.TUFTS UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES

3 9090 013 414 285

Webster Family Library of Veterinary Medicine

Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at

Tufts University

200 1^' -'^tboro Road ^

Nor fton. MA 01536

A

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
A. D. MELVIN, Chief of Bureau.

SPECIAL REPORT

DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

Drs, PEARSON, MICHENER, LAW, HARBAUGH, TRUMBOWER, LIAUTARD,
HOLCOMBE, HUIDEKOPER, STILES, MOHLER, AND ADAMS.

REVISED EDITION.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

I 9 I I .

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Animal Industry,
Washington, D. C, July 20, 1911.
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a copy of the Special
Report on Diseases of the Horse prepared for reprinting in accord-
ance with the following resolution, approved March 4, 1911 :

Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of
America in Congress assembled, That there be printed and bound in cloth one
hundred thousand copies of the Special Report on the Diseases of the Horse, the
same to be first revised and brought to date under the supervision of the Sec-
retary of Agriculture; seventy thousand copies for use of the House of Repre-
sentatives, thirty thousand copies for use of the Senate.

As the work was thoroughly revised in 1903 and slightly revised in
1907, it has been found necessary to make only a few minor changes
and additions at this time.

This report was first issued in 1890 and was at once accorded a
hearty reception by the horse owners of the country. The limited
edition that the department was able to publish was very soon ex-
hausted, and the demand was then turned upon Members of Congress.
As a result of the continuous demand, Congi*ess has ordered reprints
from time to time until the total editions, including the present,
amount to about 1,000,000 copies.

Very respectfully, A. D. Melvin,

Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James Wilson,

Secretary of Agnculture.

3

CONTENTS.

The examination of a sick horse. By Leonard Pearson 9

IMethods of administering medicines. By Ch. B. Michener 28

Diseases of the digestive organs. By Ch. B. Michener 34

Diseases of the urinary organs. By James Law 75

Diseases of the respiratory organs. By W. H. Harbaugh 104

Diseases of the generative organs. By James Law 143

Diseases of the nervous system. By M. R. Trumbower 190

Diseases of the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatics. By M. R. Trumbower. 225

Diseases of the eye. By James Law 251

Lameness. By A. Liautard 274

Diseases of the fetlock, ankle, and foot. By A. A. Holcombe 369

Diseases of the skin. By James Law 431

Wounds and their treatment. By Ch. B. Michenfer 459

General diseases. By Rush Shippen Huidekoper 483

Shoeing. By John W. Adams 565

Index 589

5

LLUSTRATIONS

PLATES.

Page.

Plate I. Digestive apparatus „ 74

11. Bots 74

III. Intestinal worms 74

IV. Longitudinal section through kidney 76

v. Microscopic anatomy of kidney 88

VI. Microscopic anatomy of kidney 88

VII. Calculi and instrument for removal 88

VIII. Position of the left lung 128

IX. Instruments used in difficult labor 166

X. Normal presentations 166

XI. Abnormal presentations 166

XII. Abnormal presentations 166

XIII. Abnormal presentations 176

XIV. Abnormal presentations 176

XV. Anterior presentations 176

XVI. The nervous system 192

XVII. Interior of chest, showing position of heart and diaphragm 228

XVIII. Circulatory apparatus 228

XIX. Theoretical section of the horse's eye 256

XX. Skeleton of the horse 288

XXI. Superficial layer of muscles . 288

XXII. Splint 288

XXIII. Ringbone 304

XXIV. Various types of spavin 304

XXV. Bone spavin 336

XXVI. Bone spavin 336

XXVII. Dislocation of shoulder and elbow, Bourgelat's apparatus 336

XXVIII. The sling in use 336

XXIX. Anatomy of foot 372

XXX. Anatomy of foot 372

XXXI. Quarter crack and remedies 372

XXXII. Sound and contracted feet 372

XXXIII. Foundered feet 416

XXXIV. Ringbone and navicular disease 416

XXXV. Diseases of the skin 432

XXXVI. Mites that infest the horse 448

XXXVII. General diseases. Inflammation 488

XXXVIII. General diseases. Inflammation 488

XXXIX. Glanders, nasal septum of horse, right side, showing acute lesions. 532

XL. Glanders, middle region of nasal septum, left side, showing ulcers. 532
XLI. Glanders, posterior half of nasal septum, right side, showing

cicatrices 532

XLII. Age of horses aa indicated by teeth 564

7

8 ILLUSTRATIONS.

TEXT FIGURES.

Page.

Fig. 1. Ground surface of a right fore hoof of the ' ' regular ' ' form 572

2. Pair of fore feet of regular form in regular standing position 573

3. Pair of fore-feet of base-wide form in toe-wide standing position 573

4. Pair of fore feet of base-narrow form in toe-narrow standing position. 574

5. Side view of an acute-angled fore foot, of a regular fore foot, and of a

stumpy fore foot 574

6. Side view of foot with the foot-axis broken backward as a result of too

long a toe 576

7. Left fore hoof of a regular form, shod with a plain fullered shoe 580

8. Side view of hoof and fullered shoe 581

9. An acute-angled left fore hoof shod with a bar shoe 583

10. A fairly formed right fore ice shoe for a roadster 583

11. Left fore hoof of regular form shod with a rubber pad and " three-

quarter ' ' shoe 584

12. A narrow right fore hoof of the base-wide standing position shod with

a plain "dropped crease" shoe 584

13. Hoof surface of a right hind shoe to prevent interfering 585

14. Ground surface of shoe shown in fig. 13 585

15. Side view of a fore hoof shod so as to quicken the "breaking over"

in a "forger" ^ 586

16. Side view of a short-toed hind hoof of a forger 586

17. A toe- weight shoe to increase the length of stride of fore feet 587

18. Most common form of punched heel-weight shoe to induce high action

in fore feet 587

SPECIAL REPORT

DISEASES OF THE HORSE,

THE EXAMmATION OF A SICK HORSE.

By Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.,

Dean of the Veterinary Department, University of Pennsylvania, and State
Veterinarian of Pennsylvania.

In the examination of a sick horse it is important to have a method,
or system. If a definite plan of examination is followed one may feel
reasonably sure when the examination is finished that no important
point has been overlooked and that the examiner is in a position to
arrive at an opinion that is as accurate as is possible for him. Of
course, an experienced eye can see, and a trained hand can feel, slight
alterations or variations from the normal that are not perceptible to
the unskilled observer. A thorough knowledge of the conditions that
exist in health is of the highest importance, because it is only by a
knowledge of what is right that one can surely detect a condition that
is wrong. A knowledge of anatomy, or of the structure of the body,
and of physiology, or the functions and activities of the body, lie at
the bottom of accuracy of diagnosis. It is important to remember
that animals of different races or families deport themselves differ-
ently under the influence of the same disease or 2:)athological process.
The sensitive and highly organized Thoroughbred resists cerebral
depression more than does the lymphatic draft horse. Hence a de-
gree of fever that does not produce marked dullness in a Thorough-
bred may cause the most abject dejection in a coarsely bred heavy
draft horse. This and similar facts are of vast importance in the
diagnosis of disease and in the recognition of its significance.

The order of examination, as given below, is one that has proved to
be comparatively easy of application and sufficiently thorough for the
purpose of the readers of this work. It is recommended by several
writers,

9

10 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

It is important to know, first of all, something of the origin and
development of the disease, therefore the cause should be looked for.
The cause of a disease is important, not only in connection with diag-
nosis, but also in connection with treatment. The character of food
that the horse has had, the use to which he has been put, and the kind
of care he has received should all be inquired into closely. It may be
found by this investigation that the horse has been fed on damaged
food, such as brewer's grains or moldy silage, and this may be suffi-
cient to explain the profound depression and weakness that are char-
acteristic of forage poisoning. If it is learned that the horse has
been kept in the stable without exercise for several days and upon
full rations, and that he became suddenly lame in his back and hind
legs, and finally fell to the ground from what appeared to be partial
paralysis, this knowledge, taken in connection with a few evident
symptoms, will be enough to establish a diagnosis of azoturia. If it
is learned that the horse has been recently shipped in the cars or has
been through a dealer's stable, we have knowledge of significance in
connection with the causation of a possible febrile disease, which is,
under these conditions, likely to prove to be influenza, or edematous
pneumonia.

It is also important to know whether the particular horse that is
under examination is the only one in the stable or on the premises
that is similarly afflicted. If it is found that several horses are
afflicted much in the same way, we have evidence here of a common
cause of disease which may prove to be of an infectious nature.

Another item of importance in connection with the history of the
case relates to the treatment that the horse may have had before he
is examined. It sometimes happens that medicine given in excessive
quantities produces symptoms resembling those of disease, so it is
important that the examiner shall be fully informed as to the medica-
tion that has been employed.

ATTITUDE AND GENERAL CONDITION.

Before beginning the special examination attention should be paid
to the attitude and general condition of the animal. Sometimes
horses assume positions that are characteristic of a certain disease.
For example, in tetanus, or lockjaw, the muscles of the face, neck,
and shoulders are stiff and rigid, as well as the muscles of the jaw.
This condition produces a peculiar attitude, that once seen is subse-
quently recognized as rather characteristic of this disease. A horse
with tetanus stands with his muscles tense and his legs in a somewhat
bracing position, as though he were gathered to repel a shock. The
neck is stiff and hard, the head is slightly extended upon it, the face
is drawn, and the nostrils are dilated. The tail is usually held up a
little, and when pressed down against the thighs it springs back to its

EXAMINATION OF A SICK HOKSE. 11

previous position. In inflammation of the throat, as in pharyngo-
laryngitis, the head is extended upon the neck, and the angle between
the jaw and the lower border of the neck is opened as far as possible
to relieve the pressure that otherwise would fall upon the throat.
In dumminess, or immobility, the hanging position of the head and
the stupid expression are rather characteristic. In pleurisy, perito-
nitis, and some other painful diseases of the internal organs, the
rigid position of the body denotes an effort of the animal to avoid
pressure upon and to protect the inflamed sensitive region.

The horse may be down in the stall and unable to rise. This condi-
tion may result from paraplegia, from azoturia, from forage poison-
ing, from tetanus, or from painful conditions of the bones or feet,
such as osteoporosis or founder. Lying down at unusual times or in
unusual positions may indicate disease. The first symptom of colic
may be a desire on the part of the horse to lie down at a time or place
that is unusual or inappropriate. Sometimes disinclination to lie
down is an indication of disease. Where there is difficulty in breath-
ing, the horse knows that he can manage himself better upon his feet
than upon his breast or his side. It happens, therefore, that in nearly
all serious diseases of the respiratory tract the horse stands persist-
ently, day and night, until recovery has commenced and breathing is
easier, or until the animal falls from sheer exhaustion. "Where there
is stiffness and soreness of the muscles, as in rheumatism, inflamma-
tion of the muscles from overwork, or of the bones in osteoporosis, or
of the feet in founder, or where the muscles are stiff and beyond con-
trol of the animal, as in tetanus, a standing position is maintained,
because the horse seems to realize that when he lies down he will be
unable to arise.

Abnormal attitudes are assumed in painful diseases of the digestive
organs (colic). A horse with colic may sit upon his haunches, like a
dog, or may stand upon his hind feet and rest upon his knees in front,
or may endeavor to balance himself upon his back, with all four feet
in the air. These positions are assumed because they give relief from
pain by lessening pressure, or tension, upon the sensitive structures.

Under the general condition of the animal it is necessary to observe
the condition, or state, of nutrition ; the conformation, so far as it may
indicate the constitution; and the temperament. Bj^ observing the
condition of nutrition one may be able to determine to a certain extent'
the effect that the disease has already had upon the animal and to esti-
mate the amount of strength that remains and that will be available
for the repair of the diseased tissues. A good condition of nutrition'
is shown by the rotundity of the body, the pliability and softness of
the skin, and the tone of the hair. If the subcutaneous fat has disap-
peared and the muscles are wasted, allowing the bony prominences to
stand out ; if the skin is tight and inelastic and the coat dry and harsh,
we have evidence of a low state of nutrition. This may have resulted

12 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

from a severe and long-continued disease or from lack of proper food
and care. Where an animal is emaciated — that is, becomes thin —
there is first a loss of fat and later the muscles shrink. By observing
the amount of shrinkage in the muscles one has some indication as to
the duration of the unfavorable conditions that the animal has lived
under.

By constitution we understand the innate ability of the animal to
withstand disease or unfavorable conditions of life. The constitution
depends largely upon the conformation. The type of construction
that usually accompanies the best constitution is deep, broad chest,
allowing plenty of room for the lungs and heart, indicating that
these vital organs are well developed; capacious abdomen, allowing
sufficient space for well-developed organs of digestion; the loins
should be short — that is, the space should be short between the last rib
and the point of the hip ; the head and neck should be well molded,
without superfluous or useless tissue; this gives a clear-cut throat.
The ears, eyes, and face should have an expression of alertness and
good breeding. The muscular development should be good; the
shoulders, forearms, croup, and thighs nuist have the appearance of
strength. The withers are sharp, which means that they are not
loaded with useless, superfluous tissue; the legs are straight and their
axes are parallel ; the knees and hocks are low, which means that the
forearms and thighs are long and the cannons relatively short. The
cannons are broad from in front to behind and relatively thin from
side to side. This means that the bony and tendinous structures of
the legs are well developed and well placed. The hoofs are compact,
tense, firm structures, and their soles are concave and frogs large.
Such a horse is likely to have a good constitution and to be able to
resist hard work, fatigue, and disease to a maximum degree. On the
other hand, a poor constitution is indicated by a shallow, narrow chest,
small bones, long loins, coarse neck and head, with thick throat,
small, bony, and muscular development, short thighs and forearms,
small joints, long, round cannons, and hoofs of ooen texture with
fiat soles.

The temperament is indicated by the manner in which the horse
responds to external stimuli. AVhen the horse is spoken to, or when
he sees or feels anything that stimulates or gives alarm, if he responds
actively, quickly, and intelligently, he is said to be of lively, or nerv-
ous, temperament. On the other hand, if he responds in a slow,
sluggish manner, he is said to have a sluggish, or lymphatic, tempera-
ment. The temperament is indicated by the gait, by the expression
of the face, and by the carriage of the head and ears. The nature of
the temperament should be taken into consideration in an endeavor to
ascertain the severity of a given case of illness, because the general
expression of an animal in disease as well as in health depends to a
large extent on the temperament.

EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 13

THE SKIlSr AND THE VISIBLE MUCOUS MEMBRANES.

The condition of the skin is a fair index to the condition of the
animal. The effect of disease and emaciation upon the pliability of
the skin have been referred to above. There is no part of the body
that loses its elasticity and tone as a result of disease sooner than the
skin. The practical herdsman or flockmaster can gain a great deal of
information as to the condition of an animal merely by grasping the
coat and looking at and feeling the skin. Similarly, the condition of
the animal is shown to a certain extent by the appearance of the
mucous membranes. For example, when the horse is anemic as a
result of disease or of inappropriate food the mucous membranes
become pale. This change in the mucous membranes can be seen most
readily in the lining of the eyelids and in the lining of the nostril.
For convenience of examination the eyelids can readily be everted.
Paleness means weak circulation or poor blood. Increased redness
occurs physiologically in painful conditions, excitement, and follow-
ing severe exertion. Under such conditions the increase of circula-
tion is transitory. In fevers there is an increased redness in the
mucous membrane, and this continues so long as the fever lasts. In.
some diseases red spots or streaks form in the mucous membrane.
This usually indicates an infectious disease of considerable severity,
and occurs in blood poisoning, purpura hemorrhagica, hemorrhagic
septicemia, and in urticaria. When the liver is deranged and does
not operate, or when the red-blood corpuscles are broken down, as
in serious cases of influenza, there is a yellowish discoloration of the
mucous membrane. The mucous membranes become bluish or blue
when the blood is imperfectly oxidized and contains an excess of
carbon dioxide. This condition exists in any serious disease of the
respiratory tract, as pneumonia, and in heart failure.

The temperature of the skin varies with the temperature of the
body. If there is fever the temperature of the skin is likely to be
increased. Sometimes, however, as a result of poor circulation and
irregular distribution of the blood, the body may be warmer than
normal, while the extremities (the legs and ears) may be cold.
Wliere the general surface of the body becomes cold it is evident that
the small blood vessels in the skin have contracted and are keeping
the blood away, as during a chill, or that the heart is weak and is
unable to pump the blood to the surface, and that the animal is on the
verge of collapse.

The skin is moist, to a certain degree, at all times in a healthy horse.
This moisture is not in the form of a perceptible sweat, but it is
enough to keep the skin pliable and to cause the hair to have a soft,
healthy feel. In some chronic diseased conditions and in fever, the
skin becomes dry. In this case the hair has a harsh feel that is quite
different from the condition observed in health, and from the fact of

14 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

its being so dry the individual hairs do not adhere to one another,
they stand apart, and the animal has what is known as " a staring
coat." When, during a fever, sweating occurs, it is usually an indi-
cation that the crisis is passed. Sometimes sweating is an indication
of pain. A horse with tetanus or azoturia sweats profusely. Horses
sweat freely when there is a serious impediment to respiration ; they
sweat under excitement, and, of course, from the well-known physio-
logical causes of heat and work. Local sweating, or sweating of a
restricted area of the body, denotes some kind of nerve interference.

Swellings of the skin usually come from wounds or other external
causes and have no special connection with the diagnosis of internal
diseases. There are, however, a number of conditions in which the
swelling of the skin is a symptom of a derangement of some other
part of the body. For example, there is the well-known " stocking,"
or swelling of the legs about the fetlock joints, in influenza. There is
the soft swelling of the hind legs that occurs so often in draft horses
when standing still and that comes from previous inflammation (lym-
phangitis) or from insufficient heart power. Dropsy, or edema of the
skin, may occur beneath the chest or abdomen from heart insuffi-
ciency or from chronic collection of fluid in the chest or abdomen
(hydrothorax, ascites, or anemia). In anasarca or purpura hemor-
rhagica large soft swellings appear on any part of the skin, but
usually on the legs, side of the body, and about the head.

Gas collects under the skin in some instances. This comes from a
local inoculation with an organism which produces a fermentation
beneath the skin and causes the liberation of gas which inflates the
skin, or the gas may be air that enters through a wound penetrating
some air-containing organ, as the lungs. The condition here de-
scribed is known as emphysema. Emphysema may follow the frac-
ture of a rib when the end of a bone is forced inward and caused to
penetrate the lung, or it may occur, when, as a result of an ulcerat-
ing process, an organ containing air is perforated. This accident is
more common in cattle than it is in horses. Emphysema is recog-
nized by the fact that the swelling that it causes is not hot or sensi-
tive on pressure. It emits a peculiar crackling sound when it is
stroked or pressed upon.

Wounds of the skin may be of importance in the diagnosis of
internal disease. Wounds over the bony prominence, as the point
of the hip, the point of the shoulder, and the greatest convexity of
the ribs, occurs when a horse is unable to stand for a long time and,
through continually lying upon his side, has shut off the circulation
to the portion of the skin that covers parts of the body that carry the
greatest weight, and in this way has caused them to mortify. Little,
round, soft, doughlike swellings occur on the skin and may be
scattered freely over the surface of the body when the horse is

EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 15

afflicted with urticaria. Similar eruptions, but distributed less gen-
erally, about the size of a silver dollar, may occur as a symptom of
dourine, or colt distemper. Hard lumps, from which radiate welt-
like swellings of the lymphatics, occur in glanders, and blisterlike
eruptions occur around the mouth and pasterns in horsepox.

THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION.

The first item in this portion of the examination consists in taking
the pulse. The pulse may be counted and its character may be de-
termined at any point where a large artery occupies a situation
close to the skin and above a hard tissue, such as a bone, cartilage, or
tendon. The most convenient place for taking the pulse of the horse
is at the jaw. The external maxillary artery runs from between the
jaws, around the lower border of the jawbone and up on the outside
of the jawbone to the face. It is located immediately in front of the
heavy muscles of the cheek. Its throb can be felt most distinctly
just before it turns around the lower border of the jawbone. The
balls of the first and second or of the second and third fingers should
be pressed lightly on the skin over this artery when its pulsations are
to be studied.

The normal pulse of the healthy horse varies in frequency as
follows :

Stallion . 28 to 32 beats per minute.

Gelding 33 to 38 beats per minute.

Mare 34 to 40 beats per minute.

Foal 2 to 3 years old 40 to 50 beats per minute.

Foal 6 to 12 months old 45 to 60 beats per minute.

Foal 2 to 4 weeks old 70 to 90 beats per minute.

The pulse is accelerated by the digestion of rich food, by hot
weather, exercise, excitement, and alarm. It is slightly more rapid
in the evening than it is in the morning. Well-bred horses have a
slightly more rapid pulse than sluggish, cold-blooded horses. The
pulse should be regular ; that is, the separate beats should follow each
other after intervals of equal length, and the beats should be of equal
fullness, or volume.

In disease, the pulse may become slower or more rapid than in
health. Slowing of the pulse may be caused by old age, great exhaus-
tion, or excessive cold. It may be due to depression of the central
nervous system, as in dumminess, or be the result of the administra-
tion of drugs, such as digitalis or strophantus. A rapid pulse is
almost always found in fever, and the more severe the infection and
the weaker the heart the more rapid is the pulse. Under these con-
ditions, the beats may rise to 80, 90, or even 120 per minute. "When
the pulse is above 100 per minute the outlook for recovery is not
promising, and especially if this symptom accompanies high tempera-

16 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

tiire or occurs late in an infectious disease. In nearly all of the dis-
eases of the heart and in anemia the pulse becomes rapid.

The pulse is irregular in diseases of the heart, and especially where
the valves are affected. The irregularity may consist in varying inter-
vals between the beats or tlie dropping of one or more beats at regu-
lar or irregular intervals. The latter condition sometimes occurs in
chronic diseases of the brain. The pulse is said to be weak, or soft,
when the beats are indistinct, because little blood is forced through
the artery by each contraction of the heart. This condition occurs
when there is a constriction of the vessels leading from the heart and
it occurs in certain infectious and febrile diseases, and is an indication
of heart weakness.

In examining the heart itself it is necessary to recall that it lies in
the anterior portion of the chest slightly to the left of the median line
and that it extends from the third to the sixth rib. It extends almost
to the breastbone, and a little more than half of the distance between
the breastbone and the backbone. In contracting, it rotates slightly
on its axis, so that the point of the heart, which lies below, is pressed
against the left chest wall at a place immediately above the point of
the elbow. The heart has in it four chambers — two in the left and
two in the right side. The upper chamber of the left side (left auri-
cle) receives the blood as it comes from the lungs, passes it to the
lower chamber of the left side (left ventricle) , and from here it is sent
with great force (for this chamber has very strong, thick walls)
through the aorta and its branches (the arteries) to all parts of the
body. The blood returns through the veins to the upper chamber of
the right side (right auricle), passes then to the lower chamber of the
right side (right ventricle), and from this chamber is forced into the
lungs to be oxidized. The openings between the chambers of each
side and into the aorta are guarded by valves.

If the horse is not too fat, one may feel the impact of the apex of
the heart against the chest wall with each contraction of the heart by
placing the hand on the left side back of the fifth rib and above the
point of the elbow. The thinner and the better bred the horse is the
more distinctly this impact is felt. If the animal is excited, or if he
has just been exercised, the impact is stronger than when the horse is
at rest. If the horse is weak, the impact is reduced in force.

The examination of the heart with the ear is an important matter in
this connection. Certain sounds are produced by each contraction of
the normal heart. It is customary to divide these into two, and to
call them the first and second sounds. These two sounds are heard
during each pulsation, and any deviation of the normal indicates some
alteration in the structure or the functions of the heart. In making
this examination, one may apply the left ear over the heavy muscles
of the shoulder back of the shoulder joint, and just above the point of

EXAMINATION OF A SICK HOKSE. 17

the elbow, or, if the sounds are not heard distinctly, the left fore leg
may be drawn forward by an assistant and the right ear placed
against the lower portion of the chest wall that is exposed in this
manner.

The first sound of the heart occurs while the heart muscle is con-
tracting and while the blood is being forced from the heart and the
valves are rendered taut to prevent the return of the blood from the
lower to the upper chambers. The second sound follows quickly after
the first and occurs during rebound of blood in the arteries, caus-
ing pressure in the aorta and tensions of the valves guarding its open-
ing into the left ventricle. The first sound is of a high pitch and is
longer and more distinct than the second. Under the influence of
disease these sounds may be altered in various ways. It is not profit-
able, in a work such as this, to describe the details of these alterations.
Those who are interested will find this subject fully discussed in the
veterinary text-books.

TEMPERATURE.

The temperature of the horse is determined roughly by placing the
fingers in the mouth or between the thighs or by allowing the horse
to exhale against the cheek or back of the hand. In accurate examina-
tion, however, these means of determining temperature are not relied
upon, but recourse is had to the use of the thermometer. The ther-
mometer used for taking the temperature of a horse is a self-register-
ing clinical thermometer, similar to that used by physicians, but
larger, being from 5 to 6 inches long. The temperature of the animal
is measured in the rectum.

The normal temperature of the horse varies somewhat under differ-
ent conditions. It is higher in the young animal than in the old, and
is higher in hot weather than in cold. The weather and exercise de-
cidedly influence the temperature physiologically. The normal tem-
perature varies from 99.5° to 101° F. If the temperature rises to
302.5° the horse is said to have a low fever ; if the temperature reaches
104° the fever is moderate; if it reaches 106° it is high, and above this
point it is regarded as very high. In some diseases, such as tetanus
or sunstroke, the temperature goes as high as 108° or 110°. In the
ordinary infectious diseases it does not often exceed 106°. A tem-
perature of 107.5° and above is very dangerous and must be reduced
promptly if the horse is to be saved.

THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION.

In examining this system of organs and their functions it is custom-
ary to begin by noting the frequency of the respiratory movements.
This point can be determined by observing the motions of the nostrils
or of the flanks; on a cold day one can see the condensation of the
moisture of the warm air as it comes from the lungs. The normal
H. Doc. 795, 59-2 2

18 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

rate of respiration for a healthy horse at rest is from 8 to 16 per min-
ute. The rate is faster in young animals than in old, and is increased
by work, hot weather, overfilling of the stomach, pregnancy, lying
upon the side, etc. Acceleration of the respiratory rate where no
physiological cause operates is due to a variety of conditions. Among
these is fever ; restricted area of active lung tissue, from filling of por-
tions of the lungs with inflammatory exudate, as in pneumonia ; com-
pression of the lungs or loss of elasticity; pain in the muscles con-
trolling the respiratory movements; excess of carbon dioxide in the
blood ; and constriction of the air passages leading to the lungs.

Difficult or labored respiration is known as dyspnea. It occurs
when it is difficult, for any reason, for the animal to obtain the
amount of oxygen that it requires. This may be due to filling of the
lungs, as in pneumonia ; to painful movements of the chest, as in rheu-
matism or pleurisy ; to tumors of the nose and paralysis of the throat,
swellings of the throat, foreign bodies, or weakness of the respiratory
passages, fluid in the chest cavity, adhesions between the lungs and
chest walls, loss of elasticity of the lungs, etc. Where the difficulty
is great the accessory muscles of respiration are brought into play.
In great dyspnea the horse stands with his front feet apart, with his
neck straight out, and his head extended upon his neck. The- nostrils
are widely dilated, the face has an anxious expression, the eyeballs
protrude, the up-and-down motion of the larynx is aggravated, the
amplitude of the movement of the chest walls increased, and the
flanks heave.

The expired air is of about the temperature of the body. It con-
tains considerable moisture, and it should come with equal force from
each nostril and should not have an unpleasant odor. If the stream
of air from one nostril is stronger than from the other, there is an in-
dication of an obstruction in a nasal chamber. If the air possesses a
bad odor, it is usually an indication of putrefaction of a tissue or
secretion in some part of the respiratory tract. A bad odor is found
where there is necrosis of the bone in the nasal passages or in chronic
catarrh. An ulcerating tumor of the nose or throat may cause the
breath to have an offensive odor. The most offensive breath occurs
where there is necrosis, or gangrene, of the lungs.

In some diseases there is a discharge from the nose. In order to
determine the significance of the discharge it should be examined
closely. One should ascertain whether it comes from one or both
nostrils. If but from one nostril, it probably originates in the head.
The color should be noted. A thin, watery discharge may be com-
posed of serum, and it occurs in the earlier stages of coryza, or nasal
catarrh. An opalescent, slightly tinted discharge is composed of
mucus and indicates a little more severe irritation. If the discharge
is sticky and pus-like, a deeper difficulty or more advanced irritation

EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE, 19

is indicated. If the discharge contains flakes and chimps of more or
less dried, agglutinated particles, it is probable that it originates
within a cavity of the head, as the sinuses or guttural pouches. The
discharge of glanders is of a peculiar sticky nature and adlieres
tenaciously to the wings of the nostrils. The discharge of pneumonia
is of a somewhat red or reddish brown color, and, on this account,
has been described as a 23rune- juice discharge. The discharge may
contain blood. If the blood appears as clots or as streaks in the dis-
charge, it probably originates at some point in the upper part of the
respiratory tract. If the blood is in the form of a fine froth, it comes
from the lungs.

In examining the interior of the nasal passage one should remem-
ber that the normal color of the mucous membrane is a rosy pink and
that its surface is smooth. If ulcers, nodules, swellings, or tumors
are found, these indicate disease. The ulcer that is characteristic of
glanders is described fully in connection with the discussion of that
disease.

Between the lower jaws there are several clusters of lympathic
glands. These glands are so small and so soft that it is difficult to
find them by feeling through the skin, but when a suppurative dis-
ease exists in the upper part of the respiratory tract these glands
become swollen and easy to feel. They may become soft and break
down and discharge as abscesses; this is seen constantly in strangles.
On the other hand, they may become indurated and hard from the
proliferation of connective tissue and attach themselves to the jaw-
bone, to the tongue, or to the skin. This is seen in chronic glanders.
If the glands are swollen and tender to pressure, it indicates that the
disease causing the enlargement is acute; if they are hard and insen-
sitive, the disease causing the enlargement is chronic.

The manner in which the horse coughs is of importance in diagno-
sis. The cough is a forced expiration, following immediately upon a
forcible separation of the vocal cords. The purpose of the cough is
to remove some irritant substance from the respiratory passages, and
it occurs when irritant gases, such as smoke, ammonia, sulphur vapor,
or dust, have been inhaled. It occurs from inhalation of cold air if
the respiratory passages are sensitive from disease. In laryngitis,
bronchitis, and pneumonia, cough is very easily excited and occurs
merely from accimiulation of mucus and inflammatory product upon
the irritated respiratory mucous membrane. If one wishes to deter-
mine the character of the cough, it can easily be excited by pressing
upon the larynx with the thumb and finger. The larynx should be
pressed from side to side and the pressure removed the moment the
horse commences to cough. A painful cough occurs in pleurisy, also
in laryngitis, bronchitis, and bronchial pneumonia. Pain is shown
by the effort the animal exerts to repress the cough. The cough is
not painful, as a rule, in the chronic diseases of the respiratory tract.

20 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

The force of the cough is considerable when it is not especially pain-
ful and when the lungs are not seriously involved. When the lungs
are so diseased that they can not be filled with a large volume of air,
and in heaves, the cough is weak, as it is also in weak, debilitated
animals. If mucus or pus is coughed out, or if the cough is accom-
panied by a gurgling sound, it- is said to be moist; it is dry wlien
these characteristics are not present — that is, when the air in passing
out passes over surface not loaded with secretion.

In the examination of the chest we resort to percussion and aus-
cultation. When a cask or other structure containing air is tapped
upon, or percussed, a hollow sound is given forth. If the cask con-
tains fluid, the sound is of a dull and of quite a different character.
Similarly, the amount of air contained in the lungs can be estimated
by tapping upon, or percussing, the walls of the chest. Percussion is
practiced with the fingers alone or with the aid of a special percussion
hammer and an object to strike upon known as a pleximeter. If the
fingers are used, the middle finger of the left hand should be pressed
firmly against the side of the horse and should be struck with the
ends of the fingers of the right hand bent at a right angle so as to
form a hammer. The percussion hammer sold by instrument makers
is made of rubber or has a rubber tip, so that when the pleximeter,
which is placed against the side, is struck the impact will not be
accompanied by a noise. After experience in this method of exami-
nation one can determine with a considerable degree of accuracy
whether the lung contains a normal amount of air or not. If, as in
pneumonia, air has been displaced by inflammatory product occupy-
ing the air space, or if fluid collects in the lower part of the chest,
the percussion sound becomes dull. If, as in emphysema or in pneu-
mothorax, there is an excess of air in the chest cavity, the percussion
sound becomes abnormally loud and clear.

Auscultation consists in the examination of the lungs with the oar
applied closely to the chest wall. As the air goes in and out of the
lungs a certain soft sound is made which can be heard distinctly,
especially upon inspiration. This sound is intensified by anything
that accelerates the rate of respiration, such as exercise. This soft,
rustling sound is known as vesicular murmur, and wherever it is
heard it signifies that the lung contains air and is functionally active.
The vesicular murmur is weakened when there is an inflammatory
infiltration of the lung tissue or when the lungs are compressed by
fluid in the chest cavity. The vesicular murmur disappears when air
is excluded by the accumulation of inflammatory product, as in pneu-
monia, and when the lungs are compressed by fluid in the chest
cavity. The vesicular murmur becomes rough and harsh in the early
stages of inflammation of the lungs, and this is often the first sign of
the beginning of pneumonia.

EXAMINATION OF A SICK HOKSE. 21

By applying the ear over the lower part of the windpipe in front of
the breastbone a somewhat harsh, blowing sound may be heard. This
is known as the bronchial murmur and is heard in normal conditions
near the lower part of the trachea and to a limited extent in the ante-
rior portions of the lungs after sharp exercise. When the bronchial
murmur is heard over other portions of the lungs, it may signify that
the lungs are more or less solidified by disease and the blowing bron-
chial murmur is transmitted through this solid lung to the ear from a
distant part of the chest. The bronchial murmur in an abnormal
place signifies that there exists pneumonia or that the lungs are com-
pressed by fluid in the chest cavity.

Additional sounds are heard in the lungs in some diseased condi-
tions. For example, when fluid collects in the air passages and the
air is forced through it or is caused to pass through tubes containing
secretions or pus. Such sounds are of a gurgling or bubbling nature
and are known as mucous rales. Mucous rales are spoken of as being
large or small as they are distinct or indistinct, depending upon the
quantity of fluid that is present and the size of the tube in which this
sound is produced. Mucous rales occur in pneumonia after the solid-
ified parts begin to break down at the end of the disease. They occur
in bronchitis and in tuberculosis, where there is an excess of secretion.

Sometimes a shrill sound is heard, like the note of a whistle, fife, or
flute. This is due to a dry constriction of the bronchial tubes and it
is heard in chronic bronchitis and in tuberculosis.

A friction sound is heard in pleurisy. This is due to the rubbing
together of roughened surfaces, and the sound produced is similar
to a dry rubbing sound that is caused by rubbing the hands together
or by rubbing upon each other two dry, rough pieces of leather.

THE EXAMINATION OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT.

The first point in connection with the examination of the organs of
digestion is the appetite and the manner of taking food and drink. A
healthy animal has a good appetite. Loss of appetite does not point
to a special diseased condition, but comes from a variety of causes.
Some of these causes, indeed, may be looked upon as being physio-
logical. Excitement, strange surroundings, fatigue, and hot weather
may all cause loss of appetite. Where there is cerebral depression,
fever, profound weakness, disorder of the stomach, or mechanical
difficulty in chewing or swallowing, the appetite is diminished or
destroyed. Sometimes there is an appetite or desire to eat abnormal
things, such as dirty bedding, roots of grass, soil, etc. This desire
usually comes from a chronic disturbance of nutrition.

Thirst is diminished in a good many mild diseases unaccompanied
by distinct fever. It is seen where there is great exhaustion or depres-
sion or profound brain disturbance. Thirst is increased after pro-

22 ' DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

fuse sweating, in diabetes, diarrhea, in fever, at the crisis of infec-
tious diseases, and when the mouth is dry and hot.

Some diseases of the mouth or throat make it dif&cult for the horse
to chew or swallow his food. TV^iere difficulty in this respect is expe-
rienced, the following-named conditions should be borne in mind and
carefully looked for : Diseases of the teeth, consisting in decay, frac-
ture, abscess formation, or overgrowth; inflanmaatory conditions, or
wounds or tumors of the tongue, cheeks, or lips ; paralysis of the mus-
cles of chewing or swallowing; foreign bodies in upper part of the
mouth between the molar teeth; inflammation of throat. Difficulty
in swallowing is sometimes shown by the symptom known as " quid-
ding." Quidding consists in dropping from the mouth well-chewed
and insalivated boluses of food. A mouthful of hay, for example,
after being ground and masticated, is carried to the back part of the
mouth. The horse then finds that from tenderness of the throat, or
from some other cause, swallowing is difficult or painful, and the
bolus is then dropped from the mouth. Another quantity of hay is
similarly prepared, only to be dropped in turn. Sometimes quidding
is due to a painful tooth, the bolus being dropped from the mouth
when the tooth is struck and during the pang that follows. Quid-
ding may be practiced so persistently that a considerable pile of
boluses of food accumulate in the manger or on the floor of the stall.
In pharyngitis one of the symptoms is a return through the nOse of
fluid that the horse attempts to swallow.

In some brain diseases, and particularly in chronic internal hydro-
cephalus, the horse has a most peculiar manner of swallowing and of
taking food. A similar condition is seen in hyperemia of the brain.
In eating the horse will sink his muzzle into the grain in the feed
box and eat for a while without raising the head. Long pauses are
made while the food is in the mouth. Sometimes the horse will eat
very rapidly for a little while and then slowly; the jaws may be
brought together so forcibly that the teeth gnash. In eating hay
the horse will stop at times with hay protruding from the mouth and
stand stuj^idly, as though he has forgotten what he was about.

In examining the mouth one should first look for swellings or for
evidence of abnormal conditions upon the exterior-; that is, the front
and sides of the face, the jaws, and about the muzzle. By this means
wounds, fractures, tumors, abscesses, and disease accompanied by
eruptions about the muzzle may be detected. The interior of the
mouth is examined by holding the head up and inserting the fingers
through the interdental space in such a way as to cause the mouth to
open. The mucous membrane should be clean and of a light-pink
color, excepting on the back of the tongue, where the color is a yel-
lowish gray. As abnormalities of this region, the chief are diffuse
inflammation, characterized by redness and catarrhal discharge ; local

EXAMINATION OF A SICK HOKSE. 23

inflammation, as from eruptions, ulcers, or wounds; necrosis of the
lower jawbone in front of the first back tooth; and swellings. For-
eign bodies are sometimes found embedded in the mucous membrane
lining of the mouth or lodged between the teeth.

The examination of the pharynx and of the esophagus is made
chiefly by pressing upon the skin covering these organs in the region
of the throat and along the left side of the neck in the jugular gutter.
Sometimes, when a more careful examination is necessary, an esoph-
ageal tube or probang is passed through the nose or mouth down the
esophagus to the stomach.

Vomiting is an act consisting in the expulsion of all or part of the
contents of the stomach through the mouth or nose. This act is more
diiRcult for the horse than for most of the other domestic animals,
because the stomach of the horse is small and does not lie on the floor
of the abdominal cavity, so that the abdominal walls in contracting do
not bring pressure to bear upon it so directly and forcibly, as is the
case in many other animals. Beside this, there is a loose fold of
mucous membrane at the point where the esophagus enters the stom-
ach, and this forms a sort of valve which does not interfere with the
passage of food into the stomach, but does interfere with the exit of
food through the esoj)hageal opening. Still, vomiting is a symptom
that is occasionally seen in the horse. It occurs when the stomach is
very much distended with food or with gas. Distention stretches the
mucous membrane and eradicates the valvular fold referred to, and
also makes it possible for more pressure to be exerted upon the stom-
ach through the contraction of the abdominal muscles. Since the
distention to permit vomiting must be extreme, it not infrequently
happens that it leads to rupture of the stomach walls. This has
caused the impression in the minds of some that vomiting can not
occur in the horse without rupture of the stomach, but this is incor-
rect, since many horses vomit and afterwards become entirely sound.
Aiter rupture of the stomach has occurred vomiting is impossible.

In examination of the abdomen one should remember that its size
depends largely upon the breed, sex, and conformation of the animal,
and also upon the manner in which the animal has been fed and the
use to which it has been put. A pendulous abdomen may be the result
of an abdominal tumor or of an accumulation of fluid in the abdom-
inal cavity; or, on the other hand, it may merely be an indication
of pregnancy, or of the fact that the horse has been fed for a long
time on bulky and innutritions food. Pendulous abdomen occurring
in a work horse kept on a concentrated diet is an abnormal condi-
tion. The abdomen may increase suddenly in volume from accu-
mulation of gas in tympanic colic. The abdomen becomes small and
the horse is said to be " tucked up " from long-continued poor appe-
tite, as in diseases of the digestive tract and in fever. This condi-

24 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

tion also occurs in tetanus from the contraction of the abdominal
walls and in diarrhea from emptiness.

In applying the ear to the flank, on either the right or left side,
certain bubbling sounds may be heard that are known as peristaltic
sounds, because theiy are produced by peristalsis, or wormlike con-
traction of the intestines. These sounds are a little louder on the
right side than on the left on account of the fact that the large intes-
tines lie in the right flaiik. Absence of peristaltic sounds is always an
indication o'f disease, and suggests exhaustion or paralysis of the
intestines. This may occur in certain kinds of colic and is an un-
favorable symptom. Increased sounds are heard where the intes-
tines are contracted more violently than in health, as in spasmodic
colic, and also where there is an excess of fluid or gas in the intestinal
canal.

The feces show, to a certain extent, the thoroughness of digestion.
They should show that the food has been well ground, and should, in
the horse, be free from offensive odor or coatings of mucus. A coat-
ing of mucus shows intestinal catarrh. Blood on the feces indicates
severe inflammation. Very light color and bad odor may come from
inactive liver. Parasites are sometimes in the dung.

Rectal examination consists in examination of the organs of the
pelvic cavity and posterior portion of the abdominal cavity by the
hand inserted into the rectum. This examination should be attempted
by a veterinarian only, and is useless except to one who has a good
knowledge of the anatomy of the parts concerned.

THE EXAMINATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

The great brain, or cerebrum, is the seat of intelligence, and it con-
tains the centers that control motion in many parts of the body.
The front portion of the brain is believed to be the region that is most
important in governing the intelligence. The central and posterior
portions of the cerebrum contain the centers for the voluntary motions
of the face and of the front and hind legs. The growth of a tumor or
an inflammatory change in the region of a center governing the
motion of a certain part of the body has the effect of disturbing
motion in that part by causing excessive contraction known as cramps,
or inability of the muscles to contract, constituting the condition
known as paralysis. The nerve paths from the cerebrum, and hence
from these centers to the spinal cord and thence to the muscles, pass
beneath the small brain, or the cerebellum, and through the medulla
oblongata to the spinal cord. Interference with these paths has the
effect of disturbing motion of the parts reached by them. If all of
the paths on one side are interfered with, the result is paralysis of one
side of the body.

The small brain, or cerebellum, governs the regularity, or coordi-

EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 25

nation, of movements. Disturbances of the cerebellum cause a totter-
ing, uncertain gait. In the medulla oblongata, which lies between the
spinal cord and the cerebellum, are the centers governing the circula-
tion and breathing.

The spinal cord carries sensory messages to the brain and motor
impressions from the brain. The anterior portions of the cord con-
tain the motor paths, and the posterior portions of the cord contain
the sensory paths.

Paralysis of a single member or a single group of muscles is known
as monoplegia and results from injury to the motor center or to a
nerve trunk leading to the part that is involved. Paralysis of one-
half of the body is known as hemiplegia and results from destruction
or severe disturbances of the cerebral hemisphere of the opposite side
of the body or from interference with nerve paths between the cere-
bellum, or small brain, and the spinal cord. Paralysis of the poste-
rior half of the body is known as paraplegia and results from de-
rangement of the spinal cord. If the cord is pressed upon, cut, or
injured, messages can not be transmitted beyond that point, and so the
posterior part becomes paralyzed. This is seen when the back is
fractured.

Abnormal mental excitement may be due to congestion of the brain
or to inflammation. The animal so afflicted becomes vicious, pays no
attention to commands, cries, runs about in a circle, stamps with the
feet, strikes, kicks, etc. This condition is usually followed by a dull,
stupid state, in which the animal stands with his head down, dull and
irresponsive to external stimuli. Cerebral depression also occurs in
the severe febrile infectious diseases, in chronic hydrocephalus, in
chronic diseases of the liver, in poisoning with a narcotic substance,
and with chronic catarrh of the stomach and intestines.

Fainting is a symptom that is not often seen in horses. When it
occurs it is shown by unsteadiness of gait, tottering, and, finally, in-
ability to stand; The cause usually lies in a defect of the small brain,
or cerebellum. This defect may be merely in respect of the blood
supply, to congestion, or to anemia, and in this case it is likely to pass
away and may never return, or it may be due to some permanent
cause, as a tumor or an abscess, or it may result from a hemorrhage,
from a defect of the valves of the heart, or from poisoning.

Loss of consciousness is known as coma. It is caused by hemor-
rhage in the brain, by profound exhaustion, or may result from a
saturation of the system with the poison of some disease. Coma may
follow upon cerebral depression, which occurs as a secondary state
of inflammation of the brain.

Where the sensibility of a part is increased the condition is known
as hyperesthesia, and where it is lost — that is, where there is no feel-
ing or knowledge of pain — the condition is known as anesthesia. The

26 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

former usually accompanies some chronic diseases of the spinal cord
or the earlier stages of irritation of a nerve trunk. Hyperesthesia is
difficult to detect in a nervous, irritable animal, and sometimes even
in a horse of less sensitive temperament. An irritable, sensitive spot
may be found surrounded by skin that is not sensitive to pressure.
This is sometimes a symptom of beginning of inflammation of the
brain. Anesthesia occurs in connection with cerebral and sj^inal
paralysis, section of a nerve trunk leading to a part, in severe mental
depression, and in narcotic poisoning.

URINARY AND SEXUAL ORGANS.

In considering the examination of the urinary and sexual organs
yve may consider, at the beginning, a false impression that j)revails to
an astonishing extent. Many horsemen are in the habit of pressing
upon the back of a horse over the loins or of sliding the ends of the
fingers along on either side of the median line of this region. If the
horse depresses his back it is at once said " his kidneys are weak."
Nothing could be more absurd or further from the truth. Any
healthy horse — any horse with normal sensation and with a normally
flexible back — will cause it to sink when manipulated in this way. If
the kidneys are inflamed and sensitive, the back is held more rigidly
and is not depressed under this pressure.

To examine the kidneys by pressure the pressure should be brought
to bear over these organs. The kidneys lie beneath the ends of the
transverse processes of the vertebrae of the loins and beneath the hind-
most ribs. If the kidneys are actually inflamed and especially sensi-
tive, pressure or light blows applied here may cause the horse to
shrink.

The physical examination of the sexual and generative organs is
made in large part through the rectum, and this portion of the exami-
nation should be carried out by a veterinarian only. By this means
it is possible to discover or locate cysts of the kidneys, urinary
calculi in the ureters, bladder, or upper urethra, malformations, and
acute inflammations accompanied by pain. The external genital
organs are swollen, discolored, or show a discharge as a result of
local disease or from disease higher in the tract.

The manner of urinating is sometimes of considerable diagnostic
importance. Painful urination is shown by frequent attempts, dur-
ing which but a small quantity of urine is passed; by groaning, by
constrained attitude, etc. This condition comes from inflammation
of the bladder or urethra, urinary calculi (stones of the bladder or
urethra), hemorrhage, tumors, bruises, etc. The urine is retained
from spasms of the muscle at the neck of the bladder, from calculi,
inflammatory growths, tumors, and paralysis of the bladder.

The urine dribbles without control when the neck of the bladder
is weakened or paralyzed. This condition is seen after the bladder is

EXAMINATION OF A SICK HOUSE. 27

weakened from long-continued retention and where there is a partial
paralysis of the hind quarters.

Horses usually void urine five to seven times a day, and f>ass from 4
to 7 quarts. Disease may be shown by increase in the number of
voidings or of the quantity. Frequent urination indicates an irri-
table or painful condition of the bladder or urethra or that the quan-
tity is excessive. In one form of chronic inflammation of the kidneys
(interstitial nephritis) and in polyuria the quantity may be increased
to 20 or 30 quarts daily. Diminution in the quantity of urine comes
from profuse sweating, diarrhea, high fever, weak heart, diseased and
nonsecreting kidneys, or an obstruction to the flow.

The urine of the healthy horse is a pale or at tunes a slightly red-
dish yellow. The color is less intense when the quantity is large, and
is more intense when the quantity is diminished. Dark-brown urine
is seen in azoturia and in severe acute muscular rheumatism. A
brownish-green color is seen in jaundice. Red color indicates admix-
ture of blood from a bleeding point at some j)art of the urinary tract,
usually in the kidneys.

The urine of the healthy horse is not clear and transparent. It
contains mucus, which causes it to be slightly thick and stringy, and
a certain amount of undissolved carbonates, causing it to be cloudy.
A sediment collects when the urine is allowed to stand. The urine'of
the horse is normally alkaline. If it becomes acid the bodies in sus-
pension are dissolved and the urine is made clear. The urine may be
unusually cloudy from the addition of abnormal constituents, but to
determine their character a chemical or microscopic examination is
necessary. Red or reddish flakes or clumps in the urine are always
abnormal, and denote a hemorrhage or suppuration in the urinary
tract.

The normal specific gravity of the urine of the horse is about 1.040.
It is increased when the urine is scanty and decreased when the
quantity is excessive.

Acid reaction of the urine occurs in chronic intestinal catarrh, in
high fever, and during starvation. Chemical and microscopic tests
and examinations are often of great importance in diagnosis, but ^
require special apparatus and skill.

Other points in the examination of a sick horse require more discus-
sion than can be afforded in this connection, and require special train-
ing on the part of the examiner. Among such points may be men-
tioned the examination of the organs of special sense, the examination
of the blood, the microscopic examination of the secretions and excre-
tions, bacteriological examinations of the secretions, excretions, and
tissues, specific reaction tests, and diagnostic inoculation.

METHODS OF ADMINISTERING MEDICINES.

By Ch. B. Michener, V. S.
[Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. S.. V. M. D.]

Medicine may enter the body through any of the following desig-
nated channels: First, by the mouth; second, by the air passages;
third, by the skin; fourth, by the tissue beneath the skin (hypodermic
methods) ; fifth, by the rectum; sixth, by the genito-urinary passages;
and, seventh, by the blood (intravenous injections).

(1) By THE MOUTH. — Mediciucs can be given by the mouth in the
form of solids, as powders or pills ; liquids, and pastes, or electuaries.

Solids administered as powders should be as finely pulverized as
possible, in order to secure rapid solution and absorption. Their
action is in this way facilitated and intensified. Powders must be
free from any irritant or caustic action upon the mouth. Those that
are without any disagreeable taste or smell are readily eaten with the
feed or taken in the drinking water. When placed with the feed they
should first be dissolved or suspended in water and thus sprinkled on
the feed. If mixed dry the horse will often leave the medicine in
the bottom of his manger. Nonirritant powders may be given in
capsules, as balls are given.

Pills, or "5aZZs," when properly made, are cylindrical in shape, 2
inches in length and about three-fourths of an inch in diameter.
They should be fresh, but if necessary to keep them some time they
should be made up with glycerin, or some such agent, to prevent
their becoming too hard. Very old, hard balls are sometimes passed
whole with the manure without being acted upon at all. Paper is
sometimes wrapped around balls when given, if they are so sticky as
to adhere to the fingers or the balling gun. Paper used for this pur-
pose should be thin but firm, as the tougher tissue papers. Balls are
preferred to drenches when the medicine is extremely disagreeable or
nauseating ;• when the dose is not too large ; when the horse is difficult
to drench ; or when the medicine is intended to act slowly. Certain
medicines can not or should not be made into balls, as medicines
requiring to be given in large doses, oils, caustic substances, unless in
small dose and diluted and thoroughly mixed with the vehicle, deli-
quescent, or efflorescent salts. Substances suitable for balls can be
made up by the addition of honey, sirup, soap, etc., when required

28

METHODS OF ADMINISTERING MEDICINES. 29

for immediate use. Gelatin capsules of different sizes are now obtain-
able and are a convenient means of giving medicines in ball form.

Liquids may be given as drenches when the dose is large, or they
may, when but a small quantity is administered, be injected into the
mouth with a hard-rubber syringe or be poured upon the tongue from
a small phial.

Pastes, or electuaries^ are medicines mixed with licorice-root pow-
der, gi'ound flaxseed, molasses, or sirup to the consistency of honey, or
a " soft solid." They are intended, chiefly, to act locally upon the
mouth and throat. They are given by being spread upon the tongue,
gums, or teeth with a wooden paddle or strong long-handled spoon.

When balls are to be given we should observe the following direc-
tions: In shape they should be cylindrical, of the size above men-
tioned, and soft enough to be easily compressed by the fingers. If
made round or egg-shaped, if too long or too hard, they are liable to
become fixed in the gullet and cause choking. Balls may be given
with the " balling gun " (obtainable at any veterinary instrument
maker's) or by the hand. If given by the hand a mouth speculum or
gag may be used to prevent the animal from biting the hand or crush-
ing the ball. Always loosen the horse before attempting to give a
ball; if tied he may break his halter and injure himself or the one
giving the ball. With a little practice it is much easier to give a ball
without the mouth gag, as the horse always fights more or less against
having his mouth forced open. The tongue must be firmly grasped
with the left hand and gently pulled forward ; the ball, slightly moist-
ened, is then to be placed with the tips of the fingers of the right hand
as far back into the mouth as possible ; as the tongue is loosened it is
drawn back into the mouth and carries the ball backward with it.
The mouth should be kept closed for a minute or two. We should
always have a pail of water at hand to offer the horse after balling.
This precaution will often prevent him from coughing out the ball or
its becoming lodged in the gullet.

It is, very often, impossible to get balls properly made, or to induce
owners or attendants to attempt to give them, and for these reasons
medicines by the mouth are mostly given in the form of liquids.
When medicine is to be given as a drench we must be careful to use
enough water or oil to dissolve or dilute it thoroughly ; more than this
makes the drench bulky and is unnecesary. Insoluble medicines, if
not irritant or corrosive, may be given simply suspended in water,
the bottle to be well shaken immediately before giving the drench.
The bottle used for drenching purposes should be clean, strong, and
smooth about its neck ; it should be without shoulders, tapering, and
of a size to suit the amount to be given. A horn or tin bottle may be
better, because they are not so easily broken by the teeth. If the dose
is a small one the horse's head may be held up by the left hand, while

30 DISEASES OF THE HORSE,

the medicine is poured into the mouth by the right. The left thumb
is to be placed in the angle of the lower jaw, and the fingers spread
out in such a manner as to support the lower lip. Should the dose
be large, the horse ugly, or the attendant unable to support the head
as directed above, the head is then to be held up by running the tines
of a long-handled wooden fork under the noseband of the halter or
the halter strap or a rope may be fastened to the noseband and thrown
over a limb, beam, or through a pulley suspended from the ceiling.
Another way of supporting the head is to place a loop in the end of a
rope, and introduce this loop into the mouth just behind the upper
front teeth or tusks of the upper jaw, the free end to be run through
a pulley, as before described, and held by an assistant. It is never to
be fastened, as the horse might in that case do himself serious injury.
The head is to be elevated just enough to prevent the horse from
throwing the liquid out of his mouth. The line of the face should be
horizontal, or only the least bit higher. If the head is drawn too high
the animal can not swallow with ease or even with safety, ( If this is
doubted, just fill your mouth with water, throw back the head as far
as possible, and then try to swallow.) The person giving the drench
should stand on some object in order to reach the horse's mouth — on
a level, or a little above it. The bottle or horn is then to be intro-
duced at the side of the mouth, in front of the molar teeth, in an
upward direction. This will cause the horse to open his mouth, when
the base of the bottle is to be elevated, and about 4 ounces of the
liquid allowed to escape on the tongue as far back as possible, care
being taken not to get the neck of the bottle between the back teeth.
The bottle is to be immediately removed, and if the horse does not
swallow this can be encouraged by rubbing the fingers or neck of the
bottle against the roof of the mouth, occasionally removing them.
As soon as this is swallowed repeat the operation until he has taken
all the drench. If coughing occurs, or if, by any mishap, the bottle
should be crushed in the mouth, lower the head immediately.

Do not rub, pinch, or pound the throat nor draw out the tongue
when giving a drench. These processes in no way aid the horse to
swallow and oftener do harm than good. In drenching, swallowing
may be hastened by pouring into the nose of the horse, while the head
is high, a few teaspoonfuls of clean water, but drenches must never he
given through the nose. Large quantities of medicine given by pour-
ing into the nose are liable to strangle the animal, or, if the medicine
is irritating, it sets up an inflammation of the nose, fauces, windpipe,
and sometimes the lungs.

Cattle are easily drenched by holding them by the nose with the
left hand, while the medicine is poured into the mouth with the right.
Balls are not to be given to cattle, for they are likely to become

METHODS OF ADMINISTERING MEDICINES. 31

embedded in the great mass of food in the stomach and act tardily if
at all.

(2) Medicines are administered to the lungs and upper air passages
by insufflation, inhalation, injection, and nasal douche.

Insufflation consists of blowing an impalpable powder directly into
the nose. It is but rarely resorted to.

Gaseous and volatile medicines a^e given by inhalation^ as is also
medicated steam, or vapor. Of the gases used there may be men-
tioned, as the chief ones, sulphurous acid gas and, occasionally, chlo-
rine. The animal or animals are to be placed in a tight room, where
these gases are generated until the atmosphere is sufficiently impreg-
nated with them. Volatile medicines — as the anesthetics (ether, chlo-
roform, etc.) — are to be given by the attending surgeon only. Medi-
cated vapors are to be inhaled by placing a bucket containing hot
water, vinegar and water, scalded hay or bran, to which carbolic acid,
iodine, creolin, compound tincture of benzoin, or other medicines
have been added, in the bottom of a long grain bag. The horse's nose
is to be inserted into the top of the bag, and he thus inhales the
" medicated steam." Care must be taken not to have this hot enough
to scald the animal. The vapor from scalding bran or hay is often
thus inhaled to favor discharges in sore throat or " distemper."

Injections are made into the trachea by means of a hypodermic
syringe. This method of medication is used for the purpose of treat-
ing local diseases of the trachea and upper bronchial tubes. It has
also been used as a mode of administering remedies for their constitu-
tional effect, but is now rarely used for this purpose.

The nasal douche is employed by the veterinarian in treating some
local diseases of the nasal chambers. Special appliances and profes-
sional knowledge are necessary when using liquid medicines by this
method. It is not often resorted to, even by veterinary surgeons,
since, as a rule, the horse objects very strongly to this mode of medi-
cation.

(3) By the SKIN. — ^Medicines are often administered to our hair-
covered animals by the skin, yet care must be taken in applying some
medicines — as tobacco water, carbolic-acid solutions, strong creolin
solutions, mercurial ointment, etc. — over the entire body, as poison-
ing and death follow in some instances from absorption through the
skin. For the same reasons care must also be exercised and poisonous
medicines not applied over very large raw or abraded surfaces. With
domestic animals medicines are only to be applied by the skin to allay
local pain or cure local disease.

(4) By the tissue beneath the skin (hypodermi^tic iviethod). —
Medicines are frequently given by the hypodermic syringe under the
skin. It is not safe for any but medical or veterinary practitioners

32 DISEASES OF THE HORSE

to use this form of medication, since the medicines thus given are pow-
erful poisons. There are many precautions to be observed, and a
knowledge of anatomy is indispensable. One of the chief precautions
has to do with the sterilization of the syringe. If it is not sterile an
abscess may be produced.

(5) By the rectum. — Medicines may be given by the rectum when
they can not be given by the mouth, or when they are not retained in
the stomach ; when we want a local action on the last gut ; when it is
desired to destroy the small worms infesting the large bowels or to
stimulate the peristaltic motion of the intestines and cause evacuation.
Medicines are in such cases given in the form of suppositories or as
liquid injections (enemas). Foods may also be given in this way.

Suppositories are conical bodies made up of oil of theobroma and
opium (or whatever medicine is indicated in special cases), and are
introduced into the rectum or vagina to allay irritation and pain of
these parts. They are not much used in treating horses.

Enemas, when given for absorption, should be small in quantity,
neutral or slightly acid in reaction, and of a temperature of from 90°
to 100° F. These, like foods given by the rectum, should be intro-
duced only after the last bowel has been emptied by the hand or by
copious injections of tepid water. Enemas, or clysters, if to aid the
action of physics, should be in quantities sufficient to distend the
bowel and cause the animal to eject them. Simple water, salt and
water, or soap and water, in quantities of a gallon or more, may be
given every half hour. It is best that the horse retain them for some
little time, as the liquid serves to moisten the dung and favor a pas-
sage. Stimulating enemas^ as glycerin, should be administered after
those already mentioned have emptied the last bowel, with the pur-
pose of still further increasing the natural motion of the intestines
and aiding the purging medicine.

Liquids may be thrown into the rectum by the means of a large
syringe or a pump. A very good " irrigator " can be bought of any
tinsmith at a trifling cost, and should be constantly at hand on every
stock farm. It consists of a funnel about 6 inches deep and 7 inches
in diameter, which is to be furnished with a prolongation to which a
piece of rubber hose, such as small garden hose, 4 feet long may be
attached. The hose, well oiled, is to be inserted gently into the rec-
tum about 2 feet. The liquid to be injected may then be poured in
the funnel and the pressure of the atmosphere will force it into the
bowels. This appliance is better than the more complicated and
expensive ones.

Ordinary cold water or even ice-cold water is highly recommended
by many as a rectal injection for horses overcome by the excessive
heat of summer, and may be given by this simple pipe.

METHODS OF ADMINISTERING MEDICINES. 33

(6) By the genito-urinary passages. — This method of medication
is especially useful in treating local diseases of the genito-urinary
organs. It finds its chief application in the injection and cleansing
of the uterus and vagina. For this purpose a large syringe or the
irrigator described above may be used.

(7) By the blood. — Injections directly into veins are to be prac-
ticed by medical or veterinary practitioners only, as are probably
some other means of giving medicines — intratracheal injections, etc.

II. Doc. 795, 59-2 3

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.

By Ch. B. Michener, V. S.
[Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.]

It will not prove an easy task to write " a plain account of the
common diseases, with directions for preventive measures, hygienic
care, and the simpler forms of medical treatment," of the digestive
organs of the horse. This study includes a careful consideration of
the food and drink of our animals, their quality, quantity, analyses,
etc. This, of itself, is material for a book. Being limited as to
space, the endeavor must be made to give simply an outline — to state
the most important facts — leaving many gaps, and continually check-
ing the disposition to write anything like a full description as to
cause, prevention, and modes of treatment of disease.

These articles are addressed entirely to farmers and stock owners,
and I must ask my professional brethren to bear this in mind when
they are disposed to complain of a want of scientific treatment of
the subjects.

WATER.

It is generally held, at least in practice, that any water that stock
can be induced to drink is sufficiently pure for their use. This prac-
tice occasions losses that would startle us if statistics were at hand.
Water that is impure from the presence of decomposing organic mat-
ter, such as is found in wells and jDonds in close proximity to manure
heaps and cesspools, is frequently the cause of diarrhea, dysentery,
and many other diseases of stock, while water that is imj^regnated
with different poisons and contaminated with specific media of con-
tagion produces death in very many instances.

Considering first the quantity of water required by the horse, it
may be stated that when our animals have access to water continually
they never drink to excess. Were the horse subjected to ship voyages
or any other circumstances where he must depend upon his attendant
for the supply of water, it may be roughly stated that each horse
requires a daily average of about 8 gallons of water. This will vary
somewhat upon the character of his food; if upon green food, less
water will be needed than when fed upon dry hay and grain.

The time of giving water should be carefully studied. At rest, the
horse should receive water at least three times a day ; when at work,
more frequently. The rule should be to give in small quantities and
often. There is a popular fallacy that if a horse is warm he should
not be allowed to drink, many claiming that the first swallow of water
34

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 35

" founders " the animal or produces colic. This is erroneo.us. No
matter how warm a horse may be, it is always entirely, safe to allow
him from six to ten swallows of water. If this is given on going into
the stable, he should be given at once a pound or two of hay and
allowed to rest about an hour before feeding. If water be now offered
him it will in many cases be refused, or at least he will drink but
sparingly. The danger, then, is not in the " first swallow " of water,
but is due to the excessive quantity that the animal will take when
warm if he is not restrained.

Water should never be given to horses when it is ice cold. It may
not be necessary to add hot water, but we should be careful in placing
water troughs about our barns to have them in such position that the
sun may shine upon the water during the winter mornings. Water,
even though it be thus cold, seldom produces serious trouble if the
horse has not been deprived for a too great length of time.

In reference to the purity of water, Smith, in his " Veterinary Hy-
giene," classes spring water, deep-well water, and upland surface
water as wholesome; stored rain water and surface water from culti-
vated land, as suspicious; river water to which sewage gains access
and shallow-well water, as dangerous. The water that is used for
drinking purposes for stock so largely throughout some States can
not but be impure. I refer to those sections where there is an imper-
vious clay subsoil. It is the custom to scoop, or hollow out, a large
basin in the pastures. During rains these basins become filled with
water. The clay subsoil, being almost impervious, acts as a jug, and
there is no escape for the water except by evaj^oration. Such water
is stagnant, but would be kept comparatively fresh by subsequent
rains were it not for the fact that much organic matter is carried
into it by surface drainage during each succeeding storm. This or-
ganic matter soon undergoes decomposition, and, as the result, wc
find diseases of different kinds much more prevalent where this water
is drunk than where the water supply is wholesome. Again, it must
not be lost sight of that stagnant surface water is much more certainly
contaminated than is running water by one diseased animal of the
herd, thus endangering the remainder.

The chief impurities of water may be classified as organic and
inorganic. The organic impurities are either animal or vegetable
substances. The salts of the metals are the inorganic impurities.
Lime causes hardness of water, and occasion will be taken to speak of
this when describing intestinal concretions. Salts of lead, iron, and
copper are also frequently found in water, and will be referred to
hereafter.

About the only examination of water that can be made by the aver-
age stock raiser is to observe its taste, color, smell, and clearness.
Pure water is clear and is without taste or smell.

36 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

Chemical and microscopic examination will frequently be neces-
sary in order- to detect the presence of certain poisons, bacteria, etc.,
and can, of course, be conducted by experts only.

FOODS AND FEEDING.

In this place one can not attempt anything like a comprehensive
discussion of the subject of foods and feeding, and I must content my-
self with merely giving a few facts as to the different kinds of food,
preparation, digestibility, proper time of feeding, quality, and quan-
tit}^ Improper feeding and watering will doubtless account for over
one-half of the digestive disorders met with in the horse, and hence
the reader can not fail to see how very important it is to have some
proper ideas concerning these subjects.

KINDS OF FOOD.

In this country horses are fed chiefly upon hay, grass, corn fodder,
roots, oats, corn, wheat, and rye. Many think that they could be fed
on nothing else. Stewart, in " The Stable Book," gives the following
extract from Loudon's Encyclopedia of Agriculture, which is of
interest at this point :

In some sterile countries they [horses] are forced to subsist on dried fish, and
even on vegetable mold; in Arabia, on milk, flesh balls, eggs, broth. In India
horses are variously fed. The native grasses are judged very nutritious. Few,
perhaps no, oats are grown ; barley is rare, and not commonly given to horses.
In Bengal a vetch, something like the tare, is used. On the western side of
India a sort of pigeon pea, called gram (Ciccr arictinum), forms the ordinary
food, with grass while in season, and hay all the year round. Indian com or
rice is seldom given. In the West Indies maize, guinea corn, sugar-corn tops,
and sometimes molasses are given. In the Mahratta country salt, pepper, and
other spices are made into balls, with flour and butter, and these are supposed
to produce animation and to fine the coat. Broth made fi'om sheep's head is
sometimes given. In France, Spain, and Italy, besides the grasses, the leaves
of limes, vines, the tops of acacia, and the seeds of the carob tree are given to
horses.

For information as to the nutritive value, chemistry, and classifica-
tion of the different kinds of food, I will refer the reader to Jordan's
or Armsby's book on feeding animals, or to " Smith's Veterinary
Hygiene."

We can not, however, leave aside entirely here a consideration of
the digestibility of foods; and by this we mean the readiness with
which foods undergo those changes in the digestive canal that fit
them for absorption and deposition as integral parts of the animal
economy.

The age and health of the animal will, of course, modify the diges-
tibility of foods, as will also the manner and time of harvesting, pre-
serving, and preparing the foods.

In the horse digestion takes place principally in the intestines, and
here, as in all other animals and with all foods, it is found that a

FOODS AND FEEDING. 37

certain part only of the provender is digested; another portion is
indigested. This jDroportion of digested and undigested food must
daim passing notice at least, for if the horse receives too much food,
or bulky food containing much indigestible waste, a large portion of
food must pass out unused, entailing not only the loss of this unused
food, but also calling for an unnecessary expenditure of vital force
on the part of the digestive organs of the horse. It is thus that, in
fact, too much food may make an animal poor.

In selecting food for the horse we should remember the anatomical
arrangement of the digestive organs, as well as the physiological
functions i3erformed by each one of them. Foods must be whole-
some, clean, and sweet, the hours of feeding regular, the mode of
preparation found by j^ractical experience to be the best must be
adhered to, and cleanliness in preparation and administration must
be observed.

The length of time occupied by stomach digestion in the horse
varies with the different foods. Hay and straw pass out of the stom-
ach more rapidly than oats. It would seem to follow, then, that oats
should be given after hay, for if reversed the hay would cause the
oats to be sent onward into the intestines before being fully acted
upon by the stomach, and as a result produce indigestion. Experi-
ence confirms this. There is another good reason why hay should be
given first, particularly if the horse is very hungry or if exhausted
from overwork, namely, it requires more time in mastication (insur-
ing proper admixture of saliva) and can not be bolted, as are the
grains. In either instance water must not be given soon after feed-
ing, as it washes or sluices the food from the stomach before it is fitted
for intestinal digestion.

The stomach begins to empty itself very soon after the commence-
ment of feeding, and continues rapidly while eating. Afterwards
the passage is slower, and several hours are required before the stom-
ach is entirely empty. The nature of the work required of the horse
must guide us in the selection of his food. Rapid or severe labor can
not be performed on a full stomach. For such labor food must be
given in small quantity and about two hours before they go to work.
Even horses intended for slow work must never be engorged with
bulky, innutritions food immediately before going to labor. The
small stomach of the horse would seem to lead us to the conclusion
that this animal should be fed in small quantities and often, which, in
reality, should be done. The disproportion between the size of the
stomach and the amount of water drank tells us plainly that the
horse should always be watered before feeding. One of the common
errors of feeding, and the one that produces more digestive disorders
than any other, is to feed too soon after a hard day''s work. This
must never be done. If a horse is completely jaded, it will be found

38 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

beneficial to give him an alcoholic stimulant on going into the stable.
A small quantity of hay may then be given, but his grain should be
"withheld for one or two hours. These saiVie remarks will apply with
equal force to the horse that for any reason has been fasting for a
long time. After a fast, feed less than the horse would eat; for if
allowed too much the stomach becomes engorged, its walls paralyzed,
and " colic " is almost sure to follow. The horse should be fed
three or four times a day. It will not answer to feed him entirely
upon concentrated food. Bulky food must be given to detain the
grains in their passage through the intestinal tract ; bulk also favors
distention, and thus mechanically aids absorption. For horses that
do slow work for the greater part of the time, chopped or cut hay
fed with crushed oats, ground corn, etc., is the best manner of feed-
ing, as it gives the required bulk, saves time, and half the labor of
feeding.

Sudden changes of diet are always dangerous. When desirous of
changing the food, do so very gradually. If a horse is accustomed to
oats, a sudden change to a full meal of corn will almost always sicken
him. If we merely intend to increase the quantity of the usual feed,
this also must be done gradually. The quantity of food given must
always be in proportion to the amount of labor to be performed. If
a horse is to do a small amount of work, or rest entirely from work
for a few days, see that he receives a proportionate amount of feed.
If this should be observed even on Saturday night and Sunday, there
would be fewer cases of " Monday morning sickness," such as colics
and lymj)hangitis.

Foods should also be of a more laxative nature when the horse is to
stand for some days.

Musty or moldy foods. — Above all things, avoid feeding musty or
moldy foods. These are very frequent causes of disease of different
kinds. Lung trouble, such as bronchitis and " heaves," often follows
the use of such food. The digestive organs always suffer from moldy
or musty foods. Musty hay is generally considered to produce dis-
order of the kidneys; and all know of the danger to pregnant ani-
mals from feeding upon ergotized grasses or grains. It has often
been said to produce that peculiar disease known variously as cere-
bro-spinal meningitis, putrid sore throat, or choking distemper.

Leaving these somewhat general considerations, I will refer briefly
to the different kinds of foods :

Hay. — The best hay for horses is timothy. It should be about one
year old, of a greenish color, crisp, clean, fresh, and possessing a
sweet, pleasant aroma. Even this good hay, if kept for too great a
length of time, loses part of its nourishment, and, while it may not
be positively injurious, it is hard, dry, and indigestible. New hay is
difficult to digest, produces much salivation (slobbering) and occa-

FOODS AND FEEDING. 39

sional purging and irritation of the skin. If fed at all, it should be
mixed with old hay.

Second crop^ or aftermath. — This is not considered good hay for
horses, but it is prized by some farmers as a good food for milch
cows, the claim being macle that it increases the flow of milk. The
value of hay depends upon the time of cutting, as well as care in the
curing. Hay should be cut when in full flower, but before the seeds
fall ; if left longer, it becomes dry and woody and lacks in nutrition.
An essential point in making hay is that when the crop is cut it
should remain as short a time as possible in the field. If left too
long in the sun it loses color, flavor, and dries or wastes. Smith
asserts that one hour more than is necessary in the sun causes a loss
of 15 to 20 per cent in the feeding value of hay. It is impossible to
state any fixed time that hay must have to cure, this depending, of
course, upon the weather, thickness of the crop, and many other cir-
cumstances; but it is well known that, in order to preserve the color
and aroma of hay, it should be turned or tedded frequently and
cured as quickly as possible. On the other hand, hay spoils in the
mow if harvested too green, or when not sufficiently dried. Mow-
burnt hay produces disorder of the kidneys and bowels and causes the
horse to fall off in condition.

The average horse on grain should be allowed from 10 to 12 pounds
of good hay a day. It is a mistake of many to think that horses at
light work can be kept entirely on hay. Such horses soon become
pot-bellied, fall off in flesh, and do not thrive. The same is true of
colts; unless the latter are fed with some grain they grow up to be
long, lean, gawky creatures, and never make as good horses as those
accustomed to grain with, or in addition to, their hay.

Straw. — The straws are not extensively fed in this country, and
when used at all they should be cut and mixed with hay and ground
or crushed grain. Wheat, rye, and oat straw are the ones most
used, and of these oat straw is most easily digested and contains the
most nourishment. Pea and bean straw are occasionally fed to
horses, the pea being preferable, according to most writers.

Chaff. — Wheat and rye chaff should never be used as a food for
horses. The beards frequently become lodged in the mouth or throat
and are productive of more or less serious trouble. In the stomach
and intestines they often serve as the nucleus of the " soft concre-
tions," which are to be described when treating of obstructions of the
digestive tract.

Oat chaff, if fed in small quantities and mixed with cut hay or
corn fodder, is very much relished by horses. It is not to be given in
large quantities, as I have repeatedly witnessed a troublesome and
sometimes fatal diarrhea following the practice of allowing horses
or cattle free access to a pile of oat chaff.

40 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

Grains. — Oats take precedence of all grains as a food for horses,
as the ingredients necessary for the comjolete nutrition of the body
exist in them in the best proportions. Oats are, besides, more easily
digested and a larger proportion absorbed and converted into the
various tissues of the body. Care must be taken in selecting oats.
According to Stewart, the best oats are one year old, plump, short,
hard, clean, bright, and sweet. New oats are indigestible. Kiln-
dried oats are to be refused, as a rule, for even though originally good
this drying process injures them. Oats that have sprouted or fer-
mented are injurious and should never be fed. Oats are to be given
either whole or crushed — whole in the majority of instances; crushed
to old horses and those having defective teeth. Horses that bolt their
feed are also best fed upon crushed oats and out of a manger large
enough to permit of spreading the grain in a thin layer.

The average horse requires, in addition to the allowance of hay
above mentioned, about 12 quarts of good oats daily. The best oats
are those cut about one week before being fully ripe. Not only is the
grain richer in nutritive materials at this time, but there is also less
waste from " scattering " than if left to become dead ripe. Moldy
oats, like hay and straw, not only produce serious digestive disorders,
but have been the undoubted cause of outbreaks of that dread disease
in horses, already referred to, characterized by inability to eat or
drink, sudden paralysis, and death.

Wheat and rye. — These grains are not to be used as food for
horses except in small quantities, bruised or crushed, and fed mixed
with other grains or hay. li fed alone, in any considerable quanti-
ties, thej^ are almost certain to produce digestive disorders, laminitis
(founder), and similar troubles. They should never constitute more
than one-fourth of the grain allowance, and should always be ground
or crushed.

Bran. — The bran of wheat is the one most used, and its value as a
feeding stuff is variously estimated. It is not to be depended upon if
given alone, but may be fed with other grains. It serves to keep the
bowels open. Sour bran is not to be given. It disorders the stomach
and intestines and may even produce serious results.

Maize (corn). — This grain is not suitable as an exclusive food for
young horses, as it is deficient in salts. It is fed whole or ground.
Corn on the cob is commonly used as the food for horses affected with
" lampas." If the corn is old and is to be fed in this manner it should
be soaked in pure, clean water for ten or twelve hours. Corn is bet-
ter given ground, and fed in quantities of from 1 to 2 quarts at a
meal mixed with crushed oats or wheat bran. Be very particular in
giving corn to a horse that is not accustomed to its use. It must be
commenced in small quantities and very gradually increased. I

PREPAKATICN GF FOODS. 41

know of no grain more likel}^ to produce what is called acute indiges-
tion than corn if these directions are not observed.

Linseed. — Ground linseed is occasionally fed with other foods to
keej) the bowels open and to improve the condition of the skin. It is
of particaiar service during convalescence, when the bowels are slug-
gish in their action. Linseed tea is very often given in irritable or
inflamed conditions of the digestive organs.

Potatoes. — These are used as an article of food for the horse in
many sections. If fed raw and in large quantities they often produce
indigestion. Their digestibility is favored by steaming or boiling.
They i^ossess, in common with other roots, slight laxative properties.

Beets. — These are not much used as food for horses.

Carrots, — These make a most excellent food, particularly during
sickness. They improve the appetite and slighth^ increase the action
of the bowels and kidneys. They possess also certain alterative prop-
erties. The coat becomes smooth and glossy when carrots are fed.
Some veterinar}'- writers claim that chronic cough is cured by giving
carrots for some time. The roots may be considered, then, as an
adjunct to the regular regimen, and if fed in small quantities are
highly beneficial.

Grasses. — Grass is the natural food of horses. It is composed of
a great variety of plants, differing widely as to the amount of nour-
ishment contained, some being almost entirely without value as foods
and only eaten when there is nothing else obtainable, while others are
positively injurious, or even poisonous. None of the grasses are suf-
ficient to keep the horse in condition for work. Horses thus fed
are " soft," sweat easily, purge, and soon tire on the road or when at
hard work. To growing stock grass is indispensable, and there is
little or no doubt but that it acts as an alterative when given to
horses accustomed to grain and hay. It must be given to such horses
in small quantities at first. The stomach and intestines undergo rest,
and recuperate if the horse is turned to grass for a time each year.
It is also certain that during febrile diseases grass acts almost as a
medicine, lessening the fever and favoring recovery. Wounds heal
more rapidly than when the horse is on grain, and some chronic dis-
orders (chronic cough, for instance) disappear entirely when at grass.
In my experience, grass does more good when the horse crops it him-
self. This may be due to the sense of freedom he enjoys at pasture,
to the rest to his feet and limbs, and for many other similar reasons.
When cut for him it should be fed fresh or when but slightly wilted.

preparation of foods.

Foods are prepared for feeding for any of the following reasons:
To render the food more easily eaten ; to make it more digestible ; to
economize in amount; to give it some new property; and to pre-

42 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

serve it. We have already spoken of the preparation of drying, and
need not revert to this again, as it only serves to preserve the different
foods. Drying does, however, change some of the properties of food,
i. e., removes the laxative tendency of most of them.

The different grains are more easily eaten when ground, crushed, or
even boiled. Rye or wheat should never be given whole, and even of
corn it is found that there is less waste when ground, and, in common
with all grains, it is more easily digested than when fed whole.

Hay and fodder are economized when cut in short pieces. Nol
only will the horse eat the necessary amount in a shorter time, but it
will be found that there is less waste, and the mastication of the grains
(whole or crushed) fed with them is insured.

Reference has already been made to those horses that bolt their
food, and we need only remark here that the consequences of such
ravenous eating may be prevented if the grains are fed with cut hay,
straw, or fodder. Long or uncut hay should also be fed, even though
a certain amount of hay or straw is cut and fed mixed with grain.

One objection to feeding cut hay mixed with ground or crushed
grains, and wetted, must not be overlooked during the hot months.
Such food is apt to undergo fermentation if not fed directly after it
is mixed ; and the mixing trough even, unless frequently scalded and
cleaned, becomes sour and enough of its scrapings are given with the
food to produce flatulent (wind) colic. A small amount of salt
should always be mixed with such food. Bad hay should never be
cut simply because it insures a greater consumption of it ; bad foods
are dear at any price and should never be fed.

I have before spoken of the advantage of boiling roots. Not only
does this render them less liable to produce digestive disorders, but it
also makes them clean. Boiling or steaming grains is to be recom-
mended when the teeth are poor, or when the digestive organs are
weak. Of ensilage as a food for horses I have no experience, but am
inclined to think that (and this opinion is based upon the imperfect
manner in which the crop is often stored) disordered digestion would
be more frequent were it extensively fed.

DISEASES OF THE TEETH.®

DentUio7i.— This covers the period during which the young horse
is cutting his teeth— from birth to the age of five years. With the
horse more difficulty is experienced in cutting the second or per-
manent teeth than with the first or milk teeth. There is a tendency
among farmers and many veterinarians to pay too little attention^ to
the teeth of young horses. Percivall relates an instance illustrative
of this that is best told in his own words :

I was requested to give my opiuiou conceruiug a horse, then in his fifth year,
who had fed so sparingly for the last fortnight, and so rapidly declined In con-

« The method of determining the age of a horse by the teeth is illustrated in
Plate XLII, p. 564.

DISEASES OF THE TEETH. ' 43

dition in consequence, that his owner, a veterinary surgeon, was under no light
apprehensions about his life. He had himself examined his mouth without
having discovered any defect or disease, though another veterinary surgeon
was of opinion that the difficulty or inability manifested in mastication, and
the consequent cudding, arose from preternatural bluntness of the surfaces of
the molar teeth, which were, in consequence, filed, but without beneficial result.
It was after this that I saw the horse, and I confess I was, at my first examina-
tion, quite as much at a loss to offer any satisfactory interpretatfbn as others
had been. While meditating, however, after my inspection, on the apparently
extraordinary nature of the case, it struck me that I had not seen the tusks. I
went back into the stable and discovered two little tumors, red and hard, in the
situation of the inferior tusks, which, when pressed, gave the animal insuffer-
able pain. I instantly took out my pocketkuife and made crucial incisions
through them both, down to the coming teeth, from which moment the horse
recovered his appetite and, by degrees, his wonted condition.

The mouths of young horses should be examined from time to time
to see if one or more of the milk teeth are not remaining too long,
causing the second teeth to grow in crooked, in which case the first
teeth should be removed with the forceps.

Irregularities of teeth. — There is quite a fashion of late years, espe-
ciall}^ in large cities, to have horses' teeth regularly " floated," or
" rasped," b}^ " veterinary dentists." In some instances this is very
beneficial, while in most cases it is entirely unnecessary. From the
character of the food, the rubbing, or grinding, surface of the horse's
teeth should be rough. Still, we must remember that the upper jaw
is some^^'hat wider than the lower, and that, from the fact of the
teeth not being perfectly apposed, a sharp ridge is left unworn on the
inside of the lower molars and on the outside of the upper, which may
excoriate the tongue or cheeks to a considerable extent. This condi-
tion can readily be felt by the hand, and these sharp ridges when
found should be rasped down by a guarded rasp. In some instances
the first or last molar tooth is unnaturally long, owing to the fact
that its fellow in the opposite jaw has been lost or does not close per-
fectly against it. Should it be the last molar that is thus elongated,
it will require the aid of the veterinary surgeon, who has the neces-
sary forceps or chisel for cutting it. The front molar may be rasped
down, if much patience is taken. In decay of the teeth it is quite
common to find the tooth corresponding to the decayed one on the
opposite jaw very much elongated, sometimes to such an extent that
the mouth can not be perfectly closed. Such teeth must also be
shortened by the tooth forceps, chisel, tooth saw, or rasp. In all
instances where horses " quid " their food, where they are slobbering,
or where they evince pain in mastication, shown by holding their
head to one side while cheAving, the teeth should be carefully exam-
ined. Horses whose teeth have unduly sharp edges are likely to drive
badly; they pull to one side, do not bear on the bit, or bear on too
hard and " big," toss the head, and start suddenly when a tender spot
is touched. If, as is mostly the case, all the symptoms are referable

44 ' DISEASES OP THE HOKSE.

to sharp corners or projections of the teeth, these must be removed by
the rasp. If decayed teeth are found, or other serious difficulty
detected, or if the cause of the annoying symptoms is not discovered,
an expert should be called.

Toothache. — This is rare in the horse and is mostly witnessed where
there is decay of a tooth or inflammation about its root. Toothache
is to be discovered in the horse by the pain expressed by him while
feeding or drinking cold water. I have seen horses affected with
toothache that would suddenly stop chewing, throw the head to one
side, and slightly open the mouth. They behave as though some
sharp body had punctured the mouth. If upon examination there is
no foreign body found, we must then carefully examine each tooth.
If this can not be done with the hand in the mouth, we can, in most
instances, discover the aching tooth by pressing each tooth from
without. By tapping the teeth in succession with a hard object, such
as a small hammer, the one that is tender may be located. The horse
will flinch when the sore tooth is pressed or tapped upon. In most
cases there is nothing to be done but extract the decayed tooth, and
this, of course, is only to be attempted by the veterinarian.

There is a deformity., known as parrot-mouth, that interferes with
prehension, mastication, and, indirectly, with digestion. The upper
incisors project in front of and beyond the lower ones. The teeth of
both jaws become unusually long, as they are not worn down by fric-
tion. Such horses experience much difficulty in grazing. Little can
be done except to occasionally examine the teeth, and if those of the
lower jaw become so long that they bruise the " bars " of the upper
jaw, they must be shortened by the rasp or saw. Horses with this
deformity should never be left entirely at pasture.

DISEASES OF THE MOUTH.

Lampas. — Lampas is the name given to a swelling of the mucous
membrane covering the hard palate and projecting in a more or less
prominent ridge immediately behind the upper incisors. The hard
palate is composed of spongy tissue that fills with blood when the
horse is feeding, and this causes the ridges to become prominent, and
they then help to keep food from dropping from the mouth. This
swelling is entirely natural and occurs in every healthy horse. AVhere
there is some irritation in the mouth, as in stomatitis or during teeth-
ing, the prominence of the hard palate may persist, due to the in-
creased blood supply. In such cases the cause of the irritation should
be sought for and removed. By way of direct treatment, slight scari-
fication is the most that will be required. Burning the lampas is bar-
barous and injurious, and it should never be tolerated.

It is quite a common opinion among owners of horses and stable-
men that lampas is a disease that very frequently exists. In fact
whenever a horse fails to eat, and if he does not exhibit verv marked

DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. 45

symptoms of a severe illness, they say at once " he has the lampas."
It is almost impossible to convince them to the contrary; yet it is
not the case. It may be put clown, then, as an affliction of the stable-
man's imagination rather than of the horse's mouth.

Stomatitis. — This in an inflammation of the mucous m.embrane
lining the mouth and is produced by irritating medicines, foods, or
other substances. The symptoms are swelling of the mouth, which
is also hot and painful to the touch; there is a copious discharge of
saliva; the mucous membrane is reddened, and in some cases there
are observed vesicles or ulcers in the mouth. The treatment is simple,
soft feed alone often being all that is necessary. A bucket of fresh
cold water should be kept constantly in the manger so that the horse
may drink or rinse his mouth at will. In some instances it may be
advisable to use a wash of chlorate of potash, borax, or alum, about
one-half ounce to a pint of water. Hay, straw, or oats should not be
fed unless steamed or boiled. A form of contagious stomatitis some-
times occurs that is characterized by the formation within the mouth
of small vesicles, or blisters. In this disease the horse should be
isolated from other horses, and his stall, especially the feed box, and
his bit should be disinfected.

Glossitis, or inflammation of the tongue, is very similar to the
above, and mostly exists with it and is due to the same causes. In-
juries to the tongue may produce this simple inflammation of its
covering membrane, or, if severe, may produce lesions much more
extensive, such as lacerations, abscesses, etc. These latter would re-
quire surgical treatment, but for the simpler forms of inflammation
of the tongue the treatment recommended for stomatitis should be
followed.

Ptyalism, or salivation, consists in an abnormal and excessive se-
cretion of saliva. This is often seen as a symptom of irregular teeth ;
inflammation of the mouth or tongue, or of the use of such medicines
as lobelia, mercury, ahd many others. Some foods produce this, such
as clover, and particularly second crop ; foreign bodies, such as nails,
wheat chaff, and corncobs becoming lodged in the mouth. If the
cause is removed no further attention is necessary, as a rule. Astrin-
gent washes may be applied to the mouth as a gargle or by means of
a sponge.

Pharyngitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining
of the pharynx or throat. It rarely exists unless accompanied by
stomatitis or laryngitis, especially the latter. In those rare instances
in which the inflammation is mostly confined to the pharynx are
noticed febrile symptoms — difficulty of swallowing either liquids or
solids ; there is but little cough except when trying to swallow ; there
is no soreness on pressure over larynx (head of the windpipe). In-
creased flow of saliva, difficulty of swallowing liquids in particular,

46 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

and cough only when attempting to swallow are the symptoms best
marked in pharyngitis. In some cases the throat becomes gangrenous
and the disease ends in death. For treatment wrap a wet sheet
around the throat and cover this with rubber sheeting and a warm
blanket. This should be changed three times daily ; or the region of
the throat may be rubbed with mercurial ointment twice daily until
the skin becomes irritated, but no longer ; chlorate of potash may be
given in quantities of 2 drams four times daily, mixed with flaxseed
meal or liquorice-root powder and honey, as an electuary. Soft foods
should be given, and fresh water should be constantly before the
horse.

Paralysis of the pharynx, or, as it is commonly called, " paralysis
of the throat," is a rare but very serious disease. The symptoms are
as follows : The horse will constantly try to eat or drink, but will be
unable to do so; if water be offered him from a pail he will appar-
ently drink with avidity, but the quantity of water in the pail will
remain about the same ; he will continue trying to drink by the hour ;
if he can succeed in getting. any fluid into the back part of the mouth
it will come out at once through the nose. Foods also return through
the nose, or are dropped from the mouth, quidded. An examination
of the mouth by inserting the hand fails to find any obstruction or
any abnormal condition. These cases go on from bad to worse; the
horse constantly and rapidly loses in condition, becomes very much
emaciated, the eyes are hollow and lusterless, and death occurs from
inanition.

Treatment is very unsatisfactory. A severe blister should be ap-
plied behind and under the jaw; the mouth is to be frequently
swabbed out with alum or chlorate of potash, 1 ounce to a j)int of
water, by means of a sponge fastened to the end of a stick. Strych-
nia may be given in 1-grain doses two or three times a day.

This disease may be mistaken at times for foreign bodies in the
mouth or for the so-called cerebro-spinal meningitis. It is to be dis-
tinguished from the former, upon a careful examination of the
mouth, by the absence of any offending body and by the flabby feel
of the mouth; and from the latter by the animal appearing in per-
fect health in every particular except this inability to eat or drink.

Abscesses. — Abscesses sometimes form back of the pharynx and
give rise to symptoms resembling those of laryngitis or distemper.
Interference with breathing that is of recent origin and progression,
without any observable swelling or soreness about the throat, will
make one suspect the formation of an abscess in this location. But
little can be done by the owner in the way of treatment, save to hurry
the ripening of the abscess and its discharge by steaming with hops,
hay, or similar substances and by poulticing the throat. The opera-
ation for opening an abscess in this region necessitates an intimate
knowledge, of the complex anatomy of the throat region.

DISEASES OF THE GULLET. 47

DISEASES OF THE ESOPHAGUS, OR GULLET.

It is rare to find diseases of this organ, except as a result of the
introduction of foreign bodies too large to pass or to the administering
of irritating medicines. Great care should be taken in the administra-
tion of irritant or caustic medicines that they be thoroughly diluted.
If this is not done erosions and ulcerations of the throat ensue, and
this again is prone to be followed by constriction (narrowing) of
the gullet. The mechanical trouble of choking is quite common. It
may occur when the animal is suddenly startled while eating apples
or roots, and we should be careful never to approach suddenly or
put a dog after horses or cows that are feeding upon such substances.
If left alone these animals very rarely attempt to swallow the object
until it is sufficiently masticated.

Choking also arises from feeding oats in a deep, narrow manger to
such horses as eat very greedily or bolt their food. Wheat chaff is
also a frequent cause of choke. This accident may result from the
attempts to force eggs down without breaking or from giving balls
that are too large or not of the proper shape.

"\Miatever object causes the choking, it may lodge in the upper
part of the esophagus, at its middle portion, or close to the stomach,
giving rise to the designations of fliaryngeal^ cervical^ and thoracic
choke. In some cases where the original obstruction is low we find
all that part of the gullet above it to be distended with food.

The symptoms vary somewhat according to the position of the
body causing choke. In pharyngeal choke the object is lodged in the
tipp)er portion of the esophagus. The horse will present symptoms
of great distress, hurried breathing, frequent cough, excessive flow
of saliva, sweating, trembling, or stamping with the fore feet. The
abdomen rapidW distends with gas. The diagnosis is completed by
manipulating the upper part of the throat from without and by the
introduction of the hand into the back part of the mouth, finding the
body lodged here. In cervical choke (where the obstruction is
situated at any j^oint between the throatlatch and the shoulder) the
protrusion caused by the object can be seen and the object can be felt.
The symptoms here are not so severe; the horse will be seen occa-
sionally to draw himself up, arch his neck, and make retching
movements as though he wished to vomit. The abdomen may be
tympanitic. Should there be any question as to the trouble a con-
clusion may be reached by pouring water into the throat from a
bottle. If the obstruction is complete you can see the gullet become
distended with each bottle of water by standing on the left side of the
horse and watching the course of the esophagus, just above the wind-
pipe. This is not always a sure test, as the obstruction may be an
angular body, in which case liquids would pass it. Solids taken
would show in these cases; but solids should not, however, be given,

48 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

as they serve to increase the trouble by rendering the removal of the
body more difficult.

In thoracic choke the symptoms are less severe. Food or water
may be ejected through the nose or mouth after the animal has taken
a few swallows. There will be some symptoms of distress, fullness
of the abdomen, cough, and occasionally retching movements. Some-
times a horse that is choking is heard to emit groans. The facial
expression always denotes great anxiety and the eyes are bloodshot.
The diagnosis is complete if, upon j)assing the probang (a flexible
tube made for this purpose), an obstruction is encountered.

Treatment. — If the choke is at the beginning of the gullet {pharyn-
geal) an effort must be made to remove the obstacle through the
mouth. A mouth-gag, or speculum, is to be introduced into the
mouth to protect the hand and arm of the operator. Then, while an
assistant, with his hands grasped tightly behind the object, presses
it upward and forward with all his force, the operator must pass his
hand into the mouth until he can seize the obstruction and draw it
outward. This mode of procedure must not be abandoned with the
first failure, as we may get the obstacle farther toward the mouth by
continued efforts. If we fail with the hand, forceps may be intro-
duced through the mouth and the object seized when it is just beyond
the reach of the fingers. Should our efforts entirely fail, we must
then endeavor to force the obstruction downward by means of the
probang. This instrument, which is of such signal service in remov-
ing choke in cattle, is decidedly more dangerous to use for the horse ;
and I can not pass this point without a word of caution to those who
have been known to introduce into the horse's throat such objects as
whipstalks, shovel handles, etc. These are always dangerous, and
more than one horse has been killed by such barbarous treatment.

Cervical choke. — In this, as well as in thoracic choke, we must
first of all endeavor to soften or lubricate the obstruction by pouring
oil or mucilaginous drinks down the gullet. After this has been done
endeavor to move the object by gentle manipulations with the hands.
If choked with oats or chaff (and these are the objects that most fre-
quently produce choke in the horse), begin by gently squeezing the
lower portion of the impacted mass and endeavor to work it loose a
little at a time. This is greatly favored at times if we apply hot
fomentations immediately about the obstruction. Persist in these
efforts for at least an hour before deciding to resort to other and more
dangerous modes of treatment. If unsuccessful, however, the pro-
bang may be used. In the absence of the regular instrument, use a
piece of inch hose 6 feet long, or a piece of new three-quarter-inch
manila rope well wrapped at the end with cotton twine and thor-
oughly greased with tallow. The mouth is to be kept open by a gag
of wood or iron and the head slightly raised and extended. The pro-

DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES. 49

bang is then to be carefully guided by the hand into the upper part of
the gullet and gently forced downward until the obstruction is
reached. Pressure must then be gradual and firm. Do not at first
attempt too much force, or the esophagus will be ruptured. Simply
keep up this firm, gentle pressure until you feel the object moving,
after which you are to follow it rapidly to the stomach. If this mode
of treatment is unsuccessful, a veterinarian or physician is to be called
in, who can remove the object by cutting down upon it. This should
scarcely be attempted by a novice, as a knowledge of the anatomy of
the parts is essential to avoid cutting the large artery, vein, and nerve
that are closely related to the esophagus in its cervical portion.

Thoracic choke. — Thoracic choke can be treated only by means of
the introduction of oils and mucilaginous drinks, and the careful use
of the probang.

Stricture of the esophagus. — This is due to corrosive medicines,
previous choking (accompanied by lacerations, which, in healing, nar-
row the passage), or pressure on the gullet by tumors. In the major-
ity of cases of stricture, dilatation of the gullet in front of the con-
stricted portion soon occurs. This dilatation is due to the frequent
accumulation of solid food above the constriction. Little can be done
in either of these instances except to feed on sloppy or liquid food.

Sacular DILATATION OF THE ESOPHAGUS. — This follows clioking, and
is due to stretching or rupture of the muscular coat of the gullet,
allowing the internal, or mucous, coat to protrude through the lacer-
ated muscular walls. Such a dilatation, or pouch, may gradually
enlarge from the frequent imprisonment of food. Allien liquids are
taken, the solid materials are partially washed out of the pouch.

Symptoms. — The symptoms are as follows: The horse is able to
swallow a few mouthfuls of food without apparent difficulty; then
he will stop feeding, paw, contract the muscles of his neck, and eject
a portion of the food through his nose or mouth, or it will gradually
work down to the stomach. As the dilatation thus empties itself the
symptoms gradually subside, only to reappear when he has again
taken solid food. Liquids pass without any, or but little, inconven-
ience. Should this dilatation exist in the cervical region, surgical in-
terference may sometimes prove effectual; if in the thoracic por-
tion, nothing can be done, and the patient rapidly passes from hand
to hand by " swapping," until, at no distant date, the contents of the
sac become too firm to be dislodged as heretofore, and the animal
succumbs.

DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES.

As a rule it is most difficult to distinguish between diseases of the
stomach and of the intestines of the horse. The reason for this is
that the stomach is relatively small. It lies away from the abdominal

H. Doc. 795, 59-2 i

50 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

wall, and so pressure from without can not be brought to bear upon,
it to reveal sensitiveness or pain. Kor does enlargement, or disten-
tion, of the stomach j)roduce visible alteration in the form of the
abdomen of the horse. Moreover, it is a rule to which there are few-
exceptions that an irritant or cause of disease of the stomach acts
likewise upon the intestines, so that it is customary to find them
similarly deranged. For these reasons it is logical to discuss together
the diseases of the stomach and intestines and to point out such
localizations in one organ or another as are of importance in recog-
nizing and treating the diseases of the digestive organs of the horse.

It should be understood that gastritis signifies an inflammation of
the stomach and enteritis an inflammation of the intestines. The two
terms may be used together to signify a disease of the stomach and
intestines, as gastro-enteritis.

Colic. — The disease of the horse that is most frequently met with is
what is termed " colic," and many are the remedies that are reputed to
be " sure cures " for this disease. Let us discover, then, what the word
" colic " means. This term is applied loosely to almost all diseases of
the organs of the abdomen that are accompanied by pain. If the
horse evinces abdominal pain, he is likely to be put down as suffering
with colic, no matter whether the difficulty be a cramp of the bowel,
an internal hernia, overloading of the stomach, or a painful disease
of the bladder or liver. Since these conditions differ so much in their
causation and their nature, it is manifestly absurd to treat them alike
and to expect the same drugs or procedures to relieve them all.
Therefore it is important that the various diseased states that are so
roughly classed together as colic shall, so far as possible, be separated
and individualized in order that appropriate treatments may be pre-
scribed. With this object in view, colics will be considered under
the following headings : (1) Engorgement colic, (2) obstruction colic,
(3) tympanitic colic, (4) spasmodic colic, (5) worm colic.

The general symjDtoms of abdominal j^ain, and therefore of colic,
are restlessness, cessation of whatever the horse is about, h'ing down,
looking around toward the flank, kicking with the hind feet upward
and forward toward the belly, jerky switching of the tail, stretching
as though to urinate, frequent change of position, and groaning. In
tlie more intense forms the horse plunges about, throws himself down,
rolls, assumes unnatural positions, as sitting on the haunches, and
grunts loudly. Usually the pain is not constant, and during the inter-
]nissions the horse may eat and appear normal. During the period
of pain sweat is poured out freely. Sometimes the horse moves con-
stantly in a circle. The respirations are accelerated, and usually
there is no fever,

(1) Engorgement colic. — This form of colic consists in an over-
loading of the stomach with food. The horse may have been overfed

DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES. 51

or the food may have collected in the stomach through failure of this
organ to digest it and pass it backward into the intestines. Even a
normal amount of food that the horse is unaccustomed to may cause
disease. Hence a sudden change of food may produce engorgement
colic. Continued full rations while the horse is resting for a day or
two or working too soon after feeding may serve as a cause. New
oats, corn, or hay, damaged food, or food difficult of digestion, such
as barley or beans, may incite engorgement colic. This disease may
result from having fed the horse twice by error or from its having
escaped and taken an unrestricted meal from the grain bin. Ground
feeds that pack together making a sort of dough may cause engorge-
ment colic if they are not mixed with cut hay. Greedy eaters are
predisposed to this disease.

Syntj^toms. — The horse shows the general signs of abdominal pain,
which may be long continued or of short duration. Eetching or vom-
iting movements are made; these are shown by labored breathing,
uiDturned upper lip, contraction of the flank, active motion at the
throat, and drawing in of the nose toward the breast, causing high
arching of the neck. The horse may assume a sitting position on his
haunches, like a dog. At times the pain is very great and the horse
makes the most violent movements, as though mad. At other times
there is profound mental depression, the horse standing in a sleepy,
or dazed, way, with the head down, the eyes closed, and leaning his
head against the manger or wall. There is, during the struggles, pro-
fuse perspiration. Following retching, gas may escape from the
mouth, and this may be followed by a sour froth and some stomach
contents. The horse can not vomit except when the stomach is vio-
lently stretched, and, if the accumulation of food or gas is great
enough to stretch the stomach so that vomiting is possible, it may be
great enough to rupture this organ. So it happens not infrequently
that a horse will die from ruptured stomach after vomiting. But
after the stomach ruptures vomiting is impossible. The death rate
in this form of colic is high.

Treatment. — The bowels should be stimulated to contraction by the
use of clysters of large quantities of water and of glycerin. Veteri-
narians use hypodermic injections of eserin or arecolin or intra-
venous injections of barium chloride, but these have to be employed
with great caution. It is not profitable to give remedies by the
stomach, for they can not be absorbed. But small doses of morphine
(5 grains) or of the fluid extract of Indian hemp (2 drams) may be
placed in the mouth and are absorbed in part, at least, without pass-
ing to the stomach. These drugs lessen pain and thus help to over-
come the violent movements that are dangerous, because they may be
the means of causing rupture of the diaphragm or stomach. If

52 DISEASES OP THE HOESE.

facilities are available, relief may be afforded by passing an esoph-
ageal tube through which some of the gaseous and liquid contents of
the stomach may escape.

Rupture of the stomach. — This mostly occurs as a result of en-
gorged or tympanitic stomach (engorgement colic) and from the horse
violently throwing himself when so affected. It may result from
disease of the coats of the stomach, gastritis, stones, or calculi, tumors,
or anything that closes the opening of the stomach into the intes-
tines, and very violent pulling or jumping immediately after the
animal has eaten heartily of bulky food. These or similar causes
may lead to this accident.

The symptoms of rupture of the stomach are not constant or always
reliable. Always make inquiry as to what and how much the horse
has been fed at the last meal. Vomiting may precede rupture of this
organ, as stated above. This accident appears to be most likely to
occur in heavy draft horses. A prominent symptom observed
(though it may also occur in diaphragmatic hernia) is Avhere the horse,
if possible, gets the front feet on higher ground than the hind ones or
sits on his haunches, like a dog. This position affords relief to some
extent, and it will be maintained for some minutes ; it is also quickly
regained when the horse has changed it for some other. Colicky
symptoms, of course, are present, and these will vary much and pre-
sent no diagnostic value. As the case progresses " the horse will
often stretch forward the fore legs^ lean backward and downward
until the belly nearly touches the ground, and then rise up again
with a groan, after which the fluid from his nostrils is issued in
increased quantity." The pulse is fast and weak, breathing hurried,
body bathed in a clammy sweat, limbs tremble violently, the horse
reels or staggers from side to side, and death quickly ends the scene.

In the absence of any pathognomonic symptom we must take into
account the history of the case ; the symptoms of colic that cease sud-
denly and are succeeded by cold sweats and tremors ; the pulse quick
and small and thready, growing weak and more frequent, and at
length running down and becoming altogether imperceptible ; looking
back at the flank and groaning; sometimes crouching with the hind
quarters ; with or without eructation and vomiting.

There is no treatment that can be of any use whatever. Could we
be sure of our diagnosis it would be better to destroy the animal at
once. Since, however, there is always the possibility of a mistake in
diagnosis, we may give powdered opium in 1-dram doses every two
or three hours, with the object of keeping the stomach as quiet as
possible.

(2) Obstruction colic. — The stomach or bowels may be obstructed
by accumulations of partly digested food (fecal matter), by foreign
bodies, by displacements, by paralysis, or by abnormal growths.

DISEASES OP THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES. 53

Impaction of the large intestines. — This is a very common bowel
trouble and one which, if not promptly recognized and properly
treated, results in death. It is caused by overfeeding, especially of
bulky food containing an excess of indigestible residue ; old, dry, hard
hay, or stalks when largely fed; deficiency of secretions of the intesti-
nal tracts ; lack of water ; want of exercise, medicines, etc.

Symptoms. — Imj^action of the large bowels is to be diagnosed by a
slight abdominal jjain, which may disappear for a day or two to reap-
pear with more violence. The feces are passed somewhat more fre-
quently, but in smaller quantities and more dry ; the abdomen is full,
but not distended with gas; the horse at first is noticed to paw and
soon begins to look back at his sides. Probably one of the most char-
acteristic symptoms is the position assumed when down. He lies flat
on his side, head and legs extended, occasionally raising his head to
look toward his flank ; he remains on his side for from five to fifteen
minutes at a time. Evidently this position is the one giving the most
freedom from j^ain. He rises at times, walks about the stall, paws,
looks at his sides, backs up against the stall, which he presses with his
tail, and soon lies down again, assuming his favored position. The
intestinal sounds, as heard by applying the ear to the flank, are dimin-
ished, or there is no sound, indicating absence of motion of the bowels.
The bowels may cease entirely to move. The pressure of the distended
intestine upon the bladder may cause the horse to make frequent
attempts to urinate. The pulse is but little changed at first, being
full and sluggish ; later, if this condition is not overcome, it becomes
rapid and feeble. Horses may suffer from impaction of the bowels
for a week, yet eventually recover, and cases extending two or
even three weeks have ended favorably. As a rule, however, they sel-
dom last over four or five days, many, in fact, dying sooner than this.

The treatment consists of efforts to produce movement of the bowels
and to prevent inflammation of the same from arising. A large
cathartic is to be given as early as possible. Either of the follow-
ing is recommended: Powdered Barbados aloes 1 ounce, calomel 2
drams, and powdered nux vomica 1 dram; or linseed oil 1 pint and
croton oil 15 drops; or from 1 pint to 1 quart of castor oil may be
given. Some favor the administration of Epsom or Glauber's salts,
1 pound, with one-quarter pound of common salt, claiming that this
causes the horse to drink largely of water, and thus mechanically
softening the impacted mass and favoring its expulsion. Whichever
physic is selected, it is essential that a full dose be given. This is
much better than small and repeated doses. It must be borne in mind
that horses require about twenty-four hours in which to respond to a
physic, and under no circumstances are physics to be repeated sooner
than this. If aloes has been given and has failed to operate at the
proper time, oil or some different cathartic should then be adminis-
tered. Allow the horse all the water he will drink. Calomel may be

54 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

administered in half-dram doses, the powder being placed on the
tongue, one dose every two hours until four doses are given.

Enemas of glycerin, 2 to 4 ounces, are often beneficial. Eubbing
or kneading of the abdominal walls and the application of stimulat-
ing liniments or strong mustard water will also, at times, favor the
expulsion of this mass. Walking exercise must occasionally be given.
If this treatment is faithfully carried out from the start the majority
of cases will terminate favorably. ^Vhere relief is not obtained in-
flammation of the bowels may ensue, and death follow from this
cause.

Constijyation, or costiveness. — This is often witnessed in the horse,
and particularly in the foal. Many colts die every year from failure
on the part of the attendant to note the condition of the bowels soon
after birth. "VVlienever the foal fails to pass any feces, and in partic-
ular if it presents any signs of colicky pains — straining, etc. — imme-
diate attention must be given it. As a rule, it will only be necessary
to give a few injections of soapy water in the rectum and to introduce
the finger through the anlis to break down any hardened mass of dung
found there. If this is not effective, a purgative must be given. Oils
are the best for these young animals, and preferably castor oil, giving
from 2 to 4 ounces. The foal should always get the first of the
mother's milk, as this milk, for a few days, possesses decided laxative
properties. If a mare, while suckling, is taking laudanum, morphine,
atropia, or similar medicines, the foal should be fed during this time
by hand and the mare milked upon the ground. Constipation in
adult horses is often the result of long feeding on dry, innutritions
food, deficiency of intestinal secretions, scanty water supplj'', or lack
of exercise. If the case is not complicated with colicky symptoms, a
change to light, sloppy diet, linseed gruel or tea, with plenty of exer-
cise, is all that is required. If colic exists, a cathartic is needed. In
ver}'' many instances the constipated condition of the bowels is due
to lack of intestinal secretions, and when so due, may be treated by
giving fluid extract of belladonna three times a day in 2-dram doses,
and handful doses daily of Epsom salts in the feed. It is always
best, when possible, to overcome this trouble by a change of diet
rather than by the use of medicines. For the relief of constipation
such succulent foods as roots, grass, or green forage are recommended.
Silage, however, should be fed sparingly, and not at all unless it is
in the very best condition. Moldy silage may cause fatal disease.

Foreign bodies {calcidi {stones) in the stomach). — ^There are prob-
ably but few symptoms exhibited by the horse that will lead one to
suspect the presence of gastric calculi, and possibly none by which we
can unmistakably assert their presence. Stones in the stomach have
been most frequently found in millers' horses fed sweepings from
the mill. A depraved and capricious appetite is common in horses

DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES. 55

that have a stone forming in their stomach. There is a disposition to
eat the ^voodwork of the stable, earth, and, in fact, ahnost any sub-
stance within their reach. This symptom must not, however, be con-
sidered as pathognomonic, since it is observed when calculi are not
present. Occasional colics may result from these " stomach stones,"
and when these lodge at tlie outlet of the stomach they maj^ give rise
to symptoms of engorged stomach, already described. There is, of
course, no treatment that will prove effective. Give remedies to move
the bowels, to relieve pain, and to combat inflammation.

Intestinal concretions {calculi {stones) in the intestines). — These
concretions are usually found in the large bowels, though they are
occasionally met with in the small intestines. They are of various
sizes, weighing from 1 ounce to 25 pounds; they may be single or
multiple, and differ in composition and appearance, some being soft
(composed mostly of animal or vegetable matter), while others are
porous, or honeycombed (consisting of animal and mineral matter),
and others are entirely hard and stonelike. The hair balls, so
common to the stomach and intestines of cattle, are very rare in the
horse. Intestinal calculi form around some foreign body, as a rule —
a nail or piece of wood — whose shape they may assume to a certain
extent. Layers are arranged concentrically around such nucleus until
the sizes above spoken of are attained. These stones are also often
found in millers' horses, as well also as in horses in limestone districts,
where the water is hard. "VATien the calculi attain a sufficient size and
become lodged or blocked in some part of the intestines, they cause
obstruction, inflammation of the bowels, colicky symptoms, and death.
There are no certain signs or symptoms that reveal them. Recurring
colics of the tyjoe of impaction colic, but more severe, may lead one to
suspect the existence of this condition. Examination through the
rectum may reveal the calculus.

The sympto7ns will be those of obstruction of the bowels. Upon
l^ost-mortem examinations these stones will be discovered mostly in
the large bowels; the intestines will be inflamed or gangrenous about
the point of obstruction. Sometimes calculi have been expelled by the
action of a j^hysic, or they may be removed by the hand when found
to occupy the rectimi.

As in concretions of the stomach, there can be but little done in the
way of treatment more than to overcome spasm (if any exists), and
to give physics with the hope of dislodging the stone or stones and
carrying them on and outward.

Intussusception^ or invagination. — This is the slipping of a portion
of the intestine into another portion immediately adjoining, like a
partially turned glove finger. This may occur at any part of the
bowels, but is most frequent in the small guts. The invaginated por-
tion rudij be slight — 2 or 3 inches only— or extensive, measuring as

56 DISEASES OP THE HORSE.

many feet. In intussusception, the inturned bowel is in the direction
of the anus. There are adhesions of the intestines at this point, con-
gestion, inflammation, or even gangrene. This accident is most likely
to occur in horses that are suffering from spasm of the bowel, or in
those where a small portion of the gut is paralyzed. The natural
wormlike or ringlike contraction of the gut favors the passage of
the contracted or paralyzed portion into that immediately behind it.
It may occur during the existence of almost any abdominal trouble, as
diarrhea, inflanrmation of the bowels, or from injuries, exposure to
cold, etc. A fall or leaping may give the initial maldirection. Foals
are most likely to be thus afflicted.

Symptoms.- — Unless the invaginated portion of the gut becomes
strangulated, probably no symptoms will be appreciable, except con-
stipation. Strangulation of the bowel may take place suddenly, and
the horse die within twenty-four hours, or it may occur after several
days — a week even — and death follow at this time. There are" no
symptoms positively diagnostic. Colicky pains, more or less severe
and continuous, are observed, and there may be at first diarrhea fol-
lowed by constipation. Severe straining occurs in some instances of
intussusception, and this should be given due credit when it occurs.
As death approaches the horse sweats profusely, sighs, presents an
anxious countenance, the legs and ears become cold, and there is often
freedom from pain immediately before death. In some rare in-
stances the horse recovers, even though the invaginated portion of
the gut has become strangidated. In this case the imprisoned portion
sloughs away so gradually that a union has taken place between the
intestines at the point where one portion has slipped into that behind
it. The piece sloughing off is found passed with the manure. Such
cases are exceedingly rare. Nonirritating laxatives, such as castor
oil, sweet oil, or calomel in small doses should be given, and creolin
in 2-dram doses in a pint of warm water. Soft feed and mucilag-
inous and nourishing drinks should be given during these attacks.
E. Mayhew Michener has operated successfully on a foal with intus-
susception by opening the abdomen and releasing the imprisoned gut.

Volvulus^ gut-tie^ or twisting of the howels. — These are the terms
applied to the bowels when twisted or knotted. This accident is
rather a common one, and frequently results from the violent manner
in which a horse throws himself about when attacked by spasmodic
colic. The symptoms are the same as those of intussusception and
obstructions of the bowels; the same directions as to treatment are
therefore to be observed.

Paralysis of the intestine. — This occurs in old, debilitated animals
that have been fed on coarse innutritious fodder. This produces
a condition of dilatation so pronounced as to make it impossible for
the intestine to advance its contents, and so obstruction results. The
symptoms are as in other forms of obstruction colic. The history of

DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES. 57

the case is of much service in diagnosing the trouoie. The treatment
consists in the administration of laxatives. One may give 1 quart of
raw linseed oil and follow it the next day with 1 pound of Glauber's
salts dissolved in a quart of warm water. Strychnia may be given in
doses of 1 grain two or three times daily. If the stagnant mass of
feces is in the rectum, it must be removed with the hand.

Ahiiormal growths^ such as tumors or fibrous tissue, producing
contraction or stricture may be causes of obstruction. The colic
caused by these conditions is chronic. The attacks occur at gradually
shortening intervals and become progressively more severe. Relief is
afforded by the use of purgatives that render the feces soft and thin
and thus enable them to pass the obstruction. But in time the con-
tracted place is likely to close so far that passage is impossible and
the horse will die.

(3) Flaittlent colic (tympanitic colic, wind colic, or bloat). —
Among the most frequent causes of this form of colic are to be men-
tioned sudden changes of food, too long fasting, food then given
while the animal is exhausted, new hay or grain, large quantities of
green food, food that has lain in the manger for some time and become
sour, indigestible food, irregular teeth, crib-biting, and, in fact, any-
thing that produces indigestion may produce flatulent colic.

The symptoms of wind colic are not so suddenly developed nor so
severe as those of cramp colic. At first the horse is noticed to be dull,
paws slightly, and may or may not lie down. The pains from the
start are continuous. The belly enlarges, and by striking it in front
of the haunches a drumlike sound results. If not soon relieved the
above symptoms are aggravated, and in addition there are noticed
diificult breathing, bloodshot eyes, and red mucous membranes, loud
tumultuous heart beat, profuse perspiration, trembling of front legs,
sighing respiration, staggering from side to side, and, finally, plung-
ing forward dead. The diagnostic symptom of flatulent colic is the
distention of the bowels with gas, detected by the bloated appearance
and resonance on percussion.

The treatment for wind colic differs very materially from that of
cramp colic. Absorbents are of some service, and charcoal may be
given in any quantity. Relaxants and antispasmodics are also bene-
ficial in this form of colic. Chloral hydrate not only possesses these
qualities, but it also is an antiferment and a pain reliever. It is then
particularly well adapted to the treatment of wind colic, and should
be given in the same-sized doses and in the manner directed for spas-
modic colic. Diluted alcohol or whisky may be given, or aromatic
spirits of ammonia in 1-ounce doses at short intervals.

A physic should always be given in flatulent colic as early as possi-
ble, the best being Barbados aloes in the dose already mentioned.
Injections, per rectum, of turpentine 1 to 2 ounces, linseed oil 8 ounces,
may be given frequently to stimulate the peristaltic motion of the

58 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

bowels and favor the escape of wind. Blankets wrung out of hot
water do much to afford relief; they should be renewed every five
or ten minutes and covered with a dry woolen blanket. This form of
colic is much more fatal than cramp colic, and requires prompt and
persistent treatment. It is entirely unsafe to predict the result, some
apparently mild attacks going on to speedy death, while others that
appear at the onset to be very severe yielding rapidly to treatment.
Do not cease your efforts until you are sure the animal is dead. In
these severe casas puncturing of the bowels in the most prominent
(distended) part by means of a small trocar and cannula or with a
needle of a hypodermic syringe, thus allowing the escape of gas, has
often saved life, and such j^unctures, if made with a clean, sharp in-
strument that is not allowed to remain in the horse too long, are
accompanied by little danger and do more to quickly relieve the
patient than any other treatment.

(4) Spasmodic, or cramp, colic. — ^This is the name given to that
form of colic produced by contraction, or spasm, of a portion of the
small intestines. It is produced by indigestible food ; large drinks of
cold water when the animal is warm ; driving a heated horse through
deep streams; cold rains; drafts of cold air, etc. Unequal distribu-
tion of or interference with the nervous supply here produces cramp
of the bowels, the same as external cramps are produced. Spasmodic
colic is much more frequently met with in high-bred, nervous horses
than in coarse, Ij^mphatic ones.

Symptoms. — These should be carefully studied in order to diagnose
this from other forms of colic requiring quite different treatment.
Spasmodic colic always begins suddenly. If feeding, the horse is seen
to stop abruptly, stamp impatiently, and probably look back. He
soon evinces more acute pain, and this is shown by pawing, suddenly
lying down, rolling, and getting up. During the period of pain the
intestinal sounds, as heard by applying the ear over the flank, are
louder than in health. There is then an interval of ease; he will
resume feeding and appear to be entirely w^ell. In a little while, how-
ever, the pains return and are increased in severity, only to again pass
off for a time. As the attack progresses these intervals of ease become
shorter and shorter, and pain may be continuous, though even now
there are exacerbations of pain. Animals suffering from this form of
colic evince the most intense pain ; they throw themselves down, roll
over and over, jump up, whirl about, drop down again, paw, or strike
rather, with the front feet, steam and sweat, and make frequent
attempts to pass their urine. Only a small amount of water is passed
at a time, and this is due to the bladder being so frequently emptied.
These attempts to urinate are often regarded by horsemen as symp-
toms of trouble of the kidneys or bladder. In reality they are only
one of the many ways in which the horse expresses the i^resence of

SPASMODIC COLIC. 59

pain. As a matter of fact, diseases of the bladder or kidneys of the
horse are exceedingly rare.

To recapitulate the symptoms of spasmodic colic : Keep in mind the
history of the case, the type of horse, the suddenness of the attack,
the increased intestinal sounds, the intervals of ease (which become of
shorter duration as the case progresses) , the violent pain, the normal
temperature and pulse during the intervals of ease, the frequent
attempts to urinate, etc., and there is but little danger of confounding
this with other forms of colic.

Treatment. — Since the pain is due to spasm, or cramp, of the
bowels, medicines that overcome spasms — antispasmodics-;— are the
ones indicated. Chloral hydrate may be used. This is to be given in
a dose of 1 ounce in a jDint of water as a drench. As |:his drug is
irritant to the throat and stomach, it has to be well diluted. A com-
mon and good remedy is suljjhuric ether and laudanum; of each 2
ounces in a half j)int of linseed oil. Another drench may be com-
posed of 2 ounces each of sulphuric ether and alcohol in 8 ounces of
water. If nothing else is at hand give whisky, one-half pint in hot
water. Jamaica ginger is useful. If relief is not obtained in one
hour from any of the above doses, they may then be repeated. The
body should be warmly clothed and j)erspiration induced. Blankets
dipped in very hot water to which a small quantity of turpentine has
been added should be placed around the belly and covered with dry
blankets, or the abdomen may be rubbed with stimulating liniments
or mustard water. The difficulty, however, of applying hot blankets
and keeping them in place forces us in most instances to dispense with
them. If the cramp is due to irritants in the bowels, a cure is not
complete until there is given a cathartic of 1 ounce of aloes or 1 pint
of linseed oil. Injections into the rectum of warm soapy water or
salt and water aid the cure.

Eectal injections, clysters, or enemas as a rule should be lukewarm,
and from 3 to 6 quarts are to be given at a time. They may be
repeated every half hour if necessary. Great care is to be taken not
to injure the rectum in giving such injections. A large syringe or a
Ijiece of rubber hose 4 or 5 feet long, with a funnel attached at one
end, affords the best means by which to give them. The pipe of the
syringe or the hose introduced into the rectum must be blunt, rounded,
and smooth. It is to be thoroughly oiled and then carefully i)ushed
through the anus in a slightly upward direction. Much force must
be avoided, for the rectum may be lacerated and serious complications
or even death result. Exercise will aid the action of the bowels in this
and similar colicky troubles, but severe galloping or trotting is to be
avoided. If the horse can have a loose box or paddock, it is the best,
as he will then take what exercise he wants. If the patient be ex-
tremely violent, it is often wise to restrain him by leading him with a

60 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

halter, since rupture of the stomach or displacement of the bowels
may result and complicate the trouble.

(5) Worm COLIC. — Parasites of many kinds reside in the intestinal
canal of horses. There are three kinds of tapeworms, one long round-
worm, and several kinds of smaller roundworms. Besides these are
the bot-fly grubs and larvae. The intestinal worm most commonly
seen is the long roundworm, known as Ascaris equorum. They are
white or reddish in color and measure from 4 to 12 inches in length.
In thickness they yary from the size of a rye straw to that of a lady's
little finger, being thickest at the middle and tapering at both ends.
They are. found singly or in groups or masses, and infest chiefly the
small intestines. (See PI. III.)

Of the smaller roundworms, there may be mentioned Spiroftera
microstoma^ which causes ulcers in the stomach; Cylichnostormmb
tetracanthum^ Strongylus equinus, and Strongylus vulgaris, which
live in the large intestines. The larvae of the last named burrow in
the walls of the great mesenteric artery, causing aneurisms.

The tapeworms, once seen, are easily recognized. They are white,
flat, thin, broad, and jointed. The head is found at the smaller end
of the Ts'orm. Tapeworms of the horse measure from a few inches to
a foot in length.

Symptoms. — Symptoms of intestinal worms are not always ob-
served, even when many parasites are present. If the infestarion is
extreme, there may be slight colicky pains at times, or there may only
be switching of the tail, frequent passages of manure, and some slight
straining, itching of the anus, and rubbing of the tail or rump against
the stall or fences; the horse is in poor condition; does not shed his
coat; is hidebound and potbellied; the appetite is depraved, licking
the walls, biting the wooden work of the stalls, licking parts of his
body, eating earth, and being particularly fond of salt ; the bowels
are irregular, constipation or diarrhea being noticed. Some place
much dependence upon the symptom of itching of the upper lip, as
shown by the horse frequently turning it up and rubbing it upon the
wall or stalls. Others again declare that M^henever we see the adher-
ence of a dried whitish substance about the anus, worms are present.
The one symptom, however, that we should always look for, and cer-
tainly the only one that may not deceive us, is seeing the worms or
their eggs (by the use of a microscope) in the dung.

Treatment. — Remedies to destroy intestinal worms are much more
efficient if given after a long fast, and then the worm medicine must
be supplemented by a physic to carry out the worms. Among the
best worm medicines may be mentioned santonin, turpentine, tartar
emetic, creolin, infusion of tobacco, and bitter tonics. To destroy
tapeworms, areca nut, malefern, and pumpkin seeds are the best. If
a horse is passing the long roundworms, the plan of treatment is to

INDIGESTION. 61,

give twice daily for three or four days a drench composed of turpen-
tine or creolin 1 ounce and linseed oil 2 or 3 ounces, to be followed on
the fourth day by a physic of Barbados aloes 1 ounce, or one may give
santonine ^ to 2 drams, with calomel 1 to 2 drams. This dose should
not be repeated, and should be followed in six hours by 1 quart of lin-
seed oil. If worms infesting the large bowels are present, injections
into the rectum of infusions of tobacco, infusions of quassia chips,
one-half pound to a gallon of water, once or twice daily for a few
days, and follow by a physic, are most beneficial. It should be borne
in mind that intestinal worms are mostly seen in horses that are in
poor condition, and an essential part of treatment then is to improve
the appetite and powers of digestion. This is best done by giving
the vegetable tonics. One-half ounce of Peruvian bark, gentian, gin-
ger, quassia, etc., is to be given twice a day in the feed or as a drench.

To improve the general condition one may give artificial Carlsbad
salts, 1 tablespoonful in each feed, and each dose to have added to it
3 to 5 grains of arsenious acid.

Bot-fly larvae do not require special treatment unless they lodge in
the rectum, in which case they may be dislodged by injecting tobacco
water. If plenty of rock salt is allowed for horses to lick, they Avill
thus be protected against intestinal parasites to a slight but useful
degree.

Indigestion or gastro-intestinal catarrh. — There is ample rea-
son for considering these conditions together from the facts that they
merge insensibly into each other and usually occur simultaneously.
This condition may be acute — that is, of sudden onset — or it may be
chronic. The changes of structure produced by this disease occur
in the mucous-membrane lining of the stomach and intestines. This
membrane becomes red from increased blood supply or from hemor-
rhage into it, it is swollen, and is covered by a coating of slimy
mucus. In some especially severe cases the membrane is destroyed
in spots, causing the appearance of ulcers or of erosions.

The causes of indigestion are numerous, but nearly all are the
result of errors in feeding.

Some horses are naturally endowed with weak digestive organs,
and such are predisposed to this condition. Anything that irritates
the stomach or intestines may cause this disease. Foods that the
animal is unaccustomed to, sudden changes of diet, imperfectly cured,
unripe, or damaged foods are all fruitful causes, and so are worms.
In suckling foals this condition may come from some disease of the
dam that renders her milk indigestible or from overexertion or over-
heating of the mare. Another prolific cause is bad teeth, making
mastication imperfect, and thus causing the horse to swallow his food
in a condition unfit for the action of the digestive juices. Working a
horse too soon or too hard after feeding may cause either colic or

62 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

indigestion. Any condition that reduces the vitality of the horse,
such as disease, overwork, poor food, or lack of care, may indirectly
bring on indigestion by weakening the digestive organs.

SymptoTRS. — Indigestion is characterized by irregular appetite;
refusing all food at times, and at others eating ravenously ; the appe-
tite is not only irregular, but is often depraved ; there is a disposition
on the part of the horse to eat unusual substances, such as wood,
soiled bedding, or even his own feces ; the bowels are irregular to-day,
loose and bad smelling, to-morrow bound ; grain is often passed whole
in the feces, and the hay passed in balls or impacted masses, under-
going but little change; the horse frequently passes considerable
quantities of wind that has a sour odor. The animal loses flesh, the
skin presents a hard, dry appearance and seems very tight (hide-
bound). If the stomach is very seriously involved, the horse may
yawn by stretching the head forward and upward and by turning
outward the upper lip. There may be more or less colicky pain. In
the chronic cases there is mental depression ; the horse is sluggish and
dull. The abdomen gradually becomes small, giving a " tucked up "
appearance, or, on the other hand, it becomes flaccid and pendulous.

Treatment. — One should commence with the food — its quality,
quantity, and time of feeding; examine the water supply, and see,
besides, that it is given before feeding; then carefully observe the
condition of the mouth and teeth ; and, continuing the observations as
best we may, endeavor to locate the seat of the trouble. If the teeth
are sharp or irregular they must be rasped down ; if any are decayed
they must be extracted; if indigestion is due to ravenous eating or
bolting, the feed must then be given from a large manger where the
grain can be spread and the horse thus compelled to eat slowly.

Any irritation, such as worms, undigested food, etc., that is
operating as causes are to be removed by appropriate treatment, as
advised elsewhere. If there is a tendency to distention of the stomach
and bowels, with gas, during indigestion, the following may be used :
Baking soda, powdered ginger, and powdered gentian, equal parts.
These are to be thoroughly mixed and given in heaping tablespoonful
doses, twice a day, before feeding. This powder is best given by
dissolving the above quantity in a half pint of w^ater and given as a
drench.

As a digestive tonic the following is good: Glauber's salts, 2
pounds; common salt, 1 pound; bakmg soda, one-half pound. Of
this a heaping tablespoonful may be given in each feed. If diarrhea
exists, the treatment advised below may be used.

Diarrhea. — Diarrhea is due to indigestion Or intestinal catarrh or
to irritation of the bowels from eating moldy or musty food, drinking
stagnant water, diseased condition of the teeth, eating irritating sub-
stances, to being kept on low, marshy pastures, and exposure during

SUPEEPUEGATION. 63

cold nights, or low, damp stables. Some horses are predisposed to
scour and are called " washy " by horsemen; they are those with long
bodies, long legs, and narrow, flat sides. Horses of this build are
almost sure to scour if fed or watered immediately before being put to
work. Fast or road work, of course, aggravates this trouble. Diar-
rhea may exist as a complication of other diseases as pneumonia and
influenza, for instance, and again during the diseases of the liver.

The symptoms are the frequent evacuations of liquid stools, with or
without pronounced abdominal pain, loss of appetite, emaciation, etc.

Treatment is at times very simple, but requires the utmost care and
judgment. If due to faulty food or water it is sufficient to change
these. If it results from some irritant in the intestines, this is best
gotten rid of by the administration of an oleaginous purge, for which
nothing is better than castor oil, although raw linseed oil may be used
if the case is not severe. The diarrhea often disappears with the ces-
sation of the operation of the medicine. If, however, purging con-
tinues, it may be checked by giving wheat flour in water, starch
water, white-oak bark tea, chalk, opium, or half-dram doses of sul-
phuric acid in one-half pint of water twice or thrice daily. Good
results follow the use of powdered opium 2 drams and subnitrate of
bismuth 1 ounce, repeated three times a day. It should be remem-
bered in all cases to look to the water and feed the Korse is receiving.
If either of these is at fault it is at once to be discontinued. We
should feed sparingly of good, easily digested foods. With that
peculiar build of nervous horses that scour on the road but little can
be done, as a rule. They should be watered and fed as long as possi-
ble before going on a drive. If there is much flatulency accompany-
ing diarrhea, baking soda or other alkaline medicines may effect a
cure, while if the discharges have a very disagreeable odor, this can
be corrected by 1 ounce of sulphite of soda or dram doses of creolin in
water, repeated twice a day. Be slow to resort to either the vege-
table or mineral astringents, since the majority of cases will yield to
change of food and water or the administration of oils. Afterwards
feed upon wheat- flour gruel or other light foods. The body should
be warmly clothed.

SuPERPURGATioN. — This is the designation of that diarrhea, or flux
from the bowels, that, at times, is induced by and follows the action
of a physic. It is accompanied by much irritation or even inflamma-
tion of the bowels and is always of a serious character. Although in
rare instances it follows from a usual dose of physic and where every
precaution has been taken, it is most likely to result under the follow-
ing circumstances: Too large a dose of i^hysic; giving physics to
horses suffering from pneumonia, influenza, or other debilitating dis-
eases; riding or driving a horse when purging; exposure or drafts of
cold air; or giving large quantities of cold water while the physic is

64 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

operating. There is always danger of siiperpurgation if a physic is
given to a horse suffering from diseases of the respiratory organs.
Small and often-repeated physics are also to be avoided, as they pro-
duce debility and great depression of the system and predispose to
this disorder. When a physic is to be given one should rest the horse
and give him sloppy food until the medicine begins to operate ; clothe
the body with a warm blanket; keep out of drafts; give only warm
water in small quantities. After a horse has purged from twelve to
twenty-four hours it can mostly be stopped, or " set," as horsem.en
say, by feeding on dry oats and hay. Should the purging continue,
however, it is best treated by giving demulcent drinks — linseed tea
and oatmeal or wheat-flour gruel. After this the astringents spoken
of for diarrhea may be given. Besides this the horse is to receive
brandy in doses of from 2 to 4 ounces, with milk and eggs, four or
rive times a day.

Laminitis " founder " is a frequent sequel of superpurgation and
is to be guarded against by removing the shoes and standing the horse
on moist sawdust or some similar bedding.

Dysentery. — This disease, sometimes called " bloody flux," is an
intestinal disease attended with fever, occasional abdominal pains,
and fluid discharges mingled with blood. Discharges in dysentery
are coffee colored or bloody, liquid, and very offensive in odor, and
passed with much straining. It is rare in the horse, but is sometimes
quite prevalent among foals.

Causes. — Probably the most common cause is keeping young horses
in particular for a long time on low, wet, marshy pastures, without
other feed (a diarrhea of long standing sometimes terminates in dys-
entery) ; exposure during cold, wet weather; decomposed foods; stag-
nant water that contains large quantities of decomposing vegetable
matter; low, damp, and dark stables, particularly if crowded; the
existence of some disease, as tuberculosis of the abdominal form. In
suckling foals it may come from feeding the dam on irritant foods or
from disease of the udder. In other foals it may be produced by
exposure to cold and damp, to irritant food, or to vcorms.

Symptoms. — The initial symptom is a chill, which probably escapes
notice in the majority of instances. The discharges are offensive and
for the most part liquid, although it is conmion to find lumps of solid
fecal matter floating in this liquid portion; shreds of mucous mem-
brane and blood may be passed, or the evacuations may be muco-puru-
lent; there is much straining, and, rarely, symptoms of abdominal
pain; the subject lies down a great deal; the pulse is quickened and
the temperature elevated. Thirst is a prominent symptom. In the
adult, death rarely follows under two to three weeks, but in foals the
disease may end in death after a few days.

Treatment. — This is most unsatisfactory, and I am inclined to place

GASTEO-ENTERITIS. 65

more dependence upon the care and feed than any medication that
may be adopted. First of all the horse must be placed in a dry,
warm, yet well- ventilated stable; the skin is to receive attention by
frequent rubbings of the surface of the body, with blankets, and
bandages to the legs. The water must be pure and given in small
quantities ; the food, that which is light and easily digested. Medic-
inally, give at first a light dose of castor oil, about one-half pint, to
>vhich has been added 2 ounces of laudanum. The vegetable or min-
eral astringents are also to be given. Starch injections containing
laudanum often afford great relief. The strength must be kept up
by milk punches, eggs, beef tea, oatmeal gruel, etc. In spite of the
best care and treatment, however, dysentery is likely to prove fatal.
In the case of nurslings, the dam should be placed in a healthy con-
dition or, failing in this, milk should be had from another mare or
from a cow.

Gastro-enteritis. — This condition consists in an inflammation of
the stomach and intestines. Instead of being confined to the mucous,
or lining, membrane, as in gastro-intestinal catarrh, the inflammatory
process extends deeper and may even involve the entire thickness of
the wall of the organ.

This disease may be caused by irritant food, hofe drinks, sudden
chilling, moldy or decayed foods, foul water, parasites, or by chemical
poisons. It may also complicate some general diseases, especially
infectious diseases, as anthrax, influenza, rabies, or petechial fever.
Long-continued obstruction of the bowels or displacement resulting
in death are preceded by enteritis.

The symptoms differ somewhat with the cause and depend also, to
some extent, upon the chief location of the inflammation. In general
the animal stops eating or eats but little; it shows colicky pain;
fever develops ; the pulse and respiration become rapid ; the mucous
membrane becomes red; the mouth is hot and dry. Pressure upon
the abdomen may cause pain. Intestinal sounds can not be heard at
the flank. There is constipation in the earlier stages that is followed
later by diarrhea. The extremities become cold. Sometimes the
feces are coated with or contain shreds of fibrin, looking like scraps
of dead membrane, and they have an evil, putrid odor. If the disease
is caused by moldy or damaged food there may be great muscular
weakness with partial paralysis of the throat, as shown by inability
to swallow. If chemical poisons are the cause, this fact may be
shown by the sudden onset of the disease, the history of the adminis-
tration of a poison or the entire absence of known cause, the rapid
development of threatening symptoms, the involvement of a series of
animals in the absence of a contagious disease, and the special symp-
toms and alterations known to be produced by certain poisons. To
H. Doc. 795, 50-2 5

66 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

make this chain of evidence complete, the poison may be discovered
in the organs of the horse by chemical analysis. In nearly all cases
of gastro-enteritis there is nervous depression.

The poisons that are most irritant to the digestive tract are arsenic,
corrosive sublimate, sugar of lead, sulphate of copper, sulphate or
chloride of zinc, lye or other strong alkalies, mineral acids, and,
among the vegetable poisons, tobacco, lobelia, and water hemlock.

The treatment will depend upon the cause, but if this can not be
detected, certain general indications may be observed. In all cases
food should be given in small amounts and should be of the most
soothing description, as oatmeal gruel, flaxseed tea, hay tea, fresh
grass, or rice water. The skin should be well rubbed with wisps of
straw and alcohol, to equalize the distribution of the blood; the legs,
after being rubbed until warm, should be bandaged in raw cotton or
with woolen bandages. The horse should be warmly blanketed. It is
well to apply to the abdomen blankets wrung out of hot water and
frequently changed ; or mustard paste may be rubbed on the skin of
the belly. Internally, opium is of service to allay pain, check secre-
tion, and soothe the inflamed membrane. The dose is from 1 to 2
drams, given every three or four hours. If there is constipation, the
opium should be mixed with 30 grains of calomel. Subnitrate of
bismuth may be given with the opium or separately in 2-dram doses.
Stimulants, such as alcohol, aromatic spirits of ammonia, or camphor
may be given in 2-ounce doses, mixed with warm water to make a
drench.

If putrid food has been consumed, creolin may be administered in
doses of 2 drams, mixed with 1 pint of warm water or milk. If there
is obstinate constipation and a laxative must be employed, it should
be sweet or castor oil, from 1 pint to 1 quart. For the various
poisons the remedies are as follows: Arsenic, oxyhydrate of iron
solution, 1 pint to 1 quart, or calcined magnesia one-half ounce in 1
pint of water; corrosive sublimate, the whites of a dozen eggs or 2
ounces of flowers of sulphur; sugar of lead, Glauber's salts, 1 pomid
in 1 quart of warm water, to be followed with iodide of potash, 3
drams at a dose, in water, three times daily for five days ; sulphate of
copper, milk, the whites of eggs, or reduced iron; sulphate of chlo-
ride of zinc, milk, the whites of eggs, or calcined magnesia; lye or
alkalies, as caustic potash or soda, vinegar, dilute sulphuric acid, and
linseed tea, with opium, 3 drams; mineral acids, chalk, or calcined
magnesia, or baking soda; later give linseed tea and opimn.

Hemorrhoids, or piles. — These are rare, comparatively, in horses.
They are diagnosed by the appearance of bright-red irregular tumors
after defecation, which may remain visible at all times or be seen only
when the horse is down or after passing his manure. They are mostly
due to constipation, to irritation, or injuries, or follow from the

HERKIA, OR RUPTURE. 67

severe straining during dysentery. I have observed them to follow
from severe labor pains in the mare.

Treatment. — ^Attention must be paid to the condition of the bowels ;
they should be soft, but purging is to be avoided. The tumors
should be washed in warm water and thoroughly cleansed, after which
scarify them and gently but firmly squeeze out the liquid that will be
seen to follow the shallow incisions. After thus squeezing these
tumors and before replacing through the anus, bathe the parts with
some anodyne wash. For this purpose the glycerite of tannin and
laudanum in equal parts is good. Mucilaginous injections into the
rectum may be of service for a few days.

Hernia, or rupture. — There are several different kinds of hernias
that require notice, not all of which, however, produce serious symp-
toms or results. Abdominal hernias, or ruptures, are divided into
reducible^ irreducible^ and strangulated^ according to condition ; and
into inguinal^ scrotal., ventral., umbilical, and diaphragmatic, accord-
ing to their situation. A hernia is reducible when the displaced organ
can be returned to its natural location. It consists of a soft swelling,
without heat, pain, or any uneasiness, generally larger on full feed,
and decreases in size as the bowels become empty. An irreducible
hernia is one that can not be returned into the abdomen, and yet does
not cause any pain or uneasiness. Strangulated hernia is one where
the contents of the sac are greatly distended, or where from pressure
upon the blood vessels of the imprisoned portion the venous circula-
tion is checked or stopped, thereby causing congestion, swelling, in-
flammation, and, if not relieved, gangrene of the part and death of
the animal. According to the time or mode of origin, hernias may be
congenital or acquired.

Congenital scrotal hernia. — Not a few foals are noticed from birth
to have an enlarged scrotum, which gradually increases in size until
about the sixth month, sometimes longer. Sometimes the scrotum of
a six-months-old colt is as large as that of an adult stallion, and
operative treatment is considered. This is unnecessary in the great
majority of cases, as this enlargement often disappears by the time
the colt has reached his second year. Any interference, medicinal or
surgical, is worse than useless. If the intestine contained within the
scrotum should at any time become strangulated, it must then be
treated the same as in an adult horse.

Scrotal hernia is caused by dilatation of the sheath of the testicle,
combined with relaxation of the fibrous tissues surrounding the in-
guinal ring, thus allowing the intestine to descend to the scrotum.
At first this is intermittent, appearing during work and returning
when the horse is at rest. For a long time this form of hernia may
not cause the least uneasiness or distress. In course of time, however,
the imprisoned gut becomes filled with feces, its return into the ab-

b8 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

dominal cavity is prevented, and it becomes strangulated. Wliile
the gut is thus filling the horse often appears dull, is disinclined to
move, appetite is impaired, and there is rumbling and obstruction of
the bowels. Colicky symptoms now supervene. Strangulation and
its consequent train of symptoms do not always follow in scrotal
hernia, for often horses have this condition without suffering incon-
venience for years.

Inguinal hernia is but an incomplete scrotal hernia, and, like the
latter, may exist and cause no signs of distress, or, again, it may be-
come strangulated and cause the death of the animal. Inguinal hernia
is seen mostly in stallions, next in geldings, and very rarely in the
mare. Bearing in mind that scrotal hernia is seen only in entire
horses, we can proceed to detail the symptoms of both strangulated,
inguinal, and scrotal hernia at the same time. Wlien, during the
existence of colicky symptoms, we find a horse kicking with his hind
feet while standing or lying upon his back, we should look to the
inguinal region and scrotum. If scrotal hernia exists the scrotum
will be enlarged and lobulated ; by pressure we may force a portion of
the contents of the gut back into the abdomen, eliciting a gurgling
sound. If we take a gentle but firm hold upon the enlarged scrotum
and then have an assistant cause the horse to cough, the swelling will
be felt to expand and as quickly contract again.

The history of these cases will materially aid us, as the owner can
often assure us of preceding attacks of " colic," more or less severe,
that have been instantaneously relieved in some (to him) unaccounta-
ble manner. The colicky symptoms of these hernias are not diagtios-
tic, but, probably, more closely resemble those of enteritis than any
other bowel diseases. The diagnosis can, in many cases, be made only
by a veterinarian, when he has recourse to a rectal examination ; the
bowels can here be felt entering the internal abdominal ring.

Treatment of inguinal hernia. — If the reader can be sure of the
existence of hernia, he should secure the horse upon its back, and,
with a hand in the rectum, endeavor to catch hold of the wandering
bowel and pull it gently back into the cavity of the abdomen. Pres-
sure should be made upon the scrotum during this time. If these
means fail a veterinarian must be called to reduce the hernia by
means of incising the inguinal ring, replacing the intestines, and
castrate, using clamps and performing the " covered operation."

Ventral hernia. — In this form of hernia the protrusion is through
some accidental opening or rupture of the abdominal wall. It may
occur at any part of the belly except at the umbilicus, and is caused
by kicks, blows, hooks, severe jumping or pulling, etc. Ventral
hernia is most common in pregnant mares, and is here due to the
weight of the fetus or some degenerative changes taking place in the
abdominal coats. It is recognized by the appearance of a swelli^ng,

HERNIA, OR RUPTURE. 69

at the base of which can be felt the opening or rent in the abdominal
tunics, and from the fact that the swelling containing the intestines
can be made to disappear when the animal is placed in a favorable
position.

Treatment of ventral hernia. — In many instances there is no occa-
sion for treatment, and again, where the hernial sac is extensive, treat-
ment is of no avail. If the hernia is small, a cure may be attempted
by the methods to be described in treating of umbilical hernia. If
one is fortunate enough to be present when the hernia occurs, and
particularly if it is not too large, he may, by the proper application
of a pad and broad bandage, effect a perfect cure.

TJmbilical hernia is the passing of any portion of the bowel or
omentum (" caul ") through the navel, forming a " tumor " at this
point. This is often congenital in our animals, and is due to the im-
perfect closure of the umbilicus and to the position of the body.
Many cases of umbilical hernia, like inguinal and scrotal of the con-
genital kind, disappear entirely by the time the animal reaches its
second or third year. Advancing age favors cure in these cases from
the fact that the omentum (swinging support of the bowels) is pro-
portionally shorter in adults than in foals, thus lifting the intestines
out of the hernial sac and allowing the opening in the walls to close.
Probably one of the most frequent causes of umbilical hernia in foals
is the practice of keeping them too long from their dams, causing
them to fret and worry, and to neigh, or cry, by the hour. The con-
traction of the abdominal muscles and pressure of the intestines dur-
ing neighing seem to open the umbilicus and induce hernia. Acci-
dents may cause umbilical hernia in adults in the same manner as
ventral hernia is produced, though this is very rare.

Treatment of tunbilical hernia. — In the treatment of umbilical
hernia it should be remembered that congential hernias are often
removed with age, but probably congenital umhilical hernias less fre-
quently than others. Among the many plans of treatment are to be
mentioned the application of a pad over the tumor, the jDad being
held in place by a broad tight bandage placed around the animaPs
body. The chief objection to this is the difficulty in keeping the pad
in its place. Blisters are oft«n applied over the swelling, and, as
the skin hardens and contracts by the formation of scabs, an artificial
bandage or pressure is produced that at times is successful. Another
treatment that has gained considerable repute of late years consists
in first clipping off the hair over the swelling. Nitric acid is then
applied by a small brush, using only enough to moisten the skin.
This sets up a deep-seated adhesive inflammation, which, in very
many cases, closes the opening in the navel. Still another plan is to
inject a solution of common salt by means of the hypodermic syringe
at three or four points about the base of the swelling. This acts in

70 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

the same manner as the preceding, but may cause serious injury if
the syringe or solution is not sterile.

Others, again, after keeping the animal fasting for a few hours,
cast and secure it upon its back ; the bowel is then carefully returned
into the abdomen. The skin over the opening is pinched up and one
or two skewers are run through the skin from side to side as close as
possible to the umbilical opening. These skewers are kept in place
by passing a cord around the skin between them and the abdomen
and securely tied. Great care must be taken not to draw these cords
too tight, as this would cause a speedy slough of the skin, the intes-
tines would extrude, and death result. If proj)erly applied, an adhe-
sion is established between the skin and the umbilicus which effectually
closes the orifice. Special clamjDS are provided for taking up the
fold of the skin covering the hernial sac and holding it until the ad-
hesion is formed.

DiaphragmcLtic hernia. — ^This consists of the passage of any of the
abdominal viscera through a rent in the diaphragm (midriff) into
the cavity of the thorax. It is rather a rare accident and one often
impossible to diagnose during life. Colicky symptoms, accompanied
by great difficulty in breathing, and the peculiar position so often
assumed (that of sitting upon the haunches) are somewhat character-
istic of this trouble, though these symptoms, as we have already seen,
may be present during diseases of the stomach or anterior portion of
the bowels. Even could we pronounce, with certainty, this form of
hernia, there is little or nothing that can be done. Leading the horse
up a very steep gangway or causing him to rear up may possibly cause
the hernial portion to return to its natural position. This is not
enough, however ; it must be kept there.

Peritonitis. — Peritonitis is an inflammation of the serous mem-
brane lining the cavity of and covering the viscera contained witliin
the abdomen. It is very rare to see a case of primary peritonitis. It
is, however, somewhat common as a secondary disease from extension
of the inflammatory action involving organs covered by the perito-
neum. Peritonitis is often caused by injuries, as punctured wounds of
the abdomen, severe blows or kicks, or, as is still more common, fol-
lowing the operation of castration. It follows strangulated hernia,
invagination, or rupture of the stomach, intestines, liver, or womb.

Symptoms. — Peritonitis is mostly preceded by a chill ; the horse is
not disposed to move, and, if compelled to do so, moves with a stiff or
sore gait ; he paws with the front feet and may strike at his belly with
the hind ones ; lies down very carefully ; as the pain is increased while
down, he maintains during most of the time the standing position ; he
walks uneasily about the stall. Constipation is usually present. Pres-
sure on the belly causes acute pain, and the horse will bite, strike, or
kick if so disturbed; the abdomen is tucked up; the extremities are

DEOPSY OF THE ABDOMEN. 71

fine and cold. The temperature is higher than normal, reaching from
102° to 104° F. The pulse in peritonitis is rather characteristic; it is
quickened, beating from seventy to ninety beats per minute, and is
hard and iciry. This peculiarity of the pulse occurs in inflannnation
of the serous membrane, and if accompanied by colicky symptoms,
and, in particular, if following any injuries, accidental or surgical, of
the peritoneum, there is reason to think that peritonitis is present.
Peritonitis in the horse is mostly fatal when it is at all extensive. If
death does not occur in a short time, the inflannnation assumes a
clu'onic form, in which there is an extensive effusion of water in the
cavity of the belly, constituting what is Imown as ascites^ and which,
as a rule, results in death.

The treatment of peritonitis is to be somewhat like that of enteri-
tis. Opium in powder, 1 to 2 drams, with calomel, one-half dram, is
to be given every two, three, or four hours, and constitutes the main
dependence in this disease. Extensive counterirritants over the belly,
consisting of mustard plastei*s, applications of mercurial ointment,
turpentine stuf>es, or even mild blisters, are reconnnended. Purga-
tives must never be given during this complaint. Should we desire to
move the bowels, it can be done by gentle enemas, though it is seldom
necessary to resort even to this.

Ascites, or dropsy of the abdomen. — ^This is seen as a result of
subacute or chronic peritonitis, but may be due to diseases of the
liver, kidneys, heart, or lungs. There will be found, on opening the
cavity of the belly, a large collection of yellowish or reddish liquid;
from a few quarts to several gallons may be present. It may be clear
in color, though generally it is yellowish or of a red tint, and contains
numerous loose flakes of coagulable lymph.

Symptoms. — ^There is slight tenderness on pressure; awkward gait
of the hind legs; the horse is dull, and may have occasional very slight
colicky pains, shown by looking back and striking at the belly with
the hind feet. Oftener, however, these colicky symptoms are absent.
Diarrhea often precedes death, but during the progress of the disease
the bowels are alternately constipated and loose. On percussing the
abdominal waUs we find that dullness exists to the same height on
both sides of the belly ; by suddenly pushing or striking the abdomen
we can hear the rushing or flooding of water. If the case is an ad-
vanced one, the horse is potbellied to the extreme, and dropsical
swellings are seen under the belly and upon the legs.

Treatment is, as a rule, unsatisfactory. Saline cathartics, as Ep-
som or Glauber's salts, and diuretics, oiuice doses of saltpeter, may be
given. If a veterinarian is at hand he will withdraw the accumula-
tion of water by tapping and then endeavor to prevent its recurrence
(though this is almost sure to follow) by giving three times a day
saltpeter, 1 ounce, and iodide of potash, 1 dram, and by the applica-

72 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

tion of mustard or blisters over the abdominal walls. Tonics, min-
eral and vegetable, are also indicated. Probably the best tonic is one
consisting of powdered sulphate of iron, gentian, and ginger in equal
parts ; a heaping tablespoonful of the mixture is given as a drench or
mixed with the feed, twice a day. Good nutritious foods and gentle
exercise complete the treatment.

DISEASES OF THE LIVER.

The liver of the horse is, in the United States, but rarely the seat
of disease, and when we consider how frequently the liver of man is
aifected this can not but appear strange. The absence of the gall
bladder may account to a certain extent for his freedom from liver
diseases; as overdistention of this and the presence in it of calculi
(stones) in man is a frequent source of trouble. In domestic animals,
as in man, hot climates tend to produce diseases of the liver, just as in
cold climates lung diseases prevail. Not only are diseases of the liver
rare in horses in temperate climates, but they are also very obscure,
and in many cases pass totally unobserved until after death. There
are some symptoms, however, which, when present, should make us
examine the liver as carefully as possible. These are jaundice
(yellowness of the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, and eyes)
and the condition of the dung, it being light in color and pasty in
appearance.

Hepatitis, or inflammation or the liver. — This disease may be
general or local, and may assume an acute or chronic form.

The symptoms of acute hepatitis are : Dullness ; the horse is suffer-
ing from some internal pain, but not of a severe type ; constipated and
clay-colored dung balls ; scanty and high-colored urine ; and general
febrile symptoms. If lying down, he is mostly found on the left side ;
looks occasionally toward the right side, which, upon close inspection,
may be found to be slightly enlarged over the posterior ribs, where
pain upon pressure is also evinced. Obscure lameness in front, of the
right leg mostly, may be a symptom of hepatitis. The horse, toward
the last, reels or staggers in his gait and falls backward in a fainting
fit, during one of which he finally succumbs. Death is sometimes due
to rupture of the enveloping coat of the liver or of some of its blood
vessels.

Causes. — Among the causes that lead to this disease we must men-
tion first the stimulating effect of overfeeding, particularly during
hot weather. Horses that are well fed and receive but little exercise
are the best subjects for diseases of this organ. We must add to
these causes the more mechanical ones, as injuries on the right side
over the liver, worms in the liver, gallstones in the biliary ducts, for-
eign bodies — as needles or nails that have been swallowed and in their
wanderings- have entered the liver — and, lastly, in some instances, ^e

DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 73

extension of inflammation from neighboring parts, thus involving
this organ. Acute hepatitis may terminate in chronic inflammation,
abscesses, rupture of the liver, or may disappear, leaving behind no
trace of disease whatever.

Treatment. — This should consist, at first, of the administration of 1
ounce of Barbados aloes or other physic. General blood-letting, if
had recourse to early, must prove of much benefit in acute inflamma-
tion of the liver. The vein in the neck (jugular) must be opened,
and from 4 to 6 quarts of blood may be drawn. Saline medicines, as
Glauber's salts or the artificial Carlsbad salt, is indicated. These
may be given with the feed in tablespoonful doses. The horse is to
be fed sparingly on soft food, bran mashes chiefly. If treatment
proves successful and recovery takes place, see to it that the horse
afterwards gets regular exercise and that his food is not of a too
highly nutritious character and not excessive.

Jaundice, icterus, or the yellows. — This is a condition caused
by the retention and absorption of bile into the blood. It was for-
merly considered to be a disease of itself, but is now regarded as a
symptom of disorder of the liver. " The yellows " is observed by
looking at the eyes, nose, and mouth, when it will be seen that these
parts are yellowish instead of the pale-pink color of health. In white
or light-colored horses the skin even may show this yellow tint. The
urine is saffron colored, the dung is of a dirty-gray color, and con-
stipation is usually present. Jaundice may be present as a symptom
of almost any inflammatory disease. We know that when an animal
has fever the secretions are checked, the bile may be retained and
absorbed throughout the system, and yellowness of the mucous mem-
branes follows. Jaundice may also exist during* the presence of
simple constipation, hepatitis, biliary calculi, abscesses, hardening
of the liver, etc.

Treatment. — When jaundice exists we must endeavor to rid the
system of the excess of bile, and this is best accomplished by giving
purgatives that act upon the liver. Calomel, 2 drams, with aloes, T
drams, should be given. Glauber's salts in handful doses once or
twice a day for a week is also effective. May apple, rhubarb, castor
oil, and other cathartics that act upon the first or small bowels may
be selected. We must be careful to see that the bowels are kept open
by avoiding hard, dry, bulky foods.

Rupture of the liver. — This is known to occur at times in the
horse, most frequently in old fat horses and those that get but little
exercise. Horses that have suffered from chronic liver disease for
years eventually present symptoms of colic and die quite suddenly.
Upon post-mortem examination we discover that the liver had rup-
tured. The cicatrices, or scars, that are often found upon the liver
indicate that this organ may suffer smciJl rupture and yet the horse

74 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

recover from it. This result can not obtain, however, if the rent or
tear is extensive, since in such cases death must quickly follow from
hemorrhage, or, later, from peritonitis. Enlarged liver is particu-
larly liable to rupture.

Causes. — The immediate causes of rupture aj)pear to be excessive
muscular exertion, as leaping a fence, a fall, a blow from a collision, a
kick from a horse, or sudden distention of the abdomen with gas.

The symptoms of rupture of the liver will depend upon the extent
of the laceration. If slight, there will be simply the symptoms of
abdominal pain, looking back to the sides, lying down, etc. ; if exten-
sive, the horse is dull and dejected, has no appetite, breathing be-
comes short and catching, he sighs or sobs, visible mucous mem-
branes are pale, extremities cold, pulse fast, small, and weak or
running down. Countenance now shows much distress, he sweats
profusely, totters in his gait, props his legs wide apart, reels, stag-
gers, and falls. He may get u]d again, but soon falls dead. The rapid
running-down pulse, paleness of the eyes, nose, and mouth, sighing,
stertorous breathing, tottering gait, etc., are symptoms by which we
know that the animal is dying from internal hemorrhage.

Treatrtient. — But little can be done in the way of treatment. Opium
in powder, in doses of 2 drams every two or three hours, may be
given, with the idea of preventing as much as possible all movements
of internal organs. If there is reason to suspect internal bleeding,
we should give large and frequent doses of white-oak bark tea, dram
doses of tannic or gallic acid, or the same quantity of sugar of lead,
every half hour or hour. Fluid extract of ergot or tincture of the
chloride of iron, in ounce doses, may be selected. Cold water dashed
upon the right side or injected into the rectum is highly spoken of as
a means of checking the hemorrhage.

Biliary calculi, or gallstones. — These are rarely found in the
horse, but may occupy the hej^atic ducts, giving rise to jaundice and
to colicky pains. There are no absolutely diagnostic symjDtoms, but
should one find a horse that suffers from repeated attacks of colic,
accompanied by symptoms of violent pain, and that during or follow-
ing these attacks the animal is jaundiced, it is j)0ssible that gallstones
are present. There is little or nothing to be done except to give
medicines to overcome pain, trusting that these concretions may pass
on to the bowels, where, from their small size, they will not occasion
any inconvenience.

Diseases of the pancreas and spleen. — Diseases of the pancreas
rmd spleen are so rare, or their symptoms so little understood, that it
is impossible to write anything concerning either of these organs and
their simple diseases that will convey to the reader information of
practical value.

PLATiin.

TTia adult.. Egg.

BOTS.

1 Bots in tile stomach.

2 Bots in the cUiodeniiTii.

PLATE m.

O-Xvuris equL.

S'trongylus equinus.

Asruris equoriini

DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS.

By James Law, F. R. C. V. S.,
Professor of Teterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University.

[Revised in 1903 by the author.]
USES or THE URINABT ORGANS.

The urinary organs constitute the main channel through which are
excreted the nitrogenous or albuminoid principles, whether derived
directly from the food or from the muscular and other nitrogenized
tissues of the body. They constitute, besides, the channel through
which are thrown out most of the poisons, whether taken in by the
mouth or skin or developed in connection with faulty or natural
digestion, blood-forming, nutrition, or tissue destruction ; or, finally,
poisons that are developed within the body, as the result of normal
cell life or of the life of bacteria or other germs that have entered the
body from without. Bacteria themselves largely escape from the
body through the kidneys. To a large extent, therefore, these organs
are the sanitary scavengers and purifiers of the system, and when
their functions are impaired or arrested the retained poisons quickly
show their presence in resulting disorders of the skin and connective
tissue beneath it, of the nervous system, or other organs. Nor is this
influence one-sided. Scarcely an important organ of the body can
suffer derangement without entailing a corresponding disorder of the
urinary system. Nothing can be more striking than the mutual bal-
ance maintained between the liquid secretions of the skin and kidneys
during hot and cold weather. In summer, when so much liquid ex-
hales through the skin as sweat, comparatively little urine is passed,
whereas in winter, when the skin is inactive, the urine is correspond-
ingly increased. This vicarious action of skin and kidneys is usually
kept within the limits of health, but at times the draining off of the
water by the skin leaves too little to keep the solids of the urine safely
in solution, and these are liable to crystallize out and form stone and
gravel. Similarly the passage in the sweat of some of the solids that
normally leave the body, dissolved in the urine, serves to irritate the
skin and produce troublesome eruptions.

PROMINENT CAUSES OF URINARY DISORDERS.

A disordered liver contributes to the production, under different
circumstances, of an excess of biliary coloring matter, which stains

75

76 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

the urine; of an excess of hippuric acid and allied products, which
being less soluble than urea (the normal product of tissue change),
favor the formation of stone, of taurocholic acid, and other bodies
that tend, when in excess, to destroy the blood globules and to cause
irritation of the kidneys by the resulting hemoglobin excreted in the
urine, and of glycogen too abundant to be burned up in the system,
which induces saccharine urine (diabetes). Any disorder leading to
impaired functional activity of the lungs is causative of an excess of
hippuric acid and allied bodies, of oxalic acid, of sugar, etc., in the
urine, which irritate the kidneys even if they do not produce solid
deposits in the urinar;/ passages. Diseases of the nervous system,
and notably of the base of the brain and of the spinal cord, induce
various urinary disorders, prominent among which are diabetes,
chylous urine, and albuminuria. Certain affections, with imperfect
nutrition or destructive waste of the bony tissues, tend to charge the
urine with phosphates of lime and magnesia, and endanger the forma-
tion of stone and gravel. In all extensive inflammations and acute
fevers the liquids of the urine are diminished, while the solids (waste
products), which should form the urinary secretion, are increased,
and the surcharged urine proves irritant to the urinary organs or the
retained waste products poison the system at large.

Diseases of the heart and lungs, by interfering with the free onward
flow of the blood from the right side of the heart, tend to throw that'
liquid back on the veins, and this backward pressure of venous blood
strongly tends to disorders of the kidneys. Certain poisons taken
with the food and water, notably that found in magnesian limestone
and those found in irritant diuretic plants, are especially injurious to
the kidneys, as are also various cryptogams, whether present in musty
hay or oats. The kidneys may be irritated by feeding green vege-
tables covered with hoar frost or by furnishing an excess of food rich
in phosphates (wheat bran, beans, pease, vetches, lentils, rape cake,
cotton-seed cake) or by a privation of water, which entails a concen-
trated condition and high density of the urine. Exposure in cold
rain or snow storms, cold drafts of air, and damp beds are liable to
further disorder an already overworked or irritable kidney. Finally,
sprains of the back and loins may cause bleeding from the kidneys or
inflammation.

The right kidney, weighing 23| ounces, is shaped like a French
bean, and extends from the loins forward to beneath the heads of the
last two ribs. The left kidney (Plate IV) resembles a heart of cards,
and extends from the loins forward beneath the head of the last rib
only. Each consists of three distinct parts — (a) the external (corti-
cal), or vascular part, in which the blood vessels form elaborate
capillary networks within the dilated globular sacs which form the
beginnings of the secreting (uriniferous) tubes and on the surface

PLATE IV;

.W (^

a, Cortical (or va^cidarJ porrion : b, Med uUa.ry { or tubular) portion
c, Peripheral portion of the latter; d.JnterioroftyiepelvM; d.',d-',
Arms ofthe' peivLs; ey, Border of the crest; f.Infiindihiilumi g.rrelfr.

Geo.Manc.del.after D.Arb<ATa.p.669.

JULIUS BIEN t CO N1

LONGITUDINAL SECTIOX THROUGH KIDNEY.

DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 77

of the sinuous secreting tubes leading from the sacs inward toward
the second, or medullary, part of the organ; (5) the internal (medul-
lary) part, made up in the main of blood vessels, lymphatics, and
nerves extending between the notch on the inner border of the kid-
ney to and from the outer vascular portion, in which the secretion
of urine is almost exclusively carried on; and (d) a large saccular
reservoir in the center of the kidney, into which all uriniferous tubes
pour their secretions and from which the urine is carried away through
a tube g (ureter), which passes out of the notch at the inner border of
the kidney and which opens by a valve-closed orifice into the roof of
the bladder just in front of its neck. The bladder is a dilatable
reservoir for the retention of the urine until the discomfort of its
presence causes its voluntary discharge. It is kept closed by circu-
lar muscular fibers surrounding its neck or orifice, and is emptied by
looped muscular fibers extending in all directions forward from the
neck around the blind anterior end of the sac. From the bladder
the urine escapes through a dilatable tube (urethra) which extends
from the neck of the bladder backward on the floor of the pelvis, and
in the male through the penis to its free end, where it opens through
a pink conical papilla. In the mare the urethra is not more than an
inch in length, and is surrounded by the circular muscular fibers
closing the neck of the bladder. Its opening may be found directly
in the median line of the floor of the vulva, about 4^ inches from its
external opening.

GENERAL SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE.

These apply especially to acute inflammations and the irritation
caused by stone. The animal moves stiffly on the hind limbs, strad-
dles, and makes frequent attempts to pass urine, which may be in
excess, deficient in amount, liable to sudden arrest in spite of the
straining, passed in driblets, or entirely suppressed. Again, it may
be modified in density or constituents. Difficulty in making a sharp
turn, or in lying down and rising with or without groaning, drop-
ping the back when mounted or when pinched on the loins is sugges-
tive of kidney disease, and so to a less extent are swelled legs, dropsy,
and diseases of the skin and nervous system. The oiled hand intro-
duced through the rectum may feel the bladder beneath and detect
any overdistention, swelling, tenderness, or stone. In ponies the kid-
neys even may be reached.

EXAMINATION OF THE URINE.

In some cases the changes in the urine are the sole sign of disease.
In health the horse's urine is of a deep amber color and has a strong
odor. On a feed of grain and hay it may show a uniform transpar-

78 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

oncy, while on a green ration there is an abundant white deposit of
carbonate of lime. Of its morbid changes the following are to be
looked for: (1) Color: White from deposited salts of lime; brown or
red from blood clots or coloring matter; yellow or orange from bile
or blood pigment; pale from excess of water; or variously colored
from vegetable ingredients (santonin makes it red; rhubarb or senna,
brown; tar or carbolic acid, green). (2) Density: The horse's urine
may be 1.030 to 1.050, but it may greatly exceed this in diabetes and
may sink to 1.007 in diuresis. (3) Chemical reaction^ as ascertained
by blue litmus or red test papers. The horse on vegetable diet has
alkaline urine turning red test papers blue, while in the sucking colt
and the horse fed on flesh or on his own tissues (in starvation or ab-
stinence during disease) it is acid, turning blue litmus red. (4)
Organic constituents, as when glairy from albumen coagulable by
strong nitric acid and boiling, when charged with microscopic casts
of the uriniferous tubes, with the eggs or bodies of worms, with sugar,
blood, or bile. (5) In its salts, which may crystallize out spontane-
ously, or on boiling, or on the addition of chemical reagents.

Albuminous urine in the horse is usually glairy, so that it may be
drawn out in threads, but its presence can always be tested as follows :
If the liquid is opaque, it may be first passed through filter paper; if
very dense and already precipitating its salts, it may be diluted with
distilled water ; add to the suspected liquid acetic acid drop by drop
until it reddens the blue litmus paper; then boil gently in a test tube;
if a precipitate is thrown down, set the tube aside to cool and then add
strong nitric acid. If the j^recipitate is not dissolved, it is albumen ;
if dissolved it was j^robably urate or hippurate of ammonia. Albu-
men is normally present in advanced gestation ; abnormally it is seen
in diseases in which there occurs destruction of blood globules
(anthrax, low fevers, watery states of the blood, dropsies), in diseases
of the heart and liver which prevent the free escape of blood from the
veins and throw back venous pressure on the kidneys, in inflamma-
tion of the lungs and pleura?, and even tympanj^ (bloating) , doubtless
from the same cause, and in all congestive or inflammatory diseases of
the kidneys, acute or chronic.

Casts of the uriniferous tubes can only be seen by placing the sus-
pected urine under the microscope. They are usually very elastic
and mobile, waving about in the liquid when the cover-glass is
touched, and showing a uniform clear transparency (waxy) or entan-
gled circular epithelial cells or opaque granules or flattened red-blood
globules or clear refrangent oil globules. They may be even densely
opaque from crystals of earthy salts.

Pus cells may be found in the urine associated with albumen, and
are recognized by clearing up, when treated with acetic acid, so that
each cell shows two or three nuclei.

DISEASES OF THE URIlSrAKY ORGANS. 79

DIURESIS (polyuria, DIABETES INSIPIDUS, OR EXCESSIVE SECRETION OF

urine).

This consists in an excessive secretion of a clear, watery urine of a
low specific gravity (1.007) with a corresj)ondingly ardent thirst, a
rapidly advancing emaciation, and great loss of strength and spirit.

Causes. — Its causes may be any agent — ^medicinal, alimentary, or
poisonous — ^which unduly stimulates the kidneys ; the reckless admin-
istration of diuretics, which form such a common constituent of quack
horse powders; acrid diuretic plants in grass or hay; new oats still
imperfectly cured; an excess of roots or other verj^ watery food; a
full allowance of salt to animals that have become inordinately fond
of it; but, above all, feeding on hay, grain, or bran which has not
been properly dried and has become musty and permeated by fungi.
Thus hay, straw, or oats secured in wet seasons and heating in the rick
or stack is especially injurious. Hence this malady, like corna som-
nolentum (sleepy staggers), is widespread in wet seasons, and espe-
cially in rainy districts.

Symptoms. — The horse drinks deep at every opportunity and
passes urine on every occasion when stopped, the discharge being
pale, watery, of a low density, and inodorous; in short, it contains a
great excess of water and a deficiency of the solid excretions. So
great is the quantity passed, however, that the small amount of
solids in any given specimen amounts in twenty-four hours to far
more than the normal — a fact in keeping with the rapid wasting of
the tissues and extreme emaciation. The flanks become tucked up,
the fat disappears, the bones and muscles stand out prominently,
the skin becomes tense and hidebound, and the hair erect, scurf^',
and deficient in luster. The eye becomes dull and sunken, the spirits
are depressed, the animal is weak and sluggish, sweats on the slightest
exertion, and can endure little. The subject may survive for months,
or he may die early of exhaustion. In the slighter cases, or when the
cause ceases to operate, he may make a somewhat tardy recovery.

Treatment. — This consists in stopping the ingestion of the faulty
drugs, poisons, or food, and supplying sound hay and grain free from
all taint of heating or mustiness. A liberal supply of boiled flaxseed
in the drinking water at once serves to eliminate the poison and to
sheathe and protect the irritated kidneys. Tonics like sulphate or
phosphate of iron (2 drams morning and evening) and powdered
gentian or Peruvian bark (4 drams) help greatly by bracing the
system and hastening repair. To these may be added agents calcu-
lated to destroy the fungus and eliminate its poisonous products.
In that form which depends on musty food nothing acts better than
large doses of iodide of potassium (2 drams), while in other cases
creosote, carbolic acid (1 dram), or oil of turjDentine (4 drams)
properly diluted, may be resorted to.

80 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

SACCHARINE DIABETES (DIABETES MELLITUS, GLYCOSURIA, OR INOSURIA).

This is primaril}^ a disease of the nervous system or liver rather
than of the kidneys, yet, as the most prominent symptom is the sweet
urine, it may be treated here.

Causes. — Its causes are varied, but resolve themselves largely into
disorder of the liver or disorder of the brain. One of the most
prominent functions of the liver is the formation of glycogen, a prin-
ciple allied to grape sugar, and passing into it by further oxidation in
the blood. This is a constant function of the liver, but in health the
resulting sugar is burned up in the circulation and does not appear in
the urine. On the contrary, when the supply of oxygen is defective,
as in certain diseases of the lungs, the whole of the sugar does not
undergo combustion and the excess is excreted by the kidneys. Also
in certain forms of enlarged liver the amount of sugar produced is
more than can be disposed of in the natural way, and it appears in the
urine. A temporary sweetness of the urine often occurs after a
hearty meal on starchy food, but this is due altogether to the super-
abundant supply of the sugar-forming food, lasts for a few houra
only, and has no pathological significance. In many cases of fatal
glycosuria the liver is found to be enlarged, or at least congested, and
it is found that the disorder can be produced experimentally by
agencies which produce an increased circulation through the liver.
Thus Bernard produced glycosuria by pricking the oblong medulla at
the base of the brain close to the roots of the pneumogastric nerve,
which happens to be also the nerve center (vaso-motor) which presides
over the contractions of the minute blood vessels. The pricking and
irritation of this center leads to congestion of the liver and the exces-
sive production of sugar. Irritation carried to this point through the
pneumogastric nerve causes saccharine urine, and, in keeping with
this, disease of the pancreas has been found in this malady. The com-
plete removal of the pancreas, however, determines glycosuria, the
organ having in health an inhibitive action on sugar production by
the liver. The same result follows the reflection of irritation from
other sources, as from different ganglia (corpora striata, optic thalami,
pons, cerebellum, cerebrum) of the brain. Similarly it is induced by
interruption of the nervous control along the vaso-motor tracts, as in
destruction of the upper or lower cervical sympathetic ganglion, by
cutting the nervous branch connecting these two, in injury to the
spinal marrow in the interval between the brain and the second or
fourth dorsal vertebra, or in disease of the celiac plexus, which
directly presides over the liver. Certain chemical poisons also cause
saccharine urine, notably woorara, strychnia, morphia, phosphoric
acid, alcohol, ether, quinia, chloroform, ammonia, arsenic, and
phlorizin,

Symptoms. — The symptoms are ardent thirst and profuse secretion

SACCHABINE DIABETES (sWEET UEINe). 81

of a pale urine of a higli density (1.060 and upward), rapid loss of
condition, scurfy, unthriftj^ skin, costiveness or irregularity of the
bowels, indigestion, and the presence in the urine of a sweet princi-
ple— grape-sugar or inosite, or both. This may be most promptly de-
tected by touching the tip of the tongue with a drop. Sugar may be
detected simply by adding a teaspoonful of liquid yeast to 4 ounces of
the urine and keeping it lightly stopped at a temperature of 70°
to 80° F. for twelve hours, when the sugar will be found to have been
changed into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The loss of density will
give indication of the amount of sugar transformed ; thus a density of
1.035 in a urine which was formerly 1.060 woidd indicate about 15
grains of sugar to the fluid ounce.

Inosite, or muscle sugar, frequently present in the horse's urine, and
even replacing the glucose, is not fermentable. Its presence may be
indicated by its sweetness and the absence of fermentation or by Gal-
lois's test. Evaporate the suspected urine at a gentle heat almost to
dryness, then add a drop of a solution of mercuric nitrate and evapo-
rate carefully to dryness, when a yellowish residue is left that is
changed on further cautious heating to a deep rose color, which dis-
appears on cooling and reappears on heating.

In advanced diabetes, dropsies in the limbs and under the chest and
belly, puify, swollen eyelids, cataracts, catarrhal inflammation of the
lungs, weak, uncertain gait, and drowsiness may be noted.

Treatment is most satisfactory in cases dependent on some curable
disease of liver, pancreas, lungs, or brain. Thus, in liver diseases, a
run at pasture in warm weather, or in winter a warm, sunny, well-
aired stable, with sufficient clothing and laxatives (sulphate of soda,
1 ounce daily) and alkalies (carbonate of potassium, one-fourth
ounce) may benefit. To this may be added mild blistering, cupping,
or even leeching over the last ribs. Diseases of the brain or pancreas
may be treated according to their indications. The diet should be
mainly albuminous, such as wheat bran or middlings, pease, beans,
vetches, and milk. Indeed, an exclusive milk diet is one of the very
best remedial agencies. It may be given as skimmed milk or butter-
milk, and in the last case combines an antidiabetic remedy in the lactic
acid. Under such an exclusive diet recent and mild cases are often
entirely restored, though at the expense of an attack of rheumatism.
Codeia, one of the alkaloids of opium, is strongly recommended by
Doctor Tyson. The dose for the horse would be 10 to 15 grains thrice
daily. In cases in which there is manifest irritation of the brain,
bromide of potassium, 4 drams, or ergot one-half ounce, may be re-
sorted to. Salicylic acid and salicylate of sodium have proved useful
in certain cases; also phosphate of sodium. Bitter tonics (especially
nux vomica one-half dram) are useful in imj)roving the digestion and
general health.

H. Doc. 795, 59-2 6

82 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

BLOODY URINE, OR HEMATURIA.

Cause. — As seen in the horse, bloody urine is usually the direct
result of mechanical injuries, as sprains and fractures of the loins,
lacerations of the sublumbar muscles (psoas), irritation caused by
stone in the kidney, ureter, bladder, or urethra. It may, however,
occur with acute congestion of the kidney, with tumors in its sub-
stance, or with papilloma or other diseased growth in the bladder.
Acrid diuretic plants present in the food may also lead to the escape
of blood from the kidney. The predisposition to this affection is,
however, incomparably less than in the case of the ox or the sheep,
the difference being attributed to the greater plasticity of the horse's
blood in connection with the larger quantity of fibrin.

The blood may be present in small clots or in more or less intimate
admixture with the urine. Its condition may furnish some indication
as to its source ; thus, if from the kidneys it is more likely to be uni-
formly diffused through the urine, while as furnished by the bladder
or passages clots are more likely to be present. Again, in bleeding
from the kidney, minute cylindrical clots inclosing blood globules
and formed in the uriniferous tubes can be detected under the micro-
scope. Precision also may be approximated by observing whether
there is coexisting fracture, sprain of the loins, or stone or tumor in
the bladder or urethra.

Treatment. — The disease being mainly due to direct injury, treat-
ment will consist, first, in removing such cause whenever possible, and
then in ax^pl^ying general and local styptics. Irritants in food must be
avoided, sprains appropriately treated, and stone in bladder or
urethra removed. Then give mucilaginous drinks (slippery elm, lin-
seed tea) freely, and styptics (tincture of chloride of iron 3 drams,
acetate of lead one-half dram, tannic acid one-half dram, or oil of
turpentine 1 ounce). If the discharge is abundant, apply cold water
to the loins and keep the animal perfectly still.

HEMOGLOBINURIA (aZOTURIA, AZOTEMIA, POISONING BY ALBUMINOIDS).

Like diabetes, this is rather a disease of the liver and blood-form-
ing functions than of the kidney, but as prominent symptoms are loss
of control over the hind limbs and the passage of ropy and dark-
colored urine, the vulgar idea is that it is a disorder of the urinary
organs. It' is a complex affection directly connected with a plethora
in the blood of nitrogenized constituents, with extreme nervous and
muscular disorder and the excretion of a dense reddish or brownish
urine. It is directly connected with high feeding, especially on
highly nitrogenized food (oats, beans, pease, vetches, cotton-seed
meal), and with a period of idleness in the stall under full rations.
The disease is never seen at pasture, rarely under constant daily work,

BLOODY UEINE, OR HEMATURIA. 83

even though the feeding be high, and the attack is usually precipi-
tated by taking the horse from the stable and subjecting it to exercise
or work. The poisoning is not present when taken from the stable, as
the horse is likely to be noticeably lively and spirited, but he will
usually succumb under the first hundred yards or half mile of exer-
cise. It seems as if the aspiratory power of the chest under the
sudden exertion and accelerated breathing speedily drew from the
gorged liver and abdominal veins (portal) the accumulated store of
nitrogenous matter in an imperfectly oxidized or elaborated condi-
tion, and as if the blood, surcharged with these materials, was unable
to maintain the healthy functions of the nerve centers and muscles.
It has been noticed rather more frequently in mares than horses,
attributable, perhaps, to the nervous excitement attendant on heat,
and to the fact that the unmutilated mare is naturally more excitable
than the docile gelding.

Lignieres has found in hemoglobinuria a streptococcus which pro-
duced nephritis, bloody urine, and paraplegia in experimental ani-
mals, including horses.

SymptoTTis. — In the milder forms this affection may appear as a
lameness in one limb, from indefinite cause, succeeding to some sud-
den exertion and attended by a dusky-brown color of the membranes
of the eye and nose and some wincing when the last ribs are struck.
The severe forms come on after one or two days of rest on a full
ration, when the animal has been taken out and driven one hundred
paces or more. The fire and life with which he had left the stable
suddenly give place to dullness and oppression, as shown in heaving
flanks, dilated nostrils, pinched face, perspiring skin, and trembling
body. The muscles of the loins or haunch become swelled and rigid,
the subject moves stiffly or unsteadily, crouches behind, the limbs
being carried semiflexed, and he soon drops, unable to support him-
self. Wlien down, the body and limbs are moved convulsively, but
there is no power of coordination of movement in the muscles. The
pulse and breathing are accelerated, the eyes red with a tinge of
brown, and the urine, if passed, is seen to be highly colored, dark
brown, red, or black, but it contains neither blood clots nor globules.
The color is mainly due to hemoglobin and other imperfectly elabo-
rated constituents of the blood.

It may end fatally in a few hours or days, or a recovery may ensue,
which is usually more speedy and perfect if it has set in at an early
stage. In the late and tardy recoveries a partial paralysis of the hind
limbs may last for months. A frequent sequel of these tardy cases is
an extensive wasting of the muscles leading up from the front of the
stifle (those supplied by the crural nerve) and a complete inability to
stand.

Prevention. — The prevention of this serious affection lies in re-

84 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

stricting the diet and giving daily exercise when the animal is not at
work. A horse that has had one attack should never be left idle for
a single day in the stall or barnyard. A\Tien a horse has been con-
demned to absolute repose on good feeding he may have a laxative
(one-half to 1 pound Glauber's salts), and have graduated exercise,
beginning with a short walk and increasing day by day.

Treatment. — The treatment of the mild cases may consist in a laxa-
tive, graduated daily exercise, and a daily dose of saltpeter (1 ounce).
Sudden attacks will sometimes promptly subside if taken on the in-
stant and the subject kept still and calmed by a dose of bromide of
potassium (4 drams) and sweet spirits of niter (1 ounce). The
latter has the advantage of increasing the secretion of the kidneys.
Iodide of potassium in one-half ounce doses every four hours has
succeeded well in some hands. In severe cases, as a rule, it is desira-
ble to begin treatment by a dose of aloes (4 to 6 drams) with the
above-named dose of bromide of potassium, and this latter may be
continued at intervals of four or six hours, as may be requisite to
calm the nervous excitement. Fomentations with warm water over
the loins are always useful in calming the excitable conditions of the
spinal cord, muscles, liver, and kidneys, and also in favoring secre-
tion from the two latter. On the second day diuretics may be re-
sorted to, such as saltpeter one-half ounce, and powdered colchicum
one-half dram, to be repeated twice daily. A laxative may be re-
peated in three or four days should the bowels seem to demand it,
and as the nervous excitement disappears any remaining muscular
weakness or paralysis may be treated by one-half dram doses of nux
vomica twice a day and a stimulating liniment (aqua ammonia and
sweet oil in equal proportions) rubbed on the torpid muscles.

During the course of the disease friction to the limbs is useful, and
in the advanced paralytic stage the application of electricity along
the line of the affected muscles. "VMien the patient can not stand he
must have a thick, soft bed, and should be turned from side to side
at least every twelve hours. As soon as he can be made to stand he
may be helped up and even supported in a sling.

ACUTE INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS, OR ACUTE NEPHRITIS.

Inflammations of the kidnej^s have been differentiated widely, ac-
cording as they were acute or chronic, parenchymatous or tubal, sup-
purative or not, with increased or shrunken kidney, etc.; but in a
work like the present utility will be consulted by classing all under
acute or chronic in-fiaTYhination.

Causes. — The causes of inflammation of the kidneys are extremely
varied. Congestion occurs from the altered and irritant products
passed through these organs during recovery from inflammations of
other organs and during fevers. This may last only during the exist-

INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. 85

ence of its cause, or may persist and become aggravated. Heart dis-
ease, throwing the blood pressure back on the veins and kidneys, is
another cause. Disease of the ureter or bladder, preventing the
escape of urine from the kidney and causing increased fullness and
tension in its pelvis and tubes, will determine inflammation. Decom-
position of the detained urine in such cases and the production of
ammonia and other irritants must also be named. In elimination of
bacteria through the kidney, the latter is liable to infection with con-
sequent inflammation. The advance of bacteria upward from the
bladder to the kidneys is another cause. The consumption in hay or
other fodder of acrid or irritant plants, including fungi, the absorp-
tion of cantharidine from a surface blistered by Spanish flies, the
reckless administration of diuretics, the presence of stones in the
kidne}^, exposure of the surface to cold and wet, and the infliction of
blows or sprains on the loins, may contribute to its production. Liver
disorders which throw^ on the kidneys the work of excreting irritant
products, diseases of the lungs and heart from which clots are car-
ried, to be arrested in the small blood vessels of the kidney, and
injuries and paralysis of the spinal cord, are additional causes.

Syraftoms. — The symptoms are more or less fever, manifest stiff-
ness of the back and straddling gait with the hind limbs, difficulty in
lying down and rising, or in walking in a circle, the animal sometimes
groaning under the effort, arching of the loins and tucking up of the
flank, looking back at the abdomen as if from colicky pain, and ten-"
derness of the loins to pinching, especially just beneath the bony
processes 6 inches to one side of the median line. Urine is passed
frequently, a small quantity at a time, of a high color, and sometimes
mixed with blood or even pus. Under the microscope it shows the
microscopic casts referred to under general symptoms. If treated by
acetic acid, boiling, and subsequent addition of strong nitric acid, the
resulting and persistent precipitate indicates the amount of albumen.
The legs tend to swell from the foot up, also the dependent parts
beneath the belly and chest, and effusions of liquid may occur within
the chest or abdomen. In the male animal the alternate drawing up
and relaxation of the testicles in the scrotum are suggestive, and in
small horses the oiled hand introduced into the rectum may reach the
kidney and ascertain its sensitiveness.

Treatment demands, first, the removal of any recognized cause>
Then, if the suffering and fever are high, 2 to 4 quarts of blood may
be abstracted from the jugular vein; in weak subjects or unless in
high fever this should be omitted. Next relieve the kidneys so far
as possible by throwing their work on the bowels and skin. A pint
of castor oil is less likely than either aloes or salts to act on the Idd-
neys. To affect the skin a warm stall and heavy clothing may be
supplemented by dram doses of Dover's powder. Pain may be

8b DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

soothed by dram doses of bromide of potassium. Boiled flaxseed
may be added to the drinking water, and also thrown into the rectum
as an injection, and blankets saturated with hot water should be per-
sistently applied to the loins. This may be followed by a very thin
f)ulp of the best ground mustard made with tepid water, rubbed in
against the direction of the hair and covered up with paper and a
blanket. This may be kept on for an hour, or until the skin thickens
and the hair stands erect. It may then be rubbed or sponged off and
the blanket reapplied. When the action of the bowels has been
started it may be kept up by a daily dose of 2 or 3 ounces of
Glauber's salts.

During recovery a course of bitter tonics (nux vomica 1 scruple,
ground gentian root 4 drams) should be given. The patient should
also be guarded against cold, wet, and any active exertion for some
time after all active symptoms have subsided.

CHRONIC INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS.

Causes. — Chronic inflammation of the kidneys is more commonly
associated with albumen and casts in the urine than the acute form,
and in some instances these conditions of the urine may be the only
prominent symptoms of the disease. Though it may supervene on
blows, injuries, and exposures, it is much more commonly connected
Vvith faulty conditions of the system — as indigestion, heart disease,
lung or liver disease, imperfect blood formation, or assimilation; in
short, it is rather the attendant on a constitutional infirmity than on
a simple local injury.

It may be associated with various forms of diseased kidneys, as
shrinkage (atrophy), increase (hypertrophy), softening, red conges-
tion, white enlargement, etc., so that it forms a group of diseases
rather than a disease by itself.

Symptoms. — The symptoms may include stiffness, weakness, and
increased sensibility of the loins, and modified secretion of urine
(increase or suppression), or the flow may be natural. Usually it
contains albumen, the amount furnishing a fair criterion of the grav-
ity of the affection, and microscopic casts, also most abundant in bad
cases. Dropsy, manifested in swelled legs, is a significant symptom,
and if the effusion takes place along the lower line of the body or in
chest or abdomen, the significance is increased. A scurfy, unthrifty
skin, lack-luster hair, inability to sustain severe or continued exer-
tion, poor or irregular appetite, loss of fat and flesh, softness of the
muscles, and pallor of the eyes and nose are equally suggestive. So
are skin eruptions of various kinds. Any one or more of these symp-
toms would warrant an examination of the urine for albumen and
casts, the finding of which signifies renal inflammation.

Treatment of these cases is not always satisfactory, as the cause is

DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS AND BLADDER. 87

liable to be maintained in the disorders of important organs else-
Avhere. If any such coincident disease of another organ or function
can be detected, that should be treated first or simultaneously with
this affection of the kidneys. In all cases the building up of the
general health is important. Hence a course of tonics may be given
(phosphate of iron 2 drams, nux vomica 20 grains, powdered gentian
root 4 drams, daily) or GO drops of sulphuric acid or nitromuriatic
acid may be given daily in the drinking water. If there is any ele-
vated temperature of the body and tenderness of the loins, fomenta-
tions may be applied, followed by a mustard pulp, as for acute
inflammation, and even in the absence of these indications the mus-
tard may be resorted to with advantage at intervals of a few days.
In suppression of urine, fomentations with warm water or with infu-
sion of digitalis leaves is a safer resort than diuretics, and cupping
over the loins may also benefit. To apply a cup, shave the skin and
oil it ; then take a narrow-mouthed glass, rarify the air within it by
introducing a taper in full flame for a second, withdraw the taper
and instantly appl}' the mouth of the glass to the skin and hold it
closely applied till the cooling tends to form a vacuum in the glass
and to draw up the skin, like a sucker.

As in the acute inflammation, every attention must be given to
secure warm clothing, a warm stall, and pure air.

TUMORS OF THE KIDNEYS.

Tumors, whether malignant or simple, would give rise to symptoms
resembling some form of inflammation, and are not likely to be recog-
nized during life.

PARASITES.

To parasites of the kidney belong the echinococcu&^ the larval, or
bladder worm, stage of the small echinococcus tapeworm of the dog;
also the Cysticercus fistularis^ another bladder worm of an unknown
tapeworm; in these there is the possibility of the passage with the
urine of a detached head of the bladder worm or of some of it^ micro-
scopic booklets, which might be found in the sediment of the urine
and thus establish a diagnosis. Dioctophyme renale, the largest of
roundworms, has been found in the kidney of the horse. Its presence
can only be certified by the passage of its microscopic eggs or of the
entire worm. Immature stages of roundworms, either Strongylus
equinus or a related species, may be found in the renal artery or in
the kidney itself.

SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE BLADDER.

This affection consists in spasmodic closure of the outlet from the
bladder by tonic contraction of the circular muscular fibers. It may
be accompanied by a painful contraction of the muscles on the body

88 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

of the bladder; or, if the organ is already unduly distended, these
will be affected with temporary paralysis. It is most frequent in the
horse, but by no means unknown in the mare.

Causes. — The causes are usually hard and continuous driving with-
out opportunity for passing urine, cold rainstorms, drafts of cold air
when perspiring and fatigued, the administration of Spanish fly or
the application of extensive blisters of the same, abuse of diuretics,
the presence of acrid diuretic plants in the fodder, and the presence
of stone in the bladder. As most mares refuse to urinate while in
harness, they should be unhitched at suitable times for urination.
Spasmus of the bowels are always attended by spasm of the bladder,
hence the free passage of water is usually a symptom of relief.

SyTTiptoms. — The symptoms are frequent stretching and straining
to urinate, with no result or a slight dribbling only. These vain
efforts are attended by pain and groaning. On resuming his natural
position the animal is not freed from the pain, but moves uneasily,
paws, shakes the tail, kicks at the abdomen with his hind feet, looks
back to the flank, lies down and rises, arches the back, and attempts
to urinate as before. If the oiled hand is introduced into the rectum
the greatly distended bladder may be felt beneath, and the patient
will often shrink when it is handled.

It is important to notice that irritation of the urinary organs is
often present in impaction of the colon with solid matters, because
the impacted intestine under the straining of the patient is forced
backward into the pelvis and presses upon and irritates the bladder.
In such cases the horse stands with his fore limbs advanced and the
hind ones stretched back beyond the natural posture, and makes fre-
quent efforts to urinate, with varying success. Unpracticed observers
naturally conclude that the secondary urinary trouble is the main and
only one, and the intestinal impaction and obstruction is too often
neglected until it- is irremediable. In cases where the irritation has
caused spasm of the neck of the bladder and overdistention of that
organ, the mistake is still more easily made ; hence it is important in
all cases to examine for the impacted bowel, forming a bend, or loop,
at the entrance of the pelvis and usually toward the left side. The
impacted intestine feels soft and doughy, and is easily indented with
the knuckles, forming a marked contrast with the tense, elastic, resil-
ient, overdistended bladder.

It remains to be noted that similar symptoms may be determined
by a stone or sebaceous mass, or stricture obstructing the urethra, or
in the newborn by thickened mucus in that duct and by the pressure
of hardened, impacted feces in the rectum. In obstruction, the hard,
impacted body can usually be felt by tracing the urethra along the
lower and posterior surface of the penis and forward to the median
line of the floor of the pelvis to the neck of the bladder. That part

Slincliire ol" llio Kiflnc

tionai tlihinr- -s, .isr, lurna iu\r-uii/> •>•■ nr/iu-
loop, J(K Loop offfpiilr, //, Cor, i altit^rd li'hu/c
t.ery: I^t, Brci/ich .viipphuu/ (he (/lo/)ie/ii/i . i
Branch ffoinq dirr, >/y In (he rrrpilf,
f'ro/iL the rrnaJ nrt('r\-; JS-Stranj/u n: ;
(flomet -lUiiS: J9, S(f(ii(//i! (i/-teri('i< i . '
Ujop or the p\7rtn(/y/.'>;'JJ,/:'/'/f'rr/i/ r,
plc.'vi.'/: ^^.('(ipillary pic.ru.s of the

?3,Capin<ay />/f\ru.s of the p\r(rfitici.;- -,/' /-'i rt-ui .- 'J '/.rurluc ' /

?5,\'enOf .stelldldc : .?(j',Veui ro/nmc/ //<'/// f//r (<i/)/l/arii \ c'' f/i

l<.(}iilar \riri : ^S, inn /-eri'Lvi/if/ l/i<- )r'fiac .■■(({(if: ?.0, \?/uu' ,

Xotc : The shat/cd p'tr-t ofthe )(n/i(i/\(iii(/.v represent /tir pra-t

rpithcliii/n isro('h/c{/eutdof(( f/r(t/iii/r/r appe<i/-i//itf' .

,f>/n/ hri(/irh

'<i/'r ■ 7../f>/fr

I.K.Wi.'

/ ...S'tff I !<//.'< / /v , / I . "V .s iimii,.-,' ,i,/c(ti\-

(■o?nin</ from i/;e aflrfcnt i v-.s-.sW of I he
if\ini thi' capit/n/y pic.ril,',: \'t).\fis-ru/ur

V thf !/i'iine/-(i/tis (/(>!/ui /<' the re//>/7/<f/y

, : i/lor I'.iii n/(/(, <'.>r/icnt .<i !/>>,, ':o-

crtd

MKHOSC'OPiC AXATONn'Ol- KIDNia'

PLx^TE \1.

HoJiMl (•.loiiioi-iiliiH.

a. Artery cl't/u r/l<»/ierufi/s, li, I^rciin-h .^n/>/>/yin(/ (hr a/Yrr-cnt
\-csscl of the fflotiicrulii.s; c, At'frrrnt \r.v.sef of't/ir i/Uinttriile :

d, Artery f/oin</ diiTclly to the ca/jill<try p/r.^-ii.v of the < orlnat

Aiih^'^tance : r, Capillary ple.yiis; f. O'/omrrii/ii.'i.

III ils.df(-i(Milvcsscls Hinlet'foiTnls
■nal (uirf\ ,■ /■. Af/rrr/i t i r-.s-.vr/ o/thr
Cfinuriiliis ■ il .Aff'ri rut vc.s.^r/ f/n
ifu/ into ror/iii.vifc r ,<'f M<ii//i<//ii

jll.:i- D.\i-bovtil . p M2. 371 .

MlCfU)S('()PU' ANATOMY OF KIDNEY

u'S SIEN&CO .^

PIj^AT K \1I

P/ui,sp/in//f cnh-ir/t/.^-. lu-ic /(<■/(/ niic/cd.'

^

ife^

(f//(ti/u,s of o.<ydaf<- a/'d/ne

V-^->

^\#

^,

;^

Hcfia/ C(i.si^. S'orrw tieprh'e<i »/'
ff>ith(/uim. Two are deep ft- colored
tmrn t/ie pr-e,^e4ice. orumie of .soda.

Slrtd(j/(( /hrrcp.s- used
r/i r-r/iin\ 'ifi'j ra/rt/// .

Hxime.s.dcl «ttw Hui tit^l D'ArbovHl

juuus BiEN aco >

CALCULI AND INSTRUMENT FOB REMOV2U.

PAEALYSIS OF THE BLADDER. 89

of the urethra between the seat of obstruction and the bladder is
usually distended with urine, and feels enlarged, elastic, and fluctu-
ating.

Treatment. — Treatment may be begun by taking the animal out of
harness. This failing, spread clean litter beneath the belly or turn
the patient out on the dung heap. Some seek to establish sympa-
thetic action by pouring water from one vessel into another with
dribbling noise. Others soothe and distract the attention by slow
whistling. Friction of the abdomen with wisps of straw may suc-
ceed, or it may be rubbed with ammonia and oil. These failing, an
injection of 2 ounces of laudanum or of an infusion of 1 ounce of
tobacco in water may be tried. In the mare the neck of the bladder is
easily dilated by inserting two oiled fingers and slightly parting them.
In the horse the oiled hand introduced into the rectum may press
from before backward on the anterior or blind end of the bladder.
Finally, a well-oiled gum-elastic catheter may be entered into the
urethra through the papilla at the end of the penis and pushed on
carefully until it has entered the bladder. To effect this the penis
must first be withdrawn from its sheath, and when the advancing end
of the catheter has reached the bend of the urethra beneath the anus
it must be guided forward by pressure with the hand, which guidance
must be continued onward into the bladder, the oiled hand being
introduced into the rectum for this purpose. The horse catheter, 3^
feet long and one-third inch in diameter, may be bought of a surgical
instrument maker.

PARALYSIS OF THE BLADDER.

Paralysis of the body of the bladder with spasm of the neck has
been described under the last heading, and may occur in the same way
from overdistention in tetanus, acute rheumatism, paraplegia, and
hemiplegia, in which the animal can not stretch himself to stale, and
in cystitis, affecting the body of the bladder but not the neck. In all
these cases the urine is suppressed. It also occurs as a result of
disease of the posterior end of the spinal marrow and with broken
back, and is then associated with palsy of the tail, and, it may be, of
the hind limbs.

Sym/ptoms. — The symptoms are a constant dribbling of urine when
the neck is involved, the liquid running down the inside of the thighs
and irritating the skin. When the neck is unaffected the urine is
retained until the bladder is greatly overdistended, when it may be
expelled in a gush by the active contraction of the muscular walls of
the abdomen ; but this never empties the bladder, and the oiled hand
introduced through the rectinn may feel the soft, flabby organ still
half full of urine. This retained urine is liable to decompose and
give off ammonia, which dissolves the epithelial cells, exposing the

90 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

raw mucous membrane and causing the worst type of cystitis. Sup-
j)ression and incontinence of urine are common also to obstruction
of the urethra by stone or otherwise; hence this source of fallacy
should be excluded by manual examination along the whole course
of that duct.

Treatment. — Treatment is only applicable in cases in which the de-
termining cause can be abated. In remedial sprains of the back or
disease of the spinal cord these must have approj^riate treatment, and
the urine must be drawn off frequently with a catheter to prevent
overdistention and injury to the bladder. If the paralysis persists
after recovery of the spinal cord, or if it continues after relief of
spasm of the neck of the bladder, apply a pulp of mustard and water
over the back part of the bellj^ in front of the udder, and cover with
a rug until the hair stands erect. In the male the mustard may be
applied between the thighs from near the anus downward. Daily
doses of 2 drams extract of belladonna or of 2 grains powdered
Spanish fly may serve to rouse the lost tone. These failing, a mild
current of electricity daily may succeed.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER ( CYSTITIS, OR UROCYSTITIS) .

Cystitis may be slight or severe, acute or chronic, partial or general.
It may be caused by abuse of diuretics, especially such as are irritat-
ing (cantharides, turpentine, copaiba, resin, etc.), by the presence of
a stone or gravel in the bladder, the irritation of a catheter or other
foreign body introduced from without, the septic ferment (bac-
terium) introduced on a filthy catheter, the overdistention of the
bladder by retained urine, the extrication of ammonia from retained
decomposing urine, resulting in destruction of the epithelial cells and
irritation of the raw surface, and a too concentrated and irritating
urine. The application of Spanish flies or turpentine over a too ex-
tensive surface, sudden exposure of a perspiring and tired horse to
cold or wet, and the presence of acrid plants in the fodder may cause
cystitis, as they may nephritis. Finally, inflammation may extend
from a diseased vagina or urethra to the bladder.

Symptoms. — The symj^toms are slight or severe colicky pains; the
animal moves his hind feet uneasily or even kicks at the abdomen,
looks around at his flank, and may even lie down and rise frequently.
More characteristic are frequently rej)eated efforts to urinate, result-
ing in, the discharge of a little clear, or red, or more commonly floc-
culent urine, always in jets, and accompanied b}^ signs of pain, which
persist after the discharge, as shown in continued straining, groan-
ing, and perhaps in movements of the feet and tail. The penis hangs
from the sheath, or in the mare the vulva is frequently opened and
closed, as after urination. The animal winces when the abdomen is
pressed in the region of the sheath or udder, and the bladder is found

DISEASES OF THE BLADDER. 91

to be sensitive and tender when pressed with the oiled hand intro-
duced through the rectum or vagina. In the mare the thickening of
the walls of the bladder may be felt by introducing one finger through
the urethra. The discharged urine, which may be turbid or even oily,
contains an excess of mucus, with flat shreds of membrane, with scaly
epithelial cells, and pus corpuscles, each showing two or more nuclei
when treated with acetic acid, but there are no microscopic tubular
casts, as in nephritis. If due to stone in the bladder, that will be
found on examination through rectum or vagina.

Treatment implies, first, the removal of the cause, whether poisons
in food or as medicine, the removal of Spanish flies or other blistering
agents from the skin, or the extraction of stone or gravel. If the
urine has been retained and decomposed it must be completely evac-
uated through a clean catheter, and the bladder thoroughly washed
out with a solution of 1 dram of borax in a quart of water. This
must be repeated twice daily until the urine no longer decomposes,
because so long as ammonia is developed in the bladder the protecting
layer of epithelial cells will be dissolved and the surface kept raw
and irritable. The diet must be light (bran mashes, roots, fresh
grass), and the drink impregnated with linseed tea, or solution of
slippery elm or marsh mallow. The same agents may be used to
inject into the rectum, or they may even be used along with borax and
opium to inject into bladder (gum arable 1 dram, opium 1 dram,
tepid water 1 pint). Fomentations over the loins are often of great
advantage, and these may be followed or alternated with the appli-
cation of mustard, as in paralj^sis ; or the mustard may be applied on
the back part of the abdomen below or between the thighs from the
anus downward. Finally, when the acute symptoms have subsided,
a daily dose of buchu 1 dram and nux vomica one-half dram will
serve to restore lost tone.

IRRITABLE BLADDER.

Some horses, and especially mares, show an irritability of the blad-
der and nerve centers presiding over it by frequent urination in small
quantities, though the urine is not manifestly changed in character
and no more than the natural amount is passed in the twenty- four
hours. The disorder appears to have its source quite as frequently
in the generative or nervous system as in the urinary. A troublesome
and dangerous form is seen in mares, which dash off and refuse all
control by the rein if driven with a full bladder, but usually prove
docile if the bladder has been emptied before hitching. In other cases
the excitement connected with getting the tail over the reins is a pow-
erful determining cause. The condition is marked in many mares
during the period of " heaty

An oleaginous laxative (castor oil 1 pint) will serve to remove any

92 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

cause of irritation in the digestive organs, and a careful dieting will
avoid continued irritation by acrid vegetable agents. The bladder
should be examined to see that there is no stone or other cause of irri-
tation, and the sheath and penis should be washed with soapsuds, any-
sebaceous matter removed from the bilocular cavity at the end of the
penis, and the whole lubricated with sweet oil. Irritable mares should
be induced to urinate before they are harnessed, and those that clutch
the lines under the tail may have the tail set high by cutting the cords
on its lower surface, or it may be prevented getting over the reins by
having a strap carried from its free end to the breeching. Those
proving troublesome when " in heat " may have 4-dram doses of bro-
mide of potassium, or they may be served by the male or castrated.
Sometimes irritability may be lessened by daily doses of belladonna
extract (1 dram) , or a better tone may be given to the parts by balsam
copaiba (1 dram).

DISEASED GROWTHS IN THE BLADDER.

These may be of various kinds, malignant or simple. In the horse
I have found villous growths from the mucous membrane especially
troublesome. They may be attached to the mucous membrane by a
narrow neck or by a broad base covering a great part of the organ.

Symptoms. — The symptoms are frequent straining, passing of urine
and blood with occasionally gravel. An examination of the bladder
with the hand in the rectum will detect the new growth, which may
be distinguished from a hard resistant stone. In mares, in which the
finger can be inserted into the bladder, the recognition is still more
satisfactory. The polypi attached by narrow necks may be removed
by surgical operation, but for those with broad attachments treatment
is eminently unsatisfactory.

DISCHARGE OF URINE BY THE NAVEL, OR PERSISTENT URACHUS.

This occurs only in the newborn, and consists in the nonclosure of
the natural channel (urachus), through which the urine is discharged
into the outer water bag (allantois) in fetal life. At that early stage
of the animal existence the bladder resembles a long tube, which is
prolonged through the navel string and opens into the outermost of
the two water bags in which the fetus floats. In this way the urine
is prevented from entering the inner water bag (amnion), where it
would mingle with the liquids, bathing the skin of the fetus and cause
irritation. At birth this channel closes up, and the urine takes the
course normal to extra-uterine life. Imperfect closure is more fre-
quent in males than in females, because of the great length and small
caliber of the male urethra and its consequent tendency to obstruction.
In the female there may be a discharge of a few drops only at a tipie,
while in the male the urine will be expelled in strong jets coincidently
with the contractions of the bladder and walls of the abdomen.

DISEASES OF THE BLADDER. 93

The first care is to ascertain if tlie urethra is pervious by passing a
human catheter. This determined, the open urachus may be firmly
closed by a stout waxed thread, carried with a needle through the tis-
sues back of the opening and tied in front of it so as to inclose as little
skin as possible. If a portion of the navel string remains, the tying
of that may be all sufficient. It is important to tie as early as possible
so as to avoid inflammation of the navel from contact with the urine.
In summer a little carbolic-acid water or tar water may be applied to
keep off the flies.

EVERSION OF THE BLADDER.

This can only occur in the female. It consists in the turning of the
organ outside in through the channel of the urethra, so that it appears
as a red, pear-shaped mass hanging from the floor of the vulva and
protruding externally between its lips. It may be a mass like the fist,
or it may swell up to the size of an infant's head. On examining its
upper surface the orifices of the urethra may be seen, one on each side,
a short distance behind the neck, with the urine oozing from them
drop by drop.

This displacement usually supervenes on a flaccid condition of the
bladder, the result of paralysis, overdistention, or severe compression
during a difficult parturition.

The protruding organ may be washed with a solution of 1 ounce of
laudanum and a teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a quart of water, and
returned by pressing a smooth, rounded object into the fundus and
directing it into the urethra, while careful pressure is made on the
surrounding parts with the other hand. If too large and resistant it
may be wound tightly in a strip of bandage about 2 inches broad
to express the great mass of blood and exudate and diminish the bulk
of the protruded organ so that it can be easily pushed back. This
method has the additional advantage of protecting the organ against
bruises and lacerations in the effort made to return it. After the
return, straining may be kept in check by giving laudanum (1 to 2
ounces) and by applying a truss to press upon the lips of the vulva.
(See Eversion of the womb.) The patient should be kept in a stall a
few inches lower in front than behind, so that the action of gravity
will favor retention.

INFLAMMATION OF THE URETHRA (URETHRITIS, OR GLEET ) .

This affection belongs quite as much to the generative organs, yet
it can not be entirely overlooked in a treatise on urinary disorders.
It may be induced by the same causes as cystitis (which see) ; by the
passage and temporary arrest of small stones^ or gravel ; hy the irri-
tation caused by foreign bodies introduced from without ; by blows on
the penis by sticks, stones, or by the feet of a mare that kicks while
being served; by an infecting inflammation contracted from a mare

94 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

served in the first few daj's after parturition or one suffering from
leucorrhea ; by infecting matter introduced on a dirty catheter, or by
the extension of inflammation from an irritated bilocular cavity filled
with hardened sebaceous matter, or from an uncleansed sheath.

Symptoms. — The symptoms are swelling, heat, and tenderness of
the sheath and penis; difficulty, pain, and groaning in passing urine,
which is liable to sudden temporary arrests in the course of micturi-
tion, and later a whitish mucopurulent oozing from the papilla on the
end of the penis. There is a tendency to erection of the penis, and in
cases contracted from a mare the outer surface of that organ will
show more or less extensive sores and ulcers. Stallions suffering in
this way will refuse to mount, or having mounted will fail to com-
plete the act of coition. If an entrance is effected infection of the
mare is liable to follow.

Treatment in the early stages consists in a dose of physic (aloes 6
drams) and fomentations of warm water to the sheath and penis. If
there is reason to suspect the presence of infection, inject the urethra
twice daily with borax 1 dram, water 1 quart, using it tepid. Wliere
the mucopurulent discharge indicates the supervention of the second
stage, a more astringent injection may be employed (nitrate of silver
20 grains, water 1 quart), and the same may be applied to the surface
of the penis and inside the sheath. Balsam of copaiba (1 dram daily)
may also be given with advantage after the purulent discharge has
appeared.

Every stallion suffering from urethritis should be withheld from
service, as should mares with leucorrhea.

STRICTURE or THE URETHRA.

This is a permanent narrowing of the urethra at a given point, the
result of previous inflammation, caused by the passage or arrest of a
stone, or gravel, by strong astringent injections in the early nonsecret-
ing stages of urethritis, or by contraction of the lining membrane
occurring during the healing of ulcers in neglected inflammations of
that canal. The trouble is shown by the passage of urine in a fine
stream, with straining, pain, and groaning, and by frequent painful
erections. It must be remedied by mechanical dilatation, with cathe-
ters just large enough to pass with gentle force, to be inserted once a
day, and to be used of larger size as the passage will admit them.
The catheter should be kept perfectly clean, and washed in a borax
solution and well oiled before it is introduced.

URINARY CALCULI (STONE, OR GRAVEL).

These consist in some of the solids of the urine that have been pre-
cipitated from the urine in the form of crystals, which remain apart
as a fine powdery mass, or magma, or aggregate into calculi, or stones,
of varying size. Their composition is therefore determined in differ-

STONE, OR GRAVEL. 95

ent animals by the salts or other constituents found dissolved in the
healthy urine, and by the additional constituents which may be
thrown off in solution in the urine in disease. In this connection it is
important to observe the following analysis of the horse's urine in
health :

Water 918. 5

Urea 13.4

Uric acid and urates .1

Hippuric acid 2(j. 4

Lactic acid and lactates 1. 2

Mucus and organic matter 22.0

Sulphates (allialine) ' — 1. 2

Phosphates (lime and soda) .2

Chlorides (sodium) 1.0

Carbonates (potash, magnesia, lime) 10.0

1000. 0

The carbonate of lime, which is present in large amount in the urine
of horses fed on green fodder, is practically insoluble, and therefore
forms in the passages after secretion, and its microscopic rounded
crystals give the urine of such horses a milky whiteness. It is this
material which constitutes the soft, white, pultaceous mass that some-
times fills the bladder to repletion and requires to be washed out. In
hay-fed horses carbonates are still abundant, while in those mainly
grain-fed they are replaced by hippurates and phosphates — the prod-
ucts of the wear of tissues — the carbonates being the result of oxida-
tion of the vegetable acids in the food. Carbonate of lime, therefore,
is a very common constituent of urinary calculi in herbivora, and in
many cases is the most abundant constituent.

Oxalate of lime, like carbonate of lime, is derived from the burning
up of the carbonaceous matter of the food in the system, one impor-
tant factor being the less perfect oxidation of the carbon. Indeed,
Fiistenberg and Schmidt have demonstrated on man, horse, ox, and
rabbit that, under the full j)lay of the breathing (oxidizing) forces,
oxalic acid, like other organic acids, is resolved into carbonic acid.
In keeping with this is the observation of I^ehmann, that in all cases
in which man suffered from interference with the breathing oxalate
of lime appeared in the urine. An excess of oxalate of lime in the
urine may, however, claim a different origin. Uric and hippuric
acids are found in the urine of carnivora and herbivora, respectively,
as the result of the healthy wear (disassimilation) of nitrogenous tis-
sues. But if these products are fully oxidized, they are thrown out
in the form of the more soluble urea rather than as these acids.
Wlien uric acid out of the body is treated with peroxide of lead it is
resolved into urea, allantoin, and oxalic acid, and Woehler and Frer-
richs found that the administration of uric acid not only increased

96 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

the excretion of urea, but also of oxalic acid. It may therefore be
inferred that oxalic acid is not produced from the carbonaceous food
alone, but also from the disintegration of the nitrogenous tissues of
the body. An important element of its production is, however, the
imperfect performance of the breathing functions, and hence it is
liable to result from diseases of the chest (heaves, chronic bronchitis,
etc.). This is, above all, likely to prove the case if the subject is fed
to excess on highly carbonaceous foods (grass and green food gener-
ally, potatoes, etc.).

Carbonate of magnesia, another almost constant ingredient of the
urinary calculi of the horse, is formed the same way as the carbon-
ate of lime — from the excess of carbonaceous food (organic acids)
becoming oxidized into carbon dioxide, which unites with the mag-
nesia derived from the food.

The phosphates of lime and magnesia are not abundant in urinary
calculi of the horse, the phosphates being only present to excess in
the urine in two conditions — (a) when the ration is excessive and
specially rich in phosphorus (wheat bran, beans, pease, vetches, rape
cake, oil cake, cotton-seed cake) ; and (h) when, through the morbid
destructive changes in the living tissues, and especially of the bones,
a great amount of phosphorus is given off as a waste product. Under
these conditions, however, the phosphates may contribute to the for-
mation of calculi, and this is, above all, likely if the urine is retained
in the bladder until it has undergone decomposition and given off
ammonia. The ammonia at once unites with the phosphate of mag-
nesia to form a double salt — phosphate of ammonia and magnesia —
which, being insoluble, is at once precipitated. The precipitation of
this salt is, however, rare in the urine of the horse, though much
more frequent in that of man and sheep.

These are the chief mineral constituents of the urine which form
ingredients in the horse's calculi, for though iron and manganese are
usually present it is only in minute quantities.

The excess of mineral matter in a specimen of urine unquestion-
ably contributes to the formation of calculi, just as a solution of such
matters out of the body is increasingly disposed to throw them down
in the form of crystals as it becomes more concentrated and ap-
proaches nearer to the condition of saturation. Hence, in consider-
ing the causes of calculi we can not ignore the factor of an excessive
ration, rich in mineral matters and in carbonaceous matters (the
source of carbonates and much of the oxalates), nor can we overlook
the concentration of the urine that comes from dry food and priva-
tion of water, or from the existence of fever which causes suspension
of the secretion of water. In these cases, at least the usual amount of
solids is thrown off by the kidneys, and as the water is diminished
there is danger of its approaching the point of supersaturation, when

STONE, OR GRAVEL. 97

the dissolved solids must necessarily be thrown down. Hence, calculi
are more common in stabled horses fed on dry grain and hay, in those
denied a sufficiency of water or that have water supplied irregularly,
in those subjected to profuse perspiration (as in summer), and in
those suffering from a watery diarrhea. On the whole, calculi are
most commonly found in Avinter, because the horses are then on dry
feeding, but such dry feeding is even more conducive to them in
summer when the condition is aggravated by the abundant loss of
water by the skin.

In the same way the extreme hardness of the water in certain dis-
tricts must be looked upon as contributing to the concentration of the
urine and correspondingly to the production of stone. The carbon-
ates, sulphates, etc., of lime and magnesia taken in the water must be
again thrown out, and just in j)roportion as these add to the solids of
the urine they dispose it to precipitate its least soluble constituents.
Thus, the horse is very obnoxious to calculi on certain limestone soils,
as over the calcareous formations of central and western New York,
Pennsylvania, and Ohio, in America; of Norfolk, Suffolk, Derbyshire,
Shropshire, and Gloucestershire, in England; of Poitou and Landes,
in France; and Munich, in Bavaria.

But the saturation of the urine from any or all of these conditions
can only be looked on as an auxiliary cause, and not as in itself an
efficient one, except on the rarest occasions. For a more direct and
immediate cause we must look to the organic matter which forms a
large proportion of all urinary calculi. This consists of mucus, albu-
men, i:>us, hyaline casts of the uriniferous tubes, epithelial cells, blood,
etc., mainly agents that belong to the class of colloid or noncrystallme
bodies. A horse may live for months and years with the urine habit-
ually of a high density and having the mineral constituents in excess
without the formation of stone or gravel ; and again one with dilute
urine of low specific gravity will have a calculus.

Rainey, Ord, and others furnish the explanation. They not only
show that a colloid body, like mucus, albumen, pus, or blood, deter-
mined the j)recipitation or the crystalline salts in the solution, but
they determined the precipitation in the form of globules, or spheres,
capable of developing by further deposits into calculi. Heat intensi-
fies this action of the colloids, and a colloid in a state of decomposition
is specially active. The presence, therefore, of developing fungi and
bacteria must be looked upon as active factors in causing calculi.

In looking, therefore, for the immediate causes of calculi we must
consider especially all those conditions which determine the presence
of albumen, blood, and excess of mucus, pus, etc., in the urine. Thus
diseases of distant organs leading to albuminuria, diseases of the kid-
neys and urinary passages causing the escape of blood or the forma-
H. Doc. 795, 59-2 -7

98 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

tion of mucus or pus, become direct causes of calculi. Foreign bodies
of all kinds iji the bladder or kidney have long been known as deter-
mining causes of calculi and as forming the central nucleus. This is
now explained by the fact that these bodies are liable to carry bacte-
ria into the passages and thus determine decomposition, and they are
further liable to irritate the mucous membrane and become enveloped
in a coating of mucus, pus, and perhaps blood.

The fact that horses appear to suffer from calculi, especially on the
magnesian limestones, the same districts in which they suffer from
goiter, may be similarly explained. The unknown poison which pro-
duces goiter presumably leads to such changes in the blood and urine
as will furnish the colloid necessary for precipitation of the urinary
salts in the form of calculi.

CLASSIFICATION OF URINARY CALCULI.

These have been named according to the place where they are
found, renal (kidney), uretral (ureter), vesical (bladder), urethral
(urethra)," and preputial (sheath, or prepuce). They have been
otherwise named according to their most abundant chemical constit-
uent, carbonate of lime^ oxalate of lime, and phosphate of lime calculi.
The stones formed of carbonates or phosphates are usually smooth
on the surface, though they may be molded into the shape of the
cavity in which they have been formed; thus those in the pelvis of
the kidney may have two or three short branchlike prolongations,
while those in the bladder are round, oval, or slightly flattened upon
each other. Calculi containing oxalate of lime, on the other hand,
have a rough, open, crystalline surface, which has gained for them
the name of mulberry calculi, from a supposed resemblance to that
fruit. These are usually covered with more or less mucus or blood,
produced by the irritation of the mucous membrane by their rough
surfaces. The color of calculi varies from white to yellow and deep
brown, the shades depending mainly on the amount of the coloring
matter of blood, bile, or urine which they may contain.

Renal calculi. — These may consist of minute, almost microscopic,
deposits in the uriniferous tubes in the substance of the kidney, but
more commonly they are large masses and lodged in the pelvis. The
larger calculi, sometimes weighing 12 to 24 ounces, are molded in the
pelvis of the kidney into a cylindroid mass, with irregular rounded
swellings at intervals. Some have a deep brown, rough, crystalline
surface of oxalate of lime, while others have a smooth, pearly white
aspect from carbonate of lime. A smaller calculus, which has been
called coralline, is also cylindroid, with a number of brown, rough,
crystalline oxalate of lime branches and whitish depressions of car-
bonate. These vary in size from 15 grains to nearly 2 ounces. Less
frequently are found masses of very hard, brownish white, rounded,

STONE, OR GRAVEL. 99

pealike calculi. These are smoother, but on the surface crystals of
oxalate of lime may be detected with a lens. Some renal calculi are
formed of more distinct layers, more loosely adherent to each other,
and contain an excess of mucus, but no oxalate of lime. Finally, a
loose aggregation of small masses, forming a very friable calculus,
is found of all sizes within the limits of the pelvis of the kidney.
These, too, are in the main carbonate of lime (84 to 88 per cent) and
without oxalate.

Symptoms of renal calculi are violent colicky pains, appearing sud-
denly, very often in connection with exhausting work or the drawing
of specially heavy loads, and in certain cases disappearing with equal
suddenness. The nature of the colic becomes more manifest if it is
associated with stiffness of the back and hind limbs, frequent passage
of urine, and, above all, the passage of gravel with the urine, espe-
cially at the time of the access of relief. The passage of blood and
pus in the urine is equally significant. If the irritation of the kid-
ney goes on to active inflammation, then the symptoms of nephritis
are added.

Uretral calcidi. — These are so called because they are found in the
i:)assage leading from the kidney to the bladder. They are simply
small renal calculi which have escaped from the pelvis of the kidney
and have become arrested in the ureter. They give rise to symptoms
almost identical with those of renal calculi, with this difference, that
the colicky pains, caused by the obstruction of the ureter by the
impacted calculus, are more violent, and if the calculus passes on
into the bladder the relief is instantaneous and complete. If the
ureter is completely blocked for a length of time, the retained urine
may give rise to destructive inflammation in the kidney, which may
end in the entire absorption of that organ, leaving only a fibrous
capsule containing an urinous fluid. If both the ureters are similarly
blocked, the animal will die of uremic poisoning.

Treatment of renal and uretral calculi. — Treatment is unsatisfac-
tory; as it is only the small calculi that can pass through the ureters
and escape into the bladder. This may be favored by agents which
will relax the walls of the ureters by counteracting their spasm and
even lessening their tone, and by a liberal use of water and watery
fluids to increase the urine and the pressure upon the calculus from
behind. One or 2 ounces of laudanum, or 2 drams of extract of bella-
donna, may be given and repeated as it may be necessary, the relief of
the pain being a fair criterion of the abating of the spasm. To the
same end use warm fomentations across the loins, and these should be
kept up persistently until relief is obtained. These act not alone by
soothing and relieving the spasm and inflammation, but they also
favor the freer secretion of a more waterj^ urine, and thus tend to
carry off the smaller calculi. To further secure this object give cool

100 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

water freely, and let the food be only such as contains a large propor-
tion of liquid, gruels, mashes, turnips, beets, apples, pumpkins,
ensilage, succulent grasses, etc. If the acute stage has passed and
the presence of the calculus is manifested only by the frequent passage
of urine with gritty particles, by stijffness of the loins and hind limbs,
and by tenderness to pressure, the most promising resort is a long run
at pasture where the grasses are fresh and succulent. The long-
continued secretion of a watery urine will sometimes cause the break-
ing down of a calculus, as the imbibition of the less dense fluid by the
organic spongelike framework of the calculus causes it to swell and
thus lessens its cohesion. The same end is sought by the long-con-
tinued use of alkalies (carbonate of potassium), and of acids
(muriatic), each acting in a different way to alter the density and
cohesion of the stone. But it is only exceptionally that any of these
methods is entirely satisfactory. If inflanunation of the kidneys
develops, treat as advised under that head.

Stone in the hladder {vesical calculus, or cystic calculus). — These
may be of any size up to over a pound in weight. One variety is
rough and crystalline and has a yellowish white or deep-brown color.
These contain about 87 per cent carbonate of lime, the remainder
being carbonate of magnesia, oxalate of lime, and organic matter.
The phosphatic calculi are smooth and white and formed of thin
concentric layers of great hardness extending from the nucleus out-
Avard. Besides the phosphate of lime these contain the carbonates of
lime and magnesia and organic matter. In some cases the bladder
contains and may be even distended by a soft pultaceous mass made
up of minute round granules of carbonates of lime and magnesia.
This, when removed and dried, makes a firm, white, and stony mass.
Sometimes this magma is condensed into a solid mass in the bladder
by reason of the binding action of the mucus and other organic
matter, and then forms a conglomerate stone of nearly uniform con-
sistency and without stratification.

Symptoms of stone in the hladder. — The symptoms of stone in the
bladder are more obvious than those of renal calculus. The rough
mulberry calculi especially lead to irritation of the mucous membrane
and frequent passing of urine in small quantities and often mingled
with mucus or blood or containing minute gritty particles. At times
the flow is suddenly arrested, though the animal continues to strain
and the bladder is not quite emptied. In the smooth phosphatic
variety the irritation is much less marked and may even be altogether
absent. With the pultaceous deposit in the bladder there is incon-
tinence of urine, which dribbles away continually and keeps the hair
on the inner side of the thighs matted with soft magma. In all cases
alike the calculus may be felt by the examination of the bladder with
the oiled hand in the rectum. The pear-shaped outline of the bladder

STONE, OR GRAVEL. 101

can be felt beneath, and within it the solid oval body. It is most
easily recognized if the organ is half full of liquid, as then it is not
grasped by the contracting walls of the bladder, but may be made to
move from place to place in the liquid. If a pultaceous mass is
present it has a soft, doughy feeling, and when pressed an indentation
is left.

In the mare the hard stone may be touched by the finger introduced
through the short urethra.

Treatment of stone in the bladder. — The treatment of stone in the
bladder consists in the removal of the offending body. In the mare
this is easily effected with the lithotomy forceps. These are slightly
warmed and oiled, and carried forward along the floor of the passages
of the vidva for 4 inches, when the orifice of the urethra will be felt
exactly in the median line. Through this the forceps are gradually''
pushed with gentle oscillating movement until they enter the bladder
and strike against the hard surface of the stone. The stone is now-
grasped between the blades, care being taken to include no loose fold
of the mucous membrane, and it is gradually w^ithdraw^n w^ith the
same careful oscillating motions as before. Facility and safety in
seizing the stone will be greatly favored by having the bladder half
full of liquid, and if necessary one oiled hand may be introduced
into the rectum or vagina to assist. The resulting irritation may be
treated by an injection of laudanum, 1 ounce in a pint of tepid water.

The removal of the stone in the horse is a much more difficult pro-
ceeding. It consists in cutting into the urethra just beneath the anus
and introducing the lithotomy forceps from this forward into the
bladder, as in the mare. It is needful to distend the urethra with
tepid water or to insert a sound or catheter to furnish a guide upon
which the incision may be made, and in case of a large stone it may
be needful to enlarge the passage by cutting in a direction upward
and outward with a probe-pointed knife, the back of which is slid
along in the groove of a director until it enters the bladder.

The horse may be operated upon in the standing position, being
simply pressed against the wall by a pole passed from before back-
ward along the other side of the body. The tepid water is injected
into the end of the penis until it is felt to fluctuate under the pressure
of the finger, in the median line over the bone just beneath the anus.
The incision is then made into the center of the fluctuating canal, and
from above downward. "When a sound or catheter is used as a guide
it is inserted through the penis until it can -be felt through the skin
at the point where the incision is to be made beneath the anus. The
skin is then rendered tense by the thumb and fingers of the left hand
pressing on the two sides of the sound, while the right hand, armed
with a scalpel, cuts downward onto the catheter. This vertical in-
cision into the canal should escape wounding any important blood

102 DISEASES or THE HORSE.

vessel." It is in making the obliquely lateral incision in the subse-
quent dilatation of the urethra and neck of the bladder that such
danger is to be apprehended.

If the stone is too large to be extracted through the urethra it may-
be broken down with the lithotrite and extracted piecemeal with the
forceps. The lithotrite is an instrument composed of a straight stem
bent for an inch or more to one side at its free end so as to form an
obtuse angle, and having on the same side a sliding bar moving in a
groove in the stem and operated by a screw so that the stone may b^
seized between the two blades at its free extremity and crushed again
and again into pieces small enough to extract. Extra care is required
to avoid injury to the urethra in the extraction of the angular frag-
ments, and the gravel or powder that can not be removed in this way
must be washed out as advised below.

Wlien a pultaceous magma of carbonate of lime accumulates in the
bladder it must be washed out by injecting water through a catheter
by means of a force pump or a funnel, shaking it up with the hand
introduced through the rectum and allowing the muddy liquid to flow
out through the tube. This is to be repeated until the bladder is
empty and the water comes away clear. A catheter with a double
tube is sometimes used, the injection passing in through the one tube
and escaping through the other. But the advantage is more ap-
parent than real, as the retention of the water until the magma has
been shaken up and mixed with it hastens greatly its -complete evacu-
ation.

To prevent the formation of a new deposit any fault in feeding
(dry 'grain and hay with privation of water, excess of beans, pease,
wheat bran, etc.) and disorders of stomach, liver, and lungs must
be corrected. Give abundance of soft drinking water, encouraging
the animal to drink by a handful of salt daily ; let the food be laxa-
tive, consisting largely of roots, apples, pumpkins, ensilage, and give
daily in the drinking water a dram of carbonate of potash or soda.
Powdered gentian root (3 drams daily) will also serve to restore the
tone of the stomach and system at large.

Urethral calmdiis {stone in the urethra). — This is less frequent in
horses than in cattle and sheep, owing to the larger size of the urethra
in the horse and the absence of the S-shaped curve and vermiform
appendix. The calculi arrested in the urethra are never formed
there, but consist of cystic calculi which have been small enough to
pass through the neck of the bladder, but too large to pass through
the whole length of the urethra and escape. Such calculi therefore
are primarily formed either in the bladder or kidney, and have the
chemical composition of the other calculi found in those organs.
They may be arrested at any point of the urethra, from the neck of
the bladder back to the bend of the tube beneath the anus, and from

STONE, OR GRAVEL. 103

that point down to the extremity of the penis. I have found them
most frequently in the papilla on the extreme end of the penis, and
immediately behind this.

Symptoms of urethral calculus. — The symptoms are violent strain-
ing to urinate, but without any discharge, or with the escape of water
in drops only. Examination of the end of the penis will detect the
swelling of the pai3illa or the urethra behind it, and the presence of
a hard mass in the center. A probe inserted into the urethra will
strike against the gritty calculus. If the stone has been arrested
higher up, its f)osition may be detected as a small, hard, sensitive
knot on the line of the urethra, in the median line of the lower surface
of the penis, or on the floor of pelvis in the median line from the
neck of the bladder back to the bend of the urethra beneath the anus.
In an}?" case the urethra between the neck of the bladder and the point
of obstruction is likely to be filled with fluid, and to feel like a dis-
tended tube fluctuating on pressure.

Treatment of urethral calculus may be begun by an attempt to
extract the calculi by manipulation of the papilla on the end of the
f)enis. This failing, the calculus may be seized with a pair of fine-
pointed forceps and withdrawn from the urethra ; or, if necessary, a
probe-pointed knife may be inserted and the urethra slightly dilated,
or even laid open, and the stone removed. If the stone has been
arrested higher up it must be extracted by a direct incision through
the walls of the urethra and down upon the nodule. If in the free
(protractile) portion of the penis, that organ is to be withdrawn from
its sheath until the nodule is exposed and can be incised. If behind
the scrotum, the incision must be made in the median line between
the thighs and directly over the nodule, the skin having been rendered
tense by the fingers and thumb of the left hand. If the stone has
been arrested in the intrapelvic portion of the urethra, the incision
must be made beneath the anus and the calculus extracted with for-
ceps, as in stone in the bladder. The wound in the urethra may be
stitched up, and usually heals slowly but satisfactorily. Healing will
be favored by washing two or three times daily with a solution of a
teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a pint of water.

Preputial calculus (calculus in the sheath, or hilocular cavity). —
These are concretions in the sheath, though the term has been also
applied to the nodule of sebaceous matter which accumulates in the
blind pouches (bilocular cavity) by the sides of the papilla on the end
of the penis. Within the sheath the concretion may be a soft, cheesy-
like sebaceous matter, or a genuine calculus of carbonate, oxalate,
phosphate and sulphate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, and organic
matter. These are easily removed with the fingers, after which the
sheath should be washed out with castile soap and warm water, and
smeared with sweet oil.

DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.

By W. H. Harbaugh, V. S.
[Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.]

The organs pertaining to the respiratory function may be enu-
merated in natural order as follows : The nasal openings, or nostrils ;
the nasal chambers, through which the air passes in the head; the
sinuses in the head, communicating with the nasal chambers; the
pharynx, common to the functions of breathing and swallowing;
the larynx, at the top of the windpipe ; the trachea, or windpipe ; the
bronchi (into which the windpipe divides), two tubes leading from
the windpipe to the right and left lungs, respectively ; the bronchial
tubes, which penetrate and convey air to all parts of the lungs; the
lungs.

The pleura is a thin membrane that envelops the lung and lines the
walls of the thoracic cavity. The diaphragm is a muscular structure,
completely separating the contents of the thoracic cavity from those
of the abdominal cavity. It is essentially a muscle of inspiration,
and the principal one. Other muscles aid in the mechanism of
respiration, but the diseases or injuries of them have nothing to do
with the diseases under consideration.

Just within the nasal openings the skin becomes gradually but per-
ceptibly finer, until it is succeeded by the mucous membrane. Near
the junction of the skin and membrane is a small hole, presenting
the appearance of having been made with a punch ; this is the
opening of the lachrymal duct, a canal that conveys the tears from
the eyes. Within and above the nasal openings are the cavities, or
fissures, called the false nostrils. The nasal chambers are completely
separated, the right from the left, by a cartilaginous partition, the
nasal septum. Each nasal chamber is divided into three continuous
compartments by two thin, scrolllike turbinated bones.

The mucous membrane lining the nasal chambers, and in fact the
entire respiratory tract, is much more delicate and more frequently
diseased than the mucous membrane of any other part of the body.
The sinuses of the head are compartments which communicate Avith
the nasal chambers and are lined with a continuation of the same
membrane that lines the nasal chambers ; their presence increases the
volume and modifies the form of the head without increasing its
weight.

The horse, in a normal condition, breathes exclusively through the
nostrils. The organs of respiration are more liable to disease than
104

DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 105

the organs connected with any other function of the animal, and, as
many of the causes can be avoided, it is both important and profitable
to know and study the causes.

CAUSES or DISEASES OF RESPIRATORY ORGANS.

The causes of many of the diseases of these organs may be given
under a common head, because even a simple cold, if neglected or
badly treated, may run into the most complicated lung disease and
terminate fatally. In the spring and fall, when the animals are
changing their coats, there is a marked predisposition to contract
disease, and consequently care should be taken at those periods to
prevent other exciting causes.

Badly ventilated stables are a frequent source of disease. It is a
mistake to think that country stables necessarily have purer air than
city stables. Stables on some farms are so faultily constructed that it
is almost impossible for the foul air to gain an exit. All stables
should have a sufficient supply of pure air, and be so arranged that
strong drafts can not blow directly on the animals. In ventilating a
stable, it is best to arrange to remove air from near the floor and admit
it through numerous small openings near the ceiling. The reason
for this is that the coldest and most impure air in the stable is near
the floor while that which is warmest and purest, and therefore can
least be spared is near the top of the room. In summer, top exits and
cross currents should be provided to remove excessive heat. Hot
stables are almost always poorly ventilated, and the hot stable is a
cause of disease on account of the extreme change of temperature
that a horse is liable to when taken out, and extreme changes of tem-
perature are to be avoided as certain causes of disease.

A cold, close stable is invariably damp, and is to be avoided as
much as the hot, close, and foul stable. Horses changed from a cold
to a warm stable are more liable to contract cold than when changed
from a warm to a cold stable. Pure air is more essential than
warmth, and this fact should be especially remembered when the
stable is made close and foul to gain the warmth. It is more econom-
ical to keep the horse warm Avith blankets than to prevent the ingress
of pure air in order to make the stable warm.

Stables should be well drained and kept clean. Some farmers
allow large quantities of manure to accumulate in the stable. This is
a pernicious practice, as the decomposing organic matter evolves
gases that are predisposing or exciting causes of disease. ^.Hien a
horse is overheated, it is not safe to allow him to dry by evaporation ;
rubbing him dry and gradually cooling him out is the wisest treat-
ment. ^^Tien a horse is hot — covered with sweat — it is dangerous to
allow him to stand in a draft; it is the best plan to walk him until his
temperature moderates. In such cases a light blanket thrown over

106 DISEASES OP THE HORSE.

the animal may prevent a cold. Overwork or overexertion often
causes the most fatal cases of congestion of the lungs. Avoid pro-
longed or fast work when the horse is out of condition or unaccuS"
tomed to it. Animals that have been working out in cold rains should
be dried and cooled out and not left to dry by evaporation. When
the temperature of the weather is at the extreme, either of heat or
cold, diseases of the organs of respiration are most frequent.

It is not to be supposed that farmers can give their horses the par-
ticular attention given to valuable racing and pleasure horses, but
they can most assuredly give them common-sense care, and this will
often save the life of a valuable animal. If the owner properly con-
siders his interests, he will study the welfare of his horses so that he
may be able to instruct the servant in details of stable management.

WOUNDS ABOUT THE NOSTRILS.

Wounds in this neighborhood are common, and are generally caused
by snagging on a nail or splinter or by the bite of another horse; or
by getting " run into," or by running against something. Occasion-
ally the nostril is so badly torn and lacerated that it is impossible to
effect a cure without leaving the animal blemished for life, but in the
majority of instances the blemish, or scar, is due to the want of con-
servative treatment. As soon as possible after the accident the parts
should be brought together and held there by stitches. If too much
time is allowed to elapse, the swelling of the parts will considerably
interfere. Never cut away any skin that may be loose and hanging,
or else a scar will certainly remain. Bring the parts in direct apposi-
tion and place the stitches from a quarter to a half inch apart, as cir-
cumstances may demand. It is not necessary to have special surgeons'
silk and needles for this operation ; good linen thread or ordinary silk
thread will answer. The wound afterwards only requires to be kept
clean. For this purpose it should be cleansed and discharges washed
away daily with a solution made of carbolic acid 1 part, in water 40
parts. If the horse is inclined to rub the wound against some object
on account of the irritability, his head should be tied by means of two
halter ropes attached to the opposite sides of the stall to prevent him
rubbing the wound open. The head should be so tied about ten days,
except when at work or eating.

TUMORS WITHIN THE NOSTRILS.

A small globular tumor is sometimes found within the false nostril,
under that part of the skin that is seen to puff or rise and fall when a
horse is exerted and breathing hard. These tumors contain matter of
a cheesy consistency.

Treatment. — If the tumor is well opened and the matter squeezed
out, nature will perform a cure. If the opening is made from the out-

COLD IN THE HEAD ( NASAL CATAKRh). 107

side through the skin, it should be at the most dependent part, but
much the best way to open the tumor is from the inside. Quiet the
animal, gently insert your finger up in the direction of the tumor, and
you will soon discover that it is much larger inside than it appears to
be on the outside. If necessary put a twitch on the ear of the horse
to quiet him ; run the index finger of your left hand against the tumor ;
now, with the right hand, carefully insert the knife by running the
back of the blade along the index finger of the left hand until the
tumor is reached; with the left index finger guide the point of the
blade quickly and surely into the tumor; make the opening large.
A little blood may flow for a while, but it is of no consequence.
Squeeze out the matter and keep the part clean.

COLD IN THE HEAD, OR NASAL CATARRH.

Catarrh is an inflammation of a mucous membrane. It is accom.-
panied by excessive secretion. In nasal catarrh the inflammation
may extend from the membrane lining the nose to the throat, the in-
side of the sinuses, and to the eyes. The causes are the general causes
of respiratory disease enumerated above. It is especially common in
young horses and in horses not acclimated.

Sym2)toms. — The membrane at the beginning of the attack is dry,
congested, and irritable; it is of a deeper hue than natural, pinkish
red or red. Soon a watery discharge from the nostrils makes its
appearance; the eyes may also be more or less affected and tears flow
over the cheeks. The animal has some fever, which may be easily
detected by means of a clinical thermometer inserted in the. rectum
or, roughly, by placing the finger in the mouth, as the feeling of heat
conveyed to the finger will be greater than natural.

To become somewhat expert in ascertaining the changes of temper-
ature in the horse it is only necessary to place the finger often in the
mouths of horses known to be healthy. After you have become accus-
tomed to the warmth of the mouth of the healthy animal you will
have no difficulty in detecting a marked increase of the temperature.
The animal may be dull; he sneezes or snorts, but does not cough
unless the throat is affected; he expels the air forcibly through his
nostrils, very often in a manner that may be aptly called " blowing
his nose." A few days after the attack begins the discharge from
the nostrils changes from a watery to that of a thick, mucilaginous
state, of a yellowish white color, and may be more or less profuse.
Often the appetitie is lost and the animal becomes debilitated.

Treatment. — This disease is not serious but inasmuch as neglect or
bad treatment may cause it to lead to something worse or become
chronic, it should receive proper attention. The animal should not be
worked for a time. A few days of quiet rest, with pure air and good
food, will be of greater benefit than most medication. The value of

108 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

pure air can not be overestimated, but drafts must be avoided. The
benefit derived from the inhalation of steam is considerable. This
is effected by holding the horse's head over a bucketful of boiling
water, so that the animal will be compelled to inhale steam with
every inhalation of air. Stirring the hot water with a wisp of hay
causes the steam to arise in greater abundance. One may cause the
horse to put his nose in a bag containing cut hay upon which hot
water has been poured, the bottom of the bag being stood in a bucket,
but the bag must be of loose texture, as gunny sack, or, if of canvas,
holes must be cut in the side to admit fresh air.

The horse may be made to inhale steam four or five times a day,
about fifteen or twenty minutes each time.

Particular attention should be paid to the diet. Give bran mashes,
scalded oats, linseed gruel, and grass, if in season. If the horse
evinces no desire for this soft diet, it is better to allow any kind of
food he will eat, such as hay, oats, corn, etc., than to keep him on
short rations.

If the animal is constipated, relieve this symptom by injections
(enemas) of warm water into the rectum three of four times a day,
but do not administer purgative medicines, excepting of a mild
character.

For simple cases the foregoing is all that is required, but if the
appetite is lost and the animal appears debilitated and dull, give 3
ounces of the solution of acetate of ammonia and 2 drams of pow-
dered chlorate of potassium diluted with a pint of water three times a
day as a drench. Be careful when giving the drench ; do not pound
the horse on the gullet to make him swallow; be patient, and take
time, and do it right.

If the weather be cold, blanket the animal and keep him in a com-
fortable stall. If the throat is sore, treat as advised for that ailment,
to be described hereafter.

If, after ten days or two weeks, the discharge from the nostrils con-
tinues, give one-half dram of reduced iron three times a day. This
may be mixed with damp feed. Common cold should be thoroughly
understood and intelligently treated in order to prevent more danger-
ous diseases.

CHRONIC CATARRH (OR NASAL GLEET, OR COLLECTION IN THE SINUSES).

This is a subacute or chronic inflammation of some part of the
membrane affected in common cold, the disease just described. It is
manifested by a persistent discharge of a thick white or yellowish
white matter from one or both nostrils. The commonest cause is a
neglected or badly treated cold, and it usually follows those cases
where the horse has suffered exposure, been overworked, or has not
received proper food, and, as a consequence, has become debilitated.

CHRONIC CATARRH ( NASAL GLEET). 109

Other but less frequent causes for this affection are : Fractures of
the bones that involve the membrane of the sinuses, and even blows
on the head over the sinuses. Diseased teeth often involve a sinus
and cause a fetid discharge from the nostril. Violent coughing is
said to have forced particles of food into the sinus, which acted as a
cause of the disease. Tumors growing in the sinuses are known to
have caused it. It is also attributed to disease of the turbinated
bones. Absorption of the bones forming the walls of the sinuses has
been caused by the pressure of pus collecting in them and by tumors
filling up the cavity.

Symjytoms. — Great caution must be exercised when examining these
cases, for the horse may have glanders, while, on the other hand,
horses have been condemned as glandered when really there was
nothing ailing them but nasal gleet. This affection is not contagious.
It may stubbornly resist treatment and last for a long time. In
most cases the discharge is from one nostril only, which may signify
that the sinuses on that side of the head are affected. The discharge
may be intermittent, that is, quantities may be discharged at times
and again little or none for a day or so. Such an intermittent dis-
charge usually signifies disease of the sinuses. The glands under
and between the bones of the lower jaw may be enlarged. The pecul-
iar ragged-edged ulcer of glanders is not to be found on the mem-
brane within the nostrils, but occasionally sores are to be seen there.
If there is any doubt about it, study well the symptoms of glanders
to enable you to be at least competent to form a safe opinion.

The eye on the side of the discharging nostril may have a peculiar
appearance and look smaller than its fellow. There may be an
enlargement, having the appearance of a bulging out of the bone
over the part affected, between or below the eyes. The breath may
be offensive, which indicates decomposition of the matter or bones,
or disease of the teeth. A diseased tooth is further indicated by the
horse holding his head to one side when eating, or by dropping the
food from the mouth after partly chewing it. ^^Tien you tap on
the bones between the eyes, below the eyes, and above the back teeth
of the upper jaw, a hollow, drumlike sound is emitted, but if the
sinus is filled with pus or contains a large tumor the sound emitted
will be the same as if a solid substance were struck; by this means
the sinus affected may be located in some instances. The hair may
be rough over the affected part, or even the bone may be soft to
the touch and the part give somewhat to pressure or leave an impres-
sion where it is pressed upon with the finger.

Treatment. — The cause of the trouble must be ascertained before
treatment is commenced. In the many cases where the animal is in
poor condition (in fact, in all cases) he should have the most nutri-

110 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

live food and regular exercise. The food, or box containing" it,
should be placed on the ground, as the dependent position of the head
favors the discharge.

The cases that do not require a surgical operation must, as a rule,
have persistent medical treatment. Mineral tonics and local medica-
tion are of the most value. For eight days give the following mix-
ture : Reduced iron, 3 ounces ; jDOwdered nux vomica, 1 ounce. Mix
and make into sixteen powders. Give one powder mixed with the
food twice a day. Arsenious acid (white arsenic) in doses of from
3 to 6 grains three times daily is a good tonic for such cases. Sulphur
burnt in the stable while the animal is there to inhale its fumes is also
a valuable adjunct. Care should be taken that the fumes of the
burning sulphur are sufficiently diluted with air, so as not to suffocate
the horse. Chloride of lime sprinkled around the stall is good. Also
keep a quantity of the chloride under the hay in the manger, so that
the gases will be inhaled as the horse holds his head over the hay
while eating. Keep the nostrils washed, and keep the discharge
cleaned away from the manger and stall. The horse may be caused
to inhale creolin vapor or the vapor of compound tincture of benzoin
by pouring 2 ounces of these drugs into hot water and fumigating in
the usual way.

If the nasal gleet is the result of a diseased tooth, the tooth must
be removed. The operation of trephining is the best possible way to
remove the tooth in such cases, as it immediately opens the cavity
which can be attended to direct. In all those cases of nasal gleet
where sinuses contain either collections of pus or tumors, the only
relief is by the trephine; and, no matter how thoroughly described,
this is an operation that will be very seldom attempted by the non-
professional. It would therefore be a waste of time to give the modus
operandi.

An abscess involving the turbinated bones is similar to the collection
of pus in the sinuses, and must be relieved by trephining.

THICKENING OF THE MEMBRANE.

This is sometimes denoted by a chronic discharge, a snuffling in the
breathing, and a contraction of the nostril. It is a result of common
cold and requires the same treatment as prescribed for nasal gleet,
namely, the sulphate of iron, sulphate of copper, iodide of potassium,
etc. The membranes of both sides may be affected, but one side only
is the rule; and the affected side may be easily detected by holding
the hand tightly over one nostril at a time. When the healthy side is
closed in this manner, the breathing through the affected side will
demonstrate a decreased caliber or an obstruction.

TUMORS IN NOSE AND PHARYNX. Ill

NASAL POLYPUS.

Tumors with narrow bases (somewhat pear-shaped) are occasion-
ally found attached to the membrane of the nasal chambers, and are
obstructions to breathing through the side in which they are located.
They vary much in size ; some are so small that their presence is not
manifested, while others almost completely fill up the chamber,
thereby causing a serious obstruction to the passage of air. The stem,
or base, of the tumor is generally attached high up in the chamber,
and usually the tumor can not be seen, but occasionally it increases in
size until it can be observed within the nostril. Sometimes, instead of
hanging down toward the nasal oj^ening, it falls back into the phar-
ynx. It causes a discharge from the nostril, a more or less noisy
snuffling sound in breathing, according to its size, a discharge of
blood (if it is injured), and sneezing. The side that it occupies can
be detected in the same way as described for the detection of the
affected side when the breathing is obstructed by a thickened mem-
brane.

The only relief is removal of the polypus, which, like all other
operations, should be done by an expert when it is possible to secure
one. The operation is performed by grasping the base of the tumor
with suitable forceps and twisting it round and round until it is torn
from its attachment, or by cutting it off with a noose of wire. The
resulting hemorrhage is checked by the use of an astringent lotion,
such as a solution of the tincture of iron, or by packing the nostrils
with surgeon's gauze.

PHARYNGEAL POLYPUS.

This is exactly the same kind of tumor described as nasal polypus,
the only difference being in the situation. Indeed, the stem of the
tumor may be attached to the membrane of the nasal chamber, as
before explained, or it may be attached in the fauces (opening of the
back part of the mouth), and the body of the tumor then falls into
the pharynx. In this situation it may seriously interfere with breath-
ing. Sometimes it drops into the larynx, causing the most alarming
symptoms. The animal coughs, or tries to cough, saliva flows from
the mouth, the breathing is performed with the greatest difficulty and
accompanied by a loud noise; the animal appears as if strangled and
often falls exhausted. When the tumor is coughed out of the larynx
the animal regains quickly and soon appears as if nothing was ailing.
These sudden attacks and quick recoveries point to the nature of the
trouble. The examinati6n must be made by holding the animal's
mouth open with a balling iron or speculum and running the hand
back into the mouth. If the tumor is within reach, it must be re-
moved in the same manner as though it were in the nose.

112 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

BLEEDING FROM THE NOSE.

This often occurs during the course of certain diseases, namely,
influenza, bronchitis, purpura hemorrhagica, glanders, etc. But it
also occurs independent of other affections ; and, as before mentioned,
is a symptom of polypus, or tumor, in the nose.

Injuries to the head, exertion, violent sneezing — causing a rupture
of a small blood vessel — also induce it. The bleeding is almost inva-
riably from one nostril only, and is never very serious. The blood
escapes in drops (very seldom in a stream) and is not frothy, as when
the hemorrhage is from the lungs. (See Bleeding from the lungs,
p. 136.) In most cases bathing the head and washing out the nostril
with cold water are all that is necessary. If the cause is known, you
will be guided according to circumstances. If the bleeding continues,
pour ice-cold water over the face, between the eyes and down over
the nasal chambers. A bag containing ice in small pieces applied to
the head is often efficient. If in spite of these measures the hemor-
rhage continues, try plugging the nostrils with cotton, tow, or oakum.
Tie a string around the plug before it is pushed up into the nostril,
so that it can be safely withdrawn after four or five hours. If both
nostrils are bleeding, plug only one nostril at a time. If the hemor-
rhage is profuse and persistent, give a drench composed of 1 dram of
acetate of lead dissolved in 1 pint of water ; or ergot, 1 ounce.

INFLAMMATION OF THE PHARYNX.

As already stated, the pharynx is common to the functions of both
respiration and alimentation. From this organ the air passes into the
larynx and thence onward to the lungs. In the posterior part of the
pharynx is the superior extremity of the gullet, the canal through
which the food and water pass to the stomach. Inflammation of the
pharynx is a complication of other diseases — namely, influenza,
strangles, etc. — and is probablj^ always more or less complicated with
inflammation of the larynx. That it may exist as an independent
affection there is no reason to doubt, and it is discussed as such with
the diseases of the digestive tract.

SORE THROAT, OR LARYNGITIS.

The larynx is situated in the space between the lower jawbones just
back of the root of the tongue. It may be considered as a box (some-
what depressed on each side) , composed principally of cartilages and
small muscles, and lined on the inside with a continuation of the
respiratory mucous membrane. Posteriorly it opens into and is contin-
uous with the windpipe. It is the organ of the voice, the vocal cords
being situated within it ; but in the horse this function is of little con-
sequence. It dilates and contracts to a certain extent, thus regulating
the volume of air passing through it. The mucous membrane lining

SOKE THROAT, OR LARYNGITIS. 113

it internally is so higlily sensitive that if the smallest particle of food
happens to drop into it from the pharynx violent coughing ensues
instantly and is continued until the source of irritation is ejected.
This is a provision of nature to prevent foreign substances gaining
access to the lungs. That projection called Adam's apple in the neck
of man is the prominent part of one of the cartilages forming the
larjaix.

Inflammation of the larynx is a serious and sometimes a fatal dis-
ease, and, as before stated, is usually complicated with inflammation
of the pharynx, constituting what is popularly known as " sore
throat." The chief causes are chilling and exposure.

Symptoms. — About the first symptom noticed is cough, followed by
difficulty in swallowing, which may be due to soreness of the mem-
brane of the pharynx, over which the food or water must pass, or to
the pain caused by the contraction of the muscles necessary to impel
the food or water onward to the gullet; or this same contraction of
the muscles may cause a pressure on the larynx and produce pain. In
many instances the difficulty in swallowing is so great that water, and
in some cases food, is returned through the nose. This, hovfever,
does not occur from laryngitis alone, but only when the pharynx is
involved in the inflammation. The glands between the lov\^er jaw-
bones and below the ears may be swollen. Pressure on the larynx
induces coughing. The head is more or less " poked out," and has
the appearance of being stiffly carried. The membrane in the nose
becomes red. A discharge from the nostrils soon appears. As the
<lisease advances, the breathing may assume a more or less noisy char-
acter ; sometimes a harsh rasping snore is emitted with every respira-
tion, the breathing becoijies hurried, and occasionally the animal
seems threatened with suffocation.

Treatment. — In all cases steam the nostrils, as has been advised for
cold in the head. In bad cases cause the steam to be inhaled continu-
ously for hours — until relief is afforded. Have a fresh bucketful of
boiling water every fifteen or twenty minutes. In each bucketful of
water put a tablespoonful of oil of turpentine, or compound tincture
of benzoin, the vapor of which will be carried along with the steam to
the affected parts and have a beneficial effect. In mild cases steaming
the nostrils five, six, or seven times a day will suffice.

The animal should be placed in a comfortable, dry stall (a box stall
preferred) , and should have a pure atmosphere to breathe. The body
should be blanketed, and bandages applied to the legs. The diet
should consist of soft food — bran mashes, scalded oats, linseed gruel,
and, best of all, grass, if in season, which should be fresh. The man-
ger, or trough, should not be too high nor too low, but a temporary
one should be constructed at about the height he carries his head.

H. Doc. 795, 59-2 8

114 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

Having to reach too high or too low may cause so much pain that the
animal would rather forego satisfying what little appetite he might
have than inflict pain by craning his head for food or water. A sup-
ply of fresh water should be before him all the time ; he will not drink
too much, nor will the cold water hurt him. Constipation (if pres-
ent) must be relieved by enemas of warm water, administered three or
four times during the twentj^-four hours.

A liniment composed of 2 ounces of olive oil and 1 ounce each of
solution of ammonia and tincture of cantharides, well shaken to-
gether, may be thoroughly rubbed in about the throat from ear to
ear, and about 6 inches down over the windpipe, and in the space be-
tween the lower jaws. This liniment should be applied once a day for
two or three days.

If the animal is breathing with great difficulty, persevere in steam-
ing the nostrils, and dissolve 2 drams of chlorate of potassium in
every gallon of water he will drink ; even if he can not swallow much
of it, and even if it is returned through the nostrils, it will be of some
benefit to the pharynx as a gargle.

An electuary of acetate of potash, 2 drams, honey, and licorice pow-
der may be spread on the teeth with a paddle every few hours. If
the pain of coughing is great, 2 or 3 grains of morphine may be added
to the electuary.

AYhen the breathing begins to be loud relief is afforded in some cases
by giving a drench composed of 2 drams of fluid extract of jaborandi
in half a pint of water. If benefit is derived, this drench maj^ be
repeated four or five hours after the first dose is given. It will cause
a free flow of saliva from the mouth.

In urgent cases, when suffocation seems inevitable, the operation of
tracheotomy must be performed. To describe this operation in words
that would make it comprehensible to the general reader is a more
difficult task than performing the operation, which, in the hands of
the expert, is simple and attended with little danger.

The operator should be provided with a tracheotomy tube (to be
purchased from any veterinary instrument maker) and a sharp knife,
a sponge, and a bucket of clean cold water. The place to be selected
for opening the windpipe is that part which is found, upon examina-
tion, to be least covered with muscles, about 6 or 6 inches below the
throat. Eight here, then, is the place to cut through. Have an
assistant hold the animal's head still. Grasp your knife firmly in
the right hand, select the spot and make the cut from above to below
directly on the median line on the anterior surface of the windpipe.
Make the cut about 2 inches long in the windpipe; this necessitates
cutting three or four rings. One bold stroke is usually sufficient, but
if it is necessary to make several other cuts to finish the operation, do

SORE THROAT, OR LARYNGITIS. 115

not hesitate. Your purpose is to make a hole in the windpipe suffi-
cientl}' large to admit the tracheotomy tube. It is quickly manifested
when the windpipe is seA^ered; the hot air rushes out, and when air
is taken in it is sucked in with a noise. A slight hemorrhage may
result (it never amounts to much) , which is easily controlled by wash-
ing the wound with a sponge and cold water, but use care not to get
any water in the windpipe. Do not neglect to instruct your assistant
to hold the head down immediately after the operation, so that the
neck will be in a horizontal line. This will prevent the blood getting
into the windpipe and allow it to drop directly on the ground. If
you have the self -adjustable tube, it retains its place in the wound
without further trouble after it is inserted. The other kind requires
to be secured in position b}" means of two tapes or strings tied around
the neck. After the hemorrhage is somewhat abated, sponge the
blood away and see that the tube is thoroughly clean, then insert it,
directing the tube downward toward the lungs.

The immediate relief this operation affords is gratifying to behold.
The animal, a few minutes before on the verge of death from suffoca-
tion, emitting a loud wheezing sound with every breath, with haggard
countenance, body swaying, pawing, gasping, fighting for breath,
now breathes tranquilly, and may be in search of something to eat.

The tube should be removed once a day and cleaned with the car-
bolic acid solution (1 to 20), and the discharge washed away from the
wound with a solution of carbolic acid, 1 part to 40 parts water.
Several times a day the hand should be held over the opening in the
tube to test the animal's ability to breathe through the nostrils, and as
soon as it is demonstrated that breathing can be performed in the
natural way the tube should be removed, the wound thoroughly
cleansed with the carbolic acid solution (1 to 40), and closed by in-
serting four or five stitches through the skin and muscle. Do not
include the cartilages of the windj^ipe in the stitches. Apply the
carbolic acid solution to the wound three or four times a day until
healed. When the tube is removed to clean it the lips of the wound
may be pressed together to ascertain whether or not the horse can
breathe through the larynx. The use of the tube should be discon-
tinued as soon as possible.

It is true that tracheotomy tubes are seldom to be found on farms,
and especially when most urgently required. In such instances there
is nothing left to be done but, with a strong needle, pass a wax end
or other strong string through each side of the wound, including the
cartilage of the windpipe, and keep the wound oj)en by tying the
strings over the neck.

During the time the tube is used the other treatment advised must
not be neglected. After a few days the discharge from the nostrils

116 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

becomes thicker and more j^rofuse. This is a good sj^mptom and sig-
nifies that the acute stage has passed. At any time during the attack,
if the horse becomes weak, give whisky or aromatic spirits of ammo-
nia, 2 ounces in water. Do not be in a hurry to put the animal back
to work, but give plenty of time for a complete recovery. Gentle and
gradually increasing exercise may be given as soon as the horse is able
to stand it. The food should be carefully selected and of good qual-
ity. Tonics, as iron or arsenic, may be employed.

If abscesses form in connection with the disease they must be
opened to allow the escape of pus, but do not rashly plunge a knife
into swollen glands; wait until you are certain the swelling contains
pus. The formation of pus may be encouraged by the constant appli-
cation of poultices for hours at a time. The best poultice for the
purpose is made of linseed meal, with sufficient hot water to make a
thick paste. If the glands remain swollen for some time after the
attack, rub well over them an application of the following: Biniodide
of mercury, 1 dram ; lard, 1 ounce ; mix well. This may be applied
once every day until the part is blistered.

Sore tliroat is also a symptom of other diseases, such as influenza,
strangles, purpura hemorrhagica, etc., which diseases may be con-
sulted under their proper headings.

After a severe attack of inflammation of the larynx the mucous
membrane may be left in a thickened condition, or an ulceration of
the part may ensue, either of which is liable to produce a chronic
cough. For the ulceration it is useless to prescribe, because it can
neither be diagnosed nor topically treated by the nonprofessional.

If a chronic cough remains after all the other symptoms have dis-
appeared, it is advisable to give 1 dram of iodide of potassium dis-
solved in a bucketful of drinking water, one hour before feeding,
three times a day for a month if necessar3^ Also rub in well the
preparation of iodide of mercury (as advised for the swollen glands)
about the throat, from ear to ear, and in the space between the lower
jaw bones. The application may be repeated every third day until
the part is blistered.

SPASM OF THE LARYNX.

The symptoms are as follows.: Sudden seizure by a violent fit of
coughing; the horse may reel and fall, and after a few minutes re-
cover and be as well as ever. The treatment recommended is this:
Three drams of bromide of potassium three times a day, dissolved in
the drinking water, or give as a drench in about a half pint of water
for a week. Then give 1 dram of powdered nux vomica (either on
the food or shaken with water as a drench) once a day for a few

DISEASES OF THE THROAT. 117

CROUP AND DIPHTHERIA.

Neither of these diseases affects the horse. But these names are
sometimes wrongly applied to severe laryngitis or pharyngitis, or to
forage poisoning, in which the throat is paralyzed and becomes exces-
sively inflamed and gangrenous.

THICK WIND AND ROARING.

Horses that are affected with a chronic disease that causes a loud
unnatural noise in breathing are said to have thick wind, or to be
roarers. This class does not include those affected with severe sore
throat, as in these cases the breathing is noisy only during the attack
of the acute disease.

Thick wind is caused by an obstruction to the free passage of the
air in some part of the respiratory tract. Nasal polypi, thickening of
the membrane, pharyngeal polypi, deformed bones, paralysis of the
wing of the nostril, efc, are occasional causes. The noisy breathing
of horses after having been idle and put to sudden exertion is not due
to any disease and is only temporary. Very often a nervous, excitable
horse will make a noise for a short time when started off, generally
caused by the cramped position in which the head and neck are forced
in order to hold him back.

Many other causes may occasion temporary, intermitting, or per-
manent noisy respiration, but chronic roaring is caused by paralysis
of the muscles of the larynx ; and almost invariably it is the muscles
of the left side of the larynx that are affected.

In chronic roaring the noise is made when the air is drawn into the
lungs ; and only when the disease is far advanced is a sound produced
when the air is expelled, and even then it is not near so loud as during
inspiration.

In a normal condition the muscles dilate the aperture of the larynx
by moving outward the cartilage and vocal cord, allowing a sufficient
volume of air to rush through. But when the muscles are paralyzed
the cartilage and vocal cord that are normally controlled by the
affected muscles lean into the tube of the larynx, so that when the air
rushes in it meets this obstruction and the noise is produced. ^Yhen
the air is expelled from the lungs its very force pushes the cartilage
and vocal cords out, and consequently noise is not produced in the
expiratory act.

The paralysis of the muscles is due to derangement of the nerve
that supplies them with energy. The muscles of both sides are not
supplied by the same nerve; there is a right and a left nerve, each
supplying its respective side. The reason why the muscles on the
left side are the ones usually paralyzed is owing to the difference in

118 DISEASES OF THE HOESE."

the anatomical arrangement of the nerves. The left nerve is much
longer and more exposed to interference than the right nerve.

In chronic roaring there is no evidence of any disease of the larynx
other than the wasted condition of the muscles in question. The
disease of the nerve is generally located far from the larynx. Dis-
ease of parts contiguous to the nerve along any part of its course
may interfere with its proper function. Enlargement of lymphatic
glands within the chest through which the nerve j^asses on its way
back to the larynx is the most frequent interruption of nervous sup-
ply, and consequently roaring. When roaring becomes confirmed,
medical treatment is entirely useless, as it is impossible to restore the
wasted muscle and at the same time remove the cause of the interrup-
tion of the nervous supply. Before roaring becomes permanent the
condition may be benefited by a course of iodide of potassium, if
caused by disease of the lymphatic glands. Electricity has been used
with indifferent success. Blistering or firing over the larynx is, of
course, not worthy of trial if the disease is due' to interference of the
nerve supply. The administration of strychnia (nux vomica) on the
ground that it is a nerve tonic with the view of stimulating the af-
fected muscles is treating only the result of the disease without con-
sidering the cause, and is therefore useless. The operation of extir-
pating the collapsed cartilage and vocal cord is believed to be the
only relief, and, as this operation is critical and can only be per-
formed by the skillful veterinarian, it will not be described here.

From the foregoing description of the disease it will be seen that
the name " roaring," by which the disease is generally known, is only
a symptom and not the disease. Chronic roaring is also in many
cases accompanied by a cough. The best way to test whether a horse
is a " roarer " is either to make him pull a load rapidly up a hill or
over a sandy road or soft ground ; or, if he is a saddle horse, gallop
him up a hill or over soft ground. The object is to make him exert
himself. Some horses require a great deal more exertion than others
before the characteristic sound is emitted. The greater the distance
he is forced, the more he will appear exhausted if he is a roarer; in
bad cases the animal becomes utterly exhausted, the breathing is
rapid and difficult, the nostrils dilate to the fullest extent, and the
animal appears as if suffocation was imminent.

An animal that is a roarer should not be used for breeding pur-
poses. The taint is transmissible in many instances.

Grunting. — A common test used by veterinarians when examining
" the wind " of a horse is to see if he is a " grunter." This is a sound
emitted during expiration when the animal is suddenly moved, or
startled, or struck at. If he grunts he is further tested for roaring.
Grunters are not always roarers, but, as it is a common thing for a
roarer to grunt, such an animal must be looked upon with suspicion

CHRONIC BRONCHITIS. 119

until he is thoroughly tried by pulling a load or galloped up a hill.
The test should be q, severe one. Horses suffering with pleurisy,
pleurodynia, or rheumatism, and other affections accompanied with
much pain, will grunt when moved, or when the pain is aggravated,
but grunting under these circumstances does not justify the term of
" grunter " being applied to the horse, as the grunting ceases when
the animal recovers from the disease that causes the pain.

High hlowing. — This term is applied to a noisy breathing made by
some horses. It is distinctly a nasal sound, and must not be con-
founded with " roaring." The sound is produced by the action of the
nostrils. It is a habit and not an unsoundness. Contrary to roaring,
when the animal is put to severe exertion the sound ceases. An ani-
mal that emits this sound is called a " high-blower." Some horses
have, naturally, very narrow nasal openings, and they may emit
sounds louder than usual in their breathing when exercised.

Whistling is only one of the variations of the sound emitted by a
horse called a "■' roarer," and therefore needs no further notice, except
to remind the reader that a whistling sound may be produced during
an attack of severe sore throat or inflammation of the larynx, which
l^asses away with the disease that causes it.

CHRONIC BRONCHITIS.

This may be due to the same causes as acute bronchitis or it may
follow the latter disease. An attack of the chronic form is liable to
be converted into acute bronchitis by a very slight cause. This
chronic affection in most instances is associated with thickening of
the walls of the tubes. Its course is slower, it is less severe, and is not
accompanied with as much fever as the acute form. If the animal is
exerted, the breathing becomes quickened and he soon shows signs of
exhaustion. In many instances the animal keeps up strength and
appearances moderately well, but in other cases the appetite is lost,
flesh gradually disappears, and he becomes emaciated and debilitated.
It is accompanied by a persistent cough, which in some cases is husky,
smothered, or muffled, while in other cases it is hard and clear. A
whitish matter is discharged from the nose, which may be curdled in
some instances. If the ear is placed against the chest behind the
shoulder blade, the rattle of the air passing through the mucus can be
Iieard within.

Treatment. — Rest is necessary, as even under the most favorable
circumstances a cure is difficult to effect. The animal can not stand
exertion and should not be compelled to undergo it. The animal
should have much the same general care and medical treatment pre-
scribed for the acute form. Arsenious acid in tonic doses (3 to 7
grains) three times daily may be given. As arsenic is irritant, it must
be mixed with a considerable bulk of moist feed and never given

120 ■ DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

alone. Arsenic may be given in the form of Fowler's solution, 1
ounce three times daily in the drinking water. Aji application of
mustard applied to the breast is a beneficial adjunct. The diet should
be the most nourishing. Avoid bulky food. Linseed mashes,
scalded oats, and, if in season, grass and green-blade fodder are the
best diet.

THE LUNGS.

The lungs are the essential organs of respiration. They consist of
two (right and left) spongy masses, commonly called the "lights,"
situated entirely within the thoracic cavity. On account of the
space taken up by the heart, the left lung is the smaller. Externally,
they are completely covered by the pleura. The structure of the lung
consists of a light, soft, but very strong and remarkably elastic tissue,
which can only be torn with difficulty. Each lung is divided into a
certain number of lobes, which are subdivided into numberless
lobules (little lobes). A little bronchial tube terminates in every
one of these lobules. The little tube then divides into minute
branches which open into the air cells (pulmonary vesicles) of the
lungs. The air cells are little sacs having a diameter varying from
one-seventieth to one two-hundredth of an inch; they have but one
opening, the communication with the branches of the little bronchial
tubes. Small blood vessels ramify in the walls of the air cells. The
air cells are the consummation of the intricate structures forming
the respiratory apparatus. They are of prime importance, all the
rest being complementary. It is here that the exchange of gases takes
place. As before stated, the walls of the cells are very thin ; so, also,
are the walls of the blood vessels. Through these v>^alls escapes from
the blood the carbonic acid gas that has been absorbed by the blood
in its circulation through the different parts of the body ; and through
these walls is absorbed by the blood, from the air in the air cells, the
oxygen gas which is the life-giving element of the atmosphere.

CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS.

Congestion is essentially an excess of blood in the vessels of the
parts affected. Congestion of the lungs in the horse, when it exists
as an independent affection, is generally caused by overexertion when
the animal is not in a fit condition to undergo more than moderate
exercise. Very often what is recognized as congestion of the lungs
is but a symptom of exhaustion or dilatation of the heart.

The methods practiced by the trainers of running and trotting
horses will give an idea of what is termed " putting a horse in condi-
tion " to stand severe exertion. The animal at first gets walking
exercises, then after some time he is made to go faster and farther
each day; the amount of work is daily increased until the horse is

CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS. 121

said to be "in condition." An animal so prepared runs no risk of
being affected with congestion of the lungs, if he is otherwise healthy.
On the other hand, if the horse is kept in the stable for the purpose
of laying on fat or for want of something to do, the muscular system
becomes soft, and the horse is not in condition to stand the severe
exertion of going fast or far, no matter how healthy he may be in
other respects. If such a horse be given a hard ride or drive, he may
start off in high spirits, but soon becomes exhausted, and if he is
pushed he will slacken his pace, show a desire to stop, and may stag-
ger or even fall. Examination will show the nostrils dilated, the
flanks heaving, the countenance haggard, and the appearance of suf-
focation. The heart and muscles were not accustomed to the sudden
and severe strain put upon them ; the heart became unable to perform
its work; the blood accumulated in the vessels of the lungs, which
eventually became engrossed with the stagnated blood, constituting
congestion of the lungs.

The animal, after having undergone severe exertion, may not
exhibit alarming symptoms until returned to the stable ; then he will
be noticed standing with his head down, legs spread out, the eyes
wildly staring or dull and sunken. The breathing is very rapid and
almost gasping; the body is covered with perspiration in most cases,
which, however, may soon evaporate, leaving the surface of the body
and the legs and ears cold ; the breathing is both abdominal and tho-
racic ; the chest rises and falls and the flanks are powerfully brought
into action. If the pulse can be felt at all it will be found beating
very frequently, one hundred or so to a minute. The heart may be
felt tumultuously thumping if the hand is placed against the chest
behind the left elbow, or it may be scarcely perceptible. The animal
may tremble all over the body. If the ear is placed against the side
of the chest a loud murmur will be heard and perhaps a fine crackling
sound.

One can scarcely fail to recognize a case of congestion of the lungs
when brought on by overexertion, as the history of the case indicates
the nature of the ailment. In all cases of suffocation the lungs are
congested. It is also seen in connection with other diseases.

Treatment. — If the animal is attacked by the disease while on the
road, stop him immediately. Do not attempt to return to the stables.
If he is in the stable, make arrangements at once to insure an unlim-
ited supply of pure air. If the weather is warm, out in the open air
is the best place, but if too cold let him stand with head to the door.
Let him stand still ; he has all he can do, if he obtains sufficient pure
air to sustain life. If he is encumbered with harness or saddle,
remove it at once and rub the body with cloths or wisps of hay or
straw. This stimulates the circulation in the skin, and thus aids in
relieving the lungs of the extra quantity of blood that is stagnated

122 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

there. If you have three or four assistants, let them rub the body
and legs well until the skin feels natural ; rub the legs until they are
warm, if possible. When the circulation is reestablished, put band-
ages on the legs from the hoofs up as far as possible. Throw a blan-
ket over the body and let the rubbing be done under the blanket.
Diffusible stimulants are the medicines indicated — brandy, whisky
(or even ale or beer if nothing else is at hand), ether, and aromatic
spirits of ammonia. Two ounces each of spirits of nitrous ether and
alcohol, given as a drench diluted with a pint of water, every hour
until relief is afforded, is among the best remedies. Or, give a quarter
of a pint of whisky in a pint of water every hour, or the same quan-
tity of brandy as often, or a quart of ale every hour, or 1 ounce of
tincture of arnica in a pint of water every hour until five or six doses
have been given. If none of these remedies is at hand, 2 ounces of
oil of turpentine, shaken with a half pint of milk, may be given once,
but not repeated. The animal may be bled from the jugular vein.
Do not take more than 5 or 6 quarts from the vein, and do not repeat
the bleeding. The blood thus drawn will have a tarry appearance.

When the alarming symptoms have subsided active measures may
be stopped, but care must be used in the general treatment of the ani-
mal for several days, for it must be remembered that congestion may
be followed by jDueumonia. The animal should have a comfortable
stall, where he will not be subjected to drafts or sudden changes of
temperature; he should be blanketed and the legs kept bandaged.
The air should be pure, a plentiful supply of fresh cold water always
in the stall, and a diet composed principally of bran mashes, scalded
oats, and, if in season, grass. Wlien ready for use again the horse
should at first receive moderate exercise only, which may be daily
increased until he may safely be put to regular work.

PNEUMONIA, OR LUNG FEVER.

Pneumonia is inflammation of the lungs. The chief varieties of
pneumonia are catarrhal — later discussed in connection with bron-
chitis, under the name of broncho-pneumonia — and the fibrinous or
croupous variety. The latter form receives its name from the fact
that the air spaces are choked with coagulated fibrin thrown out from
the blood. This causes the diseased portions of the lungs to become
as firm as liver, in which condition they are said to be hepatized. As
air is excluded by the inflammatory product, the diseased lung will
not float in water.

The inflammation usually begins in the lower part of the lung and
extends upward. The first stage of the disease consists of conges-
tion, or engorgement, of the blood vessels, followed by leakage of
serum containing fibrin from the blood vessels into the air passages.

PNEUMONIA. OR LUNG FEVER. 123

The fluids thus escaping into the air cells and in the minute branches
of the little bronchial tubes become coagulated.

The pleura covering the affected parts may be more or less inflamed.
A continuance of the foregoing phenomena is marked by a further
escape of the constituents of the blood, and a change in the membrane
of the cells, which become swollen. The exudate that fills the air
cells and minute bronchial branches undergoes disintegration and
softening when healing commences.

The favorable termination of pneumonia is in resolution, that is, a
restoration to health. This is gradually brought about by the exuded
material contained in the air cells and lung tissues becoming broken
down and softened and absorbed or expectorated through the nostrils.
The blood vessels return to their natural state, and the blood circu-
lates in them as before. In the cases that do not terminate so hap-
pil}'^ the lung may become gangrenous (or mortified), or an abscess
may form, or the disease may be merged into the chronic variety.

Pneumonia may be directly induced by any of the influences named
as general causes for diseases of the organs of respiration, but in
many instances it is due to neglect. A common cold or sore throat
may be followed by pneumonia if neglected or improperly treated.
An animal may be debilitated by a cold, and when in this weakened
state may be compelled to undergo exertion beyond his strength; or
he ma}^ be kept in bad quarters, such as a badly ventilated stable,
where the foul gases are shut in and the pure air is shut out; or the
stable may be so open that parts of the body are exposed to drafts of
cold air. An animal is predisposed to pneumonia when debilitated
b}^ any constitutional disease, and especially during convalescence if
exposed to any of the exciting causes. Foreign bodies, such as food,
accidentally getting in the lungs by way of the windpipe, as well as
the inhalation of irritating gases and smoke, ofttimes produce fatal
attacks of inflammation of the lung and bronchial tubes. Pneumonia
is frequently seen in connection with other diseases, such as influenza,
purpura hemorrhagica, strangles, glanders, etc. Pneumonia and
pleurisy are most common during cold, damp weather, and especially
during the prevalence of the cold north and northeasterly winds.
Wounds puncturing the thoracic cavity may cause pneumonia.

Sym.ptoms. — Pneumonia, when a primary'- disease, is ushered in by
a chill, more or less prolonged, which in many cases is seen neither
by the owner nor the attendant, but is overlooked. The breathing
becomes accelerated, and the animal hangs its head and has a very
dull appearance. The mouth is hot and has a sticky feeling to the
touch; the heat conveyed to the finger in the mouth demonstrates a
fever; if the thermometer is placed in the rectum the temperature
will be found to have risen to 103° F. or higher. The pulse is fre-
quent, beating from fifty or sixty to eighty or more a minute. There

124 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

is usually a dry cough from the beginning, which, however, changes
in character as the disease advances; for instance, it may become
moist, or if jDleurisy sets in, the cough will be peculiar to the latter
affection ; that is, cut short in the endeavor to suppress it. In some
cases the discharge from the nostrils is tinged with blood, white in
other cases it has the appearance of muco-pus. The appetite is lost
to a greater or less extent, but the desire for water is increased, par-
ticularly during the onset of the fever. The membrane within the
nostrils is red and at first dry, but sooner or later becomes moist. The
legs are cold. The bowels are more or less constipated, and what
dung is passed is usually covered with a slimy mucus. The urine is
passed in smaller quantities than usual and is of a darker color.

The animal prefers to have the head where the freshest air can be
obtained. Wlien affected with pneumonia a horse does not lie down,
but persists in standing from the beginning of the attack. However,
if pneumonia is complicated with pleurisy, the horse may appear rest-
less and lie down for a few moments to gain relief from the pleuritic
pains, but he soon rises. In pneumonia the breathing is rapid and
difficult, but when the pneumonia is complicated with pleurisy the
I'ibs are kept as still as possible and the breathing is abdominal ; that
is, the abdominal muscles are now made to do as much of the work as
they can perform. If pleurisy is not present there is little pain.
To the ordinary observer the animal may not appear dangerously
ill, as he does not show the seriousness of the ailment by violence, as
in colic, but a careful observer will discover at a glance that the
trouble is something more serious than a cold. By percussion it will
be shown that some portions of the chest are less resonant than in
health, indicating exclusion of air. If the air is wholly excluded the
percussion is quite dull, as that elicited by j^ercussion over the thigh.

By auscultation important information may be gained. ^Vlien the
ear is placed against the chest of a healthy horse, the respiratory
murmur is heard more or less distinctly, according to the part of the
chest that is beneath the ear. In the very first stage of pneumonia
this murmur is louder and hoarser; and, also, there is heard a fine
crackling sound something similar to that produced when salt is
throAvn in a fire. After the affected part becomes solid there is an
absence of sound over that particular part. After absorption begins
one may again hear sounds that are of a more or less moist character
and resemble a bubbling or gurgling noise, which gradually change
imtil the natural sound is heard announcing return to health.

Wlien a fatal termination is approaching all the sj^mptoms become
intensified. The breathing becomes still more rapid and difficult ; the
flanks heave ; the animal stares wildly about as if seeking aid to drive
off the feeling of suffocation ; the body is bathed with sweat ; the horse
staggers, but quickly recovers his balance ; he may now, for the first

PNEUMONIA, OR LUNG FEVER. 125

time during the attack, lie down ; he does so, however, in the hope of
relief, which he fails to find, and with difficulty struggles to his feet ;
he pants; the nostrils flap; he staggers and sways from side to side
and backward and forward, but still tries to retain the standing
jDosition, even by propping himself against the stall. It is no use, as
after an exhausting fight for breath he goes down; the limbs stretch
out and become rigid. In fatal cases death usually occurs in from
ten to twenty days after the beginning of the attack. On the other
hand, when the disease is terminating favorably the signs are ob-
vious. The fever abates and the animal gradually improves in appe-
tite ; he takes more notice of things around him ; his spirits improve ;
he has a general appearance of returning health, and he lies down
and rests. In the majority of cases pneumonia, if properly treated,
terminates in recovery.

Treatment. — The comfort and surroundings of the patient must be
attended to first. The quarters should be the best that can be pro-
vided. Pure air is essential. Avoid placing the animal in a stall
where he may be exposed to drafts of cold air and sudden changes of
temj^erature. It is much better for the animal if the air is cold and
pure than if it is warm and foul. It is better to make the animal com-
fortable with warm clothing than to make the stable warm by shut-
ting off the ventilation. The animal should have an unlimited supply
of fresh cold drinking water from the start. Blanket the body. Kub
the legs until the}^ are warm and then put bandages on them from the
hoofs up to the knees and hocks. If warmth can not be reestablished
in the legs by hand rubbing alone, apply drj^ ground mustard and rub
well in. The bandages should be removed once or twice every day,
the legs well rubbed, and the bandages replaced. Much harm is often
done by clipping off hair and rubbing in powerful blistering com-
pounds. They do positive injury and retard recovery, and should not
be allowed. Much benefit may be derived from hot applications to
the sides of the chest if the facilities are at hand to apply them. If
the weather be not too cold, and if the animal is in a comfortable
stable, the following method may be tried: Have a tub of hot water
handy to the stable door; soak a woolen blanket in the water, then
quickly wring as much water as possible out of it and wrap it around
the chest. See that it fits closely to the skin ; do not allow it to sag
down so that air may get between it and the skin. Now wrap a dry-
blanket over the wet hot one and hold in place with three girths.
The hot blanket should be renewed every half hour, and while it is
off being wetted and wrung the dry one should remain over the wet
part of the chest to prevent reaction. The hot applications should be
kept up for three or four hours, and when stopped the skin should be
quickly rubbed as dry as possible, an application of alcohol rubbed
over the wet part, and a dry blanket snugly fitted over the animal.

126 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

If the hot applications appear to benefit, they may be tried on three
or four consecutive days. Unless every facility and circumstance
favors the application of heat in the foregoing manner, do not attempt
it. If the weather is very cold or any of the details are omitted, more
harm than good may result. Mustard may be applied by making a
paste with a pound of freshly ground mustard mixed with warm
water. This is to be spread evenly over the sides back of the shoulder
blades and down to the median line below the chest. Care should be
taken to avoid rubbing the mustard upon the thin skin immediately
back of the elbow. The mustard-covered area should be covered with
a i^aper and this with a blanket passed up from below and fastened
over the back. The blanket and paper should be removed in from
one to two hours. When pneumonia follows another disease, the sys-
tem is always more or less debilitated and requires the careful use of
stimulants from the beginning. To still further weaken the animal
by bleeding him is one of the most effectual methods of retarding
recovery, even if it does not hasten a fatal termination.

Another and oftentimes a fatal mistake made by the nonprofes-
sional is the indiscriminate and reckless use of aconite. This drug is
one of the most active poisons, and should not be handled by anyone
who does not thoroughly understand its action and uses. It is only
less active than prussic acid in its poisonous effects. It is a common
opinion, often expressed by nonprofessionals, that aconite is a stimu-
lant. Nothing could be more erroneous; in fact, it is just the reverse.
It is one of the most powerful sedatives used in the practice of medi-
cine. In fatal doses it kills by paralyzing the very muscles used in
breathing ; it weakens the action of the heart, and should not be used.
Do not give purgative medicines. If constipation exists, overcome it
by an allowance of laxative diet, such as scalded oats, bran, and lin-
seed mashes, and, if in season, grass. If the costiveness is not relieved
by the laxative diet, give an enema of about a quart of warm water
three or four times a day.

A diet consisting principally of bran mashes, scalded oats, and,
when in season, grass or corn fodder is j^referable if the animal
retains an appetite ; but if no desire is evinced for food of this par-
ticular description, then the animal must be allowed to eat anything
that will be taken spontaneously. Hay tea, made by pouring boiling
water over good hay in a large bucket and allowing it to stand until
cool, then straining off the liquid, will sometimes create a desire for
food. The animal may be allowed to drink as much of it as he
desires. Corn on the cob is often eaten when everything else is
refused. Bread may be tried ; also apples or carrots. If the animal
can be persuaded to drink milk, it may be supported by it for days.
Three or 4 gallons of sweet milk may be given during the day, in
which may be stirred 3 or 4 fresh eggs to each gallon of milk. Some

PNEUMONIA, OR LUNG FEVER. 127

horses will drink milk, while others will refuse to touch it. It
should be borne in mind that all food must be taken by the horse as
he desires it. No food should be forced down him. If the animal
will not eat, you will only have to wait until a desire is shown for
food. All kinds ma}' be offered, first one thing and then another,
but food should not be allowed to remain long in trough or manger;
the very fact of it constantly being before him will cause him to
loathe it. Wlien the animal has no appetite for anything the
stomach is not in a proper state to digest food, and if it is poured
or drenched into him it will only cause indigestion and aggravate-
the case. It is a good practice to do nothing when there is nothing
to be done that will benefit. This refers to medicine as well as food.
Nothing is well done that is overdone.

There are many valuable medicines used for the different stages
and different types of pneumonia, but in the opinion of the writer
it is useless to refer to them here, as this work is intended for the use
of those who are not sufficiently acquainted with the disease to
recognize its various types and stages; therefore they would only
confuse. If you can administer a ball or capsule, or have anyone at
hand who is capable of doing it, a dram of sulphate of quinine in a
capsule, or made into a ball, with sufficient linseed meal and molasses,
given every three hours during the height of the fever, will do good
in many cases. The ball of carbonate of ammonia, as advised in
the treatment of bronchitis, may be tried if the animal is hard to
drench. The heart should be kept strong by administering digitalis
in doses of 2 drams of the tincture every three hours, or strychnia
1 grain, made into a pill with liquorice powder, three times daily.

If the horse becomes very much debilitated, stimulants of a more
pronounced character are required. The following drench is useful :
Rectified spirits, 3 ounces ; spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ounces ; water, 1
pint. This may be repeated every four or five hours if it seems to
benefit; or 6 ounces of good whisky diluted with a pint of water
may be given as often, instead of the foregoing.

During the jDeriod of convalescence good nutritive food should be
allowed in a moderate quantity. Tonic medicines should be substi-
tuted for those used during the fever. The same medicines advised
for the convalescing period of bronchitis are equally efficient in this
case, especially the iodide of potash. Likewise, the same general
instructions apply here.

The chief causes of death in pneumonia are heart failure from
exhaustion, suffocation, or blood poisoning from death (gangrene) of
lung tissue. The greater the area of lung tissue diseased the greater
the danger, hence double pneumonia is more fatal than pneumonia of
one lung.

128 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

THE AVINDPIPE.

The windpipe, or trachea, as it is technically called, is the flexible
tube that extends from the larynx, which it succeeds at the throat,
to above the base of the heart in the chest, where it terminates by
dividing into the right and left bronchi — the tubes going to the right
and left lung, respectively. The windpipe is composed of about fifty
incomplete rings of cartilage united by ligaments. A muscular layer
is situated on the superior surface of the rings. Internally the tube
is lined with a continuation of the mucous membrane that lines the
entire respiratory tract, which here has very little sensibility in
contrast to that lining the larynx, which is endowed with exquisite
sensitiveness.

The windpipe is not subject to any special disease, but is more or
less affected during laryngitis (sore throat), influenza, bronchitis,
etc., and requires no special treatment. The membrane may be left
in a thickened condition after these attacks. One or more of the
rings may be accidentally fractured, or the tube may be distorted or
malformed as the result of violent injury. After the operation of
tracheotomy it is not uncommon to find a tumor or malformation as
a result, or sequel, of the operation. In passing over this section
attention is merely called to these defects, as they require no partic-
ular attention in the way of treatment. However, it may be stated
that any one of the before-mentioned conditions may constitute one
of the causes of noisy respiration described as " thick wind."

GUTTURAL POUCHES.

These two sacs are situated above the throat, and communicate
with the pharynx, as well as with the cavity of the tympanum of
the ear. They are peculiar to solipeds. Normally, they contain air.
Their function is unknown.

One or both guttural pouches may contain pus. The symptoms are
as follows: Swelling on the side below the ear and an intermittent
discharge of matter from one or both nostrils, especially when the
head is depressed.

The swelling is soft, and, if pressed upon, matter will escape from
the nose if the head is depressed. As before mentioned, these
pouches communicate with the jjharynx, and through this small open-
ing matter may escape. A recovery is probable if the animal is
turned out to graze, or if he is fed from the ground, as the dependent
position of the head favors the escape of matter from the pouches.
In addition to this, give the tonics recommended for nasal gleet. If
this treatment fails, an operation must be performed, which should
not be attempted by any one unacquainted with the anatomy of the
part.

i

^

^**^" ,i

^*--

...y

DISEASES OF THE BRONCHIAL TUBES. 129

BRONCHITIS AND BRONCHO-PNEUMONIA.

Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes. When this
inflammation extends to the air sacs at the termini of the smallest
branches of the bronchial tubes, the disease is broncho-pneumonia.
Bronchitis affecting the larger tubes is less serious than when the
smaller are involved. The disease may be either acute or chronic.
The causes are generally much the same as for other diseases of the
respiratory organs, noticed in the beginning of this article. The
special causes are these; The inhalation of irritating gases and smoke
and fluids or solids gaining access to the parts. Bronchitis is occa-
sionally associated with influenza and other specific fevers. It also
supervenes on common cold or sore throat.

Symptoms. — The animal appears dull; the appetite is partially or
wholly lost; the head hangs; the breathing is quickened; the cough,
at first dry, and having somewhat the character of a "barking
cough," is succeeded in a few days by a moist, rattling cough; the
mouth is hot ; the visible membranes in the nose are red ; the pulse
is frequent, and during the first stage is hard and quick, but as
the disease advances becomes smaller and more frequent. There is a
discharge from the nostrils that is at first whitish, but later becomes
creamy or frothy, and still later it is sometimes tinged with blood,
and occasionally it may be of a brownish or rusty color. By auscul-
tation, or placing the ear to the sides of the chest, unnatural sounds
can now be heard. The air passing through the diseased tubes causes
a wheezing sound when the small tubes are affected, and a hoarse,
cooing, or snoring sound when the larger tubes are involved. After
one or two days the dry stage of the disease is succeeded by a moist
state of the membrane. The ear now detects a different sound,
caused by the bursting of the bubbles as the air passes through the
fluid, which is the exudate of inflammation and the augmented mu-
cous secretions of the membrane. The mucus may be secreted in
great abundance, which, by blocking up the tubes, may cause a col-
lapse of a large extent of breathing surface. Usually the mucus is
expectorated; that is, discharged through the nose. Tha matter is
coughed up, and when it reaches the larynx much of it may be swal-
lowed, and some is discharged from the nostrils. The horse can not
spit, like the human being, nor does the matter coughed up gain access
to the mouth. If in serious cases all the symptoms become aggra-
vated, the breathing is labored, short, and quick, it usually indicates
that the inflammation has reached the breathing cells and that catar-
rhal pneumonia is established. In this case the ribs rise and fall
much more than natural. This fact alone is enough to exclude the
idea that the animal may be affected with pleurisy, because, in pleu-
risy, the ribs are as nearly fixed as in the power of the animal to do
H. Doc. 795, 59-2 9

130 'diseases op the horse.

so, and the breathing accomplished to a great extent by aid of the
abdominal muscles. The horse persists in standing throughout the
attack. He prefers to stand with head to a door or window to gain
all the fresh air possible, but may occasionally wander listlessly
about the stall if not tied. The bowels most likely are constipated;
the dung is covered with slimy mucus. The urine is decreased in
quantity and darker in color than usual. The animal shows more or
less thirst; in some cases the mouth is full of saliva. The discharge
from the nose increases in quantity as the disease advances and in-
flammation subsides. This is rather a good symptom, as it shows one
stage has passed. The discharge then gradually decreases, the cough
becomes less rasping, but of more frequent occurrence, until it grad-
ually disappears with the return of health.

Bronchitis, affecting the smaller tubes, is one of the most fatal
diseases, while that of the larger tubes is never very serious. It must
be stated, however, that it is an exceedingly difficult matter for a
nonexpert to discriminate between the two forms, and, further, it
may as well be said here that the nonexpert will have difficulty in
discriminating between bronchitis and pneumonia.

Treatment. — The matter of first importance is to insure a pure at-
mosphere to breathe, and next to make the patient's quarters as com-
fortable as possible. A well-ventilated box stall serves best for all
purposes. Cover the body with a blanket, light or heavy, as the
season of the year demands. Hand rub the legs until they are warm,
then wrap them in cotton and apply flannel or Derby bandages from
the hoofs to the knees and hocks. If the legs can not be made warm
with hand rubbing alone, apply dry mustard. Rub in thoroughly and
then put on the bandages. Also rub mustard paste well over the side
of the chest, covering the space beginning immediately behind the
shoulder blade and running back about eighteen inches, and from the
median line beneath the breast to within ten inches of the ridge of the
backbone. Repeat the application to the side of the chest about three
days after the first one is applied.

Compel the animal to inhale steam from a bucketful of boiling
water containing a tablespoonful of oil of turpentine and spirits of
camphor, as advised for cold in the head. In serious cases the steam
should be inhaled every hour, and in any case the oftener it is done
the greater will be the beneficial results. Three times a day admin-
ister an electuary containing acetate of potash (2 drams), with lico-
rice and molasses or honey. It is well to keep a bucketful of cold
Avater before the animal all the time. _ If the horse is prostrated and
has no appetite, give the following drench : Spirits of nitrous ether, 2
ounces; rectified spirits, 3 ounces; water, 1 pint. Repeat the dose
every four or five hours if it appears to benefit. When the horse is
hard to drench, give the following: Pulverized carbonate of ammonia,

PLEURISY. 131

3 drams; linseed meal and molasses sufficient to make the whole into
a stiff mass; wrap it with a small piece of tissue paper and give as a
ball. This ball may be repeated every four or five hours. When giv-
ing the ball care should be taken to prevent its breaking in the mouth,
as in case of such accident it will make the mouth sore, which may
prevent the animal from eating. If the bowels are constij^ated, give
enemas of warm water. Do not give purgative medicines. Do not
bleed the animal.

If the animal retains an appetite, a soft diet is preferable, such as
scalded oats, bran mashes, and grass, if in season. If he refuses
cooked food, allow in small quantities anything he will eat. Hay,
cob corn, oats, bread, apples, and carrots may all be tried in turn.
Some horses will drink sweet milk when they refuse all other kinds of
food, and especially is this the case if the drinking water is withheld
for a while. One or 2 gallons at a time, four or five times a day, will
support life. Bear in mind that when the disease is established re-
covery can not occur in less than two or three weeks, and more time
may be necessary. Good nursing and patience are required.

"VVlien the symptoms have abated and nothing remains of the dis-
ease except the cough and a white discharge from the nostrils, all
other medicines should be discontinued and a course of tonic treat-
ment pursued. Give the following mixture : Keduced iron, 3 ounces ;
powdered gentian, 8 ounces ; mix well together and divide into sixteen
powders. Give a powder every night and morning mixed with bran
and oats, if the animal will eat it, or shaken with about a pint of flax-
seed tea and administered as a drench.

If the cough remains after the horse is apparently well, give 1
dram of iodide of potassium dissolved in a bucketful of drinking
water one hour before each meal for two or three weeks if necessary.
Do not put the animal to work too soon after recovery. Allow ample
time to regain strength. This disease is prone to become chronic and
may run into an incurable case of thick" wind.

PLEURISY.

The thoracic cavity is divided into two lateral compartments, each
containing one lung and a part of the heart. Each lung has its sepa-
rate pleural membrane, or covering. The pleura is the thin glisten-
ing membrane that covers the lung and also completely covers the in-
ternal walls of the chest. It is very thin, and to the ordinary ob-
server appears to be part of the lung, which, in fact, it is for all
practical purposes. The smooth, shiny surface of the lung, as well as
the smooth, shiny surface so familiar on the rib, is the pleura. In
health this surface is always moist. A fluid is thrown off by the
pleura, which causes the surface to be constantly moist. This is to
prevent the effects of friction between the lungs and the walls of the

132 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

chost and other contiguous parts which come in contact. It must be
remembered that the lungs are dilating each time a breath is taken
in, and contracting each time a breath of air is expelled. It may be
readily seen that if it were not for the moistened state of the surface
of the pleura the continual dilatation and contraction and the conse-
quent rubbing of the parts against each other would cause serious
friction.

Inflammation of this membrane is called pleurisy. Being so closely
united with the lung, it can not always escape participation in the
disease when the latter is inflamed. Pleurisy may be due to the same
predisposing and exciting causes as mentioned in the beginning of
this work as general causes for diseases of the organs of respiration,
such as exposure to sudden changes of temperature, confinement in
damp stables, etc. It may be caused by wounds that penetrate the
chest, for it must be remembered that such wounds must necessarily
pierce the pleura. A fractured rib may involve the pleura. The
inflammation following such wounds may be circumscribed, that is,
confined to a small area surrounding the wound, or it may spread
from the wound and involve a large portion of the pleura. The
pleura may be involved secondarily when the heart or its membrane
is the primary seat of the disease. It may occur in conjunction with
bronchitis, influenza, and other diseases. Diseased gi'owths that
interfere with the pleura may induce pleurisy. The most frequent
cause of pleurisy is an extension of inflammation from adjacent dis-
eased lung. It is a common complication of pneumonia. Pleurisy
will be described here as an independent affection, although it should
be remembered that it is very often associated with the foregoing
diseases.

The first lesion of pleurisy is overfilling of the blood vessels that
ramify in th^s membrane, and dryness of the surface. This is fol-
lowed by the formation of a coating of coagulated fibrin on the
diseased pleura and the transudation of serum which collects in the
chest. This serum may contain flakes of fibrin and it may be straw
colored or red from an admixture of blood. The quantity of this
accumulation may amount to several gallons.

Symptoms. — AVlien the disease exists as an independent affection it
is ushered in by a chill, but this is usually overlooked. About the
first thing noticed is the disinclination of the animal to move or turn
round. "\^Tien made to do so he grunts or groans with pain. He
stands stiff ; the ribs are fixed, that is, the ribs move very little in the
act of breathing, but the abdomen works more than natural ; both the
fore feet and elbows may be turned out; during the onset of the
attack the animal may be restless and act as if he had a slight colic ;
he may even lie down, but does not remain long down, for when he
finds no relief he soon gets up. After effusion begins these signs of

PLEURISY. 133

restlessness disappear. Every movement of the chest causes pain,
therefore the cough is peculiar ; it is short and suppressed, and comes
as near being no cough as the animal can make it in his desire to sup-
press it. The breathing is hurried, the mouth is hot, the temperature
being elevated from 102° or 103° to 105° F. The usual symptoms
that accompany fever are present, such as costiveness, scanty dark-
colored urine, etc. The pulse is frequent, perhaps 70 or more a
minute, and is hard and wiry. The legs and ears are cold.

Percussion is of valuable service in this affection. After effusion
occurs, the sound produced by percussing over the lower part of the
chest is dull. By striking different parts one may come to a spot of
greater or less extent where the blows cause much pain to be evinced.
The animal may grunt or groan every time it is struck. Another
method of detecting the affected part is to press the fingers between
the ribs, each space in succession beginning behind the elbow, until
you arrive at a place where the pressure causes more flinching than at
any other part. Auscultation is also useful. In the first stage, when
the surfaces are dry and rough, one may hear a friction sound very
much like that produced by rubbing two pieces of coarse paper
together. The sound appears immediately under the ear and is dis-
tinct. No such friction sound occurs when the membrane is healthy,
as the natural moisture, heretofore mentioned, prevents the friction.
In many cases this friction is so pronounced that it may be felt by
placing the hand over the affected part. Wlien the dry stage is suc-
ceeded by the exudation of fluid, this friction sound disappears.
After the effusion into the cavity takes place there sometimes is
heard a tinkling or metallic sound, due to dropping of the exudate
from above into the collected fluid in the bottom of the cavity, as the
collected fluid more or less separates the lung from the chest walls.

Within two or three days the urgent symptoms may abate owing
to the exudation of the fluid and the subsidence of the pain. The
fluid may now undergo absorption, and the case terminate favorably
within a week or ten days.

If the quantity of the effusion is large, its own volume retards the
process of absorption to a great extent, and consequently convales-
cence is delayed. In severe cases the pulse becomes more frequent,
the breathing more hurried and labored, the flanks work like bellows,
the nostrils flap, the eyes stare wildly, the countenance expresses
much anxiet}^, and general signs of dissolution are plain. After a
time swellings appear under the chest and abdomen and down the
legs. The accumulation in the chest is called hydrothorax, or di-opsy
of the chest. Wlien this fluid contains pus the case usually proves
fatal. The condition of pus within the cavity is called empyema.

Pleurisy may affect only a small area of one side or it may affect
both sides. It is oftener confined to the right side.

134 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

Treatment. — The instructions in regard to the general management
of bronchitis and pneumonia must be adhered to in the treatment of
pleurisy. Comfortable quarters, pure air, warm clothing to the body
and bandages to the legs, a plentiful supply of pure cold water, the
laxative food, etc., in this case are equally necessary and efficacious.
The hot applications applied to the chest as directed in the treatment
of pneumonia are very beneficial in pleurisy, and should be kept up
while the symptoms show the animal to be in pain.

During the first few days, when pain is manifested by restlessness,
apj)ly hot packs to the sides diligently. After four or five days, when
the sjmiptoms show that the acute stage has somewhat subsided, mus-
tard may be applied as recommended for pneumonia. From the
beginning the following drench may be given every six hours, if the
horse takes a drench kindly : Solution of the acetate of ammonia, 3
ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, 1 ounce; bicarbonate of potassium,
3 drams; water, 1 pint.

If the patient becomes debilitated, the stimulants as prescribed for
pneumonia should be used according to the same directions. The
same attention should be given to the diet. If the animal will par-
take of the bran mashes, scalded oats, and grass, it is the best; but
if he refuses the laxative diet, then he should be tried with different
kinds of food and allowed whichever kind he desires.

In. the beginning of the attack, if the pain is severe, causing the
animal to lie down or paw, morphine may be given by the mouth in
5-grain doses, or the fluid extract of Cannabis indica may be used in
doses of 2 to 4 drams.

If the case is not progressing favorably in ten or twelve days after
the beginning of the attack, convalescence is delayed by the fluid in
the chest failing to be absorbed. The animal becomes dull and weak
and evinces little or no desire for food. The breathing becomes
still more rapid and difficult. An effort must now be made to excite
the absorption of the effusion. An application of liniment or mild
blister should be rubbed over the lower part of both sides and the
bottom of the chest. The following drench may be given three times
a day, for seven or eight days, if it is necessary and appears to bene-
fit : Tincture of the perchloride of iron, 1 ounce ; tincture of gentian,
2 ounces; water, 1 pint. Also give 1 dram of iodide of potassium,
dissolved in the drinking water, an hour before feeding every night
and morning for a week or two.

Hydrothorax is sometimes difficult to overcome by means of the use
of medicines alone, when the operation is performed of tapping the
chest to allow an escape for the accumulated fluid. The operation is
performed with a combined instrument called the trocar and canula.
The puncture is made in the lower part of the chest, in the space
between the eighth and ninth ribs. Wounding of the intercostal

DISEASES OF THE LUNGS. 135

artery is avoided by inserting the instrument as near as possible to
the anterior edge of the rib. If the operation is of benefit, it is only
so when performed before the strength is lowered beyond recovery.
The operation merely receives a passing notice here, as it is not pre-
sumed that the nonprofessional will attempt it, although it is attended
with little danger or difficulty in the hands of the expert.

There have been described here bronchitis, pneumonia, and pleurisy
mainly as they occur as independent diseases, but it should be remem-
bered that they merge into each other and may occur together at one
time. AMiile it is true that much more might have been said in regard
to the different stages and types of the affections, and also in regard
to the treatment of each stage and each particular type, the plan
adopted gf advising plain, conservative treatment is considered the
wisest on account of simplifying as much as possible a subject of
which the reader is supposed to know very little.

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA.

This is the state in which an animal is affected with pleurisy and
pneumonia combined, which is not infrequently the case. At the
beginning of the attack only one of the affections may be present, but
the other soon follows. It has already been stated that the pleura is
closely adherent to the lung. The pleura on this account is frequently
more or less affected by the spreading of the inflammation from the
lung tissue. There is a combination of the symptoms of both diseases,
but to the ordinary observer the symptoms of pleurisy are the most
obvious. The course of treatment to be pursued differs in no manner
from that given for tlie affections when they occur independently.
The symptoms will be your guide as to the advisability of giving oil
and laudanum for the j^ain if the pleurisy is very severe. Do not
resort to it unless it is necessary to allay the pain.

BRONCHO-PLEURO-PNEUMONIA.

This is the term or terms applied when bronchitis, pleurisy, and
pneumonia all exist at once. It is impossible for one who is not an
expert to diagnose the state with certainty. The apparent symptoms
ai-e the same as when the animal is affected with pleuro-pneumonia.

SUPPURATION AND ABSCESS IN THE LUNG.

There are instances, and especially when the surroundings of the
patient have been bad or the disease is of an especially severe type,
when pneumonia terminates in an abscess in the lung. Sometimes,
when the inflammation has been extreme, suppuration in a large por-
tion of the lung takes place. Impure air, the result of improper ven-
tilation, is among the most frequent causes of this termination. The

136 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

symptoms of suppuration in the lung are chronic pneumonia, a solidi-
fied area of lung tissue, continued low fever, and, in some cases, offen-
sive smell of the breath, and the discharge of the matter from the
nostrils.

MORTIFICATION.

Gangrene, or mortification, means the death of the part affected.
Occasionally, owing to the intensity of the inflammation or bad treat-
ment, pneumonia and pleuro-pneumonia terminate in mortification,
which is soon followed by the death of the animal. Perhaps the most
common cause of this complication is the presence of a foreign body
in the lung, as food particles or medicine. Rough drenching or
drenching through the nostrils may cause this serious condition.

HEMOPTYSIS, OR BLEEDING FROM THE LUNGS.

Bleeding from the lungs may occur during the course of congestion
of the lungs, bronchitis, pneumonia, influenza, purpura hemorrhagica,
or glanders. An accident or exertion may cause a rupture of a vessel.
Plethora and hypertrophy of -the heart predispose to it. Following
the rupture of a vessel the blood may escape into the lung tissue and
cause a serious attack of pneumonia, or it may fill up the bronchial
tubes and prove fatal by suffocating the animal. "When the hemor-
rhage is from the lung it is accompanied by coughing; the blood is
frothy, of a bright red color, and comes from both nostrils ; whereas
when the bleeding is merely from a rupture of a vessel in some
part of the head (heretofore described as bleeding from the nose) the
blood is most likely to issue from one nostril Only, and the discharge
is not accompanied by coughing. The ear may be placed against
the windpipe along its course, and if the blood is from the lungs a
gurgling or rattling sound will be heard. When it occurs in connec-
tion with another disease it seldom requires special treatment. Wlien
caused by accident or overexertion the animal should be kept quiet.
If the hemorrhage is profuse and continues for several hours, 1 dram
of the acetate of lead dissolved in a pint of water may be given as a
drench, or 1 ounce of the tincture of the perchloride of iron, diluted
with a pint of water, may be given instead of the lead. It is rare
that the hemorrhage is so profuse as to require internal Temedies.
But hemorrhage into the lung may occur and cause death by suffo-
cation without the least manifestation of it by the discharge of
blood from the nose.

TUBERCULOSIS OF THE LUNGS.

Pulmonary consumption or tuberculosis has been recognized in
the horse in a number of instances. The symptoms are as of chronic,
pneumonia or pleurisy. There is no treatment for the disease.

DISEASES OF THE LUNGS. 137

HEAVES, BROKEN WIND, OR ASTHMA.

Much confusion exists in the popular mind in regard to the nature
of heaves. Many horsemen loosely apply the term to all ailments
where the breathing is difficult or noisy. Scientific veterinarians are
well acquainted with the phenomena and locality of the affection, but
there is a great diversity of opinion as regards the exact cause.
Asthma is generally thought to be due to spasm of the small circular
muscles that surround the bronchial tubes. The continued existence
of this affection of the muscles leads to a paralysis of them, and the
forced breathing to emphysema, which always accompanies heaves.

Heaves is usually associated with disorder of the function of diges-
tion or to an error in the choice of food. Feeding on clover hay or
damaged hay or straw, too bulky and innutritions food, and keeping
the horse in a dusty atmosphere or a badly ventilated stable produce
or predispose to heaves. Horses brought from a high to a low level
are predisposed.

In itself broken wind is not a fatal disease, but death is generally
caused by an affection closely connected with it. After death, if the
organs are examined, the lesions found depend much upon the length
of time broken wind has affected the animal. In recent cases very
few changes are noticeable, but in animals that have been broken-
winded for a long time the changes are well marked. The lungs are
paler than natural, and of much less weight in proportion to the vol-
ume, as evidenced by floating them in water. The walls of the small
bronchial tubes and the membrane of the larger tubes are thickened.
The right side of the heart is enlarged and its cavities dilated. The
stomach is enlarged and its walls stretched. The important change
found in the lungs is a condition technically called pulmonary em-
physema. This is of two varieties: First, what is termed vesicular
emphysema, which consists of an enlargement of the capacity of the
air cells (air vesicles) by dilation of their walls. The second form
is called interlobular, or interstitial, emphysema, and follows the
first. In this variety the air finds its way into the lung tissue be-
tween the air cells or the tissue between the small lobules.

Symptoms. — Almost every experienced horseman is able to detect
heaves. The peculiar movement of the flanks and abdomen point out
the ailment at once. But in recent cases the affected animal does not
always exhibit the characteristic breathing unless exerted to a certain
extent. The cough which accompanies this disease is peculiar to it.
It is difficult to describe, but the sound is short, and something like a
grunt. Wlien air is inspired — that is, taken in — it appears to be done
in the same manner as in health; it may possibly be done a little
quicker than natural, but not enough to attract any notice. It is when
the act of expiration (or expelling the air from the lungs) is per-

138 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

formed, that the great change in the breathing is perceptible. It must
be remembered that the lungs have lost much of their elasticity, and,
in consequence, of their jDower of contracting on account of the de-
generation of the walls of the air cells, and also on account of the
paralysis of muscular tissue before mentioned. The air passes into
them freely, but the power to expel it is lost to a great extent by the
lungs ; therefore the abdominal muscles are brought into play. These
muscles, especially in the region of the flank, are seen to contract,
then pause for a moment, then complete the act of contracting, thus
making a double bellowslike movement at each expiration, a sort of
jerky motion with every breath. The double expiratory movement
may also be detected by allowing the horse to exhale against the face
or back of the hand. It will be observed that the expiratory current
is not continuous, but is broken into two jets. AVlien the animal is
exerted a wheezing noise accompanies the breathing. This noise
may be heard to a less extent when the animal is at rest if the ear be
applied to the chest.

As before remarked, indigestion is often present in these cases.
The animal may have a depraved appetite, as shown by a desire to eat
dirt and soiled bedding, which he often devours in preference to the
clean food in the trough or manger. The stomach is liable to be
overloaded with indigestible food. The abdomen may assume that
form called " potbellied." The animal frequently passes wind of a
very offensive odor. AVhen first put to work dung is passed fre-
quently ; the bowels are often loose. The animal can not stand much
work, as the muscular system is soft. Round-chested horses are said
to be predisposed to the disease, and it is certain that in cases of long
standing the chest usually becomes rounder than natural.

Certain individuals become very expert in managing a horse
affected with heaves in suppressing the symptoms for a short time.
They take advantage of the fact that the breathing is much easier
when the stomach and intestines are empty. They also resort to the
use of medicines that have a depressing effect. When the veterina-
rian is examining a horse for soundness, and he suspects that the
animal has been " fixed," he usually gives the horse as much water as
he will drink and then has him ridden or driven rapidly up a hill or
on a heavy road. This will bring out the characteristic breathing
of heaves if the horse is so afflicted, but will not cause the symptoms
of heaves in a healthy horse. All broken-winded horses have the
cough peculiar to the affection, but it is not regular. A considerable
time may elapse before it is heard and then it may come on in
paroxysms, especially when first brought out of the stable into the
cold air, or when excited by work, or after a drink of cold water.
The cough is usually the first symptom of the disease.

Treatment. — When the disease is established there is no cure for it.
Proper attention paid to the diet will relieve the distressing symp-

DISEASES OF THE LUNGS. 139

toms to a certain extent, but they will undoubtedly reappear in their
intensity the first time the animal overloads the stomach or is al-
lowed food of bad quality. Clover hay or bulky food which contains
but little nutriment have much to do with the cause of the disease,
and therefore should be entirely omitted when the animal is affected,
as well as before. It has been asserted that the disease is unknown
where clover hay is never used. The diet should be confined to food
of the best quality and in the smallest quantity. The bad effect of
moldy or dusty hay, fodder, or food of any kind can not be over-
estimated. A small quantity of the best hay once a day is sufficient.
This should be cut and dampened. The animal should invariably be
watered before feeding; never directly after a meal. The animal
should not be worked immediately after a meal. Exertion, when the
stomach is full, invariably aggravates the symptoms. Turning on
pasture gives relief. Carrots, potatoes, or turnips chopped and
mixed with oats or corn are a good diet. Half a pint to a pint of
thick, dark molasses with each feed is useful.

Arsenic is efficacious in palliating the symptoms. It is best ad-
ministered in the form of the solution of arsenic, as Fowler's solu-
tion or as the white powdered arsenious acid. Of the former the
dose is 1 ounce to the drinking water three times daily. Of the
latter one may give 3 grains in each feed. These quantities may be
cautiously increased as the animal becomes accustomed to the drug.
If the bowels do not act regularly, a pint of raw linseed oil may be
given once or twice a month, or a handful of Glauber's salt may-
be given in the feed twice daily, so long as necessary. It must,
however, be borne in mind that all medical treatment is of secondary
consideration ; careful attention paid to the diet is of greatest impor-
tance. Broken-winded animals should not be used for breeding j)ur-
poses. A predisposition to the disease may be inherited.

CHRONIC COUGH.

A chronic cough may succeed the acute diseases of the respiratory
organs, such as pneumonia, bronchitis, laryngitis, etc. It accom-
panies chronic roaring, chronic bronchitis, broken wind. It may
succeed influenza. As previously stated, cough is but a symptom
and not a disease in itself. Chronic cough is occasionally associated
with diseases other than those of the organs of respiration. It
may be a symptom of chronic indigestion or of worms. In such
cases it is caused by a reflex nervous irritation. The proper treat-
ment in all cases of chronic cough is to ascertain the nature of the
disease of which it is a symptom, and then cure the disease if possible,
and the cough will cease.

The treatment of the affections will be found under their appro-
priate heads, to which the reader is referred.

140 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

PLEURO-DYNIA.

This is a form of rheumatism that affects the intercostal muscles;
that is, the muscles between the ribs. The apparent symptoms are
very similar to those of pleurisy. The animal is stiff and not in-
clined to turn around; the ribs are kept in a fixed state as much as
possible. If the head is pulled round suddenly, or the affected side
struck with the hand, or if the spaces between the ribs are pressed
with the fingers, the animal will flinch and perhaps emit a grunt or
groan expressive of much pain. It is distinguished from pleurisy
by the absence of fever, cough, the friction sound, the effusion into
the chest, and by the existence of rheumatism in other parts. The
treatment for this affection is the same as for rheumatism affecting
other parts.

AVOUNDS PENETRATING THE WALLS OF THE CHEST.

A wound penetrating the wall of the chest admits air into the tho-
racic cavity outside of the lung. This condition is known as pneumo-
thorax and may result in collapse of the lung. The wound may be so
made that when the walls of the chest are dilating a little air is
sucked in, but during the contraction of the wall the contained air
presses against the torn part in such a manner as entirely to close
the wound ; thus a small quantity of air gains access with each in-
spiration, while none is allowed to escape until the lung is pressed into
a very small compass and forced into the anterior part of the chest.
The same thing may occur from a broken rib inflicting a wound in
the lung. In this form the air gains access from the lung, and there
may not even be an opening in the walls of the chest. In such cases
the air may be absorbed, when a spontaneous cure is the result. But
when the symptoms are urgent it is recommended that the air be
removed by a trocar and canula or by an aspirator.

It is evident that the treatment of wounds that penetrate the tho-
racic cavity should be prompt. It should be quickly ascertained
whether or not a foreign body remains in the wound, then it should be
thoroughl}^ cleaned with a solution of carbolic acid, 1 part in water 40
parts. The wound should then be closed immediately. If it is an
incised wound, it should be closed with sutures or with adhesive plas-
ters; if torn or lacerated, adhesive plaster may be used or a bandage
around the chest over the dressing. At all events, air must be pre-
vented from getting into the chest as soon and as effectually as pos-
sible. The after treatment of the wound should principally consist in
keeping the parts clean with a solution of carbolic acid, and applying
fresh dressing as often as required to keep the wound in a healthy
condition. Care should be taken that the discharges from the wound

THUMPS. 141

have an outlet in the most dependent part. (See Wounds and their
treatment, p. 459.) If pleurisy supervenes, it should be treated as
advised under that head.

THUMPS, OR SPASM OF THE DIAPHRAGM.

" Thumps " is generally thought by the inexperienced to be a pal-
pitation of the heart. While it is true that palpitation of the heart
is sometimes called " thumps," it must not be confounded with the
affection under consideration.

In the beginning of this article on the diseases of the organs of
respiration, the diaphragm was briefly referred to as the principal and
essential muscle of respiration. Spasmodic or irregular contractions
of it in man are manifested by what is familiarly known as hiccoughs.
Thumps in the horse is similar to hiccoughs in man, although the
peculiar noise is not made in the throat of. the horse in all cases.

There should be no difficulty in distinguishing this affection from
palpitation of the heart. The jerky motion affects the whole body,
and is not confined to the region of the heart. If one hand is placed
on the body at about the middle of the last rib, while the other hand
is placed over the heart behind the left elbow, it will be easily demon-
strated that there is no connection between the thumping or jerking
of the diaphragm and the beating of the heart. In fact, when the
animal is affected with spasms of the diaphragm the beating of the
heart is usually much weaker and less perceptible than natural.
Thumps is produced by causes similar to those that produce conges-
tion of the lungs and dilatation or palpitation of the heart, and may
occur in connection with these conditions. If not relieved, death
usually results from congestion or edema of the lungs, as the breath-
ing is interfered with by the inordinate action of this important
muscle of inspiration so much that proper aeration of the blood can
not take place. The treatment should be as prescribed for congestion
of the lungs, and, in addition, antispasmodics, such as 1 ounce of
sulphuric ether in warm water or 3 drams of asafetida.

RUPTURE or THE DIAPHRAGM.

Post-mortem examinations after colic or severe accident sometimes
reveal rupture of the diaphragm. This may take place after death,
from the generation of gases in the decomposing carcass, which dis-
tend the intestines so that the diaphragm is ruptured by the great
pressure against it. The s^^mptoms are intenselv difficult respiration
and great depression. There is no treatment.

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS.

By James Law, F. R. C. V. S.,

Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University.

[Revised in 1903 by the author.]

CONGESTION AND INFLAMMATION OF THE TESTICLES, OR ORCHITIS.

In the prime of life, in vigorous health, and on stimulating food,
stallions are subject to congestion of the testicles, which become
swollen, hot, and tender, but without any active inflammation. A
reduction of the grain in the feed, the administration of 1 or 2 ounces
of Glauber's salts daily in'the food, and the bathing of the affected
organs daily Avith tepid water or alum water will usually restore them
to a healthy condition.

When the factors producing congestion are extraordinarily potent,
when there has been frequent copulation and heavy grain feeding,
when the weather is warm and the animal has had little exercise, and
when the proximity of other horses or mares excites the generative
instinct without gratification, this congestion may grow to actual
inflammation. Among the other causes of orchitis are blows and pen-
etrating wounds implicating the testicles, abrasions of the scrotum by
a chain or rope passing inside the thigh, contusions and frictions on
the gland under rapid f)aces or heavy draft, compression of the blood
vessels of the spermatic cord by the inguinal ring under the same cir-
cumstances, and, finally, sympathetic disturbance in cases of disease
of the kidneys, bladder, or urethra. Stimulants of the generative
functions, like rue, savin, tansy, cantharides, and damiana, may also
be accessory causes of congestion and inflammation. Finally, certain
specific diseases like maladie du coit, glanders, and tuberculosis, local-
ized in the testicles, will cause inflammation.

JSymptoms, — Apart from actual wounds of the parts, the symptoms
of orchitis are swelling, heat, and tenderness of the testicles, strad-
dling with the hind legs alike in standing and walking, stiffness and
dragging of the hind limbs or of the limb on the affected side, arching
of the loins, abdominal pain, manifested by glancing back at the flank,
with more or less fever, elevated body temperature, accelerated pulse
and breathing, inappetence, and dullness. In bad cases the scanty
urine may be reddish and the swelling may extend to the skin and
envelopes of the testicle, which may become thickened and doughy,
pitting on pressure. The swelling may be so much greater in the
convoluted excretory duct along the upper border of the testicle as to

142

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 143

suggest the presence of a second stone. Even in the more violent
attacks the intense suffering abates somewhat on the second or third,
day. If it lasts longer it is likely to give rise to the formation of
matter (abscess). In exceptional cases the testicle is struck with
gangrene, or death. Improvement may go on slowly to complete
recovery, or the malady may subside into a subacute and chronic form
with induration. Matter (abscess) may be recognized by the presence
of a soft spot, where pressure with two fingers will detect fluctuation
from one to the other. When there is liquid exudation into the
scrotum, or sack, fluctuation may also be felt, but the liquid can be
made out to be around the testicle and can be pressed up into the
abdomen through the inguinal canal. When abscess occurs in the
cord the matter may escape into the scrotal sac and cavity of the abdo-
men and pyemia may follow.

Treatment consists in perfect rest and quietude, the administration
of a jDurgative (1 to 1^ pounds Glauber's salts), and the local appli-
cation of an astringent lotion (acetate of lead 2 drams, extract of
belladonna 2 drams, and water 1 quart) upon soft rags or cotton wool,
kept in contact with the part by a suspensory bandage. This band-
age, of great value for support, may be made nearly triangular and
tied to a girth around the loins and to the upper part of the same sur-
cingle by two bands carried backward and upward between the
thighs. In severe cases scarifications one-fourth inch deep serve to re-
lieve vascular tension. When abscess is threatened its formation may
be favored by warm fomentations or poultices, and on the occurrence
of fluctuation the knife may be employed to give free escape to the
pus. The resulting cavity may be injected daily with a weak car-
bolic-acid lotion, or salol may be introduced. The same agents may
be used on a gland threatened with gangrene, but its prompt removal
by castration is to be preferred, antiseptics being applied freely to
the resulting cavity.

SARCOCELE.

This is an enlarged and indurated condition of the gland, resulting
from chronic inflammation, though it is often associated with a
specific deposit, like glanders. In this condition the natural struc-
ture of the gland has given place to embryonal tissue (small round
cells, with a few fibrous bundles), and its restoration to health is very
improbable. Apart from active inflammation, it may increase very
slowly. The diseased testicle is enlarged, firm, nonelastic, and com-
paratively insensible. The skin of the scrotum is tense, and it may
be edematous (pitting on pressure), as are the deeper envelopes and
spermatic cord. If liquid is present in the sac, the sj^mptoms are
masked somewhat. As it increases it causes awkward, straddling,
dragging movement of the hind limbs, or lameness on the aflFected
side. The spermatic cord often increases at the same time with the

144 DISEASES OP THE HORSE.

testicle, and the inguinal ring being thereby stretched and enlarged,
a portion of intestine may escape into the sac, complicating the dis-
ease with hernia.

The only rational and effective treatment is castration, and even
this may not succeed when the disease is specific (glanders, tuber-
culosis).

HYDROCELE, OR DROPSY OF THE SCROTUM.

This may be merely an accompaniment of dropsy of the abdomen,
the cavity of which is continuous with that of the scrotum in horses.
It may be the result, however, of local disease in the testicle, sper-
matic cord, or walls of the sac.

Symptoms. — The symjotoms are enlargement of the scrotum, and
fluctuation under the fingers, the testicle being recognized as floating
in water. By pressure the liquid is forced, in a slow stream and with
a , perceptible thrill, into the abdomen. Sometimes the cord or the
scrotum is thickened and pits on pressure.

Treatment may be the same as for ascites, y^t when the effusion has
resulted from inflammation of the testicle or cord, astringent applica-
tions (chalk and vinegar) may be applied to these. Then, if the
liquid is not reabsorbed under diuretics and tonics, it may be drawn
off through the nozzle of a hypodermic syringe which has been first
passed through carbolic acid. In geldings it is best to dissect out the
sacs.

VARICOCELE.

This is an enlargement of the venous network of the spermatic
cord, and gives rise to general thickening of the cord from the tes-
ticle up to the ring. The same astringent dressings may be tried as
in hydrocele, and, this failing, castration may be resorted to.

ABNORMAL NUMBER OF TESTICLES.

Sometimes one or both testicles are wanting; in most such cases,
however, they are merely partially developed, and retained in the
inguinal canal or abdomen (cryptorchid). In rare cases there may
be a third testicle, the animal becoming to this extent a double mon-
ster. Teeth, hair, and other indications of a second' fetus have like-
wise been found in the testicle or scrotum.

DEGENERATION OF THE TESTICLES.

The testicles may become the seat of fibrous, calcareous, fatty, carti-
laginous, or cystic degeneration, for all of which the appropriate
treatment is castration. They also become the seat of cancer, glan-
ders, or tuberculosis, and castration is requisite, though with less hope
of arresting the disease. Finally, they may become infested with
cystic tapeworms or larval stages of the armed roundworm
{Strongylus equinus) .

DISEASES OP THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 145

WARTS ON THE PENIS.

These are best removed by seizing them between the thumb and
forefinger and twisting them off. Or they may be cut off with
scissors and the roots cauterized with nitrate of silver.

DEGENERATION OF PENIS (PAPILLOMA", OR EPITHELIOMA).

The penis of the horse is subject to great cauliflower-like growths
on its fi-ee end, which extend back into the substance of the organ,
obstruct the passage of urine, and cause very fetid discharges. The
only resort is to cut them off, together with whatever portion of the
penis has become diseased and indurated. The operation, which
should be performed by a veterinary surgeon, consists in cutting
through the organ from its upper to its lower aspect, twisting or
tying the two dorsal arteries, and leaving the urethra longer by half
an inch to 1 inch than the adjacent structures.

EXTRAVASATION OF BLOOD IN THE PENIS.

As the result of kicks, blows, or of forcible striking of the yard on
the thighs of the mare which it has failed to enter, the penis may
become the seat of effusion of blood from one or more ruptured blood
vessels. This gives rise to a more or less extensive swelling on one or
more sides, followed by some heat and inflammation, and on recovery
a serious curving of the organ. The treatment in the early stages
may be the application of lotions, of alum, or other astringents, to
limit the amount of effusion and favor absorption. The penis should
be suspended in a sling.

PARALYSIS OF THE PENIS.

This results from blows and other injuries, and also in some cases
from too frequent and exhausting service. The yard hangs from the
sheath, flaccid, pendulous, and often cold. The passage of urine
occurs with lessened force, and especially without the final jets. In
cases of local injury the inflammation should first be subdued by
astringent and emollient lotions, and in all cases the system should
be invigorated by nourishing diet, while 30-grain doses of nux vomica
are given twice a day. Finally, a weak current of electricity sent
through the penis from just beneath the anus to the free portion of
the yard, continued for ten or fifteen minutes and repeated daily,
may prove successful.

SELF-ABUSE, OR MASTURBATION.

Some stallions acquire this vicious habit, stimulating the sexual
instinct to the discharge of semen by rubbing the penis against the
belly or between the fore limbs. The only remedy is a mechanical
H. Doc. 795, 59-2 10

146 . DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

one, the fixing of a net under the penis in such fashion as will prevent
the extension of the penis, or so prick the organ as to compel the
animal to desist through pain.

MALADIE DU COIT, OR DOURINE.

This is propagated, like syphilis, by the act of copulation and
affects stallions and mares. It has long been known in northern
Africa, Arabia, and Continental Europe. It was imported into
Illinois in 1882 in a Percheron horse.

From one to ten days after copulation, or in stallions it may be
after some weeks, there is irritation, swelling, and a livid redness of
the external organs of generation, sometimes followed by the erup-
tion of small blisters one-fifth of an inch across on the penis, the
vulva, clitoris, and the vagina, and the consequent rupture of these
vesicles and the formation of ulcers or small open sores. Vesicles
have not been noticed in this disease in the dry climate of Illinois.
In the mare there is frequent contraction of the vulva, urination, and
the discharge of a watery and later a thick viscid liquid of a whitish,
yellowish, or reddish color, which collects on and soils the tail. The
swelling of the vulva increases and decreases alternately, affecting
one part more than another and giving a distorted appearance to the
ojDening. The affection of the skin leads to the appearance of circu-
lar white spots, which may remain distinct or coalesce into extensive
patches which persist for months. This, with the soiled tail, red,
swollen, puckered, and distorted vulva, and an increasing weakness
and paralysis of the hind limbs, serves to characterize the affection.
The mare rarely breeds, but will take the male, and thus propagate
the disease. The disease winds up with great emaciation and stu-
pidity and death in four months to two years. In horses which serve
few mares there may be only swelling of the sheath for a year, but
with frequent copulation the progress is more rapid. The penis may
be enlarged, shrunken, or distorted ; the testicles are usuallv pendent
and may be enlarged or wasted and flabby ; the skin, as in the mare,
shows white spots and patches. Later the penis becomes partially
paralj^zed and hangs out of the sheath; swelling of the adjacent
lymphatic glands (in the groin), and even of distant ones, and of the
skin appears, and the hind limbs become weak and unsteady. In
some instances the glands under the jaw swell, and a discharge flows
from the nose, as in glanders. In other cases the itching of the skin
leads to gnawing and extensive sores. Weakness, emaciation, and
stupidity increase until death, in fatal cases, jet the sexual desire
does not seem to fail. A stallion without sense to eat, except when
food was put in his mouth, would still neigh and seek to follow mares.
In mild cases an apparent recovery may ensue, and through such
animals the disease is propagated to new localities to be roused into

CASTE ATION OF STALLIONS. 147

activity and extension under the stimulus of service. The diseased
nerve centers are the seat of cryptogamic growths. (Thannhoffer.)

Treatment of the malady has proved eminently unsatisfactory. It
belongs to the purely contagious diseases, and should be stamped out
by the remorseless slaughter or castration of every horse or mare that
has had sexual congress with a diseased animal.

CASTRATION OF STALLIONS.

This is usually done at one year old, but may be accomplished at a
few weeks old at the expense of an imperfect development of the
fore parts. The simplicity and safety of the operation are greatest in
the young. The delay till two, three, or four years old will secure a
better develof>ment and carriage of the fore parts. The essential
part of castration is the safe removal or destruction of the testicle
and the arrest or prevention of bleeding from the spermatic artery
found in the anterior part of the cord. Into the many methods of
accomplishing this limited space forbids us to enter here, so that the
method most commonly adopted, castration by clamps, will alone be
noticed. The animal having been thrown on his left side, and the
right hind foot drawn up on the shoulder, the exposed scrotum,
penis, and sheath are washed with soap and water, any concretion of
sebum being carefully removed from the bilocular cavity in the end
of the penis. The left spermatic cord, just above the testicle, is now
seized in the left hand, so as to render the skin tense over the stone,
and the right hand, armed with the knife, makes an incision from
before backward, about three-fourths of an inch from and parallel to
the median line between the thighs, deejo enough to expose the testicle
and long enough to allow that organ to start out through the skin.
At the moment of making this incision the left hand must grasp the
cord very firmly, otherwise the sudden retraction of the testicle by
the cremaster muscle may draw it out of the hand and upwards
through the canal and even into the abdomen. In a few seconds,
when the struggle and retraction have ceased, the knife is inserted
through the cord, between its anterior and posterior portions, and the
latter, the one which the muscle retracts, is cut completely through.
The testicle will now hang limp, and there is no longer any tendency
to retraction. It should be pulled down until it will no longer hang
loose below the wound and the clamps applied around the still attached
portion of the cord, close up to the skin. The clamps, which may be
made of any tough wood, are grooved along the center of the surfaces
opposed to each other, thereby fulfilling two important indications —
{a) enabling the clamps to hold more securely and {h) providing for
the application of an antiseptic to the cord. For this purpose a dram
of sulphate of copper may be mixed with an ounce of vaseline and

148 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

pressed into the groove in the face of each clamp. In applying the
clamp over the cord it should be drawn so close with pincers as to press
out all blood from the compressed cord and destroy its vitality, and
the cord applied upon the compressing clamps should be so hard-
twined that it will not stretch later and slacken the hold. When the
clamp has been fixed the testicle is cut off one-half to 1 inch below it,
and the clamp may be left thus for twenty- four hours; then, by cut-
ting the cord around one end of the clamp, the latter may be opened
and the stump liberated without any danger of bleeding. Should the
stump hang out of the wound it should be pushed inside with the finger
and left there. The wound should begin to discharge white matter
on the second day in hot weather or the third in cold, and from that
time a good recovery may be expected.

CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO SUCCESSFUL CASTRATION.

The young horse suffers less from castration than the old, and very
rarely perishes. Good health in the subject is all important. Castra-
tion should never be attempted during the prevalence of strangles,
influenza, catarrhal fever, contagious j^leurisy, bronchitis, pneumonia,
purpura hemorrhagica, or other specific disease, nor on subjects that
have been kept in close, ill ventilated, filthy buildings, where the
system is liable to have been charged with putrid bacteria or other
products. Warm weather is to be preferred to cold, but the fly time
should be avoided or the flies kept at a distance by the application of
a watery solution of tar, carbolic acid, or camphor to the wound.

CASTRATION OF CRYPTORCHIDS (rIDGLINGS).

This is the removal of a testicle or testicles that have failed to
descend into the scrotum, but have been detained in the inguinal
canal or inside the abdomen. The manipulation requires an accurate
anatomical knowledge of the parts, and special skill, experience, and
manual dexterity, and can not be made clear to the unprofessional
mind in a short notice. It consists, however, in the discovery and
removal of the missing gland by exploring through the natural chan-
nel (the inguinal canal), or, in case it is absent, through the inguinal
ring or through an artificial opening made in front and above that
channel between the abdominal muscles and the strong fascia on the
inner side of the thigh (Poupart's ligament). Wliatever method is
used, the skin, hands, and instruments should be rendered aseptic
with a solution of mercuric chloride 1 part, water 2,000 parts (a car-
bolic acid lotion for the instruments), and the spermatic cord is best
torn through by the ecraseur. In many such cases, too, it is desirable
to sew up the external wound and keep the animal still, to favor
healing of the wound by adhesion.

CASTRATION OF STALLIOITS. 149

PAIN AFTER CASTRATION.

Some horses are pained and very restless for some hours after cas-
tration, and this may extend to cramps of the bowels and violent colic.
This is best kept in check by carefully rubbing the patient dry when
he rises from the operation, and then leading him in hand for some
time. If the pain still persists a dose of laudanum (1 ounce for an
adiilt) may be given.

BLEEDING AFTER CASTRATION.

Bleeding from the wound in the scrotum and from the little artery
in the posterior portion of the spermatic cord always occurs, and in
warm weather may appear to be quite free. It scarcely ever lasts,
however, over fifteen minutes, and is easily checked by dashing cold
water against the part.

Bleeding from the spermatic artery in the anterior part of the cord
may be dangerous when due precaution has not been taken to prevent
it. In such case the stump of the cord should be sought for and
the artery twisted with artery forceps or tied with a silk thread.
If the stump can not be found, pledgets of tow wet with tincture of
muriate of iron may be stuffed into the canal to favor the formation
of clot and the closure of the artery.

STRANGULATED SPERMATIC CORD.

If in castration the cord is left too long, so as to hang out of the
wound, the skin wound in contracting grasps and strangles it, pre-
venting the free return of blood and causing a steadily advancing
swelling. In addition the cord becomes adherent to the lips of the
wound in the skin, whence it derives an increased supply of blood,
and is thereby stimulated to more rapid swelling. The subject walks
stiffly, with straddling gait, loses appetite, and has a rapid pulse and
high fever. Examination of the wound discloses the partial closure
of the skin wound and the protrusion from its lips of the end of the
cord, red, tense, and varying in size from a hazelnut upward. If
there is no material swelling and little protrusion, the wound may be
enlarged with the knife and the end of the cord broken loose from
any connection with the skin and pushed up inside. If the swelling
is larger, the mass constitutes a tumor and must be removed. (See
below.)

SWELLING OF THE SHEATH, PENIS, AND ABDOMEN.

This occurs in certain unhealthy states of the system, in unhealthy
seasons, as the result of operating without cleansing the sheath and
penis, or of keeping the subject in a filthy, impure building, as the
result of infecting the wound by hands or instruments bearing septic

150 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

bacteria, or as the result of premature closure of the wound, and
imprisonment of matter.

Pure air and cleanliness of groin and wound are to be secured.
Antiseptics, like the mercuric chloride lotion (1 part to 2,000) are to
be applied to the parts; the wound, if closed, is to be opened anew,
any accumulated matter or blood washed out, and the antiseptic
liquid freely applied. The most tense or dependent parts of. the
swelling in sheath or penis, or beneath the belly, should be pricked at
intervals of 3 or 4 inches, and to a depth of half an inch, and anti-
septics freely used to the surface. Fomentations with warm water
may also be used to favor oozing from the incisions and to encourage
the formation of white matter in the original wounds, which must not
be allowed to close again at once. A free, creamlike discharge im-
plies a healthy action in the sore, and is the precursor of recovery.

PHYMOSIS AND PARAPHYMOSIS.

In cases of swelling, as above, the penis may be imprisoned within
the sheath (phymosis) or protruded and swollen so that it can not be
retracted into it (paraphymosis). In these cases the treatment indi-
cated above, and especially the scarifications, will prove a useful pre-
liminary resort. The use of astringent lotions is always desirable,
and in case of the protruded jDenis the application of an elastic or
simple linen bandage, so as to press out the blood and accumulated
fluid, will enable the operator to return it.

TUMORS QN THE SP^.RMATIC CORD.

These are due to rough handling or dragging upon the cord in
castration, to strangulation of unduly long cords in the external
wound, to adhesion of the end of the cord to the skin, to inflammation
of the cord succeeding exposure to cold or wet, or to the presence
of infection {Staphylococcus hotriomyces) . These tumors give rise
to a stiff, straddling gait, and may be felt as hard masses in the groin
connected above with the cord. They may continue to grow slowly-
for many years until they reach a weight of 15 or 20 pounds, and
contract adhesions to all surrounding parts. If disconnected from
the skin and inguinal canal they may be removed in the same manner
as the testicle, while if larger and firmly adherent to the skin and
surrounding parts generally, they must be carefully dissected from
the parts, the arteries being tied as they are reached and the cord
finally torn through with an ecraseur. When the cord has become
swollen and indurated up into the abdomen such removal is impos-
sible, though a partial destruction of the mass may still be attempted
by passing white-hot pointed irons upward toward the inguinal ring
in the center of the thickened and indurated cord.

CASTKATION OF THE MARE. 151

CASTRATION BY THE COVERED OPERATION.

This is only required in case of hernia or protrusion of bowels or
omentum into the sack of the scrotum, and consists in the return of
the hernia and the application of the caustic clamps over the cord and
inner walls of the inguinal canal, so that the walls of the latter become
adherent above the clamps, the canal is obliterated, and further pro-
trusion is hindered. For the full description of this and of the opera-
tion for hernia in geldings, see remarks on hernia.

CASTRATION OF THE MARE.

Castration is a much more dangerous operation in the mare than in
the females of other domesticated quadrupeds and should never be
resorted to except in animals that become unmanageable on the recur-
rence of heat and that will not breed or that are utterly unsuited to
breeding. Formerly the operation was extensively practiced in
Europe, the incision being made through the flank, and a large pro-
portion of the subjects perished. By operating through the vagina
the risk can be largely obviated, as the danger of unhealthy inflam-
mation in the wound is greatly lessened. The animal should be
fixed in a trevis, with each foot fixed to a post and a sling placed
under the body, or it may be thrown and put under chloroform.
The manual operation demands special professional knowledge and
skill, but it consists essentially in making an opening through the
roof of the vagina just above the neck of the womb, then following
Avith the hand each horn of the womb until the ovary on that side
is reached and grasped between the lips of forceps and twisted oft'.
It might be torn off by an ecraseur especially constructed for the
purpose. The straining that follows the operation may be checked
by ounce doses of laudanum, an'd any risk of protrusion of the bowels
may be obviated by applying the truss advised to prevent eversion
of the womb. To further prevent the pressure of the abdominal con-
tents against the vaginal wound the mare should be tied short and
liigh for twenty-four or forty-eight hours, after which I have found
it best to remove the truss and allow the privilege of lying down.
Another important point is to give bran mashes and other laxative;
diet only, and in moderate quantity, for a fortnight, and to unload
the rectlim by copious injections of warm water in case it should
threaten to become impacted.

STERILITY.

Sterility may be in the male or in the female. If due to the stal-
lion, then all the mares put to him remain barren ; if due to the mare,
she alone fails to conceive.

152 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

In the stallion sterility may be due to the following causes: (a)
Imperfect development of the testicles, as in cases in which they are
retained within the abdomen; (h) inflammation of the testicles, re-
sulting in induration; (c) fatty degeneration of the testicles, in stal-
lions liberally fed on starchy food and not sufficiently exercised ; (d)
fatty degeneration of the excretory ducts of the testicles (vasa defe-
rentia) \ (e) inflammation or ulceration of these ducts; (/) inflajn-
mation or ulceration of the mucous membrane covering the penis;
(g) injuries to the penis from blows (often causing paralysis) ; (A)
warty growths on the end of the penis; (i) tumors of other kinds
(largely pigmentary), affecting the testicles or j^enis; (_/) nervous
diseases which abolish the sexual appetite or that control the muscles
which are essential to the act of coition; (k) azoturia with resulting
weakness or paralysis of the muscles of the loins or the front of the
thigh (above the stifle) ; (I) ossification (anchylosis) of the joints
of the back or loins, which render the animal unable to r6ar, or mount ;
(m) spavins, ringbones, or other painful affections of the hind limbs,
the pain of which in mounting causes the animal to suddenly stop
short in the act. In the first three of these only («, b, and e) is there
real sterility in the sense of the nondevelopment or imperfect devel-
opment of the male vivifying element (spermatozoa). In the other
examj^les the secretion may be perfect in kind and amount, but as
copulation is prevented it can not reach and impregnate the ovum.

In the mare barrenness is equally due to a variety of causes. In a
number of breeding studs the proportion of sterile mares has varied
from 20 to 40 per cent. It may be due to: (a) Imperfect develop-
ment of the ovary and nonmaturation of ova; (6) cystic or other
tumors of the ovary; (c) fatty degeneration of the ovary in very
obese, pampered mares; (d) fatty degeneration of the excretory
tubes of the ovaries (Fallopian tubes) ; (e) catarrh of the womb,
with mucopurulent discharge; (/) irritable condition of the womb,
with profuse secretion, straining, and ejection of the semen; (g)
nervous irritability, leading to the same expulsion of the male ele-
ment; (h) high condition (plethora), with profuse secretion and
excitement; (i) low condition, with imperfect maturation of the ova
and lack of sexual desire; (j) poor feeding, overwork, and chronic
debilitating diseases, as leading to the condition just named; (k)
closure of the neck of the womb, temporarily by spasm or perma-
nently by inflammation and induration; (/) closure of the entrance
to the vagina through imperforate hymen, a rare, though not un-
known, condition in the mare; (//t) acquired indisposition to breed,
seen in old, hard-worked mares which are first put to the stallion
when aged; (?i) change of climate has repeatedly been followed by
barrenness; (o) hybridity, which in male and female alike usually
entails sterility.

STERILITY. 153

Treatment. — The treatment of the majority of these conditions
will be found dealt with in other parts of this work, so that it is only
necessary here to name them as causes. Some, however, must be
specially referred to in this place. Stallions with undescended
testicles are beyond the reach of medicine, and should be castrated
and devoted to other uses. Indurated testicles may sometimes be
remedied in the early stages by smearing with a weak iodine ointment
daily for a length of time, and at the same time invigorating the
system by liberal feeding and judicious work. Fatty degeneration
is best met by an albuminoid diet (wheat bran, cotton-seed meal,
rape cake) and constant well-regulated work. Saccharine, starchy,
and fatty food (potatoes, wheat, corn, etc.) are to be specially
avoided. In the mare one diseased and irritable ovary should be
removed, to do away with the resulting excitability of the remainder
of the generative organs. An irritable womb, with frequent strain-
ing and the ejection of a profuse secretion, may sometimes be cor-
rected by a restricted diet and full but well-regulated work. Even
fatigue will act beneficially in some such cases, hence the practice of
the Arab riding his mare to exhaustion just before service. The
perspiration in such a case, like the action of a purgative or the
abstraction of blood just before service, benefits, by rendering the
blood vessels less full, by lessening secretion in the womb and else-
where, and thus counteracting the tendency to the ejection and loss
of semen. If these means are ineffectual, a full dose of camphor (2
drams) or of salacin may at times assist. Low condition and anemia
demand just the opposite kind of treatment — rich, nourishing, albumi-
noid food, bitter tonics (gentian), sunshine, gentle exercise, liberal
grooming, and supporting treatment generally are here in order.

Spasmodic closure of the neck of the womb is common and is
easily remedied in the mare by dilatation with the fingers. The
hand, smeared with belladonna ointment and with the fingers drawn
into the form of a cone, is introduced through the vagina until
the projecting, rounded neck of the womb is felt at its anterior end.
This is opened by the careful insertion of one finger at a time, until
the fingers have been passed through the constricted neck into the
open cavity of the womb. The introduction is made with a gentle,
rotary motion, and all precipitate violence is avoided, as abrasion,
laceration, or other cause of irritation is likely to interfere with the
retention of the semen and with impregnation. If the neck of the
womb is rigid and unjdelding from the induration which follows in-
flammation— a rare condition in the mare, though common in the
cow — more force will be requisite, and it may even be needful to in-
cise the neck to the depth of one-sixth of an inch in four or more
opposite directions prior to forcible dilatation. The incision may be
made with a probe-pointed knife, and should be done by a profes-

154 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

sional man if possible. The subsequent dilatation may be best effected
by the slow expansion of sponge or seaweed tents inserted into the
narrow canal. In such cases it is best to let the wounds of the neck
heal before putting to horse. An imperforate hymen may be freely
incised in a crucial manner until the passage will admit the human
hand. An ordinary knife may be used for this purpose, and after
the operation the stallion may be admitted at once or only after the
wounds have healed.

INDICATIONS or PREGNANCY.

As the mere fact of service by the stallion does not insure preg-
nancy, it is important that the result should be determined, to save
the mare from unnecessary and dangerous work or medication when
actually in foal and to obviate wasteful and needless precautions when
she is not.

The cessation and nonrecurrence of the symptoms of heat (horsing)
are most significant though not an infallible sign of conception. If
the sexual excitement speedily subsides and the mare persistently
refuses the stallion for a month, she is probably pregnant. In very
exceptional cases a mare will accept a second or third service after
weeks or months, though pregnant, and some mares will refuse the
horse persistently, though conception has not taken place, and this in
spite of warm weather, good condition of the mare, and liberal feed-
ing. The recurrence of heat in the pregnant mare is most likely to
take place in hot weather. If heat merely persists an undue length of
time after service, or if it reappears shortly after, in warm weather
and in a comparatively idle mare, on good feeding, it is less signifi-
cant, while the persistent absence of heat under such conditions may
be usually accepted as proof of conception.

An unwonted gentleness and docility on the part of a previousl}^
irritable or vicious mare, and supervening on service, is an excellent
indication of pregnancy, the generative instinct which caused the
excitement having been satisfied.

An increase of fat, with softness and flabbiness of muscle, a loss of
energy, indisposition for active work, a manifestation of laziness,
indeed, and of fatigue- early and easily induced, when preceded by
service, will usually imply conception.

Enlargement of the abdomen, especially in its lower third, with
slight falling in beneath the loins and hollowness of the back are sig-
nificant symptoms, though they may be entirely absent. Swelling and
firmness of the udder, with the smoothing out of its wrinkles, is a
suggestive sign, even though it appears only at intervals during ges-
tation.

A steady increase in weight (1^ pounds daily) about the fourth or
fifth month is a useful indication of pregnancy. So is a swollen and
red or bluish-red appearance of the vaginal mucous membrane.

PEEGNANCY. 155

From the seventh or eighth month onward the foal nia}' be felt by
the hand (palm or knuckles) pressed into the abdomen in front of the
left stifle. The sudden push displaces the foal toward the opposite
side of the womb, and as it floats back its hard body is felt to strike
against the hand. If the pressure is maintained the movements of
the live foal are felt, and especially in the morning and after a drink
of cold water or during feeding. A drink of cold water will often
stimulate the fetus to movements that may be seen by the eye, but
an excess of iced water may prove injurious, even to the causing of
abortion. Cold water dashed on the belly has a similar effect on the
fetus and equally endangers abortion.

Examination of the uterus with the oiled hand introduced into the
rectum is still more satisfactory, and if cautiously conducted no more
dangerous. The rectum must be first emptied and then the hand car-
ried forward until it reaches the front edge of the pelvic bones below,
and pressed downward to ascertain the size and outline of the womb.
In the unimpregnated state the vagina and womb can be felt as a sin-
gle rounded tube, dividing in front to two smaller tubes (the horns of
the womb). In the pregnant mare not only the body of the womb is
enlarged, but still more so one of the horns (right or left), and on
compression the latter is found to contain a hard, nodular body, float-
ing in a liquid, which in the latter half of gestation may be stimulated
by gentle pressure to manifest spontaneous movements. By this
method the presence of the fetus may be determined as early as the
third month. If the complete natural outline of the virgin womb can
not be made out, careful examination should always be made on the
right and left side for the enlarged horn and its living contents.
Should there still be difficulty the mare should be placed on an in-
clined plane, with her hind parts lowest, and two assistants, standing
on opposite sides of the body, should raise the lower part of the
abdomen by a sheet passed beneath it. Finally the ear or stethoscope
applied on the wall of the abdomen in front of the stifle may detect
the beating of the fetal heart (one hundred and twenty -five per
minute) and a blowing sound {the uterine sough), much less rapid
and corresponding to the number of the pulse of the dam. It is
heard most satisfactorily after the sixth or eighth month and in the
absence of active rumbling of the bowels of the dam.

DURATION OF rREGNANCY.

Mares usually go about eleven months with young, though first
pregnancies often last a year. Foals have lived when born at the
three hundredth day, so with others carried till the four hundredth
day. With the longer pregnancies there is a greater probability of
male offspring.

156 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

HYGIENE OF THE PREGNANT MARE,

The i^regnant mare should not be exposed to teasing by a young
and ardent stallion, nor should she be overworked or fatigued, par-
ticularly under the saddle or on uneven ground. Yet exercise is bene-
ficial to both mother and offspring, and in the absence of moderate
work the breeding mare should be kept in a lot where she can take
exercise at will.

The food should be liberal, but not fattening — oats, bran, sound
hay, and other foods rich in the principles which form flesh and bone
being especially indicated. All aliments that tend to indigestion are
to be especially avoided. Thus rank, aqueous, rapidly growing
grasses and other green food, partially ripe rye grass, millet, hun-
garian grass, vetches, pease, beans, or maize are objectionable, as is
overripe, fibrous, innutritions hay, or that which has been injured and
rendered musty by wet, or that which is infested with smut or ergot.
Food that tends to costiveness should be avoided. Water given often,
and at a temperature considerably above freezing, will avoid the
dangers of indigestion and abortion which result from taking too
much ice-cold water at one time. Very cold or frozen food is objec-
tionable in the same sense. Severe surgical operations and medicines
that act violently on the womb, bowels, or kidnej^s are to be avoided
as being liable to cause abortion. Constipation should be corrected,
if possible, by bran mashes, carrots, or beets^ seconded by exercise,
and if a medicinal laxative is required it should be olive oil or other
equally bland agent.

The stall of the pregnant mare should not be too narrow, so as to
cramp her when lying down or to entail violent effort, in getting up,
and it should not slope too much from the front backward, as this
throws the weight of the uterus back on the pelvis and endangers pro-
trusions and even abortion. Violent mental impressions are to be
avoided, for though the majority of mares are not affected thereby,
yet a certain number are so profoundly impressed that peculiarities
and distortions are entailed on the offspring. Hence, there is wisdom
shown in banishing particolored or objectionably tinted animals, and
those that show deformities or faulty conformation. Hence, too, the
importance of preventing prolonged acute suffering by the pregnant
mare, as certain troubles of the eyes, feet, and joints in the foals have
been clearly traced to the concentration of the mother's mind on cor-
responding injured organs in herself. Sire and dam alike tend to
reproduce their individual defects which predispose to disease, but
the dam is far more likely to perpetuate the evil in her progeny which
was carried Avhile she was individually enduring severe suffering
caused by such defects. Hence, an active bone spavin or ringbone.

PREGNANCY. 157

causing lameness, is more objectionable than that in which the in-
flammation and lameness have both passed, and an active ophthalmia
is more to be feared than even an old cataract. For this reason all
active diseases in the breeding mare should be soothed and abated at
as early a moment as possible.

EXTRA-UTERINE GESTATION.

It is rare in the domestic animals to iind the fetus developed else-
where than in the womb. The exceptional forms are those in which
the sperm of the male, making its way through the womb and Fallo-
pian tubes, impregnates the ovum prior to its escape, and in which
the now vitalized and growing ovum, by reason of its gradually in-
creasing size, becomes imprisoned and fails to escape into the womb.
The arrest of the ovum may be in the substance of the ovary itself
(ovarian pregnancy), in the Fallopian tube (tubal pregnancy), or
when by its continuous enlargement it has ruptured its envelopes so
that it escapes into the cavity of the abdomen, it may become attached
to any part of the serous membrane and draw its nourishment di-
dectlj" from that (abdominal jDregnancy). In all such cases there is
an increase and enlargement of the capillary blood vessels at the
l^oint to which the embryo has attached itself so as to furnish the
needful nutriment for the growing offspring.

All appreciable symptoms are absent, unless from the death of the
fetus, or its interference with normal functions, general disorder and
indications of parturition supervene. If these occur later than the
natural time for parturition, they are the more significant. There
may be general malaise, loss of appetite, elevated temperature, acceler-
ated pulse, with or without distinct labor pains. Examination with
the oiled hand in the rectum will reveal the womb of the natural
unimpregnated size and shape and with both horns of one size. Fur-
ther exploration may detect an elastic mass apart from the womb, and
in the interior of which may be felt the characteristic solid body of
the fetus. If the latter is still alive and can be stimulated to move,
the evidence is even more perfect. The fetus may die and be carried
for years, its soft structures becoming absorbed so as to leave only the
bones, or by pressure it may form a fistulous opening through the
abdominal walls, or less frequently through the vagina or rectum. In
the latter cases the best course is to favor the expulsion of the foal and
to wash out the resulting cavity with a solution of carbolic acid 1 part
to water 50 parts. This may be repeated daily. Wliere there is no
spontaneous opening it is injudicious to interfere, as the danger from
the retention of the fetus is less than that from septic fermentation
in the enormous fetal sac when that has been opened to the air.

158 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

MOLES, OR ANIDIAN MONSTERS.

These are evidently j^roducts of conception, in which the impreg-
nated ovum has failed to develop naturally, and presents only a cha-
otic mass of skin, hair, bones, muscles, etc., attached to the inner
surface of the womb by an umbilical cord, which is itself often shriv-
eled and wasted. They are usually accompanied by a well-developed
fetus, so that the mole may be looked upon as a twin which has under-
gone arrest and vitiation of development. They are expelled by the
ordinary process of parturition, and usually at the same time with the
normally developed offspring.

CYSTIC DISEASE OF THE AVALLS OF THE WOMB, OR VESICULAR MOLE.

This condition appears to be due to hypertrophy (enlargement) of
the villi on the inner surface of the womb, which become greatly
increased in number and hollowed out internally into a series of cysts,
or pouches, containing liquid. Unlike the true mole, therefore, they
apjDcar to be disease of the maternal structure of the womb rather
than of the product of conception. Rodet, in a case of this kind,
which had produced active labor pains, quieted the disorder Avith ano-
dynes and secured a recovery. AVliere this is not available attempts
may be made to remove the mass with the ecraseur or otherwise, fol-
lowing this up with antiseptic injections, as advised under the last
heading.

DROPSY or THE WOMB.

This appears as a result of some disease of the walls of the womb,
but has been frequently observed as the result of infection after sex-
ual congress, and has, therefore, been confounded with pregnancy.
The symptoms are those of pregnancy, but without any movements of
the fetus and without the detection of any solid body in the womb
when examined with the oiled hand in the rectum. At the end of
four or eight months there are signs of parturition or of frequent
straining to pass urine, and after a time the liquid is discharged clear
and watery, or muddy, thick, and fetid. The hand introduced into
the womb can detect neither fetus nor fetal membrane. If the neck
of the womb closes, the liquid may accumulate a second time, or even
a third, if no means are taken to disinfect it or to correct the tendency.
The best resort is to remove any diseased product that may be found
attached to the walls of the Avomb, and to inject it daily with a warm
solution of carbolic acid 2 drams, chloride of zinc one-half dram,
water 1 quart. A course of bitter tonics (gentian 2 drams, sulphate
of iron 2 drams, daily) should be given, and a nutritious, easil;^'
digested, and slightly laxative diet allowed.

DISEASES OF THE WOMB. 159

DROPSY or THE AMNION.

This differs from simple dropsy of the womb in that the fluid col-
lects in the inner of the two water bags (that in which the foal floats)
and not in the otherwise void cavity of the womb. This affection
can occur only in the pregnant animal, while dropsy of the womb
occurs in the unimpregnated. The blood of the pregnant mare con-
tains an excess of water and a smaller proportion of albumen and red
globules, and when this is still further aggravated by poor feeding
and other unhygienic conditions thfere is developed the tendency to
liquid transudation from the vessels and dropsy. As the watery con-
dition of the blood increases with advancing pregnancy, so dropsy of
the amnion is a disease of the last four or five months of gestation.
The abdomen is large and pendulous, and the swelling fluctuates
under pressure, though the solid body of the fetus can still be felt to
strike against the hand pressed into the swelling. If the hand is
introduced into the vagina, the womb is found to be tense and round,
with the projecting rounded neck effaced, while the hand in the
rectum will detect the rounded swollen mass of the womb so firm and
tense that the body of the fetus can not be felt within it. The mare
moves weakly and unsteadily on her limbs, having difficulty in sup-
porting the great weight, and in bad cases there may be loss of appe-
tite, stocking (dropsy) of the hind limbs, difficult breathing, and
colicky pains. The tension may lead to abortion, or a slow, labo-
rious parturition may occur at the usual time.

Treatvient consists in relieving the tension and accumulation by
puncturing the fetal membrane with a canula and trocar introduced
through the neck of the womb and the withdrawal of the trocar so
as to leave the canula in situ. Or the membranes may be punctured
with the finger and the excess of liquid allowed to escape. This may
bring on abortion, or the wound may close and gestation continue to
the full term. A course of tonics (gentian root 2 drams, sulphate of
iron 2 drams, daily) will do much to fortify the system and counteract
further excessive effusion.

DROPSY OF THE LIMBS, PERINEUM, AND ABDOMEN.

The disposition to dropsy often shows itself in the hind and even
in the fore lunbs, around and beneath the vulva (perineum), and be-
neath the abdomen and chest. The affected parts are swollen and
pit on pressure, but are not especially tender, and subside more or
less perfectly under exercise, hand rubbing, and bandages. In ob-
stinate eases rubbing with the following liniment may be resorted to :
Compound tincture of iodine, 2 ounces; tannic acid, one-half dram;
water, 10 ounces. It does not last over a day or two after parturition.

160 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

CRAMPS OF THE HIND LIMBS.

The pressure of the distended womb on the nerves and blood vessels
of the pelvis, besides conducing to dropsy, occasionally causes cramps
of the hind limbs. The limb is raised* without flexing the joints, the
front of the hoof being directed toward the ground, or, the spasms
occurring intermittently, the foot is kicked violently against the
ground several times in rapid succession. The muscles are felt to be
firm and rigid. The cramp may be promptly relieved by active rub-
bing, or by walking the animal about, and it does not reappear after
Darturition.

CONSTIPATION.

This may result from compression by the gravid womb, and is best
corrected by a graduated allowance of boiled flaxseed.

PARALYSIS.

The pressure on the nerves of the pelvis is liable to cause paralysis
of the hind limbs, or in the mare of the nerve of sight. These are
obstinate until after parturition, when they recover spontaneously, or
under a course of nux vomica and (locally) stimulating liniments.

PROLONGED RETENTION OF THE FETUS (fOAl).

In the mare, though far less frequently than in the cow, parturition
may not be completed at term, and the foal may continue to be carried
in the womb for a number of months, to the serious or even fatal
injury of the mare. Hamon records one case in which the mare died
after carrying the fetus for seventeen months, and Caillier a similar
result after it had been carried twenty-two months. In these cases
the fetus retained its natural form, but in one reported by Gohier, the
bones only were left in the womb amid a mass of apparently purulent
matter.

Cause. — The cause may be any effective obstruction to the act of
parturition, such as lack of contractile power in the womb, unduly
strong (inflammatory) adhesions between the womb and the fetal
membranes, wrong presentation of the fetus, contracted pelvis (from
fracture or disease of the bones), or disease and induration of the
neck of the womb.

The mere prolongation of gestation does not necessarily entail the
death of the foal; hence the latter has been born alive at the four
hundredth day. Even when the foal has perished, putrefaction does
not set in unless the membranes (water bags) have been ruptured and
septic bacteria have been admitted to the interior of the womb. In
the latter case a fetid decomposition advances rapidly, and the marc
usually perishes from poisoning with the putrid matters absorbed.

At the natural period of parturition preparations are apparently
made for that act. The vulva swells and discharges much mucus, the
udder enlarges, the belly becomes more pendent, and the animal

ABOETION. 161

strains more or less. No progress is made, however; there is not
even opening of the neck of the womb, and after a time the symptoms
subside. The mare usually refuses the male ; yet there are exception??
to this rule. If the neck of the womb has been opened and putrefy-
ing changes have set in in its contents, the mare loses appetite and
condition, pines, discharges an offensive matter from the generative
passages, and dies of inflammation of the womb and putrid infection.
In other cases there is a slow wearing out of the strength, and the
mare finally dies of exhaustion.

The treatment is such as will facilitate the expulsion of the fetus
and its membranes and the subsequent washing out of the womb with
disinfectants. So long as the mouth of the womb is closed time
should be allowed for its natural dilatation, but if this does not come
about after a day or two of straining, the opening may be smeared
with extract of belladonna, and the oiled hand, with the fingers and
thumb drawn into the form of a cone, may be inserted by slow oscil-
lating movements into the interior of the womb. The water bags
may now be ruptured, any malpresentation rectified (see " Difficult
parturition"), and delivery effected. After removal of the mem-
branes wash out the womb first with tepid water and then with a solu-
tion of 2 ounces of borax in half a gallon of water.

This injection may have to be repeated if a discharge sets in. The
same course may be pursued even after prolonged retention. If the
soft parts of the fetus have been absorbed and the bones only left,
these must be carefully sought for and removed, and subsequent daily
injections will be required for some time. In such cases, too, a course
of iron tonics (sulphate of iron, 2 drams daily) will be highly bene-
ficial in restoring health and ^'igor.

ABORTION.

Abortion is, strictly speaking, the expulsion of the impregnated
ovum at any period from the date of impregnation until the foal can
survive out of the womb. If the foal is advanced enough to live, it
is premature farturitton^ and in the mare this may occur as early as
the tenth month (three hundredth day).

The mare may abort by reason of almost any cause that very pro-
foundly disturbs the system. Hence very violent inflammations of
important internal organs (bowels, kidneys, bladder, lungs) may
induce abortion. Profuse diarrhea, whether occurring from the reck-
less use of purgatives, the consumption of irritants in the food, or a
simple indigestion, is an effective cause. No less so is acute indiges-
tion with evolution of gas in the intestines (bloating). The presence
of stone in the kidneys, uterus, bladder, or urethra may induce so
much sympathetic disorder in the womb as to induce abortion. In
exceptional cases wherein mares come in heat during gestation, service
H. Doc. 795, 5!)-2 11

132 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

by the stallion maj^ cause abortion. Blows or pressure on the abdo-
men, rapid driving or riding of the pregnant mare, especially if she
ir soft and out of condition from idleness, the brutal use of the spur
or whip, and the jolting and straining of travel by rail or boat are
prolific causes. Bleeding the pregnant mare, a painful surgical oper-
ation, and the throwing and constraint resorted to for an operation
are other causes. Traveling on heavy, muddy roads, slips and falls
on ice, and jumping must be added. The stimulation of the abdom-
inal organs by a full drink of iced water may precipitate a miscar-
riage, as may exjDosure to a cold rainstorm or a very cold night after a
warm day. Irritant poisons that act on the urinary or generative
organs, such as Spanish flies, rue, savin, tansy, cotton-root bark,
ergot of rye or other grasses, the smut of maize and other grain, and
various fungi in musty fodder are additional causes. Frosted food,
indigestible food, and, above all, green succulent vegetables in a
frozen state, have proved effective factors, and filthy, stagnant water
is dangerous. Low condition in the dam and plethora have in oppo-
site ways caused abortion, and hot, relaxing stables and lack of
exercise strongly conduce to it. The exhaustion of the sire by too
frequent service, entailing debility of the offspring and disease of
the fetus or of its envelopes, must be recognized as a further cause.

The symptoms vary mainly according as the abortion is early or
late in pregnancy. In the first month or two of pregnancy the mare
may miscarry without observable symptoms, and the fact only
appears by her coming in heat. If more closely observed a small clot
of blood may be found behind her, in which a careful search reveals
the rudiments of the foal. If the occurrence is somewhat later in
gestation, there will be some general disturbance, inappetence, neigh-
ing, and straining, and the small body of the fetus is expelled, en-
veloped in its membranes. Abortions during the later stages of
pregnancy are attended with greater constitutional disturbance, and
the process resembles normal parturition, with the aggravation that
more effort and straining is requisite to force the fetus through the
comparatively undilatable mouth of the womb. There is the swelling
of the vulva, with mucus or even bloody discharge; the abdomen
droops, the flanks fall in, the udder fills, the mare looks at her flanks,
paws with the fore feet and kicks with the hind, switches the tail,
moves around uneasily, lies down and rises, strains, and, as in natural
foaling, expels first mucus and blood, then the waters, and finally the
fetus. This may occupy an hour or two, or it may be prolonged for
a day or more, the symptoms subsiding for a time, only to reappear
Avith renewed energy. If there is malpresentation of the fetus it will
hinder progress until rectified, as in difficult parturition. Abortion
may also be followed by the same accidents, as flooding, retention of
the placenta, and leucorrhea.

ABORTION. 163

The most important object in an impending abortion is to recog-
nize it at as early a stage as possible, so that it may, if possible, be cut
short and prevented. Any general indefinable illness in a preg-
nant mare should lead to a close examination of the vulva as regards
swelling, vascularity of its mucous membrane, and profuse mucus
secretion, and, above all, any streak or staining of blood; also the
condition of the udder, if that is congested and swollen. Any such
indication, with colicky pains, staining, however little, and active
movement of the fetus or entire absence of movement, are suggestive
symptoms and should be duly counteracted.

The changes in the vulva and udder, with a soiled and bloody con-
dition of the tail, may suggest an abortion already accomplished, and
the examination with the hand in the vagina may detect the mouth
of the womb soft and dilatable and the interior of the organ slightl}''
filled with a bloody liquid.

Treatment should be preventive if possible, and would embrace the
avoidance of all causes mentioned, and particularly of such as may
seem to be particularly operative in the particular case. Where abor-
tions have already occurred in a stud, the especial cause in the matter
of food, water, exposure to injuries, overwork, lack of exercise, etc.,
may often be identified and removed. A most important point is to
avoid all causes of constipation, diarrhea, indigestion, bloating, vio-
lent purgatives, diuretics or other potent medicines, painful opera-
tions, and slippery roads, unless well frosted.

When abortion is imminent, the mare should be placed alone in a
roomy, dark, quiet stall, and have the straining checked by some
sedative. Laudanum is usually at hand and may be given in doses of
1 or 2 ounces, according to size, and repeated after two or three hours,
and even daily if necessary. Chloroform or chloral hydrate, 3 drams,
may be substituted if more convenient. These should be given in a
pint or quart of water, to avoid burning the mouth and throat. Or
Viburnum prunifolium^ 1 ounce, may be given and repeated if neces-
sary to prevent straining.

Wlien all measures fail and miscarriage proceeds, all that can be
done is to assist in the removal of the fetus and its membranes, as in
ordinary parturition. As in the case of retention of the fetus, it may
he necessary after delivery to employ antiseptic injections into the
'vomb to counteract putrid fermentation. This, however, is less
lequisite in the mare than in the cow, in which the prevalent con-
tagious abortion must be counteracted by the persistent local use of
antiseptics. After abortion a careful hygiene is demanded, especially
in the matter of pure air and easily digestible food. The mare should
not be served again for a month or longer, and in no case until after
all discharge from the vulva has ceased.

164 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

SYMPTOMS OF PARTURITION.

As the period of parturition approaches, the swelling of the udder
bespeaks the coming event, the engorgement in exceptional cases
extending forward on the lower surface of the abdomen and even into
the hind limbs. For about a week a serous fluid oozes from the teat
and concretes as a yellow, waxlike mass around its orifice. About
twenty- four hours before the birth this gives place to a whitish,
milky liquid, Avhich falls upon and mats the hairs on the inner sides
of the legs. Another symptom is enlargement of the vulva, with red-
ness of its lining membrane, and the escape of glairy mucus. The
belly droops, the flanks fall in, and the loins may even become de-
pressed. Finally the mare becomes uneasy, stops feeding, looks anx-
ious, whisks her tail, and may lie down and rise again. In many
mares this is not repeated, but the mare remains down ; violent con-
tractions of the abdominal muscles ensue; after two or three pains
the water bags appear and burst, followed by the fore feet of the foal,
with the nose between the knees, and by a few more throes the fetus
is expelled. In other cases the act is accomplished standing. The
whole act may not occupy more than five or ten minutes. This, to-
gether with the disposition of the mare to avoid observation, renders
the act one that is rarely seen by the attendants.

The navel string, which connects the foal to the membranes, is
ruptured when the fetus falls to the ground, or when the mare rises,
if she has been down, and the membranes are expelled a few minutes
later.

NATURAL PRESENTATION.

"WTien there is a single foal, the common and desirable presentation
is with the fore feet first, the nose between the knees, and with the
front of the hoofs and knees and the forehead directed upward toward
the anus, tail, and croup. (Plate X, fig. 1.) In this way the natural
curvature of the body of the fetus corresponds to the curve of the
womb and genital passages, and particular^ of the bony pelvis, and
the foal passes with much greater ease than if it were placed with its
back downward toward the udder. When there is a twin birth the
second foal usually comes with its hind feet first, and the backs of the
legs, the points of the hocks, and the tail and croup are turned
upward tow^ard the anus and tail of the mare. (Plate X, fig. 2.) In
this way, even with a posterior presentation, the curvature of the
body of the foal still corresponds to that of the passages, and its
expulsion may be quite as easy as in anterior presentation. Any
presentation aside from these two may be said to be abnormal and
will be considered under " Difficult parturition."

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 165

DIFFICULT PARTURITION.

With natural presentation this is a rare occurrence. The great
length of the fore limbs and face entail, in the anterior presentation,
the formation of a long cone, which dilates and glides through the
passages with comparative ease. Even with the hind feet first a simi-
lar conical form is presented, and the process is rendered easy and
quick. Difficulty and danger arise mainly from the act being brought
on prematurely before the passages are sufficiently dilated, from nar-
rowing of the pelvic bones or other mechanical obstruction in the pas-
sages, from monstrous distortions or duplications in the fetus, or from
the turning back of one of the members so that the elongated conical
or wedge-shaped outline is done away with. But prompt as is the
normal parturition in the mare, difficult and delayed parturitions are
surrounded b}^ special dangers and require unusual precautions and
skill. From the proclivity of the mare to unhealthy inflammations of
the peritoneum and other abdominal organs, penetrating wounds of
the womb or vagina are liable to proA^e fatal. The contractions of the
womb and abdominal walls are so powerful as to exhaust and benumb
the arm of the assistant, and to endanger penetrating wounds of the
genital organs. By reason of the looser connection of the fetal mem-
branes with the womb, as compared with those of ruminants, the
violent throes early detach these membranes throughout their whole
extent, and the foal, being thus separated fi*om the mother and thrown
on its own resources, dies at an early stage of any protracted parturi-
tion. The foal rarely survives four hours after the onset of partu-
rient throes. From the great length of the limbs and neck of the foal
it is extremely difficult to secure and bring up limb or head which has
been turned back when it should have been presented. When assist-
ance must be rendered the operator should don a thick woolen under-
shirt with the sleeves cut out at the shoulders. This protects the body
and leaves the whole arm free for manipulation. Before inserting the
arm it should be smeared with lard. This protects the skin against
septic infection, and favors the introduction of the hand and arm.
The hand should be inserted with the thumb and fingers drawn to-
gether like a cone. Whether standing or lying, the mare should be
turned with head downhill and hind parts raised as much as possible.
The contents of the abdomen gravitating forward leave much more
room for manipulation. Whatever part of the foal is presented
(head, foot) should be secured with a cord and running noose before
it is pushed back to search for the other missing f)arts. Even if a
missing part is reached no attempt should be made to bring it up
during a labor pain. Pinching the back will sometimes check the
pains and allow the operator to secure and bring up the missing mem-
ber. In intractable cases a large dose of chloral hydrate (1 ounce in

166 DISEASES OP THE HORSE.

a quart of water) or the inhalation of chloroform and air (equal
I^roportions) to insensibility may secure a respite, during which the
missing members may be replaced. If the v^aters have been dis-
charged and the mucus dried up, the genital passages and body of the
fetus should be lubricated with lard or oil before any attempt at ex-
traction is made. When the missing member has been brought up
into position and presentation has been rendered natural, traction on
the fetus must be made only during a labor pain. If a mare is in-
clined to kick, it may be necessary to apply hobbles to protect the
operator.

PREMATURE LABOR PAINS.

These may be brought on by any violent exertion, use under the
saddle, or in heavy draft, or in rapid paces, or in travel by rail or sea,
blows, kicks, crushing by other animals in a doorway or gate. Ex-
cessive action of purgative or diuretic agents, or of agents that
irritate the bowels or kidneys, like arsenic, jjaris green, all caustic
salts and acids, and acrid and narcotico-acrid vegetables, is equally
injurious. Finally, the ingestion of agents that stimulate the action
of the gravid womb (ergot of rye or of other grasses, smut, various
fungi of fodders, rue, savin, cotton root, etc.) may bring on labor
pains prematurely.

Besides the knowledge that parturition is not yet due, there will be
less enlargement, redness, and swelling of the vulva, less mucous dis-
charge, less filling of the udder, and less appearances of wax and
probably none of milk from the ends of the teats. The oiled hand
introduced into the vulva will not enter with the ease usual at
full term, and the neck of the womb will be felt not only closed, but
with its projecting papillae, through which it is perforated, not yet
flattened down and effaced, as at full term. The symptoms are in-
deed those of threatened abortion, but at such an advanced stage of
gestation as is compatible with the survival of the offspring.

Treatment. — The treatment consists in the separation of the mare
from all other animals in a quiet, dark, secluded place, and the free
use of antispasmodics and anodynes. Opium in dram doses every
two hours, or laudanum in ounce doses at similar intervals, will often
suffice. When the more urgent symptoms have subsided these 'doses
may be repeated thrice a day till all excitement passes off or until
the passages have become relaxed and prepared for parturition.
Viburmmi j^runifolmm, in ounce doses, may be added if necessary.
Should parturition become inevitable, it may be favored and any
necessary assistance furnished.

DIFFICULT PARTURITION FROM NARROW PELVIS.

A disproportion between the fetus got by a large stallion and the
pelvis of a small dam is a serious obstacle to parturition, sometimes

T>1.A.TE IX.

Scfianrk'.s- Tniction Cor-d.

\

i

i

\ \

O'

d fe fe^ i

m

I I-

y

Haines.ilel.nt'tei- Flemms j

INSTjRLTMEXTS used IN" DIFFICrXT LABOR.

JUS BIEN&CO.I

Vcrlebro Sncrtil prcsen lotion

Lnrribo Sacral prtxe/Ualion

X O n MA I . PI? E S EXTATIOXS

V^T.ATK XII.

Trrmsvprse presenlatioTL -Ippcr^ vwt

Sterno-rthrlinynnnt f/r-escntation -Herni rijid J^ert c/n/ftged .

!■ leming.

JULIUS Bl£N Sl CO '

AH XOl^ M AI. V\\ K S K XTATTOXS.

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGAlSrS. 167

seen in the mare. This is not the rule, however, as the foal up to
birth usually accommodates itself to the size of the dam, as illustrated
in the successful crossing of Percheron stallions on mustang mares.
If the disproportion is too great the only resort is embryotomy.

FRACTURED HIP BONES.

More commonly the obstruction comes from distortion and narrow-
ing of the pelvis as the result of fractures. (Plate XV, fig. 2.)
Fractures at any point of the lateral wall or floor of the pelvis are
repaired with the formation of an extensive bony deposit bulging
into the passage of the pelvis. The displacement of the ends of the
'broken bone is another cause of constriction, and between the two con-
ditions the passage of the fetus may be rendered impossible without
embryotomj^ Fracture of the sacrum (the continuation of the back-
bone forming the croup) leads to the depression of the posterior part
of that bone in the roof of the pelvis and the narrowing of the pas-
sage from above downward by a bony ridge presenting its sharp edge
forward.

In all cases in which there has been injury to the bones of the pelvis
the obvious precaution is to withhold the mare from breeding and to
use her for work only.

If a mare with a pelvis thus narrowed has got in foal inadvertently,
abortion may be induced in the early months of gestation by slowly
introducing the oiled finger through the neck of the womb and fol-
lowing this by the other fingers until the whole hand has been intro-
duced. Then the water bags may be broken, and with the escape of
the liquid the womb will contract on the solid fetus and labor pains
will ensue. The fetus being small will pass easily.

TUMORS IN THE VAGINA AND PELVIS.

Tumors of various kinds may form in the vagina or elsewhere
within the pelvis, and when large enough will obstruct or prevent the
passage of the fetus. Gray mares, which are so subject to black pig-
ment tumors {melanosis) on the tail, anus, and vulva, are the most
likely to suffer from this. Still more rarely the wall of the vagina
becomes relaxed, and being pressed by a mass of intestines Avill pro-
trude through the lips of the vulva as a hernial sac, containing a part
of the bowels. Where a tumor is small it may only retard and not
absolutely prevent parturition. A hernial protrusion of the wall of
the vagina may be pressed back and emptied, so that the body of the
fetus engaging in the passage may find no further obstacle. "N'^lien
a tumor is too large to allow delivery the only resort is to remove it,
but before proceeding it must be clearly made out that the obstruc-
tion is a mass of diseased tissue, and not a sac containing intestines.

168 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

If the tumor hangs by a neck it can usually be most safely removed
by the ecraseur, the chain being passed around the pedicel and gradu-
ally tightened until that is torn through.

HERNIA OF THE WOMB.

The rupture of the musculo-fibrous floor of the belly and the escape
of the gravid womb into a sac formed by the peritoneum and skin
hanging toward the ground, is described by all veterinary obstetri-
cians, yet it is very rarely seen in the mare. The form of the fetus
can be felt through the walls of the sac, so that it is easy to recognize
the condition. Its cause is usually external violence, though it may
start from an umbilical hernia. AA^ien the period of parturition
arrives, the first effort should be to return the fetus within the proper
abdominal cavity, and this can sometimes be accomplished with the
aid of a stout blanket gradually tightened around the belly. This
failing, the mare may be placed on her side or back and gravitation
brought to the aid of manipulation in securing the return. Even
after the hernia has been reduced the relaxed state of the womb and
abdominal walls may serve to hinder parturition, in which case the
oiled hand must be introduced through the vagina, the fetus brought
into position, and traction coincident with the labor pains employed
to secure delivery.

TWISTING OF THE NECK OF THE WOMB.

This condition is very uncommon in the mare, though occasionally
seen in the cow, owing to the greater laxity of the broad ligaments of
the womb in that animal. It consists in a revolution of the womb on
its own axis, so that its right or left side will be turned upward
(quarter revolution), or the lower surface may be turned upward and
the upper surface downward (half revolution). The effect is to
throw the narrow neck of the womb into a series of spiral folds, turn-
ing in the direction in which the womb has revolved, closing the neck
and rendering distention and dilatation impossible.

The period and pains of parturition arrive, but in spite of contin-
ued efforts no progress is made, neither water bags nor liquids appear-
ing. The oiled hand introduced into the closed neck of the womb
will readily detect the spiral direction of the folds on its inner
surface.

The method of relief which I have successfully adopted in the cow
may be equally happy in the mare. The dam is placed (with her
head uphill) on her right side if the upper folds of the spiral turn
toward the right, and on her left side if they turn toward the left,
and the oiled hand is introduced through the neck of the womb and a
limb or other part of the body of the fetus is seized and pressed
against the wall of the womb, while two or three assistants turn the

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 169

animal over on lier back toward the other side. The object is to keep
the womb stationary while the animal is rolling. If success attends
the effort, the constriction around the arm is suddenly relaxed, the
spiral folds are effaced, and the water bags and fetus press forward
into the passage. If the first attempt does not succeed it may be
repeated again and again until success crowns the effort. Among my
occasional causes of failure have been the prior death and decompo-
sition of the fetus, Vvith the extrication of gas and overdistention of
the womb, and the supervention of inflammation and inflammatory
exudation around the neck of the womb, which hinders untwisting.
The first of these conditions occurs early in the horse from the detach-
ment of the fetal membranes from the wall of the womb, and as the
mare is more subject to fatal peritonitis than the cow, it may be con-
cluded that both these sources of failure are more probable in the
equine subject.

AMien the case is intractable, though the hand may be easily intro-
duced, the instrument shown in Plate IX, figure T, may be used.
Each hole at the small end of the instrument has passed through it a
stout cord with a running noose, to be passed around two feet or
other portion of the fetus which it may be possible to reach. The
cords are then drawn tight and fixed around the handle of the instru
ment ; then, by using the cross handle as a lever, the fetus and womb
may be rotated in a direction opposite to that causing the obstruction.
During this process the hand must be introduced to feel when the
twist has been undone. This method may be supplemented, if neces-
sary, by rolling the mare as described above.

EFFUSION OF BLOOD IN THE VAGINAL W^ALLS.

This is common as a result of difficult parturition, but it may occur
from local injury before that act, and may seriously interfere with it.
This condition is easily recognized by the soft, doughy swelling so
characteristic of blood clots, and by the dark-red color of the mucous
membrane. I have laid open such swellings with the knife as late as
ten days before parturition, evacuated the clots, and dressed the
wound daily with an astringent lotion (sulphate of zinc 1 dram,
carbolic acid 1 dram, water 1 quart). A similar resort might be had,
if necessary, during parturition.

CALCULUS (stone) AND TUMOR IN THE BLADDER.

The pressure upon the bladder containing a stone or a tumor may
prove so painful that the mare will voluntarily suppress the labor
pains. Examination of the bladder with the finger introduced
through the urethra will detect the offending agent. A stone should
be extracted with forceps. (See " Lithotomy.") The large papillary

170 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

tumors which I have met with in the mare's bladder have been inva-
riably delicate in texture and could be removed piecemeal by forceps.
Fortunately, mares affected in this way rarely breed.

IMPACTION or THE RECTUM WITH FECES;

In some animals, with more or less paralysis or weakness of the tail
and rectum, the rectum may become so impacted with solid feces that
the mare is unable to discharge them, and the accumulation both by
reason of the mechanical obstruction and the pain caused by pressure
upon it will impel the animal to cut short all labor pains. The
rounded swelling surrounding the anus will at once suggest the con-
dition, when the obstruction may be removed by the well-oiled or
well-soaped hand.

SPASM or THE NECK OF THE WOMB.

This occurs in the mare of specially excitable temperament, or
under particular causes of irritation, local or general. Labor pains,
though continuing for some time, produce no dilatation of the neck of
the womb, which will be found firmly closed so as to admit but one or
two fingers, and this, although the projection at the mouth of the
womb may have been entirely effaced, so that a simple round opening
is left, with rigid margins.

Treatment. — The simplest treatment consists in smearing this part
with solid extract of belladonna, and after an interval inserting the
hand with fingers and thumb drawn into the form of a cone, ruptur-
ing the membranes and bringing the fetus into position for extrac-
tion, as advised under " Prolonged retention of the fetus." Another
mode is to insert through the neck of the womb an ovoid caoutchouc
bag, empty, and furnished with an elastic tube 12 feet long. Carry
the free end of this tube upward to a height of 8, 10, or 12 feet, insert
a filler into it, and proceed to distend the bag with tepid or warm
water.

FIBROUS BANDS CONSTRICTING OR CROSSING THE NECK OF THE WOMB.

These, occurring as the result of disease, have been several times
observed in the mare. They may exist in the cavity of the abdomen
and compress and obstruct the neck of the womb, or they may extend
from side to side of the vagina across and just behind the neck of the
womb. In the latter position they may be felt and quickly remedied
by cutting them across. In the abdomen they can only be reached by
incision, and two alternatives are presented: (1) To perform embry-
otomy and extract the fetus piecemeal and (2) to make an incision
into the abdomen and extract by the Ca?sarean operation, or simply to
cut the constricting band and attempt delivery by the usual channel.

DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 171

FIBROUS CONSTRICTION OF VAGINA OR VULVA.

This is probably always the result of direct mechanical injury and
the formation of rigid cicatrices which fail to dilate with the re-
mainder of the passages at the approach of parturition. The pre-
sentation of the fetus in the natural way and the occurrence of suc-
cessive and active labor pains without any favorable result will direct
attention to the rigid and unyielding cicatrices which maj'^ be incised
at one, two, or more points to a depth of half an inch or more, after
which the natural expulsive efforts will usually prove effective. The
resulting wounds may be washed frequently with a solution of 1 part
of carbolic acid to 50 parts of water, or of 1 j)art of mercuric chloride
to 1,000 parts of water.

FETUS ADHERENT TO THE AVALLS OF THE WOMB.

In inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the cavity of the
womb and imj^licating the fetal membranes, the resulting embryonic
tissue sometimes establishes a medium of direct continuity between
the womb and fetal membranes ; the blood vessels of the one commu-
nicate freely with those of the other and the fibers of the one are
prolonged into the other. This causes retention of the membranes
after birth, and a special risk of bleeding from the womb, and of
septic poisoning. In exceptional cases the adhesion is more extensive
and binds a portion of the body of the foal firmly to the womb. In
such cases it has repeatedly been found impossible to extract the
foal until such adhesions were broken down. If they can be reached
with the hand and recognized, they may be torn through with the
fingers or with a blunt hook, after which delivery may be attempted
with hope of success.

EXCESSIVE SIZE OF THE FETUS.

It would seem that a small mare may usually be safely bred to a
large stallion, yet this is not always the case, and when the small size
is an individual rather than a racial characteristic or the result of
being very young, the rule can not be expected to hold. There is
always great danger in breeding the young, small, and undeveloped
female, and the dwarfed representative of a larger breed, as the off-
spring tend to partake of the large race characteristics and to show
them even prior to birth. WTien impregnation has occurred in the
very young or in the dwarfed female, there are two alternatives — to
induce abortion or to wait until there are attempts at parturition and
to extract by embryotomy if impracticable otherwise.

CONSTRICTION OF A MEMBER BY THE NAVEL STRING.

In man and animals alike the winding of the umbilical cord around
a member of the fetus sometimes leads to the amputation of the

172 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

latter. It is also known to get Avound around the neck or a limb at
birth, but in the mare this does not seriously impede parturition, as
the loosely attached membranes are easily separated from the womb
and no strangulation or retarding occurs. The foal may, however,
die from the cessation of the placental circulation unless it is speedily
delivered.

WATER IN THE HEAD (hYDROCEPHALTTS) OF THE FOAL.

This consists in the excessive accumulation of liquid in the ventricles
of the brain so that the cranial cavity is enlarged and constitutes a
great projecting rounded mass occupying the space from the eyes
ujDward. (See Plate XV, fig. 3.) With an anterior presentation
(fore feet and nose) this presents an insuperable obstacle to progress,
as the diseased cranium is too large to enter the pelvis at the same
time with the forearms. With a posterior presentation (hind feet)
all goes well until the body and shoulders have passed out, when
l^rogress is suddenly arrested by the great bulk of the head. In
the first case, the oiled hand introduced along the face detects the
enormous size of the head, wdiich may be diminished by puncturing
it with a knife or trocar and cannula in the median line, evacuating
the water and pressing in the thin bony walls. With a posterior
presentation, the same course must be followed; the hand jjassed
along the neck will detect the cranial swelling, w^hich may be punc-
tured w4th a knife or trocar. Oftentimes with an anterior presen-
tation the great size of the head leads to its displacement backward,
and thus the fore limbs alone engage in the passages. Here the first
object is to seek and bring up the missing head, and then puncture it
as above suggested.

DROPSY OF THE ABDOMEN IN THE FOAL, OR ASCITES.

The accumulation of liquid in the abdominal cavity of the fetus is
less frequent, but when present it may arrest parturition as com-
pletely as will hydrocephalus. With an anterior presentation the
foal may pass as far as the shoulders, but behind this all efforts fail
to secure a further advance. With a posterior presentation the hind
legs as far as the thighs may be expelled, but at this point all progress
ceases. In either case the oiled hand, passed inward by the side of
the foal, will detect the enormous distention of the abdomen and its
soft, fluctuating contents. The only course is to puncture the cavity
and evacuate the liquid. With the anterior presentation this may
be done with a long trocar and cannula, introduced through the chest
and diaphragm; or with a knife an incision may be made between
the first two ribs and the lungs and heart cut or torn out, when the
diaphragm will be felt projecting strongly forward, and may be
easily punctured. Should there not be room to introduce the hand

DIFFICULT PARTUBITION. 173

through the chest, the oiled hand may be passed along beneath the
breast bone and the abdomen punctured. With a posterior presenta-
tion the abdomen must be punctured in the same way, the hand, armed
with a knife protected in its palm, being passed along the side of the
flank or between the hind limbs. It should be added that moderate
dropsy of the abdomen is not incompatible with natural delivery, the
liquid being at first crowded back into the portion of the belly still
engaged in the womb, and passing slowly from that into the ad-
vanced portion as soon as that has cleared the narrow passage of the
pelvis and passed out where it can expand.

GENERAL DROPSY OF THE FETUS.

In this case the tissues generally are distended with liquid, and the
skin is found at all points tense and rounded, and pitting on pressure
with the fingers. In some such cases delivery may be effect-ed after
the skin has been punctured at narrow intervals to allow the escape
of the fluid and then liberally smeared with fresh lard. More com-
monly, however, it can not be reached at all points to be so punctured
nor sufficiently reduced to be extracted whole, and resort must be had
to embryotomy.

SWELLING or THE FETUS WITH GAS, OR EMPHTSEMA.

This has been described as occurring in a living fetus, but I have
only met with it in the dead and decomposing foal after futile
efforts have been made for several days to effect delivery. These
cases are very difficult ones, as the foal is inflated to such an extent
that it is impossible to advance it into the passages, and the skin of
the fetus and the walls of the womb and vagina have become so dry
that it is impracticable to cause the one to glide on the other. The
hair comes off any part that may be seized, and the case is rendered
the more offensive and dangerous by the very fetid liquids and gases.
The only resort is embryotomy, by which I have succeeded in saving
a valuable mare that had carried a colt in this condition for four
days.

CONTRACTIONS OF MUSCLES.

The foal is not always developed symmetrically, but certain groups
of muscles are liable to remain short, or to shorten because of per-
sistent spasmodic contraction, so that even the bones becojne distorted
and twisted. This is most common in the neck. The bones of this
part and even of the face are drawn to one side and shortened, the
head being held firmly to the flank and the jaws being twisted to the
right or left. In other cases the flexor muscles of the fore limbs are
contracted so that these members are strongly bent at the knee. In
neither of these cases can the distorted part be extended and straight-

174 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

ened, so that body or limbs must necessarily present double, and
natural delivery is rendered impossible. The bent neck may some-
times be straightened after the muscles have been cut on the side to
which it is turned, and the bent limbs after the tendons on the back
of the shank bone have been cut across. Failing to accomplish this,
the next resort is embryotomy.

TUMORS OF THE FETUS, OR INCLOSED OVUM.

Tumors or diseased growths may form on any part of the foal,
internal or external, and by their size impede or hinder parturition.
In some cases what appears as a tumor is an imprisoned and undevel-
oped ovum, which has grafted itself on the fetus. These are usually
sacculated, and may contain skin, hair, muscle, bone, and other natural
tissues. The only course to be pursued in- such cases is to excise the
tumor, or, if this is not feasible, to perform embryotomy.

MONSTROSITIES.

Monstrosity in the foal is an occasional cause of difficult parturi-
tion, especially such monsters as show excessive development of some
part of the body, a displacement or distortion of parts, or a redun-
dancy of parts, as in double monsters. Monsters may be divided
into — •

(1) Monsters with absence of parts — absence of head, limb, or
other organ.

(2) Monsters with some part abnormally small — dwarfed head,
limb, trunk, etc.

(3) Monsters through unnatural division of parts — cleft head,
trunk, limbs, etc.

(4) Monsters through absence of natural divisions — absence of
mouth, nose, eyes, anus, confluent digits, etc.

(5) Monsters through fusion of parts — one central eye, one nasal
opening, etc.

(6) Monsters through abnormal position or form of parts — curved
spine, face, limb, etc.

(7) Monsters through excess of formation — enormous head, super-
numerary digits, etc.

(8) Monsters through imperfect differentiation of sexual organs —
hermaphrodites.

(9) Double monsters — double-headed, double-bodied, extra limbs,
etc.

Causes. — The causes of monstrosities appear to be very varied.
Some monstrosities, like extra digits, absence of horns or tail, etc.,
run in families and are produced almost as certainly as color or form.
Others are associated with too close breeding, the powers of symmet-

DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 175

rical development being interfered with, just as in other cases a sex-
ual incompatibility is developed, near relatives failing to breed with
each other. Mere arrest of development of a part may arise from
accidental disease of the embryo ; hence vital organs are left out, or
portions of organs, like the dividing walls of the heart, are omitted.
Sometimes an older fetus is inclosed in the body of another, each
having started independently from a separate ovum, but the one
having become embedded in the semifluid mass of the other and hav-
ing develoj)ed there simultaneously with it, but not so largeW nor
perfectly. In man}' cases of redundance of parts, the extra part or
member has manifestly developed from the same ovum and nutrient
center with the normal member to which it remains adherent, just as
a new tail will grow out in a newt when the former has been cut off.
In the early embryo, with its great powers of development, this fac-
tor can operate to far greater purpose than in the adult animal. Its
influence is seen in the fact pointed out by St. Hilaire that such
redundant parts are nearly always connected with the corresponding
portions in the normal fetus. Thus superfluous legs or digits are
attached to the normal ones, double heads or tails are connected to a
common neck or rump, and double bodies are attached to each other
by corresponding points, navel to navel, breast to breast, back to
back. All this suggests the development of extra parts from the
same primary layer of the impregnated and developing ovum. The
effect of disturbing conditions in giving such wrong directions to
the developmental forces is well shown in the experiments of St.
Hilaire and Valentine in varnishing, shaldng, and otherwise break-
ing up the natural connections in eggs, and thereby determining the
formation of monstrosities at will. So, in the mammal, blows and
other injuries that detach the fetal membranes from the walls of the
womb or that modify their circulation by inducing inflammation are
at times followed b}' the develojDment of a monster. The excitement,
mental and physical, attendant on fright occasionally acts in a simi-
lar way, acting probably through the same channels.

The monstrous forms likely to interfere with parturition are such
as, from contracted or twisted limbs or spine, must be presented
double ; where supernumerary limbs, head, or body must approach the
passages with the natural ones; where a head or other member has
attained to an unnatural size ; where the body of one fetus has become
inclosed in or attached to another, etc.

Extraction is sometimes possible by straightening the members and
securing such a presentation as will reduce the presenting mass to its
smallest and most wedgelike dimensions. To effect this it may be
needful to cut the flexor tendons of bent limbs or the muscles on the
side of a twisted neck or body ; and one or more of the manipulations
necessary to secure and bring up a missing member may be required.

176 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

In most cases of monstrosity b}^ excess, however, it is needful to
remove the superfluous parts, in vrhich case the general principles
employed for embryotomy must be followed. The Csesarean section,
by which the fetus is extracted through an incision in the walls of
the abdomen and womb, is inadmissible, as it practically entails the
sacrifice of the mare, which should never be done for the sake of a
monster. (See " Embryotomy," p. 182.)

ENTRANCE OF TWINS INTO THE PASSAGE AT ONCE.

Twins are rare in the mare, and still more rare is the impaction of
both at once into the pelvis. The condition would be easily recog-
nized by the fact that two fore limbs and two hind would occupy the
passage at once, the front of the hoofs of the fore feet being turned
upward and those of the hind feet downward. If both belonged to
one foal they would be turned in the same direction. Once recog-
nized, the condition is easily remediad by passing a rope with a run-
ning noose round each foot of the foal that is farthest advanced or
that promises to be most easily extracted, and to push the members of
the other fetus back into the depth of the womb. As soon as the one
fetus is fully engaged in the passage it will hold its place and its
delivery will proceed in the natural way.

TABLE OF AVRONG PRESENTATIONS.

(Incompletely extended. Flexor tendons short-
ened.
Crossed over the neck.
Bent back at the knee.
Bent back from the shoulder.
I Bent downward on the neck.
Head and neck turned back beneath the breast.
Turned to one side.
Turned upward and backward on the back.

Hind limbs Hind feet engaged in the pelvis.

Transverse Back of foal to side of pelvis.

Inverted Back of foal to floor of pelvis.

Tj. •, T , (Bent on itself at the hock.

Hmd limbs JBentatthehip.

Transverse Back of foal to side of pelvis.

Inverted . - Back of foal to floor of pelvis.

™ . .- i ■< 1 (With back and loins presented.

Transverse presentation of body . . .j^^j^j^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ belly presented.

FORE LIMBS INCOMPLETELY EXTENDED.

In cases of this kind, not only are the back tendons behind the
knee and shank bone unduly short, but the sinew extending from the
front of the shoulder blade over the front of the elbow and down to
the head of the shank bone is also shortened. The result is that the
fore limb is bent at the knee and the elbow is also rigidly bent. The
condition obstructs parturition by the feet becoming pressed against
the floor of the pelvis or by the elbow pressing on its anterior brim.
Belief is to be obtained by forcible extension. A rope with a running

Anterior pres-
entations.

Posterior pres-
entations.

Head.

PLATE XUl.

. x=\^~7-/7,'7 ' m^-ynnn 1 7 y

'Rii/jh and croup presentatioriy.

AiiU-i-iij/ /j/ci>r/il<ttiun . J find -b'mh <f('\-rriiinn

AB X O R M A J^ P R E S K X TAT lO X S

PLATE XrV'.

^,i^\

AnTrrior prestntnfion Hear! r/trrwd on side

Arvt/Twr presejit/xlion. He<id turned, on back

.tus eiEN & Co r

AB XO R MAT. PR E S I :XTA IIOXS .

%

p \ 4^

^^'v, X

^v

DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 177

noose is passed around each fetlock and a repeller (see Plate IX)
planted in the breast is pressed in a direction upward and backward
while active traction is made on the ropes. If the feet are not thereby
raised from the floor of the pelvis the palm of the hand may be
placed beneath them to protect the mucous membrane until they have
advanced sufficiently to obviate this danger. In the absence of a
repeller, a smooth rounded fork handle may be employed. If the
shortening is too great to allow of the extension of the limbs in this .
way, the tense tendons may be cut across behind the shank bone and
in front of the elbow, and the limb will be easily straightened out.
This is most easily done with an embryotomy knife furnished with a
ring for the middle finger, so that the blade may be protected in the
palm of the hand. (See Plate XV, fig. 4.)

ONE FORE LIMB CROSSED OVER THE BACK OF THE NECK.

With the long fore limbs of the foal this readily occurs, and the
resulting increase in thickness, both at the head and shoulder, offers
a serious obstacle to progress. (See Plate XI, fig. 2.) The hand
introduced into the passage detects the head and one fore foot, and
farther back on the same side of the head the second foot, from which
the limb may be traced obliquely across the back of the neck.

If parturition continues to make progress the displaced foot may
bruise and lacerate the vagina. By seizing the limb above the fetlock
it may be easily pushed over the head to the proper side, when partu-
rition will proceed normally.

TORE LIMB BENT AT THE KNEE.

The nose and one fore foot present, and on examination the knee of
the missing fore limb is found farther back. (Plate XI, fig. 1.) First
place a noose each on the presenting pastern and lower jaw, and push
back the body of the fetus with a repeller, while the operator seizing
the shank of the bent limb extends it so as to press back the knee and
bring forward the fetlock and foot. As progress is made little by
little the hand is slid down from the region of the knee to the fetlock,
and finally that is secured and brought up into the passage, when
parturition will proceed without hindrance. If both fore limbs are
bent back the head must be noosed and the limbs brought up as above,
one after the other. It is usually best to employ the left hand for the
right fore limb, and the right hand for the left fore limb.

FORE LIMB TURNED BACK FROM THE SHOULDER.

In this case, on exploration by the side of the head and presenting

limb, the shoulder only can be reached at first. (Plate XI, fig. 4.)

By noosing the head and presenting fore limb, these may be drawn

forward into the pelvis, and the oiled hand being carried along the

H. Doc. 795, 59-2 12

178 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

shoulder in the direction of the missing limb is enabled to reach and
seize the forearm just below the elbow. The body is now pushed
back by the assistants pressing on the head and presenting limb or
on a repeller planted in the breast until the knee can be brought up
into the pelvis, after which the procedure is the same as described in
the last paragraph.

HEAD BENT DOWN BETWEEN THE FORE LIMBS.

This may be so that the poll or naj)e of the neck, with the ears, can
be felt far back between the fore limbs, or so that only the upper
border of the neck can be reached, head and neck being bent back
beneath the body. With the head only bent on the neck, noose the
two |)resenting limbs, then introduce the hand between them until
the nose can be seized in the palm of the hand. Next have the assist-
ants push back the presenting limbs, while the nose is strongly lifted
upward over the brim of the i^elvis. This accomplished, it assumes
the natural position and parturition is easy.

When both head and neck are bent downward it may be impossible
to reach the nose. If, however, the labor has only commenced, the
limbs may be drawn upon until the operator can reach the ear, by
dragging on w^hich the head may be so far advanced that the fingers
may reach the orbit; traction upon this while the limbs are being
jDUshed back may bring the head up so that it bends on the neck only,
and the further procedure will be as described in the last paragraph.

If the labor has been long in progress and the fetus is jammed into
the pelvis, the womb emptied of the waters and firmly contracted on
its solid contents, the case is incomparably more difficult. The mare
may be chloroformed and turned on her back with hind parts ele-
vated, and the womb may be injected with sweet oil. Then, if the
ear can be reached, the correction of the malpresentation may be at-
tempted as above described. Should this fail, one or more sharp
hooks may be inserted in the neck as near the head as can be reached,
and ropes attached to these may be dragged on, while the body of the
foal is pushed back by the fore limbs or by a repeller. Such repul-
sion should be made in a direction obliquely upward toward the loins
of the mother, so as to rotate the fetus in such a way as to bring the
head up. As this is accomplished a hold should be secured nearer
and nearer to the nose, with hand or hook, until the head can be
straightened out on the neck.

All means failing, it becomes necessary to remove the fore limbs
(embryotomy) so as to make more space for bringing up the head.
If, even then, this can not be accomplished, it may be possible to
push the body backward and upward with the repeller until the hind
limbs are brought to the passage, when they may be noosed and
delivery effected with the posterior presentation.

DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 179

HEAD TURNED BACK ON THE SHOULDER.

In this case the fore feet present, and the oiled hand passed along
the forearms in search of the missing head finds the side of the neck
turned to one side, the head being perhaps entirely out of reach.
(Plate XIV, fig. 1.) To bring forward the head it may be desirable
to lay the mare on the opposite side to that to which the head is
turned, and even to give chloroform or ether. Then the feet being
noosed, the body of the fetus is pushed by the hand or repeller for-
ward and to the side opposite to that occupied by the head until the
head comes within reach, near the entrance of the pelvis. If such
displacement of the fetus is difficult, it may be facilitated by a free
use of oil or lard. AVhen the nose can be seized it can be brought into
the passage, as when the head is turned down. If it can not be
reached, the orbit may be availed of to draw the head forward until
the nose can be seized or the lower jaw noosed. In very difficult
cases a rope may be passed around the neck by the hand or with the
aid of a curved carrier (Plate IX), and traction may be made upon
this while the body is being rotated to the other side. In the same
way in bad cases a hook may be fixed in the orbit or even between
the bones of the lower jaw to assist in bringing the head up into
position. Should all fail, the amputation of the fore limbs may be
resorted to as advised under the last heading.

HEAD TURNED UPWARD ON THE BACK.

This differs from the last malpresentation only in the direction of
the head, which has to be sought above rather than at one side, and
is to be secured and brought forward in a similar manner. (Plate
XIV, fig. 2.) If a rope can be passed around the neck it will prove
most effectual, as it naturally slides nearer to the head as the neck is
straightened and ends by bringing the head within easy reach.

HIND FEET ENGAGED IN THE PELVIS.

In this case fore limbs and head present naturally, but the hind
limbs bent forward from the hip and the loins arched allow the hind
feet also to enter the passages, and the further labor advances the
more firmly does the body of the foal become wedged into the pelvis.
(Plate XIII, fig. 2.) The condition is to be recognized by introduc-
ing the oiled hand along the belly of the fetus, when the hind feet
will be felt advancing. An attempt should at once be made to push
them back, one after the other, over the brim of the pelvis. Failing
in this, the mare may be turned on her back, head downhill, and the
attempt renewed. If it is possible to introduce a straight rope car-
rier, a noose passed through this may be put on the fetlock and the
repulsion thereby made more effective. In case of continued failure

180 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

the anterior presenting part of the body may be skinned and cut off
as far back toward the pelvis as possible (see " Embryotomy ") ; then
nooses are placed on the hind fetlocks and traction is made upon these
while the quarters are pushed back into the womb. Then the re-
maining portion is brought away by the posterior presentation.

ANTERIOR PRESENTATION W^TH BACK TURNED TO ONE SIDE.

The greatest diameter of the axis of the foal, like that of the pelvic
passages, is from above downward, and when the fetus enters the
pelvis with this greatest diameter engaged transversely or in the nar-
row diameter of the pelvis, parturition is rendered difficult or impos-
sible. In such a case the pasterns and head may be noosed, and the
passages and engaged portion of the foal freely lubricated with lard,
the limbs may be crossed over each other and the head, and a move-
ment of rotation effected in the fetus until its face and back are
turned up toward the croup of the mother ; then parturition becomes
natural.

BACK or THE FOAL TURNED TO THE FLOOR OF THE PELVIS.

In a roomy mare this is not an insuperable obstacle to parturi-
tion, yet it may seriously impede it, by reason of the curvature of the
body of the foal being opposite to that of the passages, and the head
and withers being liable to arrest against the border of the pelvis.
Lubrication of the passage with lard and traction of the limbs and
head will usually suffice with or without the turning of the mare on
her back.

In obstinate cases two other resorts are open: First, to turn the
foal, pushing back the fore parts and bringing up the hind so as to
make a posterior presentation, and, second, the amputation of the fore
limbs, after which extraction will usually be easy.

HIND PRESENTATION W^ITH LEG BENT AT HOCK.

In this form the quarters of the foal with the hind legs bent up
beneath them present, but can not advance through the pelvis by
reason of their bulk. (Plate XI, fig. 3.) The oiled hand introduced
can recognize the outline of the buttocks, with the tail and anus in
the center and the sharp points of the hocks beneath. First pass a
rope around each limb at the hock, then with hand or repeller push
the buttocks backward and upward, until the feet can be brought up
into the passages. The great length of the shank and i^astern in the
foal is a serious obstacle to this, and in all cases the foot should be
protected in the palm of the hand while being brought up over the
brim of the pelvis. Otherwise the womb may be torn. "When the
pains are too violent and constant to allow effective manipulation,

DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 181

some respite may be obtained by the use of chloroform or morphia
and by turning the mare on her back, but too often tiie operator
fails and the foal must be sacrificed. Two courses are still open:
First, to cut through the cords behind and above the hock and extend
the upper part of the limb, leaving the hock bent, and extract in
this way, and, second, to amputate the hind limbs at the hip joint
and remove them separately, after which the body may be extracted.

HIND PRESENTATION WITH LEGS BENT FORWARD FROM THE HIP.

This is merely an aggravated form of the presentation last de-
scribed, (Plate XIII, fig. 1.) If the mare is roomy, a rope may be
23assed around each thigh and the body pushed upward and forward,
so as to bring the hocks and heels upward. If this can be accom-
plished, nooses are placed on the limb farther and farther down until
the fetlock is reached and brought into position. If failure is met.
with, then amputation at the hips is the last resort.

HIND PRESENTATIONS WITH THE BACK TURNED SIDEWAYS OR
DOWNWARD.

These are the counterparts of similar anterior presentations and
are to be managed in the same way,

PRESENTATION OF THE BACK.

This is rare, jet not unknown, the foal being bent upon itself with
the back, recognizable by its sharp row of spines, presented at the
entrance of the pelvis and the head and all four feet turned back into
the womb. (Plate XII, fig. 1.) The body of the fetus may be ex-
tended across the opening transversely, so that the head corresponds
to one side (right or left), or it may be vertical, with the head above
or below.

In a.nj such position the object should be to push the body of the
fetus forward and upvrard or to one side, as may best promise to bring
up the fore or hind extremities, and bring the latter into the passage
so as to constitute a normal anterior or posterior presentation. This
turning of the fetus may be favored by a given position of the mother,
by the free use of oil or lard on the surface of the fetus, and by the
use of a propeller.

PRESENTATION OF BREAST AND ABDOMEN.

This is the reverse of the back presentation, the foal being extended
across in front of the pelvic opening, but with the belly turned toward
the passages and with all four feet engaged in the passage. (Plate
XII, fig. 2.) The most promising course is to secure the hind feet
with nooses and then push the fore feet forward into the womb. As

182 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

soon as the fore feet are pushed forward clear of the brim of the
pelvis, traction is made on the hind feet so as to bring the thighs into
the passage and prevent the reentrance of the fore limbs. If it
j)rove difficult to push back the fore limbs a noose may be passed
around the fetlock of each and the cord drawn through the eye of a
rope carrier, by means of which the members may be easily pushed
back.

EMBRYOTOMY.

This consists in the dissection of the fetus, so as to reduce its bulk
and allow of its exit through the pelvis. The indications for its adop-
tion have been furnished in the foregoing pages. The operation will
vary in different cases according to the necessity for the removal of
one or more parts in order to secure the requisite reduction in size.
Thus it may be needful to remove head and neck, one fore limb or
both, one hind limb or both, to remove different jjarts of the trunk, or
to remove superfluous (monstrous) parts. Some of the simplest opera-
tions in embryotomy (incision of the head in hydrocephalus, incision
of the belly in dropsy) have already been described. It remains to
notice the more difficult procedures which can be best undertaken by
the skilled anatomist.

Amputation of the head. — This is easy when both fore limbs are
turned back and the head alone has made its exit in part. It is more
difficult when the head is still retained in the passages or w^omb, as
in double-headed monsters. The head is secured by a hook in the
lower jaw, or in the orbit, or by a halter, and the skin is divided
circularly around the lower part of the face or at the front of the
ears, according to the amount of head protruding. Then an incision
is made backward along the line of the throat, and the skin dissected
from the neck as far back as possible. Then the muscles and other
soft parts of the neck are cut across, and the bodies of two vertebrae
(neck bones) are severed by cutting completely across the cartilage
of the joint. The bulging of the ends of the bones will serve to indi-
cate the seat of the joint. The head and detached portion of the neck
may now be removed by steady pulling. If there is still an obstacle,
the knife may be again used to sever any obstinate connections. In
the case of a double-headed monster, the whole of the second neck
must be removed with the head. "When the head has been detached,
a rope should be passed through the eyeholes, or through an artificial
opening in the skin, and tied firmly around the skin, to be employed
as a means of traction when the missing limbs or the second head have
been brought up into position.

Amputation of the hind limh. — This may be required when there
are extra hind limbs or w^hen the hind limbs are bent forward at hock
or hip joint. In the former condition the procedure resembles that
for removal of a fore limb, but requires more anatomical knowledge.

DIFFICULT PAETURITION. 183

Having noosed the pastern, a circular incision is made through the
skin around the fetlock, and a longitudinal one from that up to the
groin, and the skin is dissected from the limb as high up as can be
reached, over the croup, if possible. Then cut through the muscles
around the hip joint, and, if possible, the two interarticular ligaments
of the joint (pubio-femoral and round), and extract the limb by
strong dragging.

Amputation of the fore limhs. — This may usually be begun on the
fetlock of the limb projecting from the vulva. An embryotomy knife
is desirable. This knife consists of a blade with a sharp, slightly
hooked point, and one or two rings in the back of the blade large
enough to fit on the middle linger, while the blade is protected in the
palm of the hand. (See Plate XV, fig. 4.) Another form has the
blade inserted in a mortise in the handle, from which it is pushed
out by a movable button when wanted. First place a noose around
the fetlock of the limb to be amputated, cut the skin circularly en-
tirely around the fetlock, then make an incision on the inner side of
the limb from the fetlock up to the breastbone. Next dissect the skin
from the limb, from the fetlock up to the breastbone on the inner side,
and as far up on the shoulder blade as jDOSsible on the outer side.
Finally, cut through the muscles attaching the limb to the breast-
bone, and employ strong traction on the limb, so as to drag out the
whole limb, shoulder blade included. The mUscles around the upper
part of the shoulder blade are easily torn through and need not be
cut, even if that were possible. In no case should the fore limb be
removed unless the shoulder blade is taken with it, as that furnishes
the greatest obstruction to delivery, above all when it is no longer
advanced by the extension of the fore limb, but is pressed back so as
to increase the already thickest posterior portion of the chest. The
preservation of the skin from the whole limb is advantageous in
various ways; it is easier to cut it circularly at the fetlock than at
the shoulder ; it covers the hand and knife in making the needful
incisions, thus acting as a protection to the womb; and it affords a
means of traction on the boch^ after the limb has been removed. In
dissecting the skin from the limb the knife is not needful at all
points; much of it may be stripped off with the fingers or knuckles,
or by a blunt iron spud pushed up inside the hide, Avhich is mean-
while held tense to render the spud effective.

In case the limb is bent forward at the hock, a rope is passed round
that and pulled so as to bring the point of the hock between the lips
of the vulva. The hamstring and the lateral ligaments of the hock
are now cut through, and the limbs extended by a rope tied round the
lower end of the long bone above (tibia). In case it is still needful
to remove the upper part of the limb, the further procedure is the
same as described in the last paragraph.

184 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

In case the limb is turned forward from the hip, and the fetus so
wedged into the passage that turning is impossible, the case is very
difficult. I have repeatedly succeeded by cutting in on the hip joint
and disarticulating it, then dissecting the muscles back from the
upper end of the thigh bone. A noose was placed around the neck of
the bone and pulled on forcibly, while any unduly resisting struc-
tures were cut with the knife.

Cartwright recommends to make free incisions round the hip joints
and tear through the muscles when they can not be cut; then with
cords round the pelvic bones, and hooks inserted in the openings in
the floor of the pelvis to drag out the j^elvic bones; then put cords
around the heads of the thigh bones and extract them ; then remove
the intestines; and finally, by means of the loose, detached skin,
draw out the body vrith the remainder of the hind limbs bent forward
beneath it.

Keuff cuts his way into the pelvis of the foal, and with a knife
separates the j^elvic bones from the loins, then skinning the quarter
draws out these pelvic bones by means of ropes and hooks, and along
with them the hind limbs.

The hind limbs having been removed by one or the other of these
procedures, the loose skin detached from the pelvis is used as a means
of traction and delivery is effected. If it has been a monstrosity with
extra hind limbs, it may be possible to bring these up into the passage
and utilize them for traction.

Removal of the ahdominal I'iscera. — In case the belly is unduly
large, from decomposition, tumors, or otherwise, it may be needful
to lay it open with the knife and cut or tear out the contents.

Removal of the thoracic viscera. — To diminish the bulk of the chest
it has been found advisable to cut out the breastbone, remove the
heart and lungs, and allow the ribs to collapse with the lower free
ends overlapping each other.

Dissection of the trtnik. — In case it becomes necessary to remove
other portions of the trunk, the general rule should be followed of
preserving the skin so that all manipulations can be made inside this
as a protector, that it may remain available as a means of exercising
traction on the remaining part of the body, and as a covering to
protect the vaginal walls against injuries from bones while such
part is passing.

FLOODING, OR BLEEDING FROM THE AVOMB.

This is rare in the mare, but not unknown, in connection with a
failure of the womb to contract on itself after parturition, or with
eversion of the womb (casting the withers), and congestion or lacera-
tion. If the blood accumulates in the flaccid womb, the condition
may only be suspected by reason of the rapidly advancing weakness,

DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 185

swaying, unsteady gait, hanging head, paleness of the eyes and otlier
mucous membranes, and weak, small, failing pulse. The hand in-
troduced into the womb detects the presence of the blood partly
clotted. If the blood escapes by the vulva, the condition is evident.
TreatTnent consists in evacuating the womb of its blood clots, giv-
ing a large dose of powdered ergot of rye, and in the application of
cold water or ice to the loins and external generative organs. Besides
this, a sponge impregnated with a strong solution of alum, or, still
better, with tincture of muriate of iron, may be introduced into the
womb and squeezed so as to bring the liquid in contact with the
walls generally.

EVERSION OF THE WOMB.

If the womb fails to contract after difficult parturition, the after-
pains will sometimes lead to the fundus passing into the body of the
organ and passing through that and the vagina until the whole
inverted organ appears externally and hangs down on the thighs.
The result is rapid engorgement and swelling of the organ, impaction
of the rectum with feces, and distention of the bladder with urine, all
of which conditions seriously interfere with the return of the mass.
In returning the womb the standing is preferable to the recumbent
position, as the abdomen is more pendent and there is less obstruc-
tion to the return. It may, however, be necessary to put hobbles on
the hind limbs to prevent the mare from kicking. A clean sheet
should be held beneath the womb, and all filth, straw, and foreign
bodies washed from its surface. Then with a broad, elastic (india
rubber) band, or in default of that a long strip of calico 4 or 5 inches
wide, wind the womb as tightly as possible, beginning at its most
dej^endent joart (the extremity of the horn). This serves two good
ends. It squeezes out into the general circulation the enormous mass
of blood which engorged and enlarged the organ, and it furnishes a
strong protective covering for the now delicate friable organ, through
which it may be safely manipulated without danger of laceration.
The next step may be the pressure on the general mass while those
portions next the vulva are gradually pushed in with the hands; or
the extreme lowest point (the end of the horn) may be turned within
itself and pushed forward into the vagina by the closed fist, the
return being assisted by manipulations by the other hand, and even
by those of assistants. By either mode the manipulations may bo
made with almost perfect safety so long as the organ is closely
wrapped in the bandage. Once a portion has been introduced into
the vagina the rest will usually follow with increasing ease, and the
operation should be completed with the hand and arm extended the
full length within the womb and moved from point to point so as to
straighten out all parts of the organ and insure that no portion still

186 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

remains inverted within another portion. Should any such partial
inversion be left it will give rise to straining, under the force of which
it will gradually increase until the whole mass will be protruded as
before. The next step is to apply a truss as an effectual me-
chanical barrier to further escape of the womb through the vulva.
The simplest is made with two inch ropes, each about 18 feet long.
These are each doubled and interwoven at the bend, as seen in Plate
IX, figure 4. The ring formed by the interlacing of the two ropes is
adjusted around the vulva, the two ends of the one rope are carried
up on the right and left of the tail and along the spine, being wound
round each other in their course, and are finally tied to the upper
part of the collar encircling the neck. The remaining two ends,
belonging to the other rope, are carried downward and forward
between the thighs and thence forward and upward on the sides of
the belly and chest to be attached to the right and left sides of the col-
lar. These ropes are drawn tightly enough to keep closely applied to
the opening without chafing, and will fit still more securely when the
mare raises her back to strain. It is desirable to tie the mare short so
that she may be unable to lie down for a day or two, and she should
be kept in a stall with the hind parts higher than the fore. Violent
straining may be checked by full doses of opium (one-half dram),
and any costiveness or diarrhea should be obviated by a suitable laxa-
tive or binding diet.

In some mares the contractions are too violent to allow of the return
of the womb, and full doses of opium one-half dram, laudanum 2
ounces, or chloral hydrate 1 ounce, may be demanded, or the mare
must be rendered insensible by ether or chloroform.

RUPTURE, OR LACERATION, OF THE WOMB.

This may occur from the feet of the foal during parturition, or
from ill-directed efforts to assist, but it is especially liable to take
place in the everted, congested, and friable organ. The resultant
dangers are bleeding from the wound, escape of the bowels through
the opening and their fatal injury by the mare's feet or otherwise, and
peritonitis from the extension of inflammation from the wound and
from the poisonous action of the septic liquids of the womb escaping
into the abdominal cavity. The first object is to close the wound,
but unless in eversion of the womb this is practically impossible. In
the last-named condition the wound must be carefully and accurately
sewed up before the womb is returned. After its return, the womb
must be injected daily with an antiseptic solution (borax, one-half
ounce, or carbolic acid, 3 drams to a quart of tepid water). If in-
flammation threatens, the abdomen may be bathed continuously with
hot water by means of a heavy woolen rag, and large doses of opium
(one-half dram) may be given twice or thrice daily.

DIFFICULT PARTUBITION. 187

RUPTURES OF THE VAGINA.

These are attended by dangers similar to those belonging to rup-
ture of the womb, and in addition by the risk of j^rotrusion of the
bladder, which appears through the lips of the vulva as a red pyri-
form mass. Sometimes such lacerations extend downward into the
bladder, and in others upward into the terminal gut (rectum). In
still other cases the anus is torn so that it forms one common orifice
with the vulval

Too often such cases prove fatal, or at least a recovery is not at-
tained, and urine or feces or both escape freely into the vagina. The
simj^le laceration of the anus is easily sewed up, but the ends of the
muscular fibers do not reunite and the control over the lower bowel is
never fully reacquired. The successful stitching up of the wound
communicating with the bladder or the rectum requires unusual skill
and care, and though I have succeeded in a case of the latter kind, I
can not advise the attempt by unprofessional persons.

BLOOD CLOTS IN THE AVALLS OF THE VAGINA.

(See " Effusion of blood in the vaginal walls," p. 169.)

INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB AND PERITONEUM.

These may result from injuries sustained by the womb during or
after parturition, from exposure to cold or wet, or from the irritant
infective action of putrid products within the womb. Under the
inflammation the womb remains dilated and flaccid, and decomposi-
tion of its secretions almost always occurs, so that the inflammation
tends to assume a putrid character and general septic infection is
likely to occur.

Symptoms. — The symptoms are ushered in by shivering, staring
coat, small rapid pulse, elevated temperature, accelerated breathing,
inai^petence, with arched back, stiff movement of the body, looking
back at the flanks, and uneasy motions of the hind limbs, discharge
from the \^lva of a liquid at first watery, reddish, or yellowish, and
later it may be whitish or glairy, and fetid or not in different cases.
Tenderness of the abdomen shown on pressure is especially character-
istic of cases affecting the peritoneum or lining of the belly, and is
more marked lower down. If the animal survives, the inflammation
tends to become chronic and attended by a whitish muco-purulent
discharge. If, on the contrary, it proves fatal, death is preceded by
extreme prostration and weakness from the general septic poisoning.

Treatment. — In treatment the first thing to be sought is the removal
of all offensive and irritant matters from the womb through a caout-
chouc tube introduced into the womb, and into which a funnel is
fitted. Warm water should be passed until it comes aAvay clear. To

188 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

insure that all of the womb has been washed out, the oiled hand
may be introduced to carry the end of the tube into the two horns
successively. When the offensive contents have been thus removed,
the w^omb should be injected with a quart of water holding in solu-
tion 1 dram permanganate of j^otash, or, in the absence of the latter,
2 teaspoonfuls of carbolic acid. Eepeat twice daily. Fomentation
of the abdomen, or the application of a warm flaxseed poultice, may
greatly relieve. Acetanilid, in doses of half an ouncCj repeated twice
or thrice a day, or sulphate of quinia in doses of one-third ounce,
may be employed to reduce the fever. If the great prostration indi-
cates septic poisoning, large doses (one-half ounce) bisulphite of
soda, or salicylate of soda, or sulphate of quinine may be resorted to.

LEUCOERHEA.

This is a white, glutinous, chronic discharge, the result of a contin-
ued subacute inflammation of the mucous membrane of the womb.
Like the discharge of acute inflammation, it contains many forms of
bacteria, by some of which it is manifestly inoculable on the penis of
the stallion, producing ulcers and a specific gonorrheal discharge.

Treatment may consist in the internal use of tonics (sulphate of
iron, 3 drams, daily) -and the washing out of the womb, as described
under the last heading, followed by an astringent antiseptic injection
(carbolic acid 2 teaspoonfuls, tannic acid one-half dram, water 1
quart). This may be repeated two or three times a day.

LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER, FOLLOAVING PARTURITION.

This sometimes follows on inflammation of the womb, as it fre-
quently does on disorder of the stomach. Its symptoms agree with
those of the common form of founder, and treatment need not differ.

DISEASES OF THE UDDER AND TEATS.
CONGESTION AND INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER.

This is comparatively rare in the mare, though in some cases the
udder -becomes painfully engorged before parturition, and a doughy
swelling, pitting on. pressure, extends forward on the lower surface of
the abdomen. When this goes on to active inflammation, one or both
of the glands become enlarged, hot, tense, and painful; the milk is
dried up or replaced by a watery or reddish serous fluid, which at
times becomes fetid ; the animal walks lame, loses appetite, and shows
general disorder and fever. The condition may end in recovery, in
abscess, induration, or gangrene, and in some cases may lay the foun-
dation for a tumor of the gland.

Treatment. — The treatment is simple so long as there is only con-
gestion. Active rubbing with lard or oil, or, better, camphorated

DISEASES OF THE UDDER AND TEATS. 189

oil, and the frequent drawing off of the milk, by the foal or with
the hand, will usually bring about a rapid improvement. When
active inflammation is present, fomentation with warm water may be
kept up for an hour and followed by the application of the cam-
phorated oil, to which has been added some carbonate of soda and
extract of belladonna. A dose of laxative medicine (4 drams Bar-
bados aloes) will be of service reducing fever, and one-half ounce
saltpeter daily will serve a similar end. In case the milk coagxdates
in the udder and can not be withdrawn, or when the liquid becomes
fetid, a solution of 20 grains carbonate of soda and 10 drops carbolic
acid dissolved in an ounce of water should be injected into the teat.
In doing this it must be noted that the mare has three separate ducts
opening on the summit of each teat and each must be carefully in-
jected. To draw off the fetid product it may be needful to use a
small milking tube, or spring teat dilator designed by the writer.
(Plate VIII, figs. 2 and 3.) When pus forms and points externally
and can not find a free escape by the teat, the spot where it fluctu-
ates must be opened freely with the knife and the cavity injected
daily with the carbolic-acid lotion. When the gland becomes hard
and indolent, it may be rubbed daily with iodine ointment 1 part,
vaseline G parts.

TUMORS OF THE UDDER.

As the result of inflammation of the udder it may become the seat
of an indurated diseased growth, which may go on growing and seri-
ously interfere w^ith the movement of the hind limbs. If such swell-
ings will not give way in their earl}^ stages to treatment by iodine,
the only resort is to cut them out with a knife. As the gland is often
implicated and has to be removed, such mares can not in the future
suckle their colts and therefore should not be bred.

SOKE TEATS, SCABS, CRACKS, WARTS.

By the act of sucking, especially in cold weather, the teats are sub-
ject to abrasions, cracks, and scabs, and as the result of such irrita-
tion, or independently, warts sometimes grow and prove troublesome.
The warts should be clipped off with sharp scissors and their roots
burned with a solid pencil of lunar caustic. This is best done before
parturition to secure healing before suckling begins. For sore teats
use an ointment of vaseline 1 ounce, balsam of tolu 5 grains, and
sulphate of zinc 5 grains.

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

By M. R. Tkumboweb, V. S.
[Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.]

THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM.

The nervous system may be regarded as consisting of two sets of
organs, joeripheral and central, the function of one being to establish
a communication between the centers and the different parts of the
body, and that of the other to generate nervous force. The whole
may be arranged under two divisions: First, the cerebrospinal
system; second, the sympathetic^ or ganglionic system. Each is
jDOSsessed of its own central and peripheral organs.

In the first, the center is made up of two portions — one large and
expanded (the brain) j^laced in the cranial cavity; the other elon-
gated (spinal cord), continuous with the brain, and lodged in the
canal of the vertebral column. The peripheral portion of this sys-
tem consists of the cerebro-spinal nerves, which leave the axis in
symmetrical pairs, and are distributed to the skin, the voluntary
muscles, and the organs.

In the second, the central organ consists of a chain of ganglia con-
nected by nerve cords which extends from the head to the rump on
each side of the spine. The nerves of this system are distributed to
the involuntary muscles, mucous membrane, viscera, and blood vessels.

The two systems have free intercommunication, ganglia being at
the junctions.

Two substances, distinguishable by their color, enter into the forma-
tion of nervous matter, namely, the white or medullary, and the gray
or cortical substance. Both are soft, fragile, and easily injured, in
consequence of which the principal nervous centers are well protected
by bony coverings. The nervous substances present two distinct
forms — nerve fibers and nerve cells. An aggregation of nerve eel Is
constitutes a nerve ganglion.

The nerve fibers represent a conducting apparatus, and serve to

place the central nervous organs in connection with peripheral end

organs. The nerve cells, however, besides transmitting impulses, act

as physiological centers for automatic, or reflex, movements, and also

190

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 191

for the sensory, perceptive, trophic, and secretory functions. A
nerve consists of a bundle of tubular fibers, held together by a dense
areolar tissue, and inclosed in a membranous sheath — the neurilemma.
Xerve fibers possess no elasticity, but are very strong. Di^dded nerves
do not retract.

Nerves are thrown into a state of excitement when stimulated, and
are, therefore, said to jjossess excitable or irritable properties. The
stimuli may be applied to, or may act upon, any part of the nerve.
Nerves may be paralyzed by continuous j)ressure being applied.
When the nerves divide into branches, there is never any splitting
up of their ultimate fibers, nor yet is there ever any coalescing of
them; they retain their individuality from their source to their
termination.

Nerves which convey impressions to the centers are termed sensory^
or centripetal, and those which transmit stimulus from the centers to
organs of motion are termed motor, or centrifugal. The function of
the nervous system may, therefore, be defined in the simplest terms,
as follows : It is intended to associate the different parts of the body
in such a manner that stimulus applied to one organ may excite or
depress the activity of another.

The brain is that portion of the cerebro-spinal axis within the cra-
nium, which may be divided into four parts — the raediilla oblongata,
the cereheUum, the pons Varolii, and the cere'brxim — and it is cov-
ered by three membranes, called the meninges. The outer of these
membranes, the dura mater, is a thick, white, fibrous membrane which
lines the cavity of the cranium, forming the internal periosteum of
the bones ; it is continuous with the spinal cord to the extremity of the
canal. The second, the arachnoid, is a delicate serous membrane, and
loosely envelops the brain and spinal cord ; it forms two layers, leav-
ing between them the arachnoid space which contains the cerebro-
spinal fluid, the use of which is to protect the spinal cord and brain
from pressure. The third, or inner, the pia mater, is closely adher-
ent to the entire surface of the brain, but is much thinner and more
vascular than when it reaches the spinal cord, which it also envelops,
and is continued to form the sheaths of the spinal nerves.

The medidla oblongata is the prolongation of the spinal cord,
extending to the pons Varolii. This portion of the brain is very
large in the horse; it is j^yramidal in shape, the narrowest part join-
ing the cord.

The pons Varolii is the transverse projection on the base of the
brain, between the medulla oblongata and the peduncles of the
cerebrum.

The cerehellum is lodged in the posterior part of the cranial cavity,
immediately above the medulla oblongata ; it is globular or elliptical

192 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

in shape, the transverse diameter being greatest. The body of the
cerebellum is composed of gray matter externally and of white matter
in the center. The cerebellum has the function of coordinating move-
ments ; that is, of so associating them as to cause them to accomplish a
definite purpose. Injuries to the cerebellum cause disturbances of ths
equilibrium, but do not interfere with the will power or intelligence.

The cerebrurri'^ or brain proper, occupies the anterior portion of the
cranial cavity. It is ovoid in shape, with an irregular flattened base,
and consists of lateral halves or hemispheres. The greater part of
the cerebrum is composed of white matter. The hemispheres of the
cerebrum are usually said to be the seat of all psychical activities.
Only when they are intact are the process of feeling, thinking, and
willing possibk. After thej^ are destroyed, the organism comes to be
like a complicated machine, and its activity is only the expression of
the internal and external stimuli which act upon it.

The spinal cord^ or spinal marrow, is that part of the cerebro-
spinal system which is contained in the spinal canal of the backbone,
and extends from the medulla oblongata to a short distance behind
the loins. It is an irregularly cylindrical structure, divided into two
lateral symmetrical halves by fissures. The sj^inal cord terminates
posteriorly in a pointed extremity, which is continued by a mass of
nerve trunks — candci equiiuK. A transverse section of the cord reveals
that it is composed of white matter externally and of gray matter
internally. The spinal cord does not fill up the whole spinal canal.
The latter contains, besides, a large venous sinus, fatty matter, the
membranes of the cord, and the cerebro-spinal fluid.

The spinal nerves, forty-two or forty-three in number, arise each
by two roots, a superior, or sensory, and an inferior, or motor. The
nerves originating from the brain are twenty- four in number, and
arranged in pairs, which are named first, second, third, etc., counting
from before backward. They also receive special names, according
to their functions, or the parts to which they are distributed, viz :

1. Olfactory. 7. Facial.

2. Optic. 8. Auditory.

3. Oculo-motor. 9. Glosso-pharyugeal.

4. Pathetic. 10. Pneumogastric.

5. Trifacial. 11. Spinal-accessory.

6. Abducens. 12. Hypoglossal.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES.

Inflammation may attack these membranes singly, or any one of the
anatomical divisions of the nerve matter, or it may invade the whole
at once. Practical experience, however, teaches us that primary
inflammation of the dura mater is of rare occurrence, except in direct
mechanical injuries to the head or diseases of the bones of the era-

DISEASES OF THE BRAIIT. 193

nium. Neither is the arachnoid often affected with acute inflamma-
tion, except as a secondary result. The pia mater is most commonly
the seat of inflammation, acute and subacute, but from its intimate
relation with the surface of the brain the latter very soon becomes
involved in the morbid changes. Practically, we can not separate in-
flammation of the pia mater from that of the brain proper. Inflam-
mation may, however, exist in the center of the great nerve masses —
the cerebrum, cerebellum, pons Varolii, or medulla at the base of the
brain — without involving the surface. When, therefore, inflamma-
tion invades the brain and its enveloping membranes it is properly
called encephalitis; when the membranes alone are affected, it is
called meningitis; or the brain substance alone, cerehritis. Since all
of the conditions merge into each other and can scarcely be recognized
separately during the life of the animal, they may here be considered
together.

ENCEPHALITIS, MENINGITIS, AND CEKEBRITIS (INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS
MEMBRANES).

Causes. — Exposure to extreme heat or cold, sudden and extreme
changes of temperature, excessive continued cerebral excitement, over-
feeding with nitrogenous foods, direct injuries to the brain, such as
concussion, or from fracture of the cranium, overexertion, sometimes
as sequelae to influenza, pyemia, poisons having a direct influence upon
the encephalic mass, extension of inflammation from neighboring
structures, food poisoning, tumors, parasites, metastatic abscesses, etc.

Symptoms. — The diseases here grouped together are accompanied
by a variety of symptoms almost none of which, however, are asso-
ciated so definitely with a special pathological process as to point
unmistakably to a given lesion. Usually the first symptoms indicate
mental excitement, and these are followed by symptoms indicating
depression. Acute encephalitis may be ushered in by an increased
sensibility to noises, with more or less nervous excitability, contrac-
tion of the pupils of the eyes, and a quick, hard pulse. In very acute
attacks these symptoms, however, are not always noted. This condi-
tion will soon be followed by muscular twitchings, convulsive or
spasmodic movements, eyes wide open with shortness of sight. The
animal becomes afraid to have his head handled. Convulsions and
delirium will develop, with inability of muscular control, or stupor and
coma may supervene. Where the membranes are greatly implicated,
convulsions and delirium with violence may be expected, but where
the brain substances are principally affected stupor and coma will be
the prominent symptoms. In the former condition the pulse will
be quick and hard; in the latter, soft or depressed with often a dila-
tation of the pupils, and deep, slow, stertorous breathing. The
H, Doc. 795, 59-2 13

194 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

symptoms may follow one another in raiDicl succession, and the disease
approach a fatal termination in less than twelve hours. In subacute
attacks the symptoms are better defined, and the animal seldom dies
before the third day. Within three or four days gradual improve-
ment may become manifest, or cerebral softening with partial paral-
ysis may occur. In all cases of encephalitis there is a marked rise
in temperature from the very onset of the disease, with a tendency to
increase until the most alarming symptoms develop, succeeded by a
decrease when coma becomes manifest. The violence and character
of the symptoms greatly depend upon the extent and location of the
structures involved. Thus, in some cases there may be marked paral-
ysis of certain muscles, while in others there may be spasmodic
rigidity of muscles in a certain region. Very rarely the animal be-
comes extremely violent early in the attack, and by rearing up, strik-
ing with the fore feet, or falling over, may do himself great injury.
Usually, however, the animal maintains the standing position, prop-
ping himself against the manger or wall, until he falls from inability
of muscular control or unconsciousness. Occasionally he may go
through a series of automatic movements in his delirium, such as
trotting or walking, and, if loose in a stall, will move around in a
circle persistently. Early and persistent constipation of the bowels
is a marked symptom in nearly all acute affections of the brain; re-
tention of the urine, also, is frequently observed.

Following these symptoms there are depression, loss of power and
consciousness, lack of ability or desire to move, and usually fall of
temperature. At this stage the horse stands with legs propped, the
head hanging or resting on the manger, the eyes partly closed, and
does not respond when spoken to or when struck with a whip.

Chronic encephalitis or meningitis may succeed the acute stage, or
may be due to stable miasma, blood poison, narcotism, lead poison-
ing, etc. This form may not be characterized in its initial stages by
excitability, quick and hard pulse, and high fever. The animal
usually appears at first stupid ; eats slowly ; the pupil of the eye does
not lespond to light quickly; the animal often throws up his head or
shakes it as if suffering sudden twinges of pain. He is slow and
sluggish in his movements, or there may be partial paralysis of one
limb, one side of the face, neck, or body. These symptoms, with some
variations, may be present for several days and then subside, or the
disease may pass into the acute stage and terminate fatally. Chronic
encephalitis may affect an animal for ten days or two weeks without
much variation in the symptoms before the crisis is reached. If im-
provement commences, the symptoms usually disappear in the reverse
order in which they developed, with the exception of the paralytic
effects, which remain intractable or permanent. Paralysis of certain
sets of muscles is a very common result of chronic, subacute, and

DISEASES OF THE BEAIN. 195

acute encephalitis, and is due to softening of the brain or to exuda-
tion into the cavities of the brain or arachnoid space.

Softening and abscess of the brain is one of the terminations of
cerebritis. It may also be due to an insufficient supply of blood as a
result of diseased cerebral arteries and of apoplexy. The symptoms
are drowsiness, vertigo, or attacks of giddiness, increased timidity, or
fear of familiar objects, paralysis of one limb, hemiplegia, imperfect
control of the limbs, and usually a weak, intermittent pulse. In some
cases the symptoms are analogous to those of apoplexy. The char-
acter of the symptoms depends ux^on the seat of the softening or
abscess within the brain.

Cerebral sclerosis sometimes follows inflammation in the struct-
ure of the brain affecting the connective tissues, which eventually
become hypertrophied and press ujDon nerve cells and fibers, causing
their ultimate disappearance, leaving the parts hard and indurated.
This condition gives rise to a progressive paralysis and may extend
along a certain bundle of fibers into the spinal cord. Complete
paralysis almost invariably supervenes and causes death.

Lesions. — On making post-mortem examinations of horses which
have died in the first stages of either of these diseases w^e will find an
excessive engorgement of the capillaries and small blood vessels, with
correspondingly increased redness and changes in both the contents
and the walls of the vessels. If death has occurred at a later period
of the disease it will be found that, in addition to the redness and en-
gorgement, an exudation of the contents of the blood vessels into the
tissues and upon the surfaces of the inflamed parts has supervened.
If the case has been one of encephalitis, there will usually be found
more or less watery fluid in the ventricles (natural cavities in the
brain), in the subarachnoid space, and a serous exudation between the
convolutions and interstitial spaces of the gray matter under the
membranes of the brain. The amount of fluid varies in different
cases. Exudations of a membranous character may be present and
are found attached to the surface of the pia mater.

In meningitis, especially in chronic cases, in addition to the serous
effusion, there are changes which may be regarded as characteristic in
the formation of a delicate and highly vascular layer or la3'^ers of
membrane or organized structure on the surface of the dura mater,
and also indications of hemorrhages in connection with the membra-
nous formations. Hematoma, or blood tumors, may be' found em-
bedded in this membrane. In some cases the hemorrhages are copious,
causing paralysis or apoplexj^, followed by speedy death. The menin-
gitis may be suppurative. In this case, a puslike exudate is found
between the membranes covering the brain.

In cerebritis, or inflammation of the interior of the brain, there
is a tendency to softening and suppuration and the formation of

196 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

abscesses. In some cases the abscesses are small and numerous, sur-
rounded with a softened condition of the brain matter, and some-
times we may find one large abscess. In cases of recent development
the walls of the abscesses are fringed and ragged and have no lining
membrane. In older or chronic cases, the walls of the abscesses are
generally lined with a strong membrane* often having the appearance
of a sac, or cyst, and the contents have a very offensive odor.

Treatynent. — In all acute attacks of inflammation involving the
membranes or cerebral masses, it is the pressure from the distended
and engorged blood vessels and the rapid accumulation of inflamma-
tory products that endangers the life of the animal in even the very
early stage of the disease. The earlier the treatment is commenced to
lessen the danger of fatal pressure from the engorged blood vessels,
the less amount of inflammatory products and effusion we have to
contend with later on. The leading object, then, to be accomplished
in the treatment of the first stages of encephalitis, meningitis, or cere-
britis is to relieve the engorgement of the blood vessels before a dan-
gerous degree of effusion or exudation has taken place, and thereby
lessen the irritation or excitability of the affected structures. If the
attempt to relieve the engorgement in the first stage has been only
partially successful, and the second stage with its inflammatory prod-
ucts and exudations, whether serous or plastic, has set in, then the
main objects in further treatment are to keep up the strength of the
animal and hasten the absorption of the exudative products as much
as possible. To obtain these results, when the animal is found in the
initial stage of the disease, where there is unnatural excitability or
stupor with increase of temperature and quickened pulse, we should
apply cold to the head in the form of cold water or ice. For this pur-
pose cloths or bags may be used, and they should be renewed as often
as necessary. If the disease is still in its early stages and the animal
is strong, bleeding from the jugular vein may be beneficial. Good
results are to be expected only during the stage of excitement, while
there is a strong, full pulse and the mucous membranes of the head
are red from a plentiful supply of blood. The finger should be kept
on the pulse and the blood allowed to flow until there is distinct
softening of the pulse. As soon as the animal recovers somewhat
from the shock of the bleeding, the following medicine should be
made into a ball or dissolved in a pint of warm water and be given
at one dose': Barbados aloes, 7 drams; calomel, 2 drams; powdered
ginger, 1 dram ; tincture of aconite, 20 drops.

The animal should be placed in a cool, dark place, as free from
noise as possible. When the animal becomes thirsty half an ounce of
bromide of potash may be dissolved in his drinking water every six
hours. Injections of warm water into the rectum may facilitate the
action of the purgative. Norwood's tincture of veratrum viride, in

DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 197

20-drop doses, should be given every hour and 1 dram of solid extract
of belladonna every four hours until the symptoms become modified
and the pulse regular and full.

If this treatment fails to give relief, the disease will pass into the
advanced stages, or, if the animal has been neglected in the early
stages, the treatment must be supplanted with the hj^podermic injec-
tion of ergotin, in 5-grain doses, dissolved in 1 dram of water, every
six hours. The limbs may be poulticed above the fetlocks Avith mus-
tard. Warm blanketing, to promote perspiration, is to be observed
in all cases in which there is no excessive perspiration.

If the disease becomes chronic (encephalitis or meningitis) , we must
place our reliance upon alteratives and tonics, with such incidental
treatment as special symptoms may demand. Iodide of potassium in
2-dram doses should be given three times a day and 1 dram of calo-
mel once a day to induce absorption of effusions or thickened mem-
branes. Tonics, in the form of iodide of iron in 1-dram doses, to
which is added 2 drams of powdered hydrastis, may also be given
every six or eight hours, as soon as the active fever has abated.
After the disappearance of the acute symptoms, blisters (cantharides
ointment) may be applied behind the poll. ^Vlien paralytic effects
remain after the disappearance of all other symptoms, sulphate of
strychnia in 2-grain doses, in combination with the other tonics, may
be given twice a daj^, and be continued until it produces muscular
twitching. In some cases of paralysis, as of the lips or throat, bene-
fit may be derived from the moderate use of the electric battery.
Many of the recoveries will, however, under the most active and early
treatment, be but partial, and in all cases the animals becomfe predis-
posed to subsequent attacks. A long period of time should be allowed
to pass before the animal is exposed to severe work or great heat.
AVhen the disease depends upon mechanical injuries, they have to be
treated and all causes of irritation to the brain removed. If it is due
to stable miasma, uremic poisoning, pyemia, influenza, rheumatism,
toxic agents, etc., they should receive prompt attention for their
removal or mitigation.

Cerebral softening, abscess, and sclerosis are practically inaccess-
ible to treatment, otherwise than such relief as may be afforded by
the administration of opiates and general tonics, and, in fact, the
diagnosis is largely presumptive.

CONGESTION OF THE BRAIN, OR MEGRIMS.

Congestion of the brain consists in an accum.ulation of blood in the
vessels, also called hyperemia, or engorgement. It may be active or
passive — active when there is an undue determination of blood or
diminished arterial resistance, and i3assive when it accumulates in the
vessels of the brain, owing to some obstacle to its return by the veins.

198 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

Causes. — Active cerebral congestion may be due to hypertrophy of
the left ventricle of the heart, excessive exertion, the influence of
extreme heat, sudden and great excitement, artificial stimulants, etc.
Passive congestion may be produced by any mechanical obstruction
which prevents the proper return of blood through the veins to thfi
heart, such as a small or ill-fitting collar, which often impedes the
blood current, tumors or abscesses pressing on the vein in its course,
and organic lesions of the heart with regurgitation.

Extremely fat animals with short thick necks are peculiarly subject
to attacks of cerebral congestion. Simple congestion, however, is
merely a functional affection, and in a slight or moderate degree
involves no immediate danger. Extreme engorgement, on the con-
trary, may be followed by rupture of previously weakened arteries
and capillaries and cause immediate death, designated then as a
stroke of apoplexy.

Symptoms. — Congestion of the brain is usually sudden in its mani-
festation and of short duration. The animal may stop very suddenly
and shake his head or stand quietly braced on his legs, then stagger,
make a plunge, and fall. The eyes are staring, breathing hurried and
stertorous, and the nostrils widely dilated. This may be followed by
coma, violent convulsive movements, and death. Generally, however,
the animal gains relief in a short time, but he may remain weak and
giddy for several days. If it is due to organic change of the heart or
to disease of the blood vessels in the brain, then the symptoms may
be of slow development manifested by drowsiness, dimness or im-
perfect vision, difficulty in voluntary movements, diminished sensi-
bility of* the skin, loss of consciousness, delirium, and death. In
milder cases effusion may take place in the arachnoid spaces and
ventricles of the brain, followed by paralysis and other complications.

Pathology. — In congestion of the brain the cerebral vessels are
loaded with blood, and the venous sinuses distended to an extreme
degree, and the pressure exerted upon the brain constitutes actual
compression, giving rise to the symptoms just mentioned. On post-
mortem examinations this engorgement is found universal through-
out the brain and its membranes, which serves to distinguish it from
inflammations of these structures, in which the engorgements are
confined more or less to circumscribed portions. A prolonged con-
gestion may, however, lead to active inflammation, and in that case
we will find serous and plastic exudations in the cavities of the brain.
In addition to the intensely engorged condition of the vessels we find
the gray matter of the brain redder in color than natural. In cases
where several attacks have occurred the blood vessels are often found
permanently dilated.

Treatment. — Prompt removal of all mechanical obstructions to the
circulation. If it is due to venous obstruction by too tight a collar,

SUNSTROKE. 199

the loosening of the collar will give immediate relief. The horse
should be bled freely from the jugular vein. If due to tumors or
abscesses, a surgical operation becomes necessary to afford relief. To
revive the animal if he becomes partially or totally unconscious, cold
water should be dashed on the head. Give a purge of Glauber's
salts. If the limbs are cold, tincture of capsicum or strong mustard
water should be applied to them. If symptoms of paralysis remain
after two or three daj'^s, an active cathartic and iodide of potassa will
be indicated, to be given as prescribed for inflammation of the brain.
Prevention. — Well-adjusted collar, with strap running from the
collar to the girth, to hold down the collar when pulling upgrade;
regular feed and exercise, without allowing the animal to become ex-
cessively plethoric; moderate checking, allowing a free-and-easy
movement of the head; well-ventilated stabling, proper cleanliness,
pure water, etc.

SUNSTROKE, HEAT STROKE, OR HEAT EXHAUSTION.

The term sunstroke is applied to affections occasioned not exclu-
sively by exposure to the sun's rays, as the word signifies, but by the
action of great heat combined generally with humid atmosphere.
Exhaustion produced by a long-continued heat is often the essential
factor, and is called heat exhaustion. Horses on the race track un-
dergoing protracted and severe work in hot weather often succumb
to heat exhaustion. Draft horses exposed to the direct rays of the
sun for many hours, which do not receive proper care in watering,
feeding, and rest in shady places, suffer very frequently from sun-
stroke.

Symptoms. — Sunstroke is manifested suddenly. The animal stops,
drops his head, begins to stagger, and soon falls to the ground uncon-
scious. The breathing is marked with great stertor, the pulse is very
slow and irregular, cold sweats break out in patches on the surface of
the body, and the animal often dies without recovering consciousness.
The temperature becomes very high, reaching 105° to 109° F.

In heat exhaustion the animal usually requires urging for some
time previous to the appearance of any other symptoms, generally
perspiration is checked, and then he becomes weak in his gait, the
breathing hurried or panting, eyes watery or bloodshot, nostrils
dilated and highly reddened, assuming a dark, purple color ; the pulse
is rapid and weak, the heart bounding, followed by unconsciousness
and death. If recovery takes place, convalescence extends over a
long period of time, during which incoordination of movement may
persist.

Pathology. — Sunstroke, virtually active congestion of the brain,
often accompanied by effusion and blood extravasation, characterizes
this condition, with often rapid and fatal lowering of all the vital

200 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

functioni3. The death may be due in many instances to the complete
stagnation in the circulation of the brain, inducing anemia, or want
of nourishment of that organ. In other cases it may be directly due
to the excessive compression of the nerve matter controlling the
heart's action, and cause paralysis of that organ. There are also
changes in the composition of the blood.

TreatTnent. — Under no circumstances is bloodletting permissible in
sunstroke. Ice or very cold water should be applied to the head and
along the spine, and half an ounce of carbonate of ammonia or 6
ounces of whisky should be given in 1 pint of water. Cold water
should be showered ui^on the body of the horse from the hose or
otherwise. This should be continued until the temperature is down
to 103° F. Brisk friction of the limbs and the application of spirits
of camphor often yield good results. The administration of the stim-
ulants should be repeated in one hour if the pulse has not become
stronger and slower. In either case, when reaction has occurred,
preparations of iron and general tonics may be given during conva-
lescence: Sulphate of iron, 1 dram; gentian, 3 drams; red cinchona
bark, 2 drams ; mix and give in the feed morning and evening.

Prevention. — In very hot weather horses should have wet sponges
or light sunshades on the head when at work, or the head may De
sponged with cold water as many times a day as possible. Proper
attention should be given to feeding and watering, never in excess.
During the warm months all stables should be cool and well ven-
tilated, and if an animal is debilitated from exhaustive work or
disease he should receive such treatment as will tend to build up the
system. Horses should be permitted to drink as much water as they
want while they are at work during hot weather.

An animal which has been affected with sunstroke is very liable to
have subsequent attacks when exposed to the necessary exciting
causes.

APOPLEXY, OR CEREBRAL HEMORRHAGE.

Apoplexy is often confounded with cerebral congestion, but true
apoplexy always consists in rupture of cerebral blood vessels, with
blood extravasation and formation of blood clot.

Causes. — Two causes are involved in the production of apoplexy,
the p7'edisposing and the exciting. The predisposing cause is degen-
eration, or disease which weakens the blood vessel ; the exciting cause
is any one which tends to induce cerebral congestion.

Symptoms. — Apoplexy is characterized by a sudden loss of sensa-
tion and motion, profound coma, and stertorous and difficult breath-
ing. The action of the heart is little disturbed at first, but soon be-
comes slower, then quicker and feebler, and after a little time ceases.
If the rupture is one of a small artery and the extravasation limited.

DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 201

sudden paralysis of some part of the body is the result. The extent
and location of the paralysis depend upon the location within the
brain which is functionally deranged by the pressure of the extra va-
sated blood ; hence these conditions are very variable.

In the absence of any premonitory symptoms or an increase of tem-
perature in the early stage of the attack, we may be reasonably certain
in making the distinction between this disease and congestion of the
brain, or sunstroke.

Pathology. — In apoplexy there is generally found an atheromatous
condition of the cerebral vessels, with weakening and degeneration of
their walls. ^^Tien a large artery has been ruptured it is usually fol-
lowed by immediate death, and large rents may be found in the cere-
brum, with great destruction of brain tissue, induced by the forcible
pressure of the liberated blood. In small extravasations producing
local paralysis without marked general disturbance, the animal may
recover after a time; in such cases gradual absorption of the clot takes
place. In large clots atrophy of the brain substances ma}'' follow, or
softening and abscess from want of nutrition may result, and render
the animal worthless, ultimately resulting in death.

Treatment. — Place the animal in a quiet, cool place and avoid all
stimulating food. Administer, in his drinking water or feed, 2 drams
of the iodide of potassa twice a day for several weeks if necessary.
Medical interference with sedatives or stimulants is more apt to be
harmful than of benefit, and bloodletting in an apoplectic fit is
extremely hazardous. From the fact that cerebral apoplexy is due to
diseased or weakened blood vessels, the animal remains subject to
subsequent attacks.

COMPRESSION OF THE BRAIN.

Causes. — In injuries from direct violence a piece of broken bone
may press upon the brain, and, according to its size, the brain is
robbed of its normal space within the cranium. It may also be due
to an extravasation of blood or to exudation in the subdural or arach-
noid spaces. Death from active cerebral congestion results through
compression. The occurrence may sometimes be traced to the direct
cause, which will give assurance for the correct diagnosis.

Symptoms. — Impairment of all the special senses and localized
paralysis. All the symptoms of lessened functional activity of the
brain are manifested to some degree. The paralysis remains to be
our guide for the location of the cause, for it will be found that the
paralysis occurs on the opposite side of the body from the location of
the injury, and the parts suffering paralysis will denote, to an expert
veterinarian or physician, the part of the brain which is suffering
compression.

Treatment. — Trephining, by a skillful operator, for the removal of

202 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

the cause when due to depressed bone or the presence of foreign
bodies. When the symptoms of compression follow other acute
diseases of the brain, apoplectic fits, etc., the treatment must be such
as the exigencies of the case demands.

CONCUSSION OF THE BRAIN.

Causes. — This is generally caused by an animal falling over back-
ward and striking his poll, or perhaps falling forward on his nose;
by a blow on the head, etc. Train accidents during shipping often
cause concussion of the brain.

Symptoms. — Concussion of the brain is characterized by giddiness,
stupor, insensibility, or loss of muscular power, succeeding imme-
diately upon a blow or severe injury involving the cranium. The
animal may rally quickly or not for hours ; death may occur on the
spot or after a few days. When there is only slight concussion or
stunning, the animal soon recovers from the shock. When more
severe, insensibility may be complete and continue for a considerable
time; the animal lies as if in a deep sleep; the pupils are insensible
to light ; the pulse fluttering or feeble ; the surface of the body cold,
muscles relaxed, and the breathing scarcely perceptible. After a
variable interval partial recovery may take place, which is marked
by paralysis of some parts of the body, often of a limb, the lips, ear,
etc. Convalescence is usually tedious, and frequently permanent im-
pairment of some organs remains.

Pathology. ^Concussion produces laceration of the brain, or at
least a jarring of the nervous elements, which, if not sufficiently severe
to produce sudden death, may lead to softening or inflammation, with
their respective symptoms of functional derangement.

Treatment. — The first object in treatment will be to establish reac-
tion or to arouse the feeble and weakening heart. This can often be
accomplished by dashing cold water on the head and body of the ani-
mal; frequent injections of weak ammonia water, ginger tea, or oil
and turpentine should be given per rectum. In the majority of cases
this will soon bring the horse to a state of consciousness. In more
severe cases mustard poultices should be applied along the spine and
above the fetlocks. As soon as the animal gains partial consciousness
stimulants, in the form of whisky or capsicum tea, should be given.
Owing to severity of the structural injury to the brain or the pos-
sible rupture of blood vessels and blood extravasation, the reaction
may often be followed by encephalitis or cerebritis, and will then
have to be treated accordingly. For this reason the stimulants
should not be administered too freely, and they must be abandoned
as soon as reaction is established. There is no need for further
treatment unless complications develop as a secondary result. Bleed-
ing, which is so often practiced, proves almost invariably fatal in

DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 203

this form of brain affection. We should also remember that it is
never safe to drench a horse with large quantities of medicine when
he is unconscious, for he is very liable to draw the medicine into the
lungs in inspiration.

Prevention. — Young horses, when harnessed or bitted for the first
few times, should not have their heads checked up high, for it fre-
quently causes them to rear up, and, being unable to control their
balance, they are liable to fall over sideways or backwards, thus
causing brain concussion when they strike the ground.

ANEMIA OF THE BRAIN.

This is a physiological condition in sleep.

Causes. — It is considered a disease or may give rise to disease when
the circulation and blood supply of the brain are interfered with.
In some diseases of the heart the brain becomes anemic, and fainting
fits occur, with temporary loss of consciousness. Tumors growing
within the cranium may press upon one or more arteries and stop the
supply of blood to certain parts of the brain, thus inducing anemia,
ultimately atrophy, softening, or suppuration. Probably the most
frequent cause is found in plugging, or occlusion, of the arteries by
a blood clot.

Symptoms. — Imperfect vision, constantly dilated pupils, frequently
a feeble and staggering gait, and occasionally cramps, convulsions, or
epileptic fits occur.

Pathology. — The exact opposite of cerebral hyperemia. The blood
vessels are found empty, the membranes blanched, and the brain sub-
stance softened.

Treatment. — Removal of the remote cause when possible. General
tonics, nutritious food, rest, and removal from all causes of nervous
excitement.

HYDROCEPHALUS, OR DROPSY OF THE BRAIN,

This condition consists in an unnatural collection of fluid about or
in the brain. Depending upon the location of the fluid, we speak of
external and internal hydrocephalus.

External hydrocephalus is seen chiefly in young animals. It con-
sists in a collection of fluid under the meninges, but outside of the
brain proper. This defect is usually congenital. It is accompanied
by an enlargement of the skull, especially in the region of the fore-
head. The pressure of the fluid may cause the bones to soften. The
disease is incurable and usually fatal.

Internal hydrocephalus is a disease of mature horses, and consists
in the accumulation of an excessive quantity of fluid in the cavities
or ventricles of the cerebrum. The cause of this accumulation may
be a previous inflammation, a defect in the circulation of blood

204 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

through the brain, heat stroke, overwork, excessive nutrition, or long-
continued indigestion. Common, heavy-headed draft horses are pre-
disposed to this condition.

The symiotoms are an expression of duUness and stupidity, and
from their nature this disease is sometimes known as " dumminess "
or " immobility." A horse so afflicted is called a " dummy." Among
the symptoms are loss of intelligence, stupid expression, poor mem-
ory, etc. The appetite is irregular ; the horse may stop chewing with,
a wisp of hay protruding from his lips ; he seems to forget that it is
there. Unnatural positions are sometimes assumed, the legs being
placed in clumsy and unusual attitudes. Such horses are difficult to
drive, as they do not respond readily to the word, to pressure of the
bit, or to the whip. Gradually the pulse becomes weaker, respiration
becomes faster, and the subject loses weight. Occasionally there are
periods of great excitement due to temporary congestion of the brain.
At such times the horse becomes quite uncontrollable. A horse so
afflicted is said to have " staggers." The outlook for recovery is not
good.

Treatment is merely palliative. Regular work or exercise and nutri-
tious food easy of digestion, with plenty of fresh water, are strongly
indicated. Intensive feeding should not be practiced. The bowels
should be kept open by the use of appropriate diet or by the use of
small regular doses of Glauber's salts.

TUMORS WITHIN THE CRANIUM.

Tumors within the cranial cavity and the brain occur not infre-
quently, and give rise to a variety of svmptoms, imperfect control of
voluntary movement, local paralysis, epilepsy, etc. Among the more
common tumors are the following :

Osseous tumors^ growing from the walls of the cranium, are not
very uncommon.

Dentigerous cysts^ containing a formation identical to that of a
tooth, growing from the temporal bone, sometimes are found lying
loose within the cranium.

Tumors of the choroid plexus, known as hrain sand, are frequently
met with on post-mortem examinations, but seldom give rise to any
appreciable symptoms during life. They are found in horses at all
ages, and are of slow development. They are found in one or both
of the lateral ventricles, enveloped in the folds of the choroid plexus.

Melanotic tumors have been found in the brain and meninges in
the form of small, black nodules in gray horses, and in one instance
are believed to have induced the condition known as stringhalt.

Fibrous tumors may develop within or from the meningeal struc-
tures of the brain.

DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 205

GliomMoiis tumor is a variety of sarcoma very rarely found in the
structure of the cerebellum.

Treatment for tumors of the brain is impossible.

SPASMS, OR CRAMPS.

Causes. — Spasm is a marked sj^mptom in many diseases of the brain
and of the spinal cord. Spasms may result from irritation of the
motor nerves as conductors, or may result from irritation of any
part of the sympathetic nervous system, and they usually indicate
an excessive action of the reflex motor centers. Spasms may be
induced by various medicinal agents given in poisonous doses, or by
effete materials in the circvdation, such as nux vomica or its alkaloid
strychnia, lead preparations, or an excess of the urea products in the
circulation, etc. Spasms may be divided into two classes: Tonio
spasm, when the cramp is continuous or results in persistent rigidity,
as in tetanus; clonic spasm, when the cramping is of short duration,
or is alternated with relaxations. Spasms may affect involuntary
as well as the voluntary muscles, the muscles of the glottis, intestines,
and even the heart. They are always sudden in their development.

Spasm of the glottis. — This is manifested by a strangling respira-
tion ; a wheezing noise is produced in the act of inspiration ; extreme
anxiety and suffering for want of air. The head is extended, the
body profusely perspiring; pulse very rapid; soon great exhaustion
becomes manifest; the mucous membranes become turgid and very
dark colored, and the animal thus may suffocate in a short time.

Spasms of the intestines. — (See " Cramp colic," p. 58.)

Spasms of the neck of the hladder. — This may be due to spinal irri-
tation or a reflex from intestinal irritation, and is manifested by fre-
quent but ineffectual attempts to urinate.

Spasm of the diaphragm, or thumps. — Spasmodic contraction of
the diaphragm, the principal muscle used in respiration, is generally
occasioned by extreme and prolonged speeding on the race track or
road. The severe strain thus put upon this muscle finally induces
irritation of the nerves controlling it, and the contractions become
very forcible and violent, giving the jerking character known among
horsemen as " thumps." This condition may be distinguished from
violent beating of the heart by feeling the pulse beat at the angle of
the jaw, and at the same time watching the jerking movement of the
body, when it will be discovered that the two bear no relation to each
other. (See " Palpitation of the heart," p. 236.)

Spasm, of the thigh, or cramp of a hind limb. — This is frequently
witnessed in horses that stand on sloping jjlank floors — generally in
cold weather — or it may come on soon after severe exercise. It is
probably due to an irritation of the nerves of the thigh. In cramps
of the hind leg the limb becomes perfectly rigid, and attempts to flex

206 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

the leg are unsuccessful; the animal stands on the affected limb, but
is unable to move it; it is unnaturally cold; it does not, however,
appear to cause much suffering unless attempts are made to change
position. This cramp may be of short duration — a few minutes — or
it may persist for several days. This condition is often taken for a
dislocation of the stifle joint. In the latter the foot is extended back-
w^ard, and the horse is unable to advance it, but drags the limb after
him. An examination of the joint also reveals a change in form.
Spasms may affect the eyelids, by closure or by retraction. Spasm of
the sterno-maxillaris muscle has been witnessed, and the animal was
unable to close the jaws until the muscle became relaxed.

Treatment of spasms. — An anodyne liniment, composed of chloro-
form 1 part and soap liniment 4 parts, applied to cramped muscles
will usually cause relaxation. This may be used where single exter-
nal muscles are affected. In spasms of the glottis, inhalation of sul-
phuric ether will give quick relief. In spasm of the diaphragm, rest
and the administration of half an ounce of chloroform in 3 ounces of
whisky, with a pint of water added, will generally suffice to bring
relief, or if this fails give 5 grains of sulphate of morphia by hypo-
dermic injection. If spasms result from organic disease of the nerv-
ous system, the latter should receive such treatment as its character
demands. In cramp of the leg compulsory movement usually causes
relaxation very quickly; therefore the animal should be led out of
the stable and be forced to run or trot. Sudden nervous excitement
caused by a crack of the whip or smart blow, will often bring about
immediate relief. Should this fail, the anodyne liniment may be
used along the inside of the thigh, and chloroform, ether, or lauda-
num given internally. An ounce of the chloral hydrate will cer-
tainly relieve the spasm when given internally, but the cramp may.
return soon after the effect has passed off, which in many cases it
does very quickly.

Convulsions. — Although there is no disease of the nervous system
which can be properly termed convulsive, or justify the use of the
word convulsion to indicate any particular disease, yet it is often
such a j)rominent symptom that a few w^ords may not be out of place.
General, irregular muscular contractions of various parts of the body,
with unconsciousness, characterize what we regard as convulsions,
and like ordinary spasms are dependent upon some disease or irrita-
tion of the nervous structures, chiefly of the brain. No treatment is
required; in fact, a general convulsion must necessarily be self-
limited in its duration. Suspending, as it does, respiratory move-
ments, checking the oxygenation and decarbonization of the blood,
the rapid accumulation of carbonic-acid gas in the blood and the
exclusion of oxygen quickly puts the blood in a condition to produce
the most reliable and speedy sedative effect upon the nerve excitabil-

DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 207

ity that could be found, and consequently furnishes its own remedy
so far as the continuance of the convulsive paroxysm is concerned.
'\'\niatever treatment is instituted must be directed toward a removal
of the cause of the convulsive paroxysm.

CHOREA, OR ST. VITUS DANCE.

Chorea is characterized by involuntary contractions of voluntary
muscles. This disease is an obscure disorder, which may be due to
pressure upon a nerve, cerebral, or spinal sclerosis, small aneurisms
in the brain, etc. Choreic symptoms have been produced by injecting
granules of starch into the arteries entering the brain. Epilepsy and
other forms of convidsions simulate chorea in appearance.

Stinnghalt is by some termed chorea. This is manifested by a sud-
den jerking up of one or both hind legs when the animal is walking.
This symptom may be very slight in some horses, but has a tendency
to increase with the age of the animal. In some the catching up of
the affected leg is very violent, and when it is lowered to the ground
the motion is equally sudden and forcible, striking the foot to the
ground like a pile driver. Very rarely chorea may be found to affect
one of the fore legs, or the muscles of one side of the neck or the
upper part of the neck. Involuntary jerking of the muscles of the
hip or thigh is seen occasionally, and is termed " shivering " by
horsemen.

Chorea is often associated with a nervous disposition, and is not so
frequent in animals with a sluggish temperament. The involuntary
muscular contractions cause no pain, and do not appear to produce
much exhaustion of the affected muscles, although the jerking may be
regidar and persistent whenever the animal is in motion.

Treatment. — In a few cases, early in the appearance of this affec-
tion, general nerve tonics may be of benefit, viz, iodide of iron, 1
dram ; pulverized nux vomica, 1 dram ; pulverized Scutellaria, 1 ounce.
Mix and give in the feed once a day for two wrecks. Arsenic in the
form of Fowler's soliition is often beneficial. If the cause is con-
nected with organic brain lesions, treatment is usually unsuccessful.

EPILEPSY, OR FALLING FITS.

Tlie cause of epilepsy is seldom traceable to any special brain lesions.
In a few cases it accompanies disease of" the pituitary body, which is
located in the under surface of the brain. Softening of the brain
may give rise to this affection. Attacks may occur only once or twice
a year or they may be of frequent recurrence.

Syviptoms. — No premonitory symptoms precede an epileptic fit.
The animal suddenly staggers; the muscles become cramped; the
jaws may be spasmodically opened and closed, and the tongue be-

208 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

come lacerated between the teeth; he foams at the mouth and falls
down in a spasm. The urine flows away involuntarily, and the
breathing may be temporarily arrested. The paroxysm soon passes
off, and the animal gets on his feet in a few minutes after the return
of consciousness.

Treatment. — Dashing cold water on the head during the paroxysm.
After the recovery, 1 dram of oxide of zinc may be given in his feed
twice a day for several weeks, or benefit may be derived from the
tonic prescribed for chorea.

PARALYSIS, OR PALSY.

Paralysis is a weakness or cessation of the muscular contraction,
by diminution of loss of the conducting power or stimulation of the
motor nerves. Paralytic affections are of two kinds, the complete and
the incomplete. The former includes those in which both motion and
sensibility are affected ; the latter those in which only one or the other
is lost or diminished. Paralysis may be general or partial. The
latter is divided into hemiplegia and paraplegia. When only a small
portion of the body is affected, as the face, a limb, the tail, it is desig-
nated by the term local paralysis. When the irritation extends from
the periphery of the center it is termed reflex paralysis.

Causes. — They are very varied. Most of the acute affections of the
brain and spinal cord may lead to paralysis. Injuries, tumors, disease
of the blood vessels of the brain, etc., all have a tendency to produce
suspension of the conducting motive power to the muscular structures.
Pressure upon, or the severing of, a nerve causes a paralysis of the
parts to which such a nerve is distributed. Apoplexy may be termed
a general paralysis, and in nonfatal attacks is a frequent cause of the
various forms of palsy.

General paralysis. — This can not take place without producing
immediate death. The term is, however, usually applied to paralysis
of the four extremities, whether any other portions of the body are
involved or not. This form of palsy is due to compression of the
brain b}^ congestion of its vessels, large clot formation in apoplexy,
concussion, or shock, or any disease in which the whole brain structure
is involved in functional disturbance.

Hemiplegia., or paralysis of one side., or half, of the body. — Hemi-
plegia is frequently the result of a tumor in the lateral ventricles of
the brain, softening of one hemisphere of the cerebrum, pressure from
extravasated blood, fracture of the cranium, or it may be due to poi-
sons in the blood or to reflex origin. "^Vlien hemiplegia is due to or
the result of a prior disease of the brain, especially of an inflamma-
tory character, it is seldom complete ; it may affect only one limb and
one side of the head, neck, or muscles along the back, and may pass off'
in a few days after the disappearance of all the other evidences of ihe

PARALYSIS. 209

primary affection. In the majority of cases, however, hemiplegia
arises from emboli obstructing one or more blood vessels of the brain,
or the rupture of some vessel the wall of which had become weakened
by degeneration and the extravasation of blood. Sensibility in most
cases is not impaired, but in some there is a loss of sensibility as well
as of motion. In some cases the bladder and rectum are involved in
the paralysis.

Symptoms. — In hemiplegia the attack may be very sudden, and the
animal fall down powerless to move one side of the body, one side of
the lips will be relaxed ; the tongue may hang out on one side of the
mouth ; the tail curved around sideways ; an inability to swallow food
or water may be present, and often the urine dribbles away as fast as
it collects in the bladder. Sensibility of the affected side may be
entirely lost or only partial; the limbs may be cold and sometimes
unnaturally warm. In cases wherein the attack is not so severe the
animal may be able to maintain the standing position, but will have
great difficulty in moving the affected side. In such cases the animal
may recover from the disability. In the more severe, where there is
complete loss of power of movement, recoveries are rare.

Para'plegia., or transverse paralysis of the hind extremities. — Pa-
ralysis of the hind extremities is usually due to some injury or inflam-
mation affecting the spinal cord. (See " Spinal meningitis," p. 211,
and " Myelitis, p. 213.) It may also be due to a reflex irritation
from disease of peripheral nerves, to spinal irritation or congestion
caused by blood poisons, etc.

Symptoms. — Wlien due to mechanical injury of the spinal cord,
from a broken back or spinal hemorrhage, it is generally progressive
in its character, although it may be sudden. When it is caused by
agents in the blood, it may be intermittent or recurrent.

Paraplegia is not difficult to recognize, for it is characterized by a
weakness and imperfect control of the hind legs and powerless tail.
The urine usually dribbles away as it is formed and the manure is
pushed out, ball by ball, without any voluntary effort, or the passages
may cease entirely. "When paraplegia is complete, large and ill-
conditioned sores soon form on the hips and thighs from chafing and
bruising, which have a tendency to quickly weaken the animal and
necessitate his destruction.

Locomotor ataxia., or incoordination of movement. — This is charac-
terized by an inability to control properly the movement of the limbs.
The animal appears usually perfectly healthy, but when he is led out
of his stall his legs have a wobbly movement, and he will stumble or
stagger, especially in turning. ^Vlien this is confined to the hind
parts it may be termed a modified form of paraplegia, but often it
may be seen to affect nearly all the voluntary muscles when they are

H. Doc. 795, 59-2 14

''210 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

called into play, and must be attributed to some pressure exerted on
the base of the brain.

Local paralysis. — This is freqiiently met with in horses. It may
affect many parts of the body, even vital organs, and it is very
frequently overlooked in diagnosis.

Facial 'paralysis. — This is a frequent type of local paralysis, and is
due to impairment of function of the motor nerve of the facial
muscles, the portio dura. The cause may exist at the base of the
brain, compression along its course after it leaves the medulla oblon-
gata, or to a bruise after it spreads out on the great masseter muscle.

Symptoms. — A flaccid condition of the cheek muscles, pendulous
lips, inability to grasp the food, often a slow and weak movement in
chewing, and difficulty and slowness in drinking.

Laryngismus paralyticus, or roaring. — This condition is character-
ized by roaring, and is usually caused by an inflamed or hypertro-
l^hied bronchial gland pressing against the left recurrent laryngeal
nerve, which interferes with its conducting power. A similar con-
dition is occasionally induced in acute pleurisy, where the recurrent
nerve becomes involved in the diseased process or compressed by
plastic exudation.

Paralysis of the rectum and tail. — This is generally the result of a
blow or fall on the rump, which causes a fracture of the sacrum bone
and injury to the nerves supplying the tail and part of the rectum
and muscles belonging thereto. This fracture would not be suspectedj
were it not for the loss of motion of the tail.

Intestinal paralysis. — Characterized by persistent constipation;
frequently the strongest purgatives have no effect whatever on the
movement of the bowels. In the absence of symptoms of indigestion,
or special diseases implicating the intestinal canal, torpor of the
bowels must be attributed to deficient innervation. This condition
may depend upon brain affections or be due to reflex paralysis. Sud-
den checks of perspiration may induce excessive action of the bowels
or paralysis.

Paralysis of the bladder. — This usually affects the neck of the blad-
der, and is characterized by incontinence of urine ; the urine dribbles
away as fast as it is secreted. The cause may be of reflex origin,
disease of the rectum, tumors growing within the pelvic cavity, injury
to the spinal cord, etc.

Parcdysis of the optic nerve, or amaurosis. — A paralysis of eyesight
may occur very suddenly from rupture of a blood vessel in the brain,
acute local congestion of the brain, the administration of excessive
doses of belladonna or its alkaloid atropia, etc. In amaurosis the
pupil is dilated to its full extent, the eye looks clear, but does not
respond to light.

SPINAL MENINGITIS. 211

Paralysis of hearing, of the external ear, of the eyelid, partial
paralysis of the heart and organs of respiration, of the blood vessels
from injury to the vaso- motor nerves of the esophagus, or loss of
deglutition, palsy of the stomach, all may be manifested when the
supply of nervous influence is impaired or suspended.

Treatment for faralysis. — In all paralytic affections there may be
anesthesia^ or impairment of sensibility, in addition to the loss of
motion, or there may be hyperesthesia^ or increased sensibility, in
connection with the loss of motion. These conditions may call for
special treatment in addition to that for loss of motion. Where
hyperesthesia is well marked local anodynes may be needed to relieve
suffering. Chloroform liniment or hypodermic injections of from
3 to 5 grains of sulphate of morphia will allay local pain. If there is
marked anesthesia, or loss of sensibility, it may become necessary to
secure the animal in such a way that he can not suffer serious
injury from accidents which he can not avoid or feel. In the treat-
ment of any form of paralysis we must always refer to the cause, and
attempt its removal if it can be discovered. In cases where the
cause' can not be determined we have to rely solely upon a general
external and internal treatment. Externally, fly blisters or strong
irritant liniments may be applied to the paralyzed parts. In hemi-
plegia they should be applied along the bony part of the side of the
neck; in paraplegia, across the loins. In some cases hot-water cloths
will be beneficial. Internally, it is well to administer 1 dram of
powdered nux vomica or 2 grains of sulphate of strychnia twice a
day until twitching of some of the voluntary muscles occurs; then
discontinue it for several days, and then commence again with a
smaller dose, gradually increasing it until twitching recurs. Iodide
of potash in 1 to 2 dram doses two or three times daily may be em-
ployed with the hope that it will favor the absorption of the clot or
obstruction to the nervous current. In some cases Fowler's solution
of arsenic in teaspoonful doses twice a day in the drinking water
proves beneficial. Occasionally benefit may be derived from the
application of the electric current, especially in cases of roaring,
facial paralysis, paralysis of the eyelid, etc. Nutritious but not
too bulky food, good ventilation, clean stabling, moderate exercise
if the animal is capable of taking it, good grooming, etc., should
be observed in all cases.

SPINAL MENINGITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE MEMBRANES ENVELOPING
THE SPINAL CORD.

Causes. — This may be induced by the irritant properties of blood
poisons, exhaustion and exposure, spinal concussion, all forms of
injury to the spine, tumors, caries of the vertebrae, rheumatism, etc.

Syni'ptoms. — A chill may be the precursor, a rise in temperature, or

212 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

a general weakness and shifting of the legs. Soon a painful, convul-
sive twitching of the muscles sets in, followed by muscular rigidity
along the spine, in which condition the animal will move very stiffly
and evince great pain in turning. Evidences of paralysis or para-
plegia develop, retention or incontinence of urine, and oftentimes
sexual excitement is present. The presence of marked fever at the
beginning of the attack, associated with spinal symptoms, should lead
us to suspect spinal meningitis or myelitis. These two conditions
usually appear together, or myelitis follows inflammation of the
meninges so closely that it is almost impossible to separate the two;
practically it does not matter much, for the treatment will be about
the same in both cases. Spinal meningitis generally becomes chronic,
and is then marked principally by paralysis of that portion, or parts
of it, posterior to the seat of the disease.

Pathology. — In spinal meningitis we will find essentially the same
condition as in cerebral meningitis ; there will be an effusion of serum
between the membranes, and often a plastic exudation firmly adherent
to the pia mater serves to maintain a state of paralysis for a long time
after the acute symptoms have disappeared by compressing the cord.
Finally, atrophy, softening, and even abscess may develop* within the
cord. Unlike in man, it is usually found localized in horses.

Treatment. — Bags filled with ice should be applied along the spine,
to be followed later on by strong blisters. The fever should be con-
trolled as early as possible by giving 20 drops of Norwood's tincture
of veratrum viride every hour until the desired result is obtained.
One dram of the fluid extract of belladonna, to control pain and vas-
cular excitement of the spinal cord, may be given every five or six
hours until the pupils of the eyes become pretty well dilated. If the
pain is very intense 5 grains of sulphate of morphia should be injected
hypodermically. The animal must be kept as free from excitement
as possible. If the urine is retained in the bladder it must be drawn
off every four or six hours. In very acute attacks the disease gener-
ally proves fatal in a few days. If, however, the animal grows better
some form of paralysis is apt to remain for a long time, and the
treatment will have to be directed then toward a removal of the exuda-
tive products and a strengthening of the system and stimulation of
the nervous functions. To induce absorption, iodide of potassa in
2-dram doses may be given, dissolved in the drinking water, twice a
day. To strengthen the system, iodide of iron 1 dram twice a day
and 1 dram of nux vomica once a day may be given in the feed.
Electricity to the paralyzed and weakened muscles is advisable; the
current should be weak, but be continued for half an hour two or
three times daily. If the disease is due to a broken back, caries of
the vertebra?, or some other irremediable cause, the animal should be
destroyed at once.

DISEASES OF THE SPINAL COED. 213

MYELITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE SUBSTANCE OF THE SPINAL CORD.

This is a rare disease, except as a secondary result of spinal menin-
gitis or injuries to the spine. Poisoning by lead, arsenic, mercury,
phosphorus, carbonic-acid gas, etc., has been known to produce it.
Myelitis may be confined to a small spot in the cord or may involve
the whole for a variable distance. It may lead to softening, abscess,
or degeneration.

Sy^nptoms. — The attack may begin with a chill or convulsions ; the
muscles twitch or become cramped very early in the disease, and the
bladder usually is affected at the outset, in which there may be either
retention or incontinence of urine. These conditions are followed by
complete or partial paralysis of the muscles posterior to the locality of
the inflamed cord, and the muscles begin to waste away rapidly. The
paralyzed limb becomes cold and dry, due to the suspension of proper
circulation; the joints may swell and become edematous; vesicular
eruptions appear on the skin; and frequently gangrenous sloughs
form on the paralyzed parts. It is exceedingly seldom that recovery
takes place. In a few instances it may assume a chronic type, when
all the symptoms become mitigated, and thus continue for some time,
until septicemia, pyemia, or exhaustion causes death.

Pathology. — The inflammation may involve nearly the whole length
of the cord, but generally it is more intense in some places than others;
when due to mechanical injury, the inflammation may remain con-
fined to a small section. The cord is swollen and congested, reddened,
often softened and infiltrated with pus cells, and the nerve elements
are degenerated.

Treatment. — Similar to that of spinal meningitis.

SPINAL CONGESTION.

This condition consists in an excess of blood. As the blood vessels
of the pia mater are the principal source of supply to the spinal cord,
peremia of the cord and of the meriinges usually go together. The
symptoms are, therefore, closely allied to those of spinal meningitis
and congestion. When the pia mater is diseased, the spinal cord is
almost invariably affected also.

Cause. — Sudden checking of the perspiration, violent exercise,
blows, and falls.

Symptoms. — The symptoms may vary somewhat with each case,
and closely resemble the first symptoms of spinal meningitis, spinal
tumors, and myelitis. First, some disturbance in movement, lower-
ing of the temperature, and partial loss of sensibility posterior to the
seat of the congestion. If in the cervical region, it may cause inter-
ference in breathing and the action of the heart. When in the region
of the loins, there may be loss of control of the bladder. When the

214 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

congestion is sufficient to produce compression of the cord, paraplegia
may be complete. Usually fever, spasms, muscular twitching, or
muscular rigidity are absent, which will serve to distinguish spinal
congestion from spinal meningitis.

Treatment. — Hot-water applications to the spine, 1-dram doses
fluid extract of belladonna repeated every four hours, and tincture
of aconite root 20 drops every hour until the symptoms become amel-
iorated. If no inflammatory products occur, the animal is likely to
recover.

SPINAIi ANEMIA.

This may be caused by extreme cold, exhausting diseases, spinal
embolism or plugging of a spinal blood vessel, an interference with
the circulation through the abdominal aorta, from compression,
thrombosis, or aneurism of that vessel; the spinal vessels may be
caused to contract through vaso-motor influence, a result of periph-
eral irritation of some nerve.

Symptoms. — Spinal anemia causes paralysis of the muscles used in
extending the limbs. When the bladder is affected, it precedes the
weakness of motion, while in spinal congestion it follows, and in-
creased sensibility, in f)lace of diminished sensibility, as in spinal con-
gestion, is observed. Pressure along the spine causes excessive pain.

Treatment. — If the exciting cause can be removed, the animal re-
covers ; if this fails, the spinal cord may undergo softening.

SPINAL COMPRESSION.

When caused by tumors or otherwise, when pressure is slight, it
produces a paralysis of the muscles used in extending a limb and con-
traction of those which flex it. When compression is great it causes
complete loss of sensibility and motion posterior to the compressed
part of the cord.

Compression of a lateral half of the cord produces motor paralysis,
disturbance of the circulation, and difficulty of movement, an in-
creased sensibility on the side corresponding to the compressed sec-
tion, and a diminished sensibility and some paralysis on the opposite
side.

Treatment. — When it occurs as a sequence of a preceding inflam-
matory disease, iodide of potassa and general tonics are indicated.
When due to tumors growing within the spinal canal, or to pressure
from displaced bone, no form of treatment will result in any benefit.

SPINAL HEMORRHAGE.

This may occur from changes in the wall of the blood vessels, in
connection with tumors, acute myelitis, traumatic injuries, etc. The
blood may escape through the pia mater into the subarachnoid cavity,
and large clots be formed.

DISEASES OF THE SPINAL COED. 215

Sym'ptoms, — The symptoms are largely dependent upon the seat
and extent of the hemorrhage, as they are principally due to the com-
jDression of the cord. A large clot may produce sudden paraplegia,
accompanied by severe pain along the spine; usually, however, the
paralysis of both motion and sensation is not very marked at first;
on the second or third day fever is apt to appear, and increased or
diminished sensibility along the spine posterior to the seat of the clot.
AVlien the bladder and rectum are involved in the symptoms it indi-
cates that the spinal cord is compressed.

Treatment. — In the occurrence of injuries to the back of a horse,
whenever there is any evidence of paralysis, it is always advisable to
apply bags of ice along the spine to check or prevent hemorrhage or
congestion, and 2 drams of the fluid extract of ergot and 20 drops of
tincture of digitalis may be given every hour until three doses have
been taken. Subsequently tincture of belladonna in half-ounce doses
may be given three times a day. If there is much pain, 5 grains of
sulphate of morphia, injected under the skin, will afford relief and
lessen the excitability of the animal. In all cases the animal should
be kept perfectly quiet.

SPINAL CONCUSSION.

This is rarely observed in the horse, and unless it is sufficiently
severe to produce well-marked symptoms it would not be suspected.
It may occur in saddle horses from jumping, or it may be produced
by falling over an embankment, or a violent fall upon the haunches
may produce it. Concussion may be followed by partial paralysis or
spinal hemorrhage : generally, however, it is confined to a jarring and
some disturbance of the nerve elements of the cord, and the paralytic
effect which ensues soon passes off. Treatment consists in rest until
the animal has completely recovered from the shock. If secondary
effects follow from hemorrhage or compression, they have to be
treated as heretofore directed.

SPINAL TUMOKS.

Within the substance of the cord glioma or the mixed gliosarco-
mata are found to be the most frequent, tumors may form from the
meninges and the vertebrse, being of a fibrous or bony nature, and
affect the spinal cord indirectly by compression. In the meninges we
may find glioma, cancers, and psammoma, fibromata; and aneurisms
of the spinal arteries have been discovered in the spinal canal.

SymptoTThs. — ^Tumors of the spinal canal cause symptoms of spinal
irritation or compression of the cord. The gradual and slow develop-
ment of symptoms of paralysis of one or both hind limbs or certain
muscles may lead to a suspicion of spinal tumors. The paralysis
induced is progressive, but not usually marked with atrophy of the

216 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

muscles or increased sensibility along the spine. When the tumor is
within the spinal cord itself all the symptoms of myelitis may be
present.

Treatment. — General tonics and 1-dram doses of nux vomica may
be given; iodide of iron or iodide of potassa in 1-dram doses, three
times a day in feed, may, in a very few cases, giA^e some temporary
benefit. Usually the disease progresses steadily until it proves fatal.

NEURITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF A NERVE.

This is caused by a bruise or wound of a nerve or by strangulation
in a ligature when the nerve is included in the ligation of an artery.
The changes in an inflamed nerve are an enlargement, reddening of
the nerve sheath, spots of extravasated blood, and sometimes an infil-
tration of serum mixed with pus.

Symptoms. — Acute pain of the parts supplied by the nerve and
absence of swelling or increased heat of the part.

Treatment. — Hypodermic injections of from 3 to 5 grains of mor-
phia to relieve pain, hot fomentations, and rest. If it is due to an
inclusion of a ligature, the nerve should be divided above and below
the ligature.

NEUROMA, OR TUMOR OF A NERVE.

Neuroma may be from enlargement of the end of a divided nerve
or due to fibrous degeneration of a nerve which has been bruised or
wounded. Its most frequent occurrence is found after the operation
of neurotomy for foot lameness, and it may appear after the lapse of
months or even years. Neuroma usually develops within the sheath
of the nerve with or without implicating the nerve fibers. It is oval,
running lengthwise with the direction of the nerve.

Symptoms. — Pain of the affected limb or part is manifested, more
especially after resting a while, and when pressure is made upon the
tumor it causes extreme suffering.

Treatment. — Excision of the tumor, including part of the nerve
above and below, and then treat it like any other simple wound.

INJURIES TO NERVES.

These may consist in wounding, bruising, laceration, stretching,
compression, etc. The symptoms which are produced will depend
upon the extent, seat, and character of the injury. Recovery may
quickly take place, or it may lead to neuritis, neuroma, or spinal or
cerebral irritation, which may result in tetanus, paralysis, and other
serious derangements. In all diseases, whether produced by some
form of external violence or intrinsic causes, the nei-ves are necessa-
rily involved, and sometimes it is to a primary injury of them that the
principal fault in movement or change of nutrition of a part is due.

FORAGE POISONING. 217

It is often difficult or impossible to discover that an injury to a nerve
has been inflicted, but whenever this is possible it may enable us to
remedy that which otherwise would result in permanent evil. Treat-
ment should consist in relieving compression, in hot fomentations,
the application of anodyne liniments, excision of the injured part,
and rest.

FORAGE POISONING, OR SO-CALLED CEREBRO-SPINAL. MENINGITIS.

This disease prevails among horses in nearly all parts of the United
States, It is most common in Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North
Carolina, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, New York, Kansas, ISlissouri,
Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. Certain localities are visited by it
almost every year. This condition consists in a poisoning and de-
pression of the nervous system from eating or drinking food or water
containing poison generated by mold or bacteria. It has been shown
to be due to eating damaged ensilage, corn, brewers' grains, oats, etc.,
or to drinking stagnant pond water or water from a well contami-
nated by surface drainage. Horses at pasture may contract this dis-
ease when the growth of gi-ass is so profuse that it mats together and
the lower part dies and ferments or becomes moldy.

In England a similar disease has been called " grass staggers," due
to eating rye grass when it is ripening or when it is cut and eaten
while it is heating and undergoing fermentation. In eastern Penn-
sylvania it was formerly known by the name of " putrid sore throat "
and '' choking distemper." A disease similar in many respects, which
is very prevalent in Virginia, especially along the eastern border, is
commonly known by the name of '* blind staggers," and in many of
the Southern States this has been attributed to the consumption of
worm-eaten corn. Horses of all ages and mules are subject to this
disease.

Sympto7ns. — The symptoms which typify sporadic, or epidemic,
cerebro-spinal meningitis in man are not witnessed among horses,
namely, excessive pain, high fever, and early muscular rigidity. In
the recognition of the severity of the attack we may divide the symp-
toms into three grades. In the most rapidly fatal attacks the animal
may first indicate it by weak, staggering gait, partial or total inabil-
ity to swallow solids or liquids, impairment of eyesight; twitching of
the muscles, and slight cramps may be observed. As a rule, the tem-
perature is not elevated — indeed, it is sometimes below normal. This
is soon followed by a paralysis of the whole body, inability to stand,
delirium in which the animal sometimes goes through a series of auto-
matic movements as if trotting or running; the delirium may become
very violent and the arimal in his unconsciousness may bruise his head
in his struggles very seriously, but usually a deep coma renders him
quiet until he expires. Death in these cases usually takes place in

218 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

from four to twenty- four hours from the time the first symptoms be-
come manifest. The pulse is variable during the progress of the dis-
ease; it may be almost imperceptible at times, and then again very
rapid and irregular; the respirations generally are quick and catch-
ing. In the next form in which this disease may develop it first be-
comes manifest by a difficulty in swallowing and slowness in mastica-
tion, and a weakness which may be first noticed in the strength of the
tail ; the animal will be unable to switch it or to offer resistance when
we bend it up over the croup. The pulse is often a little slower than
normal. There is no evidence of pain ; the respirations are unchanged,
and the temperature little less than normal ; the bowels may be some-
what constipated. These symptoms may remain unchanged for two
or three days and then gradual improvement take place, or the power
to swallow may become entirely lost and the weakness and uncertainty
in gait more and more perceptible ; then sleepiness or coma may ap-
pear; the pulse becomes depressed, slow, and weak, the breathing
stertorous, and paroxysms of delirium develop, with inability to
stand, and some rigidity of the spinal muscles or partial cramp of
the neck and jaws. In such cases death may occur in from six to ten
days from the commencement of the attack. In many cases there is
no evidence of pain, spasm, or fever at any time during the progress
of the disease, and finally profound coma develops and death fol-
lows, painless and without a struggle.

In the last or mildest form the inability of voluntary control of the
limbs becomes but slightly marked, the power of swallowing never
entirely lost, and the animal has no fever, pain, or unconscious move-
ments. Generally the animal will begin to improve about the fourth
day and recovers.

In a few cases the spinal symptoms, manifested by paraplegia, may
be the most prominent symptoms; in others they may be altogether
absent and the main symptoms be difficulty in mastication and swal-
lowing ; rarely it may affect one limb only. In all cases where coma
remains absent for six or seven days the animal is likely to recover.
When changes toward recovery take place, the symptoms usually
leave in the reverse order in Avhich they developed, but local paralysis
may remain for some time, rarely persistent.

One attack does not give immunity, for it may recur at some later
time and prove fatal. Horses have been known to pass through three
attacks, being affected for a week or longer each time.

Treatm.ent. — In the worst class of cases treatment is very seldom
successful, and it is dangerous to attempt the administration of medi-
cine by the mouth, on account of the inability of the animal to swal-
low. If the condition of the animal will admit of a drench, give 4 to
6 ounces of whisky in 2 pints of milk; the inhalation of ammonia

TETANUS, OR LOCKJAW. 219

vapor from a sponge saturated with dilute aqua ammonia may arouse
consciousness.

In the second class of cases a purge should always be given, and
the further treatment recommended is to give strychnia in 2-grain
doses twice or three times daily. If there is twitching of the shoulder
muscles or gnashing of the teeth, this should be discontinued. The
strength of the heart should be kept up with carbonate of ammonia
or whisky. When the animal is unable to swallow, one- fourth-grain
doses of sulphate of atropia may be injected under the skin every
four, six, or eight hours, as the case may demand. The atropia is a
heart stimulant, increases capillary circulation, and quiets pain and
excitability. Wlien the most prominent symptoms abate give such
food as they may be able to eat, and keep fresh, cool water constantly
before them, supporting them in slings if necessary; clean stabling
and plenty of fresh air are of the utmost importance.

Pathology. — Post-mortem examination reveals, in some cases, more
or less congestion of the blood vessels at the base of the brain and
effusion in the ventricles and in the subarachnoid space, both in the
cranial and the spinal cavities. The brain and cord appear softened
in some cases where the greatest evidence of inflammatory action
existed. In other cases the post-mortem examination is entirely
negative, no gross lesions being visible.

Hygienic measures needful. — "VMienever this disease appears in a
stable all the animals should be removed as soon as possible. They
should be provided with clean, well-ventilated, and well-drained
stables, and each animal should receive a laxative and be fed food
and given water from a new, clean source. The abandoned stable
should be thoroughly cleansed from all waste matters, receive a coat
of whitewash containing 4 ounces of carbolic acid to the gallon of
water, and should have time to dry thoroughly before the horses are
replaced. A complete change of food is of the very greatest im-
portance, on account of the belief that the cause resides in diseased
gi^ain, hay, and grass.

TETANUS, OR LOCKJAW.

This disease is characterized by spasms affecting the muscles of
the face, neck, body, and limbs, and of all the muscles supplied by
the cerebro-spinal nerves. The spasms or muscular contractions are
rigid and persistent, yet mixed with occasional more intense con-
tractions of convulsive violence.

Causes. — This disease is caused by a bacillus that is often found in
the soil, in manure and in dust. This germ grows only in the ab-
sence of oxygen. It produces a powerful nerve poison, which causes
the symptoms of tetanus. The germ itself multiplies at the point

220 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

where it is introduced, but its poison is absorbed, and is carried by
the blood to all parts of the body, and thus the nervous system is
poisoned. Deep wounds infected by this germ are more dangerous
than superficial wounds, because in them the germ is more remote
from the oxygen of the air. Hence, nail pricks, etc., are especially
dangerous. In the majority of instances the cause of tetanus can be
traced to wounds, especially pricks and wounds of the feet or of
tendinous structures. It sometimes follows castration, docking, the
introduction of setons, inclusion of a nerve in a ligature, etc. It may
come on a long time after the wound is healed— three or four months.
In some countries where tetanus appears to be enzootic the presump-
tion is that it is due to a specific germ. Horses with a nervous, ex-
citable disposition are more predisposed than those of a more slug-
gish nature. Stallions are more subject to develop tetanus as the
result of wounds than geldings, and geldings more than mares.

Symptoms. — The attacks may be acute or subacute. In an acute
attack the animal usually dies within four days. The first symptoms
which attract the attention of the owner is difficulty in chewing and
swallowing, an extension of the head and protrusion over the inner
part of the eye of the membrana nictitans, or haw. An examination
of the mouth will reveal an inability to open the jaws to their full
extent, and the endeavor to do so will produce great nervous excita-
bility and increased spasm of the muscles of the jaw and neck. The
muscles of the neck and along the spine become rigid and the legs are
moved in a stiff manner. The slightest noise or disturbance throws
the animal into increased spasm of all the affected muscles. The tail
is usually elevated and held immovable; the bowels become consti-
pated early in the attack. The temperature and pulse are not much
changed. These symptoms in the acute type become rapidly aggra-
vated until all the muscles are rigid — in a state of tonic spasm — with
a continuous tremor running through them; a cold perspiration
breaks out on the body; the breathing becomes painful from the
spasm of the muscles used in respiration; the jaws are completely
set, eyebals retracted, lips drawn tightly over the teeth, nostrils di-
lated, and the animal presents a picture of the most extreme agony
until death relieves him. The pulse, which at first was not much
affected, will become quick and hard, or small and thready when the
spasm affects the muscles of the heart. In the subacute cases the jaws
may never become entirely locked ; the nervous excitability and rigid-
ity of the muscles are not so great. There is, however, always some
stiffness of the neck or spine manifest in turning; the haw is turned
over the eyeball when the nose is elevated. It is not uncommon for
owners to continue such animals at their work for several days after
the first symptoms have been observed. All the symptoms may grad-
ually increase in severity for a period of ten days, and then gradually

TETANUS, OR LOCKJAW. 221

diminish under judicious treatment, or they may reach the stage
wherein all the characteristics of acute tetanus become developed. In
some cases, however, we find the muscular cramps almost solely con-
fined to the head or face, perhaps involving those of the neck. In
such cases we have complete trismus (lockjaw), and all the head
symptoms are acutely developed. On the contrary, we may find the
head almost exempt in some cases, and have the body and limbs per-
fectl)^ rigid and incapable of movement without falling.

Tetanus may possibly be confounded with spinal meningitis, but
the character of the spasm-locked jaw, retraction of the eyeballs, the
difficulty in swallowing due to spasms of the muscles of the pharynx,
and above all. the absence of paralysis, should serve to make the
distinction.

Prevention. — Where a valuable horse has sustained a wound that it
is feared niay be followed by tetanus, it is well to administer a dose of
tetanus antitoxin. This is injected beneath the skin with a hypoder-
mic syringe. A very high degree of protection may in this way be
afforded.

Treatment. — The animal should be placed in a box stall without
bedding, as far away as possible from other horses. If in a country
district, the animal should be put into an outbuilding or shed, where
the noise of other animals will not reach him ; if the place is moder-
ately dark it is all the better; in fly time he should be covered with a
light sheet. The attendant must be very careful and quiet about him,
to prevent all unnecessary excitement and increase of spasm. Teta-
nus antitoxin appears to be useful as a remedy in some cases, if given
in very large quantities early in the disease; otherwise it is useless.
Subcutaneous injections of carbolic acid in glycerin and water (car-
bolic acid 30 grains, glycerin and w^ater each 1 ounce) appear to be
useful in some cases. Injections should be given twice daily.

A cathartic, composed of Barbados aloes 6 to 8 drams, with which
may be mixed 2 drams of the solid extract of belladonna, should be
given at once. This is best given in a bail form ; if, however, the ani-
mal is greatly excited by the attempt or can not swallow, the ball may
be dissolved in 2 ounces of olive oil and thrown on the back of the
tongue with a syringe. If the jaws are set, or nearly so, an attempt
to administer medicine by the mouth should not be made. In such
cases one-quarter of a grain of atropia, with 5 grains of sulphate of
morphia, should be dissolved in 1 dram of pure water and injected
under the skin. This should be repeated sufficiently often to keep the
animal continually under its effect. This will usually mitigate the
severity of the spasmodic contraction of the affected muscles and
lessen sensibility to pain. Good results may be obtained sometimes
by the injection per rectum of the fluid extract of belladonna and of
cannabis indica, of each 1 dram, every four or six hours. This may

222 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

be diluted with a quart of milk. When the animal is unable to swal-
low liquids, oatmeal gruel and milk should be given by injection per
rectum to sustain the strength of the animal. A pailful of cool water
should be constantly before him, placed high enough for him to reach
it without special effort; even if he can not drink, the laving of the
mouth is refreshing. Excellent success frequently may be obtained
by clothing the upper part of the head, the neck, and greater part of
the body in woolen blankets kept saturated with very warm water.
This treatment should be continued for six or eight hours at a time.
It often relaxes the cramped muscles and gives them rest and the ani-
mal almost entire freedom from pain ; but it should be used every day
until the acute spasms have permanently subsided in order to be of
any lasting benefit.

Recently subcutaneous injections of brain emulsion have been rec-
ommended. It is thought that the tetanus toxin will attach itself to
the brain cells so injected and thus free the system of this poison.
AVhen it is due to a wound, the wound should be thoroughly cleaned
and disinfected with carbolic acid. If from a wound which has
healed, an excision of the cicatrix may be beneficial. In all cases it
is not uncommon to have a partial recovery followed by relapse when
the animal becomes excited from any cause.

RABIES, HYDROPHOBIA, OR MADNESS.

This disease does not arise spontaneously among horses, but is the
[result of a bite from a rabid animal — generally a dog or cat. The
' development of the disease follows the bite in from three weeks to
three months — very rarely in two weeks. (See also page 548.)

Symptoms. — The first manifestation of the development of this dis-
ease may be an increased excitability and viciousness; very slight
noises or the approach of a person incites the animal to kick, strike,
or bite at any object near him. Very often the horse will bite his own
limbs or sides, lacerating the flesh and tearing the skin. The eyes
appear staring, bloodshot; the ears are on the alert to catch all
sounds; the head is held erect. In some cases the animal will con-
tinually rub and bite the locality of the wound inflicted by the rabid
animal. This symptom may precede all others. Generally the
bowels become constipated and he makes frequent attempts at urina-
tion, which is painful, and the urine very dark colored. The furious
symptoms appear in paroxysms; at other times the animal may eat
and drink, although swallowing appears to become painful toward
the- latter stage of the disease, and may cause renewed paroxysms.
The muscles of the limbs or back may be subject to intermittent
spasms, or spasmodic tremors; finally, the hind limbs become para-
lyzed, breathing very difficult, and convulsions supervene, followed

LEAD POISONING. 223

by death. The pulse and respirations are increased in frequency
from the outset of the attack. Rabies may possibly be mistaken for
tetanus. In the latter disease we find tonic spasms of the muscles of
the jaws, or stiffness of the neck or back very early in the attack, and
e\ddence of viciousness is absent.

Treatment. — As soon as the true nature of the disease is ascertained
the animal should be killed.

Prevention. — When a horse is known to have been bitten by a
rabid animal, immediate cauterization of the wound with a red-hot
iron may possibly destroy the virus before absorption of it takes place.

PLUMBISM, OR LEAD POISONING.

This disease is not of frequent occurrence. It may be due to habit-
ually di'inking water which has been standing in leaden conductors
or in old paint barrels, etc. It has been met with in enzootic form
near smelting works, where, by the fumes arising from such works,
lead in the form of oxide, carbonate, or sulphate was deposited on
the grass and herbage which the horses ate.

Symptoms. — Lead poisoning produces derangement of the func-
tions of digestion and locomotion, or it may affect the lungs princi-
pall3^ In whatever system of organs the lead is deposited mostly
there will we have the symptoms of nervous debility most manifest.
If in the lungs, the breathing becomes difficult and the animal gets
out of breath very quickly when he is compelled to run. Roaring,
also, is very frequently a symptom of lead poisoning. \^nien it
affects the stomach, the animal gradually falls away in flesh, the hair
becomes rough, the skin tight, and colicky symptoms develop. When
the deposit is principally in the muscles, partial or complete paralysis
gradual^ develops. "V^^en large quantities of lead have been taken
in and absorbed, symptoms resembling epilepsy may result, or coma
and delirium develop and prove fatal. In lead poisoning there is
seldom any increase in temperature. A blue line forms along the
gums of the front teeth, and the breath assumes a peculiarly offensive
odor. Lead can always be detected in the urine by chemical tests.

Treatment. — The administration of 2-dram doses of iodide of
potassa three times a day. This will form iodide of lead in the sys-
tem, which is rapidly excreted by the kidneys. If much muscular
weakness or paralysis is present, sulphate of iron in 1-dram doses
and strichnia in 2-grain doses may be given twice a day. In all cases
of suspected lead poisoning all utensils which have entered into the
supply of feed or water should be examined for the presence of
soluble lead. If it occurs near lead works, great care must be given
to the supply of uncontaminated fodder, etc.

224 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

Uremic poisoning may affect the brain in nephritis, acute albumi-
nuria, or when, from any cause, the functions of the kidneys become
impaired or suppressed and urea (a natural product) is no longer
eliminated from these organs, causing it to accumulate in the system
and give rise to uremic poisoning.

Symptoms. — Uremic poisoning is usually preceded by dropsy of
the limbs or abdomen ; a peculiar fetid breath is often noticed ; then
drowsiness, attacks of diarrhea, and general debility ensue. Sud-
denly extreme stupor or coma develops; the surface of the body
becomes cold; the pupils are insensible to light; the pulse slow and
intermitting; the breathing labored, and death supervenes. The
temperature throughout the disease is seldom increased, unless the
disease becomes complicated with acute inflammatory disease of the
brain or respiratory organs, which often occur as a result of the urea
in the circulation. Albumen and tube casts may frequently be found
in the urine. The disease almost invariably proves fatal.

Treatment. — This must be directed to a removal of the cause.

ELECTRIC SHOCK.

Electric shock, from coming in contact with electric wires, is becom-
ing a matter of rather frequent occurrence, and has a similar effect
upon the animal system as a shock from lightning. Two degrees of
electric or lightning shock may be observed, one producing temporary
contraction of muscles and insensibility, from which recovery is pos-
sible, the other killing directly, by producing a condition of nervous
and general insensibility. In shocks which are not immediately fatal
the animal is usually insensible, the respiration slow, labored, or gasp-
ing, the pulse slow, feeble, and irregular, and the pupils dilated and
not sensitive, or they may be contracted and sensitive. The tempera-
ture is lowered. There may be a tendency to convulsions or spasms.
The predominating symptoms are extreme caraiac and respiratory
depression.

Treatment. — Sulphate of atropia should be given hypodermically in
one-quarter grain doses every hour or two hours until the heart beats
are invigorated, the number and fullness of the respirations increased,
and consciousness returns. Stimulating injections per rectum may
also be useful in arousing the circulation ; for this purpose whisky or
ammonia water may be used.

DISEASES OF THE HEART, BLOOD VESSELS,
AND LYMPHATICS.

By M. R. Trumbowek, V. S.

[Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.]

ANATOMT AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS.

The heart is a hollow, muscular organ, situated a little to the left of
the center of the chest. Its impulse is felt on the left side on account
of its location and from the rotary movement of the organ in action.
It is cone-shaped, with the base upward ; the apex points downward,
backward, and to the left side. It extends from about the third to
the sixth ribs, inclusive. The average weight is about 7 to 8 pounds.
In horses used for speed the heart is relatively larger, according to
the weight of the animal, than in horses used for slow work. It is
suspended from the spine by the large blood vessels, and held in posi-
tion below by the attacliment of the pericardium to the sternum. It
is inclosed in a sac, the pericardium, which is composed of a dense
fibrous membrane lined by a delicate serous membrane, which is
reflected over the heart ; the inner layer is firmly adherent to the
heart, the outer to the fibrous sac, and there is an intervening space,
known as the pericardial space, in which a small amount of serum — a
thin translucent liquid — is present constantly.

The heart is divided by a shallow fissure into a right and left side ;
each of these is again subdivided by a transverse partition into two
compartments which communicate. Thus there are four cardiac
cavities — the superior, or upper, ones called the auricles ; the inferior,
or lower, ones the ventricles. These divisions are marked on the out-
side by grooves, which contain the cardiac blood vessels, and are
generally filled with fat.

The right side of the heart may be called the venous side, the left
the arterial side, named from the kind of blood which passes through
them. The auricles are thin-walled cavities placed at the base, and
are connected with the great veins — the venae cavse and pulmonary
veins — through which they receive blood from all parts of the body.
The auricles communicate with the ventricles each by a large aper-
ture, the auriculo-ventricular orifice, which is furnished with a
remarkable mechanism of valves, allowing the transmission of blood
from the auricles into the ventricles, but preventing a reverse course.
The ventricles are thick-walled cavities, forming the more massive
portion of the heart toward the apex. They are separated by a par-
tition, and are connected with the great arteries — the pulmonary
artery and the aorta — ^by which they send blood to all parts of the
H. Doc. 795, 59-2^ 15 225

226 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

body. At the mouth of the aorta and at the mouth of the pulmonary
artery is an arrangement of valves in each case which prevents the
reflux of blood into the ventricles. The auriculo- ventricular valves
in the left side are composed of two flaps, hence it is called the
hicuspid valve; in the right side this valve has three flaps and is
called the tricuspid valve. The flaps which form these valves are
connected with a tendinous ring between the auricles and ventricles;
and each flap of the auriculo-ventricular valves is supplied with
tendinous cords, which are attached to the free margin and under-
surface, so as to keep the valves tense when closed — a condition which
is i^roduced by the shortening of muscular pillars with which the
cords are connected. The arterial openings, both on the right and
on the left side, are provided with three-flapped semilunar-shaj^ed
valves, to prevent the regurgitation of blood when the ventricles
contract. The veins emptying into the auricles are not capable of
closure, but the posterior vena cava has an imperfect valve at its
aperture.

The inner surface of the heart is lined by a serous membrane, the
endocardium, which is smooth and firmly adherent to the muscular
structure of the heart. This membrane is continuous with the lining
membrane of the blood vessels, and it enters into the formation of
the valves.

The circulation through the heart is as follows : The venous blood
is carried into the right auricle by the anterior and posterior venae
cavse. It then passes through the right auriculo-ventricular opening
into the right ventricle, thence through the pulmonary artery to the
lungs. It returns hy the pulmonary veins to the left auricle, then is
forced through the auriculo-ventricular opening into the left ven-
tricle, which propels it through the aorta and its branches into the
system, the veins returning it again to the heart. The circulation,
therefore, is double, the pulmonary, or lesser, being performed by the
right side, and the systemic, or greater, by the left side.

As the blood is forced through the heart by forcible contractions of
its muscular walls, it has the action of a force pump, and gives the
impulse at each beat, which we call the pulse — the dilatation of the
arteries throughout the system. The contraction of the auricles is
quickly followed by that of the ventricles, and then a slight pause
occurs ; this takes place in regular rhj^thmical order during health.

The action of the heart is governed and maintained by the pneumo-
gastric nerve (tenth pair of cranial nerves) ; it is the inhibitory nerve
of the heart, and regulates, slows, and governs its action. T\^ien the
nerve is cut, the heart-beats increase rapidly, and in fact the organ
works without control. "\'\'lien the nerve is unduly irritated the hold-
back, or inhibitory force, is increased, and the heart slows up in the
same measure. The left cavities of the heart, the pulmonary veins,

ANATOMY OF THE HEAKT. 227

and the aorta, or systemic artery, contain red or florid blood, fit to cir-
culate through the body. The right cavities of the heart, with the
vena? cava?, or systemic veins, and pulmonary artery, contain dark
blood, which must be transmitted through the lungs for renovation.

The arteries, commencing in two great trunks, the aorta and the
pulmonary artery, undergo division, as in the branching of a tree.
Their branches mostly come off at acute angles, and are commonly of
uniform diameter in each case, but successively diminish after and in
consequence of division, and in this manner gradually merge into the
capillary system of blood vessels. As a general rule, the combined
area of the branches is greater than that of the vessels from which
they emanate, and hence the collective capacity of the arterial system
is greatest at the capillary vessels. The same rule applies to the
veins. The effect of the division of the arteries is to make the blood
move more slowly along their branches to the capillary vessels, and
the effect of the union of the branches of the veins is to accelerate the
speed of the blood as it returns from the capillary vessels to the
venous trunks.

In the smaller vessels a frequent running together, or anastomosis^
occurs. This admits of a free communication between the currents of
blood, and must tend to promote equability of distribution and of
pressure, and to obviate the effects of local interruption. The arteries
are highly elastic, being extensile and retractile both in length and
breadth. During life they are also contractile, being provided with
muscular tissue. ^Vhen cut across they present, although empty, an
open orifice ; the veins, on the other hand, collapse.

In most parts of the body the arteries are inclosed in a sheath
formed of connective tissue, but are connected so loosely that, when
the vessel is cut across, its ends readily retract some distance within
the sheath. Independently of this sheath, arteries are usually de-
scribed as being formed of three coats, named, from their relative
positions, external, middle, and internal. This aj^plies to their struc-
ture so far as it is discernible by the naked eye. The internal, serous,
or tunica intima, is the thinnest, and is continuous with the lining
membrane of the heart. It is made up of two layers — an inner, con-
sisting of a layer of epithelial scales, and an outer, transparent,
whitish, highly elastic, and perforated. The middle coat, tunica
media, is elastic, dense, and of a yellow color, consisting of nonstriated
muscular and elastic fibers, thickest in the largest arteries and be-
coming thinner in the smaller. In the smallest vessels it is almost
entirely muscular. The external coat, tunica adventitia^ is com-
posed mainly of fine and closely woven bundles of white connective
tissue, which chiefly run diagonally or obliquely round the vessel.
In this coat the nutrient vessels, the vasa vasorum, form a capillary
network, from which a few penetrate as far as the muscular coat.

228 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

The veins differ from arteries in possessing thinner walls, less
elastic and muscular tissue, and for the most part a stronger tunica
adventitia. They collapse when cut across or when they are empty.
The majority of veins are provided with valves; these are folds of
the lining membrane, strengthened by fibrous tissue. They favor the
course of the blood and prevent its reflux. The nerves which supply
both the arteries and the veins come from the sympathetic system.
The smaller arteries terminate in the system of minute vessels known
as the capillaries, which are interposed between the termination of the
arteries and the commencement of the veins. Their average diameter
is about one three-thousandth of an inch.

DISEASES or THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS.

In considering diseases of the heart we meet with many difficulties,
depending much upon the position which this organ occupies in the
animal. The shoulders cover so much of the anterior portion of the
chest, and often in very heavy-muscled horses the chest walls are so
thick that a satisfactory examination of the heart is attended with
difficulty. Diseases of the heart are not uncommon among horses;
the heart and its membranes are frequently involved in diseases of
the respiratory organs, diseases of the kidneys, rheumatism, influenza,
etc. Some of the diseases of this organ are never suspected by the
ordinary observer during life, and are so difficult to diagnose with
any degree of certainty that we will have to confine ourselves to a
general outline, giving attention to such symptoms as may serve to
lead to a knowledge of their existence, with directions for treatment,
care, etc.

Nervous affections often produce prominent heart symptoms by
causing functional disturbance of that organ, which, if removed, will
leave the heart restored to perfect vigor and normal action. Organic
changes involving the heart or valves, however, usually grow worse
and eventually prove fatal. Therefore it is necessary that we arrive
at an appreciation of the true nature and causes, so that we may be
able to form a true estimate of the possibilities for recovery or en-
couragement for medical treatment.

Disease of the heart may occur at any age, but it is witnessed most
frequently in young horses, which, when being trained for fast work,
are often subjected to excessive hardship and fatigue. Nervous or
timid animals also suffer from such diseases more frequently than
those of a sluggish disposition. Any cause which induces a violent
or sudden change in the circulation may result in injury to the heart.
Symptoms which may frequently denote disease of the heart are diffi-
cult breathing or short-windedness, dropsies of the limbs, habitual
coldness of the extremities, giddiness or fainting attacks, inability to
stand work, although the general appearance would indicate strength
and ability, etc.

DISEASES OF THE HEART. 229

INFLAMMATORY DISEASES OF THE HEART.

This will embrace myocarditis, endocarditis, and pericarditis.

MYOCARDITIS, OB INFLAMMATION OF THE MUSCULAR STRUCTURE OF THE HEART.

The heart muscle sometimes becomes inflamed as a complication or
result of the existence of general or febrile and of infectious diseases.
Severe influenza or infectious pneumonia is not infrequently followed
by myocarditis. Jiy extension of inflammation of the endocardium
or pericardium the muscle of the heart may become involved. Over-
exertion or especially hard work continued for a long time may cause
this muscle to become inflamed.

Symptoms. — Inflammation of the heart muscle is shown by inabil-
ity to contract forcibly; this results in a rajoid but weak, soft pulse
and irregular heart sounds. The pulse may be quite irregular as a
result of the irregular, tumultuous action of the heart. There is
great general weakness, shortness of breath, and raj^id respiratory
movements. In some cases, where the muscle is very much softened
and weakened, or, perhaps when an abscess forms in the wall of the
heart, the course of the disease is very rapid and terminates suddenly
from paralysis or rupture of the heart.

Alterations. — The heart muscle has a brownish or yellowish, boiled
appearance, and is so brittle that it tears easily. There may be a
spotted appearance of the muscle from the intense changes in struc-
ture in small areas; these small areas may be due to suppuration, in
which case they have the characteristics of small abscesses. This last
condition is seen in pyemia (blood poisoning). If the disease is of
long duration, the fibrous tissue in the wall of the heart may increase
to such an extent as to produce an unnatural hardness of the wall.

Treatment. — In this disease the nutrition and strength of the heart
should be kept up as much as possible with good food, good care,
and heart tonics and stimulants. The horse should be tempted to eat
such foods as he will take ; he should be kept in an airy box stall ; his
legs should be well rubbed as often as necessary to keep them warm
and bandaged loosely with flannel bandages. Internally, tlie horse
may have strychnia in 2-grain doses twice daily, whisky in 4-ounce
doses every two to four hours, digitalis in the form of the tincture in
doses of 1 dram every three to six hours. Artificial Carlsbad salts in
heaping tablespoonful doses in the feed may be given three times daily
for a couple of weeks. Rest is of the greatest importance and should
be allowed for a few weeks after recovery seems to be complete.

ENDOCARDITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE LINING MEMBRANE OF THE HEART,
USUALLY INVOLVING THE MUSCULAR STRUCTURE.

Endocarditis frequently occurs as a complication of rheumatism,
some of the specific or zymotic fevers, specific poisoning, etc. This
is a more frequent disease among horses than is generally known,

230 DISEASES OP THE HOESE.

and often gives rise to symptoms whicli, at first, are obscure and
unnoticed.

In influenza we may find the heart becoming involved in the dis-
ease, in consequence of the morbid material conveyed through the
heart in the blood stream. In view of the fact that many affections,
in even remote portions of the body, may be traced directly to a
primary endocardial disease, we shall feel justified in inviting special
attention to this disease.

Endocarditis may be acute, subacute, or chronic. In acute inflam-
mation we find a thickening and a roughened appearance of the endo-
cardium throughout the cavities of the heart. This condition may be
followed by a coagulation of fibrin upon the inflamed surface, which
adheres to it, and by attrition soon becomes worked up into shreddy-
like granular elevations; this may lead to a formation of fibrinous
clots in the heart and sudden death early in the disease, the second or
third day.

Subacute endocarditis, which is the most common form, may not
become appreciable for several days after its commencement. It is
characterized by being confined to one or more anatomical divisions
of the heart, and all the successive morbid changes follow each other
in a comparatively slow process. Often we would not be led to sus-
pect heart affection were it not for the distress in breathing, which
it generally occasions when the animal is exercised, especially if the
valves are much involved. "V^Hien coagula or vegetations form upon
the inflamed membrane, either in minute shreds or patches, or when
formation of fibrinous clots occurs in the cavity affected, some of these
materials may be carried from the cavity of the heart by the blood
current into remote organs, constituting emboli that are liable to sud-.
denly plug vessels and thereby interrupt important functions. In
the great majority of either acute or subacute grades of endocarditis,
whatever the exciting cause, the most alarming symptoms disappear
in a week or ten days, often leaving, however, such changes in the
interior lining or valvular structures as to cause impairment in the
circulation for a much longer period of time. These changes usually
consist of thickening or induration of the inflamed structures. But
while the effects of the inflammation in the membrane lining the
walls of the ventricles may subside to such a degree as to cause little
or no inconvenience, or even wholly disappear, yet after the valvular
structures have been involved, causing them to be thicker, less flexible
than normal, they usually remain, obstructing the free passage of the
blood through the openings of the heart, thereby inducing secondary
changes, which take place slowly at first, but ultimately seriously im-
pair the animal's usefulness. "What was but a slight obstruction to
the circulation during the first few weeks after the subsidence of the
cardiac inflammatory attack becomes in process of time so much in-

DISEASES OF THE HEAET. 231

creased as to induce increased growth in the muscular structure of
the heart, constituting hypertrophy of the walls of the ventricles,
more particularly of the left, with corresponding fullness of the left
auricle and pulmonary veins, thereby producing fullness of the cap
illaries in the lungs, pressure upon the air cells, difficult or asth-
matic breathing — greatly increased in attempts to work — until in a
few months many of these cases become entirely disabled for work.
Sometimes, too, dropsical effusions in the limbs or into the cavities of
the body result from the irregular and deficient circulation. De-
rangement of the urinary secretion, with passive congestion of the
kidneys, may also appear.

Endocardial inflammation is seldom fatal in its early stages, but
in many cases the recovery is incomplete, for a large proportion is
left with some permanent thickening of the valves, which constitutes
the beginning of valvular disease.

Symptoms. — Endocarditis may be ushered in by a chill, with sud-
den and marked rise in temperature. The pulse rapidly decreases in
strength or may become irregular, while the heart beats more or less
tumultuously. In the early stages soft-blowing sounds may be heard
by placing the ear over the heart on the left side, which correspond
in number and rhythm to the heart's action. Excessive pain, though
not so great as in acute pleuritis, is manifested when the animal is
compelled to trot; very often difficulty in breathing, or shortness of
breath, on the slightest exertion develops early in the attack. Wlien
the valves are involved in the inflammatory process the visible
mucous membranes become either very pale or very dark colored,
and fainting may occur when the head is suddenly elevated. \Vhen
the valves of the right side are affected we may find a regurgitant
pulsation in the jugular vein. Occasionally it happens that the heart
contracts more frequently than the pulse beats — that is, there may be
twice as many contractions of the heart in a minute as there are pulse
Avaves in the arteries. The pulse is always very fast. In some cases
we find marked lameness of the left shoulder, and when the animal
is turned short to the left side he may groan with pain, and the heart's
action become violently excited, although pressure against the chest
n-all will not produce pain unless roughly applied. The animal is
not disposed to eat or drink much; the surface of the body and legs
is cold — rarely excessively hot — and frequently the body of the ani-
mal is in a subdued tremor. In nearly all cases there is partial sup-
pression of the urinary secretion. The symptoms may continue
with very little modification for three or four days, sometimes seven
days, without any marked changes. If large fibrinous clots form
in the heart the change will be sudden and quickly prove fatal unless
they become loosened and are carried away in the circulation; then
apoplexy may result from the plugging of arteries too small to give

232 DISEASES OP THE HORSE.

further transmission. If the animal manifests symptoms of im-
provement, the changes usually are slow and steady until he feels
apparently as well as ever, eats well, and moves freely in his stall
or yard. When he is taken out, however, the seeming strength often
proves deceptive, as he may quickly weaken if urged into a fast gait,
the breathing becomes quickened wdth a double flank movement as
in heaves, and all the former symptoms reappear in a modified degree.
An examination at this stage may reveal valvular insufficiency, car-
diac hypertrophy, or pulmonary engorgement.

In fatal cases of endocarditis death often occurs about the fourth
day, from the formation of heart clot or too great embarrassment of
the circulation. Endocarditis may be suspected in all cases where
plain symptoms of cardiac affection are manifested in animals af-
fected with influenza, rheumatism, or any disease in which the blood
may convey septic matter.

Acute endocardial inflammation may be distinguished from pleu-
ritis by the absence of any friction murmur, absence of pain when the
chest wall is percussed, and the absence of effusion in the cavity of
the chest. It may be distinguished from pericarditis by the absence
of the friction sounds and want of an enlarged area of dullness on
percussion.

Treatment. — The objects to be attained by treatment will be to
remove or mitigate as much as possible the cause inducing the disease ;
to find a medicine which will lessen the irritability of the heart with-
out weakening it; and, last, to maintain a free urinary secretion and
prevent exudation and hypertrophy. So long as there is an increase
of temperature, with some degree of scantiness of the urine, it may be
safe to believe that there is some degree of inflammatory action exist-
ing in the cardiac structures, and as long as any evidence of inflam-
matory action remains, however moderate in degree, there is a ten-
dency to increase or hypertrophy of the connective tissue of the heart
or valves, thereby rendering it almost certain that the structural
changes will become permanent unless counteracted by persistent
treatment and complete rest.

The tincture of digitalis, in 20-drop doses, repeated every hour, is
perhaps the most reliable agent we know to control the irritability of
the heart, and this also has a decided influence upon the urinary
secretion. After the desired impression upon the heart is obtained
the dose may be repeated every two or three hours, or as the case may
demand. Tincture of strophanthus, in 2-dram doses, will quiet the
tumultuous action of the heart in some cases where the digitalis fails.
Bleeding, blistering, and stimulating applications to the chest should
be avoided. They serve to irritate the animal and can do no possible
good. Chlorate of potassa, in 2-dram doses, may be given in the
drinking water every four hours for the first five or six days, and then

DISEASES OF THE HEART.

233

be superseded by the nitrate of potassa, in half-oimce doses, for the
following week, or until the urinary secretion becomes abnormally
profuse. Where the disease is associated with rheumatism, 2-dram
doses of salicylate of soda may be substituted for the chlorate of
potassa. To guard against chronic induration of the valves, the
iodide of potassa, in 1 to 2 dram doses, should be given early in the
disease, and may be repeated two or three times a day for several
weeks. Wlien chronic effects remain after the acute stage has passed
this drug becomes indispensable.

^¥[\en dropsy of the limbs develops, it is due to weakened circula-
tion or functional impairment of the kidneys. "When there is much
weakness in the action of the heart, or general debility is marked, the
iodide of iron, in 1-dram doses, combined with hydrastis, 3 drams,
may be given three times a day. Arsenic, in 5-grain doses twice a
day, will give excellent results in some cases of weak heart associated
wath difficult breathing. In all cases absolute rest and warm stabling,
with comfortable clothing, become necessary, and freedom from
work should be allowed for a long time after all symptoms have dis-
appeared.

PERICARDITIS, OB INFLAMMATION OF THE SAC INCLOSING THE HEART.

Causes. — Pericarditis may be induced by cold and damp stabling,
exposure and fatigue, from wounds caused by broken ribs, etc. Gen-
erally, however, it is associated with an attack of influenza, rheuma-
tism, pleuritis, etc.

Symptoms. — Usually the disease manifests itself abruptly by a
brief stage of chills coincident with pain in moving, a short painful
cough, rapid and short breathing, and high temperature, with a
rapid and hard pulse. In the early stages of the disease the pulse is
regular in beat; later, when there is much exudation present in the
pericardial sac, the heart-beat becomes muffled, and may be of a double
or rebounding character. By placing the ear against the left side
of the chest behind the elbow a rasping sound may be heard, cor-
responding to the frequency of the heart-beat. This is known as a
friction sound. Between the second and fourth days this sound may
disappear, due to a distension of the pericardium by an exudate or
serous effusion. As soon as this effusion partly fills the pericardium,
percussion will reveal an abnormally increased area of dullness over
the region of the heart, the heart -beats become less perceptible than in
health, and in some cases a splashing or flapping sound may become
audible.

If the effusion becomes absorbed, the friction sound usually recurs
for a short time; this friction may often be felt by applying the
hand to the side of the chest. In a few cases clonic spasms of the
muscles of the neck may be present. In acute pericarditis, when the
effusion is rapid and excessive, the animal may die in a few days or

234 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

recovery may begin equally as early. In subacute or in chronic cases
the effusion may slowly become augmented until the pressure upon
the lungs and interference with the circulation becomes so great that
death will result. Whether the attack is acute, subacute, or chronic,
the characteristic sjanptoms which will guide us to a correct diagnosis
are the friction sound, which is always synchronous with the heart's
action, the high temperature with hard, irritable pulse, and, in cases
of pericardial effusion, the increased area of dullness over the cardiac
region, ^^^len the disease is associated with influenza or rheumatism,
some of the symptoms may be obscure, but a careful examination
will reveal sufficient evidence upon which to base a diagnosis. \^^ien
pericarditis develops as a result of or in connection with pleuritis, the
distinction may not be very clearly definable, neither will many
recover. AVhen it results from a wound or broken rib, it almost in-
variably proves fatal.

Pathology. — Pericarditis may at all times be regarded as a very
serious affection. At first we will find an intense injection or accu-
mulation of blood in the vessels of the pericardium, giving it a red
and swollen appearance, during which we have the friction sound.
In twenty-four to forty-eight hours this engorgement is followed by
an exudation of sero-fibrinous fluid, the fibrinous portion of which
may soon form a coating over the internal surface of the pericardial
sac, and may ultimately form a union of the opposing surfaces.
Generally this adhesion will only be found to occupy a portion of the
surfaces. As the serous or watery portion of this effusion is ab-
sorbed, the distinctness of the friction sound recurs, and may remain
perceptible in a varied degree for a long time. • ^Mien the serous
effusion is very great, the pressure exerted upon the heart weakens its
action, and may j^roduce death soon ; when it is not so great, it may
cause dropsies of other portions of the body. "\^nien the adhesions
of the pericardial sac to the body of the heart are extensive, they gen-
erally lead to increased growth, or hypertrophy, of the heart, with or
without dilatation of its cavities ; when they are but slight, they may
not cause any inconvenience.

Treatment. — In acute or subacute pericarditis the tincture of digi-
talis may be given in 20 to 30 drop doses every hour until the pulse
and temperature become reduced. Whisky or carbonate of ammonia
may be given regularly as stimulants. Bandages should be applied
to the legs ; if the legs are very cold, tincture of capsicum should be
first applied ; the body should be warmly clothed in blankets, to pro-
mote perspiration. When the suffering from pain is very severe, 10
grains of morphine may be given by the mouth once or twice a day;
nitrate of potassa, half an ounce, in drinking water, every six hours ;
after the third day, iodide of potassa, in 2-dram doses, may be sub-
stituted. Cold packs to the chest in the early stages of the disease

/

DISEASES OF THE HEAET. 235

may give marked relief, or, late in the disease, smart blisters may be
applied to the sides of the chest with benefit. If the disease becomes
chronic, iodide of iron and gentian to support the strength will be
indicated, but the iodide of potassa, in 1 or 2 dram doses, two or three
times a day, must not be abandoned so long as there is an evidence of
effusion or plastic exudate accumulating in the pericardial sac.
"^Aliere the effusion is great and threatens the life of the patient,
tapping by an expert veterinarian may save the animal.

VALVULAR DISEASE OF THE HEART.

Acute valvular disease can not be distinguished from endocarditis,
and chronic valvular affections are generally the result of endocar-
dial inflammation. The valves of the left side are the most subject —
the bicuspid or mitral and the aortic or semilunar. The derange-
ment may consist of mere inflammation and swelling, or the edges of
the valves msij become covered by the organization of the exudation,
thus narrowing the passage. Valvular obstruction and adhesions
may occur or the tendinous cords may be lengthened or shortened,
thus obstructing the orifices and permitting the regurgitation of
blood. In protected cases the fibrous tissue of the valves may be
transformed into fibro-cartilage or bone, or there may be deposits of
salts of lime beneath the serous membrane, which may terminate in
ulceration, ruj^ture, or fissures. Sometimes the valves become cov-
ered by fibrinous, fleshy, or hard vegetations, or excrescences. In
cases of considerable dilatation of the heart there may be atrophy and
shrinking of the valves.

Symjjtoms. — Valvular disease may be indicated by a venous pulse,
jerking pulse, intermittent pulse, irregular pulse; palpitation; con-
stant abnormal fullness of the jugular veins; difficulty of breathing
when the animal becomes excited or is urged out of a walk or into a
fast trot ; attacks of vertigo ; congestion of the brain ; dropsical swell-
ing of the limbs. A blowing, cooing, or bubbling murmur may some-
times be heard by placing the ear over the heart on the left side of the
chest.

Hypertrophy, or dilatation, or both, usually follow valvular disease.

Treatment. — "\Mien the pulse is irregular or irritable, tonics, such
as preparations of iron, gentian, and ginger, may be given. When
the action of the heart is jerking or violent, 20 to 30 drop doses of
tincture of digitalis or of veratrum viride may be given until these
symptoms abate. As the disease nearly always is the result of endo-
carditis, the iodide of potassa and general tonics, sometimes stimu-
lants, when general debility supervenes, may be of temporary benefit.
Very few animals recover or remain useful for any length of time
after once marked organic changes have taken place in the valvular
structure of the heart.

236 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

ADVENTITIOUS GROWTHS IN THE HEART.

Fibrous^ cartilaginous^ and hony Jformations have been observed in
some rare instances in the muscular tissue. Isolated calcareous masses
have sometimes been embedded in the cardiac walls. Fibrinous
coagula and 'polypous concretions may be found in the cavities of the
heart. The former consist of coagulated fibrin, separated from the
mass of blood, of a whitish or yellowish white color, translucent, of a
jellylike consistence, and having a nucleus in the center. They may
slightly adhere to the surface of the cavity, from which they can
easily be separated without altering the structure of the endocardium.
They probably result from an excess of coagulability of fibrin, which
is produced by an organization of the lymph during exudation. They
are usually found in the right auricle and ventricle.

Polypous concretions are firmer than in the preceding, more opaque,
of a fibrous texture, and may be composed of successive layers. In
some instances they are exceedingly minute, while in others they
almost fill one or more of the cavities. Their color is usually white,
but occasionally red from the presence of blood. They firmly adhere
to the endocardium, and when detached from it give it a torn appear-
ance. Occasionally, a vascular communication seems to exist between
them and the substance of the heart. They may be the result of
fibrinous exudation from inflammation of the inner surface of the
heart or the coagulation of a portion of the blood which afterwards
contracts adhesion with the heart. These concretions prove a source
of great inconvenience and often danger, no matter how formed.
They cause a diminution in the cavity in which they are found, thus
narrowing the orifice through which the blood passes, or preventing a
proper coaptation of the valves, which may produce most serious
valvular disease.

Symptoms. — These are frequently uncertain; they may, however,
be suspected when the action of the heart suddenly becomes embar-
rassed with irregular and confused pulsations, great difficulty of
breathing, and the usual signs dependent upon the imperfect arterial-
ization of the blood.

Treatment. — Stimulants, whisky, or carbonate of ammonia may be
of service.

PALPITATION OF THE HEART.

This is a tumultuous and usually irregular beating of the heart. It
may be due to a variety of causes, both functional and organic. It
may occur as a result of indigestion, fright, increased nervousness,
sudden excitement, excessive speeding, etc. (See " Thumps," pp.
141,205.)

Symptoms. — The heart may act with such violence that each beat
may jar the whole body of the animal; very commonly it may be

DISEASES OF THE HEAET. 237

heard at a short distance away from the animal. It can usually be
traced very readily to the exciting cause, which we may be able to
avoid or overcome in the future and thereby obviate subsequent
attacks. Rest, a mild stimulant, or a dose or two of tincture of digi-
talis or opium will generally give prompt relief. When it is due to
organic impairment of the heart it must be regarded as a symptom,
not as a matter of primary specific treatment.

SYNCOPE, OR FAINTING.

Actual fainting rarely occurs among horses. It may, however, be
induced by a rapid and great loss of blood, j^ain of great intensity, a
mechanical interference with the circulation of the brain, etc.

Byiiiftoms. — Syncope is characterized by a decrease or temporary
suspension of the action of the heart and respiration, with partial or
total loss of consciousness. It generally occurs suddenly, though
there may be premonitory symptoms, as giddiness, or vertigo, dilated
pupil, staggering, blanching of the visible mucous membranes, a rap-
idly sinking pulse, and dropping to the gi-ound. The pulse is feeble
or ceases to beat; the surface of the body turns cold; breathing is
scarcely to be perceived, and the animal may be entirely unconscious.
This state is uncertain in duration — generally it lasts only a few
minutes; the circulation becomes restored, breathing becomes more
distinct, and consciousness and muscular strength return. In cases
attended with much hemorrhage or organic disease of the heart, the
fainting fit may be fatal; otherwise it will prove but a transient
occurrence. In paralysis of the heart the symptoms may be exactly
similar to syncope. Syncope may be distinguished from apoplexy by
the absence of stertorous breathing and lividity of the visible mucous
membranes.

Treatment. — Dash cold water on the head; administer a stimu-
lant— 4 ounces of whisky or half an ounce of carbonate of ammonia.
Prevent the animal from getting up too soon, or the attack may
immediately recur. Afterwards, if the attack was due to weakness
from loss of blood, impoverished blood, or associated with debility,
general tonics, rest, and nourishing food are indicated.

HYPERTROPHY OF THE HEART, OR CARDIAC ENLARGEMENT.

Hypertrophy of the heart implies augmentation of bulk in its
muscular substance, with or without dilatation or contraction of its
cavities. It may exist with or without other cardiac affections. In
valvular disease or valvular insufficiency hypertrophy frequently re-
sults as a consequence of increased demand for propelling power.
The difficulties with which it is most frequently connected are dilata-
tion and ossification of the valves. It may also occur in connection
with atrophied kidneys, weak heart, etc. It may be caused by an
increased determination of blood to the organ or from a latent form

238 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

of myocarditis, and it may arise from a long-continued increase of
action dependent upon nervous disease. All the cavities of the heart
may have their walls hypertrophied or the thickening may involve
one or more. While the wall of a ventricle is thickened, its cavity
inay retain its normal size {simple hypertrophy) or be dilated {eccen-
tric hypertrophy) ^ or it may be contracted {concentric hypertrophy).
Hj^pertrophy of both ventricles increases the length and breadth of
the heart. Hypertrophy of the left ventricle alone increases " its
length; of the right ventricle alone increases its breadth toward the
right side. Hypertrophy with dilatation may affect the chambers
of the heart conjointly or separately. This form is by far the most
frequent variety of cardiac enlargement. T\^ien the entire heart is
affected, it assumes a globular appearance, the apex being almost
obliterated and situated transversely in the chest. The bulk may
become three or four times greater than the average heart.

Symptoms. — In hypertrophy of the heart, in addition to the usual
symptoms manifested in organic diseases of the heart, there is a pow-
erful and heaving impulse at each beat, which may be felt on the left
side, often also on the right. These pulsations are regular, and when
full and strong at the jaw there is a tendency to active congestion of
the capillary vessels, which frequently gives rise to local inflamma-
tion, active hemorrhage, etc. If the pulse is small and feeble at the
jaw, we may conclude that there is some obstacle to the escape of the
blood from the left ventricle into the aorta, which has given rise to
the hypertrophy. In case of hypertrophy with dilatation, the im-
pulse is not only powerful and heaving, but it is diffused over the
whole region of the heart, and the normal sounds of the heart are
greatly increased in intensity. Percussion reveals an enlarged area
of dullness, while the impulse is usually much stronger than normal.

Dropsy of the pericardium will give the same wide space of dull-
ness, but the impulse and sound are lessened. An animal with a
moderate degree of enlargement may possibly live a number of years
and be capable of ordinary work; it depends largely upon con-
comitant disease. As a rule, an animal affected with hypertrophy
of the heart will soon be incapacitated for work, and it becomes
useless and incurable.

Treatment. — If the cause can be discovered and is removable, it
should be done. The iodide of potassa, in cases of valvular thicken-
ing, may be of some benefit if continued for a sufficient length of
time; it may be given in 2-dram doses, twice a day, for a month or
more. The tincture of digitalis may be given, in cases where the
pulse is weak, in doses of 2 teaspoonfuls three times daily. This
r&medy should not be continued if the pulse becomes irregular.
General tonics, freedom from excitement or fatigue, avoidance of
bulky food, good ventilation, etc., are indicated.

DISEASES OF THE HEAET. 239

DILATATION OF THE HEART.

This is an enlargement, or stretching, of the cavities of the heart,
and may be confined to one or extend to all. Two forms of dilata-
tion may be mentioned — simple dilatation^ where there is normal
thickness of the walls, and passive, or attenuated, dilatation, where
the walls are simply distended or stretched out without any addition
of substance.

Causes. — Any cause producing constant and excessive exertion of
the heart may lead to dilatation. Valvular disease is the most fre-
quent cause. General anemia predisposes to it by producing relaxa-
tion of muscular fiber. Changes in the muscular tissue of the heart
walls, serous infiltration from pericarditis^ myocarditis, fatty degen-
eration and infiltration, and atrophy of the muscular fibers may all
lead to dilatation.

Symptoms. — The movements of the heart are feeble and prolonged,
a disposition to staggering or vertigo, dropsy of the limbs, very pale
or very dark-colored membranes, and difficult breathing on the slight-
est excitement.

Treatment. — General tonics, rich food, and rest.

FATTY DEGENERATION OF THE HEART.

Fatty degeneration may involve the whole organ, or may be limited
to its walls, or even to circumscribed patches. The latter is situated
at the exterior, and gives it a mottled appearance. When generally
involved it is flabby or flaccid, and in extreme cases collapses when
emptied or cut. Upon dissection the interior of the ventricles is
observed to be covered with buff-colored spots of a singular zigzag
form. This appearance may be noticed beneath the pericardium, and
pervading the whole thickness of the ventricular walls, and in ex-
treme cases those of the fleshy columns in the interior of the heart.
These spots are found to be degenerated muscular fibers and colonies
of oil globules. Fatty degeneration is often associated with other
morbid conditions of the heart, such as obesity, dilatation, rupture,
aneurism, etc. It may be connected with fatty diseases of other
organs, such as the liver, kidneys, etc. Wlien it exists alone its pres-
ence is seldom suspected previous to death. It may be secondary to
hyi^ertrophy of the heart, to myocarditis, or to pericarditis. It may
be due to deteriorated conditions of the blood in wasting diseases,
excessive hemorrhages, etc., or to poisoning with arsenic and
phosphorus.

Symptoms. — The most prominent symptoms of fatty degeneration
are a feeble action of the heart, a remarkably slow pulse, general
debility, and attacks of vertigo. It may exist for a long time, but is
apt to terminate suddenly in death upon the occurrence of other dis-
eases, surgical operations, etc. It may involve a liability to sudden
death from rupture of the ventricular walls.

240 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

Treatment. — Confinement in feed to oats, wheat or rye bran, and
timothy hay. Twenty drops of sulphuric acid may be given in drink-
ing water three times a day, and hypophosphite of iron in 2-dram
doscvs, mixed with the feed, twice a day. Other tonics and stimulants
as they may be indicated.

RUPTURE OF THE HEART.

This may occur as the result of some previous disease, such as
fatty degeneration, dilatation with weakness of the muscular walls,
etc. It may be caused by external violence, a crushing fall, pres-
sure of some great weight, etc. Usually death follows a rupture
very quickly, though an animal may live for some time when the
rent is not very large.

WEAKNESS OF THE HEART.

This may arise from general debility, the result of exhausting dis-
ease, overwork, or heart strain, or loss of blood. It is indicated by
a small, feeble, but generally regular pulse, coldness of the body, etc.

Treat7nent.—'\:\v\% should be directed to support and increase the
strength of the animal by tonics, rest, and nutritious food. Car-
bonate of ammonia may be given to stimulate the heart's action and
to prevent the formation of heart clot.

CONGESTION OF THE HEART.

Congestion, or an accumulation of the blood in the cavities of the
heart, may occur in consequence of fibrinous deposits interfering with
the free movements of the valves, usually the product of endocar-
ditis or as a result of excessive muscular exertion.

Symptoms. — Great difficulty of breathing, paleness of the visible
mucous membranes, great anxiety, frequently accompanied by a gen-
eral tremor and cold perspiration, followed by death. It usually
results in death very quickly.

CYANOSIS OF NEWBORN FOALS.

This is a condition sometimes found in foals immediately after
birth, and is due to nonclosure of the foramen ovale^ which allows a
mixture of the venous with the arterial blood in the left cavities of the
heart. It is characterized by a dark purple or bluish color of the
visible mucous membranes, shortness of breath, and general feeble-
ness. Foals thus aifected generally live only a few hours after birth.

DISEASES or ARTERIES, OR ARTERITIS AND ENDARTERITIS.

Inflammation of arteries is rarely observed in the horse as a pri-
mary affection. Direct injuries, such as blows, may produce a con-
tusion and subsequent inflammation of the wall of an artery ; severe
muscular strain may involve an arterial trunk; hypertrophy of the
heart, by increasing arterial tension, may result in the production of
a general endarteritis. Septic infection may affect the inner coat

DISEASES OP THE ARTERIES. 241

and ultimately involve all three, or it may be the result of an inflam-
mation in the vicinity of the vessels, etc. Inflammation of arteries,
whatever the cause may be, often leads to very serious results in the
development of secondary changes in their walls. Arteritis may be
acute, subacute, or chronic ; when the inner coat alone is affected it is
known as endarteritis.

Symptoms. — Arteritis is characterized by a painful swelling along
the inflamed vessel, throbbing pulse, coldness of the parts supplied by
the inflamed vessel, sometimes the formation of gangrenous sloughs,
suppuration, abscess, etc. In an inflammation of the iliac arteries we
find coldness and excessive lameness or paralysis of one or both hind
limbs.

Pathology. — In acute arteritis we find swelling along the vessel,
loss of elasticity, friability, and thickening of the walls ; a roughness
and loss of gloss of the inner coat, with the formation of coagula or
pus in the vessel. Subacute or chronic arteritis may affect only the
outer coat {periarteritis)^ both the outer and middle coat, or the
inner coat alone {eridai'teritis) ; and by weakening the respective
coats leads to rupture, aneurism, or to degenerations, such as bony,
calcareous, fatty, atheromatous, etc. It may also lead to sclerosis or
increase of fibrous tissue, especially in the kidneys, when it may result
in the condition known as arterio-capillary fibrosis. Chronic endar-
teritis is fruitful in the production of thrombus and atheroma.
Arteritis may be limited to single trunks, or it may affect, more or
less, all the arteries of the body. Arteries which are at the seat of
chronic endarteritis are liable to suffer degenerative changes, consist-
ing chiefly of fatty degeneration, calcification, or the breaking down
of the degenerated tissue, and the formation of erosions or ulcerlike
openings in the inner coat. These erosions are frequently called
atheromatous ulcers, and fragments of tissue from these ulcers may
be carried into the circulation, forming emboli. Fibrinous thrombi
are apt to form upon the roughened surface of the inner coat or upon
the surface of the erosions.

Fatty degeneration and calcification of the middle and outer coats
may occur, and large, hard, calcareous plates project inward, upon
which thrombi may form or may exist in connection with atheroma
of the inner coat. Wlien there is much thickening and increase of
new tissue in the wall of the affected artery, it may encroach upon the
capacity of the vessel, and even lead to obliteration. This is often
associated with interstitial inflammation of glandular organs.

Treatrnent. — Carbonate of potassa in 1-dram doses, to be given in
4 ounces liquor acetate of ammonia every six hours; scalded bran
sufficient to produce loosening of the bowels, and complete rest;
externally, applications of hot water or hot hop infusion.
H. Doc. 795, 59-2 16

242 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE.

ATHEROMA.

Atheroma is a direct result of an existing chronic endarteritis, the
lining membrane of the vessels being invariably involved to a greater
or less degree. It is most frequently found in the arteries, although
the veins may develop an atheromatous condition when exposed to any
source of prolonged irritation. Atheroma may affect arteries in any
part of the body ; in some instances almost every vessel is diseased,
in others only a few, or even parts of one vessel. It is a very common
result of endocarditis extending into the aorta, which we find perhaps
the most frequent seat of atheroma. As a result of this condition the
affected vessel becomes impaired in its contractile power, loses its
natural strength, and, in consequence of its inability to sustain its
accustomed internal pressure, undergoes in many cases dilatation at
the seat of disease, constituting mieifris77i. In an atheromatous vessel,
calcareous deposits soon occur, which render it rigid, brittle, and sub-
ject to ulceration or rupture. In such vessels the contractility is de-
stroyed, the middle coat atrophied and beyond repair. Atheroma in
the vessels of the brain is a frequent cause of cerebral apoplexy. No
symptoms are manifested by which we can recognize this condition
during life.

CONSTRICTION OF AN ARTERY.

This is usually the result of arteritis, and may partly or wholly be
impervious to the flow of blood. When this occurs in a large vessel
it may be followed by gangrene of the parts; usually, however, col-
lateral circulation will be established to nourish the parts previously
supplied by the obliterated vessel. In a few instances constriction of
the aorta has produced death.

ANEURISM.

Aneurism is usually described as true or false. True aneurism is a
dilatation of the coats of an artery over a larger or smaller part of its
course. Such dilatations are usually due to chronic endarteritis and
atheroma. False aneurism is formed after a puncture of an artery by
a dilatation of the adhesive lymph by which the puncture was united.

Symptoms. — If the aneurism is seated along the neck or a limb it
appears as a tumor in the course of an artery and pulsating with it.
The tumor is round, soft, and compressible, and yields a peculiar
fluctuation upon pressure. By applying the ear over it a peculiar
purring or hissing sound may sometimes be heard. Pulsation, syn-
chronous with the action of the heart, is the diagnostic symptom. It
is of a slow, expansive, and heavy character, as if the whole tumor
were enlarging under the hand. Aneurisms seated internally may
occupy the cavity of the cranium, chest, or abdomen. As regards the

DISEASES OF THE ARTERIES. 243

first, little is known during life, for all the symptoms which they pro-
duce may arise from other causes. Aneurism of the anterior aorta
may be situated very closely to the heart or in the arch, and it is very
seldom that we can distinguish it from disease of the heart. The
tumor may encroach upon the windpipe and produce difficulty in
breathing, or it may produce pressure upon the vense cavae or the
thoracic duct, obstructing the flow of blood, and lymph. In fact,
whatever parts the aneurism may reach or subject to its pressure, may
have their functions suspended or disturbed. "\^lien the tumor in the
chest is large, we generally find much irregularity in the action of the
heart; the superficial veins of the neck are distended, and there is
usually dropsical swelling under the breast and of the limbs. There
may be a very troublesome cough without any evidence of lung affec-
tion. Sometimes pulsation of the tumor may be felt at the lower
part of the neck where it joins the chest. AVlien the aneurism occurs
in the j^osterior aorta no diagnostic symptoms are aj^preciable ; when
it occurs in the internal iliac arteries an examination per rectum will
reveal it.

There is one form of aneurism which is not unfrequently over-
looked, affecting the anterior mesenteric artery, primarilj^ induced by
a Avorm — Sti'ongylus vulgaris. This worm produces an arteritis, with
atheroma, degeneration, and dilatation of the mesenteric arteries, asso-
ciated with thrombus and aneurism. The aneurism gives rise to colic,
which appears i)eriodically in a very violent and often persistent
type. Ordinary colic remedies have no effect, and after a time the
animal succumbs to the disease. In all cases of animals which are
habitually subject to colicky attacks, parasitic aneurism of the an-
terior mesenteric artery may be suspected.

Pathology. — Aneurisms may be diffuse or sacculated. The diffuse
consists in a uniform dilatation of all the coats of an artery, so that it
assumes the shape of a cylindrical swelling. The wall of the aneu-
rism is atheromatous, or calcified ; the middle coat may be atrophied.
The sacculated, or circumscribed, aneurism consists either in a dila-
tation of the entire circumference of an artery over a short portion of
its length, or in a dilatation of only a small portion of one side of the
wall. Aneurism may become very large; as it increases in size it
presses upon and causes the destruction of neighboring tissues. The
cavity of the aneurismal sac is filled with fluid or clotted blood or
with layers of fibrin which adhere closely to its wall. Death is pro-
duced usually by the pressure and interference of the aneurism with
adjoining organs or by rupture. In worm aneurism we usually find
large thrombi within the aneurismal dilatation of the artery, which
sometimes plug the whole vessel or extend into the aorta. Portions of
this thrombus, or clot, may be washed away and i3roduce embolism of
a smaller artery. The effect in either case is to produce anemia of the

244 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

intestinal canal, serous or bloody exudation in its walls, which leads
to paralysis of the intestine and resultant colicky symptoms.

Treatment. — The only treatment advisable is to extirpate or ligate
the tumor above and below.

RUPTURE OF AN ARTERY.

Endarteritis, with its subsequent changes in the walls of arteries, is
the primary cause of rupture in the majority of instances. The rup-
ture may be partial, involving only one or two coats, and will then
form an aneurism. If complete, it may produce death when it in-
volves a large vessel, especially if it is situated in one of the large
cavities permitting an excessive escape of blood. Rupture may be
produced by mechanical violence or accident.

Symptoms. — In fatal rupture associated with profuse bleeding, the
animal becomes weak, the visible mucous membranes become blanched,
the breathing hurried or gasping, pupils dilated, staggering in gait,
syncope, death. When the hemorrhage is limited, the symptoms may
not become noticeable ; if it is near the surface of the body a round or
diffuse swelling or tumor may form, constituting a hygroma. If the
rupture is associated with an external wound the bleeding artery
should be ligated, or where a bandage is applicable, pressure may be
applied by tight bandaging. As a secondary result of rupture of an
artery we may have formation of abscess, gangrene of a part, etc.

Treatment. — When rupture of a deep-seated artery is suspected,
large doses of fluid extract of ergot may be given to produce contrac-
tion of the blood vessels. Tannin and iron are also useful. The
animal should be allowed to have as much water as he desires. After-
wards stimulants and nourishing food are indicated.

THROMBUS AND EMBOLISM.

By thrombosis is generally understood the partial or complete clo-
sure of a vessel by a morbid product developed at the site of the
obstruction. The coagulum, which is usually fibrinous, is known as
a thrombus. The term embolism designates an obstruction caused by
any body detached and transported from the interior of the heart or
of some vessel. Thrombi occur as the result of an injury to the wall
of the vessel or may follow its compression or dilatation; they may
result from some alteration of the wall of the vessel by disease or
by the retardation of the circulation. These formations may occur
during life, in the heart, arteries, veins, or in the portal system.
When a portion of fibrin coagulates in one of the arteries and is car-
ried along by the circulation, it will be arrested, of course, in the
capillaries, if not before; when in the veins, it may not be stopped
until it reaches the lungs; and when in the portal system, the capil-
laries of the liver will prevent its further progress. The formation of

DISEASES OF THE AETERIES. 245

thrombi may act primarily by causing partial or complete obstruc-
tion, and, secondarily, either by larger or smaller fragments becoming
detached from their end, and by being carried along by the circula-
tion of the blood to remote vessels, embolism; or by the coagulum
becoming softened and converted into pus, constituting suppurative
phlebitis. These substances occur most frequently in those affections
characterized by great exhaustion or debility, such as pneumonia,
purpura hemorrhagica, endocarditis, phlebitis, puerperal fever,
hemorrhages, etc. These concretions may form suddenly and pro-
duce instantaneous death by retarding the blood current, or they may
arise gradually, in which case the thrombi may be organized and
attached to the walls of the heart, or they may soften, and frag-
ments of them (emboli) may be carried away. The small, wartlike
excrescences occurring sometimes in endocarditis may occasionally
form a foundation on which a thrombi may develop.

Sym'ptoms. — When heart clot, or thrombus, exists in the right side,
the return of blood from the body and the aeration in the lungs is
impeded, and if death occurs, it is owing to syncope rather than to
strangulation in pulmonary respiration. There will be hurried and
gasping breathing, paleness and coldness of the surface of the body, a
feeble and intermittent or fluttering pulse, and fainting. When a
fibrinous coagulum is carried into the pulmonary artery from the
right side of the heart, the indications are a swelling and infiltration
of the lungs and pulmonary apoplexy. When the clot is situated in
the left cavities of the heart or in the aorta, death, if it occurs, takes
place either suddenly or at the end of a few hours from coma.

Pathology. — When a coagulum is observed in the heart it may be-
come a question whether it was formed during life or after death.
The loose, dark coagula so often found after death are polypi. If
the deposition has taken place during the last moments of life, the
fibrin will be isolated and soft, but not adherent to the walls; if it
be isolated, dense, and adherent or closely intertwined with the
muscles of the papillae and tendinous cords, the deposition has oc-
curred more or less remote from the act of dying. Occasionally the
fibrin may be seen lining one of the cavities of the heart, like a false
endocardium, or else forming an additional coat to the aorta or other
large vessels without producing much obstruction. Thrombi, in
some instances, soften in their centers, and are then observed to con-
tain a puslike substance. If this softening has extended considerably
an outer shell, or cyst, only may remain. The sources of danger exist
not only in the interruption of the circulation of the blood, but also in
a morbid state of the system, produced by the disturbed nutrition of a
limb or organ, as well as the mingling of purulent and gangrenous
elements with the blood.

Treatment. — The urgent symptoms should be relieved by rest,

246 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

stimulants, and the use of agents which will act as solvents to the
fibrinous clots. Alkalis are specially useful for this purpose. Car-
bonate of ammonia may be administered in all cases of thrombus,
and should be continued for a long time in small doses several times a
day. In cases of great debility associated with a low grade of fever,
stimulants and tonics, and nitro-muriatic acid as an antiseptic, may
be beneficial.

DISEASES or VEINS, OR PHLEBITIS.

Inflammation of veins may be simple or diffuse. In simple phleb-
itis the disease of the vein is confined to a circumscribed or limited
portion of a vein ; in diffuse it involves the vein for a long distance ;
it may even extend from a limb or foot to the heart.

Causes. — Phlebitis may be induced by contusions or direct injuries,
an extension of inflammation from surrounding tissue, such as in
abscess, formation of tumor, or malignant growth. It is often due
to embolism of infective material, gangrenous matter, etc. Blood-
letting from the jugular vein is occasionally followed by dangerous
phlebitis.

Symptoms. — The symptoms vary according to the extent and sever-
ity of the inflammation. In most cases the vein is swollen, thick-
ened, and indurated to such a degree as to resemble an artery. A
diffused swelling, with great tenderness, may extend along the af-
fected vessel and the animal manifest all the symptoms connected
with acute fever and general functional disturbance.

Pathology. — The disease is only serious when large veins are
affected. The coats undergo the same changes as in arteritis; clots
of blood and lymph plug the inflamed vessel, and, if the inflammatory
process continues, these are converted into pus, which ruptures the
vessel and produces a deep abscess ; or it may be carried away in the
circulation and produce metastatic abscess in the lungs or other remote
organs. In mild cases the clots may become absorbed and the vessel
restored to health. Phlebitis in the course of the veins of the limbs
frequently leads to numerous abscesses, which may be mistaken for
farcy ulcerations. A very common result of phlebitis is an oblitera-
tion of the affected portion of the vein, but as collateral -circulation
is readily established this is seldom of any material inconvenience.

Treatment. — Phlebitis should be treated by the application of a
smart blister along the course of the inflamed vessel ; early opening
of any abscesses which may form; the animal should have complete
rest, and the bowels be kept loose with bran mashes. "When the fever
runs high, half -ounce doses of nitrate of potassa may be given in the
drinking water, which may be changed in two or three days for
1-dram doses of the iodide of potassa. If the animal becomes de-
bilitated, carbonate of ammonia, 1 dram, and powdered gentian, 3
drams, may be given every six hours.

DISEASES OF THE VEINS. 247

VARICOSE VEINS, VARIX, OR DILATATION OF VEINS.

This may be a result of weakening of the coats from inflammatory
disease and degeneration. It may also be due to mechanical obstruc-
tion from internal or external sources. It is sometimes found in the
vein which lies superficial over the inside of the hock joint, and may
be due to the pressure of a spavin. Occasionally it may be observed
in stallions, which are more or less subject to varicocele, or dilatation
of the veins of the testicular cord. Hemorrhoidal veins, or piles, are
occasionally met with, generally in horses which run at pasture.
Varicose veins may ulcerate and form an abscess in the surrounding
tissues, or they may rujDture from internal blood pressure and the
blood form large tumors where the tissues are soft.

Treatment. — Stallions which manifest a tendency to varicocele
should wear suspensory bags when they are exercised. Piles may
often be reduced by astringent washes — tea made from white-oak
bark or a saturated solution of alum. The bowels should be kept
loose with bran mashes and the animal kept quiet in the stable.
AVlien varicose veins exist superficially and threaten to produce incon-
venience, they may be ligated above and below and thus obliterated.
Sometimes absorption may be induced by constant bandages.

AIR IN VEINS, OR AIR EMBOLISM.

It was formerly supposed that the entrance of air into a vein at the
time of the infliction of a wound or in blood-letting was extremely
dangerous and very often produced sudden death by interfering with
the circulation of the blood through the heart and lungs. Danger
from air embolism is exceedingly doubtful, unlfess great quantities
were forced into a large vein by artificial means.

PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA.

Purpura hemorrhagica usually occurs as a sequel to debilitating
diseases, such as strangles, influenza, etc. It may, however, arise in
the absence of any previous disease in badly ventilated stables, among
poorly fed horses, and in animals subject to exhausting work and
extreme temperatures. The disease is probably due to some as yet
undiscovered infectious principle. Its gravity does not depend so
much upon the amount of blood extravasated as it does upon the dis-
turbance or diminished action of the vaso-motor centers.

Symptoms. — This disease becomes manifested by the occurrence of
sudden swellings on various parts of the body, on the head or lips,
limbs, abdomen, etc. These swellings may be diffused or very mark-
edly circumscribed, though in the advanced stages they cover large
areas. They pit on pressure and are but slightly painful to the touch.
The limbs may swell to a very large size, the nostrils may become
almost closed, and the head and throat may swell to the point of suf-

248 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

focation. The swellings not infrequently disappear from one portion
of the body and develop on another, or may recede from the surface
and invade the intestinal mucous membrane. The mucous lining of
the nostrils and mouth show more or less dark-red or purple spots.
There may be a discharge of blood-colored serum from the nostrils ;
the tongue may be swollen so as to prevent eating or closing of the
jaws. In the most intense cases, within from twenty-four to forty-
eight hours bloody serum may exude through the skin over the
swollen parts, and finally large gangrenous sloughs may form. The
temperature is never very high, the pulse is frequent and com-
pressible, and becomes feebler as the animal loses strength. A cough
is usually joresent. The urine is scanty and high colored, and when
the intestines are much affected a bloody diarrhea may set in, with
colicky pains. Some of the internal organs become implicated in the
disease, the lungs may become edematous, extravasation may occur
in the intestinal canal, or effusion of serum into the cavity of the
chest or abdomen; occasionally the brain becomes affected. A few
cases run a mild course and recovery may commence in three or
four days ; generally, however, the outlook is unfavorable. In severe
cases septic poisoning is liable to occur, which soon brings the case
to a fatal issue.

Pathology. — On section we find the capillaries dilated, the connec-
tive tissue filled with a coagulable or coagulated lymph, and frequently
we may discover gangrenous spots beneath the skin or involving
the skin. The lymphatic glands are swollen and inflamed. Exten-
sive extravasations of blood may be found embedded between the
coats of the intestines, or excessive effusion into the substance of
the lungs.

Treatment. — Diffusible stimulants and tonics should be given from
the start. Carbonate of ammonia, 1 dram, fluid extract of red cin-
chona bark, 2 drams, and tincture of ginger half an ounce, with half
a pint of water ; thin gruel or milk should be given every four or six
hours. But especial care should be exercised to avoid injury by
drenching. If the horse has difficulty in getting the head up and
swallowing, smaller doses must be given with a small hard-rubber
syringe. Sulphate of iron in 1-dram doses may be dissolved in water
and given every six hours. Chlorate of potassa, in 2-ounce doses,
may be given every eight or twelve hours. Colloidal silver may be
administered intravenously in doses of from 5 to 12 grains. Wash-
ings with lead and alum water are useful and may be repeated several
times each day. If the swellings are very great, they may be incised
freely and the resulting wounds should be washed at least twice daily
with a warm 3 per cent solution of creolin or other good antiseptic.
Tracheotomy may be necessary. Complications, when they arise,
must be treated with proper circumspection.

DISEASES OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. 249

DISEASES OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM.

The lymphatic, or absorbent, system is connected with the blood-
vascular system, and consists of a series of tubes which absorb and
convey to the blood certain fluids. These tubes lead to lymphatic
glands, through which the fluids pass to reach the right lymphatic
vein and thoracic duct, both of which enter the venous system near
the heart. Through the excessively thin walls of the capillaries the
fluid part of the blood transudes to nourish the tissues outside
the capillaries; at the same time fluid passes from the tissues into the
blood. The fluid, after it passes into the tissues, constitutes the
lymph, and acts like a stream irrigating the tissue elements. Much of
the surplus of this lymph passes into the lymph vessels, which in their
commencement can hardly be treated as independent structures, since
their walls are so closely joined with the tissues through which they
pass, being nothing more than spaces in the connective tissue until
they reach the larger lymph vessels, which finally empty into lymph
glands. These lymph glands are structures so placed that the lymph
flowing toward the larger trunks passes through them, undergoing a
sort of filtration. From the fact of this arrangement lymph glands
are subject to inflammatory diseases in the vicinity of diseased struc-
tures, because infective material being conveyed in the lymph stream
lodges in the glands and produces irritation.

LOCAL INFLAMMATION AND ABSCESS OF LYMPHATIC GLANDS.

Acute inflammation of the lymph glands usually occurs in connec-
tion with some inflammatory process in the region from which its
lymph is gathered. Several or all of the glands in a cluster may
become affected, as in strangles, nasal catarrh, or nasal gleet, diseased
or ulcerated teeth, the lymph glands between the branches of the
lower jaw almost invariably become affected, which may lead to sup-
puration or induration. Similar results obtain in other portions of
the body ; in pneumonia the bronchial glands become affected ; in
pharyngitis, the postpharyngeal glands lying above the trachea be-
come affected, etc.

Symptoms. — The glands swell and become painful to the touch, the
connective tissue surrounding them becomes involved, suppuration
usually takes place, and one or more abscesses form. If the inflam-
mation is of a milder type, resolution may take place and the swelling
recede, the exudative material being absorbed, and the gland restored
without the occurrence of suppuration. In the limbs a whole chain
of the glands along the lymphatic vessels may become affected, as in
farcy, phlebitis, or septic poisoning.

Treatment. — Fomentation with hot water and the application of
camphorated soap liniment or camphorated oil may produce a revul-

250 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

sive action and prevent suppuration. If there is any indication of
abscess forming, poultices of linseed meal and bran made into a paste
with hot water should be applied, or a mild blistering ointment
rubbed in over the swollen gland. As soon as fluctuation can be felt
a free opening must be made for the escape of the contained pus.
The wound may subsequently be washed out with a solution of chlo-
ride of zinc, 5 grains to the ounce of water, three times a day,

LYMPHANGITIS.

Specific inflammation of the lymphatic structures usually aflPects
the hind legs ; very seldom a fore leg. This disease is very sudden in
its attack, exceedingly painful, accomi3anied by a high temperature
and great general disturbance.

Causes. — Horses of lymphatic, or sluggish, temperament are pre-
disposed to this affection. It usually attacks well-fed animals, and in
such cases may be due to an excess of nutritive elements in the blood.
Sudden changes in work or in the habits of the animal may induce an
attack.

Symptoms. — It is usually ushered in by a chill, rise in temperature,
and some uneasiness; in a very short time this is followed by lame-
ness in one leg and swelling on the inside of the thigh. The swelling
gradually surrounds the whole limb and continues on downward until
it reaches the foot. The limb is excessively tender to the touch, the
animal perspires, the breathing is accelerated, pulse hard and quick,
and the temperature may reach 106° F. The bowels early become
constipated and the urine scanty. The symptoms usually are on the
increase for about two days, then they remain stationary for the same
length of time; the fever then abates; the swelling recedes and be-
comes less painful. It is very seldom, though, that all the swelling
leaves the leg; generally it leaves some permanent enlargement, and
the animal becomes subject to recurrent attacks. Occasionally, the
inguinal lymphatic glands (in the groin) undergo suppuration, and
pyemia may supervene and prove fatal. In severe cases the limb be-
comes denuded of hair in patches, and the skin remains indurated
with a fibrous growth, which is known by the name of elephantiasis.

Treatment. — The parts should be bathed freely and frequently with
water as hot as the hand can bear and then fomented with vinegar
and water, equal parts, to which add 2 oimces of nitrate of potassa
for each gallon. This should be applied frequently, after the hot
water for the first day. Afterwards, the leg may be dried with a
woolen cloth and bathed with camphorated soap liniment. Inter-
nally, administer artificial Carlsbad salts in 2 to 4 ounce doses three
times daily. Feed lightly and give complete rest. This treatment,
if instituted early in the attack, very frequently brings about a re-
markable change within twenty- four hours.

DISEASES OF THE EYE.

By James Law, F. R. C. V. S.,
Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., Cornell Vniversity.

[Revised in 1903 by the autlior.]

We can scarcely overestimate the value of sound eyes in the horse,
and hence all diseases and injuries which seriouslj^ interfere with
vision are matters of extreme gravity and apprehension, for should
they prove permanent they invariably depreciate the selling price to
a considerable extent. A blind horse is always dangerous in the sad-
dle or in single harness, and he is scarcely less so when, with jDartially
impaired vision, he sees things imperfectly, in a distorted form or in
a wrong place, and when he shies or avoids objects which are com-
monplace or familiar. ^^Hien we add to this that certain diseases of
the eyes, like recurring inflammation (moon blindness), are habitu-
ally transmitted from parent to offspring, we can realize still more
fully the importance of these maladies. Again, as a mere matter of
beauty, a sound, full, clear, intelligent eye is something which must
always add a high value to our equine friends and servants.

THE EYEBALL.

A full description of the structure of the eye is incompatible with
our prescribed limits, and yet a short description is absolutely essen-
tial to the clear understanding of what is to follow.

The horse's eye is a spheroidal body, flattened behind, and with its
posterior four-fifths inclosed by an opaque, white, strong fibrous
membrane (the sclerotic), on the inner side of which is laid a more
delicate friable membrane, consisting mainly of blood vessels and
pigment cells (the choroid), and that in its turn is lined by the ex-
tremely delicate and sensitive expansion of the nerve of sight (the
retina). The anterior fifth of the globe of the eye bulges forward
from what would have been the direct line of the sclerotic, and thus
forms a segment of a much smaller sphere than is inclosed by the
sclerotic. Its walls, too, have in health a perfect translucency from
which it has derived the name of tixinsparent cornea. This trans-
parent coat is composed, in the main, of fibers with lymph interspaces,
and it is to the condition of these and their condensation and com-
pression that the translucency is largely due. This maj'' be shown
by compressing with the fingers the eye of an ox which has just been
killed, when the clear transparent cornea will suddenly become

251

252 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

clouded over with a whitish blue opacity, and this will remain until
the compression is interrupted. The interior of the eye contains
three transparent media for the refraction of the rays of light on
their way from the cornea to the visual nerve. Of these media the
anterior one (aqueous humor) is liquid, the posterior (vitreous
humor) is semisolid, and the intermediate one (crystalline lens) is
solid. The space occupied by the aqueous humor corresponds nearly
to the portion of the eye covered by the transparent cornea. It is,
however, divided into two chambers, anterior and posterior, by the
iris, a contractile curtain with a hole in the center (the pupil), and
which may be looked on as in some sense a projection inward of the
vascular and pigmentary coat from its anterior margin at the point
where the sclerotic or opaque outer coat becomes continuous with the
cornea or transparent one. This iris, or curtain, besides its abun-
dance of blood vessels and pigment, possesses two sets of muscular
fibers, one set radiating from the margin of the pupil to the outer
border of the curtain at its attachment to the sclerotic and choroid,
and the other encircling the pupil in the manner of a ring. The
action of the two sets is necessarily antagonistic, the radiating fibers
dilating the pupil and exposing the interior of the eye to view,
while the circular fibers contract this opening and shut out the rays
of light. The form of the pupil in the horse is ovoid, with its longest
diameter from side to side, and its upper border is fringed by several
minute black bodies (corpora nigra) projecting forward and serving
to some extent the purpose of eyebrows in arresting and absorbing
the excess of rays of light which fall upon the eye from above. These
pigmentary projections in front of the upper border of the pupil are
often mistaken for the products of disease or injury, in place of the
normal and beneficent protectors of the nerve of sight which they are.
They may, like all other parts, become the seat of disease, but so long
as they and the iris retain their clear, dark aspect, without any tints
of brown or yellow, they may be held to be healthy.

The vitreous or semisolid refracting medium occupies the posterior
part of the eye — the part corresponding to the sclerotic, choroid, and
retina — and has a consistency corresponding to that of the white of
an egg, and a power of refraction of the light rays correspondingly
greater than the aqueous humor.

The third or solid refracting medium is a biconvex lens, with its
convexity greatest on its posterior surface, which is lodged in a depres-
sion in the vitreous humor, while its anterior surface corresponds
to the opening of the pupil. It is inclosed in a membranous covering
(capsule) and is maintained in position by a membrane (suspensory
ligament) which extends from the margin of the lens outward to the
sclerotic at the point of junction of the choroid and iris. This liga-
ment is, in its turn, furnished with radiating muscular fibers, which

DISEASES OF THE EYE. 253

change the form or position of the lens so as to adapt it to see with
equal clearness objects at a distance or close by.

Another point which strikes the observer of the horse's eye is that
in the darkness a bright bluish tinge is reflected from the widely
dilated pupil. This is owing to a comparative absence of pigment
in the choroid coat inside the upper part of the eyeball, and enables
the animal to see and advance with security in darkness where the
human eye would be of little use. The lower part of the cavity
of the horse's eye, into which the dazzling rays fall from the sky,
is furnished with an- intensely black lining, b}^ which the rays
penetrating the inner nervous layer are instantly absorbed.

MUSCLES OF THE EYE.

These consist of four straight muscles, two oblique and one re-
tractor. The straight muscles pass from the depth of the orbit
forward on the inner, outer, upper, and lower sides of the eyeball,
and are fixed to the anterior portion of the fibrous (sclerotic) coat,
so that in contracting singly they respectively turn the eye inward,
outward, upward, and downward. When all act together they draw
the eyeball deeply into its socket. The retractor muscle also consists
of four muscular slips, repeating the straight muscles on a smaller
scale, but as they are only attached on the back part of the eyeball
they are less adapted to roll the eye than to draw it down into its
socket. The two oblique muscles rotate the eye on its own axis, the
upper one turning its outer surface upward and inward, and the
lower one turning it downward and inward.

THE HAW (the WINKING CARTILAGE, OR CARTILAGO NICTITANS).

This is a structure, which, like the retractor muscle, is not found in
the ej^e of man, but it serves in the lower animals to assist in remov-
ing foreign bodies from the front of the eyeball. It consists, in the
horse, of a cartilage of irregular form, thickened inferiorly and pos-
teriorly where it is intimately connected with the muscles of the eye-
ball and the fatty material around them, and expanded and flattened
anteriorly where its upper surface is concave, and, as it were, molded
on the lower and inner surface of the eyeball. Externally it is cov-
ered by the mucous membrane which lines the eyelids and extends
over the front of the eye. In the ordinary restful state of the eye the
edge of this cartilage should just appear as a thin fold of membrane
at the inner angle of the eye, but when the eyeball is drawn deeply into
the orbit the cartilage is pushed forward, outward, and upward over
it until the entire globe may be hidden from sight. This protrusion
of the cartilage, so as to cover the eye, may be induced in the healthy
eye by pressing the finger and thumb on the upper and lower lids, so
as to cause retraction of the eyeball into the socket. When foreign

254 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

bodies, such as sand, dust, and chaff, or other irritants have fallen on
the eyeball or eyelids, it is similarly projected to push them off, their
expulsion being further favored by a profuse flow of tears.

This is seen, to a lesser extent, in all j)ainful inflammations of the
eye, and to a very marked degree in lockjaw, when the spasm of the
muscles of the eyeball draws the latter deeply into the orbit and pro-
jects forward the masses of fat and the cartilage. The brutal practice
of cutting off this apparatus, whenever it is projected, necessitates
this explanation which, it is hoped, may save to many a faithful serv-
ant a most valuable appendage. That the cartilage and membrane
may become the seat of disease is undeniable, but so long as its edge
is thin and even, and its surface smooth and regular, the mere fact of
its projection over a portion or the whole of the eyeball is no evidence
of disease in its substance, nor any warrant for its removal. It is
usually but the evidence of the presence of some pain in another part
of the eye, which the suffering animal endeavors to assuage by the use
of this beneficent provision. For the diseases of the cartilage itself,
see " Encephaloid cancer."

LACHRYMAL APPARATUS.

This consists, first, of a gland for the secretion of the tears, and,
second, of a series of canals for the conveyance of the superfluous
tears into the cavity of the nose.

The gland is situated above the outer part of the eyeball, and the
tears which have flowed over the eye and reached the inner angle are
there directed by a small conical papilla (lachrymal caruncle) into
two minute orifices, and thence by two ducts (lachrymal) to a small
pouch (lachrymal sac) from which a canal leads through the bones
of the face into the nose. This opens in the lower part of the nose on
the floor of the passage and a little outside the line of union of the
skin which lines the false nostril with the mucous membrane of the
nose. In the ass and mule this opening is situated on the roof instead
of the floor of the nose, but still close to the external opening.

EXAMINATION OF THE EYE.

To avoid unnecessary repetition the following general directions are
given for the examination of the eye : The eye, and to a certain extent
the mucous membrane lining the eyelids, may be exposed to view
by gently parting the eyelids with the thumb and forefinger pressed
on the middle of the respective lids. The pressure, it is true, causes
the protrusion of the haw over a portion of the lower and inner part
of the eye, but by gentleness and careful graduation of the pressure
this may be kept within bounds, and oftentimes even the interior of
the eye can be seen. As a rule it is best to use the right hand for the
left eye, and the left hand for the right, the finger in each case being

DISEASES OF THE EYE. 255

pressed on the upper lid while the thumb depresses the lower one. In
cases in which it is desirable to examine the inner side of the eyelid
further than is possible b}^ the above means, the upper lid maj^ bo
drawn down by the eyelashes with the one hand and then everted
over the tip of the forefinger of the other hand, or over a probe laid
flat against the middle of the lid. AVliere the interior of the eye must
be examined it is useless to make the attempt in the open sunshine or
under a clear sky. The worst cases, it is true, can be seen under such
circumstances, but for the slighter forms the horse should be taken
indoors, where all light from above will be shut off, and should be
placed so that the light shall fall on the eye from the front and side.
Then the observer, placing himself in front of the animal, will receive
the reflected rays from the cornea, the front of the lens and the back,
and can much more easily detect any cloudiness, oj)acity or lack of
transi^arency. The examination can be made much more satisfactory
by placing the horse in a dark chamber and illuminating the eye by
a lamp placed forward and outward from the eye which is to be exam-
ined. Any cloudiness is thus easily detected, and any doubt may be
resolved by moving the lamp so that the image of the flame may be
passed in succession over the whole surface of the transparent cornea
and of the crystalline lens. Three images of the flame will be seen,
the larger one upright, reflected from the anterior surface of the eye ;
a smaller one upright, reflected from the anterior surface of the lens ;
and a second small one inverted from the back surface of the lens.

So long as these images are reflected from healthy surfaces they
will be clear and perfect in outline, but as soon as one strikes on an
area of opacity it will become diffused, cloudy, and indefinite. Thus,
if the large upright image becomes hazy and imperfect over a partic-
ular spot of the cornea, that will be found to be the seat of disease
and opacit3\ Should the large image remain clear, but the small
upright one become diffuse and indefinite over a given point, it indi-
cates opacity on the front of the capsule of the lens. If both upright
images remain clear while the inverted one becomes indistinct at a
given point, then the opacity is in the substance of the lens itself or in
the posterior part of its capsule.

If in a given case the pupil remains so closely contracted that the
deeper parts of the eye can not be seen, the eyelids may be rubbed
with extract of belladonna, and in a short time the pupil will be found
widely dilated.

DISEASES or THE EYELIDS.

Congenital disorders. — Some faulty conditions of the eyelids are
congenital, as division of an eyelid in two., after the manner of hare-
lip, abnormally small opening between the lids., often connected with
imperfect development of the eye, and closure of the lids by adhesion.

256 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

The first is to be remedied by paring the edges of the division and
then bringing them together, as in torn lids. The last two, if reme-
diable at all, require separation by the knife, and subsequent treat-
ment with a cooling astringent eyewash.

Nervous disorders. — Spasm of eyelids may be owing to consti-
tutional susceptibility, or to the presence of local irritants (insects,
chemical irritants, sand, etc.) in the eye, to wounds or inflammation
of the mucous membrane, or to disease of the brain. When due to
local irritation, it may be temporarily overcome by instilling a few
drops of a 4 per cent solution of cocaine into the eye, when the true
cause may be ascertained and removed. The nervous or constitu-
tional disease must be treated according to its nature.

Drooping eyelids^ or ptosis. — This is usually present in the upper
lid, or is at least little noticed in the lower. It is sometimes but a
symptom of paralysis of one-half of the face, in which case the ear.
lips, and nostrils on the same side will be found soft, drooping, and
inactive, and even the half of the tongue may partake of the palsy.
If the same condition exists on both sides, there is difficult snuffling
breathing, from the air drawing in the flaps of the nostrils in inspira-
tion, and all food is taken in by the teeth, as the lips are useless. In
both there is a free discharge of saliva from the mouth during masti-
cation. This paralysis is a frequent result of injury, by a poke, to
the seventh nerve, as it passes over the back of the lower jaw. In
some cases the paralysis is confined to the lid, the injury having been
sustained by the muscles which raise it, or by the supraorbital nerve
which emerges from the bone just above the eye. Such injury to the
nerve may have resulted from fracture of the orbital process of the
frontal bone above the eyeball.

The condition may, however, be due to spasm of the sphincter
muscle, which closes the lids, or to inflammation of the upper lid,
usually a result of blows on the orbit. In the latter case it may run
a slow course with chronic thickening of the lid.

The paralysis due to the poke may be often remedied, first, by the
removal of any remaining inflammation by a wet sponge worn be-
neatli the ear and kept in place by a bandage; second, when all in-
flammation has passed, by a blister on the same region, or by rubbing
it daily with a mixture in equal proportions of olive oil and strong
aqua ammonia. Imj)rovement is usually slow, and it may be months
before complete recovery ensues.

In paralysis from blows above the eyes the same treatment may be
applied to that part.

Thickening of the lid may be treated by painting with tincture of
iodine, and that failing, by cutting out an elliptical strip of the skin
from the middle of the upper lid and stitching the edges together.

PI.iAT K XJX.

Theoretical Section of the Horse's Eye.
a, Optic nerve : b, Sclerotic , cChoroi^l; d.Refinci ; e, Cornea ,- f.fris;
g.h, Ciliary circie, lorligccmcnt ) ancf proce.9ses given ofTby the choroid ,
thotigh representee/ lis iso/fUcd /rom it,i/L order to indicate their limiU,-
more clecirly: i , In.9ertion o^thc ci/iary proc-esses on t/ic cry.itallinelensi
/.Crystal/ine lens: /vOystaliine cctpsuic; I Mtrcoiw! body,- ni,n, Anterior
and posterior cho/rdjers ,- o.Theorefical i/idtcaiion or the membrane oP
the aqueous humour; p.p.Tarsi ,- (/,q, Fibrous membrane or the eyelids;
r.Elcvator muscle of't/ie upper eyelid : s.s.Orhicuffwis muscle of'the
eyelids; t.t ,Skin oi'the eyelids; u, Conjunctiva ; v, Epidermic layer oC
this membrane cohering the Cornea.; j:, Posterior rectus mioscle ;
y,. Superior rectus muscle ; x,In/crior rectus muscle; ir, Fibrous
shrtttli of the oi-bit (or orbited membrane).

Geo. Marx, del.al'tei- Vi ArbovTil p. 37

JUUUS 8IEN & CO r

DIAGRAMMATIC \'ERTICAL SECTION THROT'CH KYK.

DISEASES OF THE EYELIDS. 257

INFLAMMATION OF THE EYELIDS.

The eyelids suffer more or less in all severe inflammations of the
eye, whether external or internal, but inasmuch as the disease some-
times starts in the lids and at other times is exclusively confined to
them, it deserves independent mention.

Among the causes may be named : Exposure to drafts of cold air,
or to cold rain or snow storms; the bites or stings of mosquitoes, flies,
and other insects; snake bites, pricks with thorns, blows of whip or
club; accidental bruises against the stall or ground, especially during
the violent struggles of colic, enteritis, phrenitis (staggers), and when
thrown for operations. It is also a result of infecting inoculations, as
of erysijDelas, anthrax, boil, etc., and is noted by Leblanc as espe-
cially prevalent among horses kept on low marshy pastures. Finally,
the introduction of sand, dust, chaff, beards of barley and seeds of
the finest grasses, and the contact with irritant chemical powders,
liquids, and gases (ammonia from manure or factory, chlorine,
strong sulphur fumes, smoke, and other products of combustion, etc.)
may start the inflammation. The eyelids often undergo extreme
inflammatory and dropsical swelling in urticaria (nettlerash, sur-
feit) and in the general inflammatory dropsy known as purpura
hemorrhagica.

The affection will, therefore, readily divide itself into (1) inflam-
mations due to constitutional causes; (2) those due to direct injury,
mechanical or chemical; and (3) such as are due to inoculation with
infecting material.

(1) Inflammations due to constitutional causes are distinguished
by the absence of any local wound, and the history of a low, damp
pasture, exposure, indigestion from unwholesome food, or the pres-
ence elsewhere on the limbs or body of the general doughy swellings
of purpura hemorrhagica. The lids are swollen and thickened; it
may be slightly or it may be so extremely that the eyeball can not be
seen. If the lid cai^. be everted to show its mucous membrane, that
is seen to be of a deep-red color, especially along the branching lines
of the blood vessels. The part is hot and painful, and a profuse flow
of tears and mucus escapes on the side of the face, causing irritation
and loss of the hair. If improvement follows, this discharge becomes
more tenacious, and tends to cause adhesion to the edges of the upper
and lower lids and to mat together the eyelashes in bundles. This
gradually decreases to the natural amount, and the redness and con-
gested appearance of the eye disappears, but swelling, thickening,
and stiffness of the lids may continue for a length of time. There
may be more or less fever according to the violence of the inflamma-
tion, but so long as there is no serious disease of the interior of the
eye or of other vital organ this is usually moderate.

H. Doc. 795, 59-2 17

258 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

The local treatment consists in astringent, soothing lotions (sugar
of lead 30 grains, laudanum 2 teaspoonfuls, rain water — boiled and
cooled — 1 pint), applied with a soft cloth kept wet with the lotion,
and hung over the eye by tying it to the headstall of the bridle on the
two sides. If the mucous membrane lining of the lids is the seat of
little red granular elevations, a drop of solution of 2 grains of nitrate
of silver in an ounce of distilled water should be applied with the soft
end of a clean feather to the inside of the lid twice a day. The
patient should be removed from all such conditions (pasture, faulty
food, exposure, etc.) as may have caused or aggravated the disease,
and from dust and irritant fumes and gases. He should be fed from
a manger high enough to faVor the return of blood from the head,
and should be kept from work, especially in a tight collar which
would prevent the descent of blood by the jugular veins. His diet
should be laxative and nonstimulating (grass, bran mashes, carrots,
turnips, beets, potatoes, or steamed hay), and any costiveness should
be corrected by a mild dose of raw linseed oil (1 to 1^ pints). In
cold weather warm blanketing may be needful, and even loose flannel
bandages to the limbs, but heat should never be sought at the expense
of pure air.

(2) In inflammations due to local irritants of a noninfective kind
a careful examination will usually reveal their presence, and the first
step must be their removal with a pair of blunt forcef)s or the point
of a lead pencil. Subsequent treatment will be in the main the local
treatment advised above.

(3) In case of infective inflammation there will often be found a
prick or tear by which the septic matter has entered, and in such case
the inflammation will for a time be concentrated at that point. A
round or conical swelling around an insect bite is especially character-
istic. A snake bite is marked by the double prick made by the two
teeth and by the violent and rapidly spreading inflammation. Ery-
sipelas is attended with much swelling, extending beyond the lids
and causing the mucous membrane to protrude beyond the edge of
the eyelid (chemosis). This is characterized by a bright, uniform,
rosy red, disappearing on pressure, or later by a dark, livid hue, but
with less branching redness than in noninfecting inflammation and
less of the dark, dusky, brownish or yellowish tint of anthrax. Lit-
tle vesicles may appear on the skin, and pus may be found without
any distinct limiting membrane, as in abscess. It is early attended
by high fever and marked general weakness and inappetence. An-
thrax of the lids is marked by a firm swelling, surmounted by a blis-
ter, with bloody serous contents, which tends to burst and dry up
into a slough, while the surrounding parts become involved in the
same way. Or it may show as a diffuse dropsical swelling, with less
of the hard central sloughing nodule, but, like that, tending to spread

DISEASES OF THE EYELIDS. 259

quickly. In both cases alike the mucous membrane and the skin, if
white, assume a dusk}'^ brown or yellowish brown hue, which is
largely characteristic. This may pass into a black color by reason
of extravasation of blood. There appears early great constitutional
disturbance, with much prostration and weakness and generalized
anthrax symptoms.

Treatment. — The treatment of these will vary according to the
severity. Insect bites may be touched with a solution of equal parts
of glycerin and aqua ammonia, or a 10 per cent solution of carbolic
acid in water. Snake bites may be bathed with aqua ammonia, and
the same agent given in doses of 2 teaspoonfuls in a quart of water.
Or alcohol may be given in pint or quart doses, according to the size
of the animal. In erysipelas the skin may be painted with tincture
of muriate of iron, or with a solution of 20 grains of iodine in an
ounce of carbolic acid, and one-half an ounce of tincture of muriate of
iron may be given thrice daily in a bottle of water. In anthrax the
swelling should be painted with tincture of iodine, or of the mixture
of iodine and carbolic acid, and if very threatening it may have the
tincture of iodine injected into the swelling with a hypodermic
syringe, or the hard mass may be freely incised to its depth with a
sharp lancet and the lotion applied to the exposed tissues. Internally,
iodide of i^otassium may be given in doses of 2 drams thrice a day, or
tincture of the muriate of iron every four hours.

STY, OR FURUNCLE (bOIl) OF THE EYELID.

This is an inflammation of limited extent, advancing to the forma-
tion of matter and the sloughing out of a small mass of the natural
tissue of the eyelid. It forms a firm, rounded swelling, usually near
the margin of the lid,which suppurates and bursts in four or five days.
Its course may be hastened by a poultice of camomile flowers, to
which have been added a few drops of carbolic acid, the whole
applied in a very thin muslin bag. If the swelling is slow to open
after having become yellowish white, it may be opened by a lancet,
the incision being made at right angles to the margin of the lid.

•

ENTROPION AND ECTROPION, OR INVERSION AND EVERSION OF THE EYELID.

These are respectively caused by wounds, sloughs, ulcers, or other
causes of loss of substance of the mucous membrane on the inside of
the lid and of the skin on the outside; also of tumors, skin diseases,
or paralysis which leads to displacement of the margin of the eyelid.
As a rule, they require a surgical operation, with removal of an ellip-
tical portion of the mucous membrane or skin, as the case may be, but
which requires the skilled and delicate hand of the surgeon.

260 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

TRICHIASIS. .

This consists in the turning in of the eyelashes so as to irritate the
front of the eye. If a single eyelash, it may be snipped off with scis-
sors close to the margin of the eyelid or pulled out by the root with a
pair of flat-bladed forceps. If the divergent lashes are more numer-
ous, the treatment may be as for entropion, by excising an elliptical
portion of skin opposite the offending lashes and stitching the edges
together, so as to draw outward the margin of the lid at that point.

WARTS AND OTHER TUMORS OF THE EYELIDS.

The eyelids form a favorite site for tumors, and above all, warts,
which consist in a simple diseased overgrowth (hypertrophy) of the
surface layers of the skin. If small, these may be snipped off with
scissors or tied around the neck with a stout waxed thread and left to
drop off, the destruction being completed, if necessary, by the daily
application of a piece of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), until any
unhealthy material has been removed. If more widely spread, the
wart may still be clipped off with curved scissors or knife, and the
caustic thoroughly applied day by day.

A bleeding wart, or erectile tumor, is more liable to bleed, and is
best removed by constricting its neck with the waxed cord or rubber
band, or if too broad for this it may be transfixed through its base by
a needle armed with a double thread, which is then to be cut in two
and tied around the two portions of the neck of the tumor. If still
broader, the armed needle may be carried through the base of the
tumor at regular intervals, so that the whole may be tied in moder-
ately sized sections.

In gray and in white horses black pigmentary tumors (melanotic)
are common on the black portions of skin, such as the eyelids, and are
to be removed by scissors or knife, according to their size. In the
horse these do not usually tend to recur when thoroughly removed,
but at times they prove cancerous (as is the rule in man), and then
they tend to reappear in the same site or in internal organs with, it
may be, fatal effect.

Ency^ed, honeylike (melicerous), sebaceous, and fibrous tumors of
the lids all require removal with the knife.

TORN EYELIDS OR WOUNDS OF EYELIDS.

The eyelids are torn by attacks with horns of cattle, or with the
teeth, or by getting caught on nails in stall, rack, or manger, on the
point of stumps, fences, or fence rails, on the barbs of wire fences, and
on other pointed bodies. The edges should be brought together as
promptly as possible, so as to secure union without the formation of
matter, puckering of the skin, and unsightly distortions. Great care
is necessary to bring the two edges together evenly without twisting

DISEASES OF THE EYELIDS. 261

or puckering. The simplest mode of holding them together is by a
series of sharp pins passed through the lips of the wound at intervals
of not over a third of an inch, and held together by a thread twisted
around each pin in the form of the figure 8, and carried obliquely
from pin to pin in two directions, so as to prevent gaping of the
wound in the intervals. The points of the pins may then be cut off
with scissors, and the wound may be wet twice a day with a weak
solution of carbolic acid.

TUMOR or THE HAW, OR CARIES OF THE CARTILAGE

Though cruelly excised for alleged '' hooks," when itself perfectly
healthy in the various diseases which lead to retraction of the eye into
its socket, the haw may, like other bodily structures, be itself the seat
of actual disease. The pigmentary black tumors of white horses and
soft (encephaloid) cancer may attack this part primarily or extend to
it from the eyeball or eyelids ; hairs have been found growing from its
surface; and the mucous membrane covering it becomes inflamed in
common with that covering the front of the eye. These inflamma-
tions are but a phase of the inflammation of the external structures
of the eye, and demand no particular notice nor special treatment.
The tumors lead to such irregular enlargement and distortion of the
haw that the condition is not to be confounded with the simple pro-
jection of the healthy structure over the eye when the lids are pushed
apart with the finger and thumb, and the same remark applies to the
ulceration, or caries, of the cartilage. In the latter case, besides the
swelling and distortion of the haw, there is this peculiarity, that in
the midst of the red inflamed mass there appears a white line or mass
formed by the exposed edge of the ulcerating cartilage. The animal
having been thrown and properly fixed, an assistant holds the eyelids
apart while the operator seizes the haw Avith forceps or hook and care-
fully dissects it out with blunt-pointed scissors. The eye is then
covered with a cloth, kept wet with an eyewash, as for external
ophthalmia.

OBSTRUCTION OF THE LACHRYMAL APPARATUS, OR WATERING EYE.

The escape of tears on the side of the cheek is a symptom of exter-
nal inflammation of the eye, but it may also occur from any disease
of the lachrymal apparatus which interferes with the normal prog-
ress of the tears to the nose. Hence, in all cases when this symptom
is not attended by special redness or swelling of the eyelids, it is well
to examine the lachrymal apparatus. In some instances the orifice of
the lachrj^mal duct on the floor of the nasal chamber and close to its
anterior outlet will be found blocked by a portion of dry muco-puru-
lent matter, on the removal of which tears may begin to escape. This
implies an inflammation of the canal, which may be helped by occa-

262 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

sional sponging out of the nose with warm water, and the application
of the same on the face. Another remedy is to feed warm mashes of
wheat bran from a nosebag, so that the relaxing effects of the water
vapor may be secured.

The two lachrymal openings, situated at the inner angle of the eye,
may fail to admit the tears by reason of their deviation outward in
connection with eversion of the lower lid, or by reason of their con-
striction in inflammation of the mucous membrane. The lachrymal
sac, into which the lachrymal ducts open, may fail to discharge its
contents by reason of constriction or closure of the duct leading to the
nose, and it then forms a rounded swelling beneath the inner angle
of the eye. The duct leading from the sac to the nose may be com-
f)ressed or obliterated by fractures of the bones of the face, and in
disease of these bones (osteosarcoma, so-called osteoporosis, diseased
teeth, glanders of the nasal sinuses, abscess of the same cavities) .

The narrowed or obstructed ducts may be made pervious by a fine
silver probe passed down to the lachrymal sac, and any existing
inflammation of the passages may be counteracted by the use of steam-
ing mashes of wheat bran, by fomentations or wet cloths over the face,
and even by the use of astringent eyewashes and the injection of
similar liquids into the lachrymal canal from its nasal opening. The
ordinary eyewash may be used for this purpose, or it may be injected
after dilution to half its strength. The fractures and diseases of the
bones and teeth must be treated according to their special demands
when, if the canal is still left pervious, it may be again rendered
useful.

EXTERNAL OPHTHALMIA, OR CONJUNCTIVITIS.

In inflammation of the outer parts of the eyeball the exposed vas-
cular and sensitive mucous membrane (conjunctiva) which covers the
ball, the eyelids, the haw, and the lachrymal apparatus, is usually the
most deeply involved, yet adjacent parts are more or less implicated,
and when disease is concentrated on these contiguous parts it consti-
tutes a phase of external ophthalmia which demands a special notice.
These have accordingly been already treated of.

Causes. — The causes of external ophthalmia are mainly those that
act locally — blows with whips, clubs, and twigs, the presence of for-
eign bodies like hay seed, chaff, dust, lime, sand, snuff, pollen of
plants, flies attracted by the brilliancy of the eye, wounds of the
bridle, the migration of the scabies (mange) insect into the eye,
smoke, ammonia rising from the excretions, irritant emanations from
drying marshes, etc. Eoad dust containing infecting microbes is a
common factor. A very dry air is alleged to act injuriously by drying
the eye as well as by favoring the production of irritant dust; and the
undue exposure to bright sunshine through a window in front of the

DISEASES OP THE EYE. 263

stall, or to the reflection from snow or water, is undoubtedly injurious.
The unprotected exposure of the eyes to sunshine through the use of
a very short overdraw check is to be condemned, and the keeping of
the horse in a very dark stall from which it is habitually led into the
glare of full sunlight, intensified by reflection from snow or white
limestone dust, must be set down among the locally acting causes.
But exposure to cold and wet, to wet and snow storms, to cold drafts
and wet lairs must also be accepted as causes of conjunctivitis, the
general disorder which they produce affecting the eye, if that happens
to be the weakest and most susceptible organ of the body, or if it has
been subjected to any special local injury, like dust, irritant gases,
or excess of light. Again, external ophthalmia is a constant con-
comitant of inflammation of the contiguous and continuous mucous
membranes, as those of the nose and throat. Hence the red, watery
eyes that attend on nasal catarrh, sore throat, influenza, strangles,
nasal glanders, and the like. In such cases, however, the affection
of the eye is subsidiary and is manifestly overshadowed by the pri-
mary and predominating disease.

SyTuptoms. — The symptoms are watering of the eye, swollen lids,
redness of the mucous membrane exposed by the separation of the
lids — it may be a mere pink blush with more or less branching red-
ness, or it may be a deep, dark red, as from effusion of blood — and a
bluish opacity of the cornea, which is normally clear and translucent.
But except when resulting from wounds and actual extravasation of
blood, the redness is seen to be superficial, and if the opacity is con-
fined to the edges, and does not involve the entire cornea, the aque-
ous humor behind is seen to be still clear and limpid. The fever is
always less severe than in internal ophthalmia, and only runs high in
the worst cases. The eyelids may be kept closed, the eyeball retracted,
and the haw protruded over one-third or one-half of the ball, but this
is due to the pain only and not to any excessive sensibility to light, as
shown by the comparatively widely dilated pupil. In internal oph-
thalmia, on the contrary, the narrow contracted pupil is the measure
of the pain caused by the falling of light on the inflamed and sensitive
optic nerve (retina) and choroid.

If the affection has resulted from a wound of the cornea, not only
is that the point of greatest opacity, forming a white speck or fleecy
cloud, but too often blood vessels begin to extend from the adjacent
vascular covering of the eye (sclerotic) to the white spot, and that
portion of the cornea is rendered permanently opaque. Again, if the
wound has been severe, though still short of cutting into the anterior
layers of the cornea, the injury may lead to ulceration that may pene-
trate more or less deeply and leave a breach in the tissue which, if
filled up at all, is repaired by opaque fibrous tissue in place of the
transparent cellular structure. Pus may form, and the cornea assumes

264 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

a yellowish tinge and bursts, giving rise to a deep sore which is liable
to extend as an ulcer, and may be in its turn followed by bulging of
the cornea at that point (staphyloma) . This inflammation of the con-
junctiva may be simply catarrhal, with profuse muco-purulent dis-
charge; it may be granular, the surface being covered with minute
reddish elevations, or it may become the seat of a false membrane
(diphtheria).

Treatment. — In treating external ophthalmia the first object is the
removal of the cause. Kemove any dust, chaff, thorn, or other for-
eign body from the conjunctiva, purify the stable from all sources of
ammoniacal or other irritant gas; keep the horse from dusty roads,
and, above all, from the proximity of a leading wagon and its attend-
ant cloud of dust; remove from pasture and feed from a rack which
is neither so high as to drop seeds, etc., into the eyes nor so low as to
favor the accumulation of blood in the head; avoid equally excess of
light from a sunny window in front of the stall and excess of darkness
from the absence of windows; preserve from cold drafts and rains
and wet bedding, and apply curative measures for inflammation of
the adjacent mucous membranes or skin. If the irritant has been of a
caustic nature, remove any remnant of it by persistent bathing with
tepid water and a soft sponge, or with water mixed with white of Q:g^^
or a glass filled with the liquid may be inverted over the eye so that
its contents may dilute and remove the irritant. If the suffering is
very severe, a lotion with a few grains of extract of belladonna or of
morphia in an ounce of water may be applied, or if it is available,
a few drops of 4 per cent solution of cocaine may be instilled into
the eye.

In strong, vigorous patients benefit will usually be obtained from a
laxative, such as 2 tablespoonfuls of Glauber's salts daily, and if the
fever runs high from a daily dose of half an ounce of saltpeter. As
local applications astringent solutions are usually the best, as 30
grains of borax or of sulphate of zinc in a quart of water, to be ap-
plied constantly on a cloth, as advised under " Inflammation of the
eyelids." In the absence of anything better, cold water may serve
every purpose. Above all, adhesive and oily agents (molasses, sugar,
fats) are to be avoided, as only adding to the irritation. By way of
suggesting agents that may be used with good effect, salt and sulphate
of soda may be named, in solutions double the strength of sulphate of
zinc, or 7 grains of nitrate of silver may be added to a quart of dis-
tilled water, and will be found especially applicable in granular con-
junctivitis, diphtheria, or commencing ulceration. A cantharides
blister (1 part of Spanish fly to 4 parts lard) may be rubbed on the
side of the face 3 inches below the eye, and washed off next morning
with soapsuds and oiled daily till the scabs are dropped.

DISEASES OF THE EYE. 265

WHITE SPECKS AND CLOUDINESS OF TPIE CORNEA.

As a result of external ophthalmia, opaque specks, clouds, or hazi-
ness are too often left on the cornea and require for their removal
that they be daily touched with a soft feather dipped in a solution of
3 grains nitrate of silver in 1 ounce distilled water. This should be
applied until all inflammation has subsided, and until its contact is
comparatively painless. It is rarely successful with an old thick scar
following an ulcer, nor with an opacity having red blood vessels
running across it.

ULCERS OF THE CORNEA.

These may be treated with nitrate of silver lotion of twice the
strength used for opacities. Powdered gentian, one-half ounce, and
sulphate of iron, one-fourth ounce daily, may improve the general
health and increase the reparatory power.

INTERNAL OPHTHALMIA (iRITIS, CHOROIDITIS, AND RETINITIS).

Although inflammations of the iris, choroid, and retina — the inner,
vascular, and nervous coats of the eye — occur to a certain extent inde-
pendently of each other, yet one usually supervenes upon the other,
and, as the symptoms are thus made to coincide, it will be best for
our present purposes to treat the three as one disease.

Causes. — The causes of internal ophthalmia are largely those of the
external form only, acting with greater intensity or on a more suscep-
tible eye. Severe blows, bruises, punctures, etc., of the eye, the
penetration of foreign bodies into the eye (thorns, splinters of iron,
etc.), sudden transition from a dark stall to bright sunshine, to the
glare of snow or water, constant glare from a sunny window, abuse
of the overdraw checkrein, vivid lightning flashes, drafts of cold,
damp air; above all, when the animal is perspiring, exposure in cold
rain and snow storms, swimming cold rivers; also certain general
diseases like rheumatism, arthritis, influenza, and disorders of the
digestive organs, may become complicated by this affection. From
the close relation between the brain and eye — alike in the blood ves-
sels and nerves — disorders of the first lead to affections of the second,
and the same remark applies to the persistent irritation to which the
jaws are subjected in the course of dentition. So potent is the last
agency that we dread a recurrence of ophthalmia so long as dentition
is incomplete, and hope for immunity if the animal completes its
dentition without any permanent structural change in the eye.

Symptoms. — The symptoms will vary according to the cause. If
the attack is due to direct physical injury, the inflammation of the
eyelids and superficial structures may be quite as marked as that of the
interior of the eye. If, on the other hand, from general causes, or as
a complication of some distant disease, the affection may be largely

266 DISEASES OF THE HORSE,

confined to the deeper structures, and the swelling, redness, and ten-
derness of the superficial structures will be less marked. ^Vhen the
external coats thus comparatively escape the extreme anterior edge of
the white, or sclerotic, coat where it overlaps the border of the trans-
parent cornea is in a measure free from congestion, and, in the absence
of the obscuring dark pigment, forms a whitish ring around the
cornea. This is partly due to the fact that a series of arteries (cili-
ary) passing to the inflamed iris penetrate the sclerotic coat a short
distance behind its anterior border, and there is therefore a marked
difference in color between the general sclerotic occupied between
these congested vessels and the anterior rim from which they are
absent. Unfortunately, the pigment is often so abundant in the
anterior part of the sclerotic as to hide this symptom. In internal
ophthalmia the opacity of the cornea may be confined to a zone around
the outer margin of the cornea, and even this may be a bluish haze
rather than a deep fleecy white. In consequence it becomes possible
to see the interior of the chamber for the aqueous humor and the
condition of the iris and pupil. The aqueous humor is usually turbid,
and has numerous yellowish white flakes floating on its substance
or deposited in the lower part of the chamber, so as to cut off the
view of the lower portion of the iris. The still visible portion of
the iris has lost its natural, clear, dark luster, which is replaced by
a brownish or yellowish sere-leaf color. This is more marked in
proportion as the iris is inflamed, and less so as the inflammation is
confined to the choroid. The amount of flocculent deposit in the
chamber of the aqueous humor is also in direct ratio to the inflamma-
tion of the iris. Perhaps the most marked feature of internal ophthal-
mia is the extreme and painful sensitiveness to light. On this
account the lids are usually closed, but when opened the pupil is
seen to be narrowly closed, even if the animal has been kept in an
obscured stall. Exceptions to this are seen when inflammatory effu-
sion has overfilled the globe of the eye, and by pressure on the retina
has paralyzed it, or when the exudation into the substance of the
retina itself has similarly led to its paralysis. Then the pupil may
be dilated, and frequently its margin loses its regular ovoid outline
and becomes uneven by reason of the adhesions which it has con-
tracted with the capsule of the lens, through its inflammatory exu-
dations. In the case of excessive effusion into the globe of the eye
that is found to have become tense and hard so that it can not be
indented with the tip of the finger, paralysis of the retina is apt to
result. With such paralysis of the retina, vision is heavily clouded
or entirely lost ; hence, in spite of the open pupil, the finger may be
approached to the eye without the animal becoming conscious of it
until it touches the surface, and if the nose on the affected side is
gently struck and a feint made to repeat the blow the patient makes

DISEASES OF THE EYE. 267

no effort to evade it. Sometimes the edges of the contracted pupil
become adherent to each other by an intervening plastic exudation,
and the opening becomes virtually abolished. In severe inflamma-
tions pus may form in the choroid or iris, and escaping into the
cavit}^ of the aqueous humor show as a yellowish white stratum
below. In nearly all cases there is resulting exudation into the lens
or its capsule, constituting a cloudiness or opacity (cataract), which
in severe and old-standing cases appears as a white fleecy mass behind
a widely dilated pupil. In the slighter cases cataract is to be recog-
nized by examination of the eye in a dark chamber, with an oblique
side light, as described in the introduction to this article. Cataracts
that appear as a simple haze or indefinite fleecy cloud are usually on
the capsule (capsular) , while those that show a radiating arrangement
are in the lens (lenticular), the radiating fibers of which the exudate
follows. Black cataracts are formed by the adhesion of the pigment
on the back of the iris to the front of the lens, and by the subsequent
tearing loose of the iris, leaving a portion of its pigment adherent
to the capsule of the lens. If the pupil is so contracted that it is
imjDossible to see the lens, it may be dilated by applying to the front
of the eye with a feather some drops of a solution of 4 grains of
atropia in an ounce of water.

Treatment. — The treatment of internal ophthalmia should embrace,
first, the removal of all existing causes or sources of aggravation of
the disease, which need not be here repeated. Special care to protect
the patient against cold, wet, strong light, and active exertion must,
however, be insisted on. A dark stall and a cloth hung over the eye
are important, while cleanliness, warmth, dryness, and rest are
equally demanded. If the patient is strong and vigorous, a dose of
4 drams of Barbados aloes may be given, and, if there is any reason
to suspect a rheumatic origin, one-half a dram powdered colchicum
and one-half ounce salicylate of soda may be given daily. Locally,
the astringent lotions advised for external ophthalmia may be resorted
to, especially when the superficial inflammation is well marked. More
important, however, is to instill into the eye, a few drops at a time, a
solution of 4 grains of atropia in 1 ounce of distilled water. This may
be effected with the aid of a soft feather, and may be repeated at inter-
vals of ten minutes until the pupil is widely dilated. As the horse
is to be kept in a dark stall, the consequent admission of light will be
harmless, and the dilation of the pupil prevents adhesion between the
iris and lens, relieves the constant tension of the eye in the effort to
adapt the pupil to the light, and solicits the contraction of the blood
vessels of the eye and the lessening of congestion, exudation, and in-
traocular pressure. Should atropia not agree with the case, it may be
replaced by morphia (same strength) or cocaine in 4 per cent solution.
Another local measure is a blister, which can usually be applied to

268 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

advantage on the side of the nose or beneath the ear. Spanish flies
may be used as for external ophthalmia. In very severe cases the
parts beneath the eye may be shaved and three or four leeches applied.
Setons are sometimes beneficial, and even puncture of the eyeball, but
these should be reserved for professional hands.

The diet throughout should be easily digestible and moderate in
quantity — bran mash, middlings, grass, steamed hay, etc.

Even after the active inflammation has subsided the atropia lotion
should be continued for some weeks to keep the eye in a state of rest
in its still weak and irritable condition, and during this period the
patient should be kept in semidarkness, or taken out only with a dark
shade over the eye. For the same reason heavy drafts and rapid
paces, which would cause congestion of the head, should be carefully
avoided.

RECURRENT OPHTHALMIA (PERIODIC OPHTHALMIA, OR MOONBLINDNESS) .

This is an inflammatory affection of the interior of the eye, inti-
mately related to certain soils, climates, and systems, showing a strong
tendency to recur again and again, and usually ending in blindness
from cataract or other serious injury.

Causes. — Its causes may be fundamentally attributed to soil. On
damp clays and marshy grounds, on the frequently overflowed river
bottoms and deltas, on the coasts of seas and lakes alternately sub-
merged and exposed, this disease prevails extensively, and in many
instances in France (Reynal), Belgium, Alsace (Zundel, Milten-
berger), Germany, and England it has very largely decreased under
land drainage and improved methods of culture. Other influences,
more or less associated with such soil, are potent causative factors.
Thus damp air and a cloudy, wet climate, so constantly associated with
wet lands, are universally charged with causing the disease. These
act on the animal body to produce a lymphatic constitution with an
excess of connective tissue, bones, and muscles of coarse open texture,
thick skins and gummy legs covered with a profusion of long hair.
Hence the heavy horses of Belgium and southwestern France have suf-
fered severely from the affection, while high dry lands adjacent, like
Catalonia, in Spain, and Dauphiny, Provence, and Languedoc, in
France, have in the main escaped.

The rank aqueous fodders grown on such soils are other causes, but
these again are calculated to undermine the character of the nervous
and sanguineous temperament, and to superinduce the lymphatic.
Other foods act by leading to constipation and other disorders of the
digestive organs, thus impairing the general health ; hence in any ani-
mal predisposed to this disease, heating, starchy foods, such as maize,
Avheat, and buckwheat, are to be carefully avoided. It has been widely
charged that beans, pease, vetches, and other Leguminosse are danger-

DISEASES OF THE EYE. 269

ous, but a fuller inquiry contradicts this. If these are well grown
they invigorate and fortify the system, while, like any other fodder,
if grown rank, aqueous, and deficient in assimilable principles, they
tend to lower the health and open the way for the disease.

The period of dentition and training is a fertile exciting cause, for
though the malady may appear at any time from birth to old age, yet
the great majority of victims are from two to six years old, and if a
horse escapes the affection till after six there is a reasonable hope that
he will continue to resist it. The irritation about the head during the
eruption of the teeth, and while fretting in the unwonted bridle and
collar, the stimulating grain diet and the close air of the stable all
combine to rouse the latent tendency to disease in the eye, while direct
injuries by bridle, whip, or hay seeds are not without their influence.
In the same way local irritants, like dust, severe rain and snow
storms, smoke, and acrid vapors are contributing causes.

It is evident, however, that no one of these is sufficient of itself to
produce the disease, and it has been alleged that the true cause is a
microbe, or the irritant products of a microbe, which is harbored in
the marshy soil. The prevalence of the disease on the same damp
soils which produce ague in man and anthrax in cattle has been
quoted in support of this doctrine, as also the fact that the malady is
always more prevalent, other things being equal, in basins surrounded
by hills where the air is still and such products are concentrated, and
that a forest or simple belt of trees will, as in ague, at times limit the
area of its prevalence. Another argument for the same view is found
in the fact that on certain farms irrigated by town sewage this malady
has become extremely prevalent, the sewage being assumed to form a
suitable nidus for the growth of the germ. But on these sewage
farms a fresh crop may be cut every fortnight, and the product is
precisely that aqueous material which contributes to a lymphatic
structure and a low tone of health. The presence in the system of a
definite germ has not yet been proven, and in the present state of our
knowledge we are only warranted in charging the disease to the
deleterious emanations from the marshy soil in which bacterial fer-
ments are constantly producing them.

Heredity is one of the most potent causes. The lymphatic constitu-
tion is of course transmitted and with it the proclivity to recurring
ophthalmia. This is notorious in the case of both parents, male and
female. The tendency appears to be stronger, however, if either
parent has already suffered. Thus a mare may have borne a number
of sound foals, and then fallen a victim to this malady, and all foals
subsequently borne have likewise suffered. So with the stallion.
Reynal even quotes the appearance of the disease in alternate gen-
erations, the stallion offspring of blind parents remaining sound
through life and yet producing foals which furnish numerous victims

270 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

of recurrent ophthalmia. On the contrary, the offspring of diseased
parents removed to high, dry regions and furnished with wholesome,
nourishing rations will nearly all escape. Hence the dealers take
colts that are still sound or have had but one attack from the affected
low Pyrenees (France) to the unaffected Catalonia (Spain), with
confidence that they will escape, and from the Jura Valley to Dau-
phiny with the same result.

Yet the hereditary taint is so strong and pernicious that intelligent
horsemen everywhere refuse to breed from either horse or mare that
has once suffered from recurrent ophthalmia, and the French Govern-
ment studs not only reject all unsound stallions, but refuse service to
any mare which has suffered with her eyes. It is this avoidance of
the hereditar}^ predisposition more than anything else that has
reduced the formerly wide prevalence of this disease in the European
countries generally. A consideration for the future of our horses
would demand the disuse of all sires that are unlicensed, and the
refusal of a license to any sire which has suffered from this or any
other communicable constitutional disease.

Other contributing causes deserve passing mention. Unwholesome
food and a faulty method of feeding undoubtedly predisposes to the
disease, and in the same district the carefully fed will escape in far
larger prox)ortion than the badly fed. But it is so with every other
condition which undermines the general health. The presence of
worms in the intestines, overwork, and debilitating diseases and
causes of every kind weaken the vitality and lay the system more
open to attack. Thierry long ago shoAved that the improvement of
close, loy^, dark, damp stables, where the disease had previously pre-
vailed, practically banished this affection. AVliatever contributes to
strength and vigor is protective; whatever contributes to weakness
and poor health is provocative of the disease in the predisposed
subject.

Sympto7ns. — The symptoms vary according to the severity of the
attack. In some cases there is marked fever, and in some slighter
cases this may be almost altogether wanting, but there is always a
lack of vigor and energy, bespeaking general disorder. The local
symptoms are in the main those of internal ophthalmia, with, in many
cases, an increased hardness of the eyeball from effusion into its
cavity. The contracted pupil does not expand much in darkness, nor
even under the action of belladonna. Opacity advances from the
margin, over a part or whole of the cornea, but so long as it is trans-
parent there may be seen the turbid, aqueous humor with or without
flocculi, the dingy iris robbed of its clear black aspect, the slightly
clouded lens and a greenish yellow reflection from the depth of the
eye. From the fifth to the seventh day the flocculi precipitate in the
lower part of the chamber, exposing more clearly the iris and lens,

DISEASES OF THE EYE. 271

and absorption commences, so that the eye may be cleared up in ten or
fifteen days.

The characteristic of the disease is, however, its recurrence again
and again in the same eye until blindness results. The attacks may
follow each other at intervals of a month, more or less, but they show
no relation to any particular phase of the moon as might be inferred
from the familiar name, but are determined rather by the weather,
the health, the food, or bj^ some periodicity of the system. From five
to seven attacks usually result in blindness, and then the second eye is
liable to be attacked until it also is ruined.

In the intervals between the attacks some remaining symptoms
betray the condition, and these become more marked after each suc-
cessive access of disease. Even after the first attack there is a bluish
ring round the margin of the transparent cornea. The eye seems
smaller than the other, at first because it is retracted in its socket, and
often after several attacks because of actual shrinkage (atrophy).
The upper eyelid, in place of presenting a uniform, continuous arch,
has about one-third from its inner angle an abrupt bend, caused by
the contraction of the levator muscle. The front of the iris has
exchanged some of its dark, clear brilliancy for a lusterless yellow,
and the depth of the eye presents more or less of the greenish yellow
shade. The pupil remains a little contracted, except in advanced and
aggravated cases, when, with opaque lens, it is widely dilated. If one
eye only has suffered, as is common, the contrast in these respects with
the sound eye is all the more characteristic. Another feature is the
erect, attentive carriage of the ear, to compensate to some extent for
the waning vision.

The attacks vary greatly in severity in different cases, but the recur-
rence is characteristic, and all alike lead to cataract and intraocular
effusion, with pressure on the retina and abolition of sight.

Prevention. — The prevention of this disease is the great object to
be aimed at, and this demands the most careful breeding, feeding,
housing, and general management, as indicated under " Causes." Much
can also be done by migration to a high, dry location, but for this and
malarious affections the improvement of the land by drainage and
good cultivation should be the final aim.

Treatment is not satisfactory, but is largely the same as for com-
mon internal ophthalmia. Some cases, like rheumatism, are benefited
by scruple doses of powdered colchicum and 2-dram doses of salicylate *
of soda twice a day. In other cases, with marked hardness of the
globe of the eye from intraocular effusion, aseptic puncture of the
eye, or even the excision of a portion of the iris, has helped. During
recovery a course of tonics (2 drams oxide of iron, 10 grains nux
vomica, and 1 ounce sulphate of soda daily) is desirable to invigorate
the system and help to ward off another attack. The vulgar resort to

272 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

knocking out the wolf teeth and cutting out the haw can only be con-
demned. The temporary recovery would take place in one or two
weeks, though no such thing had been done, and the breaking of a
small tooth, leaving its fang in the jaw, only increases the irritation.

CATARACT.

The common result of internal ophthalmia, as of the recurrent
type, may be recognized as described under the first of these diseases.
Its offensive appearance may be obviated by extraction or depression
of the lens, but as the rays of light would no longer be properly
refracted, perfect vision would not be restored, and the animal would
be liable to prove an inveterate shyer. If perfect blindness continued
by reason of pressure on the nerve of sight, no shying would result.

PALSY OF THE NERVE OF SIGHT, OR AMAUROSIS.

Causes. — The causes of this affection are tumors or other disease
of the brain implicating the roots of the optic nerve, injury to the
nerve between the brain and ej^e, and inflammation of the optic nerve
within the eye (retina), or undue pressure on the same from dropsical
or inflammatory effusion. It may also occur from overloaded stom-
ach, from a profuse bleeding, and even from the j^ressure of the
gravid womb in gestation.

Symptoms. — The symptoms are wide dilatation of the pupils, so as
to expose fully the interior of the globe, the expansion remaining the
same in light and darkness. Ordinary eyes when brought to the
light have the pupils suddenly contract, and then dilate and contract
alternately until they adapt themselves to the amount of light. The
horse does not swerve when a feint to strike is made unless the hand
causes a current of air. The ears are held erect and turn quickly
toward any noise, and the horse steps high to avoid stumbling over
objects which it can not see.

Treatment is only useful when the disease is symptomatic of some
removable cause, like congested brain, loaded stomach, or gravid
womb. When recovery does not follow the termination of these con-
ditions, apply a blister behind the ear and give one-half dram doses of
nux vomica daily.

TUMORS OF THE EYEBALL.

A variety of tumors attack the eyeball — dermoid, papillary, fatty,
cystic, and melanotic — but perhaps the most frequent in the horse is
encephaloid cancer. This may grow in or on the globe, the haw, the
eyelid, or the bones of the orbit, and is only to be remedied, if at all,
by early and thorough excision. It may be distinguished from the
less dangerous tumors by its softness, friability, and great vascularity,
bleeding on the slightest touch, as well as by its anatomical structure.

DISEASES OF THE EYE. 273

STAPHYLOMA.

This consists in a bulging forward of the cornea at a given point
by the saccular yielding and distention of its coats, and it may be
either transparent or opaque and vascular. In the last form the iris
has become adherent to the back of the cornea, and the whole struc-
ture has become filled with blood vessels. In the first form the bulg-
ing cornea is attenuated; in the last it may be thickened. The best
treatment is by excision of a portion of the rise so as to relieve the
intraocular pressure.

PARASITES IN THE EYE.

. Acari in the eye have been incidentally alluded to under inflamma-
tion of the lids.

Filaria palpehralis is a white worm, one-half to 1 inch long, which
inhabits the lachrymal duct and the underside of the eyelids and haw
in the horse, producing a verminous conjunctivitis. The first step in
treatment in such cases is to remove the worm with forceps, tlien treat
as for external inflammation.

Filaria equina is a delicate, white, silvery-looking worm, which I
have repeatedly found 2 inches in length (a length as great as 5 inches
has been reported ) . It invades the aqueous humor, where its constant
active movements make it an object of great interest, and it is fre-
quently exhibited as a " snake in the eye." It is found also in other
internal cavities of the horse, to which it undoubtedly makes its way
from the food, and especially the water swallowed, and its prevention
is therefore to be sought mainly in the supply of pure water from
closed, deep wells. When present in the eye it causes inflammation
and has to be removed through an incision made with the lancet in
the upper border of the cornea close to the sclerotic, the point of the
instrument being directed slightly forward to avoid injury to the iris.
Then apply cold water or astringent antiseptic lotions.

Filaria C07iju7ictivcp, resembling Filaria equina very much in size
and general appearance, is another roundworm which has been found
in the eye of the horse.

The echinococcus, the cystic, or larval, stage of the echinococcus
tapeworm of the dog, has been found in the eye of the horse, and a
cysticercus {Cysticercus -fistularisf) is also reported.
H. Doc. 795, 59-2 18

LAMENESS: ITS CAUSES AND TREATMENT.

By A. LiAUTAED, M. D., V. M.,
Principal of the American Veterinary College, New York.

[Revised In 1903 by John R. Mohler, A. M., V. M. D.]

It is as living, organized, locomotive machines that the horse,
camel, ox, and their burden-bearing companions are of practical
value to man. Hence the consideration of their usefulness and con-
sequent value to their human masters ultimately and naturally re-
solves itself into an inquiry concerning the condition of that special
portion of their organism which controls their finiction of locomo-
tion. This is especially true in regard to the members of the equine
family, the most numerous and valuable of all the beasts of burden,
and it naturally follows that with the horse for a subject of dis-
cussion the special topic and leading theme of inquiry will, hj an
easy lapse, become an inquest into the condition and efficiency of his
power for usefulness as a carrier or traveler. There is a large
amount of abstract interest in the study of that endowment of the
animal economy which enables its possessor to change his place at
will and convey himself whithersoever his needs or his moods may
incline him ; but how much greater the interest that attaches to the
subject when it becomes a practical and economic question and in-
cludes within its purview the various related topics which belong to
the domains of physiology, pathology, therapeutics, and the entire
round of scientific investigation into which it is finally merged as a
subject for medical and surgical consideration — in a word, of actual
disease and its treatment ! It is not surprising that the intricate
and complicated apparatus of locomotion, with its S3'^mmetry and
harmony of movement and the perfection and beauty of its details
and adjuncts, should, by students of creative design and attentive
observers of nature and her marvelous contrivances and adaptations,
be admiringly denominated a living machine.

The horse in a state of domesticity is of all the animal tribe the
largest sharer with his master in his liability to the accidents and dan-
gers which are among the incidents of civilized life. From his expo-
sure to the missiles of war on the battlefield to his chance of picking
up a nail from the city pavement there is no hour when he is not in
danger of incurring injuries which for their repair may demand the
best skill of the veterinary jDractitioner. And this is true not alone of
casualties which belong to the class of external and traumatic cases,
but includes as well those of a kind perhaps more numerous, which
274

LAMENESS. 275

may result in lesions of internal parts, frequently the most serious and
obscure of all in their nature and effects.

The horse is too important a factor in the practical details of human
life and fills too large a place in the business and pleasure of the
world to justify any indifference to his needs and physical comfort
or neglect in respect to the preservation of his peculiar powers for
usefulness. In entering somewhat largely, therefore, upon a review
of the subject, and treating in detail of the causes, the symptoms, the
progress, the treatment, the results, and the consequences of lameness
in the horse, we are performing a duty which needs no word of
apology or justification. The subject explains and justifies itself,
and of its own vindication and illustration, if any are needed.

The function of locomotion is performed by the action of two prin-
cipal systems of organs, known in anatomical and physiological
terminology as passive and active^ the muscles performing the active
and the hones the passive portion of the movement. The necessary
connection between the cooperating parts of the organism is effected
by means of a vital contact by which the muscle is attached -to the
bone at certain determinate points on the surface of the latter.
These points of attachment aj^pear sometimes as an eminence, some-
times a depression, sometimes a border or an angle, or again as a
mere roughness, but each perfectly fulfilling its purpose; while the
necessary motion is provided for by the formation of the ends of the
long bones into the requisite articulations, joints, or hinges. Every
motion is the product of the contraction of one or more of the
muscles, which, as it acts upon the bony levers, gives rise to a move-
ment of extension or flexion, abduction or adduction, rotation or cir-
cumduction. The movement of abduction is that which passes from
and that of adduction that which passes toward the median line, or
the center of the body. The movement of flexion and extension are
too well understood to need defining. It is the combination and
rapid alternations of these movements which produce the different
postures and various gaits of the living animal, and it is their inter-
ruption and derangement, from whatsoever cause, which constitute
the pathological condition of lameness.

A concise examination of the general anatomy of these organs, how-
ever, must precede the consideration of the pathological questions
pertaining to the subject. A statement, such as we have just given,
containing only the briefest hint of matters which, though not neces-
sarily in their ultimate scientific minutia?, must be clearly compre-
hended in order to acquire a symmetrical and satisfactory view of the
theme as a practical collation of facts to be remembered, analyzed,
applied, and utilized.

It was the great Bacon who wrote : " The human body may be
compared, from its complex and delicate organization, to a musical

276 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

instrument of the most perfect construction, but exceedingly liable
to derangement." In its degree the remark is equally applicable to
the equine body, and if we would keep it in tune and profit by its
harmonious action we must at least acquaint ourselves with the
relations of its parts and the mode of their cooperation.

The bones, then, are the hard organs which in their connection and
totality constitute the skeleton of an animal. They are of various
forms, three of which — the long, the fiat, and the small — are recog-
nized in the extremities. These are more or less regular in their form,
but present upon their surfaces a variety of aspects, exhibiting in
turn, according to the requirement of each case, a roughened or smooth
surface, variously marked with grooves, crests, eminences, and depres-
sions, for the necessary muscular attachments, and, as before men-
tioned, are connected by articulations and joints, of which some are
immovable and others of a m.ovable kind.

The substance of the bones is composed of a mass of combined
earthy and animal matter, surrounded by a fine, fibrous enveloping
membrane (the periosteum) which is intimately adherent to the ex-
ternal surface of the bone, and is, in fact, the secreting membrane of
the bony structure. The bony tissue proper is of two consistencies,
the external portion being hard and " compact," and called by the
latter term, while the internal, known as the " spongy," or " areolar
tissue," corresponds with the descriptive terms. Those of the bones
which possess this latterconsistency contain also, in their spongy por-
tion, the medullary substance known as marrow^ which is deposited in
large quantities in the interior of the long bones, and especially where
a central cavity exists, called, for that reason, the medullary cavity.
The nourishment of the bones is effected by means of what is known
as the nutrient foraTYien^ an opening established for the passage of the
blood vessels which convey the necessary nourishment to the interior
of the organ. There are other minutiae concerning the nourishment of
the skeleton, such as the venous arrangement and the classification
of their arterial vessels into several orders, which, though of interest
as an abstract study, are not of sufficient practical value to refer to
here.

The active organs of locomotion, the muscles^ speaking generally,
form the fleshy covering of the external part of the skeleton and
surrovmd the bones of the extremities. They vary greatly in shape
and size, being flat, triangular, long, short, or broad, and are
variously and capriciously named, some from their shape, some from
their situation, and others from their use, and thus we have abductors
and adductors, the pyramidal and orbicular, the digastricus, the
vastus, and so on. Those which are under the control of the will,

ANATOMY OF THE HOESE. 277

known as the voluntary muscles, appear in the form of fleshy
structures, red in color, and with fibers of various degrees of fineness,
and are composed of fasciculi^ or bundles of fibers, united by con-
nective or cellular tissue, each fasciculus being composed of smaller
ones, less in size, but united in a similar manner to compose the
larger formations, each of which is enveloped by a structure of similar
nature known as the sarcolemma. Many of the muscles are united to
the bones by the direct contact of their fleshy fibers, but, in other
instances, the body of the muscle is more or less gradually trans-
formed into a cordy or membranous structure known as the tendon
or sinew, and the attachment is made by very short fibrous threads
through the medium of a long tendinous band, which, passing from
a single one to several other of the bones, effects its object at a point
far distant from its original attachment. In thus carrying its action
from one bone to another, or from one region of a limb to another,
these tendons must necessarily have smooth surfaces over which to
glide, either upon the bones themselves or formed at their articula-
tions, and this need is sujiplied by the secretion of the synovial fluid,
a yellowish, unctuous substance, furnished by a peculiar tendinous
synovial sac designed for the purpose.

Illustrations in point of the agency of the synovial fluid in assisting
the sliding movements of the tendons may be found under their vari-
ous forms at the shoulder joint, at the upper part of the bone of the
arm, at the posterior part of the kneejoint, and also at the fetlocks,
on their posterior part.

As the tendons, whether singly or in company with others, pass
over these natural pulleys they are retained in place by strong fibrous
bands or sheaths, which are by no means exempt from danger of
injury, as Avill be readily inferred from a consideration of their im-
portant special use as supports and reenforcements of the tendons
themselves, with which they must necessarily share the stress of what-
ever force or strain is brought to bear upon both or either.

We have referred to that special formation of the external surface
of a bone by which it is adapted to form a joint or articulation,
either movable or fixed, and a concise examination of the formation
and structure of the movable articulations will here be in place.
These are formed generally by the extremities of the long bones, or
may exist on the surfaces of the short ones. The points or regions
where the contact occurs is denominated the articular surface, which
assumes from this circumstance a considerable variety of aspect and
form, being in one case comparatively flat and another elevated; or
as forming a protruding head or knob, with a distinct convexity ; and
again presenting a corresponding depression or cavity, accurately
adapted to complete, by their coaptation, the ball and socket joint.
The articulation of the arm and shoulder is an example of the first

278 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

kind, while that of the hip with the thigh bone is a perfect exhibition
of the latter.

The structure whose office is to retain the articulating surfaces in
place is the ligament. This is usually a white, fibrous, inelastic
tissue; sometimes, however, it is elastic in character and yellowish.
In some instances it is funicular shaped or corded, serving to bind
more firmly together the bones to which its extremities are attached ;
in others it consists of a broad membrane, wholly or partially sur-
rounding the broad articulations, and calculated rather for the pro-
tection of the cavity from intrusion by the air than for other security.
This latter form, known as capsular^ is usually found in connection
with joints which possess a free and extended movement. The
capsular and funicular ligaments are sometimes associated, the cap-
sular appearing as a membranous sac wholly or partially inclosing
the joint; the funicular, here known as an interarticidar ligament,
occupying the interior, and thus securing the union of the several
bones more firmly and effectively than would be possible for the cap-
sular ligament unassisted.

The universal need which pertains to all mechanical contrivances
of motion has not been forgotten while providing for the perfect
working of the interesting piece of living machinery which performs
the function of locomotion, as we are contemplating it, and nature
has consequently provided for obviating the evils of attrition and
friction, and insuring the easy play and smooth movement of its
parts, by the establishment of the secretion of the synovia, the vital
lubricant of which we have before spoken, as a yellow, oily, or
rather glairy secretion, which performs the indispensable office of
facilitating the play of the tendons over the joints and certain given
points of the bones. This fluid, which is dejwsited in a containing
sac, the lining (serous) membrane of which forms the secreting
organ, is of an excessively sensitive nature, and while it lines the
inner face of the ligaments, both capsular and fascicular, is attached
only upon the edges of the bones without extending upon their
length, or between the layers of cartilage which lie between the bones
and their articular surfaces.

Our object in thus partially and concisely reviewing the structure
and condition of the essential organs of locomotion has been rather
to outline a sketch which may serve as a reference chart of the gen-
eral features of the subject than to offer a minute description of the
parts referred to. Other points of interest will receive due attention
as we proceed with the illustration of our subject and examine the
matters which it most concerns us to bring under consideration. The
foundation of facts which we have thus far prepared will be found
sufficiently broad, we trust, to include whatever may be necessary to
insure a ready comprehension of the essential matters which are to

DEFINITION OF LAMENESS. 279

follow as our review is carried forward to completion. What we
have said touching these elementary truths will probably be sufficient
to facilitate a clear understanding of the requirements essential to
the perfection and regularity which characterize the normal perform-
ance of the various movements which result in the accomplishment of
the action of locomotion. So long as the bones, the muscles and their
tendons, the joints with their cartilages, their ligaments and their
synovial structure, the nerves and the controlling influences which
they exercise over all, with the blood vessels which distribute to every
part, however minute, the vitalizing fluid which sustains the whole
fabric in being and activity — so long as these various constituents and
adjuncts of animal life preserve their normal exemption from disease,
traumatism, and pathological change, the function of locomotion will
continue to be performed with perfection and efficiency.

But on the other hand, let any element of disease become implanted
in one or several of the parts destined for combined action, any change
or irregularity of form, dimensions, location, or action occur in any
portion of the apparatus — any obstruction or misdirection of vital
power take place, any interference with the order of the phenomena
of normal nature, any loss of harmony and lack of balance be be-
trayed— and we have in the result the condition of lameness.

DEFINITION or LAMENESS.

Physiology. — Comprehensively and universally considered, then,
the term lameness signifies any irregularity or derangement of the
function of locomotion, irrespective of the cause which produced it or
the degree of its manifestation. However slightly or severely it may
be exhibited, it is all the same. The nicest observation may be
demanded for its detection, and it may need the most thoroughly
trained powers of discernment to identify and locate it, as in cases
where the animal is said to be fainting^ tender., or to go sore. On the
contrary, the patient may be so far affected as to refuse utterly to use
an injured leg, and under compulsory motion keep it raised from the
ground, and prefer to travel on three legs rather than to bear any por-
tion of his weight upon the afflicted member. In these two extremes,
and in all the intermediate degrees, the patient is simply lame —
pathognomonic minutiae being considered and settled in a place of
their own.

This last condition of disabled function — lameness on three legs —
and many of the lower degrees of simple lameness are veiy easy of
detection, but the first, or mere tenderness or soreness, may be very
difficult to identify, and at times very serious results have followed
from the obscurity which has enveloped the early stages of the malady.
For it may easily occur that in the absence of the treatment which an
early correct diagnosis would have indicated, an insidious ailment

280 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

may so take advantage of the lapse of time as to root itself too deeply
into the economy to be subverted, and become transformed into a
disabling chronic case, or possibly one that is incurable and fatal.
Hence the impolicy of depreciating early symptoms because they are
unaccompanied by distinct and pronounced characteristics, and from
a lack of threatening appearances inferring the absence of danger.
The possibilities of an ambush can never be safely ignored. An extra
caution costs nothing, even if wasted. The fulfillment of the first
duty of a practitioner, when introduced to a case, is not always an
easy task, though it is too frequently expected that the diagnosis, or
" what is the matter " verdict, will be reached by the quickest and
surest kind of an "instantaneous process" and a sure prognosis, or
" how will it end," guessed at instanter.

Usually the discovery that the animal is becoming lame is compar-
atively an easy matter to a careful observer. Such a person will
readily note the changes of movements which will have taken place
in the animal he has been accustomed to drive or ride, unless they
are indeed slight and limited to the last degree. But what is not
always easy is the detection, after discovering the fact of an existing
irregularity, of the locality of its point of origin, and whether its
seat be in the near or off leg, or in the fore or the hind part of the
body. These are questions too often wrongly answered, notwith-
standing the fact that with a little careful scrutiny the point may be
easily settled. The error, which is too often committed, of pronounc-
ing the leg upon which the animal travels soundly as the seat of the
lameness, is the result of a misinterpretation of the physiology of
locomotion in the crippled animal. Much depends upon the gait with
which the animal moves while under examination. The act of walk^
ing is unfavorable for accurate observation, though, if the animal
walks on three legs, the decision is easy to reach. The action of gal-
loping will often, by the rapidity of the muscular movements and
their quick succession, interfere with a nice studj^ of their rhj^thm, and
it is only under some peculiar circumstances that the examination can
be safely conducted while the animal is moving with that gait. It is
while the animal is trotting that the investigation is made with the
best chances of an intelligent decision, and it is while moving with
that gait, therefore, that the points should be looked for which must
form the elements of the diagnosis.

Our first consideration should be the physiology of normal or
healthy locomotion, that from thence we may the more easily reach
our conclusions touching lameness, or that which is abnormal, and
by this process we ought to succeed in obtaining a clew to the solution
of the first problem, to wit, in which leg is the seat of the lameness ?

A word of definition is here necessary, in order to render that which
follows more easily intelligible. In veterinary nomenclature each

DEFINITION OF LAMENESS. 281

two of the legs, as referred to in pairs, is denominated a biped. Of
the four points occupied by the feet of the animal while standing
at rest, forming a square, the two fore legs are known as the anterior
biped ; the two hinder, the postenor; the two on one side, the lateral;
and one of either the front or hind biped with the opposite leg of
the hind or front biped will form the diagonal hiped.

Considering, as it is proper to do, that in a condition of health each
separate biped and each individual leg is required to perform an
equal and uniform function and to carry an even or equal portion of
the weight of the body, it will be readily appreciated that the result
of this distribution will be a regular, evenly balanced, and smooth
displacement of the body thus supported by the four legs, and that
therefore, according to the rapidity of the motion in different gaits,
each single leg will be required at certain successive moments to bear
the weight which had rested upon its congener while it was itself in
the air, in the act of moving; or, again, two different legs of a biped
may be called upon to bear the weight of the two legs of the opposite
biped while also in the air in the act of moving.

To simplify the matter by an illustration, the weight of an animal
may be placed at 1,000 pounds, of which each leg, in a normal and
healthy condition, supports while at rest 250 pounds. Wlien one of
the fore legs is in action, or in the air, and carrying no weight, its 250
pounds share of the weight will be thrown upon its congener, or part-
ner, to sustain. If the two legs of a biped are both in action and
raised from the ground, their congeners still resting in inaction, will
carry the total weight of the other two, or 500 pounds. And as the
succession of movements continues, and the change from one leg to
another or from one biped to another, as may be required by the gait,
joroceeds, there will result a smooth, even, and equal balancing of
active movements, shifting the weight from one leg or one biped to
another, with symmetrical precision, and we shall be presented with
an interesting example of the play of vital mechanics in a healthy
organization.

Much may be learned from the accurate study of the action of a
single leg. Normally, its movements will be without variation or
failure. AVhen at rest it will easily sustain the weight assigned to it,
without showing hesitancy or betraying pain, and when it is raised
from the ground in order to transfer the weight to its mate, it will
perform the act in such a manner that when it is again placed upon the
ground to rest it will be with a firm tread, indicative of its ability to
receive again the burden to be thrown back upon it. In planting it
upon the ground or raising it up again for the forward movement
while in action, and again replanting it upon the earth, each move-
ment will be the same for each leg and for each biped, whether the
act be that of walking or trotting, or even of galloping. In short, the

282 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

regular play of every part of the aj^paratiis will testify to the exist-
ence of that condition of orderly soundness and efficient activity
eloquently suggestive of the condition of vital integrity, which is
simply but comprehensively expressed by the terms health and
soundness.

But let some change, though slight and obscure, occur among the
elements of the case; some invisible agency of evil intrude among
the harmonizing processes going forward ; any disorder occur in the
relations of cooperating parts; anything appear to neutralize the
efficiency of vitalizing forces; any disability of a limb to accept and
to throw back upon its mate the portion of the weight which belongs
to it to sustain — present itself, whether as the effect of traumatic acci-
dents or otherwise; in short, let anything develop which tends to
defeat the purpose of nature in organizing the locomotive apparatus,
at once we are confronted by that which may be looked upon as a
cause of lameness.

Not the least of the facts which it is important to remember is that
it is not sufficient to look for the manifestation of an existing discord-
ance in the action of the affected limb alone, but that it is shared by
the sound one, and must be searched for in that as well as the halting
member, if the hazard of an error is to be avoided. The mode of
action of the leg which is the seat of the lameness will vary greatly
from that which it exhibited when in a healthy condition, and the
sound leg will also offer important modifications in the same three
particulars before alluded to, to wit, that of resting on the ground,
that of its elevation and forward motion, and that of striking the
ground again when the full action of stepping is accomplished.
Inability in the lame leg to sustain weight will imply excessive exer-
tion by the sound one, and lack of facility or disposition to rest the
lame member on the ground will necessitate a longer continuance of
that action on the sound side. Changes in the act of elevating the
leg, or of carrying it forward, or in both, will present entirelj^ oppo-
site conditions between the two. The lame member will be elevated
rapidly, moved carefulh^ forward, and returned to the ground with
caution and hesitancy, and the contact with the earth will be effected
as lightly as possible, while the sound limb will rest longer on the
ground, move boldly and rapidly forward, and strike the ground
promptly and forcibly. All this is due to the fact that the sound
member carries more than its normal, healthy share of the weight of
the body, a share which may be in excess from 1 to 250 pounds, and
thus bring its burden to a figure varying from 251 to 500 pounds, all
depending upon the degree of the existing lameness, whether it is
simply a slight tenderness or soreness, or whether the trouble has
reached a stage which compels the patient to the awkwardness of
traveling on three legs.

That all this is not mere theory, but rests on a foundation of fact

HOW TO DETECT LAMENESS. 283

may be established by observing the manifestations attending a single
alteration in the balancing of the body. In health the suj^port and
equilibrium of that mass of the body which is borne by the fore legs
is equalized, and j^asses by regular alternations from the right to the
left side, and vice versa. But if the left leg, becoming disabled,
relieves itself by leaning, as it were, on the right, the latter becomes,
consequently, practically heavier, and the mass of the body will
incline or settle upon that side. Lameness of the left side, therefore,
means dropping or settling on the right, and vice versa. We empha-
size this statement and insist uj^on it, the more from the frequency
of the instances of error which have come under our notice, in which
parties have insisted upon their view that the leg which is the seat of
the lameness is that upon which he drops, and which the animal is
usually supposed to favor.

HOW TO DETECT THE SEAT OF LAMENESS.

Properly appreciating the remarks which have preceded, and fully
comprehending the modus operandi and the true pathology of lame-
ness, but little remains to be done in order to reach an answer to the
question as to which side of the animal the lameness is seated, except'
to examine the patient while in action. We have already stated our
reasons for preferring the movement -of trotting for this purpose. In
conducting such an examination the animal should be unblanketed,
and held by a plain halter in the hands of a man who knows how to
manage his paces, and the trial should always be made over a firm,
hard road whenever such is available. He is to be examined from
various positions — from before, from behind, and from each side.
Watching him as he approaches, as he passes by, and as he recedes,
the observer should carefully study that important action which we
have spoken of as the dropping of the hody upon one extremity or the
other, and this can readily be detected by attending closely to the
motions of the head and of the hip. The head drops on the same side
on which the mass of the body will fall, dropping toward the right
when the lameness is in the left fore leg, and the hip dropping in pos-
terior lameness, also on the sound leg, the reversal of the conditions^
of course, producing reversed effects. In other words, when the ani-
mal in trotting exhibits signs of irregularity of action, or lameness,
and this irregularity is accompanied by dropping or nodding the
head, or depressing the hip on the right side of the body, at the time
the feet of the right side strike the ground, the horse is lame on the left
side. If the dropping and nodding are on the near side the lameness
is on the off side,

' But in a majority of cases the answer to the first question relating
to the lameness of a horse is, after all, not a very difficult task. There
are two other problems in the case more difficult of solution and which

284 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

often require the exercise of a closer scrutiny, and draw upon all the
resources of the experienced practitioner to settle satisfactorily. That
a horse is lame in a given leg may be easily determined, but when it
becomes necessary to pronounce upon the query as to what part, what
region, what structure is affected, the easy part of the task is over,
and the more difficult and important, because more obscure, portion
of the investigation has commenced — except, of course, in cases of
which the features are too distinctly evident to the senses to admit of
error. It is true that by carefully noting the manner in which a lame
leg is performing its functions, and closely scrutinizing the motions
of the whole extremity, and especially of the various joints which
enter into its structure; by minutely examining every part of the
limb; by observing the outlines; by testing the change, if any, in
temperature and the state of the sensibility — all these investigations
may guide the surgeon to a correct localization of the seat of trouble,
but he must carefully refrain from the adoption of a hasty conclusion,
and, above all, assure himself that he has not failed to make the foot,
of all the organs of the horse the most liable to injury and lesion, the
subject of the most thorough and minute examination of all the parts
'which compose the suffering extremity.

The greater liability of the foot than of any other part of the
extremities to injury from casualties, natural to its situation and use,
should always suggest the beginning of an inquiry, especially in an
obscure case of lameness at that point. Indeed the lameness may
have an apparent location elsewhere when that is the true seat of
the trouble, and the surgeon who, while examining his lame patient,
discovers a ringbone, and satisfying himself that he has encountered
the cause of the disordered action suspends his investigation without
subjecting the foot to a close scrutiny, may deeply regret his neglect
and inadvertence at a later day, when regrets will avail nothing
toward remedying the irreparable injury which has ensued upon his
partial method of exploration. But, as in human pathological experi-
ence, there are instances when inscrutable diseases will deliver their
fatal messages, while leaving no mark and making no sign by which
they might be identified and classified, so it Avill happen that in the
humbler animals the onset and progress of mysterious and unrecogniz-
able ailments will at times baffle the most skilled veterinarian, and
leave our burden-bearing servants to succumb to the inevitable, and
suffer and perish in unrelieved distress.

DISEASES OF BONES.
PERIOSTITIS, OSTITIS, AND EXOSTOSIS.

From the closeness and intimacy of the connection existing between
the two principal elements of the bony structure while in health, it
frequently becomes exceedingly difficult, when a state of disease has
supervened, to discriminate accurately as to the part primarily af-

DISEASES OF THE BONES. 285

fected, and to determine positively whether the periosteum or the
body of the bone is originally implicated. Yet a knowledge of the
fact is often of the first importance, in order to secure a favorable
result from the treatment to be instituted. It is, however, quite evi-
dent that in a majority of instances the bony growths which so fre-
quently appear on the surface of their structure, to which the general
term of exostosis is applied, have had their origin in an inflammation
of the periosteum, or enveloping membrane, and known as periostitis.
However this may be, we have as a frequent result, sometimes on the
body of the bone, sometimes at the extremities, and sometimes involv-
ing the articulation itself, certain bony growths, or exostoses, known
otherwise by the term splint, ringhone, and spavin, all of which, in an
important sense, may be finally referred to the periosteum as their
nutrient source and support, at least after their formation, if not for
their incipient existence.

Cavse. — It is certain that inflammation of the periosteum is fre-
quently referable to wounds and bruises caused by external agencies,
and it is also true that it may possibly result from the spreading
inflammation of surrounding diseased tissues, but in any case the
result is uniformly seen in the deposit of a bony growth, more or less
diffuse, sometimes of irregular outline, and at others projecting dis-
tinctly from the surface from which it springs, as so commonly pre-
sented in the ringbone and the spavin.

Symptoms. — This condition of periostitis is often difficult to deter-
mine. The signs of inflammation are so obscure, the swelling of the
parts so insignificant, anj^ increase of heat so imperceptible, and the
soreness so slight, that even the most acute observer may fail to locate
the point of its existence, and it is often long after the discovery of
the disease itself that its location is positively revealed by the visible
presence of the exostosis. Yet the first question had been resolved,
in discovering the fact of the lameness, while the second and third
remained unanswered, and the identification of the affected limb
and the point of origin of the trouble remained unknown until their
palpable revelation to the senses.

Treatment. — When, hj careful scrutiny, the ailment has been
located, a resort to treatment must be had at once, in order to pre-
vent, if possible, any further deposit of the calcareous structure and
increase of the exostotic gi'owth. With this view the application of
water, either warm or cold, rendered astringent by the addition of
alum or sugar of lead, will be beneficial. The tendency to the forma-
tion of the bony growth, and the increase of its development after
its actual formation, may often be checked by the application of a
severe blister of Spanish fly. The failure of these means and the
establishment of the diseased process in the form of chronic perios-
titis cause various changes in the bone covered by the disordered

286 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

membrane, and the result may be softening, degeneration, or necro-
sis, but more usually it is followed by the formation of the bony
growths referred to, on the cannon bone, the coronet, the hock, etc.

SPLINTS.

We first turn our attention to the splint, as certain bony enlarge-
ments which are developed on the cannon bone, between the knee or
the hock and the fetlock joint, are called. They are found on the
inside of the leg, from the knee, near to which they are frequently
found, downward to about the lower third of the principal cannon
bone. They are of various dimensions, and are readily perceptible
both to the eye and to the touch. They vary considerably in size,
ranging from that of a large nut downward to very small proportions.
In searching for them they may be readily detected by the hand if
they have attained sufficient development in their usual situation, but
must be distinguished from a small bony enlargement which may be
felt at the lower third of the cannon bone, which is neither a splint
nor a pathological formation of any kind, but merely the buttonlike
enlargement at the lower extremity of the small metacarpal or splint
bone.

We have said that splints are to be found on the inside of the leg.
This is true as a general statement, but it is not invariably so, and
they occasionally appear on the outside. It is also true that they
appear most commonly on the fore legs, but this is not exclusively the
case, and they may at times be found on both the inside and outside
of the hind leg. Usually a splint forms only a true exostosis, or a
single bony growth, with a somewhat diffuse base, but neither is this
invariably the case. In some instances they assume more important
dimensions, and pass from the inside to the outside of the bone, on
its posterior face, between that and the susjoensory ligament. This
form is termed the pegged splint^ and constitutes a serious and per-
manent deformity, in consequence of its interference with the play
of the fibrous cord which passes behind it, becoming thus a source of
continual irritation and colisequently of permanent lameness.

Symptoms. — A splint may thus frequently become a cause of lame-
ness though not necessarily in every instance; but it is a lameness
possessing features peculiar to itself. It is not always continuous,
but at times assumes an intermittent character, and is more marked
when the animal is warm than when he is cool. If the lameness is
near the kneejoint, it is very apt to become aggravated when the
animal is put to work, and the gait acquires then a peculiar character,
arising from the manner in which the limb is carried outward from
the knees downward, which is done by a kind of abduction of the
lower part of the leg. Other symptoms, however, than the lameness
and the presence of the splint, which is its cause, may be looked for
in the same connection as those which have been mentioned as per-

SPLINTS. 287

taming to certain evidences of periostitis, in the increase of the
temperature of the part, with swelling and probably pain on pres-
sure. This last symptom is of no little importance, since its presence
or absence has in many cases formed the determining point in decid-
ing a question of difficult diagnosis.

Cause. — A splint being one of the results of periostitis, and the
latter one of the effects of external hurts, it naturally follows that
the parts which are most exposed to blows and collisions will be those
on which the splint will most commonly be found, and it may not be
improper, therefore, to refer to hurts from without as among the
common causes of the lesion. But other causes may also be produc-
tive of the evil, and among these may be mentioned the overstraining
of an immature organism by the imposition of excessive labor upon a
young animal at a too early period of his life. The bones which enter
into the formation of the cannon are three in number, one large and
two smaller, which, during the youth of the animal, are more or less
articulated, with a limited amount of mobility, but which become in
maturity firmly joined by a rigid union and ossification of their
interarticular surface. If the immature animal is compelled, then,
to perform exacting tasks beyond his strength, the inevitable result
will follow in the muscular straining, and perhaps tearing asunder
of the fibers which unite the bones at their points of juncture, and it
is difficult to understand how inflammation or periostitis can fail to
develop as the natural consequence of such local irritation. If the
result were deliberately and intelligently designed, it could hardly
be more effectually accomplished.

The splint is an object of the commonest occurrence — so common,
indeed, that in large cities a horse which can not exhibit one or more
specimens upon some portion of his extremities is one of the rarest of
spectacles. Though it is in some instances a cause of lameness, and
its discovery and cure are sometimes beyond the ability of the shrewd-
est and most experienced veterinarians, yet as a source of vital danger
to the general equine organization, or even of functional disturbance,
or of practical inconvenience, aside from the rare exceptional cases
which exist as mere samples of possibility, it can not be considered to
belong to the category of serious lesions. The worst stigma that at-
taches to it is that in general estimation it is ranked among eyesores
and continues indefinitely to be that and nothing different. The
inflammation in which they originated, acute at first, either subsides
or assumes the chronic form, and the bony growth becomes a perma-
nence— more or less established, it is true, but doing no positive harm
and not hindering the animal from continuing his daily routine of
labor. All this, however, requires a proviso against the occurrence
of a subsequent acute attack, when, as with other exostoses, a fresh
access of acute symptoms may be followed by a new pathological

288 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

activity, which shall again develop, as a natural result, a reappear-
ance of the lameness.

Treatment, — It is, of course, the consideration of the comparative
harmlessness of splints that suggests and justifies the policy of non-
interference, except as they become a positive cause of lameness. And
a more positive argument for such noninterference consists in the
fact that any active and irritating treatment may so excite the parts
as to bring about a renewed pathological activity, which may result
in a reduplication of the phenomena, with a second edition, if not a
second and enlarged volume, of the whole story. For our part, our
faith is firm in the impolicy of interference, and this faith is founded
on an experience of many years, during which our practice has been
that of abstention.

Of course, there will be exceptional conditions which will at times
indicate a diilerent course. These will become evident when the occa-
sions present themselves, and extraordinary forms and effects of
inflammation and growth in the tumors offer special indications. But
our conviction remains unshaken that surgical treatment of the oper-
ative kind is usually useless, if not dangerous. We have little faith
in the method of extirpation except under very special conditions,
among which that of diminutive size has been named, which seems in
itself to constitute a sufficient negative argument. But even in such
a case a resort to the knife or the gouge could scarcely find a justifi-
cation, since no operative procedure is ever without a degree of haz-
ard, to say nothing of the considerations which are always forcibly
negative in any question of the infliction of pain and the unnecessary
use of the knife.

If an acute periostitis of the cannon bone has been readily discov-
ered, the treatment we have already suggested for that ailment is
at once indicated, and the astringent lotions may be relied upon to
bring about beneficial results. Sometimes, however, preference may
be given to a lotion possessing a somewhat different quality, the alter-
ative consisting of tincture of iodine applied to the inflamed spot
several times daily. If the lameness persists under this mild course
of treatment, it must, of course, be attacked by other methods, and we
must resort to the cantharides ointment or Spanish-fly blister, as we
have before recommended. Besides this, and producing an analogous
effect, the compounds of biniodide of mercury are favored by some.
It is prepared in the form of an ointment, consisting of 1 dram of the
biniodide to 1 ounce of either lard or vaseline. It forms an excellent
blistering and alterative application, and is of special advantage in
newly formed or recently discovered exostosis.

It remains a pertinent query, however, and one which seems to be
easily answered, whether a tumor so diminutive in size that it can
only be detected by diligent search, and which is neither a disfigure-

\v

i;-^^%-iau^^;^j^^-|^

uvAL y, vlli.> i> n\ "^ jf^.

:<. !

RINGBONES. 289

ment nor an obstruction to the motion of the limb, need receive any
recognition whatever. Other modes of treatment for splints are rec-
ommended and practiced which belong strictly to the domain of oper-
ative veterinary surgery. Among these are to be reckoned actual
cauterization, or the application of the fire iron and the operation of
periosteotomy. These are frequently indicated in the treatment of
splints which have resisted milder means.

The mode of the development of their growth; their intimacy,
greater or less, with both the large and the small cannon bones ; the
possibility of their extending to the back of these bones under the sus-
pensory ligament; the dangerous complications which may follow
the rough handling of the parts, with also a possibility, and indeed a
probability, of their return after removal — these are the considera-
tions which have influenced our judgment in discarding from our
practice and our approval the method of removal by the saw or the
chisel, as recommended by certain European veterinarians.

RINGBONES.

This term forms the designation of the exostosis which is found on
the coronet and in the digital and phalangeal regions. The name is
appropriate, because the growth extends quite around the coronet,
which it encircles in the manner of a ring, or perhaps because it often
forms upon the back of that bone a regular osseous arch, through
which the back tendons obtain a passage. The places where these
growths are usually developed have caused their subdivision and
classification into three varieties, with the designations of Mgh^
middle, and low, though much can not be said as to the importance of
such distinction. It is true that the ringbone or phalangeal exostosis
may be found at various points on the foot, in one case forming a
large bunch on the upper part and quite close to the fetlock joint; in
another around the upper border of the hoof, or perhaps on the
extreme front or on the very back of the coronet. The shape in
which they commonly appear is favorable to their easy discovery,
their form when near the fetlock usually varying too much from the
natural outlines of the part when compared with those of the ojjposite
side to admit of error in the matter. (See also page 413.)

A ringbone when on the front of the foot, even when not A^^ery
largely developed, assumes the form of a diffused convex swelling.
If situated on the lower part, it will form a thick ring, encircling
that portion of the foot immediately above the hoof ; when found on
the posterior part, a small, sharp osseous gi'owth somewhat project-
ing, sometimes on the inside and sometimes on the outside of the
coronet, may comprise the entire manifestation.

Cause. — As with splints, ringbones may result from severe labor in
early life, before the process of ossification has been fully perfected ;
H. Doc. 795, 59-2 19

290 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

or they may be referred to bruises, blows, sprains, or other violence ;
or injuries of tendons, ligaments, or joints may be among the account-
able causes.

It is certain that they may commonly be traced to diseases and
traumatic lesions of the foot, and their appearance may be reason-
ably anticipated among the sequelae of an abscess of the coronet;
or the cause may be a severe contusion resulting from calking, or a
deep-punctured wound from picking up a nail or stepping upon
any hard object of sufficiently irregular form to penetrate the sole.

Moreover, a ringbone may originate in heredity. This is a fact
of no little importance in its relation to questions connected with
the extensive interests of the stock breeder and purchaser.

That the hereditary transmission of constitutional idiosyncrasies
is an active cause with regard to diseases in general, it would be
absurd to claim, but we do claim that a predisposition to contract
ringbone due to faulty conformation, such as long, thin pasterns
with narrow joints and steep fetlocks, may be inherited in many
cases, and in a smaller proportion of cases this predisposition may
act as a secondary cause in the formation of ringbone.

The importance of this point w^hen considered in reference to the
policy which should be observed in the selection of breeding stock
is obvious, and, as the whole matter is within the control of the own-
ers and breeders, it will be their own fault if the unchecked trans-
mission of ringbones from one equine generation to another shall bo
allowed to continue. It is our belief that among the diseases which
are known for their tendency to perpetuate and repeat themselves;
by individual succession, those of the bony structures stand first,
and the inference from such a fact which would exclude every ani-
mal of doubtful soundness in its osseous apparatus from the stud list
and the brood farm is too plain for argument.

Symptoms. — Periostitis of the phalanges is an ailment requiring
careful exploration and minute inspection for its discovery, and is
quite likely to result in a ringbone of which lameness is the result.
The mode of its manifestation varies according to the state of de-
velopment of the diseased growth as affected by the circumstances
of its location and dimensions. It is commonly of the kind which,
in consequence of its intermittent character, is termed lameness when
cool, having the peculiarity of exhibiting itself when the animal
starts from the stable and of diminishing, if not entirely disappearing
after some distance of travel, to return to its original degree, if not
indeed a severer one, when he has again cooled off in his stable.
The size of the ringbone does not indicate the degree to which it
cripples the patient, but the position may, especially when it inter-
feres with the free movement of the tendons which pass behind and
in front of the foot. While a large ringbone will often interfere

SIDEBONES. 291

but little with the motion of the limb, a smaller growth, if situated
under the tendon, may become the cause of considerable and con-
tinued pain.

A ringbone is doubtless a worse evil than a splint. Its growth, its
location, its tendency to increased development, its exposure to the
influence of causes of renewed danger, all tend to impart an unfavor-
able cast to the prognosis of a case and to emphasize the impor-
tance and the value of an early discovery of its presence and possible
growth. Even when the discovery has been made, it is often the
case that the truth has come to light too late for effectual treatment.
Months may have elapsed after the first manifestation of the lame-
ness before a discovery has been made of the lesion from which it
has originated, and there is no recall for the lapsed time. And by
the uncompromising seriousness of the discouraging prognosis must
the energy and severity of the treatment and the promptness of its
administration be measured. The periostitis has been overlooked;
any chance that might have existed for preventing its advance to the
chronic stage has been lost ; the osseous formation is established ; the
ringbone is a fixed fact, and the indications are urgent and pressing.

Treatment. — The preventive treatment consists in keeping colts
well nourished and in trimming the hoof and shoeing to properly bal-
ance the foot, and thus ptrevent an abnormal strain on the ligaments.
Even after the ringbone has develoj^ed, a cure may sometimes be occa-
sioned by proper shoeing directed toward straightening the axis of
the foot as viewed from the side by making the wall of the hoof from
the coronet to the toe continuous with the line formed by the front
of the pastern. As long as inflammation of the periosteum and liga-
ments remains, a sharp blister of biniodide of mercury and canthari-
des may do good if the animal is allowed to rest for four or five
weeks. If this fails, some success may be accomplished by point
firing in two or three lines over the ringbone. It is necessary to touch
the hot iron well into the bone, as superficial firing does little good.
"When all these measures have failed to remove the lameness, or when
the animal is not worth a long and uncertain treatment, a competent
veterinarian should be engaged to perform double neurectomy, high
or low, of the plantar nerves, or neurectomy of the median nerve as
indicated by the seat of the lesion.

SIDEBONES.

On each side of the bone of the hoof — the cofRnbone — there are
normally two supplementary organs which are called the cartilages of
the foot. They are soft, and though in a degree elastic, yet somewhat
resisting, and are implanted on the lateral wings of the cofRnbone.
Evidently their office is to assist in the elastic expansion and contrac-
tion of the posterior part of the hoof, and their healthy and normal

292 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

action doubtless contributes in an important degree to the perfect per-
formance of the functions of that part of the leg. These organs are,
however, liable to undergo a process of disease which results in an
entire change in their properties, if not in their shape, by which they
acquire a character of hardness resulting from the deposit of earthy
substance in the intimate structure of the cartilage, and it is this
change, when its consummation has been effected, that brings to our
cognizance the diseased growth which has received the designation of
sidehones. They are situated on one or both sides of the leg, bulging
above the superior border of the hoof in the form of two hard bodies
composed of ossified cartilage, irregularly square in shape and un-
yielding under the pressure of the fingers.

Cause. — Sidebones may be the result of a low inflammatory condi-
tion or of an acute attack as well, or may be caused by sprains, bruises,
or blows; or they may have their rise in certain diseases affecting the
foot proper, such as corns, quarter cracks, or quittor. The deposit of
calcareous matter in the cartilage is not always uniform, the base of
that organ near its line of union with the coffinbone being in some
cases its limit, while at other times it is diffused throughout its sub-
stance, the size and prominence of the growth var^dng much in
consequence,

Symjytonis. — It would naturally be inferred that the amount of
interference with the proper functions of the hoof which must result
from such a pathological change would be proportioned to the size of
the tumor, and that as the dimensions increased, the resulting lame-
ness would be the greater in degree. This, however, is not the fact.
A small tumor, while in a condition of acute inflammation during the
formative stage, may cripple a patient more severely than a much
larger one in a later stage of the disease. In any case the lameness is
never wanting, and with its intermittent character may usually be
detected when the animal is cooled off after labor or exercise. The
class of animals in which this feature of the disease is most frequently
witnessed is that of the heavy draft horse, and others similarly em-
ployed. There is a wide margin of difference in respect to the degrees
of severity which may characterize different cases of sidebone. While
one may be so slight as to cause no inconvenience, another may de-
velop elements of danger which may involve the necessity of severe
surgical interference.

Treatment. — The curative treatment should be similar to the pro-
phylactic, and such means should be used as would tend to prevent
the deposit of bony matters by checking the acute inflammation which
causes it. The means recommended are the free use of the cold bath ;
frequent soaking of the feet, and at a later period treatment with
iodine, either by painting the surface with the tincture several times
daily or by applying an ointment made by mixing 1 dram of the

SPAVIN. 293

crystals with 2 ounces of vaseline, rubbed in once a day for several
days. If this proves to be ineffective, a Spanish fly blister, to which
a few grains of biniodide of mercury have been added, will, in a
majority of cases, effect the desired result and remove the lameness.
If, finally, this treatment is ineffectual, the case must be relegated to
the surgeon for the operation of neurectomy, or the free and deep
application of the firing iron.

SPAVIN.

This affection, popularly termed hone spavin^ is an exostosis of the
hock joint. The general impression is that in a spavined hock the
bony growth should be seated on the anterior and internal part of
the joint, and this is partially correct, as such a growth will constitute
a spavin in the most correct sense of the term. But an enlargement
may appear on the upper j^art of the hock also, or possibly a little
below the inner side of the lower extremity of the shank bone, form-
ing what is known as a high spavin; or, again, the growth may form
just on the outside of the hock and become an outside^ or external^
spavin. And, finally, the entire under surface may become the seat
of the osseous deposit, and involve the articular face of all the bones
of the hock, and this again is a hone spavin. There would seem, then,
to be but little difficulty in comprehending the nature of a bone
spavin, and there would be none but for the fact that there are similar
affections which might confuse one if the diagnosis is not very care-
fully made.

But the hock may be " spavined," while to all outward observation
it still retains its perfect form. With no enlargement perceptible to
sight or touch the animal may yet be disabled by an occult spavin.^
an anchylosis in fact, which has resulted from a union of several
of the bones of the joint, and it is onl}^ those who are able to realize
the importance of its action to the perfect fulfillment of the function
of locomotion by the hind leg who can comprehend the gravity of the
only prognosis which can be justified by the facts of the case — a prog-
nosis which is essentially a sentence of serious import in respect to
the future usefulness and value of the animal. For no disease, if
we except those acute inflammatory attacks upon vital organs to
which the patient succumbs at once, is more destructive to the useful-
ness and value of a horse than a confirmed spavin. Serious in its
inception, serious in its progress, it is an ailment which, when once
established, becomes a fixed condition which there is no known
means of dislodging.

Cause. — The periostitis, of which it is nearly always a termination,
is usually the effect of a traumatic cause operating upon the compli-
cated structure of the hock, such as a sprain which has torn a liga-
mentous insertion and lacerated some of its fibers; or a violent effort
in jumping, galloping, or trotting, to which the victim has been com-
pelled by the torture of whip and spur while in use as a gambling

294 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

implement by a sporting owner, under the pretext of " improving his
breed- " or the extra exertion of starting an inordinately heavy load;
or an effort to recover his balance from a misstep ; or slipping upon
an icy surface ; or sliding with worn shoes upon a bad pavement, and
other kindred causes. And we can repeat here what we have before
said concerning bones, in respect to heredity as a cause. From our
own experience we know of equine families in which this condition
has been transmitted from generation to generation, and animals
otherwise of excellent conformation rendered valueless by the mis-
fortune of a congenital spavin.

Symptoms. — The evil is one of the most serious character for other
reasons, among which may be specified the slowness of its develop-
ment and the insidiousness of its growth. Certain indefinite phenom-
ena and alarming changes and incidents furnish usually the only
portents of approaching trouble. Among these signs may be men-
tioned a j)eculiar posture assumed by the patient while at rest, and
becoming at length so habitual that it can not fail to suggest the
action of some hidden disorder. The posture is due to the action of
the adductor muscles, the lower part of the leg being carried inward,
and the heel of the shoe resting on the toe of the opposite foot. Then
an unwillingness may be noticed in the animal to move from one side
of the stall to the other. ^-N-lien driven he will travel, but stiffly, and
with a sort of sidelong gait between the shafts, and after finishing his
task and resting again in his stall will pose with the toe pointing for-
ward, the heel raised, and the hock flexed. Some little heat and a
considerable amount of inflammation soon appear. The slight lame-
ness which appears when backing out of the stall ceases to be notice-
able after a short distance of travel.

A minute examination of the hock maj^ then reveal the existence of
a bony enlargement whicii may be detected just at the junction of the
hock and the cannon bone, on the inside and a little in front, and
tangible both to sight and touch. This enlargement, or hone spavin^
grows rapidly and persistently and soon acquires dimensions which
render it impossible to doubt any longer its existence or its nature.
Once established, its development continues under conditions of prog-
ress similar to those to which we have before alluded in speaking of
other like affections. The argument advanced by some that because
these bony deposits are frequently found on both hocks they are not
spavins is fallacious. If they are discovered on both hocks, it proves
merely that they are not confined to a single joint.

The characteristic lameness of bone spavin, as it affects the motion
of the hock joint, presents two aspects. In one class of cases it is
most pronounced when the horse is cool, in the other when he is at
work. The first is characterized by the fact that when the animal
travels the toe first touches the ground, and the heel descends more

SPAVIN. 295

slowly, the motion of flexion at the hock taking place stiffly, and
accompanied by a dropping of the hip on the opposite side. In the
other case the peculiarity is that the lameness increases as the horse
travels ; that when he stops he seeks to favor the lame leg, and when
he resumes his work soon after he steps much on his toe, as in the
first variety.

As with sidebones, though for a somewhat different reason, the
dimensions of the spavin and the degree of the lameness do not seem
to bear any determinate relation, the most pronounced symptoms at
times accompanying a very diminutive growth. But the distinction
between the two varieties of cool and wann may easily be determined '
by remembering the fact that in a majority of cases the first, or cool,
is due to a simple exostosis, while the second' is generally connected
with disease of the articulation, such as ulceration of the articular
surface — a condition which, as we proceed further, will meet our
attention when we reach the subject of stringhalt.

An excellent test for spavin lameness, which may be readily ap-
plied, consists in lifting the affected leg off the ground for one or two
minutes and holding the foot high so as to flex all the joints. An
assistant, with the halter strap in his hand, quickly starts the animal
off in a trot, when, if the hock joint is affected, the lameness will be
so greatly intensified as to readily lead to a diagnosis.

Prognosis. — Having thus fully considered the history of bone
sjjavin, we are prepared to give due weight to the reasons which exist
for the adverse prognosis which we must usually feel compelled to
pronounce when encountering it in practice, as well as to realize the
importance of early discovery. It is but seldom, however, that the
necessary advantage of this early knowledge can be secured, and when
the true nature of the trouble has become apparent it is usually too
late to resort to the remedial measures which, if duly forewarned, a
skillful practitioner might have employed, We are fully persuaded
that but for the loss of the time wasted in the treatment of purely
imaginary ailments very many cases of bone spavin might be arrested
in their incipiency and their victims preserved for years of comfort
for themselves and valuable labor to their owners.

Treatment. — To consider a hypothetical case: An early discovery
of lameness has been made ; that is, the existence of an acute inflam-
mation— of periostitis — has been detected. The increased tempera-
ture of the parts has been observed, with the stiffened gait and the
characteristic pose of the limb, and the question is proposed for solu-
tion, AVliat is to be done? Even with only these comparatively
doubtful symptoms — doubtful with the nonexpert — we should direct
our treatment to the hock in preference to any other joint, since of
all the joints of the hind leg it is this which is most liable to be
attacked, a natural result from its peculiarities of structure and

296 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

function. And in answer to the query, What is the first treatment
indicated? We should answer rest — emphatically, and as an essential
condition, rest. ^Vliether only threatened, suspected, or positively
diseased, the animal must be wholly released from labor, and it must
be no partial or temporary quiet of a few days. In all stages and
conditions of the disease, whether the siDavin is nothing more than
a simple exostosis, or whether accompanied by the complication of
arthritis, there must be a total suspension of effort until the danger
is over. Less than a month's quiet ought not to be thought of — the
longer the better.

Good results may also be expected from local applications. The
various lotions which cool the parts, the astringents which lower the
tension of the blood vessels, the tepid fomentations which accelerate
the circulation in the engorged capillaries, the liniments of various
composition, the stimulants, the opiate anodynes, the sedative prepa-
rations of aconite, the alterative frictions of iodine — all these are
recommended and prescribed by one or another. We prefer counter-
irritants, for the simple reason, among many others, that they tend
l)y the promptness of their action to prevent the formation of the
bony deposits. The lameness will often yield to the blistering action
of cantharides, in the form of ointment or liniment, and to the alter-
ative preparations of iodine or mercury. And if the owner of a
" spavined " horse really succeeds in removing the lameness, he has
accomplished all that he is justified in hoping for; beyond this let
him be well persuaded that a " cure " is impossible.

For this reason, moreover, he will do well to be on his guard against
the patented " cures " which the traveling horse doctor may urge
upon him, and withhold his faith from the circular of the agent who
will deluge him with references and certificates. It is possible that
nostrums may in some exceptional instances prove serviceable, but
the greater number of them are capable of producing only injurious
effects. The removal of the bony tumor can not be accomplished by
any such means, and if a trial of these unknown compounds should
be followed by complications no worse than the establishment of one
or more ugly, hairless cicatrices, it will be well for both the horse and
his owner.

Rest and counterirritation, with the proper medicaments, consti-
tute, then, the prominent points in the treatment desig-ned for the
relief of bone spavin. Yet there are cases in which all the agencies
and methods referred to seem to lack effectiveness and fail to produce
satisfactory results. Either the rest has been prematurelj^ inter-
rupted or the blisters have failed to rightly modify the serous infil-
tration, or the case in hand has some undiscernible characteristics
which seem to have rendered the disease neutral to the agencies
employed against it. An indication of more energetic means is then

FRACTURES. 297

presented, and free cauterization with the firing iron becomes
necessary.

At this point a "word of explanation in reference to this operation
of firing may be appropriate for the satisfaction of any among our
readers who may entertain an exaggerated idea of its severity and
possible cruelty.

The operation is one of simplicity, but is nevertheless one which,
in order to secure its benefits, must be reserved for times and occa-
sions of which only the best knowledge and highest discretion should
be allowed to judge. It is not the mere application of a hot iron to a
given part of the body which constitutes the operation of firing. It
is the methodical and scientific introduction of heat into the structure
with a view to a given effect upon a diseased organ or tissue by an
expert surgeon. The first is one of the degrees of mere burning. The
other is scientific cauterization, and is a surgical manipulation which
should be committed exclusively to the practiced hand of the veter-
inary surgeon.

Either firing alone or stimulation with blisters is of great efficacy
for the relief of lameness from bone spavin. Failure to produce relief
after a few applications and after allowing a sufficient interval of rest
should be followed by a second, or, if needed, a third firing.

In case of further failure there is a reserve of certain special oper-
ations which have been tried and recommended, among which those
of cunean tenotomy, periosteotomy, the division of nervous branches,
etc., may be mentioned. These, however, belong to the peculiar
domain of the veterinary practitioner, and need not now engage our
attention.

FRACTURES.

In technical language a fracture is a " solution of continuity in the
structure or substance of a bone." It ranks among the most serious
of the lesions to which the horse — or any animal — can be subject. It
is a subject of special interest to veterinarians and horse owners in
view of the fact that it occurs in such a variety of forms and sub-
jects the patient to much loss of time, resulting in the suspension of
his earning capacity. Though of less serious consequence in the
horse than in man, it is always a matter of grave import. It is
always slow and tedious in healing, and is frequently of doubtful
and unsatisfactory result.

This solution of continuity may take place in two principal ways
In the most numerous instances it includes the total thickness of the
bone and is a complete fracture. In other cases it involves a portion
only of the thickness of the bone, and for that reason is described as
incomplete. If the bone is divided into two separate portions, and
the soft parts have received no injury, the fracture is a simple one ; or

298 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

it becomes com/pound if the soft parts have suffered laceration, and
■.commimited if the bones have been crushed or ground into fragments,
many or few. The direction of the break also determines its further
classification. Broken at a right angle it is transverse; at a different
angle it becomes oblique^ and it may be longitudirial, or lengthwise.
In a complete fracture, especially of the oblique kind, there is a con-
dition of great importance in respect to its effect upon the ultimate
result of the treatment in the fact that from various causes, such as
muscular contractions or excessive motion, the bony fragments do
not maintain their mutual coaptation, but become separated at the
ends, which makes it necessary to add another descriptive term — with
disjdacement. And these words again suggest the negative, and
introduce the term without displacement^ when the facts justify that
description. Furthermore, a fracture may be intra-articular or extra-
articular^ as it extends into a joint or otherwise, and once more, intra-
periosteal, when the periosteum remains intact. Finally, there is no
absolute limit to the use of descriptive terminology in the case.

The condition of displacement is largely influential in determining
the question of treatment and as affecting the final result of a case of
fracture. This, however, is dependent upon its location or whether
its seat be in one or more of the axes of the bone, in its length, its
breadth, its thickness, or its circumference. An incomplete fracture
ma}^ also be either simple or comminuted. In the latter case the frag-
ments are held together by the periosteum when it is intact, and the
fracture in that case belongs to the intraperiosteal class. At times,
also, there is only a simple fissure or split in the bone, making a con-
dition of much difficulty of diagnosis.

Causes. — Two varieties of originating cause may be recognized in
cases of fracture. They are the predisposing and the occasional. As
to the first, different species of animals differ in the degree of their
liability. That of the dog is greater than that of the horse, and in
horses the various questions of age, the mode of labor, the season of
the year, the portion of the body most exposed, and the existence of
ailments, local and general, are all to be taken into account.

Among horses, those employed in heavy draft work or that are
driven over bad roads are more exposed than light-draft or saddle
horses, and animals of different ages are not equally liable. Dogs
and young horses, with those which have become sufficiently aged for
their bones to have acquired an enhanced degree of frangibility, are
more liable than those which have not exceeded the time of their
adult prime. The season of the year is undoubtedly, though in an
incidental way, an important factor in the problem of the etiology of
these accidents, for though they may be observed at all times, it is
during the months when the slippery condition of the icy roads ren-
ders it difficult for both men and beasts to keep their feet that they

FRACTURES. 2*99

occur most frequently. The long bones, those especially which belong
to the extremities, are most frequently the seat of fractures, from the
circumstance of their superficial position, their exposure to contact
and collision, and the violent muscular efforts involved both in their
constant rapid movement and their labor in the shafts or at the pole
of heavy and heavily laden carriages.

The relation between sundry idiosyncrasies and diatheses and a lia-
bility to fractures is too constant and well-established a pathological
fact to need more than a passing reference. The history of rachitis,
of melanosis, and of osteoporosis, as related to an abnormal frangi-
bility of the bones, is a part of our common medical knowledge.
There are few persons who have not known of cases among their
friends of frequent and almost spontaneous fractures, or at least of
such as seem to be produced by the slightest and most inadequate vio-
lence, and there is no tangible reason for doubting an analogous con-
dition in individuals of the equine race. Among local predisposing
causes mention must not be omitted of such bony diseases as caries,
tuberculosis, and others of the same class.

Exciting, occasional, or " efficient " causes of fracture are in most
instances external traumatisms, as violent contacts, collisions, falls,
etc., or sudden muscular contractions. These external accidents are
various in their character, and are usually associated with quick mus-
cular exertion, A violent, ineffectual effort to move too heavy a load ;
a semispasmodic bracing of the frame to avoid a fall or resist a pres-
sure ; a quick jump to escape a blow ; stopping too suddenly after
speeding; struggling to liberate a foot from a rail, perhaps to be
thrown in the effort — all these are familiar and easy examples of acci-
dents happening hourly by which our equine servants become suffer-
ers, "We may add to these the fracture of the bones of the vertebrae,
occurring when casting a j^atient for the purpose of undergoing a
surgical operation, quite as much as the result of muscular contrac-
tion as of a preexisting diseased condition of the bones. A fracture
occurring under these circumstances may be called with propriety
indirect^ while one which has resulted from a blow or a fall differ-
ently caused is of the direct kind.

Symptoms. — We now return to the first items in our classification
of the varieties of fractures for the purpose of bringing them in turn
under an orderly review, and our first examination will include those
which belong to the first category, or the complete kind. Irregu-
larity in the performance of the functions of the apparatus to which
the fractured bone belongs is a necessary consequence of the existing
lesion, and this is lameness. If the broken bone belongs to one of the
extremities, the impossibility of the performance of its natural func-
tion in sustaining the weight of the body and contributing to the act
of locomotion is usually complete, though the degree of disability

300 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

will vary according to the kind of fracture and the bone which is
injured. For example, a fracture of the cannon bone without dis-
placement, or of one of the phalanges, which are surrounded and sus-
tained by a complex fibrous structure, is, in a certain degree, not
incompatible with some amount of resting on the foot. But, on the
contrary, if the shank bone, or that of the forearm be the implicated
member, it would be very difficult for the leg to exercise any agency
whatever in the support of the body. And in a fracture of the lower
jaw it would be obviously unreasonable to expect it to contribute
materially to the mastication of food.

A fracture seldom occurs which is not accompanied with a degree
of deformity, greater or less, of the region or the leg affected. This
is due to the exudation of the blood into the meshes of the surround-
ing tissues and to the displacement which occurs between the frag-
ments of the bones, with subsequently the swelling which follows the
inflammation of the surrounding tissues. The character of the
deformity will mainly depend upon the manner in which the dis-
placement occurs.

In a normal state of things the legs perform their movements with
the joints as their only centers or bases of action, with no participa-
tion of intermediate points, while with a fracture the flexibility and
motion which will be observed at unnatural points are among the most
strongly characteristic signs of the lesion. No one need be told that
when the shaft of a limb is seen to bend midway between the joints,
with the lower portion swinging freely, that the leg is broken. But
there are still some conditions where the excessive mobility is not
easy to detect with certainty. Such are the cases where the fracture
exists in a short bone, near a movable joint, or in a bone of a region
where several short and small bones are united in a group, or even in
a long bone where its situation is such that the muscular covering
prevents the visible manifestation of the symptom.

If the situation of a fracture precludes its discovery by means of
this abnormal flexibility, other modes of detection remain. There is
one method which is absolute and positive and which can be applied
in by far the most, though not in all cases. This is crepitation^ or the
peculiar effect which is produced by the friction of the fractured sur-
faces one against another. Though discerned by the organs of hear-
ing it can scarcely be called a sound, for the grating of the parts as
the rubbing takes place is more felt than heard ; however, there is no
mistaking its import in cases favorable for the application of the test.
The conditions in which it is not available are those of incomplete
fracture, in which the mobility of the part is lacking, and those in
which the whole array of phenomena are usually obscure. To obtain
the benefit of this pathognomonic sign requires deliberate, careful,
and gentle manipulation. Sometimes the slightest of movements will

TRACTURES. 301

be sufficient for its development, after much rougher handling has
failed to discover it. Perhaps the failure in the latter case is due to
a sort of defensive spasmodic rigidity caused by the pain resulting
from the rude interference.

More or less reactive fever is a usual accompaniment of a fracture.
Ecchymosis in the parts is but a natural occurrence, and is more
easily discovered in animals possessing a light-colored and delicate
skin than in those of the opposite character.

There are difficulties in the way of the diagnosis of an incomplete
fracture, even sometimes when there is a degree of impairment in the
function of locomotion, with evidences of i3ain and swelling at the
seat of lesion. There should then be a careful examination for evi-
dences of a blow or other violence sufficient to account for the frac-
ture, though very often a suspicion of its existence can only be con-
verted into a certainty by a minute history of the patient if it can be
obtained up to the moment of the occurrence of the injury. A diag-
nosis ought not to be hastily pronounced, and where good ground
for suspicion exists it ought not to be rejected upon any evidence
less than the best. Serious and fatal complications are too often
recorded of the results following careless conclusions in similar cases,
among which we may refer to one instance of a complete fracture
manifesting itself in an animal during the act of rising up in his
stall after a decision had been pronounced that he had no fracture
at all.

Fractures are of course liable to complications, especially those
which are of a traumatic character, such as extensive lacerations, tear-
ing of tissues, punctures, contusions, etc. Unless these are in com-
munication with the fracture itself the indication is to treat them sim-
ply as independent lesions upon other parts of the body. A traumatic
emphysema will at times cause trouble, and abscesses, more or less
deep and diffused, may follow. In some cases small bony fragments
from a comminuted fracture, becoming loose and acting as foreign
bodies, give rise to troublesome fistulous tracts. A frequent compli-
cation is hemorrhage, which often becomes of serious consequence.
A fracture in close proximity to a joint may be accompanied by dan-
gerous inflammations of important organs, and induce an attack of
IDueumonia, pleurisy, arthritis, etc., especially if situated near the chest ;
it may also cause luxations, or dislocations. Gangrene^ as a conse-
quence of contusions or of hemorrhage or of an impediment to the
circulation, caused by unskillfully applied apparatus, must not be
overlooked among the occasional incidents ; nor must lockjaw^ which
is not an uncommon occurrence. Even founder, or laminitis, has been
met with as the result of forced and long-continued immobility of
the feet in the standing posture, as one of the involvements of
unavoidably protracted treatment.

302 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

When a simple fracture has been properly treated and the broken
ends of the bone have been securely held in coaptation, one of two
things will occur. Either — and this is the more common event — there
will be a union of the two ends by a solid cicatrix, the callus, or the
ends will continue separated or become only partially united by an
intermediate fibrous structure. In the first instance the fracture is
consolidated, or united; in the second there is a false articulation, or
fseudarthrosis.

The time required for a firm union or true consolidation of a frac-
ture will vary with the character of the bone affected, the age and
constitution of the patient, and the general conditions of the case.
The union Avill be perfected earlier in a young than in an adult ani-
mal, and sooner in the latter than in the aged, and a general healthy
condition is, of course, in every respect, en advantage.

The mode of cicatrization, or method of repair in lesions of the
bones, has been a subject of much study among investigators in
pathology, and has elicited various expressions of opinion from those
high in authority. But the weight of evidence and preponderance of
opinion are about settled in favor of the theory that the law of repa-
ration is' the same for both the hard and the soft tissues. In one case
a simple exudation of material, with the proper organization of newly
formed tissue, will bring about a union by the first intention, and in
another tile work will be accompanied by suppuration, or union by the
second intention, a process so familiar in the repair of the soft struc-
tures by granulation.

Considering the process in its simplest form, in a case in which it
advances without interruption or complication to a favorable result,
it may probably be correctly described in this wise :

On the occurrence of the injury an effusion of blood takes place be-
tween the ends of the bone. The coagulation of the fluid soon fol-
lows, and this, after a few days, undergoes absorption. There is then
an excess of inflammation in the surrounding structure, which soon
spreads to the bony tissue, when a true ostitis is established, and the
compact tissue of the bone becomes the seat of a new vascular organi-
zation, and of a certain exudation of plastic lymph, appearing be-
tween the periosteum and the external surface of the bone, as well as
on the inner side of the medullary cavity. After a few days the ends
of the bone thus surrounded b}^ this exudate become involved in it,
and the lymph, becoming vascular, is soon transformed into cartilag-
inous, and in due time into bony, tissue,

Thus the time required for the consolidation of the fractured seg-
ments is divisible into two distinct periods. In the first they are sur-
rounded by an external bony ring, and the medullary cavity is closed
by a bony plug or stopper, constituting the period of the provisional
This is followed by the period of perriument callus^ during

FKACTUEES. 303

which the process is going forward of converting the cartilaginous
into the osseous form.

The restorative process is sooner completed in the carnivorous than
in the herbivorous tribes. In the former the temporary callus may-
attain sufficient fineness of consistency for the careful use of the limb
within four weeks, but with the latter a period of from six weeks to
two months is not too long to allow before removing the supporting
aj^paratus from the limb.

This, in general terms, represents the fact when the resources of
nature have not been thwarted by untoward accidents, such as a want
of vigor in the constitution of the patient or a lack of skill on the
part of the practitioner, and especially when, from any cause, the
bony fragments have not been kept in a state of perfect immobility
and the constant friction has prevented the osseous union of the two
portions. Failures and misfortunes are always more than possible,
and instead of a solid and practicable bony union the sequel of the
accident is sometimes a false joint, composed of mere flexible carti-
lage, a poor pseudarthrosis. The explanation of this appears to be
that, first, the sharp edges of the ends of the bone disappear by
becoming rounded at their extremities b}"" friction and polishing
against each other. Then follows an exudation of a plastic nature
Avhich becomes transformed into a cartilaginous layer of a rough
articular aspect. In this bony nuclei soon appear, and the lymph
secreted between the segments thus transformed, instead of becoming
truly ossified, is changed into a sort of fibro-cartilaginous pouch, or
capsular sac, in which a somewhat albuminous secretion, or pseudo-
synovia, permits the movement to take place. Most commonly, how-
ever, in our animals, the union of the bony fragments is obtained
wholly through the medium of a layer of fibrous tissue, and it is
because the union has been accomplished by a ligamentous formation
only that motion becomes practicable.

Prognosis. — The prognosis in a case of fracture in an animal is one
of the gravest vital import to the patient, and therefore of serious
pecuniary concern to his owner. The period has not long elapsed
when to have received such a hurt was quite equivalent to undergoing
a sentence of death for the suffering animal, and perhaps to-day a
similar verdict is pronounced in many cases in which the exercise
of a little mechanical ingenuity, with a due amount of careful nurs-
ing, might secure a contrar}^ result and insure the return of the
patient to his former condition of soundness and usefulness.

Treatment. — Considered, per se, a fracture in an animal is in fact
no less amenable to treatment than the same descripcion of injury
in any other living being. But the question of the propriety and
expediency of treatment is dependent upon certain specific points of
collateral consideration.

304 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

First. The nature of the lesion itself is a point of paramount im-
portance. A simple fracture occurring in a bone where the ends
can be firmly secured in coaptation presents the most favorable con-
ditions for successful treatment. If it be that of a long bone, it will
be the less serious if situated at or near the middle of its length than
if it were in close proximity to a joint, from the fact that perfect
immobility can rarely, in the latter case, be secured without incurring
the risk of subsequent rigidity of the joint.

A simple is always less serious than a compound fracture. A com-
minuted is always hiore dangerous than a simple, and a transverse
break is easier to treat than one which is oblique. The most serious
are those which are situated on parts of the body in which it is diffi-
cult to secure perfect immobility, and especially those which are
accompanied by severe contusions and lacerations in the soft parts;
the i^rotrusion of fragments through the skin; the division of blood
vessels by the broken ends of the bone; the existence of an articula-
tion near the point to which inflammation is likely to extend; the
luxation of a fragment of the bone; laceration of the periosteum;
the presence of a large number of bony particles, the result of the
crushing of the bone — all these are circumstances which discourage
a favorable prognosis, and weigh against the hope of saving the
patient for future usefulness.

Fractures which may be accounted curable are those which are not
conspicuously visible, as those of the ribs, where displacements are
either very limited or do not occur, the parts being kept in situ by the
nature of their position, the shape of the bones, the articulations they
form with the vertebra, the sternum, or their cartilages of prolonga-
tion; those of transverse processes of the lumbar vertebra; those of
the bones of the face; those of the ilium; and that of the coffinbones.
To continue the category, the following are evidently curable when
their position and the character of the patient contribute to aid the
treatment: Those of the cranium, in the absence of cerebral lesions;
those of the jaws; of the ribs, with displacement; of the hip; and
those of the bone of the leg in movable regions, but where their
vertical position admits of perfect coaptation.

On the contrary, a compound, complicated, or comminuted frac-
ture, in whatever region it may be situated, may be counted incurable.

In treating fractures time is an important element and " delays are
dangerous," Those of recent occurrence unite more easiK and more
regularly than older ones.

Second. As a general rule, fractures are less serious in animals of
the smaller species than in those of more bulky dimensions. This
influence of species will be readily appreciated when we realize that
the difficulties involved in the treatment of the latter class have hardly
any existence in connection with the former. The difference in

II

0 iC

1^

05 #>

2 X

FEACTURES. 305

weight and size, and consequent facility in handling and making the
necessary applications of dressings and other appliances for the pur-
pose of securing the indisjiensable immobility of the parts, and
usually a less degree of uneasiness in the deportment of the patients
are considerations in this connection of gTeat weight.

Third. In respect to the utilization of the animal, the most obvious
point in estimating the gravity of the case in a fracture accident is
the certainty of the total loss of the services of the patient during
treatment — certainly for a considerable period of time; perhaps per-
manently. For example, the fracture of the jaw of a steer just
fattening for the shambles will involve a heavier loss than a similar
accident to a horse. Usually the fracture of the bones of the extrem-
ities in a horse is a very serious casualty, the more so proportionately
as the higher region of the limb is affected. In working animals it
is exceedingly difficult to treat a fracture in such a manner as to
restore a limb to its original perfection of movement. A fracture of
a single bone of an extremity in a breeding stallion or mare will not
necessarily impair their value as breeders. Other specifications under
this head, though pertinent and more or less interesting, may be
omitted.

Fourth. Age and temper are important factors of cure. A young,
growing, robust patient whose vis vitai is active is amenable to treat-
ment which one with a waning constitution and past mature energies
would be unable to endure; and a docile, quiet disposition will act
cooperatively with remedial measures which would be neutralized by
the fractious opposition of a peevish and intractable sufferer.

The fulfillment of three indications is indispensable in all fractures.
The first is the reduction, or the replacement, of the parts as nearly
as possible in their normal position. The second is their retention in
that position for a period sufficient for the formation of the provi-
sional callus, and the third, which, in fact, is but an incident of the
second, the careful avoidance of any accidents or causes of miscar-
riage which might disturb the curative process.

In reference to the first consideration, it must be remembered that
the accident may befall the patient at a distance from his home, and
his removal becomes the first duty to be attended to. Of course, this
must be done as carefully as possible. If he can be treated on the spot,
so much the better, though this is seldom practicable, and the method
of removal becomes the question calling for settlement. But two
ways present themselves— he must either walk or be carried. If the
first, it is needless to say that every caution must be observed in order
to obviate additional pain for the suffering animal and to avoid any
aggravation of the injury. Led slowly, and with partial support, if
practicable, the journey will not always involve untoward results. If
H. Doc. 795, 59-2 20

306 DISEASES OP THE HORSE.

he is carried, it must be by means of a wagon, a truck, or an ambu-
lance; the hitter, being designed and adapted to the purpose, would,
of course, be the preferable vehicle. As a precaution which should
never be overlooked, a temporary dressing should first be applied.
This may be so done as for the time to answer all the purpose of the
permanent adjustment and bandaging. Without thus securing the
patient, a fracture of an inferior degree may be transformed to one of
the severest kind, and, indeed, a curable changed to an incurable
injury. We recall a case in which a fast trotting horse, after running
away in a fright caused by the whistle of a locomotive, was found on
the road limping with excessive lameness in the off fore leg, and
walked with comparative ease some 2 miles to a stable before being
seen by a surgeon. His immediate removal in an ambulance was
advised, but before that vehicle could be procured the horse lay down,
and upon being made to get upon his feet was found with a well-
marked comminuted fracture of the os suffraginis, with considerable
displacement. The patient, however, after long treatment, made a
comparatively good recovery and though with a large bony deposit,
a ringbone, was able to trot among the forties.

The two obvious indications in cases of fracture are reduction, or
replacement, and retention.

In an incomplete fracture, where there is no displacement, the
necessity of reduction does not exist. With the bone kept in place
by an intact periosteum, and the fragments secured by the unin-
jured fibrous and ligamentous structure which surrounds them, there
is no dislocation to correct. Reduction is also at times rendered
impossible by the seat of the fracture itself, by its dimensions alone,
or by the resistance arising from muscular contraction. This is
illustrated even in small animals, as in dogs, by the exceeding diffi-
culty encountered in bringing the ends of a broken femur or humerus
together, the muscular contraction being even in these animals suffi-
ciently forcible to renew the displacement.

It is generally, therefore, only fractures of the long bones, and
then at points not in close proximity to the trunk, that may be con-
sidered to be amenable to reduction. It is true that some of the
more superficial bones, as those of the head, of the pelvis, and of
the thoracic walls, may in some cases require special manipulations
and appliances for their retention in their normal positions, hence
the treatment of these and of a fractured leg can not be the same.

The methods of accomplishing reduction vary with the features of
each case, the manipulations being necessarily modified to meet dif-
ferent circumstances. If the displacement is in the thickness of the
bone, as in transverse fracture, the manipulation of reduction con-
sists in applying constant pressure upon one of the fragments, while
the other is kept steady in its place, the object of the pressure being

FEACTURES. 307

the reestablishment of the exact coincidence of the two bony surfaces.
If the displacement has taken place at an angle it will be sufficient in
order to effect the reduction to press upon the summit, or apex, of
the angle until its disappearance indicates that the parts have been
brought into coaptation. This method is often practiced in the treat-
ment of a fractured rib. In a longitudinal fracture, or when the
fragments are pressed together by the contraction of the muscles to
which they give insertion until they so overlap as to correspond by
certain points of their circumference, the reduction is to be accom-
plished by effecting the movements of extension^ counter extension^
and coaptation. Extension is accomplished by making traction upon
the lower portion of the limb. Counter extension consists in firmly
holding or confining the upper or body portion in such a manner
that it shall not be affected by the traction applied to the lower part.
In other words, the operator, grasping the limb below the fracture,
draws it down or away from the trunk, while he seeks not to draw
away, but simply to hold still the upper portion until the broken
ends of bone are brought to their natural relative positions, when
the coaptation, which is thus effected, has only to be made permanent
by the proper dressings to perfect the reduction.

In treating fractures in small animals the strength of the hand is
usually sufficient for the required manipulations. In the fracture of
the forearm of a dog, for example, while the upper segment is firmly
held by one hand the lower may be grasped by the other and the bone
itself made to serve the purpose of a lever to bring about the desired
coaptation. In such a case that is sufficient to overcome the muscular
contraction and correct the overlapping or other malposition of the
bones. If, however, the resistance can not be overcome in this mode,
the upper segment may be committed to an assistant for the manage-
ment of the counter extension, leaving to the operator the free use of
both hands for the further manipulation of the case.

But if the reduction of fractures in small animals is an easy task, it
is far from being so when a large animal is the patient, whose mus-
cular force is largely greater than that of several men combined. In
such a case resort must be had not only to superior numbers for the
necessary force, but in many cases to mechanical aids. A reference
to the mode of proceeding in a case of fracture with displacement of
the forearm of a horse will illustrate the matter. The patient is first
to be carefullj^ cast, on the uninjured side, with ropes, or a broad
leather strap about 18 feet long, passed under and around his body
and under the axilla of the fractured limb and secured at a point
opposite to the animal and toward his back. This will form the
mechanical means of counter extension. Another rope will then be
placed around the inferior part of the leg below the point of frac-
ture, with which to produce extension, and this will sometimes be

308 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

furnished' with a block and pulleys, in order to augment the power
when necessary; and there is, in fact, always an advantage in their
use, on the side of steadiness and uniformity, as well as of increased
power. It is secured around the fetlock or the coronet, or, what is
better, above the knee and nearer the point of fracture, and is com-
mitted to assistants. The traction on this should be firm, uniform,
and slow, without relaxing or jerking, while the operator carefully
watches the process. If the bone is superficially situated he is able
to judge by the eye of any changes that may occur in the form or
length of the parts under traction, and discovering, at the moment of
its happening, the restoration of symmetry in the disturbed region,
he gently but firmly manipulates the place until all appearance of
severed continuity has vanished. Sometimes the fact and the instant
of restoration are indicated by a peculiar sound, or " click," as the
ends of the bone slip into contact, to await the next step of the
restorative procedure.

The process is the same when the bones are covered with thick
muscular masses, excepting that it is attended with greater difficulties,
from the fact that the finger jnust be substituted for the eye, and the
taxis must take the place of the sight.

It frequently happens that perfect coaptation is prevented by the
interposition between the bony surfaces of substances, such as a small
fragment of detached bone or a clot of blood, and sometimes the
extreme obliquity of the fracture is the opposing cause, by permit-
ting the bones to slip out of place. These are difficulties which can
not always be overcome, even in small-sized animals, and still it is
only when they are mastered that a correct consolidation can be
looked for. Without it the continuity between the fragments will be
by a deformed callus, the union will leave a shortened, crooked, or
angular limb and a disabled animal.

If timely assistance can be obtained, and the reduction accom-
plished immediately after the occurrence of the accident, that is the
best time for it. But if it can not be attended to until inflammation
has become established and the parts have become swollen and pain-
ful, time must be allowed for the subsidence of these symptoms
before attempting the operation. A spasmodic muscular contraction
which sometimes interposes a difficulty may be easily overcome by
subjecting the patient to general anesthesia, and need not, therefore,
cause any loss of time. A tendency to this may also be overcome
by the use of sedatives and antiphlogistic remedies.

The reduction of the fracture having been accomplished, the prob-
lem which follows is that of retention. The parts which have been
restored to their natural position must be kept there, without dis-
turbance or agitation, until the perfect formation of a callus, and it
is here that ample latitude exists for the exercise of ingenuity and

FRACTURES. 309

skill by the surgeon in the contrivance of the necessary apparatus.
One of the most important of the conditions which are available by
the surgeon in treating human patients is denied to the veterinarian
in the management of those which belong to the animal tribes. This
is 'position. The intelligence of the human patient cooperates with
the instructions of the surgeon, but with the animal sutferer there
is a continual antagonism between the parties, and the forced exten-
sion and fatiguing position which must for a considerable period be
maintained as a condition of restoration require special and effective
appliances to insure successful results. To obtain complete immo-
bilit}^ is scarcely possible, and the surgeon must be content to reach
a point as near as possible to that which is unattainable. For this
reason, as will subsequently be seen, the use of slings and the re-
straint of patients in very narrow stalls is much to be preferred
to the jDractice sometimes recommended of allowing entire freedom
of motion by turning them loose in box stalls. Temporary and
movable apparatus are not usually of difficult use in veterinary
practice, but the restlessness of the patients and their unwillingness
to submit quietly to the changing of the dressings render it obliga-
tory to have recourse to j^ermanent and immovable bandages, which
should be retained without disturbance until the process of consolida-
tion is complete.

The materials composing the retaining apparatus consist of oakum,
bandages, and splints, with an agglutinating compound which forms
a species of cement by which the different constituents are blended
into a consistent mass to be spread upon the surface covering the
locality of the fracture. Its components are black pitch, rosin, and
Venice turpentine, blended by heat. The dressing may be applied
directly to the skin, or a covering of thin linen may be interposed.
A putty made with powdered chalk and the white of o^gg is recom-
mended for small animals, though a mixture of sugar of lead and
burnt alum with the albumen is preferred by others. Another formula
is spirits of camphor, Goulard's extract, and albumen. Another rec-
ommendation is to saturate the oakum and bandages with an adhesive
solution formed with gum arable, dextrin, flour paste, or starch.
This is advised particularly for small animals, as is also the silicate of
soda. Dextrin mixed, while warm, with burnt alum and alcohol cools
and solidifies into a stony consistency, and is preferable to plaster of
Paris, which is less friable and has less solidity, besides being heavier
and reqiiiring constant additions as it becomes older. Starch and
plaster of Paris form another good compound.

In applying the dressing the leg is usually padded with a cushion
of oakum, thick and soft enough to equalize the irregidarities of the
surface and to form a bedding for the protection of the skin from
chafing. Over this the splints are placed. The material for these is,

310 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

variously, pasteboard, thin wood, bark, laths, gutta percha, strips of
thin metal, as tin or perhaps sheet iron. These should be of sufficient
length not only to cover the region of the fracture, but to extend
sufficiently above and below to render the immobility more complete
than in the surrounding joints. The splints, again, are covered with
cloth bandages, linen preferably, soaked in a glutinous mixture.
These bandages are to be carefully aj^plied, with a perfect condition
of lightness. They are usually made to embrace the entire length of
the leg, in order to avoid the possibility of interference with the cir-
culation of the extremity, as well as for the prevention of chafing.
They should be rolled from the lower part of the leg upward, and
carefully secured against loosening. In some instances suspensory
bandages are recommended, but excepting for small animals our
experience does not justify a concurrence in the recommendation.

These permanent dressings always need careful watching with ref-
erence to their immediate effect upon the region they cover, especially
during the first days succeeding that of their application. Any mani-
festation of pain, or any appearance of swelling above or below, or
any odor suggestive of suppuration should excite suspicion, and a
thorough investigation should follow without delay. The removal of
the dressing should be performed with great care, and especially so if
time enough has elapsed since its application to allow of a probability
of a commencement of the healing process or the existence of any
points of consolidation. With the original dressing properly applied
in its entirety in the first instance, the entire extremity will have lost
all chance of mobility, and the repairing process may be permitted to
proceed without interference. There will be no necessity and there
need be no haste for removal or change except under such special con-
ditions as have just been mentioned, or when there is reason to judge
that solidification has become perfect, or for the comfort of the ani-
mal, or for its readaptation in consequence of the atrophy of the limb
from want of use. Owners of animals are often temi^ted to remove a
splint or bandage j^rematurely at the risk of producing a second frac-
ture in consequence of the failure of the callus properly to consolidate.

The method of applying the splints which we have described refers
to the simple variety only. In a compound case the same rules must
be observed, with the modification of leaving openings through the
thickness of the dressing, opposite the wound, in order to permit the
escape of pus and to secure access to the points requiring the applica-
tion of treatment.

FRACTURE OF DIFFERENT BONES.
CRANIAL CONES.

Causes. — Fractures of these bones in large animals are compara-
tively rare, though the records are not destitute of cases. When they
occur, it is as the result of external violence, the sufferers being

FRACTURES OF BONES IF THE HEAD. 311

usually runaways which have come in collision with a wall or a tree
or other obstruction ; or it may occur in those which in pulling upon
the halter have broken it with a jerk and been thrown backward,
as might occur in rearing too violently. Under these conditions we
have witnessed fractures of the parietal, of the frontal, and of the
sphenoid bones. These fractures may be of both the complete and
the incomplete kind, which indeed is usually the case with those of
the flat bones, and they are liable to be complicated with lacerations
of the skin, in consequence of which they are easily brought under
observation. But when the fact is otherwise and the skin is intact,
the diagnosis becomes difficult.

Symptoms. — The incomplete variety may be unaccompanied by any
special sjonptoms, but in the comi^lete kind one of the bony plates
may be so far detached as to press upon the cerebral substance with
sufficient force to produce serious nervous complications. A^Hien the
injury occurs at the base of the cranium, hemorrhage may be looked
for, with paralytic symptoms, and when these are present the usual
termination is death. It maj^ happen, however, that the symptoms
of an apparently very severe concussion may disappear, resulting in
an early and complete recovery, and the surgeon will therefore do
well to avoid undue haste in venturing upon a prognosis. In frac-
tures of the orbital or the zygomatic bones the danger is less pressing
than with injuries otherwise located about the head.

Treatment. — The treatment of cranial fractures is simple, though
involving the best skill of an experienced surgeon. \Vhen incomplete,
hardly any interference is needed ; even plain bandaging may usually
be dispensed with. In the complete variety the danger to be com-
bated is compression of the brain, and attention to this indication
must not be delayed. The means to be employed are the trephining
of the skull over the seat of the fracture and the elevation of the
depressed bone or the removal of the portion which is causing the
trouble. Fragments of bone in comminuted cases, bony exfoliations,
collections of fluid, or even protruding portions of the brain substance
must be carefully cleansed away, and a simple bandage so applied as
to facilitate the application of subsequent dressings.

FKACTURES OF THE BONES OF THE FACE.

In respect to their origin — usually traumatic — these injuries rank
with the preceding, and are commonly of the incomplete variety.
They may easily be overlooked and may even sometimes escape recog-
nition until the reparative process has been well established and the
discovery of the wound becomes due to the prominence caused by the
presence of the provisional callus which marks its cure. AMien the
fracture is complete it will be marked by local deformity, mobility of
the fragments, and crepitation. Nasal hemorrhage, roaring, frequent
sneezing, loosening or loss of teeth, difficulty of mastication, and in-

312 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

flammation of the cavities of the sinuses are varying complications of
these accidents. The object of the treatment should be the restora-
tion of the dep)ressed bones as nearly as possible to their normal
position, and their retention in place by protecting splints, which
should cover the entire facial region. Special precautions should be
observed to prevent the patient from disturbing the dressing by rub-
bing his head against surrounding objects, such as the stall, the
manger, the rack, etc. Clots of blood in the nasal passages must be
washed out, collections of pus must be removed from the sinuses, and
if the teeth are loosened and likely to fall out they should be removed.
If roaring is threatened, tracheotomy is indicated.

FEACTUEES OF THE PEEMAXILLARY BONE.

These are mentioned by continental authors. They, are usually
encountered in connection with fractures of the nasal bone, and may
take place either in the width or the length of the bone.

The deformity of the upper lip^ which is drawn sidewise in this
lesion, renders it easy of diagnosis. The abnormal mobility and the
crepitation, with the pain manifested by the patient when undergoing
examination, are concurrent symptoms. Looseness of the teeth,
abundant salivation, and entire inability to grasp the food complete
the symptomatology of these accidents. In the treatment, splints of
gutta-percha or leather are sometimes used, but they are of difficult
application. Our own judgnient and practice are in favor of the
union of the bones by means of metallic sutures.

FEACTUEES OF THE LOWEB JAW.

A fracture here is not an injury of infrequent occurrence. It
involves the body of the bone, at its symphysis, or back of it, and
includes one or both of its branches, either more or less forward, or
at the posterior part near the temporo-maxillary articulation, at the
coronoid process.

Falls, blows, or other external violence, or powerful muscular con-
tractions during the use of the speculum, may be mentioned among
the causes of this lesion. The fracture of the neck, or that portion
formed by the juncture of the two opposite sides, and of the branches
in front of the cheeks, causes the lower jaw, the true dental arch, to
drop, without the ability to raise it again to the upper, and the result
is a peculiar and characteristic physiognomy. The prehension and
mastication of food become impossible; there is an abundant escape
of fetid and sometimes bloody saliva, especially if the gums have been
wounded ; there is excessive mobility of the lower end of the jawbone ;
and there is crepitation, and frequently paralysis of the under lip.
Although an animal suffering with a complete and often compound
and comminuted fracture of the submaxilla presents at times a serious

FRACTURES OF VERTEBRJE. 313

aspect, the prognosis of the case is comparatively favorable, and
recovery is usually onlj^ a question of time. The severity of the lesion
corresponds in degree with that of the violence to which it is due, also
with the resulting complications and the situation of the wound. It
is simple Avhen at the symphysis, but becomes more serious when it
affects one of the branches, and most aggravated when both are
involved. Fracture of the coronoid process becomes important prin-
cipally as an evidence of the existence of a morbid diathesis, such as
osteoporosis, or the like.

The particular seat of the injury, w^th its special features, will,
of course, determine the treatment. For a simple fracture, without
displacement, provided there is no laceration of the periosteum, an
ordinary supporting bandage will usually be sufficient; but when
there is displacement the reduction of the fracture must first be accom-
plished, and for this special splints are necessary. In a fracture of
the symphysis or of the branches the adjustment of the fragments by
securing them with metallic sutures is the first step necessary, to be
followed by the application of supports, consisting of splints of
leather or sheets of metal, the entire front of tlie head being then
covered with bandages prepared with adhesive mixtures. During
the entire course of treatment a sjoecial method of feeding becomes
necessary. The inability of the patient to appreciate the situation,
of course, necessitates a resort to an artificial mode of introducing the
necessary food into his stomach, and it is accomplished by forcing
between the commissures of the lips, in a liquid form, by means of a
syringe, the milk or nutritive gruels selected for his sustenance until
the consolidation is sufficiently advanced to permit the ingestion of
food of a more solid consistency. The callus will usually be suffi-
ciently hardened in two or three weeks to allow of a change of diet
to mashes of cut hay and scalded grain, until the removal of the
dressing restores him to his old habit of mastication.

FRACTURES OF VERTEBRA.

These are not very common, but when they do occur the bones most
frequently injured are those of the back and loins.

Causes. — The ordinary causes of fracture are responsible here as
elsewhere, such as heavy blows on the spinal column, severe falls while
conveying heavy loads, and especially violent efforts in resisting the
process of casting. Although occurring more or less frequently under
the latter circumstances, the accident is not always attributable to
carelessness or error in the management. It may, of course, some-
times result from such a cause as a badly prepared bed, or the acci-
dental presence of a hard body concealed in the straw, or to a heavy
fall when the movements of the patient have not been sufficiently
controlled by an effective apparatus and its skillful adaptation, but it

314 DISEASES OP THE HORSE.

is quite as likely to be caused by the violent resistance and the con-
sequent pov/erful muscular contraction by the frightened patient.
The simple fact of the overarching of the vertebral column, with
excessive pressure against it from the intestinal mass, owing to the
spasmodic action of the abdominal muscles, may account for it, and
so also may the struggles of the animal to escape from the restraint
of the hobbles while frantic under the pain of an operation without
anesthesia. In these cases the fracture usually occurs in the body
or the annular part, or both, of the posterior dorsal or the anterior
lumbar vertebra. When the transverse processes of the last-named
bones are injured, it is probably in consequence of the heavy concus-
sion incident to striking the ground when cast. The diagnosis of a
fracture of the body of a vertebra is not always easy, especially when
quite recent, and more especially when there is no accompanying
displacement.

Symptoms. — There are certain peculiar signs accompanying the
occurrence of the accident while an operation is in progress which
should at once excite the suspicion of the surgeon. In the midst of
a violent struggle the patient becomes suddenly quiet ; the movement
of a sharp instrument, which at first excited his resistance, fails to
give rise to any further evidence of sensation ; perhaps a general
trembling, lasting for a few minutes, will follow, succeeded by a cold,
profuse perspiration, particularly between the hind legs, and fre-
quently there will be micturition and defecation. Careful examina-
tion of the vertebral column may then detect a slight depression or
irregularity in the direction of the spine, and there may be a diminu-
tion or loss of sensation in the posterior part of the trunk, Avhile the
anterior portion continues to be as sensitive as before. In making
an attempt to get upon his feet, however, upon the removal of the
hobbles, only the fore part of the body will respond to the effort, a
degree of paraplegia being present, and while the head, neck, and
fore part of the body will be raised, the hind quarters and hind legs
will remain inert. The animal may perhaps succeed in rising and
probably may be removed to his stall, but the displacement of the
bone will follow, converting the fracture into one of the complete
kind, either through the exertion of walking or by a renewed attempt
to rise after another fall before reaching his stall. By this time the
paralysis is complete, and the extension of the meningitis, which has
become established, is a consummation soon reached.

To say that the prognosis of fracture of the body of the vertebra is
always serious is to speak very mildly. It would be better, perhaps,
to say that occasionally a case may recover. Fractures of the trans-
verse processes are less serious.

Treatm,ent. — Instead of stating the indication in this class of cases
as if assuming them to be amenable to treatment, the question natur-

FRACTURES OF THE RIBS. 315

ally would be : Can any treatment be recommended in a fracture of
the body of a vertebra? The only indication in such a case, in our
opinion, is to reach the true diagnosis in the shortest possible time
and to act accordingly. If there is displacement, and the existence
of serious lesions may be inferred from the nervous symptoms, the
destruction of the suffering animal appears to suggest itself as the one
conclusion in which considerations of policy, humanity, and science at
once unite.

If, however, it is fairly evident that no displacement exists ; that
pressure upon the spinal cord is not yet present ; that the animal with
a little assistance is able to rise upon his feet and to walk a short dis-
tance— it may be well to experiment upon the case to the extent of
placing the patient in the most favorable circumstances for recovery
and allow nature to operate without further interference. This may
be accomplished by securing immobility of the whole body as much as
possible, and especially of the suspected region, by placing the patient
in slings, in a stall sufficiently narrow to preclude lateral motion, and
covering the loins with a thick coat of agglutinative mixture. Watch
and wait for developments.

FRACTURE OF THE EIBS.

The different regions of the chest are not equally exposed to the
violence to which fractures of the ribs are due, and they are therefore
either more common or more easily discovered during life at some
points than at others. The more exposed regions are the middle and
the posterior, while the front is largely covered and defended by the
shoulder. A single rib may be the seat of fracture, or a number may
be involved, and there ma}^ be injuries on both sides of the chest at the
same time. It may take i^lace lengthwise, in any jiart of the bone,
though the middle, being the most exposed, is the most frequently
hurt. Incomplete fractures are usually lengthwise, involving a por-
tion only of the thickness or one or other of the surfaces. The com-
plete kind may be either transverse or oblique, and are most com-
monly denticulated. The fracture may be comminuted, and a single
bone may show one of the complete and one of the incomplete kind at
different points. The extent of surface presented by the thoracic
region, with its complete exposure at all points, explains the liability
of the ribs to suffer from all the forms of external violence.

Symptoms. — In many instances fractures of these bones continue
undiscovered, especiall}^ the incomplete variety, without displace-
ment, though the evidences of local pain, a certain amount of swelling,
and a degree of disturbance of the respiration, if noticed during the
examination of a patient, may suggest a suspicion of their existence.
Abnormal mobility and crepitation are difficult of detection, even
when present, and they are not always present. "Wlien there is dis-
placement the deformity which it occasions will betray the fact, and

316 DISEASES or THE HORSE.

when such an injury exists the surgeon will, of course, become vigi-
lant, in view of possible and probable complications of thoracic
trouble, and prepare himself for an encounter with a case of trau-
matic pleuritis or pneumonia. Fatal injuries of the heart are re-
corded. Subcutaneous emphysema is a common accompaniment of
broken ribs, and I recall the death from this cause of a patient of my
own which had suffered a fracture of two ribs in the region of the
withers, under the cartilages of the shoulder, and of which the diag-
nosis was only made after the fatal ending of the case.

These hurts are not often of a very serious character, though the
union is never as solid and complete as in other fractures, the callus
being usually imperfect and of a fibrous character, with an amphiar-
throsis formation. Still, complications occur which may impart
gravity to the prognosis.

Treattnent. — Fractures wath but a slight or no displacement need
no reduction. All that is necessary is a simple application of a blis-
tering nature as a j^reventive of inflammation or for its subjugation
when present, and in order to excite an exudation which will tend to
aid in the support and immobilization of the parts. At times, how-
ever, a better effect is obtained by the application of a bandage placed
firmly around the chest, although, while this limits the motion of the
ribs, it is apt to render the respiration more labored.

If there is displacement, with much accompanying pain and evident
irritation of the lungs, the fracture must be reduced without delay.
The means of effecting this vary according to whether the displace-
ment is outward or inward. In the first case the bone may be
straightened by pressure from without, while in the second the end of
the bone must be raised by a lever, for the introduction of which a
small incision through the skin and intercostal spaces will be neces-
sary. When coaptation has been effected it must be retained by the
external application of adhesive mixture, with splints and bandages
around the chest.

FBACTUEES OF THE BONES OF THE PELVIS.

These fractures will be considered under their separate denomina-
tions, as those of the sacrum, and the os innominatum., or hip, which
includes the subdivisions of the ilium, the pubes, and the ischium.

The sacrum. — Fractures of this bone are rarely met with among
solipeds. Among cattle, however, it is of common occurrence, being
attributed not only to the usual varieties of violence, as blows and
other external hurts, but to the act of coition and violent efforts in
parturition. It is generally of the transverse kind and may be recog-
nized by the deformity Avhich it occasions. This is due to the drop-
ping of the bone, with a change in its direction and a lower attachment
of the tail, which also becomes more or less paralyzed. The natural
and spontaneous relief wdiich usually interposes in these cases has

FRACTURES OF HIP BONES. 317

doubtless been observed by the extensive cattle breeders of the West,
and their practice and example fully establish the inutility of inter-
ference. Still, cases may occur in which reduction may be indicated,
and it then becomes a matter of no difficulty. It is effected by the
introduction of a round, smooth piece of wood into the rectum as
far as the fragment of bone and using it as a lever, resting upon
another as a fulcrum placed under it outside. The bone, having been
thus returned, may be kept in place by the ordinary external means
in use.

The OS innom'matmn. — Fractures of the ilium may be observed
either at the angle of the hip or at the neck of the bone ; those of the
pubes ma}^ take place at the sjanphysis, or in the body of the bone;
those of the ischium on the floor of the bone, or at its posterior ex-
ternal angle. Or, again, the fracture may involve all three of these
constituent parts of the hip bone by having its situation in the articu-
lar cavity — the acetabulum by which it joins the femur or thigh bone.

Eymjitoms. — Some of these fractures are easily recognized, wJiile
others are difficult to identify. The ordinary deformity which char-
acterizes a fracture of the external angle of the ilium, its dropoing
and the diminution of that side of the hip in width, unite in indica-
ting the existence of the condition expressed by the term " hipped,"
But an incomplete fracture, or one that is complete without displace-
ment, or even one with displacement, often demands the closest scru-
tiny for its discovery. The lameness may be well marked, and an
animal may show but little appearance of it while walking, but upon
being urged into a trot will manifest it more and more, until pres-
ently he will cease to use the crippled limb altogether, and perform
his traveling entirely on three legs. The acute character of the lame-
ness will vary in degree as the seat of the lesion approximates the
acetabulum. In walking, the motion at the hip is very limited, and
the leg is dragged ; while at rest it is relieved from bearing its share
in sustaining the body. An intelligent opinion and correct conclu-
sion will depend largely upon a knowledge of the history of the case,
and while in some instances that will be but a report of the common
etiology of fractures, such as blows, hurts, and other external vio-
lence, the simple fact of a fall may furnish in a single word a satis-
factory solution of the whole matter.

AVith the exception of the deformity of the ilium in a fracture of
its external angle, and unless there has been a serious laceration of
tissues and infiltration of blood, or excessive displacement, there are
no A^ery definite external symptoms in a case of a fracture of the hip
bone. There is one, however, which, in a majority of cases, will not
fail — it is crepitation. This evidence is attainable by both external
and internal examination — by manipulation of the gluteal surface
and by rectal taxis. Very often a lateral motion, or balancing of the
hinder parts by pressing the body from one side to the other, will be

318 DISEASES OP THE HORSE.

sufficient to render the crepitation more distinct — a slight sensation of
grating, which may be perceived even through the thick coating of
muscle which covers the bone — and the sensation may not only be
felt, but to the ear of the expert may even become audible. This
external manifestation is, however, not always sufficient in itself,
and should always be associated with the rectal taxis for corrobora-
tion. It is true that this may fail to add to the evidence of fracture,
but till then the simple testimony afforded by the detection of crepita-
tion from the surface, though a strong confirmatory point, is scarcely
sufficiently absolute to establish more than a reasonable probability
or strong suspicion in the case.

In addition to the fact that the rectal examination brings the ex-
ploring hand of the surgeon into near proximity to the desired point
of search, and to an accurate knowledge of the situation of parts,
both pro and con as respects his own views, there is another advan-
tage attendant upon it which is well entitled to appreciation. This is
the facility with which he can avail himself of the help of an assist-
ant, who can aid him by manipulating the implicated limb and
placing it in various positions, so far as the patient will permit, while
the surgeon himself is making explorations and studying the effect
from within. By this method he can hardly fail to ascertain the
character of the fracture and the condition of the bony ends. By
the rectal taxis, as if with eyes in the finger ends, he will " see " what
is the extent of the fracture of the ilium or of the neck of that bone ;
to what part of the central portion of the bone (the acetabulum) it
reaches; whether this is free from disease or not, and in what loca-
tion on the floor of the pelvis the lesion is situated. We have fre-
quently by this method been able to detect a fracture at the symphysis,
which, from its history and symptoms and an external examination,
could only have been guessed at.

Yet, with all its advantages, the rectal examination is not always
necessary, as, for example, when the fracture is at the posterior and
external angle of the ischium, when by friction of the bony ends the
surgeon may discern the crepitation without it.

Every variety of complication, including muscular lacerations with
the formation of deep abscesses and injuries to the organs of the
pelvic cavity, the bladder, the rectum, and the uterus, may be associ-
ated with fractures of the hip bone.

Prognosis. — The prognosis of these lesions will necessarily vary
considerably. A fracture of the most superficial part of the bone of
the ilium or of the ischium, especially where there is little displace-
ment, w^ill unite rapidly, leaving a comparatively sound animal often
quite free from subsequent lameness. But if there is much displace-
ment, only a ligamentous union will take place, with much deformity
and more or less irregularity in the gait. Other fractures may be

FRACTURE OF THE SCAPULA. 319

followed by complete disability of the patient, as, for example, when
the cotyloid cavity is involved, or when the reparatory process has
left bony deposits in the pelvic cavity at the seat of the union, which
may, with the female, interfere with the steps of parturition, or
induce some local paralysis by pressure upon the nerves which govern
the muscles of the hind legs. This is a condition not infrequently
observed when the callus has been formed on the floor of the pelvis
near the obturator foramen, pressing upon the course or involving the
obturator nerve.

Treatment. — The treatment of all fractures of the hip bone should,
in our estimation, be of the simplest kind. Rendered comparatively
immovable by the thickness of the muscles by which the region is
enveloped, one essential indication suggests itself, and that is to place
the animal in a position which, so far as possible, will be fixed and
permanent. For the accomplishment of this purpose the best meas-
ure, as we consider it, is to place him in a stall of just sufficient width
to admit him, and to apply a set of slings, snugly, but comfortably.
This ,will fulfill the essential conditions of recovery — rest and
immobility. Blistering applications would be injurious, though the
adhesive mixture might prove in some degree beneficial.

The minimum period allowable for solid union in a fractured hip
is, in our judgment, two months, and we have known cases in which
that was too short a time.

As we have before said, there may be cases in which the treatment
for fracture at the floor of the pelvis has been followed by symptoms
of partial paralysis, the animal, when lying down, being unable to
regain his feet, but moving freely when placed in an upright position.
This condition is due to the interference of the callus with the func-
tions of the obturator nerve, which it presses upon or surrounds. T
feel warranted by my experience in similar cases in cautioning owners
of horses in this condition to exercise due patience, and to avoid a
premature sentence of condemnation against their invalid servants;
they are not all irrecoverably paralytic. With alternations of moder-
ate exercise, rest in the slings, and the effect of time while the natural
process of absorption is taking effect upon the callus, with other ele-
ments of change that may be so operating, the horse may in due time
become able to once more earn his subsistence and serve his master.

FRACTURE OF THE SCAPULA.

This bone is seldom fractured, its comparative exemption being due
to its free mobility and the protection it receives from the superim-
posed soft tissues. Only direct and powerful causes are sufficient to
effect the injury, and when it occurs the large rather than the smaller
animals are the subjects.

Cause. — The causes are heavy blows or kicks and violent collisions
with unyielding objects. Those which are occasioned by falls are

320 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

generally at the neck of the bone, and of the transverse and commi-
nuted varieties.

Symptoms. — The diagnosis is not always easy. The symptoms are
inability to rest the leg on the ground and to carry weights, and they
are present in various degrees from slight to severe. The leg rests
upon the toe and seems shortened, and locomotion is performed by
jumps. Moving the leg while examining it and raising the foot for
inspection seem to produce much pain and cause the animal to rear.
Crepitation is readily felt with the hand upon the shoulder when the
leg is moved. If the fracture occurs in the upper part of the bone,
overlapping of the fragments and displacement will be considerable.

The fracture of this bone is usually classed among the more serious
accidents, though cases may occur which are followed by recovery
without very serious ultimate results, especially when the seat of the
injury is at some of the upper angles of the bone, or about the acro-
mion crest. But if the neck and the joint are the parts involved, com-
plications are apt to be present which are likely to disable the animal
for life.

Treatment. — If there is no displacement a simple adhesive dressing,
to strengthen and immobilize the parts, will be sufficient. A coat of
black pitch dissolved with wax and Venice turpentine, and kept in
place over the region with oakum or linen bands, will be all the treat-
ment required, especially if the animal is kept quiet in the slings.

Displacement can not be remedied, and reduction is next to impos-
sible. Sometimes an iron plate is applied over the parts and retained
by bandages, as in the dressing of Bourgelat ; and this may be advan-
tageously replaced by a pad of thick leather. In smaller animals the
parts are retained by figure-8 bandages, embracing both the normal
and the diseased shoulders, crossing each other in the axilla and cov-
ered with a coating of adhesive mixture.

FRACTUKES OF THE HUMERUS.

These are more common in small than in large animals, and are
always the result of external traumatism, such as falls, kicks, and col-
lisions. They are generally very oblique, are often comminuted, and
though more usually involving the shaft of the bone will in some cases
extend to the upper end and into the articular head.

Symptoms. — There is ordinarily considerable displacement in con-
sequence of the overlapping of the broken ends of the bone, and this,
of course, causes more or less shortening of the limb. There will also
be swelling, with difficulty of locomotion, and crepitation will be
easy of detection. This fracture is always a serious damage to the
patient, leaving him with a permanently shortened limb and an incur-
able, lifelong lameness.

Treatment. — If treatment is determined on it will consist in the
reduction of the fracture bv means of extension and counter exten-

FEACTTJRE OF THE FOREARM. 321

sion, and In order to accomplish this the animal must be thrown.
If successful in the reduction, then follows the application and adjust-
ment of the apparatus of retention, which must needs be of the most
perfect and efficient kind. And finally, this, however skillfully con-
trived and carefully adapted, will often fail to eflfect any good pur-
pose whatever.

FBACTURE OF THE FOREARM.

A fracture in this region may also involve the radius or the ulna,
the latter being broken at times in its upper portion above the radio-
ulnar arch at the olecranon. If the fracture occurs at any part of the
forearm from the radio-ulnar arch down to the knee, it may involve
either the radius alone or the radius and the cubitus, which are there
intimately united.

Cause. — Besides having die same etiology with most of the frac-
tures, those of the forearm are, nevertheless, more commonly due to
kicks from other animals, especially when crowded together in large
numbers in insufficient space. It is a matter of observation that,
under these circumstances, fractures of the incomplete kind are those
which occur on the inside of the leg, the bone being in that region
almost entirely subcutaneous, while those of the complete class are
either oblique or transverse. The least common are the longitudinal,
in the long axis of the bone.

Symptoms. — This variety of fracture is easily recognized by the
appearance of the leg and the different changes it undergoes. There
is inability to use the limb; impossibility of locomotion; mobility
below" the injury; the ready detection of crepitation — in a word, the
assemblage of all the signs and symj^toms which have been already
considered as associated with the history of broken bones.

The fracture of the ulna alone, principally above the radio-ulnar
arch, may be ascertained by the aggravated lameness, the excessive
soreness on pressure, and perhaps a certain increase of motion, with
a very slight crepitation if tested in the usual way. Displacement
is not likely to take place except when it is well up toward the ole-
cranon or its tuberosity, the upper segment of the bone being in that
case likel}'^ to be drawn upward. For a simple fracture of this region
there exists a fair chance of recovery, but in a case of the compound
and comminuted class there is less ground for a favorable prognosis,
especially if the elbow joint has suffered injury. A fracture of the
ulna alone is not of serious importance, except when the same con-
ditions prevail. A fracture of the olecranon is less amenable to
treatment, and promises little better than a ligamentous union.

Treatment. — Considering all the various conditions involving the
nature and extent of these lesions, the position and direction of the
bones of the forearm are such as to render the chances for recovery
H. Doc. 795, 59-2 21

322 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

from fracture as among the best. The reduction, by extension and
counter extension ; the maintenance of the coaptation of the segments ;
the adaptation of the dressing by splints, oakum, and agglutinative
mixtures; in fact, all the details of treatment may be here fulfilled
with a degree of facility and precision not attainable in any other part
of the organism. An important, if not an essential, point, however,
must be emphasized in regard to the splints. Whether these are of
metal, wood, or other material, they should reach from the elbow joint
to the ground, and should be placed on the posterior face and on both
sides of the leg. This is then to be so confined in a properly con-
structed box as to preclude all j)ossibility of motion, while yet it must
sustain a certain portion of the weight of the body. The iron splint
(represented in Plate XXVII) recommended by Bourgelat is designed
for fractures of the forearm, of the knee, and of the cannon bone, and
will prove to be an appliance of great value. For small animals the
preference is for an external covering of gutta-percha, embracing the
entire leg, A sheet of this substance of suitable thickness, according
to the size of the animal, softened in lukewarm water, is, when suffi-
ciently pliable, molded on the outside of the leg, and when suddenh^
hardened by the application of cold water forms a complete casing
sufficiently rigid to resist all motion. Patients treated in this manner
have been able to use the limb freely, without pain, immediately after
the application of the dressing. The removal of the splint is easily
effected by cutting it away, either wholly or in sections, after soften-
ing it by immersing the leg in a warm bath.

FRACTURE OF THE KNEE.

This accident, happily, is of rare occurrence, but when it takes
place is of a severe character, and always accompanied by synovitis,
with disease of the joint.

Cause. — It may be caused by falling upon a hard surface, and is
usually compound and comminuted. Healing seldom occurs, and
when it does there is usually a stiffness of the joint from arthritis.

Symptoms. — As a result of this fracture there is inability to bear
weight on the foot. The leg is flexed as in complete radial paralysis,
or fracture of the ulna. There is abnormal mobility of the bones of
the knee, but crepitation is usually absent.

Prognosis. — Healing is hard to obtain, as one part of the knee is
drawn upward by the two flexor muscles which separate it from the
lower part. The callus which forms is largely fibrous, and if the
animal is put to work too quickly this callus is apt to ruj^ture. In
favorable cases healing takes place in two or three months. Many
horses during the treatment develop founder, with consequent drop
sole in the sound leg, as a result of pressure due to continuous
standing.

Treatment. — Place the animal in the slings, bring the pieces of
bone together if possible, and try to keep them in place by a tight

FRACTUEE OF THE FEMUR. 323

plaster of Paris dressing about the leg, extending down to the fet-
lock. Place the animal in a roomy box stall well provided with bed-
ding so that he can lie down, to prevent founder.

FRACTURE OF THE FEMUR.

The protection which this bone receives from the large mass of
muscles in which it is enveloped does not suffice to invest it with
immunity in regard to fractures.

Cause. — It contributes its share to the list of accidents of this
description, sometimes in consequence of external violence and some-
times as the result of muscular contraction; sometimes it takes place
at the upper extremity of the bone; sometimes at the lower; some-
times at the head, when the condyles become implicated; but it is
principally found in the body or diaphysis. The fracture may be of
any of the ordinary forms, simple or compound, complete or incom-
plete, transverse or oblique, etc. A case of the comminuted variety
is recorded in which eighty-five fragments of bone were counted and
removed.

The thickness of the muscular covering sometimes renders the
diagnosis difficult by interfering with the manipulation, but the crepi-
tation test is readily available, even when the swelling is considerable,
and which is likely to be the case as the result of the interstitial hem-
orrhage which naturally follows the laceration of the blood vessels of
the region involved.

Symptoms. — If the fracture is at the neck of the bone the muscles
of that region (the gluteal) are firmly contracted and the leg seems to
be shortened in consequence. Locomotion is impossible. There is
intense pain and violent sweating at first. Crepitation may in some
cases be discerned by rectal examination, with one hand resting over
the coxo-femoral (hip) articulation. Fractures of the tuberosities of
the upper end of the bone, the great trochanter, may be identified by
the deformity, the swelling, the impossibility of rotation, and the
dragging of the leg in walking. Fracture of the body is always
accompanied by displacement, and as a consequence a shortening of
the leg, which is carried forward. The lameness is excessive, the foot
being moved, both when raising it from the ground and when setting
it down, very timidly and cautiousl3^ The manipulations for the dis-
covery of crepitation always cause much pain. Lesions of the lower
end of the bone are more difficult to diagnosticate with certainty,
though the manifestation of pain while making heavy pressure upon
the condyles will be so marked that only crepitation will be needed to
turn a suspicion into a certainty.

Treatment. — The question as to treatment in fractures of this
description resolves itself into the query whether any treatment can
be suggested that will avail anything practically as a curative meas-
ure; whether, upon the hypothesis of reduction as an accomplished

324 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE.

fact, any permanent or efficient device as a means of retention is
within the scope of human ingenuity. If the reduction were success-
fully performed, would it be possible to keep the parts in place by any
known means at our disposal? At the best the most favorable result
that could be anticipated would be a reunion of the fragments, with a
considerable shortening of the bone, and a helpless, limping, crippled
animal to remind us that for human achievement there is a " thus far
and no farther."

In small animals, however, attempts at treatment are justifiable,
and we are convinced that in many cases of difficulty in the applica-
tion of splints and bandages a patient may be placed in a condition
of undisturbed quiet and left to the processes of nature for " treat-
ment " as safely and with as good an assurance of a favorable result
as if he had been subjected to the most heroic secundtim artem doctor-
ing known to science. As a case in point, mention may be made of
the case of a pregnant bitch which suffered a fracture of the upper
end of the femur by being run over by a light wagon. Her " treat-
ment " consisted in being tied up in a large box and let alone. In
due time she was delivered of a family of puppies, and in three weeks
she was running in the streets, limping very slightly, and nothing
the worse for her accident.

FKACTURE OF THE PATELLA.

This, fortunately, is a rare accident and can only result from direct
violence, as a kick or other blow. The lameness which follows it is
accompanied with enormous tumefaction of the joint, pain, inability
to bear weight upon the foot, and finally disease of the articulation.
Crepitation is absent, because the hip muscles draw away the upper
part of the bone. The prognosis is unavoidably adverse, destruction
being the only termination of this incurable and very painful injury.
Most of the reported cases of cures are based upon a wrong diagnosis.

FRACTURES OF THE TIBIA.

Of all fractures these are probably more frequently encountered
than any others among the class of accidents we are considering. As
with injuries of the forearm of a like character, they may be complete
or incomplete ; the former when the bone is broken in the middle or
at the extremities, and transverse, oblique, or longitudinal. The
incomplete kind are more common in this bone than in any other.

Symptoms. — Complete fractures are easy to recognize, either with
or without displacement. The animal is very lame, and the leg is either
dragged or held up clear from the ground by flexion at the stifle,
Avhile the lower part hangs down. Carrying weight or moving back-
ward is impossible. There is excessive mobility below the fracture,
and well-marked crepitation. If there is much displacement, as in
an oblique fracture, there will be considerable shortening of the leg.

FRACTURE OF THE TIBIA. 325

While incomplete fractures can not be recognized in the tibia with
any greater degree of certainty than in any other bone, there are some
facts associated with them by which a diagnosis may be justified.
The hypothetical history of a case may serve as an illustration :

An animal has received an injury by a blow or a kick on the inside
of the bone, perhaps without showing any mark. Becoming very
lame immediately afterwards, he is allowed a few days' rest. Being
then taken out again, he seems to have recovered his soundness, but
within a day or two he betrays a little soreness, and this increasing
he becomes very lame again, to be furloughed once more, with the
result of a temporary improvement, and again a return to labor and
again a relapse of the lameness; and this alternation seems to be the
rule. The leg being now carefully examined, a local periostitis is
readily discovered at the point of the injury, the part being warm,
swollen, and painful. "\A^iat further proof is necessary? Is it not
evident that a fracture has occurred, first superficial — a mere split in
the bony structure, which, fortunately, has been discovered before
some extra exertion or a casual misstep had developed it into one of
the complete kind, possibly with complications? Wliat other infer-
ence can such a series of symptoms thus repeated establish ?

The prognosis of fracture of the tibia must, as a rule, be unfavor-
able.

Treatment. — The difficulty of obtaining a union without shortening,
and consequently without lameness, is proof of the futility of ordi-
nary attempts at treatment. But though this may be true in respect
to fractures of the complete kind, it is not necessarily so with the
incomplete variety, and with this class the simple treatment of the
slings is all that is necessary to secure consolidation. A few weeks of
this confinement will be sufficient.

"With dogs and other small animals there are cases which may be
successfully treated. If the necessary dressings can be successfully
applied and retained, a cure will follow.

FRACTURES OF THE HOCK.

Injuries of the astragalus have been recorded which had a fatal ter-
mination. Fractures of the os calcis have also been observed, but
never with a favorable prognosis, and attempts to induce recovery
have, as might have been anticipated, proved futile.

FRACTURES OF THE CANNON BONES.

Whether these occur in the fore or hind legs, they appear either in
the body or near their extreuiities. If in the body, as a rule the three
metacarpal or metatarsal bones are afi'ected, and the fracture is
generally transverse and oblique. On account of the absence of soft
tissue and tightness of the skin, the broken bones pierce the skin and
render the fracture a complicated one. The diagnosis is easy when all

326 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

the bones are completely broken, but the incomplete fracture can only
be suspected.

Symptoms. — There is no displacement, but excessive mobility, crep-
itation, inability to sustain weight, and the leg is kept off the ground
by the flexion of the upper joint.

No region of the body affords better facilities for the application of
treatment, and the prognosis is, on this account, usually favorable.
We recall a case, however, which proved fatal, though under excep-
tional circumstances. The patient was a valuable stallion of highly
nervous organization, with a compound fracture of one of the cannon
bones, and his unconquerable resistance to treatment, excited by the
intense pain of the wound, precluded all chance of recovery, and
ultimately caused his death.

Treatment. — The general form of treatment for these lesions will
not differ from that which has been already indicated for other frac-
tures. Reduction, sometimes necessitating the casting of the patient ;
coaptation, comparatively easy by reason of the subcutaneous situa-
tion of the bone; retention, by means of splints and bandages —
applied on both sides of the region, and reaching to the ground as
in fractures of the forearm — these are always indicated. We have
obtained excellent results by the use of a mold of thick gutta-percha,
composed of two sections and made to surround the entire lower part
of the leg as in an inflexible case.

FRACTURE OF THE FIRST PHALANX.

The hind extremity is more liable than the fore to this injury. It
is usually the result of a violent effort, or of a sudden misstep or
twisting of the leg, and may be transverse, or, as has usually been the
case in our experience, longitudinal, extending from the upper artic-
ular surface doAvn to the center of the bone, and generally oblique
and often comminuted. The symptoms are the swelling and tender-
ness of the region, possibly crepitation ; a certain abnormal mobility ;
an excessive degree of lameness, and in some instances a dropping
back of the fetlock, with perhaps a straightened or upright condi-
tion of the pastern.

The difficulty of reduction and coaptation in this accident, and the
probability of bony deposits, as of ringbones, resulting in lameness,
are circumstances which tend to discourage a favorable prognosis.

The treatment is that which has been recoi^mended for all frac-
tures, so far as it can be applied. The iron splint which has been
mentioned gives excellent results in many instances, but if the frac-
ture is incomplete and without displacement, a form of treatment less
energetic and severe should be attempted. One case is within our
knowledge in which the owner lost his horse by his refusal to subject
the animal to treatment, the post-mortem revealing only a simple
fracture with very slight displacement.

FRACTURES OF BONES OF THE FOOT. 327

FBACTURES OF THE SECOND PHALANX (CORONET).

Though these are generally of the comminuted kind, there are often
conditions associated with them which justif}^ the surgeon in attempt-
ing their treatment. Though crepitation- is not always easy to detect,
the excessive lameness, the soreness on pressure, the inability to carry
weight, the difficulty experienced in raising the foot, all these suggest,
as the solution of the question of diagnosis, the fracture of the coronet,
with the accompanying realization of the fact that there is yet, by rea-
son of the situation of the member, immobilized as it is by its struc-
ture and its surroundings, room left for a not unfavorable prognosis.
Only a slight manij^ulation will be needed in the treatment of this
lesion. To render the immobility of the region more fixed, to support
the bones in their position by bandaging, and to establish forced
immobility of the entire body with the slings is usually all that is re-
quired. Ringbone, being a common sequela of the reparative process,
must receive due attention subsequently. One of the severest com-
plications likely to be encountered is an immobile joint (anchylosis).
Neurectomy of the median nerve may relieve lameness after a frac-
ture of the phalanges.

FRACTURES OF THE THIRD PHALANX (OS PEDIS).

These lesions may result from a penetrating street nail, or follow
plantar or median neurectomy. In the latter instance it is caused by
the animal setting the foot down carelessly and too violently, and
partly due to degeneration of bone tissue which follows nerving.

Though these fractures are not of verj^ rare occurrence, their recog-
nition is not easy, and there is more of speculation than of certainty
pertaining to their diagnosis. The animal is very lame and spares
the injured foot as much as possible, sometimes resting it upon the
toe alone and sometimes holding it suspended in the air. The foot
is very tender, and the exploring pinchers of the examining surgeon
causes much pain. During the first twenty-four hours there is no
increased pulsation in the digital and jjlantar arteries, but on the
second day this symptom is apparent.

There is nothing to encourage a favorable prognosis, and a not
unusual termination is an anchylosis with either the navicular bone
or the coronet.

No method of treatment needs to be suggested here, the hoof per-
forming the office of retention unaided. Local treatment by baths
and fomentations will do the rest. It may be months before there is
any mitigation of the lameness.

An ultimate recovery depends to a gi'eat extent upon whether the
other foot can support the weight during the healing process without
causing a drop sole in the supporting foot.

328 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

FRACTURE OF THE SESAMOID BONES.

This lesion has been considered by veterinarians, erroneously, we
think, one of rare occurrence. We believe it to be more frequent
than has been supposed. Many observations and careful dissections
have convinced us that fractures of these little bones have often been
mistaken for specific lesions of the numerous ligaments that are
implanted upon their superior and inferior parts, and which have
been described as a " giving way " or " breaking down " of these
ligaments. In my j^ost-mortem examinations I have always noted
the fact that when the attachments of the ligaments were torn from
their bony connections minute fragments of bony structure were also
separated, though we have failed to detect any diseased process of
the fibrous tissue composing the ligamentous substance.

Cause. — From whatever cause this lesion may arise, it can hardly
be considered as of a traumatic nature, no external violence having
any apparent agency in producing it, and it is our belief that it is
due to a peculiar degeneration or softening of the bones themselves, a
theory which acquires plausibility from the consideration of the
spongy consistency of the sesamoids. The disease is a peculiar one,
and the suddenness with which different feet are successively attacked,
at short intervals and without any obvious cause, seems to prove the
existence of some latent, morbid cause which has been unsuspectedly
incubating. It is not peculiar to any particular class of horses, nor
to any special season of the year, having fallen under our observation
in each of the four seasons.

Sym-ptoins. — The general fact is reported in the history of a
majority of cases that it makes its appearance without premonition
in animals which, after enjoying a considerable period of rest, are
first exercised or put to work, though in point of fact it may manifest
itself while the horse is still idle in his stable. A hypothetical case,
in illustration, will explain our theory : An animal which has been
at rest in his stable is taken out to work, and it will be presently
noticed that there is something unusual in his movement. His gait
is changed, and he travels with short, mincing steps, Avithout any of
his accustomed ease and freedom. This may continue until his return
to the stable, and then, after being placed in his stall, he will be
noticed shifting his weight from side to side and from one leg to
another, continuing the movement until rupture of the bony structure
takes place. But it may happen that the lameness in one or more of
the extremities, anterior or posterior, suddenly increases, and it
becomes evident that the rupture has taken place in consequence of
a misstep or a stumble while the horse is at work. Then, upon com-
ing to a standstill, he will be found with one or more of his toes
turned up ; he is unable to place the affected foot flat on the ground.
The fetlock has dropped and the leg rests upon this part, the skin of

DISEASES OF JOINTS. 329

which may have remained intact or may have been more or less exten-
sively lacerated. It seldom happens that more than one toe at a
time will turn up, yet still the lesion in one will be followed by its
occurrence in another. Commonly two feet, either the anterior or
posterior, are affected, and we recall one case in which the two fore
and one of the hind legs were included at the same time. The acci-
dent, however, is quite as likely to happen while the horse is at rest
in his stall, and he may be found in the morning standing on his
fetlocks. One of the earliest of the cases occurring in my own expe-
rience had been under care for several weeks for suspected disease
of the fetlocks, the nature of wdiich had not been made out, when,
apparently, improved by the treatment wdiicli he had undergone, the
patient was taken out of the stable to be walked a short distance into
the country, but had little more than started when he was called to
a halt by the fracture of the sesamoids of both fore legs.

While there are no positive premonitory symptoms known of these
fractures, we believe that there are signs and symptoms which come
but little short of being so, and the appearance of which will always
justify a strong suspicion of the truth of the case. These have been
indicated when referring to the soreness in standing, the short min-
cing gait, and the tenderness betrayed when pressure is made over the
sesamoids on the sides of the fetlock, with others less tangible and
definable.

Prognosis. — These injuries can never be accounted less than seri-
ous, and in our judgment will never be other than fatal. If our
theory of their pathology is the correct one, and the cause of the
lesions is truly the softening of the sesamoidal bony structure and
independent of any changes in the ligamentous fibers, the possibility
of a solid osseous union can hardly be considered admissible.

Treatment. — In respect to the treatment to be recommended and
instituted it can only be employed with any rational hope of benefit
during the incubation, and with the anticipatory purpose of preA^en-
tion. It must be suggested by a suspicion of the verities of the case,
and applied before any rupture has taken place. To prevent this and
to antagonize the causes which might precipitate the final catastro-
phe— the elevation of the toes — resort must be had to the slings and
to the application of firm bandages or splints, perhaps of plaster of
Paris, with a high shoe*, as about the only indications which science
and nature are able to offer. AMien the fracture is an occurred event,
and the toes, one or more, are turned up, any further resort to treat-
ment will be futile.

DISEASES OF JOINTS.

Three classes of injury will be considered under this head. These
are, affections of the synovial sacs ; those of the joint structures, or of

330 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

the bones and their articular surfaces, and those forms of solution of
continuity known as dislocations or luxations.

DISEASES OF THE SYNOVIAL SACS.

Two forms of affection here present themselves, one being the
result of an abnormal secretion which induces a dropsical condition
of the sac without any acute inflammatory action, while the other is
characterized by excessive inflammatory symptoms, with their modi-
fications, constituting synovitis.

SYNOVIAL DROPSIES.

We have already considered in a general way the presence of these
peculiar oil bags in the joints, and in some regions of the legs where
the passage of the tendons takes place, and have noticed the similarity
of structure and function of both the articular and the tendinous
bursse, as well as the etiology of their injuries and their pathological
history, and we now propose to treat of the affections of both.

VPINDGALLS.

This name is given to the dilated bursae found at the posterior part
of the fetlock joint. They have their origin in a dropsical condition
of the bursse of the joint itself, and also of the tendon which slides
behind it, and are therefore further known by the designations of
articular and tendinous windgalls, or puffs. (See also page 375.)

They appear in the form of soft and somewhat symmetrical tumors,
of varying dimensions, and generally well defined in their circumfer-
ence. They are more or less tense, according to the amount of secre-
tion they contain, apparently becoming softer as the foot is raised and
the fetlock flexed. Usually they are painless and only cause lameness
under certain conditions, as when they begin to develop themselves
under the stimulus of inflammatory action, or when large enough to
interfere with the functions of the tendons, or again where they have
undergone certain pathological changes, such as calcification, which is
among their tendencies.

Cause. — Windgalls may be attributed to external causes, such as
severe labor or- strains resulting from heavy pulling, fast driving, or
jumping, or they may be among the sequela? of internal disorders,
such as strangles or the resultants of a pleuritic or pneumonic attack.

An unnecessary amount of anxiety is sometimes experienced respect-
ing these growths, with much questioning touching the expediency of
their removal, all of which might be spared, for, while they constitute
a blemish, their unsightliness will not hinder the usefulness of the
animal, and in any case they rarely fail to show themselves easily
amenable to treatment.

Treatment. — When in their acute stage, and when the dropsical
condition is not excessive, the inflammation may be checked during

DISEASES OF JOINTS. 331

the day by continuous cold water irrigation by means of a hose or
soaking tub and at night by applying a moderately tight roller band-
age. Later absorption may be promoted by a Priessnitz bandage,<»
pressure by roller bandages, sweating, the use of liniments, or if neces-
sary by a sharp blister of biniodide of mercury. This treatment
should subdue the inflammation, abort the soreness, absorb the excess
of secretion, strengthen the walls of the sac, and finally cause the
windgalls to disappear, provided the animal is not too quickly re-
turned to labor and exposed to the same factors that occasioned them
at first.

But if the inflammation has become chronic, and the enlargement
has been of considerable duration, the negative course will be the
wiser one. If any benefit results from treatment it will be of only a
transient kind, the dilatation returning when the patient is again sub-
jected to labor, and it will be a fortunate circumstance if inflamma-
tion has not supervened.

But notwithstanding the generally benignant nature of the swelling
there are exceptional cases, usually when it is probably undergoing
certain pathological changes, which may result in lameness and dis-
able the animal, in which case surgical treatment will be indicated,
especially if repeated blisters have failed to improve the symptoms.
Line firing is then a preeminent suggestion, and many a useful life
has received a new lease as the result of this operation timely per-
formed. Another method of firing, which consists in emptying the
sac by means of punctures through and through, made with a red-hot
needle or wire, and the subsequent injection into the cavity of cer-
tain irritating and alterative compounds, designed to effect its closure
by exciting adhesive inflammation, such as tincture of iodine, may be
commended. But they are all too active and energetic in their effects
and require too much special attention and intelligent management to
be trusted to any hands other than those of an expert veterinarian.

BLOOD SPAVIN, BOG SPAVIN, AND THOKOUGHPIN.

The blood spavin is situated in front and to the inside of the hock
and is merely a varicose or dilated condition of the saphena vein. It
occurs directly over the point where the bog spavin is found, and has
thus been frequently confused with the latter.

The complicated arrangement of the hock joint, and the powerful
tendons which pass on the posterior part, are lubricated with the
product of secretion from one tendinous synovial and several articular

" This bandage consists of a cloth drenched in vparm water or a dripping band-
age laid around the diseased part, then covered by several layers of woolen
blanket or cloth, which is in turn covered by parchment paper, rubber cloth, or
other impervious material. Heat, moisture, and pressure are obtained by such
a bandage if water is poured upon it several times daily.

332 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

synovial sacs. A large articular sac contributes to the lubrication of
the shank bone (the tibia) and one of the bones of the hock (the astrag-
alus). The tendinous sac lies back of the articulation itself and
extends upward and downward in the groove of that joint through
which the flexor tendons slide. The dilatation of this articular syno-
vial sac is what is denominated bog spavin, the term thoroughpin
being applied to the dilatation of the tendinous capsule.

The bog spavin is a round, smooth, well-defined, fluctuating tumor
situated in front and a little inward of the hock. On pressure it
disappears at this point to reappear on the outside and just behind the
hock. If pressed to the front from the outside it will then appear
on the inside of the hock. On its outer surface it presents a vein
which is quite prominent, running from below upward, and it is to
the preternatural dilatation of this blood vessel that the term blood
spavin is applied.

The thoroughpin is found at the back and on the top of the hock
in that part known as the " hollows," immediately behind the shank
bone. It is round and smooth, but not so regularly formed as the
bog spavin, and is most apparent when viewed from behind. The
swelling is usually on both sides and a little in front of the so-called
hamstring, but may be more noticeable on the inside or on the outside.

In their general characteristics bog spavins and thoroughpins are
similar to windgalls, and one description of the origin, symptoms,
pathological changes, and treatment will serve for all equally, except
that it is possible for a bog spavin to cause lameness, and thus to
involve a verdict of unsoundness in the patient, a circumstance which
will, of course, justify its classification by itself as a severer form of a
single type of disease.

We have already referred to the subject of treatment and the means
employed — rest^ of course — with liniments, blisters, etc., and what
we esteem as the most active and beneficial of any, early ^ deep^ and
well-performed cauterization. There are, besides, commendatory
reports of a form of treatment by the application of pressure pads
and peculiar bandages upon the hocks, and it is claimed that the
removal of the tumors has been effected by their use. But our expe-
rience with this apparatus has not been accompanied by such
favorable results as would justify our indorsement of the flattering
representations which have sometimes appeared in its behalf.

OPEN JOINTS, BROKEN KNEES, SYNOVITIS, AND ARTHRITIS.

The close relationship which exists among these several affections,
their apparently possible connection as successive developments of a
similar, if not an essentially identical, origin, together with the
advantage gained by avoiding frequent repetitions in the details of
symptoms, treatment, etc., are our reasons for treating under a single
head the ailments we have grouped together in the present section.

DISEASES OF JOINTS. 333

Cause. — The great, comprehensive, common cause of, sometimes
permanent, sometimes only transient, disability of the horse is exter-
nal traumatism.

Blows, bruises, hurts by nearly every known form of violence,
falls, kicks, lacerations, punctures — we may add compulsory speed
in racing and cruel overloading of draft animals — cover the entire
ground of causation of the diseases and injuries of the joints now
receiving our consideration.

In one case, a working horse making a misstep stumbles, and fall-
ing on his knees receives a hurt, variously severe, from a mere abra-
sion of the skin to a laceration, a division of the tegument, a slough,
mortification, and the escape of the synovial fluid, with or without
exposure of the bones and their articular cartilages.

In another case, an animal, from one cause or another, perhaps an
impatient temper, has formed the habit of striking or pawing his
manger with his fore feet until inflammation of the knee joint is
induced, first as a little swelling, diffused, painless; then as a perios-
titis of the bones of the knee; later as bony deposits, then lameness,
and finally the implication of the joint, with all the various sequelae
of chronic inflammation of the kneejoint.

In another case, a horse has received a blow with a fork from a
careless hostler on or near a joint, or has been kicked by a stable
companion, with the result of a punctured wound, at first mild-
looking, painless, apparently without inflammation, and not yet caus-
ing lameness, but which, in a few hours, or it may be only after a few
days, becomes excessively painful, grows worse, the entire joint swells,
presently discharges, and at last a case of suppurative synovitis is
presented, with perhaps disease of the joint proper, and arthritis as
a climax. The symptoms of articular injuries vary not only in the
degrees of the hurt, but in the nature of the lesion.

Or the condition of hroken hnees^ resulting as we have said, may
have for its starting point a mere abrasion of the skin — a scratch,
apparently, which disappears without a resulting scar. The injury
may, however, have been more severe, the blow heavier, the fall aggra-
vated by occurring upon an irregular surface, or sharp or rough ob-
ject, with tearing or cutting of the skin, and this laceration may re-
main. A more serious case than the first is now brought to our notice.

Another time, immediately following the accident, or possibly as
a sequel of the traumatism, the tendinous sacs may be opened, with
the escape of the synovia ; or worse, the tendons which pass in front
of the knee are torn, the inflammation spreads, the joint and leg
are swollen, the animal is becoming very lame; synovitis has set in.
With this the danger becomes very great, for soon suppuration will be
established, then the external coat of the articulation proper becomes
ulcerated, if it is not already in that state, and we find ourselves in

334 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

the presence of an open joint with suppurative synovitis — that is, with
the worst among the conditions of diseased processes, because of the
liability of the suppuration to become infiltrated into every part of the
joint, macerating the ligaments and irritating the cartilages, soon to
be succeeded by their ulceration, with the destruction of the articular
surface — or the lesion of ulcerative arthritis^ one of the gravest among
all the disorders known to the animal economy.

But ulcerative arthritis and suppurative synovitis may be devel-
oped otherwise than in connection with open joints; the simplest and
apparently most harmless punctures may prove to be cause sufficient.
For example, a horse may be kicked, perhaps, on the inside of the
hock; there is a mark and a few drops of blood to indicate the spot,
he is put to work, apparently fi'ee from pain or lameness, and per-
forms his task with his usual ease and facility. But on the following
morning the hock is found to be a little swollen and there is some stiff-
ness. A little later on he betrays a degree of uneasiness in the leg,
and shrinks from resting his weight upon it, moving it up and down
for relief. The swelling has increased and is increasing, the pain is
severe, and, finally, there is an oozing, at the spot where the kick
impinged, of an oily liquid mixed with whitish drops of suppuration.
The mischief is done; a simple, harmless, punctured wound has ex-
panded into a case of ulcerative arthritis and suppurative synovitis.

Prognosis. — From ever so brief and succinct description of this
traumatism of the articulations, the serious and important character
of these lesions, irrespective of which particular joint is affected, will
be readily understood. Yet there will be modifications in the prog-
nosis in different cases, in accordance with the peculiarities of struc-
ture in the joint specially involved, as, for example, it is obvious that
a better result may be expected from treatment when but a single
joint, with only its j^lain articular surfaces, is the place of injury,
than in one which is composed of several bones, united in a complex
formation, as in the knee or hock. As severe a lesion as suppurative
synovitis always is, and as frequently fatal as it proves to be, still
cases arise in which, the inflammation assuming a modified character
and at length subsiding, the lesion terminates favorably and leaves
the animal with a comparatively sound and useful joint. There are
cases, however, which terminate in no more favorable a result than
the union of the bones and occlusion of the joint, to form an anchylo-
sis, which is scarcely a condition to justify a high degree of satisfac-
tion, since it insures a permanent lameness with very little capacitj''
for usefulness.

Appreciating now the dangers associated with all wounds of articu-
lations, however simple and apparently slight, and how serious and
troublesome are the complications which are likely to arise during
their progress and treatment, we are prepared to understand and

DISEASES OF JOINTS. 335

realize the necessity and the value of early and prompt attention upon
their discovery and diagnosis.

Treatment. — For simple bruises, like those which appear in the
form of broken knees or of carpitis, simple remedies, such as warm
fomentations or cold water applications and compresses of astringent
mixtures, suggest themselves at once. Injuries of a more complicated
character, as lacerations of the skin or tearing of soft structures, will
also be benefited by simple dressings with antiseptic mixtures, as
those of the carbolic acid order. The escape of synovia should sug-
gest the jjrompt use of collodion dressings to check the flow and pre-
vent the further escape of the fluid. But if the discharge is abundant
and heavily suppurative, little can be done more than to put in prac-
tice the " expectant " method with warm fomentations, repeatedly
applied, and soothing mucilaginous poultices. Improvement, if any
is possible, will be but slow to manifest itself. The most difficult of
all things to do, in view of varying interests and opinions — that is,
in a practical sense — is to abstain from " doing " entirely, and yet we
are firmly convinced that noninterference in the cases we are con-
sidering is the best and wisest policy.

In cases which are carried to a successful result the discharge will
by degrees diminish, the extreme pain will gradually subside, and the
convalescent will begin timidly to rest his foot upon the ground, and
presently to bear weight upon it, and perhaps, after a long and tedi-
ous process of recuperation, he may be returned to his former and
normal condition of usefulness. "V^^ien the discharge has wholly
ceased and the wounds are entirely healed, a blister covering the
whole of the joint for the purpose of stimulating the absorption of
the exudation will be of great service. But if, on the contrar}^, there
is no amelioration of symptoms and the progress of the disease resists
every attempt to check it ; if the discharge continues to flow, not only
without abatement, but in an increased volume, and not alone by a
single opening, but by a number of fistulous tracts which have succes-
sively formed; if it seems evident that this drainage is rapidly and
painfully sapping the suffering animal's vitality, and a deficient vis
vitoi fails to cooperate with the means of cure — all rational hope of
recovery may be finally abandoned. Any further waiting for
chances, or time lost in experimenting, will be mere cruelty and there
need be no hesitation concerning the next step. The poor beast is
under sentence of death, and eve.y consideration of interest and of
humanity demands an anticipation of nature's evident intent in the
quick and easy execution of the sentence.

One of the essentials of treatment, and probably an indispensable
condition when recovery is in any wise attainable, is the suspension
of the patient in slings. He should be continued in them as long as
he can be made to submit quietly to their restraint.

336 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

DISLOCATIONS.

Dislocations and luxations are interchangeable terms, meaning the
separation and displacement of the articulating surfaces of the bones
entering into the formation of a joint. This injury is rarely en-
countered in our large animals on account of the combination of
strength and solidity in the formation of their joints. It is met with
but seldom in cattle and less so in horses, while dogs and smaller ani-
mals are more often the sufferers.

Cause. — The accident of a luxation is less often encountered in the
animal races than in man. This is not because the former are less sub-
ject to occasional violence involving powerful muscular contractions,
or are less often exposed to casualties similar to those which result in
luxations in the human skeleton, but because it requires the coopera-
tion of conditions — anatomical, physiological, and perhaps mechan-
ical— present in the human race and lacking in the others, which, how-
ever, can not in every case be clearly defined. Perhaps the greater
relative length of the bony levers in the human formation may con-
stitute a cause of the difference.

Among the predisposing causes in animals may be enumerated
caries of articular surfaces, articular abscesses, excessive dropsical
conditions, degenerative softening of the ligaments, and any excessive
laxity of the soft structures.

Symptoms and diagnosis. — Three signs of dislocation must usually
be taken into consideration. They are: (1) An alteration in the
shape of the joint and in the normal relationship of the articulating
surfaces; (2) an alteration in the length of the limb, either shorten-
ing or lengthening; (3) an alteration in the movableness of the joint,
usually an unnatural immobility. Only the first, however, can be
relied upon as essential. Luxations are not always complete; they
may be partial, that is, the articulating surfaces may be displaced
but not separated. In such cases several symptoms might not be
present. And not only may the third sign be absent, but the mobility
of the first be greatly increased when the character of the injury has
been such as to produce extensive lacerations of the articular ligaments.

In addition to the above signs, a luxation is usually characterized
by pain^ swellhig, hemorrhage beneath the skin from damaged or
ruptured blood vessels, and even paralysis, when important nerves are
pressed on by the displaced bones.

Sometimes a bone is fractured in the immediate vicinity of a joint.
The knowledge of this fact requires that we shall be able to diagnose
between a dislocation and such a fracture. In this we generally have
three points to assist us: (1) The immobility of a dislocated joint as
against the apparently remarkable freedom of movement in fracture ;
(2) in a dislocation there is no true crepitus — that peculiar grating
sensation heard as well as felt on rubbing together the rough ends of

■r 1 /

< -^ /

1. ■ f

:i.^.i-

\:.y

a., I

i

<*•

%

\

in 1 7V( ^,

%

> > .3.1.2 and 3, OrifinaLNo. 4, af i.

l/iifi<'ffv7'(U.^/o<ation of'tJu' ethou- rcppluHl to the home.
I a. The, s<aii<' brace- ■teeii alone. 2, Brnce for iltsfocfttion
oP fetlock 2a, Th>; same brace applic^i trt th<: h{>rft. ,

3yBva/^e for .spriLLnetl or eLisLocaU'd •■ihoii.lfJ.cr,
.'in, The same bi-ate a.ppUje^l to the .shoiUfler.

iiii.-s.tU'i id ir-r IVuch and Toussaiiil

JULIUS BfEN (

DISLOCATION OF SHOI^L.DKH AX13 KLIU^N'
Boiirgclafs apparalus

.All-. XXVIU

0^

iiipp del .Tfler Reynders

JULIUS BiEN a cot

THY-: SLING IN USE

DISLOCATIONS. 337

fractured bones; however, it must be remembered that in a disloca-
tion two or three days old the inflammatory changes around the joint
may give rise to a crackling sensation similar to that in fracture; (3)
as a rule, in luxations, if the ligamentous and muscular tissues about
the joint are not badly torn, the displacement, when reduced, does
not recur.

Prognosis. — The prognosis of a luxation is comparatively less seri-
ous than that of a fracture, though at times the indications of treat-
ment may prove to be so difficult to apply that complications may
arise of a very severe character.

Treatment. — The treatment of luxations must, of course, be similar
to that of fractures. Reduction, naturally, will be the first indication
in both cases, and the retention of the replaced parts must follow.
The reduction involves the same steps of extension and counter exten-
sion, performed in the same manner, with the patient subdued by
anesthetics.

The difi^erence between the reduction of a dislocation and that of a
fracture consists in the fact that in the former the object is simply to
restore the bones to their true normal position, with each articular
surface in exact contact with its companion surface, the apparatus
necessary afterwards to keep them in situ being similar to that which
is employed in fracture cases, and which will usually require to be
retained for a period of from forty to fifty days, if not longer, before
the ruptured retaining ligaments are sufficiently firm to be trusted to
perform their office unassisted. A variety of manipulations are to be
emploj^ed by the surgeon, consisting in pushing, pulling, pressing,
rotating, and indeed whatever movement may be necessary, until the
bones are forced into such relative positions that the muscular con-
traction, operating in just the right directions, pulls the opposite
matched "ends together in true coaptation — a head into a cavity, an
articular eminence into a trochlea, as the case may be. The " setting "
is accompanied by a peculiar snapping sound, audible and significant,
as well as a visible return of the surface to its normal symmetry.

Special dislocations. — While all the articulations of the body are
liable to this form of injury, there are three in the large animals
which may claim a special consideration, viz :

THE SHOULDER JOINT.

We mention this displacement without intending to imply the prac-
ticability of any ordinary attempt at treatment, which is usually
unsuccessful, the animal whose mishap it has been to become a victim
to it being disabled for life. The superior head of the arm bone as it
is received into the lower cavity of the shoulder blade is so situated as
to be liable to be forced mit of place in four directions. It may escape
from its socket, according to the manner in which the violence affects

H. Doc, 795, 59-2 22

338 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

it — outward, inward, backward, or forward — and the deformity
which results and the effects which follow will correspondingly differ.
We have said that treatment is generally unsuccessful. It may be
added that the difficulties which interpose in the way of reduction are
nearly insurmountable, and that the application of means for the
retention of the parts after reduction would be next to impossible.
The prognosis is sufficiently grave from any "point of view for the
luckless animal with a dislocated shoulder.

THE HIP JOINT.

This joint partakes very much of the characteristics of the humero-
scapular articulation, but is more strongly built. The head of the
thigh bone is more separated, or prominent and rounder in form, and
the cuplike cavity, .or socket, into which it fits is much deeper, form-
ing together a deep, true ball-and-socket joint, which is, moreover,
reenforced by two strong cords of funicular ligaments, which unite
them together. It will be easily comprehended, from this hint of the
anatomy of the region, that a luxation of the hip joint must be an
accident of comparatively rare occurrence. And yet cases are recorded
in which the head of the bone has been affirmed to slip out of its
cavity and assume various positions — inward, outward, forward, or
backward.

The indications of treatment are those of all cases of dislocation.
When the reduction is accomplished the surgeon will be apprised
of the fact by the peculiar snapping sound usually heard on such
occasions.

PSEUDO-LUXATIONS OP THE PATELLA.

This is not a true dislocation. The stifle bone is so peculiarly
articulated with the thigh bone that the means of union are of suffi-
cient strength to resist the causes which usually give rise to luxations.
Yet there is sometimes discovered a peculiar pathological st^te in the
hind legs of animals, the effect of which is closely to simulate the
manifestation of many of the general symptoms of dislocations. This
peculiar pathological condition originates in muscular cramps, the
action of which is seen in a certain change in the coaptation of the
articular surfaces of the stifle and thigh bone, resulting in the exhibi-
tion of a sudden and alarming series of symptoms which have sug-
gested the phrase of " stifle out " as a descriptive term.

Symptoms. — The animal so affected stands quietly and firmly in his
stall, or perhaps with one of his hind legs extended backward, and
resists every attempt to move him backward. If urged to move for-
ward he will either refuse or comply with a jump, with the toe of
the disabled leg dragging on the ground and brought forward by a
second effort. There is no flexion at the hock and no motion at the
stifle, while the circular motion of the hip is quite free. The leg-
appears to be much longer than the other, owing to the straightened

DISLOCATIONS. 339

position of the thigh bone, whicli forms ahnost a straight line with
the tibia from the hip joint down. The stifle joint is motionless, and
the motions of all the joints below it are more or less interfered with.
External examination of the muscles of the hip and thigh reveals a
certain amount of rigidity, with perhaps some soreness, and the stifle
bone may be seen projecting more or less on the outside and upper
part of the joint.

This state of things may continue for some length of time and until
treatment is applied, or it may spontaneously and suddenly terminate,
leaving everything in its normal condition, but perhaps to return
again.

Cause. — Pseudo-dislocation of the patella is likely to occur under
many of the conditions which cause actual dislocation, and yet it may
often occur in animals which have not been exposed to the ordinary
causes, but which have remained at rest in their stables. Sometimes
these cases are assignable to falls in a slippery stall, or perhaps slip-
ping when endeavoring to rise ; sometimes to weakness in convalescing
patients; sometimes to lack of tonicity of structure and general de-
bility ; sometimes to relaxation of tissues from want of exercise or use.
A straight leg, sloping croup, and the young are predisposed to this
dislocation.

Treatment. — The reduction of these displacements of the patella is
not usually attended with difficulty. A sudden jerk or spasmodic
action will often be all that is required to spring the patella into
place, when the flexion of the leg at the hock ends the trouble for the
time. But this is not always sufficient, and a true reduction may still
be indicated. To effect this the leg must be drawn well forward by
a rope attached to the lower end, and the patella, grasped with the
hand, forcibly pushed forward and inward and made to slip over the
outside border of the trochlea of the femur. The bone suddenly slips
into position, the excessive rigor of the leg ceases with a spasmodic
jerk, and the animal may walk or trot away without suspicion of
lameness. But though this may end the trouble for the time, and
the restoration seem to be perfect and permanent, a repetition of the
entire transaction may subsequently take place, and perhaps from the
loss of some proportion of tensile power which would naturally fol-
low the original attack in the muscles involved the lesion might
become a habitual weakness.

Warm fomentations and douches with cold water will often pro-
mote permanent recovery, and liberty in a box stall or in the field
will in many cases insure constant relief. The use of a high-heeled
shoe is recommended by European veterinarians. The use of stimu-
lating liniments, with frictions, charges, or even severe blisters, may
be resorted to in order to prevent the repetition of the difficulty by
strengthening and toning up the parts.

340 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

DISEASES OF MUSCLES AND TENDONS.

SPRAINS.

This term expresses a more or less complete laceration or yielding
of the fibers of the muscles, tendons, or the sheaths surrounding and
supporting them. The usual cause of a sprain is external violence,
such as a fall or a powerful exertion of strength, with following
symptoms of soreness, heat, swelling, and a suspension of function.
Their termination varies from simple resolution to suppuration, and
commonly fibrinous exudation difficult to remove. None of the
muscles or tendons of the body are exempt from liability to this
lesion, though naturally from their uses and the exposure of their
situation the extremities are more liable than other regions to become
their seat. The nature of the prognosis will be determined by a
consideration of the seat of the injury and the complications likely
to arise.

Treatment. — The treatment will resolve itself into the routine of
local applications, including warm fomentations, stimulating lini-
ments, counterirritation by blistering, and in some cases even firing.
Rest, in the stable or in a box stall, will be of advantage by promoting
the absorption of whatever fibrinous exudation may have formed, or
absorption may be stimulated by the careful and persevering applica-
tion of iodine in the form of ointments of various degrees of strength.

There are many conditions in which not only the muscular and ten-
dinous structures proper are affected hj a strain, but, by contiguity of
parts, the periosteum of neighboring bones may become involved,
with a complication of periostitis and its sequelae.

LAMENESS OF THE SHOULDER.

The frequency of the occurrence of lameness in the shoulder from
sprains entitles it to precedence of mention in the present category.
For, though so well covered with its muscular envelope, it is often
the seat of injuries which, from the complex structure of the region,
become difficult to diagnosticate with satisfactory precision and
facility. The flat bone which forms the skeleton of that region is
articulated in a comparatively loose manner with the bone of the arm,
but the joint is, notwithstanding, rather solid, and is powerfully
strengthened by tendons passing outside, inside, and in front of it.
Still, shoulder lameness or sprain may exist, originating in lacera-
tions of the muscles, the tendons or the ligaments of the joint, or
perhaps in diseases of the bones themselves. " Slip of the shoulder "
is a phrase frequently applied to such lesions.

The identification of the particular structures involved in these
lesions is of much importance, in view of its bearing upon the ques-
tion of prognosis. For example, while a simple superficial injury of
the spinatus muscles, or of the muscles by which the leg is attached to

SHOULDER LAMFNESS. 341

the trunk, may not be of serious import and may readily yield to
treatment, or even recover spontaneousl}^ and without interference, the
condition is quite changed when a case of tearing of the flexor brachii,
or of its tendons as they pass in front of the articulation, occurs, or,
what is still more serious, if there is inflammation or ulceration in the
groove over which this tendon slides, or upon the articular surfaces
or their surroundings, or periostitis at any point adjacent.

Causes. — The frequency of attacks of shoulder lameness is not diffi-
cult to account for. The superficial and unprotected position of tlie
part, and the numerous movements of which it is capable, and which
in fact it performs, render it both subjectivelj^ and objectively preemi-
nently liable to accident or injury. It would be difficult, nor would
it materially avail, to enumerate all the forms of violence by which
the shoulder may be crippled. A fall, accompanied by powerful con-
cussion; a violent muscular contraction in starting a heavily loaded
vehicle from a standstill; a misstep following a quick muscular effort ;
a jump accompanied by miscalculated results in alighting; a slip on a
smooth, icy road ; balling the feet with snow ; colliding with another
horse or other object — indeed, the list might be indefinitely extended,
but it would be without profit or utility.

Symptoms. — Some of the symptoms of shoulder lameness are pecul-
iar to themselves, and yet the trouble is frequentl}^ mistaken for
other affections — navicular disease more often than any other. The
fact that in both affections there are instances when the external
symptoms are but imperfectly defined, and that one of them espe-
cially is very similar in both, is sufficient to mislead careless or
inexperienced observers, and to occasion the error which is sometimes
committed of applying to one disease the name of the other, erring
both ways in the interchange. The true designation of pathological
lesions is very far, at times, from being of certain and easy accom-
plishment, and, owing to the massive structure of the parts we are
considering, this is especially true in the present connection. And
still there are many cases in which there is really no reasonable excuse
for an error in diagnosis by an average practitioner.

Shoulder lameness will of course manifest itself by signs and
appearances more or less distinct and pronounced, according to the
nature of the degree and the extent of the originating cause. We
summarize some of these signs and appearances :

The lameness is not intermittent but continued, the disturbance of
motion gauging the severity of the lesion and its extent. It is more
marked when the bones are diseased than when the muscles alone are
affected. "\'^Tien in motion the two upper bony levers — the shoulder
blade and the bone of the upper arm — are reduced to nearly complete
immobility and the walking is performed by the complete displace-
ment of the entire mass, which is dragged forward without either

342 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

flexion or extension. The action of the joint below, as a natural con- .
sequence, is limited in its flexion. In many instances there is a cer-
tain amount of swelling at the point of injury — at the joint, or more
commonly in front of it, or on the surface of the spinatus muscle.
Again, instead of swelling there will be muscular atrophy, though
while this condition of loss of muscular power may interfere with
perfect locomotion, it is not in itself usually a cause of shoulder lame-
ness. " Sweenied " shoulders are more often due to disease below
the fetlock than to affections above the elbow.

During rest the animal often carries his leg forward, somewhat
analogous to the " pointing " position of navicular disease, though in
some cases the painful member drops at the elbow in a semiflexed
position. The backing is sometimes typical, the animal when per-
forming it, instead of flexing his shoulder, dragging the whole leg
without motion in the upper segment of the extremity.

The peculiar manner in which the leg is brought forward in the air
for another step in the act of walking or trotting is in some instances
characteristic of injuries of the shoulder. The lameness also mani-
fests itself in bringing the leg forward with a circumflex swinging
motion and a shortening in the extension of the step. The foot is
carried close to the ground and stumbling is frequent, especially on
an uneven road.

With the utmost scrutiny and care the vagueness and uncertainty
of the symptoms will contribute to perplex and discredit the diagnosis
and embarrass the surgeon, and sometimes the expedient is tried of
aggravating the symptoms by way of intensifying their significance,
and thus rendering them more intelligible. This has been sought by
requiring the patient to travel on hard or very soft ground and
compelling him to turn on the sound leg as a pivot, with other
motions calculated to betray the locality of the pain.

Treatment. — It is our conviction that lameness of the shoulder will
in many cases disappear with no other prescription than that of rest.
Provided the lesions occasioning it are not too severe, time is all that
is required. But the negation of letting alone is seldom accepted as
a means of doing good, in the place of the active and the positive
forms of treatment. This is in accordance with a trait of human
nature which is universal, and is unlimited in its applications.
Hence there must be something done. In mild cases of shoulder
lameness, then, the indications are water, either in the cold douche
or by showering, or by warm fomentations. Warm wet blankets are
of great service; and in addition, or as alternative, anodyne lini-
ments, camphor, belladonna, either in the form of tincture or the
oils, are of benefit, and at a later period stimulating friction with
suitable mixtures, sweating liniments, blistering compounds, sub-
cutaneous injections over the region of the muscle of 1^ grains of

SPRAIN OF ELBOW MUSCLES. 343

veratrin (the variety insoluble in water) mixed in 2 drams of water,
etc., will find their place, and finally, when necessity demands it, the
firing iron and the seton.

The duration of the treatment must be determined by its effects and
the evidence that may be offered of the results following the action of
the reparative process. But the great essential condition of cure, and
the one without which the possibility of relapse will always remain as
a menace, is, as we have often reiterated in analogous cases, rest^
imperatively rest, irrespective of any other prescriptions with which
it may be associated.

SPKAIN OF THE ELBOW MUSCLES.

Causes. — This injury, which fortunately is not very common, is
mostly encountered in cities, among heavy draft horses or rapidly
driven animals which are obliged to travel, often smooth shod, upon
slippery, icy, or greasy pavements, where they are easily liable to lose
their foothold. The region of the strain is the posterior part of the
shoulder, and the muscles which are affected are those which occupy
the space between the posterior border of the scapula and the pos-
terior face of the arm. It is the muscles of the olecranon which give
way.

SytJh'ptoms. — The symptoms are easily recognized, especially when
the animal is in action. "While at rest the attitude may be normal, or
by close scrutiny a peculiarity may perhaps be detected. The leg may
seem to drop ; the elbow may appear to be lower than its fellow, with
the knee and lower part of the leg flexed and the foot resting on
the toe, with the heel raised. Such an attitude, however, may be
occasionally assumed by an animal without having any special signifi-
cance. But when it becomes more pronounced on putting him in
motion the fact acquires a symptomatic value, and this is the case in
the present instance. A rapid gait becomes quite impossible, and the
walk, as in some few other diseases, becomes sufficiently characteristic
to warrant a diagnosis even when observed from a distance. An
entire dropping of the anterior part of the trunk becomes manifest,
and no weight is carried on the disabled side, in consequence of the
loss of action in the suspensory muscles. There are often heat, pain,
and swelling in the muscular mass at the elbow, though at times a
hollow, or depression, may be observed near the posterior border of
the scapula, which is probably the seat of injury.

These hurts are of various degrees of importance, varying from
mere minor casualties of quick recovery to lesions which are of suffi-
cient severity to render an animal useless and valueless for life.

Treatment. — The prime elements of treatment, which should be
strictly observed, are rest and quiet. Prescriptions of all kinds, of
course, have their advocates. Among them are ether, chloroform,

344 DISEASES OF THE HORSE,

camphor, alcoholic frictions, Avarm fomentations, blisters, setons, etc.
But unless the conclusions of experience are to be ignored, my own
judgment is decisive in favor of rest, judiciously applied; and my
view of what constitutes a judicious application of rest has been more
than once presented in these pages. There are degrees of this rest.
One contemplates simple immobility in a narrow stall. Another
means the enforced mobility of the slings and a narrow stall- as well.
Another a box stall, with ample latitude as to posture and space, and
option to stand up or lie down. As wide as this range may appear to
be, radical recover}^ has occurred under all of these modified forms of
letting our patients alone.

HIP LAMKNESS.

The etiology of injuries and diseases of the hip is one and the same
Avith that of the shoulder. The same causes operate and the same
results follow. The only essential change, with an important excep-
tion, which would be necessary in passing from one region to the
other in a description of its anatomy, its physiology, and its pathol-
ogy, would be a substitution of anatomical names in reference to
certain bones, articulations, muscles, ligaments, and membranes con-
cerned in the injuries and diseases described. It would be only a use-
less repetition to cover again the ground over which we have so
recently passed in recital of the manner in which certain forms of
external violence (falls, bloAvs, kicks, etc.) result in other certain
forms of lesion (luxation, fracture, periostitis, ostitis, etc.), and to
recapitulate the items of treatment and the names of the medicaments
proper to use. The same rules of diagnosis and the same indications
and prognosis are applicable equally to every portion of the organ-
ism, with only such modifications in applying dressings and appa-
ratus as may be required by differences of conformation and other
minor circumstances, which must suggest themselves to the judgment
of every experienced observer when the occasion arrives for its
exercise.

There is an exception to be made, while considering the subject in
connection with the region now under advisement, in respect to the
formidable affection known as morbus coxarius, or hip- joint disease;
and leaving the detail of other lesions to take their place under other
heads, that relating to the shoulder, for instance, w^e turn to the hip
joint and its ailments as the chief subject of our jo resent consid-
eration.

Symptoms. — In investigating for morbus coxarius, let the ob-
server first examine the lame animal by scanning critically the out-
lines of the joint and the region adjacent for any difference of size
or disturbance of symmetry in the parts, any prominence or rotundity,
and on both sides. The lame side will probably be warmer, more
developed and fuller, both to the touch and to the eye. Let him then

SPRAIN OF LIGAMENTS OF FEET. 345

grasp the lower part of the leg (as he would in examining a case of
shoulder lameness) and endeavor to produce excessive j)assive mo-
tion. This will probably cause pain when the leg is made to assume
a given position. Let him push the thigh forcibly against the hip
bone, and the contact will again probably cause a manifestation of
pain. If the horse is trotted, the limited action of the hip joint
proper and the excessive dropping and rising of the hip of the oppo-
site side will be easily recognized. Usually the animal does not
extend the foot as far as customarily and picks it up much sooner.

The abductive or circumflex motion observed in shoulder lameness
is also present in hip lameness, but under special conditions, an'i
the test of the difficulty, either by traveling on soft ground or in
turning the horse in a circle, may here also contribute to the diag-
nosis, as in testing for lameness in the anterior extremity.

Prognosis. — The prognosis of hip lameness is at times quite seri-
ous, not only on account of the long duration of treatment required
to eiFect good results, and because of the character which may be
assumed by the disease, but of the permanence of the disability re-
sulting from it. Exostosis and ulcerative arthritis are sequelae which
often resist every form of treatment.

Treatment. — As before intimated, this is little more than a repetition
of the remarks upon the lameness of the shoulder, with slight modifi-
cations occasioned by the muscular structure of the hip, and we are
limited to the same recommendations of treatment. The advantages
of rest must be reaffirmed, with local applications, of which, however,
it may be said that they are more distinctly indicated and likely to be
more effective in their results than in shoulder lameness, and may be
more freely employed, whether in the form of liniments, blisters
(singly or repeated), firing, or setoning.

SPRAINS OF SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS AND OF THE FLEXOR TENDONS OR THEIR SHEATH.

fore and hind legs, is often the seat.of lacerations or sprains resulting
from violent efforts or sudden jerks.

Cause. — The injury may be considered serious or trifling, according
to the circumstances of each case as judged by its own history. Among
the predisposing causes are a long thin fetlock and a narrow knee or
hock as viewed from the side, with the flexor muscles tied in just below
the joint. The longer and more oblique the pastern the greater is the
strain on the flexor tendons and suspensory ligaments, hence a low
quarter, a toe calk, and no heel calks, or a thin calk placed at the tip
under the toe, and leaving the quarters long abnormally stretches the
back tendons and causes a great strain upon them just before the
weight is shifted from the foot in locomotion. In runners and hunters
the disease is apt to be periodic. In driving horses it is most common

346 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

in well-bred animals of nervous temperament. Draft horses suffer
most frequently in the hind legs,

Symjytoms. — The injury is readily recognized by the changed aspect
of the region and the accompanying local symptoms. The parts,
which in health are well defined, with the outlines of the tendons and
ligaments well marked, become the seat of a swelling, more or less
developed, from a small spot on the middle of the back of the tendon
to a tumefaction reaching from the knee down to and even involving
the fetlock itself. It is always characterized by heat, and it is vari-
ously sensitive, ranging from a mere tenderness to a degree of soreness
which shrinks from the lightest touch. The degree of the lameness
varies, and it has a corresponding range with the soreness, sometimes
showing only a slight halting and at others the extreme of lameness
on three legs, with intermediate degrees.

The lameness is always worse when the weight is thrown on the
foot, and is most marked toward the end of the phase of contact with
the ground. Either joassive irritation of the leg or turning the ani-
mal in a circle causes pain as in diseases of the joints. Sometimes the
horse likes to get the heels on a stone or some elevation so as to relieve
the weight from the flexor tendons. Finally, in cases of long stand-
ing, a shortening of the tendons occurs, resulting in the abnormal
flexion of the foot known by horsemen as " broken down," or a more
upright position of the foot may follow, producing perhaps knuck-
ling or the so-called clubfoot.

Prognosis. — It may be safely assumed on general principles that a
leg which has received such injuries very seldom returns to a perfect
condition of efficiency and soundness, and that as a fact a certain abso-
lute amount of thickening and deformity will remain permanent, even
when the lameness has entirely disappeared.

Treatment. — The injured member should receive the earliest atten-
tion i^ossible, not only when the inflammatory condition is present, but
when it is subsiding and there is only the thickening of the ligaments,
the tendons, or the sheath.

The most important remedy is rest, and the shoes should always be
removed. During the first three days cold in the form of immersion
or continuous irrigation is indicated. Then warm moisture and con-
tinuous pressure are advised. The latter is best applied by placing
two padded s^^lints about the thickness of the thumb along the two
sides of the tendon and binding them in place with even pressure by
bandage. Frequent bathing with warm soap suds is also beneficial.
The absorption of the exudate may be promoted and the work of
restoration effected by frictions with alcohol, tincture of soap, spirits
of camphor, mild liniments, strong sweating liniments, and blisters.
An excellent ointment to apply with massage consists of equal parts
of blue ointment and green soap, with double the quantity of vaseline.

KNUCKLING OF FETLOCK. 347

The action of blisters in these cases depends chiefly upon the massage
used in applying them and upon the continuous pressure of the swol-
len skin on the inflamed tendons. In old cases more beneficial results
will follow line firing. In these cases shoeing is very important.
Leave the quarters long, shorten the toe, give the shoe rolling motion,
and either put short heel calks on the branches or thicken the
branches. Although this line of treatment is efficacious in many cases,
there are others in which the thickening of the tendons refuses to
yield and the changed tissues remain firmly organized, leaving them
in the form of a thick mass resting upon the back part of the cannon
bone.

KNUCKLING OP FETLOCK.

As a consequence of the last-mentioned lesion of the tendons, a new
condition presents itself in the articular disposition, constituting the
deformity known as the knuckling fetlock. (See also page 374.)

By this is meant a deformity of the fetlock joint by which the nat-
ural angle is changed from that which pertains to the healthy articu-
lation. The first pastern, or sufl'raginis, loses its oblique direction and
assumes another, which varies from the upright to the oblique, from
before backward, and from above downward ; in other words, form-
ing an angle with its apex in front.

Causes. — This condition, as we have seen, may be the result of
chronic disease producing structural changes in the tendons, and it
may also occur as the result of other affections or some peculiarity
independent of this and situated below the fetlock, such as ringbones,
sidebones, or traumatic disease of the foot proper. Animals are
sometimes predisposed to knuckling, such, for example, as are natur-
ally straight in their pasterns, or animals which are compelled to
labor when too young. The hind legs are more predisposed than the
fore to this deformity, in consequence of the greater amount of labor
they are required to perform as the propelling levers of the body.

Sy7n2?toms. — The symptoms of knuckling are easily recognized.
The changes in the direction of the bones vary more or less with the
degree of the lesion, sometimes assuming such a direction that it
almost becomes a true dislocation of the pastern.

The effect of knuckling upon the gait also varies according to the
degree of the deformity. As the different degrees of the shortening
of the leg affect the motion of the fetlock, the lameness may be very
slight or quite extreme. Another consequence of this shortening is
such a change in the position of the foot that the heels cease to come
in contact with the ground and assume a greater elevation, and the
final result of this is soon witnessed in the development of a clubfoot.

Treatment. — To whatever cause the knuckling may be ascribed, it is
always a severe infirmity, and there is but little room for hoping to
overcome it unless it be during the very first stages of the trouble,

348 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

and the hope dwindles to still smaller dimensions when it is secondary
to other diseases below the fetlock. If it is caused by overworking
the animal, the first indication will, of course, be rest. Line firing has
proved very efficacious in these cases. The animal must be turned
loose and left unemployed. Careful attention should be given to the
condition of his feet and to the manner of shoeing, while time is
allowed for the tendons to become restored to their normal state and
the irritation caused by excessive stretching has subsided. A shoe
with a thick heel will contribute to this. But if no improvement can
be obtained and the tendons though retracted have yet been relieved
of much of their thickening, the case is not a desperate one, and may
yet be benefited by the operation of tenotomy, single or double — an
operative expedient which must be committed to the experienced
surgeon for its performance.

SPRUNG KNEES.

Tlio.ugh not positively the result of diseases of the tendons acting
upon the knees, we venture to consider this deformity in connection
with that which we have just described. It consists in such an alter-
ation in the direction and articulation of the bones which form the
various carpal joints that instead of forming a vertical line from the
lower end of the forearm to the cannon bone they are so united that
the knee is more or less bent forward, presenting a condition due to
the retraction of two of the principal muscles by which the cannon
bone is flexed.

Cause. — This flexion of the knee may be a congenital deformity and
have continued from the foaling of the animal; or, like clubfoot, it
may be the result of heavy labor which the animal has been compelled
to perform at too early an age. It may also be due to other diseases
existing in parts below the knee joint.

Symptoms. — This change of direction largely influences the move-
ment of the animal by detracting from its firmness and practically
weakening the entire frame, even to the extent of rendering him inse-
cure on his feet and liable to fall. This condition of Aveakness is some-
limes so pronounced that ho is exposed to fall even when standing at
rest and unmolested, the knees being unable even to bear the portion
of the mere weight of the frame which belongs to them. This results
in another trouble — that of being unable to keep permanently upright.
He is apt to fall on his knees, and by this act becomes presently a
sufferer from the lesion known by the term of broken hnees.

Treatment. — Whatever may be the originating cause of this imper-
fection, it detracts very largely from the usefulness and value of a
horse, disqualifying him for ordinary labor and wholly unfitting him
for service under the saddle without jeopardizing the safety of his
rider. If, however, the trouble is known from the start, and is not
the result of congenital deformity or weakness of the knee joint, or

CURB. 349

secondary to other diseases, rest, with fortifying frictions, may some-
iimes aid in strengthening the joints; and the application of blisters
on the posterior part of the knee, from a short distance above to a
IDoint a little below the joint, may bo followed by some satisfactory
results; but with this trouble, as with knuckling fetlocks, the danger
of relapse must be kept in mind as a contingency always liable to
occur.

CITBB.

This lesion is the bulging backward of the posterior part of the
hock, where in the normal state there should be a straight line, extend-
ing from the upper end of the point of the hock down to the fetlock.

Cause. — The cause may be a sprain of the tendon which passes on
the posterior part of the hock, or of one of its sheaths, or of the strong
ligament situated on the posterior border of the os calcis.

Hocks of a certain conformation seem to possess a greater liability
to curb than others. Thej^ are overbent, coarse, and thick in appear-
ance, or may be too narrow from front to back across the lower por-
tion. This condition may therefore result as a sequence to congeni-
tal malformation, as in the case of horses that are saber-legged. It
often occurs, also, as the result of violent efforts, of heavy pulling, of
high jumping, or of slipping; in a word, it may result from any of
the causes heretofore considered as instrumental in producing lacera-
tions of muscular, tendinous, or ligamentous structure.

Symptoms. — A hock affected with curb will, at the outset, present
a swelling more or less diffuse on its posterior portion, with varying
degrees of heat and soreness, and these will be accompanied by lame-
ness of a permanent character. At a later period, however, the swell-
ing will become better defined, the deformity more characteristic, the
prominent curved line readily detected, and the thickness of the infil-
trated tissue easily determined by the fingers. At this time, also,
there may be a condition of lameness, varying in degree, while at
others, again, the irregularity of action at the hock will be so slight
as to escape detection, the animal betraying no appearance of its
existence.

A curb constitutes, by a strict construction of the term, an " un-
soundness," since the hock thus affected is less able to endure severe
labor, and is more liable to give way with the slightest effort. And
yet the prognosis of a curb can not be considered to be serious, since it
generally yields to treatment, or at least the lameness it may occasion
is generally easily relieved, though the loss of contour caused by the
bulging will always constitute a blemish.

Treatment. — On the first appearance of a curb, when it exhibits
the signs of an acute inflammation, the first indication is to subdue
this by the use of cold applications as intermittent or constant irriga-
tion or an ice poultice; but when these have exhausted their effect

350 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

and the swelling has assumed better defined boundaries, and the infil-
tration of the tendons or of the ligaments is all that remains of a
morbid state, then every effort must be directed to the object of effect-
ing its absorption and reducing its dimensions by pressure and other
methods. The medicaments most to be trusted are blisters of can-
tharides and frictions with ointments of iodine, or, preferably,
biniodide of mercury. Mercurial agents alone, by their therapeutic
properties or by means of the artificial bandages which they furnish
by their incrustations when their vesicatory effects are exhausted,
will give good results in some instances by a single application, and
often by repeated applications. The use of the firing iron must,
however, be frequently resorted to, either to remove the lameness or
to stimulate the absorption. We believe that its early application
ought to be resorted to in preference to waiting until the exudation
is firmly organized. Firing in dull points or in lines will prove as
beneficial in curb as in any other disease of a similar nature.

LACEKATED TENDONS.

This form of injury, whether of a simple or of a compound char-
acter, may become a lesion of a very serious nature, and will usually
require long and careful treatment, which may yet prove unavailing
in consequence either of the intrinsically fatal character of the wound
itself or the complications which have rendered it incurable.

Cause. — ^Like all similar injuries, these are the result of traumatic
violence, such as contact with objects both blunt and sharp; a curb-
stone in the city; in the country, a tree stump or a fence, especially
one of wire. It may easily occur to a runaway horse when he is
" whipped " with fragments of harness or " flogged " by fragments of
splintered shafts " thrashing " his legs, or by the contact of his legs
with the wagon he has overturned and shattered with his heels while
disengaging himself from its wreck.

Symptoms. — It is not alwaj^s necessary that the skin should be
involved in this form of injury. On the contrary, the tegument is
frequently left entirely intact, especially when the injury follows
infectious diseases or occurs during light exercise after long periods
of rest in the stable. Yet, again, the skin may be cut through and
the tendons nearly severed. A point a little above the fetlock is
usually the seat of the injury. But irrespective of this, and whether
the skin is or is not implicated, the symptoms very much resemble
those of a fracture. There is excessive mobility, at least more than
in a normal state, with more or less inability to carry weight. There
may be swelling of the parts, and on passing the hands carefully
along the tendon to the point of division the stumps of the divided
structure will be felt more or less separated, perhaps wholly divided.
The position of the animal while at rest and standing is peculiar and
characteristic. "VVliile the heels are well placed on the ground, the

LACEEATED TENDONS. 351,

toe is correspondingly elevated, with a tendency to turn up — a form,
of breaking down which was described when speaking of the fracture
of the sesamoids. Carrying weight is done only with considerable
difficulty, but with comparatively little pain, and the animal will
unconsciously continue to move the leg as if in great suffering, not-
withstanding the fact that his general condition may be very good
and his appetite unimpaired.

The effect upon the general organism of compound lacerated
wounds of tendinous structures, or those which are associated with
injuries of the skin, are different. The wound becomes in a short time
the seat of a high degree of inflammation with abundant suppuration,
filling it from the bottom; and the tendon, wnether as the result of
the bruise or of the laceration, or of maceration in the accumulated
pus, undergoes a process of softening, and necrosis and sloughing
ensue. This complicates the case, and probably some form of tendi-
nous synovitis follows, running into suppurative arthritis, to end, if
close to a joint, with a fatal result.

Prognosis. — The prognosis of lacerated tendons should be very con-
servative. Under the most favorable circumstances a period of from
six weeks to two months will be necessary for the treatment, before
the formation of the cicatricial callus and the establishment of a firm
union between the tendinous stumps.

Treatment. — As with fractures, and even in a greater degree, the
necessity is imperative, in the treatment of lacerated tendons, to se-
cure as perfect a state of immobility as can be obtained compatibly
with the disposition of the patient; the natural opposition of the
animal, sometimes ill-tempered and fractious at best, under the neces-
sary restraint, causing at times much embarrassment to the practi-
tioner in applying the necessary treatment. Without the necessary
immobility no close connection of the ends of the tendons can be
secured. To fulfill this necessary condition the posterior part of the
foot and the fetlock must be supported and the traction i^erformed
by them relieved, an object which can be obtained by the use of the
high-heeled and bar shoe, or possibly better accomplished with a
shoe of the same kind extending about 2 or 2^ inches back of the
heels. The perfect immobility of the legs is obtained in the same way
as in the treatment of fracture, with splints, bandages, iron appa-
ratus, plaster of adhesive mixtures, and similar means. So long as
the dressings remain in place undisturbed, and no chafing or other
evidence of pain is present, the dressings may be continued without
changing, the patient being kept in the slings for a period sufficient to
insure the perfect union of the tendons. But for a compound lesion,
when there is laceration of the skin, some special care is necessary.
The wound must be carefully watched and the dressings removed
at intervals of a few days, or as often as may be needful, all of which

352 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

additional manipulation and extra nursing, however indispensable,
still adds to the gravity of the case and renders the prognosis more
and more serious. When the tendons have sloughed in threads of
various dimensions, or if in the absence of this process of mortification
healthy granulations should form and fill up the wound, still veiy
careful attention will be required, the granulating ends of the tendons
having a tendency to bulge between the edges of the skin and to
assume large dimensions, forming bulky excrescences or growths of a
warty or cauliflower appearance, the removal of which becomes a
troublesome tnatter.

The union of the tendons will at times leave a thickening of vary-
ing degree near the point of cicatrization, the absorption of which
becomes an object of difficult and doubtful accomplishment, but
which may be promoted by moderate blistering and the use of alter-
ative and absorbent mixtures or perhaps the fire iron. A shoe with
heels somewhat higher than usual will prove a comfort to the animal
and aid in moderating and relieving the tension of the tendons.

RUPTUBE OF THK FLEXOR METATARSI.

This is a muscle of the anterior part of the shank. It is situated
in front of the tibia, and is of peculiar formation, being comjjosed of
a muscular portion with a Yerj powerful tendon, which are at first
distinct and separate, to be intimately united lower down, and termi-
nating at the lower end by a division into four tendinous bands. It
is a powerful muscle of the hinder shank bone, and also acts as a
strong means of support for the stifle joint, that is, of the articulation
of the thigh and shank bone, in front and outside of which it passes.
Its situation and its use cause it to be liable to severe stretching
and straining, and a rupture of some of its fibers is sometimes the
consequence.

Cause. — This injury may be the result of a violent effort of the
animal in leaping over a high obstacle ; in missing his foothold and
suddenly slipping backward while powerfully grasping the ground
with the feet in striving to start a heavily loaded vehicle; or in mak-
ing a violent effort to prevent a probable fall; or in attempting to
lift the feet from miry ground.

Sy7nptoms. — The accident is immediately followed by disability
which will vary according to the true seat of the injury and the
period of its duration. This rupture will not prevent the horse from
standing perfectly and firmly on his feet when kept at rest, and
while no muscular efforts are required from him there is no appear-
ance of any lesion or unsoundness. An attempt to move him back-
ward, however, will cause him to throw all his weight upon his hind
quarters, and he will refuse to raise his foot from the ground. If
compelled to do so, or required to move forward, the hock being no
longer capable of flexion, the muscle which effects that movement

LACERATED TENDONS. 353

being the injured one, the opposite muscles, the extensors, acting
freely, the entire lower part of the leg, from the hock down, will
be suddenly, with a jerk, extended on the tibia or shank bone, and
simultaneously with this the tendo-Achillis, the cord of the hock, the
tendons of the extensors of the hock will be put in a wrinkled and
relaxed condition. The leg is behind the animal and the toe rests
on the ground. Examination of the fore part of the shank from the
stifle down to the hock may reveal soreness, and possibly some
swelling and heat at the seat of the lesion.

Treatment. — Our experience with injuries of this form satisfies us
that, generally speaking, they are amenable to treatment. Very few
instances have come to our knowledge in which radical recovery has
not been obtained, provided a sufficient time has been allowed for
union to take place. The more flexed the leg can be kept, the quicker
will it heal.

In these cases, as in those already considered of simple laceration of
tendons, the indications resemble those which apply in the treatment
of fractures; as near as coaptation of the lacerated ends is possible,
Avith immobility, being the necessary conditions to secure. The first
is a matter of very difficult accomplishment, by bandaging alone, and
some have recommended instead the application of charges or blisters
in order to compel the animal to keep more quiet.

To secure the necessary immobility the animal should be placed in
slings snugly applied, and kept in a narrow stall. He should also be
tied short, and restrained from any backward movement by ropes or
boards, and he should, moreover, be kept in as quiet a temper as pos-
sible by the exclusion of all causes of irritation or excitement. Weeks
must then elapse, not less, but frequently more than six, often eight,
before he can be considered out of danger and able to return to his
labor, which should for a time be light and easy, and gradually, if
ever, increased to the measure of a thoroughly sound and strong ani-
mal. If he is used too soon the newly formed tissue between the ends
of the muscle will be apt to stretch and leave the flexor muscle too
long and permanently displaced.

SUNDRY ADDITIONAL AFFECTIONS OF THE EXTREMITIES.

Among these there are three which will principally occupy our
attention, and these may be considered as forming a single group. In
some parts of the legs may be found certain peculiar little structures
of a saclike formation, containing an oily substance designed for the
lubrication of the parts upon which they are placed for the purpose
of facilitating the movements of the tendons which pass over them.
These little sacs or muco-synovial capsules are liable under peculiar
conditions of traumatism to become subject to a diseased process,

H. Doc. 795, 59-2 23

354 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

which consists principally in a hypersecretion of their contents and
an increase in dimensions, and they may undergo peculiar patho-
logical changes of such a character as to disable an animal, and in
many instances to cause serious blemishes which can not but depre-
ciate his value. These growths, which are known as hygromata, may
result from external violence, as blows or bruises, and may appear in
the form of small, soft tumors, painless and not inflammatory in
character, but, by a repetition of the cause or renewal of violence,
likely to acquire increased severity. Severe inflammation, with sup-
puration, may follow, which, filling up the cavity, the walls will
become thickened and hard, resulting in the formation of a tumor.

The elbow, the knee, and the hock are the parts of the body where
these lesions are ordinarily found, and on account of their peculiar
shape and the position they occupy they have received the denomina-
tion of " capped^ They will be considered in their peculiar aspect.

CAPPED ELBOW.

Capped elbow, or " shoe boil," is a term applied to an enlargement
often found at the point of the elbow.

Cause. — This lesion is due to injury or pressure of the part
while it is resting on the ground. The horse, unlike the cow, does not
rest directly on the under surface of the sternum, or breastbone, on
account of its sharp, ridgelike formation. He rests more on the side
of the breastbone and chest, and consequently the leg which is flexed
under the body is subject to considerable pressure. If the leg is flexed
under the body so that the hoof or shoe is directly in contact witK the
elbow, which may occur in horses having an extremely long cannon
bone or excessive length in the shoes, the greater part of the weight
of the chest is concentrated at this point and the pressure may cause a
bruise or an inflammation.

Symptoms. — Under these conditions the point of the elbow may
become swollen and tender and exhibit heat and pain. This swelling
may not only cover the point of the elbow, but sometimes reaches the
axilla and assumes such proportions that there is great difficulty in
using the leg, the animal showing signs of lameness even to the extent
of the circumflex step, as in shoulder lameness. This edematous con-
dition, however, does not remain stationary. It may by degrees
subside or perhaps disappear. In the first instance it will become
more distinctly defined, with better marked boundaries, until it is
reduced to a soft, round, fluctuating tumor, with or without heat or
pain. There is then either a bloody or serous tumor or a purulent
collection, and following the puncture of its walls with the knife
there will be an escape of blood, of serum, or of pus, as the case may
be, in variable quantities. In either case, but j)rincipally in that of
the cystic form, the tumor will be found to be subdivided by septa, or
bands running in various directions.

CAPPED ELBOW. 355

Various changes will follow the opening of the tumor and the
escape of its contents. In a majority of cases the process of cica-
trization will take place, and the cavity fill up by granulation, the
discharge, at first abundant, gradually diminishing and the wound
closing, usually without leaving any mark. At times, however, and
especially if the disease has several times repeated its course, there
may remain a pendulous sac, partly obliterated, which a sufiicient
amount of excitement or irritation may soon restore to its previous
dimensions and condition.

In other cases an entirely different j)rocess takes place. The walls
of the cavity, cyst, or abscess become ulcerated and thickened, the
granulations of the sac become fibrous in their structure and fill up
the cavity, and it assumes the character of a hard tumor on the back
of the elbow, sometimes partly and sometimes entirely covered by the
skin. It is fibrous in its nature, painless to the touch, well defined
in its contour, and may vary in size from that of a small apple to
that of a child's head.

This last form of capped elbow is the most serious of any, resisting
all known forms of mild treatment, and removable by the knife only.
The other forms, even that with the inflammatory aspect and its large
edematous swelling which interferes with the work of the animal,
may justify a much milder prognosis, and, aside from their liability
to recur, may be ranked with the comparatively harmless affections.

Treatment. — So long as the danger of recurrence is the principal
bad feature of capped elbow the most important consideration is that
of devising a means for its prevention. To prevent the animal from
lying down is evidently the simplest method of keeping the heels and
the elbow apart; but the impracticability of this prescription is
apparent, since a majority of animals are obliged to lie down when
they sleep, though it is true that a few take their sleep on their feet.
The question of shoeing here enters into the discussion. The shorten-
ing of the inside branch of the shoe, which is the one with which the
pressure is made, may be of advantage, and especially if the truncated
end of the shoe is smooth and filed over to remove all possibility of
pressure and contusion upon the skin. The protection of the skin of
the elbow by interposing soft tissues between that and the shoe, or by
bandaging the heel with bags or covering it with boots, is considered
by many the best of the preventive methods, and the advantage to be
secured by resorting to it can not be overlooked when the number of
horses which develop shoe boil whenever the use of the boot is inter-
mitted is considered. In order to prevent the animal from assuming
the sternal decubitus, many give preference to the plan of fastening
a piece of wood across the stall at some distance from the front wall
or manger. It is a simple expedient, primitive, perhaps, but never-
theless practical and followed by good results.

356 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

The therapeutic treatment is also important. The edematous swell-
ing, when recognized by its external appearance and the existing
inflammation, should be treated without dela3^ Warm fomentations,
repeated several times daily, are then indicated, the degree of warmth
being as high as can be borne comfortably. They are easily applied
and often yield decided relief in a few hours. In some cases, how-
ever, astringents are used in preference, in the form of poultices or
pastes, which are made to cover the entire swelling and allowed to
remain, drying after a short time, it is true, and perhaps falling off,
but easily renewed and reapplied. An excellent astringent for these
cases is a putty made of powdered chalk and vinegar (acetate of
lime), and the whole swelling is then covered with a thick coating of
soft clay made into a mass with water.

These simple remedies are often all that is required. Under their
use the swelling passes off by degrees and after a short interval the
animal is fit for work again; but not uncommonly instead of this a
swelling develops, puffy, not painful, and perhaps giving a sensation
of crepitation when pressure is applied with the finger. It is soft
and evidently contains a liquid, and when freely opened, with a good-
sized incision, discharges a certain amount of blood, partly liquid
and partly coagulated, and perhaps a little hemorrhage will follow.
The cavity should then be well washed out and a plug of oakum
introduced, leaving a small portion protruding through the cut to
prevent it from closing prematurely. It may be taken off the next
day, and a daily cleansing will then be all that is necessary. In
another case the tumor becomes very soft in its whole extent, with
evident fluctuation and a well-defined form. The discharge of the
fluid is then indicated, and a free incision will be followed by the
escape of a quantity of thin, yellowish liquid from a single sac. The
wound should be kept clean and dressed frequently in order to insure
prompt healing. But if the cavity is found to be subdivided in its
interior by numerous bands, and the cyst proves to be multilocular,
the partitions should be torn out with the fingers, and the cavity
then treated in the same manner as the unilocular sac. In still
another case the swelling may be warm and painful with indistinct
fluctuation, or fluctuation only at a certain point. This indicates an
abscess, and necessitates an incision to drain the pus, followed by the
careful cleansing and dressing of the wound.

But cases occur in which all the treatment that has been described
fails to effect a full recovery, and instead a fibrous tumor begins to
develop. A change of treatment is, of course, then in order. The
inflammation being chronic will necessitate stimulating treatment of
the part in order to increase the process of absorption. We must
again draw upon the resources of experience in the form of blisters,
the fomentations, the iodine, and the mercurial ointments as hereto-

CAPPED KNEE. 357

fore mentioned. Good results may always be insured from their
judicious and timely administration. In applying the powerful min-
eral inunctions much patience and wisdom are required. It should be
done by carefully and persevering! y rubbing in small quantities
daily; it should be done softly and gently, not with force of arms,
nor with the expectation of producing an astonishing effect by heavy
dosing and main strength in a few hours; it should be after the
manner of a siege rather than that of a charge. The object is to
induce the drugs to permeate the affected part until the entire mass is
penetrated. Of course cases will be encountered which resist all
forms of medical treatment. The tumor remains as a fixed fact; it
continues to grow ; it is large and pendulous at the elbow ; its weight
is estimated in pounds ; it is not an eyesore merely, but an uncomfort-
able, burdensome mass, excoriating all the surrounding parts and
being itself excoriated in turn; mild treatment has failed and is no
longer to be relied on.

Besort must now be made to surgical methods, and here again we
must choose between the ligature, the cautery, and the knife. Each
has its advocates among practitioners. In a case like the present, one
of the difficulties arises in connection with the application and reten-
tion of bandages and other dressings after the amputation has been
performed. It is a somewhat difficult problem, owing to the con-
formation and proportions of the body of the patient, and involves
the exercise of a considerable amount of practical ingenuity to adjust
and retain the appliances necessary to insure a good final result.

In the long description of the treatment of the varieties of capped
elbow I have thus far omitted any mention of one method which is
practiced and commended by not a few. I refer to the use of setons,
introduced through the tumor. My own experience and the observa-
tion of many failures from this method led me to abandon it.

CAPPED KNEE.

The passage of the tendons of the extensor muscle of the cannon, as
it glides in front of the knee joint, is assisted by one of the little bursas
before mentioned, and when this becomes the seat of a dropsical col-
lection a hygroma is formed and the knee is " capped." Though
somewhat analogous in its history to the capped elbow, there are
points of difference between them. Their development may prove a
source of great annoyance from the fact of the blemish which they
constitute.

Cause. — The capped knee presents itself under various conditions.
It is sometimes the result of a bruise or contusion, often repeated,
inflicted upon himself by a horse addicted to the habit of pawing
while in the stable and striking the front of the stall with his knees.
Another class of patients is formed of those weak-kneod animals
which are subject to falling and bruising the front of the joint against
the ground, the results not being always of the same character.

358 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

Symptoms. — The lesion may be a simple bruise, or it may be a
severe contusion with swelling, edema, heat, and pain. The joint
becomes so stiff and rigid that it interferes with locomotion and yet
under careful simple treatment the trouble may disappear.

Or, again, instead of altogether passing off, the edema may dimin-
ish in extent, becoming more defined in form and remain as a swelling
on the front part of the knee. Resulting from the crushing of small
blood vessels, this is necessarily full of blood. The swelling is some-*
what soft, diffuse, not painful, more or less fluctuating, and after a
few days becomes crepitant under the pressure of the hand.

Instead of being filled with blood the swelling may be full of serum,
as often occurs when violence, though perhaps slight, has been fre-
quently repeated. In that case the swelling is generally well defined,
soft, and painless, with more or less fluctuation, and it may even
become pendulous. In other cases the swelling may be of an acute
inflammatory nature with heat and pain, accompanied by stiffness of
the joint. This leads to the formation of an abscess. Whatever the
nature of these swellings may be, either full of blood, serum, or pus,
some blemish usually remains after treatment.

Prognosis. — Though simple bruises of the knee without extensive
lesions are usually of trifling account, a different prognosis must be
pronounced when the lesion assumes more important dimensions; and
though a capped knee may be comparatively an affair of little impor-
tance we have seen cases where not only extensive blemishes were left
to disfigure the patient, but where the animals had become worthless
in consequence of the extension of the diseased process to the various
elements of structure composing the joint, and giving rise to the most
complicated cases of carpitis.

Treatment. — Usually the first symptom of trouble is the edematous
swelling on the front of the " knee." The prevention of the inflam-
mation and consequently of the abscess, is the prime object in view,
and it may be realized by the use of warm water fomentations or
compresses applied over the swelling, which may be used either in a
simple form or combined with astringents, such as Goulard's extract,
alum, or sulphate of zinc. The application of warm poultices of oil
meal or ground flaxseed, enveloping the whole joint and kept in place
by bandages, is often followed by absorption of the swelling, or, if
the abscess is in process of formation, by the active excretion of pus.
If an abscess forms in spite of these precautions it may be treated
surgically in several ways.

In one it should be done by a careful incision, which will allow the
escape of the blood or the serum, or of the pus which is inclosed in
the sac; in another it may be by means of a seton, in order that the
discharge may be maintained and allowed to escape ; and for another
the more cautious mode may be adopted of emptying the cavity by

CAPPED HOCK. 359

means of punctures with small trocars or aspirators. The danger
attending this last method arises from the possible sloughing of large
portions of the skin, while that attending the first is the hazard of the
possibility of the extension of the inflammation to the capsular liga-
ment of the knee, with the possibility of an open joint in prospect.

As we have remarked, the cavity after being emptied may rapidly
close and leave in a short time but slight traces of its previous exist-
ence. But in many, if not in a majority, of cases there will remain
after the cicatrization is complete a thickening or organized exuda-
tion at one time round and well defined, at another spreading by a
diffused infiltration, to which it will be necessary to give immediate
attention, from the fact of its tendency to form into an organized and
permanent body. To stimulate inflammation in this diseased struc-
ture, blisters are recommended, but chiefly for the purpose of promot-
ing the process of absorption.

If this treatment fails, the use of iodine and mercurial preparations
is recommended.

Plain mercurial or plain iodine ointment, or both in combination as
iodide of mercury, are commonly used, and may either be applied
moderately and by gentle degrees, as we have suggested, or more
freely and vigorously with a view to more immediate effects, which,
however, will also be more superficial. The use of the firing iron
applied deeply with fine points is then to be strongly recommended, to
be followed by blisters and various liniments. This course may gen-
erally be relied on as quite sure to be followed by satisfactory results.

While the treatment is in progress it will, of course, be necessaiy to
secure the animal in such a manner that a recurrence of the injury
will be impossible from similar causes to those which were previously
responsible.

CAPPED HOCK.

A bad habit prevails among some horses of rubbing or striking the
partitions of their stalls with their hocks, with the result of an injury
which shows itself on the upper point of that bone, the summit of the
OS calcis. From its analogy to the condition of capped elbow the
designation of capped hock has been applied to this condition.

SymjJtoms. — A capped hock is therefore but the development of a
bruise at the point of the hock, which if many times repeated may
excite an inflammatory process, with all its usual external symptoms
of swelling, heat, soreness, and the rest of the now familiar phenom-
ena. The swelling is at first diffused, extending more or less on the
exterior part of the hock, and in a few instances running up along
the tendons and muscles of the back of the shank. Soon, however,
unless the irritating causes are continued and repeated, the edema
diminishes, and, becoming more defined in its external outlines, leaves
the hock capped with a hygroma. The hygroma, at the very begin-

360 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

ning of the trouble, contains a bloody serosity which soon becomes
strictly serum, and this, through the influence of an acute inflamma-
tory action, is liable to undergo a change which converts it into the
usual purulent product of suppuration.

The external appearance ought to be sufficient to determine the
diagnosis, but there are a few signs which may contribute toward a
nicer identification of the lesion. The capped hock, whether under
the ajopea ranee of an acute edematous swelling, or as a bloody serous
collection, or as a simple serous cyst, does not give rise to any remark-
able local manifestation other than such as have already passed under
our survey in considering similar cases, nor will it be likely to inter-
fere with the functions which belong to the member in question, unless
it assumes very large dimensions and on each side of the tendons, as
well as on the summit of the bone. But if the inflammation is quite
high, if suj^puration is developing, if there is a true abscess, or — and
this is a common complication — especially when the kicking or rub-
bing of the animal is frequently recurring, then, besides the local
trouble of the cyst or of the abscess, the bones become diseased and
the periosteum inflamed; perhaps the superior ends of the bone
and its fibro-cartilage become affected, and a simple lesion or bruise,
whatever it may have been, becomes complicated with periostitis and
ostitis, and is naturally accompanied with lameness, developed in a
greater or less degree, which in some cases may be permanent and
in others increased by work. But these complications are not common
or frequent.

Treatment. — Capped hocks ar6 in many cases amenable to treat-
ment, and yet they often become the opprobrium of the practitioner
by remaining, as they frequently do, an eyesore on the top of the hock ;
not interfering, it is true, with the work of the horse, but fixing upon
him the stigma of what, in human estimation, is a most unreliable and
objectionable reputation, to wit, that of being an habitual " kicker,"
and, worse than all, one that kicks when he receives his provender.

The maxim that " an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure "
fits the present case very neatly. A horse whose hocks have a some-
what puffy look and whose skin on the front of the hock is loose and
flabby, justly subjects himself to a suspicion of his addictedness to
this bad habit. But he may easily be either convicted or exonerated —
a little watching will soon establish the truth. If, then, the verdict
is one of conviction, precautions should be immediately adopted
against a continuance of the evil. The padding of the sides of the
stall with straw mats or mattresses and covering the posts with similar
material, in such a manner that no hard surface shall be exposed with
which to come in contact, will reduce the evil to its minimum. He
may jar his frame when he kicks, but even then there will be less

CAPPED HOCK. 361

force in the concussion than if it impinged upon the solid plank, and
cuts and abrasions can not be inflicted by a properly made cushion.
Hobbles are also rightly recommended with a view to the required
restraint of motion, so applied as to secure the leg with which the
kicking is performed, or even both hind legs, in such a manner as
shall not interfere with the movements of lying down and rising
again and yet preventing that of kicking backward. Boots similar in
pattern to those Avhich are used for the prevention of shoe boil are
also i^rescribed. These are placed above the hock and retained by
straps tightly fastened. But we apprehend that the difficulty of
retaining them in the proper place without the danger of chafing
from the tightness of the straps might form an objection to their use.
Notwithstanding all precautions, hocks will be capped in the future as
in the past, and the study of their treatment will always be in order.
The mode of dealing with them will, of course, be greatly in-
fluenced by the condition of the parts. When the inflammation is
excessive and the swelling large, hot, and painful to the touch, the
application of warm water will be very beneficial. The leg should be
well fomented several times a day, for from fifteen to twenty minutes
each time, a strong decoction of marsh-mallow leaves being added to
the water, and after each application swathed with flannel bandages
soaked in the same warm mixture. A iew days of this treatment will
usually effect a resolution of the inflammation, if not complete, at
least sufficiently so to disclose the correct outlines of the hygroma and
exhibit its peculiar and specific symptoms. The expediency of its
removal and the method of accomplishing it are then to be considered,
with the question of opening it to give exit to its contents. If the
fluid is of a purulent character the indication is in favor of its imme-
diate discharge — no time should be lost, and it should be by means of
a small opening made with a narrow bistoury. If, however, the fluid
is a serosity, we prefer to remove it by punctures with a very small
trocar. Our reason for special caution in these cases is our fear
of the possibility of the existence of diseased conditions of a severe
character in the pseudo joint. For the same reason we prefer the
treatment of those growths by external applications. In the first
stages of the disease a severe and stiff blister, such as the cantharidate
of collodium, entirely covering the cyst, perhaps not yet completely
formed, when the inflammation has subsided, will be of great benefit
by its stimulating effect, the absorption it may excite, and the pressure
M'hich, when dry, it will maintain upon the tumor. If, however, the
thickening of the growth fails to diminish, it should be treated with
some of the iodine preparations in the form of ointments, pure or in
combination with potassium, mercury, etc., of various strengths and
in various proportions. My opinion of setons is not favorable, but
the actual cautery, by deep and fine firing, in points — needle cauteri-

362 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

zation — I believe to be the best mode of treatment, and especially
when applied early.

A very satisfactory way to treat these cases is to burst the swelling
by pressure from without. A strap or strong linen bandage is placed
about the hock pressing on the bursa while the affected leg is on the
ground, the other hind foot being lifted up. When the bandage is in
place release the leg and the horse will violently flex the bandaged
limb and produce pressure on the bursa with consequent bursting and
discharging of its contents.

Whatever treatment may be adopted for capped hock, patience
must be one of the ingredients. In these parts absorption is slow and
the skin is very thick, and its return to a soft, pliable, natural condi-
tion, if effected at all, will only take place after weeks added to other
weeks of medical treatment and patient waiting.

INTERFERING, AND SPEEDY CUTS,

These designations belong to certain special injuries of the ex-
tremities, produced by similar causes, giving rise to kindred patho-
logical lesions with allied phenomena, requiring about the same
treatment and often followed by the same results, to wit, a blemish
which may not only subject the animal to a suspicion of unsoundness,
but in some special circumstances interfere with his ability to labor.
It is known as " interfering " when the location of the trouble is the
inside of the fetlock of either the fore or hind leg. It is called
" speedy cut " when it occurs on the inside of the fore leg, a little
below the knee, at the point of contact of that joint with the cannon.
It is always the result of a blow, self-inflicted, of varying severity,
and giving rise to various lesions. (See also page 373.)

Syinptoms. — At times the injury is too slight to be seriously
noticed, the hair being scarcely cut and the skin unmarked. At other
times the skin will be cut through, partly or wholly, and it may for
the time cause a sufficient amount of pain to check the motion of the
animal and induce him to suspend his labor through his inability to
use the wounded limb, traveling meanwhile for a short space on three
legs only. Sometimes a single blow will suffice, or again there will be
a repetition of lighter strokes. In the latter case the parts will be-
come much swollen, hot, and so painful to the touch that the motion
of the knee or the fetlock will be sufficiently disturbed to cause lame-
ness of a degree of severity corresponding with that of the lesion.
Following the subsidence of this diffused and edematous swelling is
sometimes the formation of a tumor, either at the knee or the fetlock.
This may be soft at first or become so by degrees, with fluctuation,
its contents being at first extra vasated blood, and later a serosity; or,
if there has been a sufficient degree of inflammation, it may become
suppurative. The result of the fault of interfering may thus be

INTERFERING. 363

exhibited, whether at the knee or at the fetlock, as characterized by-
all the pathological conditions which have appeared as accompani-
ments of capped knee or capped hock. If, in consequence of the force
of the blow or blows, the inflammation has been unusually severe,
a mortification of the skin may become one of the consequences, a
slough taking place, succeeded by a cutaneous ulcer on the inside of
the fetlock or where the greater number of the original wounds are
inflicted. If the interfering has been often repeated it may be fol-
lowed by another condition, which has been considered in our remarks
upon other affections. It is a plastic exudation or thickening of the
parts, which are commonly said to have become " callous," and the
effect of it is to destroy the regularity of the outlines of the joint to an
extent which constitutes a serious blemish, which will be permanent,
and according to the degree of the aberration from the natural and
symmetrical lines will inevitably depreciate the commercial value of
the animal.

An animal in interfering may thus exhibit a range of symptoms
which, from the simplest form of a mere " touching," may succes-
sively assume the serious characters of an ugly cicatrix, a hard,
plastic swelling, or perhaps, as witnessed at the knee, of periostitis
with its sequelae.

If a single and constantly recurring cause — a blow — be the starting
I^oint in interfering, we may now consider the subject of the predispo-
sition which brings such serious results upon the suffering animal,
and the conditions which lead to and accompany it. These are
numerous, but the first in frequency and importance is peculiarity of
conformation in the animals addicted to it. The first class will include
horses whose chests are narrow and whose legs do not stand straight
and upright, but are crooked and pigeon-toed in and out. The second
class includas those whose legs are weak, either from youth or hard
labor, or from severe attacks of sickness. Another class is made up
of those having abnormally developed feet, or which have been badly
shod with unnecessarily wide or heavy shoes. Another class consists
of those that are affected with swollen fetlocks or chronic edematous
swelling of the leg. Another is formed of animals with a peculiar
action, as those whose knee action is very high, and it is these that
furnish most of the cases of speedy cut.

Prognosis. — The prognosis of interfering is never a very serious
one. However \T.olent the blow may be it is rarely that subsequent
complications of a troublesome nature occur. The principal evil
attending it is a liability to be followed by a thickened or callous
deposit which is not only an eyesore and a blemish, but constitutes a
new and increased predisjiosition. The remark that " an animal
which has interfered once is always liable to interfere," is often con-
firmed and sanctioned bv a recurrence of the trouble.

364 DISEASES OP THE HOESE.

Treatment. — Another point in which there is a resemblance between
this lesion and others which we have considered is in its responsive-
ness to the same treatment with them. Indeed, the prescription of
warm fomentations, soothing applications, and astringent and resolv-
ent mixtures, in a majority of cases, is the first that occurs all through
the list. If the swelling assumes the character of a serous collection,
pressure, cold water, and bandages will contribute to its removal. If
suppuration seems to be established, and the swelling assumes the
character of a developing abscess, the hot poultices of flaxseed or of
boiled vegetables and the embrocations of sedative ointments, those
of basilicon, or vaseline, impregnated with preparations of opium or
belladonna— all these recommend themselves by their general adapta-
tion and the beneficial results which have followed their administra-
tion, not less in one case than in another. "^^Tien an abscess has
formed and is fluctuating, it should be carefully but fully opened to
evacuate the pus. If it is a serous cyst, some care is necessary in
emptying it, and the possibility of the extension of the inflammation
to the joint must be taken into consideration. A\Tien the cavities
have been emptied and have closed by filling up with granulations,
or if, not being opened, the contents have been reabsorbed, and there
remains in either case a plastic exudation and a tendency to the cal-
lous organization that may yet exist, blisters under their various
forms, including those of cantharides, of mercury, and of iodine, are
then indicated, principally in the early stages, as it is then that their
effects will prove most satisfactory. The use of the actual cautery,
with fine points, penetrating deeply throughout the enlargement, has
in our hands, when employed in the very early stages of its forma-
tion, nearly always brought on a radical recovery with complete
absorption of the thickening.

STRINGHALT.

This is an involuntary movement of one or both hind legs, in which
the foot is suddenly and spasmodically lifted from the gi'ound much
higher than it is normally carried, with excessive flexion of one bone
upon the other. This peculiarity is usually prominent, although it
may disappear with work, only to reappear after a short rest. Some-
times it is most apparent at a trot, sometimes at a walk, and other
times only when turned around ; or it may not be affected by the gait
of the horse. It does not seem to be influenced by the horse's age,
young and old being alike affected. Its first manifestations are some-
times very slight. It has been noticed as occurring in an animal when
backing out of his stable and ceasing immediately after. In some
animals it is best seen when the animal is turning around on the
affected leg, and it is not noticed when he moves straight forward.
That this peculiar action interferes with facility of locomotion and

THEOMBOSIS. 365

detracts from a horse's claim to soundness can not for a moment be
denied.

Cause. — Veterinarians and pathologists are yet in doubt in respect
to the cause of this affection, as well as to its essential nature.
Whether it results from disease of the hock, of an ulcerative charac-
ter; whether it springs from a malformation; whether it is a short-
ening of the ligaments, a chronic inflammation of the sciatic nerve, or
a disease of the spinal cord ; whether it is purely a muscular or purely
a nervous lesion, or a compound of both — it still continues, if an
etiologist is bound to possess universal knowledge within the scope of
his special studies, to be his opprobrium and his puzzle.

Treatment. — A^Hien there is a known or suspected cause the treat-
ment should be directed toward this factor. If due to local inflamma-
tion of the hock or foot, only this local lesion should be treated. If
it remains after the local lesion has healed, or if we have no assignable
cause, the best results have followed the sectioning of the lateral
extensor of the foot. A competent veterinarian alone should under-
take this operation.

THROMBOSIS.

There are certain forms of lameness which are very peculiar in their
manifestation, and which to the nonprofessional mind must appear to
belong to the domain of mystery or theory instead of occupying a
well-established position among the subjects of equine pathology.
Yet they are no less susceptible of actual demonstration and of pos-
itive comprehension than many facts which, plain and familiar to the
general understanding now, were once ranked among things occult
and unsearchable. A thrombus, considered as a cause of lameness,
may find a place among these understood mysteries.

Cause. — Under certain peculiar conditions of inflammation of the
blood vessels, and also in aneurisms, clots of blood are sometimes
formed in the arteries and find their way in the general circulation.
At first, while very small, or sufficiently so to pass from one vessel to
another, they move from a small vessel to a larger, and from that to
one still larger, constantly increasing in size until at some given point,
from their inability to enter smaller vessels, their movement is
finally arrested. The artery is thus effectually dammed, and the clot
in a short time cuts off completely the supply of blood from the parts
beyond. This is thrombosis, and it often gives rise to sudden and
excessive lameness of a very painful character.

Symptoms. — Thrombi may form in any of the arteries of the body,
and doubtless have been the cause of many cases of lameness which
could never be accounted for. If they exist in small arteries their
diagnosis will probably fail to be made out with certainty, but Avhen
situated in the larger trunks a strong suspicion of their presence may
be excited. In some cases they may even be recognized with posi-

366 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

tive accuracy, as when the vessels which supply the posterior extremi-
ties are affected by the blocking up of the posterior aorta or its
ramifications.

The existence of thrombosis of the arteries of the hind leg may
always be suspected when the following history is known: The gen-
eral health of the animal is good, but symptoms of lameness in one of
the legs have been developed, becoming more marked as he is worked,
and especially when driven at a fast gait. But the disturbance is not
permanent, and the lameness disappears almost immediately upon his
being permitted to rest. There is an increase of the difficulty, how-
ever, and, though he may walk normally, he will, when made to trot,
very soon begin to slacken his pace and to show signs of the trouble,
and if urged to increase his speed will become lamer and lamer; an
abundant perspiration will break out; he will refuse to go, and if
forced he shows weakness behind, seems ready to fall, and perhaps
does fall. While on his feet the leg is kept in constant motion, up
and down, and is kept from the ground as if the contact was too pain-
ful to bear. If undisturbed this series of symptoms will gradually
subside, sometimes very soon, and occasionally after a few hours he
will return to an apparently perfect condition. A return to labor
will lead to a renewal of the same incidents.

A history like this suggests a strong suspicion of a thrombus in an
artery of the hind leg, and this suspicion will be confirmed by the
external symptoms exhibited by the animal. The total absence of
any other disease which might account for the lameness, and a mani-
fest diminution of heat over a part or the whole of the extremity,
when compared with the opposite side or with any other portion of
the body; a sensation of cold attendant on the pain, but gradually
subsiding as the pain subsides, and the circulation, quickened by the
rest, has been reestablished throughout the extremity; all these are
confirmatory circumstances. Still, it is thus far only a suspicion, and
absolute certainty is yet wanting. To establish the truth of the case
the rectal exploration must be resorted to. The hands then, well pre-
pared and carefully introduced into the rectum, must explore for the
truth, first feeling for the large blood vessels which, divided at the
aorta, separate to supply the right and left legs. These must be com-
pared in respect to the pulsation and other particulars. The artery
which is healthy will, of course, exhibit all the proper conditions of
that state. On the other hand, if the vessel appears to the feel hard,
more or less cordy, and pulseless, or giving a sensation of fluttering,
as of a small volume of blood with a trickling motion passing through
a confined space, the difference between the sides will make the case
plain. The first will be the full flow of the circulation through an
unobstructed channel, the other a forced passage of the fluid between
the thrombus and the coats of the artery. In such a case the prog-

SPRAINS OF THE LOINS. 367

nosis is necessarily a grave one and the disease is more liable to grow
worse than better.

Treatment. — No form of treatment can be advised ; and the suffer-
ing of a helpless and useless animal can only be terminated by that
which ends all.

Cases occur, however, where this condition of the blood vessels
exists in a much less degree, and the diseased condition is not suf-
ficiently pronounced for final condemnation. There may even be
a possibility of the absorption of the clot, or that an increase of the
collateral circulation may be sufficient to supply the parts with blood.
In such cases spontaneous recovery may follow moderate exercise
in the pasture, field, or stable, or continuous light work may be
given, but too much hope should not be placed in such treatment.

SPRAINS OF THE LOINS.

This is an affection which suggests to the mind the idea of mus-
cular injury, and is difficult to distinguish from many similar cases.
If the animal shrinks from the slightest pressure or pinching of the
spine in the region of the loins, he is by many pronounced to be
" lame in the loins," or " sprained in the loins," or " weak in the
kidneys." This is a grave error, as in fact this simple and gentle
yielding to such a pressure is not a pathological sign, but is normal
and significant of health. Yet there are several conditions to which
the definition of " sprains of the loins " may apply which are not
strictly normal.

Cause. — The muscles of the back and those of the loins proper, as
the psoas, may have been injured, or again there may be trouble of a
rheumatic nature, perhaps suggestive of lumbago. Diseases of the
bones of the vertebral column, or even those of the organs of circula-
tion, may give rise to an exhibition of similar symptoms.

Symptoms. — The symptoms are characteristic of a loss of rigidity
or firmness of the vertebral column, both when the animal is at rest
and in action. In the former condition, or when at rest, there is an
arched condition of the back and a constrained posture in standing,
with the hind legs separated. In the latter there is a lateral, balan-
cing movement at the loins, principally noticeable while the animal is
in the act of trotting — a peculiar motion, sometimes referred to as a
" crick in the back," or what the French call a tour de hateaii. If,
while in action, the animal is suddenly made to halt, the act is accom-
panied with much pain, the back suddenly arching or bending later-
ally, and perhaps the hind legs thrown under the body, as if unable
to perform their functions in stopping, and sometimes it is only
accomplished at the cost of a sudden and severe fall. This manifes-
tation is also exhibited when the animal is called upon to back, when
a repetition of the same symptoms will also occur.

368 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

If a slight pressure on the back or the loins is followed by a mod-
erate yielding of the animal, it is, as before remarked, a good sign
of health. With a sprain of the loins pressure of any kind is painful,
and will cause the animal to bend or to crouch under it more or less,
according to the weight of the pressure. Heavy loads, and even
heavy harnessing, will develop this tenderness. In lying down he
seems to suffer much discomfort, and often accompanies the act with
groaning, and when compelled to rise does so only with great diffi-
culty and seldom succeeds without repeated efforts.

Sprains of muscles proper, when recent, will always be accom-
panied by this series of symptoms, and the fact of their exhibition,
with an excessive sensibility of the parts, and possibly with a degree
of swelling, will always justify a diagnosis of acute muscular lesion;
and especially so if accompanied by a history of violent efforts,
powerful muscular strains, falls, heavy loading, etc., connected with
the case. But if the symptoms have been of slow development and
gradual increase, it becomes a more difficult task to determine whether
the diagnosis points to 2:)athological changes in the structure of the
muscles or of the bones, the nervous centers, or the blood vessels of
the region. And yet it is important to decide as to which particular
structure is affected in reference to the question of prognosis, since
the degree of the gravity of the lesion will depend largely upon
whether the disabled condition of the animal is due to an acute or a
chronic disease.

Treatment. — The prescription which will necessarily first of all
suggest itself for sprains of the loins is rest. An animal so affected
should be immediately placed in slings and none of his efforts to
release himself should be allowed to succeed. Hot compresses, cold
water douches, sweating applications, stimulating frictions, strength-
ening charges, blistering ointments of cantharides and the actual cau-
tery, all have their advocates; but in no case can the immobility
obtained by the slings be dispensed with. In many cases electricity
has also yielded good results, where the weakness of the hind quarters
was caused by disease of the nervous centers.

DISEASES OF THE FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT.

By A. A. HoLCOMBE, D. V. S.,
Inspector, Bureau of Animal Industry.

[Revised in 1903 by the author.]
ANATOMICAL REVIEW OF THE FOOT.

In a description of the foot of the horse it is customary to inchide
only the hoof and its contents, yet, from a zoological standpoint, the
foot includes all the leg from the knee and the hock down.

The foot of the horse is undoubtedly the most important part of
the animal, in so far as veterinary surgery is concerned, for the reason
that this member is subject to so many injuries and diseases, which,
in part or in whole, render the patient unfit for the labor demanded
of him. The old aphorism, " no foot no horse," is as true to-day as
when first expressed ; in fact, domestication, coupled with the multi-
plied uses to which the animal is put, and the constant reproduction
of hereditarj^ defects and tendencies, have largely transformed the
ancient " companion of the wind " into a very common piece of
machinery which is often out of repair, and, at best, is but short-
lived in its usefulness.

Since the value of the horse depends largely, or even entirely, upon
his ability to labor, it is essential that his organs of locomotion should
be kept sound ; and to accomplish this end it is necessary not only to
know how to cure all diseases to which these organs are liable, but,
better still, how to prevent them.

An important prerequisite to the detection and cure of disease is a
knowledge of the construction and function of the parts which may
be involved in the diseased process ; hence, first of all, the anatomical
structures must be understood. (See also page 565.)

The hones of the fetlock and foot constitute the skeleton on which
the other structures are built, and comprise the lower end of the can-
non bone (the metacarpus in the fore leg, the metatarsus in the hind
leg) , the two sesamoids, the large pastern or suffraginis, the small pas-
tern or coronet, the small sesamoid or navicular bone, and the cofiin
bone or os pedis. (Plate XXXIV, fig. 3.)

The cannon hone extends from the knee or hock to the fetlock, is
cylindrical in shape, and stands nearly or quite jDerpendicular.

The sesamoids occur in pairs, are small, shaped like a three- faced
pyramid, and are set behind the fetlock joint, at the upper end of the
suffraginis, with the base of the pyramid down.

H. Doc. 795, 59-2 24 369

370 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

The suffraginis is a very compact bone, set in an oblique direction
downward and forward, and extends from the cannon bone to the
coronet.

The coronet is a short, cube-shaped bone, set between the suffraginis
and cofRnbone, in the same oblique direction.

The navicular hone is short, flattened above and below, and is
attached to the coffin bone behind.

The coifin hone forms the end of the foot and is shaped like the
horny box in which it is inclosed.

All of these bones are covered on the surfaces which go to make up
the joints with a cartilage of incrustation, while the portions between
are covered with a fibrous membrane called the periosteum.

The joints of the legs are of especial importance, since any inter-
ference with their function very largely impairs the value of the
animal for most purposes. As the joints of the foot and ankle are at
the point of greatest concussion they are the ones most subject to
injury and disease.

There are three of these joints — the fetlock, pastern, and coffin.
They are made by the union of two or more bones, held together by
ligaments of fibrous tissue, and are lubricated by a thick, viscid fluid,
called synovia, which is secreted by a special membrane inclosing the
joints.

The fetloch joint is made by the union of the lower end of the can-
non and the upper end of the large pastern bones, supplemented by
the two sesamoids, so placed behind the upper end of the pastern that
the joint is capable of a very extensive motion. These bones are held
together by ligaments, only one of which — the suspensory — demands
special mention.

The suspensory ligament of the fetlock starts from the knee, ex-
tends down behind the cannon, lying behind the two splint bones,
until near the fetlock, where it divides and sends a branch on either
side of the joint, downward and forward, to become attached on the
sides of the extensor tendon at the lower end of the pastern bone. As
it crosses the sesamoids, on the posterior borders of the fetlock, it
throws out fibers which hold it fast to these bones. (Plate XXXIV,
fig. 2.)

The pastern joint is made by the union of the two pastern bones.

The coffin joint is made by the union of the small pastern, coffin,
and small sesamoid, or navicular bones, the latter being set behind
and beneath the joint surface of the coffin bone in such a way as to
receive largely the weight of the small pastern.

Three tendons serve to move the bones of the foot one on another.
Two of these flex, or bend, the joints, while the other extends, or
straightens, the column of bones. (Plate XXX, fig. 5.)

The flexor pedis perforans^ or deep flexor of the foot, passes down

ANATOMY OF THE FOOT. 371

behind the cannon bone, lying against the suspensory ligament in
front, crosses the fetlock joint in the groove made by the union of
the two sesamoids, and is attached to the bottom of the coffin bone,
after covering the navicular, by a wide expansion of its fibers. It is
the function of this tendon to flex the coffin bone and, with it, the
liorny box.

The flexor pedis perforatus^ or superficial flexor of the foot, follows
the course of the preceding tendon and is attached to the middle of
the ankle. The function of this tendon is to flex the foot at the
fetlock.

The extensor pedis nms down in front of the leg, is attached on
the most prominent point of the coffin bone, and has for function the
straightening of the bones of the ankle and foot.

The bones, ligaments, and tendons are covered by a loose connect-
ive tissue, which gives a symmetry to the parts by filling up and
rounding off, and all are protected by the skin and hoof.

The shin of the fetlock and ankle is generally characterized by its
thickness and the length of its hairs, especially around the hind parts
of the fetlock joint in certain breeds of horses. The most importatit
part of this envelope is that known as the coronary band.

The coronary hand is that portion of the skin which secretes the
horn of which the wall of the hoof is made. This horn much resem-
bles the nail which grows on the fingers and toes of man. It is com-
posed of cylindrical tubes, which are held together by a tenacious
opaque matter. The horn extends from the coronary band to the
lower border of the hoof. (Plate XXIX, fig. 1.)

The hoof is a box of horn, consisting of a wall, sole, and frog, and
contains, besides the coffin, navicular, and part of the small pastern
bones, the sensitive laminae, plantar cushion, and the lateral cartilages.
(Plate XXX, fig. 4.)

The sole of the foot incloses the box on the ground surface, is shaped
like the circumference of the foot, except that a V-shaped opening is
left behind for the reception of the frog, and is concave on the lower
surface. The sole is produced by the velvety tissue, a thin membrane
covering the plantar cushion and other soft tissues beneath the coffin-
bone. The horn of the sole differs from the horn of the wall in that
its tubes are not straight and from the fact that it scales off in pieces;
over the whole surface.

The frog is a triangular-shaped body, divided into two equal parts
by a deep fissure, extending from its apex in front to the base. It
fills the triangular space in the sole, to which it is intimately attached
by its borders. The horn of the frog is produced in the same manner
as the sole ; but it differs from both the wall and sole in that the horn
is soft, moist, and elastic to a remarkable degree. It is the function
of the frog to destroy shock and to prevent slipping.

372 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

The sensitive lamince are thin plates of soft tissue, covering the
entire anterior surface of the coffin bone. They are present in great
numbers, and by fitting into corresponding grooves on the inner sur-
face of the horn of the wall the union of the soft and horny tissues is
made complete. (Plate XXIX, fig, 1.)

The plantar cushion is a thick pad of fibrous tissue placed behind
and under the navicular and coffin bones, and resting on the sole and
frog, for the purpose of receiving the downward pressure of the
column of bones and to destroy shock. (Plate XXIX, fig. 4.)

The lateral cartilages are attached, one on either side, to the wings
of the coffin bone by their inferior borders. They are thin plates of
fibro-cartilage, and their function is to assist the frog and adjacent
structures to regain their proper position after having been displaced
by the weight of the body while the foot rested on the ground. (Plate
XXIX, fig. 2.)

FAULTS or CONFORMATION.

A large j^ercentage of horses have feet which are not perfect in
conformation, and as a consequence of these imperfections they are
especially predisposed to certain injuries and diseases.

Flatfoot is that condition in which the sole has little or no con-
vexity. It is a peculiarity common to some breeds, especially heavy,
lymphatic animals raised on low, marshy soils. It is confined to the
fore feet, Avhich are generally broad, low heeled, and with a wall less
upright than is seen in the perfect foot.

In flatfoot there can be little or no elasticity in the sole, for the
reason that it has no arch, and the weight of the animal is received
on the entire plantar surface, as it rests upon the ground instead of on
the wall. For these reasons such feet are particularly liable to bruises
of the sole, corns, pumiced sole, and excessive suppuration when the
process is once established. Horses with flatfoot should be shod with
a shoe having a wide web, pressing on the wall only, while the heels
and frog are never to be pared. Flatfoot generally has weak walls,
and, as a consequence, the nails of the shoe are readily loosened and
the shoe cast.

Cluhfoot is a term applied to such feet as have the wall set nearly
perpendicular. \Vhen this condition is present the heels are high,
the fetlock joint is thrown forward, or knuckles, and the weight of
the animal is received on the toes. Many mules are clubfooted,
especially behind, where it seems to cause little or no inconvenience.
Clubfoot may be cured by cutting the tendons in severe cases; but, as
a rule, special shoeing is the only measure of relief that can be
adopted. The toe should not be pared, but the heels are to be lowered
as much as possible, and a shoe put on with a long projecting toe
l^iece, slightly turned up, Avhile the heels of the shoe are to be made
thin.

c C

i >^

% ^

I c

1 <i

Crurkict wa/ls

O'lr e/fecl of fliuuter CracJ;

iXViWVVY.W-VYKJ^CV. AND RKMEDIKS.

1 2 and ?>. Sound foot oftwoyeo'^ oUL

IM.ATI-: WXTI

Sound hilt flat foot

Badly cofUrarfed foot.

SOUND AND CONTRACTED FEKT.

INTEKFERING. 373

Groohedfoot is that condition in which one side of the wall is higher
than the other. If the inside wall is the higher, the ankle is thrown
outward, so that the fetlock joints are abnormally wide apart and the
toes close together. Animals with this deformity are " pigeon-toed,"
and are prone to interfere, the inside toe striking the opposite fetlock.
If but one foot is affected, the liability to interfere is still greater, for
the reason that the fetlock of the perfect leg is more near the center
plane.

When the outside heel is the higher the ankle is thrown in and the
toe turns out. Horses with such feet interfere with the heel. If but
one foot is so affected, the liability to interfere is less than where both
feet are affected, for the reason that the ankle of the perfect leg is
not so near to the center plane. Such animals are especially liable to
stumbling and to lameness from injury to the ligaments of the fetlock
joints. The deformity is to be overcome by such shoeing as will
equalize the disparity in length of walls, and by proper boots to
protect the fetlocks from interfering.

INTERFERING.

An animal is said to interfere when one foot strikes the opposite
leg, as it passes by, during locomotion. The inner surface of the
fetlock joint is the part most subject to this injury, although, under
certain conditions, it may happen to any part of the ankle. It is
seen more often in the hind than in the fore legs. Interfering causes
a bruise of the skin and deeper tissues, generally accompanied by an
abrasion of the surface. It may cause lameness, dangerous tripping,
and thickening of the injured parts. (See also page 362.)

Causes. — Faulty conformation is the most prolific cause of inter-
fering. When the bones of the leg are so united that the toe of the
foot turns in (pigeon-toed), or when the fetlock joints are close
together and the toe turns out, when the leg is so deformed that the
whole foot and ankle turn either in or out, interfering is almost sure
to follow. It may happen, also, when the feet grow too long, from
defective shoeing, rough or slijppery roads, from the exhaustion of
labor or sickness, swelling of the leg, high knee action, fast work,
and because the chest or hips are too narrow.

Symptoms. — Generally, the evidences of interfering are easily
detected, for the parts are tender, swollen, and the skin broken. But
very often, especially in trotters, the flat surface of the hoof strikes
the fetlock without evident injurj^, and attention is directed to these
parts only by the occasional tripping and unsteady gait. In such
cases proof of the cause may be had by walking and trotting the
animal, after first painting the inside toe and quarter of the suspected
foot with a thin coating of chalk, charcoal, mud, or paint.

374 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

Treatment. — When the trouble is due to deformity or faulty con-
formation, it may not be possible to overcome the defect.

In such cases, and as well in those due to exhaustion or fatigue, the
fetlock, or ankle, boot must be used. In many instances interfering
may be prevented by proper shoeing. The outside heel and quarter
of the foot on the injured leg should be lowered sufficiently to change
the relative position of the fetlock joint, by bringing it farther away
from the center plane of the body, thereby permitting the other foot
to pass by without striking.

A very slight change is often sufficient to effect this result. At
the same time the offending foot should be so shod that the shoe may
set well under the hoof at the point responsible for the injury. The
shoe should be reset every three or four weeks.

When the cause has been removed, cold-water bandages to the
injured parts will soon remove the soreness and swelling, especially
in recent cases. If, however, the fetlock has become calloused from
long-continued bruising, a Spanish-fly blister over the parts, repeated
in two or three weeks if necessary, will aid in reducing the leg to its
natural condition.

KNUCKLING, OR COCKED ANKLES.

Knuckling is a partial dislocation of the fetlock joint, in which the
relative position of the pastern bone to the cannon and coronet bones
is changed, the pastern becoming more nearl}'- perpendicular, with
the lower end of the cannon bone resting behind the center line of the
suffraginis, while the lower end of this bone rests behind the center
line of the coronet. Wliile knuckling is not always an unsoundness, it
nevertheless predisposes to stumbling and to fracture of the pastern.

Causes. — Young foals are quite subject to this condition, but in the
great majority of cases it is only temporary. It is largely due to
the fact that, before birth, the legs were flexed ; and time is required,
after birth, for the ligaments, tendons, and muscles to adapt them-
selves to the function of sustaining the weight of the body.

Horses with erect pasterns are very prone to knuckle as they grow
old, especially in the hind legs. All kinds of heavy work, particu-
larly in hilly districts, and fast work on hard race tracks or roads are
exciting causes of knuckling. It is also commonly seen as an accom-
paniment to that faulty conformation called clubfoot, in which the
toe of the wall is perpendicular and short, and the heels high — a
condition most often seen in the mule, especially in the hind feet.

Lastly, knuckling is produced by disease of the suspensory liga-
ment or of the flexor tendons, whereby they are shortened, and by
disease of the fetlock joints. (See page 347.)

Treatment. — In young foals no treatment is necessary, unless there
is some deformity present, since the legs straighten up without inter-
ference in the course of a few weeks. When knuckling has com-

WINDGALL. 375

menced, the indications are to relieve the tendons and ligaments by
proper shoeing. The foot is to be prepared for the shoe by shorten-
ing the toe as much as possible, leaving the heels high ; or if the foot
is prepared in the usual way the shoe should be thin in front, with
thick heels or high calks. For the hind feet a long-heeled shoe with
calks seems to do best. Of course, when possible, the causes of knuck-
ling are to be removed; but since this can not always be done, the
time may come when the patient can no longer perform any service,
particularly in those cases where both fore legs are affected, and it
becomes necessary either to destroy the animal or secure relief by
surgical interference. In such cases the tendons between the fetlock
and knee may be divided for the purpose of securing temporary relief.
Firing and blistering the parts responsible for the Imuckling may, in
some instances, effect a cure; but a consideration of these measures
properly belongs to the treatment of the diseases in which knuckling
simply appears as a sequel.

WINDGALL.

Joints and tendons are furnished with sacs containing a lubricating
fluid called synovia. When these sacs are overdistended by reason
of an excessive secretion of synovia, they are called windgalls. They
form a soft, puffy tumor about the size of a hickory nut, and are
most often found in the fore leg, at the upper part of the fetlock joint,
between the tendon and the shin bone. When they develop in the
hind leg it is not unusual to see them reach the size of a walnut.
Occasionally they appear in front of the fetlock on the border of the
tendon. The majority of horses are not subject to them after colt-
hood has passed. (See also page 330.)

Causes. — AVindgalls are often seen in young, overgrown horses,
where the body seems to have outgrown the ability of the joints to
sustain the weight. In cart and other horses used to hard work, in
trotters with excessive knee action, in hurdle racers and hunters, and
in most cow ponies there is a predisposition to windgalls. Street-car
horses and others used to start heavy loads on slippery streets are the
ones most apt to develop windgalls in the hind legs.

SyTnptoms. — The tumor is more or less firm and tense when the foot
is on the ground, but is soft and compressible when the foot is off the
ground. In old horses windgalls generally develop slowly and cause
no inconvenience. If they are caused by excessive tension of the joint
the tumor develops rapidly, is tense, hot, and painful, and the animal
is exceedingly lame. The patient stands with the joint flexed, and
walks with short steps, the toe only being j)laced on the ground.
"When the tumor is large and situated upon the inside of the leg it
may be injured by interfering, causing stumbling and inflammation
of the sac. Rest generally causes the tumor to diminish in size, only
to fill up again after renewed labor. In old cases the tumors are

376 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

hardened, and may become converted into bone by a deposit of the
lime salts.

Treatment. — The Jarge, puffy joints of suckling colts, as a rule,
require no treatment, for as the animal grows older the parts clean
up and after a time the swelling entirely disappears.

When the trouble is due to an injury, entire rest is to be secured
by the use of slings and a high-heeled shoe. Cold-water douches
should be used once or twice a day, followed by cold-water bandages,
until the fever has subsided and the soreness is largely removed,
when a blister is to be applied.

In old windgalls, which cause more or less stiffness, some relief
may be had by the use of cold compress bandages, elastic boots, or the
red iodide of mercury blisters. Opening the sacs, as recommended
by some authors, is of doubtful utility, and should be adopted only
by the surgeon capable of treating the wound he has made. Enforced
rest until complete recover}^ is effected should always be insisted upon,
since a too early return to work is sure to be followed by relapse.

SPRAIN OF THE FETLOCK.

Sprain of the fetlock joint is most common in the fore legs, and, as
a rule, affects but one at a time. Horses doing fast work, as trotters,
runners, steeplechasers, hunters, cow ponies, and those that inter-
fere, are particularly liable to this injury.

Causes, — Horses knuckling at the fetlock, and all those with dis-
eases which impair the powersof locomotion, such as navicular disease,
contracted heels, sidebones, chronic laminitis, etc., are predisposed to
sprains of the fetlock. It generally happens from a misstep, stum-
bling, or slipping, which results in the joint being extended or flexed
to excess. The same result may happen where the foot is caught in a
rut, hole in a bridge, or in a car track, and the animal falls or strug-
gles violently. Direct blows and punctured wounds may also set up
inflammation of the joint.

Symptoms. — The symptoms of sprain of the fetlock vary with the
severity of the injury. If slight, there may be no lameness, but simply
a little &x)reness, especially when the foot strikes on uneven ground
and the joint is twisted a little. In cases more severe the joint swells,
is hot and puffy, and the lameness may be so intense as to compel the
animal to hobble on three legs. Wliile at rest the leg is flexed at the
joint affected, and the toe rests on the ground.

Treatinent. — If the injury is slight, cold-water bandages and a few
days' rest are sufficient to effect recovery. "V\niere there is an intense
lameness, swelling, etc., the leg should be placed under a constant
stream of cold water, as described in the treatment for quittor.
Wlien the inflammation has subsided, a blister to the joint should be
applied.

EUPTUKE OP SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT. 377

In some cases, especially in old horses long accustomed to fast
work, the ligaments of the joints are ruptured, in whole or in part,
and the lameness may last a long time. In these cases the joint
should be kept completely at rest ; and this condition is best secured
by the application of the plaster of Paris bandages, as in cases of
fracture. As a rule, patients take kindly to this bandage, and may
be given the freedom of a roomy box or yard while wearing it. If
they are disposed to tear it off, or if sufficient rest can not otherwise be
secured, the patient must be kept in slings.

In the majority of instances the plaster bandage should remain on
from two to four weeks. If the lameness returns when the bandage
is removed, a new one should be put on. The swelling, which always
remains after the other evidences of the disease have disappeared,
may be largely dissipated and the joint strengthened by the use of the
firing iron and blisters.

A joint once injured by a severe sprain never entirely regains its
original strength, and is ever after particularly liable to a repetition
of the injury,

RUPTURE OF THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT.

Sprain with or without ru]Dture of the suspensory ligament may
happen in either the fore or hind legs, and is occasionally seen in
horses of all classes and at all ages. Old animals, however, and espe-
cially hunters, runners, and trotters, are the most subject to this
injury, and with these classes the seat of the trouble is nearly always
in one or both the fore legs. Horses used for heavy draft are more
liable to have the ligament of the hind legs affected.

When the strain upon the suspensory ligament becomes too great,
one or both of the branches may be torn from the sesamoid bones, one
or both of the branches may be torn completely across, or the liga-
ment may rupture above the point of division.

Symptoms. — The most common injury to the suspensory ligament
is sprain of the internal branch in one of the fore legs. The trouble
is proclaimed by lameness, heat, swelling, and tenderness of the
affected branch, beginning just above the sesamoid bone and extend-
ing obliquely downward and forward to the front of the ankle. If
the whole ligament is involved, the swelling comes on gradually, and
is found above the fetlock and in front of the flexor tendons. The
patient stands or walks upon the toe as much as possible, keeping the
fetlock joint flexed so as to relieve the ligament of tension.

When both branches are torn from their attachments to the sesa-
moids, or both are torn across, the lameness comes on suddenly and
is most intense; the fetlock descends, the toe turns up, and, as the
animal attempts to walk, the leg has the appearance of being broken
off at the fetlock. These symptoms, followed by heat, pain, and

378 ' DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

swelling of the parts at the point of injury, will enable anyone to
make a diagnosis.

Treatment. — Sprain of the suspensory ligament, no matter how
mild it may be, should always be treated by enforced rest of at least a
month, and the application of cold douches and cold-water bandages,
firmly applied until the fever has subsided, when a cantharides blister
should be put on and repeated in two or three weeks if necessary.
When rupture has taken place, the patient should be put in slings, and
a constant stream of cold water allowed to trickle over the seat of
injury until the fever is reduced. In the course of a week or ten
days a plaster of Paris splint, such as is used in fractures, is to be
applied and left on for a month or six weeks. When this is taken off,
blisters may be used to remove the remaining soreness ; but it is use-
less to expect a removal of all the thickening; for, in the process of
repair, new tissue has been formed which will always remain.

In old cases of sprain the firing iron may often be used with good
results. As a rule, severe injuries to the suspensory ligament inca-
pacitate the subject for anything but slow, light work.

OVERREACH.

An overreach is where the shoe of the hind foot strikes and injures
the heel or quarter of the fore foot. It rarely happens except when
the animal is going fast, hence is most common in trotting and run-
ning horses. In trotters the accident generally happens when the
animal breaks from a trot to a run. The outside heels and quarters
are most liable to the injury.

Symptoms. — The coronet at the heel or quarter is bruised or cut,
the injury in some instances involving the horn as well. Wliere the
hind foot strikes well back on the heel of the fore foot — an accident
known among horsemen as " grabbing " — the shoe may be torn from
the fore foot or the animal may fall to its knees. Horses accustomed
to overreaching are often " bad breakers," for the reason that the
pain of the injury so excites them that they can not readily be brought
back to the trotting gait.

Treatment. — If the injury is but a slight bruise, cold-water bandages
applied for a few days will remove all of the soreness. If the parts
are deeply cut, more or less suppuration will follow, and, as a rule, it
is well to poultice the parts for a day or two, after which cold baths
may be used, or the wounds dressed with tincture of aloes, oakum,
and a roller bandage.

When an animal is known to be subject to overreaching, he should
never be driven fast without quarter boots, which are specially made
for the protection of the heels and quarters.

If there is a disposition to " grab " the forward shoes, the trouble
may be remedied by having the heels of these shoes made as short as

CALK WOUNDS AND FROSTBITES. 379

possible, while the toe of the hind foot should project well over the
hind shoe. ^ATien circumstances will permit of their use, the fore feet
may be shod with the " tips " instead of the common shoe, as described
in treatment for contracted heels.

CALK WOUNDS.

Horses wearing shoes with sharp calks are liable to wounds of the
coronary region, either from trampling on themselves or on each
other. These injuries are most common in heavy draft horses,
especially on rough roads and slippery streets. The fore feet are
more liable than the hind ones, and the seat of injury is commonly
on the quarters. In the hind feet the wound often results from the
animal resting with the heel of one foot set directly over the front of
the other. In these cases the injury is generally close to the horn,
and often involves the coronary band, the sensitive laminae, the
extensor tendon, and even the coffin bone.

Treatment. — Preventive measures include the use of boots to pro-
tect the coronet of the hind foot, and the use of a blunt calk on the
outside heel of the fore shoe, since this is generally the offending
instrument where the fore feet are injured. If the wound is not deep,
and the soreness slight, cold-water bandages and a light protective
dressing, such as carbolized cosmoline, will be all that is needed.
'SAIiere the injury is deep, followed by inflammation and suppuration
of the coronary band, lateral cartilages, sensitive laminae, etc., active
measures must be resorted to. Cold, astringent baths, made by
adding 2 ounces of sulphate of iron to 1 gallon of water, should be
used, followed by poultices if it is necessary to hasten the cleansing
of the wound by stimulating the sloughing process. Where the
wound is deep between the horn and skin, especially over the anterior
tendon, the horn should be cut away so that the injured tissues may
be exposed. The subsequent treatment in these cases should follow
the directions laid down in the article on toe cracks.

FROSTBITES.

Excepting the ears, the feet and legs are about the only parts of
the horse liable to become frostbitten. The cases most commonly seen
are found in cities, especially among car horses, where salt is used
for the purpose of melting the snow on curves and switches. This
mixture of snow and salt is splashed over the feet and legs, rapidly
lowering the temperature of the parts to the freezing point. In
mountainous districts, where the snowfall is heavy and the cold often
intense, frostbites are not uncommon even among animals running at
large.

Symptoms. — When the frosting is slight the skin becomes pale and
bloodless, followed soon after by intense redness, heat, pain, and

380 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

swelling. In these cases the hair may fall out and the epidermis peel
off, but the inflammation soon subsides, the swelling disappears, and
only an increased sensitiveness to cold remains.

In cases more severe irregular patches of skin are destroyed and
after a few days slough away, leaving slow-healing ulcers behind. In
the cases produced by low temperatures and deep snow the coronary
band is the part most often affected.

In many instances there is no destruction of the skin but simply a
temporary suspension of the horn-producing function of the coronary
band. The fore feet are more often affected than the hind ones, and
the heels and quarters are less often involved than the front part of
the foot. The coronary band becomes hot, swollen, and painful, and
after two or three days the horn separates from the band and slight
suppuration follows. For a few days the animal is lame, but as the
suppuration disappears the lameness subsides. New horn, often of an
inferior quality, is produced by the coronary band, and in time the
cleft is grown off and complete recovery is effected. The frog is
occasionally frostbitten and may slough off, exposing the soft tissues
beneath and causing severe lameness for a time.

Treatment.— Sim-pie frostbites are best treated by cold fomentations
followed by applications of a 5 per cent solution of carbolized oil.
When portions of the skin are destroyed, their early separation should
be hastened by warm fomentations and poultices. Ulcers are to be
treated by the application of stimulating dressings, such as carbolized
oil, a 1 per cent solution of nitrate of silver or of chloride of zinc,
with pads of oakum and flannel bandages. In many of these cases
recovery is exceedingly slow. The new tissue by which the destroyed
skin is replaced always shrinks in healing, and, as a consequence,
unsightly scars are unavoidable. Where the coronary band is in-
volved it is generally advisable to blister the coronet over the seat of
injury as soon as the suppuration ceases, for the purpose of stimulat-
ing the growth of new horn. Where a crevasse is formed between the
old and new horn no serious trouble is likely to be met with until the
cleft is nearly grown out, when the soft tissues may be exposed by a
breaking off of the partly detached horn. But even where this acci-
dent happens final recovery is secured by poulticing the foot until a
sufficient growth of horn protects the parts from injury.

QUITTOR.

Quittor is a term applied to various affections of the foot wherein
the tissues which are involved undergo a process of degeneration that
results in the formation of a slougii followed by the elimination of the
diseased structures by means of a more or less extensive suppuration.

For convenience of consideration quittors may be divided into four

QUITTOR. 381

classes, as suggested by Girard: (1) Cutaneous quittor, which is
known also as simple quittor, skin quittor, and carbuncle of the coro-
net; (2'l tendinous quittor : (3) subhorny quittor; and (4) cartilagi-
nous quittor.

CUTANEOUS QUITTOR.

Simple quittor consists in a local inflammation of the skin and sub-
cutaneous connective tissue on some part of the coronet, followed by a
slough and the formation of an ulcer Avhich heals by suppuration.

It is an extremely painful disease, owing to the dense character of
the tissues involved; for in all dense structures the swelling which
accompanies inflammation always produces intense pressure. This
l^ressure not only adds to the patient's suffering but may at the same
time endanger the life of the affected parts by strangulating the blood
vessels. It is held by some writers that simple quittor is most often
met with in the hind feet, but in my experience more than two-
thirds of the cases have developed in the fore feet. While any part
of the coronet may become the seat of attack, the heels and quarters
are undoubtedly most liable.

Causes. — Bruises and other wounds of the coronet are often the
cause ot '"utaneous quittor; yet there can be no question but that in
the great majority of cases the disease develops without any known
cause. For some reason, not yet satisfactorily explained, most cases
happen in the fall of the year. One explanation of this fact has
been attempted in the statement that the disease is due to the injuri-
ous action of cold and mud. This claim, however, seems to lose
force when it is remembered that in many parts of this country
the most mud, accompanied by freezing and thawing weather, is
seen in the early springtime without a corresponding increase of
quittor. Furthermore, the serious outbreaks of this disease in the
mountainous regions of Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana are seen
in the fall and winter seasons, when the weather is the driest. It
may be claimed, and perhaps with justice, that during these seasons,
when the water is low, animals are compelled to wade through more
mud to drink from lakes and pools than is necessary at other sea-
sons of the year, when these lakes and pools are full. Add to these
conditions the further fact that much of this mud is impregnated
with alkaline salts, which, like the mineral substances always found
in the mud of cities, are more or less irritating, and it seems fair to
conclude that under certain circumstances mud may become an im-
portant factor in the production of quittor."

oA recent outbreak of quittor near Cheyenne, Wyo., which came under the
author's observation, was caused by the mud through which the horses had to
wade to reach the watering troughs. These troughs were furnished with water
by windmills, and the mud holes were caused by the waste water. More
than fifty cases developed inside of two months, or during September and

382 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

While this disease attacks any and all classes of horses, it is the
large, common breeds, with thick skins, heavy coats, and coarse legs
that are most often affected. Horses well groomed and cared for in
stables seem to be less liable to the disease than those running at large
or than those which are kept and worked under adverse circumstances.

Symptoms. — Lameness, lasting from one to three or four days,
nearly always precedes the development of the strictly local evidences
of quittor. The next sign is the appearance of a small, tense, hot,
and painful tumor in the skin of the coronary region. If the skin of
the affected foot is white, the inflamed portion will present a dark-red
or even a purplish appearance near the center. Within a few hours
the ankle, or even the whole leg as high as the knee or hock, becomes
much swollen. The lameness is now so great that the patient refuses
to use the foot at all, but carries it in the air if compelled to move.
As a consequence, the opposite leg is required to do the work of both,
and if the animal persists in standing a greater part of the time it,
too, becomes swollen. In many of these cases the suffering is so in-
tense during the first few days as to cause general fever, dullness,
loss of appetite, and increased thirst. Generally the tumor shows
signs of suppuration within forty-eight to seventy-two hours after its
first appearance; the summit softens, a fluctuating fluid is felt be-
neath the skin, which soon ulcerates completely through, causing the
discharge of a thick, yellow, bloody pus, containing shreds of dead
tissue which have sloughed away. The sore is now converted into an
open ulcer, generally deep, nearly or quite circular in outline, and
with hardened base and edges. In exceptional cases large patches of
skin, varying from 1 to 2| inches in diameter, slough away at once,
leaving an ugly superficial ulcer. These sores, especially when deep,
suppurate freely, and if there are no complications they tend to heal
rapidly as soon as the degenerated tissue has softened and is entirely
removed. When suppuration is fully established, the lameness and
general symptoms subside. Wliere but a single tumor and abscess
form, the disease progresses rapidly, and recovery, under proper
treatment, may be effected in from two to three weeks ; but when two
or more tumors are developed at once, or where the fcirmation of one
tumor is rapidly succeeded by another for an indefinite time, the suf-
ferings of the patient are greatly increased, the case is more difficult
to treat, and recovery is more slow and less certain.

October. In these fifty eases all forms of the disease and all possible compli-
cations were presented. During the rainy season at Leadville, Colo., outbreaks
of quittor are common, and the disease is so virulent that it has long been
known as the " Leadville foot rot." The soil being rich in mineral matters is
no doubt the cause of the outbreaks. In the city of Montreal quittor is said to
be very common in the early springtime, when the streets are muddy from the
melting snow and Ice.

QUITTOR. 383

This form of quittor is often complicated with the tendinous and
subhorny quittors by an extension of the sloughing process.

Treatment. — The first step in the treatment of an outbreak of quit-
tor should be the removal of all exciting causes. Crowding animals
into small corrals and stables, where injuries to the coronet are likely
to happen from trampling, especially among unbroken range horses,
must be avoided as much as possible.

Watering places accessible without having to wade through mud
are to be supplied. In towns, where the mud or dust is largely impreg-
nated with mineral products, it is not possible to adopt complete pre-
ventive measures. Much can be done, however, by careful cleans-
ing of the feet and legs as soon as the animal returns from work.
Warm water should be used to remove the mud and dirt, after which
the parts are to be thoroughly dried with soft cloths.

The means which are to be adopted for the cure of cutaneous quit-
tor vary with the stage of the disease at the time the case is presented
for treatment. If the case is seen early — that is, before any of the
signs of suppuration have developed — the affected foot is to be placed
under a constant stream of cold water, with the object of arresting a
further extension of the inflammatory process. To accomplish this,
put the patient in slings in a narrow stall having a slat or open floor.
Bandage the foot and leg to the knee or hock, as the case may be, with
flannel bandages loosely applied. Set a tub or barrel filled with cold
water above the patient, and by the use of a small rubber hose of suf-
ficient length make a siphon which will carry the water from the bot-
tom of the tub to the leg at the top of the bandages. The stream of
water should be quite small, and is to be continued until the inflamma-
tion has entirely subsided or until the presence of pus can be detected
in the tumor. A^^ien suppuration has commenced, the process should
be aided by the use of warm baths and poultices of linseed meal or
boiled turnips. If the tumor is of rapid growth, accompanied by
intense pain, relief is secured and sloughing largely limited by a free
incision of the parts. The incision should be vertical and deep into
the tumor, care being taken not to entirely divide the coronary band.
If the tumor is large, more than one incision may be necessary.

The foot should now be placed in a warm bath for half an hour or
longer and then poulticed. The hemorrhage produced by the cutting
and encouraged by the warm bath is generally very copious and soon
gives relief to the overtension of the parts.

In other cases it will be found that suppuration is well under way,
so that the center of the tumor is soft when the patient is first pre-
sented for treatment. It is always good surgery to relieve the tumor
of pus whenever its presence can be detected; hence in these cases a
free incision must be made into the softened parts, the pus evacuated,
and the foot poulticed.

384 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

By surgical interference the tumor is now converted into an open
sore or ulcer, which, after it has been well cleaned by warm baths
and poultices applied for two or three days, needs to be protected by
proper dressings. The best of all protective dressings is made of
small balls, or pledgets, of oakum, carefully packed into the wound
and held in place by a roller bandage 4 yards long, from 3 to 4 inches
wide, made of common bedticking and skillfully applied.

The remedies which may be used to stimulate the healing process
are many, and, as a rule, they are applied in the form of solutions or
tinctures.

In my own practice I prefer a solution of bichloride of mercury 1
part, water 500 parts, with a few drops of muriatic acid or a few
grains of muriate of ammonia added to cause the mercury to dissolve.
The balls of oakum are wet with this solution before they are applied
to the wound.

Among the other remedies which may be used, and perhaps with
equally as good results, will be noted the sulphate of copper, iron, and
zinc, 5 grains of either to the ounce of water ; chloride of zinc, 5 grains
to the ounce; carbolic acid, 20 drops dissolved in an equal amount of
glycerin and added to 1 ounce of water ; nitrate of silver, 10 grains to
the ounce of water ; and creolin, pure or diluted.

If the Avound is slow to heal, it will be found of advantage to change
the remedies every few days.

If the wound is pale in color, the granulations transparent and
glistening, the tincture of aloes, tincture of gentian, or the spirits of
camphor may do best.

"When the sore is red in color and healing rapidly, an ointment
made of 1 part of carbolic acid to 40 parts of cosmoline or vaseline is
all that is needed.

If the granulations continue to grow until a tumor is formed which
projects beyond the surrounding skin, it should be cut off with a
sharp, clean knife, and the foot poulticed for twenty-four hours,
after which the wound is to be well cauterized daily with lunar
caustic and the bandages applied with great firmness.

The question as to how often the dressings should be renewed must
be determined by the condition of the wound, etc. If the sore is sup-
purating freely it will be necessary to renew the dressing every
twenty-four or forty-eight hours; if the discharge is small in quan-
tity and the patient comfortable, the dressing may be left on for
several days ; in fact, the less often the wound is disturbed the better,
in so long as the healing process is healthy. When the sore com-
mences to skin over, the edges should be lightly touched with lunar
caustic at each dressing. The patient may now be given a little
exercise daily ; but the bandages must be kept on u,ntil the wound is
entirely healed.

QUITTOR. 385

TENDINOUS QUITTOR.

This form of quittor differs from the cutaneous in that it not only
aifects the skin and subcutaneous tissues, but involves, also, the ten-
dons of the leg, the ligaments of the joints, and, in many cases, the
bones of the foot as well.

Fortunately this form of quittor is less common than the preced-
ing; yet any case beginning as simple cutaneous quittor may at any
time during its course become complicated by the death of some part
of the tendons, by gangrene of the ligaments, sloughing of the coro-
nary band, caries of the bones, or inflammation and suppuration of
the synovial sacs and joints, thereby converting a simple quittor into
one which will, in all probability, either destroy the patient's life or
maim him for all time.

Causes. — Tendinous quittor is caused by the same injuries and influ-
ences that produce the simple form. Zundel believes it to be a not
infrequent accompaniment of distemper. In my own experience I
have seen nothing to verify this belief, but I am satisfied that young
animals are more liable to have tendinous quittor than older ones,
and that they are much more likely to make a good recovery.

Symptoms. — When a case of simple quittor is transformed into the
tendinous variety the change is announced by a sudden increase in
the severity of all the symptoms. On the other hand, if the attack
primarily is one of tendinous quittor, the earliest symptom seen is a
well-marked lameness. In those cases due to causes other than in-
juries this lameness is at first very slight, and the animal limps no
more in trotting than in walking; but later on, generally during the
next forty-eight hours, the lameness increases to such an extent that
the patient often refuses to use the leg at all. An examination made
during the first two days rarely discloses any cause for this lameness ;
it may not be possible even to say with certainty that the foot is the
seat of the trouble. On the third or fourth day, sometimes as late as
the fifth, a doughy-feeling tumor will be found forming on the heel
or quarter. This tumor grows rapidly, feels hot to the touch, and is
extremely painful. As the tumor develops, all the other symptoms
increase in intensity; the pulse is rapid and hard; the breathing
quick; the temperature elevated three or four degrees; the appetite
is gone; thirst increased, and the lameness so great that the foot is
carried in the air if locomotion is attempted. At this stage of the
disease the patient generally seeks relief by lying upon the broad side,
with outstretched legs; the coat is bedewed with a clammy sweat,
and every respiration is accompanied by a moan. The leg soon swells
to the fetlock; later this swelling gradually extends to the knee or
hock, and in some cases reaches the body. As a rule, several days
elapse before the disease develops a well-defined abscess, for, owing
H. Doc. 795, 5J>-2 25

386 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

to the dense structure of the bones, ligaments, and tendons, the sup-
purative process is a slow one, and the pus is prevented from readily
collecting in a jnass.

Recently I made a post-mortem examination on a typical case of this
disease, where the animal had died on the fourth day after being
found on the range slightly lame. The suffering had been intense;
yet the only external evidences of the disease consisted in the shed-
ding of the hoof from the right fore foot and a limited swelling of
the leg to the knee. The sloughing of the hoof took place two or
three hours before death, and was accompanied with but little suppu-
ration and no hemorrhage. The skin from the knee to the foot was
thickened from watery infiltration (edema), and on the inside quarter
three holes, each about one-half inch in diameter, were found. All
had ragged edges, while but one had gone deep enough to perforate
the coronary band. The loose connective tissue beneath the skin was
distended, with a gelatinous infiltration over the whole course of the
flexor tendons and to the fetlock joint over the tendon in front. The
soft tissues covering the coffin bone were loosened in patches by col-
lections of pus which had formed beneath the sensitive laminae. The
coffin and pastern joints were inflamed, as were also the coffin, navicu-
lar, and coronet bones, while the outside toe of the coffin bone had
become softened from suppuration until it readily crumbled between
the fingers. The coronary band was largely destroyed and completely
separated from the other tissues of the foot. The inner lateral carti-
lage was gangrenous, as was also a small spot on the extensor tendon
near its point of attachment on the coffinbone. Several small collec-
tions of pus were found deep in the connective tissue of the coronary
region ; along the course of the sesamoid ligaments ; in the sheath of
the flexor tendons; under the tendon just below the fetlock joint in
front, and in the coffin joint.

But all cases of tendinous quittor are by no means so complicated
as this one was. In rare instances the swelling is slight, and after a
few days the lameness and other symptoms subside, without any dis-
charge of pus from an external opening. In most cases, however,
from one to half a dozen or more soft points arise on the skin of the
coronet, open, and discharge slowly a thick, yellow, fetid, and bloody
matter. In other cases the suppurative process is largely confined to
the sensitive laminae and plantar cushion, when the suffering is
intense until the pus finds an avenue of escape by separating the hoof
from the coronary band, at or near the heels, without causing a loss
of the whole horny box. When the flexor tendon is involved deep in
the foot, the discharge of pus usually takes place from an opening in
the hollow of the heel ; if the sesamoid ligament or the sheath of the
flexors are affected, the opening is nearer the fetlock joint; although
in most of these cases the suppuration spreads along the course of the

QUITTOR. 387

tendons until the navicular joint is involved, and extensive sloughing
of the deeper parts follows.

Treatment. — The treatment of tendinous quittor is to be directed
toward the saving of the foot. First of all an effort must be made to
prevent suppuration ; and if the patient is seen at the beginning, cold
irrigation, recommended in the treatment for cutaneous quittor, is to
be resorted to. Later on, when the tumor is forming on the coronet,
the knife must be used, and a free and deep incision made into the
swelling. \Vlienever openings appear from which pus escapes, they
should be carefully probed ; in all instances these fistulous tracts lead
down to dead tissue which nature is trying to remove by the process
of sloughing. If a counter opening can be made, which will enable a
more ready escape of the pus, it should be done at once ; for instance,
if the probe shows that the discharge originates from the bottom of
the foot, the sole must be pared through over the seat of trouble.
TVTienever suppuration has commenced the process is to be stimulated
by the use of warm baths and poultices. The pus which accumulates
in the deeper parts, especially along the tendons, around the joints,
and in the hoof, is to be removed by pressure and injections made
with a small syringe, repeated two or three times a day. As soon as
the discharge assumes a healthy character and diminishes in quantity,
stimulating solutions are to be injected into the open wounds. Where
the tendons, ligaments, and other deeper parts are affected, a strong
solution of carbolic acid — 1 to 4 — should be used at first. Or strong
solutions of tincture of iodine, sulphate of iron, sulphate of copper,
bichloride of mercury, etc., may be used in place of the carbolic ; after
which the remedies and dressings directed for use in simple quittor
are to be used. In those cases where the fistulous tracts refuse to
heal it is often necessary to burn them out with a saturated solution
of caustic soda, equal parts of muriatic acid and water; or, better
still, with a long, thin iron, heated white hot.

But no matter what treatment is adopted, a large percentage of
the cases of tendinous quittor fail to make good recoveries. "\Vhere
the entire hoof sloughs away, the growth of a new, but soft and imper-
fect, hoof may be secured by carefully protecting the exposed tissues
with proper bandages. WTien the joints are opened by deep slough-
ing, recovery may eventually take place, but the joint remains immov-
able ever after. If caries of a small part of the coffin bone takes place,
it may be removed by an operation ; but if much of the bone is affected,
or if the navicular and coronet bones are involved in the carious proc-
ess, the only hope for a cure is in the amputation of the foot. This
operation is advisable only where the animal is valuable for breeding
purposes. In all other cases where there is no hope for recoverj^ the
patient's suffering should be relieved by death. In tendinous quittor
much thickening of the coronary region, and sometimes of the ankle

388 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

and fetlock, remains after suppuration has ceased and the fistulous
tracts have healed. To stimulate the reabsorption of this new and
unnecessary tissue, the parts should be fired with the hot iron, or, in
its absence, repeated blistering with the biniodide of mercury oint-
ment may largely accomplish the same result.

SUBHOENY QUITTOB.

This is the most common form of the disease. It is generally seen
in but one foot at a time, and more often in the fore than in the hind
feet. It nearly always attacks the inside quarter, but may affect the
outside quarter, the band in front, or the heel, where it is of but little
consequence. It consists in the inflammation of a small part of the
coronary band and adjacent skin, followed by sloughing and suppura-
tion, which in most cases extends to the neighboring sensitive laminae.

Causes. — Injuries to the coronet, such as bruises, overreaching, and
calk wounds, are considered as the common causes of this disease.
Still cases occur in which there appears to be no existing cause, just
as in the other forms of quittor, and it seems fair to conclude that
subhorny quittor may also be produced by internal causes.

Symptoms. — At the outset the lameness is always severe, and the
patient often refuses to use the affected foot. Swelling of the coronet
close to the top of the hoof causes the quarter to protrude beyond the
wall. This tumor is extremely sensitive, and the whole foot is hot
and painful. After a few days a small spot in the skin, over the
most elevated part of the tumor, softens and opens or the hoof sepa-
rates from the coronary band at the quarter or well back toward the
heel. From this opening, wherever it may be, a thin, watery,
offensive discharge escapes, often dark in color, at times mixed with
blood, and always containing a considerable percentage of pus.

Probing will now disclose a fistulous tract leading to the bottom of
the diseased tissues. If the opening is small, there is a tendency upon
the part of the suppurative process to spread downward; the pus
gradually separates the hoof from the sensitive laminae until the sole
is reached, and even a portion of this may be undermined.

As a rule, the slough in this form of quittor is not deep, and if the
case receives early and proper treatment complications are generally
avoided ; but if the case is neglected, and, occasionally, even in spite
of the best of treatment, the disease spreads until the tendon in front,
the lateral cartilage, or the coffin bone and joint as well are involved.

In all cases of subhorny quittor much relief is experienced when
the slough comes away, and rapid recovery is made. If, however,
after the lapse of a few days, the lameness remains and the wound
continues to discharge a thin unhealthy matter, the probabilities are
that the disease is spreading, and pus collecting in the deeper parts of
the foot. In Zundel's opinion, if the use of the probe now detects a

QUITTOR. 389

pus cavity below the. opening*, a cartilaginous quittor is in the course
of development.

Treatment. — Hot baths and poultices are to be used until the pres-
ence of pus can be determined, when the tumor is to be opened with
a knife or sharp-pointed iron heated white hot. The hot baths and
poultices are now continued for a few days or until the entire slough
has come awaj^ and the discharge is diminished, when dressings
recommended in the treatment for cutaneous quittor are to be used
until recovery is completed. In cases where the discharge comes
from a cleft between the upper border of the hoof and the coronary
band, always pare away the loosened horn, so that the soft tissues
-beneath are fully exposed, care being taken not to injure the healthy
parts. This operation permits of a thorough inspection of the dis-
eased parts, the easy removal of all gangrenous tissue, and a better
application of the necessary remedies and dressings. The only objec-
tion to the operation is that the patient is prevented from being early
returned to work.

When the probe shows that pus has collected under the coffin bone
the sole must be pared through, and if caries of the bone is present
the dead parts cut away. After either of these operations the wound
is to be dressed with the oakum balls, saturated in the bichloride of
mercury solution, as previously directed, and the bandages tightly
applied. Generally the discharge for the first two or three days is so
great that the dressings need to be changed every twenty- four hours;
but when the discharge diminishes, the dressing may be left on from
one to two weeks. Before the patient is returned to work, a bar shoe
should be applied, since the removed quarter or heel can only be made
perfect again by a new growth from the coronary band.

Tendinous or cartilaginous complications are to be treated as
directed under those headings.

CARTILAGINOUS QUITTOK.

This form of quittor may commence as a primary inflammation of
the lateral cartilage, but in the great majority of cases it appears as a
sequel to cutaneous or subhorny quittor. It may affect either the fore
or hind feet, but is most commonly seen in the former. As a rule, it
attacks but one foot at a time, and but one of the cartilages, generally
the inner one. It is always a serious affection for the reason that, in
many cases, it can only be cured by a surgical operation, requiring a
thorough knowledge of the anatomy of the parts involved and much
surgical skill.

Causes. — Direct injuries to the coronet, such as trampling, pricks,
burns, and the blow of some heavy falling object which may puncture,
bruise, or crush the cartilage, are the common direct causes of carti-
laginous quittor. Besides being a sequel to the other forms of quittor,

390 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

it sometimes develops as a complication in suppurative corn, canker,
grease, laminitis, and punctured wounds of the foot. Animals used
for heavy draft, and those with flat feet and low heels, are more
liable to the disease than others, for the simple reason that they are
more exposed to injury. Rough roads also predispose to the disease
by increasing liability to injury.

Symytoins. — When the disease commences as a primary inflamma-
tion of the cartilage, lameness develops with the formation of a swell-
ing on the side of the coronet over the quarter. The severity of this
lameness depends largely upon the part of the cartilage which is dis-
eased, for if the disease is situated in that part of the cartilage nearest
the heel, where the surrounding tissues are soft and spongy, the lame-
ness may be very slight, especially if the patient is required to go no
faster than a walk; but when the middle and anterior parts of the
cartilage are diseased, the pain and consequent lameness are much
greater, for the tissues are less elastic and the coffin joint is more
likely to become affected.

Except in the cases to be noted hereafter, one or more fistulous
openings finally appear in the tumor on the coronet. These openings
are surrounded by a small mass of granulations which are elevated
above the adjacent skin and bleed readily if handled. A probe shows
these fistulous tracts to be more or less sinuous, but always leading to
one point — the gangrenous cartilage. AVhen cartilaginous quittor
happens as a complication of suppurative corn, or from punctured
wounds of the foot, the fistulous tract may open alone at the point of
injury on the sole.

The discharge in this form of quittor is generally thin, watery, and
contains enough pus to give it a pale yellow color; it is offensive to
the sense of smell, due to the detachment of small flakes of cartilage
which have become gangrenous and are seen in the discharge as small
greenish colored particles. In old cases it is not unusual to find some
of the fistulous openings heal at the surface; this is followed by the
gradual collection of jdus in the deeper parts, forming an abscess,
which in a short time opens at a new point. The wall of the hoof,
over the affected quarter and heel, in very old cases becomes rough
and wrinkled like the horn of a ram, and generally it is thicker than
the corresponding quarter, owing to the stimulating effect which the
disease has upon the coronary band.

Complications may arise by an extension of the disease to the lat-
eral ligament of the coffin joint, to the joint itself, to the plantar
cushion, and by caries of the coffin bone.

Treatment. — Before recovery can take place all of the dead cartilage
must be removed. In rare instances this is effected by nature without
assistance. Usually, however, the disease does not tend to recovery,
and active curative measures must be adopted. The best and sim-

THRUSH. 391

plest treatment, in a majority of cases, is the injection of strong
caustic solutions, which destroy the diseased cartilage and cause its
discharge, along with the other products of suppuration. In favor-
able cases these injections will secure a healing of the wound in
from two to three weeks. T\^iile the saturated solution of sulphate
of copper, or a solution of 10 parts of bichloride of merciiry to 100
parts of water, has given the best results in my hands, equally as
favorable success has been secured by others from the use of caustic
soda, nitrate of silver, sulphate of zinc, tincture of iodine, etc. But
no matter which one of these remedies may be selected, it must be used
at least twice a day for a time. The solution is injected into the vari-
ous openings with enough force to drive it to the bottom of the
wound, after which the foot is to be dressed with a pad of oakum,
held in place by a roller bandage tightly applied. While it is not
always necessary, it is often of advantage to relieve the pressure on
the parts by rasping away the hoof over the seat of the cartilage ; the
coronary band and laminae should not be injured in the operation.

If the caustic injections prove successful, the discharge will become
healthy and gradually diminish, so that by the end of the second week
the fistulous tracts are closing up, and the injections are made with
much difficulty.

If, on the other hand, there is but little or no improvement after
this treatment has been used for three weeks, it may reasonably be
concluded that the operation for the removal of the lateral cartilage
must be resorted to for the cure of the trouble. As this operation
can be safely undertaken only by an expert surgeon, it will not be
described in this connection.

THRUSH,

Thrush is characterized by an excessive secretion of unhealthy mat-
ter from the cleft of the frog. While all classes of horses are liable
to this affection, it is more often seen in the common draft horse than
in any other breed — a fact due to the conditions of servitude and not
to the fault of the breed. Country horses are much less subject to the
disease, except in wet, marshy districts, than are the lK)rses used in
cities and towns.

Causes. — The most common cause of thrush is the filthy condition
of the stable in which the animal is kept. Mares are more liable to
contract the disease in the hind feet when the cause is due to filth, while
the gelding and stallion are more likely to develop it in the fore feet.
Hard work on rough and stony roads may also induce the disease, as
may a change from dryness to excessive moisture. The latter cause
is often seen to operate in old track horses, whose feet are constantly
soaked in the bath tub for the purpose of relieving soreness. Muddy
streets and roads, especially where mineral substances are plentiful,
excite this abnormal condition of the frog. Contracted heels.

392 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

scratches, and navicular disease predispose to thrush, while by some a
constitutional tendency is believed to exist among certain animals
which otherwise present a perfect frog.

Symptoms. — At first there is simply an increased moisture in the
cleft of the frog, accompanied by an offensive smell. After a time a
considerable discharge takes place — thin, Avatery, and highly offen-
sive, changing gradually to a thicker puriform matter, which rapidly
destroys the horn of the frog. Only in old and severe cases is the
patient lame and the foot feverish — cases in which the whole frog is
involved in the diseased process.

Treatment. — Thrushes are to be treated by cleanliness, the removal
of all exciting causes, and a return of the frog to its normal condition.
As a rule, the diseased and ragged portions of horn are to be pared
away and the foot poulticed for a day or two with boiled turnips, to
which may be added a few drops of carbolic acid or a handful of pow-
dered charcoal to destroy the offensive smell. The cleft of the frog
and the grooves on its edges are then to be cleaned and well filled with
dry calomel and the foot dressed with oakum and a roller bandage.
If the discharge is profuse, the dressing should be changed daily;
otherwise it may be left on two or three days. AVhere a constitu-
tional taint is supposed to exist, with swelling of the legs, grease, etc.,
a purgative, followed by dram doses of sulphate of iron, repeated
daily, may be prescribed. In cases where the growth of horn seems
too slow a Spanish-fly blister applied to the heels is often followed by
good results. Feet in which the disease is readily induced may be
protected in the stable with a leather boot. If the thrush is but a
sequel to other diseases, a permanent cure may not be possible.

CANKER.

Canker of the foot is due to the rapid reproduction of a vegetable
parasite. It not only destroys the sole and frog, but, by setting up a
chronic inflammation in the deeper tissues, prevents the growth of a
healthy horn by which the injury might be repaired. Heavy cart
horses are more often affected than those of any other class.

Causes. — The essential element in the production of canker is the
parasite ; consequently the disease may be called contagious. But, as
in all other diseases due to specific causes, the seeds of the disorder
must find a suitable soil in which to grow before they are reproduced.
It may be said, then, that the conditions which favor the preparation
of the tissues for a reception of the seeds of this disease are simply
predisposing causes.

The condition most favorable to the development of canker is
dampness — in fact, dampness seems indispensable to the existence and
growth of the parasite ; for the disease is rarely, if ever, seen in high,
dry districts, and is much more common in rainy than in dry seasons.
Filthy stables and muddy roads have been classed among the causes

CANKEE. 393

of canker ; but it is very doubtful if these conditions can do more than
favor a preparation of the foot for the reception of the disease germ.

All injuries to the feet may, by exposing the soft tissues, render the
animal susceptible to infection; but neither the injury nor the irrita-
tion and inflammation of the tissues which follow are sufficient to
induce the disease.

For some unknown reason horses with lymphatic temperaments —
thick skins, flat feet, fleshy frogs, heavj^^ hair, and particularly with
white feet and legs — are especially liable to canker.

Symptoms. — Usually, canker is confined to one foot; but it may
attack two, three, or all of the feet at once ; or, as is more commonly
seen, the disease attacks first one then another, until all may have been
successively affected. AA^ien the disease follows an injury which has
exposed the soft tissues of the foot, the wound shows no tendency to
heal, but instead there is secreted from the inflamed parts a profuse,
thin, fetid, watery discharge, which gradually undermines and de-
stroys the surrounding horn, until a large part of the sole and frog is
diseased. The living tissues are swollen, dark colored, and covered
at certain points with particles of new, soft, yellowish, thready horn,
which are constantly undergoing maceration in the abundant liquid
secretion by w^hich they are immersed. As this secretion escapes to
the surrounding parts, it dries and forms small, cheesy masses com-
posed of partly dried horny matter, exceedingly offensive to the sense
of smell. When the disease originates independently of an injury,
the first evidences of the trouble are the offensive odor of the foot, the
liquid secretion from the cleft and sides of the frog, and the rotting
aw^ay of the horn of the frog and sole.

In the earlier stages there is no interference with locomotion, but
later the foot becomes sensitive, particularly if the animal is used on
rough roads, and, finally, when the sole and frog are largely destroyed
the lameness is severe.

Treatment. — Since canker does not destroy the power of the tissues
to produce horn, but rather excites them to an excessive production
of an imperfect horn, the indications for treatment are to restore the
parts to a normal condition, when healthy horn may again be secreted.
In my experience, limited though it has been, the old practice of strip-
ping off the entire sole and deep cauterization, with either the hot
iron or strong acids, is not attended with uniformly good results.

I am of the opinion that recovery can generally be effected as surely
and as speedily with measures which are less heroic and much less
painful. True, the treatment of canker is likely to exhaust the
patience, and sometimes the resources, of the attendant; but after
all success depends more on the persistent application of simple
remedies and great cleanliness than on the special virtues of any
particular drug.

394 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

First, then, clean the foot with warm baths and apply a poultice
containing powdered charcoal or carbolic acid. A handful of the
charcoal or a tablespoonful of the acid mixed with the poultice serves
to destroy much of the offensive odor. The diseased portions of
horn are 'to be carefully removed with sharp instruments, until only
healthy horn borders the affected parts. The edges of the sound horn
are to be pared thin, so that the swollen soft tissues may not overlap
their borders. With sharp scissors cut off all the prominent points on
the soft tissues, shorten the walls of the foot, and nail on a broad,
plain shoe. The foot is now ready for the dressings, and any of the
many stimulating and drying remedies may be used; but it will be
necessary to change frequently from one to another, until finally all
may be tried.

The list from which a selection may be made comprises wood tar,
gas tar, petroleum, creosote, phenic acid; sulphates of iron, copper,
and zinc; chloride of zinc, bichloride of mercury, calomel, caustic
soda, nitrate of silver, chloride of lime ; carbolic, nitric, and sulphuric
acids.

In practice I prefer to give the newly shod foot a bath for an hour
or two in a solution of the sulphate of iron, made by adding 2 ounces
of the powdered sulphate to a gallon of cold water. When the foot
is removed it is dressed with oakum balls dipped in a mixture made
of Barbados tar 1 part, oil of turpentine 8 parts, to which is slowly
added 2 parts of sulphuric acid, and the mixture well stirred and
cooled. The diseased parts being well covered with the balls, a pad
of oakum, sufficiently thick to cause considerable pressure, is placed
over them, and all are held in place by pieces of heavy tin fitted to
slip under the shoe. The whole foot is now incased in a boot or
folded gunny sack, and the patient turned into a loose, dry box. The
dressings are to be changed daily or even twice a day, at first.
When they are removed, all pieces of new horny matter which are
now firmly adherent must be rubbed off with the finger or a tent of
oakum. As the secretion diminishes, dry powders may prove of most
advantage, such as calomel, sulphates of iron, copper, etc. The sul-
phates should not be used pure, but are to be mixed with powdered
animal charcoal in the proportion of one of the former to eight or ten
of the latter. When the soft tissues are all horned over, the dress-
ings should be continued for a time, weak solutions being used to
prevent a recurrence of the disease. If the patient is run down in
condition, bitter tonics, such as gentian, may be given in 2-dram doses,
twice -a day, and a liberal diet of grain allowed.

CORNS.

A corn is an injury to the living horn of the foot, involving the
soft tissues beneath, whereby the capillary blood vessels are ruptured
and a small amount of blood escapes, which, by permeating the horn

CORNS. 395

in the immediate neighborhood, stains it a dark color. If the injury
is continuously repeated, the horn becomes altered in character, and
the soft tissues may suppurate or a horny tumor develop. Corns
always appear in the sole in the angle between the bar and the outside
wall of the hoof. In many cases the laminae of the bar, of the wall,
or of both are involved at the same time.

Three kinds of corns are commonly recognized — the dry, the moist,
and the suppurative — a division based solely on the character of the
conditions which follow the primary injury.

The fore feet are almost exclusively the subjects of the disease, for
two reasons : First, because they support a greater part of the body ;
secondly, because the heel of the fore foot during progression is first
placed upon the ground, whereby it receives much more concussion
than the heel of the hind foot, in which the toe first strikes the
ground.

Causes. — It may be said that all feet are exposed to corns, and that
even the best feet may suffer from them when conditions necessary to
the production of the peculiar injury are present. The heavier breeds
of horses generally used for heavy work on rough roads and streets
seem to be most liable to this trouble. Mules rarely have corns.

Among the causes and conditions which predispose to corns may be
named high heels, which change the natural relative position of the
bones of the foot and thereby increase the concussion to which these
parts are subject ; contracted heels, which in part destroy the elas-
ticity of the foot, increase the pressure upon the soft tissues of the
heel, and render lacerations more easy ; long feet, which by removing
the frog and heels too far from the ground deprive them of necessary
moisture, which, in turn, reduces the elastic properties of the horn and
diminishes the transverse diameter of the heels; and weak feet, or
those in which the horn of the wall is too thin to resist the tendency
to spread, whereby the soft tissues are easily lacerated. Wide feet
with low heels are always accompanied by a flat sole whose posterior
wings either rest upon the ground or the shoe, and as a consequence
are easily bruised ; at the same time the arch of the sole is so broad
and flat that it can not support the weight of the body, and in the dis-
placement which happens when the foot is rested upon the ground the
soft tissues are liable to become bruised or torn.

It is universally conceded that shoeing, either as a direct or predis-
posing cause, is most prolific in producing corns. One of the most
serious as well as the most common of the errors in shoeing is to be
found in the preparation of the foot. Instead of seeking to maintain
the integrity of the arch, the first thing done is to weaken it by freely
paring away the sole ; nor does the mutilation end here, for the frog,
which is nature's main support to the branches of the sole and the
heels, is also largely cut away. This not only permits of an excessive

396 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

downward movement of the contents of the horny box, but it at the
same time removes the one great means by which concussion of the
foot is destroyed. As adjuncts to the foregoing errors must be added
the faults of construction in the shoe and in the way it is adjusted
to the foot. An excess of concavity in the shoe, extending it too far
back on the heels, high calks, thin heels which permit the shoe to
spring, short heels with a calk set under the foot, and a shoe too light
for the animal wearing it or for the work required of him, are all to
be avoided as causes of corns. A shoe so set as to press upon the sole
or one that has been on so long that the hoof has overgrown it until
the heels rest upon the sole and bars becomes a direct cause of corns.
Indirectly the shoe becomes the cause of corns when small stones,
hard, dry earth, or other objects collect between the sole and shoe.
Lastly, a rapid gait and excessive knee action, especially on hard
roads, predispose to this disease of the feet.

Symptoms. — Ordinarily a corn induces sufficient pain to cause lame-
ness. It may be intense, as seen in suppurative corn, or it may be but
a slight soreness, such as that which accompanies dry corn. It is by
no means unusual to see old horses having chronic corns apparently so
accustomed to the slight pain which they suffer as not to limp at all ;
but these animals are generally very restless; they paw their bedding
behind them at night, and often refuse to lie down for any lengthened
rest. The lameness of this disease, however, can hardly be said to be
characteristic, for fhe reason that it varies so greatly in intensity ; but
the position of the leg while the patient is at rest is generally the same
in all cases. The foot is so advanced that it is relieved of all weight,
and the fetlocli is flexed until all pressure by the contents of the hoof
is removed from the heels. In suppurative corn the lameness subsides
or entirely disappears as soon as the abscess opens. When the injured
tissues are much inflamed, as may happen in severe and recent cases,
the heel of the affected side, or even the whole foot, is hot and tender
to pressure. In dry corn, and in most chronic cases, all evidences of
local fever are often wanting. It is in these cases that the patient
goes well when newly shod, for the smith cuts away the sole over the
seat of injury imtil all pressure by the shoe is removed, and lowers
the heels so that concussion is reduced to a minimum.

If a corn is suspected the foot should be examined for increased
sensibility of the inside heel. Tapping the heel of the shoe with a
hammer and grasping the wall and bar between the jaws of pincers,
■with moderate pressure, will cause more or less flinching, if the dis-
ease is present. For further evidence the shoe is removed and the
heel cut away with the drawing knife. As the horn is pared out, not
only the sole in the angle is found discolored, but in many instances
the insensible laminae of the bar and wall adjacent are also stained

CORNS. 397

with the escaped blood. In moist and suppurative corns this discolor-
ation is less marked than in dry corn and may be entirely wanting.
In these cases the horn is soft, often white, and stringy or mealy, as
seen in pumiced sole resulting from founder. When the whole thick-
ness of the sole is discolored and the horn dry and brittle, it is gen-
eralh' evidence that the corn is an old one and that the exciting cause
has existed continuously, A moist corn differs from the dry corn
in that the injury is more severe; the parts affected are more or less
inflamed, and the horn of the sole in the angle is undermined by a
citron-colored fluid, which often permeates the injured sole and
laminae, causing the horn to become somewhat spongy.

A suppurative corn differs from others in that the inflammation
ends in suppuration. The pus collects at the point of injury and
finally escapes by working its way between the sensitive and insensi-
ble laminae to the top of the hoof, where an opening is made between
the wall and coronary band at or near the heels. This is the most
serious form of corns, for the reason that it may induce gangrene of
the plantar cushion, cartilaginous quittor, or caries of the coffin bone.

Treatment. — Since a diversity of opinion exists as to what measures
must be adopted for the radical cure of corns, the author will advise
the use of those which have proven most efficient in his hands.

As in all other troubles, the cause must be discovered, if possible,
and removed. In the great majority of cases the shoeing will be at
fault. While sudden changes in the method of shoeing are not advis-
able, it may be said that all errors, either in the preparation of the
foot, in the construction of the shoe, or in its application may very
properly be corrected at any time. Circumstances may at times make
it imperative that shoes shall be worn which are not free from objec-
tions; as, for instance, the shoe with a high calk; but in such cases it
is considered that the injuries liable to result from the use of calks are
less serious than those which are sure to happen for the want of them.

For a sound foot perfectly formed, a flat shoe, with heels less thicic
than the toe, and which rests evenly on the wall proper, is the best.
In flat feet it is often necessary to concave the shoe as much as possi-
ble on the upper surface, so that the sole may not be pressed upon.
If the heels are very low the heels of the shoe may be made thicker.
If the foot is very broad and the wall light toward the heels, a bar
shoe resting upon the frog will aid to prevent excessive tension upon
the soft tissues when the foot receives the weight of the body. A
piece of leather placed between the foot and shoe serves largely to
destroy concussion, and its use is absolutely necessary on some ani-
mals to enable them to work.

Last among the preventive measures may be mentioned those which
serve to maintain the suppleness of the hoof. The dead horn upon

398 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

the surface of the sole not only retains moisture for a long time, but
protects the living horn beneath from the effects of evaporation ; for
this reason the sole should be pared as little as possible. Stuffing the
feet with flaxseed meal, wet clay, or other like substances, or damp
dirt floors or damp bedding of tanbark, greasy hoof ointments, etc.,
are all means which may be used to keep the feet from becoming too
dry and hard.

As to the curative measures which are to be adopted much will
depend upon the extent of the injury. If the case is one of chronic
dry corn, with but slight lameness, the foot should be poulticed for a
day or two and the discolored horn pared out, care being taken not to
injure the soft tissues. The heel on the affected side is to be lowered
until all pressure is removed and, if the patient's labor is required,
the foot must be shod with a bar shoe or with one having stiff heels.
Care must be taken to reset the shoe before the foot has grown too
long, else the shoe will no longer rest on the wall, but on the sole
and bar.

I believe in cutting moist corns out. If there is inflammation
present, cold baths and poultices should be used ; when the horn is well
softened and the fever allayed, pare out all of the diseased horn,
lightly cauterize the soft tissues beneath and poultice the foot for two
or three days. Wlien the granulations look red, dress the wound with
oakum balls saturated in a weak solution of tincture of aloes or siDirits
of camphor and apply a roller bandage. Change the dressing every
two or three days until a firm, healthy layer of new horn covers the
wound, when the shoe may be put on, as in dry corn, and the patient
returned to work.

In suppurative corns the loosened horn must be removed, so that
the pus may freely escape. If the pus has worked a passage to the
coronary band and escapes from an opening between the band and
hoof, an opening must be made on the sole, and cold baths made
astringent with a little sulphate of iron or copper are to be used for a
day or two. When the discharge becomes healthy, the fistulous tracts
may be injected daily with a weak solution of bichloride of mercury,
nitrate of silver, etc., and the foot dressed as after operation for moist
corns. \Vlien complications arise, the treatment must be varied to
meet the indications ; if gangrene of the lateral cartilage takes place
it must be treated as directed under the head of cartilaginous quittor ;
if the velvety tissue is gangrenous, it must be cut away ; if the coffin
bone is necrosed, it must be scraped, and the resulting wounds treated
on general principles. After any of the operations for corns have
been performed, in which the soft tissues have been laid bare, it is
best to protect the foot by a sole of soft leather set beneath the shoe
when the animal is returned to work. Only in rare instances are the
complications of corns so serious as to destroy the life or usefulness of

BRUISE OF THE FKOG. 399

the patient. It is the wide, flat foot with low heels and thin wall
which is most liable to resist all efforts toward effecting a complete
cure.

BRUISE OF THE FROG.

When the frog is severely bruised, the injury is followed by suppu-
ration beneath the horn, and at times by partial gangrene of the
plantar cushion.

Causes. — A bruise of the frog generally happens from stepping on
a rough stone or other hard object. It is more apt to take place when
trotting, running, or jumping than when at a slower pace. A stone
wedged in the shoe and pressing on the frog or between the sides of
the frog and the shoe, if it remains for a time, produces the same
results. A cut through the horny frog with some sharp instrument
or a punctured wound by a blunt pointed instrument may also cause
suppuration and gangrene of the plantar cushion. Broad, flat feet
with low heels and a fleshy frog are most liable to these injuries.

tSymftoms. — Lameness, severe in proportion to the extent of the
bruise and the consequent suppuration, is always an early symptom.
When the animal moves, the toe only is placed to the ground or the
foot is carried in the air and the patient hobbles along on three legs.
When he is at rest, the foot is set forward with the toe on the ground
and the leg flexed at the fetlock joint. As soon as the pus finds its
way to the surface the lameness improves. If the frog is examined
early the injured spot may usually be found; later, if no opening
exists, the pus may be discovered working its way toward the heels*.
The horn is loosened from the deeper tissues, and, if pared through,
a thin, yellow, watery and offensive pus escapes. In other cases a
ragged opening is found in the frog, leading down to a mass of dead,
sloughing tissues, which are pale green in color if gangrene of the
plantar cushion has set in. In rare cases the coffin bone may be in-
volved in the injury and a small portion of it become carious.

Treatment. — If the injury is seen at once, the foot should be placed
in a bath of cold water to prevent suppuration. If suppuration has
already set in, the horn of the frog, and of the bars and branches of
the sole, if necessary, is to be pared thin so that all possible pressure
may be removed, and the foot poulticed. ^Vhen the pus has loosened
the horn, all the detached portions are to be cut away. If the pus is
discharging from an opening near the hair, the whole frog, or one-
half of it, will generally be found separated from the plantar cushion,
and is to be removed with the knife. After a few days the gangre-
nous portion of the cushion will slough off from the effects of the
poultice; under rare circumstances only should the dead parts be
removed by surgical interference. When the slough is all detached,
the remaining wound is to be treated with simple stimulating dress-

400 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

ings, such as tincture of aloes or turpentine, oakum balls, and band-
ages as directed in punctured wounds. When the lameness has sub-
sided, and a thin layer of nev/ horn has covered the exposed parts, the
foot may be shod. Cover the frog with a thick pad of oakum, held
in place by pieces of tin fitted to slide under the shoe, and return to
slow work. "Where caries of the coffin bone, etc., follow the injury,
the treatment reconun ended for these complications in punctured
wounds of the foot must be resorted to,

PUNCTURED WOUNDS OF THE FOOT.

Of all the injuries to which the foot of the horse is liable, none are
more common than punctured wounds, and none are more serious than
these may be when involving the more important organs contained
within the hoof. A nail is the most common instrument by which the
injury is inflicted, yet wounds may happen from sharp pieces of rock,
glass, wire, knives, etc.

A wound of the foot is more serious when made by a blunt-pointed
instrument than when the point is sharp, and the nearer the injury is
to the center of the foot the more likely are disastrous results to fol-
low. Wounds in the heel and in the posterior parts of the frog are
attended with but little danger, unless they are so deep as to injure
the lateral cartilages, when quittor may follow. Punctured wounds
of the anterior parts of the sole are more dangerous, for the reason
that the coffin bone may be injured, and the suppuration, even where
the wound is not deep, tends to spread and always gives rise to intense
suffering. The most serious of the punctured wounds are those
which happ)en to the center of the foot, and which involve, in pro-
portion to their depth, the plantar cushion, the plantar aponeurosis,
the sesamoid sheath, the navicular bone, or the coffin joint.

Punctured wounds are more likely to be deep in flat or convex feet
than in well-made feet, and, as a rule, recovery is neither so rapid nor
so certain. These wounds are less serious in animals used for heavy
draft than in those required to do faster work ; for the former may be
useful, even if complete recovery is not effected. Lastly, punctured
wounds of the fore feet are more serious than of the hind feet, for the
reason that in the former the instrument is apt to enter the foot in a
nearly perpendicular line, and, consequently, is more likely to injure
the deeper structures of the foot; in the hind foot, the injury is
generally near the heels and the wound oblique and less deep.

Sympto7ns. — A nail or other sharp instrument may penetrate the
frog and remain for several days without causing lameness; in fact,
in many cases of punctured wound of the frog the first evidence of
the injury is the finding of the nail or the appearance of an opening
where the skin and frog unite, from which more or less pus escapes.
Even when the sole is perforated, if the injury is not too deep, no

PUNCTUEED WOUNDS OF FOOT. 401

lameness develops until suppuration is established. In all cases of
foot lameness, especially if the cause is obscure, the foot should be
examined for evidence of inj^uy.

The lameness from punctured wounds, accompanied by suppura-
tion, is generally severe, the patient often refusing to use the affected
member at all. The pain being lancinating in character, he stands
with the injured foot at rest or constantly moves it back and forth.
In other cases the patient lies down most of the time v/ith the feet
outstretched ; the breathing is rapid, the pulse fast, the temperature
elevated, and the body covered with patches of sweat.

When the plantar aponeurosis is injured, the pus escapes with diffi-
culty and the wound shows no signs of healing ; the whole foot is hot
and very painful. If the puncture involves the sesamoid sheath, the
synovial fluid escapes. At first this fluid is pure, like joint water, but
later becomes mixed with the products of suppuration and loses its
clear amber color. Suppuration generally extends up the course of
the flexor tendon, an abscess forms in the hollow of the heel, and
finally opens somewhere below the fetlock joint. The whole coronet
is more or less swollen, the discharge is profuse and often mixed with
blood, 3^et the suffering is greatly relieved from the moment the
abscess opens.

If the puncture reaches the navicular bone the lameness is intense
from the beginning; but the only certain way to determine the exist-
ence of this complication is by the use of the probe, and unless there
is a free escape of synovia it must be used with the greatest of care,
else the coffin joint may be opened.

If the coffin joint has been penetrated, either by the offending in-
strument or by the process of suppuration, ticute inflammation of the
joint follows, accompanied by high fever, loss of appetite, etc. The
ankle and coronet are now greatly swollen, and dropsy of the leg to
the knee or hock, or even to the body, often follows. If the process
of suppuration continues, small abscesses appear at intervals on dif-
ferent parts of the coronet, the patient rapidly loses flesh, and may
die from intense suffering and blood poisoning. In other cases the
suppuration soon disappears, and recovery is effected by the joint
becoming stiff (anchylosis).

WHien the wound is forward, near the toe, and deep enough to injure
the coffin bone, caries always results. The presence of the dead pieces
of bone can be determined by the use of the probe; the bone feels
rough and gritty. Furthermore, there is no disposition upon the part
of the wound to heal.

Besides the complications above mentioned, others equally as seri-
ous may be met with. The tendons may soften and rupture, the hoof
may slough off, quittors develop, or sidebones and ringbones grow.
H. Doc. 795, 59-2 26

402 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

Finally, laminitis of the opposite foot may happen if the patient per-
sists in standing, or lockjaw may cause early death.

Treatment. — In all cases the horn around the seat of injury should
be thinned down, a free opening made for the escape of the products
of suppuration, and the foot placed in a poultice. If the injury is
not serious, recovery takes place in a few days' time. Where the
wound is deeper, it is better to put the foot in a cold bath or under a
stream of cold water, as advised in the treatment for quittor.

If the bone is injured, cold baths, containing about 2 ounces each
of sulphate of copper and sulphate of iron, may be used until the
dead bone is well softened, when it should be removed by an opera-
tion. The animal must be cast for this operation. The sole is pared
away until the diseased bone is exposed, when all the dead particles
are to be removed with a drawing knife, and the wound dressed with
creolin or a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid oakum balls, and a
roller bandage.

Wounds of the bone which are made by a blunt-pointed instrument,
like the square-pointed cut nail, in which a portion of the surface is
driven into the deeper parts of the bone, always j^rogress slowly, and
should be operated upon as soon as the conditions are favorable.
Even wounds of the navicular bone, accompanied by caries, may be
operated on and the life of the patient saved ; but the most skillful
surgery is required and only the experienced operator should under-
take their treatment.

If there is an escape of pure synovial fluid from a wound of the
sole, without injury to the bone, a small pencil of corrosive sublimate
should be introduced to the bottom of the wound and the foot dressed
as directed above.

The other complications are to be treated as directed under their
proper headings.

After healing of the wounds has been effected, lameness, with more
or less swelling of the coronary region, may remain. In such cases
the coronet should be blistered or even fired with the actual cautery,
and the patient turned to pasture. If the lameness still persists, and
is not due to a stiff joint, unnerving may be resorted to; in manj^ cases
with very good results. If the joint is anchylosed, no treatment can
relieve it, and the patient must either be put to very slow work or
kept for breeding purposes only.

'■'■ Prick in shoeing " is an injury which should be considered under
the head of punctured wounds of the foot. The nails by which the
shoe is fastened to the hoof may produce an injury followed by
inflammation and suppuration in two days, by penetrating the soft
tissues directly or by being driven so deep that the inner layers of the
horn of the wall are pressed against the soft tissues with such force
as to crush them. In either case the animal generally goes lame soon

CONTKACTED HEELS, OK HOOF-BOUND. 403

after shoeing unless the injury is at the toe, when the first evidence of
the trouble may be the discharge of pus at the coronet. ^Yhen lameness
follows close upon the setting of the shoes, without other appreciable
cause, each nail should be lightly struck with a hammer, when the
one at fault will be detected by the flinching of the animal.
' Treatment consists in drawing the nail, and if the soft tissues have
been penetrated or suppuration has commenced, the horn must be
pared away until the diseased parts are exposed. The foot is now to
be poulticed for a day or two, or until the lameness and suppuration
have ceased. If the discharge of pus from the coronet is the first evi-
dence of the disease, the offending nail must be found and removed,
the horn pared out, and creolin or a weak solution of carbolic acid
injected at the coronet until the fistulous tract has healed.

CONTRACTED HEELS, OR HOOF-BOUND.

Contracted heels, or hoof -bound, is a common disease among horses
kept on hard floors in dry stables, and in such as are subject to much
saddle work. It consists in an atrophy, or shrinking, of the tissues of
the foot, whereby the lateral diameter of the heels is diminished. It
affects the fore feet principally; but it is seen occasionally in the hind
feet, where it is of less importance for the reason that the hind foot
first strikes the ground with the toe, and, consequently, less expan-
sion of the heels is necessary than in the fore feet, where the weight
is first received on the heels. Any interference with the expansibility
of this part of the foot interferes with locomotion and ultimately
gives rise to lameness. Usually but one foot is affected at a time ; but
when both are diseased the change is greater in one than in the other.
Occasionally but one heel, and that the inner one, is contracted; in
these cases there is less likely to be lameness and permanent impair-
ment of the animal's usefulness. According to the opinion of some
of the French veterinarians, hoof-bound should be divided into two
classes — total contraction, where the whole foot is shrunken in size;
and contraction of the heels, when the trouble extends only from the
quarters backward. (Plate XXXII, figs. 4 and 7.)

Causes. — Animals raised in wet or marshy districts, when taken to
towns and kept on dry floors, are liable to have contracted heels, not
alone because the horn becomes dry, but because fever of the feet and
wasting away of the soft tissues result from the change. Another
common cause of contracted heels is to be found in faulty shoeing,
such as rasping the wall, cutting away the frog, heels, and bars ; high
calks and the use of nails too near the heels. Contracted heels may
happen as one of the results of other diseases of the foot ; for instance,
it often accompanies thrush, sidebones, ringbones, canker, navicular
disease, corns, sprains of the flexor tendons, of the sesamoid and sus-
pensory ligaments, and from excessive knuckling of the fetlock joints.

404 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE.

Symptoms. — In contraction of the heels the foot has lost its circular
shape, and the walls from the quarters backward approach to a
straight line. The ground surface of the foot is now smaller than the
coronary circumference; the frog is pinched between the inclosing
heels, is much shrunken, and at times is affected with thrush. The
sole is more concave than natural, the heels are higher, and the bars
are long and nearly perpendicular. The whole hoof is dry, and so
hard that it can scarcely be cut ; the parts toward the heels are scaly
and often ridged like the horns of a ram, while fissures, more or less
deep, may be seen at the quarters and heels following the direction
of the horn fibers. (Plate XXXI, fig. 10.) When the disease is
well advanced, lameness is present, while in the earlier stages there is
only an uneasiness evinced by frequent shifting of the affected foot.
Stumbling is common, especially on hard or rough roads. In most
cases the animal comes out of the stable stiff and inclined to walk on
the toe, but after exercise he may go free again. He wears his shoes
off at the toe in a short time, no matter whether he works or remains
in the stable. If the shoe is removed and the foot pared in old cases,
a dry, mealy horn will be found where the sole and wall unite, ex-
lending upward in a narrow line toward the quarters.

Treatment. — First of all, the preventive measures must be consid-
ered. The feet are to be kept moist and the horn from drying out by
the use of damp sawdust or other bedding; by occasional poultices of
boiled turnips, linseed meal, etc., and greasy hoof ointments to the
sole and walls of the feet. The wall of the foot should be spared
from the abuse of the rasp; the frog, heels, and bars are not to be
mutilated v/ith the knife, nor should calks be used on the shoe except
when absolutely necessary. The shoes should be reset at least once
a month, to prevent the feet from becoming too long, and daily exer-
cise must be insisted on.

As to curative measures, a diversity of opinion exists. A number
of kinds of special shoes have been invented, having for an object the
spreading of the heels, and perhaps any of these, if properly used,
would eventually effect the desired result. But a serious objection
to most of these shoes is that they are expensive and often difficult to
make and apply. The method of treatment which I have adopted is
not only attended with good results, but is inexpensive, if the loss of
the patient's services for a time is not considered a part of the ques-
tion. It consists, first, in the use of poultices or baths of cold water
until the horn is thoroughly softened. The foot is now prepared for
the shoe in the usual way, except that the heels are lowered a little,
and the frog remains untouched. A shoe, called a " tip," is made by
cutting off both branches at the center of the foot and drawing the
ends down to an edge. The tapering of the branches should begin at
the toe, and the shoe should be of the usual width, with both the upper

SAND-CRACKS. 405

and lower surfaces flat. This tip is to be fastened on with six or eight
small nails, all set well forward, two being in the toe. With a com-
mon foot rasp begin at the heels, close to the coronet, and cut away
the horn of the wall until onlj- a thin layer covers the soft tissues
beneath. Cut forward until the new surface meets the old 2| or 3
inches from the heel. The same sloping shape is to be observed in
cutting downward toward the bottom of the foot, at which point the
wall is to retain its normal thickness. The foot is now blistered all
around the coronet with Spanish-fly ointment; when this is well set,
the patient is to be turned to pasture in a damp field or meadow. The
blister should be repeated in three or four weeks, and, as a rule, the
l^atient can be returned to work in two or three months' time.

The object of the tip is to throw the weight on the frog and heels,
which are readily spread after the horn has been cut away on the sides
of the wall. The internal structures of the foot at the heels, being
relieved of excessive pressure, regain their normal condition if the
disease is not of too long standing. The blister tends to relieve any
inflammation wdiich may be present, and stimulates a rapid growth of
healthy horn, which, in most cases, ultimately forms a wide and nor- ■
mal heel. In old, chronic cases, with a shrunken frog and increased
concavity of the sole, accompanied by excessive wasting of all the
internal tissues of the foot, satisfactory results can not be expected
and are rarely secured. Still, much relief, if not an entire cure, may
be effected by these measures.

"VVlien thrush is present as a complication, its cure must be sought
by measures directed under that heading. If sidebones, ringbones,
navicular disease, contracted tendons, or other diseases have been the
cause of contracted heels, treatment will be useless until the cause is
removed.

SAND-CRACKS.

A sand-crack is a fissure in the horn of the wall of the foot. These
fissures are quite narrow, and, as a general rule, they follow the direc-
tion of the horny fibers. They may occur on any part of the wall, but
ordinarily are only seen directly in front, when they are called toe-
cracks; or on the lateral parts of the walls, when they are known as
quarter-cracks. (Plate XXXI.)

Toe-cracks are most common in the hind feet, while quarter-cracks
nearly always affect the fore feet. The inside quarter is more liable
to the injury than the outside, for the reason that this quarter is not
only the thinner, but during locomotion receives a greater part of the
weight of the body. A sand-crack may be superficial, involving only
the outer parts of the wall, or it may be deep, involving the whole
thickness of the wall and the soft tissues beneath.

The toe-crack is most likely to be complete — that is, extending from

406 DISEASES OP THE HORSE.

the coronary band to the sole — while the quarter-crack is nearly
always incomplete, at .least when of comparatively recent origin.
Sand-cracks are most serious when they involve the coronary band in
the injury. They may be complicated at any time by hemorrhage,
inflammation of the laminae, suppuration, gangrene of the lateral
cartilage and of the extensor tendon, caries of the coffin bone, or the
growth of a horny tumor known as a keraphyllocele.

Causes. — Relative dryness of the horn is the principal predisposing
cause of sand-cracks. Excessive dryness is perhaps not a more pro-
lific cause of cracks in the horn than alternate changes from damp to
dry. It is even claimed that these injuries are more common in ani-
mals working on wet roads than those working on roads that are
rough and dry ; at least these injuries are not common in mountainous
countries. Animals used to running at pasture when transferred to
stables with hard, dry floors are more liable to quarter-cracks than
those accustomed to stables. Small feet, with thick, hard hoofs, and
feet which are excessively large, are more susceptible to sand-cracks
than those of better proportion. A predisposition to quarter-cracks
exists in contracted feet, and in those where the toe turns out or the
inside quarter turns under.

Heavy shoes, large nails, and nails set too far back toward the
heels, together Avith such diseases as canker, quittor, grease and sup-
purative corns, must be included as occasional predisposing causes of
sand-cracks.

Fast work on hard roads, jumping, and blows on the coronet,
together with calk wounds of the feet, are accidental causes of quar-
ter-cracks in particular. Toe-cracks are more likely to be caused by
heavy pulling on slippery roads and pavements or on steep hills.

Symptoms. — The fissure in the horn is ofttimes the only evidence
of the disease ; and even this may be accidentally or purposely hidden
from casual view by mud, ointments, tar, wax, putty, gutta-percha,
or by the long hairs of the coronet.

Sand-cracks sometimes commence on the internal face of the wall,
involving its whole thickness excepting a thin layer on the outer
surface. In these cases the existence of the injury may be suspected
from a slight depression, which begins near the coronary band and
follows the direction of the horny fibers ; but the trouble can only be
positively diagnosed by paring away the outside layers of horn until
the fissure is exposed. In toe-cracks the walls of the fissure are in
close apposition when the foot receives the weight of the body, but
when the foot is raised from the ground the fissure opens. In quar-
ter-crack the opposite is true; the fissure closes when the weight is
removed from the foot. As a rule, sand-cracks begin at the coronary
band, and as they become older they not only extend downward, but
they also grow deeper. In old cases, particularly in toe-crack, the

SAND-CRACKS. 407

horn on the borders of the fissure loses its vitality and scales off,
sometimes through the greater part of its thickness, leaving behind J
a rough and irregular channel extending from the coronet to the end I
of the toe.

In many cases of quarter-crack, and in some cases of toe-crack as
well, if the edges remain close together, with but little motion, the
fissure is dry; but in other cases a thin, offensive discharge issues .
from the crack and the ulcerated soft tissues, or a funguslike growth
protrudes from the narrow opening.

A^Tien the cracks are deep, and the motion of their edges consider-
able, so that the soft tissues are bruised and pinched with every move-
ment, a constant inflammation of the parts is maintained and the
lameness is severe.

Ordinarily the lameness of sand-crack is slight when the patient
walks ; but it is greatly aggravated when he is made to trot, and the
harder the road the worse he limps. Furthermore, the lameness is
greater going down hill than up, for the reason that these conditions
are favorable to an increased motion in the edges of the fissure.
Lastly, more or less hemorrhage accompanies the inception of a sand-
crack when the whole thickness of the wall is involved. Subsequent
hemorrhages may also take place from fast work, jumping, or a
misstep.

Treatment. — In so far as preventive measures are concerned, but
little can be done. The suppleness of the horn is to be maintained by
the use of ointments, damp floor, bedding, etc. The shoe is to be pro-
portioned to the weight and work of the animal; the nails holding
it in place are to be of proper size, and not driven too near the heels ;
sufficient calks and toe-pieces must be added to the shoes of horses
working on slippery roads; and the evils of jumping, fast driving,
etc., are to be avoided.

^^Tien a fissure has made its appearance, means are to be adopted
which will prevent it from growing longer or deeper; and this can
only be done by arresting all motion in the edges. The best and
simplest artificial appliance for holding the borders of a toe-crack
together is the Vachette clasp. These clasps and the instruments
necessary for their application can be had of any prominent maker of
veterinary instruments. (Plate XXXI.) These instruments com-
prise a cautery iron with which two notches are burned in the wall,
one on each side of the crack, and forceps with which the clasps are
closed into place in the bottom of the notches and the edges of the
fissure brought close together. The clasps, being made of stiff steel
wire, are strong enough to prevent all motion in the borders of the
crack. Before these clasps are applied the fissure should be thoroughly
cleansed and dried, and, if the injury is of recent origin, the crack
may be filled with a putty made of 2 parts of gutta-percha and 1 part

408 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

of gum ammoniac. The number of clasps to be used is to be deter-
mined by the length of the crack, the amount of motion to be arrested,
etc. Generally the clasps are from one-half to three-quarters of an
inch apart. The clasps answer equally as well in quarter-crack if the
wall is sufficiently thick and not too dry and brittle to withstand the
strain.

In the absence of these instruments and clasps a hole may be drilled
through the horn across the fissure and the crack closed with a thin
nail made of tough iron, neatly clinched at both ends. A plate of
steel or brass is sometimes fitted to the parts and fastened on with
short screws; while this appliance may prevent much gaping of the
fissure, it does not entirely arrest motion of the edges, for the simple
reason that the plate and screw can not be rendered immobile.

If, for any reason, the above measures fail or can not be used,
recourse must be had to an operation. The horn is softened by the
use of warm baths and poultices, the patient cast, and the walls of the
fissure entirely removed with the Imife. The horn removed is in the
shape of the letter V with the base at the coronet. Care must be taken
not to injure the coronary band and the laminae. The wound is to be
treated with mild stimulant dressings, such as creolin, a weak solu-
tion of carbolic acid, tincture of aloes, etc., oakum balls, and a roller
bandage. After a few days the wound will be covered with a new,
white horn, and the oakum and bandages only will be needed. As the
new quarter grows out the lameness disappears, and the patient may
be shod with a bar shoe and returned to work.

In all cases of sand-crack the growth of horn should be stimulated
by cauterizing the coronary band or by the use of blisters. In simple
quarter-crack recovery will often take place if the coronet is blistered,
the foot shod with a '•' tip," and the patient turned to pasture.

The shoe in toe-crack should have a clip on each side of the fissure
and should be thicker at the toe than at the heels. The foot should be
lowered at the heels by paring, and spared at the toe, except directly
under the fissure, where it is to be pared away until it sets free from
the shoe.

Wlien any of the complications referred to above arise, special
measures must be resorted to. For the proper treatment of gangrene
of the lateral cartilage and extensor tendon and caries of the coffin
bone reference may be had to the articles on quittors. If the horny
tumor, known as keraphyllocele, should develop, it is to be removed
by the use of the knife. Since this tumor develops on the inside of
the horny box and may involve other important organs of the foot in
disease, its removal should only be undertaken by a skillful surgeon.

INFLAMMATION OF NAVICULAR BONE. 409

NAVICULAR DISEASE.

Navicular disease is an inflammation of the sesamoid sheath, in-
duced by repeated bruising or laceration, and complicated in many
cases by inflammation and caries of the navicular bone. In some
instances the disease undoubtedly begins in the bone, and the ses-
amoid sheath becomes involved subsequently by an extension of the
inflammatory process. (Plate XXXIV, fig. 5.)

The thoroughbred horse is more commonly affected than any other,
yet no class or breed of horses is entirely exempt. The mule, hov/-
ever, seems rarely, if ever, to suffer from it. For reasons which will
appear when considering the causes of the disease, the hind feet are
not liable to be affected. Usually but one fore foot suffers from the
disease, but if both should be attacked the trouble has become chronic
in the first before the second shows signs of the disease.

Causes. — To comprehend fully how navicular disease may be caused
by conditions and usages common to nearly all animals, it is neces-
sary to recall the peculiar anatomy of the parts involved in the process
and the functions which they perform in locomotion.

It must be remembered that the fore legs largely support the weight
of the body when the animal is at rest, and that the faster he moves
the greater is the shock which the fore feet must receive as the body
is thrown forward by the propelling force of the hind legs. This
shock could not be withstood by the tissues of the fore feet and legs
were it not that it is largely dissipated by the elastic muscles which
bind the shoulder to the body, the ease with which the arm closes on
the shoulder blade, and the spring of the fetlock joint. But even these
means are not sufficient within themselves to protect the foot from
injury; so nature has further supplemented them by placing the coffin
joint on the hind part of the coffin bone instead of directly on top of
it, whereby a large j^art of the shock of locomotion is dispersed before
it can reach the vertical column represented by the cannon, knee, and-
arm bones. A still further provision is made by placing a soft,
elastic pad — the frog and plantar cushion — at the heels to receive the
sesamoid expansion of the flexor tendon as it is forced downward by
the pressure of the coronet bone against the navicular. Extraordinary
as these means may appear for the destruction of shock, and ample as
they are when the animal is at a slow pace or unweighted by rider or
load, they fail to relieve completely the parts from concussion and ex-
cessive pressure whenever the opposite conditions are present. The
result, then, is that the coronet bone forces the navicular hard against
the flexor tendon, which, in turn, presses firmly against the navicular
as the force of the contracting muscles lifts the tendon into place. It
is self-evident, then, that the more rapid the pace and the greater the
load, the greater must these contending forces be, and the greater the

410 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

liability to injury. For the same reason horses with excessive knee
action are more likely to suffer from this disease than others, concus-
sion of the foot and intense pressure on the tendon being common
among such horses.

Besides the above exciting causes must be considered those which
predispose to the disease. Most prominent among these is heredity.
It may be claimed, however, that an inherited predisposition to navic-
ular disease consists not so much in a special susceptibility of the
tissues which are involved in the process as in a vice of conformation
which, as is well known, is likely to be transmitted from parent to off-
spring. The faults of conformation most likely to be followed by the
development of navicular disease are an insufficient plantar cushion,
a small frog, high heels, excessive knee action, and contracted heels.
Finally, the environments of domestication and use, such as dry
stables, heavy pulling, bad shoeing, punctured wounds, etc., all have
their influence in developing this disease.

Symjytoms. — In the early stages of navicular disease the symptoms
are generally very obscure. "When the disease begins in inflammation
of the navicular bone, the animal while at rest points the affected foot
a time before any lameness is seen. While at work he apparently
travels as well as ever, but when placed in the stable one foot is set
out in front of the other, resting on the toe, with fetlock and knee
flexed. After a time, if the case is closely watched, the animal takes
a few lame steps while at work, but the lameness disappears as sud-
denly as it came, and the driver doubts if the animal was really lame
at all. Later on the patient has a lame spell which may last during a
greater part of the day, but the next morning it is gone ; he leaves the
stable all right, but goes lame again during the day. In time he has
a severe attack of lameness, which may last for a week or more, when
a remission takes place and it may be weeks or months before another
attack supervenes. Finally, he becomes constantly lame, and the
more he is used the greater the lameness.

In the lameness from navicular disease the affected leg always takes
a short step, and the toe of the foot first strikes the ground; so the
shoe is most worn at this point. If the patient is made to move back-
ward, the foot is set down with exceeding great care, and the weight
rests upon the affected leg but a moment. When exercised he often
stumbles, and if the road is rough he may fall on his knees. If he is
lame in both feet the gait is stilty, the shoulders seem stiff, and, if
made to work, he sweats profusely from intense pain. Early in the
development of the disease a careful examination will reveal some
increased heat in the heels and frog, particularly after work; as the
disease progresses this becomes more marked, until the whole foot is
hot to the touch. At the same time there is an increased sensibility
of the foot, for the patient flinches from the percussion of a hammer

SIDEBONES. 411

lightly applied to the frog and heels or from the pressure of the
smith's pincers. The frog is generally shrunken, often of a pale-red
color, and at times is affected with thrush. If the heels are pared
away so that all the weight is received on the frog, or if the same re-
sult is attained by the application of a bar shoe, the animal is excess-
ively lame. The muscles of the leg and shoulder shrink away, and
often tremble as the animal stands at rest. After months of lameness
the foot is found to be shrunken in its diameter and apparently
lengthened ; the horn is dry and brittle and has lost its natural gloss,
while circular ridges, developed most toward the heels, cover the
upper part of the hoof. Wlien both feet are affected, the animal
points first one foot, then the other, and stands with the hind feet well
forward beneath the body, so as to relieve the fore feet as much as
possible from bearing weight. In old cases the wasting of the muscles
and the knuckling at the fetlock become so great that the leg can not
be straightened; and locomotion can scarcely be performed. The
disease generally makes a steady progress without inclining to recov-
ery— the remission of symptoms in the earlier stages should not be
interpreted as evidence that the process has terminated. The compli-
cations usually seen are ringbones, sidebones, thrush, contracted heels,
quarter-cracks, and fractures of the navicular, coronet, and pastern
bones.

Treatment. — But few cases of navicular disease recover. In the
early stages the wall of the heels should be rasped away, as directed
in the treatment for contracted heels, until the horn is quite thin ; the
coronet should be well blistered with Spanish-fly ointment, and the
patient turned to grass in a damp field or meadow. After three or
four weeks the blister should be repeated. This treatment is to be
continued for two or three months. Plane shoes are to be put on
when the patient is returned to work. In chronic cases the animal
should be put to slow, easy work. To relieve the pain, neurotomy
may be performed — an operation in which the sense of feeling is
destroyed in the foot by cutting out pieces of the nerve at the fetlock.
This operation in nowise cures the disease, and, since it may be at-
tended with serious results, can only be advised in certain favorable
cases, to be determined by the veterinarian.

SIDKBONES.

A sidebone consists in a transformation of the lateral cartilages
found on the wings of the coffin bone into bony matter by the depo-
sition of lime salts. The disease is a common one, especially in
heavy horses used for draft, in cavalry horses, cow ponies, and other
saddle horses, and in runners and trotters.

Sidebones are peculiar to the fore feet, yet they occasionally de-
velop in the hind feet, where they are of little importance since they

412 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

cause no lameness. In many instances sidebones are of slow growth
and, being unaccompanied by acute inflammation, they cause no
lameness until such time as, by reason of their size, they interfere
with the action of the joint. (Plate XXXIV, fig. 4.)

Causes. — Sidebones often grow in heavy horses without any appar-
ent injury, and their development has been attributed to the over-
expansion of the cartilages caused by the great weight of the animal.
Blows and other injuries to the cartilages may setup an inflammatory
process which ends in the formation of these bony growths. High-
heeled shoes, high calks, and long feet are always classed among the
conditions which may excite the growth of sidebones. They are often
seen in connection with contracted heels, ringbones, navicular dis-
ease, punctured wounds of the foot, quarter- cracks, and occasionally
as a sequel to founder.

Sym-ptoms. — In the earlier stages of the disease, if inflammation is
present, the only evidence of the trouble to be detected is a little fever
over the seat of the affected cartilage and a slight lameness. In the
lameness of sidebones the toe of the foot first strikes the ground and
the step is shorter than natural. The subject comes out of the stable
stiff and sore, but the gait is more free after exercise.

Since the deposit of bony matter often begins in that part of the
cartilage where it is attached to the coffin bone, the diseased process
may exist for some time before the bony growth can be seen or felt.
Later on, however, the cartilage can be felt to have lost its elastic
character, and by standing in front of the animal a prominence of the
coronary region at the quarters can be seen. Occasionally these
bones become so large as to bulge the hoof outward, and by pressing
on the joint they so interfere with locomotion that the animal becomes
entirely useless.

Treatment. — So soon as the disease can be diagnosed active treat-
ment should be adopted. Cold-water bandages are to be used for a
few days to relieve the fever and soreness.

The improvement consequent on the use of these simple measures
often leads to the belief that the disease has recovered; but with a
return to work the lameness, fever, etc., reappears. For this reason
the use of blisters, or, better still, the firing iron, should follow on the
discontinuance of the cold bandages.

But in many instances no treatment will arrest the growth of these
bony tumors, and as a palliative measure neurotomy must be resorted
to. Generally this operation will so relieve the pain of locomotion
that the patient may be used for slow work ; but in animals used for
fast driving or for saddle purposes, the operation is practically use-
less. Some years ago I unnerved a mmiber of cavalry horses at Fort
Leavenworth that were suffering from sidebones, and the records
show that in less than seven months all were more lame than ever.

RINGBONE. 413

Since a predisposition to develop sidebones may be inherited, ani-
mals suffering from this disease should not be used for breeding
purposes unless the trouble is known to have originated from an
accident.

KINGBONE.

A ringbone is the growth of a bony tumor on the ankle. This
tumor is, in fact, not the disease, but simply the result of an
inflammatory action set up in the periosteum and bone tissue proper
of the pastern bones. (Plate XXXIV, fig. 1.) (See also page 289.)

Causes. — Injuries, such as blows, sprains, overwork in young, unde-
veloped animals, fast work on hard roads, jumping, etc., are among
the principal exciting causes of ringbone. Horses most disposed to
this disease are those with short, upright pasterns, for the reason that
the shock of locomotion is but imperfectly dissipated in the fore legs
of these animals. Improper shoeing, such as the use of high calks,
a too great shortening of the toe and correspondingly high heels,
predispose to this disease by increasing the concussion to the feet.

Symptoms. — The first symptom of an actively developed ringbone
is the appearance of a lameness more or less acute. If the bony
tumor forms on the side or upper parts of the large pastern, its
growth is generally unattended with acute inflammatory action, and
consequently jiroduces no lameness or evident fever. These are called
" false " ringbones. But when the tumors form on the whole circum-
ference of the ankle, or simply in front under the extensor tendon, or
behind under the flexor tendons, or if they involve the joints between
the two pastern bones, or between the small pastern and the coffin
bone, the lameness is always severe. These constitute the true ring-
bone. Besides lameness, the ankle of the affected limb presents more
or less heat, and in many instances a rather firm, though limited,
swelling of the deeper tissues over the seat of the inflammatory proc-
ess. The lameness of ringbone is characteristic in that the heel is
first placed on the ground when the disease is in a fore leg, and the
ankle is kept as rigid as possible. In the hind leg, however, the toe
strikes the ground first, w^hen the ringbone is high on the ankle, just
as in health, but the ankle is maintained in a rigid position. If the
bony growth is under the front tendon of the hind leg, or if it
involves the coffin joint, the heel is brought to the ground first. In
the early stages of the disease it is not always easy to diagnose ring-
bone, but when the deposits have reached some size they can be felt
and seen as well.

The importance of a ringbone depends on its seat and often on its
size. If it interferes with the joints or with the tendons it may cause
an incurable lameness, even though small. If it is on the sides of the
large pastern, the lameness generally disappears as soon as the tumor
has reached its growth and the inflammation subsides. Even where

414 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

the pastern joint is involved, if complete anchylosis results, the
patient may recover from the lameness with simply an imperfect
action of the foot remaining, due to the stiff joint.

Treatment. — Before the bony growth has commenced the inflam-
matory process may be cut short by the use of cold baths and wet
bandages, followed by one or more blisters. If the bony deposits
have begun the firing iron should always be used. Even where the
tumors are large and the pastern joint involved firing often hastens
the process of anchylosis and should always be tried.

Where the lower joint is involved or where the tumor interferes
with the action of the tendons recovery is not to be expected. In
many of these latter cases, however, the animal may be made service-
able by proper shoeing. If the patient walks with the toe on the
ground the foot should be shod with a high-heeled shoe and a short
toe. On the other hand, if he walks on the heel, a thick-toed and
thin-heeled shoe must be worn.

Since ringbone is considered to be one of the hereditary diseases,
no animal suffering from this trouble should ever be used for breed-
ing purposes.

LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER.

Laminitis is a simple inflammation of the sensitive laminae of the
feet, characterized by the general phenomena attending inflamma-
tion of the skin and mucous membranes, producing no constitutional
disturbances except those dependent upon the local disease, and hav-
ing a strong tendency, in severe cases, to destructive disorganization
of the tissues affected.

Causes. — The causes of laminitis are as wide and variable as in any
of the local inflammations, and may be divided into two classes — the
predisposing and the exciting.

Predisposing causes. — From personal observation I do not know
that any particular construction of foot or any special breed of horses
is predisposed to this disease, neither can I find anything to warrant
the assumption that it is in any way hereditary; so that while we
may easily cultivate a predisposition to the disease, it does not origi-
nate without an exciting cause. Like most other tissues, a predisposi-
tion to inflammation may be induced in the sensitive laminae by any
cause which lessens their power of withstanding the work imposed on
them. It exists to an extent in those animals unaccustomed to work,
particularly if they are plethoric, and in all those that have been pre-
vious subjects of the disease ; for the same rule holds good here that
we find in so many diseases — i. e., that one attack impairs the func-
tional activity of the affected tissues and renders them more easy of a
subsequent inflammation. Unusual excitement by determining an

LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDEE. 415

excessive blood supply, bad shoeing, careless paring of the feet by
removing the sole support, and high calkings without corresponding
toe pieces must be included under this head.

Exciting causes. — The exciting causes of laminitis are many and
varied. The most common are concussion, overexertion, exhaustion,
rapid changes of temperature, ingestion of certain foods, purgatives,
and the oft-mentioned metastasis^

( 1 ) Concussion produces this disease by local overstimulation. The
excessive excitement is followed by an almost complete exhaustion of
the functional activity of the laminated tissues, the exhaustion by
congestion, and eventually by inflammation. But congestion here, as
in all other tissues, is not necessarily followed by inflammation ; for,
although the principal symptoms belonging to true laminitis are
present, the congestion may be relieved before the processes of inflam-
mation are fully established. This is the condition in the many so-
called cases of laminitis which recover in from twenty-four to forty-
eight hours. They should be called congestion of the laminae.

Laminitis from concussion is common in trotting horses that are
raced when not in condition, especially if they carry the obnoxious toe
weights, and in green horses put to work on city pavements to which
they are unaccustomed. Concussion from long drives on dirt roads is
at times productive of the same results, notably when the weather is
extremely warm, or at least when the relative change of temperature
is great. But the exhaustion of these circumstances must prove an
exciting cause as well as the long-continued concussion. This combi-
nation of causes must also determine the disease at times in hunters,
for the weight of the rider increases the demands made upon the
function of these tissues, and their powers are the sooner exhausted.

(2) Overexertion, as heavy pulling or rapid work, even where there
is no immoderate concussion, occasionally results in this disease ; but
here also exhaustion is a conjunctive cause, for overexertion can not
be long continued without exhaustion.

(3) Exhaustion is nearly as prolific a source of laminitis as is con-
cussion ; for when the physical strength is impaired, even though tem-
porarily, some part of the economy is rendered more vulnerable to
disease than others. To this cause we must ascribe those cases which
follow a hard day's work, where at no time has there been overexer-
tion or immoderate concussion.

The tendency to laminitis in horses on sea voyages results from the
continual constrained position the animal maintains on account of the
rocking motion of the vessel.

Where one foot has been blistered, or where one limb is incapaci-
tated from any cause, the opposite member, doing double duty, soon
becomes exhausted, and congestion, followed by inflammation, results.
Where one foot only becomes laminitic, it is customary to find the cor-

416 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

responding member participating at a later date; not always because
of sympathy, but because one foot had to do the work of two.

(4) Rapid changes of temperature act as an exciting cause of lami-
nitis by impairing the normal blood supply.

This change of temperature may be induced by drinking large
quantities of cold water while in an overheated condition. Here the
internal heat is rapidly reduced, the neighboring tissues and blood
vessels constrained, and the blood supply to these organs greatly
diminished, while the quantity sent to the surface is correspondingly
increased. True, in many cases there has not been sufficient labor per-
formed to impair the powers of the laminae, and laminitis is more
readily induced than congestion or inflammation of the skin or other
surface organs, because the laminae can not relieve themselves of
threatened congestion by the general safety valve of perspiration.
A cold wind or relatively cold air allowed to play upon the body
when heated and wet with sweat has virtually the same result, for it
arrests evaporation and rapidly cools the external surface, thereby
determining an excess of blood to such organs and tissues as are pro-
tected from this outside influence. In many instances this happens to
be some of the internal organs, as the lungs, if the previous work has
been rapid and their functional activity impaired; but in numerous
other instances the determination is toward the feet, and that it is so
depends upon two very palpable facts: First, that these tissues have
been greatly excited and are already receiving as much blood as they
can accommodate consistently with health; secondly, even though
these tissues are classed with those of the surface, their protection
from atmospheric influences by means of the thick box of horn incas-
ing them renders them in this respect equivalent to internal organs.

A more limited local action of cold may excite this disease, by driv-
ing through water or washing the feet and legs while the animal is
warm or just in from work. Here a very marked reaction takes place
in the surface tissues of the limbs, and passive congestion of the foot
results from an interference with the return flow of blood which is
being sent to these organs in excess. These are more apt to be sim-
ple cases of congestion, soon to recover, yet they may become true
cases of laminitis.

(5) Why it is that certain kinds of grain will cause laminitis does
not seem to be clearly understood. Certainly they possess no specific
action upon the laminae, for all animals are not alike affected, neither
do they always produce these results in the same animal. Some of
these foods cause a strong tendency to indigestion, and the consequent
irritation of the alimentary canal may be so great as to warrant the
belief that the laminae are affected through sympathy. In other
instances there is no apparent interference with digestion nor evidence
of any irritation of tlie nmcous membranes, yet the disease is in

PLATE XXXR'

side fiones.

ailer StoneKeivge •

M- 1 •.' ( a. larD 'is east

rt ! U-r SUTvjel\engc

l?[N'vr,()XK AND XAXK'L'LAR DISEASI'

LAMTNITIS, OR FOUNDER. 417

some manner dependent upon the food for its inception. Barley,
wheat, and sometimes corn are the grains most apt to cause this dis-
ease. With some horses there appears to be a particular suscepti-
bility to this influence of corn, and the use of this grain is followed by
inflammation of the feet, lasting from a few days' to two weeks' time.
In these animals, to all appearances healthy, the corn neither induces
colic, indigestion, nor purging, and apparently no irritation whatever
of the alimentary canal.

(6) Fortunately purgative medicines rarely cause inflammation. of
the laminae. That it is, then, the result of sympathetic action is no
doubt more than hypothetical, for when there is no derangement of
the alimentary canal a dose of cathartic medicine will at times bring
on severe laminitis.

(7) Most all the older authorities were agreed that metastatic lami-
nitis is a reality. In my opinion metastatic laminitis is nothing more
nor less than concurrent laminitis, and presents little in any way pecul-
iar outside the imperfectly understood exciting cause. The practi-
tioner who allows the acute symptoms of the laminitis to mislead him,
simply because their severity has overshadowed those of the primary
disease, may lose his case through unguarded subsequent treatment.
This form of laminitis is by no means commonly met with. It may be
found in conjunction with pneumonia, according to Youatt with
inflammation of the bowels and eyes, and according to Law and
Williams sometimes with bronchitis.

Sym,pto7)is. — Laminitis is characterized by a congregation of symp-
toms so well marked as scarcely to be misinterpreted by the most
casual observer. They are nearly constant in their manifestations,
modified by the number of feet affected, the cause which has induced
the disease, the previous condition of the patient, and the various
other influences which operate in all diseases to some extent. They
may be divided into general symptoms, which are concomitants of all
cases of the disease, subject to variations in degree only, and special
symptoms, or those which serve to determine the feet affected and the
complications which may arise.

General symptoms. — Usually, the first symptom is the interfer-
ence with locomotion. Occasionally the other symptoms are pre-
sented first. As the lameness develops the pulse becomes accelerated,
full, hard, and strikes the finger strongly; the temperature soon rises
several degrees above the normal, reaching sometimes 10G° F. ; it
generally ranges between 102.5° and 105° F. The respirations are
rapid and panting in character, the nostrils widely dilated, and the
mucous membranes highly injected. The facial expression is anxious
and indicative of the most acute suffering, while the body is more or
less bedewed with sweat. At first there may be a tendency to diar-

H. Doc. 795, 59^2 27

418 DISEASES OP THE HORSE.

rhea, or it may appear later as the result of the medicines used. The
urine is high colored, scant in quantity, and of increased specific
gravity, owing to the water being eliminated by the skin instead of
the kidneys. The appetite is impaired, sometimes entirely lost, but
thirst is greatly increased. The affected feet are hot and dry, and
are relieved as much as possible from bearing weight. Rapping them
with a hammer, or compelling the animal to stand upon one affected
member, causes intense pain. The artery at the fetlock throbs
beneath the finger.

Special symptoms. — Liability to affection varies in the different
feet according to the exciting cause. Any one or more of the feet
may become the subject of this disease, although it appears more often
in the fore feet than in the hind ones. This is due to tne difference
of function, ^. e., that the fore feet are the bases of the columns of
support, receiving nearly all of the body weight during progression
and consequently most of the concussion, while the hind feet become
simply the fulcra of the levers of progression, and are almost exempt
from concussion.

One foot. — Injuries and excessive functional performance are the
causes of the disease in only one foot. The general symptoms, as a
rule, are not severe, there being often no loss of appetite and no unu-
sual thirst, while the pulse, temperature, and respiration remain about
normal. The weight of the body is early thrown upon the opposite
foot, and the affected one is extended, repeatedly raised from the floor,
and then carefully replaced. When made to move forward the lame
foot is either carried in the air while progression is accomplished by
hopping with the healthy one, or else the heel of the first is placed
upon the ground and receives little weight while the sound limb is
quickly advanced. Progression in a straight line is more easy than
turning toward the lame side.

Both fore feet. — When both fore feet are affected the symptoms are
well marked. The lameness is excessive and the animal almost im-
movable. When standing the head hangs low down, or rests upon the
manger as a means of support and to relieve the feet; the fore feet
are well extended so that the weight is thrown upon the heels, where
the tissues are least sensitive, least inflamed, and most capable of
relief by free effusion. The hind feet are brought forward beneath
the body to receive as much weight as possible, thereby relieving the
diseased ones. If progression is attempted, which rarely happens
voluntarily during the first three or four days, it is accomplished with
very great pain and lameness at the starting, which usually subsides
to an extent after a few minutes' exercise. During this exercise, if
the animal happens to step upon a small stone or other hard substance,
he stumbles painfully and is excessively lame in the offended member
for a number of steps, owing to the acute pain which pressure upon

LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER. 419

the sole causes in the tissues beneath. The manner of the progression
is pathognomonic of the complaint. Sometimes the affected feet are
simultaneously raised from the ground (the hind ones sustaining the
weight), then advanced a short distance and carefully replaced; at
almost the same moment the hind ones are quickly shuffled forward
near to the center of gravitation.

In other instances one foot at a time is advanced and placed with
the heel upon the ground in the same careful manner, all causes of
concussion being carefully avoided. In attempting to back the ani-
mal he is found to be almost stationary, simply swaying the body
backward on the haunches and elevating the toes of the diseased feet
as they rest upon their heels. In attempting to turn either to the
right or left he allows his head to be drawn to the one side to its full
extent before moving, then makes his hind feet the axis around
which the forward ones describe a shuffling circle.

In a majority of cases of laminitis in the fore feet the animal per-
sists in standing until he is nearly recovered. In other cases he as
persistently lies, standing only when necessity seems to compel it,
and then for as short a time as possible. If the recumbent position is
once assumed, the relief experienced tempts the patient to seek it
again; and so we often find him down a greater part of the time.
But this is not true of all cases ; sometimes he will make the experi-
ment, then cautiously guard against a repetition. Even in cases of
enforced recumbency, he ofttimes takes advantage of the first
opportunity and gets upon his feet, doggedly remaining there until
again laid upon his side. How to explain this diversity of action
I do not know; theoretically the recumbent position is the only ap-
propriate one, except when complications exist, and the one which
should give the most comfort, yet it is rejected b}^ very many
patients and, no doubt, for some good reason. It has been suggested
as an explanation that when the animal gets upon his feet after
lying for a time the suffering is so greatly augmented that the mem-
ory of this experience deters him from an attempted repetition. If
this were true, the horse with the first attack must necessarily make
the experiment before knowing the after effects of lying down, yet
many remain standing without even an attempt at gaining this
experimental knowledge.

The most-favored position of the animal when down is on the
broadside, with the feet and legs extended. IVliile in this position
the general symptoms greatly subside ; the respirations and pulse be-
come almost normal ; the temperature falls and the perspiration dries.
It is with difficulty that he is made to arise. Wlien he attempts it he
gets up rapidly and " all of a heap," as it were, shifting quickly from
one to the other foot until they become accustomed to the weight

420 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

thrown upon them. Occasionally a patient will get up like a cow,
rising upon the hind feet first. Although enforced exercise relieves
to some extent the soreness, it is but temporary, for after a few
minutes' rest it returns with all its former severity.

Both hind feet. — ^^Hien only both hind feet are affected, they are,
while standing, maintained in the same position as when only the fore
ones are the subjects of the disease, but with an entirely different
object in view. Instead of being there to receive weight, they are so
advanced that the heels only may receive what little weight is neces-
sarily imposed on them; the fore feet at the same time are placed
well back beneath the body, where they become the main supports;
the animal standing, as Williams describes it, " all of a heap."

Progression is even more difficult now than when the disease is
confined to the anterior extremities. The fore feet are dubiously
advanced a short distance and the hind ones brought forward with a
sort of kangaroo hop, that results in an apparent loss of equilibrium
which the animal is a few moments in regaining. The general symp-
toms, or, in other words, the degree of suffering, seem more severe
than where the disease affects the fore feet alone. The standing posi-
tion is not often maintained, the patient seeking relief in recumbency.
This fact is easily understood when we consider how cramped and
unnatural is the position he assumes while standing and, if it were
maintained for any considerable length of time, would, no doubt,
excite the disease in the fore feet, as explained by D'Arbbval.

All four feet. — Laminitis of all four feet is but imcommonly met
with. The author has seen but three such cases. In all these the posi-
tion assumed was nearly normal. All the feet were slightly advanced,
and first one, then another, momentarily raised from the ground and
carefully replaced, this action being kept up almost continually dur-
ing the time the animal remained standing. The suffering is most
acute, the appetite lost, and, although the patient lies most of the time,
the temperature remains too high. The pulse and respirations are
greatly accelerated, the body covered with sweat, and bed sores are
unpleasant accompaniments.

Course. — The course which laminitis takes varies greatly in differ-
ent cases, being influenced more or less by the exciting cause, the
animal's previous condition, the acuteness of the attack, and the sub-
sequent treatment. The first symptoms rarely exhibit themselves
while the animal is at his work, although we occasionally see the gait
impaired by stumbling, the body covered with a profuse sweat, and
the respirations become blowing in character as premonitions of the
oncoming disease ; but, as a rule, nothing is noted amiss with the ani-
mal until he has stood for some time after coming in from work, when,
in attempting to move him, he is found very stiff. Like all conges-
tions, the early symptoms usually develop rapidly; yet this is not

LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER. 421

always the case, for often there appears to be no well-defined period
of congestion, the disease seemingly commencing at a point and
gradually spreading until a large territory is involved in the morbid
i^rocess.

Simple congestion. — Those cases of simple congestion of the laminae,
which we erroneously call laminitis, are rapidly developed, the symp-
toms are but moderately severe, and but one to three days required
for recovery. There are no structural changes and but a moderate
exudate. This is rapidly reabsorbed, leaving the parts in the same
condition as they were previous to the attack. If the congestion has
been excessive, a rupture of some of the capillaries will be found, a
condition more apt to obtain where the animal is made to continue
work after a development of symptoms has begun.

True, the majority of these last-described cases prove to be the lam-
initis in fact, yet the congestion may pass away and the extravasated
blood be absorbed without inflammation sufficient to warrant calling
it laminitis. The seat of greatest congestion will always be found in
the neighborhood of the toe, because of the increased vascularity of
that part, and, although at times it is limited to the podophyllous
tissue alone, any or all parts of the keratogenous membrane may be
affected by the congestion and followed finally by inflammation.

Acute. — In the acute form of laminitis the symptoms may all de-
velop rapidly, or it may commence by the appearance of a little sore-
ness of the feet which in twenty-four or forty-eight hours develops
into a well-marked case. This peculiarity of development is due to
one of two causes. Either the congestion is general, but takes place
slowly, or else it begins in one or more points and gradually spreads
throughout the laminae. These acute cases generally run their course
in from one or two weeks. Usually a culmination of the symptoms
is reached, if the patient is properly treated, in from three to five
days; then evidences of recovery are discernible in favorable cases.
The lameness improves, the other symptoms gradually subside, and
eventually health is regained. It is in these cases that a strong tend-
ency to disorganization of a destructive character exists, hence it
is we see so many recover imperfectly with marked structural changes
permanently remaining.

Siihacute. — Subacute laminitis is most often seen as a termination
of the acute form, although it may exist independent of or precede an
acute attack. It is characterized by the mildness of its symptoms,
slow course, and moderate tissue changes. It may be present a long
time before any pathological lesions result other than those found in
the acute form, and when these changes do take place they should
rather be viewed as complications.

Chronic. — Chronic laminitis is a term used by many to designate
any of the sequelae of the acute and subacute forms of this disease.

422 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

Pure chronic inflammation of the laminae is not very commonly met
with, but is most frequent in horses that have long done fast track
work. They have " fever in the feet " at all times and are continually
sore, both conditions being aggravated by work. Like chronic in-
flammation of other parts, there is a strong tendency to the develop-
ment of new connective tissue, which, by its pressure upon the blood
vessels, interferes with nutrition. Wasting of the coffin bone and in-
flammation of its covering with caries is not unusual. The continued
fever and impaired function of secretion result in the production of
a horn deficient in elasticity, somewhat spongy in character, and in-
clined to crumble. In some cases of " soreness " in horses used to
hard or fast work, there is evident weakness of the coats of the ves-
sels, brought on by repeated functional exhaustion. Here slight worlv
brings on congestion, which results in serous effusion and temporary
symptoms similar to those of chronic laminitis.

Co7nplications. — Complications concurrent with or supervening
upon laminitis are frequent and varied, and are often dependent upon
causes not fully understood.

Excessive furgation is one of the simplest of these, and not usually
attended with dangerous consequences. It rarely occurs unless in-
duced by a jDurgative, and the excessive action of the medicine is prob-
ably to be explained upon the theory that the mucous membrane
sympathizes with the diseased laminae, is irritable, and readily be-
comes overexcited. The discharges are thin and watery, sometimes
offensively odorous, and occasionally persist in spite of treatment. It
may prove disastrous to the welfare of the patient by the rapid
exhaustion which it causes, preventing resolution of the laminitis,
and may even cause death.

Septicemia and pyemia. — Septicemia and pyemia are unusual com-
plications and are seen only in the most severe cases, where bed sores
are present or suppuration of the laminae results. They die, as a rule,
within three days after showing signs of the complication.

Pneumonia — the so-called metastatic — needs no special considera-
tion, for in its lesions and symptoms it does not differ from ordinary
pneumonia, although it may be overlooked entirely by the practi-
tioner. Examinations of the chest should be made every day, so as
to detect the disease at its onset and render proper aid.

Sidehones. — A rapid development of sidebones is one of the compli-
cations, or, perhaps better, a sequel of laminitis not often met with in
practice. Here the inflammatory process extends to the lateral carti-
lages, with a strong tendency to calcification. The deposition of the
lime salts is sometimes most rapid, so that the " bones " are developed
in a few weeks ; in other instances they are deposited slowly and their
growth is not noted until long after the subsidence of the laminitis,
so that the exciting cause is not suspected. This change in the car-

LAMINITIS, OB FOUNDER. 423

tilages may commence as early as the first week of the laminitis ; and
although the trouble in the laminae is removed in the course of a fort-
night the symptoms do not entirely subside, the animal retains the
shuffling gait, the sidebones continue to grow, and the patient usually
remains quite lame. This alteration of the cartilages generally pre-
vents the patient recovering his natural gait, and the practitioner
receives unjust censure for a condition of affairs he could neither
foresee nor prevent.

The laminitic process occasionally extends to the covering of the
coronet bone, or at least concurrent with and subsequent to laminitis
the development of " low ringbone " is seen, and it is apparently
dependent u^Don the disease of the laminae for its exciting cause. The
impairment of function and consequent symptoms are much less
marked here than in sidebones. The coronet remains hot and sensi-
tive and somewhat thickened after the laminitis subsides, and a little
lameness is present. This lameness persists and the deposits of new
bone may readily be detected.

Suppuration of the sensitive membrane is a somewhat common
complication, and even when present in its most limited form is
always a serious matter ; but when it becomes extensive, and especially
where the suppurative process extends to the periosteum, the results
are apt to be fatal. When suppuration occurs the exudation does not
appear to be excessive. It is rich in leucocytes and seems to have
caused detacliment of the sensitive tissues from the horn prior to the
formation of pus in some instances; in others the tissues are still
attached to the horn and the suppuration takes place in the deeper
tissues.

Limited suppuration may take place in any part of the sensitive
tissues of the foot during laminitis, and may ultimately be reabsorbed
instead of being discharged upon the surface, but generally the process
begins in the neighborhood of the toe and sj^reads backward and
upward toward the coronet, finally separating the horn from the
coronary band at the quarters. At the same time it spreads over the
sole and eventuall}^ the entire hoof is loosened and sloughs away,
leaving the tissues beneath entirely unprotected. In other instances,
and these are generally the cases not considered unusually severe, the
suppuration begins at the coronary band ; it extends but a short dis-
tance into the tissues, yet destroys the patient b}^ separating the hoof
from the coronary band, upon which it depends for support and
growth. This form of the suppurative process usually begins in
front; for it is this part of the coronary band that is always most
actively affected with inflammation, and consequently it is here that
impairments first occur.

Suppuration of the sensitive sole is more common than of the sensi-
tive laminae and coronary band. It is present in the majority of cases

424 DISEASES OP THE HORSE.

where there is a dropping of the coffin bone, and in other instances
where the effusion at this point is so great as to arrest the production
of horn and uncover the sensitive tissues. Except when the result of
injury it begins at the toe and spreads backward, and, if not relieved
by opening the sole, escapes at the heel. Suppuration of the sole is
much less serious than in other parts of the foot.

If the acute constitutional symptoms developed from sloughing of
the foot do not result in death, a new hoof of very imperfect horn
may be developed after a time; but unless the animal is to be kept for
breeding purposes alone the foot will ever be useless for work and
death should relieve the suffering. Wlien only the sole sloughs
recovery takes place with proper treatment.

Peditis. — This is the term that Williams applies to that serious
complication of laminitis where not only the laminae, but the perios-
teum and coffin bone also are subjects of the inflammatory process.
Neither is this all ; for in some of these cases of peditis acute inflam-
mation of the coffin joint is present, and occasionally suppuration of
the joint. A mild form of periostitis, in which the exudation is in
the outer layer of the periosteum only, is a more common condition
than is recognized by practitioners generally. Intimate contiguity of
structures is the predisposing cause, for the disease either spreads
from the original seat or the complication occurs as one of the primary
results of the exciting cause. In the severer cases wheie the exudate
separates the periosteum from the bone, suppuration, gangrene, and
superficial caries are common results. If infiltration of the bone
tissues is rapid the blood supply is cut off by pressure upon the vessels
and death of the coffin bone follows. Grave constitutional symptoms
mark these changes, which soon j^rove fatal.

In the mild cases of periostitis it is by no means easy to determine
its presence positively, for there are no special symptoms by which it
may be distinguished from pure laminitis. In a majority of acute
cases, though, which show no signs of improvement by the fifth to
seventh day, it is safe to suspect periostitis, particularly if the coro-
nets are very hot, the pulse full and hard, and the lameness acute.
In the fortunately rare cases where the bone is affected with inflam-
mation and suppuration, the agony of the patient is intense ; he occu-
pies the recumbent position almost continually, never standing for
more than a few minutes at a time; suffers from the most careful
handling of the affected feet ; maintains a rapid pulse and respiration,
high temperature, loss of appetite, and great thirst. It is in these
cases the patient continually grows worse, and the appearance of sup-
puration at the top of the hoof in about two weeks after the inception
of the disease proves the inefficienc}'^ of any treatment which may have
been used and the hopelessness of the case. These patients die usually

LAMTNITIS, OR FOUNDER. 425

between the tenth and twentieth days either from exhaustion or
pyemic infection.

Gangrene occurs in the periosteum as the result of excessive detach-
ment fi'om the bone and compression due to excessive exudation.
Other parts of the sensitive tissues are subject to the same fate occa-
sionally, and at times large territories will be found dead.

Pumiced sole is that condition in which the horny sole in the neigh-
borhood of the toe readily crumbles away and leaves the sensitive
tissues more or less exposed. It is not a complication of laminitis
only, for it is seen under other conditions. Williams has described
the horny tissue of pumiced sole as " weak, cheesy, or spongy, like
macerated horn, or even grumous." This crumbling horn, when
critically examined, shows almost an entire absence of the cohesive
matter which unites the healthy fibers, while the fibers themselves are
irregular and granular in appearance. Pumiced sole depends upon
an impairment of the horn-secreting powers of the sensitive sole, or
upon a separation of the horny from the soft tissues which maintain
its vitality.

Punctured wounds of the foot, accompanied by any considerable
destruction of the soft tissues, present the same peculiarities of horn
in the immediate neighborhood of the injury. Bruises of the sole are
followed by this change when the exudation has been excessive and
has separated the horn from the living tissues. True, in these cases
we rarely see the soft tissues laid bare, for the reason that new horn
is constantly secreted and replaces that undergoing disintegration.

Laminitis presents three different conditions under which pumiced
sole may appear: First, where free exudation separates the horn from
the other tissues, or where the process of inflanunation arrests the
production of horn by impairing or destroying the horn-secreting
membrane ; secondly, where depression of the coffin bone causes pres-
sure upon and arrests the formation of horn ; and, thirdly, where the
elevation of the sole compresses the soft tissues against the pedal bone
and induces the same condition.

Pumiced sole, from simple exudation and separation of tissues, is
of little importance, for the reason given above in connection with
bruises; but when suppuration occurs in restricted portions of the
foot in conjunction with laminitis,- it always lays bare the tissues
beneath and impairs the animal's value temporarily. Recovery takes
place after a few weeks by the tissues horning over, as in injuries
attended by the same process. Depression of the coffin bone is not
sufficient within itself to cause pumiced sole; for, if the relative
change in the bone takes place slowly, or if the horn is thin, the sole
becomes convex from gradual pressure, and the soft tissues adapt
themselves to the change without having their function materially

426 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

impaired. But when the dropping is sudden and the soft tissues are
destroyed, the horn rapidly crumbles away and the toe of the bone
comes through. In many of these cases the soft tissues remain
uncovered for months. When they are eventually covered it is with
a thin, slightly adherent horn that stands but little or no wear. The
sole being now convex, the diseased tissues bear unusual weight by
coming in contact with the ground, and hence it is that these animals
are generally incurable cripples.

In the majority of cases where the sole is raised to meet the pedal
bone and pumiced sole occurs, it is due not to pressure of the bone
from within (for the tissues are capable of adapting themselves to the
gradual change), but to impaired vitality of the sensitive tissues from
the inflammation and to the constant concussion and pressure applied
from without during progression. To this is to be added the paring
away of the horn by the smith when applying the shoe, thereby keep-
ing the sole at this point too thin.

Turning up of the toe. — In many cases of laminitis which have
become chronic it is found that the toe of the foot turns up ; that the
heels are longer than natural ; while the hoof near the coronary band
is circled with ridges like the horn of a ram. Even in cases where
recovery has taken place, and in other diseases than laminitis, these
ridges may be found in the wall of the foot. But in such cases the
ridges are equally distant from each other all around the foot, while
in turning up of the toe the ridges are wide apart at the heels and
close together in front, as seen in the figure (Plate XXXIII, fig. 4).
These ridges are produced by periods of interference with the growth
of horn alternating with periods during which a normal or nearly
normal growth takes place. When the toe turns up it is because the
coronary band in front produces horn very slowly, while at the heels
it grows much faster, causing marked deformitj^

Animals so affected always place the abnormally long heel first
upon the ground, not alone because the heel is too long, nor as in acute
or subacute laminitis to relieve the pain, but for the simple reason that
the toe is too short and lifted away from its natural position. To
bring the toe to the ground the leg knuckles at the fetlock joint.

The pain and impairment of function in these cases always result in
marked atrophy of the muscles of the forearm and shoulder, and to
some extent of the pectorals, while the position of the fore legs
advances the shoulder joints so far forward as to cause a sunken
appearance of the breast, which the laity recognize as " chest
founder."

The lesions of turning up of the toe are permanent, and are the
most interesting pathologically of all the complications of laminitis.

Treatment. — The treatment of laminitis is probably more varied

LAMINITIS, OB FOUNDER. 427

than in any other disease, and yet a large number of cases recover for
even the poorest practitioner.

Prevention. — To guard against and prevent disease, or to render an
unpreventable attack less serious than it otherwise would be, is the
highest practice of the healing art. In a disease so prone to result
from the simplest causes, especially when the soundest judgment may
not be able to determine the extent of the disease-resisting powers of
the tissues which are liable to be affected, or of what shall in every
instance constitute an overexcitement, it is not strange that horse
owners find themselves in trouble from unintentional transgression.
If the disease was dependent upon specific causes, or if the stability of
the tissues were of a fixed or more nearly determinate quality, some
measures might be instituted that would prove generally preventive.
But the predisposing causes are common conditions and often can not
be remedied. That which is gentle work in one instance may incite
disease in another. That which is food to-day may to-morrow prove
disastrous to health. Finally, necessary medical interference, no mat-
ter how judicious, may cause a more serious complaint than that
which was being treated. Notwithstanding these difficulties there are
some general rules to be observed that will in part serve to prevent the
development of an unusual number of cases. First of all the predis-
posing causes must be removed where possible ; when this is impossi-
ble unusual care must be taken not to bring into operation an exciting
cause. Fat animals should, under no circumstances, have hard work.
If the weather is warm or the variation of temperature great, all
horses should have but slow, gentle labor until they become inured to
it, the tissues hardened, and their excitability reduced to a minimum.
Green horses should have moderate work, particularly when taken
from the farm and dirt roads to city j)avements; for increased con-
cussion, changed hygienic conditions, and artificial living readily
become active causes of the disease under these circumstances. Army
horses just out of winter quarters, track horses with insufficient prep-
aration, and farmers' horses put to work in the spring are among the
most suscejDtible classes, and must be protected by work that is easy
and gradual. If long marches or drives are imperative, the in-
cumbrances must be as light as possible and the journey interspersed
with frequent rests, for this allows the laminae to regain their
impaired functional activity and to withstand much more work with-
out danger. Furthermore, it permits early detection of an attack,
and prevents working after the disease begins, which renders subse-
quent medication more effective by cutting the process short at the
stage of congestion.

All animals when resting immediately after work should be pro-
tected from cold air or drafts. If placed in a stable that is warm

428 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

and without draft, no covering is necessary ; under opposite conditions
blankets should be used until the excitement and exhaustion of labor
have entirely passed away. It is still better that all animals coming
in warm from work be " cooled out " by slow walking until the per-
spiration has dried and the circulation and respiration are again
normal. Animals stopped on the road even for a few moments should
always be protected from rapid change of temperature by appropriate
clothing. If it can be avoided, horses that are working should never
be driven or ridden through water. If unavoidable, they should be
cooled off before passing through, and then kept moving until com-
pletely dried. The same care is to be practiced with washing the legs
in cold water when just in from work, for occasionally it proves the
cause of a most acute attack of this disease.

Unusual changes in the manner of applying the shoes should not be
hastily made. If a plane shoe has been worn, high heels or toes must
not be substituted at once; but the change, if necessary, should
gradually be made, so that the different tissues may adapt themselves
to the altered conditions. If radical changes are imperative, as is
sometimes the case, the work must be so reduced in quantity and
quality that it can not excite the disease.

Laminitis from the effects of purgatives can scarcely be guarded
against. I can not determine from the cases in which I have seen this
result that there are any conditions present that would warn us of
danger. The trouble does not seem to depend upon the size of the
purgative, the length of time before purgation begins, or the activity
and severity with which the remedy acts. Medicines known to have
unusual irritating effects on the alimentary canal should be used only
when necessity demands it, and then in moderate doses.

Experience alone will determine what animals are liable to suffer
from this disease through the use of foods. When an attack can be
ascribed to any particular food it should be withheld, unless in small
quantities. Horses that have never been fed upon Indian corn should
receive but a little of it at a time, mixed with bran, oats, or other food,
until it has been determined that no danger exists. Corn is less safe
in warm than in cold weather, and for this reason it should always be
fed with caution during spring and summer months.

When an animal is excessively lame in one foot the shoe of the oppo-
site member should be removed, and cold water frequently applied to
the well foot. At the same time use the slings if the subject remains
standing. Horses should under no circumstances be overworked ; to
guard against this, previous work, nature of roads, state of weather,
and various other influences must be carefully considered. Watering
while warm is a pernicious habit, and, unless the animal is accustomed
to it, is apt to result in some disorder, ofttimes in laminitis.

LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER. 429

Curative measures. — In cases of simple congestion of the laminae the
body should be warmly clothed and warm drinks administered. The
feet should be placed in a w^arm bath to increase the return flow of
blood. In course of an hour the feet may be changed to cold water
and kept there until recovery is completed. If the constitutional
symptoms demand it, diuretics should be given. Half-ounce doses
of saltpeter, three times a day in the water, answer the purpose. In
cases of active congestion the warm footbaths should be omitted and
cold ones used from the commencement. Subacute laminitis demands
the same treatment, with laxatives if there is constipation, and the ad-
dition of low-heeled shoes. The diuretics may need to be continued
for some time and their frequency increased. Regarding acute lami-
nitis, what has been called the " American treatment " is simple and
efficient. It consists solely in the exhibition of large doses of nitrate
of potash and the continued application to the feet and ankles of cold
water.

Three to 4 ounces of saltpeter in a pint of water, repeated every
six hours, is the proper dose. The laminitis frequently subsides
within a week. These large doses may be continued for a week with-
out danger ; under no circumstances have I seen the kidneys irritated
to excess or other unfavorable effects produced.

The feet should be kept in a tub of water at a temperature of 45°
to 50° F., unless the animal is lying down, when swabs are to be used
and wet every half hour with the cold water. The water keeps the
horn soft and moist and acts directly upon the inflamed tissues by re-
ducing the temperature. Cold maintains the vitality and disease-
resisting qualities of the soft tissues, tones up the coats of the blood
vessels, diminishes the supply of blood, and limits the exudation.
Furthermore, cold has an anesthetic effect upon the diseased tissues
and relieves the pain.

Aconite may be given in conjunction with the niter where the heart
is greatly excited and beats strongly. Ten-drop doses, repeated
every two hours for twenty-four hours, are sufficient. The use of
cathartics is dangerous, for they may excite superpurgation. Usually
the niter will relieve the constipation, yet if it should prove obstinate,
laxatives may be carefully given. Bleeding, both general and local,
should be guarded against. The shoes must be early removed and
the soles left unpared.

Paring of the soles presents two objections: First, while it may
temporarily relieve the pain by relieving pressure, it favors greater
exudation, which may more than counterbalance the good effects.
Secondly, it makes the feet tender and subject to bruises when the
animal again goes to work. The shoes should be replaced when con-
valescence sets in and the animal is ready to take exercise. Exercise

430 DISEASES OP THE HORSE.

should never be enforced until the inflammation has subsided; for
although it temporarily relieves the pain and soreness, it maintains
the irritation, increases the exudation, and postpones recovery.

If at the end of the fifth or sixth day prominent symptoms of
recovery are not apparent, apply a stiff blister of cantharides around
the coronet and omit the niter for about forty-eight hours. Wlien the
blister is well set, the feet may again receive wet swabs. If one blister
does not remove the soreness it may be repeated, or the actual cautery
applied. The same treatment should be adopted where sidebones
form or inflammation of the coronet bone follows. When the sole
breaks through, exposing the soft tissues, the feet must be carefully
shod with thin heels and thick toes where there is a tendency to walk
on the heels, and the sole must be well protected with appropriate
dressings and pressure over the exposed parts. When there is turn-
ing up of the toe, blistering of the coronet, in front only^ sometimes
stimulates the growth of horn, but as a rule judicious shoeing is the
only treatment that will enable the animal to do light, slow w^ork.

Where suppuration of the laminae is profuse, it is better to destroy
your patient at once and relieve his suffering ; but if the suppuration
is limited to a small extent of tissue, especially of the sole, treatment,
as in acute cases, may induce recovery and should always be tried. If
from bed sores or other causes septicemia or pyemia is feared, the
bisulphite of soda, in half -ounce doses, may be given in conjunction
with tonics and such other treatment as is indicated in these diseases.

As to enforced recumbency I doubt the propriety of insisting on it
in the majority of cases, for I think the patient usually assumes what-
ever position gives most comfort. No doubt recumbency diminishes
the amount of blood sent to the feet, and may greatly relieve the pain,
so that forcing the patient to lie down may be tried, yet should not be
renewed if he thereafter persists in standing.

Where the animal persistently stands, or where constant lying indi-
cates it (to prevent extensive sores), the patient should be placed in
slings. When all four feet are affected it may be impossible to use
slings, for the reason that the patient refuses to support any of his
weight and simply hangs in them. Lastly, convalescent cases must
not be returned to work too early, else permanent recovery may never
be effected.

DISEASES OF THE SKIN.

By James Law, P. R. C. V. S.,

Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., Cornell University.

[Revised in 1903 by the author.]

As we find them described in systematic works, the diseases of the
skin are very numerous and complex, which may be largely accounted
for by the fact that the cutaneous covering is exposed to view at all
points, so that shades of difference in inflammatory and other diseased
processes are easily seen and distinguished from one another. In the
horse the hairy covering serves to some extent to mask the symptoms,
and hence the nonprofessional man is tempted to apply the term
" mange " to all alike, and it is only a step further to apply the same
treatment to all these widely different disorders. Yet even in the
hairy quadruped the distinction can be made in a way which can not
be done in disorders of that counterpart and prolongation of the
skin — the mucous membrane, which lines the air passages, the digest-
ive organs, the urinary and generative apparatus. Diseased processes,
therefore, which in these organs it might be difficult or impossible to
distinguish from one another, can usually be separated and recognized
when appearing in the skin.

Nor is this differentiation unimportant. The cutaneous covering
presents such an extensive surface for the secretion of cuticular scales,
hairs, horn, sebaceous matter, sweat, and other excretory matters, that
any extensive disorder in its functions may lead to serious internal
disease and death. Again, the intimate nervous sympathy of differ-
ent points of the skin with particular internal organs renders certain
skin disorders causative of internal disease and certain internal dis-
eases causative of affections of the skin. The mere painting of the
skin with an impermeable coating of glue is speedily fatal; a cold
draft striking on the chest causes inflammation of the lungs or pleura ;
a skin eruption speedily follows certain disorders of the stomach, the
liver, the kidneys, or even the lungs; simple burns of the skin cause
inflammations of internal organs, and inflammations of such or-
gans cause in their turn eruptions on the skin. The relations —
nervous, secretory, and absorptive — between the skin and internal
organs are most extensive and varied, and therefore a visible disorder
in the skin may point at once and specifically to a particular fault in
diet, to an injudicious use of cold water when the system is heated, to
a fault in drainage, ventilation, or lighting of the stables, to indiges-
tion, to liver disease, to urinary disorder, etc. ^

431

432 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN.

The skin consists primarily of two parts: (1) The superficial non-
vascular (without blood vessels) layer, the cuticle, or epidermis; and
(2) the deep vascular (with blood vessels) layer, the corium, dermis,
or true skin.

The cuticle is made up of cells placed side by side and more or less
modified in shape by their mutual compression and by surface evapo-
ration and drying. The superficial stratum consists of the cells dried
in the form of scales, which fall off continually and form dandruff.
The deep stratum (the mucous layer) is formed of somewhat rounded
cells with large central nuclei, and in colored skin containing numer-
ous pigment granules. These cells have prolongations, or branches,
by which they communicate with one another and with the superficial
layer of cells in the true skin beneath. Through these prolongations
they receive nutrient liquids for their growth and increase, and pass
on liquids absorbed by the skin into the vessels of the true skin
beneath. The living matter in the cells exercises an equally selective
power on what they shall take up for their own nourishment and on
what they shall admit into the circulation from without. Thus, cer-
tain agents, like iodine and belladonna, are readily admitted, whereas
others, like arsenic, are excluded by the sound, unbroken epidermis.
Between the deej^ and superficial layers of the epidermis there is a
thin translucent layer (septum lucidum) consisting of a double
stratum of cells, and forming a medium of transition from the deep
spheroidal to the superficial scaly cuticle.

The true shin, or dermis, has a framework of interlacing bundles of
white and yellow fibers, large and coarse in the deeper layers, and
fine in the superficial, where they approach the cuticle. Between the
fibrous bundles are left interspaces which, like the bundles, become
finer as they approach the surface, and inclose cells, vessels, nerves,
glands, gland ducts, hairs, and in the deeper layers fat.

The superficial layer of the dermis is formed into a series of minute
conical elevations, or papilla, projecting into the deep portion of the
cuticle, from which they are separated by a very fine transparent
membrane. This papillary layer is A^ery richly supplied with capil-
lary blood vessels and nerves, and is at once the seat of acute sensa-
tion and the point from which the nutrient liquid is supplied to the
cells of the cuticle above. It is also at this point that the active
changes of inflammation are especially concentrated; it is the ira-

Description of Fig, 1, Plate XXXV : e. Epidermis, d. Derma. 1. Horny layer
of the epidermis. 2. Stratum mucosum. 3. Papillary layer of the derma. 4.
Excretory duct of a sudoriparous glaud. 5. Glomerule of a sudoriparous gland.
G. Hair follicle. 7. Sebaceous gland. 8. Internal sheath of the hair follicle,
9, Bulb of the hair. 10. Mass of adipose tissue.

1>I.ATF. XXXV

I'ertical secUon through .sktii.

Hair ilisea.se^l by
'Jiirhophylon Torvsitrtin.s

after M>''«>niii .

J/air flL'UHtJied by
.Achorioii Selionleini

Microspaiotv AUouinil n-om
Pcunasitw Pityrut^tis in tAe ht*rse .

after Mr'finin .

JULIUS eiEN & CO t

I) I SK AS K S OF THE S Kl X .

STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN. 433

mediately superposed cell layers (mucous) that become morbidly
increased in the earlier stages of inflammation; it is on the surface
of the papillary layer that the liquid is thrown out which raises the
cuticle in the form of a blister, and it is at this point mainly that pus
forms in the ordinary pustule.

The fibrous bundles of the true skin contain plain muscular fibers,
which are not controlled by the will, but contract under the influence
of cold and under certain nervous influences, as in some skin dis-
eases and in the chill of a fever, and lead to contraction, tightening,
or corrugation of the skin, contributing to produce the " hidebound "
of the. horseman. Other minute muscular filaments are extended
from the surface of the dermis to the hair follicle on the side to which
the hair is inclined, and under the same stimulating influences pro-
duce that erection of the hair which is familiarly known as " staring
coat." Besides these, the horse's skin is furnished with an expansion
of red voluntary muscle, firmly attached to the fibrous bundles, and
by which the animal can not only dislodge insects and other irritants,
but even shake off the harness. This fleshy envelope covers the sides
of the trunk and the lower portions of the neck and head, the parts
unprotected by the mane and tail, and serves to throw the skin of
these parts into puckers, or ridges, in certain irritating skin diseases.

The hairs are cuticular products growing from an enlarged papilla
lodged in the depth of a follicle or sac, hollowed out in the skin and
extending to its deepest layers. The hair follicle is lined by cells of
epidermis, which at the bottom are reflected on the papilla and become
the root of the hair. The hair itself is formed of the same kind of
cells firmly adherent to each other by a tough intercellular substance,
and overlapping each other like slates on a roof in a direction toward
the free end.

The sebaceous glands are branching-tubes ending in follicles or sacs
and opening into the hair follicles, lined by a very vascular fibrous
network representing the dermis, and an internal layer of cells repre-
senting the mucous layer of the cuticle. The oily secretion gives gloss
to the hair and prevents its becoming dry and brittle, and keeps the
skin soft and supple, protecting it at once against undue exhalation of
water and undue absorption when immersed in that medium. Besides
those connected with the hair follicles there are numerous isolated
sebaceous glands, opening directly on the surface of the skin, produ-
cing a somewhat thicker and more odorous secretion. These are found
in large numbers in the folds of the skin, Avhere chafing would be
likely if the surface were dry, as on the sheath, scrotum, mammary
glands, and inner side of the thigh, around the anus and vulva, in the
hollow of the heel, beneath the fine horn of the frog, on the inner side
H. Doc. 795, 50-2 28

434 DISEASES OP THE HORSE.

of the elbow, on the lips, nostrils, and eyelids. "When closed by dried
secretion or otherwise these glands may beconje distended so as to
form various-sized swellings on the skin, and when inflamed they
may throw out offensive liquid discharges, as in " grease," or produce
red, tender fungous growths ("grapes").

The sweat glands of the horse, like those of man, are composed of
simple tubes, which extend down through the cuticle and dermis in a
spiral manner, and are coiled into balls in the deeper layer of the true
skin. In addition to their importance in throwing offensive waste
products out of the system, these glands tend to cool the skin and the
entire economy of the animal through the evaporation of their watery
secretion. Their activity is therefore a matter of no small moment,
as besides regulating the animal heat and excreting impurities, they
influence largely the internal organs through the intimate sympathy
maintained between them and the skin.

Diseases of the skin may be conveniently divided, according to their
most marked features, into —

(1) Those in which congestion and infaTnmation are the most
marked features, varying according to the grade or form into {a)
congestion with simple redness, dryness, and heat, but no eruption
{erythema) ; (5) inf.ammation with red-pointed elevations, but no
blisters {'papules) ; (c) inflammation with fine conical elevations,
each surmounted by a minute blister {vesicle) ; {d) inflammation
with a similar eruption blit with larger blisters, like half a pea and
upwards {hullce) ; {e) inflammation with a similar eruption, but
with a small sac of white creamy pus on the summit of each elevation
{pustules) ; (/) the formation of pustules implicating the superficial
layer of the true skin, a small portion of which dies and is thrown off
as a slough, or " core " {hoils) ; {g) the formation of round, nodular,
transient swellings in the true skin {tubercles) ; and (A) the excessive
production of scales, or dandruff {scaly or squamous affections).

(2) Diseases in which there are only deranged sensations of itch-
ing, heat, tenderness, etc. {neurosis).

(3) Diseased growths, such as warts, callosities, horny growths,
cancer, etc.

(4) Diseases due to parasites, animal and vegetable.

(5) Diseases connected with a specific poison, such as horsepox,
erysipelas, anthrax, farcy, or cutaneous glanders, etc.

(6) Physical injuries, like wounds, burns, scalds, etc.

CONGESTION (rED EFFLORESCENCE, OR ERYTHEMA).

This is a congested or slightly inflamed condition of the skin, unat-
tended by any eruption. The part is slightly swollen, hot, tender,
or itchy, and dry, and if the skin is white there is redness. The red-

INFLAMMATION OF THE SKIN. 435

ness is effaced by pressure, but reappears instantly when the pressure
is removed. Unless in transient cases the hairs are liable to be shed.
It may be looked on as the first stage of inflammation, and therefore
when it becomes aggravated it may merge in part or in whole into a
papular, vesicular, or pustular eruption.

Erythema may arise from a variety of causes, and is often named
in accordance with its most prominent cause. Thus the chilling, or
partial freezing, of a part will give rise to a severe reaction and con-
gestion. When snowy or icy streets have been salted this may extend
to severe inflammation with vesicles, pustules, or even sloughs of
circumscribed portions of the skin of the pastern (chillblain, frost-
bite). Heat and burning have a similar effect, and this often comes
from exposure to the direct rays of the sun. The skin that does not
perspire is the most subject, and hence the white face or white limb
of a horse becoming dried by the intensity of the sun's rays often
suffers to the exclusion of the rest of the body {white face and foot
disease). The febrile state of the general system is also a potent
cause, hence the white-skinned horse is rendered the more liable if
kept on a heating ration of buckwheat, or even of wheat or maize.
Contact of the skin with oil of turpentine or other essential oils, with
irritant liquids, vegetable or mineral, with rancid fats, with the acrid
secretions of certain animals, like the irritating toad, with pus, sweat,
tears, urine, or liquid feces, will produce congestion or even inflam-
mation. Chafing is a common cause, and is especially liable to affect
the fat horse between the thighs, by the side of the sheath or scrotum,
on the inner side of the elbow, or where the harness chafes on the
poll, shoulder, back, breastbone, and under the tail. The accumula-
tion of sweat and dust between the folds of the skin and on the sur-
face of the harness, and the specially acrid character of the sweat in
certain horses contribute to chafing or " intertrigo." The heels often
become congested, owing to the irritation caused by the short bristly
hairs in clipped heels. Again, congestion may occur from friction by
halter, harness, or other foreign body under the pastern, or inside the
thigh or arm, or by reason of blows from another foot (cutting, inter-
fering, overreach). Finally erythema is especially liable to occur in
spring when the coat is being shed, and the hair follicles and general
surface are exposed and irritable in connection with the dropping of
the hairs.

If due only to a local irritant, congestion will usually disappear
when such cause has been removed, but when the feeding or system
is at fault these conditions must be first corrected. While the coat is
being shed the susceptibility will continue, and the aim should be to
prevent the disease developing and advancing so as to weaken the
skin, render the susceptibility permanent, and lay the foundation of

436 DISEASES OP THE HORSE.

persistent or frequently recurring skin disease. Hence at such times
the diet should be nonstimulating ; any excess of grain, and above all
of buckwheat, Indian corn, or "wheat, being avoided. A large grain
ration should not be given at once on return from hard work, when
the general system and stomach are unable to cope with it ; the animal
should not be given more than a swallow or two of cold water when
perspiring and fatigued; nor should he be allowed a full supply of
water just after his grain ration ; he should not be overheated or
exhausted by work, nor should dried sweat and dust be allowed to
accumulate on the skin or on the harness pressing on it. The expo-
sure of the affected heels to damp, mud, and snow, and, above all, to
melting snow, should be guarded against; light, smooth, well-fitting
harness must be secured, and where the saddle or collar irritates an
incision should be made in them above and below the part that chafes,
and, the padding between having been removed, the lining should be
beaten so as to make a hollow. A zinc shield in the upper angle of
the collar will often prevent chafing in front of the withers.

Treatment. — Wash the chafed skin and apply salt water (one-half
ounce to the quart), extract of witch-hazel, a weak solution of oak
bark, or camphorated spirit. If the surface is raw use bland powders,
such as oxide of zinc, lycopodium, starch, or smear the surface with
vaseline, or with 1 ounce of vaseline intimately mixed with one-half
dram each of sugar of lead and opium. In cases of chafing rest must
be strictly enjoined. "V^Hiere there is constitutional disorder or acrid
sweat, 1 ounce cream of tartar or a teaspoonful of bicarbonate of soda
may be given twice daily.

CONGESTION, WITH SMALL PIMPLES, OR PAPULES.

In this affection there is the general blush, heat, etc., of erythema,
together with a crop of elevations from the size of a poppy seed to a
coffee bean, visible when the hair is reversed or to be felt with the
finger where the hair is scanty. In white skins they vary from the
palest to the darkest red. All do not retain the papular type, but
some go on to form blisters (eczema, bullae) or pustules, or dry up
into scales, or break out into open sores, or extend into larger swell-
ings (tubercles). The majority, however, remaining as pimples,
characterize the disease. When very itchy the rubbing breaks them
open, and the resulting sores and scales hide the true nature of the
eruption.

The general and local causes may be the same as for erythema, and
in the same subject one portion of the skin may have simple conges-
tion and another adjacent papules. As the inflammatory action is
more pronounced, so the irritation and itching are usually greater,
the animal rubbing and biting himself severely. This itching is espe-

INFLAMMATION OF THE SKIN. 437

cially severe in the forms which attack the roots of the mane and tail,
and there the disease is often so persistent and troublesome that the
horse is rendered virtually useless.

The bites of insects often produce a papular eruption, but in many
such cases the swelling extends wider into a buttonlike elevation,
one-half to an inch in diameter. The same remarks apply to the
effects of the poison ivy and poison sumac.

Treatment. — In papular eruption first remove the cause, then apply
the same general remedies as for simple congestion. In the more
inveterate cases use a lotion of one-half ounce sulphide of potassium
in 2 quarts water, to which a little Castile soap has been added ; or
use a wash with one-half ounce oil of tar, 2 ounces Castile soap, and
20 ounces water.

INFLAMMATION WITH BLISTERS, OR ECZEMA.

In this the skin is congested, thickened, warm (white skins are red-
dened), and shows a thick crop of little blisters formed by effusions of
a straw-colored fluid between the true skin and the cuticle. The blis-
ters may be of any size from a millet seed to a pea, and often crack
open and allow the escape of the fluid, which concretes as a slightly
yellowish scab or crust around the roots of the hairs. This exudation
and incrustation are especially common where the hairs are long,
thick, and numerous, as in the region of the pastern of heavy draft
horses. The term eczema is now applied very generally to eruptions
of all kinds that depend on internal disorders or constitutional con-
ditions, and that tend to recurrences and inveteracy. Eczema may
appear on any part of the body, but in horses it is especially common
on the heels and the low^er parts of the limbs, and less frequently on
the neck, shoulder, and abdomen. The limbs appear to be especially
liable because of their dependent position, all blood having to return
from them against the action of gravity, and congestions and swell-
ings being common, because of the abundance of blood vessels in this
part of the skin, and because of the frequent contact with the irritant
dung and urine and their ammoniacal emanations. The legs further
suffer from contact with wet and mud when at work, from snow and
ice, from drafts of cold air on the wet limbs, from washing with
caustic soaps, or from the relaxing effects of a too deep and abundant
litter. Among other causes may be named indigestion and the pres-
ence of irritant matters in the blood and sweat, the result of patent
medicated foods and condition powders (aromatics, stimulants), green
food, new hay, new oats, buckwheat, wheat, maize, diseased potatoes,
smut, or ergot, in grains, decomposing green food, brewers' grains, or
kitchen garbage. The excitement in the skin, caused by shedding
the coat, lack of grooming, hot weather, hot boiled or steamed food,

438 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

conduces to the eruption. Lastly, any sudden change of food may
induce it.

The blisters may in part go on to suppuration so that vesicles and
pustules often appear on the same patch, and when raw from rubbing
the true nature of the eruption may be completely masked. In high-
fed horses, kept in close stables with little work, eczema of the limbs
may last for months and yearfe. It is a very troublesome affection in
draft stallions.

Treatment. — This disease is so often the result of indigestion that a
laxative of 1 pound Glauber's salts, in 3 or 4 quarts water or 1^ pints
olive oil, is often demanded to clear away irritants from the alimen-
tary canal. Following this, in recent and acute cases, give 2 drams
of acetate or bicarbonate of potash twice a day in the drinking water.
If the bowels still become costive, give daily 1 ounce sulphate of soda
and 20 grains powdered nux vomica. In debilitated horses combine
the nux vomica with one-half ounce powdered gentian root. As a
wash for the skin use 1 dram bicarbonate of soda and 1 dram carbolic
acid in a quart of water, after having cleansed the surface with tepid
water. Employ the same precautions as regards feeding, stabling,
and care of harness as in simple congestion of the skin.

In the more inveterate forms of eczema more active treatment is
required. Soak the scabs in fresh sweet oil, and in a few houi-s
remove these with tepid water and Castile soap ; then apply an oint-
ment of sulphur or iodide of sulphur day by day. If this seems to
be losing its effect after a week, change for mercurial ointment or a
solution of sulphide of potassium, or of hyposulphite of soda, 3 drams
to the quart of water. In these cases the animal may take a course of
sulphur (1 ounce daily), bisulphite of soda (one-half ounce dail}^, or
of arsenic (5 grains daily) mixed with 1 dram bicarbonate of soda.

INFLAMMATION WITH PUSTULES.

In this affection the individual elevations on the inflamed skin
show in the center a small sac of white, creamy pus, in place of the
clear liquid of a blister. They vary in size from a millet seed to a
hazelnut. The pustules of glanders (farcy buds) are to be distin-
guished by the watery contents and the cordlike swelling, extending
from the pustules along the line of the veins, and those of boils by the
inflammation and sloughing out of a core of the true skin. The hair
on the pustule stands erect, and is often shed with the scab which
results. When itching is severe the parts become excoriated by
rubbing, and, as in the other forms of skin disease, the character of
the eruption may become indistinct.. Old horses suffer mainly at the
root of the mane and tail and about the heels, and suckling foals
around the mouth, on the face, inside the thighs, and under the tail.

Pustules like eczema are especially liable to result from unwhole-
some food and indigestion, from a sudden change of food — above all,

BOILS, OR FURUNCLES. 439

from dry to green food. In foals it may result from overheating of
the mare and allowing the first milk after she returns, or by milk
rendered unwholesome by faulty feeding of the dam. If a foal is
brought up by hand the souring and other decompositions in the milk
derange the digestion and cause such eruption. Vetches and other
plants affected with honeydew and buckwheat have been the cause of
these eruptions on white portions of the skin. Disorders of the
kidneys or liver are conmion causes of this affection.

Treatment. — Apply soothing ointments, such as benzonated oxide
of zinc, or vaseline with 1 dram oxide of zinc in each ounce. Or a
wash of 1 dram sugar of lead or 2 drams hyposulphite of soda in a
quart of water may be freely applied. If the skin is already abraded
and scabby, smear thickly with vaseline for some hours, then wash
with soapsuds and apply the above dressings. ^A^ien the excoriations
are indolent they may be painted with a solution of lunar caustic, 2
grains to 1 ounce of distilled water. Internally counteract costive-
ness and remove intestinal irritants by the same means as in eczema,
and follow this with one-half ounce doses daily of hyposulphite of
soda, and one-half ounce doses of gentian. Inveterate cases may
often be benefited by a course of sulphur, bisulphite of soda, or
arsenic. In all, the greatest care must be taken with regard to food,
feeding, watering, cleanliness, and work. In wet and cold seasons
predisposed animals should, so far as possible, be protected from
wet, mud, snow, and melted snow — above all, from that which has
been melted by salt.

BOILS, OR FURUNCLES.

These may appear on any part of the skin, but are especially com-
mon on the lower parts of the limbs, and on the shoulders and back
where the skin is irritated by accumulated secretion and chafing with
the harness. In other cases the cause is constitutional, or attended
by unwholesome diet and overwork with loss of general health and
condition. They also follow on weakening diseases, notably strangles,
in which irritants are retained in the system from overproduction of
poisons and effete matters during fever, and imperfect elimination.
There is also the presence of a pyogenic bacterium, by which the
disease may be maintained and propagated.

"\Yliile boils are pus-producing, they differ from simple pustule in
affecting the deepest layers of the true skin, and even the superficial
layers of the connective tissues beneath, and in the death and slough-
ing out of the central part of the inflamed mass (core). The depth
of the hard, indurated, painful swelling, and the formation of this
central mass or core, which is bathed in pus and slowly separated
from surrounding parts, serve to distinguish the boil alike from the
pustule, from the farcy bud, and from a superficial abscess.

440 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

Treatment. — To treat very painful boils a free incision with a
lancet in two directions, followed by a dressing with one-half an
ounce carbolic acid in a pint of water, bound on with cotton wool or
lint, may cut them short. The more common course is to apply a
warm poultice of linseed meal or wheat bran, and renew daily vmtil
the center of the boil softens, when it should be lanced and the core
pressed out.

If the boil is smeared with a blistering ointment of Spanish flies
and a poultice put over it, the formation of matter and separation of
the core is often hastened. A mixture of sugar and soap laid on the
boil is equally good. Cleanliness of the skin and the avoidance of all
causes of irritation are important items, and a teaspoonful of bicar-
bonate of soda once or twice a day will sometimes assist in warding
off a new crop.

NETTLERASH ( SURFEIT, OR URTICARIA).

This is an eruption in the form of cutaneous nodules, in size from
a hazelnut to a hickory nut, transient, Avith little disposition to the
formation of either blister or pustule, and usually connected with
shedding of the coat, sudden changes of weather, and unwholesome-
ness or sudden change in the food. It is most frequent in the spring
and in young and vigorous animals (good feeders). The swelling
embraces the entire thickness of the skin and terminates by an
abrupt margin in place of shading off into surrounding parts. When
the individual swellings run together there are formed extensive
patches of thickened integument. These may appear on any part of
the body, and may be general; the eyelids may be closed, the lips
rendered immovable, or the nostrils so thickened that breathing
becomes difficult and snuffling. It may be attended by constipation
or diarrhea or by colicky pains. The eruption is sudden, the whole
skin being sometimes covered in a few hours, and it may disappear
with equal rapidity or j^ersist for six or eight days.

Treatment. — This consists in clearing out the bowels by 5 drams
Barbados aloes, or 1 pound Glauber's salts, and follow the operation
of these by daily doses of one-half ounce powdered gentian and 1
ounce Glauber's salts. A weak solution of alum may be applied to
the swellings.

SCALY SKIN DISEASE, OR PITYRIASIS.

This affection is characterized by an excessive production and
detachment of dry scales from the surface of the skin (dandruff). It
is usually dependent on some fault in digestion and an imperfect
secretion from the sebaceous glands, and is most common in old horses
with spare habit of body. ' Williams attributes it to food rich in sac-

ERUPTIONS OF THE SKIN. 441

charine matter (carrots, turnips) and to the excretion by the skin
of oxalic acid. He has found it in horses irregularly worked and well
fed, and advises the administration of pitch for a length of time, and
the avoidance of saccharine food. Otherwise the horse may take a
laxative followed by dram doses of carbonate of potash, and the
affected parts may be bathed with soft tepid water and smeared
with an ointment made with vaseline and sulphur. In obstinate
cases sulphur may be given daily in the food.

NERVOUS IRRITATION OF THE SKIN, OR PRURITUS.

This is seen in horses fed to excess on grain and hay, kept in close
stables, and worked irregularly. Though most common in summer,
it is often severe in hot, close stables in winter. Pimples, vesicles,
and abrasions may result, but as the itching is quite as severe on other
parts of the skin, these may be the result of scratching merely. It is
especially common and inveterate about the roots of the mane and tail.

Treatment consists in a purgative (Glauber's salts, 1 pound), re-
stricted, laxative diet, and a wash of water slightly soured with oil of
vitriol and rendered sweet by carbolic acid. If obstinate, give daily 1
ounce of sulphur and 20 grains nux vomica. If the acid lotion
fails, 2 drams carbonate of potash and 2 grains of cyanide of potas-
sium in a quart of water w411 sometimes benefit. If due to pinworms
in the rectum, the itching of the tail may be remedied by an occasional
injection of a quart of water in which chips of quassia wood have been
steeped for twelve hours.

HERPES.

This name has been applied to a disease in which there is an erup-
tion of minute vesicles in circular groups or clusters, with little
tendency to burst, but rather to dry up into fine scabs. If the vesicles
break they exude a slight gummy discharge which concretes into a
small, hard scab. It is apparently noncontagious and not appreciably
connected with any disorder of internal organs. It sometimes accom-
panies or follows specific fevers, and is, on the whole, most frequent
at the seasons of changing the coat — spring and autumn. It is seen
on the lips and pastern, but may appear on any part of the body. The
duration of the eruption is two weeks or even more, the tendency
being to spontaneous recovery. The affected part is very irritable,
causing a sensitiveness and a disposition to rub out of proportion to
the extent of the eruption.

Treatment. — It may be treated by oxide of zinc ointment, and to
relieve the irritation a solution of opium or belladonna in water, or of
sugar of lead or oil of peppermint. A course of bitters (one-half an
ounce Peruvian bark daily for a week) may be serviceable in brac-
ing the system and producing an indisposition to the eruption.

442 DISEASES OP THE HOKSE.

BLEEDING SKIN ERUPTIONS, OR DERMATORRHAGIA PARASITICA.

In China, Hungary, Spain, and other countries horses frequently
suffer from the presence of a threadworm {Filaria hcemorrhagica,
Railliet; F. multipapillosa, Condamine and Drouilly) in the subcuta-
neous connective tissue, causing effusions of blood under the scurf
skin and incrustations of dried blood on the surface. The eruptions,
which appear mainly on the sides of the trunk, but may cover any
part of the body, are rounded elevations about the size of a small pea,
containing blood which bursts through the scurf skin and concretes
like a reddish scab around the erect, rigid hairs. These swellings
appear in groups, which remain out for several days, gradually
diminishing in size ; new groups appear after an interval of three or
four weeks, the manifestation being confined to three or four months
of spring and disappearing in winter. A horse will suffer for several
years in succession, and then permanently recover. A fatal issue is
not unknown. To find the worm the hair is shaved from the part
where the elevations are felt, and as soon as a bleeding point is shown
the superficial layer is laid open with the knife, when the parasite
will be seen drawing itself back into the parts beneath. The worm is
about 2 inches long and like a stout thread, thicker toward the head
than toward the tail, and with numerous little conical elevations
(papillae) around the head. The young worms are numerous in the
body of the adult female worm. The worm has become common in
given localities, and probably enters the system with food or water.

Treatment is not satisfactory, but the affected surface should be
kept clean by sponging, and the pressure of harness on any affected
part must be avoided. Thus rest may become essential. The part
may be frequently washed with a strong solution of sulphide of
potassium.

SUMMER SORES FROM FILARIA IRRITANS.

The summer sores of horses {Dermatitis granulosa, boils) have
been traced to the presence in the skin of another parasite, 3 milli-
meters in length and extremely attenuated {Filaria irritans Railliet).
The sores may be seen as small as a millet seed, but more frequently
the size of a pea, and may become an inch in diameter. They may
appear on any point, but are especially obnoxious where the harness
presses or on the lower parts of the limbs. They cause intense and
insupportable itching, and the victim rubs and bites the part until
extensive raw surfaces are produced. Aside from such friction the
sore is covered by a brownish-red, soft, pulpy material with cracks
or furrows filled with serous pus. In the midst of the softened mass
are small, firm, rounded granulations, fibrinous, and even caseated,
and when the soft pultaceous material has been scraped off, the sur-
face bears a resemblance to the fine yellow points of miliary tubercu-

CRACKED HEELS. 443

losis in the lung. The worm or its debris is found in the center of
such masses. These sores are very obstinate, resisting treatment for
months in summer, and even after apparent recovery during the
cold season they may appear anew the following summer. In bad
cases the rubbing and biting may cause exposure of synovial sacs and
tendons, and cause irremediable injury. Even in winter, however,
when the diseased process seems arrested, there remain the hard,
firm, resistant patches of the skin with points in which the diseased
jjroduct has become softened like cheese.

The apparent subsidence of the disease in winter is attributed to the
coldness and comparative bloodlessness of the skin, whereas in sum-
mer, with high temperature, active circulation, and rapid cell growth,
inflammation is increased, itching follows, and from the animal rub-
bing the i^art the irritation is persistently increased. The hotter the
climate the more troublesome the disease.

The life history of the parasite is unknown, but it probably enters
the system with the food or water.

Treatment consists, first, in placing the animal in a cool place and
showering the surface with cold water. The parasite may be de-
stroyed by rubbing the surface of the wound with iodoform and
covering it with a layer of collodion, and repeating the applications
every twenty- four hours for fifteen days, or until the sores heal up.
Ether or chloroform may be used in place of iodoform, being poured
on cotton wool and applied to the sore for two minutes before paint-
ing it with collodion.

CRACKED HEELS (SCRATCHES, OR CHAPS ON KNEE AND HOCk).

This usually sets in with swelling, heat, and tenderness of the hol-
low of the heel, with erections of the hairs and redness (in white
skins), with stiffness and lameness, which may be extreme in irritable
horses. Soon slight cracks appear transversely, and may gain in
depth and width, and may even suppurate. More frequently they
become covered at the edges or throughout by firm incrustations re-
sulting from the drying of the liquids thrown out, and the skin be-
comes increasingly thick and rigid. A similar condition occurs
behind the knee and in front of the hock (malanders and salanders),
and may extend from these points to the hoof, virtually incasing that
side of the limb in a permanent incrusting sheath.

Causes. — Besides a heavy lymphatic constitution, which predisposes
to this affection, the causes are overfeeding on grain, unAvholesome
fodder, close, hot, dirty stables, constant contact with dung and urine
and their emanations, working in deep, irritant mud; above all, in
limestone districts, irritation by dry limestone or sandy dust in dry
weather on dirt roads; also cold drafts, snow and freezing mud,
washing the legs with caustic soap, wrapping the wet legs in thick

444 DISEASES OP THE HORSE.

woolen bandages which soak the skin and render it sensitive when
exposed next day, clipping the heels, weak heart and circulation,
natural or supervening on overwork, imperfect nourishment, impure
air, lack of sunshine, chronic exhausting, or debilitating diseases,
or functional or structural diseases of the heart, liver, or kidneys.
These last induce dropsical swelling of the limbs (stocking), weaken
the parts, and induce cracking. Finally the cicatrix of a preexist-
ing crack, weak, rigid, and unyielding, is liable to reopen under any
severe exertion, hence rapid paces and heavy draft are active causes.
Treatment. — In treatment the first step is to ascertain and remove
the cause whenever possible. If there is much local heat and inflam-
mation, a laxative (5 drams aloes or 1 pound Glauber's salts) may be
given, and for the pampered animal the grain should be reduced or
replaced altogether by bran mashes, flaxseed, and other laxative, non-
stimulating food. In the debilitated, on the other hand, nutritious
food and bitter tonics may be given, and even a course of arsenic (5
grains arsenic with 1 dram bicarbonate of soda daily). When the
legs swell, exercise on dry roads, hand rubbing, and evenly applied
bandages are good, and mild astringents, like extract of witch-hazel,
may be applied and the part subsequently rubbed dry and bandaged.
If there is much heat but unbroken skin, a lotion of 2 drams sugar
of lead to 1 quart of water may be applied on a thin bandage, covered
in cold weather with a dry one. The same may be used after the
cracks appear, or a solution of sulphurous acid 1 part, glycerin 1 part,
and water 1 part, applied on cotton and well covered by a bandage.
In case these should prove unsuitable to the particular case, the part
may be smeared with vaseline 1 ounce, sugar of lead 1 dram, and
carbolic acid 10 drops.

inflammation of the heels with sebaceous secretion ( grease, or

canker).

This is a specific affection of the heels of horses usually associated
with the growth of a parasitic fungus, an offensive discharge from the
numerous sebaceous glands, and, in bad cases, the formation of red,
raw excrescences (grapes) from the surface. It is to be distinguished
(1) from simple inflammation in which the special fetid discharge
and the tendency to the formation of " grapes " are absent; (2) from
horsepox, in which the abundant exudate forms a firm j^ellow in-
crustation around the roots of the hair, and is embedded at intervals
in the pits formed by the individual pocks, and in which there is no
vascular excrescence; (3) from foot scabies (mange), in which the
presence of an acarus is distinctive; (4) from lymphangitis, in which
the swelling appears suddenly extending around the entire limb as
high as the hock, and on the inner side of the thigh along the line of
the vein to the groin, and in which there is active fever, and (5) from

GREASE, OR CANKER. 445

erysipelas, in which there is active fever {wanting in grease), the
implication of the deeper layers of the skin and of the parts beneath
giving a boggy feeling to the parts, the absence of the fetid, greasy
discharge, and finally a tendency to form pus loosely in the tissues
without any limiting membrane, as in abscess. Another distinctive
feature of grease is its tendency to implicate the skin which secretes
the bulbs or heels of the horny frog and in the cleft of the frog, con-
stituting the disease known as canker.

Causes. — The predisposing causes of grease are essentially the same
as those of simple inflammation of the heel, so that the reader may
consult the preceding article, and though a specific fungus and bac-
teria of different kinds are present, they tend mainly to aggravation
of the disease, and are not proved to be essential factors in causation.

Symptoms. — The symptoms vary according to whether the disease
comes on suddenly or more tardily. In the first case there is a sudden
swelling of the skin in the heel, with heat, tenderness, itching, and
stiffness, which is lessened during exercise. In the slower forms there
is only seen a slight swelling after rest, and with little heat or inflam-
mation for a week or more. Even at this early stage a slight serous
oozing may be detected. As the swelling increases, extending up
toward the hock or knees, the hairs stand erect, and are bedewed by
moisture no longer clear and odorless, but grayish, milky, and fetid.
The fetor of the discharge draws attention to the part whenever one
enters the stable, and the swollen pastern and wet, matted hairs on
the heel draw attention to the precise seat of the malady. If actively
treated, the disease may not advance further, but if neglected the
tense, tender skin cracks open, leaving open sores from which vascular
])leeding growths grow up, constituting the " grapes." The hair is
shed, and the heel may appear but as one mass of rounded, red, angry
excrescences which bleed on handling and are covered w^ith the now
repulsively fetid decomposing discharge. During this time there is
little or no fever, the animal feeds well, and but for its local trouble it
might continue at work. When the malady extends to the frog, there
is a fetid discharge from its cleft or from the depressions at its sides,
and this gradually extends to its whole surface and upon the adjacent
parts of the sole. The horn meanwhile becomes soft, whitish, and
fleshy in aspect, its constituent tubes being greatly enlarged and
losing their natural cohesion ; it grows rapidly above the level of the
surrounding horn, and when pared is found to be penetrated to an
unusual depth by the secreting papillae, and that at intervals these
have bulged out into a vascular fungous mass comparable to the
" grapes."

Treatment. — In treatment hygienic measures occupy a front rank,
but are in themselves insufficient to establish a cure. All local and
general conditions which favor the production and persistence of the

446 DISEASES OF THE HOESfi*

disease must be guarded against. Above all, cleanliness and purity
of the stable and air must be secured; also nourishing diet, regular
exercise, and the avoidance of local irritants — septic, muddy, chilling,
etc. At the outset benzoated oxide of zinc ointment may be used with
advantage. A still better dressing is made with 1 ounce vaseline, 2
drams oxide of zinc, and 20 drops iodized phenol. If the surface is
much swollen and tender, a flaxseed poultice may be applied over the
surface of which has been poured some of the following lotion : Sugar
of lead, one-half ounce; carbolic acid, 1 dram; water, 1 quart. All
the astringents of the pharmacopoeia have been employed with more
or less advantage, and some particular one seems to suit particular
cases or patients. To destroy the grapes, they may be rubbed daily
with strong caustics (copperas, bluestone, lunar caustic), or each may
be tied round its neck by a stout waxed thread, or, finally and more
speedily, they may be cut oJff by a blacksmith's shovel heated to red-
ness and applied with its sharp edge toward the neck of the excres-
cence, over a cold shovel held between it and the skin to protect the
skin from the heat. The cold shovel must be kept cool by frequent
dipping in water. After the removal of the grapes the astringent
dressing must be persistently applied to the surface. Wlien the frog
is affected, it must be pared to the quick and dressed with dry caustic
powders (quicklime, copperas, bluestone) or carbolic acid and sub-
jected to pressure, the dressing being renewed every day at least.

ERYSIPELAS.

This is a specific contagious disease, characterized by spreading
dropsical inflammation of the skin and subcutaneous tissues, attended
by general fever. It differs from most specific diseases in the absence
of a definite period of incubation, a regular course and duration, and
a conferring of immunity on the subject after recovery. On the con-
trary, one attack of erysipelas predisposes to another, partly, doubt-
less, by the loss of tone and vitality in the affected tissues, but also,
perhaps, because of the survival of the infecting germ.

Cause. — It is no longer to be doubted that the microbes found in the
inflammatory product are the true cause of erysipelas, as the disease
can be successfully transferred from man to animals and from one
animal to another by their means. This transition may be direct or
through the medium of infected buildings or other articles. Yet from
the varying severity of erysipelas in different outbreaks and localities
it has been surmised that various different microbes are operative in
this disease, and a perfect knowledge of these might perhaps enable us
to divide erysipelas into two or more distinct affections. At present
we must recognize it as a specific inflammation due to a bacterial
poison and closely allied to septicemia. Erysipelas was formerly

ERYSIPELAS. 447

known as surgical when it spread from a wound (through which the
germ had gained access) and medical^ or idiopathic, when it started
independent!}^ of any recognizable lesion. Depending as it does, how-
ever, upon a germ distinct from the bod}', the disease must be looked
upon as such, no matter by what channel the germ found an entrance.
Erj^sipelas which follows a wound is usually much more violent than
the other form, the difference being doubtless partly due to the
lowered vitality of the wounded tissues and to the oxidation and
septic changes which are invited on the raw, exposed surface. As
apparently idiopathic cases may be due to infection through bites of
insects, the small amount of poison inserted may serve to moderate
the violence.

This affection may attack a wound on any part of the horse's body,
while apart from wounds it is most frequent about the head and the
hind limbs. It is to be distinguished from ordinary inflammations
by its gradual extension from the point first attacked, by the abun-
dant liquid exudation into the affected part, by the tension of the slrin
over the affected part, by its soft boggy feeling, allowing it to be
deeply indented by the finger, by the abrupt line of limitation between
the diseased and healthy skin, the former descending suddenly to the
healthy level instead of shading off slowly toward it, by the tendency
of the inflammation to extend deeply into the subjacent tissues and
into the muscles and other structures, by the great tendency to death
and sloughing of portions of skin and of the structures beneath, by
the formation of pus at various different points throughout the
diseased parts without any surrounding sac to protect the surround-
ing structures from its destructive action, and without the usual dis-
position of pus to advance harmlessly toward the surface and escape ;
and, finally, by a low prostrating type of fever, with elevated tem-
perature of the body, coated tongue, excited breathing, and loss of
appetite. The pus when escaping through a lancet wound is grayish,
brownish, or reddish, with a heavy or fetid odor, and intermixed with
shreds of broken-down tissues. The most destructive form, however,
is that in which pus is deficient and gangrene and sloughing more
speedy and extensive.

Treatment resolves itself mainly into the elimination from the
system of the poisonous products of the bacteria by laxatives and
diuretics, the sustaining of the failing vitality by tonics and stimu-
lants, above all those of the nature of antiferments, and the local
application of astringent and antiseptic agents. Internal treatment
may consist in 4 drams tincture of muriate of iron and one-half dram
muriate of ammonia or chlorate of potash, given in a pint of water
every two hours. To this may be added, liberally, whisky or brandy
when the prostration is very marked. Locally a strong solution of
iron, alum, or of sulphate of iron and laudanum may be used ; or the

448 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

affected part may be painted with tincture of muriate of iron or with
iodized phenol. In mild cases a lotion of 4 drams sugar of lead and
2 ounces laudanum in a quart of water may be applied. It is desir-
able to avoid the formation of wounds and the consequent septic
action, yet when pus has formed and is felt by fluctuation under the
finger to be approaching the surface it should be freely opened with
a clean, sharp lancet, and the wound thereafter disinfected daily with
carbolic acid 1 part to Avater 10 parts, with a saturated solution of
hyposulphite of soda, or with powders of iodoform or salol.

HORSEPOX, ANTHRAX. AND CUTANEOUS GLANDERS (fARCy).

These subjects will come more properly under the head of conta-
gious diseases.

CALLOSITIES.

These are simple thickening and induration of the cuticle by reason
of continued pressure, notably in lying down on a hard surface. Be-
ing devoid of hair, they cause blemishes; hence smooth floors and
good bedding should be secured as preventives.

HORNY SLOUGHS ( SITFASTS ) , OR SLOUGHING CALLOSITIES.

These are circumscribed sloughs of limited portions of the skin, the
result of pressure by badly fitting harness or by irritating masses of
dirt, sweat, and hairs under the harness. They are most common
under the saddle, but may be found under collar or breeching as well.
The sitfast is a piece of dead tissue which would be thrown off but
that it has formed firm connections with the fibrous skin beneath, or
even deeper with the fibrous layers (fascia) of the muscles, or with
the bones, and is thus bound in its place as a persistent source of irri-
tation. The hornlike slough may thus involve the superficial part of
the skin only, or the whole thickness of the skin, and even of some of
the structures beneath. The first object is to remove the dead irri-
tant by dissecting it off with a sharp knife, after which the sore may
be treated with simple wet cloths or a weak carbolic-acid lotion, like a
common wound. If the outline of the dead mass is too indefinite, a
linseed-meal poultice will make its outline more evident to the opera-
tor. If the fascia or bone has become gangrenous, the dead portion
must be removed with the hornlike skin. During and after treat-
ment the horse must be kept at rest or the harness must be so adjusted
that no pressure can come near the affected parts. (See also page
470.)

These are essentially a morbid overgrowth of the superficial papil-
lary layer of the skin and of the investing cuticular layer. They are

PI, A IK XXXVI.

■' ■>r,.*tai-r. ^ ■lb.■.•^^ v--

Stifcopfes stnbiei, xa/.Equt.

f'f'orioptr.s .sf>ti(hi/i'i-ii.\

%u

h04%

■•!. y \^

--K

W -

P-soroplc-i 7oiii-fir<istns , \<ir Eqi

Drnnnn \ ssu-s (/ti/iitu

ILiiufs.aH altciM.-ciiun.

us BIEN &. CO •

MITKS THAT INFKST 'IIIF. HOHSl-

PAEASITES OF THE SKIl^. 449

mostly seen in young horses, about the lips, eyelids, cheeks, ears,
beneath the belly, and on the sheath, but may develop anywhere.
The smaller ones may be clipped off with scissors and the raw surface
cauterized with bluestone. The larger may be sliced off with a sharp
knife, or if with a narrow neck they may be twisted off and then cau-
terized. If very vascular they may be strangled by a wax thread or
cord tied around their necks, at least three turns being made round
and the ends being fixed by passing them beneath the last preceding
turn of the cord, so that they can be tightened day by day as they
slacken by shrinkage of the tissues. If the neck is too broad it may be
transfixed several times with a double-threaded needle and then be
tied in sections. Very broad warts that can not be treated in this way
may be burned down to beneath the surface of the skin with a solder-
ing bolt at a red heat, and any subsequent tendency to overgrowth
kept down by bluestone.

BLACK PIGMENT TUMORS, OR SIELANOSIS.

These are common in gray and in white horses on the naturally
black parts of the skin at the root of the tail, around the anus, vulva,
udder, sheath, eyelids, and lips. They are readily recognized by their
inky-black color, which extends throughout the whole mass. They
may appear as simple pealike masses, or as multiple tumors aggre-
gating many pounds, especially around the tail. In the horse these
are usually simple tumors, and may be removed with the knife. In
exceptional cases they prove cancerous, as they usually are in man.

EPITHELIAL CANCER, OR EPITHELIOMA.

This sometimes occurs on the lips at the angle of the mouth and
elsewhere in the horse. It begins as a small wartlike tumor, which
grows slowly at first, but finally bursts open, ulcerates, and extends
laterally and deeply in the skin and other tissues, destroying them as
it advances (rodent ulcer) . It is made up of a fibrous framework and
numerous round, ovoid, or cylindrical cavities, lined with masses of
epithelial cells, which may be squeezed out as a fetid caseous material.
The most successful treatment is early and thorough removal with the
knife.

VEGETABLE PARASITES OF THE SKIN.

Parasite : T richofhyton tonsurans. Malady : Tinea tonsurans^ or'
Circinate ringworm. — This is especially common in young horses
coming into training and work, in low -conditioned colts in winter and
spring after confinement indoors and during molting, in lymphatic
rather than nervous subjects, and at the same time in several animals
that have herded together. The disease is common to man, and
H. Doc. 795, 59-2 29

450 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

among the domestic animals to horse, ox, goat, dog, cat, and in rare
instances to sheep and .swine. Hence it is common to find animals of
different species and their attendants suffering at once, the diseases
having been propagated from one to the other.

Symptoms. — In the horse the symptoms are the formation of a cir-
cular scurfy patch where the fungus has established itself, the hairs of
the affected spot being erect, bristly, twisted, broken, or split up and
dropping off. Later the spot first affected has become entirely bald,
and a circular row of hairs around this are erect, bristly, broken, and
split. These in turn are shed and a new row outside passes through
the same process, so that the extension is made in more or less circular
outline. The central bald spot, covered with a grayish scurf and sur-
rounded by a circle of broken and split hairs, is characteristic. If the
scurf and diseased hairs are treated with caustic potash solution and
put under the microscope the natural cells of the cuticle and hair will
be seen to have become transparent, while the groups of spherical cells
and branching filaments of the fungus stand out prominently in the
substance of both, dark and unchanged. The eruption usually appears
on the back, loins, croup, chest, and head. It tends to spontaneous
recovery in a month or two, leaving for a time a dappled coat from
the spots of short, light-colored hair of the new growth.

The most effective way of reaching the parasite in the hair follicles
is to extract the hairs individually, but in the horse the mere shaving
of the affected part is usually enough. It may then be painted with
tincture of iodine twice a day for two weeks. Germs about the stable
may be covered up or destroyed by a whitewash of freshly burned
quicklime, the harness, brushes, etc., may be washed with caustic
soda, and then smeared with a solution of corrosive sublimate one-half
dram and water 1 pint. The clothing may be boiled and dried.

Parasite: Achorion schonleini. Malady: Favus^ or Honeycomb
ringtoorm. — Megnin and Goyau, who describe this in the horse, say
that it loses its characteristic honeycomb or cup-shaped appearance,
and forms only a series of closely aggregated, dry, yellowish crusts
the size of hemp seed on the trunk, shoulders, flanks, or thighs.
They are accompanied by severe itching, especially at night. The
ciyptogam, formed of spherical cells with a few filaments only,
grows in the hair follicles and on the cuticle, and thus a crust often
forms around the root of a hair. Like the other ciyptogams, their
color, as seen under the microscope, is unaffected by acetic acid,
alcohol, ether, or oil of turpentine, while the cells are turned bluish
by iodine. For treatment, remove the hair and apply tincture of
iodine or corrosive sublimate lotion, as advised under the last para-
graph.

Parasite: Microsporon furfur. Malady: Parasitic pityriasis. —
This attacks the horse's head where the harness presses, and leads to

PAEASITES OF THE SKIN. 451

dropping of the hair, leaving bald patches covered with a branlike
scurf, without any eruption, heat, tenderness, swelling, or rigidity of
the skin. A lotion of carbolic acid 1 dram and water 2^ ounces is
usually applied to effect a cure.

ANIMAL PARASITES OF THE SKIN.

Acariasis, or mange. — This affection is due to the irritation of the
skin caused by the presence of nearly microscopic acarus, or mite.
The disease varies, however, according to the species of acarus which
infests the skin, so that we must treat of several different kinds of
acariasis.

Parasite : Sarcoptes scabiei equi. 'Malady : Sar'coptic acariasis. —
This is t\\h special Sarcoptes of the horse, but under favorable condi-
tions it can be transmitted to ass and mule, and even to man, and may
live indefinitely on the human skin. " The mite is nearly microscop-
ical, but may be detected with a magnifying lens among moving
scurf taken from the infected skin. Like all Sarcoptes^ it burrows
little galleries in and beneath the scurf skin, where it hides and lays
its eggs and where its young are hatched. It is therefore often
difficult to find the parasite on the surface, unless the skin has been
heated by a temporary exposure to the sun or in a warm room. Even
then it may be needful to tie the scab on the human arm till a
pricking is felt, when the acarus will be found in the center of a
minute papule caused by its bite. Like other acari, this is wonder-
fully prolific, a new generation of fifteen individuals being possible
every fifteen days, so that in three months the offspring of a single
pair may produce generations aggregating 1,500,000 young. The
Sarcoptes have less vitality than the nonburrowing acari, as they
die in an hour when kept apart from the skin in dry air at a heat of
145° F. They live twelve to fourteen days apart from the skin in
the damp air of a stable. On a piece of damp hide they lived till
the twenty-fourth day, when they began to die, and all were dead
on the twenty-eighth. ,

Symptoms. — The symptoms are an incessant, intolerable, and in-
creasing itching of some part of the skin (head, mane, tail, back,
etc.), the horse inclining himself toward the hand that scratches
him, and moving his lips as if himself scratching. The hairs may be
broken and rubbed off, but the part is never entirel}^ bald, as in ring-
worm, and there may be papules or any kind of eruption or open
sores from the energy of the scratching. Scabs of any thickness
may form, but the special features are the intense itching and the
discovery of the acarus.

Treatment consists in the removal of the scabs by soapsuds, and, if
necessary, a brush and the thorough application of tobacco 1^ ounces
and water 2 pints, prepared by boiling. This may be applied more

452 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

than once, and should always be rej^eated after fifteen days, to destroy
the new brood that may have been hatched in the interval. All har-
ness and stable utensils should be similarly treated; blankets and
rubbers may be boiled, and the stalls should be covered with a white-
Avash of quicklime, containing one-fourth pound of chloride of lime
to the gallon.

Parasite : Sarcoptes niutans. Malady : Sarcoptic acariasis of
fowls. — This parasite belongs to chickens, but can live on the skin of
the fox and horse as well. A troublesome mange may therefore at
times be traceable to the proximity of a chicken roost. The general
symptoms and treatment are essentially the same as for Sarcoptes
scabiei equi.

Parasite: Psoroptes equi {permatocoptes equi, Derfnatodectes
equi). Malady: Psoroptic acariasis. — This produces the most fre-
quent mange in horses, and as tlie parasite only bites the surface and
lives among the crusts under the shelter of the hair, it is very easily
discovered. It reproduces itself with equal rapidity and causes simi-
lar symptoms to those j^roduced b}^ the Sarcoptes. The same treat-
ment will suffice and is more promptly effectual. The purifying of
the stable must be more thorough, as the Psoroptes w^ill survive
twenty to thirty days in the moist atmosphere of a stable, and may
even revive after six or eight Aveeks wdien subjected to moist warmth.
Infested pastures will therefore j^rove dangerous to horses for that
length of time, and, with rubbing joosts, etc., should not be used.

Parasite: Chorioptes ho vis {Symhiotes equi, Dermatophagus equi,
Chorioptes spathiferus) . Malady: Foot mange. — This acarus at-
tacks the heels and lower parts of the legs, especially the hind ones,
and may be present for years without extending upon the body.
Like the Psoroptes, it lives on the surface, on the hairs, and among
the scabs. It gives rise to great itching, stamping, rubbing of the
one leg with the other, and the formation of papules, wounds, ulcerous
sores, and scabs. The intense itching will always suggest this para-
site, and the discovery of the acarus will identify the disease. The
treatment is the same as for the Sarcoptes, but may be confined to the
legs and the parts with which they come in contact.

Parasite: Dermanyssus gallin(e, or chicken acari. Malady: Poul-
try acariasis. — This is a large-sized acarus, though usually miscalled
" hen louse," and the disease " poultry-lousiness." The mite lives in
the hen manure and adjacent woodwork, but temporarily passes on
to the skin of man and of the horse and other quadrupeds, wdieii
occasion serves. It causes much irritation, with the eruption of
papules or vesicles and the formation of sores and scabs. The ex-
amination of the skin is usually fruitless, as the attacks are mostly
made at night and the effects only may be seen during the day.
The proximity of hen manure swarming with the acari explains the

PARASITES OF THE SKIN. 453

trouble, and the removal of this and a whitewashing with quicklime,
with or without chloride of lime, will prevent future attacks. The
skin may still require bland ointments or lotions, as for congestion.

Parasite : Larva of a Tromibidiu'm^ Leptus amerkrmus, or harvest
htig, misnamed jigger {chigoe). Malady: Autumn mange. — This
parasite is a brick-red acarus, visible to the naked eye on a dark
ground, and living on green vegetation in many localities. It attacks
man, and the horse, ox, dog, etc., burrowing under the skin and giving
rise to small papules and intolerable irritation. This continues for
two or three days only if no fresh acari are received, but will last
until cold weather sets in if a fresh colony is received every day.
Horses at pasture suffer mainly on the lower part of the face. If
kept indoors the disease will disappear, or if left at pasture a weak
tar-water or solution of tobacco may be applied to the face.

Parasites : Gamarus pteroptoides and Cheyletus live in musty fod-
ders and are found on the horse.

The wood ticks are familiar to inhabitants of uncultivated lands,
and prove troublesome parasites to man and beast alike. The tick
lives on bushes, and attaches itself to the mammal only to secure
a feast of blood, for when gorged it drops off to sleep off its debauch
on the soil. The tick j^roduces great irritation by boring into the
skin with its armed proboscis. If pulled out, the head and thorax
are often left in the skin. They may be covered with oil to shut
out the air from their breathing pores, or by touching them with
a hot penknife they will be impelled to let go their hold.

GRUBS IN SKIN.

Parasite: Hypoderma lineata. Malady: Larvae (gruhs) under
the skin. — The larvae of a fly (probably Hypoderma lineata., whose
larvae in the skin of cattle are commonly known as " warbles ") are
occasionally found in little sacs beneath the skin of horses. The
mature larva escapes in early summer and develops into a fly. In
districts where they exist the grubs should be pressed out of the skin
in the course of the winter and destroyed.

LARV.E (grubs) ON THE SKIN, OR FLYBLOW.

The following flies, among others, deposit their eggs on open sores
or on wet, filthy parts of the skin, where their larvae or grubs give
rise to serious trouble: Lucilia ccesar (bluebottle), Lucilia homini-
vorax (screw worm fly), Musca, vomitoria (meat fly), and Sarcophaga
carnaria (flesh fly). To prevent their attacks, wet, filthy hair should
be removed and wounds kept clean and rendered antiseptic by a
lotion of carbolic acid 1 part, water 50 parts, or by a mixture of 1

454 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

ounce oil of tar in 20 ounces sweet oil, or by some other antiseptic.
If the grubs are already present they should be picked off and one
of these dressings freely applied.

A number of flies attack horses and suck their blood, producing
great annoyance, and in some instances death. These insects not only
suck the blood, but also often instill an acid poison into the skin, and
in exceptional cases transfer infectious germs from animal to animal
by inoculation.

Various devices are resorted to to prevent the attacks, as to sponge
the skin with a decoction of walnut or elder leaves, of tobacco, to dust
with Persian insect powder, to keep a light blanket or fly net on the
horse, to close doors and windows with fine screens and destroy by
pyrethrum any flies that have gained admission, to remove all manure
heaps that would prove breeding places for flies, to keep the stalls
clean, deodorize by gypsum, and to spread in them trays of dry chlo-
ride of lime. For the poisoned bites apply ammonia, or a solution of
1 purt of -carbolic acid in 20 parts of sweet oil or glycerin, or one-
fourth ounce bicarbonate of soda and 1 dram of carbolic acid in a
quart of water may be used.

STINGS OF BEES, WASPS, AND HORNETS.

These are much more irritating than the bites of flies, partly be-
cause the barbed sting is left in the wound, and partly because of the
amount and quality of the venom. When a swarm attacks an animal
the result may prove fatal.

Treatment consists in the application of wet clay, or of a lotion of
soda or ammonia, or of carbolic acid, or permanganate of potash, 2
grains to the ounce, or of sugar of lead 2 drams, laudanum 1 ounce,
and water 1 pint. The embedded stings should be extracted with fine
forceps or even with the finger nails.

FLEA, OR PULEX.

The flea of man and those of the dog and cat, when numerous, will
bite the horse and give rise to rounded swellings on the skin. To dis-
pose of them it is needful to clear the surroundings of the grublike
larva3 as well as to treat the victim. The soil may be sprinkled with
quicklime, carbolic acid, coal tar, or petroleum; the stalls may be
deluged with boiling water and afterwards painted with oil of tur-
pentine and littered with fresh pine sawdust, and all blankets should
be boiled. The skin may be sponged with a solution of 1 part carbolic
acid in 50 parts of water. Dogs, cats, and pigs should be dressed
with the same lotion, or, better, removed from the vicinity of the
stable.

DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 455

The chigoe {Pulex penetrans) of the Gulf coast is still more injuri-
ous, because it burrows under the surface and deposits its eggs to be
hatched out slowly with much irritation. The tumor formed by it
should be laid open and the parasite extracted. If it bursts so that
its eggs escape into the wound, they may be destroyed by introduc-
ing a wire at a red heat.

LICE, OR PEDICULI.

Two kinds of lice attack the horse, one of which is furnished with
narrow head and a proboscis for perforating the skin and sucking the
blood, and the other — the broad-headed kind — with strong mandibles,
by which it bites the skin only. Of the bloodsuckers, one is common
to horse and ass and another to horse and ox, while of the nonsucking
lice one species attacks horse and ox and a second ox and ass. The
poor condition, itching, and loss of hair should lead to suspicion, and
a close examination wall detect the lice. They may be destroyed by
rubbing the victim with sulphur ointment, or with sulphuret of potas-
sium 4 ounces, water 1 gallon, or with tar water, or the skin may be
sponged with benzine. The application should be repeated a week
later to destroy all lice hatched from the nits in the interval. Build-
ings, clothes, etc., should be treated as for fleas.

TARANTULA AND SCORPION.

The bite of the first and the sting of the second are poisonous, and
ma}^ be treated like other insect venom, by carbolated glycerin, or a
strong solution of ammonia, or permanganate of potash.

SNAKE BITES.

These are marked by the double incision caused by the two fangs,
by the excessive doughy (dark red) swelling around the wounds, and
in bad cases by the general symptoms of giddiness, weakness, and
prostration. They are best treated by enormous doses of alcohol,
whisky, or brandy, or by aqua ammonia very largely diluted in water,
the object being to sustain life until the poison shall have spent its
power. As local treatment, if the w^ound is in a limb, the latter may
have a handkerchief or cord tied around it above the injuiy and
drawn tight by a stick twisted into it. In this way absorption may be
checked until the poison can be destroyed by the application of a hot
iron or a piece of nitrate of silver or other caustic. A poultice of
tobacco leaves is a favorite remedy, and may be used to soothe the
sore after cauterization.

BURNS AND SCALDS.

For scalds the surface may be bathed with a solution of bicarbonate
of soda, sweetened or not by carbolic acid, or a weak solution of sugar

456 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

of lead may be used ; or the surface may be dusted thickly with starch
or flour and covered with the cotton w^ool, or oil of turpentine maybe
applied over the scalded skin. Burns are well treated by liniment
made of equal parts of lime water and linseed oil (Carron oil).
For both kinds of injuries cosmoline 10 parts, and carbolic acid 1
part, proves an excellent dressing. Blisters should be pricked with
a needle and emptied to prevent their rupture and exposures of the
raw surface.

Severe burns, leading to destruction of very extensive patches of
skin, usually render a horse useless by reason of the contraction of the
resulting scar. Hence the treatment of such is rarely advisable, unless
"followed by a skillful plastic operation. In other cases a skillful
transplanting of epidermis, shaved from a healthy surface with a
sharp razor, will secure the healing of a granulating wound which
has proved obstinate to all other measures. In cases of burns with
mineral acids (sulphuric, nitric, or hydrochloric) avoid water, as that
will develop heat, and cover the surface with dry whiting or chalk,
and only when effervescence has ceased wash off with water. ^Vhen
the caustic has been a salt (copperas, bluestone, chloride of zinc, etc.)
apply limewater or white of egg. If the irritant has been caustic
potash, soda, or ammonia, vinegar should be the first application. If
sores result they may be treated like ordinary wounds.

WOUNDS OF THE SKIN.

These are divided into incised {clean cut) wounds, lacerated (torn)
wounds, and contused {hruised) and punctured wounds.

Incised wounds are the simplest, and the sharper the instrument
and the cleaner the cut the greater the hope of speedy healing.
Something, however, depends on the seat and direction of the wound ;
thus, one running from before backward on the body, or from above
downward in the limb, will not tend to be drawn open and gape as
would one running transversely on the body or limb. Again, a wound
on a joint and running across the limb will gape when the joint is
bent. Again, a clean-cut wound which has not been exposed to the
air, and which lodges no foreign body and no septic nor infecting
germ, will heal readily by simple adhesion, whereas those that have
been exposed and contain matter foreign to the tissues will have
healing delayed or prevented by the disturbing action of such bodies.

Healing in wounds may be said to take place by these modes ;

(1) By primary adhesion^ in which case the spherical {embryonic)
cells, and the stellate connective tissue cells thrown out on the surface
of the wound rapidly multiply and form a bond of union between
the divided lips. Union by this means may be effected within

WOUNDS OF THE SKIN. 457

twenty-four hours after the wound has been inflicted. Of all do-
mestic animals, however, the horse is the least prone to such union,
being more disposed to the formation of pus.

(2) By granulation, which is the common form of healing in raw,
exposed sores, in those containing foreign bodies and septic and in-
fecting ferments; also in torn and contused wounds. In this form
the w^ound becomes covered w ith a layer of embryonic cells, of which
the superficial ones degenerate into pus cells, and thus the surface is
kept moist by a layer of Avhitisli, creamy pus. In the deeper layer of
cells minute loops of capillary blood vessels start up, causing the small
rounded elevations known as granulations. In this way the deeper
layer of cells receiving a blood supply is transformed into connective
tissue, and from its surface new loops of blood vessels start into the
layer above, and thus layer after layer of new tissue is formed, and
the breach caused by the wound is gradually filled up. The new tis-
sue as formed undergoes a steady contraction, drawing in the ad-
jacent skin over the woilnd, and hence large wounds healed in this
way have the skin more or less puckered around them.

(3) By secondary adhesion, in which, two granulating lips of a
wound having been brought together and kept in apposition, union
takes place through the medium of the cells, as in primary adhesion.

(¥) By scabbing, in which the exudation on the surface of the
wound dries ujd into a firm scab, under which the process of repair
goes on by the development of tissue from the deeper cells, as in ad-
hesion.

Treatment. — In treating clean, incised wounds, attempts should be
made to secure healing by primary adhesion, even in the horse.
Bleeding should first be arrested, or nearly so, by applying a cold
or hot sponge, or by tying bleeding vessels, and the lips of the wound
should then be closed accurately, without any twisting or overlap-
ping. In small wounds pieces of sticking plaster may be used, the
lips of the wound having first been smoothly shaved, so that they
may adhere firmly. In larger wounds the wound may be sewed with
a curved surgical needle and a silk thread dipped in a solution of
carbolic acid. The stitches may be continued from end to end of
the wound and the thread prevented from slipping and loosening
by a knot at each end ; or the stitches may be independent, the two
ends being tied together across the wound. In such cases they may
be one-quarter to one-third inch apart ; or the lips of the wound may
be pinned together, the pins in a simple skin wound being inserted
one-eighth inch from the edge, and when both lips have been trans-
fixed in this way a thread (or hair) carried successively around the
two ends of the pin and made to describe a figure 8 will hold the
wound close. When the stitching is not continuous from end to end

458 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

of the wound the apposition of the edges will be rendered more per-
fect by the application of strips of sticking plaster in the intervals.

"VVlien efforts at primary union have failed and pus has formed, of
fermentative changes have occurred on the raw surfaces and the lips
gape more or less, some antiseptic dressing will be required, as in the
case of lacerated and contused wounds.

In cases where an incised wound has had foreign bodies or septic
ferments introduced into it these should first be removed. A current
of water that has been boiled and cooled is one of the best methods of
cleansing a wound, and there is no objection to the addition of one-
twentieth of its amount of carbolic acid, as this will tend to destroy
any germ life that might otherwise prove fatal to the healing process.
Then the wound may be stitched up as if it had been clean, and a
daily dressing of carbolic acid 1 part and sweet oil 10 parts may be
applied.

For a wound on the convex surface of a joint, where stitches are
not sufficient to keep the lips accurately applied to each other, the
movement of the joint may be temporarily abolished by the applica-
tion of a splint and bandage, and in any such case the bandage should
be applied uniformly from the hoof upward, as otherwise the limb
below the bandage is liable to swell or even die.

The treatment of contused., punctured,, and lacerated wounds de-
mands cleansing and antiseptic applications as for an incised wound,
but as primary adhesion is next to impossible, the same accurate appo-
sition of the lips by stitching is not so essential. If portions of skin
or other tissue are so detached or crushed that they can not possibly
live, they may be cut off, but if there is any doubt on this matter the
injured portion should be left and every attempt should be made to
preserve it. Such portions of the wound as are free from such fatally
injured parts may be disinfected by the carbolic lotion referred to
above and stitched up like a clean wound. The severely injured parts
may be left open to discharge, and the whole may be dressed daily
with the carbolized oil or with a solution of 1 i:)art of mercuric chlo-
ride in 1,000 of water.

Granulating wounds may be irrigated with the mercuric chloride
solution, and if the granulations become inflamed (soft, flabby, exu-
berant, rising above the edges of the wound), they may be touched
lightly with a stick of lunar caustic, so as to leave them covered with
a white film.

In all wounds that fail to heal by primary union an elaborate anti-
septic treatment is desirable, but the difficulty of applying this suc-
cessfully to the horse in an ordinary stable would seem to forbid a
lengthy description in a book of this kind.

WOUNDS AND THEIR TREATMENT.

By Ch. B. Michenek, Y. S.

[Revised in 1903 by Jolin R. Moliler, V. M. D., A. M.]

DESCRIPTION OF AVOUNDS.

A wound is an injury to any part of the body involving a solution
of continuity or disruption of the affected parts and is caused by
violence, with or without laceration of the skin. In accordance with
this definition we have the following varieties of wounds: Incised,
jDunctured, contused, lacerated, gunshot, and poisoned. They rcay
further be classified as superficial, deep, or penetrating, and also as
unclean, if hair, dirt, or splinters of wood are present; as infected,
when contaminated with germs; and as aseptic, if the wound does not
contain germs.

An incised wound is a simple cut made with a sharp body, like a
knife, producing merely a division of the tissues. The duller the
body, the more force is required, the more tissues destroyed, and a
greater time will be required for healing. In a cut wound the edges
are even and definite, while those of a lacerated wound are irregular
and torn. Three conditions are present as a result of an incised
wound: (1) Pain, (2) hemorrhage, (3) gaping of the wound. The
first pain is due to the crashing and tearing of the nerve fibers. In
using a sharp knife and by cutting quickly, the animal suffers less
pain and healing occurs more rapidly. The secondary pain is usu-
ally due to the action of the air and inflammatory processes. When
air is kept from the wound pain ceases soon after the lesion is pro-
duced. Hemorrhage is absent only in wounds of nonvascular tissues,
as the cornea of the eye, the cartilage of joints, and other similar
structures. Bleeding may be from the arteries, t'eins, or capillaries.
In the latter form of bleeding the blood oozes from the part in drops.
Hemorrhage from the veins is dark red and issues in a steady stream
without spurting. In arterial bleeding the blood is bright red and
spurts with each heart beat. This latter variety of hemorrhage is
the most dangerous, and should be stopped at once before attempting
any further treatment. Bleeding from small veins and capillaries
ceases in a short time spontaneously, while larger vessels, especiall}'"
arteries, require some form of treatment to cause complete stoppage
of the hemorrhage.

459

460 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

HEMOSTASIA.

By this term is meant the checking of the flow of blood. It may be
accomplished by several methods, such as comjjress bandages, torsion,
hot iron, and ligatures. The heat from a hot iron will cause the im-
mediate clotting of the blood in the vessels, and this clot is further
supported by the production of a scab, or crust, over the portion
seared. The iron should be at a red heat. If at a white heat, the tissue
is charred, which makes it brittle and the bleeding is apt to be re-
newed. If the iron is at a black heat, the tissue will stick to the iron
and will pull away from the surface of the wound. Cold water and
ice bags quickly stop capillary bleeding, while hot water is preferable
in more excessive hemorrhages. Some drugs, called styptics, possess
the power of contracting the walls of blood vessels and also of clot-
ting the blood. A solution of the chloride of iron placed on a wound
alone or by means of cotton drenched in the liquid j^roduces a rapid
and hard clot. Tannic acid, alum, acetic acid, alcohol, and oil of tur-
pentine are all more or less active in this respect. To check bleeding
from large vessels compression may be adopted. "\Mien it is rapid
and dangerous and from an artery, the fingers may be used for press-
ing between the wound and the heart (digital compression), but if
from a vein, the pressure should be exerted on the other side of the
wound. Tourniquet may also be used by passing a strap around the
part and tightening after placing a pad over the hemorrhage. The
rubber ligature has now replaced the tourniquet and is bound tightly
around the limb to arrest the bleeding. Tampons, such as cotton, tow,
or oakum, may be packed tightly in the wound and then sewed up.
After remaining there for twenty-four or fortj^-eight hours they are
removed. Bleeding may sometimes be easily checked by passing a
pin under the vessel and by taking a horsehair and forming a figure
8 by running it above and below the pin, thus causing pressure on the
vessel. Torsion is the twisting of the blood vessel until the walls
come together and form a barrier to the flow of blood. It may be ac-
complished by the fingers, forceps, or by running a pin through the
vessel, turning it several times, and then running the point into the
tissue to keep it in a fixed position.

Ligation is the third method for stopping a hemon-hage. Seize
the blood vessel with the artery forceps, pass a clean thread of silk
around it, and tie about one-half inch from its end. The silk should
be sterilized by placing it in an antiseptic solution so as not to impede
the healing process or cause blood j^oisoning or lockjaw, which often
follows the ligation of a vein Avith unsterilized material. Sometimes
it will be impossible to reach the bleeding vessel, so it is necessary to
pass the ligature around a mass of tissue which includes the blood
vessel. Ligation is the most useful method of arresting hemorrhage,

WOUNDS AND THEIR TREATMENT. 461

since it disturbs healing least and gives the greatest security against
secondary hemorrhasre.

After the bleeding has been controlled and all foreign bodies
removed from the wound, the gaping of the wound is noticeable. It
is caused by the contraction of the muscles and elastic fibers, and its
degree depends on the extent, direction, and nature of the cut. This
gaping will hinder the healing process so that it must be overcome by
bringing the edges together by some sort of sutures or pins, or by a
bandage applied from below upward. As suture material, ordinary
cotton thread is good if well sterilized, as is also horsehair, catgut,
silk, and various kinds of wire. If the suture is made too tight, the
subsequent swelling may cause the stitch to tear out. In order to
make a firm suture the depth of the stitch should be the same as
the distance the stitch is from the edge of the wound. The deeper
the suture the more tissue is embraced and the fewer the number of
stitches required. In tying a suture use the square or reef knot.
Closure of wounds by means of adhesive plaster, collodion, and metal
clamps is not practiced to any great extent in veterinary practice.

PROCESS OF HEALING.

In those cases where perfect stoppage of bleeding, perfect coapta-
tion of the edges of the wound, and perfect cleanliness are obtained,
healing occurs within three days, without the formation of granula-
tions, pus, or proud flesh, by what is termed first intention. If wounds
do not heal in this manner they will gap somewhat and become warm
and painful. Healing then occurs by granulation or suppuration,
which is termed healing by second intention. The sides of the wound
become covered with granulation tissue which may fill the wound and
sometimes overlaj^ the lips, forming a fungoid growth called proud
flesh. Under favorable conditions the edges of the wound appear to
grow together by the end of the first week, and the whole surface
gradually becomes dry, and finally covered with pigmented skin, when
the wound is healed. The cause of pus formation in wounds is usually
due to the presence of germs. For this reason the utmost care should
be adopted to keep clean wounds aseptic, or free from germs, and to
make unclean wounds antiseptic by using antiseptic fluids to kill the
microbes present in the wound. The less the injurious action of this
fluid on the wound, and the greater its power to kill germs, the more
valuable it becomes. All antiseptics are not equally destructive, and
some germs are more susceptible to one antiseptic than to another.
The most important are (1) bichloride of mercury, which is to be pre-
ferred on horses. It becomes weakened in its action if placed in a
wooden pail or on an oily or greasy surface. It is used in the strength

462 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

of 1 part of bichloride to 1,000 to 5,000 parts of water, according to
the delicacy of the tissue to which it is applied. (2) Carbolic acid in
from 2 to 5 per cent solution is used on infected wounds and for clean-
ing instruments, dressings, and sponges. It unites well with oil and
is preferred to the bichloride of mercury on a greasy surface. A 5
per cent solution in oil is often used under the name of carbolized oil.
(3) Aluminum acetate is an efficient and cheap antiseptic, and is com-
posed of 1 part alum and 5 parts acetate of lead, mixed in 20 parts of
water. (4) Boracic acid is good in a 2 to 4 per cent solution to cleanse
wounds and wash eyes. Creolin and lysol may be used in a 2 to 5 per
cent solution in water. Iodoform is one of the most used of the anti-
septics and it also acts as an anodyne, stimulates granulation, and
checks wound secretion. A very efficacious and inexpensive powder
is made by taking 5 parts of iodoform and 95 parts of sugar, making
what is called iodoform sugar. Tannic acid is a useful drug in the
treatment of wounds, in that it arrests hemorrhage, checks secre-
tion, and favors the formation of a scab. A mixture of 1 part tannic
acid and 3 parts iodoform is good in suppurating wounds. lodol,
white sugar, ground and roasted coffee, and powdered charcoal are all
used as protectives and absorbents on suppurating surfaces. More
depends on the care and the method of application of the drug than on
the drug itself. On aseptic wounds use only those antiseptics that do
not irritate the tissue. If care is used in the application of the anti-
septic, corrosive sublimate or carbolic acid is to be recommended,
but in the hands of irresponsible parties lysol or creolin is safer. In
order to keep air from the wound and to absorb all wound secretions
rapidly, a dressing should be applied. If the wound is aseptic, the
dressing should be likewise, such as cotton gauze, sterile cotton,
oakum, or tow. This dressing should be applied with uniform pres-
sure at all times and secured by a bandage. Allow it to remain for a
week or ten days if the wound is aseptic or if the dressing does not
become loose or misplaced or become drenched with secretions from
the wound, or if pain, fever, or loss of appetite does not develop.
The dressing should then be removed, the wound treated antiseptically,
and a sterilized dressing applied.

HEALING UNDER A SCAB,

This often occurs in small superficial wounds that have been kept
aseptic. In order for a scab to form, the wound must not gap,
secrete freely, or become infected with germs. The formation of scab
is favored by astringents and styptics, such as tannic acid, iodoform,
and 5 per cent solution of zinc chloride. In case of large hollow
wounds that can not be dressed, such as fistulous withers, open joints,
etc., antisepsis may be obtained by warm water irrigation with or
without an antiseptic fluid. It should continue day and night, and

LACERATED AND CONTUSED WOUNDS. 463

never be interrupted for more than eight hours, for germs will then
have gained headway and will be difficult to remove. Four or five
days of irrigation will be sufficient, for granulations will then have
formed and pus will remain on the outside if it forms. For perma-
nent irrigation the stream should be very small, or drop by drop, but
should play over the entire surface of the wound. It is always better
to heal an infected wound under a scab, or treat it as an open wound,
than it is to suture the wound, thus favoring the growth of the in-
closed germs and retarding ultimate healing. In the latter case pus
may develop in the wound, form pockets by sinking into the tissues,
and cause various complications. Such pockets should be well drained,
either through incisions at the bottom or by drainage tubes or setons.
They should then be frequently syringed out or continuously irrigated.
In case proud flesh appears it should be kept down either by pressure
or by caustics, as powdered bluestone, silver nitrate, chloride of
antimony, or by astringents, such as burnt alum. If they prove
resistant to this treatment they may be removed b}^ scissors or the
knife or by searing with the hot iron. The following rules for the
treatment of wounds should be followed: (1) See that the wound is
clean, removing all foreign bodies. (2) For this purpose use a clean
finger rather than a probe. (3) Arrest all hemorrhage before closing
the wound. (4) Antiseptics should only be used if you suspect the
wound to be infected. (5) "N^Tien pus is present treat without closing
the wound. (6) This may be accomplished by drainage tubes, absorb-
ent dressings, setons, or continuous irrigations. (7) Protect the
wound against infection while healing.

LACERATED AND CONTUSED WOUNDS.

Lacerated and contused wounds may be described together,
although there is, of course, this difference, that in contused wounds
there is no break or laceration of the skin. Lacerated wounds, how-
ever, are, as a rule, also contused — the surrounding tissues are bruised
to a greater or lesser extent. Wliile such wounds may not appear
at first sight to be as serious as incised wounds, they are commonly
very much more so. Lacerations and contusions, when extensive, are
always to be regarded as dangerous. Many horses die from septic
infection or mortification as a result of these injuries. We find in
severe contusions an infiltration of blood into the surrounding tissues ;
disorganization and mortification follow, and involve often the deeper
seated structures. Abscesses, single or multiple, may also result and
call for special treatment.

In wounds that are lacerated the amount of hemorrhage is mostly
inconsiderable ; even very large blood vessels may be torn apart with-
out inducing a fatal result. The edges of the wound are ragged and
uneven. These wounds are produced by barbed wire or some blunt

464 DISEASES OF 'tHE HORSE.

object, as where a horse runs against fences, board piles, the corners
of buildings, or where he is struck by the pole or shafts of another
team, falling on rough irregular stones, etc.

Contused wounds are caused by blunt instruments moving with
sufficient velocity to bruise and crush the tissues, as running against
objects, kicks, or falling on large, hard masses.

Treatment. — In lacerated wounds great care must at first be exer-
cised in examining or probing to the very bottom of the rent or tear,
to see if any foreign body be present. Very often splinters of wood
or bits of stone or dirt are thus lodged, and unless removed prevent
the wound from healing; or if it should heal the wound soon opens
again, discharging a thin, gluey matter that is characteristic of the
presence of some object in the part. After a thorough exploration
these wounds are to be carefully and patiently fomented with warm
water, to which has been added carbolic acid in the proportion of 1
part to 100 of water. Karely, if ever, are stitches to be inserted in
lacerated wounds. The surrounding tissues and skin are so weakened
in vitality and structure by the contusions that stitches will not hold ;
they only irritate the parts. It is better to endeavor to secure coap-
tation by means of bandages, plasters, or collodion. One essential in
the treatment of lacerated wounds is to secure a free exit for the pus.
If the orifice of the wound is too high, or if jdus is found to be bur-
rowing in the tissues beneath the opening, we must then make a
counter opening as low as possible. This will admit of the wound
being thoroughly washed out, at first with warm water, and after-
wards injected with some mild astringent and antiseptic wash, as
chloride of zinc, 1 dram to a pint of water. A dependent opening
must be maintained until the wound ceases to discharge. Repeated
hot fomentations over the region of lacerated wounds afford much
relief and should be persisted in.

Bruises are nothing but contused wounds where the skin has
not been ruptured. There is often considerable solution of con-
tinuity of the i^arts under the skin, subcutaneous hemorrhage,
etc., which may result in local death (mortification) and slough of
the bruised parts. If the bruise or contusion is not so severe, many
cases are quickly cured by constant fomentation Avith hot water for
from two to four hours. The water should be allowed about this
time to gradually become cool and then cold. Cold fomentation must
then be kept up for another hour or two. Dry the parts thoroughly
and quickly and bathe them freely with camphor 1 ounce, sweet oil
8 ounces, or with equal parts of lead water and laudanum. A dry,
light bandage should then be applied, the horse allowed to rest,
and if necessary the treatment may be repeated each day for two or

PUNCTURED WOUNDS. 465

three days. If, ho^Yever, the wound is so severe that sloughing must
ensue, we should encourage this by poultices made of linseed meal,
wheat bran, turnips, onions, bread and milk, or hops. Charcoal is
to be sprinkled over the surface of the poultice when the wound is
bad smelling. After the slough has fallen off the wound is to be
dressed with warm antiseptic washes of carbolic acid, chloride of
zinc, permanganate of potash, etc. If granulating (filling up) too
fast, use burnt alum or air-slaked lime. Besides this local treatment,
we find that the constitutional symptoms of fever and inflammation
call for measures to prevent or control them. This is best done by
placing the injured animal on soft or green food. A physic of Bar-
bados aloes, 1 ounce, should be given as soon as possible after the
accident. Sedatives, such as tincture of aconite root, 15 drops,
three times a day, or ounce doses of saltpeter every four hours, may
also be administered. When the symptoms of fever are abated, and
if the discharges from the wound are abundant, the strength of the
patient must be supported by good food and tonics. One of the
best tonics is as follows : Powdered sulphate of iron, powdered gen-
tian, and powdered ginger, of each 4 ounces. Mix thoroughly and
give a heaping tablespoonful twice a day, on the feed or as a drench.

PUNCTURED WOUNDS.

Punctured wounds are produced by the penetration of a sharp or
blunt pointed substance, such as a thorn, fork, nail, etc., and the
orifice of these wounds is always small in proportion to their depth.
In veterinary practice punctured wounds are -much more common
than the others. They involve the feet most frequently, next the
legs, and often the head and face from nails protruding through the
stalls and trough. They are not only the most frequent, but they are
also the most serious, owing to the difficulty of obtaining thorough
disinfection. Another circumstance rendering them so is the lack of
attention that they at first receive. The external wound is so small
that but little or no importance is attached to it, yet in a short time
swelling, pain, and acute inflammation, often of a serious character,
are manifested.

Considering the most common of the punctured wounds, we must
give precedence to those of the feet. Horses worked in cities, about
iron works, around building places, etc., are most likely to receive
" nails in the feet." The animal treads upon nails, pieces of iron
or screws, and forces them into the soles of the feet. If the nail, or
whatever it is that has punctured the foot, is fast in some large or
heavy body, and is withdrawn as the horse lifts his foot, lameness
may last for only a few steps; but unless properly attended to at
once he will be found in a day or two to be very lame in the injured

H. Doc. 795, 59-2 30

466 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

member. If the foreign body remains in the foot, he gradually grows
worse from the time of puncture until the cause is discovered and
removed. If, when shoeing, a nail is driven into the " quick " (sensi-
tive laminae) and allowed to remain, the horse gradually evinces more
pain from day to day ; but if the nail has at once been removed by the
smith, lameness does not, as a rule, show itself for some days; or, if
the nail is simply driven " too close," not actuallj^ pricking the horse,
he may not show any lameness for a week or even much longer. At
this point it is due the blacksmith to say that, considering how thin
the walls of some feet are, the uneasiness of many horses while shoe-
ing, the ease with which a nail is diverted from its course by striking
an old piece of nail left in the wall, or from the nail itself splitting,
the wonder is not that so many horses are pricked or nails driven
" too close," but rather that many more are not so injured. It is not
always carelessness or ignorance on the part of the smith, by any
means, that is to account for this accident. Bad and careless shoers
we do meet with, but let us be honest and say that the rarity of these
accidents points rather to the general care and attention given by
these much-abused mechanics.

From the construction of the horse's foot (being incased in an im-
permeable horny box), and from the elasticity of the horn closing the
orifice, punctured wounds of the feet are almost always productive
of lameness. Inflammation results, and as there is no relief afforded
by swelling and no escape for the product of inflammation, this mat-
ter must and does burrow between the sole or wall and the sensitive
parts within it until it generally opens " between hair and hoof."
We can thus see why pain is so much more severe, why tetanus (lock-
jaw) more frequently follows wounds of the feet, and why, from the
extensive, or at times complete, separation and " casting " of the hoof,
these wounds must always be regarded with grave apprehension.

Symptoms and treatment. — A practice which, if never deviated
from — that of picking up each foot, cleaning the sole, and thoroughly
examining the foot each and every time the horse comes into the
stable — will enable us to reduce the serious consequences of punctured
Avounds of the feet to the minimum. If the wound has resulted from
pricking, lameness follows soon after shoeing; if from the nails being
driven too close, it usually appears from four to five days or a week
after receiving the shoe. We should always inquire as to the time of
shoeing, examine the shoe carefully, and see whether it has been par-
tially pulled and the horse stepped back upon some of the nails or the
clip. The pain from these wounds is lancinating; the horse is seen
to raise and lower the limb or hold it from the ground altogether;
often he points the foot, flexes the leg, and knuckles at the fetlock.
Swelling of the fetlock and back tendons is also frequently seen and

WOUNDS OF JOINTS. 467

is apt to mislead us. The foot must be carefully examined, and this
can not be properly done without removing the shoe. The nails
should be drawn separately and carefully examined. If there is no
escape of pus from the nail holes, or if the nails themselves are not
moist, we must continue our examination of the foot by carefully
pinching or tapping it at all parts. With a little practice we can de-
tect the spot where pain is the greatest or discover the delicate line or
scar left at the point of entrance of the foreign body. The entire sole
is then to be thinned, after which we are to carefully cut down upon
the point where pain is greatest upon pressure, and, finally, through
the sole at this spot. "\'\Tien the matter has escaped, the sole, so far
as it was undermined by pus, is to be removed. The foot must now
be poulticed for one or two days and afterwards dressed with a com-
press of oakum saturated with carbolic-acid solution or other anti-
septic dressing.

If we discover a nail or other object in the foot, the principal direc-
tion, after having removed the offending body, is to cut away the
sole, in a funnel shape, down to the sensitive parts beneath. This is
imperative, and if a good free opening has been made and is main-
tained for a few days, hot fomentations and antiseptic dressings
applied, the cure is mostly easy, simple, quick, and permanent. The
horse should be shod with a leather sole under the shoe, first of all
applying tar and oakum to prevent any dirt from entering the wound.
In some instances nails may puncture the flexor tendons, the coffin
bone, or enter the coffin joint. Such injuries are always serious, their
recovery slow and tedious, and the treatment so varied and difficult
that the services of a veterinarian will be necessary.

PUNCTURED WOUNDS OF JOINTS, OR OPEN JOINTS.

These wounds are more or less frequent. They are always serious,
and often result in anchylosis (stiffening) of the joint or death of the
animal. The joints mostly punctured are the hock, fetlock, or knee,
though other joints may, of course, suffer this injury. As the symp-
toms and treatment are much the same for all, only the accident as it
occurs in the hock joint will be described. Probably the most com-
mon mode of injury is from the stab of a fork, but it may result from
the kick of another horse that is newly shod, or in many other ways.
At first the horse evinces but slight pain or lameness. The owner
discovers a small wound scarcely larger than a pea, and pays but little
attention to it. In a few days, however, the pain and lameness be-
come excessive; the horse can no longer bear any weight upon the
injured leg; the joint is very much swollen and painful upon pres-
sure; there are well-marked symptoms of constitutional disturbance —
quick pulse, hurried breathing, high temperature, 103° to 106° F., the

468 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

appetite is lost, thirst is present, the horse reeks with sweat, and
shows by an anxious countenance the pain he suffers. He may lie
down, though mostly he persists in standing, and the opposite limb
becomes greatly swollen from^ bearing the entire weight and strain
for so long a time. The wound, which at first appeared so insignifi-
cant, is now constantly discharging a thin whitish or yellowish fluid —
joint oil or water, which becomes coagulated about the mouth of the
wound and adheres to the part in clots like jeWj, or resembling some-
Avhat the white of an egg. Not infrequently the joint opens at dif-
ferent places, discharging at first a thin bloody fluid that soon as-
sumes the character above described.

Treatment of these wounds is most difficult and unsatisfactory.
We can do much to prevent this array of symptoms if the case is
seen early — within the first twenty-four or forty-eight hours after
the injury; but when inflammation of the joint is once fairly estab-
lished the case becomes one of grave tendencies. Whenever a punc-
tured wound of a joint is noticed, even though apparently of but
small moment, we should, without the least delay, apply a strong
cantharides blister over the entire joint, being even careful to fill the
orifice of the wound with the blistering ointment. This treatment is
almost always effectual. It oj^erates to perform a cure in two ways —
first, the swelling of the skin and tissues underneath it completely
closes the wound and prevents the ingress of air; second, by the
superficial inflammation established it acts to check and abate all
deep-seated inflammation. In the great majority of instances, if
pursued soon after the accident, this treatment performs a cure in
about one week, but should the changes described as occurring later
in the joint have already taken place, we must then treat b}'' cooling
lotions and the application to the wound of chloride of zinc, 10
grains to the ounce of water, or a paste made up of flour and alum.
A bandage is to hold these applications in place, which is only to be
removed when swelling of the leg or increasing febrile symptoms
demand it. In the treatment of open joints our chief aim must be
to close the orifice as soon as possible. For this reason repeated prob-
ing or even injections are contraindicated. The only probing of an
open joint that is to be sanctioned is on our first visit, when we should
carefully examine the wound for foreign bodies or dirt, and after
removing them the i3robe must not again be used. The medicines
used to coagulate the synovial discharge are best simply applied to
the surface of the wound, on j^ledgets of tow, and held in place hy
bandages. Internal treatment is also indicated in those cases of
open joints where the suffering is great. At first we should admin-
ister a light physic and follow this up with sedatives and anodynes,
as directed for contused wounds. Later, however, we should give
quinine, or salicylic acid in 1-dram doses two or three times a day.

WOUNDS AND THEIR TREATMENT. 469

WOTTNDS OF THE TENDON SHEATHS.

Wounds of tendon sheaths are similar to open joints in that there
is an escape of synovial fluid, " sinew water." Where the tendons are
simply punctured by a thorn, nail, or fork, we must, after a thorough
exploration of the wound for any remaining foreign substance, treat
Avith the flour-and-alum paste, bandages, etc., as for open joint.
Should the skin and tendons be divided the case is even more serious
and often incurable. There is always a large bed of granulations
(proud flesh) at the seat of injury, and a thickening more or less pro-
nounced remains. When the back tendons of the leg are severed we
should apply at once a high-heel shoe (which is to be gradually
lowered as healing advances) and bandage firmly with a compress
moistened with a 10-grain chloride of zinc solution. "When proud
flesh appears this is best kept under control by repeated applications
of a red-hot iron. Mares that are valuable as brood animals and stock
horses should always be treated for this injury, as, even though
blemished, their value is not seriously impaired. The length of time
required and the expense of treatment will cause us to hesitate in
attempting a cure, if the subject is old and comparatively valueless.

GUNSHOT WOUNDS.

These wounds vary in size and character, depending on the size
and quality of the projectile and also the tissue injured. They are so
seldom met with in our animals that an extended reference to them
seems unnecessary. If a wound has been made by a bullet a careful
examination should be made to ascertain if the ball has passed
through or out of the hodj. If it has not we must then probe for the
ball, and if it can be located it is to be cut out when practicable to do
so. Oftentimes a ball may be so lodged that it can not be removed,
and it then may become encysted and remain for years without giving
rise to any inconvenience. It is often difficult to locate a bullet, as it
is very readily deflected by resistances met with after entering the
body.

The entering wound is the size of the projectile, the edges are
inverted and often scorched. The wound produced in case of the
bullet's exit is larger than the projectile, the edges are turned out and
ragged. A bullet heated by the friction of the barrel or air often
softens and becomes flattened on striking a bone or other tissue.
Modern bullets that have an outer steel layer may pass through bone
without splintering it. Leaden bullets may split, producing two exit
wounds. Spent bullets may only produce a bruise. Should bones be
struck by a ball they are sometimes shattered and splintered to such
an extent as to warrant us in having the animal destroyed. A gun-
shot wound, when irreparable injury has not been done, is to be

470 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

treated the same as punctured wounds, i. e., stop the hemorrhage,
remove the foreign body if possible, and apply hot fomentations or
poultices to the wound until suppuration is fairly established. Anti-
septic and disinfectant injections may then be used. Should pus
accumulate in the tissues, openings must be made at the most depend-
ing parts for its escape. Wounds from shotguns fired close to the
animals are serious. They are virtually lacerated and contused
w^ounds. Remove all the shot possible from the wound, and treat as
directed for contusions. When small shot strike the horse from a
distance they stick in the skin or only go through it. The shot grains
must be picked out, but as a rule this " peppering " of the skin
amounts to but little.

POISONED WOUNDS.

These injuries are the result of bites of snakes, rabid dogs, stings of
bees, wasps, etc. A single sting is not dangerous, but an animal is
often stung by a swarm of insects, when the chief danger occurs from
the swelling produced. If stung about the head, the nostrils may be
closed as a result of the swelling, causing labored breathing and pos-
sibly asphyxiation. Intoxication may be produced by the absorption
of this i^oison and is manifested by staggering gait, spreading of the
legs, paralysis of the muscles, difficult respiration, and a rise of tem-
perature. Death may follow in five to ten hours.

Treatment. — Douse animal with cold water and apply any alkaline
liquid, such as soapsuds, bicarbonate of soda, or weak solution of
amjnonia. Internally give alcohol, ether, or camphor to strengthen
the heart. In case of bites by rattlesnakes, moccasin, or other poi-
sonous snakes, a painful swelling occurs about the bitten part, which
is followed by labored breathing, weakness, retching, fever, and
death from collapse. The animal usually recovers if it can be kept
alive over the third day. In treating the animal, a tight ligature
should be passed about the part above the wound to keep the poison
from entering the general circulation. Wash out the wound thor-
oughly with antiseptics and then apply a caustic, such as silver ni-
trate, or burn with a hot instrument. A subcutaneous injection of
one-fourth dram of 1 per cent solution of chromic acid above the
wound is also beneficial. Cold water may be applied to the wound
to combat the inflammation. Bites of rabid dogs produce an infected
wound, and the virus of rabies introduced in this manner should be
removed or destroyed in the wound. Therefore produce considerable
bleeding by incising the wound, wash out thoroughly with 10 per
cent solution of zinc chloride, and then apply caustics or the actual
cautery.

HARNESS GALLS (siTFASTS).

Wounds or abrasions of the skin are frequently caused by ill-fitting
harness or saddles. When a horse has been resting from steady work

SITFASTS, BURNS, AKD SCALDS. 471

for some time, particularly after being kept idle in a stable on a
scanty allowance of grain, as in winter, he is soft and tender and
sweats easily when put to work again. In this condition he is apt
to sweat and chafe under the harness, especially if it is hard and
poorly fitted. This chafing is likely to cause abrasions of the skin,
and thus pave the way for an abscess, or for a chronic blemish, unless
attended to very promptly. Besides causing the animal considerable
pain, chafing, if long continued, leads to the formation of a callosity.
This may be superficial, involving only the skin, or it may be deep-
seated, involving the subcutaneous fibrous tissue and sometimes the
muscle and even the bone. This causes a dry slough to form, which
is both inconvenient and unsightly. Sloughs of this kind are com-
monly called " sitf asts " and, while they occur in other places, are
most frequently found under the saddle. (See also page 448.)

Treatment. — Abrasions are best f)re vented by bringing the animal
gradually into working shape after it has had a prolonged rest, in
order that the muscles will be hard and the skin tough. The harness
should be well fitted, neither too large nor too small, and it should be
cleaned and oiled to remove all dirt and to make it soft and pliable.
Saddles should be properly fitted so as to prevent direct pressure on
the spine, and the saddle blankets should be clean and dry. Parts of
the horse where chafing is likely to occur, as on the back under the
saddle, should be cleaned and brushed free of dirt.

The remedies for simple harness galls are numerous. Among them
may be mentioned alcohol, 1 pint, in which are well shaken the whites
of two eggs ; a solution of nitrate of silver, 10 grains to the ounce of
water; sugar of lead or sulphate of zinc, 20 grains to an ounce of
water ; carbolic acid, 1 part in 15 parts of glycerin, and so on almost
without end. Any simple astringent wash or powder will effect a
cure, provided the sores are not irritated by friction.

If a sitfast has developed, the dead hornlike slough must be care-
fully dissected out and the wound treated carefully with antiseptics.
During treatment it is always best to allow the animal to rest, but if
this is inconvenient care should be taken to prevent injury to. the
abraded or wounded surface by padding the harness so that chafing
can not occur.

BURNS AND SCALDS.

These wounds of domestic animals are fortunately of rare occur-
rence; however, when they do occur, if at all extensive; they prove
quite troublesome and in many cases are fatal. According to the
severity of the burn we distinguish three degrees: First degree,
where there is a simple reddening of the skin ; second degree, where
there is a formation of vesicles, or blisters ; third degree, where there
is a complete destruction of vitality of the tissues, such as would
occur in charring from direct contact with flames or from escaping

472 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

steam. Besides the burns caused by flames and steam, there are other
causative agents, such as chemicals (caustic alkalis and acids), light-
ning stroke, and occasionally the broken trolley wires of electric rail-
ways. When a large surface of the skin is burned or scalded, the ani-
mal (if he does not die at once from shock) will soon show signs of
fever — shivering, coldness of the extremities, weakness, restlessness,
quick and feeble pulse, and labored breathing. No matter which
agent is a factor in the production of burns, the lesions are practi-
cally of the same nature. The extent and site of the burn should lead
one in the determination and course of treatment. Burns of the
shoulder and those about the region of the elbow or other parts
where there is much movement of the tissues are gi-ave, and, if at all
extensive, treatment should not be attempted, but the immediate
destruction of the animal is advised. A burn of the third degree,
where there is a destruction of the vitality of large areas of tissue,
even on parts not subject to much motion, is extremely tedious to
treat; in fact, it is questionable whether the treatment and keep of
the animal will ever be compensated for, even though recovery does
take place, which, in any event, will require at least six or eight
weeks. Those due to lightning stroke and trolley wires are likely to
occur in irregular lines, and, unless death occurs at once, they are not
likely to prove serious.

Treatment. — Treatment should be prompt and effective. If the
burns are extensive the constitutional symptoms should be combated
with whisky and milk and eggs, or ammonia carbonate, strychnine,
caffein, and other stimulants to prevent shock. In the local treat-
ment, to alleviate the pain, the application of cold water in some form
and the hypodermic injection of morphine are to be recommended.
In burns of the first degree, where there is only a superficial inflam-
mation, lead carbonate (white lead) ointment is very good. Carron
oil (limewater and linseed oil, equal parts) is a standard remedy,
but a modification of it known as Stahl's liniment is perhaps better ;
this liniment is composed of linseed oil and limewater each 200 parts,
bicarbonate soda 100 parts, and thymol 1 part. This liniment should
be applied freely to the scorched surface and covered with a layer
of bora ted gauze or absorbent cotton to protect it from the air. Re-
new the application frequently. Carbolated vaseline may be used
in place of the above. In case the burn is more extensive, the fol-
lowing solution may be used: Picric acid 2 parts, alcohol 40 parts,
water 400 parts. The lesion should be thoroughly cleansed with this
solution used on absorbent cotton. The vesicles, if any appear,
should be opened with a clean needle, allowing the skin to remain.
Strips of gauze or absorbent cotton saturated with the solution should
now be applied and renewed only occasionally. In burns of the sec-
ond and third degrees more satisfactory results may be obtained with

GANGRENE, OR MORTIFICATION. 473

nonpoisonous dry dressing powder, such as is used in ordinary open
wounds, as tannic acid 8 parts and iodoform 1 part, or a salve made
of this powder and a sufficient quantity of vaseline. When slough-
ing of the tissues takes place the wounds should be cleansed with a
warm 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid, all loose fragments of tissue
removed, and either a dry antiseptic dressing powder or carbolated
vaseline ointment applied to exclude the air. Granulation tissue
(proud flesh) should be controlled by the application of silver nitrate
in the form of a caustic pencil.

Burns due to mineral acids may be first treated by flushing the
parts with a copious quantity of cold water or by the application of
whiting or chalk. Either use a large quantity of water at the start or
use the chalk first, then wash with water. If the irritant has been a
caustic alkali, such as potash, lye, ammonia, or soda, then vinegar
should be the first application. StahFs liniment is probably the best
general application for all burns for the first week ; then this should
be followed by the ordinary antiseptic wound dressings.

GANGRENE.

Gangrene, or mortification, denotes the death of the affected part,
and is mostly found attacking soft tissue near the surface of the
body. Gangrenous areas may occur as a result of shutting off their
blood supply. Constitutional diseases, such as ergotism, anthrax, and
septicemia, predispose to gangrene. As external causes we have acids
and alkalies, freezing and burning, contusions and continuous pres-
sure that interrupt the circulation. There are two forms of gan-
grene— dry and moist. Dry gangrene is most often seen in horses
from continuous lying down (decubitus) or from uneven pressure of
some portion of the harness.

Sym/ptoms. — There is a lack of sensation due to the death of nerves.
In dry gangrene the skin is leathery and harsh, while in moist gan-
grene the tissues are soft, wrinkled, and friable; the hair is dis-
turbed, and the skin is usually moist and soapy an^ sometimes cov-
ered with blebs. The tissue surrounding the moist gangrenous patch
is usually inflamed, swollen, and hot, but this is less noticeable in the
case of dry gangrene. Moist gangrene often spreads and involves
deeper tissue, sheaths of tendons and joints producing septic syno-
vitis or septic arthritis leading to pyemia and death. Dry gangrene
is seldom dangerous, but the rapidity of its spread will indicate its
virulence.

Treatment.— The preventive treatment consists in avoiding all the
influences that tend to disturb the nutrition of the tissues, such as
excessive cold or heat or continuous pressure. Gangrene following
decubitus may be prevented by using soft bedding and frequently
turning the animal from one side to the other. In dry gangrene moist

474 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

heat in the form of poultices or anointing the tissue with oils and
fats will be found beneficial in hastening the dead tissue to slough
off. When the outer skin begins to suppurate, seize it with a pair of
pincers and draw it away. After this treat the patch as an open
wound. In moist gangrene the tissue should be thoroughly disin-
fected with creolin, lysol, or particularly an alcoholic tincture of cam-
phor. Continuous irritation with antiseptic fluids prevents the accu-
mulation and absorption of poisonous liquids. Incisions into the dead
tissue may be made, and when sloughing commences the tissue should
be removed with forceps and the resulting wound treated as in dry
gangrene.

ULCERATION.

An ulcer is a circumscribed area of necrosis occurring on the skin
or mucous membrane and covered with granulation tissue. It is a
process of destruction, and when this process is going on faster than
regeneration can take place, we have a gnawing, or eating, ulcer.
IVhen such an ulcer increases rapidly in size it is termed a phagedenic
ulcer. A fungoid ulcer is one in which the bottom of the ulcer pro-
jects beyond the edge of the skin. These ulcers secrete milky or
bloody-white liquid called ichor. ^Vlien the ulcer is of an ashen or
leaden color, with the bottom and sides formed of dense, hard con-
nective tissue which gives but little discharge and is not sensitive, it
is termed callous, torpid, or indolent ulcer.

Causes. — As in the case of gangrene, disturbances of circulation are
among the most frequent causes. A wound to a tissue with slight
recuperative power may be followed by ulceration, as in tumors.
Certain germs may produce ulcers, as the glanders bacilli, which cause
the ulcerations on the nasal septum in glanders.

Treatment. — This consists in removing at once the exciting cause.
The secretions of the ulcer should be washed off with antiseptic solu-
tions and the formation of granulation tissues stimulated by antisep-
tic salves, such as carbolated vaseline, lead ointment, or by dressings
of camphor. Air should be kept from the ulcer by occlusive dress-
ings. Where the ulcers are inflamed, warm lead water or lead water
and laudanum will be found efficacious. Callous ulcers are best re-
moved by a curet, knife, or hot iron and then treated like a common
wound. Mechanical irritation should be avoided.

ABSCESSES.

These consist of accumulations of pus within circumscribed walls,
at different parts of the body, and may be classed as acute, and cold,
or chronic, abscesses.

Wlien an abscess occurs about a hair follicle it is called a boil or
furuncle; when several hair follicles are involved, resulting in the

ABSCESSES. 475

formation of more than one exit for the inflammatory products, it is
called a carbuncle.

ACUTE ABSCESSES.

Acute abscesses follow as the result of local inflammation in glands,
muscular tissue, or even bones. They are very common in the two
former. The abscesses most commonly met with in the horse (and
the ones which will be here described) are those of the salivary glands,
occurring during the existence of " strangles," or " colt distemper."
The glands behind or under the jaw are seen to slowly increase in
size, becoming firm, hard, hot, and painful. At first the swelling is
uniformly hard and resisting over its entire surface, but in a little
while becomes soft — fluctuating — at some portion, mostly in the
center. From this time on the abscess is said to be " pointing," or
" coming to a head," which is shown by a small elevated or projecting
prominence, which at first is dry, but soon becomes moist with trans-
uded serum. The hairs over this part loosen and fall ofi", and in a
short time the abscess opens, the contents escape, and the cavity grad-
ually fills up — heals by granulations.

Abscesses in muscular tissue are usually the result of bruises or
injuries. In all cases where abscesses are forming we should hurry
the ripening process by frequent hot fomentations and poultices.
When they are very tardy in their development a blister over their
surface is advisable. It is a common rule with surgeons to open an
abscess as soon as pus can be j)lainly felt, but this practice can
scarcely be recommended to owners of stock indiscriminately, since
this little operation frequently requires an exact knowledge of anat-
omy. It will usually be found the better plan to encourage the full
ripening of an abscess and allow it to open of itself. This is impera-
tive if the abscess is in the region of joints, etc. When open, we
must not squeeze the walls of the abscess to any extent. They may
be very gently pressed with the fingers at first to remove the clots —
inspissated pus — but after this the orifice is simply to be kept open
by the introduction of a clean probe, should it be disposed to heal too
soon. If the opening is at too high a level another should be made
into the lowest portion of the abscess so as to permit the most com-
plete drainage. Hot fomentations or poultices are sometimes required
for a day or two after an abscess has opened, and are particularly
indicated when the base of the abscess is hard and indurated.

The cavity should be thoroughly washed with stimulating anti-
septic solutions, such as 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid, 3 to 5 per
cent solution of creolin, 1 to 1,000 bichloride of mercury, or 1 per
cent permanganate of potash solution. If the abscesses are foul
and bad smelling, their cavities should first be syringed with 1 part
of hydrogen peroxide to 2 parts of water and then followed by the
injection of any of the above-mentioned antiseptics.

476 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

COLD ABSCESSES.

Cold abscess is the term applied to those large, indolent swellings
that are the result of a low, or chronic, form of inflammation, in the
center of which there is a small collection of pus. They are often
seen near the point of the shoulder, forming the so-called breast boil.
The swelling is diffuse and of enormous extent, but slightly hotter
than surrounding parts, and not very painful upon pressure. There
is a pronounced stiffness, rather than pain, evinced upon moving the
animal. Such abscesses have the appearance of a hard tumor, sur-
rounded by a softer edematous swelling, involving the tissues to the
extent of a foot or more in all directions from the tumor. This dif-
fused swelling gradually subsides and leaves the large, hardened mass
somewhat Avell defined. One of the characteristics of cold abscesses
is their tendency to remain in the same condition for a great length
of time. There is neither heat nor soreness ; no increase nor lessening
in the size of the tumor ; it remains statu quo. If, however, the ani-
mal should be put to work for a short time the irritation of the collar
causes the surrounding tissues to again assume an edematous condi-
tion, which after a few days' rest disappears, leaving the tumor as
before or but slightly larger. Upon careful manipulation we may
discover what appears to be a fluid deep seated in the center of the
mass. The quantity of matter so contained is very small — often not
more than a tablespoonful — and for this reason it can not, in all
cases, be detected.

Cold abscesses are mostly, if not always, caused by the long-con-
tinued irritation of a loose and badly fitting collar. There is a slow
inflammatory action going on, which results in the formation of a
small quantity of matter inclosed in very thick and but partially
organized walls, that are not as well defined as is the circumference
of fibrous tumors, which they most resemble.

Treatment. — The means recommended to bring the acute abscess
*' to a head " are but rarely effectual with this variety ; or, if successful,
too much time has been occupied in the cure. We must look for other
and more rapid methods of treatment. These consist, first of all, in
carefully exploring the tumor for the presence of pus. The incisions
must be made over the softest part and carried deep into the tumor
(to its very bottom if necessary), and the matter allowed to escape.
After this, and whether we have found matter or not, we must induce
an active inflammation of the tumor in order to promote solution of
the thick walls of the abscess. This may be done by inserting well
into the incision a piece of oakum or cotton saturated with turpentine,
carbolic acid, tincture of iodine, etc., or we may pack the incision with
powdered sulphate of zinc and keep the orifice plugged for twenty-
four hours. These agents set up a destructive inflammation of the
walls. Suppuration follows, and this should now be encouraged by

ABSCESSES AND FISTULAS. 477

hot fomentations and iwultices. The orifice must be kept open, and
should it be disposed to heal we must again introduce some of the
agents above described. A favored treatment with many, and it is
probably the best, is to plunge a red-hot iron to the bottom of the
incision and thoroughly sear all parts of the walls of the abscess.
This is to be repeated after the first slough has taken place, if the
walls remain thickened and indurated.

It is useless to waste time with fomentations, jooultices, or blisters
in the treatment of cold abscesses, since, though apparently removed
by such methods, they almost invariably return when the horse is put
to work. Extirpation by the knife is not practicable, as the walls of
the tumor are not sufficiently defined. If treated as aoove directed,
and properly fitted with a good collar after healing, there will not
remain any track or trace of the large, unsightly mass.

Definition. — The word fistula is applied to any ulcerous lesion upon
the external surface of the body which is connected by ducts, or
passages, with some internal cavity. Because of this particular
formation the term fistulous tract is often used synonymously with
the word fistula. Fistulas may exist in any part of the body, but the
name has come to be commonly accepted as applicable only to such
lesions when found upon the withers. Poll evil is a fistula upon the
poll, and in no sense differs from fistulous withers except in location.
The description of fistula will apply, then, in the main, to poll evil
equally well. Quittor presents the characteristic tubular passages of
a fistula and may therefore be considered and treated as fistula of the
foot. Fistulous passages may also be developed upon the sides of the
face, through which saliva is discharged instead of flowing into the
mouth, and are called salivary fistulas. A dental fistula may arise
from the necrosis of the root of a tooth. Again, a fistula is sometimes
noted at the umbilicus associated with hernia, and recto-vaginal
fistulas have been developed in mares, following difficult parturition.
Fistulas may arise from wounds of glandular organs or their ducts,
and thus we have the so-called mammary, or lachrymal, fistulas.

Fistulous tracts are lined with a false, or adventitious, membrane
and show no disposition to heal. They constantly afford means of
exit to the pus or ichorous material discharged by the unhealthy
parts below. They are particularly liable to develop at the withers
or poll because of the exposed positions which these parts occupy,
and, having once become located there, they usually assert a tend-
ency to further extension, because the vertical and laminated forma-
tion of the muscles and tendons of these parts allows the forces of
gravitation to assist the pus in gaining the deeper-lying structures
and also favors its retention among them.

478 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

Causes. — Fistulas follow as a result of abscesses, bruises, wounds,
or long-continued irritation by the harness. Among the more com-
mon causes of fistula of the poll (poll evil) are chafing by the halter
or heavy bridle; blows from the butt end of the whip; the horse
striking his head against the hayrack, beams of the ceiling, low doors,
etc. Fistulous withers are seen mostly in those horses that have
thick necks as well as those that are very high in the withers; or,
among saddle horses, those that are very low on the withers, the
saddle here riding forward and bruising the parts. They are often
caused by bad-fitting collars or saddles, by direct injuries from blows,
and from the horse rolling upon rough or sharp stones. In either
of these locations ulcers of the skin, or simple abscesses, if not prop-
erly and punctually treated, may become fistulas. The pus burrows
and finds lodgment deep down between the muscles, and escapes only
when the sinus becomes surcharged or when, during motion of the
jjarts, the matter is forced to the surface.

Symptoms. — These, of course, will vary according to the progress
made by the fistula. Following an injury we may often notice sore-
ness or stiffness of the front legs, and upon careful exaniination of
the withers we will see small tortuous lines running from the point of
irritation downward and backward over the region of the shoulder.
These are superficial lymphatics, and are swollen and painful to the
touch. In a day or two a swelling is noticed on one or both sides of
the dorsal vertebrae, which is hot and painful and rapidly enlarging.
The stiffness of the limbs may disappear at this time, and the heat
and soreness of the parts may become less noticeable, but the swelling
remains and continues to enlarge.

A fistulous ulcer of the poll may be first indicated by the opposition
which the animal offers to the application of stable brush or bridle.
At this time the parts are so sore and sensitive that there is some
danger that the patient will acquire disagreeable stable habits unless
handled with the greatest care. The disease in its early stages may be
recognized as a Soft, fluctuating tumor surrounded by inflammatory
swelling, with the presence of enlarged lymphatic vessels and stiffness
of the neck. Later the inflammation of the surrounding tissues may
disappear, leaving a prominent tumor. The swelling, whether situ-
ated upon the head or the withers, may open and form a running
ulcer, or its contents may dry up and leave a tumor which gradually
develops the common characteristics of a fibrous tumor. When the
enlargement has opened we should carefully examine its cavity, as
upon its condition will wholly depend our treatment.

Treatment. — In the earliest stage, when there is soreness, enlarged
lymphatics, but no well-marked swelling, the trouble may frequently
be aborted. To do this requires both general and local treatment.
A physic should be given, and the horse receive 1 ounce of powdered

FISTULAS. 479

saltpeter three times a day in his water or feed. If the fever runs
high, 20-drop doses of tincture of aconite root every two hours may
be administered. The local application of cold water to the inflamed
spot for an hour at a time three or four times a day has often proved
very beneficial, and has afforded great relief to the patient.

Cooling lotions, muriate of ammonia, or saltpeter and water ; seda-
tive washes, such as tincture of opium and aconite, chloroform lini-
ment, or camphorated oil, are also to be frequently applied. Should
this treatment fail to check the progress of the trouble, the formation
of pus should be hastened as rapidly as possible. Hot fomentations
and poultices are to be constantly used, and as soon as the presence of
pus can be detected, the abscess wall is to be opened at its lowest foint.
In this procedure lies our hope of a speedy cure. As with any simple
abscess, if drainage can be so provided that the pus will run off as
fast as formed without remaining within the interstices of the tissues,
the healing which follows will be rapid and satisfactory.

Attention is again called to the directions given above as to the
necessity of probing the cavity when opened. If upon a careful ex-
amination with the probe we find that there are no pockets, no sin-
uses, but a simple, regular abscess wall, the indication for treatment
is to make an opening from below so that the matter must all escape.
Rarely is anything more needed than to keep the orifice open and to
bathe or inject the parts with some simple antiseptic wash that is not
irritant or caustic. A low opening and cleanliness constitute the
essential and rational treatment.

If the abscess has already opened, giving vent to a quantity of pur-
ulent matter, and the pipes and tubes leading from the opening are
found to be extensive and surrounded with thick fungoid membranes,
there is considerable danger that the internal ligaments or even some
of the bones have become affected, in which case the condition has
assumed a serious aspect. Or, on the other hand, if the abscess has
existed for some time without a rupture, its contents will frequently
be found to consist of dried purulent matter, firm and dense, and the
walls surrounding the mass will be found greatly thickened. In such
a case we must generally have recourse to the application of caustics
which will cause a sloughing of all of the unhealthy tissue, and will
also stimulate a rapid increase of healthy organized material to re-
place that destroyed in the course of the development and treatment
of the disease. Threads or cords soaked in gum-arabic solution and
rolled in powdered corrosive sublimate may be introduced into the
canal and allowed to remain. The skin on all parts of the shoulder
and leg beneath the fistula should be carefully greased with lard or
oil, as this will prevent the discharge that comes from the opening
after the caustic is introduced from irritating or blistering the skin
over which it flows. In obstinate cases a piece of caustic potash

4S0 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

(fii.sed) 1 to 2 inches in length may be introduced into the opening
and should be covered with oakum or cotton. The horse should then
be secured so that he can not reach the part with his teeth. After the
caustic plug has been in place for twenty-four hours, it may be re-
moved and hot fomentations applied. As soon as the discharge has
become again established the abscess should be opened from its lowest
extremity, and the passage thus formed may be kept open by the in-
troduction of a seton. If the pipes become established in the deep
tissues beneath the shoulder blade or among the spines of the ver-
tebral colimm, it will often be found imi30ssible to provide proper
drainage for the abscess from below, and treatment must consist of
caustic solutions carefully injected into all parts of the suppurating
sinuses. A very effective remedy for this purpose consists of 1 ounce
of chloride of zinc in half a pint of water, injected three times during
a week, after which a weak solution of the same may be occasionally
injected. Injections of Villate's solution or alcoholic solution of cor-
rosive sublimate, strong carbolic acid, or possibly oil of turpentine
will also prove beneficial. Pressure should be applied from below,
and endeavors made to heal the various pipes from the bottom.

Should the swelling become general, without forming a well-defined
tumor, the placing of 20 to 30 grains of arsenious acid, wrapped in a
single layer of tissue paper, in a shallow incision beneath the skin will
often produce a sloughing of the affected parts in a week or ten days,
after which the formation of healthy tissue follows. The surrounding
parts of the skin should be protected from any damage from escaping
caustics by the application of lard or oil, as previously suggested.

Although the successful treatment of fistulas requires time and
patience, the majority of cases are curable. The sinuses must be
opened at their lowest extremity and kept open. Caustic applications
must be thoroughly used once or twice, after which mild astringent
antiseptic washes should be persistently used until a cure is reached.

It sometimes happens that the erosions have burrowed so deepl}' or
in such a direction that the opening of a drainage passage becomes
impracticable. In other cases the bones may become attacked in some
inaccessible location, or the joints maj' be affected, and in these cases
it is often best to destroy the horse at once.

The reappearance of the fistula after it has apparently healed is not
uncommon. The secondary attack in these cases is seldom serious.
The lesion should be carefully cleansed and afterwards injected with
a solution of zinc sulphate, 20 grains to the ounce of water, every sec-
ond or third day until a cure is effected.

In fistula of the foot we see the same tendency' toward the burrow-
ing of pus downward to lower structures, or in some cases upward
toward the coronet. Prior to the development of a quittor there is
always swelling at the coronet, accompanied by heat and pain.

FISTULAS. 481

Every effort should now be made to prevent the formation of an
abscess at the point of injury. Wounds caused by nails, gravel, or
any other foreign body which may have become lodged in the sole of
the foot should be opened at once from below so as to alhnv free exit
to all purulent discharges. Should the injury have occurred directly
to the coronet the application of cold fomentations may prove efficient
in preventing the formation of an abscess.

When a quittor becomes fully established it should be treated pre-
cisely as a fistula situated in any other part of the body: that is, the
sinuses should all be opened from their lowest extremities so as to
afford constant drainage. All fragments of diseased tissue should be
trimmed away, antiseptic solutions injected, and, after covering the
wound with a pad of oakum saturated with some good antiseptic
wash, the whole foot may be carefully covered with clean bandages,
which will afford valuable assistance to the healing process by exclud-
ing all dirt from the affected part.
H. Doc. 795, 59-2 31

GENERAL DISEASES.

By Rush Shippen Huidekopeb, M. D., Vet.

I Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.]

ANIMAL TISSUES.

The nonprofessional reader may regard the animal tissues, which
are subject to inflammation, as excessively simple structures, as simi-
lar, simple, and fixed in their organization as the joists and boards
which frame a house, the bricks and iron coils of pipe which build a
furnace, or the stones and mortar which make the support of a great
railroad bridge. Yet while the principles of structure are thus sim-
ple, for the general understanding by the student who begins their
study the complete appreciation of the shades of variation, which
differentiate one tissue from another, which define a sound tendon or
a ligament from a fibrous band — ^the result of disease filling in an old
lesion and tying one organ with another — is as complicated as the
nicest jointing of Chinese woodwork, the building of a furnace for
the most difficult chemical analysis, or the construction of a bridge
which will stand for ages and resist any force or weight.

All tissues are composed of certain fundamental and similar ele-
ments which are governed by the same rules of life, though they may
appear at first glance to be widely different. These are (a) amor-
phous substances, (h) fibers, and (c) cells.

(a) Amorphous substances may be in liquid form, as in the fluid
of the blood, which holds a vast amount of salts and nutritive matter
in solution ; or they may be in a semiliquid condition, as the plasma
which infiltrates the loose meshes of connective tissue and lubricates
the surface of some membranes ; or they may be in the form of a glue
or cement, fastening one structure to another, as a tendon or muscle
end to a bone; or, again, they hold. similar elements firmly together,
as in bone, where they form a stiff matrix which becomes impreg-
nated with lime salts. Amorphous substances, again, form the pro-
toplasm or nutritive element of cells or the elements of life.

(b) Fibers are formed of elements of organic matter which have
only a passive function. They can be assimilated to little strings, or
cords, tangled one with another like a mass of waste yarn, woven
regularly like a cloth, or bound together like a rope. They are of two
kinds — white connective tissue fibers, only slightly extensible, pliable,
and very strong, and yellow elastic fibers, elastic, curly, ramified, and
very dense. These fibers once created require the constant presence
of fluids around them in order to retain their functional condition, as

482

DESCRIPTION OF THE TISSUES. 483

a piece of harness leather demands continual oiling to keep its
strength, but they undergo no change or alteration in their form
until destroyed by death.

(c) Cells, which may even be regarded as low forms of life, are
masses of protoplasm or amorphous living matter, with a nucleus and
frequently a nucleolus, which are capable of assimilating nutriment or
food, propagating themselves either into others of the same form or
into fixed cells of another outward appearance and different function
but of the same constitution. It is simply in the mode of grouping
of these elements that we have the variation in tissues, as (1) loose
connective tissue, (2) aponeurosis and tendons, (3) muscles, (4)
cartilage, (5) bones, (6) epithelia and endothelia, (7) nerves.

(1) Loose connective tissue forms the great framework, or scaf-
folding, of the body, and is found under the skin, between the muscles
surrounding the bones and blood vessels, and entering into the
structures of almost all of the organs. In this the fibers are loosely
meshed together like a sponge, leaving spaces in which the nutrient
fluid and cells are irregularly distributed. This tissue we find in the
skin, in the spaces between the organs of the body where fat accumu-
lates, and as the framework of all gland».

(2) Aponeurosis and tendons are structures which serve for the
termination of muscles and for their contention, and for the attach-
ment of bones together. In these the fibers are more frequent and
dense, and are arranged with regularity, either crossing each other or
Ijang parallel, and here the cells are found in minimum quantity.

(3) In the muscles the cells lie end to end, forming long fibers
which have the power of contraction, and the connective tissue is in
small quantity, serving the passive purpose of a band around the con-
tractile elements.

(4) In cartilage a mass of firm amorphous substance, with no vas-
cularity and little vitality, forms the bed for the chondroplasts, or
cells of this tissue.

(5) Bone differs from the above in having the amorphous matter
impregnated with lime salts, which gives it its rigidity and firmness.

(6) Epithelia and endothelia, or the membranes which cover the
body and line all of its cavities and glands, are made up of single or
stratified and multiple layers of cells bound together by a glue of
amorphous substance and resting on a layer composed of fibers.
AMien the membrane serves for secreting or excreting purposes, as
in the salivary glands or the kidneys, it is usually simple; when it
serves the mechanical purpose of protecting a part, as over the tongue
or skin, it is invariably multiple and stratified, the surface wearing
away while new cells replace it from beneath.

(7) In nerves, stellate cells are connected by their rays to each
other, or to fibers which conduct the nerve impressions, or they act as

484 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

receptacles, storehouses, and transmitters for them, as the switch-
board of a telephone system serves to connect the various wires.

All of these tissues are supplied with blood in greater or less quan-
tity. The vascularity depends upon the function which the tissue is
called upon to perform. If this is great, as in the tongue, the lungs,
or the sensitive part of the hoof, a large amount of blood is required ;
if the labor is a passive one, as in cartilage, the membrane over the
withers, or the tendons of the legs, the vessels only reach the periph-
ery, and nutrition is furnished by imbibition of the fluids brought to
their surface by the blood vessels.

Blood is brought to the tissues by arterioles, or the small termina-
tions of the arteries, and is carried off from them by the veinlets, or
the commencement of the veins. Between these two systems are
small delicate networks of vessels called capillaries, which subdivide
into a veritable lacework so as to reach the neighborhood of every
element.

In health the blood passes through these capillaries with a regular
current, the red cells or corpuscles floating rapidly in the fluid in the
center of the channel, while the white or ameboid cells are attracted
to the walls of the vessels .land move very slowly. The supply of
blood is regulated by the condition of repose or activity of the tissue,
and under normal conditions the outflow compensates exactly the sup-
ply. The caliber of the blood vessels, and consequently the amount
of blood which they carry, is governed by nerves of the sympathetic
system in a healthy body with unerring regularity, but in a diseased
organ the flow may cease or be greatly augmented. In health a tissue
or organ receives its proper quantity of blood ; the nutritive elements
are extracted for the support of the tissue and for the product, which
the function of the organ forms. The force required in the achieve-
ment of this is furnished by combustion of the hydrocarbons and
oxygen brought by the arterial blood, then by the veins this same
fluid passes off, less its oxygen, loaded w4th the waste products, which
are the result of the worn-out and disintegrated tissues, and of those
which have undergone combustion. The above brief outline indi-
cates the process of nutrition of the tissues.

Hypernutrition, or excessive nutrition of a tissue, may be normal or
morbid. If the latter, the tissue becomes congested or inflamed.

CONGESTION.

Congestion is an unnatural accumulation of blood in a part. Ex-
cessive accumulation of blood may be normal, as in blushing or in the
red face which temporarily follows a violent muscular effort, or, as in
the stomach or liver during digestion, or in the lungs after severe
work, from which, in the latter case, it is shortly relieved by a little
rapid breathing. The term congestion, however, usually indicates a
morbid condition, with more or less lasting effects. . Congestion is

CONGESTION, 485

active or passive. The former is produced by an increased sup-
ply of blood to the part, the latter by an obstacle preventing the
escape of blood from the tissue. In either case there is an increased
supply of blood, and as a result increased combustion and augmented
nutrition.

ACTIVE CONGESTION.

Active congestion is caused by —

(1) Functional activity. — Any organ which is constantly or exces-
sively used is habituated to hold an unusual quantity of blood; the
vessels become dilated; if overstrained the walls become weakened,
lose their elasticity, and any sudden additional amount of blood en-
gorges the tissues so that they can not contract, and congestion results.
Example : The lungs of a race horse, after an unusual burst of speed
or severe work, in damp weather.

(2) Irritants. — Heat and cold, chemical or mechanical. Any of
these, by threatening the vitality of a tissue, induce immediately an
augmented flow of blood to the part to furnish the means of repair — a
hot iron, frostbites, acids, or a blow.

(3) Nerve influence. — This may produce congestion either by act-
ing on the part reflexly or as the result of some central nerve dis-
turbance affecting the branch which supplies a given organ.

(4) Plethora and sanguinary temperament. — Full-blooded animals
are much more predisposed to congestive diseases than those of a
lymphatic character or those in an anemic condition. The circula-
tion in them is forced to all parts with much greater force and in
larger quantities. A well-bred full-blooded horse is much more sub-
ject to congestive diseases than a common, coarse, or old worn-out
animal.

(5) Fevers. — In fever the heart works more actively and forces the.
current of blood more rapidly; the tissues are weakened, and it
requires but a slight local cause at any part to congest the structures
already overloaded with blood. Again, in certain fevers, we find
alteration of the blood itself, rendering it less or more fluid, which
interferes with its free passage through the vessels and induces a
local predisposition to congestion.

(6) Warm climate and summer heat. — Warmth of the atmosphere
relaxes the tissues; it demands of the animals less blood to keep up
their own body temperature, and the extra quantity accumulates in
the blood-vessel system. It causes sluggishness in the performance
of the organic functions, and in this way it induces congestion,
especially of the internal organs. So we find founders, congestive
colics and staggers more frequent in summer than in winter.

(7) Previous congestion. — Whether the previous congestion of any
organ has been a continuous normal one — that is, a repeated func-
tional activity — or has been a morbid temporary overloading, it al-

486 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

ways leaves the walls of the vessels weakened and more predisposed
to recurrent attacks from accidental causes than are perfectly healthy
tissues. Thus a horse which has had a congestion of the lungs from
a severe drive is apt to have another attack from even a lesser cause.

The alterations of congestion are distention of the blood vessels,
accumulation of the cellular elements of the blood in them, and eflfu-
sion of a portion of the liquid of the blood into the fibrous tissues
which surround the vessels. Where the changes produced by conges-
tion are visible, as in the eye, the nostril, the mouth, the genital
organs, and on the surface of the body in white or unpigmented ani-
mals, the part appears red from the increase of blood; it, becomes
swollen from the effusion of liquid into the spongelike connective
tissues ; it is at times more or less hot from the increased combustion ;
the part is frequently j)ainful to the animal from j)ressure of the effu-
sion on the nerves, and the function of the tissue is interfered with.
The secretion or excretion of glands may be augmented or diminished.
Muscles may be affected with spasms or may be unable to contract.
The eyes and ears may be affected with imaginary sights and sounds.

PASSIVE CONGESTION.

Passive congestion is caused by interference with the return of the
current of blood from a part.

Old age and debility weaken the tissues and the force of the circu-
lation, especially in the veins, and retard the movement of the blood.
We then see horses of this class with stocked legs, swelling of the
sheath of the penis or of the milk glands, and of the under surface of
the belly. We find them also with effusions of the liquid parts of the
blood into the lymph spaces of the posterior extremities and organs
of the pelvic cavity.

Tumors or other mechanical obstructions, by pressing on the veins,
retard the flow of blood and cause it to back up in distal parts of the
body, causing passive congestion.

The alterations of passive congestion, as in active congestion, con-
sist of an increased quantity of blood in the vessels and an exudation
of its fluid into the tissues surrounding them, but in passive conges-
tion we have a dark thick blood which has lost its oxygen, instead of
the rich combustible blood rich in oxygen which is found in active
congestion.

The termination of congestion is by resolution or inflammation. In
the first case, the choked-up blood vessels find an outlet for the exces-
sive amount of blood and are relieved ; the transuded serum or fluid
of the blood is reabsorbed, and the part returns almost to its normal
condition, with, however, a tendency to weakness predisposing to fu-
ture trouble of the same kind. In the other case further alterations
take place, and we have inflammation.

GENERAL DISEASES. 487

INFLAMMATION.

[Synonyms: Infammalio, Latin, from inflammare, to flame, to burn; phleg-
masia <pXeyua6ia, Greek ; mflammation, French ; inflammasione, Italian ; In-
flamacidn, Spanish; Entziindung, German.]

Inflammation is a hypernutrition of a tissue. It is described by-
Doctor Agnew, the surgeon, as " a double-edged sword, cutting either
way for good or for evil." The increased nutrition may be moderate
and cause a growth of new tissue, a simple increase of quantity at
first ; or it may j)roduce a new growth differing in quality ; or it may
be so great that, like luxuriant, overgrown weeds, the elements die
from their very haste of growth, and we have immediate destruction
of the part. According to the rapidity and intensity of the process
of structural changes which takes place in an inflamed tissue, inflam-
mation is described as aciite or chronic, with a vast number of inter-
mediate forms. "When the phenomena are marked it is termed
sthenic/ when less distinct, as the result of a broken-down and feeble
constitution in the animal, it is called asthenic. Certain inflamma-
tions are specific, as in strangles, the horsepox, glanders, etc., where a
characteristic or specific cause or condition is added to the origin,
character of phenomena, or alterations which result from an ordinary
inflammation. An inflammation may be circumscribed or limited,
as in the abscess on the neck caused by the pressure of a collar, in
pneumonia, in glanders, in the small tumors of a splint or a jack; or
it may be diffuse, as in severe fistulas of the withers, in an extensive
lung fever, in the legs in a case of grease, or in the spavins which
affect horses with poorly nourished bones. The causes of inflamma-
tion are practically the same as those of congestion, which is the
initial step of all inflammation.

The temperament of a horse predisposes the animal to inflamma-
tion of certain organs. A full-blooded animal, whose veins show on~
the surface of the body, and which has a strong, bounding heart
pumping large quantities of blood into the vascular organs like the
lungs, the intestines, and the laminae of the feet, is more apt to have
pneumonia, congestive colics, and founder, than lymphatic, cold-
blooded animals which have pleurisies, inflammation of the bones,
spavins, ringbones, inflammation of the glands of the less vascular
skin of the extremities, greasy heels, thrush, etc.

Young horses have inflammation of the membranes lining the air
passages and digestive tract, while older animals are more subject to
troubles in the closed serous sacs and in the bones.

The work to which a horse is j)ut (saddle or harness, speed or
draft) will influence the predisposition of an animal to inflammatory
diseases. As in congestion, the functional activity of a part is an
important factor in localizing this form of disease. Given a group
of horses exposed to the same draft of cold air or other exciting

488 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

cause of inflammation, the one which has just been eating will be at-
tacked with an inflammation of the bowels; the one that has just
been working so as to increase its respiration will have an inflamma-
tion of the throat, bronchi, or lungs; the one that has just been using
its feet excessively will have a founder or inflammation of the laminae
of the feet.

The direct cause of inflammation is usually an irritant of some
form. This may be a pathogenic organism — a disease germ — or it
may be mechanical or chemical, external or internal. Cuts, bruises,
injuries of any kind, parasites, acids, blisters, heat, cold, secretions,
such as an excess of tears over the cheek or urine on the legs, all
cause inflammation by direct injury to the part. Strains or wrenches
of joints, ligaments, and tendons cause trouble by laceration of the
tissue.

Inflammations of the internal organs are caused by irritants as
above, and by sudden cooling of the surface of the animal, which
drives the blood to that organ which at the moment is most actively
supplied with blood. This is called repercussion. A horse which
has been worked at speed and is breathing rapidly is liable to have
pneumonia if suddenly chilled, while an animal which has just been
fed is more apt to have a congestive colic if exposed to the same in-
fluence, the blood in this case being driven from the exterior to the
intestines, while in the former it was driven to the lungs.

&ymj)toms. — The symptoms of inflammation are, as in congestion,
change of color, due to an increased supply of blood ; swelling, from
the same cause, with the addition of an effusion into the surrounding
tissues ; heat, owing to the increased combustion in the part ; pain,
due to pressure on the nerves, and altered function. This latter may
be augmented or diminished, or first one and then the other. In
addition to the local symptoms, inflammation always produces more
or less constitutional disturbance or fever. A splint or small spavin
will cause so little fever that it is not appreciable, while a severe
spavin, an inflamed joint, or a pneumonia may give rise to a marked
fever.

The alterations in an inflamed tissue are first those of congestion,
distention of the blood vessels, and exudation of the fluid of the blood
into the surrounding fibers, with, however, a more complete stagna-
tion of the blood ; fibrin, or lymph, a plastic substance, is thrown out
as w^ell, and the cells, which we have seen to be living organisms in
themselves, no longer carried in the current of the blood, migrate
from the vessels and, finding proper nutriment, proliferate or mul-
tiply with greater or lesser rapidity. The cells which lie dormant
in the meshes of the surrounding fibers are awakened into activity by
the nutritious lymph which surrounds them, and they also multiply.

Whether the cell in an inflamed part be the white ameboid cell of

/ rrun/ht/iie<J wmr/ofthf bat

2 Intlame^J wiftf/ of thf bat..

rNFLAM:J>.l^ATI OJNT

PL ATI-: XXX7>'IU

V- Xon-irtflnrnrd iufscntfrv or The f'rotj.400 (/imnctiers, nduced '-t.a.a. T^rnu/e
nitJi red anxl white forpusrles,- b,b, Gplatittoti.'c rurve /ihrr ,. r.CnpOlary. d,d.
Dar7c- bordered nerve fibre ,■ e.e, Conri^^tive tissue with conrirtUvc tissue
corpuscles ajid le.ucorvtes sca.ttfred spnjsrly throu/^fi it.

Ix ^f^ikftn^- ^ f!^S§^

2-/n/7anied nieseJitcry or tJie tro</, J(>(J diunieters, ret/i/rrd ':.>.- <i , l>,\'i'jiufr
filled wi^Ji red and wUite rorpiisr/es,- fJie ?ed l/l the centre und the u/iite
cron-dijtff nlon// the waits- r.,c, CupHlary disteuded with red and white cor-
puscles,- uuiuber of'tJie white ntuch decreased,- d,d, Contiective tissue between
venule au.d mptJlorv t'dletl with rnif/rattfi leiirocytrS; e ,e , Couitectite tissue
witlt lesy iufilfratiou ,- f^ Durk- bordered ncrx-e fibre ; _d, ^'"uil^ei- of nuclei
ill .-^liealhs i/irreused .

Hajiies, d«l.aiier Aj

;s BiEN & CO sr

1 N V I. A M M AT I O X .

INFLAMMATION. 489

the blood or the fixed connective tissue cell embedded in the fibers, it
multiplies in the same way. The nucleus in the center is divided into
two, and then each again into two, ad infinitum. If the process is
slow, each new cell may assimilate nourishment and become, like its
ancestor, an aid in the formation of new tissues; if, however, the
changing takes place rapidly, the brood of young cells have not time
to grow or use up the surrounding nourishment, and, but half devel-
oped, they die, and we then have destruction of tissue, and pus or
matter is formed, a material made up of the imperfect dead elements
and the broken-down tissue. Between the two there is an interme-
diate form, where we have imperfectly formed tissues, as in " proud
flesh," large, soft splints ; fungous growths, gi-easy heels, and thrush.

"Wliether the inflamed tissue is one like the skin, lungs, or intes-
tines, very loose in their texture, or a tendon or bone, dense in struc-
ture, and comparatively poor in blood vessels, the principle of the
process is the same. The effects, however, and the appearance may
be widely different. After a cut on the face or an exudation into the
lungs, the loose tissues and multiple vessels allow the proliferating
cells to obtain rich nourishment; absorption can take place readily,
and the part regains its normal condition entirely, while a bruise at
the heel or at the withers finds a dense, inextensible tissue where the
multiplying elements and exuded fluids choke up all communication,
and the parts die (necrose) from want of blood and cause a serious
quittor, or fistula.

This effect of structure of a part on the same j)rocess shows the
importance of a perfect knowledge in the study of a local trouble, and
the indispensable part which such knowledge plays in judging of the
gravity of an inflammatory disease, and in formulating a prognosis or
opinion of the final termination of it. It is this which allows the vet-
erinarian, through his knowledge of the intimate structure of a part
and the relations of its elements, to judge of the severity of a disease,
and to prescribe different modes of treatment in two animals for trou-
bles which appear to the less experienced observer to be absolutely
identical.

Termination of infammation. — Like congestion, inflammation may
terminate by resolution. In this case the exuded lymph undergoes
chemical change, and the products are absorbed and carried off by the
blood vessels and lymphatics, to be thrown out of the body by the
kidneys, liver, the glands of the skin, and the other excretory organs.
The cells, which have wandered into the neighboring tissues from the
blood vessels, gradually disappear or become transformed into fixed
cells. Those which are the result of the tissue cells, wakened into
active life, follow the same course. The vessels themselves contract,
and, having resumed their normal caliber, the part apparently reas-
sumes its normal condition; but it is always weakened, and a new

490 . DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

inflammation is more liable to reappear in a previously inflamed part
than in a sound one. The alternate termination is necrosis, or morti-
fication. If the necrosis, or death of a part, is gradual, by small
stages, each cell losing its vitality after the other in more or less
rapid succession, it takes the name of ulceration. If it occurs in a
considerable part at once, it is called gangrene. If this death of the
tissues occurs deep in the organism, and the destroyed elements and
proliferated and dead cells are inclosed in a cavity, the result of the
process is called an abscess. When it occurs on a surface, it is an
ulcer, and an abscess by breaking on the exterior becomes then also
an ulcer. Proliferating and dying cells, and the fluid which exudes
from an ulcerating surface and the debris of broken-down tissue is
known as pus, and- the process by which this is formed is known as
suppuration. A mass of dead tissue in a soft part is termed a slough,
while the same in bone is called a sequestrum. Such changes are
especially likely to occur when the jDart becomes infected with micro-
organisms that have the property of destroying tissue and thus caus-
ing the production of pus. These are known as pyogenic micro-
organisms. There are also bacilli that are capable of multiplying in
tissues and so irritating them as to cause them to die (necrose) with-
out forming pus.

TREATMENT OF INFLAMMATION.

The study of the causes and pathological alterations of inflamma-
tion has shown the process to be one of hypernutrition, attended by
excessive blood supply, so this study will indicate the primary factor
to be employed in the treatment of it. Any agent which will reduce
the blood supply and prevent the excessive nutrition of the elements
of the part will serve as a remedy. The means employed may be used
locally to the part, or they may be constitutional remedies, which act
indirectly.

Local treatment consists of —

Removal of the cause^ as a stone in the frog, causing a traumatic
thrush ; a badly fitting harness or saddle, causing ulcers of the skin ;
decomposing manure and urine in a stable, which, by their vapors,
irritate the air tubes and lungs and cause a cough. These causes, if
removed, will frequently allow the part to heal at once.

Rest. — Motion stimulates the action of the blood, and thus feeds an
inflamed tissue. This is alike af)plicable to a diseased point irritated
by movement, to an inflamed pair of lungs surcharged with blood by
the use demanded of them in a working animal, or to an inflamed eye
exjoosed to light, or an inflamed stomach and intestines still further
fatigued by food. Absolute quiet, a dark stable, and small quantities
of easily digested food will often cure serious inflammatory troubles
without further treatment.

INFLAMMATION. 491

Cold. — The application of ice bags or cold water by bandages,
douching with a hose, or irrigation with dripping water, contracts
the blood vessels, acts as a sedative to the nerves, and lessens the
vitality of a part; it consequently prevents the tissue change which
inflammation produces.

Heat. — Either dry or moist heat acts as a derivative. It quickens
the circulation and renders the chemical changes more active in the
surrounding parts; it softens the tissues and attracts the current of
blood from the inflamed organ ; it also promotes the absorption of the
effusion and hastens the elimination of the waste products in the part.
Heat may be applied by hand rubbing or active friction and the ap-
plication of warm coverings (bandages) or by cloths wrung out of
warm water ; or steaming with warm moist vapor, medicated or not,
will answer the same purpose. The latter is especially applicable to
inflammatory troubles in the air passages.

Local hleeding. — This treatment frequently affords immediate relief
by carrying off the excessive blood and draining the effusion which
has already occurred. It affords direct mechanical relief, and, by a
stimulation of the part, promotes the chemical changes necessary
for bringing the diseased tissues to a healthy condition. Local blood-
letting can be done by scarifying, or making small punctures into the
inflamed part, as in the eyelid of an inflamed eye, or into the sheath
of the penis, or into the skin of the latter organ when congested, or
the leg when acutely swelled.

C ounterirritants are used for deep inflammations. They act by
bringing the blood to the surface and consequently lessening the
blood pressure within. The derivation of the blood to the exterior
diminishes the amount in the internal organs and is often very rapid
in its action in relieving a congested lung or liver. The most com-
mon counterirritant is mustard flour. It is applied as a soft paste
mixed with warm water to the under surface of the belly and to the
sides where the skin is comparatively soft and vascular. Colds in the
throat or inflammations at any point demand the treatment applied in
the same manner to the belly and sides and not to the throat or on the
legs, as so often used. Blisters, iodine, and many other irritants are
used in a similar way.

Constitutional treatment in inflammation is designed to reduce the
current of blood, which is the fuel for the inflammation in the dis-
eased part, to quiet the patient, and to combat the fever or general
effects of the trouble in the system, and to favor the neutralization or
elimination of the products of the inflammation. It consists of —

Reduction of Tjlood. — This is obtained in various ways. The dimi-
nution of the quantity of the blood lessens the amount of pressure on
the vessels, and, as a sequel, the volume of it which is carried to the
point of inflammation ; it diminishes the body temperature or fever ;

492 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

it numbs the nervous system, which plays an important part as a con-
ductor of irritation in diseases.

Blood-letting is the most rapid means, and frequently acts like a
charm in relieving a commencing inflammatory trouble. One must
remember, however, that the strength of the body and repair depend
on the blood. Hence blood-letting should be practiced only in full-
blooded, well-nourished animals and in the early stages of the disease.

Cathartics act by drawing off a large quantity of fluid from the
blood through the intestines, and have the advantage over the last
remedy of removing only the watery and not the formed elements
from the circulation. The blood cells remain, leaving the blood as
rich as it was before. Again, the glands of the intestines are stimu-
lated to excrete much waste matter and other deleterious material
which may be acting as a poison in the blood.

Diuretics operate through the kidneys in the same way.

Diaphoretics aid depletion of the blood by pouring water in the
form of sweat from the surface of the skin and stimulating the dis-
charge of waste material out of its glands, which has tlie same effect
on the blood pressure.

Antipyretics are remedies to reduce the temperature. This may be
accomplished by depressi^g the center in the brain that controls heat
production. Some coal-tar products are very effective in this way,
but they have the disadvantage of depressing the heart, which should
always be kept as strong as possible. If they are used it must be with
knowledge of this fact, and it is well to give heart tonics or stimu-
lants with them. The temperature of the body may be lowered by
cold packs or by showering with cold water. This is a most useful
procedure in many diseases.

Depressants are drugs which act on the heart. They slow or weaken
the action of this organ and reduce the quantity and force of the cur-
rent of the blood which is carried to the point of local disease; they
lessen the vitality of the animal, and for this reason are now used
much less than formerly.

Anodynes quiet the nervous system. Pain in the horse, as in the
man, is one of the important factors in the production of fever, and
the dulling of the former often prevents, or at least reduces, the latter.
Anodynes produce sleep, so as to rest the patient and allow recupera-
tion for the succeeding struggle of the vitality of the animal against
the exhausting drain of the disease.

The diet of an animal suffering from acute inflammation is a factor
of the greatest importance. An overloaded circulation can be starved
to a reduced quantity and to a less rich quality of blood by reducing
the quantity of food given to the patient. Foods of easy digestion do
not tire the already fatigued organs of an animal with a torpid diges-
tive system. Nourishment will be taken by a suffering brute in the

FEVERS. 493

form of slops and cooling drinks where it would be totally refused if
offered in its ordinary form, as hard oats or dry hay, requiring the
labor of grinding between the teeth and swallowing by the weakened
muscles of the jaws and throat.

Tonics and stimulants are remedies which are used to meet special
indications, as in the case of a feeble heart, and which enter into the
after treatment of inflammatory troubles as well as into the acute
stages of them. They brace up weakened and torpid glands; they
stimulate the secretion of the necessary fluids of the body, and hasten
the excretion of the waste material produced by the inflammatory
process ; they regulate the action of a weakened heart ; they promote
healthy vitality of diseased parts, and aid the chemical changes
needed for returning the altered tissues to their normal condition.

[Synonyms: Fe&ns, Latin; pyrciria, Greek ; ^dwe, French ; ^e6er, German ;
fehbre, Italian; calentura, Spanish.]

The etymology of the word " fever," from the Latin fevere, to boil
or to burn, and of pyt^exia, from the Greek word irvp, fire, defines in a
general way the meaning of the term.

Fever is a general condition of the animal body in which there is an
elevation of the animal body temperature, which may be only a de-
gree or two or may be 10° F. The elevation of the body temperature,
which represents tissue change or combustion, is accompanied by an
acceleration of the heart's action, a quickening of the respiration, and
an aberration in the functional activity of the various organs of the
body. These organs may be stimulated to the performance of exces-
sive work, or they may be incapacitated from carrying out their
allotted tasks, or, in the course of a fever, the two conditions may
both exist, the one succeeding the other. Fever as a disease is usually
preceded by chills as an essential symptom.

Fevers are divided into essential fevers and symptomatic fevers.
In symptomatic fever some local disease, usually of an inflammatory
character, develops first, and the constitutional febrile phenomena are
the result of the primary point of combustion irritating the whole
body, either through the nervous system or directly by means of the
Avaste material which is carried into the circulation and through the
blood vessels, and is distributed to distal parts. Essential fevers are
those in which there is from the outset a general disturbance of the
whole economy. This may consist of an elementary alteration in the
blood or a general change in the constitution of the tissues. Fevers
of the latter class are usually due to some infecting agent and belong,
therefore, to the class of infectious diseases.

Essential fevers are subdivided into ephemeral fevers, which last
but a short time and terminate by critical phenomena; intennittent

494 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

fevers, in which there are alterations of exacerbations of the febrile
symptoms and remissions, in which the body returns to its normal
condition or sometimes to a depressed condition, in which the func-
tions of life are but badly performed; and continued fevers, which
include contagious diseases, such as glanders, influenza, etc., the septic
diseases, such as pyemia, septicemia, etc., and the eruptive fevers,
such as variola, etc.

"^^Tiether the cause of the fever has been an injury to the tissues,
such as a severe bruise, a broken bone, an inflamed lung, or excessive
work, which has surcharged the blood with the waste products of the
combustion of the tissues, which were destroyed to produce force, or
the toxins of influenza in the blood, or the presence of irritating ma-
terial, either in the form of living organisms or of their products,
as in glanders or tuberculosis — the general train of symptoms are
much the same, varying as the amount of the irritant differs in
quantity, or when some special quality in them has a specific action
on one or another tissue.

There is in fever at first a relaxation of the small blood vessels,
which may have been preceded by a contraction of the same if there
was a chill, and as a consequence there is an acceleration of the cur-
rent of the blood. There is, then, an elevation of the peripheral
temperature, followed by a lowering of tension in the arteries and
an acceleration in the movement of the heart. These conditions may
be produced by a f)rimary irritation of the nerve centers of the brain
from the effects of heat, as is seen in thermic fever, or sunstroke, or by
the entrance into the blood stream of disease-producing organisms
or their chemical products, as in anthrax, rinderpest, influenza, etc.

There are times when it is difficult to distinguish between the exist-
ence of fever as a disease and a temporary feverish condition which
is the result of excessive work. Like the condition of congestion of
the lungs, which is normal up to a certain degree in the lungs of a
race horse after a severe race, and morbid when it j^roduces more than
temporary phenomena or when it causes distinct lesions, the tem-
perature may rise from physiological causes as much as four degrees,
so fever, or, as it is better termed, a feverish condition, may folloAv
any work or other employment of energy in which excessive tissue
change has taken place; but if the consequences are ephemeral, and
no recognizable lesion is apparent, it is not considered morbid. This
condition, however, may predispose to severe organic disturbance
and local inflammations which will cause disease, as an animal in this
condition is liable to take cold and develop lung fever or a severe
enteritis, if chilled or otherwise exposed.

Fever in all animals is characterized by the same general phe-
nomena, but we find the intensity of the symptoms modified by the
species of animals affected, by the races which subdivide the species.

FEVERS. 495

by the families which form groups of the races, and by certain condi-
tions in individuals themselves. For example, a pricked foot in a
Thoroughbred ma}' cause intense fever, while the same injury in the
foot of a Clydesdale may scarcely cause a visible general symptom.
In the horse, fever produces the following symptoms :

The normal body temperature, which varies from 99° to 100° F.,
is elevated from 1° to 9°. A temperature of 102° or 103° F. is mod-
erate fever, 104° to 105° F. is high, and 106° F. and over is excessive.
The temperature is accurately measured by means of a clinical ther-
mometer inserted in the rectum.

This elevation of temperature can readily be felt by the hand
placed in the mouth of the animal, or in the rectum, and in the cleft
between the hind legs. It is usually appreciable at any point over
the surface of the body and in the expired air emitted from the nos-
trils. The ears and cannons are often as hot as the rest of the body,
but are sometimes cold, which denotes a debility in the circulation and
irregular distribution of the blood. The pulse, which in a healthy
horse is felt beating about 42 to 48 times in the minute, is increased
lo 60, 70, 90, or even 100. The respirations are increased from 14 or
16 to 24, 30, 36, or even more. With the commencement of a fever
the horse usually has its appetite diminished, or it may have total
loss of appetite if the fever is excessive. There is, however, a vast
difference among horses in this regard. AVith the same amount of
elevation of temperature one horse may lose its appetite entirely,
while others, usually of the more common sort, will eat at hay
throughout the course of the fever, and will even continue to eat oats
or other grains. Thirst is usually increased, but the animal desires
only a small quantity of water at a time, and in most cases of fever a
bucket of water should be kept standing before the jDatient, which
may be allowed to drink ad libitum. The skin becomes dry and the
hairs stand on end. Sweating is almost unknown in the early stage
of fevers, but frequently occurs later in their course, when an out-
break of warm sweat is often a most favorable symptom. The mu-
cous membranes, which are most easily examined in the conjunctivae
of the eyes and inside of the mouth, change color if the fever is an
acute one ; without alteration of blood the mucous membranes become
of a rosy or deep-red color at the outset; if the fever is attended with
distinct alteration of the blood, as in influenza, and at the end of two
or three days in severe cases of pneumonia or other extensive inflam-
matory troubles the mucous membranes are tinged with yellow, which
may even become a deep ocher in color, the result of the decomposi-
tion of the blood corpuscles and the freeing of their coloring matter,
which acts as a stain. At the outset of a fever the various glands
are checked in their secretions, the salivary glands fail to secrete the
saliva, and we find the surface of the tongue and inside of the cheeks

496 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

dry and covered with a brownish, bad-smelling deposit. The excre-
tion from the liver and intestinal glands is diminished and produces
an inactivity of the digestive organs which causes a constipation.
If this is not remedied at an early period, the undigested material
acts as an irritant, and later we may have it followed by an inflamma-
tory process, producing a severe diarrhea.

The excretion from the kidneys is sometimes at first entirely sup-
pressed. It is always considerably diminished, and what urine is
passed is dark in color, undergoes ammoniacal change rapidly, and
deposits quantities of salts. At a later period the diminished excre-
tion may be replaced by an excessive excretion, which aids in carrying
off waste products and usually indicates an amelioration of the fever.

While the ears, cannons, and hoofs of a horse suffering from fever
are usually found hot, they may frequently alternate from hot to cold,
or be much cooler than they normally are. This latter condition
usually indicates great weakness on the part of the circulatory system.

It is of the greatest importance, as an aid in diagnosing the gravity
of an attack of fever and as an indication in the selection of its mode
of treatment, to recognize the exact cause of a febrile condition in the
horse. In certain cases, in very nervous animals, in which fever is
the result of nerve influence, a simple anodyne, or even only quiet
with continued care and nursing, will sometimes be sufficient to dimin-
ish it. ^\nien fever is the result of local injury, the cure of the cause
produces a cessation in the constitutional symptoms. "When fever is
the result of a pneumonia or other severe parenchymatous inflamma-
tion, it usually lasts for a definite time, and subsides with the first
improvement of the local trouble, but in these cases we constantly have
exacerbations of fever due to secondary inflammatory processes, such
as the formation of small abscesses, the development of secondary
bronchitis, or the death of a limited amount of tissue (gangrene).

In specific cases, such as influenza, strangles, and septicemia, there
is a definite poison contained in the blood-vessel system, and carried
to the heart and to the nervous system, which produces a peculiar
irritation, usually lasting for a specific period, during which the tem-
perature can be but slightly diminished by any remedy.

In cases attended with complications, the diagnosis becomes at times
still more difficult, as at the end of a case of influenza which becomes
complicated Avith pneumonia. The high temperature of the simple
inflammatory disease may be grafted on that of the specific trouble,
and the. determination of the cause of the fever, as between the two,
is therefore frequently a difficult matter but an important one, as upon
it depends the mode of treatment.

Any animal suffering from fever, whatever the cause, is much more
susceptible to attacks of local inflammation, which become compli-
cations of the original disease, than ar.^ animals in sound health. In

FEVERS. 497

fever we have the tissues and the walls of the blood vessels weakened,
we have an increased current of more or less altered blood, flowing
through the vessels and stagnating in the capillaries, which need but
an exciting cause to transform the passive congestion of fever into
an active congestion and acute inflammation. These conditions be-
come still more distinct when the fever is accompanied by a decided
deterioration in the blood itself, as is seen in influenza, septicemia,
and at the termination of severe pneumonias.

Fever, with its symptoms of increased temperature, acceleration of
the pulse, acceleration of respiration, dry skin, diminished secretions,
etc., must be considered as an indication of organic disturbance.
This organic disturbance may be the result of local inflammation
or other irritants acting through the nerves on nerve centers; altera-
tions of the blood, in which a poison is carried to the nerve centers,
or direct irritants to the nerve centers themselves, as in cases of
heat stroke, injury to the brain, etc.

The treatment of fever depends upon its cause. One of the im-
portant factors in treatment is absolute quiet. This may be obtained
by placing a sick horse in a box stall, away from other animals and
extraneous noises, and sheltered from excessive light and drafts of
air. Anodynes, belladonna, hyoscyamus, and opium act as antipy-
retics simply by quieting the nervous system. As an irritant exists
in the blood in most cases of fever, any remedy which will favor the
excretion of foreign elements from it will diminish this cause. "We
therefore employ diaphoretics to stimulate the sweat and excretions
from the skin; diuretics to favor the elimination of matter by the
kidneys ; cholagogues and laxatives to increase the action of the liver
and intestines, and to drain from these important organs all the waste
material which is aiding to choke up and congest their rich plexuses
of blood vessels. The heart becomes stimulated to increased action
at the outset of a fever, but this does not indicate increased strength ;
on the contrary, it indicates the action of an irritant to the heart
that will soon weaken it. It is therefore irrational to further depress
the heart by the use of such drugs as aconite. It is better to
strengthen the heart and to favor the elimination of the substance
that is irritating it. The increased blood pressure throughout the
body may be diminished by lessening the quantity of blood. This
is obtained in some cases with advantage where the disease is but
starting and the animal is plethoric by direct abstraction of blood,
as in bleeding from the jugular or other veins; or by derivatives,
such as mustard, turpentine, or blisters applied to the skin; or by
setons, which draw to the surface the fluid of the blood, thereby
lessening its volume, without having the disadvantage of impoverish-
ing the elements of the blood found in bleeding. Antipyretics given
H. Doc. 795, 59-2 32

498 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

by the mouth and cold applied to the skin are most useful in many-
cases.

When the irritation which is the cause of fever is a specific one,
either in the form of bacteria (living organisms), as in glanders,
tuberculosis, influenza, septicemia, etc., or in the form of a foreign
element, as in rheumatism, gout, hemaglobinuria, and other so-called
diseases of nutrition, we employ remedies which have been found to
have a direct specific action on them. Among the sj^ecific remedies
for various diseases are counted quinine, carbolic acid, salicylic acid,
antipyrine, mercury, iodine, the empyreumatic oils, tars, resins, aro-
matics, sulphur, and a host of other drugs, some of which are of known
effect and others of which are theoretical in action. Certain remedies,
like simple aromatic teas, vegetable acids, such as vinegar, lemon juice,
etc., alkalines in the form of salts, sweet spirits of niter, etc., which
are household remedies, are always useful, because they act on the
excreting organs and ameliorate the effects of fever. Other remedies,
which are to be used to influence the cause of fever, must be selected
with judgment and from a thorough knowledge of the nature of the
disease.

INFLUENZA.

[Synonyms: Pinkeye, typhoid fever, epizooty, epiMppic fever, hepatic fever,
bilious fever, etc.; fievre typhoide, grippe, French; pferdestauhe, German;
g astro-enteritis of Vatel and d'Arboval ; febris erysipelatodes, Zundel ; typhus
of Delafond.]

Definition. — Influenza is a contagious and infectious specific fever
of the horse, ass, and mule, with alterations of the blood, stupefac-
tion of the brain and nervous system, great depression of the vital
forces, and frequent inflammatory complications of the important
vascular organs, especially of the lungs, intestines, brain, and lamina3
of the feet. One attack usually protects the animal from future
ones of the same disease, but not always. An apparent comjilete
recovery is sometimes followed by serious sequelae of the nervous and
blood-vessel systems. The disease is very aj^t, under certain condi-
tions of the atmosphere or from unknown causes, to assume an epi-
zootic form, with tendency to complications of especial organs, as,
at one period, the lungs, at another the intestines, etc.

The first description of influenza is given by Laurentius Kusius in
1301, when it spread over a considerable portion of Italy, causing
great loss among the war horses of Rome and the surrounding district.
Later, in 1648, an epizootic of this disease visited Germany and
spread to other parts of Euroj^e. In 1711, under the name of " epi-
demica equorum^'' it followed the tracks of the great armies all over
Europe, causing immense losses among the horses, while the rinder-
pest was scourging the cattle of the same regions. The two diseases
were confounded with each other, and were, by the scientists of the

INFLUENZA. 499

day, allied to the typhus, which was a plague to the human race at
the same time. We find the first advent of this disease to the British
Islands in an epizootic among the horses of London and the southern
counties of England, in 1732, which is described by Gibson. In 1758,
Robert "\Miytt recounts the devastation of the horses of the north of
Scotland from the same trouble. Throughout the eighteenth century
a number of epizootics occurred in Hanover and other portions of
Germany and in France, which were renewed early in the present
century, with complications of the intestinal tract, which obtained for
it its name of gastro-enteritis. In 1766 it first attacked the horses in
North America, but is not described as again occurring in a severe
form until 1870-1872, when it spread over the entire country, from
Canada south to Ohio, and then eastward to the Atlantic and west-
ward to California. It is now a permanent disease in our large cities,
selecting for the continuance of its virulence young or especially sus-
ceptible horses which pass through the large and ill-ventilated and
uncleaned stables of dealers, and assumes from time to time an en-
zootic form, when from some reason its virulence increases. It as-
sumes this form also when, from reasons of rural economy and com-
merce, large numbers of young and more susceptible animals are
exposed to its contagion.

Etiology. — As one attack is self-protective, numbers of old horses,
having had an earlier attack, are not capable of contracting it again ;
but, aside from this, young horses, especially those about four or five
j^ears of age, are much more predisposed to be attacked, while the
older ones, even if they have not had the disease, are less liable to it.
Again, the former age is that in which the horse is brought from the
farm, where it has been free from the risk of exposure, and is sold to
pass through the stables of the country taverns, the dirty, infected
railway cars, and the foul stockyards and damp stables of .dealers in
our large cities. Want of training is a predisposing cause. Overfed,
fat, young horses which have just come through the sales stables are
much more susceptible to contagion than the same horses are after a
few months of steady work.

Pilger, in 1805, was the first to recognize infection as the direct
cause of the disease. Roll and others studied the contagiousness of
influenza, and, finding it so much more virulent and permanent in
old stables than elsewhere, classed it as a " stall miasm." The at-
mosphere is the most common carrier of the infection from sick ani-
mals to health}^ ones, and through it may be carried for a considerable
distance. The contagion will remain in the straw bedding and
droppings of the animal and in the feed in an infected stable for a
considerable time, and if these are removed to other localities it may
be carried in them. It may be carried in the clothing of those who
have been in attendance on horses suffering from the disease. The

500 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

drinking water in troughs and even running water may hold the virus
and be a means of its communication to other animals, even at a
distance. The studies of Dieckerhoff, in 1881, in regard to the con-
tagion of influenza were especially interesting. He found that dur-
ing a local enzootic, produced by the introduction of horses suffering
from influenza into an extensive stable otherwise perfectly healthy,
the infection took place in what at first seemed to be a most irregular
manner, but which was shown later to be dependent on the ventilation
and currents of air through the various buildings. His experiments
showed that the virus of influenza is excessively diffusible, and that it
will spread rapidly to the roof of a building and pass by the apertures
of ventilation to others in the neighborhood. The writer has seen
cases that have appeared to spread through a brick wall and attack
animals on the opposite side before others even in the same stable
were affected. Brick walls, old woodwork, and the dirt which is too
frequently left about the feed boxes of a horse stall will all hold
the contagion for some days, if not weeks, and communicate it to
susceptible animals when placed in the same locality. A four-year-
old colt, belonging to the writer, stood at the open door of a stable
where two cases of influenza had developed the day before, fully 40
feet from the stall, for about ten minutes on two successive mornings,
and in six days developed the disease. On the morning when the
trouble in the colt was recognized it stood in an infirmary with a
dozen horses being treated for various diseases, but was immediately
isolated; within one week two-thirds of the other horses had con-
tracted the disease.

Symptoms. — After the exposure of a susceptible horse to infection
a period of incubation of from four to seven days elapses, during
which the animal seems in perfect health, before any symptom is
visible. When the symptoms of influenza develop they may be in-
tense or they may be so moderate as to occasion but little alarm, but
the latter condition frequently exposes the animal to use and to the
danger of the exciting causes of complications which would not have
happened had the animal been left quietly in its stall in place of
being worked or driven out to show to prospective purchasers. The
disease may run a simple course as a specific fever, with alterations
only of the blood, or it may become at any period complicated by
local inflammatory troubles, the gravity of which is augmented by
developing in an animal with an impoverished blood and already
irritated and rapid circulation and defective nutritive and reparative
functions.

The first symptoms are those of a rapidly developing fever, which
becomes intense within a very short period. The animal becomes
dejected and inattentive to surrounding objects; stands with its head
down, and not back on the halter as in serious lung diseases. It has

INFLUENZA. 501

chills of the flanks, the muscles of the croup, and the muscles of the
shoulders, or of the entire body, lasting from fifteen to thirty min-
utes, and frequently a grinding of the teeth which warns one that a
severe attack may be expected. The hairs become dry and rough and
stand on end. The body temperature increases to 104°, 104.5°, and
105° F., or even in severe cases to 107° F., within the first twelve or
eighteen hours. The horse becomes stupid, stands immobile with its
head hanging, the ears listless, and it pays but little attention to the
surrounding attendants or the crack of a whip. The stupor becomes
rapidly more marked, the eyes become puffy and swollen with ex-
cessive lachrymation, so that the tears run from the internal canthus
of the eye over the cheeks and may blister the skin in its course. The
respiration becomes accelerated to twenty-five or thirty in a minute,
and the pulse is quickened to seventy, eighty, or even one hundred,
moderate in volume and in force. There is great depression of mus-
cular force ; the animal stands limp, as if excessively fatigued. There
is diminution, or in some cases total loss, of sensibility of the skin,
so that it may be pricked or handled without attracting the attention
of the animal. On movement, the horse staggers and shows a want of
coordination of all of the muscles of its limbs. The senses of hearing,
sight, and taste are diminished, if not entirely abolished. The visible
mucous membranes (as the conjunctiva), from which it is known as
the pinkeye, anc? the mouth and the natural openings become of a
deep saffron, ocher, or violet-red color. This latter is especially
noticeable on the rim of the gums and is a condition not found in any
other disease, so that it is an almost diagnostic symptom. In some
outbreaks there is much more swelling of the lids and weeping from
the eyes than in others. If the animal is bled at this period the blood
is found more coagulable than normal, but at a later period it be-
comes of a dark color and less coagulable. There is great diminution
or total loss of appetite with an excessive thirst, but in many cases
in cold-blooded horses the animal may retain a certain amount of
appetite, eating slowly at its hay, oats, or other feed. There is some
irritation of the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract as shown
by discharge of mucus from the nose, and by cough. Pregnant mares
are apt to abort.

We have, following the fever, a tumefaction, or edema, of the sub-
cutaneous tissues at the fetlocks, of the under surface of the belly, and
of the sheath of the penis, which may be excessive. The infiltration
is noninflammatory in character and produces an insensibility of the
skin like the excessive stocking which we see in debilitated animals
after exposure to cold. In ordinary cases the temperature has reached
its maximum of 105° or 106° F. in from twenty-four to forty-eight
hours from the origin of the fever. It remains stationary for a period
of from three to four days without so much variation between morn-

502 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

ing and evening temperature as we have in pneumonia or other seri-
ous diseases of the lungs. At the termination of the specific course of
the disease, which is generally from six to ten days, the fever abates,
the swelling of the legs and under surface of belly diminishes, the ap-
petite returns, the strength is rapidly regained, the mucous mem-
branes lose their yellowish color, which they attain so rapidly at the
commencement of the disease, and the animal convalesces promptly
to its ordinary good condition and health, and rapidly regains the
large amount of weight which it lost in the early part of the disease,
a loss which frequently reaches 30, 50, or even 75 pounds each twenty-
four hours. For the first three days of the high temperature there is
a great tendency to constipation, which should be avoided if possible
by the use of the means recommended below, for, if it has been
marked, it may be followed by a troublesome diarrhea.

Terminations. — The termination of simple influenza may be death
by extreme fever, with failure of the heart's action ; from excessive
coma, due generally to a rapid congestion of the brain ; to the poison-
ous effects of the debris of the disintegrated blood corpuscles and the
toxin of the disease; to an asphyxia, following congestion of the
lungs ; or the disease terminates by subsidence of the fever, return of
the appetite and nutritive functions of the organs, and rapid con-
valescence ; or, in an unfortunately large number of cases, the course
of the disease is complicated by local inflammatory troubles, whose
gravity is greater in influenza than it is when they occur as sporadic
diseases.

C omplications. — The complications are congestions, followed by
inflammatory phenomena in the various organs of the body, but they
are most commonly located in the intestines, lungs, brain, or vascular
laminae of the feet. Atmospheric influence or other surrounding
influences of unknown quality seem to be an important factor in the
determination of the local lesions. At certain seasons of the year,
and in certain epizootics, we find 40 and 50 i3er cent or even a greater
percentage of the cases rendered more serious by complication of the
intestines ; at other seasons of the year, or in other epizootics, we find
the same percentage of cases complicated by inflammation of the
lungs, while at the same time a small percentage of them are com-
plicated by troubles of the other organs; inflammatory changes of
the brain, of the laminae, more rarely commence in epizootic form,
but are to be found in a certain small percentage of cases in all
epizootics.

Exciting causes are important factors in complicating individual
cases of influenza, or in localizing special lesions either during enzo-
otics or epizootics. These exciting or determining causes act much as
they would in sporadic inflammatory diseases, but in this case we find
the animal much more susceptible and predisposed to be acted upon

INFLUENZA. . 503

than ordinary healthy animals. With a temperature already ele-
vated, with the heart's action driving the blood in increased quantity
into the distended blood vessels, which become dilated and lose their
contractility, wdth a congestion of all of the vascular organs already
established, it takes but little additional irritation to carry the con-
gestion one step further and produce inflammation.

Complication of the intestines. — When any cause acts as an irritant
to the intestinal tract during the course of this specific fever it may
produce inflammation of the organs belonging to it. This cause may
be constipation, which can find relief only in a congestion which offers
to increase the function of the glands and relieve the inertia caused by
a temporary cessation of activity; or irritant medicines, especially
any increased use of antimony, turpentine, or the more active reme-
dies ; the taking of indigestible food, or of food in too great quantities,
or food altered in any way by fungus or other injurious alterations;
the swallowing of too cold water; or any other irritant may cause
congestion. This complication is ushered in by colics. The animal
paws with the fore feet and evinces a great sensibility of the belly ; it
looks with the head from side to side, and may lie down and get up,
not with violence, but with care for itself, perfectly protecting the sur-
face of the belly from any violence. At first we find a decided con-
stipation ; the droppings if passed are small and hard, coated with a
viscous varnish or even with false membranes. In from thirty-six
to forty hours the constipation is followed by diarrhea. The alimen-
tary discharge becomes mixed with a seromucous exudation, which is
followed by a certain amount of suppurative matter. The animal be-
comes rapidly exhausted and unstable, staggers on movement, losing
the little appetite which may have remained, and has exacerbations of
fever. The pulse becomes softer and weaker, the respiration becomes
gradually more rapid, the temperature is about 1° to 1.5° F. higher.
If a fatal result is not produced by the extensive diarrhea the dis-
charge becomes arrested in from five to ten days and a rapid recovery
takes place.

Complication of the lungs. — If at any time during the course of the
fever the animal is exposed to cold or drafts of air, or in any other
way to the causes of repercussion, the lungs may become affected. In
the majority of cases, however, after three, four, or five days of the
fever, congestion of the lungs commences without any exposure or
apparent exciting cause. Unless this congestion of the lungs is
soon relieved it is followed by an inflammation constituting pneumo-
nia. This pneumonia, while it is in its essence the same, differs from
an ordinary pneumonia at the commencement by an insidious course.
The animal commences to breathe heavily, which becomes distinctly
visible in the heaving of the flanks, the dilatation of the nostrils, and
frequently in the swaying movement of the unsteady body. The res-

504 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

l^irations increase in number, what little appetite remained is lost, the
temperature increases from 1° to 2°, the pulse becomes more rapid,
and at times, for a short period, more tense and full, but the previous
poisoning of the specific disease has so weakened the tissues that it
never becomes the characteristic full, tense pulse of a simple pneu-
monia.

On percussion of the chest dullness is found over the inflamed
areas ; on auscultation at the base of the neck over the trachea a tubu-
lar murmur is heard. The crepitant rales and tubular murmurs of
pneumonia are heard on the sides of the chest if the pneumonia is
peripheral, but in pneumonia complicating influenza the inflamed
portions are frequently disseminated in islands of variable size and
are sometimes deep seated, in which case the characteristic auscultory
symptoms are sometimes wanting. From this time on the symptoms
of the animal are those of an ordinary grave pneumonia, rendered
more severe by occurring in a debilitated animal. The cough is at
first hacky and aborted; later, more full and moist. There is dis-
charge from the nostrils, which may be mucopurulent, purulent, or
hemorrhagic. As in simple pneumonia, in the outset this discharge
may be " rusty," due to capillary hemorrhages. We find that the
blood is thoroughly mixed with the matter, staining it evenly, instead
of being mixed with it in the form of clots. At the commencement of
the complication the animal may be subject to chills, which may again
occur in the course of the disease, in which case, if severe, an unfa-
vorable termination by gangrene may be looked for. If gangrene
occurs it is shown by preliminary chills, a rapid elevation of tempera-
ture, a tumultuous heart, a flaky discharge from the nostrils, and a
fetid breath; the symptoms are identical with those which occur in
gangrene complicating other diseases.

Complication of the hrain. — At any time during the course of the
disease congestion of the brain may occur ; at an early period if the
fever has been intense from the outset, but in ordinary cases more
frequently after three or four days. The animal, which has been
stupid and immobile, becomes suddenly restless, walks forward in the
stall until it fastens its head in the corner. If in a box stall and it be-
comes displaced from its position, it follows the wall with the nose
and eyes, rubbing it along until it reaches the corner and again fastens
itself. It may become more violent, and rear and plunge. If dis-
turbed by the entrance of the attendant or any loud noise or bright
light, it will stamp with its fore feet and strike with its hind feet, but
is not definite in fixing the object which it is resisting, which is a
diagnostic point between meningitis and rabies and which renders
the animal with the former disease less dangerous to handle. If fas-
tened by a rope to a stake or post, the animal will wander in a circle

INFLUENZA. 505

at the end of the rope. It wanders almost invariably in one direction.
The pupils may be dilated or contracted, or we may find one condition
in one eye and the opposite in the other.

The period of excitement is followed by one of profound coma, in
which the animal is immobile, the head hanging and placed against
the corner of the stall, the body limp, and the motion, if demanded of
the animal, unsteady. Little or no attention will be paid to the sur-
rounding noises, the crack of a whip, or even a blow on the surface of
the body. The respiration becomes slower, the pulsations are dimin-
ished, the coma lasts for variable time, to be followed by excesses of
violence, after which the two alternate, but if severe the period of
coma becomes longer and longer until the animal dies of spasms of
the lungs or of heart failure. It may die from injuries which occur
in the ungovernable attacks of violence.

Complication of the feet. — The feet are the organs which are next
in frequency predisposed to congestion. This congestion takes place
in the laminae (poclophyllous structures) of the feet. The stupefied
animal is roused from its condition by excessive pain in the feet, and
assumes the position of a foundered horse; that is, if the fore feet
alone are affected they are carried forward until they rest on the heels,
and if the hind feet are affected all of the feet are carried forward,
resting on their heels, the hind ones as near the center of gravity as
possible. In some cases the stupor of the animal is so great that the
pain is not felt, and little or no alternation of the position of the
animal is noticeable. The foot is found hot to the touch, and after a
given time the depressed convex sole of typical founder is recognized.

Pleurisy. — This is a rare complication, but when it does occur it is
ushered in by the usual symptoms of depression, rapid pulse, small
respiration, elevation of the temperature, subcutaneous edema of the
legs and under surface of the belly, and we find a line of dullness on
either side of the chest and an absence of respiratory murmur at the
lower part. If it is severe there may be an effusion filling one- fourth
to one-third of the thoracic cavity in from thirty-six to forty-eight
hours.

Pericarditis is an occasional complication of influenza. It is
ushered in by chills, elevation of the temperature ; the pulse becomes
rapid, thready, and imperceptible. The heart murmurs become in-
distinct or can not be heard. A venous pulse is seen on the line of the
jugular veins along the neck. Respiration becomes more difficult and
rapid. If the animal is moved the symptoms become more marked,
or it may drop suddenly dead from heart failure.

Peritonitis^ or inflammation of the membranes lining the belly and
covering the organs contained in it, sometimes takes place. The gen-
eral symptoms are similar to those of a commencing pericarditis.

506 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

The local symptoms are those of pain, especially to pressure on side
of the flanks and belly; distention of the latter, and sometimes the
formation of flatus, or gas, and constipation.

Other occasional complications are nephritis, hepatitis, inflamma-
tion of the flexor tendons and rupture of them, and abscesses.

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of influenza is based upon continued
fever, with great depression and symptoms of stupor and coma ; the
rapidly developing, dark-saffron, ocher, yellowish discoloration of the
mucous membranes, swelling of the legs and soft tissues of the geni-
tals. Wlien these symptoms have become manifested the diagnosis
of a local complication is based upon the same symptoms that are
produced in the local diseases from other causes, but in influenza
the local symptoms are frequently masked or even entirely hidden
by the intense stupor of the animal, which renders it insensible to
pain. The evidence of colic and congestion, which is followed by
diarrhea, indicates enteritis. The rapid breathing or difficulty of
respiration points to a complication of the lungs, but, as we have
seen in the study of the symptoms, the local evidences of lung lesions
are frequently hidden. Again, we have seen that inflammation of
the feet, or founder, complicating influenza is frequently not shown
on account of the insensibility to pain on the part of the animal,
which indicates the importance of running the hand daily over the
hoofs to detect any sudden elevation of temperature on their surface.

The diagnosis of brain trouble is based upon the excessive violence
which occurs in the course of the disease, for during the intervening
period or coma there is no means of determining that it is due to this
comj)lication. Severe cases of influenza may simulate anthrax in the
horse. In both we have stupor, the intense coloration of the mucous
membranes of the eyes, and a certain amount of swelling of the legs
and under surface of the belly. The diagnosis here can be made only
by microscopic examination of the blood. In strangles, equine variola,
and scalma we have an intense red, rosy coloration of the mucous
membranes, full, tense pulse, and, although in these diseases we may
have depression, we do not have the stupor and coma except in severe
cases which have lasted for some days. In influenza we have no evi-
dence of the formation of pus on the mucous membranes as in the
other diseases, except sometimes in the conjunctivae of the eyes.

In severe pneumonia (lung fever) we may find profound coma,
dark yellowish coloration of the mucous membranes, and swelling of
the under surface of the belly and legs ; but in j^neumonia we have the
history of the difficulty of breathing and an acute fever of a sthenic
type from the outset, and the other symptoms do not occur for sev-
eral days; while in influenza we have the history of characteristic
symptoms for several days before the rapid breathing and difficulty
of respiration indicate the appearance of the complication. Without

INFLUENZA. 507

the history it is frequently difficult to diagnose a case of influenza of
several days' standing, complicated b}^ pneumonia, from a case of
severe pneumonia of five to six days' standing, but from a prognostic
point of view it is immaterial, as the treatment of both are identical.
The fact that other horses in the same stable or neighborhood have
influfenza may aid in the diagnosis.

Prognosis. — Influenza is a serious disease chiefly on account of its
numerous complications. Uncomplicated influenza is a compara-
tively simple malady, and is fatal in but 1 to 5 per cent of all cases.
In some outbreaks, however, complications of one kind or another
preponderate; in such instances the rate of mortality is much
increased.

Alterations. — The chief alteration of influenza occurs in the di-
gestive tract, and consists in hyperemia, infiltration, and swelling of
the mucous membrane, and especially of the Peyers' jDatches near the
ileocecal valve. The tissues throughout the body are found stained,
and of a more or' less yellowish hue. There is always found a con-
gested condition of all the organs, muscles, and interstitial tissues of
the body. The coverings of the brain and spinal cord partake in
the congested and discolored condition of the rest of the tissues.

Other alterations are dependent entirely upon the complications.
If the lungs have been affected, we find effusions identical in their
intimate nature with those of simple jDneumonia, but they differ
somewhat in their general appearance in not being so circumscribed
in their area of invasion. The alterations of meningitis and lami-
nitis are identical with those of sporadic cases of founder and inflam-
mation of the brain.

Treatment. — While the appetite remains the patient should have a
moderate quantity of sound hay, good oats, and bran ; or even a little
fresh clover, if obtainable, can be given in small quantities. It is
not so important that a special diet shall be observed as that the horse
shall eat a moderate quantity of nourishing food, and he may be
tempted with any food of good quality that he relishes. The sick
horse should be placed in a well-ventilated box stall away from other
horses. Grass, roots, apples, and milk may be offered and, if relished,
allowed freely. To reduce the temperature, the safest simple jDlan is
to inject large quantities of cold water into the rectum. Antipyrene
may be used with alcohol or strychnia. Derivatives in the form of
essential oils and mustard poultices, baths of alcohol, turpentine,
and hot water, after which the animal must be immediately dried and
blanketed, serve to waken the animal up from the stuj^or and relieve
the congestion of the internal organs. This treatment is especially
indicated when complication by congestion of the lungs, intestines, or
of the brain is threatened. Quinine and salicylic acid in 1-dram
doses will lower the temperature, but too continuous use of quinine

508 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

in some cases increases the after depression. Iodide of potash re-
duces the excessive nutrition of the congested organs and thereby
reduces the temperature; again, this drug in moderate quantities is
a stimulant to the digestive tract and acts as a diuretic, causing the
elimination of waste matter by the kidneys. Small doses of Glauber's
salts and bicarbonate of soda, used from the outset, stimulate the
digestive tract and prevent constipation and its evil results.

In cases of severe depression and weakness of the heart digitalis
can be used with advantage. At the end of the fever, and when con-
valescence is established, alcohol in one-half pint doses and good ale
in 1-pint doses may be given as stimulants; to these may be added
1-dram doses of turpentine.

In complication of the intestines camphor and asafetida are most
frequently used to relieve the pain causing the colics ; diarrhea is also
relieved by the use of bicarbonate of soda, nitrate of potash, and
drinks made from boiled rice or starch, to which may be added small
doses of laudanum.

In complication of the lungs iodide of potash and digitalis are most
frequently indicated, in addition to the remedies used for the disease
itself.

Founder occurring as a complication of influenza is difficult to treat.
It is, unfortunately, frequently not recognized until inflammatory
changes have gone on for some days. If recognized at once, local
bleeding and the use of hot or cold water, as the condition of the ani-
mal will permit, are most useful, but in the majority of cases the
stupefied animal is unable to be moved satisfactorily or to have one
foot lifted for local treatment, and the only treatment consists in local
bleeding above the coronary bands and the application of poultices.

During convalescence- small doses of alkalines may be kept up for
some little time, but the greatest care must be used, while furnishing
the animal with plenty of nutritious, easily digestible food, not to
overload the intestinal tract, causing constipation and consequent
diarrhea. Special care must be taken for some weeks not to expose
the animal to cold.

AFTER EFFECTS OF INFLUENZA.

Anasarca, or purpura hemorrhagica. — A previous attack of influ-
enza is a common predisposing cause of this disease, which appears
most frequently a feAv weeks after convalescence is established. It
occurs more frequently in those animals which have made a rapid
convalescence and are apparently perfectly well than it does in those
which have made a slower recovery.

Anasarca commences by symptoms which are excessively vai'iable.
The local lesions may be confined to a small portion of the animal's
body and the constitutional phenomena be nil. The appearance and
gravity of the local lesions may be so unlike, from difference of loca-

ANASARCA, OR PUEPUKA HEMORRHAGICA. 509

tion, that they seem to belong to a separate disease, and complica-
tions may completely mask the original trouble.

In the simplest form the first symptom noticed is a swelling, or
several swellings, occurring on the surface of the body — on the fore-
arm, the leg, the under surface of the belly, or the side of the head.
The tumefaction is at first the size of a hen's egg ; not hot, little sen-
sitive, and distinctly circumscribed by a marked line from the sur-
rounding healthy tissue. These tumors gradually extend until they
coalesce, and in a few hours we have swelling up of the legs, legs and
belly, or the head, to an enormous size; they have always the char-
acteristic constricted border, which looks as if it had been tied with a
cord. In the nostrils are found small reddish spots, or petechise,
which gradually assume a brownish and frequently a black color.
Examination of the mouth will frequently reveal similar lesions on
the surface of the tongue, along the lingual gutter, and on the
fra?num. If the external swelling has been on the head, the pete-
chise of the mucous membranes are apt to be more numerous and to
coalesce into patches of larger size than when the dropsy is confined
to the legs. The animal may be rendered stiff by the swelling of the
legs, or be annoyed by the awkward swollen head, which at times may
be so enormous as to resemble that of a hippopotamus rather than
that of a horse. During this period the temperature remains nor-
mal; the pulse, if altered at all, is only a little weaker; the respira-
tion is only hurried if the swelling of the head infringes on the
caliber of the nostrils. The appetite remains normal. The animal
is attentive to all that is going on, and, except for the swelling,
apparently in perfect health.

In from two to four days, in severe cases, the tissues can no longer
resist the pressure of the exuded fluid. Over the surface of the skin
which covers the dropsy we find a slight serous sweating, which
loosens the epidermis and dries so as to simulate the eruption of some
cutaneous disease. If this is excessive we may see irritated spots _
which are suppurating. In the nasal fossae the hemorrhagic spots
have acted as irritants, and, inviting an increased amount of blood
to the Schneiderian membrane, produce a coryza or even a catarrh.
We may now find some enlargement and peripheral edema of the
lymphatic glands, which are fed from the affected part. The ther-
mometer indicates a slight rise in the body temperature, while the
pulse and respiration are somewhat accelerated. The appetite usu-
ally remains good. In the course of a few days the temperature may
have reached 102°, 103°, or 104° F.

Fever is established, not an essential or specific fever in any way,
but a simple secondary fever produced by the dead material from the
surface or superficial suppuration, and by the oxidization and absorp-
tion of the colloid mass contained in the tissues. The skin may sup-

510 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

purate or slough more or less over the areas of greatest tension or
where it is irritated by blows or pressure. The great swelling about
the head may by closure of the nostrils interfere seriously with breath-
ing. Internal edema may occur in the throat, lungs, or intestines.
Septicemia, or blood poisoning, may result from anasarca.

Terminations. — The simple form of the disease most frequently
terminates favorably on the eighth or tenth day by resolution or ab-
sorption of the effusion, with usually a profuse diuresis, and with or
without diarrhea. The aj^petite remains good or is at times ca-
pricious.

Death may occur from mechanical asphyxia, produced by closure of
the nostrils or closure of the glottis. Metastasis to the lungs is almost
invariably fatal, causing death by asphyxia. Metastasis to the intes-
tine:5 may cause death from pain, enteritis, or hemorrhage.

Excessive suppuration, lymphangitis, and gangrene are causes of a
fatal termination by exhaustion. Mortal exhaustion is again pro-
duced by inability to swallow in cases of excessive swelling of the
head.

Peritonitis may arise secondary to the enteric edema, or by perfora-
tion of the stomach or intestines by a gangrenous spot. Septicemia
terminates fatally with its usual train of symptoms.

Alterations. — The essential alterations of anasarca are exceedingly
simple ; the capillaries are dilated, the lymphatic spaces between the
fibers of the connective tissue are filled with serum, and the coagulable
portion of the blood presents a yellowish or citrine mass, jellylike in
consistency, which has stretched out the tissue like the meshes of a
sponge. Where the effusion has occurred between the muscles, as in
the head, these are found dissected and separated from each other
like those of a hog's head by the masses of fat. The surface of the
skin is desquamated and frequently denuded of the hair. Frequently
there are traces of suppuration and of ulceration. The mucous mem-
brane of the nose is found studded with small, hemorrhagic spots,
sometimes red, more frequently brown or black, often coalesced with
each other in irregular-sized j^atches and surrounded by a reddish
zone, the product of irritation. If edema of the intestines has oc-
curred, the membrane is found four or five times its normal thickness,
reddish in color, with hemorrhages on the free surface. Edema of
the lungs leaves these organs distended. The secondary alterations
vary according to the complications. There are frequently the lesions
of asphyxia; externally we find ulcers, abscesses, and gangrenous
spots and the deep ulcers resulting from the latter. The lymphatic
cords and glands are found with all the lesions of lymphangitis.
Again are found the traces of excessive emaciation, or the lesions of

ANASARCA, OR PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA. 511

septicemia. Except from the complications the blood is not altered
in anasarca.

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of anasarca must principally be made
from farcy or glanders. In anasarca the swelling is nonsensitive,
while sensitive in the acute swelling of farcy. The nodes of farcy
are distinct and hard and never circumscribed, as in the other disease.
The eruption of glanders on the mucous membranes is nodular, hard,
and i^elletlike. The redness disappears on pressure. In case of
excessive swelling of the head in anasarca, there may occur an ex-
tensive sef-ofibrinous exudation from the mucous membranes of the
nose, poured out as a semifluid mass or as a cast of the nasal fossae,
never having the appearance or typical oily character which it has
in glanders. The inflammation of the lymphatic cords and glands
in anasarca does not produce the hard, indurated character which is
found in farcy.

Prognosis. — "VNTiile anasarca is not an excessively fatal disease, the
prognosis must always be guarded. The majority of cases run a
simple course and terminate favorably at the end of eight or ten
days, or possibly, after one to two relapses, requiring several weeks
for complete recovery. Effusion into the head renders the prognosis
much more grave from the possible danger of mechanical asphyxia.
Threatened mechanical asphyxia is especially dangerous on account
of the risk of blood poisoning after an operation of tracheotomy.
Edema of the viscera is a most serious complication. The prognosis
is based on the complications, their extent, and their individual grav-
ity, existing, as they do here, in an already debilitated subject.

Treatment. — The treatment of anasarca may be as variable as are
the lesions. The indications are at once shown by the alterations
and mechanism of the disease, wdiich we have just studied.

Hygiene comes into play as the most important factor. Oats, oat
and hay tea, milk, eggs — anything which the stomach or rectum can
be coaxed to take care of — must be employed to give the nutriment,
wdiich is the only thing that will permanently strengthen the tissues,
and they must be strengthened in order to keep the capillaries at their
proper caliber.

Laxatives, diaphoretics, and diuretics must be used to stimulate
the emunctories, so that they shall carry off the large amount of the
products of decomposition which result from the stagnated effusions
of anasarca. Of these the sulphate of soda in small repeated doses,
and the nitrate of potash and bicarbonate of soda in small quantity,
and the chlorate of potash in single large doses will be found useful.
Williams cites the chlorate of potash as an antiputrid. Stimulants
and astringents are directly indicated. Spirits of turpentine serves
the double purpose of a cardiac stimulant and a powerful, warm diu-

512 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

retic, for the kidneys in this disease will stand a wonderful amount
of work. Camphor can be used with advantage. Coffee and tea
are two of the diffusible stimulants which are too much neglected in
veterinary medicine; both are valuable adjuncts in treatment in
anasarca, as they are during convalescence at the end of any grave
disease which has tended to render the patient anemic. Dilute sul-
phuric acid and hydrochloric acid are perhaps the best examples of
a combination of stimulant, astringent, and tonic which can be
employed. The simple astringents of mineral origin, sulphates of
iron, copper, etc., are useful as digestive tonics; I doubt if they have
any constitutional effect. The vegetable astringents, tannic acid,
etc., have not proved efficacious in my hands. Iodide of potash in
small doses serves the triple purpose of digestive tonic, denutritive
for inflammation, and diuretic. Among the newer forms of treat-
ment are diluted Lugol's solution injected into the trachea, anti-
streptococcus serum and colloidal silver solution injected into the
circulation. No one but a qualified veterinarian would be competent
to apply these remedies.

Externally. — Sponging the swollen parts, especially the head, when
the swelling occurs there, is most useful. The bath should be at an
extreme of temperature — either ice cold to constrict the tissues or hot
water to act as an emollient and to favor circulation. Vinegar may be
added as an astringent. WTien we have excessively denuded surfaces,
suppuration, or open wounds, disinfectants should be added to the
wash.

In cases of excessive swelling, especially of the head, mechanical
relief may be required. Punctures of the part should be made with
the hot iron even in country practice, as no other disease so predis-
poses to septic contamination. AVhen mechanical asphyxia is threat-
ened tracheotomy may be demanded. With the first evidence of
dyspnea, not due to closing of the nostrils or glottis, or with the first
pawing which gives rise to a suspicion of colic, a mustard plaster
should be applied over the whole belly and chest. The sinapism will
draw the current of the circulation to the exterior, the metastasis to
the lungs or intestines is prevented, and the enfeebled nervous system
is stimulated to renewed vigor by the peripheral irritation. The
organs are encouraged by it to renewed functional activity ; the local
inflammation produced by it favors absorption of the exudation. The
objection to the use of blisters is their more severe action and the
danger of mortification. Septicemia, when occurring as a complica-
tion, requires the ordinary treatment for the putrid diseases, with
little hope of a good result.

After recovery the animal regains its ordinary health, and there is
no predisposition to a return of the disease.

GENERAL -DISEASES. 513

STRANGLES.

[Synonyms : Distemper, colt-ill, cartarrhal fever, one form of shipping fever,

Fcbris pyogenica.^

Definition. — Strangles is an infectious disease of the horse, mule,
and ass ; seen most frequently in young animals, and usually leaving
an animal which has had one attack protected from future trouble of
the same kind. It appears as a fever, lasting for a few days, with
formation of matter, or pus, in the air tubes and lungs, and fre-
quentl}'' the formation of abscesses in various parts of the body, both
near the surface and in the internal organs. It usually leaves the
animal after convalescence perfectly healthy and as good as it was
before, but sometimes leaves it a roarer or is followed by the devel-
opment of deep-seated abscesses, which may prove fatal.

Causes. — The cause of strangles is infection by direct contact with
an animal suffering from the disease, or indirectly through contact
with the discharges from an infected animal, or by means of the
atmosphere in which an infected animal has been. There are many
predisposing causes which render some animals much more subject to
contract the disease than others. Early age, which has given it the
popular name of colt-ill, offers man}^ more subjects than the later
periods of life do, for the animal can contract the disease but once,
and the large majority of adult and old animals have derived an
immunity from previous attacks. At 3, 4, or 5 years of age the colt,
which has been at home, safe on a meadow or in a cozy barnyard, far
from all intercourse with other animals or sources of contagion, is
first put to work and driven to the market town or county fairs to be
exposed to an atmosphere or to stables contaminated by other horses
suffering from disease and serving as infecting agents. If it fails to
contract it there, it is sold and shipped in foul, undisinfected railway
cars to dealers' stables, equally unclean, where it meets many oppor-
tunities of infection. If it escapes so far, it reaches the time for
heavier work and daily contact on the streets of towns or large cities,
with numerous other horses and mules, some of which are sure to be
the bearers of the germs of this or some other infectious disease, and
at last it succumbs.

The period of the eruption of the last permanent teeth or the end
of the period of development from the colt to an adult horse, at
which time the animals usually have a tendency to fatten and be ex-
cessively full-blooded, also seems to be a predisposing period for the
contraction of this as well as of the other infectious diseases.
Thoroughbred colts are very susceptible, and frequently contract
strangles at a somewhat earlier age than those of more humble origin.
Mules and asses are much less susceptible and are but rarely affected.
Other animals are not subject to this disease, but there is a certain
analogy between it and distemper in dogs. After exposure to infec-
H. Doc. 795, 59-2 33

514 DISEASES OF -THE HOESE.

tion there is a period of incubation of the disease, lasting from two
to four days, during which the animal enjoys its ordinary health.

Symptoms. — The horse at first is a little sluggish if used, or when
placed in its stable is somewhat dejected, paying but moderate atten-
tion to the various disturbing surroundings. Its appetite is somewhat
diminished in many cases, while in some cases the animal eats well
throughout. Thirst is increased, but not a great deal of water is
taken at one time. If a bucket of water is placed in the manger the
patient will dip its nose into it and swallow a few mouthfuls, allow-
ing some of it to drip back, and then stop, to return to it in a short
time. The coat becomes dry and the hairs stand on end. At times
the horse will have chills of one or the other leg, the fore quarters,
or hind quarters, or in severe cases of the whole body, with trembling
of the muscles and dryness of the skin.

If the eyes and mouth are examined the membranes are found red-
dened to a bright rosy color. The pulse is quickened and the breath-
ing may be slightly accelerated. At the end of a couple of days a cough
is heard and a discharge begins to come from the nostrils. This dis-
charge is at first watery ; it then becomes thicker, somewhat bluish in
color, and sticky, and finally it assumes the yellowish color of matter
and increases gi^eatly in quantity.

At the outset the colt may sneeze occasionally and a cough is heard.
The cough is at first repeated and harsh, but soon becomes softer and
moist as the discharge increases. Again the cough varies according
to the source of the discharge, for in light cases this may be only a
catarrh of the nasal canals, or it may be from the throat, the wind-
pipe, or the air tubes of the lungs, or even from the lungs themselves.
According to the organ affected the symptoms and character of cough
will be similar to those of a laryngitis, bronchitis, or lung fever
caused by ordinary cold.

Shortly after the discharge is seen a swelling takes place under the
jaw, or in the intermaxillaiy space. This is at first puffy, swollen,
somewhat hot and tender, and finally becomes distinctly so, and an
abscess is felt, or having broken itself the discharge is seen dripping
from a small opening, ^^^len the discharge from the nostrils has
fully developed the fever usually disappears and the animal regains
its appetite, unless the swelling is sufficient to interfere with the func-
tion of the throat, causing pain on any attempt to swallow. At the
end of four or six days the discharge lessens, the soreness around the
throat diminishes, the horse regains its appetite, and in two weeks has
regained its usual condition. Old and strong horses may have the
disease in so light a form that the fever is not noticeable; they may
continue to eat and perform their ordinary work as usual and no
symptom may be seen beyond a slight discharge from the nose and a
rare cough, which is not sufficient to worry any but the most particu-

STRANGLES. 515

lar owner. But, on the other hand, the disease may assume a malig-
nant form or become complicated so as to become a most serious
disease, and even prove fatal in many cases. Inflammation of the
larynx and bronchi, if excessive, will produce violent, harsh coughing,
which may almost asphyxiate the animal. The large amount of dis-
charge may be mixed with air by the difficult breathing, and the
nostrils, the front of the animal, manger, and surrounding objects
become covered with a white foam. The inflammation may be in the
lung itself (lobular pneumonia) and cause the animal to breathe
heavily, heave at the flanks, and show great distress. In this condi-
tion marked symptoms of fever are seen, the appetite is lost, the coat
is dry, the horse stands back in its stall at the end of the halter strap
with its neck extended and its legs propped apart to favor breathing.
This condition may end by resolution, leaving the horse for some
time with a severe cough, or the animal may die from choking up of
the lungs (asphyxia).

The swelling under the jaw may be excessive, and if the abscess is
not opened it burrows toward the throat or to the side and causes
inflammation of the parotid glands and breaks in annoying fistulas at
the sides of the throat and even up as high as the ears. Roaring may
occur either during a moderately severe attack from inflammation of
the throat (larynx), or at a later period as the result of continued
lung trouble. Abscesses may develop in other parts of the body, in
the poll, in the withers, or in the spaces of loose tissue under the
arms, in the fold of the thigh, and, in entire horses, in the testicles.

During the course of the disease, or later, when the animal seems to
be on the road to perfect recovery, abscesses may form in the internal
organs and produce symptoms characteristic of disease of those parts.

Roaring, j)lunging, wandering in a circle, or standing with the head
wedged in a corner of the stall indicate the collection of matter in the
brain. Sudden and severe lung symptoms, without previous dis-
charge, point to an abscess between the lungs, in the mediastinum;
colic, which is often continuous for days, is the result of the forma-
tion of an abscess in some part of the abdominal cavity, usually in the
mesenterj^

Pathology. — The lesions of strangles are found on the surface of
the mucous membranes, essentially of the respiratory system, and in
the loose connective tissue fibers of the internal organs and glands,
and consist of acute inflammatory changes, tending to the formation
of matter. The blood is unaltered, though it is rich in fibrin, and if
the animal has died of asphyxia it is found dark colored and uncoagu-
lated when the body is first opened. If the animal has died while
suffering from high fever the ordinary alterations throughout the
body, which are produced by any fever not attended by alteration of
blood, are found.

516 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

Treatment. — Ordinary light cases require but little treatment be-
yond diet, warm washes, moistened hay, warm coverings, and j^ro-
tection from exposure to cold. The latter is urgently called for, as
lung complications, severe bronchitis, and laryngitis are often the
results of neglect of this precaution. If the fever is excessive, the
liorse may receive small quantities of Glauber's salts (handful three
times a day), as a laxative, bicarbonate of soda or niter in 1-dram
doses every few hours, and small doses of antimony, iodide of potash,
aconite, or quinine. Steaming the head with the vapor of warm
water poured over a bucket of bran and hay, in which belladonna
leaves or tar have been placed, .will allay the inflammation of the
mucous membranes and greatly ease the cough.

The swelling of the glands should be promptly treated by bathing
with warm water and flaxseed poultices, and as soon as there is any
evidence of the formation of matter it should be opened. Prompt
action in this will often save serious complications. Blisters and irri-
tating liniments should not be applied to the throat. A^^ien lung
complications show themselves the horse should have mustard applied
to the belly and to the sides of the chest. When convalescence begins
great care must be taken not to expose the animal to cold, which may
bring on relapses, and while exercise is of great advantage it must not
be turned into work until the animal has entirely regained its
strength.

SCALMA.

The differentiation of the various diseases which have popularly
been included under the terms of distemper and influenza up to a
comparatively recent date has been so slow and so tardily accepted by
the majority of practitioners that we have been subjected to con-
stantly seeing announced and heralded as news in the daily papers the
appearance of some new disease. These new diseases of the populace
and of the empiric are to us but the epizootic outbreak or the more
severely manifested form of some ordinary contagious disease.

There is, however, one of the contagious fevers of the horse which
has constantly been confounded with other diseases, and which has
not been separated from them in our English text-books. As this dis-
ease has received no proper name in English, I shall use for it the
name given by Professor Dieckerhoff, of Berlin, who first described it
in the Adams Wochenschrift, XXIX, in 1885.

Etymology. — The term " scalma " is derived from the old German
word scalmo, scelmo, schelm., which indicates roguishness, or knavish-
ness, as great nervous irritability, especially of the temper, is one of
the characteristic, almost diagnostic, symptoms of this disease. The
term '"'' H eimtnckische Kranlx-Jieit^^'' signifying malicious, treacherous,
or mischievous, is also employed in German for the same trouble. I

SCALMA. 517

am not aware of any name in English or French which has been
applied to it.

As I am opposed to employing in veterinary medicine any of the
nomenclature of human medicine, except for identical, simple, and
inflammatory diseases, or for intercommunicable contagious diseases,
I will not offer the term " whooping cough " as a name, but I will sug-
gest a certain similarity between the latter disease in man and scalma
in the horse.

Definition. — Scalma is a contagious and infectious febrile disease
of the horse, with local lesions of the bronchi, trachea, and larynx,
which is evidenced by cough. It is further characterized by great
irritability of temper. It occurs as a stable plague; that is, in en-
zootic form, with, however, great variations in the susceptibility of
the animals to contract it. It is rarely fatal except from compli-
cations.

Incubation. — The period of incubation is from six to seven days,
but the disease may develop in two days after exposure or it may
delay its appearance for ten days. It spreads through a stable slowly,
developing at times in a horse placed in a stall where the previously
sick one had stood, or it may pass next to an animal several stalls
away. One attack is usually protective.

Symptoms. — The symptoms are ushered in by fever, in which the
acceleration of the pulse and respiration is in no way in accord with
the great elevation of temperature. With the appearance of the
fever is developed a diffuse bronchitis, which is, however, subacute
both in its character and in its course. At times the trouble of the
bronchi may extend to the trachea, larynx, pharynx, or even to the
nasal fossse.

In two or three days a trifling grayish albuminous discharge from
the nostrils occurs, which continues, variable in quantity, for eight to
fourteen days, or may even last for three weeks. The cough is short,
rough, and painful, spasmodic in its occurrence and in character.
The slight watery or slimy discharge may become more profuse,
purulent, or even " rusty," if the bronchitis has extended to the neigh-
boring structures. Pharyngeal discharge may take place. The res-
piration is moderate and affected only during an excess of coughing,
or in complicated cases. The pulse undergoes but little quickening.
The temperature rises rapidly to 102.2°, 104°, and in some cases even
to 107.5° F. The latter temperature usually, but not always, indi-
cates complication by pleurisy. In ordinary cases the temperature
drops in two or three days after the appearance of the cough. The
skin is dry and rough, with the hairs on end, but the horse appears
as an animal out of condition rather than as a sick one. Emaciation
may be rapid. The mucous membranes are moderately reddened.

518 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

The appetite is diminished, but the animal chews constantly. Deglu-
tition, either of food or water, is frequently the cause of spasms of
coughing, and these in turn seem to warn the animal against attempts
at swallowing. On percussion no alteration of resonance is to be
detected. On auscultation of the lungs mucous rales are heard, with
at times tubular breathing; the latter, however, we will study under
the complications, as also the friction warning of pleurisy. Through-
out the course of the disease we have still one constant and charac-
teristic symptom — nervous irritability. With temperature of 104° to
107° F., the horse still flinches to the touch on the loins; it stands
frequently with the head up, and is on the alert for the entrance of
anyone to the stall. The previously good-tempered and quiet horse
will turn and bite, will strike with the hind legs, or at the first touch
to the side, head, or throat will half rear and back into the corner
of the box, or, breaking the halter, turn backward out of the stall.

The course of the disease is from five to eight days, but the cough
may continue for two or three weeks with variable elevation of tem-
perature. As a stable plague the course is from two to three months,
as the contagion is much more uncertain than in strangles or influ-
enza. The termination is by resolution and recovery or by complica-
tions. In resolution the temperature drops, the cough becomes less
frequent and less spasmodic in character, the appetite returns, and no
sign is left of the disease except the fever mark on the hoof.

Complications. — The complications are excessive spasms and pleu-
risy. In the former the cough may be so violent as to convulse the
whole animal, the legs are spread and fixed, with the hind ones drawn
slightly under the body. The head and neck are extended, with the
muscles tense. The cough comes out b}^ rapidly succeeding efforts, or
with the first sound the larynx seems to close for a moment before the
rest can follow. In two cases of my own the spasm has been so great
that the animal has fallen to the ground. During these accesses the
respiration becomes accelerated, and on auscultation of the trachea
and lungs the tubular murmur of an apparent pneumonia can be
heard. This false murmur, however, disappears at the end of the at-
tack. In the case which fell to the ground the horse would lie for a
moment or two absolutely motionless. ( In the first I believed that he
had broken his neck.) The rapid respiration was then followed by a
long inspiration, the animal regained his feet, the respiration became
almost normal, and the tubular murmur had disappeared. I have seen
no fatal termination from this spasm of the pneumogastric, but can
readily believe that traumatisms resulting from such attacks might
prove fatal, or that the spasm might continue long enough to produce
asphyxia. The fatal complication is pleurisy. This occurs when the
horse has been kept at work after the development of the disease

SCALMA. 519

while suffering from a high fever, and is probably in no way specific,
but the result of work on an animal with high temperature. The
additional symptoms are those of an ordinary pleurisy.

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis is based upon the elevation of the tem-
perature without corresponding acceleration of the pulse and of the
respirations; upon the retention of appetite and spinal reflex, with
the great irritability of temper in the presence of a high temperature,
and upon the spasmodic cough and auscultatory sounds of bronchitis
with but trifling discharge.

The diagnosis is made from edematous pneumonia by the absence
of the yellow colorations, the absence of pneumonia, and the less con-
tinuous high temperature ; from influenza by the absence of edema, of
the ocher coloration, and of the typhoid symptoms; from strangles
by want of enlargement of the lymphatics, absence of purulent dis-
charge and abscesses; from variola by the nonappearance of pustules
and enlarged lymphatics; from simple bronchitis, as the latter is
sporadic, and in it great fever is accompanied by profuse discharge;
from rheumatic pleurisy and pleurodynia by the history in these of
repeated attacks and great temporary pain; from surgical fever by
the absence of cause.

Prognosis. — The prognosis is usually favorable. This disease en-
tails only the loss of ten days' to three weeks' use of the animal, and
leaves the subject with no complicating sequelas. In some cases I
have seen the irritable disposition remain for a length of time, but in
every case it has finally disappeared. As I have suggested, violent
spasms might prove fatal. Pleurisy would render the prognosis
serious, as the same disease would when occurring from simple causes.

Treatment. — The treatment of a stable should be at once prophy-
lactic. The infected animals should be removed, and complete disin-
fection of the stalls and area should be made. The individual treat-
ment is simple. The hygienic measures of cleanliness, fresh air with-
out drafts, frequent rubbing, and tempting food should be thorough.
The digestive tract is to be regulated by small doses of bicarbonate of
soda, sulphate of soda, gentian, and tannic acid. The appetite is to
be stimulated by drinks of cold breakfast tea and cow's milk. Anti-
spasmodics are to be used when the cough is excessive. The best of
these are camphor, belladonna, stramonium, and steaming with tur-
pentine (turpentine 1 ounce, water half bucket). External frictions
of alcohol and turpentine, with hot packs to the loins, will also
afford relief. Quinine and salicylic acid may be used during the ele-
vation of temperature. Professor Dieckerhoff recommends tracheal
injections in 1 -ounce doses of the following solution : Acetate of
aluminum, 1 per cent; alum, one-half to 1 per cent; bromide of
jDotash, 1 to 2 per cent ; water, 100 per cent.

520 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

EDEMATOUS PNEUMONIA.

[Synonyms: Contagious pneumonia; adynamic pneumonia; hospital, or sta-
ble, pneumonia ; equine pleuro-pneumonia ; influenza ; pectoralis equorum; pleuro-
pneumonia ; contagiosa equorum; irustseuche, German.]

Definition. — This disease is the adynamic pneumonia of the older
veterinarians, who did not recognize any essential difference in its
nature from an ordinary inflammation of the lungs, except in the
profound sedation of the force of the animal affected with it, which
is a i^rominent symptom from the outset of the disease. Again, this
same prostration of the vital force of the animal, combined with the
staggering movement and want of coordination of the muscles of the
animal, caused it for a long time to be confounded with influenza,
with which at certain periods it certainly has a strong analogy of
symptoms, but from which, as from sporadic pneumonia, it can be
separated very readily if the case can be followed throughout its
whole course.

Edematous pneumonia is a specific inflammation of the lungs, accom-
panied by interstitial edema and inflammation of the tissues of these
organs and a constitutional disturbance and fever. It causes a pro-
found sedation of the nervous system, which may be so great as to
cause death. It is sometimes attended by pleurisy, inflammation of
the heart, or septic complications which also prove fatal.

Etiology. — Wliile, as an infectious disease, its original cause is due
to a specific virus, there are many predisposing causes which act as
important factors in aiding in its development. Such causes are any
influences that lessen the general vigor.

Old, cold, damp, foul, unclean, and badly drained and ventilated
stables allow rapid dissemination of the disease to other horses in the
same stable and act as rich reservoirs for preserving the contagion,
which may be retained for over a year.

The virus is but moderately volatile, and in a stable seems rather
to follow the lines of the walls and irregular courses than the direct
currents of air and the tracts of ventilation. Professor Dieckerhoff
found that the contagion of influenza was readily diffusible through-
out an entire stable and through any opening to other buildings, but
he also found that the contagion of edematous pneumonia is not
transmissible at any great distance, nor is it very diffusible in the
atmosphere. A brick wall 8 feet in height served, in one instance,
to prevent the infection of other animals placed on the opposite side
from a horse ill with the disease, while others placed on the same side
and separated from the focus of contagion only by open bars in the
stall were infected and developed the disease in its typical form.

Symptofns. — The symptoms differ slightly from those of a frank,
fibrinous pneumonia, but not so much by the introduction of new
symptoms as by the want of or absence of the distinct evidences of

PNEUMONIA. 52]

local lesions which are found in the latter disease. All of the pneu-
monias throughout the whole course of the trouble are less marked
and less clearly defined.

The symptoms may develop slowly or rapidly. If slowly, there is
fever and the animal gives a rare cough which resembles that of a
heavy horse affected with a slight chronic bronchitis; it becomes
somewhat dejected and dull, at times somnolent, and has a dimin-
ished appetite. This conditioji lasts for several days, or the disease
may begin with high fever, and the symptoms described below are
severe and develop in rapid sequence. The respiration increases to
24, 30, or 36 to the minute, and a small, running, soft pulse attains a
rhythm of 50, TO, or even more beats in the sixty seconds. The heart,
however, contrary to the debilitated condition of the pulse, is found
beating violently and tumultuously, like it does in anthrax and septic
intoxication. The mucous membranes of the eyes and mouth and of
the genital organs are found somewhat edematous, and they rapidly
iissume a dirty, saffron color, at times approaching an ocher, but dis-
tinguishable from the similar coloration in influenza by the want of
the luster belonging to the latter and by the muddy, dull tint, which
is characteristic throughout the disease.

Suddenly, without the preliminary rales which precede grave
lesions of the lungs in other diseases, the blowing murmur of pneu-
monia is heard over a variable area of the chest, usually, however,
much more distinctly over the trachea at the base of the neck and
directly behind the shoulder on either side of the chest. In some cases
the evidence of lung lesion can only be detected over the trachea.
The lesions of the lungs may be scattered through both lungs, in-
volving numerous small areas, or they may be confined to and more
or less fully occupy one or two lobes. Occasionally there is a general
involvement of both lungs. The body temperature has now reached
104° or 105° F., or in extreme cases even a degree higher. The de-
bility of the animal is great without the stupefaction or evidence of
cerebral trouble, which is constant with such grave constitutional
phenomena in influenza or severe pneumonias. The animal is sub-
ject to occasional chills, and on movement staggers in its gait. The
yellow coloration of the visible mucous membrane is rendered pale
by infiltration of the liquid of the blood into the tissues; the pulse
may become so soft as to be almost imperceptible, the heart movement
and sounds being at the same time exaggerated. The animal loses
flesh rapidly, and dropsies of the extremities, of the under surface of
the belly, or of the internal organs may show themselves.

Terminations. — These symptoms may gradually subside after five
to eight days, with an improved appetite the inanition may cease and
the animal commence to nourish its impoverished blood and tissues;
the pulse becomes stronger and the heart more regular and less tumul-

522 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

tuous; the mucous membranes assume a brighter and more distinct
color; the difficulty of respiration is removed, and the animal may
make a recovery. When death occurs it is usually directly due to
heart failure; in some cases it is caused by asphyxia, owing to the
great amount of exudation into the lung tissue, rendering its fur-
ther function impossible.

Complications. — The pulmonary complications of edematous pneu-
monia are secondary inflammatory oik necrotic changes in the lungs
themselves. Suppuration at times takes jslace in the bronchi and may
extend to the lung tissue. In this case mucous rales develop which are
most distinctly heard over the trachea and on the sides of the chest
directly behind the shoulders. With the development of the mucous
rales, to be heard on auscultation, we have a more purulent discharge
from the nostrils, similar to that of a chronic or subacute bronchitis.
If the inflammation has been of some standing, cavernous rales may
be heard indicating the destruction of a considerable portion of lung
tissue and the formation of a cavity. The effects of this more acute
inflammatory process are not appreciable in the general condition of
the animal, except to still further weaken it and add to its debili-
tated and emaciated cachexia. Gangrene sometimes occurs. A sud-
den rise of the body temperature of 1° or 2°, with a more enfeebled
pulse and a still more tumultuous heart, develop simultaneously with
the appearance of a discharge from, the nostrils. This discharge is
gray in color, serous or watery in consistency, mixed with the detritus
of broken-down lung tissue, and sometimes contains clots of blood, or
in more serious cases may be marked by a quantity of fluid blood
from a hemorrhage, which proves fatal. The discharge is fetid to the
smell. The animal emaciates rapidly. On examination of the lungs
mucous rales are heard in the larger bronchi, cavities may be found at
any part of these organs, and points of lobular pneumonia may be
detected.

A very serious complication is an inflammation of the heart mus-
cle. This is shown by a very weak and rapid pulse, great prostration,
some filling of the lungs. This complication nearly always terminates
in death. Other complications which may be mentioned are inflam-
mation of the kidneys, blood poisoning, congestion of the brain, and
inflammation of the tendinous sheaths and the tendons of the legs.

Diagnosis. — As fever is the first symptom of edematous pneumonia,
it is useful during an outbreak of this disease to make daily tempera-
ture measurements of the exposed horses, so that the first indication
of disease may be discovered and the horse removed from contact with
those that are sound.

Prognosis. — The mortality in this disease may be as high as 25 per
cent, but it is usually not more than 10 per cent. If there is a special
tendency to complications of some sort, the mortality is increased.

PNEUMONIA. 523

Alterations. — At the time of death from edematous pneumonia we
frequently find septic changes and the evidences of j)utref action. The
solidification of the lung tissue is found irregular in shape and high
up around the root of the lungs and around the large bronchi, and is
generally covered by sound lung tissue. The anterior lobes of the
lungs are usually entirely affected. The diseased portion appears of
a gray yellowish color, somewhat watery, and tears readily. Matter
is found in the air tubes which form gutters through the jellylike
mass of the diseased lung. Abscesses from the size of a nut to larger
masses may be found disseminated through the lungs. The blood is
dark in color, fluid, or only clotted into soft, jelly like masses.
Masses of gangrenous or dead black tissue may be present.

Treatment. — Bleeding is not to be used because it would only still
further weaken an already enfeebled animal; antimony or the
alterants would increase the depression of a too depraved constitu-
tion. There is in this disease no acute congestion of a particular
organ to draw off by depletive measures, nor any violent blood
current to be retarded, for fear of hypernutrition of any special part.

Eevulsives do good, as they excite the nervous system and awaken
the torpor of the weakened blood vessels, which aid in the reestablish-
ment of the functions. Mustard poultices may be applied over the
belly and sides of the chest, as in other diseases, but caution must be
used in the employment of blisters, as ugly ulcers may result from
their action on a tissue of weakened vitality. Setons are dangerous
from the great tendency in this disease to septic complications. Ke-
peated friction of the legs by hand-rubbing and warmth by banda-
ging and by rubbing the surface of the body with turpentine and
alcohol, which is immediately to be dried by rough towels, will excite
the circulation and stimulate the emunctories of the skin.

Stimulants are given internally from the outset of the disease.
Turjjentine in 1-dram doses regulates the heart and excites the kid-
neys to carry off waste matter, but if repeated too frequently may
disturb the already delicate digestive system. Alcohol rectifies the
latter danger, and is a useful stimulant to the heart and digestive
system, if given with care in small doses. It is an antiputrid, and
is especially indicated when septic complications and gangrene are
present. The aromatics and bitter tonics are useful ; gentian and tea
in warm decoction form a useful menstruum for other remedies.
Digitalis is a useful remedy. Strychnine and quinine may be given
throughout almost the whole course of the disease. The various
preparations of iron are astringents and excitants to the digestive sys-
tem. Carbolic acid is an antiputrid which is of marked benefit in
edematous pneumonia ; it should be given in small doses diluted in
alcohol.

Salicylic acid may be given in 1 or 2 dram doses every few hours.

524 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

It is much used for troubles of the serous membranes, lowers the tem-
perature, and is of value in this disease in preventing the exudation
into the tissue of the lungs. The alkalines, as the sulphate and bicar-
bonate of soda, the nitrate of potash, and very small doses of the iodide
of potash, should be employed to regulate the digestive tract, the kid-
neys, and the other excreting glands, and to stimulate absorption of
the waste matter.

Serums and antitoxins have been used in the treatment of this dis-
ease, especially in Germany. The results appear to show some benefit
in some instances, but none in others; altogether they are not espe-
cially encouraging.

The diet demands the strictest attention from the outset. In many
of the fevers the food has to be diminished in quantity and regulated
in the quality of its heat-producing components during the acute part
of the disease, so as to lessen the material for combustion in the in-
flamed organs. In edematous pneumonia, on the contrary, all the
food that can possibly be digested and assimilated must be given.
Choice must be made of the richest material which can be handled by
the weakened stomach and intestines without fatiguing them. Good,
sound hay should be chopped short and dampened or partly boiled ; in
the latter case the hay tea can be reserved to use as a drink. Oats
may be preferred dry or in other cases will be taken better scalded ;
in most cases, however, it is better to give slops of oatmeal, to which
can be added a little bran, barley flour, or boiled milk and wheat
flour. Pure cow's milk, not too rich in fatty matter, can be given
alone or with beaten eggs ; frequently the horse will have to be coaxed
with the milk diluted with several parts of water at first, but will
soon learn to drink the pure milk. Apples and carrots cut up raw or
boiled are useful, and fresh clover in small quantities will frequently
stimulate the aj^petite. In other words, try various foods and com-
binations and give the horse what he will eat. Throughout the
course of the disease and during convalescence the greatest attention
must be taken to cleaning the coat thoroughly so as to keep the glands
of the skin in working order, and light, warm covering must be used
to protect the animal from cold or drafts of air.

HORSEPOX, OR EQUINE VARIOLA.
[Synonyms: Variola equina; pustular grease; phlyctenoid herpes.']

Definition. — Horsepox is a specific infectious fever of the horse
attended by an eruption of pustules, or pocks, over any i^art of the
skin or on the mucous membranes lining the various cavities in the
body, but chiefly, and often exclusively, upon the pasterns and fet-
locks. The eruption may commence upon the lips, or about the nos-
trils or eyes.

HORSEPOX. 525

This disease was described by the early Roman agi'icultural writers
and by the veterinarians of the eighteenth century. It received its
first important notice from the great Jenner, who confounded it with
grease in horses, since animals with this disease are very apt to have
the erujotion of variola appear on the fetlocks. He saw these cases
transmit the disease to cattle in the byres and to the stablemen and
milkmaids who attended them, and furnish the latter with immunity
from smallpox, which led to the discovery of vaccination. Horsepox
is also frequently mistaken for the exanthemata attending some forms
of venereal disease in horses.

Variola in the horse, while it is identical in principle, general
course, complications, and lesions with variola in other animals, is a
disease of the horse itself, and is not transmissible in the form of
variola to any other animal; nor is the variola of any other animal
transmissible to the horse. Cattle and men, if inoculated from a case
of horsepox, develop vaccinia, but vaccinia from the latter animals
is not so readily reinoculated into the horse with success. If it does
develop, it produces the original disease.

Causes. — The direct cause of horsepox is infection. A large num-
ber of predisposing causes favor the development of the disease, as
in the case of strangles, and this trouble, like almost all contagious
diseases, renders the animal which has had one attack immune. The
chief predisposing cause is young age. Old horses which have not
been affected are less apt to become infected when exposed than
younger ones. The exposure incident to shipment, through public
stables, cars, etc., acts as a predisposing cause, as in the other infec-
tious diseases. The period of final dentition is a time of the animal's
life which renders it peculiarly susceptible.

Dupaul states that the infection is transmissible through the at-
mosphere for several hundred yards. The more common means of
contagion is by direct contact or by means of fomites. Feed boxes
and bridles previously used by horses affected with variola are proba-
bly the most frequent carriers of the virus, and we find the lesions in
the majority of cases developed in the neighborhood of the lips and
nostrils. Coition is a frequent cause. A stallion suffering from this
disease may be the cause of a considerable epizootic, as he transmits
it to a number of brood mares and they in turn return to the farms
where they are surrounded by young animals to whom they convey
the contagion. The saddle and croup straps are frequent agents of
infection. The presence of a wound greatly favors the inoculation of
the disease, which is also sometimes carried by surgical instruments
or sponges. Trasbot recites a case in which a set of hobbles, which
had been used on an animal suffering from variola, were used on a
horse for a quittor operation and transmitted the disease, which
developed on the edges of the wound.

526 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

Symptoms. — There is a period of incubation, after an animal has
been exposed, of from five to eight days, during which there is no
appreciable alteration in the health. This period is shorter in sum-
mer than in winter. At the end of this time small nodes develop at
the point of inoculation and the animal becomes feverish. The horse
is dull and dejected, loses its appetite, and has a rough dry coat with
the hairs on end. There is moderate thirst. The respirations are
somewhat quickened and the pulse becomes rapid and full. The
body temperature is elevated, frequently reaching 104° or 105° F.
within thirty-six or forty-eight hours from the appearance of the
first symptoms.

The visible mucous membranes, especially the conjunctivae, are of a
bright rosy red. In the lymphatic, cold-blooded, and more common
horses these symptoms of fever are less marked; even with a com-
paratively high temperature the animal may retain its appetite and
even work comparatively well, but these cases, if worked and over-
heated, are apt -to develop serious complications.

At the end of from three and a half to four days the eruption
breaks out, the fever abates, and the general symptoms improve.
The eruption in severe cases may be generalized ; it may be confined
to the softer skin of the nose and lips, the genital organs, and the
inside of the thighs, or it may be localized in the neighborhood of a
wound or in the irritated skin of a pair of greasy heels. It consists
of a varying number of little nodes which, on a mucous membrane,
as in the nostrils or vagina, or on soft unpigTuented skin, appear red
and feel at first like shot under the epidermis. These nodes soften
and show a yellowish spot in the center when they become pustules.
The epidermis is dissolved and the matter escapes as a viscid fluid
at first citrine and later cloudy and j)urulent, which dries rapidly,
forming scabs ; if these fall off or are removed they leave a little shal-
low concave ulcer which heals in the course of five or six days. In the
softer skin if pigmented the cicatrices are white and frequently remain
so for about a year, when the pigment returns. The lips or genital
organs of a colored horse, if covered with a number of small white
spots about the size of a pea, will usually indicate that the animal has
been affected with the horsepox.

At times the j)ustules may become confluent and produce large
superficial serpentine ulcers on the membrane of the nostrils, around
the lips or eyelids, or on the borders of wounds and in greasy heels;
in this case the part becomes swollen, hot, painful, and is covered
with a profuse discharge of matter. In this form there is frequently
a secondary fever lasting for a day or two.

In severe cases there may be a suppurative adenitis, or inflamma-
tion of the lymphatic glands which are fed from the affected part.
If the eruption is around the nostrils and lips, the glands between

HORSEPOX. 527

the jaws (submaxillary) form abscesses as in a case of strangles; if
the eruption is in a pair of greasy heels abscesses may form in the
fold of the groin (inguinal). There may be so much tumefaction of
the nostrils as to produce difficulty in breathing.

C omiMcations. — A case of horsepox may be attended with various
complications of varying degrees of importance. Adenitis, or sup-
puration of the glands, has just been mentioned. Confluent eruptions
irritate the part and induce the animal to rub the inflamed part
against the manger or scratch it in other ways, and thus produce
troublesome ulcers, which may leave ugly scars. Irritation of the
mucous membrane of the nose causes severe coryza with purulent
discharge.

The eruption may occur in the throat or in the air tubes to the
lungs, develoj)ing an acute laryngitis or bronchitis. If the animal is
exposed to cold, or worked so as to engorge the lungs with blood at
the termination of the specific fever, just when the eruption is about
to localize, it may be determined to the lungs. In this case we have
a short, dry cough, labored breathing, the development of a secondary
fever of some gravity, and all of the external symptoms of a pneu-
monia. This pneumonia differs, however, from an ordinary pneu-
monia in the symptoms furnished by the examination of the lungs
themselves. In place of a large mass of the lung tissue being affected
the inflammation is disseminated in smaller spots over the entire
lung.

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of horsepox is to be based on the pres-
ence of a continuous fever, with rosy mucous membranes, for several
days, and the appearance of the characteristic eruption. If the
eruption is in the nasal cavities, marked by a considerable discharge
and attended by submaxillary abscesses, it may be confounded with
strangles. If the throat is affected it may be confounded with an
angina (laryngitis or pharyngitis), but in the latter -the local trouble
precedes or is concomitant with the fever, while in the former the
fever precedes the local trouble by several days. Variola may be
confounded with bronchitis or pneumonia if complicated with these
troubles and the eruption is absent from the exterior, but it is of little
moment, as the treatment for both will be much the same. When the
eruption is in the neighborhood of the genital organs this disease has
been mistaken for the dourine. In variola the eruption is a temporary
one ; the nodes and pustules are followed by shallow ulcers and rapid
cicatrization unless continued in the vagina or on the j)enis by the
rubbing of the walls and filth which accumulates ; there are apt to be
pustules at other parts of the body. In the venereal disease the local
trouble commences as a papule and breaks into an ulcer without hav-
ing formed a pustule. The ulcer has not the convex rosy appearance
of that of the less serious discharge ; the symptoms last for a longer

528 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

period, by which time others aid in differentiating thie two. In
ghinders the tubercle is hard, and, after breaking into an ulcer, the
indurated bottom remains, grayish or dirty white in color, ragged,
and exuding a viscous, oily discharge. There is no disposition to
suppuration of the neighboring glands. In variola the rosy shallow
ulcer and healthy pus, with the acutely tumefied glands, should not
be mistaken, at least after a day. I have seen acute glanders in mules
which required a day's delay to differentiate from strangles ; at that
time the farcy buds appeared.

Prognosis. — The average case of horsepox runs a course of dejec-
tion, loss of appetite, and more or less fever for about four days,
followed by a rapid convalescence, and leaves the animal as well and
as sound as before. If the eruption has been excessive or confluent,
the ulcerations may act as irritants and render the animal unfit for
use for several weeks. Laryngitis, pharyngitis, 'bronchitis, and pneu-
monia in this disease are not of gi'eater gravity than they are when
occurring from other causes. The spots denuded of pigment left
by the pustules on the lips and genitals may temporarily depreciate
the value of the animal to a slight degree.

Treatment. — As this is a disease unattended by alterations of the
blood itself, although a specific fever, and is of a sthenic type, active
remedies are admissible and indicated. The horse should be placed
on a low diet (little or no oats) — bran mashes, a moderate quantity
of good, sound hay, a few carrots or apples, which will act as laxa-
tives, and slop feed. Barley flour is more cooling for mashes than
bran or oatmeal. Water may be given as the animal desires it,
but it should not be cold ; if a half bucketful of water is kept in the
manger, the horse will take but a few swallows at a time. One-dram
doses of nitrate of potash or 1-ounce doses of sweet spirits of niter
are useful in the drinking water. If the fever is high, the anti-
pyretics are indicated : Sulphate of quinine in 1-dram doses ; iodide
of potash in 1-dram doses; infusion of pine tops, of juniper leaves,
of the aromatic herbs, or of English breakfast tea are useful in the
later stages. If complications of the air passages or lungs are
threatened, a large mustard poultice should be applied to the belly
and sides of the chest. Oxide of zinc ointment should be used on
confluent eruptions, and if the ulceration is excessive it may have to
be touched with caustic.

Great care must be taken to keep the animal protected from cold
drafts of air or other exposure. Blankets or sheets should be used
on the body and bandages on the legs. After convalescence is estab-
lished, nutritious food of easy digestion and walking exercise are all
that is needed, except perhaps a little Glauber's salts to prevent
constipation.

Prophylactic treatment. — When horsepox breaks out among a large

ANTHRAX. 529

number of horses, especially on a farm where there are a number of
colts, it ma.j be assumed that the greater majority will contract the
disease, and it is more economical that they should have it and be
through with it at once. If the weather is moderate, all the animals
which have not been affected can be inoculated, which will produce
the disease in a mild form, with the eruption at a point of election,
and render the danger of complication a minimum one. For inocula-
tion the discharge from the pustules of a mild case should be selected
and inoculated by scarification on the belly or the under surface of
the neck.

ANTHRAX.

[Synonyms: Carbuncle, splenic fever, splenic apoplexy, hraxy (in sheep),
etc.; sacer ignis, pusttda maligna, anthrax, Latin; cJiarhon, sang de rate,
French; miltshrand, German; carionc, carhonchio, fuoco de 8t. Antonio, Italian;
jaswa, siberskaji jaswa, Russian.]

Definition. — Anthrax is a severe and usually fatal contagious dis-
ease, characterized b}^ chills, great depression and stupor of the ani-
mal, and a profound alteration of the blood. It is caused by the
entrance into the animal's body of a bacterium, known as the Bacillus
anthracis, or its spores.

Practically all animals are susceptible to anthrax. The herbivora
are especially susceptible, in the following order : The sheep, the ox,
and the horse. The guinea pig, the hog, the rabbit, mice, and other
animals die quickly from its effects. Man, the dog, and other omniv-
ora and carnivora may be attacked by it in a constitutional form as
fatal as in the herbivora, but fortunately, in many cases, develop
from it only local trouble, followed by recovery.

Anthrax has been a scourge of the animals of the civilized world
since the first written history we have of any of their diseases. In
1709-1712 A. D. extensive outbreaks of anthrax occurred in Germany,
Hungary, and Poland. In the first half of the nineteenth century it
had become an extensively spread disease in Russia, Holland, and
England, and for the last century has been gradually spreading in
the Americas — more so in South America than here. In 1864, in the
five governments of Petersburg, Novgorod, Olonetz, Twer, and Jaros-
law, in Russia, over 10,000 horses and nearly 1,000 persons perished
from the disease.

Causes. — The causes of anthrax were for a long time attributed
entirely to climatic influence, soil, and atmospheric temperature, and
they are still recog-nized as predisposing factors in the development of
the disease, for it is usually found, especially when outbreaks over any
number of animals occur, in low, damp, marshy countries during the
warm seasons. It is more frequent in districts where marshy lands
dry out during the heat of summer and are then covered with light
H. Doc. 795, 59-2 34

530 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

rains. Decaying vegetable matter seems most favorable for nourish-
ing and preserving the virus.

The direct cause of anthrax is always infection of a previously
sound animal, either directly from a diseased animal or through
various media which contain excretions or the debris from the body of
a previously infected animal.

The specific virus of anthrax was first discovered by Davaine in
1851. He recognized in the blood of animals suffering from anthrax
microscopic bodies in the form of little rods. It was not, however,
till a quarter of a century later that Pasteur defined the exact nature
of the bacillus, the mode of its propagation, and its exact relationship
to anthrax as the sole cause of the disease. In the animal body the
bacilli have a tendency to accumulate in the spleen, liver, and else-
where, so that these organs are much more virulent than the muscles
or less vascular tissues. Wlien eliminated from the animal in the
excretions, or when exposed to outside influences by the death of the
animal and the disintegration of the tissues, the body of the rod is
destroyed and the spores only remain. These spores, which may be
called the seeds of the bacilli, retain their vitality for a long period ;
they resist ordinary putrefaction; they are unchanged by moisture;
and they are not affected by moderate heat. If scattered with the
debris of a dead animal on the surface of the ground, they may remain
around the roots of the grass in a pasture or may be washed to the
nearest low-lying ground or marsh. If buried in the body of an ani-
mal dead from anthrax, they may be washed deep into the ground, and
in later years (in one proven case 17 years) be brought to the surface
and infect other animals. They are frequently brought to the surface
of the earth, having been swallowed by earthworms, in the bodies of
which they have been found.

This accounts for the outbreaks at the time of the first rains after a
dry season. During the latter the earthworm goes deep in the ground
in search of moisture ; it finds the spore which has been washed there
in past years, swallows it, and afterwards brings it to the surface.
The virus is carried with the wool from infected sheep and remains in
it through the process of manufacture into cloth. The spores remain
in the hides of animals which have died of anthrax and retain their
vitality throughout months of soaking in the tanners' pits, the work-
ing of the harness maker or the cobbler, and after the oiling of the
completed leather. The dried spores in the dust from any of these
products may be carried by the atmosphere.

Infection of an animal takes place through inoculation or contact
of the bacillus or its spores w^ith an abraded surface or mucous mem-
brane on a sound animal. In an infected district horses may eat the
rich pasturage of spring and early summer with impunity, but when
grass becomes low they crop it close to the ground, pull up the roots

ANTHEAX. 531

around which the virus may be lodged, and under these conditions
the animals are more apt to have abrasions of the lips or tongue by
contact with dried stubble and the dirt on the roots, which favors the
introduction of the germs into the system. The virus may be intro-
duced with food and enter the blood-vessel system from the stomach
and intestines. If contained in the dust, dried hay, or on the parched
pasture of late summer, the virus may be inhaled and be absorbed
from the lining of the lungs. If contained in harness leather, it
needs but an abrasion of the skin, as the harness rubs it, to transfer
the spore from the leather to the circulation of the animal.

The writer saw a case of anthrax occur in a groom from the use of
a new horse-brush. The strap which passes over the back of the hand
inoculated an abrasion on the knuckle of the first finger, and in
twelve hours a " pustule " had formed and the arm had become
infected.

Symptoms. — The symptoms of anthrax usually develop with ex-
treme rapidity. The horse is dejected and falls into a state of pro-
found stupor, attended by great muscular weakness. The feeble,
indolent animal, if forced to move, drags its legs. There are severe
chills, agitation of the muscles, symptoms of vertigo, and at times
colicky pains. The mucous membranes turn a deep ocher or bluish
red color. The body temperature is rapidly elevated to 104° or
105° F. The breathing is increased to thirty or forty respirations in
the minute and the pulse is greatly accelerated, but while the arteries
are soft and almost imperceptible, the heart beats can be felt and
heard, violent and tumultuous. In some cases, when inoculation is
through the skin, large subcutaneous swellings appear; these may
involve a leg, a shoulder, one side of the body, or the neck or head.
The swelling is at first hot and painful, but afterwards it becomes
necrotic and sensation is lost. The symptoms last but two, three, or
four days at most, when the case usually terminates fatally. An
examination of the blood shows a dark fluid which will not clot, and
which remains black after exposure to the air. After death the
bodies putrefy rapidly and bloat up ; the tissues are filled with gases,
and a bloody foam exudes from the mouth, nostrils, and anus, and
frequently the mucous membranes of the rectum protrude from the
latter. The hairs detach from the skin. Congestion of all the organs
and tissues is found, with interstitial hemorrhages. The muscles are
friable and are covered with ecchymotic spots. This is especially
marked in the heart.

The black, uncoagulated, and incoagulable blood shows an iri-
descent scum on its surface, which is due to the fat of the animal dis-
solved by the ammonia produced by the decomposed tissues. The
serum oozes out of every tissue and contains broken-down blood,
which, when examined microscopically, is found to have the red

532 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

globules crenated and the leucocytes granular. A high power of the
microscope also reveals the bacteria in the shape of little rodlike
bodies of homogeneous texture with their brilliant spores.

The lymphatic ganglia are increased four, five, six, or ten times their
natural size, enlarged by the engorgement of blood. The spleen
shows nodulated black spots containing a muddy blood, which is
found teeming with the virus. This organ is much enlarged and is
quite friable. The mucous membranes of the intestines are congested
and reddish brown; the surface of the intestines is in many places
denuded of its lining membrane, showing fissures and hemorrhagic
spots. The liver has a cooked appearance ; the kidneys are congested
and friable ; the urine is red ; the pleura, lungs, and the meninges are
congested, and the bronchi of the lungs contain a bloody foam.

Treatment. — The treatment of anthrax has little in it to encourage
one. The curative treatment, for which almost every drug in the
pharmacopoeia has been used, is practically without avail.

The prophylactic treatment formerly consisted in the avoidance of
certain fields and marshes which were recognized as contaminated
during the months of August and Sejjtember and had been oc-
cupied the years in which the outbreaks usually occurred. It under-
went, however, a revolution after the discovery by Pasteur of the
possibility of a prophylactic inoculation or vaccination which granted
immunity from future attacks of the disease similar to that granted
by the recovery of an animal from an ordinary attack of the disease.

This treatment consists in the use of a vaccine which is made by the
artificial cultivation of the virus of anthrax in broth and in the treat-
ment of it by means of continued exposure to a high temperature for
a certain length of time, which weakens the virus to such an extent
that it is only capable of producing a very mild and not dangerous
attack of anthrax in the animal in which it is inoculated, and thus
protects the animal from inoculation of a stronger virus. The pro-
duction of this virus, which is carried on in some countries at the
expense of the government and is furnished at a small cost to the
farmers in regions where the disease prevails, in this country is made
in private laboratories only.

GLANDERS AND FARCY.

[Synonyms: Glanders, farcy, one form of nasal gleet; Malleus Jiumidus,
Equina nasalis, Equina apostematos, Latin; rots, rotskranJcheit, German; snot,
verroting, Dutch; moccio, ciamorro, Italian; muermo, Spanish; morve, farcin,
French.]

Be-finition. — Let it be understood at the outset that glanders and
farcy are one and the same disease, differing only in that the first
term is applied to the disease when the local lesions predominate in
the internal organs, especially in the nostrils, lungs, and air tubes,

•S

05 .'S

2 &

"A^;:./f>K.:;:

f.

^\

GLANDERS AND FARCY. 533

and that the second term is applied to it when the principal mani-
festation is an outbreak of the lesions on the exterior or skin of the
animal. The term glanders applies to the disease in both forms,
while the term farcy is limited to the visible appearance of external
trouble only; but in the latter case internal lesions always exist,
although they mxay not be evident.

Glanders is a contagious constitutional disease of the genus Equus
(the horse, ass, and mule), readily communicable to man, the dog,
the cat, the rabbit, and the guinea pig. It is transmitted with diiS-
culty to sheep and goats, and cattle seem to be entirel}^ immune. It
runs a variable course and usually produces the death of the animal
affected with it. It is characterized by the formation of neoplasms,
or nodules, of connective tissue, which degenerate into ulcers, from
Avhich exude a peculiar discharge. It is accompanied by a variable
amount of fever, according to the rapidity of its course. It is sub-
ject to various complications of the lymphatic glands, of the lungs,
of the testicles, of the internal organs, and of the subcutaneous con-
nective tissue.

History. — Glanders is one of the oldest diseases of which we have
definite knowledge in the history of medicine. Absyrtus, the Greek
veterinarian in the army of Constantino the Great, described this dis-
ease with considerable accuracy and recognized the contagiousness of
its character. Another Greek veterinarian, Vegetius Renatus, who
lived in the time of Theodosius (381 A. D.), described, under the
name of Malleus h-iimidus^ a disease of the horse characterized by a
nasal discharge and accompanied by superficial ulcers. He recog-
nized the contagious properties of the discharge of the external ulcers,
and recommended that all animals sick with the disease should bo
separated at once with the greatest care from the others, and should
be pastured in separate fields for fear the other animals should become
affected.

In 1682 Sollysel, the stable master of Louis XIV, published an
account of glanders and farcy, which he considered closelj^ related to
each other, although he did not recognize them as identical. He
admitted the existence of a virus which communicated the disease
from an infected animal to a sound one. He called special attention
to the feed troughs and water buckets as being the media of conta-
gion. He divided glanders into two forms — one malignant and con-
tagious and the other benign — and he stated that there was always
danger of infection.

Garsault, in 1746, said that " as this disease is communicated very
easily, and can infect in a very short time a prodigious number of
horses by means of the discharges which may be licked up, animals
infected with glanders should be destroyed."

Bourgelat, the founder of veterinary schools, in his " Elements of

534 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

Hippiatary," published in 1755, establishes glanders as a virulent
disease.

Extensive outbreaks of glanders are described as prevailing in the
great armies of continental Europe and England from time to time
during the periods of all the wars of the last few centuries.

Glanders was imported into America at the close of the eighteenth
century, and before the end of the first half of the last century had
spread to a considerable degree among the horses of the Middle and
immediately adjoining Southern States. This disease was unknown
in Mexico until carried there during the Mexican war by the badly
diseased horses of the United States Army. During the first half of
the last century a large body of veterinarians and medical men
protested against the contagious character of this disease, and pre-
vailed by their opinion to such an extent against the common opinion
that several of the governments of Europe undertook a series of ex-
periments to determine the right between the contesting parties.

At the veterinary school at Alfort, and at the farm of Lamirault
in France, several hundred horses which had passed examination as
sound had placed among them glandered horses under various condi-
tions. The results of these experiments proved conclusively the con-
tagious character of the disease.

In 1881 Professor Bouchard, of the faculty of medicine in Paris,
assisted by Drs. Capitan and Charrin, undertook a series of experi-
ments with matter taken from the farcy ulcer of a human being.
They afterwards continued their experiments with matter taken from
horses, and succeeded in showing in 1883 that glanders is caused by
a bacterium which is capable of propagation and reproduction of
others of its own kind if placed in the proper media. In 1882 the
specific germ of glanders was first discovered and described by Loef-
fler and Schuetz in Germany.

WTien we come to study the etiology of glanders, the difference of
susceptibility on the part of different species of animals, or even on
the part of individuals of the same species, and when we come to find
proof of the slow incubation and latent character of the disease as it
exists in certain individuals, we will understand how in a section of
country containing a number of glandered animals others can seem to
contract and develop the disease without having apparently been
exposed to contagion.

Causes. — The contagious nature of glanders, in no matter what
form it appears, being to-day definitely demonstrated, we can recog-
nize but one cause for all cases, and that is contagion by means of
the specific virus of the disease. The causative organism is known as
the Bacilhis rruillei.

In studying the writings of the older authors on glanders, and the
works of those authors who contested the contagious nature of the

GLANDERS AND FARCY. 535

disease, we find a large number of predisposing causes assigned as
factors in the development of the malady.

Wliile a virus from a case of glanders if inoculated into an animal
of the genus Equus will inevitably produce the disease, we find a vast
difference in the contagious activity of different cases of glanders.
We find a great variation in the manner and rapidity of the develop-
ment of the disease in different individuals and that the contagion is
much more apt to be carried to sound animals under certain circum-
stances than it is under others. Only certain species of animals are
susceptible of contracting the disease, and while some of these con-
tract it as a general constitutional malady, in others it only develops
as a local sore.

In acute glanders the contagion is found in its most virulent form,
as is shown by the inevitable infection of susceptible animals inocu-
lated with the disease, while the discharge from chronic semilatent
glanders and farcy may at times be inoculated with a negative result ;
again, in acute glanders, as we have a free discharge, a much greater
quantity of virus-containing matter is scattered in the neighborhood
of an infected horse to serve as a contagion to others than is found in
the small amount of discharge of the chronic cases.

The chances of contagion are much greater when sound horses,
asses, or mules are placed in the immediate neighborhood of glan-
dered horses, drink from the same bucket, stand in the next stall or
work in the same wagon, or are fed from feed boxes or mangers
which have been impregnated by the saliva and soiled by the dis-
charge of sick animals. Transmission occurs by direct contact of
the discharges of a glandered animal with the tissues of a sound one,
either on the exterior, Avhen swallowed mixed with food into the
digestive tract, or when dried and inhaled as dust.

The stable attendants serve as one of the most common carriers of
the virus. Dried or fresh discharges are collected from the infected
animal in cleaning, harnessing, feeding, and by means of the hands,
clothing, the teeth of the currycomb, the sponge, the bridle, and the
halter, and are thus carried to other animals.

An animal affected with chronic glanders in a latent form is moved
from one part of the stable to another, or works hitched with one
horse and then with another, and may be an active agent in the
spreading of the disease without the cause being recognized.

Glanders is found frequently in the most insidious forms, and we
recognize that it can exist without being apparent; that is, it may
affect a horse for a long period without showing any symptoms that
will allow even the most experienced veterinarian to make a diagnosis.
An old gray mare belonging to a tavern keeper was reserved for
family use with good care and light work for a period of eight years,
during which time other horses in the tavern stable were from time

536 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

to time affected with glanders without an apparent cause. The mare,
whose only trouble was an apparent attack of heaves, was sold to a
huckster who placed her at hard work. Want of feed and overwork
and exposure rapidly developed a case of acute glanders, from which
the animal died, and at the autops}^ were found the lesions of an acute
pneumonia of glanders grafted on chronic lesions, consisting of old
nodules which had undoubtedly existed for years.

In a case that once came under the care of the writer, a coach horse
was examined for soundness and passed as sound by a prominent
veterinarian, who a few months afterwards treated the horse for a
skin eruption from which it recovered. Twelve months afterwards
it came into the hands of the Avriter, hidebound, with a slight cough
and a slight eruption of the skin, which was attributed to clipping
and the rubbing of the harness, but which had nothing suspicious in
its character. The horse was placed on tonics and put to regular
light driving. In six weeks it developed a bronchitis without having
been specially exposed, and in two dixjs this trouble was followed by
a lobular pneumonia and the breaking of an abscess in the right lung.
Farcy buds developed on the surface of the body and the animal died.
The autopsy showed the existence of a number of old glanderous
nodules in the lungs which must have existed previous to purchase,
more than a year before.

Public watering troughs and the feed boxes of boarding stables and
the tavern stables of market towns are among the most common
recipients for the virus of glanders, which is most dangerous in its
fresh state, but cases have been known to be caused by feeding animals
in the box or stall in which glandered animals had stood several
months before, ^"^niile the discharge from a case of chronic glanders
is much less apt to contain many active bacilli than that from a case
of acute glanders, the former, if it infects an animal, will produce
the same disease as the latter. It may assume from the outset an
acute or chronic form, according to the susceptibility of the animal
infected, and this does not depend upon the character of the disease
from which the virus was derived.

The animals of the genus Equus — the horse, the ass, and the mule —
are those which are the most susceptible to contract glanders, but in
these we find a much greater receptivity in the ass and mule than we
do in the horse. In the ass and mule in almost all cases the period
of incubation is short and the disease develops in an acute form. We
find that the kind of horse infected has an influence on the character
of the disease; in full-blooded fat horses of a sanguinary tempera-
ment, the disease usually develops in an acute form, while in the
lymphatic, cold-blooded, more common race of horses the disease
usually assumes a chronic form. If the disease develops first in the

GLANDERS AND FARCY. 537

apt to bring on an acute attack, but when the disease is inoculated
into a debilitated and impoverished animal it is apt to start in the
latent form. Inoculation on the lips or the exterior of the animal
is frequently followed by an acute attack, while infection by ingestion
of the virus and inoculation by means of the digestive tract is often
followed by the trouble in the chronic latent form.

In the dog the inoculation of glanders may develop a constitutional
disease with all the symptoms which are found in the horse, but more
frequently the virus pullulates only at the point of inoculation, re-
maining for some time as a local sore, which may then heal, leaving
a perfectly sound animal; but while the local sore is continuing to
ulcerate, and sj)ecific virus exists in it, it may be the carrier of con-
tagion to other animals. In man we find a greater receptivity to
glanders than in the dog, and in many unfortunate cases the virus
spreads from the point of inoculation to the entire system and de-
stroys the wretched mortal by extensive ulcers of the face and hemor-
rhage or by destruction of the lung tissue; in other cases, however,
glanders may develop, as in the dog, in local form only, not infecting
the constitution and terminating in recovery, while the specific ulcer
by proper treatment is turned into a simple one. In the feline species
glanders is more destructive than in the dog. The point of inocula-
tion ulcerates rapidly and the entire system becomes infected.

Wliile a student the writer saw a lion in the service of Professor
Trasbot, at Alfort, which had contracted the disease by eating glan-
dered meat and died with the lung riddled with nodules. A litter of
kittens lapped the blood from the lungs of a glandered horse on which
an autopsy was being made, and in four days almost their entire faces,
including the nasal bones, were eaten away by rapid ulceration. Nod-
ules were found in the lungs. A pack of wolves in the Philadelphia
Zoological Garden died in ten days after being fed with the meat of a
glandered horse. The rabbit, guinea pig, and mice are especially sus-
ceptible to the inoculation of glanders, and these animals are conven-
ient witnesses and proofs of the existence of suspected cases of the
glanders in other animals by the results of successful inoculations.

The primary lesion in any form is a local point in which occurs
a rapid proliferation of the cell elements which make up the animal
tissue with formation of new connective tissue, with a crowding to-
gether of the elements until their own pressure on each other cuts off
the circulation and nutrition, and death takes place in them in the
form of ulceration or gangrene. Following this primary lesion we
have an extension of infection by means of the spread of the bacilli
into those tissues immediately surrounding the first infected spot,
which are most suitable for the development of simple inflammatory
phenomena or the specific virus. The primary symptoms are the re-

538 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

suit of specific reaction at the point of inoculation, but at a later time
the virus is carried by means of the blood vessels and lymphatic ves-
sels to other parts of the body and becomes lodged at different places
and develops in them; again, when the disease has existed in the
latent form in the lungs of the animal and the virus is wakened into
action from any cause, we have it carried to various parts of the body
and developing in the most susceptible regions or organs. The points
of development are most frequently determined by the activity of the
circulation and the effects of exterior irritants. For example, if a
horse which has been so slightly affected with the virus of glanders
that no symptoms are visible is exposed to cold, rain, or sleet, or by
the rubbing of the harness on the body and the irritation of mud on
the legs, the disease is apt to develop on the exterior in the form of
farcy, while a full-blooded horse which is employed at speed and has
its lungs and respiratory tract gorged with blood from the extreme use
of these organs will develop glanders as the local manifestation of the
disease in the respiratory tract.

The previous reference to the existence of glanders under the two
forms more commonly differentiated as glanders and as farcy, and
our reference to the various conditions in which it may exist as
acute, chronic, and latent, show that the disease may assume several
different phases. Without losing sight for a moment of the fact that
all of these varied conditions are identical in their origin and in their
essence, for convenience of study we may divide glanders into three
classes — chronic farcy, chronic glanders, and acute glanders with or
without farcy.

CHRONIC FARCY.

Symptoms. — In farcy the symptoms commence by formation of
little nodes on the under surface of the skin, which rapidly infringe
on the tissues of the skin itself. These nodes, which are known as
farcy " buds " and farcy " buttons," are from the size of a bullet to
the size of a walnut. They are hot, sensitive to the touch, at first
elastic and afterwards become soft; the tissue is destroyed, and in-
fringing on the substance of the skin the disease produces an, ulcer,
which is known as a chancre. This ulcer is irregular in shape, with
ragged edges which overhang the sore; it has a gray, dirty bottom
and the discharge is sometimes thin and sometimes purulent ; in either
case it is mixed with a viscous, sticky, yellowish material like the
white of an egg in consistency and like olive oil in appearance. The
discharge is almost diagnostic; it resembles somewhat the discharge
which we have in greasy heels and in certain attacks of lymphangitis,
but to the expert the specific discharge is characteristic. The dis-
charge accumulates on the hair surrounding the ulcer and over its
surface and dries, forming scabs which become thicker by successive
deposits on the under surface until they fall off, to be replaced by

CHRONIC FARCY. 539

others of the same kind; and the excess of discharge may drop on
the hairs below and form similar brownish yellow crusts. The farcy
ulcers may retain their specific form for a considerable time — days
or even weeks — but eventually the discharge becomes purulent in char-
acter and assumes the appearance of healthy matter. The surface
of the gangrenous bottom of the ulcer is replaced by rosy granula-
tions, the ragged edges are beveled off, and the chancre is turned
into a simple ulcer which rapidly heals.

The farcy buttons occur most frequently on the sides of the lips,
the sides of the neck, the lower part of the shoulders, the inside of
the thighs, or the outside of the legs, but may occur on any part of
the body.

We have next an irritation of the lymphatic vessels in the neigh-
borhood of the chancres. Those become swollen and then indurated
and appear like great ridges underneath the skin; they are hot to
the touch and sensitive. The cords may remain for a considerable
time and then gradually disappear, or they may ulcerate like a farcy
bud itself, forming elongated, irregular, serpentine ulcers with a
characteristic, dirty, gray bottom and ragged edges, and pour out
a viscous, oily discharge like the chancres themselves.

The essential symptoms of farcy are, as above described, the button,
the chancre, the cord, and the discharge. We have in addition to
these symptoms a certain number of accessory symptoms, which,
while not diagnostic in themselves, are of great service in aiding the
diagnosis in cases where the eruption takes place in small quantities,
and when the ulcers are not characteristic.

Epistaxis, or bleeding from the nose without previous work or
other apparent cause, is one of the frequent concomitant symptoms
in glanders, and such a hemorrhage from the nostrils should always
be regarded with suspicion. The animal with farcy frequently de-
velops a cough, resembling much that which we find in heaves — a
short, dry, aborted, hacking cough, with little or no discharge from
the nostrils. With this we find an irregular movement of the flanks,
and on auscultation of the lungs we find sibilant or at times a few
mucous rales. Another common symptom is a sudden swelling of one
of the hind legs; it is found suddenly swollen in the region of the
cannon, the enlargement extending below to the pastern and above as
high as the stifle. This swelling is hot and painful to the touch, and
renders the animal stiff and lame. On pressure with the finger the
swelling can be indented, but the pits so formed soon fill up again on
removal of the pressure. In severe cases we may have ulceration of
the skin, and serum pours out from the surface, resembling the oozing
which we have after a blister or in a case of gi-ease. This swelling
is not to be confounded with the stocking in lymphatic horses or the
edema which we have in chronic heart or in kidney trouble, as

540 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE.

in the last the swelling is cool and not painful and the pitting on
pressure remains for sometime after the latter is withdrawn. It
is not to be confounded with greasy heels. In these the disease com-
mences in the neighborhood of the pastern and gradually extends
up the leg, rarely passing beyond the neighborhood of the hock. The
swollen leg in glanders almost invariably swells for the entire length
in a single night or within a very short period. Wlien greasy heels
are complicated by lymphangitis we have a condition very much
resembling that of farcy. The swelled leg in farcy is frequently fol-
lowed by an outbreak of farcy buttons and ulcers over its surface.
In the entire horse the testicles are frequently swollen and hot and
sensitive to the touch, but they have no tendency to suppuration.
The acute inflammation is rapidly followed by the specific induration,
which corresponds to the local lesions in other parts of the body.

Chronic farcy in the ass and mule is an excessively rare condition,
but sometimes occurs.

CHRONIC GLANDERS.

Symptoms. — In chronic glanders we find the same train of inflam-
matory phenomena, varying in appearance from those of chronic
farcy only by the difference of the tissues in which they are located.
In chronic glanders there is first the nodule, from the size of a shot
to that of a small pea, which forms in the mucous membranes of the
respiratory tract. This may be just inside of the wings of the nos-
trils or on the septum which divides the one nasal cavity from the
other and be easily detected, or it may be higher in the nasal cavities
on the turbinated bones, or it may form in the larynx itself or on the
surface of the trachea or deep in the lungs.

The nodules, which are first red and hard and consist of new con-
nective tissue, soon soften and become yellow ; the yellow spots break
and we have a small ulcer the size of the preceding nodule, which has
a gray, dirty bottom and ragged edges and is known as a chancre.
This ulcer pours from its surface a viscous, oily discharge similar
to that which we have seen in the farcy ulcer. The irritation of the
discharge may ulcerate the lining mucous membrane of the nose,
causing serpentine gutters with bottoms resembling those of the
chancres themselves. If the nodules have formed in large numbers,
we may have them causing an acute inflammation of the Schneiderian
membrane, with a catarrhal discharge which may mark the specific
discharge, or that which comes from the ulcers and resembles the
discharge of strangles or simple inflammatory diseases.

The eruption of the ulcers and discharge soon cause an irritation
of the neighboring lymphatics ; and in the intermaxillary space, deep
inside of the jaws, we find an enlargement of the glands, which for
the first few days may seem soft and edematous, but which rapidly
becomes confined to the glands, these being from the size of an

GLANDERS. 541

almond to that of a small bunch of berries, exceedingly hard and
nodulated. This enlargement of the glands is found high up on the
inside of the jaws, firmly adherent to the base of the tongue. It is
not to be confounded with the puffy, edematous swelling, which is
not separated from the skin and subcutaneous connective tissues
found in strangles, in laryngitis, and in other simple inflammatory
troubles.

These glands bear a great resemblance to the hard, indurated glands
which we find in connection v/ith the collection of pus in the sinuses ;
but in the latter disease the glands have not the extreme nodulated feel
which they have in glanders. With the glands we find indurated
cords, feeling like balls of tangled wire or twine, fastening the glands
together.

The essential symptoms of glanders are the nodule, the chancre,
the glands, and the discharge. With the development of the nodules
in the respiratory tract, according to their number and the amount
of eruption which they cause, we may find a cough which resembles
that of a coryza, a laryngitis, a bronchitis, or a broncho-pneumonia,
according to the location of the lesions. In chronic glanders we
find the same accessory symptoms that occur in chronic farcy, the
hemorrhage of the nose, the swelling of the legs, the chronic cough,
and, in the entire horse, the swelling of the testicles.

On healing, the chancres on the mucous membranes leave small,
whitish, star-shaped scars, hard and indurated to the touch, and which
remain for almost an indefinite time. The chancres heal and the
other local symptoms disappear, with the exception of the enlarge-
ment of the glands, and we find these so diminished in size that they
are scarcely perceptible on examination. During the subacute at-
tacks, with a minimum quantity of local troubles, in chronic glanders
and in chronic farcy the animal rarely shows any amount of fever,
but does have a general depraved appearance; it loses flesh and be-
comes hidebound; the skin becomes dry and the hairs stand on end.
There is a cachexia, however, which resembles gi-eatly that of any
chronic, organic trouble, but is not diagnostic, although it has in it
certain appearances and conditions which often render the animal sus-
picious to the eye of the expert veterinarian, while without the pres-
ence of local lesions he would be unable to state on what he has based
his opinion.

ACUTE GLANDERS.

Symptoms. — In the acute form of glanders we find the symp-
toms which we have just studied in chronic farcy and in chronic glan-
ders m a more acute and aggravated form. There is a rapid outbreak
of nodules in the respiratory tract which rapidly degenerate into
chancres and pour out a considerable discharge from the nostrils.
There is a cough of more or less severity according to the amount and

542 DISEASES OP THE HOESE.

site of the local eruption. Over the surface of the body swellings
occur which are rapidly followed by farcy buttons, which break into
ulcers; we find the indurated cords and enlargement of the lym-
phatics.

Bleeding from the nose, sudden swelling of one of the hind legs,
and the swelling of the testicles are apt to precede an acute eruption
of glanders. As the symptoms become more marked the animal has
difficulty of respiration, the flanks heave, the respiration becomes
rapid, the pulse becomes quickened, and the temperature becomes
elevated to 103°, 104°, or 105° F.

With the other symptoms of an acute fever the general appearance
and station of the animal is that of one suffering from an acute pneu-
monia, but upon examination, while we may find sibilant and mucous
rales over the side of the chest, and may possibly hear tubular mur-
murs at the base of the neck over the trachea, we fail to find the tubu-
lar murmur or the large area of dullness on percussion over the sides
of the chest which belongs to simple pneumonia.

Wliere there is doubt as to the diagnosis, the mallein, the inoculation
test or the complement-fixation test may be employed. The mallein
test is made by injecting mallein (a sterilized extract from a culture
of glanders bacilli) beneath the skin. If the horse has glanders there
results a febrile reaction and a swelling at the point of injection. If
the horse does not have glanders the mallein has no effect or, at most,
it produces a slight swelling only at the point of injection. The
inoculation test consists in the inoculation of a susceptible animal
(usually a guinea pig) with some of the suspected discharge from
the nose or a farcy ulcer. If the material is properly used, and if it
contains bacilli of glanders, the experimental animal will develop the
disease. Neither of these tests should be put into use except by a
competent veterinarian. The complement-fixation test is a highly
specialized laboratory test and can only be can-ied out by one versed in
laboratory technique^ ( See Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 136. )

The post-mortem examination of the lungs shows that the pneu-
monia of glanders is a lobular, V -shaped pneumonia scattered through
the lungs and caused by the specific inflammatory process taking
place at the divergence of the smaller air tubes of the lungs. In some
cases of acute glanders the formation of nodules may so irritate the
mucous membrane of the respiratory tract and cause such a profuse
discharge of mucopurulent or purulent matter that the specific char-
acter of the original discharge is entirely masked. In this case, too,
the submaxillary space may for a few days so swell as to resemble the
edematous inflamed glands of strangles, equine variola, or laryngitis.
This condition is especially apt to be marked in an acute outbreak of •
glanders in a drove of mules.

Cases of chronic farcy and glanders, if not destroyed, may live in a
depraved condition until the animal dies from general emaciation and
anemia, but in the majority of cases, from some sudden exposure to

GLANDEKS. 543

cold, it develops an acute pneumonia or other simple inflammatory
trouble which starts up the latent disease and the animal has acute
glanders.

In the ass, mule, and plethoric horses acute glanders usually termi-
nates by lobular pneumonia. In other cases the general symptoms
maj^ subside. The symptoms of pneumonia gradually disappear, the
temperature lowers, the pulse becomes slower, the ulcers heal, leaving
small indurated cicatrices, and the animal may return to apparent
health, or may at least be able to do a small amount of work with but
a few symptoms of the disease remaining in a chronic form. During
the attack of acute glanders the inflammation of the nasal cavities
frequently spreads into the sinuses or air cells, which are found in the
forehead and in front of the eyes on either side of the face, and cause
abscesses of these cavities, which may remain as the only visible
symptom of the disease. An animal which has recovered from a case
of acute glanders, like the animals which are affected by chronic
glanders and chronic farcy, are apt to be affected with emphysema of
the lungs or the heaves, and to have a chronic cough. In this condi-
tion they may continue for a long period, serving as dangerous sources
of contagion, the more so because the slight amount of discharge does
not serve as a warning to the owner or driver as profuse discharge
does in the more acute cases.

At the post-mortem examination of an animal which has been de-
stroyed or has died of glanders we find evidences of the various
lesions which we have studied in the symptoms. In addition to this,
we find nodules similar to those which we have seen on the exterior
throughout the various organs of the body. Nodules may be found
in the liver, in the spleen, and in the kidneys. We may find inflam-
mation of the periosteum of the bones, and we have excessive altera-
tions in the marrow in the interior of the bones themselves. Both of
these conditions during the life of the animal may have been the cause
of the lamenesses which were difficult to diagnose.

In one case which came under the observation of the writer, a lame
horse was destroyed and found to have a large abscess of the bone of
the arm, with old nodules of the lungs. AVhen an animal has died
immediately after an attack of a primary acute case of glanders, we
find small V-shaped spots of acute pneumonia in the lungs. If the
animal has made an apparent recovery from acute glanders, and in
cases of chronic farcy and chronic glanders, no matter how few the
external and visible symptoms may have been, there is a deposit of
nodules — small, hard, indurated nodes — of new connective tissue to be
found in the lungs. 'When these have existed for some time we may
find a deposit of lime salts in them. These indurated nodules retain
the virus and their power to give out contagion for almost an indefi-
nite time, and predispose to the causes which we have studied as the

544 " DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

common factors in developing a chronic case into an acute case; that
is, an inflammatory process wakens up their vitality and produces a
reinfection of the entire animal. The blood of an animal suffering
from chronic glanders and farcy is not virulent and is unaltered, but
during the attack of acute glanders, while the animal has fever, the
blood becomes virulent and remains so for a few days.

Treatment. — Almost the entire list of drugs in the pharmacopoeia
has been tested in the treatment of glanders. Good hygienic sur-
roundings, good food, with alteratives and tonics, frequently amelio-
rate the symptoms, and often do so to such an extent that the animal
would pass the examination of any expert as a perfectly sound ani-
mal. But while in this case the number of nodules of the lungs,
which are invariably there, may be so few as not to cause sufficient
disturbance in the respiration as to attract the attention of the exam-
iner, they exist, and Avill remain there almost indefinitely, with the
constant possibility of a return of acute symptoms.

It is probable that some horses may recover from glanders if the
infection is slight, but it will not yet do to depend upon this except-
ing under the most stringent veterinary supervision. With good
care, good food, and good surroundings and little work, an animal
affected with glanders may live for months or even years in an ap-
parent state of perfect health, but with the first deprivation of food,
with a few days of severe hard work, with exposure to cold or with
the attack of a simple fever or inflammatory trouble from other
causes, the latent seeds of the disease break out and develop the
trouble again in an acute form.

In several celebrated cases horses which have been affected with
glanders have been known to work for years and die from other
causes without ever having had the return of symptoms ; but allow-
ing that these cases may occur, they are so few and far between, and
the danger of infection of glanders to other horses and to the stable
attendants is so great, that no animal which has once been affected
with the disease should be allowed to live unless repeated mallein
tests have shown him to have become free from taint of glanders.

In all civilized countries, with the exception of some of the States
in the United States, the laws are most stringent regarding the
prompt declaration on the part of the owner and attending veteri-
narian at the first suspicion of a case of glanders, and they allow
indemnity for the animal. When this is done, in all cases the animal
is destroyed and the articles with which it has been in contact are
thoroughly disinfected. "^Vlien the attendants have attempted to
hide the presence of the disease in a community, punishment is meted
to the owner, attending veterinarian, or other responsible parties.
Several States have passed excellent laws in regard to glanders, but
these laws are not always carried out with the rigidity with which
they should be.

MYCOTIC LYMPHANGITIS. 545

MYCOTIC LYMPHANGITIS."

By John R. Mohler, V. M. D.,
Chief of the Pathological Division, Bureau of Animal Industry.

This disease has been known as epizootic lymphangitis, otherwise
pseudo-farcy, or Japanese farcy; it is a chronic contagious disease,
particularly of equines, caused by a specific organism, the Saccharo-
myces farcimin-osiis, and characterized by a suppurative inflammation
of the subcutaneous lymph vessels and the neighboring lymph glands.
Owing to the fact that this affection does not spread as an epizootic
and that its causal factor is a yeastlike fungus, the name mycotic
instead of epizootic lymphangitis is suggested. This disease was first
described by Italian and French veterinarians, and the specific organ-
ism was discovered by Eivolta in 1873. The presence of the disease
in the United States was first observed by Pearson in Penns3dvania in
1907, although it is probable that it has existed in various parts of
this country for many j^ears. More recently its presence was definitely
established in Ohio, Iowa, California, and North Dakota, and there is
a probability of its existence in Indiana and several Western States.
The disease is also present in the Philippine Islands, Hawaiian
Islands, and Porto Kico.

Bactenology. — The Saccharomyces farciminosus forms slightly
ovoid bodies, 3 to 5 microns long and 2.4 to 3.6 microns broad, which
are somewhat pointed toward the poles and have a sharp double con-
tour. They have more or less of a homogeneous content and grow by
budding. This characteristic can be especially well observed in old
growths on culture media. Their staining with the ordinary stains
is quite unsatisfactory ; they may, however, be readily recognized in
fresh smear preparations or in the hanging drop of a small quantity
of the suspected pus, where the above-described bodies can be dis-
tinctly noticed.

A satisfactory method of staining the organism is the Claudius
method, which is as follows:

1. Stain with 1 per cent aqueous solution of methyl violet for two
minutes.

2. Wash in water.

3. Place in a half saturated solution of picric acid for one to two
minutes.

4. Decolorize with chloroform or clove oil.

5. Treat with xylol.

6. Mount in Canada balsam.

« From the Twenty-fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry
(1908).

H. Doc. 795, 59-2 35

546 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

The organisms grow very slowly in the various culture media. It
requires about ten days before vegetation is noticed on agar in the
form of grayish-white granules, which gradually grow to larger
colonies, appearing considerably elevated and having a wrinkled
surface. They also grow in bouillon, in which a white, flaky deposit
makes its appearance after fifteen or eighteen days. In taking cul-
tures it is advisable to open a fluctuating abscess, over which the skin
should be shaved and well cleaned with bichlorid solution and alcohol.
The abscess should be opened with a sterilized scalpel, and culture
media may then be inoculated in the usual way. In case of a mixed
infection, the organism may be isolated by plating.

The period of incubation varies greatly, extending from three
weeks to four months, or even longer. In artificial inoculations with
pus through wounds in the skin, inflammation and swelling of the
lymph vessels may be noticed in twenty to sixty days, and these ves-
sels show in their course a development of hard nodules, from which
abscesses form.

The natural infection is without doubt caused through superficial
wounds, such as galls, barbed-wire cuts, or through various stable
utensils, harness, bandages, insects, etc. Solipeds are mostly sus-
ceptible, but cattle may also be infected.

Symptoms. — The inflammation of the lymph vessels is usually first
observed on the extremities, especially on one or both hind legs; it
may also appear on the forelegs, shoulder, or neck, and more rarely
on the rump, udder, and scrotum. The lesions, as a rule, develop in
the tissue adjacent to the place of inoculation. In the early stages of
the disease the lymph vessels appear very hard and thickened, and
along their course hard nodules develop, ranging in size from a pea
to a hen's Qgg. Later these nodules soften, burst spontaneously, and
discharge a thick, yellowish pus. The surface of the resulting ulcers
or abscess cavities soon fills up with exuberant granulation which
protrudes beyond the surface of the skin, giving a fungoid appearance.
The affected extremities are considerably enlarged, similar to cases
of simple lymphangitis. In rare cases the mucous membrane of the
nostrils may also become affected, showing yellowish flat elevations
and ulcerations, and these may extend by metastasis to internal organs.
In cases where the mucous membrane is affected, the submaxillary
lymph gland may also become enlarged and suppurate.

The constitutional symptoms accompanying this disease are not
very marked or may be altogether absent. There is usually only a
very slight fever, which seldom runs over 102° F. The appetite is
not impaired except in the advanced cases.

Lesions. — The anatomical changes are most marked in the skin and
the subcutaneous tissues. They may become 2 to 3 inches thick and

RABIES. 547

US-tissue formation, due to the inflam-
mation present. On the baconlike cut surface suppurative areas and
granulating sores may be noticed of various sizes, also enlarged
lymph vessels filled with clotted lymph mixed with pus. The neigh-
boring lymph glands are usually enlarged and frequently contain
suppurating foci. Rarely the internal organs may show metastatic
abscesses.

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis is based on the characteristic appear-
ance of the ulcerations, which show exuberant granulation of a bright
red color, inverted edges, and a thick, creamy, glutinous discharge.
These manifestations differentiate the disease from glanders, in which
the ulcers are craterlike, do contain exuberent granulations, and the
discharge is of a viscous, oily character. The submaxillary and other
nodes as well as the corded lymphatics in glanders are more firmly at-
tached to the adjacent tissues, and are therefore less movable. In
some chronic cases of mycotic lymphangitis, however, the lesions
may closely resemble those of farcy, and in these cases the microscop-
ical examination of the pus will disclose the nature of the affection.
In the pus the saccharomyces can be easily seen in the unstained speci-
men and is recognized by its size, shape, and highly refractory double
outline. Furthermore, the injection of mallein in cases of mycotic
lymphangitis will be attended with negative results.

Treatment. — Treatment consists at the onset of the disease in entire
extirpation of the nodules, lymph vessels, and neighboring lymph
glands in case the lesions are localized. In cases Avhere the nodules
have formed abscesses, their opening is recommended, followed by the
application of the actual cautery or a 1 to 250 solution of bichlorid of
mercury. It must be borne in mind that the organism is highly re-
sistant to almost every antiseptic, and the best results will be ob-
tained from the application of a solution of a strong antiseptic fol-
lowing the opening of the lesions.

In the most favorable cases, recovery results in from five to seven
weeks ; as a rule, however, it requires several months.

In order to prevent the spreading of the disease the affected animals
should be isolated, the products of the disease should be destroyed,
and the stable should be disinfected with very strong liquid dis-
infectants in consideration of the great resistance of the causative
organism.

RABIES, HYDROPHOBIA, OR MADNESS.

Rabies is a contagious disease, which is usually transmitted by a
bite and by the introduction of a virus contained in the saliva of an
affected animal. It may, however, be transmitted in other ways. It
is characterized by symptoms of aberration of the nervous system,
and invariably terminates fatally. It is accompanied by lesions, in-

548 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

flanimation, and degeneration in the central nervous system. It is a
disease that is most common in the dog, but is transmitted to the
horse, either from dogs or from any other animal affected with it.
(See also remarks on page 222.) As a disease of the horse it is in-
variably the result of the bite of a rabid animal, usually a dog.

Perhaps no disease in medicine has been the object of more con-
troversy than rabies. Certain medical men of prominence have
even doubted the existence of the disease. Many medical men have
claimed for it a spontaneous origin. The experience, however, of
ages has shown that contagion can be proved in the great majority of
cases, and, by analogy with other contagious diseases, we may only
believe that the development of one case requires the preexistence of
a case from which the virus has been transmitted. Pasteur has
further added to our knowledge of. the disease by showing that a
virus capable of cultivation exists in the nervous system, especially
in the lower part of the brain (medulla oblongata) and in the ante-
rior part of the spinal column. Pasteur has further shown that
that portion of the nervous system which contains the virus, the
exact nature of which has not yet been demonstrated, will retain it
for a very long time if kept at a very low temperature or if left sur-
rounded by carbonic acid ; but if the nerve matter, which is virulent
at first, is exposed to the air and is kept from putrefaction by sub-
stances which will absorb the surrounding moisture, it will gradualh^
lose its virulence and become inoffensive in about fifteen days. He
has further shown that the action of a weak virus on an animal will
prevent the development of a stronger virus, and from this he has
formulated his method of prophylactic treatment. This treatment
consists in the successive inoculation of portions of the nerve matter
containing the virus from a rabid animal which has been exf)osed
to the atmosphere for thirteen days, ten days, seven days, and four
days, until the virulent matter which will produce rabies in any
unprotected animal can be inoculated with impunity. A curious
result of the experiments of Pasteur is that an animal which has
first been inoculated with a virus of full strength can be protected
by subsequent inoculations of attenuated virus repeated in doses of
increasing strength.

Innumerable attempts have been made to discover the causative
agent, and investigators have announced the finding of many of the
lower forms of animal and vegetable life as the pathogenic factor.
Among the recently described causes, certain protozoanlike bodies,
found in 1903 by Negri in the ganglionic cells, and termed Negri
bodies, are of a very suggestive nature. Negri claims that these
bodies are not only specific for rabies, but that they are protozoa and
the cause of the disease. His work has been corroborated by investi-

RABIES. 549

gators in all parts of the scientific world. An examination of the
vitality of Negri bodies will show a striking resemblance to the
vitality of an emulsion of the virulent tissue. Thus, Negri bodies
have been found to be quite resistant to external agencies, such as
putrefaction, drying, etc., and are about the last portion of the nerve
cell to survive the advance of decomposition. They are also found in
over 96 per cent of the cases of rabies examined, but have not been
proved to exist in other diseases.

Valenti states, a« his strongest evidence of the protozoan nature of
the bodies, that the virus of rabies is neutralized in test tubes by
quinin, while no other alkaloid has this property. As a result of the
work performed in the New York City board of health laboratory,
Park claims that Negri bodies are found in animals before the begin-
ning of visible symptoms, and evidence is given that they may be
found early enough to account for the infectiousness of the central
nervous system. These bodies are now almost universally considered
as diagnostic of rabies, and in the pathological laboratory of the
Bureau of Animal Industry their detection in the nerve cells of the
brain suffices for a diagnosis of rabies without animal inoculations.
In case these granular bodies are not found in a suspected animal, the
plexiform ganglion is next examined, and should negative results still
be obtained, the inoculation of rabbits is then made as a last resort.
It is indeed rare that positive results are obtained from the latter
method after the first two methods have been negative, but it has
occurred occasionally in cases where the animal had been killed in
the early stages of the disease.

Symptoms. — From the moment of inoculation by the bite of a rabid
dog or other rabid animal or by other means, a variable time elapses
before the development of any symptoms. This time may be eight
days or it may be several months; it is usually about four weeks.
The first symptom is an irritation of the original wound. This
wound, which may have healed completely, commences to itch until
the horse rubs or bites it into a new sore. The horse then becomes
irritable and vicious. It is especially susceptible to moving objects;
excessive light, noises, the entrance of an attendant, or any other dis-
turbance will cause the patient to be on the defensive. It apparently
sees imaginary objects; the slightest noise is exaggerated into threat-
ening violence; the approach of an attendant or another animal,
especially a dog, is interpreted as an assault and the horse will strike
and bite. The violence on the part of the rabid horse is not for a
moment to be confounded with the fury of the same animal suffering
from meningitis or any other trouble of the brain. But in rabies
there is a volition, a premeditated method, in the attacks which the
animal will make, which is not found in the other diseases. Between

550 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

the attacks of fury the animal may become calm for a variable period.
The writer attended a case in which, after a violent attack of an hour,
the horse was sufficiently calm to be walked 10 miles and only
developed violence again an hour after being placed in the new stable.
In the period of fury the horse will bite at the reopened original
wound ; it will rear and attempt to break its halter and fastenings ; it
will bite at the woodwork and surrounding objects in the stable. If
the animal lives long enough it shows paralytic symptoms and falls to
the ground, unable to use two or more of its extremities, but in the
majority of cases, in its excesses of violence, it does physical injury to
itself. It breaks its jaws in biting at the manger or fractures other
bones in throwing itself on the ground and dies of hemorrhage or
internal injuries. At times throughout the course of the disease there
is an excessive sensibility of the skin which, if irritated by the touch,
will bring on attacks of violence. The animal may have appetite and
desire water throughout the course of the disease, but on attempting
to swallow has a spasm of the throat, which renders the act impossible.
This latter condition, which is common in all rabid animals, has given
the disease the name of hydrophobia (fear of water).

In a case under the care of the writer a horse, four weeks after
being bitten on the forearm by a rabid dog, developed local irritation
in the healed wound and tore it with its teeth into a large ulcer. This
was healed by local treatment in ten days, and the horse was kept
under surveillance for over a month. On the advice of another prac-
titioner the horse was taken home and put to work, and within three
days it developed violent symptoms and had to be destroyed.

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of rabies in the horse is to be made from
the various brain troubles to which the animal is subject; first by the
history of a previous bite of a rabid animal or inoculation by other
means; second, by the evident volition and consciousness on the part
of the animal in its attacks, offensive and defensive, on persons, ani-
mals, or other disturbing surroundings. The irritation and reopen-
ing of the original wound or point of inoculation is a valuable factor
in diagnosis. Diagnosis after death may be made by microscopic ex-
amination for Negri bodies or by the inoculation of rabbits, as already
mentioned.

Recovery from rabies may be considered as a question of the cor-
rectness of the original diagnosis. Rabies is always fatal.

Treatment. — No remedial treatment has ever been successful. All
of the anodynes and anesthetics, opium, belladonna, bromid of pot-
ash, ether, chloroform, etc., have been used without avail. The
prophylactic treatment of successive inoculations is being used on
human beings, and has experimentally proved efficacious in dogs, but
would be impracticable in the horse unless the conditions were quite
exceptional.

INFECTIOUS ANEMIA OR SWAMP FEVER. 551

INFECTIOUS ANEMIA OR SWAMP FEVER."

By John R. Mohleb, V. M. D.,
Chief of the Pathological Division, Bureau of Aninml Industry.

Infectious anemia of horses, known also by a number of other
names, as swamp fever, American surra, malarial fever, typhoid fever
of horses, the unknown disease, no-name disease, plains paralysis, and
pernicious anemia, has recently been the subject of much investiga-
tion. The cause of the disease has now been definitely determined as
an invisible virus, which is capable of passing through the pores of
the finest porcelain filters, like the infection of foot-and-mouth dis-
ease, rinderpest, hog cholera, and similar diseases. The disease is
most prevalent in low-lying and badly drained sections of the coun-
try, although it has been found in altitudes as high as 7,500 feet on
marshy pastures during wet seasons. Therefore proper drainage of
infected pastures is indicated as a preventive. It is also more preva-
lent during wet years than in dry seasons. It usually makes its ap-
pearance in June and increases in frequency until October, although
the chronic cases may be seen in the winter, having been contracted
during the warm season.

Cause. — It has been conclusively proven that infectious anemia is
produced by an invisible, filterable organism which is transmissible
to horses, mules, and asses by subcutaneous inoculation of blood se-
rum. The virus which is present in the blood may be transmitted to
a number of equines in a series of inoculations by injecting either the
whole blood, the defibrinated blood, or the blood serum which has
been passed through a fine Pasteur filter, thus eliminating all the
visible forms of organismal life, including bacteria, trypanosoma,
piroplasma, etc. This virus has also been found to be active in the
carcass of an affected animal twenty-four hours after death.

Following the injection of the infectious principle there is a period
of incubation which may extend from ten days to one and one-half
months, at the end of which time the onset of the disease is mani-
fested by a rise of temperature. If uncomplicated, the infection runs
a chronic course, terminating in death in from two months to one
and one-half years, or even longer. The probability of the ^drus
being spread by an intermediate host, such as flies, mosquitoes, inter-
nal parasites, etc., is now receiving careful investigation.

From exf)eriments already conducted it appears that this disease,
formerly supposed to be confined to Manitoba and Minnesota, is
more or less prevalent in Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, Wyoming,

<* From Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 138.

552 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

Montana, North Dakota, and Texas. It also occurs in Europe, hav-
ing been reported in Germany under the name of infectious anemia
and in France as infectious typho-anemia.

Synvpioms. — The disease is characterized by a progressive perni-
cious anemia, remittent fever, polyuria, and gi'adual emaciation in
spite of a voracious appetite. It begins to manifest itself by a dull,
listless appearance and by general weakness, the animal tiring very
easily. This stage is followed closely by a staggering, swaying, un-
certain gait, the hind legs being mostly affected. There is also noted
a weakness and tenderness in the region of the loins, and at the same
time the pulse increases in rapidity and may run as high as 70,
though weak, stringy, and intermittent. The temperature may rise
to 103° F. or higher, remaining high for several daj^s, and then
dropping, to rise again at irregailar intervals. Toward the end of
the disease the temperature occasionally remains persistently high.
The horse may improve for a time, but usually this temporary im-
provement is followed by a more severe attack than the first. Venous
regurgitation is sometimes noticed in the jugular before death. The
quantity of urine passed is enormous in some cases. Death finally
occurs from exhaustion or syncope.

The blood shows a slight decrease in the number of white blood
cells, while there is a gradual but marked diminution of red cor-
puscles, the count running as Ioav as 2,000,000 per cubic millimeter,
the normal count being 7,000,000. If the blood is drawn from such
an animal, the resulting red clot will be about one-fifth of the amount
drawn. Occasionally a slow dripping of blood-tinged serum from
the nostrils is observed as a result of this very thin blood oozing
from the mucous membranes. Petechiae, or small hemorrhagic points,
are sometime noticed on the nictitating membrane and conjunctiva
of the eye, while paleness of the visible mucous membranes of the
nose and mouth is usually in evidence, although they may have a
j^ellow or mahogany tinge. Often a fluctuating, pendulous swelling
may appear on the lower lip, point of elbow, sheath, legs, under the
belly, or on some other pendant portion, especially late in the disease,
which is indicative of poor circulation, thinning. of the blood, and
consequent loss of capillary action.

Lesions. — After death the carcass is found to be very emaciated
and anemic, the visible mucosa being very pale. This marked absence
of adipose tissue makes the skinning of the animal a difficult task.
Subcutaneous and intermuscular edema and hemorrhages are frequent-
ly observed, altliough it is remarkable in many cases to see how few-
macroscopic lesions may be present. The predominating and most
constant lesion is probably the petechias, so often observed in the
muscle or on the serous membranes of the heart. The heart is gen-
erally enlarged, and may be the only organ to show evidence of dis-

INFECTIOUS ANEMIA OR SWAMP FEVEE. 553

ease. In other cases the lungs may be studded with petechise, with
a serous exudate present in the thoracic cavity. In addition to the
petechia ah^eady noted, the pericardial sac generally contains an
increased amount of fluid. The abdominal cavity may show peri-
tonitis and a hemorrhagic condition of the intestines, which probably
result from overfeeding in consequence of the ravenous appetite.
The liver sometimes presents a few areas of degeneration, although
usually normal. The spleen is at times found to be enlarged and
covered with petechise. The kidneys may appear normal or anemic
and flaccid, but microscopically they usually show a chronic paren-
chj'matous degeneration. The lymph glands may be enlarged and
hemorrhagic.

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of the disease is not difficult, especially
in advanced stages. The insidious onset, remittent fever, progressive
emaciation and anemia, unimpaired or ravenous appetite,, staggering
guit, and polyuria are a train of symptoms which make the disease
sufficiently characteristic to differentiate it fi'om other diseases af-
fecting horses in this country. The peculiar relapsing type of fever,
the gi-eat reduction in the number of red blood cells, and the absence
of eosinophilia are sufficient to differentiate it from the anemias pro-
duced by internal parasites, while it may be readily distinguished
from surra by the nonsusceptibility of cattle and by the gi-eat ease
with whicli the tr3^panosoma may be found in the latter affection.

Prognosis. — The prognosis of the disease is very unfavorable.
Veterinarians in different sections of the country where it is preva-
lent report a mortality of 75 per cent or even higher. Recovery
takes place only Avhen treatment is begun early or when the animal
has a long convalescent period.

Treatme7it. — The treatment of the disease has so far been far from
satisfactory. The iodid, permanganate, and carbonate of potash have
been used. Arsenic, axytol, quinin, and silver preparations have been
suggested, but all have uniformly been without success. Intestinal
antiseptics have been resorted to^ and the results are encouraging but
not altogether satisfactory. Symptomatic treatment seems to be the
most dependable. For instance, Davison, of this Bureau, was able to
reduce greatly the mortality from this affection by giving an antipy-
retic of 40 grains of quinin, 2 drams of acetanilid, and 30 grains of
powdered nux vomica four times daily. In the late stages, with weak
heart action, alcohol should be substituted for acetanilid. Cold-water
sponge baths may be given, and in addition frequent copious injec-
tions of cold water per rectum, which has a beneficial effect in re-
ducing the temperature and in stimulating peristalsis of the bowels,
which, as a result of the disease, show a tendency to become torpid
during the fever. Avoid giving purgatives unless absolutely neces-
sary, on account of their debilitating effect, but instead give laxative,

554 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

easily digestible feeds. Not infrequently a dirty yellowish tinge of
the visible mucous membranes has been observed, in which cases 20
grains of calomel in from 2 to 4 drams of aloes in a ball, or 2-dram
doses of fluid extract of podophyllin, may be given. Following the
subsidence of the fever, a tonic should be administered, composed of
the following drugs in combination :

Arsenious acid grams__ 2

Powdered nnx vomica do 28

Powdered cinchona bark do 85

Powdered gentian root do 110

These should be well mixed and one-half tablespoonful given at
each feed to the affected animal.

As in the case of all other infectious diseases, the healthy should be
separated from the sick horses, and thorough disinfection of the
infected stable, stalls, litter, and stable utensils should be carried out
in order to prevent the recurrence of the disease. As a disinfectant,
the compound solution of cresol, carbolic acid, or chlorid of lime may
be used, by mixing 6 ounces of any one of these chemicals with 1
gallon of water. One of the approved coal-tar sheep dips might also
be used to advantage in a 5 per cent solution (6 ounces of dip to 1
gallon of water). The disinfectant solution should be applied liber-
ally to all parts of the stable, and sufficient lime may be added to the
solution to make the disinfected area conspicuous.

Investigations are now in progress with a view of producing a
vaccine or serum that will protect horses which have been exposed to
the disease.

SURRA.

By Ch. Wardell Stiles, Ph. D.
Professor of Zoology, United States PuUic Health and Marine- Hospital Service.

Surra is not known to occur in the United States, but it is more or
less common in the Philippine Islands and India. It is caused by a
microscopic, flagellate animal parasite, known as Trypanosoma
evansi, 20 to 30 /x long by 1 to 2 /x broad, which lives in the blood and
destroys the red-blood corpuscles. In general, the disease is very
similar to, and belongs in the same general class with, tsetse-fly dis-
ease, or nagana, of Africa and mal de caderas of South America.

Surra is a wet- weather disease, occurring chiefly during or immedi-
ately after heavy rainfalls, floods, or inundations.

Surra attacks especially horses, asses, and mules, but it may occur
in kerabau, camels, elephants, cats, and dogs, and has been trans-
mitted to cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, rabbits, guinea pigs, rats,
and monkeys. No birds, reptiles, amphibia (frogs, etc.), or fish are
known to suffer from it. It attacks both male and female animals.

SUEEA. 555

young and old. Australian breeds of horses and white and gray
mules are said to be more susceptible than animals of other breeds
and color.

Surra in equines and camels is said to be an invariably fatal dis-
ease, but cattle occasionally recover from it. There is no history of a
definite onset of the disease, and the condition is progressive, usually
with a number of relapses. The period of incubation may vary some-
what; in experimental cases it is from two to seventy-five (usually
six to eight ) days, according to conditions. The duration varies with
the species of animals attacked, their age, and general condition. The
average duration in the horse is reported as less than two months,
though some cases may terminate fatally in less than one to two
weeks.

METHOD OF INFECTION.

All evidence now available seems to indicate that surra is strictly a
wound disease, namely, that the parasite may enter the body only
through a wound of some kind. Apparently by far the most common
method is through wounds produced by biting flies, whose mouth
parts are moist with the infected blood of some animal bitten by the
same flies immediately previous to biting the healthy animal. Crows
may also transmit the infection by pecking at sores on a diseased
'animal, soiling their beaks with blood, and transferring this infected
blood to a healthy animal. Likewise, if a scratch is made on a horse
and then infected blood is rubbed on the scratch, the horse will be-
come diseased. If, in experiment, infected blood is fed to a healthy
animal, the latter may contract surra in case it has an abraded or
wounded spot in the mouth; but if no part of the lining of the
alimentary canal is wounded, infection does not take place. Thus
dogs and cats may contract the disease by wounding the lining of the
mouth (as with splinters of bone) while feeding on the carcasses of
surra subjects. All available evidence indicates that under normal
conditions of pregnancy the disease is not transmitted from mother
to fetus.

There is a popular view that surra may be contracted by drinking
stagnant water and by eating grass and other vegetation grown upon
land subject to inundation, but there is no good experimental evidence
to support this view. Probably the correct interpretation of the facts
cited in support of this theory is that biting flies are numerous around
bodies of stagnant water and in inundated pastures; hence that a
gi'eat number of possible transmitters of the disease are present in
these places.

Symptotns.'^ — The invasion of this disease when contracted natu-
rally is usually marked by symptoms of a trivial character; the

o This summary of symptoms is based upou work by Liugard.

556 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

skill feels hot, and there may be more or less fever; there is also
slight loss of appetite, and the animal appears dull and stumbles
during action; early a symptom sometimes appears which may be
the first intimation received of the animal's indisposition, and which,
as a guide to diagnosis, is of great importance; it is the presence
of a general or localized urticarial eruption. If the blood be ex-
amined microscopically, it may be found to present a normal ap-
pearance; but in the majority of cases a few small, rapidly moving
organisms will be observed, giving to the blood, as it passes among
the corpuscles, a peculiar vibrating movement, which if once ob-
served will not easily be forgotten. If the parasite has not been
discovered in the blood for some days, the symptoms mentioned above
may be the only ones noticed, and, as a rule, when treated with febri-
fuges, the horse quickly improves in health and the appetite returns.
This condition does not last for more than a few days, when the
animal is again observed to present a dull and dejected appearance,
and on examination well-marked symptoms are found; the skin is
hot, the temperature more or less elevated — 101.7° to 104° F. ; the
pulse full and frequent — 56 to 64 beats per minute ; the visible mu-
cous membranes may appear clean, but the conjunctival membranes,
especially those covering the membrana nictitans, are usually the seat
of dark-red patches of ecchymosis, varying in size in different an-,
imals. There is more or less thirst and slight loss of appetite; the
animal eats its grain and green grass, but leaves all or a portion of
the hay with which it has been supplied. At the same time there
are slight catarrhal symptoms present, including lachrymation and a
little mucous discharge from 'the nostrils. Occasionally at this period
of the disease the submaxillary glands may be found enlarged and
perhaps somewhat tender on manipulation. One symptom is mark-
edly absent, namely, the presence of rigors or the objective sign of
chilliness. In addition, it will be noted that there is some swelling
and edema of the legs, generally between the fetlock and the hock,
which pits but is not painful on pressure, and in case of horses there
may be present also at this stage of the disease some swelling of the
sheath. "WTien the fever and concomitant symptoms have declared
themselves for a short period, one thing becomes especially noticeable
in every animal attacked, namely, the rapidity with which it loses
flesh. If the blood has been examined microscopically during the
second period of fever, at first a few parasites will have been observed
in it, which day by day increase in number and reach a maximum,
where they remain for a varying period, or at once suddenly or gradu-
ally disappear during the period of apyrexia. After the fever and
the accompanying symptoms have for the second time been present
for some clays — the period varying from one to six — the animal is
found to have lost the dull, dejected appearance and to look bright.

SURRA. 557

The temperature has fallen and, in some cases, has attained normal
or even subnormal limits. The visible mucous membranes are clean,
and the conjunctival petechia? begin to fade; the pulse, however, will
be found to be weak and thready in character, but the appetite excel-
lent, and, in fact, if it were not for the loss of flesh and slight edema
of the legs, there would be little to show that the animal was sick.
But unfortunately this condition does not continue for any length of
time, for again the temperature is elevated; in the course of a few
hours the thermometer registers a still higher degree, the animal is
dull and dejected, and by the following day the visible mucous mem-
branes present a yellow tinge ; large ecchymoses, dark in color, appear
on the conjunctival membranes, the action of the heart is irritable, the
13ulse full and quick, or at times intermittent, and regurgitation may
be observed in the jugulars, the breathing is quickened, and the indi-
vidual respirations are shallow. On watching an animal in this con-
dition it may be noticed that it takes 7 to 8 very short inspirations,
and these are followed by a much more prolonged and sonorous one ;
at the same time the breathing is more abdominal than thoracic in
character. On examination of the legs it will be found that the swell-
ing and edema have increased considerably, and that on the under
surface of the abdomen, where it was previously confined to the
sheath, it has now commenced to spread forward along the subcutane-
ous tissue between the skin and the muscles. During the whole of this
time the appetite will have varied little, and the evacuations will be
only slightly, if at all, altered in character. In the blood a repetition
of the previous events takes place, the parasites make their appear-
ance and increase to a maximum and again suddenly or gradually
disappear, according to the length of the fever period. These periods,
alternating with and without fever, may go on for a considerable
time. The progi-ess of the disease is variable and greatly depends
ui:»on the condition of the animal attacked, the weak one succumbing
very rapidly, but each return of the fever brings with it, as a rule, an
increase in the severity of the symptoms. There is increased yellow-
ness of the membranes, fresh crops of petechia? on the conjunctiva, a
collection of gelatinous material at the inner angle, which at times
becomes red in color from an admixture of blood, and which on
microscopic examination is found to contain a varying number of the
surra parasites ; increased swelling and edema of the extremities and
abdomen, which now extends between the fore limbs and up the
chest. During this time the wasting has been steadily progressive,
especially of the muscles of the back and those surrounding the hip
joint and the glutei.

Toward the termination of the disease it will be noticed that an
animal is disinclined to move, and when made to do so there will be
manifest loss of power over the hind quarters, somewhat simulating

558 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

a slight partial paralysis, and the hind quarters of the animal reel
from side to side. In connection with this it may be noted that there
is frequently present paralysis of the sphincter ani and a dilated
condition of the anus. These symptoms taken together point to some
interference with the normal functions of the spinal cord in the lower
dorsal and lumbar regions, and are probably due to pressure caused
by an exudation within the spinal membranes. In many cases shortly
before death the heart's action becomes exceedingly violent, shaking
the whole frame at each beat, so that the sound can be heard at some
distance from the animal. In some of these cases the animal may
suddenly drop dead; in others the emaciation and weakness become
so pronounced that the animal falls to the ground, and, after a short
struggle, succumbs to the disease. In other cases, again, the animal
falls to the ground and appears to be suffering from acute pain,
struggles violently, sweat covers the body, and respiration is very
hurried. The struggles soon exhaust the patient's strength, and for
a time it lies quiet; soon, however, the struggles commence again,
and this continues until death occurs. In some cases the appetite is
voracious.

The symptoms of the disease as observed in experimentally inocu-
lated animals are as follows: Twenty-four hours after the subcutane-
ous injection of a small quantity of surra blood, in the great majority
of caseSj a small circumscribed and somewhat raised swelling is
noticed at the seat of the inoculation. After forty-eight hours the
tumor has increased in size and is accompanied by some edema ; it
presents a certain amount of tension of the parts involved, and is
generally tender on manipulation. These conditions continue to in-
crease, until by the fourth day the tumor may measure 3 or 4 inches
in one direction by 2 or 3 in the other, and raised to the extent of an
inch or an inch and a half above the suiTounding tissues, or in some
cases the tumor presents an almost circular form throughout. It will
be also found that, if the tumor be firmly grasped, it is not fixed, but
can be lifted up from the subcutaneous tissue. According to the
nature and amount of the inoculated blood, these symptoms rapidly
present themselves, and either attain a maximum or are retarded
until, varying from the fourth to the thirteenth day, the tumor at
the seat of inoculation will be found to have lost a certain amount
of its tension and tenderness. From this date the swelling and edema
will gradually begin to grow less, until finally; after a period of ten
to fourteen days, the only sign left of the former swelling will be
slight thickening of the skin over the point of the injection; but at
the moment when the tension and tenderness of the parts at the seat
of inoculation become suddenly decreased a symptom of the utmost
clinical importance takes place, namely, at that moment the parasite
of surra enters the blood of the general circulation.

SURRA. 559

The temperature on the clay of inoculation, and, in fact, for several
days afterwards, may remain nomial in character, there being only a
few degi-ees difference between the morning and evening observations.
In other cases there may be a slight rise from the first evening, and a
gradual progi-essive rise until the swelling at the seat of inoculation
shows signs of reduction in size, when the temperature generally
takes a decided rise again, and may attain 104° or 105.8° F. This
elevation will last a varying period of from two to six days, and on
the day following its onset the ordinary symptoms of fever will be
noticed, and in addition there will be petechiae on the conjunctival
membranes, lachrymation, a slight mucous discharge from the nose,
and in severe cases some edema of the lower portion of the legs, and
perhaps of the sheath in horses. At the termination of the period
of fever the temperature will be found to have fallen to normal or
nearly so; the animal will present a brighter aspect, and there is
every appearance of its return to health ; but in a few days the animal
again appears dull and half asleep ; the temperature becomes elevated
and a relapse takes place, and a repetition of all the symptoms in the
primary paroxysm, including the reappearance of the parasite, is
observed.

Diagnosis. — Certain sjanptoms (anemia, fever, petechise, ravenous
appetite, extreme emaciation, high mortality, etc.) would naturally
give rise to a suspicion of surra. The positive diagnosis should,
however, be made with a microscope. In case of suspected surra no
delay in confirming or disproving the suspicion should be permitted.

Treatment. — No satisfactory treatment is known. Intravenous in-
jections of Fowler's solution of arsenic give temporary relief, but re-
lapses occur. In view of the great economic importance of this
disease, it would not be advisable to attempt to treat any sporadic
cases should they occur in this country. On the contrary, the animals
should be slaughtered immediately and their carcasses promptly
burned.

OSTEOPOROSIS OR BIGHEAD.

By John R. Mohler, V. M. D.,
Chief of the Pathological Division, Bureau of Animal Industry.

Osteoporosis is a general disease of the bones which develops slowly
and progressively and is characterized by the absorption of the cal-
careous or compact bony substance and the formation of enlarged,
softened,, and porous bone. It is particularly manifest in the bones
of the head, causing enlargement and bulging of the face and jaws,
thereby giving rise to the terms " bighead " and " swelled head," which
are applied to it. The disease affects horses, mules, and asses of all
ages, classes, and breeds, and of both sexes, and is found under all soil.

560 DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

dietetic, and climatic conditions. It may occur in sporadic form, but
in certain regions, such as South Africa, Australia, Madagascar,
India, Hawaii, and in this country it seems to be enzootic, several
cases usually appearing in the same stable or on the same farm, and
numerous animals being affected in the same district. In the United
States the disease has been found in all the States bordering the
Delaware River and Chesapeake Bay, in some of the New England
States, and in many of the Southern States, especially along the coast
in regions of low altitude. In Europe the disease appears to be quite
rare, and is usually described as a form of osteomalacia, a disease
which is not uncommon among cattle of that continent. However, the
opinion that bighead is only a form of osteomalacia can not be ac-
cepted, nor can the infrequency of the former among European horses
and the frequency of the latter among other live stock be conceded on
the argument which has been presented, namely, that the better care
which horses receive prevents them from becoming affected. In the
Southwest, where osteomalacia, or creeps, has not infrequently been
observed by the writer among range cattle, no case of osteoporosis of
the horses using the same range has been noted, although the latter
animals are given no more attention than the cattle.

The appropriate treatment of osteomalacia in cattle is so effective
that if osteoporosis were a similar manifestation of disease a similar
line of treatment should prove equally efficacious. However, this is
not the fact. On the other hand, the occurrence of osteomalacia on
old, worn-out soil, or on land deficient in lime salts, or from eating;
feed lacking in these bone-forming substances, or drinking water
with a lime deficiency, is in perfect accord with our knowledge of the
disease. But osteoporosis may occur on rich, fertile soil, in the most
hygienic stables, and in animals receiving the best of care and of
bone-forming feeds with a proper amount of mineral salts in the
drinking water.

Cause. — The cause of this disease still remains obscure, although
various theories have been advanced, some entirely erroneous, othei-s
more or less plausible ; but none of these has been established. Thus
the idea that feeding fodder and cereals poor in mineral salts and
grazing in pastures wdiere the soil is poor in lime and phosphates will
cause the disease has been entirely disproved in many instances.
Others have considered that the disease starts as a muscular rheuma-
tism which is followed by an inflammatory condition of the bones,
terminating in osteoporosis. The idea that the disease is contagious
has been advanced by many writers, although no causative agent has
been isolated. Numerous experiments have been made by inoculating
the blood of an affected horse into normal horses without results. A
piece of bone taken by Pearson from the diseased lower jaw of a colt
was transplanted into a cavity made for it in the jaw of a normal

OSTEOPOROSIS, OR BIGHEAD, 561

horse, but without reproducing the disease. Petrone believes that the
Micrococcus nitH-flcans c-auses osteomalacia in man as a result of its
producing nitrous acid, which dissolves the calcareous tissues, and
when injected into dogs in pure culture a similar disease is produced.
It is probable that if this work is confirmed a somewhat similar causa-
tive factor will be discovered for osteoporosis.

Elliott considers the latter disease to be of microbic origin due to
climatic conditions, and diAddes the island of Hawaii into two dis-
tricts, in one of which the rainfall is 150 inches annually, where big-
head is very prevalent, and the second of which is dry and rarely
visited by rain, where the disease is unknown. Removal of animals
from the wet to the dry district is followed by immediate improve-
ment and frequently by recovery. In the wet district horses in both
good and bad stables take the disease, but in the dry districts no
unfavorable or unhygienic surroundings produce the affection. As
both native and imported horses are equally susceptible, there is no
indication of an acquired immunity to be observed.

Theiler has recently stated that his experiments in transfusing
blood from diseased to normal horses were negative, and has sug-
gested that the causative agent may only be transmitted by an inter-
mediate host, as in the case of Texas fever. He draws attention to
this method of spreading East African coast fever, although blood
inoculations, as in osteoporosis, are always without result. We know
that coast fever is infectious, and that it can not be transmitted by
blood inoculations, but is conveyed with remarkable ease by ticks
coming from diseased cattle. That the cause has not been observed
may be accounted for by its being invisible even to the high magnifica-
tion of the microscope.

On some farms and in some stables bighead is quite prevalent, a
number of cases following one after another. On one farm of thor-
oughbreds in Pennsylvania all the yearling colts and some of the
aged horses were affected during one year, and on a similar farm
in Virginia a large proportion of the horses for several years
were diseased, although the cows and sheep of this farm remained
unaffected.

Symptoms. — The commencement of the disease is usually unob-
served by the owner, and those symptoms which do develop are gen-
erally not well marked or are misleading unless other cases have been
noted in the vicinity. Until the bones become enlarged the symptoms
remain so vague as not to be diagnosed readily. The disease may be
present itself under a variety of symptoms. If the bones of the hock
become affected, the animal will first show a hock lameness. If the
long bones are involved, symptoms of rheumatism will be the first ob-
served, while if the dorsal or lumbar vertebrae are affected indications
of a strain of the lumbar region are in evidence. Probably the first
H. Doc. 795, 59-2 36

562 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

symptom to be noticed is a loss of vitality combined with an irregular
appetite or other digestive disturbance, and with a tendency to stum-
ble while in action. These earlier symptoms, however, may pass unob-
served, and the appearance of an intermittent or migratory lameness
without any visible cause may be the first sign to attract attention.
This shifting and indefinite lameness, involving first one leg and then
the other, is very suggestive, and is even more important when it is
associated with a tendency to lie down frequently in the stall and the
absence of a desire to get up, or the presence of evident pain and
difficulty in arising.

About this time, or probably before, swelling of the bones of the
face and jaw, which is almost constantly present in this disease, will
be observed. The bones of the lower jaw are the most frequently
involved, and this condition is readily detected with the fingers by the
bulging ridge of the bone outside and along the lower edge of the
molar teeth. A thickening of the lower jawbone may likewise be
identified by feeling on both sides of each branch at the same time
and comparing it with the thinness of this bone in a normal horse.
As a result mastication becomes difficult or impossible and the teeth
become loose and painful. The imperfect chewing which follows
causes balls of food to form which drop out of the mouth into the
manger. Similar enlargements of the bones of the upper jaw may be
seen, causing a widening of the face and a bulging of the bones about
midway between the eyes and the nostrils. In some cases the nasal
bones also become swollen and deformed, which, together with the
bulging of the bones under the eyes, gives a good illustration of the
reason for the application of the term bighead.

Other bones of the body will undergo similar changes, but these
alterations are not so readily noted except by the symptoms they occa-
sion. The alterations of the bones of the spinal column and the
limbs, while difficult of observation, are nevertheless indicated by the
reluctance of the animal to get up and the desire to remain lying for
long periods of time. The animal easily tires, moves less rapidly,
and if urged to go faster may sustain a fracture or have a ligament
torn from its bony attachments, especially in the lower bones of the
leg. An affected horse weighing 1,000 pounds was seen by the writer
to fracture the large pastern bone from rearing during halter exercise.

The animal becomes poor in flesh, the coat is rough and lusterless,
and the skin tight and harsh, producing a condition termed " hide-
bound," with considerable " tucking up " of the abdomen. The
horse shows a short, stilted, choppy gait, which later becomes stiffer
and more restricted, while on standing a position simulating that in
founder is assumed, with a noticeable drop to the croup. The animal
at this stage usually lies down and remains recumbent for several

OSTEOPOROSIS, OR BIGHEAD. 563

days at a time. Bed sores frequently arise and fractures are not
uncommon in consequence of attempts to arise, which complications,
in addition to emaciation, result in death.

The disease may exist in this manner for variable periods extend-
ing from two or three months to two years. The termination of the
disease is uncertain at best, but is likely to be favorable if treatment
and a change of feed, water, and location is adopted in the early
stages of the malady.

Lesions. — As has been stated, the bones are the principal tissues
involved. The nutrition of the bone is disturbed, as is indicated by
the diminished density or rarefaction of the bony substances, the in-
crease in the size or widening of the Haversian canal and the
medullar}^ cavity, and the enlargement of the network of spaces in
the spongy tissue, the absorptive changes following the course of the
Plaversian system. In this process of absorption there are formed
within the substance of the bone areas of erosion, indentations, or
hollow spaces of irregular shape. These spaces increase in size and
become confluent, causing an appearance resembling some varieties
of coral. The affected bone may be readily incised with a knife, the
cut surface appearing finely porous. This porous area is soft, pliable,
and yields easily to the pressure of the finger. It has been shown by
chemical analysis that the bone of an osteoporotic horse, when com-
pared with that of a normal horse, shows a reduction in the amount
of fat, phosphoric acid, lime, and soda, but a slight increase in
organic matter and silicic acid. The bones lose their yellowish-
white appearance, becoming gray and brittle. The affected bones may
be those of any region or portion of the body. Besides the change
already noted in the bones of the face, the ends of the long bones,
such as the ribs, are involved, and may be sectioned, though not so
readily as the facial bones. The bones of the vertebrae are also fre-
quently involved, necessitating great care in casting a horse, as the
writer has seen several cases of broken backs in casting such animals
for other operations. The marrow and cancellated tissue of the long
bones may contain hemorrhages and soft gelatinous material or
coagulated fibrin. The internal organs are usually normal, but a
catarrhal condition of the gastro-intestinal tract may be noted as a
result of the improper mastication, resulting from the enlargement of
the jaws and soreness of the teeth.

Treatment. — The affected animal should be immediately placed
under new conditions, both as to feed and surroundings. If the horse
has been stable fed, it is advisable to turn it out on grass for two or
three months, preferably in a higher altitude. If the disease has been
contracted while running on pasture, place the animal in the stable
or corral. In the early stages of the disease beneficial results have

564 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

followed the supplemental use of lime given in the drinking water.
One peck of lime slaked in a cask of water and additional water
added from time to time is satisfactory and can be provided at slight
expense. This treatment may be supplemented by giving a table-
spoonful of powdered bone meal in each feed, with free access to a
large piece of rock salt, or tlie bone meal may be given with four
tablespoonfuls of molasses mixed with the feed. Feeds containing
mineral salts, such as beans, cowpeas, oats, and cotton-seed meal,
may prove beneficial in replenisliing the bony substance that is be-
ing absorbed. Cotton-seed meal is one of the best feeds for this pur-
pose, but it should be fed carefully. The animal should not be
allowed to work at all during the active stage of the disease, nor
should it be used for breeding purposes.

PLATE XI. n

AGE OF HORSES AS rNDICATED BV TEETH

Longitudinal Section of left central lower incisor and cross sections
of same tooth showing table surfaces as they appear at the a^es of 3,
5,7, 9, 15, 20 and 25 years.

C„ Cennent D ^Dentine K Enamel

I Infundibulum K....l..--_Cup H. Pulp Cavity

S _____Star

SHOEING.

By John W. Adams, A. B., V. M.

Prof essor of Surgery and Lecturer on Shoeing, Veterinary Department, University
of Pennsylvania.

Bad and indifferent shoeing so frequently leads to diseases of the
feet and in irregularities of gait which may render a horse unservice-
able, that it has been thought appropriate to conclude this book with
a brief chapter on the principles involved in shoeing healthy hoofs.

In unfolding this subject in the limited space at my disposal, I can
only hope to give the intelligent horse owner a sufficient number of
facts, based on experience and upon the anatomy and physiology of
the foot and leg, to enable him to avoid the more serious conse-
quences of improper shoeing.

Let us first examine this vital mechanism, the foot, and learn some-
thing of its structure and of the natural movements of its component
parts, that we may be prepared to recognize deviations from the nor-
mal and to apply the proper corrective.

GROSS ANATOMY OF THE FOOT.

The hones of the foot are four in number, three of which — the long
pastern, short pastern, and coffin bone, placed end to end — form a
continuous straight column passing downward and forward from the
fetlock joint to the ground. A small accessory bone, the navicular, or
" shuttle," bone, lies crosswise in the foot between the wings of the
coffin bone and forms a part of the joint surface of the latter. The
short pastern projects about 1^ inches above the hoof and extends
about an equal distance to it. (See also page 369.)

The pasterns and the coffin bone are held together bj^ strong fibrous
cords passing between each two bones and placed at the sides so as not
to interfere with the forward and backward movement of the bones.
The joints are therefore hinge joints^ though imperfect, because, while
the chief movements are those of extension and flexion in a single
plane, some slight rotation and lateral movements are possible.

The bones are still further bound together and supported by three
long fibrous cords, or tendons. One, the extensor tendon of the toe,
passes down the front of the pasterns and attaches to the coffin bone
just below the edge of the hair; when pulled upon by its muscle this
tendon draws the toe forward and enables the horse to place the hoof
flat upon the ground. The other two tendons are placed behind the

565

566 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

pasterns and are called flexors^ because they flex, or bend, the pasterns
and coffin bone backward. One of the tendons is attached to the
upper end of the short pastern, while the other passes down between
the heels, glides over the under surface of the navicular bone, and
attaches itself to the under surface of the coffin bone. These two ten-
dons not only flex, or fold up, the foot as the latter leaves the ground,
during motion, but at rest assist the suspensory ligament in support-
ing the fetlock joint.

The foot-axis is an imaginary line passing from the fetlock joint
through the long axes of the two pasterns and coffin bone. This
imaginary line, which shows the direction of the pasterns and coffin
bone, should always be straight — that is, never broken, either forward
or backward when viewed from the side, or inward or outward when
observed from in front. Viewed from one side, the long axis of the
long pastern, when prolonged to the ground, should be parallel to
the line of the toe. Viewed from in front, the long axis of the long
pastern, when prolonged to the ground, should cut the hoof exactly
at the middle of the toe.

Raising the heel or shortening the toe not only tilts the coffin bone
forward and makes the hoof stand steeper at the toe, but slackens the
tendon that attaches to the under surface of the coffin bone (perforans
tendon), and therefore allows the fetlock joint to sink downward and
backward and the long pastern to assume a more nearly horizontal
position. The foot-axis, viewed from one side, is now broken for-
ward ; that is, the long pastern is less steep than the toe, and the heels
are either too long or the toe is too short. On the other hand, raising
the toe or lowering the heels of a foot with a straight foot-axis not
only tilts the coffin bone backward and renders the toe more nearly
horizontal, but tenses the perforans tendon, which then forces the fet-
lock joint forward, causing the long pastern to stand steeper. The
foot-axis, seen from one side, is now broken backward — an indication
that the toe is relatively too long or that the heels are relatively too
low.

The elastic tissues of the foot are preeminently the lateral cartilages
and the plantar cushion. The lateral cartilages are two irregularly
four-sided plates of gristle, one on either side of the foot, extending
from the wings of the coffin bone backward to the heels and upward to
a distance of an inch or more above the edge of the hair, where they
may be felt by the fingers. Wlien sound, these plates are elastic and
yield readily to moderate finger pressure, but from various causes
may undergo ossification, in which condition they are hard and un-
yielding. The plantar cushion is a wedge-shaped mass of tough,
elastic, fibro-fatty tissue filling all the space between the lateral car-
tilages, forming the fleshy heels and the fleshy frog, and serving as a
buffer to disperse shock when the foot is set to the ground. It ex-

ANATOMY OF THE FOOT. 567

tends forward underneath the navicular bone and perforans tendon,
and protects these structures from injurious pressure from below.
Instantaneous photographs show that at speed the horse sets the heels
to the ground before other parts of the foot — conclusive proof that
the function of this tough, elastic structure is to dissipate and render
harmless violent impact of the foot with the ground.

The horn-producing membrane^ or "quick," as it is commonly
termed, is merely a downward prolongation of the " derm," or true
skin, and may be conveniently called the pocloderm (foot skin). The
pododerm closely invests the coffin bone, lateral cartilages, and plantar
cushion, much as a sock covers the human foot, and is itself covered
by the horny capsule, or hoof. It differs from the external skin, or
hair skin, in having no sweat or oil glands, but, like it, is richly sup-
plied with blood vessels and sensitive nerves. And, just as the derm
of the hair skin produces upon its outer surface layer upon layer of
horny cells (epiderm), which protect the sensitive and vascular derm,
so, likewise, in the foot the pododerm produces over its entire surface
soft cells, which, pushed away by more recent cells forming beneath,
lose moisture by evaporation and are rapidly transformed into the
corneous material which we call the hoof. It is proper to regard the
hoof as a greatly thickened epiderm having many of the qualities
possessed by such epidermal structures as hair, feathers, nails,
claws, etc.

The functions of the jDododerm are to produce the hoof and to unite
it firmly to the foot.

There are five parts of the pododerm, easily distinguishable when
the hoof has been removed, namely: (1) The perioplic hand., a narrow
ridge from one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch wide, running along
the edge of the hair from one heel around the toe to the other. This
band produces the perioplic horn^ the thin varnishlike layer of glis-
tening horn, which forms the surface of the wall, or " crust," and
whose purpose seems to be to retard evaporation of moisture from
the wall. (2) The coronary hand, a prominent fleshy cornice encir-
cling the foot just below and parallel to the perioplic band. At the
heels it is reflected forward along the sides of the fleshy frog, to be-
come lost near the apex of this latter structure. The coronet pro-
duces the middle layer of the wall, and the reflected portions produce
the " bars," which are, therefore, to be regarded merely as a turning
forward of the wall. (3) The fleshy leaves^ 500 to 600 in number,
parallel to one another, running downward and forward from the
lower edge of the coronary band to the margin of the fleshy sole.
They produce the soft, light-colored horny leaves which form the
deepest layer of the wall, and serve as a strong bond of union between
the middle layer of the wall and the fleshy leaves with which they
dovetail. (4) The -fleshy sole, which covers the entire under surface

568 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

of the foot, excepting the fleshy frog and bars. The horny sole is
produced by the fleshy sole. (5) The -fleshy frog, which covers the
under surface of the plantar cushion and produces the horny frog.

The horny box, or hoof, consists of wall and bars, sole and frog.
The wall is all that part of the hoof which is visible when the foot is
on the ground (see fig. 8). As already stated, it consists of three
layers — the periople, the middle layer, and the leafy layer.

The ha/rs (see fig. Ic) are forward prolongations of the wall, and
are gradually lost near the point of the frog. The angle between the
wall and a bar is called the " buttress." Each bar lies against the
horny frog on one side and incloses a wing of the sole on the other,
so that the least expansion or contraction of the horny frog separates
or approximates the bars, and through them the lateral cartilages and
the walls of the quarters. The lower border of the wall is called the
" bearing edge," and is the surface against which the shoe bears. By
dividing the entire lower circumference of the wall into five equal
parts, a toe, two side walls, and two quarters will be exhibited. The
" heels," strictly speaking, are the two rounded soft prominences of
the plantar cushion, lying one above each quarter. The outer wall is
usually more slanting than the inner, and the more slanting half of a
hoof is always the thicker. In front hoofs the wall is thickest at the
toe and gradually thins out toward the quarters, where in some horses
it may not exceed one- fourth of an inch. In hind hoofs there is much
less difference in thickness between the toe, side walls, and quarters.
The horny sole, from which the flakes of old horn have been removed,
is concave and about as thick as the wall at the toe. It is rough, un-
even, and often covered by flakes of dead horn in process of being
loosened and cast off. Behind, the sole presents an opening into
which are received the bars and horny frog. This opening divides the
sole into a body and two wings.

The periphery of the sole unites with the lower border of the wall
and bars through the medium of the white line, which is the cross-
section of the leafy horn layer of the wall, and of short plugs of horn
which grow down from the lower ends of the fleshy leaves. This
white line is of much importance to the shoer, since its distance from
the outer border of the hoof is the thiclaiess of the wall, and in the
white line all nails should be driven.

The frog, secreted by the pododerm covering the plantar cushion
or fatty frog, and presenting almost the same form as the latter,- lies
as a soft and very elastic wedge between the bars and between the
edges of the sole just in front of the bars. A. broad and shallow de-
pression in its center divides it into two branches, which diverge as
they pass backward into the horny bulbs of the heel. In front of the
middle cleft the two branches unite to form the body of the frog,
which ends in the point of the frog. The bar of a bar shoe should

MOVEMENTS OF THE HOOF. 569

rest on the branches of the frog. In unshod hoofs the bearing edge
of the wall, the sole, frog, and bars are all on a level; that is, the
under surface of the hoof is perfectly flat, and each of these structures
assists in bearing the body weight.

With respect to solidity, the different parts of the hoof vary widely.
The middle layer of the wall is harder and more tenacious than the
sole, for the latter crumbles away or passes off' in larger or smaller
flakes on its under surface, while no such spontaneous shortening of
the wall occurs. The white line and the frog are soft horn struc-
tures, and differ from hard horn in that their horn cells do not under
natural conditions become hard and hornlike. They are very elastic,
absorb moisture rapidly, and as readily dry out and become hard,
brittle, and easily fissured. Horn of good quality is fine grained and
tough, while bad horn is coarse grained and either mellow and fri-
able or hard and brittle. All horn is a poor conductor of heat, and
the harder (drier) the horn, the more slowly does it transmit extremes
of temf)erature.

THE PHYSIOLOGICAL MOVEMENTS OF THE HOOF.

A hoof while supporting the body weight has a different form, and
the structures inclosed within the hoof have a different position than
when not bearing weight. Since the amount of weight borne by a
foot is continually changing, and the relations of internal pressure are
continuously varying, a foot is, from a physiological viewpoint, never
at rest. The most marked changes of form of the hoof occur when
the foot bears the greatest weight, namely, at the time of the greatest
descent of the fetlock. Briefly, these changes of form are: (1) An
expansion or widening of the whole back half of the foot from the
coronet to the lower edge of the quarters. This expansion varies
between one-fiftieth and one-twelfth of an inch. (2) A narrowing of
the front half of the foot, measured at the coronet. (3) A sinking of
the heels and a flattening of the wings of the sole. These changes are
more marked in the half of the foot that bears the greater weight.

The changes of form occur in the following order : AVhen the foot
is set to the ground the body weight is transmitted through the bones
and sensitive and horny leaves to the wall. The coffin bone and navic-
ular bone sink a little and rotate backward. At the same time the
short pastern sinks backward and downward between the lateral carti-
lages and presses the perforans tendon upon the plantar cushion.
This cushion being compressed from above and being unable to ex-
pand downward by reason of the resistance of the ground acting
against the horny frog, acts like any other elastic mass and expands
toward the sides, pushing before it the yielding lateral cartilages and
the wall of the quarters. This expansion of the heels is assisted and
increased by the simultaneous flattening and lateral expansion of the

570 DISEASES OP THE HORSE.

resilient horny frog, which crowds the bars apart. Of course, when
the lateral cartilages are ossified not only is no expansion of the
quarters possible, but frog pressure often leads to painful compres-
sion of the plantar cushion and to increase of lameness. Frog pres-
sure is therefore contra-indicated in lameness due to sidebones (ossi-
fied cartilages). Under the descent of the coffin-bone the horny sole
sinks a little; that is, the arch of the sole around the point of the
frog, and the wings of the sole become somewhat flattened. All these
changes of form are most marked in sound unshod hoofs, because
in them ground pressure on the frog and sole is pronounced; they
are more marked in fore hoofs than in hind hoofs.

The movement of the diiferent structures within the foot and the
changes of form that occur at every step are indispensable to the
health of the hoof, so that these elastic tissues must be kept active by
regular exercise, with protection against drying out of the hoof.
Long-continued rest in the stable, drying out of the hoof, and shoeing
decrease or alter the physiological movements of the hoof and some-
times lead to foot diseases. Since these movements are complete and
spontaneous only in unshod feet, shoeing must be regarded as an evil,
albeit a necessary one, and indispensable if we wish to keep horses
continuously serviceable on hard, artificial roads. However, if in
shoeing we bear in mind the structure and functions of the hoof and
apply a shoe whose branches have a wide and level bearing surface,
so as to interfere as little as may be with the expansion and contrac-
tion of the quarters, in so far as this is not hindered by the nails, we
need not be apprehensive of trouble, provided the horse has reason-
able work and his hoofs proper care.

GROWTH or THE HOOF.

All parts of the hoof grow downward and forward with equal
rapidity, the rate of growth being largely dependent upon the amount
of blood supplied to the pododerm, or " quick." Abundant and reg-
ular exercise, good grooming, moistness and suppleness of the hoof,
going barefoot, j^lenty of good food, and at proper intervals removing
the overgrowth of hoof and regulating the bearing surface, by increas-
ing the volume and improving the quality of the blood flowing into
the pododerm, favor the rapid growth of horn of good qualitj^ ; while
.lack of exercise, dryness of the horn, and excessive length of the hoof
hinder growth.

The average rate of growth is about one-third of an inch a month.
Hind hoofs grow faster than fore hoofs and unshod ones faster than
shod ones. The time required for the horn to grow from the coronet
to the ground, though influenced to a slight degree by the precited
conditions, varies in proportion to the distance of the coronet from the
ground. At the toe, depending on its height, the horn grows down

GROWTH OF THE HOOF. 571

in eleven to thirteen months, at the side wall in six to eight months,
and at the heels in three to five months. We can thus estimate with
tolerable accuracy the time required for the disappearance of such
defects in the hoof as cracks, clefts, etc.

Irregular growth is not infrequent. The almost invariable cause
of this is an imjDroper distribution of the body weight over the hoof —
that is, an unbalanced foot. Colts running in soft pasture or confined
for long periods in the stable are frequently allowed to grow hoofs of
excessive length. The long toe becomes " dished " — that is, concave
from the coronet to the ground — the long quarters curl forward and
inward and often completely cover the frog and lead to contraction of
the heels, or the whole hoof bends outward or inward, and a crooked
foot, or, even worse, a crooked leg, is the result if the long hoof be
allowed to exert its powerful and abnormally directed leverage for
but a few months upon young plastic bones and tender and lax articu-
lar ligaments. All colts are not foaled with straight legs, but failure
to regulate the length and bearing of the hoof may make a straight
leg crooked and a crooked leg worse, just as intelligent care during
the growing period can greatly improve a congenitally crooked limb.
If breeders were more generally cognizant of the power of overgrown
and unbalanced hoofs to divert the lower bones of young legs from
their proper direction, and, therefore, to cause them to be moved
improperly, with loss of speed and often with injury to the limbs, we
might hope to see fewer knock-kneed, bow-legged, " splay-footed,"
" pigeon-toed," cow-hocked, interfering, and paddling horses.

If in shortening the hoof one side wall is, from ignorance, left too
long or cut down too low with relation to the other, the foot will be
unbalanced, and in traveling the long section will touch the ground
first and will continue to do so till it has been reduced to its proper
level (length) by the increased wear which will take place at this
point. While this occurs rapidly in unshod hoofs, the shoe prevents
wear of the hoof, though it is itself more rapidly worn away beneath
the high (long) side than elsewhere, so that by the time the shoe is
worn out the tread of the shoe may be flat. If this mistake be re-
peated from month to month, the part of the wall left too high will
grow more rapidly than the low side whose pododerm is relatively
anemic as a result of the greater weight falling into this half of the
hoof, and the ultimate result will be a " wry," or crooked foot.

THE CARE OF UNSHOD HOOFS.

The colt should have abundant exercise on dry ground. The hoofs
will then wear gradually, and it will only be necessary from time to
time to regulate any uneven wear with the rasp and to round off the
sharp edge about the toe in order to prevent breaking away of the
wall.

572

DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

Colts in the stable can not wear down their hoofs, so that every
four to six weeks they should be rasped down and the lower edge
of the wall well rounded to prevent chipping. The soles and clefts
of the frog should be picked out every few days and the entire hoof
washed clean. Plenty of clean straw litter should be provided.
Hoofs that are becoming " awry " should have the wall shortened
in such a manner as to straighten the foot-axis. This will ultimately
produce a good hoof and will improve the position of the limb.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A HEALTHY HOOF.

A healthy hoof (figs. 1 and 8) is equally warm at all parts, and is
not tender under pressure with the hands or moderate compression

with pincers. The coronet is
soft and elastic at all points
and does not project bej^ond
the surface of the wall. The
wall (fig. 8) is straight from
coronet to ground, so that a
straightedge laid against the
wall from coronet to ground
parallel to the direction of
the horn tubes will touch at
every point. The wall should
be covered with the outer
varnishlike layer (periople)
and should show no cracks or
clefts. Every hoof shows
" ring - formation," but the
rings should not be strongly

Fig. l.-Ground surface of a right fore hoof of the regu; marked and should alwayS

lar form: a, a, wall; a-a, the toe; a-b, the side walls! y^i^ parallel tO the COTOnarV

b-d, the quarters; c, c, the bars; d, d, the buttresses,' , -i Q^ir-on ctUt mnrkpd r\r\^-

e.lateral cleftof the frog;/, body of thesole; ff, <7',p" Oaild. btrOUgly marKed Ting

leafy layer (white line) of the toe and bars; h, body formation OVer the entire Wall

of the frog; M, branches of the frog; fc, S, homy bulbs • evidence of a WCak hoof,

of the heels; I, middle cleft of the frog. t • t i l

but when limited to a part
of the wall is evidence of previous local inflammation. The bulbs
of the heels should be full, rounded, and of equal height. The sole
(fig. 1) should be well hollowed out, the white line solid, the frog
well developed, the middle cleft of the frog broad and shallow, the
spaces between the bars and the frog wide and shallow, the bars
straight from the buttresses toward the point of the frog, and the
buttresses themselves so far apart as not to press against the branches
of the frog. A hoof can not be considered healthy if it presents
reddish discolored horn, cracks in the wall, white line, bars, or frog,
thrush of the frog, contraction or displacement of the heels. The
lateral cartilages should yield readily to finger pressure.

CHAEACTERISTICS OF THE HOOF.

573

VARIOUS FORMS OF HOOFS.

As among a thousand human faces no two are alike, so among an
equal number of horses no two have hoofs exactly alike. A little
study of different forms soon shows us, however, that the form of
every hoof is dependent in great measure on the direction of the two
pastern bones as viewed from in front or behind, or from one side;
and that all hoofs fall into three classes when we view them from in
front and three classes when we observe them in profile. Inasmuch
as the form of every foot determines the peculiarities of the shoe that
is best adapted to it, no one who is ignorant of, or who disregards
the natural form of, a hoof can hope to understand physiological
shoeing,

FORMS OF FEET VIEWED FROM IN FRONT AND IN PROFILE.

Whether a horse's feet be observed from in front or from behind,
their form corresponds to, or at least resembles, either that of the
regular position (fig. 2), the
hase-ivide or toe-wide position
(fig. 3), or the base-narrow po-
sition (fig. 4).

By the direction of the im-
aginar}' line passing through
the long axes of the two pas-
terns (figs. 2, 4, 5) we deter-
mine whether or not the hoof
and pasterns stand in proper
mutual relation.

In the regular standing posi-
tion (fig. 2) the foot-axis runs straight downward and forward; in
the base- wide position (fig. 3) it runs obliquely downward and out-
ward, and in the base-narrow
position (fig. 4) it runs ob-
liquely downward and inward.
Viewing the foot in profile,
we distinguish the regular po-
sition (fig. 5Z>) and designate
all forward deviations as acute-
angled (long toe and low heel,
fig. 5a), and all deviations
backward from the regular
(steep toe and high heel, fig.
be) as steep-toed, or stumpy.
"V^-Tien the body weight is evenly distributed over all four limbs, the
foot-axis should be straight ; the long pastern, short pastern, and wall
at the toe should have the same slant.

2.— Pair of fore feet of regular form in regular
standing position.

-Pair of fore feet of base- wide form in toe-wide
standing position.

574

DISEASES OP THE HORSE.

A front hoof of the regular standing position. — The outer wall is a
little more slanting and somewhat thicker than the inner. The lower
border of the outer quarter describes the arc of a smaller circle — ^that
is, is more sharply bent than the inner quarter. The weight falls
near the center of the foot and is evenly distributed over the whole
bottom of the hoof. The toe forms an angle with the ground of
45° to 50° and is parallel to the direction of the long pastern. The

toe points straight ahead,
and when the horse is mov-
ing forward in a straight
line the hoofs are picked
up and carried forward in
a line parallel to the mid-
dle line of the body, and
are set down flat. Coming
straight toward the ob-
server the hoofs seem to

Fig. 4.— Pair of fore feet of base-narrow form in toe-narrow j'jgg and fall DerpendicU-
standing position. r ir

larly.
A hoof of the hase-wide position is always awry. The outer wall is
more slanting, longer, and thicker than the inner, the outer quarter
more curved than the inner, and the outer half of the sole wider than
the inner. The weight falls largely into the inner half of the hoof.
In motion the hoof is moved in a circle. From its position on the
ground it breaks over the inner toe, is carried forward and inward

Fig. 5.^-a, side view of an acute-angled fore foot (shod); b, side view of a regular fore foot, showing
the most desirable degree of obliquity (45°); c, side view of a stumpy, or "upright," fore foot;
obliquity above 50°. In a, b, c, note particularly the relation between the length of the shoe and
the overhanging of the heels. Note also the toe roll of the shoes.

close to the supporting leg, thence forward and outward to the
ground, which the hoof meets first with the outer toe. Horses that
are toe- wide (" splay-footed " — toes turned outward) show all these
peculiarities of hoof-form and hoof-flight to a still more marked
degree and are therefore more prone to " interfere " when in motion.
A hoof of the base-narrow position is awry, but not to so marked a
degree as the base- wide hoof. The inner wall is usually a little more

EXAMINATION OF HOOF BEFORE SHOEING. 575

slanting than the outer, the inner half of the sole wider than the
outer, and the inner quarter more curved than the outer. The outer
quarter is often flattened and drawn in at the bottom. The weight
falls largely into the outer half of the hoof. In motion the hoof
])reaks over the outer toe, is carried forward and outward at some
distance from the supporting leg, thence forward and inward to the
ground, which it generally meets with the outer toe. The foot thus
moves in a circle whose convexity is outward, a manner of flight
called " paddling." A base-narrow horse whose toes point straight
ahead frequently " interferes," while a toe-narrow (pigeon-toed)
animal seldom does.

A regular hoof (fig. 56), viewed from one side, has a straight foot-
axis inclined to the horizon at an angle of 45° to 50°. The weight
falls near the center of the foot and there is moderate expansion of
the quarters.

An acute-angled hoof (fig. 5«) has a straight foot-axis inclined at
an angle less than 45° to the horizon. The weight falls more largely
in the back half of the hoof and there is greater length of hoof in
contact with the ground and greater expansion of the heels than in
the regular hoof.

In the upright^ or stumpy, hoof (fig. 5c) the foot-axis is straight
and more than 55° steep. The hoof is relatively short from toe to
heel, the weight falls farther forward, and there is less expansion of
the heels than in the regular hoof.

Finally, there are wide hoofs and narrow hoofs, dependent solely
upon race and breeding. The wide hoof is almost circular on the
ground surface, the sole but little concave, the frog large, and the
quality of the horn coarse. The narrow hoof has a strongly
" cupped " sole, a small frog, nearly perpendicular side walls, and
fine-grained, tough horn.

Hind hoofs are influenced in shape by different directions of their
pasterns much as front feet are. A hind hoof is not round at the
toe as a front hoof is, but is more pointed. Its greatest width is
two-thirds of the way back from toe to heel, the sole is more concave,
the heels relatively wider, and the toe about 10° steeper than in front
hoofs.

EXAMINATION PRELIMINARY TO SHOEING.

The object of the examination is to ascertain the direction and posi-
tion of the limbs, the shape, character, and quality of the hoofs, the
form, length, position, and wear of the shoe, the number, distribu-
tion, and direction of the nails, the manner in which the hoof leaves
the ground, its line of flight, the manner in which it is set to the
ground, and all other peculiarities, that at the next and subsequent
shoeings proper allowances may be made and observed faults corrected.
The animal must, therefore, be observed both at rest and in motion.

576

DISEASES OF THE HOESE.

At rest, the observer should stand in front and note the slant of the
long pasterns. Do they drop perpendicularly, or slant downward
and outward (base-wide foot), or downward and inward (base-nar-
row foot) ? Whatever be the direction to the long pastern, an im-
aginary line passing through its long axis, when prolonged to the
ground, should apparently pass through the middle of the toe. But
if such line cuts through the inner toe the foot-axis is not straight, as
it should be, but is broken inward at the coronet, an indication that
either the outer wall of the hoof is too long (high) or that the inner
wall is too short (low) . On the contrary, if the center line of the long
pastern falls through the outer toe the foot-axis is broken outward at
the coronet, an indication that either the inner wall is too long or the
outer wall too short.

The observer should now place himself at one side, two or three
paces distant, in order to view the limb and hoof in profile. Note the
size of the hoof in relation to the height and weight of the animal,

Pig. 6. — a. Side view of foot with the foot-axis broken backward as a result of too long a
toe. The amount of horn to be removed from the toe in order to straighten the foot-
axis is denoted by a dotted line ; h, side view of a properly balanced foot, with a
straight foot-axis of desirable slant ; c, side view of stumpy foot with foot-axis broken
forward, as a result of overgrowth of the quarters. The amount of horn to he removed
in order to straighten the foot-axis is shown by a dotted line.

and Ihe obliquity of the hoof. Is the foot-axis straight — that is, does
the long pastern have the same slant as the toe, or does the toe of the
hoof stand steeper than the long pastern (fig. 6(?) ? In which case
the foot-axis is broken forward at the coronet, an indication, usually,
that the quarters are either too high or that the toe is too short.

If the long pastern stands steeper than the toe (fig. 6a) the foot-
axis is broken backward, in which case the toe is too long or the quar-
ters are too low (short) . In figures 6« and 6c the dotted lines passing
from toe to quarters indicate the amount of horn which must be
removed in order to straighten the foot-axis, as shown in figure 66.
Note also the length of the shoe.

Next, the feet should be raised and the examiner should note the
outline of the foot, the conformation of the sole, form and quality
of the frog, form of the shoe, wear of the shoe, and the number and

EXAMINATION OF HOOF BEFORE SHOEING. 577

distribution of the nails. Does the shoe fully cover the entire lower
border of the wall? or is it too narrow, or fitted so full on the inside
that it has given rise to interfering? or has the shoe been nailed on
crooked ? or has it become loose and shifted ? is it too short, or so wide
at the ends of the branches as not to support the buttresses of the
hoof? Does the shoe correspond with the form of the hoof? Are
the nails distributed so as to interfere as little as possible with the
expansion of the quarters? are there too many? are they too large?
driven too " fine " or too high ? These are questions which the
observer should put to himself.

Note carefully the wear of the old shoe. It is the unimpeachable
e^ddence of the manner in which the hoof has been set to the ground
since the shoe was nailed to it, and gives valuable " pointers " in lev-
eling the hoof. Wear is the effect of friction between the shoe and the
ground at the moment of contact. Since the properly leveled hoof
is set flat to the ground, the " grounding wear " of a shoe should be
uniform at every point, though the toe will always show wear due
to scouring at tlie moment of " breaking over." Everything which
tends to lengthen the stride tends also to make the " grounding wear "
more j^ronounced in the heels of the shoe, while all causes which
shorten the stride — as stiffening of the limbs through age, overwork,
or disease — bring the grounding wear nearer the toe.

An exception should be noted, however, in founder, in which the
grounding wear is most pronounced at the heels.

If one branch of the shoe is found to be worn much thinner than
the other, the thinner branch has either been set too near the middle
line of the foot (fitted too close), where it has been bearing greater
weight while rubbing against the ground, or, what is much more
often the case, the section of wall above the thinner branch has been
too long (too high), or the opposite section of wall has been too short
(too low) . " One-sided wear, uneven setting down of the feet, and an
unnatural course of the wall are often found together." How much
an old shoe can tell us, if we take time and pains to decipher its scars !

The horse should next be observed at a walk and at a trot or pace,
from in front, from behind, and from the side, and the " breaking
over," the carriage of the feet, and the manner of setting them to the
ground carefully noted and remembered. A horse does not always
move just as his standing position would seem to imply. Often there
is so great a difference in the form and slant of two fore hoofs or two
hind hoofs that we are in doubt as to their normal shape, when a few
steps at a trot will usually solve the problem instantly by showing us
the line of flight of the hoofs and referring them to the regular, base-
wide, or base-narrow form.

No man is competent either to shoe a horse or to direct the work
till he has made the precited observations.
H. Doc. 795, 59-2 37

578 DISEASES OF THE HORSB^

PREPARATION OF THE HOOF FOR THE SHOE.

After raising the clinches of the nails with a rather dull clinch-
cutter (" buffer ") and drawing the nails one at a time, the old shoe is
critically examined and laid aside. Kemaining stubs of nails are then
drawn or punched out and the hoof freed of dirt and partially de-
tached horn. The farrier has now to " dress " the overgrown hoof to
receive the new shoe ; in other words, he has to form a base of support
so inclined to the direction of the pasterns that in motion this surface
shall be set flat upon the ground. He must not rob the hoof nor
leave too much horn; either rrfistake may lead to injury. If he has
made a careful preliminary examination he knows what part of the
wall requires removal and what part must be left, for he already
knows the direction of the foot-axis and the wear of the old shoe, and
has made up his mind just where and how much horn must be re-
moved to leave the hoof of proper length and the foot-axis straight.

A greatly overgrown hoof may be quickly shortened with sharp
nippers, and the sole freed of semidetached flakes of horn. The con-
cave sole of a thick-walled, strong hoof may be pared out around the
point of the frog, but not so much as to remove all evidences of ex-
foliation. The wall should be leveled with the rasp till its full
thickness, the white line, and an eighth of an inch of the margin of
the sole are in one horizontal plane, called the " bearing surface of
the hoof." The bars if long may be shortened, but neve?' pared on the
side. The branches of the sole in the angle between the bars and the
wall of the quarters should be left a little lower than the wall, so as
not to be pressed upon by the inner web of the shoe. " Corns," or
bruises of the pododerm, are usually a result of leaving a thick mass
of dry, unyielding horn at this point. The frog should not be
touched further than to remove tags or layers that are so loose as to
form no protection. A soft frog will shorten itself spontaneously
by the exfoliation of superficial layers of horn, while if the frog is
dry, hard, and too prominent it is better to soften it by applying
moisture in some form, and to allow it to wear away naturally than
to pare it down. It is of advantage to have the frog project below
the level of the wall an amount equal to the thickness of a plain
shoe, though we rarely see frogs of such size except in draft horses.
The sharp lower border of the wall should be rounded with the rasp
to prevent its being bent outward and broken away. Finally, the
foot is set to the ground and again observed from all sides to make
sure that the lines bounding the hoof correspond with the direction
of the long pastern.

THE SHOE.

The shoe is an artificial base of support, by no means ideal, because
it interferes to a greater or less degree with the physiology of the

THE SHOE. 579

foot, but indispensable except for horses at slow work on soft ground.
Since a proper surface of support is of the greatest importance in
preser\dng the health of the feet and legs, it is necessary to consider
the various forms of shoes best adapted to the different forms of
hoofs. Certain properties are common to all shoes and may be con-
sidered first. They are form, width, thickness, length, surfaces, bor-
ders, " fullering," nail holes, and clips.

Form. — Every shoe should have the form of the hoof for which it
is intended, provided the hoof retains its proper shape ; but for every
hoof that has undergone change of form we must endeavor to give the
shoe that form which the hoof originally possessed. Front shoes and
hind shoes, rights and lefts, should be distinctly different and easily
distinguishable.

Width. — All shoes should be wider at the toe than at the ends of
the branches. The average width should be about double the thick-
ness of the wall at the toe.

Thickness. — The thickness should be sufficient to make the shoe last
about four weeks and should be uniform except in special cases.

Length. — This will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof viewed in
profile. The acute-angled hoof (fig. 5a) has long overhanging heels,
and a considerable proportion of the weight borne by the leg falls in
the posterior half of the hoof. For such a hoof the branches of the
shoe should extend back of the buttresses to a distance nearly double
the thickness of the shoe. For a hoof of the regular form (figs. 5&
and 8) the branches should project an amount equal to the thickness
of the shoe. In a stumpy hoof (fig. 5c) the shoe need not project
more than one-eighth of an inch. In all cases the shoe should cover
the entire " bearing surface " of the wall.

Surfaces. — The surface that is turned toward the hoof is known as
the " upper," or " hoof surface," of the shoe. That part of the hoof
surface which is in actual contact with the horn is called the " bearing
surface " of the shoe. The " bearing surface " should be perfectly
horizontal from side to side, and wide enough to support the full
thickness of the wall, the white line, and about an eighth of an inch of
the margin of the sole. The bearing surface should also be perfectly
flat, except that it may be turned up at the toe (" rolling-motion "
shoe, fig. 5 «, 5, c) . The surface between the bearing surface and the
inner edge of the shoe is often beaten down or concaved to prevent
pressure too far inward upon the sole. This " concaving," or " seat-
ing," should be deeper or shallower as the homy sole is less or more
concave. As a rule, strongly " cupped " soles require no concaving
(hind hoofs, narrow fore hoofs).

Borders. — The entire outer border should be beveled under the
foot. Such a shoe is not so readily loosened, nor is it so apt to lead to
interfering.

580

DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

Fullering. — This is a groove in the ground surface of the shoe. It
should pass through two-thirds of the thickness of the shoe, be clean,
and of uniform width. It is of advantage in that it makes the shoe
lighter in proportion to its width, and, by making the ground surface
somewhat rough, tends to prevent slipping.

Nail holes. — The shoe must be so " punched " that the nail holes will
fall directly on the white line. They should be confined to the fore
half of front shoes, but may occupy the anterior two-thirds of hind
shoes. For a medium-weight shoe three nail holes in each branch are
sufficient, but for heavier shoes, especially those provided with long
calks, eight holes are about right, though three on the inside and four
on the outside may do.

Clips. — These are half-circu-
lar ears drawn up from the
outer edge of the shoe either at
the toe or opposite the side wall.
The height of a clip should
equal the thickness of the shoe,
though they should be even
higher on hind shoes and when a
leather sole is interposed be-
tween shoe and hoof. Clips se-
cure the shoe against shifting.
A side clip should always be
drawn up on that branch of the
shoe that first meets the ground
in locomotion.

SPECIAL PECULIARITIES OF THE
CHIEF CLASSES OF SHOES.

Fig. 7.-Left fore hoof of regular form, shod with (1) A shoC for a regular hoof

a plain " fullered " shoe. Note the distribution (figs. 7 and 8) fits when its

of the nails, length of the fuller (crease), and , i i /» n .i n

the closeness of the ends of the shoe to the OUter border tollowS the Wall

branches of the frog. closcly in the rcgiou of the nail

holes and from the last nail to the end of the branch gradually pro-
jects beyond the surface of the wall to an eighth of an -inch and
extends back of the buttresses an amount equal to the thickness of
the shoe. The shoe must be straight, firm, air-tight, its nail holes
directly over the white line, and its branches far enough from the
branches of the frog to permit the passage of a foot pick. Branches
of the shoe must be of equal length.

In fitting a shoe to a hoof of regular form we follow the form of
the hoof, but in base-wide and base-narrow hoofs, which are of
irregular form, we must pay attention not only to the form of the
hoof, but also to the direction of the pasterns and the consequent

THE SHOE. 581

distribution of weight in the hoof, because where the most weight
falls the surface of support of the foot must be widened, and where
the least weight falls (opposite side of the hoof) the surface of sup-
port should be narrowed. In this way the improper distribution of
weight within the hoof is evenly distributed over the surface of
sujjport.

(2) A shoe for a hase-wide hoof should be fitted full on the inner
side of the foot and fitted close on the outer side, because the inner
side bears the most weight. The nails in the outer branch are
placed well back, but in the inner branch are crowded forward
toward the toe.

(3) ^ shoe for a hase-narroto hoof should be just the reverse of the
preceding. The outer branch should be somewhat longer than the
inner.

(4) A shoe for an acute-angled hoof should be long in the branches,
because most of the weight falls in the posterior half of the foot.
The support in front should be diminished either by turning the shoe
up at the toe or by beveling it under the toe (fig. 5a).

Fig. 8. — Side view of hoof and shoe shown in fig. 7. Note the straight toe, weak ring
formation running parallel to the coronet, clinches low down and on a level, length of
the shoe, and the under -bevel at the toe and heel.

(5) A shoe for a stumpy hoof should be short in the branches, and
for pronounced cases should increase the support of the toe, where
the most of the weight falls, by being beveled downward and forward.

In many cases, especially in draft horses where the hoofs stand
very close together, the coronet of the outer quarter is found to stand
out beyond the lower border of the quarter. In such cases the outer
branch of the shoe from the last nail back must be fitted so full that
an imaginary perpendicular dropped from the coronet will just meet
the outer border of the shoe. The inner branch, on the other hand,
must be fitted as " close " as possible. The principal thought should
be to set the new shoe farther toward the more strongly worn side.
Such a practice will render unnecessary the widespread and popular
fad of giving the outer quarter and heel calk of hind shoes an extreme

582 ' DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

outward bend. Care should be taken, however, that in fitting the
shoe " full " at the quarter the bearing surface of the hoof at the
quarter be not left unsupported or incompletely covered, to be
pinched and squeezed inward against the frog. This will be obviated
by making the outer branch of the shoe sufficiently wide and punch-
ing it so coarse that the nails will fall upon the white line.

HOT FITTING.

Few farriers have either the time or the skill necessary to so adjust
a cold shoe to the hoof that it will fit, as we say, " air-tight." Though
the opponents of hot fitting draw a lurid picture of the direful con-
sequences of applying a hot shoe to the hoof, it is only the abuse of
the practice that is to be condemned. If a heavy shoe at a yellow
heat be held tightly pressed against a hoof which has been pared too
thin, till it embeds itself, serious damage may be done. But a shoe at
a dark heat may be pressed against a properly dressed hoof long
enough to scorch, and thus indicate to the farrier the portions of horn
that should be lowered, without appreciable injury to the hoof, and
to the ultimate benefit of the animal.

The horse owner should insist on the nails being driven low. They'
should pierce the wall not above an inch and five-eighths above the
shoe. A nail penetrating the white line and emerging low on the
wall destroys the least possible amount of horn, has a wide and
strong clinch, rather than a narrow one, which would be formed near
the jDoint of the nail, and, furthermore, has the strongest possible
hold on the wall, because its clinch is pulling more nearly at a right
angle to the grain (horn tubes) of the wall than if driven high.
Finally, do not allow the rasp to touch the wall above the clinches.

THE BAR SHOE.

The bar shoe (fig. 9) has a variety of uses. It enables us to give
the frog pressure, to restore it to its original state of activity and
development when by reason of disuse it has become atrophied. It
gives the hoof an increased surface of support and enables us to re-
lieve one or both quarters of undue pressure that may have induced
inflammation and soreness. The bar of the shoe should equal the
average width of the remainder of the shoe and should press but
lightly on the branches of the frog. The addition of a leather sole
with tar and oakum sole-packing allows us to distribute the weight
of the body over the entire ground surface of the hoof.

THE RUBBER PAD.

Various forms of rubber pads, rubber shoes, rope shoes, fiber shoes,
and other contrivances to diminish shock and prevent slipping on the
hard and slippery pavements of our large cities are in use in differ-

EUBBER PADS FOE SHOES. 583

ent parts of the world. In Germany the rope shoe (a malleable-iron
shoe with a groove in its ground surface in which lies a piece of tarred

Fig. 9. — An acute-angled left fore hoof shod with a bar shoe. Note the width and posi-
tion of the bar and the fact that the nails are placed well toward the toe, so as not to
interfere with the expansion of the quarters.

rope) is extensively used with most gratifying results. It is cheap,
durable, easily applied, and effective.

Fig. 10.— a fairly formed right fore ice shoe for a roadster. The toe and outer heel calks cut at right
angles, and the inner-heel calk is slender and blunt. The back surface of the toe calk should be
perpendicular.

In the large cities of England and the United States rubber pads
are extensively used. They are rather expensive, but are quite effi-
cient in preventing slipping on polished and gummy pavements,

584

DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

though not so effective on ice.
the best of many rubber pads.

Figure 11 is an illustration of one of
The rubber is stitched and cemented
to a leather sole and is secured by
the nails of a three-quarter shoe.
Such a pad will usually last as
long as two shoes. They may be
used continuously, not only with-
out injury to the hoof, but to its

Fig. 11.— Left fore hoof of regular form shod with a
rubber pad and " three-quarter " shoe. (Ground
surface.)

great benefit. The belief, unsup-
ported by evidence, that rubber
pads " draw the feet " keeps many
from using them. A human foot
encased in a rubber boot may even-
tually be blistered by the sweat
poured upon the surface of the
skin and held there by the imper-
vious rubber till decomposition
takes place with the formation of
irritating fatty acids; but there is
no basis for an analogy in the hoof
of a horse.

Some drawings, designed to illustrate shoeing in connection with
" interfering " and " forging," are given herewith.

Fig. 12. — A narrow right fore hoof of the base-
wide (toe-wide) standing position, shod with a
plain "dropped-crease" shoe to prevent the toe-
cutting (interfering). The dotted line at the
inner toe indicates the edge of the wall which
was rasped away in order to narrow the hoof
along the striking section. Note the inward
bevel of the shoe at this point, the dropped
crease, the distribution of the nails, the long
"full" inner branch, and the short "close"
outer branch.

SPECIAL, SHOES.

585

Fig. 13. — Hoof surface of a right hind shoe to prevent interfering. The inner branch has
no nail holes and is fitted and beveled under the hoof. Note the number and position
of the nail holes, the clip on the outer side wall, and the narrowness and bend of the
inner branch.

Fig. 14. — Ground surface of shoe shown in the previous figure. The inner nailless branch
has the thickness of the outer branch plus its calk, so that the inner and outer quarters
of the hoof are equidistant from the ground.

586

DISEASES OP THE HOKSE.

Fig. 15. — Side view of a fore hoof shod so as to quicken the " breaking over " (quicken
the action) in a "forger." Note the short shoe, heel calks Inclined forward, and the
rolled toe.

Pig. 16. — Side view of a short-toed hind hoof of a forger, shod to slow the action and to
prevent injury to the fore heels by the toe of the hind shoe. Note the elevation of the
short toe by means of a toe calk and the projection of the toe beyond the shoe. When
such a hoof has grown more toe, the toe calk can be dispensed with and the shoe set
farther forward.

SPECIAL SHOES.

587

Pia. 17. — A toe-weight shoe to increase the length of stride of fore feet. The nails are
placed too far back, and the shoe has no characteristic form, but the weight is properly
placed.

Fig. 18. — Most common form of punched heel-weight shoe to induce high action in fore

feet. The* profile of the shoe shows a " roll " at the toe and " swelled " heels. The

» weight is well placed, but "rolling" the toe and raising the heel's lower action. The

shoe would be much more effective if of uniform thicJiness and with no roll at the toe.

IJS^DEX:

Abdomen— Pa&e-

dropsy, in foal, or ascites, description and treatment 172

dropsy, or ascites, description, symptoms, and treatment 71

limbs, and perineum, dropsy affecting, description and treatment 159

sheath, and penis, swelling, cause and treatment 149

Abnormal presentations at birth 176-181

Abortion, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 161

and inflammation of lymphatic glands, description, symptoms, and treat-
ment ! 249

in lung and suppuration, symptoms 135

Abscesses —

acute, description and treatment 475

cold, description and treatment 476

description 474

in throat, treatment 46

Acariasis, or mange, note 450 '

Acari, parasites of eye 273

Achorion schonleini, vegetable parasite of skin, description. ... 450

Adams, John W., chapter on "Shoeing" 565-687

Air embolism, or air in veins, note 247

Albuminoid poisoning, hemoglobinuria, azoturia, or azotemia, symptoms, pre-
vention, and treatment 82

Amaurosis, or palsy of nerve of sight, causes, symptoms, and treatment 210, 272

Amnion, dropsy, description and treatment 159

Anasarca, or purpura hemorrhagica, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc 508, 510

Anatomy and physiology of brain and nervous system 190

Anemia —

spinal, symptoms and treatment 214

of brain, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment 203

Aneurism —

description, symptoms, pathology, and treatment ; . 242

one form caused by Strongylus vulgaris 243

Anidian monsters, or moles, description 158

Animal parasites, description of kinds 450

Ankle —

and fetlock, skin, note 371

fetlock, and foot, diseases, chapter by A. A. Holcombe 369, 430

Ankles, cocked, or knuckling, description, causes, and treatment 374

Anthrax, definition, causes, symptoms, and treatment 529-532

Apoplexy, or cerebral hemorrhage, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treat-
ment 200

Arteries —

description 227

diseases, or arteritis, and endarteritis, description, symptoms, pathology,

and treatment 240

589

590 INDEX.

Page.
Arteritis, or diseases of arteries, or endarteritis, description, symptoms, and

treatment 240

Artery —

constriction, description 244

rupture, description, symptoms, and treatment 242

Arthritis, open joints, broken knees, and synovitis, cause and treatment 332

Ascaris equorum, intestinal worm, note 60

Ascites, or dropsy of abdomen, description, symptoms, and treatment 71, 172

Asthma, heaves, or broken wind, definition, symptoms, and treatment 137

Atheroma of veins and arteries, description 242

Autumn mange, description and treatment 452

Azotemia, hemoglobinuria, azoturia, poisoning by albuminoids, symptoms,

prevention, and treatment 82

Azoturia, hemoglobinuria, azotemia, poisoning by albuminoids, symptoms,

prevention, and treatment 82

Balls, or pills, description and manner of administering 28

Bar shoe, uses 575

Bees, wasps, and hornets, stings, treatment , 454

Beets as feed 41

Bighead (osteoporosis) —

chapter by John R. Mohler 559-564

symptoms, lesions, and treatment 563

Biliary calculi, or gallstones, symptoms and treatment 74

Bilocular cavity, or calculus in sheath, or preputial calculus, description and

treatment 103

Birth, abnormal presentations at 176-181

Black pigment tumors, or melanosis, description and treatment 449

Bladder-
calculus, or stone, and tumor affecting 169

diseased growths, symptoms and treatment 92

eversion, description and treatment 93

inflammation, cystitis, or urocystitis, symptoms and treatment 90

irritable, cause and treatment 91

neck, spasms affecting, causes, symptoms, and treatment 87, 205

paralysis, description and cause , 210

paralysis, symptoms and treatment 89

stone, vesical calculus, or cystic calculus, description, symptoms, and

treatment 100

worms of kidney 87

Bleeding —

after castration, treatment 149

from lungs, or hemoptysis, causes, description, and treatment 136

from nose, causes and treatment ► . - . 112

or flooding from womb, treatment 184

skin eruptions, or Dermatorrhagia parasitica, description and treatment — 441

Blisters, inflammation, or eczema, description and treatment 437

Bloat colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57

Blood-
circulation of heart, description 226

clots in walls of vagina 187

medicines administered into veins 33

of penis, extravasation, causes and treatment 145

spavin, bog spavin, and thoroughpin, description and treatment 331

INDEX. 591

Blood vessels — Page.

and heart, diseases, remarks 228

heart, and lymphatics, diseases, chapter by M. R. Trumbower 225-250

physiology and anatomy 225

Bloody urine, or hematuria, cause and treatment 82

Blowing, high, description 119

Bluebottle ( Lucilia csesar), note 453

Bog spavin, blood spavin, and thorough pin, description and treatment. 331

Boil of eyelid, description and treatment 259

Boils—

or Dermatitis granulosa 442

or furuncles, description and treatment 439

Bone—

hip, fracture, or os innominatum, description, symptoms, prognosis, and

treatment 317

premaxillary, fractures, description and treatment 312

spavin. (5ee Spavin.)

cannon, fractures, description, symptoms, and treatment 325

cranial, fractures, causes, symptoms, and treatment 310

diseases, description 284

dislocations and luxations, cause, symptoms, and treatment 336

of face, fractures, description, and treatment 311

of fetlock and foot, description 369

of hip, fractures, causes 167

one system of locomotion 275, 277

sesamoid, fractures, cause, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 328

Botfly, treatment 61

Bowels, twisting, volvulus, or gut-tie, cause, symptoms, and treatment 56

Brain —

and membranes, inflammation, description 192, 193

and nervous system, anatomy and physiology 190

anemia, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment 203

compression, causes, symptoms, and treatment 201

concussion, causes, symptoms, treatment, and prevention 202

congestion, or megrims, description, causes, symptoms, treatment, and

prevention 197

description 191

dropsy, or hydrocephalus, causes, symptoms, and treatment 203

Bran, value as feed 40

Broken knee, open joints, synovitis, and arthritis, cause, prognosis, and treat-
ment 332

Broken wind, heaves, or asthma, definition, symptoms, and treatment 137

Bronchitis —

and broncho-pneumonia, description, symptoms, and treatment 129

chronic, description and treatment 119

Broncho-pleuro-pneumonia, description _ 135

Broncho-pneumonia and bronchitis, description, symptoms, and treatment 129

Bruise of frog, causes, symptoms, and treatment 399

Bruises, description and treatment 464

Burns and scalds, treatment 455, 471

Calculi-
biliary, or gallstones, symptoms and treatment 74

or stones, in intestines, description, symptoms, and treatment 55

592 INDEX.

Calculi — Continued. Page.

or stones, in stomach, symptoms and treatment 54

renal, description, symptoms, and treatment 98

uretral, description and treatment 99

urinary, classification 98

urinary, stone, or gravel 94, 97

Calculus —

in sheath, or bilocular cavity, or preputial calculus, description and treat-
ment 103

or stone, and tumor in bladder 169

urethral, or stone in urethra, description, symptoms, and treatment 102

vesical, stone in bladder, or cystic calculus, description, symptoms and

treatment 100

Calk wounds, description and treatment 379

Callosities —

description 448

sloughing, horny sloughs, or sitfasts, description and treatment 448, 470

Cancer, epithelial, or epithelioma, description and treatment 449

Canker —

of foot, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 392

or grease (inflammation of heels with sebaceous secretion), description,

causes, symptoms, and treatment 444

Cannon bone —

description 369

fractures, description, symptoms, and treatment 325

Capped elbow, cause, symptoms, and treatment 354

Capped hock, cause, symptoms, and treatment 359

Capped knee, description, cause, treatment, etc 357

Cardiac enlargement, or hypertrophy of heart, description, symptoms, and

treatment 237

Caries of cartilage, or tumor of haw, description and treatment 261

Carrots, value as feed 41

Cartilaginous quittor, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 389

Cartilago nictitans, or winking cartilage (the haw), description 253

Castration —

bleeding after operation, treatment 149

by covered operation, method 151

of cryptorchids, or ridglings, method 148

of mare, method 151

of stallions, methods 147

pain after operation, treatment 149

successful method 148

Cataract, remarks 272

Catarrh—

chronic, nasal gleet, or collection in sinuses, causes, symptoms, and treat-
ment 108

gastro-intestinal, or indigestion, cause, symptoms, and treatment 61

nasal, or cold in head, symptoms and treatment 107

Cerebral hemorrhage, or apoplexy, causes, symptoms, and treatment 200

Cerebritis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 193

Cerebro-spinal meningitis, so-called, or forage poisonmg, causes, symptoms,

and treatment 217

Cervical choke, description 47, 48

Chaff for feeding 39

INDEX. 5^3

Page.
Chaps on knee and hock, scratches, or cracked heels, description, causes, and

treatment 443

Chest walls, wounds penetrating, description and treatment 140

Cheyletus, or Gamarus pteroptoides, animal parasites 452

Chicken acari, or Dermanyssus gallincv, animal parasite of skin 452 .

Chigoe, or jigger —

larvae of Trombidium, Lepius americanus, animal parasite of skin 452

{Pidex penetrans), bite, treatment '^54

Choke-
cervical, description 47, 48

pharyngeal, cervical, and thoracic, symptoms and treatment 47

Chorea, or St. Vitus dance, description and treatment 207

Chorioptes —

bovis {Sijmbiotes equi, Dermatophagus equi), animal parasite of skin 452

spaihiferus, animal parasite of skin. '152

Choroiditis, cause, symptoms, and treatment 265

Chronic bronchitis, description and treatment 119

Circinate ringworm, or Tinea tonsurans, description, symptoms, treatment 449

Circulation organs, methods of examination 15

Clubfoot, description 372

Clysters, or enemas, description and manner of administering 32

Cocked ankles, or knuckling, description, causes, and treatment 374

Coffinbone, description 370

Coffin joint, description 370

Cold in head, or nasal catarrh, symptoms and treatment . .' 107

Colic-
bloat, cause, symptoms, and treatment - 57

cramp, or spasmodic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 58

flatulent, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57

obstruction, caused by impaction of large intestine, symptoms and treat-
ment 52

specific forms ■ 50

wind, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57

worm, description, symptoms, and treatment 59

tympanitic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57

Compression of brain, causes, symptoms, and treatment 201

Concussion —

of brain, causes, symptoms, and treatment 202

spinal, causes and treatment 215

Conformation —

of foot, faults.. 372

of horse 12

Congenital scrotal hernia, description and treatment 67

Congestion —

active, causes "^85

and inflammation of skin, description of kinds ■ 434

and inflammation of testicles, or orchitis, causes, symptoms, and treat-
ment . - 142

description 484

of brain, or megrims, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc 197

of heart, description and symptoms 240

of lungs, description and treatment 120

of skin, red efflorescence, or erythema, description and treatment 434

of skin, with small pimples, or papules, description and treatment 436

H. Doc. 795, 59-2 38

594 INDEX.

Congestion — Continued. Page.

of spine, cause, symptoms, and treatment 213

passive, causes 486

Conjunctivitis, or external ophthalmia, description, causes, symptoms, and

treatment 262

Constipation, or costiveness, cause and treatment 54, 160

Constitution of horse 12

Consumption, or tuberculosis, note 136

Convulsions, description and treatment 206

Cord-
spermatic, strangulated, cause and treatment 149

spermatic, tumors, causes and treatment 150

spinal, description 192

Cornea —

ulcers, treatment 265

white specks and cloudiness, cause and treatment 265

Corn, or maize, how to feed 40

Corns, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 394

Coronary band, description 371

Coronet —

description 370

fractures, symptoms and treatment 327

Costiveness, or constipation, cause and treatment 54, 160

Cough, chronic, description 139

Cracked heels, or scratches, causes, and treatment 443

Cramp —

of hind limb, or spasm of thigh, description and treatment 205

or spasmodic, coUc, cause, symptoms, and treatment 58

Cramps —

of hind limbs, cause and treatment 160

or spasms, causes and treatment 205

Cranial bones, fractures, causes, symptoms, and treatment 310

Cranium, tumor within, description of kinds 204

Crookedfoot, description 373

Croup and diphtheria, mistakes in diagnosis 117

Cryptorchids, or ridglings, castration, method 148

Curb of hock, cause, symptoms, and treatment 349

Cutaneous quittor, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 381

Cuticle, description ■ 432

Cyanosis of newborn foals, description 240

Cystic calculus, or stone in bladder, description, symptoms and treatment 100

Cystic disease of wall of womb, or vesicular mole, description and treatment. . 158
Oysticercus fistularis —

parasite of bladder 87

? parasite of eye 273

Cystitis, inflammation of bladder, or urocystitis, symptoms and treatment 90

Dermanyssus galling', or chicken acari, animal parasite of skin 452

Dermatitis granulosa, or boils - 442

Dermatocoptes equi, animal parasite of skni 452

Dermatodectes equi, animal parasite of skin 452

Dermatophagus equi, animal parasite of skin 452

Dermatorrhagia parasitica, or bleeding skin eruptions, description and treatment. 441

Dermis, or true skin, description 432

INDEX. 595

Diabetes — Page,
insipidus, diuresis, polyuria, or excessive secretion of urine, causes, symp-
toms, and treatment 79

mellitus, saccharine diabetes, glycosuria, or inosuria, causes, symptoms,

and treatment 80

Diaphragmatic hernia, description 70

Diaphragm —

rupture, cause and symptoms 141

spasm, or thumps, description and treatment 1-41, 205

Diarrhea, causes, symptoms, and treatment 62

Digestive organs, diseases, chapter by Ch. B. Michener 34-74

Digestive tract, examination 21

Dilatation —

of heart, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 239

of veins, varicose veins, or varix, causes and treatment 247

Dioctophyme renale, roundworm of kidney 87

Diphtheria and croup, mistakes in diagnosis 117

Diseases, general, chapter by Rush Shippen Huidekoper 482-545

Dislocations and luxations of bones, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc 336

Distemper. (See Strangles. )

Diuresis, polyuria, diabetes insipidus, or excessive secretion of urine, causes,

symptoms, and treatment 79

Douche, nasal, in administering medicines 31

Dourine, or maladie du coit, description and treatment 146

Drench, methods 29

Dropsies, synovial, remarks 330

Dropsy —

general, of fetus, description and treatment 173

of abdomen in foal, or ascites, description and treatment 172

of abdomen, or ascites, description, symptoms, and treatment 71

of amnion, description and treatment 159

of brain, or hydrocephalus, causes, symptoms, and treatment 203

of limbs, perineum, and abdomen, description and treatment 159

of scrotum, or hydrocele, symptoms and treatment 144

of womb, cause, symptoms, and treatment 158

Dysentery, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 64

Echinococcus —

parasite of eye 273

parasite of kidney 87

Ectropion and entropion, or eversion and inversion of eyelid, causes and

treatment 259

Eczema, or inflammation with blisters, description and treatment 437

Edematous pneumonia, definition, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc 520-524

Elbow-
capped, cause, symptoms, and treatment 354

muscles, sprain, causes, symptoms, and treatment 343

Electric shock, causes, description, and treatment 224

Electuries, or pastes, description and manner of administenng 29

Embolism-
air, or air in veins, note 247

and thrombus, description, symptoms, and treatment 244

Embryotomy of parts at abnormal births 182

Emphysema, or swelling of fetus with gas, description and treatment 173

Encephalitis, cause, symptoms, and treatment 193

Endarteritis, and arteritis, description, symptoms, and treatment 240

596 INDEX.

Endocarditis, or inflammation of lining membrane of heart, cause, symptoms,

and treatment 229

Enemas, or clysters, description and manner of administering 32

Engorgement colic, description, symptoms, and treatment 50

Enteritis, definition 50

Entropion and ectropion, or inversion and eversion of eyelid, causes and

treatment 259

Epilepsy, or falling fits, symptoms and treatment 207

Epithelial cancer, or epithelioma, description and treatment 449

Epithelioma —

degeneration of penis, or papillioma 145

or epithelial cancer, description and treatment 449

Equine variola, or horsepox, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc 524-529

Eruptions, bleeding skin, or Dermatorrhagia parasitica, description and treat-
ment 441

Erysipelas, description, cause, and treatment 446

Erythema, congestion of skin, or red effloresence, description and treatment. 434
Esophagus —

dilatation, causes, symptoms, and treatment 49

or gullet, treatment for foreign bodies 46

stricture, description and treatment 49

Eversion —

and inversion of eyelid, or ectropion and entropion, causes and treatment. 259

of bladder, description and treatment 93

or womb after diflacult parturition, treatment 185

Exostosis, cause, description, and treatment 284

Extravasation of blood of penis, causes and treatment 145

Eye-
diseases, chapter by James Law 251-273

examination 254

haw, or winking cartilage, description 253

lachrymal apparatus 254

muscles, description 253

palsy of nerve of sight, Oi amaurosis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 272

parasites affecting, description of different kinds 273

watering, or obstruction of lachrymal apparatus, description and remedies. 261
Eyeball-
description 251

tumors affecting 272

Eyelid—

diseases, description of different kinds 255

inflammation, causes and treatment 257

inversion and eversion, or entropion and ectropion, causes and treatment- 259

sty, or furuncle (boil), affecting, description and treatment 259

torn, or wounds affecting, description and treatment — 260

warts and tumors affecting, description and treatment 260

Face bones, fractures, description and treatment 311

Facial paralysis, cause and symptoms 210

Fainting, or syncope, symptoms and treatment 237

Farcy —

and glanders, definition, causes, etc 532-544

chronic, symptoms - 538

Fatty degeneration of heart, causes, symptoms, and treatment -239

Favus, or honeycomb ringworm, description and treatment 450

INDEX. 597

Fage.

Feces, impaction of rectum 170

Feet, interfering, causes, symptoms, and treatment 373

Femur, fracture, cause, symptoms, and treatment 323

Fetlock—

and ankle skin, note 371

and foot bones, description 369

ankle, and foot, diseases, chapter by A. A. Holcombe 369-430

joint, description 370

knuckling, causes, symptoms, and treatment 347

sprain, causes, symptoms, and treatment 376

Fetus-
adherent to walls of womb, description, cause, and treatment 171

excessive size 171

general dropsy, description and treatment 173

or foal, prolonged retention, cause and treatment 160

swelling with gas, or emphysema, description and treatment 173

tumors, or inclosed ovum, description and treatment 174

Fever, description, causes, and treatment 493-498

Fibrous bands constricting and crossing neck of womb, description and treat-
ment 170

Fibrous constriction of vagina or vulva, cause and treatment 171

Filaria —

conjunctiva:, parasite of eye 273

equina, parasite of eye 273

hssmorrhagica, threadworm causing skin disease 441

irritans, .parasite causing summer sores, description and treatment 442

multipapillosa, threadworm causing bleeding skin eruptions 441

. palpebralis, parasite of eye 273

Fistulas, causes, symptoms, and treatment 477-481

Fits, falling, or epilepsy, symptoms and treatment 207

Flatfoot, description 372

Flatulent colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57

Flea, or pulex, prevention and treatment of bite 454

Flesh fly {Sarcophaga carnuria), note 453

Flexor —

metatarsis, rupture, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 352

pedis perforans, description 371

pedis perforatus, description 371

tendons or their sheath, and suspensory ligaments, sprains, cause, symp-
toms, and treatment J 345

Flies, method of attacking horses, prevention and treatment for bite 453

Flooding, or bleeding from womb, treatment 184

Flyblow, or grubs in skin, description and treatment 453

Foal-
contractions of muscles, description and treatment 173

monstrosities, description of kinds, causes, and treatment 174

natural presentation 164

prolonged retention, cause and treatment 160

water in head, or hydrocephalus, description and treatment 172

Foals, newborn, cyanosis affecting, description 240

Food-
kinds to give 36

musty and moldy, effect on digestive organs 38

• preparation 41

598

INDEX.

Foot. {See also Tlooi.) Page.

anatomical review 369, 559

and fetlock bones, description 369

canker, causes, symptoms, and treatment 392

conformation, faults 372

fetlock, and ankle, diseases, chapter by A. A. Holcombe 369-430

mange, description and treatment 452

punctured wounds, description, symptoms, and treatment. 400

sand-cracks, causes, symptoms, and treatment 405

sole, description 371

Forage poisoning, or cerebro-spinal meningitis, symptoms and treatment 217

Forearm, fracture, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 321

Founder, or laminitis —

acute, subacute, and chronic, description 421

complications 422

curative measures 428

description and causes 414

following parturition, cause 188

sequel of superpurgation 64

symptoms 417

treatment and prevention 426

Fractures —

causes and symptoms .297

description of different kinds 297

of different bones, description 310

prognosis and treatment 303

Frog-
bruises, causes, symptoms, and treatment 399

description 371

Frostbites, description, symptoms, and treatment 379

Furuncle —

or boil, description and treatment 439

or sty (boil), of eyelid, description and treatment 259

Galls, harness, or sitfasts, description and treatment 448, 470

Gallstones, or biliary calculi, symptoms and treatment 74

Gamariis pteroptoides and cheyletus, animal parasites of skin 452

Gangrene —

or mortification, causes 136

or mortification, description, symptoms, and treatment 473

Gas, swelling of fetus, or emphysema, description and treatment 173

Gastritis, definition 50

Gastro-enteritis, description, symptoms, and treatment 65

Gastro-intestinal catarrh, or indigestion, description, cause, symptoms, and

treatment - - 61

Generative organs, diseases affecting, chapter by James Law 142-189

Genito-urinary passages, method of medication 33

Gestation, extra-uterine, description, symptoms, and treatment 157

Glanders —

acute, symptoms 541

and farcy, definition, causes, etc 532-544

chronic, symptoms 540

treatment 544

INDEX. 599

Glands — Page.

lymphatic, description, symptoms, and treatment 249

sebaceous, description 433-

sweat, description 434

Gleet-
inflammation of urethra, of urethritis, symptoms and treatment 93

nasal, chronic catarrh, or collection in sinuses, causes, symptoms, and

treatment 108

Glossitis, description and treatment 45

Glottis, spasm, description . . 205

Glycosuria, saccharine diabetes, diabetes mellitus, or inosuria, causes, symp-
toms, and treatment 80

Grains for feeding 39

Grasses, important feed 41

Gravel —

urinary calculi, or stone, causes 97

urinary calculi, or stone, description ^. 94

Grease, or canker, causes, symptoms, and treatment 444

Grubs —

or flyblow, description and treatment • 453

under the skin, description and treatment 453

Grunting, testing 118

Gullet, or esophagus, treatment for foreign bodies 46

Gunshot wounds, description and treatment 469

Gut-tie, volvulus, or twisting of bowels, cause, symptoms, and treatment 56

Guttural pouches, description and treatment 128

Hairs on skin, description 433

Harbaugh, W. H., chapter on " Diseases of respiratory organs" 104-141

Harness galls, or sitfasts, description and treatment 448, 470

Harvest bug,Jarv£e of Trombidium, Leptus americanus, jigger (chigoe), animal

parasite of skiq 452

Haw —

tumor, or caries of cartilage of the eye, description and treatment 261

or winking cartilage of the eye, description 253

Hay, kinds for feeding 38

Heart-
adventitious growths, description, symptoms, and treatment 236

anatomy and physiology 225

and blood vessels, diseases, remarks 228

blood vessels, and lymphatics, diseases, chapter by M. R. Trumbower.. 225-250

circulation of blood, description 226

congestion, description and symptoms 240

dilatation, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 239

fatty degeneration, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 239

hypertrophy, or cardiac enlargement, description, symptoms, and treat-
ment 237

inflammation of lining membrane, or endocarditis, cause, description,

symptoms, and treatment 229

inflammation of muscular structure, or myocarditis, symptoms, alterations,

and treatment 229

inflammation of sac inclosing, or pericarditis, causes, symptoms, and treat-
ment 233

inflammatory diseases^ description and treatment 229

600 INDEX.

Heart— Continued. Page.

palpitation, description, symptoms, and treatment 236

rupture, description and cause 240

valvular disease, description, symptoms, and treatment 235

weakness, causes, symptoms, and treatment 240

Heat exhaustion, sunstroke, or heat stroke, symptoms, pathology, treatment,

and prevention 199

Heaves, broken wind, or asthma, definitions, symptoms, and treatment 137

Heels —

contracted, or hoof-bound, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment. 403
cracked, scratches, or chaps on knee and hock, description, causes, and

treatment 443

inflammation, with sebaceous secretion, grease, or canker, description,

causes, symptoms, and treatment 444

Hematuria, or bloody urine, cause and treatment 82

Hemiplegia, or paralysis of one side, or half the body, description and symp-
toms , 208

Hemoglobinuria, azoturia, azotemia, poisoning by albuminoids, symptoms,

prevention, and treatment 82

Hemoptysis, or bleeding from lungs, causes, description, and treatment 136

Hemorrhage —

process of healing and method of treatment 461

spinal, symptoms and treatment 214

Hemorrhoids, or piles, description and treatment 66

Hemostasia, description and treatment 460

Hepatitis, or inflammation of liver, symptoms, causes, and treatment 72

Hernia —

congenital scrotal, description and treatment 67

diaphragmatic, description 70

inguinal, description, symptoms, and treatment 67

of womb, description and treatment ,. 168

or rupture, description of different kinds 67

scrotal, cause 67

umbilical, description and treatment 69

ventral, description and treatment 68

Herpes, description and treatment 441

High blowing, description - 119

Hip-
bone, or OS innominatum, description, symptoms, and treatment 317

bones, fractured, causes ^ 167

joint, luxation, description and treatment 338

lameness, description, symptoms, and treatment 344

Hock—

and knee, chaps or scratches, description, causes, and treatment 443

capped, cause, symptoms, and treatment 359

curb, cause, symptoms, and treatment 349

fractures, note 325

Holcombe, A. A., chapter on "Diseases of ankle, fetlock, and foot" 369-430

Honeycomb ringworm, or favus, description and treatment 450

Hoof. {See also Foot. )

-bound, or contracted heels, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment. . 403

description 371

growth 564

healthy, characteristics 572

INDEX. 601

Hoof— Continued. Page.

physiological movements 569

preparation for the ehoe 578

Hoofs—

• unshod, care 571

various forms 573

Hornets, bees, and wasps, treatment for stings 454

Horny sloughs (sitfasts), or sloughing callosities, description and treatment. 448, 470

Horsepox, or equine variola, causes, symptoms, and treatment 524-529

Horses, anatomy, description 276

Horseshoe. (-See Shoe.)
Horse, sick —

attitude and general condition indicative of disease 10

conformation and constitution 12

examination, chapter by Leonard Pearson 9-27

history of diseases necessary in examination 10

Huidekoper, Rush Shippen, chapter on ' ' General diseases " 482-544

Humerus, fractures, symptoms and treatment 320

Hydrocele, or dropsy of scrotum, symptoms and treatment 144

Hydrocephalus —

or dropsy of brain, causes, symptoms, and treatment 203

or water in head, of foal, description and treatment 172

Hydrophobia. {See Rabies. )

Hydrothorax, treatment . . 134

Hypertrophy of heart, or cardiac enlargement, description, symptoms, and

treatment 237

Hypoderma-lineata, note 453

Icterus, jaundice, or yellows, description and treatment 73

Impaction —

of large intestine, cause of obstruction colic, symptoms and treatment 52

of rectum with feces 170

Indigestion, or gastro-intestinal catarrh, description, causes, symptoms, and

treatment 61

Infectious anemia —

chapter by John R. Mohler 551-554

cause and localities infected 551

diagnosis and treatment 553

symptoms and lesions 552

Inflammation —

acute, of kidneys, or acute nephritis, causes, symptoms, and treatment. . 84

and abscess of lymphatic glands, description, symptoms, and treatment.. 249

and congestion of skin, description of kinds 434

and congestion of teats and udder, symptoms and treatment 188

and congestion of testicles, or orchitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment. . 142

chronic, of kidneys, causes, symptoms, and treatment 86

description, symptoms, termination, and treatment 487-493

local, and abscess of lymphatic glands, description, symptoms, and treat-
ment 249

of bladder, cystitis, or urocystitis, symptoms and treatment 90

of brain and its membranes, description 192, 193

of eyelids, causes and treatment 257

of heels, with sebaceous secretion, grease, or canker, description, causes,

symptoms, and treatment 444

of lining membrane of heart, or endocarditis, cause, description, symp-
toms, and treatment 229

of liver, or hepatitis, symptoms, causes, and treatment 72

of membranes, a complication of influenza 505

of membranes of spinal cord, causes, symptoms, and treatment 211

602 INDEX.

Inflammation — Continued. Page,
of muscular structure of heart, or myocarditis, symptoms, alterations, and

treatment 229

of nerve, or neuritis, cause, symptoms, and treatment 216

of pharynx, description H2

of sac inclosing heart, or pericarditis, causes, symptoms, pathology, and

treatment 233

of substance of spinal cord, or myelitis, causes, symptoms, pathology, and

treatment 213

of urethra, urethritis, or gleet, symptoms and treatment 93

of womb and peritoneum, symptoms and treatment 187

with blisters, or eczema, description and treatment 437

with pustules, description and treatment 438

Inflammatory diseases of the heart, description and treatment 229

Influenza, definition, symptoms, termination, complications, and treatment. 498-508

Inguinal hernia, description, symptoms, and treatment 67

Inhalation, manner of administering medicines 31

Injections, methods of administering medicines 31

Inosuria, saccharine diabetes, diabetes mellitus, or glycosuria, causes, symp-
toms, and treatment , 80

Insufflation, description 31

Interfering —

and speedy cuts, description, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 362

of feet, causes, symptoms, and treatment 373

Intestinal —

paralysis, cause 210

worm, or Ascaris equorum, note 60

and stomach, diseases, remarks 49

calculi, or stones, description, symptoms, and treatment 55

large, impaction, cause of obstruction colic, symptoms and treatment 52

paralysis, description and treatment 56

spasms 205

Intussusception, or invagination, description, symptoms, and treatment 56

Invagination, or intussusception, description, symptoms, and treatment 56

Iritis, causes, symptoms, and treatment.. 265

Irritation, nervous, of skin, or pruritus, description and treatment 441

Jaundice, icterus, or yellows, description and treatment 73

Jaw, lower, fracture, description, . causes, and treatment 312

Jigger, or chigoe, Leptus americanus, animal parasite of skin 453

Joint —

hip, luxation, description and treatment 337

shoulder, displacement, description and treatment 337

Joints —

diseases, note 329

open, cause, prognosis, and treatment 332

Kidneys —

acute inflammation, or acute nephritis, causes, symptoms, and treatment. 84

chronic inflammation, causes, symptoms, and treatment 86

bladder worm and round worm affecting 87

tumors, note 87

Knee-
broken, cause, prognosis, and treatment 332

capped, description, cause, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 357

fracture, cause, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 322

INDEX. 603

Knee — Continued. Page,
or hock, chaps, scratches, or cracked heels, description, causes, and treat-
ment 443

Knees, sprung, cause, symptoms, and treatment 348

Knuckling —

of fetlock, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 347

or cocked ankles, description, causes, and treatment 374

Labor pains, prematrre, cause and treatment 166

Lachrymal apparatus of eye —

description 254

obstruction, or watering eye, description and remedy 261

Lameness —

definition; physiology and description 279

how to detect the seat 283

how to discover 1 280

its causes and treatment, chapter by A. A. Liautard 274-368

of hip, description, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 344

of shoulder, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 340

Laminte, sensitive, description 372

Laminitis, or founder. (See Founder, or laminitis. )

Lam pas, description and treatment 44

Laryngismus paralyticus, or roaring, description and treatment 117, 210

Laryngitis, or sore throat, description, symptoms and treatment 112

Larynx, spasms, description and treatment 116

Law, James —

chapter on "Diseases of the eye" 251-273

chapter on ' ' Diseases of the generative organs " 142-189

chapter on "Diseases of the skin" 431^58

chapter on ' ' Diseases of the urinary organs " 75-103

Lead poisoning, or plumbism, causes, symptoms, and treatment 223

Leptus americanus, or harvest bug, animal parasite of skin 452

Leucorrhea, description and treatment 188

Liautard, A., chapter on "Lameness: Its causes and treatment" 274-368

Lice, or i^ediculi, description and treatment for bite 454

Ligament —

suspensory, description 370

suspensory, rupture, description, symptoms, and treatment 377

Ligaments —

description and functions 278

suspensory, sprains, causes, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 345

Limbs —

hind, cramp, cause and treatment 159

perineum, and abdomen, dropsy, description and treatment 159

Linseed, ground, value as laxative 40

Liver-
diseases, remarks 71

inflammation, or hepatitis, symptoms, causes, and treatment 72

rupture, causes, symptoms, and treatment 73

Lockjaw, or tetanus, causes, symptoms, prevention, and treatment 219

Locomotor ataxia, or incoordination of movement, description 209

Loins, sprains, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 367

Lucilia cwsar, or bluebottle, and L. Iwminivorax, or screwworm fly, note 453

604 INDEX.

Lung- Page.

abscess, and suppuration, symptoms , 135

fever, or pneumonia, description, symptoms, and treatment 122

Lungs —

bleeding, or hemoptysis, causes, description, and treatment 136

congestion, description and treatment 120

description 120

Luxations and dislocations of bones, cause, symptoms, and treatment 336

Lymphangitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 250

Lymphatic —

glands, local inflammation, and abscess affecting, descrii^tion, symptoms,

and treatment 249

system, diseases, description 249

Lymphatics, heart, and blood vessels, diseases, chapter by M. R. Trum bower. 225-250
Madness, rabies, or hydrophobia, cause, symptoms, treatment, and preven-
tion 222, 547

Maize, or corn, how to feed 40

Maladie du coit, or dourine, description and treatment 146

autumn, and mange of foot, description and treatment 452

or acariasis, note 450

Mare —

castration, method 151

pregnant, hygiene 156

sterility, causes and treatment 151

Masturbation, or self-abuse, remedy 145

Meat fly, or Musca vomitoria, note 453

Medicines, methods of administering, chapter by Ch. B. Michener 28-33

Megrims, or congestion of brain, description, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc. 197

Melanosis, or black pigment tumor, description and treatment 449

Membrane —

lining, of heart, inflammation, or endocarditis, cause, description, symp-
toms, and treatment 230

of nose, thickening, symptoms and treatment 110

Membranes —

inflammation, a complication of influenza - 505

mucous, visible, and skin may indicate disease 13

of brain, inflammation, description 192, 193

of spinal cord, inflammation, causes, symptoms, and treatment 211

Meningitis —

causes, symptoms, and treatment 193

spinal, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment 211

Metatarsi, flexor, rupture, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 352

Michener, Ch. B.—

chapter on " Diseases of the digestive organs " 34-74

chapter on ' ' Methods of administering medicines " ." 28-33

chapter on ' ' Wounds and their treatment " 459-481

Microspor on furfur, vegetable parasite of skin 450

Mohler, John R.—

chapter on ' ' Osteoporosis, or bighead " 559-564

chapter en " Mycotic lymphangitis " 545-547

chapter en ' ' Infectious anemia " 551-554

Mole, vesicular, or cystic disease of walls of womb, description and treatment. 158

Moles, or anidian monsters, description 158

Monstrosities in foal, description of kinds, causes, and treatment 175

Moonblindness, or periodic ophthalmia, causes, symptoms, treatment 268

Mortification, or gangrene. {See Gangrene.)

INDEX. 605

Page.

Mouth diseases, remarks 44

Mucous membranes, visible, and skin may indicate disease 13

Musca vomitoria, or meat fly, note 453

Muscles —

and tendons, diseases 340

contraction in foal, description and treatment 173

of elbow, sprain, causes, symptoms, and treatment 343

of eye, description 253

one system of locomotion 275, 276

Mycotic lymphangitis —

and glanders, differentiation 547

chapter by John R. Mohler 545-547

diagnosis and treatment 547

symptoms and lesions 546

Myelitis, or inflammation of substance of spinal cord, causes, symptoms, and

treatment 213

Myocarditis, or inflammation of muscular structure of heart, symptoms, alter-
ations, and treatment 229

Nasal —

catarrh, or cold in head, symptoms and treatment 107

douche, used in administering medicines 31

gleet, chronic catarrh, or collection in sinuses, causes, symptoms, and

treatment 108

polypus, description and treatment Ill

Navel —

discharge of urine, or persistent urachus, description and treatment 92

string, constriction of a member, description 171

Navicular —

bone, description 370

disease, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 409

Neck of womb, twisting, description and treatment 168

Nephritis, acute, or acute inflammation of kidneys, causes, 'symptoms, and

treatment 84

Nerve —

inflammation, or neuritis, cause, symptoms, and treatment 216

tumor, or neuroma, cause, symptoms, and treatment 216

Nerves —

injuries, description and treatment 216

spinal, designations 192

Nervous system —

and brain, anatomy and physiology 190

diseases affecting, chapter by M. R. Trumbower 190-224

examination 24

Nettlerash, surfeit, or urticaria, description and treatment 440

Neuritis, or inflammation of a nerve, cause, symptoms, and treatment 216

Neuroma, or tumor of a nerve, cause, symptoms, and treatment 216

Nose —

bleeding, causes and treatment 112

membrane, thickening, symptoms and treatment 110

Nostrils, tumors and wounds, treatment 106

Obstruction colic, cause 52

Open joints. {See Joints.)

Ophthalmia —

external, or conjunctivitis, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment. 262

internal, causes, symptoms, and treatment 265

periodic, or moonblindness, causes, symptoms, and treatment 268

Optic nerve, paralysis, or amaurosis, cause 210

606 INDEX.

Page.
Orchitis, or congestion and inflammation of testicles, causes, symptoms, and

treatment 142

Os innominatum, or fracture of hip bone, description, symptoms, and treatment- 317

Os pedis, or third phalanx, fractures, cause and treatment 327

Osteoporosis, or bighead, chapter by John R. Mohler 559-564

Ostitis, cause, symptoms, and treatment 284

Overreach, description, symptoms, and treatment 378

Ovum, inclosed, or tumors of fetus, description and treatment 174

Palpitation of heart, description, symptoms, and treatment 236

Palsy—

of nerve of sight, or amaurosis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 272

or paralysis, description and causes 208

Pancreas and spleen, diseases, remarks 74

Papilloma, epithelioma, or degeneration of penis 145

Papules, or congestion of skin with small pimples, description and treatment. 436
Paralysis — .,

facial, symptoms and cause; local paralysis 210

general, cause 208

of bladder, description and cause 89, 210

of hind legs, cause and treatment 160

of intestines, cause 56, 210

of one side or half the body, or hemiplegia, description and symptoms 208

of optic nerve, or amaurosis, cause 210

of penis, cause and treatment 145

of pharynx, description and treatment 46

of rectum and tail, cause 210

or palsy, description and causes 208

transverse, of hind extremities, or paraplegia, description and symptoms. 209

treatment 210

Paraphymosis and phymosis, description and treatment 150

Paraplegia, or transverse paralysis of hind extremities, cause and treatment.. 209
Parasites —

animal, of skin, description of kinds 450

causing worm colic 59, 60

in eye, description of kinds 273

specific kinds affecting urinary organs 87

vegetable, of skin, description of kinds, symptoms, and treatment 449

Parasitic pityriasis, description and treatment ., 450

Parturition —

different presentations 176

difficult, from narrow pelvis, cause and treatment 165, 166

symptoms 164

Pastern joint, description 370

Pastes, or electuaries, description and manner of administering 29

Patella-
fracture, description 324

pseudoluxations, descriptions, symptoms, cause, and treatment 338

Pearson, Leonard, chapter on "Examination of a sick horse" 9-27

Pediculi, or lice, description and treatment for bite 454

Pelvis —

and vagina, tumors affecting, description and treatment 167

bones, fracture, different kinds 316

narrow, cause of difficult parturition, cause and treatment 166

INDEX. 607

Penis — Page

degeneration, papilloma, or epithelioma 145

extravasation of blood and paralysis, causes and treatment 145

sheath, and abdomen, swelling, cause and treatment 149

warts, treatment 145

Pericarditis —

a complication of influenza 505

or inflammation of sac inclosing the heart, causes, symptoms, and treatment. 233

Perineum, limbs, and abdomen, dropsy, description and treatment 159

Periostitis, cause, symptoms, and treatment 284

Peritoneum and womb, inflammation, symptoms and treatment 187

Peritonitis —

a complication of influenza 505

description, symptoms, and treatment 70

Phalanx, first, second, and third, fracture, cause, symptoms, and treatment. 326, 327

Pharyngeal polypus, description and treatment Ill

Pharyngitis, description and treatment 45

Pharynx —

inflammation, description 112

paralysis, description and treatment 46

Phlebitis, or diseases of veins, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment.. 246

Phymosis and paraphymosis, description and treatment 150

Physiology and anatomy of brain and nervous system 190

Piles, or hemorrhoids, description and treatment 66

Pills, or balls, description and manner of administering 28

Pimples, small, or congestion of skin, description and treatment 436

Pityriasis, or scaly skin disease, description and treatment 440

Plantar cushion, description 372

Pleurisy —

a complication of influenza 505

description, symptoms, and treatment 131

Pleuro-dynia, symptoms and treatment 140

Pleuro-pneumonia, description and treatment 135

Plumbism, or lead poisoning, causes, symptoms, and treatment 223

Pneumonia —

edematous, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc 520-524

or Iting fever, description, symptoms, and treatment 122

Poisoning —

albuminoid, or azotemia, symptoms, prevention, and treatment 82

forage, or cerebro-spinal meningitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 217

lead, or plumbism, causes, symptoms, and treatment 223

Poll evil 477

Polypus —

nasal, description and treatment Ill

pharyngeal, description and treatment Ill

Polyuria, diuresis, diabetes insipidus, causes, symptoms, and treatment 77

Pouches, guttural, description and treatment 128

Poultry, acariasis, description and treatment 452

Powders, manner of administering 28

Pregnancy —

duration 155

mare, hygiene 156

medication 154

608 INDEX.

Page.

Premaxillary bone, fracture, description and treatment 312

Preputial calculus, calculus in sheath, description and treatment 103

Presentations at birth, abnormal 176-181

Pruritis, or nervous irritation of skin, description and treatment 441

Pseud oluxations of patella, description, symptoms, cause, and treatment 338

Psoroptes equi, animal parasite of skin 451

Psoroptic acariasis, description and treatment 451

Ptyalism, or salivation, description and treatment 45

Pulex—

or flea, prevention and treatment for bite 454

penetrans, or chigoe, bite, treatment 454

Pulse, how to count : 15

Purpura hemorrhagica —

description, symptoms, and treatment 247

or anasarca, causes, symptoms, and treatment 508

Pustules, inflammation, description and treatment 438

Quittor, description of different kinds 380

Rabies, description, symptoms, and treatment 222, 545

Rectum —

and tail, paralysis, cause 210

impaction with feces 170

method of administering medicines 32

Red efflorescence, or erythema, description and treatment 434

Renal calculi, description, symptoms, and treatment 98

Respiratory organs —

description 104

diseases, chapter by W. H. Harbaugh 104-141

methods of examination 17

Retinitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 265

Ribs, fractures, description, symptoms, and treatment 315

Ridglings, or cryptorchids, castration, method 148

Ringbone, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 289, 413

Ringworm —

circinate, or Tinea tonsurans, description, symptoms, and treatment 449

honeycomb, or favus, description and treatment 450

Roaring and thick wind, description and treatment 117, 210

Roundworm of the kidney 87

Rubber pads in shoes, uses - 576

Rupture —

of an arterj% description, symptoms, and treatment 244

of diaphragm, causes and symptoms - 141

of flexor metatarsi, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 352

of heart, description and cause 240

of liver, cause, symptoms, and treatment 73

of stomach, result of engorgement colic, symptoms and treatment 51, 52

of suspensory ligament, description, symptoms, and treatment 377

of vagina, description and treatment ■ 187

or hernia, description of different kinds 67

or laceration of womb, causes and treatment 186

Saccharine diabetes, diabetes mellitus, glycosuria, or inosuria, causes, symp-
toms, and treatment 80

Sacrum, fractures, description and treatment 316

St. Vitus dance, or chorea, description and treatment 207

INDEX. 609

Paga

Salivation, or plyalism, degcription and treatment 45

Sand-cracks of foot, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 405

Sarcocele, description and treatment 143

Sarcophaga carnaria, or flesh fly, note 453

Sarcoptcs —

mutans, animal parasite of skin 451

scalrlei equi, animal parasite of skin 450

Sarcoptic acariasis —

description, symptoms, and treatment 450

of fowls, description and treatment 451

Scalds and burns, treatment 455, 471

Scalma, symptoms, treatment, etc 515-518

Scaly skin disease, or pityriasis, description and treatment 440

Scapula, fracture, cause, symptoms, and treatment 319

Scorpion and tarantula, treatment for sting or bite 455

Scratches, or chaps on knee and hock, or cracked heels, causes and treatment. 443

Screw-worm fly, or Lucilia homimvorax, note 453

Scrotal or congenital hernia, cause, description, and treatment 67

Scrotum, dropsy, or hydrocele, symptoms and treatment 144

Sebaceous glands, description 433

Self-abuse, or masturbation, remedy 145

Sesamoid bones, fracture, cause, symptoms, treatment, etc 328

Sesamoid sheath, inflammation, or navicular disease, description, symptoms,

and treatment - 408

Sesamoids, description - 369

Sexual and urinary organs, examination 26

Sheath-
calculus^ or bilocular cavity, or preputial calculus, description, treatment. 103

of flexor tendons, sprains, cause, symptoms, and treatment 345

penis, and abdomen, swelling, cause and treatment 149

Shock, electric, description and treatment 224

Shoe-
bar, uses 582

detailed description 578

hot fitting 582

Shoeing —

chapter by John W. Adams 565-587

preliminary examination 575

preparation of the hoof , 578

rubber pads 582

Shoes, special peculiarities of chief classes 580

Shoulder —

joint, displacement, description and treatment 337

lameness, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 340

Sick horse. {See Horse, sick.)

Sidebones, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 291, 41 1

Sinuses, collection in, chronic catarrh, or nasal gleet, causes, symptoms, and

treatment 108

Sitfasts —

or harness galls, description and treatment 470

horny sloughs, or sloughing callosities, description and treatment 448

Skin—

and visible mucous membranes may indicate disease 13

animal parasites affecting, description of kinds 450

H. Doc. 795, 59-2 39

Page.

610 INDEX.

Skin — Continued.

bleeding eruptions, description and treatment 441

congestion, red efflorescence, or erythema, description and treatment 434

disease, scaly, or pityriasis, description and treatment 440

diseases, chapter by James Law 431^58

grubs under, description and treatment 453

hairs, description 433

inflammation and congestion, description of kinds 434

nervous irritation, or pruritis, description and treatment 441

of fetlock and ankle, note 371

structure, divisions 432

true, or dermis, description 432

vegetable parasites, description of kinds, symptoms and treatment 449

wounds, description of different kinds and treatment 456

Sloughs, horny, sitfasts, or sloughing callosities, description and treatment. 448, 470

Snake bites, treatment 455

Sole of foot, description 371

Sores, summer, caused by Filaria irriians, treatment 441 , 442

Sore throat, or laryngitis, description, symptoms, and treatment j. 112

Spasmodic or cramp colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 58

Spasm —

of diaphragm, or thumps, description and treatment 141, 205

of glottis or intestines, description and treatment 205

of larynx, description and treatment 116

of neck of bladder, causes, symptoms, and treatment 87, 205

of neck of womb, description and treatment 170

of thigh, or cramp of hind limb, description and treatment 205

Spasms, or cramps, causes and treatment 205

Spavin —

blood, bog spavin, and thoroughpin, description and treatment 331

description, cause, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 293

Speedy cuts and interfering, description, symptoms, treatment, etc 362

Spermatic cord —

strangulated, cause and treatment 149

tumors, causes and treatment 150

Spinal —

anemia, symptoms and treatment 214

compression and concussion, cause, description, and treatment 214

concussion, causes and treatment 215

congestion, cause, symptoms, and treatment 213

cord, description 192

cord, inflammation of membranes, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc 211

cord, inflammation of substance, or myelitis, causes, symptoms, treatment. 213

hemorrhage, symptom, and treatment 214

meningitis, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment 211

nerves, designation 192

tumors, symptoms and treatment 215

Spleen and pancreas, diseases, remarks 74

Splint, description, symptoms, cause, and treatment 286

Sprain —

of elbow muscles, causes, symptoms, and treatment 343

of fetlock, causes, symptoms, and treatment 376

Sprains —

description and treatment 340

of loins, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment -- 367

INDEX. 611

Sprains— Continued. Page,
of suspensory ligaments and of flexor tendons or their sheath, cause, symp-
toms, and treatment 345

Sprung knees, cause, symptoms, and treatment 348

Staphyloma, or bulging cornea, description and treatment 273

Stallion-
castration, methods 147

sterility, cause and treatment 151

Sterility in mare and stallion, cause and treatment 151

Stiles, Ch. Warden, chapter on "Surra" 554-559

Stomach —

and intestines, diseases, remarks 49

calculi, or stones, symptoms and treatment 54

rupture, result of engorgement colic, symptoms and treatment 51,52

Stomatitis, description and treatment 45

Stone-
in bladder, vesical calculus, or cystic calculus, description, symptoms, and

treatment 100

in urethra, or urethral calculus, description, symptoms, and treatment 102

or calculus, and tumor in bladder 169

urinary calculi, or gravel, descrijition 94,97

Stones —

or calculi, in intestines, description, symptoms, and treatment 55

or calculi, in stomach, symptoms and treatment 54

Strangles, definition, causes, symptoms, and treatment 513-516

Strangulated spermatic cord, cause and treatment 149

Stricture^

of esophagus, description and treatment 49

of urethra, descri^jtion and treatment 94

Stringhalt, description, cause, and treatment 207,364

Strongylus —

equinum, parasite of kidney 87

equinns, intestinal worm 60

vulgaris, intestinal worm 60

vulgaris, worm causing one form of aneurism 243

Sty, furuncle, or boil of eyelid, description and treatment 259

Suff raginis, description 370

Summer sores, caused by Filaria irritans, description and treatment 442

Sunstroke, heat stroke, or heat exhaustion, symptoms, treatment, etc 199

Superpurgation, description and treatment 63

Suppositories, description and uses 32

Suppuration and abscess in lung, symptoms 135

Surfeit, nettlerash, or urticaria, description and treatment 440

Surra —

chapter by Ch. Warden Stiles 554-559

climatic cond itions ; animals affected ; and lethality 554

diagnosis and treatment 559

method of infection, symptoms 555

Suspensory ligament —

and flexor tendons or their sheaths, sprains, cause, symptoms, treatment. . 345

description - 370

rupture, description, symptoms, and treatment 377

Sutures, description and uses 461

Swamp fever. {See Infectious anemia.)

Sweat glands, description 434^

612 INDEX.

Page.
Syynbioles cqid, Dermatophagus equi, or CJiorioptcs .ymtJilferus, animal parasite of

skin 452

Syncope, or fainting, symptoms and treatment 237

Synovial —

dropsies, remarks 330

sacs, diseases, description 330

Synovitis, cause, prognosis, and treatment 332

Tail and rectum, paralysis, cause 210

Tarantula and scorpion, treatment for bite and sting 455

Teats, sore, scabs, cracks, warts, cause and treatment 189

Teeth-
diseases ; period of dentition 42

irregularities, remedies 43

Temperament of horse 12

Temperature, method of determining 17

Tendon sheaths, wounds, description and treatment 469

Tendons —

and muscles, diseases 340

flexor, or their sheath, sprains, cause, symptoms, and treatment 345

functions 277

lacerated, cause, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 350

of foot, function 370

Testicles —

abnormal number; causes of degeneration 144

or orchitis, congestion and inflammation, causes, symptoms, treatment.. 142

Tetanus, or lockjaw, causes, symptoms, prevention, and treatment 219

Thick wind and roaring, description and treatment 117

Thigh, spasm, or cramp of hind limb, description and treatment 205

Thoracic choke, description and treatment 47, 49

Thoroughpin, blood spavin, and bog spavin, description and treatment 331

Threadworms causing bleeding skin eruptions 441

Throat-
abscesses affecting, treatment 46

sore, or laryngitis, description, symptoms, and treatment 112

Thrombosis, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 365

Thrombus and embolism, description, symptoms, and treatment 244

Thrush, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 392

Thumps, or spasm of diaphragm, description and treatment 141, 205

Tibia, fractures, symptoms and treatment 324

Ticks, description and treatment 453

Timothy, best hay for feeding 38

Tinea tonsurans, or circinate ringworm, description and treatment 449

Tissues, description 482

Toothache, how to determine and treat 43

Trichiasis, or turned eyelashes, description and treatment 260

Trichophyton tonsurans, vegetable parasite of skin 449

Trumbower, M. R.—

chapter on ' ' Diseases of heart, blood vessels, and lymphatics " 225-250

chapter on ' ' Diseases of nervous system " 190-224

Tuberculosis, or consumption, note 136

Tumor —

and calculus, or stone in bladder 169

of haw, or caries of cartilege, description and treatment 261

INDEX. 613

Tumor — Continued. Page.

of nerve, or neuroma, cause, symptoms, and treatment 216

on spermatic coi-d, causes and treatment 150

Tumors —

and warts of eyelids, description and treatment 260

black pigment, or melanosis, description and treatment 449

in nostrils, treatment 106

in vagina and pelvis, description and treatment 167

of eyeball, remarks 272

of fetus, or inclosed ovum, description and treatment. 174

of kidneys, note 87

of spine, symptoms and treatment 215

of udder, cause and treatment 189

or abnormal growths, cause of colic 57

within cranium, description of kinds 204

Twins, remarks 176

Tvmpanitic colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57

[Jdder—

congestion and inflammation, symptoms and treatment 188

tumors, cause and treatment 189

Ulceration, description, causes, and treatment 474

Ulcers on cornea, treatment 265

Umbilical hernia, description and treatment 69

Urachus, persistent, or discharge of urine by navel, description and treatment. 92

Uremia, description, symptoms, and treatment 223

Urethra —

inflammation, urethritis, or gleet, symptoms and treatment 93

stone, or urethral calculus, description, symptoms and treatment 102

stricture, description and treatment 94

Urethral calculus, or stone in urethra, description, symptoms and treatment.. 102

Urethritis, inflammation of urethra, or gleet, symptoms and treatment 93

Uretral calculi, description and treatment 99

Urinary —

and sexual organs, examination 26

calculi, classification 98

calculi, stone, or gravel, description and causes 94, 97

disorders, causes 75

organs, diseases, chapter by James Law 75-103

organs, parasites affecting 87

organs, symptoms of disease 77

organs, uses 75

Urine —

analysis 95

bloody, or hematuria, cause and treatment 82

discharge by navel, or persistent urachus, description and treatment 92

excessive secretion, diuresis, polyuria, diabetes insipidus, causes, symp-
toms, and treatment 79

how to examine 77

of healthy horse, description 27

Urocystitis, inflammation of bladder, or cystitis, symptoms and treatment 90

Urticaria, nettlerash, or surfeit, description and treatment 440

Vagina —

and pelvis, tumors affecting, description and treatment 167

rupture, description and treatment 187

614 INDEX.

Page.

Vaginal walls, effusion of blood 169

Valvular disease of heart, symptoms and treatment 235

Varicocele, description and treatment 144

Varicose veins, varix, or dilatation of veins, causes and treatment 247

Variola, equine, or horsepox, causes, symptoms, and treatment 524-529

Veins —

description 228

dilatation, varicose veins, or varix, causes and treatment 247

diseases, or phlebitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 246

Ventral hernia, description and treatment 68

Vertebrge, fractures, causes, symptoms, and treatment 313

Vesical calculus, stone in bladder, or cystic calculus, description, s-ymptoms,

and treatment 100

Vesicular mole, or cystic disease of walls of womb, description and treatment. 158

Volvulus, gut-tie, or twisting of bowels, cause, symptoms, and treatment 56

Vulva, or vagina, fibrous constriction, cause and treatment 171

Warts —

and tumors of eyelids, description and treatment 260

description and treatment 448

on penis, treatment 145

"Wasps, bees, and hornets, stings, treatment 454

Water —

impure, cause of disease; time to give 34

in head, or hydrocephalus of foal, description and treatment 172

Watering eye, or obstruction of lachrymal apparatus, description and remedy. 261

Whistling, description •. 119

Wind-
broken, heaves, or asthma, definition, symptoms, and treatment 137

colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57

Windgalls, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 330, 375

Windpipe, description 128

Winking cartilage, or cartilago nictitans, description 253

Womb—

and peritoneum, inflammation, symptoms, and treatment 187

bleeding, or flooding, treatment 184

dropsy, cause, symptoms, and treatment 158

eversion, description and method of treatment 185

hernia, description and treatment 168

■ laceration, or rupture, causes and treatment 186

neck, twisting, description and treatment 168

Worm colic, description, symptoms, and treatment 59

Worms, bladder, affecting kidneys 87

Wounds —

and their treatment, chapter by Ch. B. Michener 459-481

gunshot, description and treatment 469

healing under a scab, treatment 462

in nostrils, cause and treatment 106

lacerated and contused, description and treatment 463

penetrating walls of chest, description and treatment 140

poisoned, description and treatment 470

punctured, description, symptoms, and treatment 400, 465

Yellows, jaundice, or icterus, description and treatment 73

o

Webster Family Library of Veterinary Medicine

Cummings Scfiooi of Veterinary Medicine at

Tufts University ^

200 Westboro Road --^

North Grafton, MA 01 536 ;.'>i^^^.