority: Hydrocyanic acid (Sclieele's strength), 20 minims; nitrate of x)otassium, 3 drams; bicarbonate of soda, 1 ounce; water, 1 pint. This dose should be given every morning and evening for one or two weeks, if necessary. The diet should be the most nourishing. Bad food is harmfid at any time, but especially in this disease. Avoid bulky food. Linseed mashes, scalded oats, grass and green-blade fodder, if in season, is the best diet. THE LUNGS. The lungs are the essential organs of respiration. They consist of two (right and left) spongy masses, commonly called the "lights," situated entirely within the thoracic cavity. On account of the space taken uj) by the heart, the left lung is the smaller. Externally, they are completely covered by the pleura. The structure of the lung con- sists of a light, soft, but very strong and remarkably elastic tissue, which can only be torn with difficulty. The lung of the fostus v,iiich has never respired will sink if placed in water, but after the lung has been inflated with air it will float on water so long as healthy. This fact is made useful in deciding whether or not an animal was born dead or died after its birth. Each lung is divided into a certain num- ber of lobes, which are subdivided into numberless lobules (little lobes). A little bronchial tube terminates in every one of these small lobules. The little tube then divides into minute branches which open into the air-cells (pulmonarj'^ vesicles) of the lungs. The air- cells are little sacs having a diameter varj^ing from one-seventieth to one-two-hundredth of an inch; they have but one Oliening, the com- munication with the branches of the little bronchial tubes. Small blood-vessels ramify in the walls of the air-ceUs. The walls of the air- cells are extremely thin and consist of two layers; the blood-vessels, being between the laj'ers, thus expose a surface to the air in two different cells. The air-cells are the consummation of the intricate structures forming the respiratory apparatus. They are of prime imjiortance, all the rest being complementary. It is within these cells that is accomplished all that constitutes the ultimate result of the function of respiration. It is here the exchange of gases takes place. As before stated, the walls of the cells are very thin; so, also, are the walls of the blood-vessels. Through these walls escapes from the blood the carbonic-acid gas that has been absorbed by the blood in its circulation through the different parts of the body; and through these walls is absorbed by the blood, from the air in the air-cells, the oxj'^gen gas, which is the life-giving element of the atmosphere. Throughout the substance of the lungs the bronchial tubes terminate in the air-cells. Blood-vessels are in every part; likewise lymphatic vessels and nerves, which require no more than mention in this pax)er. 116 To give a rude idea of the arrangement of the respiratory apparatus as a whole, we may profitably compare it to a tree, for the want of a better illustration. Say that all the respiratory tract from the nasal openings back to the pharynx are the roots in the ground; the larynx may be compared to the large part of the trunk just above the earth; the windpipe will represent the body or the bole of the tree; the right and left bronchi may be considered the first two or largest limbs ; the bronchial tubes are then comparable to all the rest of the limbs, branches and twigs, gradually becoming smaller and. branching out more frequently, until the smallest twigs terminate by having a leaf appended; and to complete the comparison we may as well say the leaf will do to represent the air-cells. Now, imagine all parts in and around the limbs, branches, twigs, and leaves filled in with some mate- rial (say cotton or tow) and the whole covered over with silk or satin to about the beginning of the branches on each of the first two large limbs. The cotton or tow represents the lung-tissue and the silk or satin covering will represent the pleura. It must be admitted that this is rather a rough Avay to handle such delicate structures, but if the reader is possessed of a good imagination he may gain, at least, a comprehension of the subject that will suffice for the purpose of being better able to locate the various diseases and appreciate the mechan- ism of the resiairatory organs in their relations to each other. CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS. Inflammation of the lungs is always preceded by congestion, or, to make it plainer, congestion may be considered as the first stage of inflammation. Congestion is essentially an excess of blood in the A'essels of the parts affected. Congestion of the lungs in the horse, v.iien it exists as an independent affection, is generall}^ caused by overexertion when the animal is not in a fit condition to undergo more than moderate exercise. The methods practiced by the trainers of running and trotting horses will give an idea of what is termed " putting a horse in condi- tion" to stand severe exertion. The animal at first gets walking exercises, then after some time he is made to go faster and farther each day; the amount of work is daily increased until the horse is said to be "in condition." An animal so prei)ared runs no risk of being affected Avith congestion of the lungs if he is otherwise healthy. On the other hand, if the horse is kept in the stable for the i)urpose of laying on fat or for want of something to do, the muscular system becomes soft, and the horse is not in condition to stand the severe exertion of going fast or far, no matter hoAv healthy he may be in other respects. If such a horse be given a hard ride or drive, he may start off in high spirits, but soon becomes exhausted, and if he is pushed he will slacken his pace, show a desire to stop, and may stag- ger or even fall. Examination will show the nostrils dilated, the 117 flanks heiving, the countenance haggard, and ever}' other appear- ance of suffocation. IIow was this brought about? The heart and muscles were not accustomed to the sudden and severe strain put upon them; the heart became unable to perform its work; the blood accumulated in the vessels of the lungs, which eventually became engorged with the stagnated blood, constituting congestion of the lungs. The animal, after having undergone severe exertion, maj'^ not exhibit SLTiy alarming symptoms until returned to the stable ; then he will be noticed standing with his head down, legs spread out, the ej'es wildly staring or dull and sunken. The breathing is very rapid and almost gasping, the body is covered with perspiration in most cases, which, however, may soon evaporate, leaving the surface of the body and the legs and ears cold; the breathing is both abdominal and thoracic; the chest rises and falls and the flanks are powerful!}' brought into action. If the pulse can be felt at all it will be found beating verj' frequently, one hundred or more to a minute. The heart may be felt tumultuously thumping if the hand is placed against the chest behind the left elbow, or it may be scarcely perceptible. The animal may tremble all over the bod}'. If the ear is placed against the side of the chest a loud murmur will be heard, and perhaps a fine crackling sound. ISTo intelligent person should fail to recognize a case of congestion of the lungs when brought on by overexertion, as the history of the case is sufficient to point out the ailment. The disease may also arise from want of sufficient pure air in stables that are badly ventilated. In all cases of suffocation the lungs are congested. It is also seen in connection with other diseases. Treatment. — If the animal is attacked by the disease while on the road stop him immediately. Do not attempt to return to the stables. If he is in the stable make arrangements at once to insure an unlim- ited supply of pure air. If the weather is warm, out in the open air is the best place, but if too cold let him stand with, head to the door. By no means have him walked, as is sometimes done. Let him stand still; he has all he can do if he obtains sufficient pure air to sustain life. If he is encumbered with harness or saddle remove it at once and begin rubbing the body with cloths or wisps of hay or straw. This stimulates the circulation in the skin, and thus aids in relie\'ing the lungs of the extra quantity of blood that is stagnated there. If you have three or four assistants let them go to work with enthusiasm, rub the body and legs well, until the skin feels natural; rub the legs until they are warm, if possible; rub in over the cold part of the legs an application of the liniment recommended for the same purpose in the treatment of bronchitis, but do not apply it to the chest. When the circulation is reestablished, i)ut bandages on the legs from the hoofs up as far as possible. Throw a blanket over the body and let the rubbiner be done under the blanket. Diffusible stimulants are the 118 medicines indicated. Brandy, whisky (or even ale or beer if nothing else is at hand), ether, and tincture of arnica are "all useful. Two ounces each of spirits of nitrous ether and alcohol, given as a drench, diluted with a pint of water, every hour until relief is afforded, is among the best of remedies. But if it takes too long to obtain this mixture, give a quarter of a i)int of whisky in a pint of water every hour, or the same quantity of brandy as often, or a quart of ale every hour, or an ounce of tincture of arnica in a pint of water every liour until five or six doses have been given. K none of these remedies are at hand, 2 ounces of oil of turj^entine, shaken with a half pint of milk, may be given. This will have a beneficial effect until more applicable remedies are obtained. A tablespoonful of aqua ammonia (harts- horn), diluted with a pint of water and given as a drench every hour, has undoubtedly^ been of great service in saving life when nothing else could be obtained in time to be used with benefit. If the foregoing treatment fails to be followed by a marked improvement after seven or eight hours' perseverance, the p*nimal may be bled from the jugu- lar vein. Do not take more than 5 or 6, quarts from the vein, and do not repeat the bleeding. The blood thus drawn will have a tarry appearance. When the alarming symptoms have subsided active measures may be stopped, but care must be used in the general treatment of the ani- mal for several days, for it must be remembered that congestion may be followed by pneumonia. The animal should have a comfortable stall, where he will not be subjected to draughts or sudden changes of temj)erature ; he should be blanketed and the legs kept bandaged. The air should be i)ure, a plentiful supply of fresh cold water always before him, and a diet composed i)rincipally of bran mashes, scalded oats, and grass, if in season. When ready for use again he should at first receive moderate exercise only, which may be daily increased until he may safely be put at regular work. APOPLEXY OF THE LUNGS. This is but another term for congestion of the lungs, and for prac- tical liurposes needs no special description, except to remark that when a hemorrhage occurs during the congested state of the lungs the blood escai)es from the ruptui-ed vessels and extravasates into the lung tis- sue. Such cases are called pulmonary apoi^lexy, and usuallj' occui' during the course of some specific disease. PNEUMONIA — LUNG FEVEE. Pneumonia may attack both lungs, but as a general rule one lung only is affected, and in the great majority of cases it is the right lung. The air-cells are the i^arts affected jprincipally, but the minute branches of the bronchial tubes always, to a greater or less extent, are iuA'^olved in the inflammation. Inflammation of the lungs occurs 119 in three principal varieties, but in a Avork of this kind there is no necessity to discriminate, and therefore the disease will be described under a common head. It already lias been mentioned that pneumonia may be complicated with bronchitis, and it will hereafter be pointed out that it is very commonly complicated with i3lem'is3\ In this arti- cle the disease will be considered mainlj^ as an independent affection, and its complications will be more fully described under separate heads. The inflammation usually begins in the lower part of the lung and extends upwards. The first stage of the disease consists of congestion or engorgement of the blood- vessels, and if tliis condition continues the blood exudes from the vessels into the adjacent lung tissue; if rupture of small blood-vessels occurs there will be extravasations of blood in the contiguous j)arts. The fluids thus escaping collect in the air-cells and in the minute branches of the little bronchial tubes, and, becoming coagulated there, completely block up the cells and exclude the air. In this condition the lung is increased in volume and is much heavier, and will sink in water. The pleura covering the affected x^arts is alwaj^s more or less inflamed. A continuance of the foregoing phenomena Ls marked by a further escape of the constituents of the blood, and a change in the membrane of the cells, which become swollen. The exudate that fills the air-cells and minute bronchial branches under- goes disintegration, and is converted into a fatty material. The Avails of the cells almost invariablj^ remain unaltered. It must not be imagined, that the foregoing changes take place in a uniform manner. While one portion is onlj^ congested another part maj' be undergoing disintegration, while still another part may be involved in the exudative stage. The usual termination of x)iieumonia is in resolution, that is, a res- toration to health. This is gradually brought about by the exuded material contained in the air-cells and lung tissues becoming degen- erated into fatty and a mucus-like substance Avhich are removed by absorption. The blood-vessels return to their natural state and the blood circulates in them as before. Much material, the result of the inflammatory process, is also gotten rid of by expectoration, or rather (in the horse) by discharge from the nostrils. In the cases that do not terminate so happily the lung may become gangrenous (or mortified), or an abscess may form, or the disease may be merged into the chronic variety. Pneumonia may be directly induced by any of the influences named as general causes for diseases of the organs of respiration, but in many instances it is due to eitlier Avillful neglect or ignorance. A common cold or sore throat may run into a fatal case of pneumonia if neglected or improi^erly treated. An animal may be debilitated by a cold, and when in this weakened state ma}'- be compelled to undergo exertion beyond his strength; or he may be kept in bad 120 quarters, such as a badly ventilated stable, where the foul gases are shut in and the pure air is shut out; or the stable may be so open that i)arts of the body are exposed to draughts of cold air. Either of the foregoing causes may induce congestion of the lungs in an ani- mal predisposed to it on account of having already a disease of the respiratory organs. The congestion is soon followed by the other stages of inflammation, and a case of i^neumonia is established with a tendency to a fatal termination, as it is altogether likelj'^ the animal will be so much reduced in constitution as to be unable to fight off a collapse. An animal is predisposed to pneumonia when debilitated by any constitutional disease, and especially during convalescence if exj)osed to any of the exciting causes. Foreign bodies, such as food, accidentally getting in the lungs by way of the mndpipe, as well as the inhalation of irritating gases and smoke, ofttimes produce fatal attacks of inflammation of the lung and bronchial tubes. Pneumo- nia is frequently seen in connection with other diseases, such as influ- enza, purjDura hemorrhagica, strangles, glanders, etc. An abnormal state of the blood j)redisposes to it. Pneumonia and pleurisy are most common during cold, damp weather, and especiallj^ during the prevalence of the cold north and northeasterly winds. Wounds punc- turing the thoracic cavity may induce it. Symptoms. — Pneumonia, when a primary disease, is ushered in by a chill, more or less prolonged, which in most cases is seen neither by the owner nor the attendant, but is overlooked. The breathing becomes accelerated, and the animal hangs its head and has a very dull appearance. The mouth is hot and has a sticky feeling to the touch ; the heat conveyed to the finger in the mouth demonstrates a fever; if the thermometer is placed in the rectum the temperature will be found to have risen to 103° F., or higher. The pulse is verj^ frequent, beating from seventy or eighty to one hundred or more a minute; the character of the pulse varies very much; it may be hard or feeble, large or small, intermitting, etc. There is usually a dry cough from the beginning, which, however, changes in character as the disease advances; for instance, it may become moist, or if pleu- risy sets in the cough will be peculiar to the latter affection, that is, cut short in the endeavor to suppress it. In some cases the discharge from the nostrils is tinged with blood, while in other cases it has the appearance of matter. The appetite is lost to a greater or less extent, but the desire for water is increased, particularly during the onset of the fever. The membrane within the nostrils is red and at first dry, but sooner or later becomes moist. The legs are cold. The bowels are more or less constipated, and what dung is passed is usually cov- ered Avith a slimy mucus. The urine is passed in smaller quantities than usual and is of a darker color. The animal prefers to have the head where the freshest air can be obtained. When affected with pneumonia a horse does not lie down. 121 but persists in standing from the beginning of the attack. How e\ er, if pneiinic nia is complicated with pleurisy the horse may appear rest- less and lie down for a few moments to gain relief from the ijleuritic pains, but he soon rises. In pneumonia the breathing is verj^ rapid, and sometimes even the most negligent observer will notice that it is difficult, but wlien the i^neumonia is complicated with pleurisy the ribs are kept as still as possible and the breathing is abdominal, that is, the abdominal muscles are now made to do as much of the work as they can perform. Remember if pleurisy is not present thei*e is no pain. To the ordinary observer the animal may not appear danger- ously ill, as he does not show the seriousness of the ailment by vio- lence, as in colic, but a careful observer will discover at a glance that the trouble is something more serious than a cold. If the reader has practiced auscultation and percussion sufficiently to discriminate the sounds, or absence of sounds, of the diseased lung from the sounds of the normal lung, he may still further satisfy him- self in diagnosing the ailment. When the lung is healthy, if the chest is knocked on, a more or less resonant sound is emitted, accord- ing to the part struck ; but when the air cells are filled with the exu- date of inflammation, and the surrounding lung tissue contains the exudate and extravasated blood, the air is excluded, and the part of the lung thus affected is solidified; now, if the chest is struck over this solidified part, a dull sound is obtained. Therefore, percussion not onlj' shows that the lung is affected with pneumonia, but it points to the spot affected. Moreover, if pleurisj^ exists in conjunction with pneumonia, and the walls of the chest are knocked on with a view of gaining information from the sounds elicited, when that part imme- diately over the affected pleura is struck, the animal flinches, as the blows, even if thej'^ are but moderate, cause severe pain. By auscultation, listening to the sounds within the chest, we gain much information. When the ear is placed against the chest of a healthy horse the respiratory murmur is heard more or less distinctlj", according to the part of the chest that is beneath the ear. In the very first stage of pneumonia this murmur is louder and hoarser; and, also, there is heard a fine crackling sound something similar to that produced when salt is thrown in a fire. After the affected part becomes solid there is an absence of sound over that particular part. After absorption begins, you mil again hear sounds, which gradually change until the natural sound is heard announ.cing the return of health. When a fatal termination is approaching all the symptoms become intensified. The breathing becomes still more rapid and difficult; the flanks heave; the j)oor animal stares wildly about as if imiDloring aid to drive off the terrible feeling of suffocation ; the body is bathed with the sweat of death ; he staggers, but quickly recovers his balance ; he may now, for the first time during the attack, lie down; he does so, 122 however, in the hope of relief, which he fails to find, and with difQ- culty struggles to his feet; he pants; he heaves; the nostrils flap; he staggers and sways from side to side and backwards and forwards, but still tries to retain the standing position, even by propping himself against the stall. It is no use, as after a fearful and agonizing fight for breath, he goes down ; still instinct with the desire to live he makes a few ineffectual efforts to breathe, which only result in a horrible wheezing, gasping noise ; the limbs stretch out and become rigid, and — he rises no more. A bystander breaks the silence with the remark, "He died hard. " Such is the usual death scene when caused by pneu- monia. It amounts to a veritable struggle against suffocation. Death ensues usually in from ten to twenty days after the beginning of the attack. On the other hand when the disease is terminating favorably the signs are obvious. When the fever abates the animal gradually improves in appetite ; he takes more notice of things around him ; his spirits improve; he has a general appearance of returning health, and he lies down and rests easy. In the great majority of cases pneu- monia, if properlj^ treated, is by no means a fatal disease. Treatment. — The general outline of the treatment is much the same as advised for bronchitis. The comfort and siTrroundings of the patient must be attended to first. The cxuarters should be the best that can be provided. Pure air is essential. Avoid placing the ani- mal in a stall where he ma}' be exposed to draughts of cold air and sudden changes of temperature. Some authorities state that such exposure is not harmful after pneumonia has set in, but nevertheless the reader is advised to pursue the conservative course and not to experiment. When making the stable comfortably^ warm do not pre- vent the access of pure air. It is much better for the animal if the air is cold and pure than if it is warm and foul. It is better to make the animal comfortable with warm clothing than to make the stable warm by shutting off the ventilatioji. The animal should have an unlimited supply of fresh cold drinking water from the start. Blanket the body. Rub the legs until they are warm and then i^ut bandages on them from the hoofs up as far as thej^ are cold. If warmth can not be re-established in the legs by hand-rubbing alone, apply the lini- ment as recommended in the treatment of bronchitis. The bandages should be removed once or twice every day, the legs well rubbed, and the bandages reapplied. Rub well over the affected side an application of the liniment mentioned in the treatment of sore throat. The application may be repeated in four or five days. Do not use mustard; no doubt about its acting, and acting quicklj', too, but experience teaches that it is not so good as something less irritat- ing and more prolonged in its beneficial effects. Much harm is often done by clipping off hair and rubbing in powerful escharotic blister- ing compounds. They do positive injury and retard recovery, and should not be allowed. Much benefit }nay be derived from hot appli- cations to the sides of the chest if the facilities are at hand to apply 123 them. If the weather be not too cold, and if the animal is in a com- fortable stable, the following method may be tried: Have a tub of hot water handy to the stable door; soak a woolen blanket in the water, then quickly wring as much water as possible out of it and wrap it around the chest. See that it fits closely to the skin; do not allow it to sag down so that air maj' get between it and the skin. Now wraj) a dry blanket over the wet hot one. The hot blanket should be renewed evevy half hour, and while it is off being wetted and wrung, the dry one should remain over the wet part of the chest to prevent reaction. The hot applications should be kept up for three or four hours, and when stopped, the skin should be quickly rubbed as dry as possible, an application of liniment rubbed over the wet j)art, and a dr}' blanket snuglj' fitted over the animal; and especial care should be taken to cover with it the wet i^art of the skin. If the hot appli- cations appear to benefit, they may be tried on three or four consecu- tive days. Unless every facility and circumstance favors the applica- tion of heat in the foregoing manner do not attemiit it. If the weather is very cold, or any of the details are omitted, more harm than good may result. In the majority of cases, warm clothing to the body, bandages to the legs, and the liniment applied to legs and chest Avill suffice. It is xjossible that cases occur that may be slightly benefited by bleeding, but the non-exj)ert is certainly unable to discriminate in such instances, and therefore blood-letting should never be practiced. Indeed, many veterinary i)ractitioners of great experience wholly con- demn the practice of bleeding in pneumonia as positively hurtful. "When pneumonia follows another disease the system is always more or less debilitated, and requires the careful use of stimulants from the beginning; to still further weaken the animal by tapping him (if the expression may be used), and letting escape in a stream the very source of remaining strength, is one of the most effectual methods of retarding recovery, even if it does not hasten a fatal termination. Another and oftentimes a fatal mistake made by the non-j)rofes- sional is the indiscriminate and reckless use of aconite. This drug is one of the most active poisons, and should not be handled b}' anyone who does not thoroughly understand its action and uses. It is only less active than prussic acid in its i)oisonous effects. It is a common opinion, often expressed hy non-jDrofessionals, that aconite is a stimu- lant; nothing could be more erroneous. In fact, it is just the reverse; it is one of the most powerful sedatives used in the iDractice of medi- cine. In fatal doses it kills bj^ paralyzing the A'crj- muscles used in breathing; it weakens the action of the heart, and should not be used in anj'- but strong or sthenic tj'pes of inflammation, and then only by the expert. After an extensive experience in the treatment of pneu- monia in various sections, from the cold northern regions of Canadca to the temperate climate of Virginia and North Carolina, the writer 124 has discarded aconite entirely from the list of medicines he uses m the treatment of this affection. Do not give purgative medicines. If con- stijiation exists, overcome it by an allowance of laxative diet, such as scalded oats, bran and linseed mashes, and grass if in season. A careful observer will notice that the dung jjassed by the animal is coated with mucus; this is an indication that the bowels are in an irri- table condition; in fact they are affected to a small extent by the dis- ease. Now, if a purgative dose is administered the irritable state is aggravated; they become inordinately active and a diarrhea or super- purgation is established that proves a most difficult matter to check. It must be remembered that the animal is already weakened b}^ an exhaustive disease, and the "running off at the bowels" not only still further weakens the animal, but may caiise the bowels to become inflamed, and thus insure a fatal termination. It is a common practice among non-prcTfessionals to give aloes and oil to a horse with pneu- monia, and, considering this fact, it is no wonder that it proves such a fatal disease in their hands. If the costiveness is not relieved by the laxative diet, give an enema of about a quart of warm water three or four times a day. A diet consisting principally of bran mashes, scalded oats, grass or blade fodder, when in season, is preferable if the animal retains an api)ctite; but if no desire is evinced for food of this particular descrip- tion, then the animal must be allowed to eat anj^thing that will be taken spontaneously. Hay tea, made b}^ pouring boiling water over good hay in a large bucket, and allowing it to stand until cool, then straining off the liquid, Avill sometimes create a desire for food. The animal may be allowed to drink as much of it as he desires. Corn on the cob is often eaten when everything else is refused. Bread vAny be tried, also apples or carrots. If the animal can be persuaded to drink milk it may be sujjported by it for days. Three or four gallons of sweet milk may be given during the day, in which may be stirred three or four fresh eggs to each gallon of milk. Some horses will drink milk, while others will refuse to touch it. It should be borne in mind that all food must be taken by the horse as he desires it. No food should be forced down him. If the animal will not eat, you will only have to wait until a desire is shown for food. All kinds may be offered, first one thing and then another, but food should not be allowed to remain long in trough or manger; the very fact of it con- stantly being before him will cause him to loathe it. When the animal has no appetite for anything, the stomach is not in a proper state to digest food, and if it is poured or drenched into him it will onl}^ cause indigestion and aggravate the case. It is a good practice to do nothing when there is nothing to be done that will benefit. This refers to medicine as well as food. Nothing is well done that is over done. The following drench should be administered every six hours: Solution of the acetate of ammonia, 3 ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, i ounce; 125 bicarbonate of potassium, 3 drams; water, 1 pint. Care should be used in drenching; no reclclessness such as filling the mouth with medicines, then holding the hand tightly over the nostrils and pound- ing on the throat and windiiipe, kicking the horse in the belly or ribs, or other like conduct, should be practiced. If the animal coughs or attempts to cough Avhile the head is up, let the head down immediately. Better to lose the medicine than to cause it to get into the lungs. There are many valuable medicines used for tlie different stages and different tj^pes of pneumonia, but in the opinion of the writer it is useless to refer to them here, as this work is intended for the use of those who are not sufficiently acquainted with the disease to recognize its various tyx^es and stages; therefore they would only confuse. If you can administer a ball or capsule, or have any one at hand who is capable of doing it, a dram of sulphate of quinine in a capsule, or made into a ball, with sufficient linseed meal and molasses, given every three hours during the height of the fever, will do good in many cases. The ball of carbonate of ammonia, as advised in the treatment of bronchitis, may be tried if the animal is hard to drench. If the horse becomes very much debilitated, stimulants of a more pronounced character are required. The following drench is useful: Rectified spirits, 3 ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ounces; water, 1 pint. This maj^ be reijeated every four or five hours if it seems to benefit. Or 6 ounces of good whisky, diluted with a pint of water, may be given as often, instead of the foregoing. There are cases where sedatives are undoubtedly beneficial, but a knowledge both of disease and medicine is required to discriminate in such cases; therefore the only rational course to pursue in a work of this kind is to map out a line of treatment that will do good in all cases and harm in none, and at the same time be within the under- standing of those who have not made a special study of disease. During the period of convalescence good nutritive food should be allowed in a moderate qviantity. Tonic medicines should be substi- tuted for those used during the fever. The same medicines advised for the crim.ary seat of the disease. It may occur in conjunction with bronchitis, influenza, and other diseases. It is commonly seen in connection with rheumatism. Diseased growths that interfere with the i^leura may induce j)leurisy, but it is most frecjuently met with in connection with pneumonia, for the reason given heretofore. Pleurisy will be described here as an independent afCection, although it should be remembered that it is very often associated with the foregoing diseases. When the animal is affected with pleurisy an ordinary observer should have no diflBculty in detecting the disease, i)rovided the diag- nostic sj-mptoms are studied beforehand. The very first stage is a congested state of the blood vessels in the parts affected ; the surface of the membrane becomes dry and roughened (this fact will be again referred to when the sj'mi^toms are described). This dry condition is followed, after a certain period, by an effusion of fluid, that is, more fluid than usual is thrown off by the membrane when in a diseased condition. This fluid accumulates in the space between the lungs and the walls of the chest, constituting hj'dro-thorax, or dropsy of the chest. This fluid may undergo certain changes ; in it float coagulated masses called- fibrin. The surface of the lung may adhere to the internal surface of the ribs. The quantity of exuded fluid varies to a great extent. In some cases the chest contains an enormous amount, and when it is not absorbed pus may be generated to a greater or less extent. Symptoms. — When the disease exists as an independent affection it is ushered in by a chill, but this is usually overlooked. About the first thing noticed is the disinclination of the animal to move or turn round. "When made to d6 so he grunts or groans with pain. He stands stiff, the ribs are fixed, that is, the ribs move very little in the act of breathing, but the abdomen works more than natural; both the fore feet and elbows may be turned out; during the onset of the attack the animal may be restless, and acts as if he had a slight colic ; he may even lie down, but does not remain long down, for when he finds no relief he soon gets up. After effusion begins these signs of restless- ness disappear. If the observer looks for it, a furrow will be found running along the lower part of the chest fi'om behind the elbow back to the flank; this is due to the endeavor of the animal to keep the ribs fixed in as near as possible an immovable j)osition. Every movement of the chest causes excruciating x^ain, therefore the cough is peculiar; it is short and suppressed, and comes as near being no cough as the animal can make it in his desire to suppress it. The breathing is 128 hurried, the mouth is hot, the temperature being elevated from 102^ or 103° to 105° F. The usual symi^toms that accompany fever are present, such as costiveness, scanty, dark-colored urine, etc. The pulse is frequent, perhaps seventy or more a minute, and is hard and wiry. The legs and eai s are cold. Percussion is of valuable service in this affection. The ribs may be struck with the knuckles. By striking different parts you will come to a spot of greater or less extent where the blows cause much pain to be evinced. The animal ma}^ grunt or groan every time it is struck. Another method of detecting the affected part is to press the fingers between the ribs, each space in succession, beginning behind the elbow, until you arrive at a place where the pressure causes more flinching than at any other part. Auscultation is also useful. In the first stage, when the surfaces are dry and rough, if the ear is placed against different parts of the chest you will eventually come to the affected part, which will be readily manifested by a friction sound very much like that produced by rubbing two pieces of coarse paper together. The sound appears immediately under the ear, and is dis- tinct. No such friction sound occurs when the membrane is healthy, as the natural moisture, heretofore mentioned, prevents the friction. In many cases this friction is so pronounced that it may be felt by placing the hand over the affected jDart. When the dry stage is suc- ceeded by the exudation of fluid, this friction sound disappears. After the effusion into the cavity takes place there sometimes is heard a tinkling or metallic sound, due to dropping of the exudate from above into the collected fluid in the bottom of the cavity, as the collected fluid more or less separates the lung from the chest walls. Within two or three days the urgent symptoms are abated, owing to the exudation of the fluid and the subsidence of the pain. The fluid may now undergo absorption, and the case terminate favorably within a week on ten days. If tlie quantity of the effusion is large, its own volume retards the process of absorption to a great extent, and consequently^ convales- cence is delayed. In some cases the symptoms manifest a serious state. The pulse becomes more frequent, the breathing more hurried and labored, the flanks work like bellows, the nostrils flap, the eyes stare wildly, the countenance expresses much anxiety, and general signs of dissolution are plain. After a time swellings appear under the chest and abdomen and down the legs. These swellings are due to transfusion of the fluid from within the chest into the surround- ing tissues. The accumulation in the chest is called hj'dro-thorax or dropsy of the chest. When this fluid contains pus the case usu- ally proves fatal. The condition of pus within the ca\dty is called empysema. Pleurisy may affect only a small area of one side, or it may affect both sides. It is oftener confined to the right side. 129 Treatme7it.— This varies very little from the treatment of bron- chitis and pneumonia, but as frequently stated lieretofore, pleurisy is so liable to be complicated with either of the diseases named, the variation in the treatment may be considered as merely adjunct treatment of the pleuritic complication. The instructions in regard to the general management of bronchitis and pneumonia must be adhered to in the treatment of pleurisy. Comfortable quarters, pure air, warm clothing to the body and band- ages to the legs, a plentiful supply of pure cold water, the laxative food, etc., in this case are equally necessary and efficacious. The hot applications applied to the chest as directed in the treatment of pneumonia are very beneficial in pleurisy, and should be kept up while the symptoms show the animal to be in pain. During the first few days, when pain is manifested by restlessness, do not apply the liniment to the sides of the chest, as it ^^n\l not only irritate the animal and increase the restlessness but will heighten the fever as well. After four or five days, when the symptoms show that the acute stage has somewhat subsided, the liniment may be well rubbed over the affected part with benefit, as it will greatly promote the absorption of the effusion. The application may be repeated on alternate days until several applications have been made. From the beginning the following drench should be given every six hours: Solution of the acetate of ammonia, 3 ounces; spirits of nitrous ether,' 1 ounce; bicarbonate of potassium, 3 drains; water, 1 pint. If the patient becomes debilitated the stimulants as prescribed for pneumonia should be used according to the same directions. The same attention should be given to the diet. If the animal will par- take of the bran mashes, scalded oats, and grass, it is the best, but ]f he refuses the laxative diet then he should be tried with different kinds of food, and allowed whichever kind he desires. In the beginning of the attack, if the pain is severe, causing the animal to lie down or paw, the following drench should be given: Tincture of opium, 2 ounces; raw linseed oil, 13 ounces. If the pain continues, the tincture of opium may be repeated within four or five hours. If the case is not progressing favorably in ten or twelve days after the beginning of the attack, convalescence is delayed by the fluid in the chest failing to be absorbed. The animal becomes dull and weak and evinces little or no desire for food. The breathing becomes still more rapid and difficult. An effort must now be made to excite the absorption of the effusion. An application of the liniment should be rubbed over the lower part of both sides and the bottom of the chest. The following drench should be given three times a day, for seven or eight days if it is necessary and appears to benefit: Tincture of the perchloride of iron, 1 ounce; tincture of gentian, 2 ounces; water, 1 5961 — HOR 0 130 pint. Also give 1 dram of iodide of potassium dissolved in the drink- ing-water an lio\ir before feeding, every night and morning for a week or two. Hydro-thorax is sometimes difficult to overcome by means of the use of medicines alone, when an operation called paracentesis thoracis is performed. In i)lain language this means tapping the chest to allow an escape for the accumulated fluid. The operation is per- formed with a combined instrument called tlie trocar and canula. The puncture is made in the lower part of the chest, in the space between the eighth and ninth ribs. Wounding of the intercostal arteiy is avoided by inserting the instrument as near as possible to the anterior edge of the rib. If the operation is of benefit it is only so when performed before the strength is lowered beyond recovery. The operation merely receives a passing notice here, as it is not pre- sumed that the non-professional will attempt it, although it is attended with little danger or difficulty in the hands of the exj)ert. We have described bronchitis, pneumonia, and x^leuris}' mainly as thej' occur as independent diseases, and have treated them in a way that an intelligent i:)erson can not possibly do harm. While it is true much more might have been said in regard to the different stages and tyi^es of the affections, and also in regard to the treatment of each stage and each particular type, the jilan adopted is considered the wisest on account of simplifying as much as possible a subject of which the reader is supi^osed to know very little, if anjiihing. A few words will now be devoted to these affections as thej' occur, when two or more exist at the same time and in the same animal. PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. The disease is so called when the animal is affected with pleurisy and pneumonia combined, which is most frequently the case. At the beginning of the attack only one of the affections maj^ be present, but the other soon follows. It has already been stated that the pleura is closely adherent to the lung. The pleura on this account is fre- quently more or less affected by the spreading of the inflammation from the lung tissue. There is a combination of the symptoms of both diseases, but to the ordinary- observer the symptoms of pleurisy are the most obvious. The course of treatment to be pursued differs in no manner from that given for the affections when they occur inde- X)endently. The symj^toms will be your guide as to the advisability of giving oil and laudanum for the pain if the pleurisy is very severe. Do not resort to it unless it is necessary to allay the pain. BROXCHO-PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. This Is the term or terms applied when bronchitis, pleurisy, and pneumonia all exist at once. This is bj' no means a common occur- rence. However, it is impossible for one who is not an expert to diag- nose the state with certainty. The apparent symptoms are the same as when the animal is affected with pleuro-imeumonia. 131 BRONCHO-PNEUMONIA. This is also a common comx^lication. Either one or the other may be first in oi)eration. When bronchitis affects the smaller bronchial tubes the inflammation readily extends to the air-cells and thence to the lung- tissue, constituting pneumonia. Or the bronchial lube may be secondarih" involved by the extension of the inflammation from the air-cells. Nothing in regard to the treatment of this condition requires to be said here, as it has been fullj" described when speaking of bron- chitis and ijneumonia as separate diseases. A brief review of some of the unfavorable results of i^leurisy and pneumonia will not be out of place here: SUPPURATION AND ABSCESS IN THE LUNG. There are instances, and especially when the surroundings of the patient have been bad, when the inflammation terminates in an abscess in the lung. Sometimes, when the inflammation has been extreme, sui)i3uration in a large portion of the lung takes j)lace. Impure air, the result of improper ventilation, is the most frecxuent cause of this termination. The sjnnptoms of suppuration in the lung are an exceed- ingly offensive smell of the breath, and the discharge of the matter from the nostrils. MORTIFICATION. Gangrene or mortiflcation means a death of the i:)art affected. Occa- sionally, owing to the intensity of the inflammation or bad treatment, pneumonia and pleuro-pneumonia terminate in mortification, which is soon followed by the death of the animal. ABSCESS IN THE SPACES BETWEEN THE RIBS, Abscess of the intercostal sj)aces has been recorded as a result of pleurisy. Following the attack of lileurisj^ an enlargement appears on some part of the chest, which may burst of its own accord. When it makes its appearance it is advisable to apph^ poultices of linseed meal and hot water, or bathe it continuously for hours at a time with water as hot as can be comfortably borne. This treatment will hasten the formation of matter. When it is soft in the center it should be lanced and the matter allowed to escape. The course of tonic treat- ment and nutritive food advised in the treatment of pleurisy should be kept up. HEMOPTYSIS — BLEEDING FROM THE LUNGS. Bleeding from the lungs maj' occur during the course of congestion of the lungs, bronchitis, pneumonia, influenza, purpura hemorrhagica, or glanders. An accident or exertion may cause a rupture of a vessel. Plethora predisposes to it. Following the rupture of a vessel the 132 blood may escape into the lung tissue and cause a serious attack of pneumonia, or it may fill uj) the bronchial tubes and prove fatal by suffocating the animal. When the hemorrhage is from the lungs it is accompanied by coughing; the blood is frothy and comes from both nostrils. "Whereas when the bleeding is merely from a rupture of a vessel in some part of the head (heretofore described as bleeding from the nose) the blood is most likely to issue from one nostril only, and the discharge is not accompanied by coughing. The ear may be placed against the windpipe along its course, and if the blood is from the lungs a gurgling or rattling sound will be heard. When it occurs in connection with another disease it seldom requires special treatment. When caused by accident or overexertion the animal should be kept quiet. If the cough is frequent or paroxysmal a dose composed of 2 ounces of tincture of opium in 8 ounces of raw linseed oil may be given to allay the irritability, which may stop the hemorrhage by checking the cough. If the hemorrhage is profuse and continues for several hours 1 dram of the acetate of lead dissolved in a pint of water may be given as a drench, or 1 ounce of the tincture of the perchloride of iron, diluted with a pint of water, may be given instead of the lead. It is rare that the hemorrhage is so profuse as to require internal reme- dies. But hemorrhage into the lung may occur and cause death by suffocation without the least manifestation of it by the discharge of blood from the nose. CONSUMPTION. Pulmonary consumi^tion, "the same as phthisis or consumption in man," has been described by European authors as affecting the horse. It is mentioned here merely to give the writer an opportunity to say that he never saw a case of it, and never conversed with a veterinarian on the subject who has met with a case in the horse. This fact does not prove that the horse is exempt from the disease, but it at least ]3roves that it must be rare indeed. DROPSY OP THE LUNG. This condition has been noticed as a result of heart disease, and as it is said almost invariably to terminate fatally, no further notice of it is necessary here. HEAVES — BROKEN WIND — ASTHMA. Much confusion exists in the popular mind in regard to the nature of broken wind. Many horsemen apply tlie term to all ailments where the breathing is difficult or noisy. Scientific veterinarians are well acquainted with the phenomena and locality of the affection, but there is a great diversity of oi)inion as regards the exact cause. Asthma is generally thought to be due to spasm of the small circular muscles that surround the bronchial tubes. The continued existence of this 133 affection of the muscles leads to a paralysis of them, ana is considered one of the primary stages of broken wind. Some eminent veterinarians maintain that the exciting cause of broken ^rind is due to a lesion of the i^neumogastric nerve. That there is good foundation for this opinion there can be no doubt. The pneu- mogastric nerves send branches to the bronchial tubes, lungs, heart, stomach, etc. All the organs just mentioned may sooner or later be- come involved in connection with broken wind. It may be said that broken wind is always associated with disorder of the function of digestion. It is claimed that coarse or indigestible food irritates the branches of the pneumogastric nerves which supply the walls of the stomach, and this irritation is reflected or extended to the branches of the same nerve which sujjply the lungs, when the lesions consti- tuting broken wind follow. In itself broken wind is not a fatal disease, but death is generally caused by an affection closely connected with it. After death, if the organs are examined, the lesions found depend much upon the length of time broken wind has affected the animal. In recent cases very few changes are noticeable, but in animals that have been broken- winded for a long time the changes are well marked. The lungs are paler than natural, and of much less weight in x^roportion to the vol- ume, as evidenced by floating them in water. The walls of the small bronchial tubes and the membrane of the larger tubes are thickened. The right side of the heart is enlarged and its cavities dilated. The stomach is enlarged and its walls stretched. And in many old cases the intestinal walls undergo the same changes. The important change found in the lungs is a condition technically called pulmonary emphy- sema. This is of two varieties: First, what is termed vesicular emphysema, which consists of an enlargement of the capacity of the air-cells (air vesicles) by dilation of their walls ; the Avails after a time degenerate, and finally give way, and thus form a communication with other air-cells. The second form is called interlobular emphy- sema, and follows the first. In this variety the air finds its way into the lung tissue between the air-cells, or, as its name indicates, in the tissue between the small lobules. Symptoms. — Almost every experienced horseman is able to detect "heaves." The peculiar movement of the flanks and abdomen point out the ailment at once. But in recent cases the affected animal does not always exhibit the characteristic breathing unless exerted to a certain extent. The cough which accompanies this disease is peculiar to it. It is difficult to describe, but the sound is short, and something like a grunt. When air is inspired, that is, taken in, it ai)i)ears to be done in the same manner as in health; it maj" possibly be done a little quicker than natural, but not enough to attract anj' notice. It is when the act of expiration (or expelling the air from the lungs) is perfoi'med 134 tnat tne great change in the breathing is i^erceptible. It must now be remembered that the lungs have lost much of their power of con- tracting on account of the degeneration of the Avails of the air-cells, and also on account of the paralysis of muscular t issue before men- tioned. The air j)asses into them freely, but the power to expel it is lost to a great extent by the lungs; therefore the abdominal muscles are brought into play. These muscles, especially in the region of the flank, are seen to contract, then pause for a moment, then comjjlete the act of contracting, thus making a double bellows-like movement at each expiration, a sort of jerkj" motion with every breath. When the animal is exerted a wheezing noise accompanies the breathing. This noise may be heard to a less extent when the animal is at rest if the ear be applied to the chest. As before remarked, indigestion is always present in these cases. The animal has a depraved appetite, as shown by a desire to eat dirt and soiled bedding, which he often devours in preference to the clean food in the trough or manger. The stomach is liable to be overloaded with indigestible food. The abdomen may assume that form called "pot-bellied." The animal f requentlj' i)asses wind, Avhich is of fi A'ery offensive odor. Attacks of colic may occur, which in some cases are fatal. When first put to work dung is j)assed freciuently; the bowels are often loose. The animal can not stand much work, as the mus- cular system is soft. Round-chested horses are said to be predis- posed to the disease, and it is certain that in cases of long standing the chest usually becomes rounder than natural. Certain "smart" individuals become very expert in managing a horse affected with "heaves" in suppressing the sjnni^toms for a short time. Thej" take advantage of the fact that the breathing is much easier when the stomach and intestines are empty. They also resort to the use of medicines that have a depressing eft'ect. When the veterinarian is examining a horse for soundness, and he suspects that the animal has been " fixed," he usually gives tlie horse as much water as he will drink and then lias him ridden or driven rapidly up a hill or on a heavy road. This will bring out the characteristic breathing of "heaves." All broken-winded horses have the cough peculiar to the affection, but it is not regular. A considerable time may elax)se before it is heard and then it may come on in paroxysms, especially when first brought out of the stable into the cold air, or when excited by work, or after a drink of cold water. The cough is usually the first symptom of the disease. Treatment. — When tlie di.sease is established there is no cure for it. Proi^er attention j^aid to the diet will relieve the distressing symptoms to a certain extent, but they will undoubtedly reapjiear in their inten- sitj^ the first time the animal overloads the stomach or is allowed food of bad quality. Putting aside all theories in regard to the primary cause of tlie affection, it is generally admitted that it is closely allied 135 to derangement of the digestive organs, most particularly the stoi.i,.c'ii. This l)eing the fact, it is but reasonable to infer that if the animal is allo^ved nothing but food of the best quality the predisposition lo " heaves " is lessened. Clover hay and bulky food generally, which, as a rule, contains biit little nutriment, have much to do with the cause of the disease, and therefore should be entirely omitted when the animal is affected, as well as before. A high authority asserts that the disease is unknown where clover hay is never used. The diet should be confined to food of the best quality and in the smallest qnantit}-. The bad effect of moldy or dusty hay, fodder, or food of anj" kind can not be overestimated. A small quantity of the best hay once ii day is sufficient. The animal should invariably be watered before feeding; never directly after a meal. It is a good plan to slightly dampen the. food to allaj^ the dust. The animal should nat be worked immediately after a meal. Exertion, Avhen the stomach is full, invariablj' aggravates the sjnnptoms. Turning on pasture gives relief. Carrots, iDotatoes, or turnips chopped and mixed with oats or corn are a good diet. Many different medicines have been tried, but not one has yet been discovered that gives even partial satisfaction in the treatment of broken wind. Arsenic, however, is about the only remedy that retains any reputation of being efficacious in palliating the symptoms. It is best administered in the form of the solution of arsenic in hydrochloric acid (Liq. Acidi. Ars. ), which should be obtained from the drug store, as it is then of a standard preparation. Each ounce of the solution contains a little over 4+ grains of arsenic. A tablesi)oonful mixed with bran and oats three times a da}" for about two weeks, then about twice a daj' for about two vreeks longer, then once a day for several weeks, is a good way to give this remedy. If the bowels do not act regularly, a i)int of raw linseed oil may be given once or twice a month. It must, however, be borne in mind that all medical treat- ment is of secondary consideration ; careful attention i^aid to the diet is of greatest importance. Broken-winded animals should not be used for breeding purposes. A iDredisposition to the disease is likely to be inherited. CHRONIC COUGH. A chronic cough may succeed the acute diseases of the respiratory organs, such as pneumonia, bronchitis, larj^ngitis, etc. It accompa- nies chronic roaring, chronic bronchitis, broken wind. It may suc- ceed influenza. As previouslj" stated, cough is but a symptom and not a disease in itself. Chronic cough is occasionallj' associated with diseases other than those of the organs of respiration. It may be a symptom of chronic indigestion or of worms. In such cases it is caused by a reflex nervous irritation. The i^roper treatment in all cases of chronic coug-h is to ascertain the nature of the disease of 136 wliicli it is a symptom, and then cure tlie disease if possible, and the cough will cease. The treatment of the affections will be found under their appro- priate heads, to which the reader is referred. PLEURODYNIA. This is a form of rheumatism that affects the intercostal muscles, that is, the muscles between the ribs. The apparent symptoms are very similar to those of pleurisy. The animal is stiff and not inclined to turn around; the ribs are kept in a fixed state as much as possible. If the head is pulled round suddenly, or the affected side struck with the hand, or if the spaces between the ribs are pressed with the fingers the animal will flinch and perhaps emit a grunt or groan expressive of much pain. It is distinguished from pleurisy by the absence of fever, cough, the friction-sound, the effusion into the chest, and by the existence of rheumatism in other parts. The treatment for this affection is the same as for rheumatism affecting other parts. WOUNDS PENETRATING THE AVALLS OF THE CHEST. According to the theory of some teachers of phj'-siology, Avhen an opening is made in the wall of the chest sufficient for the admission of air a collapse of the lung should occur. But in practice this is not always found to be the case. The writer has attended several such cases, and one in particular was not seen until about twelve hours after the wound was inflicted. It is true the breathing was consider- ably altered, but no bad effect followed the admission of air into the thoracic cavity. The wound was closed and treated according to the method of treating wounds generally, and a speedy and perfect recov- ery was made. The Avound may not penetrate the pleura; in such cases no great harm is done, but if the pleura is penetrated pleurisy may follow, and even pneumonia if the wound involves the lung. The condition called pneumo-thorax means air in the chest. This may be due to a wound in the wall of the chest, or it may be due to a broken rib, the sharp edge of which wounds the lung sufficiently to allow air to escape into the space between the lung and ribs, which is naturally a vacuum. Air gaining access to the thoracic cavity through a wound may have a peculiar effect. The wound may be so made that when the walls of the chest are dilating a little air is sucked in, but during the contraction of the wall the contained air presses against the torn part in such a manner as to entirely close the wound ; thus a small quantity of air gains access with each inspiration, while none is allowed to escape until the lung is pressed into a very small compass and forced into the anterior part of the chest. The same thing may occur from a broken rib inflicting a wound in the lung. In this form the air gains access from the lung, and there may not even be an open- ing in the walls of the chest. Decomposition of the fluid in hydro- thorax, with consequent generation of gases, is said to have caused 137 the same condition. In such cases the air is generally absorbed, and a spontaneous cure is the result. But when the symptoms are urgent it is recommended that the air be removed by a trocar and canula or by an asj)irator. The treatment of wounds that penetrate the thoracic cavity should, for the foregoing reason, be prompt. It should be quickly ascertained whether or not a foreign body remains in the wound, then it should be thoroughly cleaned with a solution of carbolic acid one part in water forty parts. The Avound should then be closed immediately. If it is an incised wound it should be closed with sutures; if torn or lacerated, a bandage around the chest over the dressing is the best plan. At all events, air must be prevented from getting into the chest, as soon and as effectually as possible. The after treatment of the wound should principalh^ consivSt in keeijing the parts clean with the solution of car- bolic acid, and applying fresh dressing as often as required to keep the wound in a healthy condition. Care should be taken that the dis- charges from the vround have an outlet in the most dependent part. (See Wounds.) If the wound causes much pain it should be allayed with a dose of tincture of opium in raw linseed oil, as advised in the treatment of pleurisy. If pleurisy supervenes, it should be treated as advised under that head. THUMPS — SPASM OF THE DIAPHRAGM. "Thumps" is generally thought to be, b}^ the inexperienced, a pal- pitation of the heart. While it is true that palpitation of the heart is sometimes called "thumps," it must not be confounded with the affection under consideration. In the beginning of this article on the diseases of the organs of res- piration the diaphragm was briefly referred to as the principal and essential muscle of respiration. Spasmodic or irregular contractions of it in man are manifested by what is familiarly known as hiccoughs. Thumps in the horse is identical with hiccoughs in man, although the peculiar noise is not made in the throat of the horse in all cases. There should be no difficult}' in distinguishing this affection from palpitation of the heart. The jerky motion affects the Avhole body, and is not confined to the region of the heart. If one hand is placed on the body at about the middle of the last rib, while the other hand is placed over the heart behind the left elbow, it will be easily demon- strated that there is no connection between the thumping or jerking of the diaiihragm and the beating of the heart. If the ear is placed against the body it will be discovered that the sound is made posterior to the region of the heart. In fact, when the animal is affected with spasms of the diaphragm the beating of the heart is usually much weaker and less perceptible than natural. Thumps is produced by the same causes which produce congestion of the lungs, and is often oDGl— HOP 5* 138 seen in connection witli the latter disease. If not relieved, death usually results from congestion of the lungs, as the breathing is inter- fered with by the inordinate action of this the princii)al muscle of inspiration so much that proper aeration of the blood can not take place. The treatment should be precisely the same as prescribed for congestion of the lungs. RUPTURE OF THE DIAPHRAGM, Post mortem examinations reveal a great many instances of rupture of the diaphragm. It is the general opinion among veterinarians that this takes place after death, and is due to the generation of gases in the decomposing carcass, which distend the intestines so that the dia- pliragm is ruptured by the great pressure against it. Of course it is X)ossible for it to haiipen before death and by strangulating the kriuckle of intestine that may be in the rupture cause death; but there are no symptoms b}^ which it may be diagnosed. DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORCxANS. By Dr. JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S., Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University. COXGESTIOX AND INFLAMMATION OF THE TESTICLES — ORCHITIS. • lu the prime of life, in vigorous liealtli, and on stimulating food stallions are subject to congestion of the testicles, which become swollen, hot, and tender, but without any active inflammation. A reduction of the grain in the feed, the administration of 1 or 2 ounces of Glauber salts daily in the food, and the bathing of the affected organs daily with tepid water or alum water will usually restore them to a healthy condition. When the factors producing congestion are extraordinarily potent, when there has been frequent copulation and heavy grain feeding, when the weather is warm and the animal has had little exercise, and when the proximity of other horses or mares excite the generative instinct without gratification, this congestion may grow to actual inflammation. Among the other causes of orchitis are blows and pen- etrating wounds implicating the testicles, abrasions of the scrotum by a chain or rope passing inside the thigh, contusions and frictions on the gland under rapid paces or heavy draught, compression of the blood- vessels of the spermatic cord by the inguinal ring under the same cir- cumstances, and finally, sympathetic disturbance in cases of disease of the kidneys, bladder, or urethra. Stimulants of the generative functions, like rue, savin, tansy, cantharides, and daniiana may also be accessory causes of congestion and inflammation. Finally, certain specific diseases like vial du coU, glanders, and tuberculosis, localized in the testicles, will cause inflammation. Apart from actual wounds of the parts the symptoms of orchitis are swelling, heat, and tender- ness of the testicles, straddling with the hind legs alike in standing and walking, stiffness and dragging of the hind limbs or of the limb on the affected side, arching of the loins, abdominal pain, mani- fested by glancing back at the flank, with more or less fever, ele- vated body temperature, accelerated pulse and breathing, inappetence, 139 140 and dullness. In bad cases tlie scanty urine may be reddish and the swelling may extend to the skin and envelopes of the testicle, which may become thickened and doughy, pitting on pressure. The swelling may be so much greater in the convoluted excretory duct along the upper border of the testicle as to suggest the presence of a second stone. Even in the more violent attacks the intense suffering abates some- what on the second or third day. If it lasts longer it is likely to give rise to the formation of matter (abscess). In exceptional cases the tes- ticle is struck with gangrene or death. Improvement may go on slowly to complete recovery, or the malady may subside into a subacute and chronic form with induration. Matter (abscess) may be recognized by the i^resence of a soft spot, where pressure with two fingers will detect fluctuation from one to the other. When there is liquid exu- dation into the scrotum, or sack, fluctuation may also be felt, but the liquid can be made out to be around the testicle and can be pressed up into the abdomen through the inguinal canal. When abscess occurs in the cord the matter may escape into the scrotal sack and cavity of the abdomen and pyaemia may follow. Treatment consists in perfect rest and quietude, the administration of a purgative (1 pound to 1^ pounds Glauber's salts), and the local application of an astringent lotion (acetate of lead 2 drams, extract of belladonna 2 drams, and water 1 quart) upon soft rags or cotton wool, kept in contact with the j^art by a suspensory bandage. This bandage, of great value for support, may be made nearly triangular and tied to a girth around the loins and to the upper i^art of the same surcingle by two bands carried backwai'd and upward between the thighs. In severe cases scarifications one-fourth inch deej) serve to relieve vascu- lar tension. When abscess is threatened its formation may be favored by warm fomentations or poultices, and on the occurrence of fluctua- tion the knife may be employed to give free escape to the pus. The resulting cavity may be injected daily with a weak carbolic acid lotion, or salol may be introduced. The same agents may be used on a gland threatened with gangrene, but its promj)t removal by castration is to be preferred, antiseptics being applied freely to the resulting cavity. SARCOCELE. This is an enlarged and indurated condition of the gland resulting from chronic inflammation, though it is often associated with a specific deposit like glanders. In this condition the natural structure of the gland has given place to embryonal tissue (small, round cells, with a few fibrous bundles), and its restoration to health is very improbable. Apart from active inflammation, it may increase very slowly. The diseased testicle is enlarged, firm, non-elastic, and comparatively in- sensible. The skin of the scrotum is tense, and it may be cedematous (pitting on pressure), as are the deeper envelopes and spermatic cord. If liquid is present in the sack the symjitoms are masked somewhat. 141 As it incre^ises it causes awkward, straddling, dragging movement of the hind limbs, or lameness on the affected side. The spermatic cord often increases at the same time with the testicle, and the inguinal ring being thereby stretched and enlarged, a portion of intestine may escape into the sack, complicating the disease with hernia. The only rational and effective treatment is castration, and even this may not succeed when the disease is specific (glanders, tuberculosis). HYDROCELE — DROPSY OF THE SCROTUM. This may be merely an accompaniment of dropsy of the abdomen, the cavity of which is continuous with that of the scrotum in horses. It ma}^ be the result, however, of local disease in the testicle, spermatic cord, or walls of the sack. The symptoms are enlargement of the scrotum, and fluctuation under the fingers, the testicle being recognized as floating in water. Jiy jjressure the liquid is forced, in a slow stream, and with a percep- tible thrill, into the abdomen. Sometimes the cord, or the scrotum, is thickened and i)its on pressure. Treatment may be the same as for ascites, yet when the effusion has resulted from inflammation of the testicle or cord, astringent applications (chalk and vinegar) may be applied to these. Then if the liquid is not reabsorbed under diuretics and tonics, it may be drawn off through the nozzle of a hypodermic syringe, which has been first passed through carbolic acid. In geldings it is best to dissect out the sacks. VARICOCELE. This is an enlargement of the venous network of the spermatic cord, and gives rise to general thickening of the cord from the testicle up to the ring. The same astringent dressings may be tried as in hydrocele, and this failing castration may be resorted to. ABNORMAL NUMBER OF TESTICLES. Sometimes one or both testicles are wanting; in most such cases, however, they are merely partially developed, and retained in the inguinal canal, or abdomen (cryptorchid). In rare cases there may be a third testicle, the animal becoming to this extent a double mon- ster. Teeth, hair, and other indications of a second foetus have like- wise been found in the testicle, or scrotum. DEGENERATION OF THE TESTICLES. The testicles may become the seat of fibrous, calcareous, fatty, carti- laginous, or cystic degeneration, for all of which the appropriate treat- ment is castration. They also become the seat of cancer, glanders, or tuberculosis, and castration is requisite, though with less hope of arresting the disease. Finally they may become infested with cystic tape-worms, or the armed round worm {sclerostomum equinum). 142 WARTS ON THE PENIS. These are best removed bj^ seizing them between the thumb and forefinger and tAvisting them off. Or they may be cnt off with scis- sors and the roots cauterized with nitrate of silver. DEGENERATION OF PENIS — PAPILLOMA, EPITHELIOMA. Tlie penis of tlie horse is subject to great cauliflower-like growths on its free end, which extend back into the substance of the organ, obstruct the passage of urine, and cause very fetid discharges. The only resort is to cut them off, together with whatever portion of the l)enis has become diseased and indurated. The operation, which should be i)erformed by a veterinary surgeon, consists in cutting through the organ from its upper to its lower aspect, twisting or tjing the two dorsal arteries and leaving the urethra longer b}^ half an inch to 1 inch than the adjacent structures. EXTRAVASATION OF BLOOD IN THE PENIS. As the result of kicks, blows, or of forcible striking of the yard on the thighs of the mare which it has failed to enter, the penis may become the seat of effusion of blood from one or more ruptured blood- vessels. This gives rise to a more or less extensive swelling on one or more sides, followed by some heat and inflammation, and on recov- er}^ a serious curving of the organ. The treatment in the early stages may be the api)lication of lotions, of alum, or other astringents, to limit the amount of effusion and favor absorption. The penis should be suspended in a sling. PARALYSIS OF THE PENIS. This results from l)lows and other injuries, and also in some cases fi'om too frequent and exhausting service. The yard hangs from the sheath, flaccid, pendulous, and often cold. The passage of urine occurs with lessened force, and especially without the final jets. In cases of local injurj^ the inflammation should first be subdued by astringent and emollient lotions, and in all cases the system should be invigorated bj^ nourishing diet, while 30-grain doses of nux vomica are given twice a day. Finallj^, a weak current of electricity sent through the penis from just beneath the anus to the'free portion of the yard, continued for ten or fifteen minutes and repeated daily, may prove successful. SELF- ABUSE — MASTURBATION, Some stallions acquire this vicious habit, stimulating the sexual instinct to the discharge of semen, by rubbing the penis against the helly or between the fore limbs. Tlie only remedy is a mechanical 143 one, the fixing of a net under the penis in such fashion as will pre- vent the extension of the penis, or so prick the organ as to compel the animal to desist through pain. MAL DU COIT-^DOUEINE. Til is is i)ropagated, like sj^philis, b}' the act of copulation and affects stallions and mares. It has heen long known in Xorthern Africa, Arabia, and Continental Europe. It was imported into Illi- nois in 1882 in a Percheron horse. From one to ten days after copulation, or in stallions it maj' be after some weeks, there is irritation, swelling and a livid redness of the external organs of generation, sometimes followed by the eruption of small blisters one-fifth of an inch across, on the i^enis, the vulva, clitoris, and vagina, and the consequent rupture of these vesicles and the formation of ulcers or small open sores. Vesicles have not been noticed in this disease in the dry climate of Illinois. In the mare there is frequent contraction of the vulva, urination, and the dis- charge of a watery and later a thick viscid liquid of a whitish, yel- lovvdsh, or reddish color, which collects on and soils the tail. The swelling of the vulva increases and decreases alternately, affecting one part more than another and giving a distorted appearance to the opening. The affection of the skin leads to the appearance of circu- lar white spots, which may remain distinct or coalesce into extensive patches which persist for months. This with the soiled tail, red, swollen, puckered, and distorted vulva, and an increasing weakness and paralysis of the hind limbs, serve to characterize the affection. The mare rarely breeds, but ■^^^.ll take the male and thus pro^^agate the disease. The disease winds up with great emaciation and stu- pidit}', and death in four months to two years. In horses which serve few mares there ma}^ be only swelling of the sheath for a j'ear, but with frequent copulation the progress is more rapid. The penis may be enlarged, shrunken, or distorted; the testicles are unusualh^ pen- dent and may be enlarged or wasted and flabby; the skin, as in the mare, shows white spots and patches. Later the i^enis becomes par- tially paralyzed and hangs out of the sheath; swelling of the adjacent Ij-mphatic glands (in the groin) and even of distant ones, and of the skin, appear, and the hind limbs become weak and unsteady. In some instances the glands under the jaw swell, and a discharge flows from the nose as in glanders. In other cases the itcliing of the skin leads to gnawing and extensive sores. Weakness, emaciation, and stupidity increase until death, in fatal cases, yet the sexual desire does not seem to fail. A stallion without sense to eat except when food was put in his mouth, would still neigh and seek to follow mares. In mild cases an apparent recovery may ensue, and through such animals the disease is propagated to new localities to be roused into activity and extension under the stimulus of service. 144 The diseased nerve centers are the seat of eryptogamic growths. (Thannhoffer. ) Treatment of the maladj^ has i? roved eminently unsatisfactory. It belongs to the purely contagious diseases, and should be stamped out by the remorseless slaughter or castration of every horse or mare that has had sexual congress with a diseased animal. A provision for Government indemnity for the animals so destroyed or castrated, and a severe penalty for putting any such animal to breeding, would serve as effectual accessory resorts. CASTRATION OF STALLIONS. This is usually done at one year old, but may be accomplished at a few weeks old, at the expense of an imperfect development of the fore parts. The simplicity and safety of the operation are greatest in the young. The delaj^ till two, three, or four years old Avill secure a better development and carriage of the fore parts. The essential part of castration is the safe removal or destruction of the testicle and the arrest or prevention of bleeding from the spermatic artery found in the anterior part of the cord. Into the many methods of accomplishing this, limited space forbids us to enter here, so that the method most commonly adopted, castration by clamps, will alone be noticed. The animal having been thrown on his left side, and the right hind foot drawn up on the shoulder, the exposed scrotum, penis, and sheath are washed with soap and water, any concretion of sebum being carefully removed from the biloeular cavity in the end of the penis. The left spermatic cord, just above the testicle, is now seized in the left hand, so as to render the skin tense over the stone, and the right hand, armed with the knife, makes an incision from before backward, about three-fourths of an inch from and parallel to the median line between the thighs, deep enough to expose the testicle and long enough to allow that organ to start out through the skin. At the moment of making this incision the left hand must grasp the cord very firmly, otherwise the sudden retraction of the testicle by the cremaster muscle may draw it out of the hand and upwards through the canal and even into the abdomen. In a few- seconds, when the struggle and retraction have ceased, the knife is inserted through the cord, between its anterior and jjosterior portions and the latter, the one which the muscle retracts, is cut completely through. The testicle will now hang limp and there is no longer any tendency to retraction. It should be pulled down until it will no longer hang loose below the wound and the clamps applied around the still attached portion of the cord, close up to the skin. The clamps, Avhich may be made of any tough wood, are grooved along the center of the surfaces opposed to each other, thereby fulfilling two important indications, (a) enabling the clamps to hold more securely and {h) providing for the application of an antiseptic to the cord. For this purpose a dram 145 of sulphate of copper may be mixed with an ounce of lard and pressed into the groove in the face of each clamp. In applying the clamp over the cord it should be drawn so close with jjincers as to press out all blood from the compressed cord and destroy its vitality-, and the cord applied upon the comijressing clamps should be so hard- twined that it will not stretch later and slacken the hold. When the clamp has been fixed the testicle is cut off one-half to 1 inch below it, and the clamp may be left thus for twenty-four hours; then, by cutting the cord around one end of the clamp, the latter may be opened and the stump liberated, without any danger of bleeding. Should the stump hang out of the wound it should be pushed inside with the finger and left there. The wound should begin to discharge white matter on the second day in hot weather, or the third in cold, and from that time a good recovery may be expected. CONDITIOXS FAVORABLE TO SUCCESSFUL CASTRATION. The young horse suffers less from castration than the old, and very rarely perishes. Good health in the subject is all important. Castra- tion should never be attemjited during the prevalence of strangles, influenza, catarrhal fever, contagious pleurisy, bronchitis, pneumonia, purpura hsemorrhagica, or other specific disease, nor on subjects that have been kept in close, illy ventilated, filthy buildings, where the system is liable to have been charged with putrid bacteria or other products. Warm weather is to be preferred to cold, but the fly time should be avoided or the flies kept at a distance by the apjilication of a watery solution of tar, carbolic acid, or camphor to the wound. CASTRATION OF CRYPTORCHIDS (RIDGLINGS). This is the removal of a testicle or testicles that have failed to descend into the scrotum, but have been detained in the inguinal canal or inside the abdomen. The manipulation requires an accurate anatomical knowledge of the parts, and special skill, experience, and manual dexterity, and can not be made clear to the unprofessional mind in a short notice. It consists, however, in the discovery and removal of the missing gland by exploring through the natural chan- nel (the inguinal canal), or, in case it is absent, through the inguinal ring or through an artificial opening made in front and above that channel between the abdominal muscles and the strong fascia on the inner side of the thigh (Poupart's ligament). Whatever method is used, the skin, hands, and instruments should be rendered aseptic with a solution of mercuric chloride 1 part; Avater 2,000 parts (a car- bolic acid lotion for the instruments), and the spermatic cord is best torn through by the ecraseur. In many such cases, too, it is desirable to sew uj) the external wound and keep the animal still, to favor healing of the wound by adhesion. 146 PAIX AFTER CASTRATION. Some horses are pained and very restless for some hours after cas- tration, and this may extend to cramjis of tlie howels and violent colic. This is best kept in check by carefully rubbing the patient dry when he rises from the operation, and then leading him in hand for some time. If the pain still persists a dose of laudanum (1 ounce for an adult) may be given. BLEEDING AFTER CASTRATION. Bleeding from the wound in the scrotum and from the little artery in the posterior portion of the spermatic cord always occurs, and in warm weather may appear to be quite free. It scarcely ever lasts, however, over fifteen minutes, and is easilj" checked by dashing cold water against the part. Bleeding from the spermatic artery in the anterior part of the cord may be dangerous when due precaution has not been taken to prevent it. In such case the stump of the cord should be sought for and the artery twisted with artery forceps or tied Avith a silk thread. If the stump can not be found, pledgets of tow wet with tincture of muriate of iron may be stuffed into the canal to favor the formation of clot and the closure of the artery. STRANGULATED SPERMATIC CORD. If in castration the cord is left too long, so as to hang out of the wound, the skin wound in contracting grasps and strangles it, pre- venting the free return of blood and causing a steadily advancing swelling. In addition the cord becomes adherent to the lips of the wound in the skin, whence it derives an increased supply of blood, and is thereby stimulated to more rapid swelling. The subject walks stiffly, with straddling gait, loses appetite, and has a rapid pulse and high fever. Examination of the wound discloses the partial closure of the skin wound, and the protrusion from its lips of the end of the cord, red, tense, and varying in size from a hazel-nut upward. If there is no material swelling and little protrusion the wound may be enlarged with the knife and the end of the cord broken loose from any connection with the skin, and pushed up inside. If the swelling is larger the mass constitutes a tumor, and must be removed. (See below. ) SWELLING OF THE SHEATH, PENIS, AND ABDOMEN. This occurs in certain unhealthy states of the system, in unhealthy seasons, as the result of operating without cleansing the sheath and penis, or of keeping the subject in a filthy, impure building, as the result of infecting the wound by hands or instruments bearing septic bacteria, or as the-result of i^remature closure of the wound, and im- prisonment of matter. 147 Pure air and cleanliness of groin and wound are to be secured. Antiseptics, like the mercuric chloride lotion (li)art to 2,000) are to be applied to the parts; the wound, if closed, is to be opened anew, any accumulated matter or blood washed out, and the antiseptic liquid freely applied. The most tense or dependent parts of the swelling in sheath or penis, or beneath the belly, should be pricked at intervals of 3 or 4 inches, and to a depth of half an inch, and antiseptics freely used to the surface. Fomentations with warm water may also be used to favor oozing from the incisions and to encourage the formation of white matter in the original wounds, which must not be allowed to close again at once. A free, cream-like discharge imi:)lies a healthy action in the sore, and is the precursor of recovery. PHYMOSIS AND PARAPHYMOSIS. In cases of swelling, as above, the j)enis may be imprisoned within the sheath (phjanosis) or protruded and swollen so that it can not be retracted into it (paraphj-mosis). In these cases the treatment indi- cated above, and especially tlie scarifications, will prove a useful j)re- liminaiy resort. The use of astringent lotions is always desirable, and in case of the protruded x)enis the application of an elastic or simple linen bandage, so as to press out the blood and accumulated fluid, vrill enable the operator to return it. TUMORS ox THE SPERMATIC CORD. These are due to rough handling or dragging upon the cord in cas- tration, to strangulation of unduly long cords in the external wound, to adhesion of the end of the cord to the skin, to inflammation of the cord succeeding exjDosure to cold or wet, or to the presence of septic or irritant matters. These tumors give rise to a stiff, straddling gait, and may be felt as hard masses in the groin connected above with the cord. They may continue to grow slowly for manj^ j'ears until they reach a weight of 15 or 20 pounds, and contract adhesions to all sur- rounding parts. If disconnected from the skin and inguinal canal they may be removed in the same manner as the testicle, while if larger and firmh' adherent to the skin and surrounding parts generally they must be carefully dissected from the parts, the arteries being tied as they are reached and the cord finally torn through with an ecraseur. When the cord has become swollen and indurated uj) into the abdomen such removal is impossible, though a partial destruction of the mass may still be attempted by passing white hot pointed irons upward toward the inguinal ring in the center of the thickened and indurated cord. CASTRATION BY THE COVERED OPERATION. This is only required in case of hernia or protrusion of bowels or omentum into the sack of the scrotum, and consists in the return of 148 the hernia and tlie application of the caustic clamps over the cord and inner walls of the inguinal canal, so that the walls of the latter become adherent above the clamps, the canal is obliterated, and further pro- trusion is hindered. For the full description of this and of the oi^era- tion for hernia in geldings, see article on hernia. CASTRATION OF THE MARE. Castration is a much more dangerous operation in the mare than in the females of other domesticated quadrupeds, and should never be resorted to except in animals that become unmanageable on the recur- rence of heat, and that will not breed or that are utterly unsuited to breeding. Formerly the operation was extensively practiced in Europe, the incision being made through the flank, and a large pro- portion of the subjects perishing. By operating through the vagina the risk can be largely obviated, as the danger of unhealthy inflam- mation in the wound is greatly lessened. The animal should be fixed in a trevis, with each foot fixed to a post and a sling placed under the body, or, better, it may be thrown and put under chloroform. The manual operation demands special professional knowledge and skill, but it consists essentially in making an opening through the roof of the vagina just above the neck of the womb, then following with the hand each horn of the womb' until the ovary on that side is reached and grasped between the lips of forceps and twisted ofl". It might be torn off by an ecraseur especially constructed for the purj)ose. The straining that follows the operation may be checked by ounce doses of laudanum, and any risk of j)rotrusion of the bowels may be obvi- ated by appljang the truss advised to prevent e version of the womb. To further prevent the pressure of the abdominal contents against the vaginal wound the mare should be tied short and high for twenty-four or forty-eight hours, after which I have found it best to remove the truss and allow the privilege of lying down. Another important point is to give bran mashes and other laxative diet only, and in moderate quantity, for a fortnight, and to unload the rectum by copious injec- tions of warm water in case it should threaten to become impacted, STERILITY. Sterility may be in the male or in the female. If due to the stallion, then all the mares put to him remain barren; if due to the mare, she alone fails to conceive. In the stallion sterility may be due to the following causes: (a) Imperfect development of the testicles, as in cases in which they are retained within the abdomen ; (b) inflammation of the testicles, result- ing in induration ; (c) fatty degeneration of the testicles, in stallions liberally fed on starchy food and not sufficiently exercised; (d) fatty degeneration of the excretory ducts of the testicles {vasa deferentia) ; (e) inflammation or ulceration of these ducts; (/) inflammation or 149 ulceration of the mucous membrane covering the penis; {y) injuries to the penis from blows (often causing paralysis) ; (h) warty growths, on the end of the penis; (i) tumors of other kinds (largely pigmentary) affecting the testicles or penis; (j) nervous diseases Avhich abolish the sexual appetite, or that control over the muscles which is essential to the act of coition ; (k) azoturia with resulting weakness or paralysis of the muscles of the loins or the front of the thigh (above the stifle) ; (/) ossification (anchylosis) of the joints of the back or loins, which renders the animal unable to rear or mount; {m) spavins, ringbones, or other i^ainf ul affections of the hind limbs, the pain of which in mounting causes the animal to suddenly stop short in the act. In the first three of these only (a, h, and c) is there real sterility in the sense of the non-development or imperfect development of the male vivify- ing element (spermatozoa). In the other examijles the secretion may be i)erfect in kind and amount, but as copulation is prevented it can not reach and imi)regnate the ovum. In the mare barrenness is equally due to a variety of causes. In a number of breeding studs the proportion of sterile mares has varied from 20 to 40 per cent. It may be due to : (a) Imperfect development of the ovary and non-maturation of ova; (&) cystic or other tumors of the ovary; (c) fatty degeneration of the ovary in very obese, pam- pered mares; (d) fatty degeneration of the excretory tubes of the ovaries (fallopian tubes); (e) catarrh of the womb, Avith muco- purulent discharge; (/) irritable condition of the womb, with profuse secretion, straining, and ejection of the semen; {g) nervous irritabil- ity, leading to the same expulsion of the male element; (h) high con- dition (plethora) with profuse secretion and excitement; {i) low condition with imperfect maturation of the ova and lack of sexual desire ; (j) poor feeding, overwork, and chronic debilitating diseases, as leading to the condition just named; (k) closure of the neck of the womb, temporarily by spasm, or permanently by inflammation and induration; (Z) closure of the entrance to the vagina through imjierf orate hymen, a rare though not unknown condition in the mare; (?//) acquired indisposition to breed, seen in old, hard-worked mares, which are first put to the stallion when aged; {n) change of climate has repeatedly been followed by barrenness; (o) hybridity, which in male and female alike usually entails sterility. The treatment of the majority of these conditions will be found dealt with in other parts of this work, so that it is only necessary here to name them as causes. Some, however, must be siDcciallj^ referred to in this place. Stallions with undescended testicles are beyond the reach of medicine, and should be castrated and devoted to other uses. Indurated testicles may sometimes be remedied in the early stages by smearing with a weak iodine ointment daily for a length of time, and at the same time invigorating the system by liberal feeding and judicious work. Fatty degeneration is best met by an albuminoid 150 diet (wheal bran, cotton-seed meal, rape cake) and constant well-regu- lated work. Saccharine, starchy, and fatty food (potatoes, wheat, corn, etc.) are to be specially avoided. In the mare one diseased and irritable ovarj^ should be removed, to do away with the resulting excitabilit}^ of the remainder of the generative organs. An irritable womb, with frequent straining and the ejection of a profuse secretion, may sometimes be corrected by a restricted diet and full but well- regulated work. Even fatigue will act beneficially in some such cases, hence the practice of the Arab riding his mare to exhaustion just before service. The perspiration in such a case, like the action of a purgative or the abstraction of blood just before service, benefits, by rendering the blood-vessels less full, by lessening secretion in the womb and elsewhere, and thus counteracting the tendency to the ejection and loss of semen. If these means are ineffectual a full dose of camphor (2 drams) or of salacin may at times assist. Low condi- tion and anremia demand just the opT)osite kind of treatment — rich, nourishing, albuminoid food, bitter tonics (gentian), sunshine, gentle exercise, liberal grooming, and supj)orting treatment generally are here in order. Spasmodic closure of the neck of the womb is com- mon and is easih' remedied in the mare by dilatation with the fingers. The hand, smeared ■s\ith belladonna ointment and with the fingers drawn into the form of a cone, is introduced through the vagina until the projecting, rounded neck of the womb is felt at its anterior end. This is opened by the careful insertion of one finger at a time until the fingers have been passed through the constricted neck into the oj)en cavity of the womb. The introduction is made with a gentle, rotary motion, and all precipitate violence is avoided, as abrasion, laceration, or other cause of irritation is likely to interfere with the re- tention of the semen and with impregnation. If the neck of the womb is rigid and unyielding from the induration which follows inflamma- tion— a rare condition in the mare, though common in the cow — more force will be requisite, aiid it maj' even be needful to incise the neck to the depth of one-sixth of an inch in four or more opposite direc- tions, prior to forcible dilatation. The incision may be made with a probe-pointed knife, and should be done hy a professional man if possible. The subsequent dilatation may be best effected by the slow expansion of si)onge or seaweed tents inserted into the narrow canal. In such cases it is best to let the wounds of the neck heal before put- ting to horse. An imperforate hymen may be freely incised in a crucial manner until the passage will admit the human hand. An ordinary knife may be used for this puri^ose, and after the operation the stallion may be admitted at once or onlj^ after the wounds have healed. INDICATIOXS OF PREGNANCY. As the mere fact of service by the stallion does not insure preg- nancy, it is important that the result should be determined, to save 151 the mare from unnecessary and dangerous work or medication Avhen actually in foal and to obviate wasteful and needless precautions when she is not. The cessation and non-recun-ence of the sj'mptomsof heat (horsing) is a most signiticant though not infallible sign of conception. If the sexual e?ccitement speedih' subsides and the mare persistently refuses the stallion for a month, she is probabl}' pregnant. In verj- excep- tional cases a mare will accept a second or third service after weeks or months, though pregnant, and some mares will refuse tlie horse persistenth", though conception has not taken place, and this in spite of v.arm weather, good condition of the mare, and liberal feeding. The recurrence of heat in the pregnant mare is most likely to take place in hot weather. If heat merely persists an undue length of time after service, or if it reappears shortly after, in warm weather and in a comparatively idle mare, on good feeding, it is less signifi- cant, while the persistent absence of heat under such conditions may be usually accepted as proof of conception. An unwonted gentleness and docilit}" on the part of a i)reviously irritable or vicious mare, and supervening on service, is an excellent indication of pregnancy, the generative instinct which caused the excitement having been satisfied. An increase of fat, with softness and flabbiness of muscle, a loss of energy, indisposition for active work, a manifestation of laziness, indeed, and of fatigue early and easilj^ induced, when preceded by service", will usuallj^ imply conception. Enlargement of the abdomen, especiall}' in its lower third, with sliglit falling in beneath the loins and hollowness of the back are significant symptoms, though they may be entirely absent. Swelling and firmness of the udder, with the smoothing out of its wrinkles, is a suggestive sign, even though it aT)pears only at intervals during gestation. A steady increase in weight (14 i)ounds daily) about the fourth or fifth month is a useful indication of i^regnancy. So is a swollen and red or bluish-red appearance of the vaginal mucous membrane. From the seventh or eighth mouth onward the foal may be felt bj^ the hand (palm or knuckles) pressed into the abdomen in front of the left stifle. The sudden push displaces the foal toAvard the opposite side of the womb, and as it floats back its hard body is felt to strike against the hand. If the pressure is maintained the movements of the live foal are felt, and especially in the morning and after a drink of cold water, or during feeding. A drink of cold water will often stimulate the foetus to movements that may be seen by the eye, but an excess of iced water may pi-ove injurious, even to the causing of abortion. Cold water da.shed on the belh^ has a similar effect on the foetus and equally endangers abortion. Examination of the uterus with the oiled hand introduced into tlie rectum is still more satisfactory, and if cautiously conducted no more 152 dangerous. The rectum must be first emptied and then the hand car- ried forward until it reaches the front edge of the pelvic bones below, and pressed downward to ascertain the size and outline of the womb. In the unimpregnated state the vagina and womb can be felt as a sin- gle rounded tube, dividing in front to two smaller tubes (the horns of the womb). In the pregnant mare not only the bodj^ of the womb is enlarged, but still more so one of the horns (right or left), and on com- pression the latter is found to contain a hard, nodular body, floating in a licjuid, which in the latter half of gestation may be stimulated by gentle pressure to manifest spontaneous movements. By this method the presence of the foetus may be determined as early as the third month. If the complete natural outline of the virgin womb can not be made out, careful examination should always be made on the right and left side for the enlarged horn and its living contents. Should there still be difficulty the mare should be placed on an inclined plane, with her hind j)arts lowest, and two assistants, standing on opposite sides of the body, should raise the lower part of the abdomen by a sheet j^assed beneath it. Finally the ear or stethoscope applied on the wall of the abdomen in front of the stifle may detect the beat- ing of the foetal heart (one hundred and twenty-five per minute) and a blowing sound (the uterine sough), much less rapid and correspond- ing to the number of the j)ulse of the dam. It is heard most satis- factorily after the sixth or eighth month and in the absence of active rumbling of the bow^els of the dam. DURATION OF PREGNANCY. Mares usually go about eleven months with young, though first preg- nancies often last a year. Foals have lived when born at the three hundredth day, so with others carried till the four hundredth day. With the longer pregnancies there is a greater probability of male offspring. HYGIENE OF THE PREGNANT MARE. The pregnant mare should not be exposed to teasing by a young and ardent stallion, nor should she be overworked or fatigued, particu- larly under the saddle or on uneven ground. Yet exercise is benefi- cial to both mother and offsjiring, and in the absence of moderate work the breeding mare should be kept in a lot where she can take exercise at vnll. The food should be liberal, but not fattening, oats, bran, sound hay, and other foods rich in the principles which form flesh and bone being especially indicated. All ailments that tend to indigestion are to be especially avoided. Thus rank, aqueous, rapidly groA\ai grass and other green food, parti allj^ ripe rye grass, millet, Hungarian grass, vetches, pease, beans, or maize are objectionable, as is over-ripe fibrous, innutritions hay, or that which has been injured and ren- dered musty by wet, or that ^diicli is infested with smut or ergot. 153 Food that tends to eostiveness should be avoided. "Water g-iven often, and at a temperature considerably above freezing, Avill avoid the dan- gers of indigestion and abortion which result from taking too much ice-cold water at one time. Very cold or frozen food is objectionable in the same sense. Severe surgical operations and medicines that act violentlj^ on the womb, bowels, or kidneys are to be avoided as being liable to cause abortion. Constipation should be corrected, if possi- ble, by bran mashes, carrots, or beets, seconded by exercise, and if a medicinal laxative is required it should be olive oil or other equally bland agent. The stall of the pregnant mare should not be too narrow so as to cramp her Avhen lying doAvn, or to entail violent efforts in getting up, and it should not slope too much from the front backward, as this throws the weight of the uterus back on the pelvis and endangers pro- trusions and even abortion. Violent mental impressions are to be avoided, for though the majority of mares are not affected thereby, yet a certain number are so profoundly impressed, that peculiarities and distortions are entailed on the offspring. Hence, there is wisdom shown in banishing i)arti-colored or objectionably tinted animals, and those that show deformities or faulty conformation. Hence, too, the importance of preventing prolonged acute suffering by the pregnant mare, as certain troubles of the eyes, feet, and joints in the foals have been clearly traced to the concentration of the mother's mind on cor- responding injured organs in herself. Sire and dam alike tend to reproduce their personal defects which predispose to disease, but the dam is far more likely to jjerpetuate the evil in her progeny wdiich w'as carried while she was personally enduring severe suffering caused by such defects. Hence, an active bone spavin or ring-bone, causing lameness, is more objectionable than that in which the inflammation and lameness have both passed, and an active oj)hthalmia is more to be feared than even an old cataract. For this reason all active dis- eases in the breeding mare should be soothed and abated at as early a moment as possible. EXTRA-UTERINE GESTATION. It is rare in the domestic animals to find the fcetus developed else- wiiere than in the womb. The exceptional forms are those in which the sperm of the male, making its Avay through the womb and Fallo- pian tubes, impregnates the ovum prior to its escape, and in which the now vitalized and growing ovum, by reason of its gradually increas- ing size, becomes imprisoned and fails to escape into the womb. The arrest of the ovum maybe in the substance of the ovary itself (ovarian pregnancy), in the Fallopian tube (tubal pregnancy), or when by its continuous enlargement it has ruptured its envelopes so that it escapes into the cavity of the abdomen, it may become attached to any part of the serious membrane and draw its nourishment directlv from that 154 (abdominal preg'iianey). In all siioh cases there is an increase and enlargement of the capillar}^ blood-vessels at the i)oint to Avhich the cmbrj^o has attached itself so as to furnish the needful nutriment for the grov/ing offspring. All appreciable symptoms are absent, imless from tlie death of the fcEtus, or its interference with normal functions, general disorder and indications of parturition supervene. If these occur later than the natui'al time for i^arturition the}' are the more significant. There may be general malaise, loss of appetite, elevated temperature, accelerated 15ulse, "with or without distinct lal)or pains. Examination with the oiled hand in the rectum will reveal the womb of the natural unim- pregnated size and shape and with both horns of one size. Further exploration may detect an elastic mass apart from the womb and in the interior of wiiich may be felt the characteristic solid body of the foetus. If the latter is still alive and can be stimulated to move the evidence is even more perfect. The foetus may die and be carried for j^ears, its soft structures becoming absorbed so as to leave only the bones, or by pressure it maj^ form a fistulous ox^ening through the ab- dominal walls, or less frequently through the vagina or rectum. In the latter cases the best course is to favor the expulsion of the foal and to wash out the resulting cavity with a solution of carbolic acid 1 part to water 50 ]3arts. This may be repeated dail}^ Where there is no spontaneous opening it is injudicious to interfere, as tlie danger from the retention of the foetus is less than that from septic fermenta- tions in the enormous foetal sack when tliat has been opened to the air. MOLES — ANIDIAX MONSTERS. These are evidently i^roduets of conception, in Avhich the impreg- nated ovum has failed to develop naturally, and presents only a cha- otic mass of skin, hair, bones, muscles, etc. , attached to the inner surface of the womb by an umbilical cord, which is itself often shriv- eled and wasted. They are usually accompanied hyn, well-developed foetus, so that the mole may be looked upon as a twin which has under- gone arrest and vitiation of development. They are expelled by the ordinar}' iirocess of parturition, and usually, at the same time, with the normally developed offspring. CYSTIC DISEASE OF THE WALLS OF THE AVOMB — VESICULAR MOLE. This condition apiiears to be due to hypertrophy (enlargement) of the villi on tlie inner surface of the womb, which become greatly increased in number and hollowed out internally into a series of cysts or x^ouches containing liquid. Unlike the true mole, therefore, they appear to be disease of the maternal structure of the womb rather than of the product of conception. Rodet, in a case of this kind, which luid x)roduced active labor x^ains, quieted the disorder witli ano- dynes and secured a recovery. Where this is not available attempts 155 may be made to remove the mass with tlie ecraseur or ollierwise, fol- lowing this up with antiseiitic injections, as advised under tlie last heading. DROPSY OF THE WOMB. This appears as a result of some disease of the walls of tlie Avomb, but has been frequently observed after sexual congress, and lias, there- fore, been confounded with pregnane}*. The symptoms are tlioso of l^regnancy, but Avithout any movements of the foetus and without the detection of any solid body in the womb when examined with the oiled hand in the rectum. At the end of four or eight months there are signs of parturition or of frequent straining to pass urine, and after a time the liquid is discharged clear and watery, or mudd^', thick, and fetid. The hand introduced into the womb can detect neither foetus nor foetal membrane. If the neck of the womb closes the liquid may accumulate a second time, or even a third, if no means are taken to correct the tendency. The best resort is to remove any diseased prod- uct that may be found attached to the walls of the womb, and to inject it daily with a, warm solution of carbolic acid 2 drams, chloride of zinc one-half dram, water 1 quart. A course of bitter tonics, gentian 2 drams, sulphate of iron 2 drams, daily, should be given, and a nutri- tious, easily digested and slightly laxative diet allowed. DROPSY OF THE AMNIOS. Tliis differs from simple dropsy of the womb iu that the lluid col- lects in the inner of the two water bags (that in which the foal floats) and not in the otherwise void cavity of the womb. This affection can occur only in the pregnant animal, while drojDS}^ of the womb occurs in the unimpregnated. The blood of the pregnant mare con- tains an excess of water and a smaller proportion of albumen and red globules, and vdien this is still further aggravated 1)}* ])ooy feeding, and other unhj-gienic conditions, there is developed the tendency to liquid transudation from the vessels and dropsy. As the watery con- dition of the blood increases A\ith advancing pregnancy, so dropsy of the amnios is a disease of the last four or five months of gestation. The abdomen is large and pendulous, and the swelling fluctuates under pressure, though the solid bodj^ of the foetus can still be felt to strike against the hand j)ressed into the swelling. If the hand is introduced into the vagina the womb is found to be tense and round, with the projecting rounded ueck effaced, while the hand in the rec- tum will detect the rounded SAVollen mass of the womb so firm and tense that the body of the foetus can not be felt within it, Tlie mare moves weakly and unsteadily on her limbs, having difficulty in sup- porting the great weight, and in bad cases there may be loss of appe- tite, stocking (dropsy) of the hind limbs, difficult breathing, and colicky pains. The tension may lead to abortion, or a slow, laborious parturition may occur at the usual time. 156 Treatment consists in relieving tlie tension and accumulation by puncturing- the foetal membrane with a canula and trochar intro- duced through the neck of the womb and the withdrawal of the tro- char so as to leave the canula in situ. Or the membranes may be punctured with the finger and the excess of liquid allowed to escape. This may bring on abortion, or the Avound may close and gestation continue to the full term. A course of tonics (gentian root 2 drams, sulphate of iron 2 drams, daily) will do much to fortify the system and counteract further excessive effusion. DROPSY OF THE LIMBS, PERINEUM, AND ABDOMEN, The disposition to dropsy often shows itself in the hind and even in the fore limbs, around and beneath the vulva (perinseum) and beneath the abdomen and chest. The affected parts are swollen and pit on pressure, but are not especially tender, and subside more or less perfectly under exercise, hand rubbing, and bandages. In obsti- nate cases rubbing with the following liniment maj^ be resorted to : Compound tincture of iodine, 2 ounces; tannic acid, one-half dram; water, 10 ounces. It does not last over a day or two after i^arturition. CRAMPS OF THE HIND LIMBS. The pressure of the distended Avomb on the nerves and blood-vessels of the pelvis, besides conducing to dropsy, occasionally causes cramps of the hind limbs. The limb is raised Avithout flexing the joints, the front of the hoof being directed toAvard the ground, or the spasms occurring intermittently the foot is kicked Aiolentlj^ against the ground seA^eral times in rapid succession. The muscles are felt to be firm and rigid. The cramps may be i^romptly relieved by active rub- bing, or by Avalking the animal about, and it does not reappear after parturition. CONSTIPATION. This may result from compression by the graAdd AV'omb, and is best corrected by a graduated alloAA^ance of boiled flaxseed. PARALYSIS. The pressure on the nerves of the pelvis is liable to cause paralysis of the hind limbs, or in the mare of the nerve of sight. These are obstinate until after parturition, A\^hen they recover spontaneously, or under a course of nux A^omica and (locally) stimulating liniments. PROLONGED RETENTION OF THE FGETUS (FOAL). In the mare, though far less frequently than in the cow, parturition ma}^ not be completed at term, and tlie foal may continue to be car- ried in the Avomb for a number of months, to the serious, or even fatal, injury of the niare. Hamon records one case in AA'^hich the mare died 157 after carrying the foetus for seventeen months, and Caillier a similar result after it had been carried twenty-two months. In these cases the fcjetus retained its natural form, but in one rei)orted by Gohier, the bones only were left in the womb amid a mass of apparently purulent matter. Tlie cause may be any effective obstruction to the act of parturition, such as lack of contractile i30wer in the womb, unduly strong (inflam- matory) adhesions between the womb and the foetal membranes, Avrong presentation of the foetus, contracted pelvis (from fracture, or disease of the bones), or disease and induration of the neck of the womb. The mere prolongation of gestation does not necessarily entail the death of the foal; hence the latter has been born alive at the four hundredth day. Even when the foal has perished, putrefaction does not set in unless the membranes (water bags) have been riTptured, and septic bacteria have been admitted to the interior of the womb. In the latter case a fetid decomposition advances rai^idly, and the mare usually j)erishes from jDoisoning with the putrid matters absorbed. At the natural period of parturition i3reparations are apparently made for that act. The vulva swells and discharges much mucus, the udder enlarges, the belly becomes more pendent, and the animal strains more or less. No progress is made, however; there is not even opening of the neck of the womb, and after a time the symptoms subside. The mare usually refuses the male, j^et there are exceptions to this rule. If the neck of the womb has been opened and putref jdng changes have set in in its contents, the mare loses appetite and condi- tion, i)ines, discharges an offensive matter from the generative pas- sages, and dies of inflammation of the womb and putrid infection. In other cases there is a slow wearing out of the strength and the mare iinall}' dies of exhaustion. The treatment is such as will facilitate the expulsion of the foetus and its membranes, and the subsequent washing out of the womb with disinfectants. So long as the mouth of the womb is closed, time should be allowed for its natural dilatation, but if this does not come about after a day or two of straining the opening maj" be smeared with extract of belladonna, and the oiled hand, with the fingers and thumb drawn into the form of a cone, may be inserted by slow oscillating movements into the interior of the womb. The water bags may now be ruptured, any malpresentation rectified (see "Difficult Parturi- tion"), and delivery effected. After removal of the membranes wash out the womb first with tepid water, and then with a solution of 2 ounces of borax in half a gallon of water. This injection may have to be repeated if a discharge sets in. The same course may be pursued even after j^rolonged retention. If the soft parts of the foetus have been absorbed and the bones only left these must be carefully sought for and removed, and subsequent 158 djiily injections will be required for some time. In such cases, too, a course of iron tonics (sulphate of iron, 2 drams, dailj^) will be liigiily beneficial in restoring liealtli and vigor. ABORTION. Abortion is, strictly speaking, the expulsion of the impregnated ovum at any i)eriod from the date of impregnation until the foal can survive out of the Avomb. If the foal is advanced enough to live it is premature 'parturition, and in the mare this may occur as earlj' as the tenth month (three hundredth day). The mare may abort by reason of almost any cause that \evy pro- foundly disturbs the system. Hence very violent inflammations of important internal organs (bowels, kidneys, bladder, lungs) may induce abortion. Profuse diarrhea, whether occurring from the reek- less use of purgatives, the consumption of irritants In the food, or a simple indigestion, is an effective cause. No less so is acute indiges- tion with evolution of gas in the intestines (bloating). The presence of stone in the kidnej^s, ureters, bladder, or urethra may induce so much sympathetic disorder in the womb as to induce abortion. In exceptional cases wherein mares come in heat during gestation service by the stallion may cause abortion. ]>lows or pressure on the al^do- men, rapid driving or riding of the pregnant mare, especially if she is soft and out of condition from idleness; the brutal use of the spur or Avhip, and the jolting and straining of travel by rail or boat are pro- lific causes. Bleeding the pregnant mare, a painful surgical opera- tion, and the throvfing and constraint resorted to for an operation are other causes. Traveling on heavy, muddy roads, slips and falls on ice, and jumping must be added. The stimulation of the abdominal organs by a full drink of iced water may precipitate a miscarriage, as ma}' exposure to a cold rain-storm or a very cold night after a Avarm day. Irritant poisons that act on the urinary or generative organs, such as Spanish flies, rue, savin, tansy, cotton-root bark, ergot of rye or other grasses, the smut of maize and other grain, and various fungi in musty fodder are additional causes. Frosted food, indigestible food, and above all green succulent vegetables in a frozen state have proved effective factors, and fiUhy, stagnant water is dangerous. Low condition in the dam and plethora have in opposite ways caused abortion, and hot relaxing stables and lack of exercise strongly con- duce to it. The exhaustion of the sire by too frequent service, entail- ing debility of the ofl'spring and disease of the foetus or of its envelopes, must be recognized as a further cause. The symptoms vary mainly according as the abortion is early or late in pregnancy. In the first jnonth or two of pregnancy the mare may miscarry without observable symptoms, and the fact only appears by her coming in heat. If more closely observed a small clot of blood may be found behind lier, in which a careful search reveals tha 159 rudiiuenlsof the foal. II" tlio oceiirreuee is soiucAvliat later in g-estalion there will be some general disturbance, inappetence, neighing, and straining, and tlie small bod}^ of the foetus is expelled, enveloped in its membranes. Abortions during the later stages of pregnancy are attended with greater constitutional disturbance, and the process resembles normal i)arturition, with the aggravation that more effort and straining is requisite to force the foetus through the comparatively undilatable mouth of the womb. There is the swelling of the vulva, witli mucus or even bloody discharge; the abdomen droops, the flanks fall in, the udder fills, the mare looks at her flanks, jjaws with the fore feet and kicks with the hind, switches the tail, moves around uneasily, lies down and rises, strains, and, as in natural foaling, expels fii*st mucus and blood, then the waters, and finally the foetus. This may occupy an hour or two, or it may be j)rolonged for a day or more, the symptoms subsiding for a time, only to reappear with renewed energy. If there is lualiiresentation of the foetus it will hinder progress until rectified, as in difficult parturition. Abortion may also be followed by the same accidents, as flooding, retention of the placenta, and leucorrhoea. The most important object in an impending abortion is to recognize it at as early a stage as possible, so that it may, if possible, be cut siiort and i)revented. Any general indefinable illness in a pregnant mare should lead to a close examination of the vulva as regards swell- ing, vascularity^ of its mucous membrane, and profuse mucous secre- tion, and above all anj^ streak or staining of blood; also the condition of the udder, if that is congested and swollen. Any such indication, with colicky pains, straining, hoAvever little, and active movement of the foetus or entire absence of movement, are suggesti^'e symptoms and should be duly counteracted. The changes in the vulva and udder, with a soiled and bloodj' con- dition of the tail, may suggest an abortion alread}^ accomplished, and the examination v.-ith the hand in the vagina may detect the mouth of the womb soft and dilatable, and the interior of the organ slightly filled with a bloody liquid. Treaiment should be preventive if possible, and would embrace the avoidance of all causes mentioned, and particularly of such as may seem to be i^articularh" operative in the particular case. Where abor- tions have ali'eady occurred in a stud, the especial cause, in the mat- ter of food, water, exposure to injuries, overwork, lack of exei-ciss, etc., may often be identified and removed. A most important point is to avoid all causes of constipation, diarrhea, indigestion, bloating, violent purgatives, diuretics or other potent medicines, painful opei'a- tions, and slippery roads, unless well frosted. AVhen abortion is imminent the mare should be i)laced alone in a roomy, dark, quiet stall, and have the straining checked \yy some seda- tive. Laudanum is usually at hand and may be given in doses of 1 160 or 2 ounces, according to size, and repeated after tAvo or three hours, and even dail}^ if necessary. Chloroform or chloral hydrate, 3 drams, may be substituted if more convenient. These should be given in a pint or quart of water, to avoid burning the mouth and throat. Or viburnum prunifolium, 1 ounce, may be given and repeated if neces- sary to prevent straining. When all measures fail and miscarriage proceeds, all that can be done is to assist in the removal of the foetus and its membranes, as in ordinary j)arturition. As in the case of retention of the foetus, it may be necessary after delivery to employ antispeptic injections into the womb to counteract putrid fermentation. This, however, is less requi- site in the mare than in the cow, in which the jDrevalent contagious abortion must be counteracted by the peristent local use of antiseptics. After abortion a careful hygiene is demanded, especially in the matter of i3ure air and easily digestible food. The mai-e should not be served again for a month or longer, and in no case until after all discharge from the vulva has ceased. SYMPTOMS OF PARTURITIOX. As the period of parturition approaches the swelling of the udder bespeaks the coming event, the engorgement in exceptional cases extending forward on the lower surface of the abdomen and even into the hind limbs. For about a week a serous fluid oozes from the teat and concretes as a yellow, wax-like mass around its orifice. About twenty-four hours before the birth this gives place to a whitish, milky liquid, Avhieh falls upon and mats the hairs on the inner sides of the legs. Another symi^tom is enlargement of the vulva, with redness of its lining membrane, and the escape of glairy mucus. The belly droops, the flanks fall in, and the loins ma}^ even become depressed. Finally the mare becomes uneasy, stops feeding, looks anxious, whisks her tail, and may lie down and rise again. In many mares this is not repeated, but the mare remains down; violent contractions of the abdominal muscles ensue; after two or three pains the AA^ater-bags api^ear and burst, folloAA'ed by the fore feet of the foal, with the nose betAveen the knees, and by a few more throes the foetus is expelled. In other cases the act is accomplished standing. The Avliole act may not occupy more than fiA^e or ten minutes. This, together Avith the disposition of the mare to aA^oid obserA^ation, renders the act one that is rarely seen by the attendants. The naA^el-string, AA^hich connects the foal to the membranes, is rui^tured AAdien the foetus falls to the ground, or Avlien the mare rises, if she has been down, and the membranes are expelled a few minutes later. NATURAL PRESENTATION, When there is a single foal the common and desirable presenta- tion is Avitli the fore feet first, the nose betAveen the knees, and AA'ith 161 the front of the hoofs and knees and the forehead directed upward toward the anus, tail, and croup (Plate IX, Fig. 1). In this way the natural curvature of the body of the foetus corresponds to the curve of the womb and genital passages, and particularly of the bony i>el- vis, and the foal passes with much greater ease than if it were placed with its back downward toward the udder. When there is a twin birth the second foal usually comes with its hind feet first, and the backs of the legs, the points of the hocks, and the tail and croup are tui-ned upward toward the anus and tail of the mare (Plate IX, Fig. 2). In this way, even with a jjosterior presentation, the curvature of the l)od3' of the foal still corresponds to that of the passages, and its expulsion may be quite as easy as in anterior presentation. Any presentation aside from these two maj^ be said to be abnormal and will be considered under "Difficult Parturition." DIFFICULT PARTURITION. With natural iDresentation this is a rare occurrence. The great length of the fore limbs and face entail, in the anterior presentation, the formation of a long cone, which dilates aiid glides through the ])assages with comparative ease. Even with the hind feet first a simi- lar conical form is presented, and the process is rendered easy and quick. Difficulty and danger arise mainly from the act being brought on prematurel}'' before the passages are sufficiently dilated, from nar- rowing of the pelvic bones or other mechanical obstruction in the pas- sages, from monstrous distortions, or duplications in the foetus, or from the turning back of one of the members so that the elongated conical or wedge-shaped outline is done away with. But i)romptas is tlie normal parturition in the mare, difficult and delayed parturitions are surrounded by special dangers and require unusual i^recautions and skill. From the proclivity of the mare to unhealthy inflamma- tions of the peritoneum and other abdominal organs, i^enetrating wounds of the womb or vagina are liable to prove fatal. The contrac- tions of the womb and abdominal walls are so powerful as to exhaust and ])enumb the arm of the assivStant, and to endanger penetrating wounds of the genital organs. By reason of the looser connection of the foetal membranes with the womb, as compared with those of rumi- nants, the violent throes early detach these membranes throughout their whole extent, and the foal, being thus separated from the mother and thrown on its own resources, dies at an early stage of any jjro- tracted parturition. The foal rarely survives four hours after the onset of parturient throes. From the great length of the limbs and neck of the foal it is extremely difficult to secure and bring up limb or head which has been turned back when it should have been presented. When assistance must be rendered the operator should don a thick woolen undershirt with the sleeves cut out at the shoulders. This 51JG1 — HOR (J 162 protects the body and leaves tiie whoie arm free for manipulation. Before inserting the arm it should be smeared with lard. This i)ro- tects the skin against septic infection, and favors the introduction of the hand and arm. The hand should be inserted with the thumb and fingers draAvn together like a cone. "Whether standing or lying the mare sliould be turned with head down liill and hind parts raised as much as possible. The contents of the abdomen gravitating forward leave much more room for manipulation. Whatever part of the foal is presented (head, foot) should be secured with a cord and running noose before it is pushed back to search for the other missing i)arts. Even if a missing part is reached no attempt should be made to bring it up during a labor pain. Pinching the back will sometimes check the pains and allow the operator to secure and bring up the missing member. In intractable cases a large dose of chloral hydrate (1 ounce in a quart of water) or the inhalation of chloroform and air (equal proportions) to insensibility may secure a respite, during which the missing members may be replaced. If the waters have been discharged and the mucus dried up, the genital jiassages and body of the foetus should be lubricated with lard or oil before any attempt at extraction is made. When the missing member has been brought up into ]30si- tion, and presentation has been rendered natural, traction on the foetus must be made only during a labor j)ain. If a mare is inclined to kick, it may be necessary to apply hobbles to protect the operator. PREMATURE LABOR PAIXS. These may be brought on by any violent exertion, use under the saddle, or in hea^n*' draught, or in rapid paces, or in travel by rail or sea, blows, kicks, crushing by other animals in a doorway or gate. Excessive action of purgative or diuretic ageuts, or of agents that irritate the bowels or kidnej's, like arsenic, Paris green, all caustic salts and acids, and acrid and narcotico-acrid vegetables, is equally injurious. Finally, the ingestion of agents that stimulate the action of the gravid womb {ergot of rye or of other grasses, smut, various fungi of fodders, rue, savin, cotton-root, etc.) may bring on labor j^ains l^rematurely. Besides the knowledge that parturition is not j'et due, there will be less enlargement, redness and swelling of the vulva, less mucous dis- charge, less filling of the udder, and less appearances of wax and prob- ably none of milk from the ends of the teats. The oiled hand intro- duced into the vulva will not enter with the ease usual at full term, and the neck of the womb will be felt not on\j closed, but with its pro- jecting papilla?, thi'ough which it is perforated, not yet flattened down and etfaced, as at full term. The symptoms are indeed those of threatened abortion, but at such an advanced stage of gestation as is co]ni)atible with the survival of the oifspring. 163 The ireafment consists in llic septirntioii of tlie mare from all oilier animals in a quiet, dark, secluded place, and the free use of anti- spasmodics and anodynes. Opium in dram doses every two hours, or laudanum in ounce doses at similar intervals, "will often suffice. When the more urgent symptoms have subsided these doses may be repeated thrice a day till all excitement passes off or until the passages have become relaxed and prepared for parturition. Viburnum prunifolium, in ounce doses, may be added if necessary. Should parturition become inevitable, it may be favored and any necessary assistance furnished. DIFFICULT PARTUEITIOX FROM XARROW PELVIS. A disprojjortion between the foetus got by a large stallion and tlie jjelvis of a small dam is a serious obstacle to parturition, sometimes seen in the mare. This is not the rule, however, as the foal up to birth usually accommodates itself to the size of the dam, as illusti'ated in the successful crossing of Percheron stallions on mustang mares. If the disproportion is too great the only resort is < n^hryoiouiy. FRACTURED HIP-BOXES. More commonly the obstruction comes from distortion and narrow- ing of the pelvis as the result of fractures. (Plates XIV, Fig. 2.) Fractures at any point of the lateral wall or floor of the pelvis are repaired v.ith the formation of an extensive bony deposit bulging into the passage of the i)elvis. The displacement of the ends of the broken bone is another cause of constriction and between the two conditions the passage of the foetus may be rendered impossible without embry- otomy. Fracture of the sacrum (the continuation of the back-bone forming the croup) leads to the depression of the x)osterior part of that bone in the roof of the pelvis and the narrowing of the pas.sage from above downward liy a bony ridge presenting its sharj) edge forward. In all cases in which there has l>een injury to the bones of the j)elvis the obvious iirecaution is to withliold the marc from breeding and to use her for work only. If a mare with a pelvis thus narrovred has got in foal inach'ertently, abortion may be induced in the early months of gestation by slowly introducing the oiled finger through the neck of the v>'omb and follow- ing this by the other fingers until the whole hand has been introduced. Then the water-bags may be broken, and with the escape of the liquid the womb will contract on the solid foetus and labor pains will ensue. The fcetus being small it will pass easily. TUMORS IX THE VAGIXA AXD PELVIS. Tumors of various kinds may form in the vagina or elsewhere within the pelvis, and when large enough will obstruct or prevent the passage of the ftetus. Gray mares, which are so subject to black pig- ment tumors {melanosis) on the tail, anus, and vulva, are the juost 164 likely to suffer from this. Still more rarely the wall of the vagina becomes relaxed, aud being- pressed hf a mass of intestines will pro- trude through the lips of the vulva as a hernial sac, containing a part of the bowels. AVhere a tumor is small it ma}^ only retard and not absolutel}^ prevent i)arturition. A hernial protrusion of the wall of the vagina may be pressed back and emptied so that the body of the ftjetus engaging in the passage may find no further obstacle. "When a tumor is too large to allow delivery the onl}^ resort is to remove it, but before proceeding it must be clearly made out that the obstruc- tion is a mass of diseased tissue, and not a sac containing intestines. If tlie tumor hangs bj^ a neck it can usually be most safel}^ removed by the ecraseur, the chain being passed around tlie pedicel and gradually tightened until that is torn through. HERNIA OF THE WOMB. The rupture of the musculo-fibrous floor of the bell}' and the escape of the gravid womb into a sac formed by the peritoneum and skin hanging towards the ground, is described by all veterinary obstetri- cians, yet it is verj^ rarely seen in tlie mare. The form of the foetus can be felt through the walls of the sac, so that it is easy to recognize the condition. Its cause is usually external violence, though it may start from an umbilical hernia. When the period of parturition arrives, the first effort should be to return the foetus within the proper abdominal cavity, and this can sometimes be accomplished with the aid of a stout blanket gradually tightened around the bellj^ This failing, the mare may be placed on her side or back and gravitation brought to the aid of manipulation in securing the return. Even after the hernia has been reduced the relaxed state of the womb and abdominal walls may serve to hinder parturition, in Avhich case the oiled hand must be introduced through the vagina, tlie foetus brought into position, and traction coincident with the labor pains employed to secure delivery. TWISTING OF THE NECK OF THE WOMB. This condition is veiy uncommon in the mare, though occasionally seen in the cow, owing to the greater laxity of the broad ligaments of the womb in that animal. It consists in a revolution of the Avonib on its own axis, so that its right or left side will be turned upward (quarter revolution), or the lower surface may be turned upward and the upper surface downward (half revolution). The effect is to thi-ow the narrow neck of the womb into a series of spiral folds, turning in the direction in which the womb has revolved, closing the neck and rendering distention and dilatation impossible. The i^eriod and pains of parturition arrive, but in spite of con- tinued efforts no progress is made, neither water-bags nor liquids appearing. The oiled hand inti'oduced into the closed neclc of the 165 ■\voml3 will readily delect the spiral dii'eotion of the folds on its inner surface. The method of relief -whicli I have successfully adopted in the cow may be equall)^ happj'^ in the mare. The dam is placed (witli her head uphill) on her rij?ht side if the upper folds of the spiral turn toward the right, and on her left side if they turn toward the left, and the oiled hand is introduced through the neck of the womb and a limb or other part of the body of the foetus is seized and pressed against the wall of the womb, while two or three assistants turn the animal over her back toward the other side. The object is to keep the womb stationary while the animal is rolling. If success attends the effort, the constriction around the arm is suddenly relaxed, the spiral folds ai'e effaced, and the water-bags and f(ptus press forward into the passage. If the first attempt does not succeed it may be repeated again and again until success crowns the effort. Among my occasional causes of failure have been the prior death and decouiix)- sition of the foetus, with the extrication of gas and overdistention of the womb, and the supervention of inflammation and inflammatory exudation around the neck of the womb, which hinders untwisting. The first of these conditions occurs early in the horse from the detach- ment of the fcfital membranes from the wall of the womb, and as the mare is more subject to- fatal peritonitis than the cow, it may be con- cluded that both these sources of failure are more probable in the equine subject. When the case is intractable, though the hand may l)e easih- intro- duced, the instrument shown in Plate YIII, Fig. 7, may be used. Each hole at the small end of the instrument has i^assed through it a stout cord with a running noose, to be passed around two feet or other portion of the foetus which it may be possible to reach. The cords are then drawn tight and fixed around the handle of the instru- ment, then by using the cross-handle as a lever the foetus and womb may be rotated in a direction opposite to that causing the obstruction. During this process the hand must be introduced to feel when the twist has been undone. This method ma}^ be supplemented, if neces- sarj% b}^ rolling the mare as described above. EFFUSION OF BLOOD IX THE VAGINAL WALLS. This is common as a result of diflficult parturition, but it may occur from local injury before that act, and may seriously interfere with it. This condition is easily recognized by the soft, doughy swelling so characteristic of blood clots, and b}' the dark red color of the mucous membrane. I have laid open such swellings witli the knife as late as ten days before parturition, evacuated the clots, and di-essed the wound daily with an astringent lotion (sulphate of zinc 1 dram, carbolic acid 1 dram, water 1 quart). A similar resort might be had, if necessary, during parturition. 1G6 CALCULUS (stone) AND TUMOR IX THE BLADDER. Tlic x)ressurc upon the bladder containing a stone or a tumor may prove so painful that the mare will voluntarily suppress tlie labor pains. Examination of the bladder with the finger introduced through the urethra will detect the offending agent. A stone should be extracted with forceps (see "Lithotomy"). The large papillary tumors which I have met with in the mare's bladder have been inva- riably delicate in texture and could be removed xjiecemeal by forcejis. Fortunately, mares affected in this waj'" rarely breed. IMPACTIOX OF THE RECTUM WITH F^CES. In some animals, with more or less paralysis or weakness of the tail and rectum, the i*ectum ma}' become so impacted with solid faeces that the mare is unable to discharge them, and the accumulation both by reason of the mechanical obstruction and the x)ain caused by pressure uioon it will impel the animal to cut short all labor jjains. The rounded swelling surrounding the anus will at once suggest the con- dition, when the obstruction may be removed by the well-oiled or soaped hand. SPASM OF THE XECK OF THE WOMB. This occurs in the mare of specially excitable temperament, or under I)articular causes of irritation, local or general. Labor pains, though continuing for some time, produce no dilatation of the neck of the womb, which will be found firmlj'^ closed so as to admit but one or two fingers, and this, althovigh the i^rojection at the mouth of the womb may have been entirely effaced, so that a simple round opening is left with rigid margins. The simplest 'treaiinod consists in smearing this part with solid extract of belladonna, and after an interval inserting the hand with fingers and thumb drawn into the form of a cone, rupturing the membranes and bringing the foetus into position for extraction, as advised under '"Prolonged Retention of the Foetus." Another mode is to insert through the neck of the womb an ovoid caoutchouc bag, emi^t}-, and furnished with an elastic tube 12 feet long. Carry the free end of this tube upward to a height of 8, 10, or 12 feet, insert a filler into it, and proceed to distend the bag vt'ith tepid or warm water. FIBROUS BAX'DS COXSTRICTIX(4 OR CROSSING THE XECK OF THE \VOMB. These occurring as the result of disease have been several times observed in the mare. They may exist in tlie cavit}' of the abdomen and compress and obstruct the neck of the womb, or they may extend from side to side of the vagina across and just behind the neck of the womb. In the latter position the)' may be felt and quickly remedied by cutting them across. In the abdomen they can only be reached 167 by incision, and two alternatives are presented: (1) To perform embryotomy and extract tlie fo?tns piecemeal; and (2) to make an incision into the abdomen and extract by the Csesarian operation, or simply to cnt the constricting- band and attempt deliveryby the usual channel. FIBROUS CONSTRICTION OF VAGINA OR VULVA. This is i^robably always the result of direct mechanical injury and the formation of rigid cicatrices which fail to dilate with the remainder of the passages at the approach of parturition. The presentation of the foetus in the natural Avay and the occurrence of successive and active labor pains without any favorable result will direct attention to the rigid and unyielding cicatrices Avhich may be incised at one, two, or more points to a depth of half an inch or more, after which the natural expulsive efforts will usuallj' prove effective. The result- ing wounds may be washed frequently with a solution of 1 i)art of carbolic acid to 50 parts of water, or of 1 part of mercuric chloride to 500 parts water. FCETUS ADHERENT TO THE WALLS OF THE WOMB. In inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the cavity of the womb and implicating the foetal membranes, the resulting embryonic tissue sometimes establishes a medium of direct continuity between the womb and fcetal membranes; the blood vessels of the one com- municate freely Avith those of the other and the fibers of the one are l)rolonged into the other. This causes retention of the membranes after birth, and a special risk of bleeding from the womb, and of sep- tic poisojiing. In exceptional cases the adhesion is more extensive and binds a portion of the body of the foal firmly to the womb. In such cases it has repeatedly been found impossible to extract the foal until such adhesions were broken dawn. If they can be reached with the hand and recognized they may be torn through Avith the fingers or with a blunt hook, after which delivery may l)e attempted with hoi)f of success. EXCESSIVE SIZE OF THE FCETUS. It would seem that a small inare may usually be safely bred to a large stallion, 3-et this is not always the case, and when the small size is an individual rather than a racial characteristic or the result of extreme youth, the rule can not be expected to hold. There is always great danger in breeding the young, small, and undeveloped female, and the dwarfed representative of a larger breed, as the offspring- tend to partake of the large race characteristics and to show them even prior to birth. AVhen impregnation has occurred in the very young or in the dwarfed female, tliere are two alternatives — to induce abortion, or to wait until there are attempts at parturition and to extract by embryotomy if impracticable otherwise. 1G8 CONSTRICTION OF A MEMBER BY THE NAVEL STRING. Ill man and animals alike the winding of the umbilical cord round a member of the fa?tiis sometimes leads to the amputation of the lat- ter. It is also known to get wound around the neck or a limb at birth, but in the mare this does not seriously impede jiarturition, as the loosely attached membranes are easily separated from the womb and no strangulation or retarding occurs. The foal may, however, die from the cessation of the placental circulation unless it is speedily delivered. WATER IN THE HEAD (HYDROCEPHALUS) OF THE FOAL. This consists in the excessive accumulation of liquid in the ven- tricles of the brain so that the cranial cavit}^ is enlarged and con- stitutes a great projecting rounded mass occupying the space from the eyes upward. (See Plate XIV, Fig. 3.) With an anterior pres- entation (fore feet and nose) this presents an insuperable obstacle to progress, as the diseased cranium is too large to enter the pelvis at the same time with the fore-arms. With a posterior presentation (hind feet) all goes well until the body and shoulders have passed out, Avhen i^rogress is suddenly arrested by the great bulk of the head. In the first case, the oiled hand introduced along the face detects the enormous size of the head, which may be diminished by puncturing it with a knife or trochar and cannula in the median line, evacuating the water and pressing in the thin bony walls. With a jjosterior presentation, the same course must be followed; the liand jsassed along the neck will detect the cranial swelling, which nvdy be i^unc- tured with a knife or trochar. Oftentimes with an anterior presen- tation the great size of the head leads to its displacement backward and thus the fore-limbs alone engage in the passages. Here the lirst object is to seek and bring up the missing head, and then puncture it as above suggested. DROPSY OF THE ABDOMEN IN THE FOAL — ASCITES. The accumulation of liquid in the abdominal cavity of the foetus is less frequent, but when present it may arrest i^arturition as com- pletelj' as will hydrocephalus. With an anterior presentation the foal maj" pass as far as the shoulders, but behind this all efforts fail to secure a further advance. With a posterior presentation the hind legs as far as the thighs may be expelled, but at this point all progress ceases. In either case the oiled hand passed inward by the side of the foal will detect the enormous distention of the abdomen and its soft, fluctuating contents. The only course is to puncture the cavity and evacuate the liarts from the same x^i'imary layer of the impregnated and develox^ing ovum. The effect of disturbing conditions in giving such wrong directions to the develoxomental forces is v/ell shown in the experiments of St. Hilaire and Valentine in varnishing, shaking, and otherwise breaking up the natural connections in eggs, and thereb}" determining the formation of monstrosities at will. So, in the mammal, blows and other inju- ries that -detach the foetal membranes from the walls of the womb or that modify their circulation Iw inducing inflammation are at times followed by the develox)ment of a monster. The excitement, mental and x>hysical, attendant on fright occasion all}' acts in a similar way, acting x^robably through the same channels. The monstrous forms likely to interfere with x^ai'turition are such as from contracted or twisted limbs or sx)ine, must be presented double; where supernumerary limbs, head, or body must apx:)roach the x^assages v\'ith tlie iiatural ones; where a head or other member lias attained to an unnatural size ; Avhere the body of one foetus has become inclosed in or attached to another, etc. Extraction is sometimes possible by straightening the members and securing such a x^resentation as will reduce the xJi'esenting mass to its smallest and most wedge-like dimensions. To effect this it may be needful to cut the flexor tendons of bent limbs or the muscles on the side of a twisted neck or body; and one or more of the manipulations necessary to secure and bring u]) a missing member may be requii-ed. In most cases of monstrosity by excess, however, it is needful to 172 remove the superfluous parts, in Avhich case the general pi-incii3les employed for einhryotoniy must be followed. The C?esarian section, by which the f(etus is extracted through an incision in the walls of the abdomen and womb, is inadmissible, as it practically entails the sacrifice of the mare, Avhich should never be done for the sake of a monster. See "Embryotomy." ENTRANCE OF TWINS INTO THE PASSAGE AT ONCE. Twins are rare in the mare, and still more rare is the impaction of both at once into the pelvis. The condition would be easily recog- nized by the fact that two fore limbs and two hind would occupy the passage at once, the front of the hoofs of the fore feet being turned upward and those of the hind feet downward. If both belonged to one foal they would be turned in the same direction. Once recog- nized, the condition is easily remedied by passing a rope with a run- ning noose round each foot of the foal that is farthest advanced or that promises to be most easily extracted, and to push the members of the other foetus back into the depth of the womb. As soon as the one foetus is fully engaged in the j)assage it will hold its place and its delivery will i)roceed in the natural way. TABLE OF WRONG PRESENTATIONS. ?^ cb S Incompletely extended. Flexor tendons short- ened. Crossed over the neck. Bent back at the knee. Bent back from the shoulder. Bent downward on the neck. Head and neck turned back beneath the breast. Turned to one side. Turned upward and backward on the back. Hind-limbs Hind feet engaged in the pelvis. Transverse Back of foal to side of pelvis. Inverted Back of foal to floor of pelvis. TT- IT 1, ( Bent on itself at the hock. Hmd-hmbs -j gg^^ .^^ ^i^g i^^jj Transverse Back of foal to side of pelvis. Inverted Back of foal to floor of pelvis. \ With back and loins presented. '/ With breast and belly presented. Fore-limbs. Head Transverse presentation of body. FORE-LIMBS INCOMPLETELY EXTENDED. Incases of this kind, not only are the back tendons behind the knee and shank-bone unduly short, but the sinew extending from the front of the slioulder-blade over the front of the elbow and down to the head of the shank-bone is also shortened. The result is that the fore-limb is bent at the knee and the elbow is also rigidly bent. The condition obstructs parturition by the feet becoming pressed against the floor of the pelvis or by the elbow pressing on its anterior brinu Relief is to be obtained by forcible extension. A rope with a running noose is passed around each fetlock and a repeller (see Plate VIII), planted in 173 the breast is pressed in a direction uj)ward and backward while active traction is made on the ropes. If the feet are not thereby raised from the floor of the pelvis the palm of the hand may l)e placed beneath them to protect the mucous membrane until they have advanced suf- ficiently to obviate this danger. In the absence of a repeller, a smooth rounded fork-handle maybe employed. If the shortening is too great to allow of the extension of the limbs in this waj', the tense tendons ma)^ be cut across behind the shank bone and in front of the elbow, and the limb will be easily straightened out. This is most easily done with an embryotomy' knife furnished with a ring for the middle fin- ger, so that the blade maybe protected in the palm of the hand. (See Plate XIV, Fig. 4.) ONE PORE-LIMB CROSSED OVER THE BACK OF THE NECK. With the long fore-limbs of the foal this readily occurs and the result- ing increase in thickness, both at the head and shoulder, offers a seri- ous obstacle to progress. (See Plate X, Fig. 2. ) The hand introduced into the passage detects the head and one fore foot, and further back on the same side of the head the second foot, from which the limb may be traced obliquely across the back of the neck. If parturition continues to make progress the displaced foot may bruise and lacerate the vagina. By seizing the limb above the fetlock it may be easily pushed over the head to the proper side, when parturition will proceed normally. FORE-LIMB BENT AT THE KNEE. The nose and one fore foot x)resent, and on examination the knee of the missing fore-limb is found farther back. (Plate X, Fig. 1.) First place a noose each on the presenting pastern and lower jaw, and push back the body of the foetus with a repeller, while the operator seizing the shank of the bent limb extends it so as to press back the knee and bring forward the fetlock and foot. As progress is made little by lit- tle the hand is slid down from the region of the knee to the fetlock, and finally that is secured and brought \\p into the passage, when parturition will proceed without hindrance. If both fore-limbs are bent back the head must be noosed and the limbs brought up as above, one after the other. It is usually best to employ the left hand for the right fore-limb, and the right hand for the left fore-limb. FORE- LIMB TURNED BACK FROM THE SHOULDER. In this case, on exploration by the side of the head and jiresenting limb, the shoulder only can be reached at first. (Plate X, Fig. 4.) By noosing the head and presenting fore-limb these may be drawn for- ward into the pelvis, and the oiled hand being carried along the shoul- dei' in the direction of the missing limb is enabled to reach and seize the fore-arm just below the elbow. The bodj^ is now pushed back by 174 the assistants pressing on the liead and x^i'esenting limb or on a repel- ler planted in the breast until the knee can be brought up into the I)elvis, after -syhich the procedure is the same as described in the last I)aragrai)h. HEAD BENT DOWN BETWEEN THE FORE-LIMBS. This ma}' be so that the poll or naj)o of the neck with the ears can be felt far back between the fore-limbs, or so that only the upper border of the neck can be reached, head and neck being bent back beneath the body. AVith the head only bent on the neck, noose the two j)resenting limbs, then introduce the hand between them until the nose can be seized in the palm of the hand. Next have the assist- ants push back the presenting limbs, while the nose is strongly lifted upward over the lirim of the pelvis. This accomplished it assumes the natural position and parturition is eas}'. When both head and neck are bent downward it maj* be impossible to reach the nose. If, however, the labor has only commenced, the limbs may be drawn upon until the operator can reach the ear, l^y dragging on which the head may be so far advanced that the fingers may reach the orbit; traction upon this while the limbs are being- pushed back may bring the head uj) so that it bends on the neck only, and the further iDrocedure will be as described in the last paragraph. If the labor has been long in progress and the foetus is jammed into the pelvis, the womb emptied of the waters and firmly contracted on its solid contents, the case is incomparably more difficult. The mare may be chloroformed and turned on her back with hind parts elevated, and the womb may bo injected with sweet-oil. Then, if the ear can be reached, the correction of the mal-i^resentation may be attempted as above described. Should this fail one or more sharp hooks may be inserted in the neck as near the head as can be reached, and ropes attached to these may be dragged on, while the body of the foal is pushed back by the fore-limbs or hy a repeller. Such repulsion should be made in a direction obliquely upward toward the loins of the mother so as to rotate the fa^tus in such a waj' as to bring the head up. As this is accomplished a hold should be secured nearer and nearer to the nose, with hand or hook, until the head can be straightened out on the neck. All means failing, it becomes necessary- to remove the fore-limbs {emhryoioinij) so as to make more space for bringing uj) the head. If, even then, this can not be accomplished, it may be i)ossible to push the body backward and ujaward with the repeller until the hind-limbs are brought to the passage, when they may be noosed and delivery effected with the jjosterior presentation. HEAD TURNED BACK ON THE SHOULDER. In this case, the fore-feet present, and the oiled hand passed along the fore-arms in search of the missing head finds the side af the neck 175 turned to one side, the liead being perhaps entirely out of reach. (Plate XIII, Fig. 1.) To bring forward the head it may be desirable to lay the mare on the opposite side to that to which the head is turned, and even to give chloroform or ether. Then the feet being noosed, the body of the foetus is pushed by the hand or repeller for- ward and to the side opposite to that occupied by the head until the head comes within reaeh, near the entrance of the pehis. If such displucement of the foetus is diflficnlt, it may be facilitated by a free use of oil or lard. When the nose can be seized it can be brought into the passage as when the head is turned down. If it can not be reached the orbit may be availed of to draw the head forward unt^ the nose can be seized or the lower jaw noosed. In very diificult cases a rope maj- be passed around the neck by the hand, or with the aid of a curved carrier (Plate VIII), and traction may be made upon this while the body is being rotated to the other side. In the same way, in bad cases, a hooli may be fixed in the orbit or even between the bones of the lower jaw to assist in bringing the head up into i^osition. Should all fail, the amputation of the fore-limbs may be resorted to as advised under the last heading. HEAD TURXED UPWAED OX THE BACK. This differs from the last mal-presentation only in the direction of the head, which has to be sought above rather than at one side, and is to be secured and brought forward in a similar manner. (Plate XIII, Fig. 2.) If a rope can be passed around the neck it will prove most effectual, as it naturally slides nearer to the head as the neck is straightened, and ends by bringing the head vrithin easy reach. HIND FEET ENGAGED IN THE PELVIS. In this case fore-limbs and head present naturally, but the hind- limbs bent forward from the hip and the loins arched allow the hind feet also to enter the x)assages, and the farther labor advances the more firmly does the body of the foal become wedged into the pelvis. (Plate XII, Fig. 2. ) The condition is to be recognized by introducing the oiled hand along the bellj' of the foetus, when the hind feet will be felt advancing. An attempt should at once be made to push them back, one after the other, over the brim of the j)elvis. Failing in this, the mare may be turned on her back, head down hill, and the attempt renewed. If it is possible to introduce a straight rope carrier, a noose passed through this may be jjut on the fetlock and the repulsion therebj^ made more effective. In case of continued failure the ante- rior presenting part of the body may be skinned and cut off as far back toward the pelvis as possible (see "Embryotomy"); then nooses are placed on the hind fetlocks and traction is made upon these while the quarters are pushed back into the womb. Then the remaining portion is brought away by the posterior pi-esentation. 176 ANTERIOR PRESENTATION WITH BACK TURNED TO ONE SIDE. The greatest diameter of the axis of tlie foal, like that of the ijelvic passages, is from above downward, and when the fcetns enters the pelvis with this greatest diameter engaged transversely or in the nar- row diameter of the pelvis, parturition is rendered difficult or impossi- ble. In such a case the pasterns and head may be noosed, and the passages and engaged portion of the foal freely lubricated with lard, the limbs may be crossed over each other and the head, and a move- ment of rotation effected in the foetus until its face and back are turned up .toward the croup of the mother; then parturition becomes natural. BACK OP THE FOAL TURNED TO THE FLOOR OF THE PELVIS. In a roomy mare this is not an insuperable obstacle to parturition, yet it may seriously impede it, by reason of the curvature of the body of the foal being opposite to that of the passages, and the head and withers being liable to arrest against the border of the pelvis. Lubri- cation of the passage with lard and traction of the limbs and head will usually suffice with or without the turning of the mare on her ])ack. In obstinate cases two other resorts are open: (1) to turn the foal, pushing back the fore-parts and bringing up the hind so as to make a posterior presentation, and (2) the amputation of the fore- limbs, after which extraction will usually l)e easy. HIND PRESENTATION WITH LEG BENT AT HOCK. In this form the quarters of the foal with the hind-legs bent up ])eneath them present, but can not advance through the pelvis by rea son of their bulk. (Plate X, Fig. 3.) The oiled hand introduced can recognize the outline of the buttocks, with the tail and anus in the center and the sharp points of the hocks beneath. First pass a rope around each limb at the hock, then with hand or repeller, push the buttocks backward and upward, until the feet can be brought up into the passages. The great length of the shank and pastern in the foal is a serious obstacle to this, and in all cases the foot should be pro- tected in the palm of the hand while being brought up over the brim of the pelvis. Otherwise the womb may be torn. When the pains are too violent and constant to allow effective manipulation, some respite may be obtained by the use of chloroform or morphia, and l)y turning the mare on her back, but too often the operator fails and the foal must be sacrificed. Two courses are still open : first, to cut through the cords behind and above the hock and extend the upper part of the limb, leaving the hock bent, and extract in this way, and, second, to amputate the hind-limbs at the hip joint and remove them separately, after whicli tlie bodv mav l)e extracted. 177 HIND PRESENTATION WITH LEGS BENT FORWARD FROM THE HIP. This is merely an aggravated form of the presentation last de- scribed. (Plate XII, Fig. 1.) If the mare is roomy a rope maybe passed around each thigh and the bod}- pushed up"\Yard and forward, so as to bring the hocks and heels upward. If this can be accom- plished, nooses are placed on the limb farther and farther down until the fetlock is reached and brought into position. If failure is met with, then amputation at the hips is the dernier ressort. HIND PRESENTATIONS WITH THE BACK TURNED SIDEW^AYS OR DOWNWARD. These are the counterparts of similar anterior presentations and are to be managed in the same way. PRESENTATION OF THE BACK. This is rare, yet not unknown, the foal being bent upon itself with the back, recognizable by its sharp row of spines, presented at the en- trance of the pelvis, and the head and all four feet turned back into the womb. (Plate XI, Fig. 1.) The bodj- of the foetus may be extended across the opening transversely so that the head corresponds to one side (right or left), or it may be vertical with the head above or below. In any such position the object should be to push the body of the foetus forward and uj)ward or to one side, as may best promise to bring up the fore or hind extremities, and bring the latter into the passage so as to constitute a normal anterior or posterior presentation. This turning of the foetus may be favored by a given position of the mother, by the free use of oil or lard on the surface of the foetus, and by the use of a propeller. PRESENTATION OF BREAST AND ABDOMEN. This is the reverse of the back presentation, the foal being extended across in front of the pelvic opening, but with the l)elh^ turned toward the passages and with all four feet engaged in the passage. (Plate XI, Fig. 2. ) The most j^romising course is to secure the hind feet with nooses and then j)ush the fore feet forward into the womb. As soon as the fore feet are pushed forward clear of the brim of the pelvis, trac- tion is made on the hind feet so as to bring the thighs into the pas- sage and prevent the re-eutrance of the fore-limbs. If it prove diffi- cult to push back the fore-limbs a noose may be passed around the fetlock of eacli and the cord drawn through the eye of a rope carrier, by means of which the members may be easily jjushed back. EMBRYOTOMY. This consists in the dissection of the fcetus so as to reduce its bulk and allow of its exit through the pelvis. The indications for its . 178 adoption have been f urnislied in tlie foregoing jpages. The o]3eration will vary in different cases according to the necessity for the removal of one or more i3arts in order to secnre the requisite reduction in size. Thus it may he needful to remove head and neck, one fore-limh or both, one hind-limb or both, to remove different parts of the trunk, or to remove superfluous (monstrous) parts. Some of the simplest operations of embryotomy (incision of the head in hydrocephalus, incision of the belly in dropsy) have already been described. It remains to notice the more difficult procedures which can be best undertaken b}^ the skilled anatomist. Ampidaiionojihefore-Jimhs. — This may usually bo begun on the fetlock of the limb iDrojecting from the vulva. An embryotomy knife is desirable. This knife consists of a blade with a sharp, slightly hooked point, and one or two rings in the back of the blade large enough to fit on the middle finger, while the blade is j^rotected in the palm of the hand. (See Plato XIV, Fig. 4.) Another form has the blade inserted in a mortise in the handle from which it is pushed out by a movable button when wanted. First place a noose around the fetlock of the limb to be anij)utated, cut the skin circularl}^ entirely around the fetlock, then make an incision on the inner side of the limb from the fetlock uj) to the breast bone. Next dissect the skin from the limb, from the fetlock up to the breast bone on the inner side, and as far uj) on the shoulder blade as possible on the outer side. Finally, cut through the muscles attaching the limb to the breast bone, and employ strong traction on the limb so as to drag out the whole limb, shoulder blade included. The muscles around the upper part of the shoulder blade are easily torn through and need not be cut, even if that were possible. In no ease should the fore-limb be removed unless the shoulder blade is taken with it, as that furnishes the greatest obstruction to delivery, above all when it is no longer advanced by the extension of the fore-limb, but is pressed back so as to increase the already thickest posterior portion of the chest. The preservation of the skin from the whole limb is advantageous in various ways; it is easier to cut it circularly at the fetlock than at the shoulder; it covers the hand and knife in making the needful incisions, thus acting as a protection to the womb; and it affords a means of traction on the body after the limb has been removed. In dissecting the skin from the limb the knife is not needful at all j)oints; much of it may be stripped off with the fingers or knuckles, or by a blunt iron spud pushed up inside the hide, which is meanwhile held tense to render the spud effective. Amjmtation of the head. — This is easy Avlien both fore-limbs are turned l)ack and the head alone has made its exit in part. It is more difficult when the head is still retained in the passages or Avomb, as in double-headed monsters. The head is secured by a hook in the lower jaw, or in the orbit, or by a halter, and the skin is divided 179 circularly around the lower jjart of the face or at the front of the ears, according to the amount of head protriiding. Then an incision is made backward along the line of the throat, and tlie skin dissected from the neck as far back as possible. Then the muscles and other soft parts of the neck are cut across, and the bodies of two vertebrse (neck bones) are severed by cutting completely across the cartilage of the joint. The bulging of the ends of the bones will serve to indi- cate the seat of the joint. The head and detached portion of the neck may now be removed by steady pulling. If there is still an obstacle the knife may be again used to sever any obstinate connec- tions. In the ease of a double-headed monster, the whole of the second neck must be removed with the head. When the head has been detached a rope should be passed through the eye-holes, or through an artificial opening in the skin, and tied firmly around the skin, to be employed as a means of traction when the missing limbs or the second head have been brought up into position. Amputation of the hind-Jinih. — This maybe required when there are extra hind-limbs, or when the hind-limbs are bent forward at hock or hip joint. In the former condition the procedure resembles that for removal of a fore-limb, but recxuires more anatomical knowledge. Having noosed the i)astern, a circular incision is made through the skin around the fetlock, and a longitudinal one from that uj) to the groin, and the skin is dissected from the limb as high up as can be reached, over the croup if possible. Then cut through the muscles around the hip joint, and, if possible, the two interarticular ligaments of the joint (pubio-femoral and round), and extract the limb by strong dragging. "In case the limb is bent forwarel at the hock, a rope is passed round that and pulled so as to bring the point of the hock between the lii)S of the vulva. The hamstring and the lateral ligaments of the liock are now cut through, and the limbs extended by a rope tied round the lower end of the long bone above (tibia). In case it is still needful to remove the upper part of the limb, the further procedure is the same as described in the last paragraph. In case the limb is turned forward from the hip, and the foetus so wedged into the passage that turning is impossible, the case is very difficult, I have repeatedlj'^ succeeded by cutting in on the hip joint and disarticulating it, then dissecting the muscles back from the upper end of the thigh bone. A noose was placed around the neck of the bone and j)ulled on forcibly, while any unduly resisting struc- tures were cut with the knife. Cartwright recommends to make free incisions round the hip joints and tear through the muscles when they can not be cut; then Avith cords round the pelvic bones, and hooks inserted in the openings in the floor of the pelvis to drag out the pelvic bones; then put cords around the heads of the thiuh bones and extract them: then remove 180 tho intestines; and finally, by means of the loose, detached skin, draw out the body Avith the remainder of the hind-limbs bent forward beneath it. Renff cuts his way into the pelvis of the foal, and with a knife separates the pelvic bones from the loins, then skinning the quarter draws out these pelvic bones by means of ropes and hooks, and along with them the hind-limbs. The hind-limbs having been removed by one or the other of these procedures, the loose skin detached from the pelvis is used as a means of traction and delivery is effected. If it has been a monstrosity with extra hind-limbs, it may be possible to bring these up into the passage and utilize them for traction. Beinoval of the ahdominal viscera. — In case where the belly is unduly large, from decomposition, tumors, or otherwise, it may be needful to lay it oj^en with the knife and cut or tear out the contents. Removal of the thoracic viscera. — To diminish the bulk of the chest it has been found advisable to cut out the breast-bone, remove the heart and lungs, and allow the ribs to collapse with the lower free ends overlaj)i)ing each other. Dissection of the triinlc. — In ease it becomes necessa^-y to remove other portions of the trunk, the general rule should be followed of preserving the skin so that all manipulations can be made inside this as a i^rotector, that it may remain available as a means of exercising traction on the remaining parts of the body, and as a covering to protect the vaginal walls against injuries from bones while such part is passing. FLOODING — BLEEDING FROM THE WOMB. This is rare in the mare, but not unknown, in connection with a failure of the womb to contract on itself after parturition, or with eversion of the womb (casting the withers), and congestion or lacera- tion. If the blood accumulates in the flaccid womb the condition may only be suspected by reason of the rapidly advancing weakness, swaying, unsteady gait, hanging head, paleness of the eyes and other mucous membranes, and weak, small, failing pulse. The hand intro- duced into the w^omb detects the presence of the blood partly clotted. If the blood escapes 'by the vulva the condition is evident. Treatment consists in evacuating the womb of its blood clots, giving a large dose of powdei-ed ergot of rye, and in the application of cold water or ice to tlie loins and external generative organs. Besides this a sponge impregnated with a strong solution of alum, or, still better, with tincture of muriate of iron, may be introduced into the womb and squeezed so as to bring the liquid in contact with the w^alls generally. EVERSION OF THE WOMB. IL" llie womb fails to contract after difficult parturition, the after- pains Avill sometimes lead to the fundus passing into the body of the 181 organ and jiassing through that and tlie ^'ag■ina until the wlioh> inverted organ aj^pears externally and hangs down on tlie thighs. The result is rapid engorgement and swelling of the organ, impaction of the rec- tum with fteces, and distension of the bladder with urine, all of which conditions seriously interfere with the return of the mass. In i-eturn- ing the Avomb the standing is preferable to the recumbent position, as the abdomen is more pendent and there is less obstruction to the return. It may, hoAvever, be necessary to put hobbles on the hind limbs to prevent the mare from kicking. A clean sheet should be held beneath the Avomband all filth, straw, and foreign bodies washed fi'om its surface. Then with a broad, elastic (india-rubber) band, or in default of that a long strip of calico 4 or 5 inches Avide, Avind the womb as tightly as possible, beginning at its most dependent i^art (the extremity of the horn). This serves two good ends. It squeezes out into the general circulation the enormous mass of blood Avhich engorged and enlarged the organ, and it furnishes a strong j)rotectiA'e covering for the now delicate friable organ, through which it may be safely manipulated Avithout danger of laceration. The next step may be the pressure on the general mass while those j^ortions next the A'ulva are gradually pushed in Avith the hands; or the extreme loAvest point (the end of the horn) may be turned Avithin itself and pu.shed forward into the vagina by tlie closed fist, the return being assisted by manipulations by the other hand, and CA^en by those of assistants. By either mode the manipulations may be made Avitli almost perfect safety so long as the organ is closely wrapped in the bandage. Once a portion has been introduced into the Aagina the rest Avill usually folloAV Avith increasing ease, and the operation should be comi^leted Avitli the hand and arm extended the full length Avithin the Avomb and moved from point to point so as to straighten out all parts of the organ and insure that no i^ortion still remains iuA^erted Avithin another por- tion. Should any such iDartial in Aversion he left it will giA^e rise to straining, under the force of AAhich it Avill gradually increase until tlie Avhole mass Avill be iirotruded as before. The next step is to apply a truss as an effectual mechanical barrier to further escape of the Avomb through the A^uh'a. The simplest is made with tAvo inch ropes, each about 18 feet long. These are each doubled and interAvoA^en at the bend, as seen in Plate VIIT, Fig. 4. The ring formed by the inter- lacing of the two ropes is adjusted around the Aaih'a, the tAvo ends of the one rope are carried up on the right and left of the tail and along the spine, being Avound round each otlier in their course, and are finally tied to the upiier part of the collar encircling the neck. The remaining tAvo ends, belonging to the other roj)e, are carried doAvn- ward and forAvard between the thighs and thence forAvard and upward on the sides of the belly and chest to lie attached to tlie right and left sides of the collar. These ropes are drawn tightly enough to keep closely applied to the opening Avithout chafing, and ^viM fit still more 182 secureh^ when tiie mare raises lier back to strain. It is desirable to tie the mare short so tliat she may be unable to lie down for a day or two, and she should be kept in a stall with the hind parts higher than the fore. Violent straining may be checked by full doses of opium (one-half dram), and any costiveness or diarrhea should be obviated by a suitable laxative or binding diet. In some mares the contractions are too violent to allow of the return of the womb, and full doses of opium (one-half dram), laudanum {2 ounces), or chloral hydrate (1 ounce) may be demanded, or the mare must be rendered insensible \>y ether or chloroform. RUPTURE OR LACERATIOX OF THE WOMB. This may occur from the feet of the foal during parturition, or from ill-directed efforts to assist, but it is especially liable to take place in the everted, congested, and friable organ. The resultant dangers are bleeding from the wound, escape of the bowels through the opening and their fatal injury b}' the mare's feet or otherwise, and j)eritonitis from the extension of inflammation from the vround and from the poisonous action of the sei^tic liciuids of the womb escaping into the abdominal cavity. The first object is to close the wound, but unless in eversion of the womb this is practically impossible. In the last- named condition the wound must be carefully and accurately sewed up before the womb is returned. After its return, the womb must be injected daily with an antiseiJtic solution (borax one-half ounce or carbolic acid 3 drams to a fj[uart of tepid water). If inflammation threatens, the abdomen may be bathed continuously with hot water by means of a heavy woolen rag, and large doses of opium (one-half dram) may be given twice or thrice daily. RUPTURES OF THE VAGIXA. These are attended ]iy dangers similar to those belonging to rupture of the womb, and in addition by the risk of x3rotrusion of the bladder, which appears through the lips of the vulva as a red pyriform mass. Sometimes such lacerations extend downward into the bladder, and in others ui3ward into the terminal gut (rectum). In still other cases the anus is torn so that it forms one common orifice with the vulva. Too often such cases prove fatal, or at least a recovery -is not attained, and urine or fjeces or both escape freely into the vagina. The simple laceration of the anus is easily sewed up, but the ends of the muscular fibers do not reunite and the control over the lower bowel is never fully reacquired. The successful stitching up of the wound communicating v.ith the bladder or the rectum requires unusual skill and care, and though I have succeeded in a case of the latter kind, I can not advise the attempt by unprofessional persons. 183 BLOOD CLOTS IN" THE AVALLS OF THE VAGINA. See "()l)structions to Parturition." IXFLAMMATIOX OF THE AVOIIB AND PERITONEUM. These may result from injuries sustained by tlie Avomb during or after j)arturitLon, from exx^osure to cold or Avet, or from the irritant action of putrid products within the Avomb. Under the inflammation the Avomb remains dilated and flaccid, and decomposition of its secre- tions almost alAvaj's occurs, so that the inflammation tends to assume a putrid character and general septic infection is likely to occur. Tlie symptoms are ushered in by shivering, staring coat, small rapid j)ulse, eleA'ated temperature, accelerated breathing, inapx^etence, AAitli arched back, stifi: moA'ement of the bodj^, looking back at the flanks, and uneasy motions of the hiud limbs, discharge from the Auh^a of a liquid at first AAatery, reddish, or yelloAvish, and later it maybe A^llitish or glairy, and fetid or not in different cases. Tenderness of the abdo- men shown on x^i'essure is especially characteristic of cases affecting the x^eritoneum or liuingof thebelh', and is more marked lower down. If the animal surviA^es, the inflammation tends to become chronic and attended by a AAiiitish muco-x)urulent discharge. If, on the contrary, it x^roA^es fatal, death is preceded by extreme prostration and Aveakness from the general sex^tic x>oisoning. In ireatment the first thing to be sought is the removal of all offen- sive and irritant matters from the womb through a caoutchouc tube introduced into the Avomb, and into AA^hieh a funnel is fitted. AVarm Avater should be x^assed until it comes awaA^ clear. To insure that all of the Avomb has been Avashed out, the oiled hand ma}- be introduced to carry the end of the tube into the tAvo horns successiA^ely. When the offensive contents liaA'e been thus remoA^ed, the Avomb should be injected Avith a. quart of water holding in solution one-half ounce per- manganate of x^otash, or, in the absence of the latter, tAvo teasx^oonfuls of carbolic acid. Repeat twice da.ily. Fomentation of the abdomen, or the apx)lication of a Avarm flax-seed x^oultice, may greatly relicA'e. Acetanilid, in doses of half an ounce, repeated tAvice or thrice a day, or sulx)hate of quinia in doses of one-third ounce, may be emx)loyed to reduce the fcA^er. If the great x^ostration indicates sex^tic poisoning- large doses (one-half ounce) bisulphite of soda, or salicylate of soda may be resorted to. LEUCORRHCEA. This is a white, glutinous, chronic discharge, the result of a con- tinued sub-acute inflammation of the mucous membrane of the Avomb. Like the discharge of acute inflammation it contains many forms of bacteria, by some of Avhieh it is manifestly inoculable on the penis of the stallion, x^i'oducing ulcers and a specific gonorrhoeal discharge. 184 Treatment may consist in the internal use of tonics (sulphate of iron 3 drams, daily) and the washing out of the womb, as described under the last heading, followed by an astringent antiseptic injection (car- bolic acid 2 teaspoonfuls, tannic acid one-half dram, water 1 quart). This may be repeated two or three times a day. LAMINITIS OR FOUNDER FOLLOWING PARTURITION. This sometimes follows on inflammation of the womb, as it fre- quently does on disorder of the stomach. Its symptoms agree with those of the common form of founder, and treatment need not differ. DISEASES OP THE UDDER AND TEATS — CONGESTION AND INFLAMMA- TION OF THE UDDER. This is comparatively rare in the mare, though in some cases the udder becomes painfully engorged before j)ai'turition, and a doughy swelling, pitting on pressure, extends forward on the lower surface of the abdomen. When this goes on to active inflammation one or both of the glands become enlarged, hot, tense, and painful; the milk is dried up or replaced by a watery or reddish serous fluid, which at times becomes fetid; the animal walks lame, loses appetite, and shows general disorder and fever. The condition may end in recovery, in abscess, induration, or gangrene, and in some cases may lay the foun- dation for a tumor of the gland. The treatment is sim^^le so long as there is only congestion. Active rubbing with lard or oil, or better, camphorated oil, and the frequent drawing off of the milk, by the foal or with the hand, will usually bring about a rapid improvement. When active inflammation is present fomentation Avith warm water may be kept up for an hour and followed by the application of the camphorated oil, to which has been added some carbonate of soda and extract of belladonna. A dose of laxative medicine (4 drams Barbadoes aloes) will be of service in reducing fever, and one-half ounce saltpeter daily will serve a similar end. In case the milk coagulates in the udder and can not be withdrawn, or Avhen the liquid becomes fetid, a solution of 20 grains carbonate of soda and 10 droits carbolic acid dissolved in an ounce of water shouldibe injected into the teat. In doing this it must be noted that the mare has three separate ducts opening on the summit of each teat and each must be carefully injected. To draw off the fetid product it may be needful to use a small milking tube, or spring teat- dilator designed by the writer (Plate VIII, Figs. 2 and 3). When pus forms and i^oints externally, and can not find a free escape by the teat, the spot where it fluctuates must be opened freely with the knife and the cavity injected daily with the carbolic acid lotion. When the gland becomes hard and indolent it may be rubbed daily with iodine ointment 1 part, vaseline 6 jiarts. PLATE VTR Haines.del.aftet Fleming. AHoen&Co Lith.Bahrmore INSTRT^MENTS TL'SED IN DIFFICin.T LABOR. PI.ATE IX. attor rierain^ VertehTf) Sfirral pn'seidnljnn,. Z.u/iiIjo-Sfirjyi7 pn'srjtiti/i/rn- . Haines, del. A.Hoen jCo Lith.BaltM'iore NOr^^IAI. PRKSET^r TATIOiSrS. PI.ATE XI '/} ri/isi 'e/sc /)i ■fs('nt(r;tu)n - 1 'pper i ■ten ■ .Str/riii-ti/x/onii/ud pn:seriiiifit>ri Hrru/ tuu/ Fee/ rricfagetl . Haines, aftm l-"li"iniiia A Hoen &Co Lithocaustic Bahimor AJ'. X( )HM.\1. 1 >l'vK.SKX'l\ATIC:»NS PLATE Xn. Thir//t art/7 rj-oup pT-e.scntrilion, ^ t/i/f'/-/ar//ft:'if///ff//f>/f . Hinf/ /I'nih drrifif-ifni after Fleming. A Hoen iCo Lith. Baltimore. v\B NOR^IAL T'riK SEN 1V\ TIOXS . PLATE Xm ^Tii&rior presejrtatijOJi^.Jfecut tiirnecL on side . ylnfervxn- prest'niatwn. IJca/l Uu-tuicL on bcick AHoen &Co Lith .Baltimore, ^B IKT C)r?^I^I^ F'PIK S K N '1VS.TI ON S li: i\,l0/(^ / 5 i^ "-J_ 185 TUMORS OF THE UDDER. As the result of inflammation of the udder it may become the seat of an indurated diseased growth, which may go on growing and seriously interfere with the movement of the hind limbs. If such swellings will not give way in their early stages to treatment by iodine the only resort is to cut them out with a knife. As the gland is often impli- cated and has to be removed, such mares can not in the future suckle their colts, and therefore should not be bred. SORE TEATS, SCABS, CRACKS, WARTS. By the act of sucking, especially in cold weather, the teats are sub- ject to abrasions, cracks, and scabs, and as the result of such irrita- tion, or independently, warts sometimes grow and jjrove troublesome. The warts should be clipped off with sharp scissors and their roots burned with a solid 2:)encil of lunar caustic. This is best done before parturition to secure healing before suckling begins. For sore teats use an ointment of vaseline 1 ounce, balsam of tolu o grains, and sulphate of zinc 5 grains. DISEASES OE THE. N1:R\T)US SYSTEM. By M. R. TRUMBOWER, V. S. THE AXATOilY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BRAIX AXD NERVOUS SYSTEM. The nervotis sj'stem may be regarded as consisting of two sets of organs, peripheral and central, the function of one being to establish a eomniunication between the centers and the different parts of the body, and that of the other to generate nervous force. The whole may be arranged under two divisions: First. The cerehi'G-spinal or nervous sj^stem of animal life. Second. The sympathetic, ganglionic, or nervous system of organic life. Each is possessed of its own cen- tral and peripheral organs. In the first, the center is made uj) of tv\'o portions, one large and expanded — the brain — i)laced in the cranial cavity; the other elon- gated— spinal cord — continuous with the brain, and lodged in the canal of the vertebral column. The perij)heral portion of this sj'stem consists of the cerebro-spinal nerves, which leave the axis in symmet- rical pairs, and are distributed to the skin, the voluntary muscles, and the organs of common and spinal sensation. In the second, the central organ consists of a chain of ganglia con- nected by nerve cords, which extends from the head to the rump of each side of the spine. The nerves of this sj'stem are distributed to the in voluntar}'- muscles, mucons membrane, viscera, and blood-vessels. The two systems have free intercommunication, ganglia being at tiic junctions. Two substances, distinguishable by their color, enter into the for- mation of nervous matter, viz. , the w^hite or medullary, and tlie gray or cortical substance. Both are soft, fragile, and easil}' injured, in consequence of wliich the principal nervous centers are always well protected bj" bony coverings. The nervous substances present two distinct forms — nerve fibers and nerve cells. An aggregation of nerve cells constitutes a nerve ganglion. " ^ 187 188 The nerve fibers represent a conducting apparatus, and serve to place the central nervous organs in connection with peripheral end organs. The nerve cells, however, l)esides transmitting impulses, act as physiological centers for automatic or reflex movements, and also for the sensory, perceptive, trophic, and secretory functions. A nerve consists of a Inindle of tuljular fillers, held together by a dense areolar tissue, and inclosed in a membranous sheath— the neurilemma. Nerve fibers possess no elasticit}^, but are very strong. Divided nerves do not retract. Nerves are thrown into a state of excitement when stimulated, and are, therefore, said to possess excitable or irritahJe propertiefi. The stimuli may be applied to, or may act upon any part of the nerve. Nerves may be paralyzed by continuous pressure being applied. When the nerves divide into branches, there is never any splitting up of their ultimate fibers, nor yet is there ever any coalescing of them; they retain their individuality from their source to their termination. Nerves which convey imi^ressionsto the centers are termed sonsory or centripetal, and those which transmit stimulus from the centers to organs of motion are termed motor or centrifugal. The function of the nervous system may, therefore, be defined in the simj)lest terms, as follows: It is intended to associate the different parts of the hody insiadi a manner that sfinndus applied to one organ may excite or depress the activity of another. The brain is that portion of the cerebro-spinal axis within the cra- nium, which may be divided into four parts — the medulla oblongata, the cerebellum, the j)07?.s Varolii, and the cerebrum, and it is cov- ered by three membranes called the meninges. The first of these membranes, the dura mater, is a tMc'k, white, fibrous membrane which lines tlie cavity of the cranium, forming the internal i3eriosteum of the bones; it is continuous with the spinal cord to the extremity of the canal. The second, the arachnoid, is a delicate serous membrane, and loosel}^ envelops the l)rain and spinal cord; it forms two layers, leav- ing between them the arachnoid space which contains tlife cerebro- spinal fluid, the use of which is to protect the spinal cord and brain from pressure. The third, the jji'a mcder, is closely adherent to the entire surface of the brain, but is much thinner and more vascular than when it reaches the spinal cord which it also envelops, and is continued to form the sheaths of the spinal nerves. The medulla oblongata is the prolongation of the spinal cord, ex- tending to the pons Varolii. This portion of the brain is very large in the horse; it is pyramidal in shape, the narrowest part joining the cord. The pons Varolii is the transverse projection on the base of the brain, between the medulla oblongata and the peduncles of the cere- brum. The cerebellum is lodged in the posterior part of the cranial cavity, immediately above the medulla oblongata; it is globular or elliptical 189 in shape, the transverse diameter being greatest. The body of the cerebellum is composed of gray matter externally and white in the center. The cerebrum, or brain projier, occupies the anterior jiortion of the cranial cavit^^ It is ovoid in shape, Avith an irregular flattened base, and consists of lateral halves or hemispheres. The greater part of the cerebrum is composed of white matter. The hemisjiheres of the cerebrum are usually said to be the seat of all psj'^chical activities. Only when they are intact are the ijrocesses of feeling, thinking, and A\alling possible. After they are destroyed, the organism comes to be like a complicated machine, and its activity is only the expression of the internal and external stimuli which act upon it. The cerebellum is the great and important central organ for the finer co-ordination and integration of movements. Injuries to the cerebellum cause dis- turbance of the equililjrium of the body, but do not interfere with the l)S3'chical activities or the will or consciousness, neither does an injury to these parts give rise to pain. The spinal cord or spinal marrow is that j)art of the cerebro-spinal system which is contained in the spinal canal of the backbone, and extends from the medulla oblongata to a short distance behind the loins. It is an irregularly cylindrical structure, divided into two lat- eral symmetrical halves by fissures. The spinal cord terminates pos- teriorly in a i)ointed extremit}^, which is continued hy a mass of nervous trunks — ccmda equince. A transverse section of the cord reveals that it is composed of white matter externally and of graj'^ internally. The spinal cord does not fill up the whole spinal canal. The latter contains, besides, a large venous sinus, fatty matter, the membranes of the cord, and the cerebro-spinal fluid. The sijinal nerves, forty-two or forty-three in number, arise each by tAvo roots, a suj)erior or sensorj^ and an inferior or motor. The nerves originating from the brain are twenty-four in number, and arranged in j)airs, which are named first, second, third, etc., counting from before backward. They also receive special names, according to their functions, or the parts to which they are distributed, viz : 1. Olfactory. 7. Facial. 2. Optic. 8. Auditory. 3. Oculo-motor. 9. Glosso-Pharyngeal. •1. Pathetic. 10. Pneiimogastric. 5. Trifacial. 11. Spinal- Accessory. C. Abducens. 12. Hjq^jogiossal. INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES. Inflammation may attack these membranes singly, or any of the anatomical divisions of the nerve matter, or it may invade the whole at once. Practical experience, however, teaches us that primar}" in- flammation of the dura mater is of rare occurrence, except in direct mechanical injuries to the head or diseases of the bones of the 190 cranium. Neither is the arachnoid often affected with acute inflam- mation except as a secondary result. The pia mater is most com- monly the seat of inflammation, acute and subacute, but from its intimate relation with the surface of tlie bi-ain the latter very soon becomes involved in the morbid changes. Practicallj', we can not separate inflammation of the pia mater from that of the brain proper. Inflammation may, however, exist in the center of the great nerve masses, the cerebrum, cerebellum, pons A^arolii, or medulla at the base of the brain, without involving the surface. AYhen, therefore, inflammation invades the brain and its enveloping membranes it is properlj^ called enceplialUisj when the membranes alone are affected it is called meningitis; or the brain substance alone, cerebritis. ENCEPHALITIS — INPLAMMATIOX OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES. Causes. — Exposure to extreme heat and cold, excessive continued cerebral excitement, direct injuries to the brain, such as concussion, or from fracture of the cranium, sometimes as a sequela to influ- enza, pj^seniia, poisons having a direct influence ni^on the encephalic mass, etc. Sijinptoms. — Acute encephalitis may be ushered in by an increased sensibility to noises, with more or less nervous excitability, contrac- tion of the pupils of the eyes, and a quick, hard pulse. In very acute attacks these symptoms, however, are not always noted. This condition will soon be followed by muscular twitchings, convulsive or spasmodic movements, eyes wide open v,'itli shortness of sight. The animal becomes afraid to have his head handled. Convulsions and delirium may develop, with inability of muscular control, or stupor and coma may supervene. Where the membranes are greatly implicated convulsions and delirium with violence may be expected, but where the brain substances are principally affected stupor and coma will be the prominent symptoms. In the former condition the pulse Avill be quick and hard, in the latter soft or depressed with often a dilatation of the pupils, and deep, slow, stertorous breathing. The symptoms may follow one another in rapid succession, and the disease approach a fatal termination in less than twelve hours. In subacute attacks the sj^mptoms are better defined, and the animal seldom dies before the third daj^ Within three or four days gnulual imjirovement may become manifest, or cerebral softening Avith par- tial paralysis may occur. In all cases of encephalitis there is a marked rise in temperature from the very onset of the disease, with a tendency to increase until the most alarming symptoms develop, succeeded by a decrease when coma becomes manifested. The vio- lence and character of the symptoms greatly depend upon the extent and location of the structures involved. Thus, in some cases we may find marked paralysis of certain muscles, while in others we nmy have spasmodic rigidity of muscles in a certain region. Very rarely the 191 animal becomes extremely violent early in tlie attack, and by rear- ing up, striking witli the fore feet, or falling over, may do lumsalf great injur}-. Usuallj', however, the animal maintains the stand- ing i)osition, propping himself against the manger or wall until he falls from inability of muscular control or unconsciousness. Occa- sionally he may go through a series of automatic movements in his delirium, such as trotting or walking, and if loose in a stall will move around in a circle persistently. Early and persistent consti- pation of the bowels is a marked symptom in nearly all acute affec- tions of the brain; retention of the urine, also, is frequently observed. Chronic encephalitis. — This may succeed the acute stage, or maybe due to stable miasma, blood-poison, narcotism, lead-poisoning, etc. Contrary to acute encephalitis, this form is not characterized in its initial stages by excitability, quick and hard pulse, and high fever. The animal appears at first stupid; eats slowly; the pupil of the e3"e does not resi3ond to light quickh'; the animal often throws u^) his head or shakes it as if suffering sudden twinges or pain. He is slow and sluggish in his movements, or there may be partial paralysis of one limb, one side of the face, neck, or body. These symptoms, with some variations, mny be present for several days and then subside, or ihe disease may pass into the acute stage and terminate fatall}'. Chronic encephalitis maj- affect an animal for ten days or two weeks without much variation in the symptoms before the crisis is reached. If improvement commences the sj^m^jtoms usually disappear in the reverse order in which they developed with the exception of the para- l3'tic effects, which remain intractable or permaneu-t. Parah'sis of certain sets of muscles is a very common result of chronic, subacute, and acute encephalitis, and is due to softening of the brain, or to exudation into the cavities of the brain or arachnoid space. MENINGITIS — THE MAD STAGGERS OF THE OLD V\'RITER8 — INFLAMMA- TION OF THE CEREBRAL ENVELOPES. Causes. — Excess of heat or cold, wounds of the cranium and mem- branes, rheumatism, influenza, rupture of meningeal blood-vessels, etc. Symptoms. — In an attack of acute meningitis the symptoms appear very suddenly- and are often extremeh* violent. The violent pain in the head is indicated by the animal flj'ing back in the lialter, plung- ing forward or running ahead, regardless of obstacles or obstructions in the Avay. The pulse is very rapid, the breathing accelerated or panting, the pupils of the eyes contracted, and the muscles of the bod}'- quivering. All these sj'mptoms may develop Avithin a fcAV minutes or in a few hours. If the animal does not obtain' relief , spasms or rigidity of the muscles along one or both sides of the neck or back Avill become manifest, the head Avill be held elevated, the eyeballs Avill retract into their sockets, the eye-lids twitch, convulsions and furious delirium Avill soon appear, folloAved by coma and death. Acute meningitis may 192 ' result fatally in a very few hours. During the whole course of the disease the more violent symptoms occur in paroxysms, and the least noise or disturbance serves to induce them. In the quiescent jjeriods the animal appears dull and drowsy. The urine is frequently ejected in spurts and strong efforts are made to pass manure. In subacide meningitis the symptoms will develop more slowly and be less marked by violence. The sensor}' functions may not be much interfered with until the near approach of death. In such attacks the animal may suffer for a week or longer and ultimately recover. In meningitis the temperature varies from IDS'" to 107° F., according to the severity of the attack. The violent symptoms of this disease must not be confounded with those of rabies. In the latter the violence is directed at some object or ui)on the animal himself; in the former no malice is shown toward the attendant or surrounding objecl^s, but is simply the manifestation of excruciating jDain in the head. Meningitis may be distinguished from encephalitis and cerebritis bj^ the absence of marked localized paralytic sjnnptoms, or of coma, until the near aj^proach of death. It is characterized by violence, increased sensibility, and delirium. CEREBRITIS — INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN SUBSTANCE. Causes. — The causes giving rise to this disease are very numerous. Among them may be mentioned all those named heretofore as causing encephalitis and meningitis, cystic and calcareous tumors, thrombi, urpemic poisoning, metastatic abscesses, septic infection, etc. Symptoms. — Cerebritis, when unaccompanied by other disease, is seldom recognized as such during life. It is alwaj^s localized in extent, and the symptoms manifested depend upon the location of the organic change for their character. The symptoms, therefore, are as varied as the causes; they are usually of slow development and persistent. A'ertigo or giddiness ma}^ be regarded as a constant symptom. The animal may stop on the road, shake his head, or stagger, api^arently undecided in what direction to go. There may be contraction of the pupils, cramp of the muscles on the side of the neck or face, ftulse small and hard and variable in frequency, often, however, slower than normal. The temperature is slightly increased, the respira- tions may be slow and deep, the appetite capricious, bowels consti- pated; rapid emaciation is a common symptom. Such conditions may be apparent for a week or two Aveeks; then the horse may become comatose. The pu^iils dilate, the jjulse becomes intermitting, swal- lowing difficult, the muscles which were previousl}^ rigid become i-elaxed and paralyzed, and the urine may either be retained or be dis- charged involuntarily. In this way the animal may survive another week and then die in a jjaralyzed and unconscious state. Not infre- quently, however, few of those symptoms are manifested, for in some cases the paralysis is sudden from extensive lesions of the brain, and the animal may die within twenty-four hours. ' 193 SOFTENING AND ABSCESS OF THE BRAIN. This is one of the terminations of cerebritis. It may also be dne to an insiiflicient supply of blood as a result of diseased cerebral arteries and of apoplexy. Sympioms. — Drowsiness, vertigo, or attacks of giddiness, increased timidity, or fear of familiar objects, paralysis of one limb, hemiplegia, imperfect control of the limbs, and usually a weak, intermittent pulse. In some cases the symptoms are analogous to those of apoplexy. The character of the symptoms depends upon the seat of the softening or abscess within the brain. CEREBRAL SCLEROSIS. This is a result of an inflammation in the structure of the brain affecting the connective tissues, which eventually become hypertro- phied and press upon nerve cells and fibers, causing their ultimate disappearance, leaving the parts hard and indurated. Sijmpfoms. — This condition gives rise to a progressive paralysis, and may extend along a certain bundle of fibers into the spinal cord. Complete paralysis almost invariably supervenes and causes death. PATHOLOGY OF ACUTE BRAIN AFFECTIONS. On making post mortem examinations of horses which have died in the first stages of either of those diseases, we will find an excessive engorgement of the capillaries and small blood-vessels, with corre- spondingly increased redn^ess and molecular changes in both contents and the walls of the vessels. If the death has occurred at a later period of the disease, in addition to the redness and engorgement we will find that an exudation of the contents of the blood-vessels into the tissues and upon the surfaces of the inflamed parts has super- vened. If the case has been one of encephalitis we will usually find more or less watery fluid in the ventricles (natural cavities in the brain), in the sub-arachnoid space, and a serous exudation between the convolutions and interstitial si^aces of the graj^ matter under the membranes of the brain. The amount of fluid varies in difl'erent cases. In some where the animal's l)lood was very plastic, exudations of a membranous character may be present and are found attached to the surface of the pia mater. In meningitis, especially in chronic cases, iii addition to the serous effusion, we find changes which may be regarded as characteristic in the formation of a delicate and highly vascular laj'er or layers of membrane or organized structure on the surface of the dura mater, and also indications of hemorrhages in connection with tlio mem- branous formations. Haematoma or blood tumors may be found embedded in this membrane. In some cases the hemorrhages are copious, causing paralysis or apoplexy, followed by sjjeedy death. 5961— HOR 7 194 In cerebritis, or inflammation of the interior of tlie brain, there is a tendency to softening and suppuration and the formation of abscesses. In some cases the abscesses are small and numerous, surrounded with a softened condition of the brain matter, and sometimes we may And one large abscess. In cases of recent development the walls of the abscesses are fringed and ragged and have no lining membrane. In older or chronic cases, the walls of the abscesses are generally lined with a strong membrane, often having the appearance of a sac or cyst, and the contents have a very ofl!ensive odor. Treatment. — In all acute attacks of inflammation involving the mem- branes or cerebral masses, it is the pressure from the distended and engorged blood-vessels, and the rapid accumulation of inflammatory products, that endanger the life of the animal in even the very early stage of the disease. The earlier the treatment is commenced to lessen the danger of fatal j^ressure from the engorged blood-vessels, the less amount of inflammatory j)roducts and efl'usion we have to contend with later on. The leading object then to be accomi)lished in the treatment of the first stages of encephalitis, meningitis, or cerebritis is to relieve the engorgement of the blood-vessels before a dangerous degree of effu- sion or exudation has taken i)lace, and thereby lessen the irritation or excitability of the affected structures. If we fully succeed in this stage in the accomplishment of this object, we certainly j^revent a second stage of the disease, and it will only be required to continue a treatment which will tend to lessen irritability to prevent a second engorgement from taking place. But if the attemiDt to relieve the engoi'gement in the first stage has been only partially successful, and the second stage with its inflammatory products and exudations, whether serous or iDlastic, has set in, then the main objects in further treatment are to keep up the strength of the animal and hasten tlie absorption of the exudative products as much as possible. To obtain these results, when the animal is found in the initial stage of the dis- ease, vrhere there is unnatural excitability or stupor Avith increase of temperature and quickened x^^ikse, Ave must rely upon the safest and quickest acting remedj" at hand, AA^hich is coitions bleeding from the jugular A'ein. Especially in acute meningitis, bleeding is imperatiA'cly demanded. The finger should l)e kept on the pulse, and the blood alloAA'ed to flow until there is a marked fluttering or softening of the pulse. As soon as the animal recoA^ers somewhat fi-om the shock of the bleeding, the folloAA'ing medicine shoidd be made into a ball or dissoh'ed in a pint of AA'arm Avater, and be given at one dose: Barba- does aloes, 7 drams; calomel, 2 drams; poAAclered ginger, 1 dram; tincture of aconite, 20 drops. The animal should be placed in a cool, dark place, as free from noise as possible, and cloths Avrung out of hot AA'ater jilaced upon his head. These should be reneAved frequently for at least twelve hours. "When the animal becomes thirsty half an ounce of saltxieter may be dissoh'ed 195 in his drinking water every six hours. Injections of warm water into the rectum may facilitate the action of tlie purgative. Norwood's tincture of veratrum viride, in 20-drop doses, should he given every hour, and 1 dram of solid extract of belladonna every four hours, until the symptoms become modified and the pulse regular and full. If this treatment fails to give relief tlie disease will pass into the advanced stages, or if the animal has heen neglected in the earh* stages the treatment must be supi)lanted with the hypodermic injection of ergotin, in 5-grain doses, dissolved in a dram of water, every six hours. The limbs may be i^oulticed above the fetlocks with mustard. Cold water or ice-bags should now take the place of the hot-water cloths on the head. Warm blanketing, to promote perspiration, is to be observed in all cases in which there is no excessive perspiration. If the disease becomes chronic — encephalitis or meningitis — we must place our reliance upon alteratives and tonics, with such incidental treatment as special symptoms may demand. Iodide of i)Otassium in 2-drani doses should be given twice a day, and 1 dram of calomel once a day, to induce absorption of effusions or thickened membranes. Tonics, in the form of iodide of iron in dram doses, to which is added 2 drams of powdered hydrastis, may also be given every six or eight hours, as soon as the active fever has abated. In all cases, after the disappearance of tlie acute symi)toms, blisters (cantharides ointment) should be applied behind the poll. . When paralytic effects remain after the disappearance of all other symptoms, sulphate of strychnia in 2-grain doses, in combination Avith the other tonics, may be given twice a day, and be continued until it produces muscular twitching. In some cases of paralysis, as of the lips or throat, benefit may be derived from the moderate use of the electric batter}-. Many of the recoveries will, however, under the most active and early treatment, be but partial, and in all cases the animals become predisposed to sub- sequent attacks. A long period of time should be allowed to pass before the animal is exposed to severe work or great heat. When the disease depends ui3on mechanical injuries the}" have to be treated and all causes of irritation to the brain removed. If it is due to stable miasma, unemic poisoning, pyaemia, influenza, rheumatism, toxic agents, etc., they should receive promjot attention for their removal or mitigation. Cerebral softening, abscess, or sclerosis, are practically inaccessible to treatment, otherwise than such relief as may be afforded by the administration of opiates and general tonics, and, in fact, the diag- nosis is largely presumptive. COXGESTIOX OF THE BRAIN — MEGRIMS. Congestion of the brain consists in an accumulation of blood in the vessels, also called hj^i^erpemia, or engorgement. It may be active or passiN'e — active when there is an undue determination of blood or 196 diminished arterial resistance, and passive when it accumulates in the vessels of the brain, owing to some obstacle to its return by the veins. Causes. — Active cerebral congestion may be due to hypertrophy of the left ventricle of the heart, excessive exertion, the influence of extreme heat, sudden and great excitement, artificial stimulants, etc. Passive congestion may be produced by any mechanical obstruction which prevents the proper return of blood through the veins to the heart, such as small or ill-fitting collar, which often impedes the blood current, tumors or absceSses pressing on the vein in its course, and organic lesions of the heart with regurgitation. Extremely fat animals with short thick necks are peculiarly subject to attacks of cerebral congestion. Simple congestion, however, is merely a functional affection, and in a slight or moderate degree involves no immediate danger. Extreme engorgement, on the con- trarj^ may be followed by rux)ture of previously weakened arteries and capillaries and cause immediate death, designated then as a stroke of apoplexy. Symptoms. — Congestion of the brain is usually sudden in its mani- festation and of short duration. The animal may stop very suddenly and shake his head or stand quietly braced on his legs, then stagger, make a plunge, and fall. The eyes *are staring, breathing hurried and stertorous, and the nostrils widely dilated. This may be followed by coma, violent convulsive movements, and death. Generally, how- ever, the animal gains relief in a short time, but he may remain weak and giddy for several days. If it is due to organic change of the heart or to disease of the blood-vessels in the brain, then the s^'mp- toms may be of slow development manifested by drowsiness, dimness or imperfect vision, dif&culty in voluntary movements, diminished sensibilitj'^ of the skin, loss of consciousness, delirium, and death. In milder cases effusion may take j^lace in the arachnoid spaces and ventricles of the brain followed by paralysis and other complications. Pathology. — In congestion of the brain the cerebral vessels are loaded with blood, and the venous sinuses distended to an extreme degree, and the pressure exerted upon the brain constitutes actual compression, giving rise to the symptoms just mentioned. On pos/- rnortein examinations this engorgement is found universal through- out the brain and its membranes, which serves to distinguisli it from inflammations of these structures, in Avhich tlie engorgements are confined more or less to circumscribed portions. A prolonged conges- tion may, however, lead to active inflammation, and in that case we will find serous and plastic exudations in the cavities of the brain. In addition to the intensely engorged condition of the vessels we find the gray matter of the brain redder in color than natural. In cases where several attacks have occurred the blood-vessels are often found permanently dilated. 197 Treaimenf. — Prompt removal of all meclianieal obstructions to the circulation. If it is due to venous obstruction by too tight a collar, the loosening of the collar will give immediate relief. If due to tumors or abscesses, a surgical operation becomes necessary to afford relief. To revive the animal if he become j)artially or totally uueon- cious cold water should be dashed on the head, and if this does not afford read}' relief recourse must be had to bleeding to lessen arterial tension. Tincture of veratrum viride or of aconite root may be given in twenty-droj) doses every hour until consciousness returns. If the limbs are-cold tincture of capsicum or strong mustard water should be applied to them. If symptoms of paralysis remain after two or three days, an active cathartic and iodide of potassa will be indicated, to be given as prescribed for inflammation of the brain. Preveniion. — "Well adjusted collar, with strap running from the collar to the girth, to hold down the collar when pulling \\\) grade; regular feed and exercise, without allowing the animal to become excessively' plethoric; moderate checking, allowing a free and easy movement of the head; well ventilated stabling, proper cleanliness, pure water, etc. SUNSTROKE — HEAT EXHAUSTIOX. The term sunstroke is applied to affections occasioned not exclu- sively by exiDOSure to the sun's rays, as the word signifies, but by the action of great heat combined generally Avith other causes, such as dryness and rarefaction of the air and an unusual accumulation of electricity. Exhaustion produced by a long continued heat is often the essential factor, and is called heat exhaustion. Horses on the race track undergoing protracted and severe work in hot weather often succumb to heat exhaustion. Draught horses exposed to the direct rays of the sun for many hours, which do not receive proper care in watering, feeding, rest in shady places, suffer very frequently from sunstroke. Symptons. — Sunstroke is manifested suddenly. The animal stops, drojDS his head, begins to stagger, and soon falls to the ground uncon- scious. The breathing is marked with great stertor, the pulse is very slow and irregular, cold sweats break out in patches on the surface of the body, and the animal often dies without recovering consciousness. In heat exhaustion the animal usually requires urging for some time previous to the appearance of any other sj'mptoms, generally per- spiration is checked, and then he becomes weak in his gait, the breath- ing hurried or i^anting, ej'es watery and bloodshot, nostrils dilated and highly reddened, assuming a dark, purple color; the pulse is rapid and weak, the heart bounding, followed by unconsciousness and death. If recovery takes place convalescence extends over a long period of time, during which incoordination of movement may persist. 198 Paihologij. — Sunstroke, virtually active congestion of the brain, often accompanied by effusion and blood extravasation, characterizes this condition, -with often rapid and fatal lowering of all the vital functions. The death vtviiy be due in many instances to the complete stagnation in the circulation of the brain, inducing ansemia or want of nourishment of that organ. In otber cases it may be directly due to the excessive compression of the nerve matter controlling the heart's action, and cause paralysis of that organ. Trecdmenf. — Under no circumstances is blood-letting permissible in sunstroke. Ice or ver}^ cold water should be ai)plied to the head and along the spine and half an ounce of carbonate of ammonia or G ounces of whisky should be given in a pint of water. Injections, per rectum, of moderately strong ginger tea or weak ammonia water may be used with benefit. Brisk friction of the limbs and the application of spirits of camphor often yield good results. The administration of the stimulants should be repeated in one hour if the pulse has not become stronger and slower. If the animal is suffering from heat exhaustion similar treatment may l.)e used, with the exception of cold to the head and spine, for in this case clothes wrung out in hot water s'lould be applied. In either case, when reaction has occurred prepara- tions of iron and general tonics may l)e given during convalescence: Sulphate of iron 1 dram, gentian 3 drams, red cinchona bark 2 drams; mix and giA'e in the feed morning and evening. Prevention . — In very hot weather horses sliould have wet sponges or light sun-shades on the head when at work, or the head may be si)onged Avith cold water as many times a daj' as j^ossible. Proper attention should be given to feeding and watering, never in excess. During the warm months all stables should be cool and well A'enti- lated, and if an animal is debilitated from exhaustive work or disease he should receive such treatment as will tend to build up the system. An animal which has been affected Avith sunstroke is \Qvy liable to have subsequent attacks when exj^osed to tlie necessary exciting causes. APOPLEXY — CEREBRAL HEMORRHAGE. Apoplexy is often confounded with cerebral congestion, but true apoplex}- always consists in rupture of cerebral blood-vessels, with blood extravasation and formation of blood clot. Causes. — Two causes are involved in the production of apoplexy, the 2n-e(lispos in (J -And \\\q exciting cause. The predisposing cause is degeneration or disease which weakens the blood-vessel, the exciting c;uise is any one which tends to induce cerebral congestion. Symptoms. — Apoplexy is characterized by a sudden loss of sensa- tion and motion, profound coma, and stertorous and difficult breath- ing. The action of the heart is little disturbed at first, but soon becomes sloAver, then quicker and feebler, and after a little time 199 ceases. If tlie rupture is one of a small artery and the extravasation limited, sudden paralysis of some part of the bod}^ is the result. The extent and location of the paralysis depend upon the location within the l)rain vdiich is functionally deranged hy the j)ressure of the extra vasated blood; hence these conditions are very variable. In the absence of any premonitory symptoms or an increase of tem- perature in the early stage of the attack we may be reasonably certain in making the distinction between this disease and congestion of the brain or sunstroke. Pailiology. — In apoi^lexy we are generally able to find an atherom- atous condition of the cerebral vessels with weakening and degener- ation of their walls. When a large artery has been ruptured it is usually followed by immediate death, and large rents may be found in the cerebrum, with great destruction of brain tissue, induced by the forcible j)ressure of the liberated blood. In small extravasations i^ro- ducing local paralysis without marked general disturbance, the animal may recover after a time; in such cases gradual absorption of the clot takes X)lace. In large clots atroijhj' of the brain substance may follow, or softening and abscess from want of nutrition may result, and render the animal worthless, ultimately resulting in death. Treatment. — Place the animal in a quiet, cool place, avoid all stimu- lating food. Administer, in his drinking water or feed, 2 drams of the iodide of potassa twice a day for several weeks if necessary. Medical interference Avith sedatives or stimulants is more apt to be harmful than of benefit, and blood-letting in an aj)oplectic fit is extremelj^ haz- ardous. From the fact that cerebral apoplexj'- is due to diseased or weakened blood-vessels, the animal remains subject to si:bsequent attacks. COMPRESSION OF THE BRAIX. Causes. — In injuries from direct violence a piece of broken bone may press uj)on the brain, and according to its size the brain is robbed of its normal space within the cranium. It may also be due to an extravasation of blood or to exudation in the subdural or arachnoid spaces. Death from active cerebral congestion results through com- pression. The occurrence may sometimes be traced to the direct cause, which will give assurance for the correct diagnosis. Symptoms. — Impairment of all the special senses and localized paralysis. All the sj'mptoms of lessened functional activity of the brain are manifested to some degree. The paral3^sis remains to be our guide for the location of the cause, for it will be found that the paralysis occurs on the opposite side of the bod}' from the location of the injurj^^ and the parts suffering paralysis will denote, to an expert veterinarian or physician, the part of the brain which is suffering compression. Treatment. — Trephining, hy a skillful operator, for the removal of the cause when due to depressed bone or the presence of foreign bodies. 200 When the symptoms of compression follow other acute diseases of the brain, apoplectic fits, etc., the treatment must be such as the exigen- cies of the case demands. CONCUSSION OP THE BRAIN. Causes. — This is generally caused ])y an animal falling over back- ward and striking his poll, or perhaps falling forward on his nose; by a blow on the head, etc. Symptoms. — Concussion of the brain is characterized b}' giddiness, stupor, insensibility, or loss of muscular power, succeeding immedi- ately upon a blow or severe injury involving the cranium. The ani- mal may r&Wj quickly, or not for hours; death may occur on the spot or after a few days. When there is onh^ slight concussion or stun- ning the animal soon recovers from the shock. When more severe, insensibility may be complete and continue for a considerable time; the animal lies as if in a deep sleep; the pupils are insensible to light; the pulse fluttering or feeble ; the surface of the body cold, muscles relaxed, and the breathing scarcely x>erceptible. After a variable interval partial recovery may take place, which is marked by paraly- sis of some parts of the body, often of a limb, the lips, ear, etc. Con- valescence is usually tedious, and frecxuently permanent impairment of some organs remains. Pathologi/. — Concussion produces laceration of the brain, or at least a jarring of the nervous elements, which if not sufficiently severe to produce sudden death may lead to softening or inflammation, with their respective symptoms of functional derangement. Treatment. — The first object in treatment will be to establish reac- tion or to arouse the feeble and weakening heart. This can often be accomplished by dashing cold water on the head and body of the ani- mal; frequent injections of weak ammonia water, ginger tea, or oil and turpentine should be given per rectum. In the majority of cases this will soon bring the horse to a state of consciousness. In more severe cases mustard i)oultices should be applied along the si^ine and above the fetlocks. As soon as the animal gains partial consciousness stimulants, in the form of whisky or capsicum tea, should be given. Owing to severity of the structural injury to the brain or the possible rupture of blood-vessels and blood extravasation, the reaction may often be followed by encephalitis or cerebritis, and will then have to be treated accordingly. For this reason the stimulants should not be administered too freely, and they must be abandoned as soon as reac- tion is established. There is no need for further treatment unless com- plications develop as a secondary result. Bleeding, which is so often practiced, proves almost invariably fatal in this form of brain affec- tion. We should also remember that it is never safe to drench a horse with large quantities of medicine when he is unconscious, for he is very liable to draw the medicine into the lungs in inspiration. 201 Prevention. — Young horses, wlien harnessed or bitted, for the first few times, should not have their heads checked up high, for it fre- quently causes them to rear up, and, being unable to control their balance, they are liable to fall over sideways or backwards, thus causing brain concussion when thej^ strike the ground. ANEMIA OF THE BRAIN. This is a physiological condition in sleep. Causes. — It is considered a disease or may give rise to disease when the circulation and blood supijly of the brain are interfered with. In some diseases of the heart the brain becomes ansemic, and fainting fits occur, with temjjorary loss of consciousness. Tumors growing within the cranium may i^ress upon one or more arteries and stop the supply of blood to certain i)arts of the brain, thus inducing anaemia, ultimately atrojihy, softening, or sujDpuration. Probably the most frequent cause is found in plugging or occlusion of the arteries by a blood-clot. Symptoms. — Imperfect vision, constantly dilated pupils, frequently a feeble and staggering gait, and occasionally cramps, convulsions, or epileptic fits occur. « Patliology. — The exact opposite of cerebral hyperaemia. The blood- vessels are found emj)ty, the membranes blanched, and the brain substance softened. Treatment. — Removal of the remote cause when i^ossible. General tonics, nutritious food, rest, and removal from all causes of nervous excitement. ATROPHY OF THE BRAIX. This condition is i)roduced by a fault in nutrition, embracing the causes which induce anaemia. Gradual absorj^tion and shrinking of brain substance maj^ arise from the constant and increasing pressure arising from the growth of tumors, degeneration in the arterial walls^ hydrocephalus, etc. Atrophy of the brain may be general or local- ized. The cerebrum may waste away in a remarkable degree before any indication of disease becomes manifest. Symptoms. — It maj^ give rise to viciousness, paralysis, disorders of special sensation, coma, etc. Treatment is of no avail. HYDROCEPHALUS — BRAIN DROPSY. This disease is most often seen in young foals and is manifested by an unnaturall}^ large forehead. The forehead bulges out, and the cranial bones may be separated from their connections, and a part of the brain be covered by the skin only. Foals seldom survive this affection, and treatment is useless. In horses hj-drocephalus is a result of chronic meningitis, when an efi'usion of serum is i)oured out 59G1 — HOR 7* 202 into the ventricles and arachnoid spaces of the brain. The disease is sometimes indicated by a difficulty in controlling voluntary move- ments, coma, etc. When effusion as a result of meningitis is sus- pected, iodide of potassa in 2-dram doses may be given twice a day and a strong blister applied l>ehind the ears. TUMORS WITHIN THE CRANIUM. Tumors within the cranial cavity and the brain occur not infre- quently, and give rise to a variety of symjitoms, imperfect control of voluntary movement, local paralysis, epilepsj', etc. Osseous tumors, growing from the walls of the cranium, are not ver3" uncommon. DenUgerous cysts, containing a formation identical to that of a tooth, growing from the temjioral bone, sometimes are found lying loose within the cranium. Tumors of the clioro'nl plexus, known as hruin sand, are frequentl}^ met with on post-mortem examinations, but seldom give rise to any appreciable symptoms during life. They are found in horses at all ages, and are of slow development. They are found in one or both of the lateral ventricles, enveloped in the folds of the choroid plexus. Melanotic tumors have been found in the brain and meninges in the form of small, black nodules, in gray horses, and in one instance arc believed to have induced the condition known as string-halt. Fibrous tumors may develop within or from the meningeal struc- tures of the brain. Oliomatous tumor is a variety of sarcoma very rarelj' found in the structure of the cerebellum. Treatment for tumors of the brain is beyond our ambition in the present age. SPASMS — CRAMPS. Causes. — Spasm is a marked symptom in many diseases of the brain and of the spinal cord. S^Dasms may result from irritation of the motor nerves as conductors, or maj^ result from irritation of any part of the sympathetic nervous system, and ih&y usually indicate an excessive action of the reflex-motor centers. Spasms maj' be induced by various medicinal agents given in iDoisonous doses, or by effete materials in the circulation, such as nux vomica or its alkaloid strychnia, lead preiaarations, or an excess of the urea products in the circulation, etc. Spasms ma}' be divided into two classes: tonic spasm, when tlie cramj) is continuous or results in persistent rigidity, as in tetanus; clonic spasm, wlicn the cramping is of short duration, or is alternated with relaxations. Cramps may be distinguished from choleraic movements by the extreme pain or suffering which they induce. Spasms may affect involuntary as well as the voluntary muscles, the muscles of the glottis, intestines, and even the heart. They are always sudden in their development. 203 SPASM OF THE GLOTTIS. This is manifested by a strangling respiration; a wheezing noise is produced in the act of inspiration; extreme anxiety and suffering for want of air. The head is extended, the body profusely perspir- ing; pulse verj' rapid; soon great exhaustion becomes manifest; the mucous membranes become turgid and very dark-colored, and the animal thus may suffocate in a short time. SPASM OF THE INTESTINES. (See "Cramp-colic") SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE BLADDER. This may be due to spinal irritation, or a reflex from intestinal irritation, and is manifested by frequent but ineffectual attempts to urinate. SPASM OF THE DIAPHRAGM — THUMPS. Spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm, the principal muscle used in respiration, is generally occasioned by extreme and jirolonged speed- ing on the race-track or road. The severe strain tlnis put upon this muscle finally induces irritation of the nerves controlling it, and the contractions become very forcible and violent, giving the jerking character known among horsemen as thumps. This condition may be distinguished from violent beating of the heart bj^ feeling the pulse beat at the angle of the jaw, and at the same time watching the jerking movement of the body, when it Avill be discovered that the two bear no relation to each other. (See " Palpitation of the Heart.") SPASM OP THE THIGH, OR CRAMP OF A HIND LIMB. This is frequently witnessed in horses that stand on sloping plank floors — generally in cold weather — or it may come on soon after severe exercise. It is probably due to an irritation of the nerves of the thigh. In cramps of the hind leg the limb becomes perfectly rigid, and attempts to flex the leg are unsuccessful ; the animal stands on the affected limb, but is unable to move it; it is unnaturally cold; it does not, however, appear to cause much suffering unless attempts are made to change position. This cramp may be of short duration — a few minutes — or it may persist for several days. This condition is often taken for a dislocation of tlie stifle-joint. In the latter the foot is extended backward, and the horse is unable to advance it, but drags the limb after him. An examination of the joint also reveals a change in form. Sjiasms may affect the eye-lids, by closure or by retraction. Spasm of the sterno-maxillaris muscle has been Avitnessed, and the animal was unable to close the jaws until the muscle became relaxed. Treatment. — An anodyne liniment, composed of chloroform 1 part and soap liniment 4 parts, api^lied to cramped muscles will usually cause relaxation. This may be used where single external muscles 204 are affected. In spasm of the glottis inhalation of suliDliuric ether will give cxuick relief. In spasm of the diaphragm, rest and the adminis- tration of half an ounce of chloroform in 3 ounces of whisky, with a pint of water added, will generally sufiice to bring relief, or if tliis fails give 5 grains of sulphate of morphia by hypodermic injection. If spasms result from organic disease of the nervous system, the latter should receive such treatment as its character demands. In cramp of the leg comi)ulsor3Mnovement usually causes relaxation very quickly; therefore, tlie animal should be led out of the stable and be forced to run or trot. Sudden nervous excitement, caused by a crack of the whip or smart blow, will often bring about immediate relief. Should this fail, the anodyne liniment may be used along the inside of the thigh, and chloroform, ether, or laudanum given internally. An ounce of the chloral hydrate will certainly relieve the spasm when given inter- nally, but the cranii) may return soon after the effect has passed off, which in many cases it does very quickly. ConvuIsio)}s. — Although there is no disease of the nervous system which can be pro^jerly termed convulsive, or justify the use of the word convulsion to indicate any particular disease, yet it is often such a prominent symiitom that a few words may not be out of place. Gen- eral, irregular muscular contractions of various parts of the body, with unconsciousness, characterize what we regard as convulsions, and like ordinary spasms are dependent upon some disease or irrita- tion of the nervous structures, chiefly of the brain. No treatment is required; in fact, a general convulsion must necessaril}^ be self-limited in its duration. Suspending, as it does, respiratory movements, check- ing the oxj'genation and decarbonization of the blood, the rapid accu- mulation of carbonic acid gas in the blood and the exclusion of oxygen quickly puts the blood in a condition to produce the most reliable and speedy sedative effect upon the nerve excitability that could be found, and consequently furnishes its own remedy, so far as the continuance of the convulsive paroxysm is concerned. Whatever treatment is instituted must be directed towards a removal of the cause of the con- vulsive paroxysm. CHOREA. Chorea is characterized by involuntary contractions of voluntary muscles. This disease is an obscure disorder, which may be due to pressure upon a nerve, cerebral sclerosis, small aneurisms in the brain, etc. Choreic symptoms have been produced by injecting granules of starch into the arteries entering the brain. Epilejisj^ and other forms of convulsions simulate chorea in appearance. Sfringhalt is by some termed chorea. This is manifested by a sud- den jerking-up of one or both hind legs when the animal is walking. This symi^ton may be very slight in some horses, but has a tendency to increase witli tlie age of the animal. In some the catching-up of the 205 affected leg is very violent, and when it is lowered to the ground the motion is equally sudden and forcible, striking the foot to the ground like a pile-driver. Very rarely chorea may be found to affect one of the fore legs, or the muscles of one side of the neck or the upper j)art of the neck. Involuntary jerking of the muscles of the hip or thigh is seen occasionallj^, and is termed shivering by horsemen. Chorea is often associated with a nervous disposition, and is not so frequent in animals with a sluggish temperament. The involuntary muscular contractions cause no pain, and do not appear to produce much exhaustion of the affected muscles, although the jerking may be regular and persistent whenever the animal is in motion. Treatment. — In a few cases, early in the appearance of this affection, general nerve tonics may be of benefit, viz., iodide of iron, 1 dram; pulverized nux vomica, 1 dram; pulverized Scutellaria, 1 ounce. Mix, and give in the feed once a day for two weeks. If the cause is con- nected with organic brain lesions treatment is usually unsuccessful, EPILEPSY — FALLING FITS. The cause of epilepsy is seldom traceable to any special brain lesions. In a few cases it accompanies disease of the pituitary bodj', which is located in the under surface of the brain. Softening of the brain may give rise to this affection. Attacks may occur only once or twice a year, or they may be of frequent recurrence. Synqjtoms. — No premonitory symptoms precede an epileptic fit. The animal suddenly staggers; the muscles become cramped; the jaws may be spasmodically oi^ened and closed, and the tongue become lacerated between the teeth; he foams at the mouth and falls down in a spasm. The urine flows away involuntarily, and the breath- ing may be temporarily arrested. The paroxysm soon passes off, and the animal gets on his feet in a few minutes after the return of con- sciousness. Treatment. — Dashing cold water on the head during the paroxysm. After the recovery 1 dram of oxide of zinc may be given in his feed twice a day for several weeks, or benefit may be derived from the tonic prescribed for chorea. COMA — SLEEPY STAGGERS. This condition, like that of spasm and convulsion, is generally not a disease, but merely a symptom manifested as a result of a variety of brain affections, such as atrophj-, chronic meningitis, with effusion, tumors in the lateral ventricles, etc. Another form of coma is that which accompanies acute diseases of the brain, wherein the animal may be unconscious, with sterterous breathing, difficult respiration, etc. We meet, however, with a type of coma in horses whicli can not easily be attributed to any special disease of the brain, unless it be a modified form of congestion, which is sometimes ameimble to treat- 206 ment. This condition is termed immobiUte by the French, and sleepy staggers \>j our stablemen. It is usually attributed to habitual over- loading of the stomach with bulky food and want of exercise. Sijinptoms. — Sleepy staggers is characterized by drowsiness, partial insensibilit3% sluggish and often staggering gait. The animal is inclined to drop his head in the manger and to go to sleep with a wad of hay in his mouth, which he is apt to drop when he awakens. He will stand for a long time Avith his legs placed in an}^ awkward j)osi- tion in Avhich the owner may choose to put them. The bowels are constipated, the pulse slow and soft, with no fever or pain, Tho ani- mal may remain in this condition for many months without much variation of S3'mi:)toms, or he may become entirely comotose, with delirium or convulsions, and die. Chronic cases are always much better in cold weather than in the summer. Treatment. — Moderate bleeding from the jugular vein, 1 gallon from a medium-sized horse, and 1^ or 2 gallons from a very large, heavy horse. This should be immediately followed by a cathartic, com^josed of aloes G drams, croton oil G drops, and 1 dram of capsicum, to be made into a ball with hard soap, molasses, or Ijread soaked in water, and given on an empty stomach. After tho cathartic has ceased to oi^erate give one large tablespoonful or half an ounce of the following mixture tAvice a day: Pulverized hydrastis, pulverized ginger, sodium bicarbonate, of each 4 ounces; mix. In some cases iodide of j)otassa in dram doses twice a day, alter- nated each week with 1 dram of calomel twice a day, Avill prove suc- cessful. In cases where there is a deeji coma or almost continuous unconsciousness, ice bags or cold-water cloths vshould be applied to the head — between the ears, dropping well down over the forehead and extending backward from the ears for 4 or 5 inches. PARALYSIS — PALSY. Paral3"sis is a weakness or cessation of the muscular contraction, \>y diminution of loss of the conducting j)ower or stimulation of the motor nerves. Paralytic affections are of two kinds, the perfect and the imi)erfect. The former includes those in Avhich both motion and sen- sibility are affected; the latter those in Avhicli only one or the other is lost or diminished. Paralysis may be general or partial. The latter is diA'ided into hemiplegia and paraplegia. When only a small por- tion of the body is affected, as the face, a limb, the tail, it is desig- nated 'by the term local paralysis. When the irritation extends from the periphery to the center it is termed reflex paralysis. Causes. — They are very A^aried. Most of tlie acute affections of the brain and spinal cord vasky lead to paralysis. Injuries, tumors, disease of the blood-vessels of tho brain, etc., all haA^e a tendency to produce suspension of the conducting motive power to the muscular structures. Pressure upon, or the severing of, a nerA^e causes a paralysis of the 207 parts to AvhicTi such a nerve is distril)iited. Apoplexj' may be termed a general i)aralysis, and in non-fatal attacks is a frequent cause of the various forms of palsy. GENERAT. PARALYSIS, This can not take place without i)roduciug immediate death. The term is, however, usuallj' applied to paralysis of the four extremities, whether any other portions of the body are involved or not. This form of palsy is due to comT)ression of the brain bj- congestion of its vessels, large clot formation in apoplexj-, concussion or shock, or any disease in which the whole brain structure is involved in functional disturbance. HEMIPLEGIA — PARALYSIS OF ONE SIDE OR HALF OF THE BODY. Hemiplegia is frequently the result of a tumor in the lateral ventri- cles of the brain, softening of one hemisiDhere of the cerebrum, pres- sure from extravasated blood, fracture of the cranium, or it may be due to jjoisons in the blood, or to reflex origin. When hemiplegia is due to or the result of a prior disease of the brain, especially of an inflammatory character, it is seldom complete; it may only affect one limb and one side of the head, neck, or muscles along the back, and may pass off in a few days after the disappearance of all the other evidences of the i^rimarj^ affection. In the majority of cases, how- ever, hemii^legia arises from emboli obstructing one or more blood- vessels of the brain, or the rupture of some vessel the wall of Avhich had become weakened by degeneration and the extravasation of blood. Sensibility in most cases is not impaired, but in some there is a loss of sensibility as well as of motion. In some cases the bladder and rectum are involved in the paralysis. Sijinptoins. — In hemiplegia the attack ma}* be verj' sudden, and the animal fall down powerless to move one side of the body; one side of the lips will be relaxed; the tongue may hang out on one side of the moutlv; the tail curved around sidewaj's; an inability to swallow food or water may be present, and often the urine dribbles away as fast as it collects in the bladder. Sensibility of the affected side may ])e entirely lost or only partial; the limbs may be cold, and sometimes unnaturally warm. In cases wherein the attack is not so severe the animal may be able to maintain the standing position, but will have great difiiculty in moving tlie affected side. In such cases the animal may recover from the disability. In the more severe, where there is complete loss of the power of movement, recoveries are rare. PARAPLEGIA — TRANSVERSE PARALYSIS OP THE HIXD EXTREMITIES. Paralysis of the hind extremities is usually due to some injury, or inflammation affecting the spinal cord. (See "Spinal Meningitis" and " 313-elitis. "') It nuiy also be due to a reflex irritation from disease 208 of peripheral nerves, to spinal irritation or congestion caused b}^ blood poisons, etc. Sijmptoins. — When due to mechanical injury of the spinal cord, from a broken back or spinal hemorrhage, it is generally progressive in its character, although it may be sudden. When it is caused by agents in the blood it may be intermittent or recurrent. Paraplegia is not difficult to recognize, for it is characterized by a weakness and imperfect control of the hind legs, and jjowerless tail. The urine usually dribbles away as it is formed and the manure is pushed out, ball l)y ball, witliout any voluntary effort, or the passages may cease entirely. When paraplegia is complete, large and ill-con- ditioned sores soon form on the hips and thighs from chafing and bruising, Avhicli have a tendency to quickly weaken the animal and necessitate his destruction. LOCOMOTOR ATAXIA — INCOORDINATION OF MOVEMENT. This is characterized by an inability to properly control the move- ment of the limbs. The animal a^ipears usually perfectly health^'', l)ut when he is led out of his stall his legs have a wabbly movement, and he will stumble or stagger, especially in turning. When this is confined to the hind parts it maj^ be termed a modified form of i)ara- plegia, but often it may be seen to affect nearly all the voluntary muscles Avhen they are called into play, and must be attributed to some pressure exerted on the base of the brain. LOCAL PARALYSIS. This is frequently met with in horses. It may affect many parts of the body, even vital organs, and it is very frequently overlooked in diagnosis. FACIA.L PARALYSIS. ^'his is a frequent type of local paralj-sis, and is due to impairment of function of the motor nerve of the facial muscles, the x>ortio dura. The cause may exist at the base of the brain, compression along its course after it leaves the medulla oblongata, or to a bruise after it spreads out on the great masseter muscle. Symptoms. — A flaccid condition of the cheek muscles, pendulous lips, inability to gi'asp the food, often a sIoav and weak movement in chewing, and difficulty and slowness in drinking. LARYNGISMUS PARALYTICUS — ROARING. This condition is characterized by roaring, and is usually caused bj an inflamed or hypertrophied bronchial gland i)ressing against the left recurrent laryngeal nerve, which interferes Avith its conducting power. A similar condition is occasionally induced in acute pleurisy, where the recurrent nerve becomes involved in the diseased process or compressed by plastic exudation. 209 PARALYSIS OF THE RECTUM AND TAIL. This is generally the result of a blow or fall on the rump, which causes a fracture of the sacrum bone and injury to the nerves supply- ing the tail and part of the rectum and muscles belonging thereto. This fracture would not be suspected, were it not for the loss of motion of the tail. INTESTINAL PARALYSIS. Characterized by persistent constipation; frequently the strongest purgatives have no effect whatever on the movement of the boAvels. In tlie absence of symptoms of indigestion, or special diseases impli- cating the intestinal canal, torpor of the bowels must be attributed to deficient innervation. This condition may depend upon brain affec- tions, or be due to reflex ijaralysis. Sudden checks of i)erspiration may induce excessive action of the bowels or paralysis. PARALYSIS OF THE BLADDER. This usually affects the neck of the bladder, and is characterized by incontinence of urine — the urine dribbles away as fast as it is secreted. The cause may be of reflex origin, disease of the rectum, tumors growing within the pelvic cavity, injury to the spinal cord, etc. PARALY'SIS OF THE OPTIC NERVE^AMAUROSIS. A paralysis of eyesight may occur very suddenlj- from rupture of a blood vessel in the brain, acute local congestion of the brain, the admin- istration of excessive doses of belladonna or its alkaloid atropia, etc. Sijyn2:)toms. — In amaurosis the jDupil is dilated to its full extent, the eye looks clear, but does not respond to light. Paralysis of hearing, of the external ear, of the eyelid, partial paral- ysis of the heart and organs of respiration, of the blood vessels from injury to the vaso motor nerves of the oesophagus, or loss of degluti- tion, palsy of the stomach, all may be manifested when the supply of nervous influence is impaired or suspended. Treatment. — In all paralytic affections there maj' be anesthesia or impairment of sensibility in addition to the loss of motion, or there may be liyperc£stliesia or increased sensibility in connection with the loss of motion. These conditions may call for sj^ecial treatment in addition to that for loss of motion. Where hypera^sthesia is well marked local anodynes may be needed to relieve suffering. Chloro- form liniment or hypodermic injections of from 3 to 5 grains of sul- phate of morphia will allay local pain. If there is marked anaesthesia or loss of sensibility it may become necessary to secure the animal in such a way that he can not suffer serious injury from accidents which he can not avoid or feel. In the treatment of any form of paralysis 210 ■\ve iiinst always refer to the cause, and attempt its removal if it can be discovered. In eases where the cause can not be determined we have to rely solely upon a general external and internal treatment Externally, fly-blisters or strong irritant liniments may be applied to the paralyzed parts. In hemiplegia they should be applied along the bony part of the side of the neck; in paraplegia, across the loins. In some cases hot- water cloths will be benellcial. Internally, it is well to administer 1 dram of j^owdered nux vomica or 2 grains of sulphate of strychnia tv, ice a day until twitching of some of the voluntary muscles occur; then discontinue it for several daj'S, and then com- mence again with a smaller dose, gradually increasing it until twitch- ing recurs. In some cases Fowler's solution of arsenic in teaspoonful doses twice a day, in the drinking water, proves beneficial. Occasion- ally benefit may be derived from the application of the electric cur- rent, especially in eases of roaring, facial paralysis, paralysis of the eyelid, etc. Nutritious but not too bulky food, good ventilation, clean stabling, moderate exercise if the animal is capable of taking it, good grooming, etc., should be observed in all cases. SPINAL MENINGITIS — INFLAMMATION OF THE MEMBRANES ENVELOPING THE SPINAL CORD. Causes. — This may be induced by the irritant properties of blood- poisons, exhaustion, and exposure, spinal concussion, all forms of injui'}' to the spine, tumors, caries of the vertebrae, rheumatism, etc. Sijnqytoms. — A chill may be the i^recursor, a rise in temperature, or a general weakness and shifting of the legs. Soon a painful, convul- sive twitching of the muscles sets in, followed by muscular rigidity along the spine, in which condition the animal will move very stiffly and evince great pain in turning. Evidences of paralj'sis or paraplegia develop, retention or incontinence of urine, and oftentimes sexual excitement is present. The i)resence of marked fever at the begin- ning of the attack, associated with spinal sjinptoms, should lead us to suspect spinal meningitis or mj^elitis. These two conditions usually appear together, or myelitis follows inflammation of the meninges so closely that it is almost imi)ossible to separate the two; practically it does not matter much, for the treatment will be about the same in both cases. Spinal meningitis generalh' becomes chronic, and is then marked principallyby paralysis of that portion, or parts of it, posterior to the seat of the disease. Pathology. — In spinal meningitis we will find essentially the same condition as in cerebral meningitis; there will be an effusion of serum between the membranes, and often a plastic exudation firmly adherent to the 2^ict mater serves to maintain a state of paralysis for a long time after the acute symptoms have disappeared bj^ compressing the cord. Finally, atrophy, softening, and even abscess may develop Avithinthe cord. Unlike in man, it is usually found localized in horses. 211 ■1 Trecdmeni. — Bags filled Avitli ice slioiild be api)lied aloiiu' the spine, to be followed later ou by strong blisters. The fever should be con- trolled as early as possible by giving 20 drops of Norwood's tincture of veratrum viride every hour, iiutil the desired result is obtained. One dram of the fluid extract of belladonna, to control pain and Avascular excitement of the spinal cord, may be given everj^ five or six hours imtil the puiDils of the eyes become pretty well dilated. If the pain is very intense 5 grains of sulphate of morphia should be injected hyijodermically. The animal must be kept as free from excitement as x)ossible. If the urine is retained in the bladder it must be drawn off every four or six hours. In very acute attacks the disease gener- ally proves fatal in a few daj's. If, however, the animal grows better some form of paralysis is ax)t to remain for a long time and the treat- ment will have to be directed then toward a removal of the exudative products and a strengthening of the system and stimulation of the nervous functions. To induce absorption iodide of potassa in 2 dram doses may be given dissolved in the drinking water twice a day. To strengthen the system, iodide of iron 1 dram twice a day and 1 dram of nux vomica once a day \r\ixj be given in the feed. Electricity to the j)aral3'zed and weakened muscles is advisable; the current should be Aveak, but be continued for half an hour two or three times daily. If the disease is due to a broken back, caries of the vertebrse, or some other irremediable cause, the anim;il should ])e destroyed at once. MYELITIS — INFLAMMATION OF THE SUBSTANCE OF THE SPINAL COED. This is a rare disease, except as a secondary result of spinal menin- gitis or injuries to the spine. Poisoning, by lead, arsenic, mercury, phosphorus, carbonic-acid gas, etc., has been known to produce it. Myelitis may be confined to a small sj^ot in the cord or may involve the whole for a variable distance. It may lead to softening, abscess, or degeneration. Symptoms. — The attack may begin with a chill ov convulsions; the muscles twitch or become cramped very early in the disease, and the bladder usually is affected in the outset, in which there may be either retention or incontinence of urine. These conditions are followed by complete or partial paralysis of the muscles posterior to the locality of the inflamed cord, and the muscles begin to waste away rapidly. The paralyzed limb becomes cold and dry, due to the suspension of proper circulation; the joints may swell and become (edematous; A'esic- ular eruptions appear on the skin, and frequently gangrenous sloughs form on the paralyzed i^arts. It is exceedingly seldom that recovery takes i)lace. In a few instances it may assume a chronic type, when all the symptoms become mitigated, and thus continue foi- some time nntil septicaemia, pj^semia, or exhaustion causes death. Pathology. — The inflammation maj^ involve nearly the whole length of the cord, but generally it is more intense in some places tlian others; 212 when due to mechanical injury the inflammation may remain con- fined to a small section. The cord is swollen and congested, reddened, often softened and infiltrated with pus cells, and the nerve elements are degenerated. Treatment. — Similar to that of spinal meningitis. SPINAL SCLEROSIS. This is the sequence of myelitis, when some mild form of the disease has been existing. Thickening and hardening of the interstitial tis- sues of the cord, the result of inflammatory products, constitute scle- rosis. The affected section has a gray appearance, is firmer than the surrounding tissue, sometimes j)resents a depressed surface and at other times may be elevated above the general level of the cord. Symptoms. — Paralysis of sensation or motion in local muscles, and when located in the region of the neck may present the symptoms of locomotor ataxia or inco-ordination of movement. Spinal sclerosis may be suspected when these symptoms succeed an attack of myelitis. Treatment. — The iodide of iron may be given in dram doses twice a day for a week, alternating with two-grain doses of sulphate of strychnia twice a day for a Aveek. SPINAL CONGESTION AND SPINAL HYPERJEMIA. The distinction between congestion and hyperjemia is one of degree rather than kind. In both we find an excess of blood. In hypersemia the current is unusually rapid, in congestion it is unusually slow. The distinction between hypersemia and inflammation is also difficult to make; one is only the forerunner of the other. As the blood ves- sels of the pia mater are the x)rincipal source of supply to the spinal cord, hyperemia of the cord and of the meninges usually go together. The symptoms are, therefore, closely allied to those of spinal menin- gitis and mj^elitis. When the pia mater is diseased the spinal cord is almost invariably affected also. Cause. — Sudden checking of the perspiration, violent exercise, blows, and falls. Symptoms. — The symptoms may vary somewhat with each case, and closely resemble the first symptoms of spinal meningitis, spinal tumors, and myelitis. First, some disturbance in movement, lower- ing of the temperature, and partial loss of sensibility i:)Osterior to the seat of the congestion. If in the cervical region it may cause inter- ference in breathing and the action of the heart. When in the region of the loins there may be loss of control of the bladder. When the congestion is sufficient to produce compression of the cord, paraplegia may be complete. Usually fever, spasms, muscular twitching, or muscular rigidity arc absent, which will serve to distinguish spinal congestion from spinal meningitis. 213 Treatment. — Hot-water applications to tlie spine, one-dram doses' fluid extract of belladonna repeated every four hours, and tincture of aconite root 20 drops every hour until the symptoms become amelio- rated. If no inflammatory products occur the animal is likely to recover. SPINAL ANEMIA. This may be caused by extreme cold, exhausting diseases, spinal embolism or plugging of a spinal blood-vessel, an interference with the circulation through the abdominal aorta, from compression, throm- bosis, or aneurism of that vessel; tlie spinal vessels may be caused to contract through vaso-motor influence, a result of ijeripheral irritation of some nerve. Symptoms. — Spinal anaemia causes paralysis of the muscles iised in extending the limbs. When the bladder is affected it precedes the weakness of motion, while in spinal congestion it follows, and increased sensibility, in place of diminished sensibility, as in si)inal congestion, is observed. Pressure along the spine causes excessive pain. Trecdrnent. — If the exciting cause can be removed the animal recovers; if this fails, the spinal cord may undergo softening. SPINAL COMPRESSION. When caused by tumors or otherwise when pressure is slight, it produces a paral3'Sis of the muscles used in extending a limb and con- traction of those which flex it. When compression is great it causes comiDlete loss of sensibility and motion posterior to the compressed part of the cord. Compression of a lateral half of the cord produces motor paralysis, disturbance in the circulation, and difficulty of movement, an increased sensibility on the side corres]3onding to the compressed section, and a diminished sensibility and some paralysis on the opposite side. Treatment. — When it occurs as a sequence of a j) receding inflam- matory disease, iodide of potassa and general tonics are indicated. When due to tumors growing Avithin the spinal canal, or to pressure from displaced bone, no form of treatment will result in any benefit. SPINAL HEMORRHAGE. This may occur from changes in the wall of the blood-vessels, in connection with tumors, acute myelitis, traumatic injuries, etc. The blood may escape througli the pia mater into the sub-arachnoid cav- ity, and large clots be formed. Symptoms. — The s^nnptoms are largely dependent upon the seat and extent of the hemorrhage, as they are principally due to the compression of the cord. A large clot may j)rqduce sudden ijarajilegia accompanied by severe pain along the spine; usually, however, the paralysis of both motion and sensation is not very marked at first; 214 on the second or thij-tl day fever is apt to appear, and increased or diminislied sensibility along the spine posterior to the seat of tlie clot. "When the bladder and rectum are involved in the synqitonis it indicates that the spinal cord is compressed. Treaimerd. — In the occurrence of injuries to the back of ahorse, whenever there is any evidence of paralysis, it is always advisable to apply bags of ice along the spine to check or prevent hemorrhage or congestion, and 2 drams of the fluid extract of ergot and 20 drops of tincture of digitalis may be given every hour until three doses have been taken. Subsequently tincture of belladonna in half-ounce doses may be given three times a day. If there is much x^ain, 5 grains of sulphate of morphia, injected under the skin, Avill atford relief and lessen the excitability of the animal. In all cases the animal should be kept perfectly quiet. SPINAL CONCUSSION. This is rarely observed in the horse, and unless it is sufficiently severe to produce Avell-marked symptoms it would not be suspected. It may occur in saddle-horses from jumping, or it may l>e produced by falling over an embankment, or a violent fall upon the haunches may produce it. Concussion may be followed by partial paralysis or spinal hemorrhage; generally, however, it is confined to a jarring and some disturbance of the nerve elements of the cord, and the paralytic effect which ensues soon passes off. Treatmeut consists in rest nntil the animal has comx>letely recovered from the shock. If secondary effects folloAv from hemorrhage, or comx^ression, they have to be treated as heretofore directed. SPINAL TUMORS. AVithin the substance of the chord glioma, or the mixed giiosarco- mata, is found to be the most frequent, tumors may form from the meninges and the vertebrae, being of a fibrous or bony nature, and affect the sx)inal cord indirectly by comx>i'ession. In tlie meninges Ave may find glioma, cancers, x^sammoma, fibromata; and aneurisms of the spinal arteries have been discoA'ered in the spinal canal. Sympfoms. — Tumors of the spinal canal cause symptoms of spinal irritation, or compression of the cord. The gradual and slow devel- opment of synn)toms of x^aralysis of one or both hind limbs or certain muscles may lead to a susx^iciou of sx^inal tumors. The iiaralj'sis induced is progressive, but not usually marked Avith atrophy of the muscles, or increased sensibility along the spine. When the tumor is Avithin the spinal cord itself all the symptoms of myelitis may be present. Treafmenf. — General tonics and dram doses of nux vomica may be given; iodide of iron or.iodide of potassa in dram doses, three times a day in feed, may, in a very fcAA^ cases, give some temx^orary benefit. Usually the disease progresses steadily until it proves fatal. 215 NEURITIS — INFLAMMATION OF A NERVE. This is caused by a bruise or wound of a nerve, or to strangulation in a ligature when it is included in the ligation of an artery. The changes in an inflamed nerve are an enlargement, reddening of the nerve sheath, spots of extravasated blood, and sometimes an infiltra- tion of serum mixed with pus. Sijinptoms. — Acute pain of the parts supplied by the nerve, an absence of swelling or increased heat of the i)art. Treatment. — Hypodermic injections of from 3 to 5 grains of morphia to i-elieve pain, hot fomentations, and rest. If it is due to an inclusion of a ligature, the nerve should be divided above and l)elow the ligature. NEUROMA — TUMOR OF A NERVE. Neuroma may be from enlargement of the end of a divided nerve, or due to fibrous degeneration of a nerve which lias been bruised or wounded. Its most frequent occurrence is found after the operation of neurotomy for foot lameness, and it may appear only after the lapse of months, or even years. Neuroma usually develops within the sheath of the nerve with or without imi^licating the nerve fibers. They are oval, running lengthwise with the direction of the nerve. Symptoms. — Pain of the affected limb or jiart is manifested, more especially after resting awhile, and when i^ressure is made upon the tumor it causes extreme suffering. Treatment. — Excision of the tumor, including part of the nerve above and below, and then treat it like any other simi)le wound. IN.JURY TO NERVES. These may consist in wounding, bruising, laceration, stretching, compression, etc. The symptoms which are produced Avill dejiend upon the extent, seat, and character of the injury. Recovery may quickly take x>lace, or it may lead to neuritis, neuroma, or spinal or cerebral irritation, which may result in tetanus, paralysis, and other serious derangements. In all diseases, whether x>roduced by some form of external violence or intrinsic causes, the nerves are neces- sarilj' involved, and sometimes it is to a primaiy injury of them that the principal fault in movement or change of nutrition of a part is due. It is often difficult or imj)ossible to discover that an injury to a nerve has been inflicted, but whenever this is possible it may enable us to remedy that which otherwise would result in permanent evil. Treatment should consist in relieving compression, in hot fomenta- tions, the application of anodyne liniments, excision of the injured part, and rest. CEREBRO-SPINAL MENINGITIS. I'his may occur sporadically as an encephalitis, with implications of the spinal cord and its meninges. Usually, however, it appears as 216 an enzooty in a stable, city, or farming district, not infrequently extending long distances in certain well-defined lines, along rivers, valleys, or along ridges and mountains. For this reason the enzootic cerebro-spinal meningitis has been attributed b}^ some veterinarians to atmosj)heric influences. The first written history we have of this disease was published about thirty years ago by Dr. Isaiah Michener, of Carnersville, Pa., in a x)amphlet entitled "Paralysis of the Par- Vagum." Several years later Prof. A. Large, of Brooklyn, N. Y., gave it the name of " cerebro-spinal meningitis" on account of its simi- larity to that disease in the human family. Dr. J. C. Michener, of Colmar, Pa., in 1882, suggested the name of "Fungosus Toxicum Paralyticus," in view of the exciting cause being found in foods undergoing fermentation. In England a similar disease has been called "grass staggers," due to eating rye grass when it is ripening or when it is cut and eaten while it is heating and undergoing fer- mentation. In eastern Pennsylvania it was formerly known by the name of "putrid sore throat" and "choking distemper." A disease similar in many respects, which is very prevalent in Virginia, espe- cially along the eastern border, is commonly known by the name of "blind staggers," and in many of the Southern States this has been attributed to the consumption of worm-eaten corn. Professor Large attributed the cause of the disease to a lack of sanitary conditions, poisonous gases, or emanations depending upon defective sewerage in cities, defective drainage on lands in the country, and deficient stable ventilation. These reputed causes, however, are inadequate to account for so- called enzootic or ei)idemic cerebro-spinal meningitis. It frequently proves as fatal on the hills and table-lands of Hunterdon County, N. J., Bucks, Montgomery, Lehigh, and Northampton Counties, Pa., as it does in the dark, damp, illy ventilated stables in New York or Phila- delphia. It attacks animals which have been running at pasture, where drainage has been perfect, as well as animals which have been stabled and kept on dry food, regardless of variation in any appreci- able sanitary condition. It affects horses of all ages and both sexes; temperament or condition does not alter their susceptibility. Mules are attacked as well au horses, and the mortality is equally as great. There is, however, a variable severity of symptoms and degree of fatality in different outbreaks. That there is some specific cause which induces this disease is cer- tain, for it is neither contagious nor infectious. Personally, I believe the cause is connected with the food, either developed in it through some fermentative process or upon it in the form of one of the many parasitic fungi which grow on plants, grains, and vegetation. That these, when they are consumed at certain stages of their development, make a poisonous impression upon the brain and ultimately induce structural changes is shown, I think, by the history of the outbreaks 217 wherever they can be traced. In many instances the outbreak of the disease has been simultaneonsly witnessed where brewers' grains, oats, and hay have been fed, which could be traced from place to place, from one diseased center to another. That they were the carriers, if not the ]3rime factors, can not be denied. Syinptoms. — The symptoms which typify sporadic or ei)idemic cerebro-spinal meningitis in man are seldom witnessed in equal dis- tinctness among horses, viz: excessive j)ain, high fever, and earl}^ muscular rigidity'. In the recognition of the severity of the attack we may divide the symptoms into three grades. In the most rapidly fatal attacks, the animal may first indicate it by weak, staggering gait, partial or total inability to swallow solids or liquids, impairment of eyesight ; twitching of the uTUScles, and slight cramps may be observed. This is soon followed by a paralysis of the whole body, inability to stand, delirium in which the animal sometimes goes through a series of automatic movements as if trotting or running; the delirium may become very violent and the animal in his unconsciousness bruise his head in his struggles very seriously, but usually a deep coma renders him quiet until he expires. Death in these cases usuall}' takes place in from four to twentj^-four hours from the time the first symptoms became manifest. The pulse is variable during the progress of the disease; it may be almost imperceptible at times, and then again ver}' rapid and irregular; the resj)irations generally are quick and catching. When attacked in this rai)idly fatal form we maj' be able only to distinguish it from encephalitis when other animals in the same stable or neighborhood are similarly affected. In the next form in which it may develop, it first becomes manifest by a difficulty in swallowing and slowness in mastication, and a weakness which may be first noticed in the strength of the tail; the animal will be unable to switch it or to offer resistance when we bend it up over the croup. The pulse is often a little slower than normal. There is no evidence of pain; the respirations are unchanged, and the temperature little less than normal; the bowels may be somewhat constii^ated. These symptoms may remain unchanged for two or three days and then grad- ual improvement take place, or the power to swallow may become entirely lost and the weakness and uncertainty in gait more and more perceijtible; then sleepiness or coma may appear; the pulse becomes depressed, slow and weak, the breathing stertorous, and paroxysms of delirium develop, with inability to stand, and some rigidity of the sijinal muscles or partial cramp of the neck and jaws. In such cases death may occur in from six to ten days from the commencement of the attack. In many cases there is no evidence of i^ain, spasm, or fever at any time during the progress of the disease, and finally profound coma develops and death follows, painless and without a struggle. In the last or mildest form, the inability of voluntary control of the limbs becomes but slightly marked, the power of swallo^^ing never 218 entirely lost, and the animal lias no fever, pain, or nneonscions move- ments. Generally the animal v.ill hegin to improve ahont llie fonrth day and recover. In a few eases the spinal symptoms, manifested hy pai-aplet;ia, may be the most prominent symptoms; in others the}' may he altogether absent and the main sj'mptonis be difficnlty in mastication and swal- lowing; rarely it maj" affect one limb only. In all cases where coma remains absent for six or seven daj^s the animal is likely to recover. When changes toward recovery take place, the symptoms nsually leave in the reverse order in which they develoi^ed, bnt local paral3'sis may remain for some time, rarelj^ persistent. One attack does not give immnnity, for it may recur at some later time and prove fatal. Horses have been known to i)ass through three attacks, being aifected for a week or longer each time. Treaimenf. — In the worst class of cases treatment is very seldom successful, and it is dangerous to attemi^t the administration of medi- cine by the mouth, on account of the inability of the animal to swal- low. Cold shower baths may i)ossibly induce reviilsive action in connection with stimulants per rectum, 4 to G ounces of whiskj^ in 2 pints of milk; the inhalation of ammonia vapor from a sponge saturated with dilute acxua ammonia may arouse consciousness. In the second class of cases the treatment recommended by Professor Large consists in giving a cathartic composed of 1 ounce of aloes and the administration of 1 to 2 drams of the solid extract of belladonna, alternated eveiy three hours with 30 drops of tincture of aconite root, and the aiDplication of blisters to the neck, spine, and tliroat. When the animal is unable to swallow, one-fourth-grain doses of sulphate of atroj)ia may be injected nnder the skin every four, six, or eight hours, as the case may demand. The atropia is a heart stimulant, increases capillar}^ circulation, and quiets pain and excitability. This treat- ment has been followed by very gratifying results in the hands of Pro- fessor Large and others. When the most prominent symptoms abate give such food as they may be able to eat, keep fresh, cool water con- stantly lief ore them, support them in slings if necessary ; clean stabling and plenty of fresh air are of the utmost importance. Paihohxjij. — Post mortem examination reveals more or less conges- tion of the blood vessels at the base of the brain, effusion in the ventricles and in the subarachnoid space both in the cranial and the spinal cavities. Plastic exudation is often found adherent to the pia mater of the brain, anterior part of the spinal cord, and in the region of the loins. The brain and cord appear softened in some cases wiiere the greatest evidence of inflammatory action existed. Hygienic measures neeilfuJ. — Whenever this disease ajipears in a stable all the animals should be removed as soon as possible. They should be provided with clean, well-A^entilated, and well-drained stables, and each animal should receive 1 dram of the extract or half 219 an ounce of the tincture of belladonna twice a day for .scxt'iiil days. The abandoned stable should be thoroughly cleansed from all waste matters, receive a coat of whitewash containing 4 ounces of carbolic acid to the gallon, and should have time to drj^ thoroughly before the horses are replaced. A complete change of food is of the very great- est importance, on account of the belief lliat llie cause resides in diseased grain, hay, and grass. TETANUS — LOCK-JAW. Tills disease is characterized by si)asms affecting the muscles of the face, neck, body, and limbs, of all the muscles supplied by the cerebro- spinal nerves. The spasms or muscular contractions are rigid and persistent, yet mixed with occasional more intense contractions of convulsive violence. Causes. — The causes are classified under two heads, traumatic Avhere it is the result of injury, and kliopatliic where it is due to other causes than injuries, such as cold and damp, excessive fright, nervous exhaustion from overwork, chronic irritation caused by worms in the intestines, etc. In the majority of instances the cause of tetanus can be traced to wounds, especially pricks or wounds of the feet or of tendinous structures. It sometimes follows castration, docking, the introduction of setons, inclusion of a nerve in a ligature, etc. It may come on a long time after the wound is healed, three or four months. In some countries where tetanus appears to be enzootic the presump- tion is that it is due to a specific germ. Horses with a nervous, excit- able disposition are more jiredisposed than those of a more sluggish nature. Stallions are more subject to develop tetanus as tlie result of wounds than geldings, and geldings more than mares. Sijnrptoins. — The attacks may be acute or subacute. In an acute attack the animal usually dies within four daj's. The first symptoms which attract the attention of the owner is difficulty in chcAving and swallowing, an extension of the head and i^rotrusion over the inner part of the ej^e of the membrana nictitans or haw. An examination of the mouth will reveal an inability to open the jaws to their full extent, and the endeavor to do so w ill produce great nervous excita- bility and increased sjDasm of tlie muscles of the jaw and neck. The muscles of the neck and along the spine become rigid and the legs are moved in a stitf manner. The slightest noise or disturbance throws the animal into inci-eased spasm of all the affected muscles. Tlie tail is usually elevated and held immovable; the bowels become constipated early in tlie attack. The temperature and pulse are not much changed. These sjniiptoms in the acute type l)ec()me rapidly aggravated until all the muscles are rigid — in a stale of tonic si^asm — with a continuous tremor running through them ; a cold jDcrspiration breaks out on the body; the breathing l)ecomes painful from the 220 spasm of the muscles used in respiration; the jaws are completely set, ej'e-balls retracted, lij)s drawn tightly over the teeth, nostrils dilated, and the animal presents a picture of the most extreme agony until death relieves him. The pulse, which at first was not much affected, Avill become quick and hard, or small and thready when the spasm affects the muscles of the heart. In the subacute cases the jaws may never become entirely locked ; the nervous excitability and rig- idity of muscles are not so great. There is, however, always some stiffness of the neck or spine manifest in turning; the haw is turned over the eye-ball when the nose is elevated. It is not uncommon for owners to continue such animals at their work for several days after the first symptoms have been observed. All the symptoms may grad- ually increase in severity for a period of ten daj^s, and then gradually diminish under judicious treatment, or they may reach the stage wherein all the characters of acute tetanus become developed. In some cases, however, we find the muscular cramps almost solely con- fined to the head or face, perhaps involving those of the neck. In such cases Ave have complete trismus — lock-jaw — and all the head symptoms are acutely developed. On the contrary, we may find the head almost exempt in some cases, and have the body and limbs perfectly rigid and incapable of movement without falling. Tetanus may possibly be confounded with spinal meningitis, but the character of the spasm-locked jaw, retraction of the ej^eballs, the difficulty in swallowing due to sjDasms of the muscles of the pharynx, and, above all, the absence of paralysis, should serve to make the distinction. Treatment. — The animal should be placed in a box-stall without bedding, as far away as possible from other horses. If in a country district, the animal should be put into an outbuilding or shed, where the noise of other animals will not reach him; if the place is moder- ately dark it is all the better; in fly time he should be covered with a light sheet. The attendant must be very careful and quiet about liim, to prevent all unnecessary excitement and increase of spasm. A cathartic, composed of Barbadoes aloes, G to 8 drams, with which may be mixed 2 drams of the solid extract of belladonna, should be given at once. This is best given in a ball form; if, however, the animal is greatly excited by the attempt or can not swalloAv, the ball may be disolved in 2 ounces of olive oil and thrown on the back of the tongue with a syringe. If the jaw^s are set, or nearly so, an attempt to administer medicine by the mouth should not be made. In such cases one-quarter of a grain of atropia, with 5 grains of sulphate of morjjhia, should be dissolved in 1 dram of pure water and injected under the skin. This should be repeated sufficiently often to keep the animal continually under its effect. This will usually mitigate the severity of the spasmodic contraction of the affected muscles and lessen sensibility to pain. Good results may be obtained 221 sometimes b}' the injection per rectum of tlie fluid extract of bella- donna and of cannabis indica, of eacli 1 dram, every four or six hours. This may be diluted "vvitli a quart of milk. "When the animal is unable to swallow liquids, oat-meal gruel and milk should be given by injection per rectum to sustain the strengtli of the animal. A pailful of cool water should be constantly before him, placed high enough for him to reach it without sj)ecial effort; even if he can not drink, the laving of the mouth is refreshing. Excellent success fre- quently may be obtained by clothing the upper i^art of the head, the neck, and greater part of the body in woolen blankets kept saturated with very warm water. This treatment should be continued for six or eight hours at a time. It often relaxes the cramped muscles and gives tliem rest and the animal almost entire freedom from pain; but it should be used every day until the acute spasms have permanently subsided in order to be of any lasting benefit. If the cause is due to the inclusion of a nerve in a ligature, the division of the nerve becomes necessary. When it is due to a wound all foreign substances should be searched for and be removed; if from a wound which has healed an excision of the cicatrix may be bene- ficial. In all cases it is not uncommon to have a partial recovery fol- lowed by relapse when the animal becomes excited from any cause. RABIES — HYDROPHOBIA — MADNESS. This disease does not arise spontaneouslj- among horses, but is tlie result of a bite from a rabid animal — generally a dog or cat. The development of the disease follows the bite in from three weeks to three months — very rarely in twelve or fourteen days. Symptoms. — The first manifestation of the development of this dis- ease maybe an increased excitability and viciousness; very slight noises or the approach of a person incites the animal to kick, strike, or bite at any object near him. Very often the horse will l)itc his own limbs or sides, lacerating the flesh and tearing the skin. The eyes appear staring, bloodshot ; the ears are on the alert to catch all sounds; tlie head is held erect. In some cases the animal will continually rub and bite the locality of the wound inflicted by the rabid animal. This symptom may precede all others. Generally the bowels become con- stipated and he makes frequent attempts at urination, which is pain- ful and the urine very dark colored. The furious symptoms appear in paroxysms; at other times the animal may eat and drink, altliough swallowing appears to become painful towards the latter stage of the disease, and may cause renewed paroxysms. The muscles of the limbs or back may be subject to intermittent spasms, or spasmodic tremors; finally the hind limbs become paralyzed, breathing very diflicult, and convulsions supervene, followed by death. The pulse and respirations are increased in frequency from the outset of the attack. Rabies may possibly be mistaken for tetanus. In the latter 222 disease we fliid tonic spasms of the iinisclesof the jaws, or stiffness of tlie neck or back very early in the attack, and evidence of viciousness is absent. Treatment. — As soon as the true nature of the disease is ascertained the animal should be killed. Prevention. — When a horse is known to have been bitten by a rabid animal immediate cauterization of the wound with a red-hot iron may possibly destroy the virus before absorption of it takes place. PLUMBISM — LEAD-POISONING. This disease is not of frequent occurrence. It may be due to habitu- ally drinking water which has been standing in leaden conductors or in old i)aint barrels, etc. It has been met with in enzootic form near smelting Avorks, where, by the fumes arising from such works, lead in the form of oxide, carbonate, or sulphate was deposited on the grass and herbage which the horses ate. SijiniJioms. — Lead-poisoning produces derangement of the functions of digestion and locomotion, or it may affect the lungs principally. In whatever system of organs the lead is deposited mostly there will we have the symptoms of nervous debilit}^ most manifest. If in tlie lungs the breathing becomes difficult and the animal gets out of breath A'cry quickly when he is compelled to run. Roaring also is very fre- quently a symptom of lead-poisoning. When it affects the stomach the animal gradually falls away in flesh, the hair becomes rougli, the skin tight, and colicky symptoms develoj). When the deposit is prin- cipally' in the muscles i^artial or comj)lete paralysis gradually develops. When large quantities of lead have been taken in and absorbed, symp- toms resembling epilepsy may result, or coma and delirium develop and prove fatal. In lead-poisoning there is seldom any increase in temperature. A blue line forms along the gums of the front teeth, and the breath assumes a peculiar offensive odor. Lead can always be detected in the urine b}' chemical tests. Treatment. — The administration of 2-dram doses of iodide of potassa, three times a day. This will form iodide of lead in the system, which is rapidl}^ excreted by the kidneys. If much muscular weakness or parah'sis is present, sulj)hate of iron in dram doses, and strychnia in 2-grain doses may be given twice a day. In all cases of suspected lead-poisoning all utensils which have entered into the suj)ply of feed or water should be examined for the jjresence of soluble lead. If it occurs near lead works great care must be given to the supply of uncontaminatcd fodder, etc. UR.EMIA. Urremic poisoning may affect the brain in nephritis, acute albumi- nuria, or when, from any cause, the functions of the kidnej^s become impaired or suppressed and urea (a natural product) is no longer w 223 eliminated from these organs, causlno- it to aeeumulale in the system and give rise to urajmic poisoning, SymiJtoms. — Urtemic i^oisoning is usually preeeded by dropsy of the limbs or abdomen; a peculiar fetid breath is often noticed; then drowsiness, attacks of diarrhea, and general debility ensue. Sud- denly extreme stupor or coma develops; the surface of the body becomes cold; the pupils are insensible to light; the pulse slow and intermitting; the breathing labored, and death supervenes. The tem- perature throughout the disease is seldom increased, unless the dis- ease becomes complicated with acute inflammatory disease of the brain or respiratory organs, which often occur as a result of the urea in the circulation. Albumen and tube casts may frequently be found in the urine. The disease almost invariably pioves fatal. Treatment. — This must be directed to a removal of the cause. (See "Diseases of the Kidney.") ELECTRIC SHOCK. Electric shock, from coming in contact with electric wires, is becom- ing a matter of rather frequent occurrence, and has a similar effect upon the animal system to a shock from lightning. Two degrees of electric or lightning shock maybe observed, one producing temporar}^ contraction of muscles and insensibility, from which recovery is pos- sible, the other killing directly, by producing a condition of nervous and general insensibility-. In shocks which are not immediately fatal the animal is usuallj^ insensible, the respiration slow, labored or gasp- ing, the pulse slow, feeble, and irregular, and the pupils dilated and not sensitive, or they may be contracted and sensitive. The temper- ature is lowered. There maybe a tendencj-to convulsions or spasms. The predominating symptoms are extreme cardiac and respiratoiy depression. Treatment. — Sulphate of atropia should be given hypodermicallyin one-quarter-grain doses every hour or two hours until the heart beats are invigorated, the number and fullness of the respirations increased, and consciousness returns. Stimulating injections per rectum may also be useful in arousing the circulation; for this purpose whisky or ammonia water mav be used. DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS. By M. R. TRUMBOWER, V. S., Sterling, 111. REMARKS ON THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS. The heart is a hollow, involuntary, muscular organ, situated as nearly as possible in the center of the chest, though its impulse is felt on the left side from the rotary movement of the organ in action. It is cone-shai)ed, with the base upwards; the apex points downwards, backwards, and to the left side. It extends from about the third to the sixth ribs inclusive. The average weight is about Gw pounds. In liorses used for speed the heart is relatively larger, according to the weight of the animal, than in horses used for slow work. It is sus- pended from the spine by the large blood-vessels, and held in position beloAV by the attachment of the pericardium to the sternum. It is inclosed in a sac, the pericardium, wliich is composed of a dense, fibrous membrane, lined by a delicate serous membrane, which is reflected over the heart; the inner layer is firmlj^ adherent to the heart, the outer to the fibrous sac, and there is an intervening space known as the pericardial space, in which a small amount of serum — a thin translucent liquid — is present constantly. The heart is divided by a shallow fissure into a right and left side; each of tliese is again subdivided by a transverse partition into two compartments, which communicate. Thus there are four cardiac cavities, the superior or upper ones called the auricles, the inferior or lower ones the ventricles. These divisions are marked on the outside by grooves, which contain the cardiac blood-vessels, and are gener- ally filled with fat. The right side of the heart may be called the venous, the left the arterial side, named from the kind of blood which passes through them. The auricles are thin-walled cavities placed at the base, and are connected with the great veins, the vena cav?e and pulmonary veins, through which they receive blood from all parts of the body. The auricles communicate with the ventricles each by a large aperture, the aitriculo-venfricvlar orifice, which is furnished with a remarkable 59(31 — HOR 8 225 226 meehanisiu of Aalves, allowiiig tlie transmission of l)lood from the auricles into the ventricles, l3nt pi-eventing a reverse course. The ventricles are thiek-walled cavities, forming the more massive portion of the heart tov.ards tlie apex. Thej' are separated by a iiartition, and are connected with the great arteries, the pulmonary artery and the aorta, b}' which they send blood to all parts of the body. At the mouth of tlie aorta and at the mouth of the j)iilMionary artery is an arrangement of valves in each case which prevents the reflux of blood into the ventricles. The auriculo-ventricular valves in the left side are comi)osed of two flaps, hence it is called the bicuspid valve.. In the right side this valve has three flaps, and is called the tricuspid valve. The flaps which form these valves are connected with a tendi- nous ring between the auricles and ventricles; and each flap of the auriculo-ventricular valves is supplied with tendinous cords, which are attached to the free margin and under surface, so as to keep the valves tense when closed ; a condition which is produced by the short- ening of muscular pillars with which the cords are connected. The arterial openings, both on the right and on the left side, are i^ro- A'ided with three-flapped semi-lunar shaped valves, to prevent the regurgitation of blood when the ventricles contract. The veins emp- tying into tlie auricles are not capable of closure, liut the iiosterior vena cava has an imperfect valve at its aperture. The inner surface of the heart is lined by a serous membrane, the endocardium, which is smooth and firmly adherent to the muscular structure of the heart. This membrane is continuous with the lining membrane of the blood vessels, and it enters into the formation of the valves. The circulation through the heart is as follows: The venous blood is carried into the right auricle by the anterior and posterior ven?B cavpp. It then passes through the right auriculo-ventricular opening into the right ventricle, thence through the iiulmonary artery to the lungs. It returns by the pulmonary veins to the left auricle, then is forced through the auriculo-ventricular opening into the left ventricle, which propels it through the aorta and its b]*anclies into the system, the veins returning it again to the heart. The circulation, therefore, is double, the pulmonary or lesser being performed by the right, and the systemic or greater by the left side. As the lilood is forced through the heart by forcible contractions of its muscular walls it has the action of a force pump, and gives the impulse at each beat, which we call the pulse — the dilatation of the arteries throughout the system. The contraction of the auricles is quickly followed by that of the ventricles, and then a slight pause occurs; this takes place in regular rythmical order during health. The action of the heart is governed and maintained by the pneumo- gastric nerve (tenth pair of cranial nerves); it is the inhibitory nerve of the heart, and regulates, slows, and governs its action. When the 227 nerve is cut the lieart-boats increase rapidly, and in fact tlie organ works without control. When the nerve is unduly irritated the hold- back or inhibitory I'orce is increased, and the heart slows nj) in the same measure. The left cavities of the heart, the i)ulmonar3- veins, and the aorta or systemic artery, contain red or florid blood, fit to circulate through the body. The right cavities of the heart, with the vena? cava» or systemic veins and pulmonary arterj-, contain dark blood, which must be transmitted through the lungs for renovation. The arteries, commencing in two great trunks, the aorta and the pulmonary artery, undergo division as in the l)ranching of a tree. Their branches mostly come off at acute angles, and are commonly of uniform diameter in each case, but successively diminish after and in consequence of division, and in this manner gradually merge into the capillar}- system of blood-vessels. As a general rule, the combined area of the branches is greater than that of the vessels from which they emanate, and hence the collective capacity of the arterial sj's- tem is greatest at the capillary vessels. The same rule applies to the veins. The'effect of the division of the arteries is to make the blood move more slowly along their branches to the capillary vessels, and the effect of the union of the branches of the veins is to accelerate the speed of the blood as it i-et urns from the capillary vessels to the venous trunks. In the smaller vessels a frequent riuining together or anastomosis occurs. This admits of a free communication between the currents of blood, and must tend to j^romote equability of distribution and of Ijressure, and to obviate the effects of local interruption. The arte- ries are highly elastic, being extensile and retractile both in length and breadth. During life they are also contractile, being jn-ovided with muscular tissue. When cut across they present, although empty, an open orifice; the veins, on the other hand, collapse. In most parts of the body the arteries are inclosed in a sheath formed of connective tissue, but are connected so loosely that when the vessel is cut across its ends readily- retract some distance within the sheath. Independently of this sheath arteries are usuallj^ de- scribed as being formed of three coats, named, from their i-elative positions, external, middle, and internal. This applies to their struc- ture so far as it is discernible bj-tlie naked eye. The internal, serous or tunica intima is the thinnest, and continuous with the lining mem- brane of the heart. It is made up of two layers, an inner, consisting of a layer of epithelial scales, and an outer, transparent, whitish, highly elastic, and perforated. The middle coat, tunica media, is elastic, dense, and of a yellow color, consisting of non-striated muscuhir and elastic fibers, thickest in the largest arteries and becoming thinner in the smaller. In tlie smallest vessels it is almost entirely muscular. The external coat, tunica adventitia, is composed mainly of fine and closely woven bundles of white connective tissue, which chiefly run 228 diagonally or obliquely round the vessel. In this coat the nutrient vessels, the vasa vasorum, form a capillary net-work, from which a few penetrate as far as the muscular coat. The veins differ from arteries in possessing thinner walls, less elas- tic and muscular tissue, and for the most part a stronger tunica adven- titia. Thej^ collapse when cut across or Avhen they are empty. The majority of A^eins are provided with A^alves; these are folds of the lin- ing membrane, strengthened by fibrous tissue. They favor the course of the blood and jirevent its reflux. The nerves which supply both the arteries and the veins come from the sympathetic system. The smaller arteries terminate in the system of minute vessels, known as the capillaries, which are interjjosed between the termination of the arteries and the commencement of the veins. Their average diame- ter is about one three-thousandth of an inch. SOUNDS OF THE HEART. By placing the ear behind the elbow against the left side of the chest two distinct sounds can be heard at each heart-b<*at in health. The first is rather mufiled and prolonged, the second is short and sudden. The first is caused by the contraction of the A^entricles, the closing of the auriculo-ventricular valves, and the forcible propulsion of the blood into the arteries; the second follows immediately, and is due to the reflux of the blood just forced into the arteries, and the sudden closure of the valves Avhich prevent its return to the heart. In disease of the heart or valves these sounds are generally modified, or supplanted by others, which vary so much in character and are so difficult to describe that we can not consider them here; long and extensive experience is required to distinguish them i:>ractically. CHARACTERS OF THE PULSE. The circulation of the blood through the heart is constant, and is maintained by the propelling activitj^ of this organ. In the horse the heart beats from thirty-six to forty-six times a minute, varying with the disposition, breed, and temperament of the animal. In the foal the pulse is about three times as rapid as in the adult, from six months to a year about twice as quick, and in the two-year-old about one- quarter faster. The pulse is usually taken at the angle of the jaw, where the artery crosses the bone, and its force or character is often indicative of the nature of the disease from which an animal may be suffering. The jiulse, therefore, is named in accordance with its char- acter as slow, soft, small, full, weak, quick, hard, irregular, intermit- tent, venous, etc. Slow pulse is one where the number of beats is less than normal, and is often found in certain diseases of the brain. Soft or cornpressihJe pidse is one Avhere the beat is rather weak, but not abnornuilly rapid. It is often found in debility due to want of 229 assimilation or proper nourishment. Wlien accompanied with fever or loss of api>etite it is usually indicative of derangement of the digestive organs. S)tudl jiidse is one where the sensation conveyed to the finger is one of lessened diameter of the artery; it may be normal in frequency or slightly increased. Generall}" due to exhaustion from work or disease. Full or strong 2^ ^(^•'ic is one which imparts a bounding sensation as if from over-distension of the artery at each heart-beat. It is usually increased in frequency. This character may be felt immediately succeeding fast work, or in very plethoric horses when slightly excited. Often it may indicate a general systemic disturbance or disease of the lungs. TFeaA; ov feehJe pulse is one which is hardly i:>erceptible. This may indicate organic disease of the heart, or denote general weakness from loss of blood, prolonged sickness, starvation, etc. Quick OY frequent puJse is one where the heart-beats are more rapid than normal, without an}^ special change in its character. It is found in the early stage of nearly all inflammatory diseases. Hard or wiry pulse is one which is tense, incompressible, or vibrat- ing, and is always increased in frequency. It usually denotes acute disease of serous membranes, such as pleuritic, peritonitis, menin- gitis, etc. Irregular pulse is one in which several pulsations follow in quick succession and then a pause ensues. This may indicate disease of the heart, or of the nervous system, sometimes observed in lingering, exhausting diseases. Intermitient pulse is one where a beat is lost at regular intervals. This is almost invariabl}^ an indication of disease of the heart. Venous xndse may be seen along the side of the neck in the jugular furrow, and has the appearance of blood regurgitating in the vein at each beat of the heart. It usually denotes disease of the heart, or an obstruction to the flow of blood within the chest, from the pres- sure of a tumor, dropsy, etc. DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS. In considering diseases of the heart we meet with many difficulties, depending much upon the position which this organ occupies in the animal. The shoulders cover so much of the anterior portion of the chest, and often in very heavy muscled horses the chest walls are so thick, that a satisfactory examination of the heart cannot be made. Diseases of the heai*t are not uncommon among horses; the heart and its membranes are frequently involved in diseases of the respiratory organs, diseases of the kidnej^s, rheumatism, influenza, etc. Some of the diseases of this organ are never suspected by the ordinary observer during life, and are so difficult to diagnose with any degree 230 of certainty that we Avill liave to confine ourselves to a general out- line, giving attention to such symptoms as may serve to lead to a knowledge of their existence, with directions for treatment, care, etc. Nervous affections often i^roduce prominent heart sj'mptoms by causing functional disturbance of that organ, Avhich, if removed, will leave the heart restored to perfect vigor and normal action. Organic changes involving the heart or valves, however, usually grow worse and eventually prove fatal. Therefore it is necessary that we arriA-e at an appreciation of the true nature and causes, so that we may be able to form a true estimate of the possibilities for recovery or encouragement for medical treatment. Disease of the heart may occur at any age, but it is Avitnessed most frequently in young horses, which, when being trained for fast work, are often subjected to excessiA^e hardship and fatigue. NerA'ous or timid animals also suffer from such diseases more frequently than those of a sluggish disposition. Anj^ cause Avliich induces a Aiolent or sudden change in the circulation may result in injury to the heart. Sj-mptoms Avhich may frequently denote disease of the heart are dif- ficult breathing or short-windedness, dropsies of the limbs, habitual coldness of the extremities, giddiness or fainting attacks, inability to stand Avork althougli tlie general appearance Avould indicate strength and ability, etc. INFLAMMATORY DISEASES OF THE HEART. This Avill embrace myocarditis, endocarditis, and pericarditis. MYOCARDITIS — INFLAMMATION OF THE MUSCULAR STRUCTURE OF THE HEART. This is of rare occurrence Avithout imi)lication of the endocardium or pericardium. That inflammation of the muscular Avails of the heart may frequently exist to some slight degree, induced by excessive action, can not be doubted. Post-moriem examinations occasionally reveal abscess and degeneration within the Avails of this organ, Avhich were not suspected during life. Myocarditis primarily involves the inter- stitial muscular tissue and the blood vessels, and presents itself in a sub-acute or chronic type, AAdiich often leads to induration or hyper- trophy, occasionally to the formation of pus and abscess. It may also lead to a dilatation of the heart and rupture. Causes. — Over-exertion or heart strain, influenza, rheumatism, pyae- mia, extension of endocarditis or pericarditis, etc. Myocarditis usu- ally involves the endocardial membrane very early in the attack, and develops all the symptoms of endocarditis. Hence Ave Avill con- sider, as most distinctive of inflammation of the heart, endocarditis. ENDOCARDITIS— INFLAMMATION OF THE LINING BIEMBRANE OF THE HEART, USUALLY INVOLA^NG THE MUSCULAR STRUCTURE, It is frequently found in gcnei-al rheumatism, iuA^olving the serous membrane, some of the specific or zymotic fevers, septic poisoning, etc. 231 Endocarditis is a nineli luoro frequent disease among- horses than we are generally' aware, and often gives rise to sj'mptons which, at first, are obscure and unnoticed. Ihave witnessed two enzoiiticsof influenza in which 20 per cent of the animals attacked develoiied symptoms of either endocarditis or pericarditis. A certain number of these cases subsequently developed the condition knowji as heaves, or gradually failed in strength, with recurrence of attacks of heart failure upon the slightest exertion, rendering main* of them valueless. In the rheumatic type of influenza we may often find the heart becoming involved in the disease, in consequence of the morbid material conveyed through the heart in the blood-stream. In view of the fact that many affec- tions, in even remote portions of the body, may be traced directly to a primary endocardial disease, we shall feel justified in inviting special attention to this disease. Endocarditis ma}' be acute or assume various degrees of severity. In acute inflammation we find a thickening and a roughened appear- ance of the endocardium througliout the cavities of the heart. This condition is soon followed by a coagulation of fibrine uijon the inflamed surface, which adheres to it, and by attrition soon becomes worked up into shreddy-like granular elevations; this may lead to the formation of librinous clots in the heart and sudden death early in the disease, the second or third day. This acute type of the disease, however, does not always affect the whole interior of the heart, but is often conflned to one ventricle or may be in patches; it may extend through the ven- tricle into the aorta or the i^ulmonary vein; it may affect the valves princii)ally, which are composed of but little else than the endocardium folded U2:»on itself. In acute endocarditis we invariablj' will find myocarditis develop corresponding to the same space, which in intensity may produce seri- ous results through the destruction of functional ability or lead to weakness, abscess, or rupture. Immediately upon the swelling of this membrane we will find an abnormal action and abnormal sounds of the heart. Subacute endocarditis, which is the most common form we meet, may not l^eeome ai)preciable for several days after its commencement. It is characterized b}' being confined to one or more anatomical divi- sions of the heart, and all the successive morbid changes follow each other in a comparatively slow process. Often we would not be led to suspect heart affection were it not for the distress in breathing, which it generally occasions when the animal is exercised, especially if the valves are much involved. When the disease extends into the arte- ries, atheromatous dei^osits usuallj' develop; when the inflammation is severe at the origin of the tendinous cords they maj^ become softened and ruptured. AYlien much fibrinous coagula or cellular vegetations form upon the inflamed membi-ane, either in minute shreds or patches, or when formation of fibrinous clots occurs in the cavity affected, some 232 of tliese materials may "be carried from tlie cavity of the heart by the blood-current into remote organs, constituting emboli that are liable to suddenly plug vessels and thereby interrupt important functions. In the great majority of either acute or subacute grades of endocar- ditis, whatever the exciting cause, the most alarming symptoms dis- appear in a week or ten days, often leaving, however, such changes in the interior lining or valvular structures as to cause impairment in the circulation for a much longer period of time. These changes usu- ally consist of thickening or induration of the inflamed structures. But while the eifects of the inflammation in the membrane lining the walls of the ventricles may subside to such a degree as to cause little or no inconvenience, or even wholly disappear, yet after the valvular structures have been involved, causing them to be thicker, less flexible than normal, they usuall}^ remain, obstructing the free passage of the blood through the openings of the heart, thereby inducing secondary changes which take place slowly at first, but ultimately seriously impair the animal's usefulness. AVhat was but a slight obstruction to the circulation during the first few weeks after the subsidence of the cardiac inflammatory attack becomes in process of time so much increased as to induce increased growth in the muscular structure of the heart, constituting hypertrophy of the walls of the ventricles, more particularly of the left, with corresponding fullness of the left auricle and i^ulmonary veins, thereby producing fullness of the capillaries in the lungs, pressure uj)on the air cells, difficult or asthmatic breath- ing— greatly increased in attemjits to work — until in a few months many of these cases become entirely disabled for work. Sometimes, too, droi)sieal effusions in the limbs or into the cavities of the body result from the irregular and deficient circulation. Derangement of the urinary secretion, with passive congestion of the kidneys, may also appear. Endocardial inflammation is seldom fatal in its early stages, but in many cases the recovery is incomplete, for a large proportion are left with some permanent thickening of the valves, which constitutes the beginning of A^alvular disease. Symptoms. — As already stated, myocarditis is seldom recognized until pericarditis or endocarditis supervenes. Staggering gait with j)ainful movement of the fore-limbs, a constant irregularity of the heart's action, but equality of strength regardless of the rapidity of the heart-beats, constitutute perhaps the most prominent sj^mptoms which characterize myocarditis. When the disease is associated with rheumatism, influenza, or other zymotic diseases, these symx^tomsmay not be sufficiently well defined to attract the attention they deserve, and medical treatment prescribed for the mitigation of such disease often serves to aggravate the cardiac affection. In chronic myocar- ditis we generally find a persistent i^alpitation with irregularity of beat, which, upon exercise, becomes greatly intensified. Change in 233 the sounds of the heart does not occur unless x)ericarditis, endocarditis, or disease of the valves is associated with myocarditis. When it leads to hypertroj)hy we may find an abnormally increased area of dullness on j)ercussion. In endocarditis, when the attack is sudden and severe, we may find many of the symptoms which characterize pericarditis and pleuritis, but a close examination will reveal notable differences. Endocarditis may be ushered in by a chill, with sudden and marked rise in temperature. The pulse rapidly decreases in strength or may become irregular, while the heart beats more or less tumultuously. In the early stages soft blowing sounds may be heard Ijy placing the ear over the heart on the left side, which correspond in number and rhythm to the heart's action. Excessive pain, though not so great as in acute pleuritis, is manifested when the animal is compelled to trot; very often difficulty in breathing — shortness of breath — on the slight- est exertion develops early in the attack. AVhen the valves are involved in the inflammatory j)rocess the visible mucous membranes become either very pale or verj^ dark colored, and fainting may occur when the head is suddenly elevated. When the valves of the right side are affected we may have a regurgitant pulsation in the jugular vein. In some cases we find marked lameness of the left shoulder, and when the animal is turned short to the left side he may groan with pain, and the heart's action become violently excited, although pres- sure against the chest-wall will not produce pain unless roughly applied. The animal is not disposed to eat or drink much; the sur- face of the body and legs are cold — rarely excessively hot — and fre- quently the body of the animal is in a subdued tremor. In nearly all cases there is i)artial suj^pression of the urinary secretion. The S3'mp- toms may continue with verj^ little modification for three or four daj's, sometimes seven days, without any marked changes. If fibrinous clots form in the heart the change will be sudden and quickly prove fatal unless iliey become loosened and are carried awaj^ in the circu- lation; then apoplexy may result from the plugging of arteries too small to give further transmission. If the animal manifests symp- toms of improvement, the changes usually are slow and steady until he feels apparentlj^ as well as ever, eats well, and moves freely in his stall or 5'ard. When ho is taken out, however, the seeming strength often proves deceptive, as he may quickly weaken if urged into a fast gait, the breathing become quickened with a double flank movement as in heaves, and all the former symjitoms reappear in a modified degree. An examination at this stage may reveal valvular insufiici- enc}', cardiac hypertrophy, or pulmonary engorgement. In fatal cases of endocarditis death often occurs about the fourth day, from the formation of heart clot or too great embarrassment of the circulation. Endocarditis may be suspected in all cases where 59G1— HOR 8* 234 plain symptoinsof cardiac affection are manifested in animals affected with influenza, rheumatism, or any disease in wliicli the blood may convey septic matter. Acute endocardial inflammation may be distinguished from i)leuritis by the absence of any friction murmur, absence of pain when the chest wall is percussed, and the absence of effusion in the cavitj^ of the chest. It may be distinguished from pericarditis b}' the absence of the friction sounds and vwant of an enlarged area of dullness on jpercussion. Treaimeni. — The treatment will be similar in both myocarditis and endocarditis. The objects to be attained Avillbe to remove or mitigate as much as possible the cause inducing the disease; to find a medicine which will lessen the irritability of the heart without weakening it; and last, to maintain a free urinary secretion and prevent exudation and hypertrophy. So long as there is an increase of temperature, with some degree of scautinessof the nrine, it may be safe to believe that there is some degree of inflammatory action existing in the cardiac structures, and, as long as any evidence of inflammatory action remains, however moderate in degree, there is a tendency to increase or hypertrophy of the connective tissue of the heart or valves, thereby rendering it almost certain that the structural changes will become permanent unless counteracted by persistent treatment and complete rest. The tincture of digitalis, in 20-drop doses, repeated every hour, is perhaps the most reliable agent we know to control the irritability of the heart, and this also has a decided influence upon the urinary secre- tion. After the desired impression ui)on the heart is obtained the dose may be repeated every two or three hours, or as the case may demand. Fluid extract of convaJlaria majalis, in 2-dram doses, will quiet the tumultuous action of the heart in some cases where the digitalis fails. Some veterinarians recommend bleeding, others cold packs around the chest or over the lieart. The former is decidedly objectionable, because of its tendency to favor fibrinous exudation and clot formation; the latter is too risky a proceeding in the majority of cases to warrant its use, for we find this disease in wet and damp sta- bles in the most aggravated and fatal forms. Blistering and stimulat- ing applications to the chest should also be avoided. They serve to irritate tlie animal and can do no possible good. Chlorate of ]3otassa, in 2-dram doses, may be given in the drinking water everj^ four hours for the first five or six days, and then l)e superseded by the nitrate of potassa, in lialf-ounee doses, for the following week, or until the uri- nary secretion becomes abnormally profuse. Where the disease is associated with rheumatism 2-dram doses of salicylate of soda may be substituted for the chlorate of potassa. To guard against chronic induration of the valves the iodide of potassa, in 1 to 2 dram doses, should be given early in the disease, and may be repeated two or three times a day for several weeks. When chronic effects remain after the acute stage has passed this drug becomes indisi)ensable. 235 Wlieu dropsy of tlie limbs develoi)s, it is dno to weakened eirculation or f iiiietional impairment of the kidneys. "When there is much weak- ness in the action of the heart, or general debilit}- is marked, the iodide of ii-on, in 1-dram doses, combined with hydrastis, 3 drams, may be given three times a day. Arsenic, in o-grain doses twice a day, will give excellent resnlts in some cases of weak heart associated with diffi- cult breathing. In all cases absojute rest and warm stabling, Avith comfortable clothing, become necessary, and freedom from work should be allowed for a long time after all syjp.ptoms have disappeared. ABSCESS IX THE HEART. This is a result of mj'ocarditis, or it may arise from localized pyae- mic infection or embolism of a coronary' vessel, causing disintegra- tion and death of a part. Such abscess may be single and large, or multiple and small. They maj^ weaken the heart sufficiently to cause rupture of its Avails, or may embarrass the circulation by i^ressure upon the orifices or cavities sufficient to produce death. Abscess of the heart cannot be diagnosed with any degree of certainty. PERICARDITIS — INFLAMMATION OF THE SAC INCLOSING THE HEART. Causes. — Pericarditis may be induced by cold and damp stabling, exposure and fatigue, from wounds caused by broken ribs, etc. Gen- erally, however, it is associated with an attack of influenza, rheumatism, pleuritis, etc. Sijinjjtoiiis. — Usually the disease manifests itself abruptly by a brief stage of chills coincident AAith pain in moving, a short painful cougli, rapid and short breathing, and high temi)erature, AA'ith a rapid and hard pulse. The fever is highest, Avith corresponding jJulse, in the evening and lowest in the morning. In the early stages of the disease the pulse is regular in beat ; later, A\hen there is much exudation pres- ent in the pericardial sac, the heart-beat becomes muffled, and may be of a doubled or rebounding character. By placing the ear against the left side of the chest behind the elboAv a rasx)ing sound may be heard, corresponding to the frequency of the heart-beat. This is known as the to-and-fro friction sound. BetAveen the second and fourth days this sound may disappear, due to a distention of the pericardium by an exu- date or serous effusion. As soon as this effusion i^artly fills the peri- cardium, percussion aaIII reveal an abnormally increased area of dullness over the region of the heart, the heart-beats become less perceptible than in health, and in some cases a splashing or flapping sound ma}' become audible. If the effusion becomes absorbed, the to-and-fro friction sound usu- ally recurs for a short time; this friction may often be felt by apply- ing the hand to the side of the chest. In a few cases clonic spasms of the muscles of the neck may be present. In acute pericarditis, when 236 the effusion is rapid and excessive, the animal may die in a few days, or recovery may begin equally as early. In subacute or in chronic cases the effusion may slowly become augmented until the pressure upon the lungs and interference with the circulation become so great that death will result. Whether the attack is acute, subacute, or chronic, the characteristic symptoms which will guide us to a correct diagnosis are the to-and-fro friction sound, whicli is always synchro- nous with the heart's action, the high temperature with hard, irritable pulse, and in cases of pericardial effusion the increased area of dull- ness over the cardiac region. When the disease is associated with influenza or rheumatism some of the sj'mptoms may be obscure, but a careful examination will reveal sufficient upon which to base a diag- nosis. When pericarditis develoi)s as a result of or in connection with pleuritis, the distinction may not be very clearly definable, neither will manj^ recover. When it results from a wound or broken rib it almost invariabl}' proves fatal. Pathology. — Pericarditis may at all times be regarded as a very seri- ous affection. At first we will find an intense injection or accumula- tion of blood in the vessels of the pericardium, giving it a red and swollen appearance, during which we have the friction sound. In twentj'-four or forty-eight hours this engorgement is followed b}^ an exudation of sero-fibrinous fluid, the fibrinous jiortion of which may soon form a coating over the internal surface of the pericardial sac, and may ultimately form a union of the opposing surfaces. Generally this adhesion will only be found to occuj)y a i^ortion of the surfaces. As the serous or watery portion of this effusion is absorbed, the dis- tinctness of the friction sound recurs, and may remain perceptible in varied degree for a long time. When the serous effusion is very great, the i^ressure exerted upon the heart Aveakens its action, and may pro- duce death soon; when it is not so great, it may cause dropsies of other portions of the body. When the adhesions of the pericardial sac to the body of the heart are extensive, they generally lead to increased growth or hj'pertrophy of the heart, witli or without dilatation of its cavities; when they are but slight, tliey may not cause any incon- venience. Treatment. — In acute or subacute pericarditis the tincture of digi- talis and tincture of aconite root may be mixed, taking equal quanti- ties, and give 20 to 30 drop doses every hour until the pulse and temi^crature become reduced. Bandages should be applied to the legs; if they are verj- cold, tincture of capsicum should be first applied; the bodj^ should be warmly clothed in blankets, to xiromote perspiration. When the suffering from pain is very severe, 2 ounces of tincture of opium ma}' bo given once or twice a day; nitrate of potassa, half an ounce, in drinking water, every six hours; after the third day, iodide of potassa, in 2-dram doses, may be substituted. Hot packs to the vhest in the early stages of the disease may give marked relief, or 237 smart blisters may be applied to tlie sides of the chest with benefit. If the disease becomes chronic, iodide of iron and gentian to support the strength will be indicated, but the iodide of potassa, in 1 or 2 dram doses, two or three times a day, must not be abandoned so long as there is an evidence of effusion or x^lastic exudate accumulating in the pericardial sac. Where the effusion is great and threatens the life of the patient, tapping, by an expert veterinarian, may save the animal. VALVULAR DISEASE OF THE HEART. Acute valvular disease can not be distinguished from endocarditis, and chronic valvular affections are generalh' the result of endocardial inflammation. The valves of the left side are the most subject — the bicuspid or mitral, and the aortic or semilunar. It may consist of mere inflammation and swelling, or the edges of the valves may become agglutinated by the organization of the exudation, thus narrowing the passage. Valvular obstruction and adhesions may occur, or the tendi- nous cords ma}^ be lengthened or shortened, thus obstructing the orifices and i)ermitting the regurgitation of blood. In protracted cases the fibrous tissue of the valves may be transformed into fibro- cartilage or bone, or there may be deposits of salts of lime beneath the serous membrane, which may terminate in ulceration, rupture, or fissures. Sometimes the valves become covered by fibrinous, fleshy, or cartilaginous vegetations or excrescences. In cases of considerable dilatation of the heart there may be atrophy and shrinking of the valves. Si/mjjtoms. — Valvular disease may be indicated by a venous pulse, jerking pulse, intermittent pulse, irregular pulse; palpitation; con- stant abnormal fullness of the jugular veins; difficulty of breathing when the animal becomes excited, or is urged out of a walk or into a fast trot ; attacks of vertigo ; congestion of the brain ; dropsical swell- ing of the limbs. A blowing, cooing, or bubbling murmur may some- times be heard bj' placing the ear over the heart on the loft side of the chest. HjTDertrophy, or dilatation, or both, usually follows valvular dis- ease. Treatment. — When the pulse is irregular, or irritable, tonics, such as preparations of iron, gentian, and ginger, may be given. When the action of the heart is jerking or violent, 20 to 30 drop doses of tincture of digitalis or of veratrum viride may be given until these sjnnptoms abate. As the disease nearlj- alwaj's is the result of endo- carditis, the iodide of potassa and general tonics, sometimes stimu- lants, when general debility suiiervenes, may be of temporary 1)enefit. Very few animals recover, or remain useful for any length of time, after once marked organic changes have taken place in the valvular structure of the heart. 238 ADVENTITIOUS GROWTHS IN THE HEART. Fibrous, (■(.irtihujinous, and honij formations liave been observed in some rare instances in the mnscnlar tissne. Isolated calcareons masses have sometimes been imbedded in the cardiac walls. Fibri- nous coagida and polypous concretions may be foniid in the cavities of the heart. The former consist of coagulated fibrin, separated from the mass of blood, of a whitish or yellowisli white color, translu- cent, of a jellj'-like consistence, and having a nucleus in the center. They may slightly adhere to the surface of the cavity, from Avhich they can easily be separated without altering the structure of the endocardium. They probably i-esult from an excess of coagulability of fibrin, wliich is produced by an organization of the lymph during exudation. They are usually found in the right auricle and ventricle. Polypous concretions are firmer than the preceding, more opaque, of a fibrous texture, and ma}^ be composed of successive layers. In souie instances they are exceedingly minute, while in others they almost fill one or more of the cavities. Their color is usually white, but occasionally red from the presence of blood. They firmly adhere to the endocardium, and when detached from it give it a torn appear- ance. Occasionall}', a Avascular communication seems to exist between them and the substance of the heart. They may be the result of fibrinous exudation from inflammation of the inner surface of the heart, or the coagulation of a portion of the blood Avhich afterwards contracts adhesion with the heart. These concretions prove a source of great inconvenience, and often danger, no matter how formed. They cause a diminution in the cavity in which they are found, thus narrowing the orifice through which the blood passes, or preventing a proper coaptation of the valves, which may protluee most serious valvular disease. Si/niptoins. — These are fre