ee ry eric ce aan ogee Pow h eta ian aoe hares Fetetne eerie Phat dition ei he aren Sate ee Mt ¢ isSe area 4 i i we ; ee = Ml 4 %> gant: = aes Se HN ~ ies) ad 6 al aye So “) *y NUTRITIVE VALUE OF POLLOCK FISH SCALES AS DETERMINED BY RAT FEEDING TESTS SPECIAL SCIENTIFIC REPORT-FISHERIES No. 260 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE EXPLANATORY NOTE The series embodies results of investigations, usually of restricted scope, intended to aid or direct management or utilization practices and as guides for administrative or legislative action, It is issued in limited quantities for official use of Federal, State or cooperating agencies and in processed form for economy and to avoid delay in publication. United States Department of the Interior, Fred A. Seaton, Secretary Fish and Wildlife Service, Arnie J. Suomela, Commissioner NUTRITIVE VALUE OF POLLOCK FISH SCALES AS DETERMINED BY RAT FEEDING TESTS by Donald G, Snyder Biochemist and Hugo W. Nilson Supervisory Chemist Special Scientific Report--Fisheries No. 260 The Library of Congress has cataloged this publication as follows: Snyder, Donald Graeff, 1926- Nutritive value of pollock fish scales as determined by rat feeding tests, by Donald G. Snyder and Hugo W. Nilson. ;Washington, U. 8. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, 1959, ll p. diagr. 27 em. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Special scientific report: fisheries no. 260) Bibliography: p. 9. 1. Seales (Fishes) 1. Nilson, Hugo Waldemar, 1901— joint au- thor. ou, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, m1. Title. (Series) SH11.A335 no. 260 636.087 59-60216 Library of Congress The Fish and Wildlife Service series, Special Scientific Report--Fisheries, is cataloged as follows: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Special scientific report : fisheries. no. 1— ; Washington, 1949- no. illus., maps, diagrs. 27 cm. Supersedes in part the Service’s Special scientific report. 1. Fisheries—Research. SH11.A335 689.2072 59-60217 Library of Congress ABSTRACT Rat feeding studies have indicated that pollock fish scale protein is as well digested but about 30 percent less assimilated than a protein supplement consisting of 3 parts casein and 1 part lactalbumin. Fish scales as the only source of 9 percent protein in the diet are incapable of supporting growth of young rats, but the scales can be utilized as a limited source of protein when supplemented with casein- lactalbumin protein, Increased utilization of scale protein in combination with stepwise higher levels of casein-lactalbumin indicate that no toxic substances per se are present in scales for growing rats. CONTENTS Page Introduction ef fe) .@) 6 0) 016 eo: @ 0° @ @) © je) 0) 26) (e716) mene meme aL Materiailsiandianalysiiss. “7c. sve «oe! 0) oils) toll eltielolatemenene Experimental © 0 10) -e 0) (e. e «© 0.05) from that of the group fed the diet in which 2.25 percent PFS protein replaced a like amount of CL protein, Sie namely, 117.5 g. Therefore, inclusions of up to 25 percent protein from PFS in place of equal amounts of CL, as the sole source of protein, and at a total level of dietary protein of 9 percent, does not adversely affect the nutritive value of the protein for growing rats. Itis interesting to note that the males grew better than the females when fed the diet containing 9 percent CL protein, which would be expected, but grew similarly when fed the diet containing 2.25 percent PFS and 6.75 percent CL protein, which would not be expected, since the mean gains of the two groups were not statistically significantly different. This observation might indicate that the males and females differ in their ability to utilize the PFS protein in this combination with CL protein, The mean weights at 10 weeks of the group of rats fed the diets containing 6.75 percent PFS and 2.25 percent CL protein (15.3 g.) and )|,50 percent CL protein alone (23.8 g.) also were not statistically significantly different (p => 0.05). All of the mean weights of the groups of rats fed the other diets were statistically significantly different (p =<0.01) for the 10-week period. The coefficients of variation generally were smaller than usual for this type of a feeding study (9 - 12 percent). Although the group of rats fed the diet containing 9 percent PFS protein alone died, the different groups of rats grew increasingly better when they were fed diets in which 2.25, ).50, and 6.75 percent of this PFS protein was replaced by equal amounts of CL protein, This increased growth was apparently directly correlated with the stepwise higher levels of CL protein in relation to PFS protein in the diet. However, the rats fed diets containing these increasing levels of CL protein alone in the diet did not grow as well as rats fed these same diets containing, in addition, the decreasing levels of PFS protein to make a total of 9 percent protein, This added growth with PFS protein indicates that the PFS protein certainly was being utilized. An increase of 31 g. in mean gain was obtained when the group of rats was fed the diet containing 6.75 percent PFS and 2.25 percent CL protein over that obtained for the group fed the diet containing 2.25 percent protein from CL alone. This increased growth cannot be the result of the added PFS protein or the low level of CL protein, since rats fed diets containing these levels alone did not gain weight. Apparently, the 2.25-percent level of CL protein was ample to balance the 6.75 percent PFS protein. An increase of 73 g. in mean gain was obtained when the group of rats was fed the diet containing )).50 percent PFS and );.50 percent CL protein over that obtained from the group fed the diet containing h.50 percent CL protein alone. This greater growth of rats fed a diet containing an even lower level of PFS protein sugzests that the PFS sed) protein was more completely balanced by the additional CL. (in this case, CL protein could be used for growth when fed alone in the diet at this low level and the PFS protein might be envisioned as contri- buting additional nutrients. An increase of 3); g. in mean gain was obtained when the group of rats was fed the diet containing 2.25 percent PFS and 6.75 percent CL protein over that obtained for the group fed the diet containing 6.75 percent CL protein alone, This increased growth of 3h g. is not as great as when the previous pair of diets are compared, namely, 73 g. This result is to be expected, inasmuch as there was less PFS protein in the diet and the nutritively superior CL protein was present in sufficient quantity to permit ereater utilization. It is interesting to note that there was a relation of nearly 1:2:1 (31, 73, 3 g.) for the increased growth when the three pairs of diets were fed. This might indicate that the balancing values of the two proteins vary when different levels of each were included in the diets. The data in table 1 indicate, in general, that as the rats grew better less protein was required per unit gain in weight. This decreasing requirement for protein suggests that increasing amounts of CL protein permit the rats to utilize the PFS protein more efficiently. When this index, as well as the previously compared growth rates, is used as the criteria for PFS protein utilization, trends of data indicate that no toxic substances per se are present in the fish scales. The data in table 2 indicate that the mean apparent digesti- bility of PFS protein was about 80 percent when fed at the 9-percent level in the diet. The data also indicate that this level of digesti- bility was not statistically significantly increased (p =) 0.05) when the rats were fed diets in which the CL protein was substituted in part or in whole for 9 percent PFS. : The increase in digestibility of diets containing the smaller to greater levels of CL protein alone is interesting. It may be that as the rats ingested the stepwise higher levels of food nitrogen, the residual metabolic products eliminated in the feces, as well as the digestibility of the CL protein remained equal. Hence, the ratios of ingested food nitrogen divided by the unabsorbed food nitrogen plus residual metabolic nitrogen would increase. There would be an error in calculating the digestibility of the protein for rats fed a diet containing a small amount of protein which would restrict food intake and limit growth compared with those obtained for rats fed a diet containing an adequate level of protein which would result in increased food intake.and greater growth, Biological values for maintenance of 61.2 and 61.1 were gotten for PFS protein with two sets and, similarly, 85.3 and 89.) were gotten for CL protein, The CL protein appears to be utilized about 30 percent Bee more than PFS protein. True digestibilities determined in this test indicated that both PFS and CL protein were completely digested, Whereas the apparent and true digestibility of the two proteins by rats are similar, quite different assimilation is indicated by the biological values, DISCUSSION Investigators studying the nutritive value of other waste scleroproteins have concluded that they are nutritionally inadequate, but can be used as a partial source of protein with proper supplementa- tion, This conclusion is also true with pollock fish scale protein. Rats fed a diet containing 9 percent protein from PFS alone lost considerable weight and died in about 8 weeks. Rats fed diets containing PFS in combination with stepwise higher levels of CL protein, for a total dietary protein level of 9 percent, however, utilized the diet for growth increasingly better. These rats also grew better than those fed the stepwise higher levels of CL protein alone in the diet. In general, as the rats grew better they utilized the food for growth more efficiently. Routh (192a, 192b), Wagner and Elvehjem (192, 193), Newell and Elvehjem (197), Wilder et al. (1955), and others showed that the various nutritively deficient scleroproteins could be utilized or balanced with proper supplementation, but in general they did not indicate that this utilization or balance could be improved when greater levels were included in the diets. In most cases the supplementations consisted only of empirical amounts of amino acids added to the diet in order to find out which acids alone or in combination permitted better utilization of the scleroprotein. The rats fed the diet containing a 9-percent level of protein from CL alone grew better than rats fed any other 9 percent protein combination of PFS and CL protein. At this level of protein in the diet, at least, CL protein must be better balanced in nitrogen nutrients than the protein from any of the combinations, Thus, the growth of rats fed diets containing increasing levels of PFS protein in relation to fixed levels of CL protein was less and less, Toxic factors, per se, in the scales must be ruled out, because there then would be no varia- tion in the utilization of PFS protein by the rats. Furthermore, there were no visible symptoms of toxicosis. The protein of the fish scales is digested sufficiently well so this cannot be an important factor in explaining the effects noted. The results showed that, at the 9-percent level in the diet, both PFS protein and CL protein were about 80 percent digested when fed to rats. This high level of digestion indicates that the incomplete, probably imbalanced, PFS protein had been absorbed to a considerable extent and was available for metabolism. The utilization after absorption, as shown by the biological values, is quite dissimilar, however. This difference in utilization may suggest that better assimilation of this protein, that is utilization, is responsible, at least in part, for the greater nutritive value of PFS in combina- tion with the stepwise higher levels of CL protein. Apparently the PFS protein is more completely utilized when the higher levels of CL are fed because the protein furnished by CL supplies more and more of the lacking amino acids or other nitrogen compounds. The problem remains as to the value of more commonly avail- able sources of protein to supplement PFS protein as feed, and the ability of other species of animals to metabolize this protein, SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Postweaning rats were fed diets containing pollock fish scales (PFS) or a protein supplement of 3 parts casein and 1 part lactalbumin (CL), The latter also was fed at three levels of protein in stepwise substitution of, as well as in place of, the pollock scales, Apparent digestibilities of protein by individual rats were determined in diets fed during this feeding study. The biological value for maintenance and true digestibility was determined for PFS and CL protein. The data indicate: 1. The mean apparent digestibility is 80 percent when PFS protein is fed at a 9-percent level in the diet to male and female rats, This value of digestibility is not significantly increased (p => 0.05) when rats are fed diets in which the CL protein is sub- stituted in part or in whole for the 9 percent PFS. PFS and CL protein is completely digested, as indicated by true digestibility values, when only enough is fed to equal metabolic nitrogen. 2. A level of 9 percent PFS protein as the only source of protein in an otherwise adequate diet is incapable of supporting growth in young rats. This nutritional inadequacy of PFS protein is likely due to a deficiency and/or imbalance of specific nitrogen nutrients. 3. PFS protein can be utilized by rats as a limited source of protein for growth when supplemented with CL protein in the diet. Decreasing ratios of PFS to CL protein in the diet permit progressively better utilization of the PFS protein, h. No toxic substancesper se are present in pollock fish scales for growing rats. 5. The biological value of PFS protein for maintaining rats is about 60 percent; which is about 30 percent less than for CL protein, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to thank Mr. Robert Kifer for his assistance in caring for the animals, and Mrs. Sue Nealis for her assistance in the statistical analysis of the data. LITERATURE CITED ASSOCIATION OF OFFICIAL AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTS 1955. Official methods of analysis, 8th ed., Washington, D. C. BINKLEY, CHARLES H., and OTTO R. VASAK 1950. Production of a friable meal from feathers. AlC - 27h, Bureau of Agricultural and Ind. Chem., Agr. Res. Admin., U.S.D.A. FEEDSTUFFS 1956. Feathermeal used as a source of protein for lambs, vol. 285. *Deel. MEUNIER, L., P. CHAMBARD, and H. COMTE 1927. Sur la digestion pancreatique de la laine. Compt. rend. acad., vol. 18), pp. 1208-1210. MITCHELL, H. H. 192h. A method of determining the biological value of a protein. J. Biol. Chem., vol. 58, pp. 873-903. NEWELL, G. W., and C. A. ELVEHJEM 1947. Nutritive value of keratin, III. Effect of source, particle size, and method of grinding. J. Nutrition, vol. 33, pp. 673-683. NISHIHARA, HATASU 195. Calcium oxalate content of fish scales. Science Rept., Saitama University Ser. B, vol. I, pp. 159-16). ROUTH, JOSEPH I. 1910. Chemical studies on powdered wool. J. Biol. Chem., vol. 1355 PPe 175-181. ROUTH, JOSEPH I. 192a. Nutritional studies on powdered wool, J. Nutrition, vol. 2335 DPpe 125-130. ROUTH, JOSEPH I. 192b. Nutritional studies on powdered chicken feathers. J. Nutrition, vol. 2h, pp. 399-loh. ROUTH, JOSEPH I., and HOWARD B. LEWIS 1938, The enzymatic digestion of wool. J. Biol. Chem., vol. 12h, pp ° 725-732 ° WAGNER, JOSEPH R., and C. A. ELVEHJEM 192, Nutritive value of keratins. I. Powdered swine hoofs, Proc, Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., vol. 51, pp. 39-396. WAGNER, JOSEPH R., and C. A. ELVEHJEM 1943. Nutritive value of keratins. II. Powdered swine hoofs in poultry rations, Poultry Science, vol. 22, pp. 275-276. WILDER, O. H. M., PAUL C. OSTBY, and BARBARA R. GREGORY 1955. Whe use of chicken feather meal in feeds. Poultry Science, vol. 3h, pp. 518-52). EE Ohe °kpnys Butpsay oy} Jo Yoom BuTpnTouoo 944 4e 4USTAM UT UTeS JOS wesw sy} Jo JOLIE prepueqs /t LYy*z% ESinc ig €°orty Se cen o° git 02°S g°el orn Ssed %5L°9 “TO OL*T (Get. 990 GlTUC meOnnLe: = 64°.906 S9°T g°€z% 0°92 S°Te 405°] ‘10 a a Use (seen Cn Gm OSELE — 0°99T) = 0709 69°2 C°GT== 6° Gt OLSi= SA ND = = = (oh 0(0) a Oba (0) ME Oh <) LoL Grice = Secor, = sa0ge ¥00°0 *T9-¥00°0 ‘Sad oz bese 65°? T2619. = Gtc6s) = 6°59 L026 6°GEE Sc ter — sean go0°6 *T9 Enz 96° = «OS *2 O°geS = SSIS = G* OES 98°2 G°LUL S°STT ~ “G&Grr %GL°9 §T0-%5e°2% “Sdd 99°T GIST (SGPT. GEOUG Ge s0G= 897695 es°€ 5°96 5°16 S° 96 g0s° “To-#~os°] “Sad TS°0 6es0) e220 OlCcG WalOr 67 ag OSLNE ges (SOE 0° S° ee %50°2 “TO-%SL°9 “Sad 19° T- iaeta = OU c= ONC i Onsen OME 0S°0 Soy Oa Gir %00°6 ‘Sud “epyeuey eTeuey eTeu eTeuey epeues eTeu aTeuey eTeuey eTew pue oTew pue aTeuw =—7°s pue oTew uoT eusTsep peysedut uteyoud jo SOUT GUO en /T sueis UT qeTa weird ted utes sweis ue ZEeTP Jo sueis ueoW qZUSTOM UT UTeS UedL{ utezyoid utTumqTeyoe{T-utTeseo pue uTejoud eTeos ysSty yYooTTod sututejuoo syetp pef sqyea JoJ peysoesuTt uteyoud Jo werd ated uted sweid ueow pue *peumsuoo 4etp jo swerd ueow *yVYySTOM UT UTeS sSueds Ue, T eae, - 10 - Table 2 Mean apparent digestibility of the proteins in the diets fed to rats to compare pollock fish scale and casein-lactalbumin protein Mean % apparent digestibility Diet désignation males males females and females 3.E.2/ c.v.2/ PFS, 9.00% 83.7 (563 7925 2.82 U PFS, 6.75%-CL, 2.25% 76.3 76.8 76.5 iLgs}n 4 PFS, ).50%-CL, 1.50% 80.6 80.8 80.6 125 3 PFS, 2.25%-CL, 6.75% (Darl 81.3 80.h 1.50 h CL, 9.00% 8).3 83.1 83.8 0.89 3 PFS, 0200%-CL, 0.00% = = = = eS CL, 2.25% 62.9 L7.4 55.2 eile) 20 CL, 4.50% 706 75.28 7302 S55 hh CL, 6.75% 80.0 78.6 7902 16 11 V/ Standard error of the mean for gain in weight for the group of male and female rats. 2/ Coefficient of variation in % for the group of male and female rats. NI3ZLO¥d NINNBIVLOV1-NISBSVO GNV S31VOS HSI4 yYOV11I0d 3YVdWOO OL S13Id G34 S1VY 40 SdNOYS 4O SLHOISM AIMSSM NV3W t 3yndis SW33M NI 39V ol 6 8 z 9 S v ¢€ 4 l 4vu¥ 3NO0 43O Hiv30 = % 00019 - %00'0'S4d 9 %SZ2'10 O——_9 fe) %GZ°2'10 - %92'9'S4d O——_O—__ %GL1'9'10 O oO ee (0) nf ae eee pe %0S''19 - %0S'b ‘Sdd O ere ee %GL9'19 - %G2'2 ‘S4d ee ee ae % 00610 0 Ov 002 SLHOISM 3AI1 NV3W SWVYS NI 46959 INT.-DUP. SEC., WASH., D.C. ee ae ee Re os ee eS BACKGROUND INFORMATION FOR VOLUNTARY GRADE STANDARDS ON NATURAL SPONGES SPECIAL SCIENTIFIC REPORT-FISHERIES No. 273 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE EXPLANATORY NOTE The series embodies results of investigations, usually of restricted scope, intended to aid or direct management or utilization practices andas _ guides for administrative or legislative action. It is issued in limited quantities — for official use of Federal, State or cooperating agencies and in processed form» Ne for economy and to avoid delay in publication. a United States Department of the Interior, Fred A. Seaton, Secretary Fish and Wildlife Service, Arnia Je Suomela, Commissioner BACKGROUND INFORMATION FOR VOLUNTARY GRADE STANDARDS ON NATURAL SPONGES By Robert B. Bennett For the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries United States Fish and Wildlife Service Contract No. Lj-19=008=2378 University of Florida Project No. 5527 Department of Chemical Engineering Engineering and Industrial Experiment Station University of Florida Gainesville, Florida Special Scientific Report--Fisheries No. 273 Washington 25, De Ce May 1958 The Library of Congress has cataloged this publication as follows: Bennett, Robert Broadhurst, 1909- Background information for voluntary grade standards on natural sponges. Washington, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, 1958. GO p. ius. 27 cm. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Special scientific report : fisheries, no. 273) Includes bibliography. 1. Sponges. 1. Title. (Series) SH11.A835 no. 273 639.7 59-60428 Library of Congress The Fish and Wildlife Service series, Special Scientific Report--Fisheries, is cataloged as follows: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Special scientific report: fisheries. no. 1- ,Washington, 1949- no. illus., maps, dlagrs. 27cm, Supersedes in part the Service’s Special scientific report, 1. Fisheries—Research. SH11.A835 639.2072 59-60217 Library of Congress 12) TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction SPoSSHSHHSHS LES EOCLCe LEH L ELE LTO LOLOL ESL OOO SOLO COOH OOCO®S References e@eeenoesee eves eeeeaeeeooeveaeeeeeeeeseGeeeeeoneeeee2e2ee2020080 WHaCESDONEERUSCLS WAN bi sis ciclo ole! siole elsleleleicioielsielere clelersioicicicisletslereiers Desert ptevon Of important SPONGES ss eleisiciciers ce cleleiole cleieicicicisicisieveioreice Inshore and Rock Island @eeeeeeeeeooneeeeeeeeoeoeoeeoeeeovoeveeeneeoo260 Bengasi Mediterranean and Deepwater Mediterranean ecccccececcee Florida Key Wool or Sheepswool @eeeeeveeseeSeooeeoesoeoeeeneeoeoee200@ Cuban Sea Wool @eeeseeeeeeeseeeeeeeea Ge eoeeveeoeseoonooeeeeaesoeoeonee Florida Yellow S@eeeeeeeoeeeeeeaeoeeoeeeeeeene Goseeseoseooneeeeoeesoeoeee mncloterGrasssand Huds On" Grassi veisicleselelelelelercielelcielevelelsieie cicleveisterete Grading systems @ecoceeeeveeeeeceeoeeeeoeeecoeeeeeoneeeoeoeoeoe ove es ee e202 ed Present system of grading ee@eeaneeeeeceeveoeeneeoeneeeesO2eeoe2e00220008680 Demerit system of grading @eoeceeroeoseeeeoeanvnvnee e200 080808088000880 8080086 Discussion of faults @eeseeeeeneeeeeGeeoeeeoeoaneeeoeeoeaeeooeedeaseoeeeoee oe Major faults @eeeevoeveseeeeeOaceeoeeseeaeoeaoee see eeoeeocoeeoeoneoeeoeeeeeded Bleached @eceoaeseeeeeeecveeeseeeveeeveeoeeeeeneooeeee nee 0020020208680 86 Unclean, gurry @eeeeveeoevoeaeeoeeeeeeevneeeeoeoovaeeoeeeanee2e0 8280800808080 Weight additives @eeeoneeoeseeGeeseeeaeeenevceeeeoeoooeeoenenee 82 e08@ Exterior sand, shell, coral, stone, CUCSeecccoicecclccciciee sce Interior sand, shell, coral, stone, CtCeccrcccceccccvcccece Odor S@eeeeeeeeseeeeeeeseoeeoseeeeoeveeoeveosneseeooeosneooeeoeeoeoeee@ Tears @eeeeeeeeoeeeeeseeseeeseeeeooeeeoeeeeseseeeooeoeoeoeeoeoeeoeeeeoeoe Holes natural, Coo Varce, or throughs ccs cclcleiccc ce ciclc eieisrcle Holes, crab, baring inside @SCeCeoeeeoeeeeeoeoeeooeaeeoeeoenee02800 Holes, crab, webbed; or uneven DOttom eecccceccccccvccccocs Holes, natural, from disease @eeeceeoenaeeeoeooooeooaeeeooe0e080 Structure, weak insides @eeeoeeseeoeoeeeseooeoeoeoe00002820808080080208080 Lacking outside webbing Over Noes Wecleiscclecsiccicecicicecicoce Surface, roller tyDe$ NO Nap ccccccccccccccrercccccscveccs Surface, inshore type, feathery POCCCOHOHE LC CLOLEELELOOOOO®e Red bottom or body @eeeeoesoneeoeeeoseeoeoee0eoe22800200888098090808 Feel not springy @eeeeoceseseeeoeoeoooeeseeseoeooeeoeoeeoeoeoeeoe ood Strength: easily split COHOSHORSSOSSLSHSSHHGHFH2STHOSHSHH8BHSTSHSOSH8HEO Brittle under pinch and pull SSODSCHSHSHOSSSHSHTSHSGLSOHSHTHBESHSEHO Low water absorption COOSHOEHLCAET OCHS HSA SOHHHHOHTH SO OOS2OOOS Wet stiffness: poor cleanability © 000022CTCTHO LAA COOOL E OS® Wet drainage when tipped COSCHTHOSOOTOOSOSEEOHSOLCOSLOOOOO OOO Minor faults cocccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccescceecesce Ragged clipping SSHOSHSSHHSHSSHSHSHOFSHSSSSHSHSSHSHOSHSSSHSSSE8SEHSED Seaweed, CTCeys soft SOTSHSSHSHSHSHOHSHHROTHHHTSCFTHOHSAEHSHHHSHSEHESHHE Seaweed, etCe, Hard cecceocecceveccoececececscecsececceceoecee Too flat SOC SHSSSHSSSSEHSZGSSOOGSSHTHSHHFHTLHTE8H9FTEHTH8HTH8S8EFE8OS as) E SO MOAI AAO Page Too long SOCHSSHSSSSHSSHESHSSHSSHSHSSHESSTHSHSSHHSSHSSSSSHSSSEHSSSESEEESESEEEE 26 Too tall SCHOSHS HEHEHE HSCEESEHOHESOEHEOEEHEOECOOSESEEESESEEEEEEESE 26 Volcanoes SSOCHSHSSHSHSHSSSHSSSHSSHSSSSHSSESHSHESSHSHTSHHSSHSHESSHEESHSHESEESSEESESESE 26 Side or top valleys or branches SCCCCEOSCHSSESSSOSeEESESELEEEEEESS 26 No bottom webbing S@eeeeeeeSeeeeeeeeoseseeSeeeseoeeeseseseeeeeseeeseee 26 Average number of demerits characteristic of each type and grade of SPONGES eocccccccccccscccsecsseecsesescecescecscccesed 27 Rock Island COOSEHSCOOOHOSESOSOSOHOOO SESE SO OSO CSE OOS OOES OSES EEEEEOEE 27 Inshore sheepswool SCOOHSHCHSSHHOSOEHSOEOSE SESH EHEOHOEESSOCEESESEOEEE EEE 29 Anclote Grass COOCSCHOOOOCOOH HOHE HOHOOSHSOHSOCOSOOOCE OOOO SO EOOEEOEEEEOSS 30 Florida Key Wool POSES EOEOHOLOHOHEOHOOCOHCHOOHEESESEHOOCOOOEEEHEESOCLESO 30 Hudson Grass SCOHCOHSOHSOHOHOHOSEHOCOSLOLCS SOSH OHS LOOSE E OHO ECEOE OES CEE ECOESS 32 Mediterranean Bengasi Coo ccccccccncccceccccccccccccescecccececence 32 Mediterranean Deepwater CHOCHEOSOHOCOHOS SEE OOSOCE SES ECOOLEEE OOS ECEESEO®D 33 Cuban Sheepswool POHCCOEEOLCOHOSCEEEOLOCOOOCESOO OOO SOLO CES OO OOSCEOESO® 33 Grading standards and prices COCHSHOHOHLHOHSSCEHOHOHOO OOOH SLCEEEOOCOOEOCOSOOO® 35 Quantitative CESLS) cecccceccece ce cece vccciiccecielcisicisieiceicieicicclianicene 37 Water test ccccecccccccccccl ccs csc cl 5l lect eee be cceccece cieicceaeee 37 Bottom can secceccesesceccccecccc cece cc cee clcicisicisicicoceicisiciielclelee 3 Middilic' Canl See ceciccieic cee ccc cece coc cicccicciccics sic cicieicisclcicicisicleleloeatele 38 Top can @eeeeseseessoeoeeeeeeeeseeeeeseeseseeeoeeseeseeoeoeoeoeoeeoeoeeeoeoseeseeee 3 Measuring MOAT “view viccic'c.c 016 ole 016 010 clelcinie oo elclelcicieicleieieleiclelelcioleleictaiatare 39 Procedure used in water tests COHOHSSHSHSOLSSOOSCOHOOCHOLOLOSOSESESES®O 39 Calculation of water properties COSTCO OCEOCOLOCCOSCEOOOOLOLCEECOOEE® Water=—test conclusionsS ceccoccccccccccccccccccccccccccceccceeee of water properties COSCCHOHHOSECOS HCOOH SCOOOS EES HEEL OOEOE 5 Field testing PCOHOHCECEOSHSSCOSSEHOCHOHOTOHSOOHOLHO OHO HOCOHO SOHO OEOOOOEO® Abrasion or Wear Tests eccocccccccccccccccccccccccccececcccce ce ceeee h? PYOCEAUTE coccccccccccccccccccccccecccccccccecccccecceececeeeee Abrasion TESULES s:00.0.010.c1c 0100 e.c6icle c.0'e.0/0 oclelclelelelole cleleislelelelcioiciciclelelele hg Conclusions on abrasion tests SPOOLS EEHOOHSSHOHOHLOHSHOOHOSOCOCEOOOSOO® ho Cleanliness CEST ccecccccccccccccceccccc cc ccc cc cc sec ceesececceseeee hg Density test SPCHOHHOHSHHSSHHSHHSHSHHSHSHHHSHSHHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHHSHOHSHSHSHSHSSHSHSHSHSSSSHOHSSEHS Selling by weight SPCHHSHHSHSHSHSHHSHHHHHHHHSHHHSHHHHHSHOHHSHSHHHSHSHSHSSHSSESSEHEOSD 53 Recommendations for grading standards ccccccccccccceccccccccceeecccce Bibliography SPCHHSSSHSHSHSHOHHSHSHSHHHHHSSHOHSHHHHSSHHSHHSHHHSHSHHSSEHHHSHHHSSSSEHSEOOD ILLUSTRATIONS Page RANTES! Te ——INSHOTE SHEEPSWOO! Ne lcieieicioisicic eisleloicicicievsieieloisjevcieleisieieisisicion (0 RAPUEE! Oo ——tOCk LESTandsONECHSWOO!! ieveleicie cloie aleicve ole c/elelele\clele cleieleje ciel a Rigure 3.—-Mediterranean Bengasl ceciscscoccccoiocccscoceoccccsss LO Reopen —— FL OF damNeyaWOO!lW cts elere eleie's ei ciersicieleiele esis eleisieieisieioiee sisiee, (10 Figure 5 .--Cuban Sea Wool @eeeeeeveeenoeovoeeeeeeeeeeaevneeneea een eee eee 0 10 BPP ORO coal VOT asl 1 OW Mss cfelereiele ie eieieleleve eieicicieisie.ele slelelelevsteriolciete! | ae): ieteurei ic ——ANCTOGCCEGLAGS Melsrelele elclele slelcictelsiclole cleiolels clele’e cloteicielelelcfelelen erUreE Oe ——=HUdSON: Grass es sicsiclelsiele vieieicls cielcleisiaeleiclelcl ele cielclcicicicsreleieie 1S Figure 9.--Relationship in the Fall of 1955 between the price of natural sponges and their size .......ccccesesees 15 APES POs ——WELELESURCGULDMCMb! cicicic sleleciscicclciclccselciceiceciselcc cele If Eieure sl]. ——Abrasion test EQUIDMENT scccccccccoisccisececccewecee Lt Pipure 12.—-Natural spongessabrasion LOSS ...c6ccciececiecccsicves DO TABLES Table 1.--List of faults and maximum number of demerits given Por each gOne & cveserevs ciere clots sichelersrctele.c ¢ Selevevele clerevelelsteleiticccen LO Table 2.--Sheepswool sponges graded by demerits--No. 1 Forms .. 19 Table 3.--Average number of demerits characteristic of each grade of Rock Island Sheepswool sponge ...ccceccoeese 28 Table 4.--Average number of demerits characteristic of each grade of Inshore Sheepswool Sponge .cccecececcvccesee 29 Table 5.--Average number of demerits characteristic of each pradelot Mlorida Yellow ISPDONE Er cele cic sisieievelsteelsisiciciie sce) OO Table 6.--Average number of demerits characteristic of each pradesor Anelote GrassMSpONP.e ss isisislelele sleieie/eie)siekeleie.cioie cei oe Table 7.--Average number of demerits characteristic of each prade of Florida Key, Wool, Sponge ssisiscisisic cio clsicleieiels ctelen I: Table 8,--Average number of demerits characteristic of each grade of Hudson Grass SPONGE) ciecicicicieiecicloieversieltttelereieie ciel OS Table 9.--Average number of demerits characteristic of each grade of Mediterranean BengaSi Sponge ..eccccccececes 33 Table 10.--Average number of demerits characteristic of each grade of Mediterranean Deepwater sponge ...eeccceses 3h Table 11.--Average number of demerits characteristic of each pradevofcuban Sea WOO!) SPONGE) c./cicicsiclele oleleiciejcciesielcio OU Table 12,--Relationship between the diameter of Rock Island Sheepswool sponges and their approximate weight .... 36 Taplenl j.—=Water=ioldinpe POWEr Giebcc'c leis cle ciciclceviclececisle clcssicieeicte oe Wap¥or Uy SGUCCZEAUWELNICSS | s.slo cleiciclee ¢ ciciele civic e's cic sleleiesieisicleieleeielonn lS PADECwI Cl caria Disa LY elelatorelalolelelcietelele cielo oie's elelelevalelelelereleielevelercioiers) (5 WADE Cal am EENESS Mele oles etal olelsiefa cloleloieie e\ele.clcics acie’eie(eleleleiciela er clelen allt PML CML1o—— MLAS TLCADY: eiciers ste’s ele\c\e's)eielcietielcleleioisieIoieve ei cjevstele’ eieieleterss U5) FADVEMIOe —=SNIPCATECOVELY, stele cierslols cicleioleleie eislelels wiclele sicleleiesiloievere ea! HO Table 19,--Results of washing Rock Island Sheepswool sponges .. 52 * 40 »e ets raey é¢tv, 4608 AAS HS Ag ag aay “v) ‘ote T Wag eee 85084 aia) une ~ > f F 4 i 4 sy t 1 seit x ~ j Y Athan e TPN wee AL! fpr eenmgl > INTRODUCTION According to Contract No. 1-19-008-2378, the work to be performed by the University of Florida Engineering and Industrial Experiment Station for the U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries was the delivery of background information for a grade standard on natural sponges. In general, the objectives were: 1. To assemble information from which a voluntary Federal standard of grade and condition of sponges could be developed by the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries when the need for it had been demonstrateds 2e To prepare a report on current industrial practices in the classification of sponges. Sensory tests were to be supplemented by developed quantitative tests wherever possible. 3e To recommend a sound system of grading based on the above information, giving ranges and evaluation weights. These objectives now have been achieved, and the results have been given in a report on file at the U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries and at the University of Florida. Since that report is somewhat voluminous, owing to the fact that it contains most of the original data that were taken, it has been substantially abridgede The present report is the result of that abridgment. References A selected list of references is given at the end of this reporte The system of grading proposed here differs markedly from most of those discussed in these references. Faults that require demerits in sponges are more numerous than are those in other products reported in the literature. Fortunately, these faults can be described and recognized readily--even to degree--by anyone skilled in the tradee Worthy of special mention is the reference pertaining to fish sticks (United States Standards for Grades of Frozen Fried Fish Sticks), since the present work resembles in many respects that on the grade standards for fish sticks more closely than it does that on any other standards. What Sponge Users-Want For background information, a census was taken of a cross section of customers in St. Petersburg, Florida as to what they wanted when they bought a sponge. The census indicated (1) that the user of sponges is interested in several properties ee in natural sponges but not present in synthetic ones and (2) that wearability and ability to hold and release water are of prime im= portance. 6 Neither of these properties, unfortunately, is covered directly in the usual grading of sponges, but the graders are aware of their significance and include many tests that reveal differences influenc= ing the rate of wear and the action of water in the sponge. The quantitative tests given in the present report appeared to members of the Sponge Exchange of Tarpon Springs, Florida, to have possibilities of satisfactorily measuring these two propertiese A more detailed discussion of the census that was taken on the use of sponges is given in a later section in the present reporte DESCRIPTION OF IMPORTANT SPONGES The only commercially important sponges in this part of the world belong to the Keratosa family (De Laubenfels 1953, and Stuart). Radiating from the base of these sponges, is an interlaced fiber structure easily seen through a strong lens after the sponge has been cleaned thoroughly. The fibers are the spongin skeletons of the many small one-celled animals that make up the sponge. These cells are capable of individual existence for some time and of changing in form to assume one of the many duties of a colony of sponge cells, such as taking in food or throwing off refuse through separate channels set up for these purposeSe Most people are familiar with the similar cooperation observed in a colony of ants or in a hive of bees. The nearest analogy, but one less familiar, is the colony that forms a coral structure. Here the skeleton is of hard inflexible mineral matter. Even in sponges, one encounters some with skeletons containing varying amounts of minerals similar to sand or limestonee The skeleton of most sponges, however, is enclosed in a jellylike material that the cells have secreted and in which they can move. A mineral skeleton also may have been formed by the cells, starting usually with sharp, pointed spikes or spicules of mineral matter, which vary widely in shape, size and amount. The spongin or horn—like animal skeleton, all- important in the commercial Keratosa sponges, rarely is accompanied by these mineral spicules. A few other commonly occurring sponges such as the Loggerhead (not in the Keratosa group) probably would have been developed commercially, however, if their spicules were not so hard on the hands during the cleaning of the spongee The commercially valuable sponges have almost no spicules to injure the hands, and are given the description "Keratosa, 1-CC" by De Laubenfels, followed by: "The fibers are solid and opaquee The dried sponge is still spongy in consistency." (Either of these usually is adequate for identification.) "It neither emits a strongly colored exudate, nor a strong, unpleasant odor" when alivee The "sheepswool" (or wool) type of Keratosa includes Rock Island, Inshore, Cuban, Florida Key, and Mediterranean sponges, although for grading purposes, these have to be described separately. This group has the scientific name of Hippiospongia lachne. When picked, the Sponges in the group are drab Ss Btack and have a tough, smooth skin and many connected channels inside. The cleaned wool sponge, if examined with a strong lens, shows the parallel fibers present in all the commercial sponges but shows the cross fibers as being smaller, more abundant, and attached at angles approaching the parallel fibers, The colors cover the same range as do those of tanned leather, al- though Occasionally, gray or rusty red variation occur, with the color being more concentrated in the base of the sponge and practically never working through to the surfacee Such a red color is considered to be a fault. A very pale sponge may indicate artificial bleaching, where= as a very dark sponge usually indicates poor removal of gurrye Such uneleanliness is detected easily by an unusual stiffness when the sponge is dry and by a strong odor and milky wash water when the sponge is wete Inshore and Rock Island Inshore-type sheepswool sponges (figure 1) are considered by scientists to be merely environmentally conditioned variations of the Rock Island sponge (figure 2). Originally, the tradesmen thought that the name was appropriate as indicating a relatively sharp division in the depth of collection; but many are convinced, by overlapping ex= amples from both types, that the Inshore type is the result of factors of growth other than depth of watere Nevertheless, reclassification by the trade would be difficult to ef= fect, so the present report did not eliminate samples of Inshore sponges when submitted for Rock Island testSe The tests on Inshores, however, were made after a few obvious Rock Island samples had been removed from the lots tested. The actual division used by the trade at present is based almost en=- tirely on the fact that Rock Island sponges are collected primarily by diving boats and that Inshore sponges are collected primarily by non-diving j ee or hooker boats, which are smaller } and collect closer to land with the Figure 1.—Inshore Sheepswool aid of hooks on long poles. The Inshore type of sponge differs from the Rock Island type with intermediate degrees being quite common, by having more large internal holes and therefore a softer feel; and especially by having, on the surface, fine tufts or feathers, which often are curled. This feathery or hairy structure is more common close to the oscules or openings of the main channels. The Inshore Sponges usually are better cleaned of gurry, but they have a greater proportion of other faults such as tears, sand, and minimum surface- bridging structure. An Inshore sponge present in a shipment of Rock Island sponges rarely is given a number-one grade. These two types of sponges differ from the Bengasi (also spelled Benghazi) Mediterranean and Deepwater Mediterranean sponges in that they (1) seldom are flat, Figure 2e—Rock Island Sheepswool (2) have fewer holes and therefore more outside webbing or bridging structure, (3) are darker in color, () are more springy, and (2) re= gain their shape more readily when wet. As is true of hand tests with all commercial sponges, such testing should be performed on freshly soaked and squeezed samplese Bengasi Mediterranean and Deepwater Mediterranean Mediterranean sponges are included because they are sold in large amourts through Tarpon Springs. They differ from the Rock Island and Inshore types by having practically no surface tufting, and they appear to have some tufting clipped so that the webbing present is directly on the surface. When the dry sponge is rubbed on the hand, this sur face webbing gives a feeling similar to that produced by a rubber balloon. A skilled inspector, by observing the flatter, paler, yellower, and more perforated appearance, can detect the Mediterranean sponge at sight, even when it is dry. Im general, the Mediterranean sponges are more rounded and are cleaner from gurry than are the American spongéeSe The color is a paler yellow than is that of the Florida Yellow sponge, which has an orange tinge and is red-brown inside, and the holes are more scattered and numerous. The Deepwater sponge, when wet and squeezed well, is the softest of these sponges, but both of the Mediterranean sponges are slower to regain their wet shape. This relatively slow creeping back to shape can be seen by suddenly releasing the wet, squeezed spongee The Deepwater type of Mediterranean sponge is the most difficult to classify as being distinctly different from the Bengasi sponge (fig- ure 3). The Deepwater sponge resembles the Inshore sponge by being softer and more porous than is its counterpart. Perhaps careful clip- ping of the Mediterranean sponges has removed tufts similar to those present in the Inshore sponges—-tufts that would make them easier to identify. The greater softness of the Deepwater Sponge is not detected easily except when the sponge is wet. It is puzzling that the Deepwater Mediterranean sponge appears to be the softer of the pair, Since the American Inshore sponge, which usually is found in relatively shallow water, is softer than is its deepwater twin, the Rock Island sponges Florida Key Wool or Sheepswool The Florida Key Wool or Sheepswool scree sponge (figure ) is similar to many Figure 3.--Mediterranean Bengasi sponges marketed as Inshore spongeSe It resembles a cross between the Inshore sponge and the Mediterranean sponge in that it usually has the feathery outside surface: of the Inshore sponge, but it contains relatively more holes between 1/8 and 1/) inch in diameter and, in general, is flatter on top. Relatively more of the Florida Key Wool sponges possess red bottoms and weak inside structures This description differs from that given by Stuart (Series No. 82), who seems to have described a poorer type that may have made a slow re= covery from the Blight of 1939 to 196. Cuban Sea Wool The Cuban Sea Wool sponge (figure 5) is another type of Sheepswool sponge, judging by the samples received. Except for a tendency to be taller than it is broad, it most nearly resembles the Mediterranean types in that it contains many holes, has very little surface webbing or tufts, and is softer than is the Rock Island type. No differences in the fibrous structures of any of the above wool sponges could be detected with a good magnifying glass. An examination Figure h.—Florida Key Wool Figure 5.——-Cuban Sea Wool 10 for spicule types and similar factors as described by De Laubenfels (1953) might reveal important differences under high magnificationy but such an examination is not practical for commercial identification. The differences in wool-type sponges, easily detected by one skilled in grading, are difficult to describe in terms other than the ones used abovee Florida Yellow The Florida Yellow sponge (figure 6) possesses a reddish-yellow to reddish=brown color that ranges between the yellow of the Mediter= ranean sponges and the leather-to-gray color of the Rock Island spongee The darker red=brown inside is quite characteristic and uniform. The scientific name is Spongia zimocca or barbara, and it belongs to the Keratosa order. Ve, is drab to black, with many small holes. These holes may protrude as volcanoes, which are not large in the cleaned sponge. The Florida Yellow sponges are much stiffer both wet and dry, than are other sponges except the Grass sponges. The Florida Yellow sponge is highly elastic and regains its shape instant— ly. It has high water-holding power, contrary to popular opinion, but it does not release water easily, owing to its stiffness. A Yellow sponge can be distinguished or easily from a Grass sponge by tipping the wet and drained spongee Much extra water will drain from a Grass sponge be= cause of its preponderance of large channels running in one direction. The Florida Yellow Sponge, under a lens, resembles a Grass sponge in that its parallel fibers are larger than are the cross fibers; but the Florida Yellow sponge has a greater proportion of cross fibers, and these cross fibers are not so nearly perpendicular to the vertical fibers as they are in the Grass spongeSe SoS TESS ac ainda sees xe eeereeeene ee tively stiff, both wet and dry, Figure 6.—Florida Yellow has a red-brown interior, and splits fairly easily from the top dow when pulled apart with the ingens is probably a Florida Yellow sponge. No sponge described by Stuart (Series No. 82) appears to be this spongee Any sponge that is rela- ene Anclote Grass and Hudson Grass The Anclote Grass sponge (Spongia graminea) (figure 7) is sold almost always as "cuts," since grows in the shape of a vase, which is not so much in demand as is the spherical shape. Alive, it is drab to black, but the cleaned sponge is pale yellow to dark browny depending on the treatment. These cut slabs, resembling a small= holed honeycomb, have many large holes and ridges running the length of the sponge. These, and their extreme stiffness when dry, make them easily identifiable. Many samples, however, will vary up to the Eudson Grass sponge (figure 8) in character, The typical Anclote sponge has very little outside loose fiber ex- eept on the top edges; whereas the typical Hudson Grass sponge (1) is broader, more hairy all over, and less ridged and (2) has smaller— pored interior resembling the Flor ida Yellow spongee Both grass sponges, when wet and drained flat but unsqueezed, pour out much water when they are tipped to the vertical position. Grass sponges, under the lens, show more open structure and fewer cross fibers, and these cross fibers are attached more nearly per= pendicular to the large parallel main fibers. The Hudson Grass sponge, which is relatively new on the market, ap— pears to be similar both to the Bahama Yellow sponge and to the Ba= Figure 7—Anclote Grass hama Velvet sponge described by Stuart. The Hudson sponge was des= cribed above as being different from the Anclote Grass sponge. It might be confused, however, with the Florida Yellow—as well as with the Anclote—owing to the red-brown interior, but no other sponge on the market bears the fairly uniform hairy surface. The hairs tend to concentrate toward the top edge of the sponge, as its variations ap— proach those of the Anclote Grass sponge. The Hudson Grass sponge is as stiff as is a Florida Yellow sponge when wet, and it does not compress as readily on its side as does the Anclote Grass sponge, owing to the reduced size of the main tubes. In other water tests, as will be brought out later in the report, it parallels the Anclote Grass sponge. The Blight seems to have changed the availability of sponges. Almost no Wire, Velvet, Reef, or Glove sponges now can be found. They, however, never were of great industrial importance. Interestingly, all of the sponges described in this report are composed of absorbent cages made of fibers, whereas the synthetic sponges examined were composed of spherical cells that had some common walls and opened into each other through small holes. These differences should have a definite effect on some tests and useSe 12 GRADING SYSTEMS Grading by the demerit system proposed here differs somewhat from the system of grading presently used by the trade. The following gives a general description of each system, Present System of Grading The techniques now used in the trade for the inspection of sponges are entirely qualitative and sensorye That is, the grader does not add or subtract numerical values for good or bad qualities of a particular sponge. The sensory tests include the use of sight, feeling and smell. The sponges are sorted into the types described in the preceding sec— tion, dropped sidewise through holes graduated in steps of one-half inch to determine the maximum diameters, sorted into "forms" and "cuts," and then inspected to determine into which one of four grades they should be classified--No. 1, 2, 3, or. A grade No. 5 has been used, and the number grades have been subdivided into Figure 8.—Hudson Grass A's, B's and Specials, but these ad- ditional subdivisions are reported to be unnecessary complications de— signed to produce a higher price than that which the sponges ordinarily would yield. "Forms" are those sponges that are most perfect, especially in shape, with a spherical shape being the one most desirede "Cuts" literally may have been cut from larger sponges, or they may be sponges that have been distorted in other ways by the clipping out of a diseased or torn spot or by the irregular growth due to the presence of another sponge or of a rock, shell, seaweed or crab. A crab hole is a dished spot or actual hole caused by some form of marine life. Grass sponges usually are sold as "cuts" because the demand is low for the vase shape that is the natural pattern of growth of the Grass spongeSe ; "Rollers" are seen occasionally. If a sponge has grown without being attached permanently to a rock or similar support, it becomes a roller with the ocean current. This movement across the bottom of the ocean causes it to accumulate dirt and to acquire a tough outer skine Accordingly, it is classified into a much lower gradee 13 Size, as it affects the price (figure 9) of the sponge, does not follow the expected pattern. Roughly, the price is directly pro= portional to the diameter rather than to the cube of the diameter as One would expect if the price were related to the volume of the sponges (Volume equal Ri divided by 6 and mltiplied by the cube of the diameter o-- V = °/ Except for display purposes, most sponges more than 8 inches in diameter sell slowly and, accordingly, are cut into sizes that are easier to hold. The work of cutting and trimming and the loss of material incurred just about offset the value of the extra volume in a larger sponge. The curvature and the slope of the lines in figure 9 will be affected by changes in the supply and demand for different sizes at different times. Until quite recently, many sponges were sold on the basis of weight. Sale by size now is recommended by the members of the Sponge Exchange, and measurement of the perimeter of the sponge is preferred over measurement of the maximum diameter used by many, as well as over the three-diameter method suggested here. Details on the above points will be discussed later in this report. Demerit System of Grading The details of inspection by the demerit system have been placed under proper headings in the following section on Discussion of Faults but an overall picture of the method of grading is described at this point. Except for work in the Sponge Exchange or in packing houses, most of the inspections take place after a shipped bale or box of sponges has been opened. These sponges are found to be highly com= pressed and should be sampled according to section F of Federal Specification C-S-63lb for "Sponges; Natural," which is in Part 5 of Section IV of the Federal Standard Stock Catalog. The sponges should be wet and squeezed thoroughly before being inspected. The perimeters should be measured according to the Federal specifications or, if the agreement requires, should be checked for size by a "go — no go" test by means of standard boards with circular holes decreasing in diameter in steps of one-half inch. The three diameter test described later under Miscellaneous Studies may merit consideration, however, since it (1) gives more data than do the "go - no go" boards, (2) is quicker than are perimeter tests, (3) gives one number that approximates the "go — no go" tests, and (h) causes no arguments as to whether the perimeter tape was poorly placed, was too loose, or was too tighte It might be worthwhile also to specify a minimm rate of sampling for lots of different size in the manner specified on page 5 and PRICE IN DOLLARS ROCK ISLAND SHEEPSWOOL ROCK ISLAND SHEEPSWOOL ROCK ISLAND SHEEPSWOOL ROCK ISLAND SHEEPSWOOL ROCK ISLAND SHEEPSWOOL ROCK ISLAND SHEEPSWOOL ROCK ISLAND SHEEPSWOOL MEDITERRANEAN BENGAST MEDITERRANEAN BENGASI A B C D E F G H I MAXIMUM DIAMETER OF SPONGE IN INCHES Figure 9.--Relationship in the fall of 1955 between the price of natural sponges and their size. 15 section 52.38 in the reference on processed fruits and vegetablese Other suggestions for changes in Federal Specifications are dis= cussed later, Grading for demerits usually proceeds as follows for the indi- vidual, thoroughly wet and squeezed sponge: 1. Check for trueness to type according to the "Description of Important Species," given earlier. Any lot containing sponges not true to type should be rejected as being impossible to grade. Such lots should not be encountered, however, since an experienced seller would not make this mistake. 2e Check the sample for size according to a mtually accepted standard method. It is suggested that not more than one-sixth of the samples fails to meet the size indicated—to borrow the phrasing common in Agriculture Standards. An adjustment in price could be made if this requirement as to size is not met. 3- Look for faults: ae Smell the sponge for strong odor. De Squeeze out a few drops of water to detect gurrye Ce With both thumbs first placed on top of the sponge, run them dowm the sides at several spots and look for holes and other faults. de Inspect the bottom for dirt, holes, and looseness. ée Use the thumb and forefinger for squeezing to detect interior dirt, such as shells and rocks. £. Squeeze the whole sponge in one or two hands to detect elasticity, stiffness, poor recovery of shape, or weak inside structuree Ze Inspect surface structure and shape closely. h. Test for brittleness and tendency to split. i. Run any special tests for a particular type or usee lh. Assign demerits to the sponge according to the agreed standard system of demerits. 5. Determine the grade of the sponges in the lot by considering the average number of demerits that were assigned to the sponges in the given lote DISCUSSION OF FAULTS As was indicated in the preceding section, the individual sponge is given demerits for each fault that is found by inspection. The maximum number of demerits given depends on the seriousness of the fault. This maximum number ranges from 50 to 300. The faults are divided into two groups: major and minor. Major faults are those requiring a maximum of 200 to 300 demerits. Minor faults are those requiring a maximum of 50 to 150 demerits. Both the major and minor faults, in turn, are divided into two sub-groups: workmanship and character. Faults included under workmanship are those controllable by the seller. Those included under character are controllable only by selection and gradinge A list of the faults and the maximum number of demerits suggested for each are shown in table 1. A typical example indicating how many demerits would be assigned in actual practice to one lot of sponges of a particular type and grade is shown in table 2. The following gives a discussion of each fault. Major Faults A. Bleached.-—-To determine the color of a bleached sponge, one could use an accepted publication of color standards for reference, but customers are not interested particularly in the attractiveness added by bleaching. Evidently, sellers are aware of this fact and also of the fact that all known methods of bleaching are reported to weaken the sponge, since very few domestic sponges received were definitely bleached. The few that were given demerits for being bleached could have been affected by variations in growth or by ex=- posure to sun, which seems to have been the case for the Mediterranean sponges that were inspectede Bleaching may be partially the cause of certain of the accompanying poorer qualities in these sponges. At present, the only advice that can be given on grading this fault is to say that familiarity with the usual color will make possible the detection of any excessive amount of bleachinge Be Unclean, gurrye-—Uncleanliness is indicated by excessive stiffness in the dry sponge, which almost invariably is accompanied by a color that is darker than usual and by a clinging together of the finer outside fibers. The Rock Island sponges were found to be the least cleaned of gurry (residual dried oxidized flesh). Such sponges, when wet, often will evolve a fishy smell, feel sticky, give a milky discoloration to the first wash, and leave a smear on clean glass. On thorough washing, no sponge should lose more than 10 per- cent of its weight figured on the dry basis. This test gives additional evidence that the sale of sponges should be made on the basis of size rather than of weight. Practi- cally all sponges now are being offered for sale on a size basisy a, Table 1.—list of faults and the maximum number of demerits given for each one Faults Be Unclean, gurry Ce. Weight additives De Exterior sand, shell, coral, stone Ee Interior sand, shell, coral, stone F. Odor Character e lears He Holes, natural, too large or through I. Holes, "crab," baring inside Je Holes, "crab," webbed, or uneven bottom Ke Holes, natural, small, from disease L. Structure weak inside M. Lacking outside webbing over holes N. Surface, roller type, no nap O. Surface, inshore type feathery P. Red bottom or body Qe Feel: not springy Re Strength: easily split S. Brittle under pinch or pull T. Low water absorption U. Wet stiffness: poor cleanability Ve. Wet drainage when tipped Minor Workmanshi Ky Ragged clipping Be Seaweed, etce, soft C. Seaweed, etc., hard Character D. Too flat Ee Too long Fe. Too tall (e.g. vertical cuts) G. Volcanoes H. 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In the past, the problem of gurry in sponges has been a serious one for the industry. A specification as to cleanliness therefore is recommended to prevent this problem from recurringe Ce Weight additivese—When sponges were sold on the basis of weight, gurry and dirt sometimes were left in the sponge intention- ally. Weight additives also were worked into the sponge. A specifi= cation for uncleanliness will deter any tendency for the industry to slip back into these uneconomic practices, which work against its welfare under competitive conditions, Although each seller of sponges who "loaded" them had his own formila, in every case known, the weight additive could be washed out with water. This fault therefore merely requires an extra 200 demerits to be added to Fault B if evidence of loading is founde Weight additives fall into two classes: water soluble and water insoluble. The water-soluble type would be suspected if the sponge lost a lot of weight on being washed but did not develop a foul odor (due to gurry) when wet and kept in a closed container for 2h hourse The water-insoluble type, usually needing the first type to make it adhere to the sponge, would be fine sand, barytes, whiting, lith— arge, or similar insoluble material, which easily can be detected by an examination of the first wash water for insoluble fine powder. Sale on the basis of size rather than weight, however, gives no in= centive to load a sponge or to leave in more than 10 percent of gurrye D. Exterior sand, shell, coral, stone, etce-—-Inspection of the bottom ot the sponge usually will reveal most of the exterior dirte Complete removal of dirt is difficult and time consuming without de=- stroying some of the bottom webbing, which is one of the stronger parts of the sponge. Very little if any such dirt should be tolerated, however, in the present market, which is so keenly competitive. Syn=- thetic sponges never contain dirt, and Mediterranean sponges are al= most as clean. Obviously, very few uses of sponges will tolerate harsh particles. Even a small amount of dirt therefore justifies large de= merits if the inspector finds that the dirt is easy to remove without injuring the sponge. Several people in the trade have recommended that sponges be clipped from their roots. If the root is left to grow a new sponges production is increased, and very little bottom dirt is collected; but the new sponge tends to grow in a flatter shape, which results in few forms, and the strong bottom webbing is lost. The advantages of clipping the sponges from their roots appear to outweigh the dis= advantages, however, if one realizes that the value of the spherical form is questionable in view of the competition with the synthetic sponges Ee Interior sand, shell, coral, stone, etce—When dirt such as sand and shell w e icv. © remove without injuring the sponges 20 the sponge cleaner is confronted with a difficult decision. He may have to make cuts from a good forn, downgrade the sponge because of the cut, or run the risk of having the sponge downgraded or rejected by the buyers Large particles can be detected by pinching the whole wet sponge at different spots, whereas small particles—usually sand——can be detected by close visual inspection through the channelse Some sponges, especially those of the Grass and the Inshore types, tend to incor= porate small particles of sand and shell during their growth. Mediter— ranean sponges, likewise, sometimes appear to grow around particles or stone. These small objects are almost impossible to remove and, accordingly, might be considered to be a character fault instead of one of workmanship. In either case, however, the demerits for these faults should be majore Fe Odore—Odor invariably will accompany poor removal of gurry if the wet Sponge is kept in a closed container for 2) hourse At that time, the sometimes mild fishy odor develops into a strong one resembling ammonia. It obviously lowers the value of the sponge to the consumer. Customarily, however, demerits are assigned only on the basis of the odor of the freshly wet sponge. Such practice was followed by the writer in his studies of gradinge It should be kept in mind, however, that a gurried sponge that has been dried rapidly in the sun may develop little odor when it is freshly wetted. G Tearse—The first major fault of character in the list given earlier considers any definite separation of the main body—not the surface fibers--to be a tear, whether it be caused in collecting, in removing an embedded shell, or in too drastic cleaning--such as running the sponge through wringing rolls. Tears show up quite readi= ly during the initial handling by the inspector. The wet sponge is held in both hands, with thumbs on top of the sponge, and the thumbs are allowed to slide, with pressure, down the sides of the spongee Repeated on two to five diameters, this procedure will reveal the tears. This same riffling, with the roots up, will reveal the bottom imperfections, including dirt and crab holes. Serious tears rarely appear in the marketed sponges, since torn spots are removed before the sponges are solde He Holes, natural, too large, or throughe—-The writer has graded the -apongas -ueoon@ing to the, caster of eiving large demerits if the channels run through to the bottoms so daylight can be seen through them. Actually, the thin bottom webbing that saved many other sponges from receiving such large demerits probably does not give much longer life to the sponge. Holes larger in diameter than 1/2-inch should be given demerits in proportion to the diameter of the holes and to the number of them. Such holes tend to form weak spots from which tears eventually will start during the useful life of the sponge. It is difficult to set up a numerical proportion be= tween demerits and the number or size of holes, but each hole larger in diameter than 1/2-inch should be given 50 demerits, or more, de= pending on the size. 21 I. Holes, crab, baring insides—Final users will agree with the writer's division of crab-hole grading to assign slightly more demerits to a hole that is unlined by protective tissue. Crab holes are made by many forms of life other than crabs. The result, howevey is the same. The hole may appear anywhere——on the surface or in the interior. Surface grooves usually wear a protective coating or webbing similar to the usual bottom structure and, as such, are covered in Fault J, but sometimes an interior hole—usually starting close to the bottom and rarely penetrating the top—bares the inside structure and is not protected by webbing. Such defects should be given demerits as large as those for tears. They usually drop the rating of the sponge by one grades Je Holes, crab, webbed; or uneven bottome—Since the effect is the same with uneven bottoms as with webbed holes, these faults have been combined, whether they be due to webbed crab holes, to another sponge growing closely nearby, or to a stone or shell on which the sponge was growing. The resultant distortion, if large enough, May cause a Form to be graded as a Cute K. Holes, natural, from diseasee—The writer was alarmed to find af er sponges contained areas of sleazy or thin growth, since these might indicate the persistence of blights, even though they were being kept under control. Such a spot, or its trimmed place, would justify demerits somewhat more than would a lack of webbing over a corresponding area (see M)e L., Structure, weak insides.-=Softness is another fault that is difficult to evaluate. A soft sponge, as tested by pinching or Squeezing the whole wet sponge, may be attractive at first to the majority of customers, but this fault usually indicates that less material is present ’and that accordingly, a shorter life is to be expected. It should therefore receive demerits. On the other hand, the Grass sponge and the Florida Yellow sponge usually are too stiff for ready acceptance except for special uses. The greater proportion of water that can be removed from a Hudson Grass sponge than from an Anclote sponge (see Cleanability, under the quantitative tests) be- cause of an apparently weaker inside structure, conceivably could be considered as being an advantage. For purposes of inspection, a squeeze of the sponge with the full hand will reveal any definitely weak inside structure. If demerits have been made for excessive holes, the mumber of additional demerits for weak structure has to be deter= mined by closer visual inspection for loose fine structuree M. Lacking outside webbing over holese—=Although the useful life of a sponge 1s mich greater than 1S the time elapsed in wearing through the outside fiber and webbing that form the surface of the sponge, this webbing probably constitutes a resistant layer that reduces tear= ing during its existence. A reduction in the amount of this webbing 22 therefore should receive demerits. The initial riffling by the in- spector to uncover holes and tears will reveal the percentage of sur= face webbing. (Bottom webbing is covered under I in Major Faults.) Ne Surface, roller type; no nape—Rollers rarely are encounter— ed in the trade, owing either to the fact that they are considered practically worthless or to the possibility that the conditions that caused them have improved. One reported source is a sponge that is lost by the collector before it has been exposed to air long enough to be killed. The dropped sponge continues to live, but it rolls with the currents on the floor of the ocean and acquires the characteristic lack of surface fibers and equally characteristic bottom structure over the entire sponge. The presence of this bottom structure is a minor item, as it can be argued that such a sponge should bring a premium, owing to its greater resistance to weare It should be given a fault rating, however, to prevent the uninformed buyer from being sold an item that is reputedly off grade. O. Surface, inshore e, featherye—Feathery structure is an= other cass OPS SF SpSE Ee Tet sau be etivactive to come buyerse The Hudson Grass sponge sometimes brings a higher price than does an An- clote sponge, owing to a feathery or hairy structure. This structure makes a softer sponge of a type of sponge that usually is too stiff. An arbitrary plus 50 points therefore are given to a typical Hudson Grass sponge for this property. (Note: In the system of grading rec— ommended in this report, to give plus 50 points is actually to subtract 50 demerits.) On the other hand, the Inshore Sheepswool type is most easily distinguished from the Rock Island type by means of this feath= ery structure, which often is accompanied by other less desirable properties. Points can be taken off in proportion to the percentage of surface covered by such feathery structure and to the length of such fibers, which may reach1/2 inch. The feathers may wear away rapidly and therefore deserve demerits aside from other accompanying undesir=— able propertiese P. Red bottom or we wear tests had proved to be more significant, was p ed to check one possible reason for the down= grading of sponges that appear to have been discolored by a deposi- tion of iron oxides. No consistent trend to poor properties, however, appeared to accompany such discoloration. Rock Island sponges rarely are so colored. The discoloration therefore, at one time, may have served as a quick check as to type. In the author's examinations, Florida Yellow sponges were quite consistent in the degree of such redness and accordingly received a uniform demerit of 100 points. Using this standard color and demerit as a guide, the inspector can estimate the degree of discolorationy with 200 demerits as a maximum to be applied. As in A, the use of a scientific color designation would depend on a balance of the cost of the research needed to de= velop the designation versus the benefit to be derivede 23 Qe Feel, not spri e—According to the apparent judgment of the trade rather than being eS on the accompanying quantitative tests for elasticity, this fault was set up to cover apparent hardness or stiffness that prevents an inspector from compressing the sponge to any large extent. By strict definition, the fault should be labeled "low compressibility," but the word "springy" conveys more to the average person. To reduce the number offaults, the author used this term to cover low visual snap back due to hardness or stiffness and also to cover the other occasional lack of snap back or springiness encountered in relatively soft sponges that appear to be soggy. This deadness is encountered occasionally in sponges that have been dried at too high a temperature or that have been squeezed too drastically in the cleaning step. The Florida Yellow sponges have received de- merits due to their uniformly hard character, and an occasional sponge of the other types has received some demerits for being soggy. Re Strength: easily split:—If the riffling step is modified by first pressing the sponge tightly before the hands are rotated, a splitting force is exerted that will tear open some sponges. The Grass and Florida Yellow sponges often show this fault, but more often it is accompanied by a lack of surface webbing in any spongee A lack of bottom webbing allows the sponge to be split easily from the bottom. Several noncommercial sponges may owe their lack of development to this fault. Judgement as to the proper relative rating can be ob- tained only through experiences Se Brittle under pinch and pulle—Grass, Florida Yellow, and highly bleached sponges often Tail under the test for brittleness, which involves pinching a small tuft between fingernails of thumb and forefinger followed by pulling and twisting to break off a portion. Again, experience cannot be put into numerical description. Such brittleness would be expected to be accompanied by poor wearing quali- tiese Te Low water absorptione—If no quantitative tests are used, the rating given this Fonte of low absorption of water indicates the inspector's opinion as to the relative value of a particular type of sponge, since the property of water absorption is one of the most im portant to the ultimate user of the sponge. Briefly, it consists of an estimate of the relative weight of water that can be picked up by the sponge on the first wetting. The writer suggests that this be the first subjective test to be replaced by a quantitative onee U. Wet stiffness: oor cleanabilitye—In looking for prop= erties that would justify the low prices Breuent by the Grass and the Florida Yellow sponges, the writer decided that wet stiffness was one of the very important properties. Quantitative tests reported later in this report verified this conclusion. The inspector judges this property by the relative amount of water that can be squeezed 2h out of the sponge. The amount of water absorbed and the amount Squeezed out both are judged by gentle swinging of the sponge up and down to feel the weight. The term "wet stiffness" is not used in the trade, and the use of it therefore may not be desirable; but it does describe accurately the property that causes poor cleanability, or difficulty in squeezing out the water that has been absorbede A porous brick may absorb as much water for its size as a sponge does, but it would be a worthless substitute, owing to the fact that water cannot be replaced by squeezing and rewettinge Ve Wet drainage when tippede-—-An easy test of identity for Grass sponges can be run by thoroughly soaking the sponge, laying it gently to drain on its flattest side without tipping, then tipping it by lifting it by the top tufts. From a third to a half of the water will pour out of the Anclote and Hudson Grass sponges in less than a minutee In general, Anclote sponges will drain faster than will Hudson spongese For most uses, this property would be a disadvantage, so demerits are given for ite In sponges used for cleaning with other solvents, how- ever, this property could be an advantage. It would enable such a sponge to be rinsed out readily without hand squeezing, for example, which would be a convenient property when some solvent such as gasoline is used to clean greasy motors. A quick quantitative test could be set up to rate sponges according to this property, but it was thought to be of minor importance at this time. A qualitative hand test, hom ever, is as easily evaluated as are the tests for absorption and clean— abilitye Minor Faults Ae Ragged clippinge—Only occasionally does the inspector en= counter sharp corners left in sponges by poor clipping. Nothing but the appearance is improved by smoother contours, however, so very few demerits are justified for this defect. It is notable that Mediterran= ean sponges are more carefully contoured than are the domestie spongese Failure to remove a tear by not making cuts from a form, may justify all 50 demerits. Be Seaweed, etce, soft.e—Since it takes time to remove the last traces of soft seaweed often found inbedded in the sponge and since complete removal may be difficult without ruining the sponge, very few demerits are justified for this defect. Furthermore, the soft ma- terial soon washes out during use and causes no harm to the surfaces being washede. Ce Seaweed, etce, harde—-A more serious inclusion of woody growths that might scratch surfaces deserves a greater number of de- merits. More than 100 points would be justified except that almost invariably, such particles are noticed the first time the sponge is Squeezed and are easily pulled out. 25 De Too flate—Flatness and associated faults are considered to be important only from the standpoint of appearance unless the irreg= ularities in shape are so extreme as to cause breakage of the sponge in usée Since these shape faults are the most important in classi- fying the sponge as a Cut rather than as a more valuable Form (other than an obvious product of cutting), they may have been relatively more important in the past trade than what the writer has allowed in the present demerit system, but the data accumlated in this study do not justify larger demerits. As a rough guide to the inspector, any sponge less than half as high as its radius in the horizontal plane would receive close to 150 demerits. Ee Too long.—As distinguished from Fault D, a sponge can be narrow—-or too [ong—as well as being too flat. If one horizontal diameter is more than twice the other, afull 50 points should be deductede Fe Too talle—-Cuts made in the plane vertical to the base or root of the sponge—this being the usual method of cutting—-often cause a sponge to be tall enough to be unattractive. Grass sponges are almost invariably cut this way, owing to the fact that the orig- inal form is vase-shaped and awkward to usee Some Cuban Wool sponges appear to grow quite tall. A full 100 points should be taken off for heights more than twice the length of the longest horizontal diametere Ge Volcanoese—Almost all types of sponges show a variation occasionally toward projecting tissue around the channels or osculese The trade appears to downgrade such sponges fairly severely, and therefore it is surprising that the projections are not trimmed. Volcanoes usually are accompanied by a weak structure, but they re= ceive demerits here merely because of poor appearance. Volcanoes more than 1/2 inch high would receive a full 100 demerits, since they rarely occur with single holese He Side or top valleys or branchese——Except in the Grass and the Florida Yellow sponges, side or top valleys or branches usually are trimmed awaye Projections greater than an inch should receive a full 150 demerits if the valleys are quite sharp, since breakage occurs easily at these lines. Ie No ee eel for eventual acceptance of sponges cut to leave the bottoms to grow again, the fault of no bottom webbing does not receive mich downgrading in the tradee lack of bottom webbing, however, can cause a quick breakup of the sponge in use. If it were not for advocating the leaving of the root to grow again, the writer would recommend a more drastic penalty than 100 demerits for a complete lack of bottom webbinge 26 AVERAGE NUMBER OF DEMERITS CHARACTERISTIC OF EACH TYPE AND GRADE OF SPONGE When the system of demerit grading described in the preceding section is applied to sponges, the average number of demerits assigned to a lot varies both according to the type of sponge and to the grade of spongee With Rock Island Sheepswool sponges, for example, No. 1 Forms will average 50 demerits and Noe 3 Forms will average 125 de- meritse On the other hand, with Mediterranean Deepwater sponges, No. 1 Forms will average 350 demerits and No. 3 Forms will average 630 demerits. Thus, the average number of demerits varies according to both the type and the grade of sponge under consideration. In practice, we find that the number of demerits assigned to an individual sponge varies widely from the average for its type and pur— ported grade. The question naturally arises as to what is a reason= able variations It is suggested that a good basis of judgment would be to consider the magnitude of the variation in relationship to the midpoint between the average number of demerits characteristic of the purported grade and the average number characteristic of the next gradee The fact that the number of demerits assigned to a particular sponge deviates widely from the average for its grade shows the need for careful sampling in the grading of spongese In the event that the demerits assigned to individual sponges in a lot are found to deviate too widely from the average for the pur— ported grade of the lot, there are two possible solutions to the prob= lem: (1) regrade the individual sponges or (2) assign a different grade to the lot as a whole. In either case, the basis for reassign= ment of grade could be the midpoint between the average number of de- Merits characteristic of the purported grade and the average number characteristic of the next gradee It thus becomes important, in the demerit system of grading, accurately to determine the average number of demerits characteristic for each type and grade of sponge and the midpoints between these characteristic mumberse Accordingly, the various types of sponges were graded by the demerit system in order that the characteristic number of demerits for each type and grade could be determined. The results are reported in the following subsections. Rock Island Table 3 gives the average number of demerits characteristic of each grade of Rock Island Sheepswool sponge. Inasmuch as the number of demerits found by actual grading will fluctuate, depending on the lot of sponges and upon the grader, this number is subject to some variation. Accordingly, since round numbers are more convenient ai to use, the numbers determined by grading were rounded off and ration= alized to give the figures shown in the colum headed "Demerits rec= ommended to be taken as characteristic." Table 3.--Average number of demerits characteristic of each grade of Rock Island Sheepswool sponge Average demerits Demerits recom- {Recommended mid=- Grade found by grading | mended to be taken| point to next as characteristic| lower grade Forms Number No. 1 75 No. 2 260 No. 3 55 Cuts No. 1 105 No. 2 300 No. 3 565 Forms and Cuts No. 765 The following notes were taken during the determination of the values given in table 3. 1. Some faults seldom occur in Rock Island sponges, and the num ber of demerits rarely approaches the maximum number that is assign= ablee To omit these infrequently occuring faults or to lower the maximum assignable number of demerits, however, might encourage the offering of sponges inferior in these points in the belief that the points are not important. It is therefore recommended that the faults and the mumber of demerits be retained as listed in table le Buyers are reminded thereby of faults not present in the sponges and accord— ingly have greater appreciation of the sponges of high quality. 2, A feathery outside structure or "Inshore" type of surface often is accompanied by dirt and weak inside structure. 3. Gurry usually is accompanied by odor. The number of demerits for this fault seems consistently to be higher for sponges from some suppliers than from others. hh. A number of suppliers preferred to submit mixtures, such as "mixed 1 and 2 Cuts," but these were regraded for the purpose of the present work. Sponges of grade No. h, however, are believed logically to be kept as "mixed Forms and Cuts," 28 5 The point spread between grades increases rapidly. Thus the desire to allow more tolerance for poorer grades is satisfied. 6. Holes are the most common fault in No. 1 and No. 2 Forms. The Same observation applies to Cuts, with the expected increase in number of demerits being found for poor shape. Lack of outside webbing is a common fault in No. 1 and No. 2 Forms. Weak structure is a common fault in Noe 3 sponges. No. lh sponges show an increased trend toward tears and the "inshore" type of surfacese Inshore Sheepswool Table )} gives the average number of demerits that is characteristic for each grade of Inshore Sheepswool sponge. As compared with Rock Island sponges, the Inshore sponges showed more demerits for inside dirt, weaker structure, feathery surface, and lack of surface webbinge Less gurry was found, and the cuts did not seem to earn as many de= merits for poor shape.e Tears, when present, appeared to be relative— ly worse, probably because of the method of harvestingse Table ),--Average number of demerits characteristic of each grade oO nsnore eepswoo sponge Average demerits Demerits recom— |Recommended mid-= Grade found by grading | mended to be taken} point to next as characteristic] lower grade Number Forms No. 1 Ws5 No. 2 BBD No. 3 580 Cuts No. 1 190 Noe 2 370 No. 3 590 Forms and Cuts No. 780 Table 5 gives the average number of demerits that is character— istic for each grade of Florida Yellow sponge. Distortions were rare in this sponge. The principal faults encountered were large natural 29 holes, tears, and exterior dirt. This sponge was found to be more uniform than was any other in the following three characteristics: red body, ease of splitting, and stiffness when wet. These character= istics can be used for purposes of identification. A standard number of demerits for each one was given to every Florida Yellow sponge. Table 5.—-Average number of demerits characteristic of each grade oO orida Yellow sponge Recommended mid= point to next lower grade Average demerits} Demerits recom found by grading | mended to be taken as characteristic Number Forms No. 1 525 No. 2 630 No. 3 770 Cuts No. lL Su5 No. 2 650 No. 3 780 Forms and Cuts No. Not available 880 Anclote Grass Table 6 gives the demerits found for the Anclote Grass spongee Forms were practically nonexistent. This sponge almost always con tained some trapped sand or shell particles, was quite tall and ir- regular in shape, had poor tear strength, contained many large holes, and when not too stiff to be squeezed easily, had a weak inside structure. No new faults became prominent as the grades went downe Florida Key Wool Table 7 gives the presently available data on the average number of demerits characteristic of the Florida Key Wool sponge. Not enough samples were received to give a firm average grade rating at this time. Since this sponge showed evidence of Inshore feathers and re= sembled a cross between Inshore sponges and Mediterranean sponges, ratings for Inshore sponges were used tentatively as a guide. The 30 Table 6.—-Average number of demerits characteristic of each grade 0 clote Grass sponge Recommended mid= point to next lower grade Average demerits | Demerits recom found by grading | mended to be taken as characteristic Grade Number Number Cuts No. l Not available 680 No. 2 690 755 No. 3 808 865 \ 912 Table 7~—Average number of demerits characteristic of each grade oO orida Key Wool sponge Recommended mid= point to next lower grade Average demerits| Demerits recom found by grading | mended to be taken as characteristic Number Number Forms No. 1 Not available 170 No. 2 255 355 No. 3 575 Cuts No. Not 3¢ = Hudson Grass, ac ae Dark 2c rape Sie 3¢ = Hudson Grass, 1c — Pale 27°C == Mediterranean, ably — Bengasi 2F =— (or Hard) 3F —— KF&C = Ab (o3 2c 3 ¢ Mediterranean, Deepwater (or Soft) WNHr FWNHEH aqgaQgaqary yyy & Q ON is3] | Florida Key Wool E — ON Cuban Sheepswool * Per 5.25 square inch for a 0.22 pound per square inch load over 542 foot path on wet 400 A silicon carbide paper. 50 the presence of a film that is appreciably greater than that left by the pure water. The water squeezed from the sponge should not leave a sticky feeling on the fingers, nor should there be any ap= preciable smell. Density Test The density of the spongin or structural material of sponges was difficult to determine. No matter how finely the samples were divided, they tended still to hold sand particles, which increased their weight, or to hold bubbles, which decreased their weight. Best results were obtained by cutting the sponge into thin slivers, pound= ing and rolling the slivers between a glass rod and plate in water containing Dreft until the sand was washed out, bringing a Dreft solu= tion suspension of sponge material to a boil (with constant prodding) to remove air bubbles, cooling and examining with a good lens to deter= mine whether further cleaning was needed. The sponge material should not be allowed to drain out any water until the density is determined by displacement in the customary specific-gravity bottles, or the boil= ing operation will have to be repeated to remove air bubbles. The best tests indicated that the basic material of these sponges had a density of 1.50 grams per cubic centimeter of sponge material. A more convenient figure, and one that does show some differ=— ence between types of sponges and individual sponges, is that of the bulk density. This value is the weight of the sponge converted to grams per cubic centimeter or pounds per cubic foot for the bulk of the sponge. Where cellulose sponges have been manufactured with an unusually low bulk density of 3.26 pounds per cubic foot, and a urethane type sponge possessed a bulk density of 2.60 pounds per cubic foot, the natural sponges treated were of even lower bulk dens— ity of about 2 pounds per cubic foot. Not enough figures were ob- tained to report reliable average values for other than the Rock Island spongee 51 *pajou sem umopyeaiq auloS ‘*ST[OI [9a}S UaaMjeq jno 1aj}eM Surzaonbs fq juautjeedj] OTjSeIp aoUuI & UaAIZ a1aMm SjND pue suUTIOg F ‘ON pu® suliog Zz Jaquinnx — jyuaurdtys ueaqo 2 Oke : % 3 L°€e pajiosse man = Je L6°T sos ‘0 ¢66°0 € ‘OT 0°€€ 1Z xS|ND pue suri0 4 | b “ON $9 °T £09 ‘0 686 “0 G*Ié G*vE 62 syn pue sui0,4 € “ON LS*T 6S “0 ce6°0 T°Le o°PE 62 syn 10° LLY ‘O 128 °0 6 LL G°bP €1 * SUIIO @ “ON 129 °0 Gilagars 8°S 8°2P sjno pue swu04 T “ON paatao -a1 uaym Araind paurejyuos yorum ‘sasuods your 9 0} p Jo apeuy “ur*no/ “Hy “ul *nd/°*D | yuaoszag|‘ur ‘nD} ‘ul ‘ng juacosag quaoiag g1seq uots palip Arp siseq uees[Q | paueajtoug| -uedxq| Aaq uo ‘yno pue | patap uo} Sutkap | paaraoau pajsay ueao /Teurdt10 I. fe peaysem | paysem | ‘juaju090 aayye se sasuods ‘kap ‘ouyes’y kip ’ytsuaq auINnTOA Teak | ywstaM| aanjstoyw | WUFIOM [ yus1IaM |Jo raquinyn sasuods jo pury saduods [oomsdaayg pueys] Yooy Fulysem jo sinsoy--"6] aTqeL 52 SELLING BY WEIGHT Federal Specifications contain information relative to two peri- meters of the sponge and relative to the weight of the sponge, either of which information could be used as a basis for the sale of sponges. In the past, sales ordinarily have been made on the basis of weight. Recently, many people in the industry have felt that sales should be on some other basis. The members of the Svonge Exchange, for example, recommend using perimeters (rather than "go-no go! holes} and the writer recommends a simple three-diameter measuremente The need for the change is well known. In the past, up to 100 per— cent weight has been added by foreign materials, which not only were troublesome to put into the sponge but had to be removed from it before it could be sold to the ultimate consumer. No one in the trade was mis- lead by this practice. It was merely a nuisance. Today even with the practice perhaps permanently discontinued, natural sponges still are being offered in an unattractive form that favors the sale of compet— itive materials in that varying amounts of gurry are left in to increase the weight, which unfortunately results in unpleasant odor, unattrac- tive appearance, and undesirable feel. The seller caught in the change over to cleaner sponges is faced with the problem of convincing the buyer that these cleaner--and there- fore lighter-—-sponges should sell for more even though they weigh lessSe Sales by volume or dimensions is the answer. The increased value then is obvious, since the sponges are more pleasing in appearance when well washed. Table 19 gives data illustrating the kind of analysis that would enable the buyer further to recognize the enhanced value of the well-cleaned spongee The data in table 19 show that the first lot of unwashed sponges contained, on the average, 36 to 8 percent of "gurry," on a dry basis. The second lot of sponges, which was representative of the new voluntary standard, contained only 6.8 percent, on the aver= agee These data indicate that a 10 percent content of material that can be washed out is a reasonable maximum limit. Another factor that makes dimensions a better criterion than weight as a basis for sales is the fact that a sponge that has been dried picks up moisture rapidly from the air after it has been removed from the driere Experiments showed that Rock Island sponges soon picked up more than hO percent of their weight when dried and then put beside a beaker of water in a closed vessel. Under ordinary conditions, these parti- cular sponges contained from 9.5 to 53.5 percent moisture. The latter figure was obtained on the specially washed samples and therefore in- dicates that the hygroscopic property of the gurry is not the only factor causing the sponges to absorb water from the air. Obviously, sale by weight is inaccurate, since the content of moisture may marked- ly vary from a dry to a damp day or as a result of the moisture that has been purposely addede The method of determining diameters recommended by the writer requires only an easily constructed measuring: boarde (This board was described under water testing.) The sponge, which has been moistened 53 to permit examination for grading, is laid on its broadest side in the center of concentric circles scribed on the base board, the maxi=- mm and minimumdiameters are noted, and the center height is sighted between the backboard scale and the front half-inch-marked poste A single figure that gives the approximate volume of the sponge can be obtained by dividing the product of the three diameters by two.l/ This method of measurement is faster than is the determination of perimeters with a tape measure, gives one figure instead of two, comes close to the true volume, and avoids inept placing of the tape or pulling it too tightly or too loosely. A wet sponge is easily distorted. Utne volume of a sphere is equal to D3. The coefficent 1 to zelemnich is approximately equal to 1/2 or 0.5. Since the sponge is not truly spherical, the figure 0.5 is close enough to the true value of 0.52. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GRADING STANDARDS The following is a report of a meeting of the Sponge Exchange, held on November 8, 1955 at Tarpon Springs, Florida: 1. Each part of the present "Federal Specification for Spongesy Natural" under the number C-S-63lb, June 2), 19))1 of the Federal Stan- dard Stock Catalog, Section IV, Part 5, as well as Amendments 1 and 2, was discussed and agreement reached as to recommendation for retain- ment or modification thereof. 2e On several occasions it was brought out that the members of the Exchange felt’ that the most important recommendation they wished to make was: Wherever foreign natural sponges are compared with domestic natu- ral sponges both groups should be treated in exactly the same manner. For instance, in C-S—63lb, Paragraph B-1 labeled "Tyne", Type I and Type XII and Type XIII are considered by some purchasing agents to be approximately equivalent and are so indicated on requests for bids. Since Type XII and Type XIII include both forms and cuts, mixed, while Type I allows only forms to be considered and since cuts are usually accepted as being lower priced than forms, Type I (the domestic) sponges have been unjustly penalized. Obviously "mixed" must be defined as 50-50, etc., for similar reasonse It was recommended that Type I should, therefore, include cuts and that "mixed" should be defined. In fact, this may have been the original intention of the Specifications since Rock Island sheepswool middle range cuts No. 1 are not listed under any type although both cuts and forms are listed for No. 2 quality. This change should be made as soon as possible. 5h SiR It was recommended that the term "middle range" be droppede This term has no definite meaning in fathoms, it is impossible to certi- fy and is an unnecessary limitation, since some sponges in this approxi- mate 4-9 fathom area are not sufficiently firm, while some sponges from other depths often are of as good or better qualitye In other words, sponges are graded now by more significant qualities than the areas from which they are taken. The acceptance of the new term "inshore type" eliminates the need for the exclusive term "middle range," h. Much discussion took place as to the significance of "Rock Island" and other area designations. Although it was agreed that grad— ing is done now by more significant quality designations than by areas, it was felt that the term "Rock Island Sheepswool" has become an un= official trademark of a desireable type of sponge and should be retained in entirety. 5. The "inshore type," mentioned above was recommended for in= clusion in the grading standards. In general this is a type found at all depths and easily recognized by its shagginess and looser structures This is believed to be due to a faster rate of growth, which is common to but not limited to areas near the mouths of streams. 6. Also discussed were the Cuban natural sponges. Until more than one type of these become commercially available and significant, a more specific designation cannot be made than that under Type Xetalets ite Also recommended, in view of the admitted difficulties encoun- tered in writing a non-controversial description of grading, is the hiring by the Government of men competent in grading. A Government employee in Tarpon Springs to certify shipments would be the simplest solution. 8. After mich discussion of the complications involved in carry= ing out this last recommendation, the members of the Exchange listened to Dr. Bennett's description of the scientific tests that he was making and decided that these should answer the purpose. Dr. Bennett reminded them that such tests of absorption, cleanliness, abrasion resistance, resiliency, etce, would have to be accompanied by some descriptive matter, might have to be run in a reasonably equipped laboratory, would have to be run on a fairly large sampling of any one lot, and might not group the sponges in exactly the same grade classes as the presently accepted sensory tests numbers. Also, he pointed out that recommenda- tions from himself and from the Exchange could not constitute a first draft of new grading standards, but would be of definite assistance to the Government in setting up these standards for their own purchasing agents and for only the Government at presente 9. After comparison of the weight-size relationships that existed before World War II, during the war, and in the present voluntary well- washed standards accepted by most of the industry, it was recommended that Federal Specification C-S-63lb, Paragraph 1-3 be recommended for universal acceptance, and that the then superfluous columns of "Number of Sponges per pound" be eliminated from the Specifications. It was eS) believed that the grading work in progress on cleanliness would help to eliminate the need for the weight standards. The present perimeter measurements were preferred over the three-axis method described by Dr. Bennett. It was agreed that the present practice of marketing sponges by size is to be recommended. It was agreed that the present practice of checking size by only one "go-no-go" ring is inadequate and that perimeters should be used instead. 10. In more detail, it was recommended that the following changes be made in the Federal Specifications C-S-63lb. Parts not mentioned are acceptable as they stand. A section should be added to clarify grading by tests similar to those being developed by Dr. Bennett. Types may then eventually reach a status of secondary importancee It is recommended that Federal Specifications C-S-63lb should be changed to read: B-1-Type I - Rock Island Sheepswool, No. 1 forms and cuts mixed with not less than 33% forms. Type II - Florida key sheepswool, No. 1 forms and cuts mixed with not less than 33% forms. Type III - Florida yellow, No. 1 forms and cuts mixed with not less than 33% forms. Type VI - Rock Island sheepswool, No. 2 forms and cuts mixed with not less than 33% forms. Type VII - Florida key sheepswool, No. 2 forms and cuts mixed with not less than 33% forms. Type VIII - Florida yellow, No. 2 forms and cuts mixed with not less than 33% forms. Type IX, X, XI to be deleted. gt Type XII - Change "honeycomb" to Bengasi, No. 1 forms and cuts mixed with not less than 33% forms. Type XIII - Cuban sheepswool, No. 1 forms and cuts mixed with not less than 33% forms. Type XIV - liediterranean Bengasi, No. 2 forms and cuts mixed with not less than 33% forms. Type XV - Mediterranean deep water, No. 1 forms and cuts mixed with not less than 33% forms. Type XVI - Mediterranean deep water, No. 2 forms and cuts mixed with not less than 33% forms. Type XVII - Florida sheepswool inshore type, No. 2 forms and cuts mixed with not less than 33% formse Type XVIII - Anclote grass, No. 1 forms and cuts mixed with not less than 33% forms. Type XIX - Anclote grass, No. 2 forms and cuts mixed with not less than 33% forms. 56 Type XX — Hudson grass, No. 1 forms and cuts mixed with not less than 33% forms. Type XXI - Hudson grass, No. 2 forms and cuts mixed with not less than 33% formse Ee Change type descriptions to agree with the above recommendations. Delete the columns headed "Number of Sponges per Pound", Make all size alphabet classifications consistent. For instance size D should be "36" average, minimum" for all types of sponges. Add proportional size classifications to increase the number of sizes to 8 in Types I, III and VIII. F-3ae In the last sentence the wording allows one perimeter to be taken over a small end. It would be clearer if these words were added to the sentence: "with the axis of intersection passing through the approximate center of the sponge." G-la. In view of the prevailing methods of buying and the insurmount— able obstacles offered when sponges are marketed on a weight basis, it is recommended that the phrase '50 to 57 pounds to the bale" be replaced by the phrase "to correspond to the buyers! preference as to number per package." G=1b. In view of wording recommended in Gla, this paragraph may be deleted. I. This section should be reworded to correspond to the above changeSe Further changes will have to await the results of the tests being run at the University of Florida. 1-2¢ and -2h. In order to discourage violation of the "5 inch" law, "(3—inch)" should be replaced by '(3-inch cut sponge)", and the sen— tence giving designations in pounds should be deleted or replaced by one containing designations in perimeters of "sponge cuts." 11. The members voted unanimously that it be recommended that the"types" be rearranged and renumbered to give a more logical arrange- ment by source of the sponges, such as: Domestic: West Indies: Type (—)e ~ Rock Island --- Type (--). - Key West Group --- Type (--). -— Sheepswool, Inshore --- Type (--). - Cuban -— Type (--). - Yellow --- Mediterranean: Type (--). - and so forth Type (--). - Hudson Grass --- Type (--). - Anclote Grass -— 57 BIBLIOGRAPHY ANDERSON, A. We 195h. Voluntary Federal standards for fishery products. Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, Nov. 15-19, Annual Sessione BUTLER, CHARLES 195i. Voluntary Federal grade standards for fish sticks. Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, Nove 15-19, Annual Sessione DAWSON, C. Ee, JR. and SMITH, F. G. WALTON 1953- The Gulf of Mexico sponge investigation. Florida Board of Conservation, Tech. Series No. 1, March, through U. of Miami Marine Laboratory (See also "The: Sponge Industry of Florida," Education Series No. 2, Jan. 199) DE LAUBENFELS, M. W. 1953ae A guide to the sponges of eastern North America. U. of Miami Press, March, 32 pageSe DE IAUBENFELS, M. W. 1953be Sponges from the Gulf of Mexico. Bulletin of Marine Science of the Gulf and Caribbean, vol. 2, Noe 36 HAMMAR, A. Re 1956. Synthetic item is huge success. New York Times, Feb— ruary 19, page le KAHN, R. A. 1950a. Is the natural sponge fishery doomed by synthetic sponges? Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, Annual Session, Novembere KAHN, ee Ae 1950 be The legislative situation on sponges. Branch of Com mercial Fisheries, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. KLEISSLER, C. Je 1955. U. S. Testing Company, letter of Nov. 28. 58 MONTELL, B. S. 1955. Descriptive literature on proposed standards for various synthetic sponges. Society of the Plastics Industry, August 19. NOLTE, A. 1955. Development and promlgation of voluntary Federal stan- dards and inspection of frozen breaded shrimp. Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute (speech), Oct. 31. SNEDECOR, GEORGE W. 1916. Statistical methods. Iowa State College Press, Ames, Lowa. SPANGLER, R. Le 196. Standardization and inspection of fresh fruits and vege- tables. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Prod. and Marketing Adm., Misc. Pub. No. 60h, October. STUART, A. He World trade in sponges. U. 5S. Dept. of Commerce, Induste Series No. 82, U. S. Govt. Printing Office, 30¢, 95 ppe SUTHERLAND 9 F. Le 1951. U. S. standards for grades of canned pears, CFR 7, Section 522527, December 1. SUTHERLAND, F. Le 1953. U. S. standards for grades of canned lima beans. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Prod. and Marketing Adm. CFR 7; Section 52.169, June 23. SUTHERLAND, F. Le 195he U. Se standards for grades of frozen mixed vegetables, Ag. Marketing Service, May 2h. U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 198. U. Se standards for grades of frozen grapefruit. Prode & Marketing Adm., CFR 7, Section 52.36, Feb. 206 U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 195ha.e Frozen French fried potatoes, U. S. standards for gradese Ag. Marketing Service, CFR 7, Part 52, May 20, issue of Federal Registere 59 U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 195lb. Processed fruits and vegetables, processed products thereof, and certain other processed food productse Title 7, Chap. 1, Part 52, July 1. Subpart—-Regula- tions governing inspection and certificatione U. S. DEPT. of INTERIOR 195i. Development and promvigation of voluntary Federal stan- dards and inspection of fishery products. Fish and Wildlife Service, Nov. 2. U. S. DEPT. OF INTERTOR 1955. United States standards for grades of frozen fried fish sticks. Sept. 8, Provisional Draft. (Also revision of Feb. 23, 1956. WALLACE, D. H. 1955. Can natural sponges meet synthetic competition? Speech for Sponge and Chamois Institute. INT.-DUP. SEC., WASH., D.C. 45415 = as Lares) ut: e 20 bre nea Gals 4¥ aiken ab . ae ris ‘ach =f IF ra Kah, ip OBSERVATIONS OF MOULTING FEMALE KING CRABS PARALITHODES CAMTSCHATICA Dy SPECIAL SCIENTIFIC REPORT-FISHERIES No. 274 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE EXPLANATORY NOTE The series embodies results of investigations, usually of restricted scope, intended to aid or direct management or utilization practices and as guides for administrative or legislative action. It is issued in limited quantities for official use of Federal, State or cooperating agencies and in processed form for economy and to avoid delay in publication. United States Department of the Interior, Fred A. Seaton, Secretary Fish and Wildlife Service, Arnie J. Suomela, Commissioner OBSERVATIONS OF MOLTING FEMALE KING CRABS (Paralithodes camtschatica) by Henry M. Sakuda Fishery Research Biologist Contribution No. 4 to research conducted with the approval of the United States Section of the International North Pacific Fisheries Commission. The Commission, es- tablished in 1953 by the International Convention for the High Seas Fisheries of the North Pacific Ocean, coordinates the research of the member nations: Japan, Canada, and the United States. The resulting investigations provide data to the Commission for use in carrying out its duties in connection with fishery conservation problems in the North Pacific Ocean. Publication of this scientific report has been approved by the United States Section of the Commission. Special Scientific Report--Fisheries No. 274 Washington, D. C. December 1958 The Library of Congress has cataloged this publication as follows: Sakuda, Henry M Observations of moulting female king crabs (Paralithodes camtschatica) Washington, U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, 1958. op. illus. 27 em. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Special scientific report: fisheries, no, 274) Includes bibliography. 1. Paralithodes camtschatica. 1. Title. (Series) SH11.A335 no. 274 595.3844 59-60427 Library of Congress The Fish and Wildlife Service series, Special Scientific Report--Fisheries, is cataloged as follows: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Special scientific report: fisheries. no. 1- ,Washington, 1949- no. illus., maps, diagrs, 27cm. Supersedes in part the Service's Special scientific report. 1, Fisheries—Research. SH11.A335 639.2072 59-60217 Library of Congress (2) ABSTRACT This report describes the observations of 9 molting mature female king crabs (Paralithodes camtschatica) caught in Pavlof Bay on the Alaska Peninsula between May 1 and May 18, 1957. Observations showed that the molting soft-shelled crabs emerge through an opening between the posterior margin of the carapace and anterior margin of the abdominal segments. The female crabs all cast their shells without the males being present. The remaining cast shells were intact, without breaks in the shell parts. The maximum growth of the newly molted crabs was attained 2 days after molting. Introduction . .» TABLE ° ° Premolting observations. Molting observations . . Postmolting observations Summary. «© 0 © © 2 «© «© 3» Literature cited . ° OF CONTENTS OBSERVATIONS OF MOLTING FEMALE KING CRABS (Paralithodes camtschatica) INTRODUCTION The Pacific Salmon Investigations of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service is conducting studies to determine the need for measures for conservation of the eastern Bering Sea king crab (Paralithodes camtschatica), as part of the research pro- gram of the International North Pacific Fisheries Commission. In this respect, knowledge of the biology of the king crab is essential. Molting, an important phase in the life history of king crab as well as other crustacea, is a phenomenon whereby the exoskeleton is periodically discarded. Generally all the outer cuticular layers of the shell, eyes, antennae, gills, tendons, mouth parts, esophagus, and stomach with its chitinous teeth are re- placed, leaving no apparent trace of this change. The age of the crab, therefore, is extremely difficult to determine. One of the methods of estimating age is to rear crabs in order to observe the molting frequency and measure the growth attained from molting. These measurements combined with those obtained by sampling the fishery then may give some indicationsof age. This report describes the observations of nine molting female king crabs caught in Pavlof Bay on the Alaska Peninsula between May 1 and 18, 1957. Work was done aboard the MV Deep Sea, a king crab factoryship. I em grateful to Wakefield's Deep Sea Trawlers Inc. and the crew of the vessel for their cooperation and the use of their facilities. My thanks also to Mr. Glen Davenport for his assistance, and Mr. T. 0. Duncan for photographs. PREMOLTING OBSERVATIONS The annual molting and mating period of female king crabs occur in the spring. At this time the male is observed holding the meropodite of the chelipeds of the female with his chela. After the female molts, the male leaves the cast shell and resumes the original "hand shaking" position with the soft-shelled female. The female then lays new eggs which attach to the swimmerets in the abdominal pouch and are fertilized. Shell-casting, however, can take place without the male. Upon capture, the crabs were placed in live boxes provided with running sea water. For identification each crab was marked with a number on the carapace be- fore and after molting. Carapace length measurements and examinations were made daily from the time of capture until re- lease. The nine female specimens in a pre- molting condition had similar external characteristics. The shells of the cara- pace and appendages were thin and pliable. The membranes connecting the shell parts were also very thin and cellophane-like in texture. A slight pink color, differing from the opaque color found in crabs of nonmolting condition, was detected under the thin membranes at the joints of each leg and between the plates of the abdomen. On one specimen the suture along the anterior border of the first abdominal segment was split and the pink soft shell exposed. (See figure 1 for arrangement of the abdominal segments.) The eyes of the specimens were bright red in contrast to the brown colored eyes of nonmolting crabs. Prior to molting, the female crabs were observed with their bodies lifted off the bottom of the live box. Their abdomens, extended away from their bodies, moved rhythmically back and forth exposing the swimmerets covered with empty egg cases. This behavior was seen frequently until molting and may be beneficial in releasing zoea, larvae as well as loosening the soft shell from the old, making extraction easier during the shell-casting process. MOLTING OBSERVATIONS The first step observed in the shell- casting process was a separation in the thin membrane anterior to the first abdomi- nal segment. (See figure 1 for arrange- ment of the membrane connecting the Figure 1.--Posterior view of king crab showing arrangement of carapace and abdominal segments. (After Marukawa, 1933.) 1, posterior border of carapace; 2, isthmus between carapace and body; 3, first abdominal segment; 4-6, second abdominal segments; me- median plate, la- lateral plate, ma- marginal plate. carapace and abdomen). The carapace and abdominal segments then started to part, thus tearing the membrane further and opening a large gap. The tear in the membrane extended completely along the anterior margin of the abdominal segments, vertically up the isthmus between the carapace and body, and completely across the posterior margin of the carapace. As the membrane continued to tear, the open- ing grew larger and the soft-shelled crab backed out of the old shell. During the only occasion when a crab was timed cast- ing its shell, four minutes were required to back out of the old shell. Meny females examined during trawl- ing operations were found with the membrane along the first abdominal segment split and this section open. POSTMOLTING OBSERVATIONS Seven of the nine cast shells re- mained intact. The membranes connecting the sides of the carapace to the body shell did not separate (fig. 2), except for the section between the carapace and abdominal segments. In the other two, the thin membranes in other parts of the cast shells were torn and parts lost. The outer layers of the antennae, eyes, gills, stomach, and mouth parts were entirely left with the old shells; the tendons of the legs were also left in the cast shells. One specimen sloughed off its left fourth leg at the basal segment and left it in the cast shell. This crab would probably regenerate a new leg. *[TTeUsS PTO eu Worl sesiews qero eu, YoTyM usno1yuy Sutuedo Sutmoys qeto suTH eTewes Jo TTays yseo YoeqUT JO MOETA AOTALEYSOg--*%¢2 WUNILA The length measurements of the cara- pace of the newly molted crabs showed some fluctuations during hardening, which lasted from 3 to 4 days. In all cases, however, the specimens which were held from 5 to 13 days after molting showed the initial growth measured 2 days after molting to be the total growth. Growth from molting ranged from 2 to 6 m., with an average of 4 mm. as shown in table 1 and figure 3. Except for one specimen, all the newly molted females failed to lay eggs. Wallace et al. (1949) states, "a simultaneous action is exerted by the tissue under the carapace, leading to breaks on the sides, posterior end, and, in some cases, entirely across the cara- pace. Very often the old shell is left completely intact except for the breaks along the sides of the carapace". In the present study seven of the cast shells remained completely intact, except for the torn membrane on the posterior end of the carapace. In all nine crabs the carapace and leg shells were not cracked. Growth measurements from this study (fig. 3) agree closely with the growth of females from tagging and molting studies deseribed by Wallace et al. (1949) and Stevens (1955). The 3 to 4 days taken for shell-hardening agrees with the average days required for growth and hardening mentioned by Marukawa (1933). Wallace et al. (1949) states that Pemale crabs allowed to molt in the absence of males do not extrude their eggs until permitted to mate. In this study, however, one of the nine females extruded eggs a day after molting. SUMMARY 1. Before molting the females were observed rhythmically moving and stretch- ing their abdomens. 2. The female crabs cast their shells without the males being present. 3- Most of the shells cast were intact except for the split in the membrane connecting the carapace to the abdominal segments. 4. One shell-casting process was timed at 4 minutes. 5- All but one of the newly molted females failed to lay eggs. 6. Size measurements fluctuated during shell-hardening; however, the growth measured 2 days after molting was the total growth. 7. The amount of growth ranged from 2 to 6 m., with an average of 4 m. LITERATURE CITED MARUKAWA, HISATOSHI 1933. Biology and Fishery Research of Japanese King Crab, Paralithodes camtschatica (Tilesius), J. imp. Expr. Sta. Tokyo, 4 (37): 152 pp. STEVENS, HIRAM REED, JR. 1955. Progress Report on King Crab Research, Annual Report No. 7, Alaska Dept. of Fish., pp. 87. WALLACE, M. M., C. J. PERTUIT, AND A. R. HVATUM 1949. Contribution to the Biology of the King Crab (Paralithodes camtschaticea (Tilesius), Fish. Leaf. 340, U. S. Dept. of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, pp. 27. NO CO sce ONG Carapace Length Growth (mm.) Table 1.--Dimensions of nine molting female king crabs Original Carapace Days held carapace length at from length release Growth molt to Im. HER. mn. ) release TUS 120.0 5.0 10 118 121.0 3.0 13 119 122.0 3-0 10 120 122.0 2.0 13 123 127.0 4.0 12 127 132.0 5.0 T 131 136.0 5.0 13 131 137.0 6.0 5 141 144.5 3-5 12 xx 110 120 130 140 Carapace Length Before Moulting (mm.) Figure 3.--Growth of nine female king crabs from molting. 5 INT.-DUP. SEC., WASH., D.C. 48433 paeet ns Seyi |S a : Biers sats vlan? atti eta ‘ts i a eo ts ? _" esr ae | — “ ta rita marerrohNey Mae ; a her BWW, ace ee ro ag ] SF ore t a a) Koen ek Siena a ne al en ae ae rar