Hadas Sinn tad oes 53°35 Secs oY Z P i iit sess NLA, ih Fa. = ae Sia if ‘4 i h i i ry i a rt Hi i} i oe eee: alt 1s ig EA AG sa OS he es ——— SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. THE COLOMBO MUSEUM, CHY LON. VOLUME IX. COLOMBO : H. C. COTTLE, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, CEYLON. 1915. Va citeetgilie ee +e ——— 4 = i i ! ~ aration pre i PS J an CONTENTS OF VOLUME IX. Part XXXIII.—JuneE, 1913. j PAGE Green, H. E.— On some Aberrations of Ceylon Butterflies Me 1 Green, E. E.— Catalogue of Isoptera (Termites) recorded from Ceylon .. i! Bobeau, Dr. G.— On the minute structure of the poison gland of the Cobra . 16 Wait, W. E.— Notes on the Eggs, Nests, and Breeding Seasons of some Ceylon Birds af At he 21 Mackwood, F. M.— Some Notes on Butterflies and their Distribution ar 36 Notes— ' 1. Some Pioneers of Natural History in Ceylon. J. P. Lewis ah: ao 41 2. Fight between Snake and Mungoose. J. P. Lewis .. 43 3. A Lunar Rainbow at Sea, &c. Gregory Stapleton 44 4, A “Thunderbolt”? near Colombo. Dr. Joseph Pearson 45 5. Noteon the occurrence of Molanitis i ismene (Cramer) at Sea. J. R. Henderson : 45 6. A Note on the occurrence of “ Parus atriceps ”’ (the Grey-back Titmouse) in Colombo. C.T. Symons 46 Proceedings of the Ceylon Natural History Society ur 48 Part XXXIV.—OcToBER, 1913. Pearson, Dr. J.— Notes on the Holothurioidea of the Indian Ocean: I.—The Genus Holothuria aM P i 49 John, Oscar— Notes on some Termites from Ceylon .. bd AROS Hartley, C.— The Stone Implements of Ceylon = AS SF Southwell, T.— Remarks on Dr. Pearson’s Review of the Scientific Work done on the Ceylon Pearl Banks from 1902 to 1912 .. 124 6(10)14 5. 6. - me | Vanessa (pyrameis) indica, 2 | Varanus bengalensis, 146 | Venogen’s granules, 19 | Vipera russellii, 144, 269 | Viperine, 269 | Viper (pit), 44 | Xantholema hematocephala, 274 | | Zamenis mucosus, 145 Tortanus forcipatus, 191, 248, 250, 249 Zosterops ceylonensis, 274 Tortanus gracilis, 248, 249, 250 | Zosterops palpebrosa, 274 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. -ON SOME ABERRATIONS OF CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. By E. Ernest Green, F.E.S., F.ZS., Entomologist to the Government of Ceylon. (With two Plates.) Riess aberrations here described have (with the exception of Nos. 1 and 11) been deposited in the collection of the Colombo Museum. I take this opportunity of thanking Miss Black and Messrs. Ormiston, de Mowbray, and Saunder | for their generous donations, and Mr. John Pole for the loan of his specimens. ita Mycalesis (Orsotriena) meda, Fabr., race mandata, Moore. 6 Pil fe. 8: Captured at Nawalapitiya by Mr. J. Pole. The underside lacks the usual sharply-defined white band. Its position is indicated only by a paler brown line on the fore wing and a diffused whitish band on the hind wing. In this character it approaches the dry season form of the typical Indian race (meda) in which—according to Bingham—the transverse white band on the underside is sometimes obsoles- cent. The Ceylon race (mandata) differs from meda “in the white discal band on the underside, being very much broader and proportionately more attenuate apically.” (In coll. John Pole.) B 3 6(2)13 2 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. 2. Neptis varmona, Moore. 6 Pl. I., fig. 4. Taken at Kandy, January, 1911. Differs from type in the reduction (almost to obsolescence ) of the subterminal series of spots on the fore wing; in the diffused character of the sub-basal white band on the hind wing, and the shifting of the post-discal series of spots to a subterminal position. This arrangement results in an unusually broad black area between the sub-basal and the post-discal bands which gives a very distinct character to the insect. In these characters it apparently approaches the race andamana of Moore, as described by Bingham (Faun. B. L., ‘* Butterflies, ’’ Vol. I., p. 325). On the underside the ground colour is darker than usual, owing to a general blackish suffusion, and all the spots have diffused instead of sharply defined borders. (Colombo Museum, Reg. No. 2,554.) 3. Vanessa (Pyrameis) indica, Herbst. 2 Pl Lee ties 1 Two precisely similar aberrations of this form were bred from a batch of larve sent down from Diyatalawa (4,367 ft.) to Peradeniya (1,562 ft.), where they pupated in the warmer climate. Of the four successful emergences, two individuals were normal and two aberrant. The latter have been de- scribed in a previous number of this Journal (Vol. VII., Part XXVIII., p. 215), but without any figure. A very similar aberration has been described and figured in a Paper by Mr. P. J. Lathy, “ On some Aberrations of Lepidoptera from - the Collection of Herbert J. Adams ”’ (Trans. Ent. Soc., London, 1904, p. 65). (Colombo Museum, Reg. No. 2,559.) 4, 5.—Argynnis hyperbius, Johanssen 6 and &. Pl hos. Oo. These two specimens, evidently members of the same brood, were caught byMr. G. B. de Mowbray on an estate in the Maskeliya district in January, 1905, They were taken on the same spot but on separate occasions, within four days of each other. They are distinguished by a suppression of ABERRATIONS OF CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 3 certain spots and a marked crowding together of those on the discal area of both wings. The differences from normal may be particularized as follows :— Fore wing.—The basal transverse streak is missing from the cell. The two innermost spots in interspace 1—normally widely separated—are here brought into close apposition in the male, and united into a/single elongate spot in the female. The spots of the discal series are shifted inwards to the extreme base of the several interspaces, the spot on inter- space 2 (of the female) being completely suppressed. The broad transverse streaks at the apex of the cell are more or less confluent and (with those of the discal series) form a crowded central patch of black spots. Hind wing—There is a similar but less strongly marked crowding of the discal and cell spots, and the discal spot on interspace | is missing in both sexes. (Colombo Museum, Reg. Nos. 1,610 and 1,611.) 6. Argynnis hyperbius. PI. \.fig. 6. This interesting gynandromorph was caught by Mr. F. G. Saunder at Nuwara Eliya (date uncertain), and presented to the Museum. The left wings are those of a typical male, and the right wings of a typical female hyperbius. The external genital organs are of the male type. (Colombo Museum, Reg. No. 2,635.) Mr. F. Hannyngton, of Madras, gives me the following references to similar freaks of this species :— ‘¢ Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist.,”’ Vol. VIIL., p. 152. This example is said to have been a male (as regards genitalia), but to have had a wing pattern of the female type on one side. *« Journ. As. Soc., Bengal,” Vol. LXIII., p. 9. Figures a bilateral Argynnis niphe (— hyperbius), with male genitalia. Bred by Mrs. Robson. These two references apparently refer to the same individual. Mr. Hannyngton also mentions that a Mr. Wilson, late of Ceylon, took a gynandromorph of this species on Mount Pedro (Nuwara Eliya) some years ago. 4 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOCA. 7. Talicada nyseus, Guerin. 6 Pl. 1.5 fiom: Differs from normal in the presence of a conspicuous sub- quadrate white patch on the inner area of the hind wing (upper side), just within the black area, occupying mter- spaces 1, 2, and 3. The underside appears to be quite normal. (Colombo Museum, Reg. No. 2,771.) Three separate examples of this aberration have been taken by Mr. W. Ormiston at Haldummulla : the first (which is the subject of the figure) in January, 1902, the other two in 1912. It is probably an hereditary aberration. Mr. Ormiston informs me that, in one of his speci- mens, the white spot on the hind wing is greatly enlarged, forming a large lunate patch extending almost across the wing. ' 8. Talicada nyseus, Guerin. ? ¥ Pi; iy, fig./3. This particular specimen was taken by Mr. John Pole at Trincomalee. I have seen similar examples from the Kandy District. The aberration consists in the replacement of the red area (on both upper and under side of hind wing) by a pale buff tint. The specimen appears to be a female, but the body is so coated with fungus that it is difficult to make out the form of the genitalia. (Colombo Museum, Reg. No. 660.) 9. Delias eucharis, Drury. * Mr. Ormiston has sent me two female examples of this species, in which the usual white areas of the upperside of both wings are strongly suffused with sulphur-yellow. The yellow areas on the underside are rather more intense than in the typical form. In one example (No. 2,782) there is a general infuscation of the upper surface of the fore wing. Both of these specimens were taken in the Haldummulla district. (Colombo Museum, Reg. Nos. 2,777 and 2,782.) ABERRATIONS OF CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 5 10. Ixias marianne, Cramer. 6 Pl. A; ag. 9. A more or less melanistic form : the orange area on apical half of fore wing dull and brownish ; the white area of both wings grayish. On the underside of the fore wing the whole of the cell and median area are deeply suffused with brown. Underside of hind wing normal. Taken at Kirinda, Northern Province, March, 1899, by Mr. W. Ormiston. (Colombo Museum, Reg. No. 2,772.) 11. Colotis (TLeracolus) etrida, Boisd, race limbata, Butler, ¢ Pl il, tig, 10. This aberration, taken by Mr. John Pole at Hambantota in August, 1895, may be described as an albinism, the usual orange patch being replaced by chalky white intermixed with a few orange scales which give a very faint pink tinge to the apical area. The pattern of the underside is normal. (In coll. John Pole.) 12. Papilio hector, Linn. ? BLE igs 1, This interesting aberration was captured, on the wing, by Miss Sheila Black at Chilaw, in March, 1912. The fore wing is quite normal. On the hind wing, the usual conspicuous crimson spots have been completely suppressed. There are greenish blue reflections on the internervular spaces on the hind wing. The usual red pattern is present on the body. (Colombo Museum, Reg. No. 2,773.) 13. Papilio demoleus, Linn. 6 Pie Eeeetio. 12: This striking aberration of demoleus was taken by Mr. W. Ormiston near Wellawaya in November, 1906. On the upper side of the fore wing there is a complete sup- pression of the usual submarginal series of yellow spots. The discal spot on interspace 6 is enlarged and extended inwards as far as the cell, and the greater part of the cell is occupied by a large yellow patch. On the hind wing the usual spots 6 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. are all present, though those of the submarginal series are small and infuscated, and there is a general infuscation of the area beyond the median band. On the underside, with the exception of the extensive patch in the cell and the enlarged spot in interspace 6, there is not such a marked difference from the normal. There is, however, a distinct—though slight— infuscation of the outer area of both wings. (Colombo Museum, Reg. No. 2,008.) 14. Papilio polytes, Linn. * Ea ae: 13. A female of the polytes form, caught at Peradeniya, attracted: attention—while on the wing—by the unusual extent of the white markings on the fore wing. Upon close examination it is found that the difference from the normal is principally one of intensity of markings. The usual paler fuligmous area on the outer half of the wing gives place to a creamy white ground colour upon which the black internervular streaks are greatly reduced in depth. This difference is still more marked on the underside of the wing. As a result, the fore wing assumes somewhat the pattern of that of the romulus form of female, though the pale transverse bands are more diffused. The hind wing is comparatively normal. The usual white spot at apex of cell is absent on the upper side, but present—in a very reduced form—on the underside. The discal spots are considerably enlarged. This condition of the hind wing has been made the character of a race stichiws in India. (Colombo Museum, Reg. No. 2,756.) Explanation of Figures. Plate I. | Plate II. Fig. 1. Pyrameis indica. | 8. Mycalesis mandata. 2. Talicada nyseus. 9. Ixias marianne. 3. Do. 10. Teracolus limbatus. 4. Neptis varmona. | 11. Papilio hector. 5. Argynnis hyperbius,é | 12. Papilio demoleus. 6. Do. (gynander). 13. Papilio polytes. ye Do. Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. 1X., Part XX XTTI. Plate I. CATALOGUE OF ISOPTERA. 7 CATALOGUE OF ISOPTERA (TERMITES) RECORDED FROM CEYLON. By E. Ernest GREEN, F.E.S., F.Z.S. N the following annotated list of the Termites of Ceylon, the data must not be taken as complete. It is issued, in its imperfection, as a spur to further study. The localities mentioned are such as have been recorded in the works of the several authors who have written on the subject, or as have come under the observation of the compiler of the catalogue. Comparatively little attention has been given to this interesting Order of insects in Ceylon, and collections have been gathered in a few localities only. With more general study it will certainly be found that the range and habitat of the several species is more extended than has here been noted. The present catalogue contains the names of forty-four separate species. Some of these will probably disappear as synonyms ; but their place will be more than taken by additional species that will surely be discovered. Most of our knowledge of the habits of the Termites of Ceylon is due to the researches of W. Horn, Doflein, Bugnion, and Escherich (especially the two last), who have visited the Island at various times. Konig, Hagen, Haviland, Wasmann, Desneux, and Holmgren have written on the subject, working on material supplied by the actual collectors. Fam. PRoTERMITIDz, Holmgren. Gen. Calotermes, Hagen. C. militaris, Desneux. *“ Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg.,”’ XLVIII., p. 146 (1904). In stems of living tea bushes. Throughout the tea districts of the Central Province. Collected also in the Ratnapura District. 8 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA. C. greeni, Desneux. “« Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg.,”’ LI., p. 3 (1907). In stems of living tea bushes. Also in stems of Anacardiwm and other trees. Occurs more commonly at lower elevations. Ambalangoda ; Kalutara ; Yatiyantota ; Jaffna. Taken also at Peradeniya. C. domesticus, Haviland. ** Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond.,” XXVI., p. 374 (1898). In window and door frames of buildings, in furniture, shelves of almirahs, &c. The presence of this species is indicated by small heaps of egg-like pellets of excreta which collect below the articles that contain the termites. Occa- sionally the insects emerge from the wood and are found congregated in masses in the open. Peradeniya. Sub-Gen. Glyptotermes, Froggatt. C. (G.) ceylonicus, Holmgren. ‘““ Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” p. 189 (1911). In decaying logs and branches. Recorded only from Peradeniya. C. (G.) dilatatus, Bugnion. “Mem. Soc. Zool. Fr.,’’ X XIIT., p. 187 (1910). In stems of living tea bushes and other trees. Recorded only from the low-country. Avisawella ; Kegalla ; Ratnapura ; Udagama; Ambalangoda. Fam. Mrsotermitip, Holmgren. Gen. Leucotermes, Silvestri. L. ceylonicus, Holmgren. “ Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” p. 190 (1911). A troublesome domestic pest, destructive to woodwork, packing cases, &c., in outhouses. Taken also in a dead Grevillea stump. Peradeniya ; Ukuwella. CATALOGUE OF ISOPTERA. 9 Gen. Coptotermes, Wasmann. C. ceylonicus, Holmgren. ‘** Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” p. 192 (1911). Occurs commonly under decaying logs of wood ; also about buildings, where it is destructive to deal packing cases. Has been recorded as damaging books, in damp situations, the wood of tea chests, and window frames in a tea factory. Peradeniya ; Matale ; Lindula ; Nalanda ; Trincomalee ; Rattota ; Ratnapura ; Henaratgoda ; Ambalangoda ; Jaffna. Gen. Arhinotermes, Wasmann. A. flavus, Bugnion. ** Mem. Soc. Zool. Fr.,”’ X XIIT., p. 117 (1910). Discovered by Dr. Bugnion in stems of “ Mangrove.” Ambalangoda. Gen. Termitogeton, Desneux. T. umbilicatus, Hagen. ** Zool. Bot. Ver. Wien,” p. 472 (1858). A rare jungle species. Hantane (Kandy District), 3,000 ft.; Ramboda, 4,000 ft. Fam. MretraTerMitTip2, Holmgren. Gen. Termes, Linn. T. horni, Wasmann. * Zool: Jahrb.,”” XVII., Pt. I., p. 111 (1902). A comparatively large species. Common in decaying trees and in soil treated with cattle manure. Nests in the soil, without conspicuous mounds. Widely distributed. Kandy ; Peradeniya ; Kotmale ; Haputale ; Diyatalawa ; Ruanwella ; Avisawella ; Ambalangoda ; Hambantota. T. ceylonicus, Wasmann. “ Zool. Jahrb.,”” XVII., Pt. I., p. 113 (1902). Intermediate in size between horni and redemanni. Nests in the ground, without superstructure. Attacks roots of diseased or dying plants and trees. Peradeniya ; Yatiyan- tota ; Ratnapura ; Balangoda. c 6(2)13 10 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. T. redemanni, Wasmann. “ Wien. Ené. Zeit.,”’ XII., Pt. 7, p. 239 (1893). The commonest of the mound-building species in Ceylon. Widely distributed. Kandy; Colombo; Ambalangoda ; Trincomalee ; Hambantota ; Jaffna ; and probably throughout the Island. T. obscuriceps, Wasmann. “ Zool. Jahrb.,” XVII., Pt. L., p. 113 (1902). Another common mound-building species. The mounds indistinguishable from those of redemanni, but the insects easily recognizable by their dark brown heads. Apparently not so widely distributed as the previous species. Recorded from Peradeniya and Diyatalawa. T. escherichi, Holmgren. “ Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” p. 195 (1911). A small species, occurring in dead tree stems and under decayed logs. Peradeniya. T. preliminaris, Holmgren. “ Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” p. 196 (1911). While describing this as a new species, from winged adults caught “‘ around a lamp at the Peradeniya resthouse,”’ Dr. Holmgren suggests that it may possibly be referable to some other species of which the adults are as yet unknown. T. taprobanes, Walker. “* Cat. Neur. Brit. Mus.,” p. 522 (1853). (Syn. peradeniye, Holmer. “ Termitenleb. Ceyl.,’” p. 197.) This species has hitherto been unrecognized by recent workers. Dr. Holmgren has now identified specimens from Peradeniya and Koslanda as referable to this species, but suggests that it is equivalent to horni. He also relegates his peradeniye (described from winged adults only) to taprobanes. CATALOGUE OF ISOPTERA. 11 T. fatalis, Konig. “ Schrift. d. Berlin Naturf.,’ IV., p. 1 (1779). Holmgren gives Ceylon as a locality for this species, probably on the authority of Hagen ; but he doubts its generic position. It is said to be the common mound-building termite of Tanjore, and its occurrence in Ceylon is doubtful. T. brunneus, Hagen. “* Linn. Ent.,”’ XII., p. 133 (? date). Soldiers said to be intermediate in size between horni and ceylonicus. Precise locality uncertain. T’. esthere, Desneux. “ Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg.,”’ LI., p. 5 (1907). A very large species with soldiers of two or more sizes. Larger soldier with an enormous head and powerful jaws. Hambantota. (Bainbrigge Fletcher is of opinion that this name will have to give place to convulsionarius of Konig. “ Schrift. Berl. Naturf.,” IV., Pt. I., p. 24 (1779) ). Gen. Microtermes, Wasmann. M. globicola, Wasmann. “ Zool. Jahrb.,’’ XVII., Pt. I., p. 116 (1902). A very small species, constructing chambers and small spherical combs in the walls of mound-building termites. Precise locality undetermined. M. macronotus, Holmgren. “ Termitenstudien,” III., p. 43 (1912). Recorded, without description, from Ceylon. Gen. Microcerotermes, Silvestri. M. bugnioni, Holmgren. “ Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” p. 203 (1911). A minute species, found under logs of wood, in hollow stems of coconut palms, &c. Ambalangoda ; Maha Illuppallama (Anuradhapura District). 12 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. M. greeni, Holmgren. “ Spolia Zeylanica,” VIII., Pt. XXXII, p. 284 (1913). Distinguished, by Dr. Holmgren, by the smaller size of the soldier. M. cylindriceps, Wasmann. “ Zool. Jabrb.,”” XVII., Pt. 1., p. 121 (1902). Holmgren (in Escherich’s “ Termitenleben auf Ceylon,”’ pp. 208, 204) records this species from Galle, “‘ in decayed pieces of stem.” Gen. Hurytermes, Wasmann. E. assmuthi, Wasmann. “ Zool. Jahrb.,” XVII., Pt. I., p. 124 (1902). Recorded from the collection of Dr. Escherich as ‘“ in association with T'ermes obscuriceps ; and in earthen galleries under a stone, in the jungle.””’ My own acquaintance with the species consists of the discovery of a small procession (contain- ing winged adults and workers) travelling—quite exposed— across a bare compound. ‘They were emerging from one hole and entering another at a distance of about five yards. E. ceylonicus, Holmgren. “ Termitenstudien,” III., p. 83 (1912). Noted as a new species, but without description. Bain- brigge Fletcher (in litt.) suggests that, as Holmgren records assmuthi from Bombay only, it is probable that he has sepa- rated the Sinhalese species as distinct. Gen. Capritermes, Wasmann. Species of Capritermes may be recognized by the long twisted asymmetrical mandibles of the soldiers. The abdomen of the workers is elongated and packed with dark material. They are usually found in association with mound-building termites ; but also occur, independently, under stones and rocks. The differentiation of the species is difficult, and it is uncertain how many occur in Ceylon. CATALOGUE OF ISOPTERA. 13 C. ceylonicus, Holmgren. ‘* Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” p. 204 (1911). Determined, by Dr. Holmgren, from specimens collected by Dr. Escherich in nests of T'ermes obscuriceps at Peradeniya. C.. incola, Wasmann. * Wien. Ent. Zeit.,” XII.,. Pt. 7, p. 242 (1893). In nests of Termes obscuriceps. Peradeniya ; Kurunegala ; Ambalangoda. ; C.. longicornis, Wasmann. * Zool. Jabrb.,” XVII., Pt. I., pp. 126-128 (1902). Dr. Holmgren doubts if this is specifically distinct from incola. C. speciosus, Haviland. “ Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond.,” XXVI., p. 413 (1898). Doubtfully recorded from Trincomalee. Gen. Hamitermes, Silvestri. H. quadriceps, Wasmann. * Zool. Jahrb.,” XVII., Pt. I., p. 123 (1902). Under stones. Ambalangoda ; Peradeniya. H. ceylonicus, Holmgren. “ Termitenstudien,”’ IIT., p. 91 (1912). This is at present a ‘‘ nomen nudum.” The name will probably replace H. quadriceps for the Ceylon species. Gen. Anoplotermes, Fr. Muller. A. cyclops, Wasmann. “ Zool. Jahrb.,” XVII., Pt. I., p. 161 (1902). Under stones and logs of wood. Peradeniya; Maha Tluppallama. Anoplotermes is distinguished by the absence of the soldier caste. The workers might readily be mistaken for those of Eutermes, of which Dr. Holmgren considers this genus to be an. off-shoot. 14 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. Gen. Hutermes, Heer. The soldiers of Hutermes are readily distinguishable from those of all other genera by the presence of a long tubular frontal process on the head. £. monoceros, Konig. ** Schrift Berl. Nat.,’’ IV., 17, p. 25. The common black termite of Ceylon. It constructs its - nests in hollow stems and branches of trees, guarding the entrances by pendent masses of black material (composed of the excreta of the insects). Long processions of the termites, sometimes extending for several hundred yards, may often be seen crossing the roads. Found throughout the Island, up to about 2,000 ft. EL. inanis, Haviland. ‘** Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond.,” XXVI., p. 425 (1898). Recorded by Dr. Bugnion, from Ambalangoda. H. rubidus, Hagen. ‘Linn. Ent.,”’ XIV., p. 117 (1860). A widely distributed species. Found under stones, and forming small piles of fine earth on the surface of the soil. Peradeniya ; Anuradhapura ; Ambalangoda ; Diyatalawa. E. biformis, Wasmann. ** Zool. Jahrb.,”’ XVII., Pt. I., p. 133 (1902). Possibly a variety of rubidus. Galle; Ambalangoda. Both rubidus and biformis have soldiers of two sizes. £. ceylonicus, Holmgren. “ Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” p. 197 (1911). (? = inanis var. horni, Wasmann.) Nests in decayed wood. Constructs galleries (of earthy or ligneous materials) extending up the trunks of trees. A widely distributed species. Peradeniya; Kadugannawa ; Ratnapura ; Trincomalee ; Passara ; Diyatalawa. E. hantane, Holmgren. “ Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” p. 198 (1911). A rare species ; recorded from the Hantana range only. CATALOGUE OF ISOPTERA. 15 E. escherichi, Holmgren. “Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” p. 199 (1911). Collected by Dr. Escherich in a nest of Termes obscuriceps. Peradeniya. E. oculatus, Holmgren. “ Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” p. 200 (1911). Described from winged adults only. Peradeniya. Possibly the winged stage of H. escherichi. E. perparvus, Holmgren. “ Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” p. 201 (1911). Also described from winged adults only, collected by Dr. Uzel at Peradeniya and Henaratgoda. E. longicornis, Holmgren. ““ Spolia Zeylanica,’’ VIII., Pt. XX XII., p. 283 (1913). On stems of “‘ Giant Bamboo ” (Dendrocalamus giganteus) ; also in a nest of Termes obscuriceps. Peradeniya. E. lacustris, Bugnion. “ Compt. Rend. Sci. Soc. Biol.” (Fr.), LX XITI., p. 1091 (1912). In stems of “ Kaju-nut ” (Anacardium), Hevea, and Elxo- carpus. Ambalangoda ; Kalutara. Distinguished from all the other local species of Hutermes by the dark brown heads of the soldiers. 16 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. ON THE MINUTE STRUCTURE OF THE POISON-GLAND OF THE COBRA (NAIA TRIPUDIANS). By Dr. G. BoBEav. Prepr. d’ Histologie 4 la Faculté de Médicine de Paris. (With two Plates.) MONG all the works on the fine histology of the poison-gland, there are few (except Emery’s*) giving a description, both general and detailed, of the gland of the venomous Colubride. It may be of interest, therefore, to record my investigations into the structure of the poison- gland of Naia tripudians by means of modern histological methods. I have myself collected many of the poison-glands during my recent travels in Ceylon and British India. Several were given me by Dr. J. Pearson, Director of the Colombo Museum, to whom I again offer my sincere thanks. I will first describe briefly the methods employed ; then the microscopical anatomy by means of interpretations from whole sections ; thirdly, I will give a detailed description of the glandular cells with their cell-workings ; and finally, I will discuss the physiological significance of each component part of the poison-gland. I.—Technique. The glands which I examined were removed immediately after the snakes had been killed. The killing was done by suddenly cutting the neck which left the tissues in a definite physiological state. Some of the snakes had been starved ; others had eaten two, four, six, or more days before ; some had bitten (into a cambric) ; others in a state of fury had not bitten at all.. I was therefore able to obtain all the grades of the cellular and glandular secretions. * Emery, Carl. Ueber den feineren Bau der Giftdriise der Naja haje. (Arch. f. Mikr. Anat. Bd. 11., 1875, s. 561-568. Taf. XXXIII. POISON-GLAND OF THE COBRA. 17 Immediately after the glands had been removed they were divided into fragments and placed in the following fixing solutions :— Bouin’s liquid (picro-acetic, formalin). Champy’s liquid (bi-iodide of mercury, formalin). Regaud’s liquid (bi-chromate de potasse, formalin). Benda’s liquid (acide osmique—acide chromique). Some glands were fixed whole in formalin, in order to study the microscopical anatomy in its entirety. After fixa- tion the fragments were immersed in paraffin and cut into sections of 1/200 mm. or 1/400 mm. in thickness by Minot’s microtome. To stain the sections I utilized the following :— Hematein-eosin. Heidenhain’s ironized hematoxylin. Prenant’s eosin, vert lumiére, ironized hematoxylin. Safranin, green. Benda’s krystallviolet. Il.— Microscopical Anatomy. If a complete section of the whole length of the poison-gland and its excretory duct be examined under low power one immediately observes that two kinds of substances can be distinguished, one a connective and peripheral substance, the other, and most important, a glandular and central substance. There are, therefore, in a poison-gland two things—first the fibrous capsule, and within the fibrous capsule that most interesting part, viz., the part where the poison is formed. The complete longitudinal section of the poison-gland is bottle-shaped (fig. 1), the neck part of which becomes the excretory duct. The fibrous capsule is thickest in the broad part of the gland and becomes thinner as the gland narrows. Hete and there we see that the capsule forms a connective network, in which are found sections of blood-vessels, lymph- vessels, and nerves. The fibrous structure and the lymphatic spaces are particularly noteworthy. The central portion, which we have seen to be alone glandular, is divided into two quite different regions. First, there is the bulky part occupying the body of the bottle which is, properly speaking, the poison gland. Secondly, D 6(2)138 18 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. there is the other part which is situated in the neck of the bottle, but is only a mass of mucous glands. That part in which the poison is produced appears to be composed of a considerable number of partitions which support the glandular cells. These partitions are relatively rectilineal and radiate on a sort of axial pivot, cutting the gland into elongated lobes which are also irregularly triangular. The interior of these lobes is filled by the poison which turns red if the section is stained with eosin, intense black if placed in ironized hematoxylin. These lobes, more or less regular, do not reachasfar asthe capsule. Between these and the capsule there are other lobes, smaller, more irregular, and compressed ; these are continuous with the principal lobes. Their structure is identical and consist of a cavity containing the poisonous secretion and lined with the glandular epithelium. Summing up, we see that the poison-gland, properly speaking, consists of partitions lined with glandular cells and poison-lakes. The latter are the product of the former, and although in the section itself, the poison-lakes occupy by far the greatest space, the fundamental part is the glandular epithelium. The anterior mucous part is composed of “ acini,” which ‘are continuous with the excretory duct itself, or first with a kind of “ reservoir’ which communicates with the duct. This duct is formed of several parallel conduits situated in connective tissue. Ill —Aistology. I give below a description of the glandular epithelium and of the manner in which the poison is elaborated. If a section of a poison-gland stained by ironized hema- toxylin be examined under a medium power one sees around the poison-lakes, coloured black, the glandular epithelium in which three parts are recognizable (fig. 2). Adjacent to the poison-lakes there is a stratum finely granulated and black as ink. Next thereis a more lightly-coloured region, and finally, a layer more deeply coloured, which betrays the existence of the nuclei. As the glandular lobes are adjacent to each other we find the epithelia almost in contact at their bases and separated only by a very fine connective band. Thus, for example, between two patches of black we find six small POISON-GLAND OF THE COBRA. 19 bands, three of them belong to one lobe, and the three others to a second lobe. The granulated bands farthest off are adjacent to their respective poison lakes. Tf the cells of the glandular epithelium be examined in their normal state of secretion under high power the following structure may be determined. The cells of the glandular epithelium (fig. 3) are regularly prismatic (they are, therefore, in longitudinal sections rectan- gular). They are about 30 v. in height and contain near the base a deeply stained nucleus from 7 to 8 vu. in width. The cytoplasm is particularly interesting to examine in sections fixed with Regaud’s liquid, for one can then see the mitochondrial substance. This substance is considered to-day as the most active portion of all the cytoplasm, for it plays the chief part in the elaboration of the products of the secretion. In the cells shown in fig. 3 several zones may be recognized in the cytoplasm : (1) at the base of some cells below the nucleus a quantity of very fine granulations (mitochondriz) can be seen, and in others small filaments (chondriocontes) ; (2) at the sides of the nucleus the masses of granulations seem to continue into a kind of chain of beads (chondriomites) which generally run along the lateral walls of the cell ; (3) above the. nucleus a cytoplasmatic¢ space is found free from granulations ; (4) at the free end of the cell are granules far more voluminous than the mitochondriz (their breadth can reach to 2 or 3 ). These are what Launoy* calls “ Venogen’s granules.” In other cells one sees alongside the granules, plainly coloured by the ironized hematoxylin, small spaces, the same size as the granules, from which the stained contents have disappeared. It seems, therefore, obvious on examining these sections that the mitochondrial substance, which is in direct relation with the secretion of the granules, plays in their fabrication a role at least as important as that which Launoy ascribes to the nucleus. The granules we have seen are situated at the free extremity of the cell, in contact with the cavity of the gland. Gradually they unite with each other and then finally escape, and together * Launoy, L., Contribution a l’étude des phenoménes nucliéaires de la secretion (Cellules & venin—Cellules & enzyme). Ann. des Se. Nat. T. 18 (Zool.), 1903. 20 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. with similar granules elaborated by all the other cells constitute that provision of poison which forms into poison-lakes. IV —Physiology. The poison, secreted in the deepest part of the gland, is a very dense and syrupy liquid which, if it is deadly poisonous, would be extremely difficult to inject into a person by the agency of the poison-fang. It is, therefore, indispensable, at the moment of biting, that the poison should be diluted so as to render it more fluid, and consequently more injectable. This task is relegated to the mucous gland situated around the excretory duct. The mucous secretion when poured into the canal liquefies the poison situated in the forepart of the poison-gland (properly speaking). The latter is replaced by the poison of the lakes which is used for the later biting. The powerful muscle which surrounds the gland mechanically aids in the propelling of the diluted poison, which thus passes into the wound made by the poison-fang. To sum up, we see that the poison is present in two distinct phases :— (1) It is produced as a secretion of the glandular cells and is retained in the reservoirs as a syrupy liquid. (2) When the poison is to be utilized a liquefaction of this syrupy substance is effected so that it flows more easily from the gland and penetrates more easily into the bite. It is, in one word, a physiological device by which a snake is enabled to keep in a small space a large quantity of poison necessary both for its defence and for its alimentation. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Plate IfJ., Fig. 1.—Section of the whole length of poison gland. x 30. (Fixation: Bi-iodide of mercury and formalin stained with Hematoxylin-eosin. ) Plate IV., Fig. 2.—Section of parts of four poison lakes with their glandular epithelium. x 100. (Stamed with Ironized- hematoxylin.) Fig. 3.—Five glandular cells showmg the elaboration of poison by cytoplasmic and mitochondrial substances. » 1,100. (Fixation: Regaud’s liquid.) a — duet. é = poison granules. b = poison lake. f = mitochondrial substance. c = glandular epithelium. g = nucleus. d = fibrous capsule. h = connective tissue. SPOLIA ZEYLANICA, Vol. IX, No. 33. Plate 11. Mucous | Part Duct. b. Poison-_lake Cc, Glandular- epithelium Poison Part es d. Fibrous capsula Magnified 30 times. Fig 1. Section of the whole length of poison gland showing the microscopical anatomy. — x 30. Fixation: Bi-iodide of Mercury and Formalins. Coloration: Hematoxylin-Eosin. — ie + - ae SPOLIA ZEYLANICA, Vol. IX, No. 33. © Oe nn : oe eae 8 e/pitiajo joie) ale Glandular- Rememensr : Uren neg ae epithelium ook alba b. a Poison-lake ri} DANAE en! pigs kiee Weise eS Magnified 100 times. Fig 2. Section from 4 poison-lakes with their glandular epithelium. x 100, on Poison “)? granula 4 Mitochondrial “VY substance g. Nucleus if § Connective *? tissue Magnified 400 times, 5 Glandular-cells showing the elaboration of poison by cyto- Fig 3 x 400. plasmic and mitochondrial substance. Fixation: Regaud’s liquid. Plate IV. BREEDING SEASONS OF CEYLON BIRDS. 21 NOTES ON THE EGGS, NESTS, AND BREEDING SEASONS OF SOME CEYLON BIRDS. By W. E. Warr, M.A.* T the last meeting of our Society, Mr. Green gave us a most suggestive Paper indicating the lines on which we should work, with some hints of the many problems which awaited solution in all the branches of our fauna, even in those in which most research had been accomplished. This evening, I wish to follow up Mr. Green’s suggestion as regards one particular subject by giving some notes based on my collection of birds’ eggs. They will only serve to show how much remains to be done before our knowledge of the nesting and breeding of birds in Ceylon can be said even to approach completion. Thirty years ago Legge, in his magnificent volume on the “ Birds of Ceylon,’’ worked out the occurrence and distribution of our Avifauna so thoroughly that not more than a dozen new species have been added since his time ; and most of these additions are mere chance visitors. Legge, however, himself admits in his introduction how incomplete was his knowledge concerning the nidification of many of the species. Again and again, in his description of resident species, he states that the nest and eggs had not yet been discovered in the Island. In his day, among our Ceylon Ornithologists, there were several keen egg-collectors to whom he often refers. I may mention the names of Mr. MeVicar of the Survey Department, Mr. Bligh of Haputale, and Mr. Parker, late of the Irrigation Department. The last-named wrote a Paper giving an account of many Ceylon eggs in one of the parts of ‘‘ Stray Feathers.” He corresponded with Hume and Legge, and I believe he has a magnificent collection of Ceylon eggs. I can only hope that when he has finished his book on Ceylonese folk-lore he will give us a volume on Ceylon Oology. It is badly needed, as since Legge’s time practically nothing on the subject has appeared in print easily accessible to readers in the Island. * Read before the Ceylon Natural History Society, December 17, 1912. 22 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. I have no doubt that there are keen egg-collectors now, but one hears little of them or of their discoveries. If they will send their notes to “‘ Spolia Zeylanica ”’ or to this Society there is no reason why our information on Ceylon nests and eggs should not be as full and complete as the material collected by Hume in his “‘ Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds,” to which material Ceylon has contributed far less than its proper share. There are a number of birds—some of them peculiar to the ~ Island—which are known or suspected to be resident species, but of whose nidification in Ceylon we have no satisfactory account. Let me give a few mstances within my own ex- perience. In his description of the Black Bittern (Dupetor flavicollis), one of the rarest of the family, Legge states that he had come across the bird during the south-west monsoon at Minneriya in the North-Central Province, and suspected that it bred in the Island. I do not think that the bird is as rare in Ceylon as is generally supposed. I have met with it at least a dozen times while wading round the edges of some of the larger village tanks in the North-Central Province ; and this year I was fortunate enough to find it breeding. In April I was prowling round the edge of Topawewa, when I flushed a specimen out of a low thorn tree which stood in the shallow water, and found the nest placed in the branches about 5 feet above the surface of the tank. Like most herons’ nests it was a shallow saucer of twigs, and measured about 10 inches in diameter. There were two fresh eggs, of a pale sea green, without a trace of the blue tinge which charac- terizes freshly taken eggs of the Pond Heron (Ardeola grayi). The delicacy of the colour soon died away after the eggs had been blown. In shape they are almost oval, there being little difference between the small and large ends. They measure 1°54 x 1°17 and 1°50 x 1:16 inches respectively. A fort- night later, early in May, about 15 miles south-west of Anuradhapura, [ was again wading on the edge of a jungle tank when I came round a bush and surprised another Black Bittern busy on a nearly-finished nest. This nest was of very much the same description as the former, but it had in it a spray of nearly fresh green leaves, and was only about 2 feet above the water. a wes BREEDING SEASONS OF CEYLON BIRDS. 23 Again I am pretty certain that several of the rarer water- rails will eventually be found nesting in Ceylon. Legge mentions the fact that two eggs said to belong to the Ruddy Rail (Amaurornis fuscus) had been taken near Chilaw. He was, however, rather dubious about the find. There are several unidentified eggs in the Museum collection which undoubtedly belong to some species of rail, and I rather think that I have a clutch of the eggs of Prozana pusilla—the Eastern Baillon’s Crake—in my own collection. Unfortu- nately they were brought to me by a young villager in the North-Central Province, and I did not see the bird myself. I had asked the lad to try and get me some eggs of the Tank Pheasant (Hydrophasianus chirurgus), a bird which lays four unspotted, bronze-coloured, peg-top shaped eggs, generally on the floating leaves of the water-lily. Next morning he turned up with seven eggs. They were consider- ably smaller than those of the Tank Pheasant: the ground colour was a rather glossy olive-brown, and they were fairly plentifully sprinkled with dark brown specks. TI at first thought they were the eggs of the Blue-breasted Quail (Hxcal- factoria chinensis), and questioned the boy about the finding of the nest. He assured me that he had taken the eggs from a - small nest floating on the water some distance from the shore. I went to the tank with him next morning and he showed me a small nest attached to the floating stems of a water-grass. It was a pad of grass leaves, about 5 inches in diameter and 2 inches thick, for all the world like the pad of straw which coolies sometimes put on their heads when carrying loads. The upper surface was slightly hollowed and lined with the fine rootlets of some water-plant. There were seven little depressions in the soft lming showing where the seven eggs brought to me undoubtedly had lain. The spot was about thirty yards from the shore, and the water nearly knee-deep. The tank had been at that level for several weeks, and the eggs were nearly fresh, so that the nest could not have been built when the ground was dry, to be floated up as the water rose. No Quail in its senses would have chosen such a situa- tion, and, besides, the Blue-breasted Quail does not generally lay seven eggs but five or six. 24 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. When I got back to Colombo I compared the eggs with the Quail’s eggs in my possession. They are distinctly glossier than the eggs of Excalfactoria chinens’s, slightly larger and not so stumpy or pointed at the small end. The average of their measurements was about 1:07 « °88 of aninch. Hunt- ing through “ Legge > and Hume’s “ Nests and Eggs” for a solution of the conundrum, I found that they may possibly be those of Porzana pusilla, but I shall have to wait until I can find another nest myself, or authenticate these eggs at the British Museum, before I can be certain of the find. To take a third example. There is little definitely known about the nidification of one of the commonest of the species peculiar to Ceylon, the Brown-capped Quaker Thrush (Pellor- neum fuscicapillum). One may hear him any day in the jungles of the North-Central Province singing away like a street boy, whistling up and down the scale out of tune, and if you watch closely you may see him hopping about on the eround among the undergrowth—a little olive-brown fellow with a chocolate-brown cap and a _ lighter-brown under plumage. He belongs to a genus of which there are seven Indian species. Oates, i the “ Fauna of British India,” remarks of the genus that ‘‘ their nests are domed and built on the ground with one doubtful exception.” That exception is our little Ceylon representative. Legge records that Mr. Bligh found the nest at Haputale. ‘“ It was placed in a bramble about 3 feet from the ground, and was cup-shaped, loosely constructed of moss and leaves : it contained three young.”’ Later on, in the appendix, he states that Mr. Parker had sent him an egg which is illustrated in the plate at the end of the volume. Unfortu- nately he gives no description of the nest or of the situation in which it was found, and the illustration of the egg is not very satisfactory. It is represented as of a whitey-brown eround colour, with red-brown spots which form a cap at the larger end, and some purple spots. Soon after I started collecting, a cooly brought me two eggs somewhat answering to this description, which he said he had found in a nest on the ground under a bush. This was at Katuwana in the Southern Province in March, 1907. specimens examined by me the spicules do not show inter- mediate stages linking up the two species. With regard to the size of the spicules my specimens of H. glaberrima show a length variation from 56 vu to 84 ¥, with a mean length of 66 uv. The spicules of H. lubrica vary from 112 v. to 148 p, with a mean length of 127 ».; that is to say, the spicules of the latter species are nearly twice as long as those of the former. In Selenka’s original description (37) he gave the length of the spicules of H. glaberrima as 50 y.and of H. lubrica as 60 wv. Lampert (21) gave the size of the spicules of the former species as 105 v. and of the latter as 70 4, exactly the reverse of what I find. Hence the size of the spicules in the two species varies to a very large degree. It is seen, then, that all three points of difference between the two species are dependent upon characters which have been shown to be inconstant, and it is possible that Ludwig’s opinion that the two forms really belong to the same species may be eventually borne out when a sufficiently long series of specimens has been brought together for examination. In the meantime I follow Lampert and Koehler & Vaney in separating the two species. HOLOTHURIA CINERASCENS (Brandt). (Plate IX., fig. 10.) Stichopus (Gymnochirota) cinerascens, Brandt 1835 (8). Holothuria pulchella, Selenka 1867 (37) ; Semper 1868 (38) ; ) } Haacke 1860 (12); Ludwig 1881 (25), 1883 (27): Théel 1886 (42) ; Sluiter 1887 (39) ; Bell 1887 (6). ) K 6(5)13 66 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. Holothuria cinerascens, Lampert 1885 (19); Ludwig 1887 (28), 1897 (32) ; Sluiter 1901 (41) ; Bedford 1902 (3). Holothuria willeyi, Bedford 1902 (3). . Several specimens from the Maldives (Gardiner), Seychelles (Dublin Museum), and Ceylon (various localities). Katernal Appearance.—Reddish-brown colour, lighter below and with some irregular dark patches above. The trivium is clearly separated from the bivium by reason of the disposition of the ambulacral appendages. Those on the trivium are pedicels which are closely arranged. There is sometimes a very narrow bare area in the mid-ventral line which separates the pedicles into two groups. The papillz on the bivium are few in number and smaller in size than the pedicels, and are irregularly scattered. ‘There are twenty large yellow tentacles. Internal Structure.---The calcareous ring is large, the radial pieces being very well formed. In the specimens I have dissected there are two large Polian vesicles, one on the central radius of the trivium and one on the left radius of the bivium. ‘There is a single stone canal on the right side of the dorsal mesentery. In this species both the Polian vesicles and stone canals vary in number to a considerable degree. The right respiratory tree extends to the anterior end of the body, but is very delicate. The left respiratory tree is much shorter, but more massive. Cuvierian organs are not present in the specimen examined by me, but they have been recorded in this species. Spicules.—The deposits consist of small tables and spiny rods. The tables are intermediate between those of H. atra and H. edulis, but smaller. Sometimes the disc consists of a simple ring as in H. edulis, but in the more perfect condition it is more like that of H. atra. The diameter of the disc is 36 uv. The height of the table is about 40 vu, and it has a spiny top similar to that seen in H. atra. The spiny rods are similar to those of H. lubrica. They are slightly curved and are covered with very minute spines, which are larger at the two extremities. The rods are about 100 u in length and 16 v. in width. General Distribution.—Indo-Pacific region. HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 67 Remarks.—It would appear that this form is related to Holothuria atra and Holothuria edulis on the one hand and to Holothuria lubrica on the other. I cannot see any important differences between the above species and Holothuria willeyi, Bedford. In some specimens from Ceylon which I have examined the spicules vary from the type as Bedford’s specimens did, but this variation appears to accompany the breaking up of the spicules. I consider Bedford’s species properly belongs to H. cinerascens. HOLOTHURIA ATRA, Jager. (Plate IX., fig. 11.) Holothuria atra.—Jager 1833 (14); Selenka 1867 (37) ; Semper 1868 (38) ; Ludwig 1881 (25), 1882 (26), 1887 (28) (29), 1899 (32) ; Lampert 1885 (19), 1896 (21) ; Théel 1886 (42) ; Bell 1887 (6), 1889 (7) ; Thurston 1890 (43) ; Koehler 1895 (15) ; Whitelegge 1897 (45), 1903 (46) ; Bedford 1898 (2), 1899 (3); Clark 1901 (9), 1902 (10) ; Voeltzkow 1902 (44), Pearson 1903 (33), 1910 (34) ; Fisher 1907 (11) ; Koehler & Vaney 1908 (17). Holothuria amboinensis.—J ager 1833 (14) ; Semper 1868 (38) ; Lampert 1885 (19). Holothuria (Microthele) affinis —Brandt 1835 (8). Holothuria floridana, Pourtalés 1851 ; Selenka 1867 (37) ; Ludwig 1881 (25). Holothuria atra var. amboinensis.—Théel 1886 (42) ; Bedford 1898 (2), 1899 (3). Numerous specimens from every collection which I have examined. This is a very common species in the shallow waters of the Indo-Pacific. In living specimens I have examined from the Ceylon Pearl Banks the colour was black or very dark brown or reddish- brown. The pedicels have white sucking discs, and the papille have white tips. The columns of the pedicels and papille are always black. Twenty dark brown or dark green tentacles. 68 SSPOLIA ZEYLANICA. There are small scattered papille on the bivium and more numerous and larger pedicels on"the trivium, so that the two surfaces are clearly distinguished. In the ‘living condition the back often appears almost smooth owing to the insigni- ficant size of the papille. This species may attain a length of 350 mm., but it generally contracts to half its length when preserved. Internal Structure—The calcareous ring is of the usual aspidochirote type and is not very large. This form is interesting, because the number of Polian vesicles and stone canals varies in different individuals, the number generally being much higher than in most Holothurians. I have counted from one to five Polian vesicles and up to twenty-seven stone canals. The circum-cesophageal ring is some distance behind the calcareous ring. The right respiratory tree extends up to the calcareous ring, but is very delicate ; the left respiratory tree is shorter, but much more bulky. I have examined a great number of living specimens but have never seen any Cuvierian organs. The collected evidence goes to show that these organs are absent in the above species. In one specimen a small crab was found in the cesophagus at the level of the calcareous ring. Whether it had been taken in with the sand which passes through the alimentary canal, or whether it was living commensally, J cannot say. Spicules.—The deposits of this well-known form consist of tables and somewhat irregular perforated plates. The tables are almost square in plan view and are 50 vy. in diameter and 60 v. high, and generally consist of four large central holes with a small hole at each of the four corners. Occasionally, however, there may be an almost complete ring of small holes, and the edge of the disc may be spinous. The tower consists of four uprights joined by a transverse beam, and having four sets of well-developed spines on the summit. The perforated plates vary in shape and are not more than 25 y, in diameter. Remarks.—The two forms of H. atra which Théel and Bedford regarded as distinct differ in respect of the spicules and colour. The one form, H. atra var. amboinensis, is black and has spines on the edges of the tables. The other, H. atra, is black but may have the papille and tube feet with whitish HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 69 ends, and the edges of tables are not usually spinous. Théel, however, has pointed out that H. atra sometimes has a spiny dise, and Bedford has shown that amboinensis may have no spines on the disc. The colour differences are apparently not constant, so that the distinctions between the two forms do not appear to be well defined. Hf. pulla, Selenka, resembles H. atra in general appearance and in deposits, calcareous ring, and in the large number of the stone canals. But it has Cuvierian organs according to Théel, and it is this character alone which separates it from H. atra. Distribution.—A_ shallow-water species, generally found within the 10-fathoms line and often between tide-marks. Principally Indo-Pacific, where it appears to be universally distributed between latitude 25° N. and 25° S. Also found in few places in West Indian area of Atlantic. HoLoTHuRIA EDULIS, Lesson. (Plate IX., fig. 12.) Holothuria edulis, Lesson 1830 (22); Semper 1868 (38) ; Ludwig 1882 (26), 1887 (29), 1888 (30), 1899 (32); — Lampert 1885 (19); Théel 1886 (42) ; Sluiter 1901 (41) ; Koehler 1896 (15) ; Bedford 1899 (2) ; Konings- berger 1904 (18). Trepang edulis, Jiiger 1833 (14). Holothuria fusco-cinerea, Selenka 1867 (37), (non Jager). Holothuria signata, Ludwig 1875 (23) ; Lampert 1885 (19), — 1895 (21) ; Théel 1886 (42). ? Holothuria albida, Bell 1887. (5). Numerous specimens from the various collections under examination. This is a very common Indo-Pacific littoral form, which is used as beche-de-mer. External Characters —I1 have been able to examine large numbers of living specimens from Ceylon, and they always have a very characteristic appearance. The ground colour of the skin is a bright rose-pink, which may be disguised by 70 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. varying degrees of black pigment. The black is very well marked on the bivium, where it varies from a grayish colour to an intense black, which at each side is gradually replaced by pink. The trivium is nearly always devoid of black. When preserved in spirit this species loses its pink colour and generally appears black above and gray below. There are pedi- cels on the trivium and papille on the bivium. The tube feet are readily distinguished, as each one is generally surrounded by a narrow black ring and has a white sucking disc. An arrangement into three rows is sometimes discernible. The papillz are small and not very numerous. They are generally of the same colour as the general integument, so that they are not easily seen. ‘There are twenty pinkish-white tentacles surrounded by a rim of small black papille. The anus is round and the diaphragm is black. The living animal is long and narrow and may measure up to 400 mm. in length and 50 mm. in width. Spirit specimens are much shorter than this. Internal Structure —Internally this species differs but little from Holothuria atra. In both species the calcareous ring is similar, the Polian vesicles and stone canals are numerous and variable, and there are no Cuvierian organs present. The number of Polian vesicles varies from one to three, and the stone canals vary in number from 20 to 40, being disposed on each’ side of the dorsal mesentery. The circum-cesophageal ring is about 20 mm. behind the calcareous ring. Both right and left branches of the respiratory tree are large and of equal size. Spicules.—These are similar to those of Holothuria atra, except that the disc of the tables is represented only by a ring. Distribution.—Littoral waters of the Indo-Pacific region. Remarks.—This species is undoubtedly related to Holothuria atra, but differs from the latter in the colour of the body and in the nature of the calcareous tables. I have had the opportunity of examining large numbers of this species on the Ceylon Pearl Banks, and have always found the pink colour to predominate over the black. At Trincomalee and Jafina, HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 71 on the other hand, the pink colour was confined to a narrow strip on the middle of the trivium. The sides were gray and the middle of the bivium was black. Nevertheless there was no difficulty in distinguishing these dark-coloured specimens from Holothuria atra. On no occasion have I found any variation in the nature of the tables in the skin. I consider this species a good one, showing small but constant variations from H. atra. HOLOTHURIA MONACARIA (Lesson). (Plate X., fig. 13.) Psolus monacaria, Lesson 1830 (22) ; Jager 1833 (14). Holothuria flammea, Quoy & Gaimard 1833 (36). Holothuria fusco-punctata, Quoy & Gaimard 1833 (36). Holothuria fasciola, Quoy & Gaimard 1833 (36). Stichopus flammeus, Brandt 1835 (8). Stichopus gyrifer, Selenka 1867 (37). Labidodemas leucospilus, Haacke 1880 (12). Holothuria monacaria, Lampert 1885 (19), 1889 (20), 1896 (21) ; Théel 1886 (42) ; Sluiter 1887 (39), 1901 (41) ;. Ludwig 1887 (29), 1888 (30), 1899 (32) ; Koehler 1895 (15), (16) ; Bedford 1898 (2), 1899 (3) ; Pearson 1903 (33), 1910 (34) ; Fisher 1907 (11). This species is well represented in the various collections under examination. External Characters.—A well-marked form. There are papillz on the bivium and pedicels on the trivium. The ground colour on the back is auburn, that on the trivium brown. The pedicels and papille are canary-yellow, and each one is surrounded by a light circular patch. Sometimes these light areas join up longitudinally so as to give a longitudinally striped appearance. The pedicels are slightly more crowded than the papille. Generally the pedicels are arranged in three double rows, but in some living. specimens I have examined there was no such arrangement. The papille are arranged in about six more or less regular rows running along 72 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. the bivium. There are twenty light yellow tentacles. Around the base of the flattened head of each tentacle there is a row of small black spots. The mouth is surrounded by a ring of small papille, and there are five small groups of papille around the anus. Internal Anatomy.—The internal organs call for no special mention. The calcareous ring is very small and the inter- radial pieces in particular are extremely delicate. There are one or two Polian vesicles and a single stone canal. Spicules.— These consist of tables and buttons in the general integument. The tables have a base 65 uw in diameter perforated by a large central hole and about ten or a dozen small peripheral holes. The tower is 60 » high and has one cross beam, and is surrounded by about eight irregular teeth. The buttons are 65 y, long and are smooth, and have three pairs of holes. There are irregular rods in the papille and fenestrated plates in the pedicels. General Distribution.—A common form in the shallow waters of the tropical Indo-Pacific region. So far as one can gather from Bell’s scanty description and from the figures of the spicules given by him, Holothuria macleari would appear to be the same as H. monacaria, as Théel has suggested. Bell does not give the colour of his species, but his description of the arrangement of the pedicels and papille and the presence of white rings around them, together with the appearance of the deposits, would serve equally well as a description of H. monacaria. Further, he shows that the buttons are smooth, so that if reproduced correctly they cannot resemble those of H. scabra (tigris), as he suggests, since the latter species has knobbed buttons. This mistake is probably due to the incorrectness of Selenka’s figure of the buttons of H. scabra. I have before me a single specimen from the collection of the late Professor Mitsukuri of Tokyo, labelled H. macleari, but T have not the slightest hesitation in assigning this specimen to H. monacaria, both on account of the external appearance and general characters; and also because of the nature of the deposits. ; HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. te HOLOTHURIA VAGABUNDA, Selenka. (Plate X., fig. 14.) Stichopus (Gymnochirota) leucospilota, Brandt 1835 (8). Holothuria vagabunda, Selenka 1867 (37) ; Semper 1868 (38) ; Ludwig 1875 (23), 1882 (26), 1883 (27), 1887 (29), 1888 (30), 1881 (25), 1899 (32) ; Lampert 1885 (19) ; Théel 1886 (42) ; Bell 1889 (7) ; Koehler 1895 (15), (16) ; Whitelegge 1896 (45) ; Bedford 1898 (2), 1902 (3) ; Sluiter 1901 (41) ; Pearson 1903 (33), 1910 (34) ; Koningsberger 1904 (18) ; Fisher 1907 (11) ; Koehler & Vaney 1908 (17). Numerous specimens from most of the collections under examination. A very common littoral species of the Indo-Pacific littoral waters. External Characters —The body is dark brown, the ambu- lacral appendages black tipped with white, and the tentacles are greenish-brown or dark brown. Ambulacral appendages are papillz on the bivium and pedicels on the trivium. Some of the earlier writers state that true pedicels only are present on the bivium. The dorsal appendages, although elongated, — have no sucking discs, and may therefore be regarded as papille. The long fine papille are numerous and can be extended to a length of 7mm. They are tipped with white and show no arrangement with rows. Owing to their length they give the living specimen a somewhat ragged appearance. The pedicels of the trivium are still more numerous, but show no arrangement into rows. They are terminated by white sucking discs. Twenty tentacles are present, surrounded by a rim of black papillae. The anus is round. Living specimens may measure up to 380 mm. in length and 65 mm. in width. Internal Structure —The calcareous ring is normal. Usually there is one Polian vesicle and one stone canal present. The respiratory trees are well developed. Cuvierian organs are present, and in the living specimen have a purplish colour. Deposits consist of tables and buttons. The tables have a disc 50 y in diameter. In young specimens the disc is L 6(5)13 74 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. perforated by ten or a dozen holes, but in older specimens there are generally only four peripheral holes. The tower is 35 v. high and consists of four uprights connected by one cross beam, and is terminated by a ring bearing eight or ten spines. The buttons are 50 y, in length and have three pairs of holes. There are also perforated plates in pedicels and irregular spinous or perforated supporting rods in the papille. General Distribution.—A common Indo-Pacific form. Remarks.—Although this species should, strictly speaking, be named leucospilota, the name vagabunda is in such universal use, that the demands of priority should be waived. ‘This has evidently been the view of every writer since Ludwig showed in 1875 that Stichopus leucospilota, Brandt, is identical with Holothuria vagabunda, Selenka. At any rate no one has used the rightful name, and I see no reason to adopt a different course. . In 1886 Théel suggested that H. vagabunda and H. lagena were identical, and in 1895 Koehler (16), after an examination of specimens from different localities, proposed to unite the two, but in 1908 Koehler & Vaney did not give H. lagena as a synonym of the species, so that one is led to conclude that Koehler did not maintain his earlier view. I have had no opportunity of examining a specimen agreeing with H. lagena, so that I am unable to throw any light upon the question. HOLOTHURIA FUSCO-CINEREA, Jager. (Plate -X.; fig: 15.) Holothuria fusco-cinerea, Jager 1833 (14) ; Lampert 1885 (19); Théel 1886 (42); Ludwig 1882 (26), 1887 (29); Sluiter 1887 (39). Holothuria pervicax, Selenka 1867 (37); Ludwig 1897 (32) ; Sluiter 1901 (41) ; Fisher 1907 (11). Holothuria depressa, Ludwig 1875 (23) ; Lampert 1895 (21). Holothuria mammiculata, Haacke 1880 (12). Holothuria fusco-cinerea var. pervicax, Bedford 1898 (2). Holothuria dofleinii, Augustin 1908 (1) ; Pearson 1910 (34). There are about twenty specimens in the collections under examination, HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 75 Haternal Characters —There is a distinct separation of the bivium from the trivium, the latter bearing pedicels only, and the former papillz. The general ground colour of the spirit specimens is grayish-yellow. The pedicels, which do not show any arrangement into rows, are brown-coloured with yellow sucking discs. Each pedicel is surrounded by a white ring. On the bivium the papille are situated on the summits of warts of various sizes, the largest being arranged in two rather irregular rows near the middle of the back. There are about six in each row, and each of these is surrounded by a broad bluish-black area, which joins with the dark area around the corresponding papille of the other row to form a transverse band. There are about six of these bands. In some cases the dark area in question is separated from the papilla by a light ring, as described by Augustin (1). The smaller papillze are arranged irregularly, although there is a slight suggestion of an arrangement into rows, especially near the junction of the bivium and trivium. Most of these small papillz are dark-coloured and are surrounded by a light ring. The tentacles were not seen in any of the specimens. Internal Structure-—The caleareous ring is typical of the genus. There is a single stone canal on the right side of the dorsal mesentery, and there is a single Polian vesicle. The left respiratory tree is larger than the right, and Cuvierian organs arise from the base of the left respiratory tree. In the specimens examined the gonads were well developed and extended to the posterior end of the body. “Spicules.—The calcareous deposits consist of tables and buttons. ‘The tables have a disc 40 y. in diameter, generally consisting of four larger central holes and alternating with these four smaller peripheral holes. The spire is generally imperfectly formed and has no definite shape. It may consist of three or four uprights which do not join at their summit, or there may be two irregular uprights diverging towards the summit, where they are connected by an irregular cross beam. These tables are hardly to be distinguished from those of H. curiosa. The buttons consist of a central axis, from which are given off from three to six irregular outgrowths at each side, and are about 20 » in length. They remind one strongly of 76 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA. the buttons of a typical Holothurian, in which the outer walls bounding the holes of the buttons have been broken down. Nevertheless the perfect button is very rarely found in this species. These buttons differ from those of H. curiosa. General Distribution. — The Indo-Pacific region. Not very common. Remarks.—The specimens which I have under examination differ in no respect from those described by me in 1910 (34), and which I identified as H. dofleinw, Augustin. On further examination I believe that this species is identical with H. fusco-cinerea, Jager,and H. pervicax, Selenka. I consider that Augustin’s grounds for not including his specimens under H. fusco-cinerea are insufficient. The two reasons for his not doing so are the presence of white rings around the papille in his specimens and the character of the buttons. With regard to the first of these, I have before me sufficient material to state that the colour of the rings around the papillz varies to a considerable degree. As for the spicules I cannot see any difference of sufficient importance to justify Augustin’s new species. There is no doubt that Semper’s Holothuria fusco-cinerea is identical with H. curiosa, Ludwig, and not with Jiger’s species, although H. fusco-cinerea, Jager, and H. curiosa, Ludwig, are undoubtedly closely related. But I do not agree with Bedford and Théel that H. curiosa should be included in H. fusco-cinerea, Jager, since the colour markings and the buttons are different in the two forms. Ludwig (23) describes his H. depressa as having a grayish-brown colour and three or four transverse brownish marks ; on the trivium the pedicels were numerous, and on the bivium the papilla were sparsely scattered and situated upon wart-like elevations, the tips of which had a dark colour. The pedicels of the trivium were each surrounded by a light ring. Selenka’s (37) short diagnosis and Fisher’s (11) exhaustive description of Holothuria pervicax agree with the account of H. fusco-cinerea which I have given above. I cannot agree with Bedford that H.argusis allied to thisform. In external appearance, in the nature of the spicules and cal- careous ring, that species differs greatly from H. fusco-cinerea HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. tg HoLOTHURIA FUSCO-RUBRA, Théel. (Plate XI., fig. 16.) Holothuria fusco-rubra, Théel 1886 (42); Sluiter 1901 (41); Fisher 1907 (11). A few specimens are found in the collections under exami- nation. External Characters.—Body is robust, and is covered with numerous well-formed pedicels on the trivium and _ less numerous papillz on the bivium. There are five groups of papille around the anus. There are twenty tentacles. The body is purplish-brown in alcohol. This colour is seen in the sections of the integument which it is customary to prepare for the microscopical examination of the spicules. Internal Structure—In the specimen examined by me the calcareous ring is slightly different from that figured by Théel. There are two Polian vesicles and a single stone canal. The left respiratory tree is more bulky than the right, but does not extend so far forward. Théel and Fisher stated that the species possesses Cuvierian organs, but they are not present in the specimen under examination. Spicules——These consist of tables and buttons. The disc tables vary in size according to the state of their development. The largest tables are 55 y.in diameter, and have four central holes and a ring of smaller peripheral holes. The edge of the disc is spiny. The tables are reduced or absent. Frequently the disc is reduced and possesses no peripheral holes, and then has the appearance of the reduced dise of H. pardalis. The buttons are irregular. In their most regular form they have three pairs of holes and are about 65y.long. Frequently some of the holes are missing, and these asymmetrical forms are the commonest. The pedicels are supported by long irregular buttons having several pairs of holes. The papillz are sup- ported by irregular branched rods. Distribution.—Indo-Pacific. Not very common. 78 7 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGCA. HoOLOTHURIA PARDALIS, Selenka. (Plate XI., fig. 17.) Holothuria pardalis, Selenka 1867 (37) ; Semper 1868 (38) ; Ludwig 1880 (24), 1882 (26), 1883 (27), 1887 (28), (29), 1888 (31), 1899 (32) ; Bell 1884 (4) ; Lampert 1885 (19), 1889 (20), 1895 (21); Théel 1886 (42); Sluiter 1887 (39), 1901 (41); Herouard 1893 (18) ; Koehler 1895 (15), (16); Whitelegge 1817 (45) ; Bedford 1898 (2) ; Voeltzkow 1902 (44) ; Fisher 1905 (11) ; Koehler & Vaney 1908 (17). Holothurva subdivita, Selenka 1867 (37) ; Semper 1868 (38) ; Lampert 1885 (19) ; Théel 1886 (42). Holothuria insignis, Ludwig 1875 (23), 1883 (27) ; Lampert 1885 (19) ; Théel 1886 (42). Holothuria lineata, Ludwig 1875 (23), 1880 (24), 1882 (26), 1883 (27) ; Bell 1884 (4) ; Lampert 1885 (19) ; Théel 1886 (42) ; Pearson 1910 (84). Holothuria peregrina, Ludwig 1875 (23); Bell 1884 (4) ; Lampert 1885 (19) ; Théel 1886 (42). Holothuria pardalis var. insignis, Sluiter 1890 (40) ; Bedford 1899 (3). This is a very widely spread species, and well represented in the various collections I have had the opportunity of examining. Owing to this species being subject to considerable variation, both in colour and in the form of the spicules, much confusion has arisen with regard to its identity, and consequently the synonymy is somewhat intricate. External Appearance.—The colour is yellowish-brown above and lighter below. Along the bivium there are frequently from five to ten pairs of dark brown patches, which give the species a characteristic appearance. Occasionally, however, these patches are wanting. The ambulacral appendages appear to be all true pedicels, which are not arranged in rows. Those on the trivium are more abundant than those on the bivium and are slightly larger. There is a circle of small papillz around the anus. There are twenty small tentacles. Jisher (11) says the number is variable. HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 79 Internal Structure.—The calcareous ring is very small and presents no points of interest. There are one or two long, fine, Polian vesicles. The stone canal is evidently very small, as I have been unable to determine its presence in several specimens. Other observers have noted the presence of one or two stone canals. The left respiratory tree is more bulky than the right, but not so long. There are no Cuvierian organs. Spicules—These consist of tables and buttons. The tables when fully developed have a disc 60 v. in diameter, consisting of a central hole apparently divided into four when seen from below, owing to the presence of the four beams of the tower. There are also about eight smaller peripheral holes. The edge of the disc is slightly irregular, as though suggesting the presence of still another circle of holes in perfect condition, although in some specimens the edge is quite smooth, as in H. bowensis. When seen in side view the edge of the disc turns up slightly. The tower is generally short, and consists of four uprights connected by asingle cross beam. Occasionally a fairly tall tower is seen. The top of the tower is square and bears a few blunt spines. The type of table described above is, however, rarely seen in the adult. ‘The common form has a disc with an irregular edge, in which the outer circle of holes has broken down, leaving either only four holes, one at each ~ corner, or no peripheral holes, or even no holes at all. In such tables the tower is frequently reduced and may be absent altogether. The buttons are very irregular. Typically they are smooth buttons with three orfour pairs of holes. Often, however, some of the holes are missing, and thus the charac- teristically asymmetrical appearance is produced. Often the buttons are slightly twisted when seen in side view. The buttons are usually arranged in groups or circles, but in many of the specimens I have examined this arrangement is not very clear, due probably to the contraction of the integu- ment. The pedicels are supported by robust curved rods, which are perforated at eachend. There appear to be two distinct types of spicules, as Fisher (11) states. In some specimens the tables are large and well developed, and the buttons frequently have four holes. In the majority of specimens, however, the tables are reduced and the buttons are very irregular, 80 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. Distribution —A very common form in the Indo-Pacific tropical and sub-tropical littoral waters. Remarks.—This species is related to H. fusco-rubra and H. curiosa. HOLOTHURIA MACULATA (Brandt). (Plate XI., fig. 18.) Sporadipus (Acolpos) maculata, Brandt 1835 (8). Holothuria arenicola, Semper 1868 (38) ; Théel 1886 (42) ; Sluiter 1887 (39) ; Fisher 1907 (11). Holothuria maculata, Ludwig 1881 (25), 1883 (27), 1887 (28), 1888 (30), 1897 (32) ; Lampert.1885 (19), 1895 (21) ; Bedford 1898 (2), 1899 (8) ; Sluiter 1901 (41) ; Clark 1902 (10) ; Koningsberger 1904 (18) ; Koehler & Vaney 1908 (17). There are numerous specimens of this species in the collections under examination. : External Characters —The ground colour of the body is yellowish-white or pinkish-white ; on the trivium there are a few scattered small brown spots. On the bivium there are two rows of dark brown patches, varying from six to fifteen in each row in different specimens. Occasionally these markings are absent altogether. There are twenty small tentacles. The ambulacral appendages are similar all over the body,.and are apparently true pedicels, as they have well- developed sucking discs. These appendages are irregularly scattered, and appear to be equally abundant on the trivium and bivium. The anus is pentagonal and is surrounded by five groups of papille. Internal Structure —The calcareous ring is well developed. There is generally a single small Polian vesicle and small stone canal present. Jn a specimen examined by Théel there were two Polian vesicles and a bundle of three stone canals on the right side of the dorsal mesentery. No Cuvierian organs are present in any of the specimens examined by me, but their presence has been recorded by previous writers. The HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 81 respiratory trees are well developed, that on the right side being longer than the left, but not so large. Spicules.—In the general integument there are tables and smooth buttons. The tables have a disc 60 vu in diameter, which has four large central holes and a varying number of peripheral holes. The tower is of the ordinary type and is surrounded by numerous spines, and is 42 u high. The buttons have three pairs of holes and are 50 v. long. They are extremely thick. The supporting rods of the pedicels are curved rods 100 ». in length, and have perforated enlargements at each end and in the middle. Distribution.—Tropical waters of the Indo-Pacific region. Remarks.—Fisher (11) has pointed out that the name maculata, which is generally given to this species, must give place to arenicola, since the former name was given to a species of the same genus by Chamisso & Eysenhardt in 1821. But this species, which was first named Holothuria maculata in 1821, and later on Fistularia maculata in 1834, is now known as Synapta maculata. The species under discussion, on the other hand, was first described in 1835 under the name Sporadipus maculatus, a designation which is not invalidated by any of the synonyms of Synapta maculata. Holothuria maculata was first given its present name by Ludwig (25) in 1881, when the Synaptid was no longer. placed in the genus Holothuria. Nevertheless a species described by Lesseur in 1824 had already been named H. maculata, a name which strictly should still stand. Since, however, Lesseur’s description is too imperfect for purposes of identification, and since, moreover, the name maculata has been given to the species under discussion by most authors of recent years, the name has become established, and I do not propose to use Semper’s synonym arenicola in place of the now almost universally accepted name maculata. Five specimens of this species collected by Mr. Cyril Cross- land at Suez, differ somewhat from the recognized form. The two rows of dark patches are absent from the bivium, but at each extremity there is a well-defined area in which the ground colour is black and the appendages are light yellow. The M 6(5)13 82 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. general colour is auburn; and the appendages appear to be more numerous and larger than in typical specimens. Internally they show no points of interest. The deposits differ slightly from typical forms in that the disc of the table is frequently much reduced and the holes of the buttons are extremely small. Holothuria maculata burrows in the sand between tide-marks, Hontoruurta RuUGOSA, Ludwig. (Plate XII., fig. 19.) Holothuria rugosa, Ludwig 1875 (28), 1882 (26) ; Lampert 1885 (19); Théel 1886 (42); Bedford 1898 (2); Koehler & Vaney 1908 (7). ? Holothuria triremis, Sluiter 1901 (41). One specimen, obtained by Mr. J. Stanley Gardiner in the Maldives. External Characters —Length 85 mm., breadth 20 mm. The colour in spirit is yellowish-brown. There are papille on the bivium and true pedicels on the trivium. In the specimen examined by me all the papillee are closely retracted, but the pedicels are still half expanded. The pedicels are arranged in three distinct rows on the trivium. The central row is clearly double, and the lateral rows are single, although in some parts, probably owing to contraction, the lateral rows are zig-zag and thus appear double. A close inspection with a lens shows that the papille are arranged in six irregular rows on the bivium, but with the naked eye very few papille can be seen. Internal Structure.—The calcareous ring agrees with Ludwig’s drawings of the species, and it also resembles that of Mesothuria murray, Théel, a resemblance which is also seen in the case of the spicules. But Mesothuria murray. differs in many respects from the above species, and is undoubtedly not identical with it. The tentacles are absent in the specimen from the Maldives, as are also the principal internal organs, St el HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 83 Spicules.—The deposits consist of tables and buttons. The tables consist of a disc 90 Y in diameter consisting of a central hole and a dozen or more peripheral holes. In the most complete form the tables bear long spines on the edge of the disc. There is a well-developed tower having a height of 65 u., and consisting generally of four uprights which converge towards the summit of the tower, and which are joined together by a cross-piece. These supports bear spines about half-way up. The top of the tower bears a number of long spines, some of them 50 y. in length, which radiate outwards from the centre. Many of the tables show signs of disintegra- tion. Frequently the spines on the outside of the disc and on the top of the tower are either absent or very much reduced, and sometimes the disc is so much reduced that instead of a circle of holes there is merely a serrated border. In the Maldives specimen the buttons are extremely scarce, and are apparently only present in and about the pedicels and papillze, but in a specimen from the Indian Museum the buttons are evenly scattered. It is possible that the buttons, which are extremely delicate, have been dissolved out of the Maldives specimen through the action of formalin, since most of the tables are much reduced. The buttons are irregular, and generally have four or more pairs of holes, but the buttons - are frequently asymmetrical in regard to the number of holes. Remarks.—So far as I can judge from the descriptions it would appear that H. triremis, Sluiter (46), is identical with Ludwig’s species, although there are some differences in the two accounts. The Maldives specimen appears to link up Ludwig’s and Sluiter’s specimens. Ludwig’s single specimen was light yellow, and had twenty yellow tentacles. The body was marked by five radial ridges and by several transverse wrinkles, probably due to ante-mortem contractions. The trivium bore numerous pedicels and the bivium less numerous papillze. Sluiter’s specimens were reddish-brown colour and had twenty brownish-voilet tentacles. The pedicels were arranged in three distinct double rows on the trivium, and the numerous papillz stood on conical warts and were irregularly arranged. It is with regard to the spicules that the two 84 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. species show great similarity, and they agree in the main with the description I have given above. Sluiter’s figure of the tables differs from Ludwig’s, in that the supports of the spire are parallel. In Ludwig’s they converge as they approach the summit, and there are some- times six supports. Ludwig’s specimen had the buttons aggregated around the pedicels and papillze. In Sluiter’s they appear to be evenly distributed. In the specimen which I have before me the external charac- ters agree more with Sluiter’s species, since the tube feet are arranged in three distinct rows, but it resembles Ludwig’s specimen in the form of the calcareous ring and the deposits. General Distribution.—An uncommon form, confined to the Indo-Pacific littoral regions. HOLOTHURIA DISCREPANS, Semper. (Plate XII., fig. 20.) Holothuria discrepans, Semper 1868 (38); Lampert 1885 (19) ; Théel 1886 (42). One specimen, obtained by Professor J. Stanley Gardiner in the Maldives. The specimen is very small, being only 20 mm. long. The only other specimens known are two described by Semper (38) from Samoa. External Characters —The colour of the small spirit specimen is yellow below. On the bivium there are a few yellow circles around the papillz and there are several narrow bluish-black transverse bands across the bivium. The trivium bears yellow pedicels which are arranged in three distinct rows, the two outer rows being double and the central row having four sets of pedicels. Semper does not describe the arrangement of the tube-feet. It is possible that in this species, as in many others, the tube-feet are arranged in rows in the young specimens only. There are a few papille irregularly scattered over the bivium. According to Semper there are thirty tentacles. Owing to the minute size of the specimen under examination I cannot confirm this, ~— HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 85 Internal Structure.—The calcareous ring is of the usual type. I am unable to detect the Polian vesicle and stone canal, but Semper describes the presence of the Polian vesicle and one stone canal. Cuvierian organs are present. Spicules—These consist of tables in the general integument, and according to Semper smooth buttons with three pairs of holes around the base of the ambulacral appendages. There are also elongated perforated plates supporting the appendages. The tables measure 44 vu across the disc. The disc has typically a large cross-shaped hole in the centre, four parts of which reach the periphery, and alternating with these are four smaller holes. The disc is subject to variation in regard to this. When the tower is complete, which is rare, it is surmounted by a square top which bears several spines, the four largest being placed one at each corner. The tower is low, being only about 25 v. in height, and seems to have a variable number of supports. The perforated supporting rods of pedicels are 80 v. or more in length. They are very broad in the middle and bulge slightly at each end. Distribution.—Samoa and Maldives. Only three specimens of this species are known. The first two were described from Samoa in 1868, and the other specimen was not obtained until ~ thirty years later from the Maldives. Considering the great distance between these two localities it is surprising that no specimens have been recorded from intermediate stations during a period of thirty years. HoLOTHURIA IMPATIENS (Forskaal). (Plate XIIL., fig. 21.) Fistularia impatiens, Forskaal 1775. Trepang impatiens, Jager 1833 (14). Holothuria fulva, Quoy & Gaimard 1833 (36). . Thyone impatiens, Blainville 1834. Sporadipus impatiens, Grube 1840. Holothuria botellus, Selenka 1867 (37) ; Semper 1868 (38). 86 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. Holothuria impatiens, Semper 1868 (38) ; Ludwig 1875 (23), 1887 (29), 1888 (30), 1899 (32) ; Lampert 1885 (19), 1889 (20), 1896 (21) ; Théel 1886 (42) ; Bell 1887 (6), 1889 (7) ; Sluiter 1887 (39), 1910 (41) ; Herouard 1893 (13) ; Koehler 1895 (15) ; Bedford 1899 (3) ; Konings- berger 1904 (18); Fisher 1907 (11); Koehler & Vaney 1908 (17) ; Pearson 1910 (34) (35). External Appearance-——The body is covered with papille only, no true pedicels being present. These are situated upon conical eminences, which give a characteristically papillated appearance to the body. The papillz are irregularly disposed, and appear to be equally abundant upon the bivium and trivium. The colour of the body is brown, punctated with numerous minute dark brown spots. Some of the dorsal papille are dark brown, others a light brown. There is often a series of purplish-brown transverse stripes across the back, those in front being regular, but becoming more irregular towards the posterior end of the body. Thus the back of the animal presents a variegated appearance. The body when extended is very long in proportion to its width, and in a living example measured by me the length was 275 mm. and the width 25 mm. There are 20 light yellow tentacles, and the anus is surrounded by a rim of small papille. Internal Structure.—The internal structure calls for no special remarks. The Cuvierian organs are double, and extremely large. The left respiratory tree extends to the anterior end of the body, but is extremely slender ; the right respiratory tree, on the other hand, is short but massive. Spicules.—The calcareous deposits consist of tables and smooth buttons. The tables are characteristic, and consist of a fairly square base, consisting of nine almost equal holes forming rows of three. The base has a diameter of 90 ». The tables are 75 y. high and generally have one cross-beam, but there may exceptionally be two. The tower is surmounted by about 20 spines. The buttons are 75 y. in length and have six holes. ; General Distribution.—This is a common form in the tropical: and sub-tropical waters of the Indo-Pacific region. It has also been recorded from Florida. HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 87 HOLOTHURIA SCABRA, Jager. (Plate XIII., fig. 22.) Holothuria scabra, Jager 1833 (14); Brandt 1835 (8) ; Semper 1868 (38) ; Haacke 1880 (12) ; Ludwig 1882 (26), 1883 (27) ; Lampert 1885 (19) ; Théel 1886 (42) ; Sluiter 1901 (41) ; Koningsberger 1904 (18) ; Koehler & Vaney 1908 (17) ; Pearson 1910 (34), 1910 (35). Holothuria tigris, Selenka 1867 (37). Holothuria cadelli, Bell 1887 (5). Holothuria gallensis, Pearson 1903 (33). There are numerous specimens in the collections under examination. External Characters —The body is comparatively short and stout.. The two ends are flattened. The body is covered with minute papille, which are irregularly scattered and are more abundant on the trivium than on the bivium. This species probably shows greater colour-variation than any other Holothurian. The bivium may be black, black with a few yellowish-white streaks, or black with broad transverse - white bands. The black may vary in intensity, and is frequently replaced by gray. The trivium is of a light yellow colour, so that there is a marked distinction between the two surfaces. On the yellow ground may be seen numerous small gray patches, which mark the position of the papillae. Each papilla is grayish in colour and surrounded by a gray circle. In the extreme cases the gray patches join together to form an irregular mass, broken up by lighter markings. There are twenty tentacles. Internal Structure.—The calcareous ring is normal. The Polian vesicles varyinnumber. In one freshly-killed specimen, 225 mm. long, there were three Polian vesicles. The first was 40 mm. long and arose in the left inter-radius of the trivium. The second was 15 mm. long and arose on the left radius of the bivium. The third was 110 mm. long and arose near the dorsal mesentery. The single stone canal is small and 88 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. sometimes difficult to find. In the specimen referred to above the stone canal was situated close to the third Polian vesicle. The left respiratory tree is larger than the right, but does not extend so far forward as the latter. No Cuvierian organs are present. Spicules—The spicules consist of tables and knobbed buttons. The tables are 72 ». in diameter, and have a large central hole and several smaller peripheral holes. The margin of the disc is smooth. The tower is 50 v high and is robust. Its four uprights are connected by one tier of cross-beams, and the top is surmounted by numerous spines. The buttons have three pairs of holes and are 50 y. long. HOLOTHURIA SPINIFERA, Théel. (Plate XIII., fig. 23.) Holothuria spinifera, Théel 1886 (42) ; Ludwig 1887 (29). Only two specimens of this species have been recorded hitherto, the type of the species which was obtained by the ‘‘ Challenger,” near the Philippine Islands, and one specimen obtained by the Drs. Sarasin on the East Coast of Ceylon. The Colombo Museum possesses three more specimens, two of which were obtained from the Ceylon Pearl Banks by the present writer, and another without a label. One specimen measured when in an expanded condition was 350 mm. long and 65 mm. broad. External Characters.—The body is yellowish-white on the trivium, with the exception of a light brown streak which runs longitudinally along the medium line. The dorsal surface is light brown, darker in the middle, and becoming lighter at each side. Some of the dorsal papille are also dark brown in colour. The ambulacral appendages are papille only. They are scattered irregularly over the body, those on the dorsal surface being bigger and more conical. Along each side of the body at the junction of the bivium and trivium there is a row of papille slightly larger than those on the back. ‘The bivium HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 89 is well arched and the trivium is flattened. There are five groups of papillae around the anus. There are twenty light yellow tentacles. The tentacles are surrounded by a rim of small papille. Internal Structure.—The calcareous ring presents no features of importance. There is a single Polian vesicle 25 mm. long when contracted. The single stone canal is situated on the right side of the dorsal mesentery. As Théel has pointed out, it is of extraordinary length, being 35 mm. long in the specimen of which the measurements are given above. The right respiratory tree is larger than the left. In the specimens examined by me there are no Cuvierian organs. Deposits.—These agree generally with Théel’s description. They consist of tables and knobbed buttons in the general integument. The disc of the table is rounded and has a diameter of 90 », and is perforated irregularly by a number of small holes. Sometimes there is a central hole surrounded by a number of peripheral holes. The under surface of the dise is not always smooth, but is sometimes complicated by the presence of irregular cross-connections. The tower is 60 u. in height, and has one cross-piece, and is surmounted by a large number of spines. ' The buttons are 40 ». long and have three pairs of holes; | and often show irregularities. In the papillae there are tables Bak very high towers (300 v. high) ending in a single blunt spine, and also irregular perforated plates. The high towers make the identification of this species clear. General Distribution —Philippines, Ceylon. HOLOTHURIA OCELLATA, Jager. (Plate XIV., flg. 24.) Holothuria ocellata, Jager 1833 (14); Lampert 1885 (19) ; Théel 1886 (42); Koehler & Vaney 1908 (17); Pearson 1910 (35). One specimen from the Indian Museum, length 120 mm., breadth 55 mm. N 6(5)13 90 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. External Appearance.—The spirit specimen has a yellowish- white ground colour. Numerous small brown spots are scattered over the integument, but they are too small to detect without the aid of a hand lens, except in the middle of the trivium and irregularly on the bivium, where they are much more crowded and produce brown markings. Most of the papille on the bivium are of a chocolate-brown colour, thus standing well out upon the lighter background. I cannot see the double circular ring around the papille which Théel described. The ambulacral appendages consist of papille only, which, as in Holothuria spinifera, remain extended to a considerable extent in the preserved specimen. The papille are slightly smaller and more numerous on the trivium. The largest papillee are found along each side of the body, as in Holothuria spinifera. Internal Structure—The calcareous ring is well formed and the radial pieces are massive. I have found only one Polian vesicle. Théel records seven from the “ Challenger ’”’ specimen, but this difference is not of importance. It is interesting to note that the stone canal is very similar to that of H. spinifera, both in its position and large size. Both branches of the respiratory tree extend to the anterior end of the body, but the left branch is the larger. Cuvierian organs are present. Spicules—These consist of tables and knobbed buttons. The discs of the table differ slightly from Théel’s drawings, in’ that they often have more holes and the edge of the disc is more irregular. The disc has a diameter of 100 v, and generally contains a large central hole surrounded by smaller holes, but occasionally the disc is irregularly perforated and contains numerous small holes instead of the single central hole. The buttons are 65 y» long and have three pairs of holes. In the papillee there are a few tables of the usual type, and a large number of massive rods perforated at each end, and having a flattened perforated centre. General Distribution.—Indian Ocean. Remarks.—This species is undoubtedly related to 4H. spinifera. The external differences are not very great, the colouring of H. ocellata being generally more decided than that of H. spinifera. The disposition of the papille is the ee HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 91 same in both species, but the large lateral papille of 4. ocellata are larger than those of H. spinifera. The spicules of both species belong to the same general type. There is evidently much variation in the tables of the two species, and the tables of the Ceylon specimens of H. spinifera agree almost as well with Théel’s drawings of ocellata as with those of spinifera. The latter, however, differs from the former in having tables bearing large spine-like towers in the papille. Also the buttons of ocellata are larger than those of spinifera. Internally there does not appear to be much difference. The calcareous ring presents some small points of difference, but both species agree in having an extremely large stone canal. There are two small Holothurians from the Seychelles sent by Professor Stanley Gardiner, the largest being only 40 mm. in length. These two specimens agree very closely with H. ocellata in external appearance, in the form of the calcareous ring, and in the curious large stone canal. The tentacles and the greater part of the alimentary canal are absent from both specimens. Nevertheless they differ considerably in the nature of the spicules, and I have had some difficulty in deciding upon the identity of the two specimens. The spicules consist of tables and buttons. The tables are of two sizes, smaller tables not unlike those of a typical H. ocellata, - forming a superficial larger, and longer tables, apparently situated at a lower level. These larger tables generally havé a complete circular disc, but often it is incomplete, and forms a cross-shaped base to the table as in H. kurti (see Pearson, 33). The discs of the smaller tables have a diameter of 100 v., and are pierced by twenty or more holes and have an undulating margin. The larger tables are not very common. The disc has a diameter of about 250 » and contains a very large number of holes. Both kinds of tables have towers similar to those found in the typical deposits of H. ocellata. The buttons are delicate and have about seven pairs of holes. Many of the buttons are apparently knobbed. Although the spicules are somewhat similar to those of H. kurti, I am confident that this form does not belong to that species. The discs and towers of the tables of H. kurti are much more robust than those of the specimens under examination. 92 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. J am inclined to believe that the specimens are young forms of H. ocellata, and the differences in the spicules are probably due to the fact that as the animal grows older the spicules become smaller owing to disintegration. This has been observed in other species by Mitsukuri and the present writer. HOLOTHURIA MARTENSII, Semper. (Plate XIV., fig. 25.) Holothuria martensii, Semper 1868 (38) ; Ludwig 1882 (26) ; Lampert 1885 (19) ; Théel 1886 (42) ; Pearson 1910 (34). A few specimens from the Australian and American Museums. External Characters.—The preserved specimens I have been able to examine have exactly the same appearance as Holo- thuria spinifera, but as I have only examined living specimens of the latter and not of the former, I cannot say whether the resemblance is as close during life. The colour of a specimen preserved in spirit is a uniform yellowish-white both above and below. The body is covered with papille, which are larger along each side of the body than elsewhere. Internal Structure.—Internally the resemblance with Holo- thuria spinifera is maintained. The calcareous ring is similar in shape and size. There is a single long Polian vesicle and a very large stone canal similar to that already described in H. spinifera and H. ocellata, the only difference being that the free end is pear-shaped as in the specimen described by Théel. Both Semper and Lampert have described the presence of two Polian vesicles and one extremely small stone canal. In specimens examined by me the stone canal is large in every case, and there is only one Polian vesicle. On these points I am in agreement with Théel. It would seem as though Semper and Lampert had mistaken the stone canal for a Polian vesicle, to which it offers a distinct resemblance. Such being the case it is difficult to know what structure they have interpreted as “‘ der Steinkanal ausserst klein.”” The right HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 93 branch of the respiratory tree is larger than the left. There are Cuvierian organs present, in which character this species agrees with Holothuria ocellata. Cuvierian organs have not yet been recorded in Holothuria spinifera. Spicules.—These consist of massive tables and knobbed buttons. The buttons are the same as those of the other two related species, but the tables are different. The tables are characterized by having extremely high towers, each consisting of four uprights and about eight cross-pieces. The tower is surmounted by numerous teeth. Height of tower 125 w. The disc of the tower is perforated irregularly by about twenty or more holes and has a diameter of 120 vu. The supporting rods in the papille are similar to those in Holothuria ocellata. Holothuria martensii differs, therefore, from H. ocellata and H. spinifera in the nature of the tables, in the general integument, and from the latter species in having no tables bearing large spines in the papille. General Distribution.—Kast Indies, Ceylon, and Australia. HOLOTHURIA ALBIVENTER, Semper. (Plate XIV., fig. 26.) Holothuria albiventer, Semper 1868 (38) ; Lampert 1885 (19), 1895 (21); Théel 1886 (42); Hérouard 1893 (13) ; Ludwig 1899 (29) ; Sluiter 1901 (41) ; Pearson 1910 (34). Several specimens, collected by Professor Stanley Gardiner in the Maldives. External Characters.—The ambulacral appendages consist of papille only, those on the dorsal side being small and numerous, those on the ventral side being larger and less closely arranged. In the spirit specimens at my disposal the bivium is clearly marked from the trivium, not only by the disposition of the papillz mentioned above, but also by the difference in colour. The general colour is grayish-brown, but the trivium is lighter, especially on the papillae. In Semper’s description of the living animal he gives the colour as follows :—Bivium, 94. SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. ereenish-brown with irregular light patches and an indefinite dark patch. The lower surface, dark gray with numerous white patches. Papille, on the bivium gray, those on the trivium white. Internal Structure—As in the three previous species the stone canal is exceptionally large, and arises from the right side of the dorsal mesentery. ‘There is a single Polian vesicle. The stone canal is similar to that of the three previous forms. Cuvierian organs are evidently not present in this species, since they are not mentioned by previous writers, and there are none present in the specimens under examination. Spicules—These are very characteristic, and consist of tables and knobbed buttons in the general integument. The knobbed buttons have the usual three pairs of holes and are 40 pin length. The tables are peculiar in that the tower is supported by numerous uprights. The base of the tower is perforated irregularly and is 90 y. in diameter. The height of the tower is 85 », and the top is surmounted by numerous spines. General Distribution.—Indian Ocean, particularly common along the east coast of Africa. Remarks.—Heérouard (13) expressed the opinion that H. aculeata, Semper, together with H. bowensis, Ludw., and H. modesta, Ludw., should be included in H. albiventer, Semper. Ludwig, Lampert, and Sluiter have rightly shown that H. albiventer difters from all these species in the form of its massive tables. Since the four species described above— namely, Holothuria spinifera, Holothuria ocellata, Holothuria martenswi, and Holothuria albiventer—show such close relation- ship in many respects I append a key to the four species :— Common characters.—Ambulacral appendages papille only, which are situated upon non-contractile eminences. Extremely large stone canal arising from the right side of the dorsal mesentery. (1) Tables in general integument having more than four upright supports. Papillz along both sides of body not larger than rest. sh Avia Ses, oo, EU en RS Leh A _.. H. albiventer. —— _— Sa ee a a we? ee a a ee ee ee bo HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 95 (2) Tables having only four upright supports. Papillee along sides of body larger than rest. (A) Tables in papillae having large spine-like superstructure. Rr a REAM ie ie Raa big epee FH. spinifera. (B) Absence of large spine-like towers in papille. (a) Tables in general integument short and having only one transverse bar. id Cold asthe ee oat ae H. ocellata. (6) Tables in general integument high and having four or more transverse bars. Creat, Sacer atte pares H. martensii. LITERATURE. Augustin, H.—1908, “‘ Uber Japanische Seewalzen.”’ Abhand. d. Math-Phys. Klasse der K. Bay. Akad. d. Wiss., II. Suppl. Bd., 1. Abhand. . Bedford, F. P.—1898, ‘‘ Holothurians collected by Mr. J. Stanley Gardiner at Funafuti and Rotu- ma.’ Proc. Zool. Soc., 1898. 1899, Holothurians in Willey’s Results, Part IT. Bell, F. J.—1884, Zoological collections of H.M.S. * Alert.”” Echinodermata. 1887, ‘‘ Echinodermata from the Andaman Is.” Proce. Zool. Soc., 1887. 1887, “The Echinoderm fauna of the Island of Ceylon.” Sci. Trans. Royal Dublin Soce., Vol. IIT. (ser. 2). ————— 1889, * On the Holothurians of the Mergui Archipelago, collected by Dr. John Ander- son.” Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zoology), Vol. XXII. Brandt, J. F.—1835, ‘‘ Podromus descriptions animalium ab. H. Mertensio observatorium.” Fasc. I. Petropoli, 1835. 10. 11. 16. Gis 18. 19: 20. 21. SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. Clark, H. L.—1901, ‘‘The Echinoderms of Porto- Rico.”” Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1900, II. 1902, ‘‘ Echinodermata. Papers from the Hopkins Galapagos Exp. 1898-99, XII.” Proc. Wash. Acad., IV. Fisher, W. K.—1907, ‘“‘The Holothurians of the Hawaian Is.?’ ° Proc. U. 8. Nat: Mus., Vol. XX XIT. Haacke, W.—1880, Holothurien, in Beitrage zur Meeres- fauna der Inseln Mauritius und der Seychellen, &c. Hérouard, E.—1893, ‘‘ Holothuries de la Mer Rouge.” Arch. de Zool. exper. et gen. 3 ser. T. 1. Jager, G. F.—1833, ‘“‘ De Holothuriis.”” Diss. inaug. Turici. Koehler, R.—1895, ‘‘ Echinodermes de la Baie d’Am- boine.”’? Rev. Suisse de Zool. t. III. 1895-96. -1895, “Catalogue raisonné des Echino- dermes recueillis par M, Korotnev aux Iles de la Sonde.’’ Mem. de la Soc. Zool. de France, T.; VIII. Koehler, R., & Vaney, C.—1908, ‘‘ Littoral Holothuri- oidea collected by the ‘ Investigator,’ Calcutta.”’ Koningsberger,—1904, “ Tripang en Tripangvisscherij in Nederlandsch-Indie.”’ Med. plantenuin Java, LX XI. Lampert, K.—1885, Reisen im Archipel der Philippinen. Bd. 4, Th. 3, ‘‘ Die Seewalzen.”’ 1889, “‘ Die wahrend der Expedition der Gazelle gesammelten Holothurien.”’ Zool. Jahrb. Bd. IV. 1895, ‘‘ Die von Dr. Stuhlmann in der Jahren 1888 und 1889 an der ostkuste Afrikas gesammelten Holothurien.” Mitt. aus dem Naturh. Mus. Hamburg. XIIT., 1895-96. ‘—<) 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 33. HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN, 97 Lesson, R. P.—1830, “Centurie Zoologique ou choix d’animaux rares, nouveaux ou impar- faitement connus.’’ Paris. Ludwig, H.—1875, “ Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Holo- thurien.’’ Arb. aus dem Zool.-Zoot.-Inst, Wurz. Bd. II., 1875. —1880, Echinodermata in Kossmann’s Reise nach dem Rothen Meere, V., 1880. ——1881, Revision der Mertens-Brandt’schen Holothurien.”’ Zeit. f, Wiss. Zool. Bd. XXXV., 1881. 1882, ‘‘ List of the Holothurians in the collection of the Leyden Museum.”’ Notes from the Leyden Museum, Vol. IV. —_———-— ——1883, ‘‘ Verzeichniss der Holothurien des Kieler Museums.” 22 Bericht d. ober- hess. Ges. f. Natur-u. Heilekunde. Giessen, 1883. 1887, “‘ Die von G. Chierchia auf der Fahrt der Kgl. Ital. Corvette. ‘ Vettor Pisani.’ gesammelten Holothurien.”” Zool. Jahr. (Abth. f. Syst.), Bd. IT. ee ——1887, ‘‘ Drei Mittheilungen uber alter und neue Holothurien arten.” Sitz. der Kgl. Preuss. Ak. d. Wiss., Berlin. ———__-——_——— 1888, “‘ Die von Dr. J. Brock im Indischen Archipel gesammelten MHolothurien,” Zool. Jahrb. (Abth. f. Syst.), Bd. IT. 1898, “ Die Holothurien der Sammlung Plate.” Zool. Jahr. Suppl., Bd. IV. ——_—-———-—]1899, ‘‘ Echinodermen des Sansibargebie- tes.’ Abh. Senckenberg. Ges. XXI., 1897-99. Pearson, J.—1903, ‘‘ Holothurioidea”” in Herdman’s Report on the. Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fisheries, Vol. I., Supplementary Report, No. V. 6(5)13 98 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 4]. 43. 44. 45. 46, SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. Pearson, J.—1910, Holothurioidea of Kerimba Archi- pelago, Portuguese East Africa, collected by J. J.Simpson. Proc. Zool. Soc., 1910. 1910, Holothurioidea of Mergui Archi- pelago, Lower Burma, collected by J. J. Simpson and R. N. Rudmose-Brown. Proc. Zool. Soc., 1910. Quoy et Gaimard.—1833, Voyage de |’ Astrolabe, Zoologie. fel Woe LArise Loas, Selenka, E.—1867, “‘ Beitrage zur Anatomie und Syste- matik der Holothurien.” Zeit. f. wiss. Zool., Vol. XVIII. Semper, C.—1868, Reisen im Archipel der Philippinen, Bd. 1, Th. 2, “ Holothurien.”’ Sluiter, O. Ph.—1887, ‘“‘ Holothurien des Java-Meeres.”’ Nat. Tijd. v. Nederlandisch-Indie, Vol. XLVIT. === 1890, “ Echinoderm Fauna des Java- Meeres Nat. Tijd. v. Nederland-Indie.”’ Vol. XLIX. —-————— 1901, ‘“‘ Die MHolothurien der Siboga Expedition.” Siboga-Expeditie, XLIV., Leiden. Théel, Hj.—1886, “ Report on the Holothurioidea, Part II,” Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S. “ Challenger,” Vol. XIV., Part XX XIX. Thurston, H.—1890, ‘“‘ Notes on the Pearl and Chank Fisheries and Marine Fauna of the Gulf of Mannar.”’ Madras, 1890. Voeltzkow.—1902, ‘‘ Die von Aldabra bis jetzt bekannte Flora und Fauna.’ Abh. Senckenb. Ges. XXVI. W hitelegge.—1897, “‘ Echinodermata of Funafuti.’’ Mem. Austr. Mus., ITI., Pt. IT. ————__—_-—1903, ‘‘ Notes on the Zoology of Paonopa or Ocean Is. and Naru or Pleasant Is., Gilbert Group. Echinoderms.”’ Rec. Austr Mus., V. ell HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN, 99 EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Plate V. Holothuria hamata, n. sp., from the dorsal side. x 1. Plate VI. Holothuria hamata, n. sp. Fig. 2a.—View of table from below. x 600. Fig. 2b.—Side view of table. x 600. Figs. 2c, 2d.—Knobbed buttons. x 600. Fig. 2e.—Calcareous ring. x 43. Holothuria maculosa, n. sp. Fig. 3a.—View of table from below. x 500. Fig. 3b.—Side view of table. 500. Fig. 3c.—View of table from above. 300. Fig. 3d.—Knobbed button. x 500. Fig. 3e.—Spicules in neighbourhood of papilla. 500. Fig. 3f.—Perforated rods from the papilla. x 500. Fig. 3g.—Calcareous ring. x 4. Plate VII. Holothuria marmorata (Jager). Figs. 4a, 4b, 4c.—Typical spicules. » 1,000. Fig. 4d.—Spicules from the deeper hypodermis. 1,000. Fig. 4e.—Calcareous ring. X 2. Holothuria argus (Jager). Figs. 5a, 5b.—Supporting rods from pedicels. 400. Fig. 5c.—H-shaped spicule from pedicel. 500. Figs. 5d, 5e, 5f, 5g.—Typical spicules. x 1,000. Fig. 5h.—Caleareous ring. x 2. Holothuria vitiensis, Semper. Fig. 6a.—H-shaped spicule from pedicel. x 500. Figs. 6b, 6c.—Supporting rods from pedicels. 500. Figs. 6d, 6e, 6f.—Typical spicules. x 1,000. Fig. 6g.—Calcareous ring. x 2. Plate VIII. Holothuria graffer, Semper. Figs. 7a, 7b, 7c.—Spicules. | x 1,000. Fig. 7d.—Spicule. x 750. Fig. 7e.—Caleareous ring. x 2. Holothuria glaberrima, Selenka. Figs. 8a, 8b, 8c.—Spicules. 600. Fig. 8d.—Calcareous ring. x 8. Holothuria lubrica, Selenka. Fig. 9a.—Caleareous ring. 9. Figs. 9b, 9c, 9d.—Spicules. x 450. 100 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. Plate IX. Holothuria cinerascens (Brandt). Figs. 10a, 106, 10c.—Various views of tables. x 500. Fig. 10d.—Calcareous ring. 4. Fig. 10e.—Rod-shaped spicule. x 400. Holothuria atra, Jager. Figs. lla, 116, 11c.—Various views of tables. x 650. Fig. 11d.—Calcareous ring. x 3. Fig. 1le.—Perforated plate. x 650. Holothuria edulis, Lesson. Figs. 12a, 12b.—Tables. x 650. Fig 12c.—Perforated plate. x 650. Fig. 12d.—Caleareous ring. x 6. Plate X. . Holothuria monacaria (Lesson). Figs. 13a, 13b.—Tables. x 750. Fig. 13c.—Button. x 750. Fig. 13d.—Caleareous ring. x 7. Holothuria vagabunda, Selenka. Figs. 14a, 14b.—Tables. x 1,000. Fig. 14c.—Button. x 750. Fig. 14d.—Calcareous rmg. x 6. Holothuria fusco-cinerea, Jager. Fig. 15a.—Caleareous ring. x 5. Fig. 15b.—Table. x 750. Figs. 15c, 15d, 15e.—Buttons. x 750. Plate XI. Holothuria fusco-rubra, Théel. Fig. 16a.—Table. » 1,000. Figs. 16b, 16c, 16d.—Buttons. x 1,000. Fig. 16e.—Calcareous ring. x 6. Holothuria pardalis, Selenka. Figs. 17a, 17b.—Tables. x 500. Figs. 17c, 17d, 17e.—Buttons. x Fig. 17f.—Calcareous ring. x 7. Holothuria maculata (Brandt). Figs. 18a, 18b, 18c.—Tables. » 400. Fig. 18d.—Button. x 400. Fig. 18e.—Calcareous ring. x 3}. Plate XII. Holothuria rugosa, Ludwig. Figs. 19a, 19b, 19c.—Tables. x 550. Figs. 19d, 19e, 19f.—Buttons. x 550. Fig. 199.—Calcareous ring. x 6. Holothuria discrepans, Semper. Figs. 20a, 20b.—Tables. x 900. Fig. 20c.—Button. x 900. Fig. 20d.—Caleareous ring. x 12. 500. ‘ds “uu ‘aynwupy pr0nyjo70 FT ~ enue: i { | £ a ia AIXNX Md “XT 190A ‘Movunjiag nyody * Ev ot ee | : S *» Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. [X., Part XXXIV. Plate VI. rN @ © ce OO? a ih AN Sh So ¢ & i ae , ®@ © > Oo ; ae pearaiek a) e -« d Bi ach & ss J.P. & G. H. del. Fic. 2.—HoLoTHuRIA HAMATA, 0. sp. Fic. 3._-HOLOTHURIA MACULOSA, n, sp. *) 7 be i ei We ONO ty RD ea Ss Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. 1X., Part XXXIV. Plate VII. 6g J.P. & G@. H. del. Fic. 4.—H. MaRMoRaTA. Fig. 5.—H. areus. Fig 6.—H. viTrIensts. = Pe a1) 5) Saute RY Ba oc eee a | a oe - a ay 7 = sf \ Mo ss a eae ore Lista cz 7 perry | ; bud one if he i i] "ate a au Ds Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. [X., Part XXXIV. > > 4 « ee ‘gl SA ang Suture Se ? > = EO ae » ea a8 Pans Soe : Le INN aS ei & v Sa ene eee 4 ? Bi j A 9a uaa Dae et f-% oad \ noe 9b J.P. & G. H. del. Fig. 7.—H. GRAFFEI. Fic. 8 —H. GLABERRIMA. Plate VIII. an. 6 > A) S H gE 4 : . ~ C } . : \ y oA Be * ef - ae. ee A> eee % . i o ane ae ieee: re) 5 6 3 : 4 9d Fie. 9.—H. Luprica. Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. IX., Part XXXIV. Plate IX. Fic. 10.—H. cINERASCENS. Fia. b1.—H. atra. Bic 12. epuris: th ‘ aes ay : TF ro Wut. Tah ah Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. 1X., Part XXXIV. Plate X. J.P. & G. H. del. Fie. 13.—H. MonaAcarta. Fie. 14.—H. vaGABUNDA. Fig. 15.—H. rusco-cinEREA. Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. [X., Part XXXIV. Plate XI. 16d l6a —_ love y Soe \ /. x \ EPia i O 4 © A | IF 1 J.P. & G. H. del, Fic. 16.—H. FUSCO-RUBRA. Fic. 17.—H. Parpatis, Fic. 18.—H. mMacunata. Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. IX., Part XXXIV. Plate XTT. a Sere peewee Fee coterie a yak tiie See ee SH ioral Broce -: a 19e Y ( ay Tal 3 een al = Soete (x J.P. & G. H. del. Fie. 19.—H. rugosa. Fig. 20.—H. DISCREPANS. ‘Plate XITT. Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. [X., Part XXXIV. J.P. & G. H. del. 23.—H. SPINIFERA. Fic. Fig. 22.—H. scaBRa. Fig, 21.—H. IMPATIENS. Plate XIV. Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. [X., Part XXXIV. 25e Me aS] Ne) J.P. d& G. H. del. Fig. 26.—H. ALBIVENTESR. Fic. 25.—H. MARTENSII. Fic. 24.—H. ocELbata. bi ss Tai] Ay ay AV LS ple , 7 UPd piteie HOLOTHURLOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. Plate XIII. Holothuria impatiens (Forskaal). Figs. 21a, 21b.—Tables. x 400. Fig. 21c.—Button. x 400. Fig. 21d.—Caleareous ring. x 4 Holothuria scabra, Jager. Figs. 22a, 22b, 22c.—Tables. x 400. Fig. 22d.—Button. x 400. Fig. 22e.—Calcareous ring. X 3. Holothuria spinifera, Théel. Figs. 23a, 23b.—Tables. x 300. Fig. 23c.—Table in papilla. x 225. Fig. 23d.—Button. x 300. Fig. 23e.—Calcareous ring. x 4. nie ° Plate XIV. Holothuria ocellata, Jager. Figs. 24a, 246.—Tables. x 450. Fig. 24c.—Knobbed button. x 450. Fig. 24d.—Perforated rod from papilla. x 225. Fig. 24e.—Calcareous ring. x 3}. Holothuria martensii, Semper. Figs. 25a, 25b.—Tables. x 450. Fig. 25c.—Knobbed button. x 450. Fig. 25d.—Perforated rod from papilla. x 125. Fig. 25e.—Caleareous ring. x 3}. Holothuria albiventer, Semper. Figs. 26a, 26b.—Tables. x 325. Fig. 26c.—Knobbed button. x 325. Fig. 26d.—Calcareous ring. x 4, LOL 102 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. NOTES ON SOME TERMITES FROM CEYLON, By Oscar Jonny, St. Petersburg, Russia. URING the months of November and December of last year (1912) I collected termites in Ceylon, chiefly at Peradeniya, and had occasion to make some observations on the habits of certain species. Much work upon the termite fauna of Ceylon has been accomplished, but more still remains to be done. I[ hope, therefore, that the publication of my notes, though incomplete and fragmentary, may be of some use to future workers. Before proceeding, I beg to express my warmest thanks to Mr. E. E. Green, whose kind help and directions, based on a vast knowledge of the Ceylon fauna, were quite invaluable to me. TERMES HORNI, Wasm. When returning, on December 12, from a stroll to the lake of Kurunegala—it had just begun to grow dark—my attention was attracted by a large number of bats flying along a short thoroughfare. The cause of this gathering of bats became evident when I saw a cloud of large-winged termites rising from under a hedge bordering the road. Unfortunately it was already too dark to determine the exact point of exit of the termites ; but all the grass over a rather large space of ground seemed to be alive with a vast number of them, crawling up from some openings in the earth and flapping their wings to start for flight. This produced a distinctly audible, I may even say a rather loud, noise. Trying to find out the places from which the termites emerged, I struck some matches, but by their feeble light, which moreover was almost imme- diately extinguished by the wind, all I could see was that in two places, about a yard or so apart, large crowds of workers NOTES ON TERMITES FROM CEYLON. 1038 and soldiers were congregated. But it seemed to me that the winged individuals were emerging not only from these two places, but also between and beyond them. In those gather- ’ ings the worker caste seemed to be far predominant; as I found about a dozen soldiers only amongst a large number that I swept into a tin, whereas the number of workers exceeded two hundred. The next morning I examined the place, but could find no signs of the presence of 7’. horni, except some shed wings. Neither could I discover the openings from which they had made their exit the night before, nor did I find any traces of them or of their nest in the neighbourhood. I have thought it worth while to describe this exodus of T. horni, incomplete as my observations are, because this phenomenon has been observed very seldom, and all we have to go upon is Mr. Petch’s account of three such events observed by him in relation to 7, obscuriceps and T'. redemanni., ANOPLOTERMES CyCLOPS, Wasm. Our knowledge of this species is very incomplete. All we know is that, in common with the other species of the genus, . it is distinguished by the absence of the soldier caste, and that it is to be found under stones and logs of wood. Habitat, Peradeniya and Maha Iluppallama. T have found this species on four occasions : once at Kurune- gala, under a stone (December 12, 1912), and three times at Peradeniya, once (December 16, 1912) in a mound of Termes redemanni, which An. cyclops shared with the host and Capritermes incola. 'The next day I found another colony, also in a nest of redemanni ; and on the fourth occasion (December 18, 1912) I found it ina mound of Termes obscuriceps, inhabited, moreover, by Hamitermes quadriceps and HLutermes escherichit. There is nothing unusual in the occurrence of Anoplotermes in the mounds of other species. Such an association has been already recorded by Holmgren in the case of the South American species An. reconditus, which -occurs in the nests of Termes dirus. 104. SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. These colonies of An. cyclops were dispersed over the whole mound, inhabiting small flat chambers, which were crowded with workers, larvee, and nymphs. Twice I succeeded in capturing the queens. In one instance I took a queen in a mound of redemanni ; but I found as many as five queens and one king in a single obscuriceps mound. As the queen cell is in no way distinguished, either by its structure or its position, it is just by chance that one finds them. I found them concealed in ordinary tunnels, not crowded together, but at some distance apart. When opening the mound it is very easy to cut away a piece contain- ing the queen or queens ; and they can be easily damaged, as was the case with one of those taken by me. I cannot, therefore, be certain whether there were any more queens or kings in these colonies. ‘The queens did not differ very much from the winged adults. Some of them had the abdomen slightly inflated, so that the intersegmental membrane was somewhat extended ; others had just the appearance of the winged form—after it has shed its wings. When captured, the workers always lifted up their abdomens after the manner of ants—Cremastogaster for instance—so that the anal part came right above the head, excreting at the same time a drop from the anal opening. This drop consists of a thick liquid of a brownish-gray colour, and is composed of minute vegetable and mineral particles agglutinated by some secretion. When excreting this drop—which, by the way, is not viscid and leaves no stain on the skin—the worker of An. cyclops does not empty the whole of the contents of the gut. When a worker is immersed in water or alcohol this material is evacuated in the form of a minute sausage from 6 to 7 mm. in length and of a diameter of about 0°5 mm. In water it loses its original shape in the course of a few- minutes, becoming a small heap of earthy matter; whereas in alcohol it retains its original appearance and becomes hard and brittle. EUTERMES RUBIDUS, Hag. I had an opportunity of watching this species rather frequently, as there was a nest right in front of the entrance of the resthouse at Peradeniya. Every morning little piles of NOTES ON TERMITES FROM CEYLON. 105 earth were to be seen on the road, showing the work done overnight by Hut. rubidus. I noticed that one of these heaps was, as a rule, larger and higher than the others. They consisted of loosely piled earth, with, usually, a small opening on the top. Inside, they were pierced by a tunnel, which in some cases was branched. Once, on the last day of my stay at Peradeniya, I noticed a rather large pile, about three inches high, on one of the footpaths in the Botanical Gardens. This pile was conical, rounded at the top, without any hole, and cemented much more firmly than any other pile seen by me. It was not unlike one of the cones that may be observed in the early stages of the mounds of 7. obscuriceps and redemannt. When opened, it was found to be crowded with workers of Hut. rubidus. A yard or so from this heap I found another one thrown up on the turf. Escherich’s observations on this species are here trans- lated in extenso :—‘‘ The nest of Hutermes rubidus is under- ground, with several openings on the surface of the earth, often surrounded by small craters of earth. In the vicinity of Galle I found a nest of which the openings and the surrounding space were covered by flat, brittle, earthy crusts. When I destroyed one of these weak structures, soldiers were imme- diately seen to emerge, both large and small ones, Hutermes . rubidus having two forms of soldiers which differ considerably in shape and size; the large soldiers keeping more in the background. After the first alarm had quieted down the repairs were hastily undertaken, the soldiers ........ forming a dense chain round the broken place. It is remarkable that, with few exceptions, only the small soldiers were engaged in this work, whereas the large ones had mostly retired. Was this a mere chance, or is there a differentiation of work in the two forms of soldiers? I was unable to decide this point, owing to insufficient material for observation, although the latter eventuality does not seem to me to be unlikely. “The building was effected in a very simple manner: between the soldiers, occasional workers came forward, holding in their mandibles small crumbs of earth, which were deposited at the edge of the building and then slightly pressed on. There was none of the abundant proctodzal or stomodzal P 6(5)13 106 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. cement ordinarily employed by termites when building their nests, only a simple compilation of earthy particles with, very possibly, a slight admixture of saliva. This simple mode of construction accounts for the loose composition and the brittleness of these superstructures. This observation is of - interest, in that it reveals a new method of building, and shows us that termites are by no means bound to one scheme, but that they are able to apply different (simple or complicated) methods, according to the purpose or requisite durability of the structure.’’* I have quoted Escherich at full length, because his observa- tions are fully corroborated by my own. I may add that I have observed Hut. rubidus commencing their night’s work at about 6 P.m., when both forms of soldiers emerged from the opening on the surface of the road and were followed by workers, each carrying a morsel of earthy material. This latter was placed without any further cementation on the ground at a short distance from the opening. But not at all the openings was such material brought up, nor was the amount of work equal at all the openings. After dark, about two hours later, straight open galleries of from 1 to 14 inch in length were built at some of the openings, whereas at others only a small and very low crater had been formed. I counted nine openings in all from which the termites came forth, and overground traffic—by soldiers as well as workers—was established between some of them. The most interesting part of the observation was that from one of the holes where no building was going on at all, a vast crowd of workers, guarded by soldiers, had emerged and was feeding on the leaves of some flat-growing plants, sitting more or less motionless on the leaves. Some of the workers were seen to carry home comparatively large pieces of bark. Disturbed, as I believe, by the strong light of my acetylene lantern (though the soldiers and workers of Hut. rubidus are blind, it is more than: probable that they have some sensation of light), a movement soon occurred among the termites, and they began hurfiedly to leave their pasture and to retreat * K. Escherich. Termitenleben auf Ceylon, 1910, pp. 133, 134. NOTES ON TERMITES FROM CEYLON, 107 into the opening of their tunnel. The next night, at about 9 p.M., they were again to be found on the leaves; but, on being illuminated, beat a retreat as on the previous night. They were again feeding at the same place half an hour later, thickly covering the leaves and stems of the plants. In the morning the foraging party had disappeared and the opening from which they had emerged the night before was closed, but no heap of earth was left on the surface. At the other openings larger or smaller heaps had been built, and the termites were at work upon these until about 8 a.m. This open foraging of Hut. rubidus is very remarkable, as Hutermes—with the exception of the monoceros group, which is, at least biologically, entirely separated from the rest—are never found in the open, but in logs, stumps, and other decaying wood, to which they lead their tunnels. Unfortunately, it was impossible to dig open their nests, as Eut. rubidus selects places where they are under the protec- tion of Road Committees or other authorities, which would look somewhat askance at anyone who might attempt to undermine the roads in search of the nests—a yet unrecorded form of adaptation ! EUTERMES ESCHERICHI, Holmer. Only quite recently (in 1910) this species was discovered by Escherich in a nest of Termes obscwriceps. He found a numerous colony (workers and solders) not far from the central part of the mound, in a separate sponge-like nest built of earth. He further states that in the same mound one of the upper comb-cavities was filled by a black carton nest, the carton being mostly cemented to the walls of the cell, which was covered with a dark “‘wall-paper.”’ No inmates could be found, either in the cell or in the proper nest. “As the Eutermes are chiefly carton manufacturers,’ continues Escherich, in his account, “‘ and as I never found such a nest in any other mound, and finally I never again came across that Eutermes, I consider it not improbable that this species was the builder of the carton nest, and—perhaps chased from it— settled down in another part of the mound, where, for lack of 108 ‘ SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. the necessary raw material, it now built a similar edifice of earth.” On December 18 I opened a mound of 7’. obscuriceps in the Experiment Station grounds (where Escherich found his £. escherichi). Near the surface of the earth I found a tunnel, from which emerged a large number of soldiers of this species. Following up the tunnel, workers and a few winged individuals could be found. The tunnel led to a small by-nest inhabited by workers and soldiers. On the opposite side of the mound I found another nest, which was much larger in size than the first, 2.e., of the size of a man’s fist. This nest contained workers, soldiers, and larve of different stages ; but neither nymphs nor queen could be found. A third nest, of about the same size as the first, 7.e., of the size of a hen’s egg, was close by, and, finally, I found a fourth small by-nest at some distance from the others. All of these nests were built of earthy material and contained cells of the usual Hutermes pattern. Strangely enough, one of the upper cavities of the mound contained, as in Escherich’s case, a strange derelict structure, but this one was made of earth, and differed considerably in pattern from Hutermes buildings, suggesting rather, in structure, the characteristic work of Coptotermes. It might be of interest to dwell a little longer on this strange obscuriceps nest, as it contained a considerable number of different inhabitants, and others may have been overlooked. This mound was situated at the foot of a coconut palm, side by side with a mound of 7’. redemanni. The latter was opened on the previous day and the king and queen were taken. The close vicinity of the two nests had caused a certain fusion of both, as some of the cavities of the obscuriceps mound were occupied by redemanni, which had built their combs there. Here and there, near the surface, small cavities were occupied by Anoplotermes cyclops, and deeper in the mound five queens and one king of this species were found. Hamuitermes quadri- ceps also occurred here and there in small cells. Of other insects I can mention several colonies of species of Camponotus and Cremastogaster, an immature Gryllid, larvze of Orthogonius aculangulus and of several other Coleoptera. Of Pedipalpi, a NOTES ON TERMITES FROM CEYLON. 109 very large specimen of Phrynichus was taken, some Myriapods, Notoscolex termiticola and another very large earthworm, and some Lepismide. EUTERMES ocuLatTas, Holmegr., 1911. (= Eutermes longicornis, Holmgren, 1912.) In Dr. Escherich’s book entitled ‘“Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” Dr. Holmgren described thisspecies from winged examples only, captured by Dr. Uzel at Peradeniya, suggesting that they possibly belonged to either H. hantanz or E£. eschericht. Some time later he received from Mr. E. E. Green a number of soldiers and workers of an undescribed species of Hutermes, which he described as EH. longicornis. On November 16 last I found, in a mound of Termes obscuriceps, a colony of longicornis, consisting of soldiers, workers, and winged adults. Comparing these last with the descriptions, I found them to be identical with oculatus of Holmgren. Therefore the name of longicornis must be dismissed as a synonym of the former. The adult of this species is very conspicuous, and easily recognizable by its fontanelle of a pure white, bordered by a | yellowish ring. The head is shorter than broad, with very prominent eyes. The antennze are comparatively long, 2:6 mm., whereas in LZ. ceylonicus they measure only 1:7 mm., though both species are of about the same size and have 15-jointed antenne. (In ceylonicus, the antennz of the male have 14 joints only.) The “ nasutus ”’ soldier is recognizable from those of allied species by the length of its frontal tube, which is equal to that of the rest of the head, and very slender. This species has been recorded from Peradeniya only. The type-material was taken by Dr. Uzel (in coll Vienna Mus.) on November 15, 1901. I myself captured a number of winged specimens at the lights of the resthouse on November 15 and 29, 1912, and the above-mentioned colony was found on the 16th of the same month. The types of longicornis were found by Mr. E. E. Green on the stem of a Giant Bamboo (Dendrocalamus giganteus). 110 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. EUTERMES LACUSTRIS, Bugnion, 1912. (= Hutermes greent, Holmgren, 1912). On an excursion to the top of Hantana (a mountain of about 4,000 feet elevation, situated near Peradeniya) I discovered, in the jungle at the summit, a large tree up the stem of which a gallery was running. An inspection of the gallery proved _ that it emerged from the soil, ran about half-way round the base of the stem, forming there two enlargements, and then ran directly upwards. When opened, a number of termites— partly workers and partly soldiers—emerged from this gallery. The latter surprised me by the very conspicuous dark colour of their heads, a character known in but a single species of Eutermes from Ceylon, viz., lacustris. But this species had been described by Dr. Bugnion from the low-country, and Dr. Holmgren had received specimens from Mr. E. E. Green which were also collected in the low-country. ‘These are the only records about this species. A comparison with the description and the types of Dr. Bugnion and of Dr. Holmgren proved it to be identical with lacustris. This identification was subsequently corroborated by Dr. Bugnion himself. Dr. Holmgren, ignorant of Dr. Bugnion’s publication (June, 1912), had believed the species to be a new one and included it in his “‘ Termitenstudien,’ Vol. III., under the name of Hut. greenv. Some time later I ascended Hantana again, with the object of further investigating this interesting species and, if possible, of finding the nest. In this I was successful, as I first found another gallery on a tree some twenty yards distant from the first, and not very far from it the nest perched on a Ficus tree. It was rather large and built between two forking branches, some twenty-five feet up, with a gallery leading to the ground. My coolies were able to lower the nest and to transport it safely to the laboratory, with the loss only of the natural cover, which was exceedingly brittle. The dimensions of the nest were as follows :—Circumference 76 inches ; long diameter 26, short diameter 20, and height 16inches. It was constructed in the usual Hutermes style, 7.e., the whole consisting of a system of numberless small cavities made of some woody ——— ss ee NOTES ON TERMITES FROM CEYLON. lll material and encased in a very thin outer cover to protect the nest from rain and the intrusion of ants and other predatory | insects. A median section showed three more or less con- centric portions. The outer area consisted of small cells, the inner of elongated cells of a much larger size, and the central portion was composed of much stronger wood-like material of a lighter colour, and containing the queen’s cell and other large cells with eggs and young larve. This central portion was not placed in the exact geometrical centre of the nest, but considerably below the middle. This nest contained all castes, including winged adults, which were till now unknown. Dr. Bugnion has undertaken to give a description and draw- ings of them. After opening the nest, one-half was fixed in a tree near the laboratory, where, for some time, I was able to observe the habits of the insects. Disregardful of daylight or even sunshine they were to be seen ascending and descending the trunk of the tree, on several _ tracks, and here and there appeared the beginning of a tunnel. But after a day or two only one track was used, the others being abandoned. These tracks were chiefly used by workers, but among them appeared sometimes nymphs and winged individuals. Workers now and then were seen to carry young larvee, holding them with their mandibles. The soldiers were . mostly posted in small groups on each side of the track and near the beginnings of galleries. The workers were not very eager at their work, and only a few carried small particles of building material. They deposited their tiny bricks in gaps or other suitable places, giving them the proper position by trying to place them first one way then another, finally fixing them by pressing them with a sideway movement of the head, after which I sometimes saw them turn round to place a drop of proctodceal secretion on the place. Two weeks later, after my return to Peradeniya, I found the nest in much the same condition. The galleries were still incomplete and the nest had the appearance of being deserted. An inspection, however, showed that it was crowded with inhabitants. Possibly the position in which the nest had been placed was not a convenient one, and the loss of the queen may have upset the regular functions of the inhabitants. 112 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. The further fate of this nest is unknown to me, as I left Pera- deniya soon afterwards. [It was subsequently blown down and demolished in a gale of wind.—E. E. G.] EKUTERMES MONOCEROS, Koenig. The open “‘ out-of-door ”’ life of this species makes it more accessible to observation than any other termite inhabiting Ceylon, and as it is rather common, we find recorded several accounts of its habits. Of recent authors Dr. Bugnion and Dr. Escherich dwell at some length on the habits of this interesting insect ; and I am informed by Mr. Petch that he is about to publish a Paper recounting his experiences with E. monoceros. Of these, Dr. Bugnion’s observations relate more to laboratory experiments. With regard to Dr. Esche- rich’s account, I have not found it corroborated, in certain particulars, by my own observations. I will therefore give a short sketch of what I have been able to observe on the habits of this species. As I have said, Hut. monoceros is rather common, so that I frequently had opportunities of watching them on their expeditions and when foraging. I have also opened four of their nests. (In one of them I found two specimens of a Cetoniid beetle—Clinteria amperialis, Payscull—the identi- fication of which I owe to Mr. E. E. Green. Each was found in a separate cocoon, in which they lay motionless in a state of ‘“‘diapause.”” This occurrence of Clint. imperialis in a termite’s nest has not, to my knowledge, been previously recorded.) Before proceeding I must mention that, in one instance, I have seen a nest built, not as usual above ground in the hollow of a tree, but underground in the chimney of a mound of Termes obscuriceps, surrounding the base of a tree. This proved to be not a by-nest, as is sometimes found to be the case, but a regular main nest, containing a full-sized queen, together with eggs and young larve. It appears, therefore, that EB. monoceros does not construct its nests in hollow trees alone, but wherever it may find a cavity suited to its purpose. NOTES ON TERMITES FROM CEYLON. 113 Dr. Bugnion, for instance, records a nest built in a corner under the roof of his laboratory, and Mr. Petch has observed the building of another nest under a glass bell-jar covering a decayed stump of wood in the verandah of his office. Foraging is not undertaken every night. There are intervals of inactivity, though sometimes expeditions may be sent out for several consecutive nights. The inmates of one nest, that used to cross the road leading to the laboratories at Peradeniya, were not to be seen for about a week, when they re-appeared. On this occasion I could see how they made their way to the tree upon which they used to feed. The old track had been obliterated by road sweepers and heavy rain when I observed the termites starting for their old feeding grounds one afternoon at 6 o’clock. The front party went forward rather uncertainly, advancing very slowly and evidently recon- noitering. Some of them went a long way down the road, which led them far from the tree; but by the following morning they had found the short cut from one tree to the other, by more or less the same path they had used before. The exit of the foraging party from the nest begins usually between 5 and 6 P.M., and in the morning one can see a large trail returning to the nest, most of the workers carrying in their mandibles a morsel several times larger than their own - heads, while others are still at work foraging. I have watched them through a Zeiss binocular microscope and could plainly see how they detached the lichens from the bark. I have also seen them gathering alge from bricks on the road. I have never observed one of the gatherers pass over its harvest to another individual which carried it to the nest, as stated by Escherich ; nor have I seen a soldier fed by a worker. Once I saw two workers, neither of which had any morsel in its mandibles, touching each other with their mouth-parts. Another time the same procedure was gone through by a worker and a soldier, but apparently no feeding was done. Anyhow, these two cases out of thousands cannot be the rule, and I do not think that any feeding takes place during foraging. But I have observed, on several occasions, the following scene. A worker with a large bundle in its mouth was standing amidst the crowd when several other workers came up to it and tore Q 6(5)13 114 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. off pieces of its morsel and went away with their booty, without any signs of protestation on the part of the robbed one. I was not able to discover the meaning of this action, but I do not think that it can be called feeding. Moreover, there was plenty of food around, and every worker could have fed plentifully without robbing his fellow. Nor can this be regarded as a division of labour, as suggested by Escherich, viz., the parts of gatherer and carrier, for only very small pieces were removed by the intruders, the rest being trans- ported to the nest by the gatherer itself. I have never seen workers deserting and encouraging others to do so by those rapid and abrupt movements which Dr. Escherich calls ‘‘ zitterstosse.’’ The latter, of course, I have seen many times, but I could never discover their meaning. Dr. Escherich and others believe them to be some kind of signal, warning or otherwise, but what then can be the explanation of the fact that these “ zitterstosse ’ are executed so often when there is no one near to receive the message ? There can be no doubt about it, that the delicate sensitive organs of the termites would acquaint them with the fact that no other termite was within reach. Or is this to be regarded merely as a reflex movement induced by some unknown cause ? But then it could not be a signal, or it would naturally produce some effect .upon the other individuals, and would run along the line, or it would affect at least the individual to which the signal was conveyed. All I could see was that the latter sometimes replied in the same way, and then went along without altering its course; but still more often it paid no attention to this supposed signal, pursuing its course and trying to get out of the way of the “ signaller.” Dr. Escherich further states that workers of monoceros are in the habit of dismembering and devouring their dead comrades. I have repeated his experiment by killing some of them, with the following result. When a termite happened to discover its dead comrade, it went back to return with several others. They surrounded the corpse and soon afterwards went away. te - NOTES ON TERMITES FROM CEYLON. 115 But this was not always the case. Sometimes, when one came upon a corpse, it simply went out of its way, never to return, and it even seemed to me—in one or two cases—that this place was afterwards avoided by the marching column, but this might be a mere coincidence. Once I saw the dead body lifted and carried off by a worker, just as others carry their morsels of lichen. Another time a few workers tried to lift up their dead comrade, but as it had stuck to the bark they were unable to move, and soon left it. But I have never seen a dead termite torn up, limb by limb, and devoured. The return of the foraging parties is not always finished in the early morning. I have seen them marching homewards until after 12.30 P.M. Once my coolies brought me a nest of monoceros in a hollow tree stem, which they opened and searched for the queen, without finding her. Some two hours later I observed that the queen had emerged from beneath the débris of the nest and had hidden herself under a box. When this was lifted she began to move, and crawled up the vertical post of the house for a foot orso. In this she was supported, as it seemed, by the workers who surrounded her, especially at the posterior extremity, as if they were pushing her up. She could move horizontally, at a comparatively rapid pace, without any assistance. Galleries on Roads. Though galleries ramifying like roots in different directions from a central point are frequently seen on the surface of roads and have been figured both by Doflein and Kscherich, there is no record of the species of termites that construct these galleries, or what purpose they serve. Strangely enough, Escherich says that he has never been able to find any termites in these galleries. During a few days’ observation I found in no less than fifteen cases workers (and occasionally soldiers) of T’. obscuriceps, and on two other occasions of 7’: redemanni. As a rule, only a few individuals were to be found in the galleries during the morning, and they were almost deserted 116 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOCA. after noon. But after about 5 p.m. and towards sunset the termites seemed to gather in the galleries, which I have then found to be crowded with both workers and soldiers. When the galleries were broken up some of the insects wandered about aimlessly, but most of them tried to escape into the openings leading underground.” As to the purpose of these galleries, Hscherich suggests that they originate by the rummaging of the termites in search of fungi or their spores—an opinion that is shared by Mr. HE. E. Green, and which seems credible enough. Perhaps the galleries are constructed also during the search for decaying wood or stumps of trees, where these species are always found feeding. With regard to the brittleness of the galleries, I find that they are not always constructed so ephemerally as Escherich states, especially when dead branches have come in the way of the termites. Such branches are then usually covered with a strong crust of earthy matter and eaten up from the inside. I have not touched the systematic part of my results, in this Paper, except in the case of Hutermes oculatus ; but I hope, on my return from my present trip, to work out my further results. This, naturally, can only be done in a laboratory, with all the necessary apparatus, collections, and literature. * When writing the above I had not seen a paper of Dr. V. Buttel Reepens (Entomol. Mitteilungen I., I. IV., 1912, N.4, p. 103), wherein he states that he has found both species—Z. obscuriceps and T. redemanni—in the galleries.—Oscar JOHN. STONE IMPLEMENTS OF CEYLON. TAY THE STONE IMPLEMENTS OF CEYLON.* By C. Hartiey, M.A. (Cantab.). HE study of prehistoric implements in Ceylon is of recent date compared with that in most European countries, but still is older than many people suppose. The earliest inquiry into the subject was due, as far as I am aware, to Messrs. J. Pole of Maskeliya and E. E. Green, who has so recently left the Island. Mr. Pole especially, with more abundant opportunities for collection than Mr. Green, and perhaps possessing greater interest in the subject, has for some twenty-five years, and in spite of much incredulity and discouragement, continued steadily accumulating specimens, mostly from his own district, but partly aiso from more distant quarters. He now owns a very large and representa- tive collectior, including several of the most interesting stones which [ have seen in this country.f On more than one occasion Mr. Pole sent specimens from - Ceylon to be examined by experts in India and, I believe, in London ; but in each case with negative results. It was only in 1907 that his contentions were completely verified by the discoveries of two distinguished Swiss archeologists, Dr. Paul ‘and Dr. Fritz Sarasin, who visited the Island in that year, and in the limited time at their disposal established once and for all the existence of abundant traces of a Stone Age. A full account of their researches is contained in the volume which they published in 1908, ‘‘ Die Steinzeit auf Ceylon,” describing the excavation of caves and the search for surface specimens on the hills of Uva. Many of the best specimens figured in their book are taken from the collection of Mr. Pole. * Read before the Ceylon Natural History Society, May 30, 1913. + News of Mr. Pole’s death in England reached Ceylon in July of this year. 118 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. A few references to the Stone Age are to be found in Mr. Parker’s “ Ancient Ceylon” and in Dr. Seligmann’s ‘“‘ The Veddas ”’ ; while Mr. Pole has a volume in the press which is shortly to appear. But the book by the Doctors Sarasin is so far the most complete, and in fact the only serious attempt to deal with the subject. After a careful study of the work, although I may differ on individual points from the authors, I am filled with admiration for the thoroughness of their methods, the breadth of their views, and the ingenuity with which they apply their knowledge of modern savage races to the conditions of prehistoric life. As regards one very important particular I will refer to their book later. To come now to my subject. Everyone is aware that the Stone Age has been roughly but conveniently separated into two main divisions, the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age and the Neolithic or New Stone Age. There are others, with which we are not at present concerned in Ceylon. A few years ago it was universally believed that the Neolithic Age extended at most some 20,000 years and the Paleolithic Age perhaps 80,000 years into the past. It is now thought by some eminent authorities that we should multiply the former by five and the latter by ten, and even so leave room for an Kolithic and a Sub-Crag Age reaching back possibly to the million. Implements of the Palzeolithic Age are generally to be distinguished from those of the Neolithic Age not only in design, but also by their massiveness, their rudeness, and by the complete absence of grinding and polishing. In the case of flint, which unfortunately is not found in Ceylon, but which constitutes by far the greatest bulk of stone implements in the world, they are also distinguished by ‘the greater wear of their surfaces, due to age and exposure, and by “ patination,” or the discoloration of their exterior, due to the action of acids, or of violent alternations of heat and cold, by processes which have not yet been explained. STONE IMPLEMENTS OF CEYLON. 119 In Ceylon, as I said, we have no flint, and the ancient inhabitants were reduced to making use of quartz, crystal, and chert, all of which are found commonly over great part of the Island, but which were almost totally neglected in lands where flint is abundant. Chert in fact was used in parts of Europe where flint was scarce; but it is rougher in texture, and breaks with a less clean and sharp edge than flint. Quartz, though breaking with an extremely sharp edge, is brittle, and difficult to work on account of its crystalline formation. Last year I submitted specimens of Ceylon chert and crystal to a professional flint-worker of Brandon in Suffolk; and he found that chert was harder than flint, but flaked fairly well, while with crystal he could do nothing at all. It is not therefore to be wondered at that Ceylon implements are in general ruder and less skilfully worked than similar specimens in flint. As for grinding and polishing, no specimen has yet been discovered here which shows any sign of the process. Flint, we know, was polished with sand or sandstone ; quartz is one of the hardest of rocks, and could hardly be ground by anything but corundum or precious stones. Hence all implements in Ceylon must be judged solely by their size, - design, and chipping ; and comparing the workmanship with that of European specimens, it is plain that the immense majority which have been found so far are Neolithic, and probably of no very remote date. They comprise scrapers, round and hollow (the commonest of implements everywhere), trimmed flakes for knife-blades, sharp points for boring, hammer stones, and very rare arrow-heads, mostly of simple triangular shape, one of which found by Mr. C. T. Symons is notched, a design rare in Europe, but exceedingly common in America. One bone needle or borer was recovered by me from a cave near Balangoda. Chisels or planes are also fairly plentiful, but nothing resembling an axe has yet been found—an extraordinary omission, when one considers how obvious the design is, and how common in the rest of the world, The great majority of these implements are of quartz, 120 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. chert specimens being extremely rare by comparison ; but it is aremarkable fact that considerable numbers of chert chips, cores, and fragments are found in almost all places where implements occur ; and it remains a problem what they did with the quantities of chert which they undoubtedly handled. Before proceeding further, I should say a word about the places in which these Neolithic remains are found. They are invariably on hill tops, and at all altitudes from sea-level to the Horton Plains. Of course they can only be seen where the land has been cleared, as on cultivated estates or on grassy hills which have lost their top soil by weathering, as in Uva. But I have no doubt that spade-work would bring them to light almost everywhere. I have found them close to the Naga Pokuna of Mihintaie, and amid sand just dredged from the sea-bottom at Jaffna. The bright, clear chips stand out vividly against the crumbling earth of the hills, and often in such numbers as almost to hide it. At very rare intervals one picks up among these brand-new chips stones of another type, fragments of chert worn and weathered, but still retaining indubitable traces of man’s handiwork. It is not so much in size or in style of work that they vary from the usual rather shapeless fragments that one finds scattered broadcast over the patanas, but in colour and texture of the material. They are heavily patinated, which in itself is regarded as a proof of antiquity; they are generally light in colour, and their surface is spongy and porous, differmg markedly from the close, compact grain of newly-fractured chert. These I believe to be rare survivals of the Paleolithic Age ; but as they are found at present only on the surface, it would be rash to assume it without further proof. Before we can be sure of their identity, it will be necessary to discover them deep below the modern surface in gravel-beds, possibly in association with the remains of extinct animals. Such a find has of course never been made in Ceylon; but I do not despair of some really valuable discovery being made, if we can interest gem-seekers in the eval STONE IMPLEMENTS OF CEYLON, 121 subject, or if some one living in the neighbourhood of gem-pits devotes a little time occasionally to raking over the spoil- heaps. J have in my collection no implement which can be certified as Paleolithic, but I show one or two to-night which raise a strong presumption in their favour, and Mr. Pole has a few surface specimens from Maskeliya which remind one very strongly of relics of the Old Stone Age. I would call your attention particularly to one fragment of chert on the table, found by me lately on the surface at Bandarawela. In comparatively recent times this stone has been chipped, probably by a Neolithic savage, who required flakes for some smalltool. This recent chipping is yellow and highly lustrous, which alone is a sign of a respectable antiquity. But the original mass, where untouched, is of a deep chocolate-brown, and shows marks of workmanship bolder and incalculably more ancient than the former. The ridges left by the old chipping are so worn as to have quite lost their sharpness ; and I have no hesitation in saying that if found in an admit- tedly Paleolithic neighbourhood in Europe, this stone would be accepted without any question. Much however remains to be done in Ceylon before any certainty can be attained. Our greatest want. is the’ exploration of gravel-beds, which seem to me surprisingly rare in our land. Before I bring this Paper to an end, I must give a short account of my recent discovery of the rare and mysterious class of implements known as Pigmies, which brings me back once more to the valuable work of the Doctors Sarasin. On page 30 of “‘ Die Steinzeit auf Ceylon ” they write as follows :——- “More seldom there occur also small knives of this fine sort, fashioned obliquely, such as are illustrated in figures 89, 96, and 104, with the edge turned downward, of which especially the first attracted our attention because the thickened, bow- shaped back is formed by carefully-applied minute chipping, a secondary work which we recognize in a very similar form on the fine blades and points of the so-called (Pigmy or) Tardénoisian implements, certainly a tedious work on so R 6(5)13 122 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. brittle a material as crystal. In any case this obliquely fashioned knife is unique in our collection, whereas on the other hand, as is well known, the whole class of Pigmies is composed of such microliths made of flint.”” They thus leave the question in doubt, but the three illustrations referred to show unmistakable Pigmy specimens. In the past two years I myself picked up a few puzzling implements in Ceylon, which I finally sent to the Rev. R. A. Gatty, who is one of the _ chief English authorities on the subject, for his opinion. He replied at once that there was no doubt whatever, as to their identity, and begged me to go on searching. _By the beginning of this year I had accumulated about a dozen specimens from Diyatalawa, Pattipola, Dolosbage, Hatton, Gampola, and Nawalapitiya ; which shows that they are at any rate widely distributed. They have since been discovered on the Horton Plains and at Matale. In March and April of this year I thoroughly explored the neighbourhood of Bandarawela, where I found them in enormous quantities. I have collected over 3,600, partly from the surface, partly by digging. It was only on four hills that they occurred in numbers ; but one or two were to be found by careful search on other hill-tops where chips were plentifully scattered. I cannot go deeply into the study of Pigmies to-day, but I may. say briefly that they are the enigma and the mystery of the Stone Age. They have been found only in quite a few places, four or five of which are in England, a few in caves of France and Belgium, and one in India in a cave of the Vindhya Hills. Except in Ceylon they are, I believe, always made of _ flint. They are found in caves or on low sandy hills, always, Tam told, on the western slope; and in one case, in Lancashire, they have been unearthed under ten feet of peat, implying a very considerable antiquity. _Archeologists are still in doubt whether they belong to the Old or the New Stone Age ; and they are almost equally in doubt as to the purpose for which they served. Where they occur they are found in thousands, and in almost identical shapes and sizes. The commonest STONE IMPLEMENTS OF CEYLON. 123 form in Ceylon is called the lunate or moon-shaped ; but there are others, of which you will find specimens here to-day. One shape well known in India appears to be missing in Ceylon. On the othe: hand, some of the lunates found by me seem to be very much larger-and thicker than any which I have heard of elsewhere. More than this I do not feel inclined at present to say. I intend sending specimens to Mr. Gatty and to the British Museum, and hope to have their opinions in a few months. I wish, however, to call your attention to the extreme beauty and delicacy of many of the implements, and to make one suggestion in that connection. . As I said before, there is great uncertainty as to the uses to which they were put. Some think they were surgical and tattooing lancets ; others that they were fish hooks ; others that they were the implements of some domestic manufacture, such as weaving or wool-carding ; others that they were the barbs of harpoons, spears, and arrows. It is quite possible that they were all these and more. But another very important point remains to be settled: Were the people who made these exquisite Pigmies the same people who made the clumsy scrapers and blades of Neolithic type ? Our first impulse is to say that such a thing is impossible ; but consideration may lead us to change our view. There are great gaps in the Neo- lithic armoury. After years of search I have not yet found al axe, a Saw, or a spear-head, and very few arrow-heads. It is however inconceivable that savages could have dispensed with spears and arrows in large quantities; and admitting this, one is at a loss to understand why they are not found in the same numbers as in other lands. I grant that we are still only at the threshold of discovery, and I do not overlook the possibility that the implements now wanting may yet be found ; but I believe that some day it will be agreed, if not proved, that the same people made both kinds of implements continuously, and that the smaller and finer Pigmies were used in numberléss ways to supply the deficiencies of the coarser and ruder Neolithic tools. 124 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA. REMARKS ON DR. PEARSON’S REVIEW OF THE SCIENTIFIC WORK DONE ON THE CEYLON PEARL BANKS FROM 1902 TO 1912. By T. SouTHWELL, A.R.C.S. (Lond.), F.Z.S., F.L.S. Deputy Director of Fisheries, Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa ; late Scientific Adviser and Inspector of Pearl Banks to the Ceylon Company of Pearl Fishers. HE January issue of Spolia Zeylanica (Vol. VIIL., 4+ Part XXXII.) contained a review of the scientific work on the Ceylon pearl banks from 1902 to 1912, by Dr. J. Pearson. Certain features of this review call for attention, and will be dealt with as briefly as possible in the following Paper. Dr. Pearson states that he was prompted to write his review because of certain misunderstandings which undoubtedly exist, and with a view to determining how far the scientific investigations have progressed towards the attainment of their chief object. Unfortunately, certain features of the work appear not to have been fully comprehended by the writer of the review, and consequently the review in question, which is in reality a critique, unnecessarily complicates the whole question. The reveiw is of value, however, as setting forth the opinions of a scientist of considerable standing. It would have been of still greater value had the writer’s opinions been formed after, instead of before, some practical experience on the banks had been acquired. We make no special emphasis on this point, however, but as bearing on the question it is interesting to note that with reference to the establish- ment of a close season for the window-pane oyster, Dr. Pearson first stated (Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. VII., Part X XIX.) that he agreed with Hornell that a close season for that oyster should be established from May to January, but after some practical experience on the banks in question, which have rendered it likely that these oysters spawn during January and February, Dr. Pearson is now of opinion that fishing on the Placuna beds should be restricted to the months of March, ae = >t alll ? REMARKS. ON DR. PEARSON’S REVIEW. 125 April, and May. With reference to the pearl banks, there is every reason to anticipate that Dr. Pearson’s experience thereon will result in some modification of his present opinions, and, whatever these opinions may ultimately be, they will then be of greater value. As far as my own work is concerned, I am prepared to let it stand as itis. It was never intended to be complete, and only future years can bring to light its value or otherwise. The severe criticisms to which my reports have been subjected have resulted in new ideas and explanations having been advanced in order to explain away the results acquired during five years. The criticisms have, however, only extended the field of possible explanations, and have left me the more convinced that the results already obtained first require to be understood before they can‘ either be extended or supplanted. As in the present Paper I have nothing to add to my published reports, I propose replying under the headings adopted in Dr. Pearson’s Paper seriatim. Brief Résumé of Scientific Work. Dr. Pearson remarks that the results of the work of Captain Kerkham and myself “‘ are naturally of a somewhat meagre nature.” At the same time he complains of the scarcity of information as to what took place during the earlier part of our work. Further, where we give full and careful accounts © of our work, as in the case of currents, the results are not accepted by him, and it is stated that these results are not convincing, and that more work is needed on this important point. The latter part of this remark is gratuitous. We repeatedly made this statement in our own reports. Whether the information referred to is available or not, Dr. Pearson commences his investigation of the questions connected with the pearl banks with a fund of published information which no other worker has ever possessed. Under such circumstances his complaint is hardly logical. Moreover, all information available which he may require can be had for the mere asking. The period regarding which no published reports are obtainable synchronized with a period of barrenness, and the importance of information regarding this period is dwelt on by Dr. Pear- son. The barren years still persist, and the opportunity is thus present for the necessary data being collected now. 126 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. Herdman’s Summary and Recommendations. ~.A complaint is again made that published information regarding the gut contents of fishes is not available, as such information would have been of interest in comparing the fish fauna of the banks during fishery years and non-fishery years. All available information could again have been had for the asking. We showed that a bed of 400,000,000 spat had been destroyed on the Periya Paar Kariya during 1908. The opportunity is still present for determining the conditions during barren years. If all the information which Dr. Pearson appears to require had been available, there would have been but little work left for him to do on the pearl banks. With reference to transplanting, Dr. Pearson states that it has not been carried on in a proper manner. As far as I know, only one opportunity for transplanting occurred. That was during - December, 1907, when spat, estimated at between nine and ten millions, was transplanted from the Periya Paar to the Cheval Paar by Capt. Cribb during Mr. Hornell’s managership. If these operations had been successful, the oysters would have been fished in due course. Dr. Pearson states that no subsequent report indicates whether the experiment was a success or a failure. He is in error in stating that I trans- planted 9,000,000 spat. No spat was ever transplanted by me, nor did I anywhere state that I had done so. After Hornell’s retirement I made an attempt to discover the reason why the transplanting operations had failed. My remarks will be found in the Ceylon Marine Biological Reports, and these remarks refer to the oysters transplanted by Hornell. The only deposit of spat which occurred during my period of office was that found on the Periya Paar Kariya, and this deposit was annihilated by voracious fish, an account of which will be found in Part IV., Ceylon Marine Biological Reports. It is idle for Dr. Pearson to remark that subsequent to Herd- man’s reports there is little evidence to show that efforts were made to seriously guard against the alleged evils of overfishing and overcrowding. A serious attempt was made to trans- plant on the only occasion which presented, when, as we have seen, between nine and ten millions spat were transplanted, The operations occupied six weeks and cost probably weli over REMARKS ON DR. PEARSON’S REVIEW. A yer ¢ £1,000. With regard to overfishing there is not the slightest doubt that this took place during the Company’s régime, as indeed it has done at every fishery, but if Dr. Pearson’s interpretation of our current work is correct, this could not have mattered, since any spat liberated by oysters which might have been left for breeding purposes would have been earried away, a conclusion with which I entirely disagree. Pearl Production. I made the first attempt to ascertain the exact nature of the parasites contained in the globular cysts found scattered about in the tissues of the oyster, by the only method possible, viz., by feeding experiments. Various fish were fed on oysters containing the cysts. The fish were first treated with castor oil and male fern extract in order to get rid, if possible, of any parasites already present in their intestines. A test examina- tion of. a dosed ray indicated that the purgative had been fairly. effective.. After the other fish had been feeding on oysters for several weeks, they were killed and carefully examined. Large numbers of Tetrarhynchus wnionifactor (the pearl-inducing worm) were found. Other cestodes were also found, viz., Tetrarhynchus herdmani, Phyllobothroides hutsoni,, and Phyllobothroides kerkhami. In my _ reports (Ceylon Marine Biological Reports, PartsTV. and V.) I pointed - out that the experiment was not absolutely conclusive, but that there was every réason to believe that 7’. wnionifactor was the adult of the pearl-inducing worm, and that other species found as a result of the feeding experiments were parasites already present in the intestines of the fish when the experiment was begun, and which the purgative had failed to dislodge. The strength of the evidence lay in the fact that T. unionifactor was obtained on both occasions, and that in: all other rays examined from the open sea, and which had not been fed on oysters, no specimens of this species had been obtained, although TJetrarhynchus herdmani, Phyllobothroides hutsont, and Phyllobothroides kerkhami were common. The circum- stantial evidence is as strong as it could well be. Hvery feeding experiment is always open to the objection that unless the animal to be fed on larval cestodes is actually killed and examined, any critic can say that the adult parasite was already 128 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. present when the operations began. Dr. Pearson states that it would appear that all the species of cestodes, obtained as a result of the feeding experiment, were derived from the oyster. In that case he admits the entire efficacy of the purgative. Commenting on my statement that I believed it probable that these cestodes (7.e., those other than the pearl-inducing worm) were present when the fish were placed in the nursery, and that the purgative employed failed to dislodge them, Dr. Pearson states that if that was the case the value of the experiment is entirely annulled. According to him, therefore, the experiments are useless, and they also prove that four species of larval cestodes inhabit the tissues of the oyster ! To advance the theory that all the adult cestodes obtained from the fish were derived from the oyster, is to brush aside the obvious explanation, backed by all available evidence, and to substitute a less probable theory whose only support is its ingenuity. If the larva of all these four species of cestodes occur in the oyster, why was it that during one year only T. herdmani was obtained, whilst the next year P. hutsoni and P. kerkhami were obtained, 7’. wnionifactor being present in both cases ? Currents. We stated that during our period of office we found no evidence to support the conclusion that oysters were occasion- ally silted over by sand. We gave this as being our actual experience during the five years we held office. Dr. Pearson states that our conclusions can hardly be regarded as con- vincing. The mere expression of an opinion cannot alter the actual experience we had. The extract from Captain Legge’s report, which Dr. Pearson quotes as being opposed to our results, is of no consequence. According to this report, places on which Captain Legge dived during March of a certain year were then level rock with a coating of three inches of sand. During November these spots were covered with a foot of sand. There is not the faintest possibility of the spots on which Captain Legge dived in March being exactly the same as those dived on in November. Again, it is stated that, as the tanks sukmerged by Captain Donnan (covering perhaps eight square yards of the ocean floor) on the Shoal Buoy te lS i ae A el ne eS 4 + AC aoe te. 2 eee ‘ae. REMARKS ON DR. PEARSON’S REVIEW. 129 position could not be found during a certain November, they had therefore been silted over. Enormously larger areas than that occupied by these tanks have repeatedly been missed. Exceedingly skilful navigation combined with a large percentage of luck is required in order to locate an area eight yards square situated ten miles out at sea. The obvious explanation is that the tanks were missed, and there is not the slightest proof or probability that the tanks were actually silted over. The acceptance of this evidence by Dr. Pearson is curiously at variance with the critical attitude adopted by him in the rest of his Paper. During the six successive November in- spections which I attended, these tanks were found on every occasion except one. In the latter case the weather was so bad that inspection work was impossible, and consequently the search for the tanks could not be carried out thoroughly. The time occupied in locating these tanks has varied in my experience from three hours to two weeks. But when located they were never found to be covered with sand, even though the maximum silting effects of the south-west monsoon would then be apparent. The counter-effects of the north-east monsoon referred to by Captain Legge could at that time of the year have produced no change, as that monsoon had hardly commenced. We stated in our report that large “ pot-holes”’ occur on certain parts of the pearl banks. If sand drifts about, why are these pot-holes never filled up ? We never assumed that the danger to oysters, caused by a bottom current, lies merely in the fact that oysters will be swept away. The danger of drifting sand was very fully recognized ; but any movement of the bottom water which would produce silting sufficient to cover and destroy a bed of oysters, say a half-mile square, must be very great, and our experience showed conclusively that during the period of our observations no such silting has taken place. Our results were entirely negative, and we could have wished them otherwise, for then the solution of certain obscure problems would have been obvious enough. Drift Bottle Experiment. Dr. Pearson has, unfortunately, failed to understand the results we obtained, and consequently his remarks on this s 6(5)13 130 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. subject are difficult to co-ordinate. Drift bottle experiments were first commenced by Hornell on Herdman’s recommenda- tion. These bottles were all liberated in unsuitable localities, and frequently during transitory stages of the monsoon. The results were therefore of little or no value. The fullest details of all these drift bottle operations are contained in a ledger handed over to the Ceylon Government by the Ceylon Com- pany of Pearl Fishers during 1912. This ledger should be accessible to Dr. Pearson. We found that during the south- west monsoon there was an oceanic current running from west to east in the vicinity of Ceylon. An account of the origin of this current will be found in the ‘“ Challenger ”’ publication— The Science of the Sea—and a chart is given on pages 60 and 61. When we published our results we were unaware that this current had ever been noticed before. During weak south- west monsoons this current does not touch Ceylon, but runs to the south and west. Under these conditions there is a surface drift on the banks caused entirely by the wind, and this drift runs to the north, both on the Ceylon and Indian sides. This explains the difficulty quoted by Dr. Pearson on page 216, paragraph (b), although he himself explains his own difficulty on the same page. The same explanation was given in our report (Part VI., page 236). Dr. Pearson states that (i.) we have not fully discussed the causes which produced these currents ; (ii.) that we have not realized that the drift experiments do not assist us to discri- minate between oceanic current and ordinary surface drift ; and (iii.) that in a weak south-west monsoon the northerly current flowing along the Ceylon and Indian sides of the Gulf of Mannar is probably only a surface drift. With reference to (i.), our Paper showed that we had to deal with the inter-action of two phenomena : (a) an oceanic current and (b) asurface drift, caused entirely by the wind. A discussion of (6) was given by us indetail. Atthe time we wrote the origin of the oceanic current was unknown to us. That, however, in no way affected the results. It isnot necessary to know the origin of wind before ascertaining that it blows, and that it blowsin acertain direction. But, as before stated, the origin of this oceanic current is dealt with in other publications. In —s REMARKS ON DR. PEARSON’S REVIEW. 131 large measure it is produced by the spin of the earth on its axis. With reference to (ii.), it would be strange if, after five and a half years of intermittent work out at sea, ably assisted by a Lieutenant in the Royal Naval Reserve, we both failed to realize the difference between an oceanic current and a surface drift. It is true that at any given time, and at any given place, it is well-nigh impossible to state whether an obvious - surface movement is due to an oceanic current, or whether it is merely surface drift caused by the wind. Circumstantial evidence would afford very valuable clues. In the time at our disposal it was utterly impossible to attempt the differentiation by means of water analyses. We shall wait with interest to see what progress is achieved in this line during the next ten years. With reference to (iii.), we have already pointed out in this Paper, and in our Report (Part VI., page 235), that during a weak south-west monsoon no currents are present on the plateau which was under lease, and that the northerly set is entirely a surface drift produced by the prevailing wind. Bearing of Drift Bottle Experiment. Dr. Pearson’s statement on page 218, that we have failed to realize that during the north-east monsoon spat may be carried from the Ceylon banks to the Tuticorin banks, is: dependent on the supposition that oysters spawn in December to February. With reference to the spatting maximum, which is supposed to take place during the north-east monsoon, Dr. Pearson’s conclusions are based on a short statement to this effect made by Hornell. The phenomenon has never been noticed by any other worker in the whole history of the pearl banks. As the results obtained by Hornell are so often stated by Dr. Pear- son to be in error, it is curious that this remark of Hornell’s should have been given such undue prominence. As it has yet to be established that there are two spawning maxima, there is little point in discussing improbabilities. If two spawning maxima really exist, this molluse will differ remark- ably from Placuna and from most other molluscs, both in Indian and home waters, whose habits are known. Over 300 samples of plankton, collected over four years, during the 132 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. months of November, December, January, and February, from the Challai, Alanturai, Dutch Moderagam, and Karativu Paars, have been carefully examined by Captain Sewell, B.A., I.M.S., Surgeon Naturalist to the Marine Survey of India and Professor of Biology in the Medical College, Calcutta. The pearl banks have not been entirely barren during the whole of the time over which the collections were made. Yet no trace of oyster larvee has been found in these plankton collections. A few such larve have been noted in two plankton catches - from Marichchukkaddi Bay. Such larve have undoubtedly come from the inshore bed of oysters on the Kondatchi Paar. The oysters on this and other inshore beds spawn irregularly (Ceylon Marine Biological Reports, Part V., page 202). The Kondatchi Paar lies about eight miles north of Marichchukaddi Bay, and as the wind was north during the time when the plankton was collected (north-east monsoon) the occurrence of a few oyster larvee in the catches from Marichchukkaddi Bay is readily understood. It is possible that such a circumstance may account for the phenomenon observed by Hornell. Dr. Pearson is only partly correct in stating that we established the presence of a current during the north-east monsoon, which, sweeping the Ceylon banks, was capable of carrying pearl oyster larve from the Ceylon to the Indian side. We stated that during the north-east monsoon an oceanic current ran up the west coast of Ceylon as far as Tallaivillu Point, and from thence took a westerly course. North of this point the surface currents (drifts) vary even during the day with the direction of the wind by which they are controlled, and to which they entirely owe their existence (Ceylon Marine Biological Reports, Part VI., page 232). It frequently happens that bottles liberated on the pearl banks during the north-east monsoon are blown south and become involved in the current running west. Our results showed that 16°76 per cent. of bottles liberated on the pearl banks during this monsoon were recovered from Southern India. In other words, 83°24 per cent. of bottles were lost. Spat, if present, would take a similar course. The great bulk of it would be lost. It will be noted, however, that even if spat is liberated during the north-east monsoon the chances — REMARKS ON DR. PEARSON’S REVIEW. 133 of its reaching the Tuticorin banks are remote, especially since the route which such spat would have to take is a very long one. In all probability they would develop a shell, and sink long before they reached the Tuticorin beds. Remarks. The inspections of 1908, 1909, 1910, and part of that conducted during 1911 represent the operations over which Ihad charge. During the whole of this period the banks were barren. The role of critic is proverbially an easy one. It is not unlikely that many of the problems connected with the pearl banks (which ought to have been settled long ago) will still await solution a couple of decades hence. Dr. Pearson clearly recognizes the nature of the work ahead. It is repeatedly stated that certain problems we—and others— have attempted to elucidate will require re-investigation. There are few scientific problems to which this remark does not apply. Our continued interest in the Ceylon pearl fisheries leads us to hope that the progress during the next four years will be greater than we found it possible to achieve in the same period. If we have succeeded in furthering the elucidation of the problems involved, in removing some from the realm of mere speculation, and in initiating lines of work and research, the development and expansion of which will at - some future time result in a solution of some of the present difficulties, our work will not have been wholly in vain. In conclusion, I would call attention to the following extra- ordinary statement on page 198 of the last issue of Spolia, where, in Captain Legge’s Paper, it is stated that: “‘ True pearls ...... are found in the intestines of the oyster, and, when they reach such a size as to cause great discomfort to the oyster, the oyster either dies, or, as I have observed, forces the pearl towards the opening between its valves.” Another surprising statement is found in the same article on page 204 of the same issue, where we are informed that “it is not true, as has been stated, that our blank years are due to over-fishing.”” Finally, the quotation ascribed to Captain Kerkham on the same page of the same issue is from my own pen, and will be found on page iv. of Part VI., Ceylon Marine Biological Reports. 134 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. WINDOW-PANE OYSTER INVESTIGATIONS, JANUARY AND MAY, 1918. By G. M. Henry. (With two Plates.) N January last I went to Lake Tamblegam, primarily to obtain the larval stages of Placuna placenta, which is supposed to spawn in the latter part of December or in January. In addition to this I had arranged to make a survey of the whole lake, to see how the large beds of one-year old oysters which were discovered by Dr. Pearson in May, 1912, were thriving, and to take a series of measurements which would throw further light on the growth-rate. When I arrived at Tamblegam I found that the district was in a state of flood owing to the abnormally heavy rains. On January 12 a sample of plankton was taken by means of a tow-net over the principal part of the bed from Kodaipota to Sallaimunai, but the catch consisted entirely of freshwater organisms and contained no Placuna larve. The water tasted quite fresh, and was full of light-brown sediment brought down by the flooded rivers. Under such conditions it was useless to expect to find larve, and in consequence attention was subsequently directed to inspecting the existing beds. A preliminary line of nine dives was taken from Kodaipota to Sallaimunai, and the oysters were found to be in a moribund state. Few were actually dead, but nearly all were dying, their valves tightly closed, mantle and foot fully extended. Very little contraction could be induced by touching the mantle or other sensitive parts. When actually dead the valves gape and the pale appearance of all the organs clearly indicates death. The three following days were spent in inspecting and tow-netting with the same result—oysters rapidly dying everywhere, except in the portion of the lake between Patai- addimunai and Korrinjavat, where. only a few were dead, SS ee >. a ae WINDOW-PANE OYSTER INVESTIGATIONS. 135 the majority being quite normal and healthy-looking. As was to be expected, no Placuna larvee were discovered in the plankton. The gonads of most of the oysters were large and swollen, but of a sickly grayish-yellow colour instead of the rich orange of the normal ripe gonad. A microscope examina- tion failed to reveal either ova or spermatozoa, although numerous gonads were examined. On the 16th, 17th, 18th, and 19th inspection work was rendered impossible owing to the continuously heavy rain. On the 20th Nachchikuda Bay was inspected. There is a small bed of oysters at the head of this bay which do not grow so rapidly as those in other parts of the lake, but they appear to be much hardier. None of these oysters were dead. On the 21st the south-west corner of the lake was inspected. All the oysters were dead and putrefying, and occasionally one saw the bodies of oysters floating on the surface in a high state of decomposition. On the 22nd the inspection was completed by a line of dives taken from 600 yards south of Periya Kalmunai to the mouth of the Polokarai-ar; but no oysters were found except at the last station, where the oysters were abundant but all dead. Whenever possible, tow-nettings were taken throughout the inspection, but no Placuna larve were discovered. The usual | planktonic organisms were not present, and mosquito larve and small water beetles formed the only captures. A further inspection was commenced on May 19. The Government canoe was kindly placed at my disposal by Mr. T. A. Hodson, the Assistant Government Agent at Trincomalee, and I was assisted by a peon using one of the local boats. Dives were made at 110 stations. In his Report on the Window-Pane Oyster Investigations, 1912, Dr. Pearson divided the oyster-bearing portions of the lake into twenty-two areas, which are lettered from A to W, and I have retained these areas in the present report. A description of the conditions regarding the oysters in each area in May, 1913, follows. Wherever possible, ten oysters were measured at each station. Area A.—Second-year oysters were found in the northern extremity of Nachchikuda Bay. They averaged 4°627 x 136 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA. 4:983 inches. A single young oyster measuring 1°125 x 1°25 inch was taken about 200 yards south of the nursery. Area B.—The oysters in this area are confined to the southern part near Kodaipota. They are all young, and average 1°912 x 2°125 inches. Area C'.—Oysters are scarce in this area and are only found in the south-west half, the remainder apparently being unsuitable for Placuna. The average size was 1:784 x 2-095 inches, against an average of 1:59 « 1:69 inch in May, 1912. Area D.—Young oysters were found at only one station in this area, at its southern corner. They averaged 1:787 x 2°25 inches. Area E.—This area contains part of the only remnant of the large bed of oysters which was present last year and which was decimated by the rains in January. These oysters and those in the north end of Nachchikuda are the only survivors. There are apparently no young oysters mixed with these second-year oysters, and I have noticed that new broods of oysters do not seem to settle among one- or two-year-olds, to any great extent, although the limits of their respective beds may overlap a little. The average size of the second-year oysters in the area is 5°202 x 5:°482 inches, and they were abundant. Area F.—Last year’s oysters were found at two stations in this area also, at one of which, 200 yards south-east of the estuary of the Manal-ar, they were very abundant. Their average size for the area was 5°231 x 5:°537 inches. At another station young oysters were found with an average size of 1:555 x 1:65 inch, but they were scarce. Area G.—Second-year oysters were found abundantly at two stations in this area, and young oysters averaging 1°949 2:2 inches at two other stations. In May, 1912, the oysters in this area averaged 2:16 x 2°32 inches, and were probably of the same age as the present young ones. Area H,—This area is almost entirely covered with young oysters averaging 1:936 x 2:209inches. They are, however, eo 8 oy WINDOW-PANE OYSTER INVESTIGATIONS, 1a not very abundant. The average size of oysters in this area in May, 1912, was 2°20 x 2°39 inches. Area J.—Oysters were found at only one station in this area, just opposite the mouth of the Sembian-ar. They were not very abundant and averaged 1°55 « 1:7inch. This area last year was one of the most prolific, the oysters being almost piled on top of one another and averaging 1:96 « 2°15 inches. Area K hasthree oyster-bearing stations, at which oysters were fairly abundant, especially in the northern half of the area. ‘They averaged 1:816 x 1:987 inch, as against 2°57 x 2°79 inches last May. Area [L.—This area is well stocked with oysters having an average size of 1°304 x 1°45 inch, which does not compare very favourably with the average for May, 1912, of 2°14 x 2°28 inches. They are not so abundant as last year. Area M.—Young oysters were found close to the shore along dhe entire boundary of the area, despite the fact that the water in this part is very shallow and covers a sandbank (Muttikallam). At one station 300 yards south-east of Sallaimunai mark they were abundant. The average size for the area was 1-664 x 1:774 inch, as against 2°55 x 2°85 inches in May, 1912. Probably most of the oysters will die off shortly, owing to the undoubtedly unsuitable conditions. Area O.—This area has young oysters in abundance almost all over its surface. Their average size is 1:814 x 2-032 inches. Area P.—Oysters abundant in the southern half, but practically absent from the northern half of this area. They compare unfavourably in size with the oysters in this area in May, 1912, averaging only 1°591 x 1:°737, against 2°46 x 2:27 inches last year. . Area Q.—Oysters were taken at only one station in this area, their average size being 1°383 > 1:°516 inch. They were fairly abundant. Area R.—This area is covered with oysters with the excep- tion of the south corner, where the Sinna Palamput-ar opens Totus 6(5)13 138 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. into the lake. The oysters average 1°778 x 1:946 inch, against 2°04 x 2°16 inches in May, 1912. They are very abundant on the whole. Area S is completely covered with oysters of very good average size, and very abundant. They average 2:094 x 2°354 inches. In May, 1912, only one specimen measuring 2°87 x 3°25 inches was taken in this area. Area T is another well-stocked and satisfactory area, the oysters being both abundant and of good average size. They average 2°012 x 2°274 inches. Area U.—Oysters abundant in the south-east portion of the area, but scanty further north. They average 2:08 x 2°391 inches. Area V.—Oysters abundant and having an average size of 1°87 x 2:162 inches. Area W.—These three last areas were quite barren of oysters last year and the year before, and this lack of oysters was pug. down to the extreme softness and thickness of the mud which forms the bottom of these areas, but apparently this is no preventative of oysters in their young stages at least. The average size for this area was 1*766 2°075 inches. It will be seen that the deposit of oysters this year, while more extensive and evenly distributed than last year or the year before, consists of smaller oysters on the whole. Also one does not find the densely packed patches which were evident last year. One would naturally expect as a result of this better distribution, a corresponding increase of size compared with last year’s oysters, but this is not so. It is possible that the present bed of oysters was spawned later in the year than the 1912 bed, and this seems the most probable explanation, because the rains (which almost certainly prevent spawning while they last) continued much later this year than they did in 1912. In addition to the work of inspecting, a series of water- samples was taken in various parts of the lake for the purpose of determining the salinity and its bearing on the questions of distribution and growth-rate, but the samples have not yet been tested. : ee ee a ee ~~ '? WINDOW-PANE OYSTER INVESTIGATIONS. 139 A sketch map is annexed showing the distributions of 1912 - oysters by horizontal lines, and that of this year’s oysters by vertical lines. It also indicates the areas mentioned in this Paper. A diagram is also given which compares the sizes of first-year oysters in May, 1912, with first-year oysters in May, 1913, the measurements of the short diameter being given. Note by J. Pearson. Mr. Henry’s report of January and May inspections shows once more how critical is the rainy season of the north-east monsoon. In January, 1912, a fairly large bed of oysters was practically wiped out as the result of the heavy rains in the previous November and December. In the inspection of May, 1912, a very large bed of young oysters was discovered. These have also been destroyed by the excessive rains of January, 1913. As a rule January is a dry month. The oysters had evidently survived the November and December rains, and it is unfortunate that the rains in January were so abnormally heavy. It may be presumed that oysters which survive the first rainy season are not so much affected by the second, and if the large bed of oysters could only have survived, a lucrative fishery would have resulted in two or three years’ time. It seems highly probable that Placuna spawns when only twelve months old, and the evidence collected during the last two years renders this almost certain. Although we have not yet been able to discover the larve in the plankton, we can be certain that spawning does not take place until after the rains. If the larve were liberated before or during the rains they would be killed. For the last two years we have had large spat-falls after exceptionally wet seasons. We are thus forced to the conclusion that spawning follows the rains. In fact it is probable that the low salinity of the water stimulates the reproductive organs. Mr. Henry shows that the young oysters found this year are smaller than those recorded last year.. This is probably due to the fact that the rains were 140 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. later this season than last, and that in consequence the spawn- ing period was later. Spawning may be said to take place three or four weeks after the cessation of the rains. Through the kindness of Mr. A. J. Bamford of the Colombo Observatory I am able to give some rainfall statistics of the Tamblegam district. The exceptionally heavy rains of January, 1913, will be noted. Rainfall in the Tamblegam District. November. 1910. 1911. 1912. Inches. Days. Inches. Days. Inches. Days. Trincomalee 5b OL O29) Our 2 97a Persp seep lic 20a eaten eee Kanthalai Deal OSI: eee 4 Orel CBG Pe UG ae PIS) mec hte! Allai Tank P23 2b 2.6 NOE 428 70.6 Ua: will eet PD 23 2 eee Minneriya 2 20328) We 0s S188 7s: 2oimee LSS 2a eee Topawewa oe O98 s Nevew 2 Sa 20743 oer Llane LO Ome O Vakaneri USL GPS bos AAS LSS fos eed i SAG Ae ee December. 1910. 1911. 1912. Inches. Days. Inches. Days. Inches. Days. Trincomalee ee DOS a LG ee DA Cee oS ack Om meine Kanthalai SEE OTL ile DZ ROB G22 th AOS OR seme Allai Tank ebb OL Pye Tks 228 SOM) wr, 0 lacs a8 O10 men enema Minneriya Bites cyto H lege aan Eerie sy Lye MEP AIL = aise OPO AG” 7)E Topawewa se 28509 Bur 24, DiNOO se scudO. ce O28 Seer e weal Vakaneri Fate! iy {0 emma ko Wiemmeg sar: Os ies eaten ay Ate KOCILTPO IY 6 a. 22 January. 1911. 1912. 1913. Inches. Days. Inches. Days. Inches. Days. ‘Trincomalee sno 84 Ba. 5 bOle SOR GL) O24 Bio Ce see Kanthalai wee i Sd eee Oe AO 200 2 29:69 ... 25 Allai Tank i, PRO td Leet tet GO.Nor. 2 9) Bale urod sO 2 ume aim ee Minneriya Re ye TAO ho tend AER ae aS Aled s Po bOO AN Cialy a. 280 Topawewa se) dl SOOM ae eee — 4. 35. O2oOe 9 24 Vakaneri ie 1 IGM aeemealal nets peasy 2: 6 43°71 29 February. 1911. 1912, 1913. Inches. Days. Inches. Days. Inches. Days. Trincomalee eee Oe? 3} 56) WOU See OR oe tS Kanthalai ees 00 OR 0-00 Om IEE SA 8! Allai Tank oe O45 2a oO O00 Ol T40K. Sae He Minneriya pon W745 Paso (UROL Ors S600 Team ed Topawewa bia WOK Om: -— coe any pak Src ifs Yciog Lt Vakaneri anal AB 5. 0°05 Ve: 6508.5 veel h : $= =] (A (‘USATS JoJoUVIp WAOYY) “ET6T ‘AvP pure ‘Zz T6L ‘Avypy ‘soyshCO aeo- {SIL JO uostvdu0g Piseveecls a ING IN =O Se Or vet. (0) Wee i UP oh eee eGo i | Ih ii il €/b) KOL] oor S/lb/ Koyy — “TAX 99YM1I “AIXXX 207 “NT OA ‘DoruniiaZz piu0ds waugoul NOTES. 14] NOTES. 7. Further Note on the Cup-marked Rock at Kudagama.— With reference to my note on a Cup-marked Rock found at Kudagama in the North-Central Province (Spolia, Vol. VIII., Part XXXII., p. 289), I placed myself in communication with Mr. H. Parker in order to ascertain his views on my theory as to their origin. His remarks I annex, as they are very interesting. I certainly have not tried the experiment which he suggests, but I venture to suppose that with such shallow holes, placed as they were on a very large mass ofstone, that the heat raised, while sufficient to melt fragments of ironstone, could hardly penetrate deep enough to melt the surrounding rock. If one of these “‘ cups ’’ occupied a solitary piece of stone, and that was bodily placed in a furnace, I anticipate the result would be as Mr. Parker suggests, but in this case we are dealing with a very large table of solid rock, on the surface of ‘ which are a number of pockets from 24 to 10 inches deep. As regards the pointed shape of the hole, I venture to_ think that this can be accounted for by the amount of acuteness in the apex of what I call the “ drilling stone.”’ I moreover think that it was with the object of securing a tapered mould that these were made, so as ultimately to obtain a cone-shaped bit of metal to be fashioned into awedge. If the outline was circular only, or campanulate, it would be necessary to expend much labour and trouble to reduce the mass into a wedge-like form. On the other hand, if the theory that these holes were used as crucibles is untenable, we are forced to ask why they should be arranged in such peculiar order. They adopt no pattern, and are not deep enough to allow us to suppose that they were sockets for a superimposed structure. If the holes were cut to form a large “‘ game board ’’—some prehistoric billiard table in fact—one is met by a difficulty in explaining the variety of depths, and also the difficulty that 142 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. Mr. Parker finds in accounting for pointed holes, quite apart from the fact that the surface of the rock on which these particular holes are cut, while being tolerably flat, is scarcely smooth enough for pebbles, to have been “ played” from hole to hole. Moreover, there is the fact facing us that this same stone had pieces wedged out of it for building purposes, and the wedge marks are still to be seen side by side with the cup marks. In one of Mr. Parker’s sketches, in his work ‘‘ Ancient Ceylon,” the slope of a rock having these cup marks appears to be of so high an angle as to negative still further the theory that they were constructed for some game. I venture to submit these remarks with a view to directing further investigation, as it still is by no means clear what these cup holes were for. [Note by Mr. Parker.—I am afraid that your explanation of them will not account for them. Have you ever tried to get up the heat required for smelting iron in one of the holes? I feel sure that it would be impossible. Also the heat that would melt ironstone would also melt the other stone in which the holes are cut. In the insides of the holes I examined I found no sign of the use of heat in them. Most of them were well polished, or at any rate, well smoothed over. Any explanation ought also to account . for the pointed holes. I believe the holes were first cut with chisels, and then completed and perfected by turning something round in them for a long time—but whether this was before their employment for the purpose for which they were made, or in consequence of their employment, I do not know. I fancy it was owing to their long use, however, that they became worn so smooth inside, and of such perfect shape.—W. H. Parker. | FREDERICK LEWIS. Colombo, April, 1913. 8. A Predatory Red Ant.—Last May I noticed a large butterfly fluttering vigorously on the ground evidently in the grip of something, so I ran out to see what it was. A single red ant (Hcophyllia smaragdina) had seized it by one of its antennz, and was holding on grimly, despite the butterfly’s frantic struggles, which must have been almost sufficient to drag the ant’s body and legs asunder. I popped them both into a cyanide bottle, in which they soon died, the ant still ee eS yee ee NOTES. 143 gripping the antenna tenaciously. The butterfly proved to be a specimen of Catopsilia crocale, and the edges of its wings were badly frayed with beating against the earth. I did not notice any other ants in the vicinity, but doubtless they would soon have rallied to their comrade’s assistance froma neigh- bouring mango tree which was thickly stocked with them. Colombo Museum, GEORGE M. HENRY. July 10, 1913. 9. ‘* Bloodsucker’’ Lizards eating small Birds.*—In April last a pair of sunbirds built their nest at the end of a whippy branch of the Japanese Hibiscus in my garden. One morning on entering the garden I noticed a bloodsucker lizard on the path trying to swallow something unusually large. Close inspection showed it to be a newly-fledged young bird. I made him drop it and found he had eaten the head. I then noticed the sunbird’s nest on the ground, containing another young bird, the weight of the lizard having evidently brought it to the ground. I tied it up as well as I could in its original place, and the hen-bird at once began feeding the surviving young one. Half an hour later I saw, what I believe to be, the same lizard crawling out along the twig to the nest ; so [ killed it. Haldummulla, _ W. ORMISTON. November 8, 1912. 10. Length of Life of Butterflies in the perfect stage.*—In breeding experiments with certain species of Mycalesis I have noticed that all the females I put into cages to lay eggs seem to live for about six weeks. They usually take two or three weeks before starting to lay, but, once started, they apparently lay one or two eggs per diem till they die. I fancy they must lay much more freely in a wild state. Haldummulla, W. ORMISTON. November 8, 1912. * Read before the Ceylon Natural History Society, December 17, 1912. 144 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. 11. Some Notes on the Breeding Habits of some Ceylon Snakes and Reptiles —The snakes that breed most frequently in captivity are naturally those that take to it most kindly, such as T'vopidonotus stolatus. The numerous specimens of this snake, which I have kept during the last two years, have produced a very large quantity of eggs, each snake usually ‘averaging about fifteen in number. None of my cobras have ever laid eggs, probably on account of their excitable disposi- tion, and the fact that their cage is considerably smaller in proportion to their size than that of T'ropidonotus stolatus. The laying period of T'ropidonotus stolatus is very variable, and extends from the end of April to the middle of September, while the cobra breeds from May onwards. The python has often been known to breed in captivity, but although [ kept a collection of fourteen adult specimens loose in a room for over a year, no eggs were obtained, though one of the snakes, fifteen feet in length, was originally caught in a hole, in May, with twenty-eight eggs, that were on the point of hatching. Of the ovoviviparous snakes T'rimeresurus trigonocephalus (the ‘‘ green polonga ”’) lays about December, and Ancistrodon hypnale in September. The genus Bryophis contains both oviparous and ovovivi- parous snakes, but of the Ceylon varieties, Bryophis mycterizans is ovoviviparous ; only on one occasion has one of my specimens of this species bred, when three young were produced, all dead. Bryophis pulverulentus being an uncommon snake, I have been unable to discover whether it is oviparous or not. A Vipera russellii (tic polonga) kept in Colombo, in the course of a week gave birth to 28 young in captivity, all of which died except one, and that and the parent died soon after, probably on account of the snake injuring itself in its struggles when caught, as even then the foetuses must have been in an advanced stage of development. ‘The young “ tics ”’ were of a very dark colour, almost black, the leaf pattern being marked in white lines, which, however, becomes very indistinct as the snake grows larger, when the pattern has a broad dark edging. These young snakes were about 7 in. in length, with the poison apparatus fully developed. NOTES. 145 The head of the female tic polonga is smaller and less distinct from the neck than that of the male, and the tail is naturally shorter. On April 26, a Helicops schistosus that had been impregnated in captivity laid thirteen eggs, and remained in a very swollen condition until May 13, the lower portion of the body being swollen with eggs to an extraordinary extent. Two hardened lumps had appeared through the skin on each side of the anal scale at the beginning of May, and on the 13th the snake died. Dissection revealed the presence of nineteen eggs in the ovaries, and that two of the eggs had burst through the skin, on each side of and above the anal. As faras I could discover this was due tothe snake being unable to shed its slough, which had thickened over the anal and prevented the extrusion of the eggs. These two batches, thirty-two eggs in all, constitute a record so far as my personal experience of snakes is concerned, though the python, according to Mr. Hagenbeck, may lay as many as one hundred eggs, the incubation lasting two and a-half months. Two eggs of T'ropidonotus ceylonensis which I found lying in the open outside a hole, were peculiarly shaped, rather like a curved sausage. The eggs were 13 in. long and nearly } in. broad, a large size for so small a snake, which averages 18 in. in length. The exposure of the eggs to the sun had probably killed the young, as they were found fully developed but quite dead inside ; another dead one which had just hatched out was also found. In the young snakes the yellow collar markings were absent, but the yellow borders to the black vertebral blotches were very distinct. The snakes were 6} in. in length. Dipsas forstenii has been impregnated and laid numerous egos in captivity in the months of August and September, and Zaminis mucosus in May, July, and September, though as such a nervous snake as the latter will only breed in a large enclosure, I keep mine loose in a room with the pythons. It is a remarkable example of the “ anti-reptilian ’’ appetites of the pythons, that I have never known one to swallow a ratsnake. U , > 6(5)13 146 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. Lylindrophis maculatus is ovoviviparous, and in April I found three well-developed foetuses inside a dead specimen. Tropidonotus asperrimus lays from May to August; the almost identical species 7’. piscator is said to incubate its eggs, and lay in one clutch containing as many as forty, but as none of my 7’. asperrymus have ever laid, I have had no opportunity of observing this habit. According to Major Wall the Dendrophis pictus is ovovivi- parous. The period between the impregnation of the female snake and the hatching of the eggs is between four and five months— the hatching usually occupying a month or six weeks. The eggs are usually laid in a hole where decaying vegetation gives off warmth and moisture, and, contrary to common belief, are well protected from the sun, which would soon shrivel up the eggs through their soft skin. ‘The young snake cuts two cross slits in the envelope with a sharp-edged tooth attached to the preemaxillary (in the front of the mouth between the upper jaws). A young T'ropidonotus stolatus, which I saw hatched, withdrew its head after first seeing daylight, and remained in the egg for about two hours, though it kept looking out at intervals. Young snakes are quite active directly after birth, and retain for some time a distinct slit in the abdomen, covered only by a thin skin, but the ventral shields soon close over it. To pass on to a few other reptiles. A “talagoya’”’ (Varanus bengalensis) caught a week ago has laid (June) seven soft- shelled eggs, of oval shape, while a Testudo elegans, in the middle of April, laid four hard-shelled eggs, kicking each egg out of the way with its hind legs as it laid it, to prevent it being broken by the others. The eggs resembled fowls’ eggs, but were rounder in form and slightly smaller. The crocodile lays its eggs in a hole in moist sand at the edge of the water, or in a deep hole in a bank, large enough to contain itself. When the vicinity of the “tank ”’ it frequents is much disturbed by human beings, it will often travel far to rock holes and lay its eggs there. The hatching period is very irregular, and varies from July to September, and the eggs are laid with a hard shell, which gradually softens to a e s. - “* pees ~ 1 > a eh, *?, oie. _— NOTES. 147 leathery consistency. At Kokobe, in the Anuradhapura District, I came across a batch of crocodile’s eggs at hatching time, in a sand hole by ariver. Some of the young crocodiles had already escaped, and had entered the water with the egg-shells still attached to them by the navel cord, though the water soon released them. Others were still coiled round in their eggs, or lying half in and half out. On being disturbed they ran about with much activity, uttering low whines, and protesting with angry hisses. The parent was floating in the water not far off, but did not show much anxiety on account of her offspring, and even those young that had escaped into the water did not approach her. Altogether I obtained about 24 of these young crocodiles, but they all died off within four months—probably the meat and fish diet I gave was indigestible for such young ones, and they no doubt required as food such small animal life as they would have found in their native jungle stream. A. F. ABERCROMBY. Anuradhapura, June, 1913. 12. How a Crocodile feeds.—The crocodile usually seizes its food with a lateral snap, and raising its head out of the water with the snout pointing straight upwards, snaps and shakes the morsel until it succeeds in jerking it into its throat. Should any portion (for instance the claw of a bird) catch in the side of its mouth, it either shoves it in with its hind leg or breaks it off with violent slaps of the tail. If the food is too large and the reptile in danger of choking, it returns the food to its mouth by a muscular contraction of its throat, and will then bite and shake it about until a piece is torn off. The teeth of the crocodile are only used for tearing its food, which it never really masticates. In the case of live animals, the crocodile will hold its prey under the water until drowned. The crocodile’s nostrils are at the tip of the snout, and while its prey is being drowned the nasal passage comes into close connection with the trachea, and thus the crocodile is able to breathe without swallowing any water. 148 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. After the prey is dead the crocodile tears off the flesh by catching hold of it with its teeth and giving violent jerks of the body. Sometimes, however, it prefers to leave the meat until putrified. A. F. ABERCROMBY. Anuradhapura, May 27, 1913. THE CEYLON NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. Sixth General Meeting. Tue Sixth General Meeting of the Society was held in the Colombo Museum on Friday, May 30, 19138. Dr. Andreas Nell presided in the absence of the President. Mr. C. Hartley read a Paper on “‘ Stone Implements of Ceylon.’’* Dr. Pearson gave an account of some of the faunistic results of the recent inspection of the Ceylon Pearl Banks. Numerous specimens were exhibited. * Published in full on page 117 of the present number of “ Spolia Zeylanica.”’ | 3 L7IMAGO DE L’EUTERMES LACUSTRIS DE CEYLAN. 149 LIMAGO DE L’EUTERMES LACUSTRIS DE CEYLAN, Par E. Buenton. (Avec deux planches. ) je décrit ’année derniére dans la Revue suisse de Zoologie le soldat, V’ouvrier, la nymphe, la reine et le roi de ) Lutermes lacustris, mais n’ai rien pu dire de l’imago, ne la connaissant pas encore & cette époque. Cette lacune a dés lors été comblée, grace & une heureuse trouvaille de Mr. Oscar John de St. Pétersbourg. Mr. John a, au cours d’une excursion 4 Hantana, rencontré un nid d’£. lacustris qui renfermait, entre autres, des imagos en trés grand nombre. Le méme observateur ayant bien voulu me céder quelquesuns de ces insectes, je me trouve actuellement en mesure de les décrire. Hantana est une chaine de collines qui s’étend an sud de Peradeniya sur une longueur de plusieurs milles et s’éléve & une altitude de 3,000 pieds. Les sommets sont rocailleux, formés de grosses pierres superposées. De grandes herbes qui masquent des fentes traitresses rendent ‘eur accés assez pénible. En dessous des sommets, sur les flancs de la mon- tagne, se trouvent des bouquets de jungle qui abritent d’intéressants Termites. C’est 14 que le Prof. Escherich a découvert en 1909 l Hutermes hantanae (décrit par Holmgren), C’est 1& que j’ai trouvé moi-méme dans un trone pourri imbibé WVhumidité une belle colonie de T'ermitogeton umbilicatus, Hag.* Le nid VE. lacustris observé par Mr. John était un magni- figue nid de carton de bois, brun foncé, réguli¢érement arrondi & la surface, placé dans la fourche d’un arbre a 30 pieds environ au dessus du sol. (Photographie ci-jointe.) Ses dimensions étaient : pourtour 76 cm., longueur 26, largeur 20, hauteur 16. A Vintérieur se voyaient de nombreuses * Cette curieuse espéce a été observée dés lors dans la jungle de Kotua (low-country) a 8 milles au nord de Galle et en plus grand nombre (5 colonies) sur la colline couverte de jungle qui se trouve au dessus Hatton (4,500 pieds). x 6(10)13 150 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. anfractuosités pareilles aux cavités d’une éponge. Un cordon brunatre (tunnel) montant le long de l’arbre a la surface de l’écorce, servait au va-et-vient des Termites. Ayant fait “ cueillir” la termitiére par deux coolies, Mr. John eut la satisfaction de la rapporter intacte & Peradeniya et de pouvoir & loisir étudier ses habitants. C’était en décembre 1912. Le nid placé dans la fourche d’un arbre prés du laboratoire entomologique a été quelque temps aprés malheureusement détruit par un orage. Ce dernier renseigne- ment m’a été donné par Mr. E. Green. L’observation de Mr. John est, comme on voit, instructive a divers égards. Elle montre que lH. lacustris peut, dans certaines circonstances, faire un nid de carton ligneux suspen- du 4 l’air libre ;* elle prouve au surplus que ladite espéce n’habite pas exclusivement le low country et ne se trouve pas nécessairement au bord des lacs, mais peut occasionnellement se rencontrer sur les collines.f Descrip'ion.—Longueur 74 & 8 mm., avec les ailes 143 a 16, ailes 12 4 134, abdomen 4 a 5. Téte d’un brun foncé assez brillant (presque noire), avec le clypeus, les piéces buccales et les antennes d’un brun jaunatre. Thorax et tergites abdominaux brun sépia avec une pubes- cence jaune, courte et serrée. Dessous du corps plus clair. Part'es membraneuses de abdomen blanchatres, garnies de * Certains Termites qui vivent habituellement dans un arbre creux et se bornent a protéger leur demeure au moyen d’un opercule de carton de bois, peuvent, lorsyue l’arbre n’offre pas de cavité convenable, construire de toutes pieces un nid de carton appendu & l’extérieur. J’ai publié moi-méme une observation de ce genre relative a l’E. monoceros (le Termite noir de Ceylan, observations nouvelles. Bull. Soe. Vaud. Se. Nat., Vol. 47, 1911, p. 423)—Les nids de carton appen- dus 4 Vextérieur des arbres, exceptionnels pour les EH. monoceros et lacustris sont, comme on sait, la demeure ordinaire de certains Eutermes d’Afrique, de Madagascar, de Bornéo et du Brésil. + J’ai observé moi-méme durant mon séjour a Talgaswella (février 1913) un nid d’Hutermes lacustris semblable & celui quia été capturé par Mr. John. Ce nid fait de carton de bois brun foneé mesurait 45 em. de longueur, sur 20 de largeur et 16 de hauteur. II n’était pas attaché 4 un arbre, mais reposait sur le sol au pied d’un albizia. La surface était couverte d’une lame brune assez dure; on voyait & Vintérieur de nombreuses cavités séparées par des cloisons. J’y trouvai, outre les ouvriers et les soldats, un grand nombre de nymphes, mais aucune imago compléte. La reine et le roi n’ont pas été observés. Talgaswella est un estate du Jow-country situé a 30 milles environ au nord de Galle. ae ee L’IMAGO DE L’EUTERMES LACUSTRIS DE CEYLAN. I51 poils serrés, ailes légérement enfumées, avec le bord antérieur d’un jaune assez vif. Pattes jaundtres, rembrunies au bout des cuisses et & la base des tibias. Téte en ovale allongé, légérement aplatie entre les yeux. Yeux gros, arrondis. celles rapprochée des yeux, trés con- vexcs. Fontanelle oblongue, élargie d’arriére en avant, son bord antérieur concave, formant (au niveau de la suture) un v trés ouvert. Antennes de 15 articles, brunatres, rembrunies vers la base, avec les aiticulations jaune paille : 3 + 4 ensemble un peu plus longs que 2 ; 3 un peu plus court et plus étroit que 2; 4 plus gros que 3 ; 3 un peu plus étroit que 4; les suivants graduelle- ment un peu plus longs. Clypeus 24 fois plus large que long, convexe, avec un sillon médian. Proclypeus membraneux, transparent; son bord antérieur en forme de v renversé largement ouvert. Labre en forme de pelle, rétréci & la base, puis légérement élargi vers le milieu; sa face dorsale garnie de quelques poils. Mandibule gauche (Fig. 3), outre la dent apicale, avec une 2me dent acérée prolongée par un tranchant un peu convexe, une 3™e dent plus petite placée au bout postérieur de ce tranchant, une 4™¢ dent, forte, triangulaire,* séparée de la 3me par une petite incisure, prolongée jusqu’ & la base par un bord sinueux. Mandibule droite, ontre la dent apicale, avec une 2™¢ dent de méme force, une 3™¢ dent large, obtuse, & bord sinueux séparée de la précédente par une incisure en v, une échancrure plus large (en demi-lune), enfin une apophyse basale, dont le bord presque droit, proéminent en dedans, offre une douzaine de crénelures. Menton 14 fois plus long que large, rétréci @arriére en avant; son bord postérieur légérement arrondi. Appareil maxillo-labial bien développé; peigne du lacinia formé d’une douzaine de cils. Langue en forme de poire, élargie en avant. Pronotum non relevé en avant, un peu plus étroit que la téte au niveau des yeux, d’un tiers plus large que long, *La 4™° dent qui caractérise Ja mandibule gauche se retrouve, plus développée, chez #. hantanae. Isp SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA. rétréci d’avant en arriére; ses angles antérieurs arrondis, le bord postérieur largement arrondi, sans échancrure. Eeailles alaires d’un brun foneé, les antérieures plus grandes que les postérieures. Nervure costale d’un jaune doré, rembruni 4 la base ; radius jaune, bordé postérieurement d’un léger liseré noiratre ; médiane gréle; atténuée (parfois bifurquée) vers l’apex, éloi- enée du radius, rapprochée de la médiane, avec 3 ou 4 bran- ches latérales fines traversant obliquement le vaste champ radio-médian ; cubitus grele, atténue vers l’apex, avec 11 branches, dont les 7 premiéres épaissies, de couleur brunatre. Les bords des ailes sauf dans le tiers interne, garnis de petits poils; quelques poils clairsemés a la surface. Observée au microscope, l’aile entiére se montre couverte de rugosités ponctiformes trés serrées.* L/aile postérieure, trés semblable a lantérieure, différe seulement en ceci que la médiane, au lieu de s’insérer au bord de l’écaille, se détache du radius en dehors de celle-ci. Pattes assez velues ; une épine plus forte (interne) au bout du tibia ; 3™e article du tarse proéminent en dessous du 4™e- Les pattes postérieures n’atteignent pas tout a fait le bout du corps. Disposition des sternites abdominaua chez le male et la femelle. Liimago de VE. lacustris, par le fait que le sternites se détachent en brun foncé sur un fond blanchatre, montre plus nettement que d’autres espéces les caractéres externes qui différencient les deux sexes. Tandis que la face dorsale de abdomen (formée de 10 tergites) est identique chez le ¢ et la ¥, la face ventrale est au contraire trés différente. Male (Fig. 5).—Face ventrale de abdomen composée de neuf sternites : 1 (placé en arriére des hanches postérieures) un peu plus petit que 2; 2,3, 4, 5et 64 peu prés identiques ; 7 (dans le sens antéro-postérieur) deux fois plus court que 6 ; 8 entier, plus court et plus étroit que 7 ; 9 (terminal) divisé en * L’aile de lH. singaporiensis parait d’aprés la description de Havi- land semblable & celle de l’#. lacustris, avec cette différence que chez E. singaporiensis, le cubitus donne 8 branches au lieu de 11. LIMAGO DE L’EUTERMES LACUSTRIS DE CEYLAN. 153 deux plaques triangulaires. Papilles piliféres placées des deux cdtés de 9. Femelle (Fig. 4)—Jace ventrale de ’abdomen composée de huit sternites : 1 placé comme chez le 6, un peu plus petit que 2 ; 2, 3, 4 et 5 a peu prés identiques ; 6 (dans le sens antéro-postérieur) beaucoup plus leng que les précédents, formant une grande plaque & bord_postérieur arrondi; 7 com- posé de quatre petites piéces tr'angulaires les deux de droite assez ccartées des deux de gauche ; 8 (terminal) divisé en deux plaques triangulaires, semblab'e au 9°dumale. Papilles piliféres placées des deux cdtés de 8. Les iraits distinctifs des sternites abdcminaux des imagos 6 et ? ont été indiqués par J. Feytaud pour Leuco- termes lucifugus (Arch. d’anat. micr. Paris, juin, 1912). Je les ai étudiés moi-méme chez Termes Horni (Rev. suisse de Zoologie, Genéve, 1913). Précédemment déja Haviland a signalé chez divers T'ermes et Hutermes (imagos), la plaque de dimensions plus grandes qui s’observe chez la 2 au coté ventral. La forme de cette plaque est pour plusieurs espéces soigneusement indiquée (Journ. Linn. Soc., London, Vol. 26, 1898). Je faut remarquer toutefois que, dans les descriptions de cet auteur, la grande plaque, an lieu d’étre désignée sous le nom de 6™¢ sternite, est appelée “‘ ventral plate of the 7 th. abdominal segment.” Haviland admet, semble-t-il, que les Se ventrales des Termites répondent aux plaques dorsales tandis ae en réalité une telle concordance n’existe pas. Mes figures 4 et 5, exactement dessinées & la chambre claire d’aprés des préparatious au baume, montrent a la base de Vabdomen une partie membraneuse qui, chez les Termites actuels parait rattachée an métathorax, mais qui chez les formes ancestrales, répondait vraisemblablement au tergite 1. Cette région, désignée dans les figures par la lettre o, est en grande partie cachée sous la 3™¢ paire de hanches et sous les expansions ‘atérales qui en dépendent. La discordance qui d’observe dans le nombre des sternites et des tergites sexplique par le fait que, chez les Termites actuels, aucun sternite ne se développe a ce niveau. 154 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. Quant aux traits distinctifs qui caractérisent l’abdomen du 6 et de la ¥, on peut, suivant ma maniére de voir, admettre les propositions suivantes : (1) Le sternite terminal du 6 (divisé en deux piéces triangu- laires) correspond au sternite terminal de la &. (2) Le sternite 7 de la ¥ (divisé en quatre piéces) répond au sternite 8 du 6, resté indivis. (3) Le sternite 6 de la ¥ (grande plaque) répond & deux sternites du 6, savoir aux sternites 6 et 7, soudés en un seul. Le but des dispositions observées chez la ¥ (formation de la grande plaque) parait étre de donner aux oviductes et au vagin un point d’appui plus solide, lorsque l’abdomen se contracte pour faire progresser les ceufs & l’intérieur. EXPLICATIONS DES FIGURES. Planche XXII. Nid d’Hutermes lacustris observé & Hantana. D’aprés une photographie de Mr. O. John. Planche XXIII. Hutermes lacustris. Fig. 1.—L’imago, apres la chute des ailes. x 16. Fig. 2.—L’aile antérieure. x 16. Fig. 3.—Tete de limago, coté ventral. x 40. On a, pour montrer plus distinctement les mandibules, enlevé l’appareil maxillo-labial. Fig. 4.—Imago %, face ventrale d’aprés une préparation au baume. xX 21. I-X Série des tergites. 1 25a. eee série des sternites. a2, a3 ailerons des hanches 2 et 3. g Orifice génital. o Partie (membraneuse) de l’abdomen correspondant au 1° tergite, rattachée secondairement au métathorax. Fig. 5.—-Imago 6, partie de la face ventrale d’aprés une pre- paration au baume, X 21. Chiffres et lettres comme dans fig. 4. “ae Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. 1X., Part XX XV. Plate XXII. Nid d’Eutermes lacustris observé 4 Hantana. D’aprés une photographie de Mr. O. John. Plate XXIII, Se ca pee] | S Q SS ~ rs iS = oe 7 rs L N <1 is & RQ L’'Imaco pE L’ EUTERMES LACUSTRIS. EUTERWES HANTANAE DE GEYLAN. 155 EUTERMES HANTANAE DE CEYLAN. Par E. Buenton, (Avec deux planches.) AL Ree MERE par Escherich sur les collines de Hantana, lHutermes hantanae est une espéce bien caractérisée, décrite par Holmgren, propre parait-il &4 up-country. Ayant retrouvé cet Hutermes & Hantana (altitude 2,800 pieds) j’aieu la bonne chance de capturer une imago dans le nid lui-méme. Observés & l'état frais, ces Termites (ouvriers) se distinguent des autres espéces a téte jaune en ce que l’abdomen a une couleur gris cendré rappelant quelque peu les Capritermes. L’E. Hornt Wasm, si commun dans lup-country, a un soldat a téte rousse (ferrugineuse) avec le bec de méme couleur. L’E. Escherichi de Peradeniya (long. 24-3 mm.), a comme VE. hantanae \a téte jaune et la corne rembrunie, mais les antennes sont plus longues et la téte est resserrée en arriére de celles-ci. L’E. longicornis (long. 2°75 mm.) a la téte jaune brun et la corne rembrunie, mais les antennes sont formées de 13 articles et la téte n’offre par de constriction. Le but du présent article est de faire connaitre l’imago jusqu’ici inédite.* J’ajoute, puisque l'occasion se présente, quelques détails relatifs & l’ouvrier et au soldat. Imago (fig. let 2), d’aprés un exemplaire unique. Longueur 54 mm, avec les ailes 12, envergure 22, téte 11. Téte brun foncé, assez velue, avec des yeux noirs fortement bombés. Le reste du corps d’un brun plus clair mat, avec une pubescence jaune ; ailes brunatres ; le clypeus, le proclypeus, les piéces buccales (pro parte), les antennes et les pattes de couleur jaunatre. Téte ovoide, yeux ronds, proéminents, relativement assez gros. Ocelles, de forme allongée, éloignés des yeux d’une distance égale a leur largeur. Fontanelle grande formant * L’imago décrite par Holmgren sous le nom d’#. oculatus se rapporte probablement a LH. longicornis (Voy. Escherich. Termiten leben auf Ceylon. Jena, 1911], p. 300), 156 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. un tache claire en ovale allongé. Clypeus convexe, 2} fois plus large que long, avec un sillon médian. Proclypeus membraneux, de moitié plus court que le clypeus. Labre en forme de pelle, rétréci 41a base, élargi vers le milieu (semblable acelui de l’ouvrier) ; sa face dorsale garnie de quelques poils. Antennes de 15 articles : 3 + 4 ensemble a peine plus longs que 2; 3 un peu plus court et plus étroit que 4; 5 un peu plus petit que 4, de méme grosseur que 3; !es suivants un peu plus gros, ovoides. Mandibule gauche, outre la grosse dent apicale, avec une 2me dent presque aussi forte prolongée par un tranchant droit; ce dernier s’arréte 4 une petite dent (8™¢); aprés celle- ci une petite incisure, puis une 4™¢ dent trés forte en forme de lancette, une échancrure large, enfin une 5™e dent obtuse, limitant en dedans l’échancrure d’insertion de l’adducteur. Mandibule droite, outre la grosse dent apicale, avec une 2me dent triangulaire presque aussi forte, une 3™¢ dent plus petite séparée de la précédente par une échancrure, enfin une apophyse basale mousse, proéminente, 4 contours sinueux. La denture de la mandibule gauche, trés caractéristique, se retrouve identique chez louvrier.* Appareil maxillo-labial et palpes bien développés, de la forme ordinaire. Pronotum un peu plus étroit que la téte au niveau des yeux, transverse, d’un tiers au moins plus large que long, légérement trapézoide (sa plus grande largeur un peu en avant du milieu), son bord antérieur droit, non relevé au dessus de la téte, ses angles antérieurs arrondis, le bord postérieur avec une petite échancrure, les bords latéraux faiblement courbés. Keailles alaires d’un brun foncé, hérissées de quelques poils, les postérieures un peu plus petites que les antérieures. Ailes légérement enfumées. Nervure costale d’un brun jaun- tre, plus faible vers le bout. Radius, 4 partir du milieu, avec un bande sous-jacente de couleur jaundtre. Médiane * L’imago, semblable 4 l’ouvrier par la structure des mandibules, différe cependant de ce dernier par la longueur des antennes (15 articles au lieu de 13) et par la forme trés différente de l’abdomen et du thorax. C’est vraisemblablement pour donner 4 la téte un point d’apnui plus solide que le bord du pronotum se reléve chez Pouvrier. EUTERMES HANTANAE DE CEYLAN. 157 gréle, atténuée vers Vapex, trois fois plus distante du radius que du cubitus au milieu de Vaile, privée de branches anté- rieures, avec trois rameaux postérieurs qui remplacent chez cette espéce les branches fournies d’ordinaire par le bout du cubitus. Cette disposition, trés caractéristique, suffit & distinguer limago de lH. hantanae de celle des autres Eutermes Singhalais. Cubitus raccourci, donnant seulement 6-7 branches. Son extrémité, infléchie en arriéve, rejoint le bord postérieur un peu en dehors du milieu. Bord de Vaile garni de petits poils plus nombreux vers Vapex. Quelques poils clairsemés & la surface. Observée au microscope, l’aile entiére montre des rugosités ponctiformes assez serrées. L’aile antérieure différe de la postérieure en ce que la nervure médiane se détache de Vécaille, tandis que dans l’aile pos- térieure la médiane se détache du radius (un peu en dehors de l’écaille). Le cubitus de l’aile postérieure est relativement un peu plus court. Pattes assez velues. Une épine plus forte (interne) au bout de chacun des tibias. Abdomen (chez mon exemplaire) court et étroit, a bords paralléles. Papilles sétiféres de grandeur ordinaire. Les pattes moyennes atteignent le bout du corps, les postérieures. le dépassent de beaucoup. Ouvrier (Fig. 3 et 4) —Longueur 441 mm. Blanchatre avec les articulations et les dents des mandibules, les baguettes des adducteurs et les dents des maxilles d’un brun plus ou moins foncé. Intestin. d’un gris brunatre, visible par transparence a Pintérieur de abdomen. Téte presque glabre, corps hérissé de poils rigides plus nombreux vers le bout. Téte un peu rétrécie d’avant en arriére, presque penta- gonale (Holmgren), avec la plus grande largeur en avant des antennes. Sutures céphaliques non visibles (difference marquée d’avec EL. lacustris qui a une suture en T de couleur cla re nettement dessinée). 4 6(10)13 158 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA. Clypeus fortement convexe, 24 fois plus large que long, avec un sillon médian. Les insertions musculaires formant & la face profonde (sur les préparations au baume) deux dessins étoilés. Proclypeus membraneux, de moit.é plus court que le clypeus. Labre en forme de pelle, rétréci & la base puis légérement dilaté en arriére du milieu. Deux lignes de rugosités poncti- formes visibles par transparence comme chez les Termites en général. Antennes aussi longues que la téte avec les mandibules, formées de 13 articles : 3 un peu plus court que 2, 4 de méme longueur et, ainsi que les suivants, un peu plus épais que 3. Mandibule gauche, outre la grosse dent apicale, avec une 2me dent un peu moins forte prolongée par un tranchant droit, une 3™e dent trés petite au bout postérieur de ce tranchant, une échancrure en v, une 4™e dent trés forte en forme de lancette (semblable & celle de Vimago), puis une 5™e dent obtuse, limitant en dedans Véchancrure d insertion de la baguette. Mandibule droite, outre la grosse dent apicale, avec une 2™e dent moins forte, une 3™¢ dent trés petite, séparée de la précédente par une inciture en v, une échancrure plus large, enfin une apophyse basale fortement proémin- ente, 4 contours sinueux. Echancrures maxillaires petites, reportées en avant. Menton quadrangulaire, mobile (non soude). L’appareil maxillo-labial offre la disposition habituelle. Pronotum petit, de moitié plus étroit que la téte, d’un tiers plus large que long, rétréci d’avant en arriére, son bord anté- rieur fortement relevé derriére la téte, non échancré. Meso- notum plus large que le pronotum, ses bords plus arrondis ; metanotum plus large que le mesonotum ; son bord postérieur relevé de maniére 4 s’adapter au 1€T segment abdominal. Pattes transparentes, hérissées de poils courts. Deux épines plus fortes (internes) au bout de chacun des tibias. Tibias renflés dans leur partie moyenne, amincis aux deux bouts. Une coche bien marquée au premier quart. Bord ventral du 3™e¢ article tarsien prolongé en dessous, comme chez les Hutermes en général. EUTERMES HANTANAE DE CEYLAN. 159 Abdomen ovoide, fortement renflé; les papilles sétiféres bien développées. L’abdomen, de structure membraneuse, ne se décompose pas en tergites et en sternites nettement visibles. Observés au microscope, les parties latérales (transparentes) de abdomen montrent des rugosités trés fines, disposées en séries longitudinales nombreuses et serrées. Le thorax et Vabdomen de louvrier sont en somme plus semblables a ceux du soldat qu’ & ceux de l’imago. Larves d’ouvriers.—Plusieurs larves blanches, longues de 14 & 2 mm. montraient distinctement tous les caractéres de Youvrier (absence de corne frontale, mandibules dentées, etc.) Les antennes étaient, chez la plupart, composées de 12 articles. L’exemplaire dessiné fig. 5 montre par transparence les trois ganglions thoraciques relativement trés gros, rapprochés les uns des autres et d’une maniére plus vagu: les six ganglions abdominaux. Le bout de labdomen porte deux styles médians et deux cerque. latéraux & proport'on plus développés que chez l’adulte. Soldat (Fig. 6-11)—Longueur 3}4mm. Téte avec la corne 1°8; corne seule 0°75; largeur de la téte 0:98.* Téte jaune paille, avec les bords latéraux et le bec rembrunis. Corps blanchatre, garni de poils rigides. Pattes transparentes hérissées de poils courts. Les intestins vus par transparence 4 ’intérieur de l’abdomen forment une masse noiratre parti- ellement masquée (comme déchiquetée) par les masses blanches du corps graisseux. La téte, vue d’en haut, est réguliérement arrondie puis prolongée en forme de cone du cété du bec. La corne, d’un tiers environ plus courte que la téte, est droite, cylindrique, avec Vextrémité conique, garnie de quelques pols. Une légére dilatation se montre & droite et & gauche au—dessus des insertions des deux antennes. Vue de profil, la téte offre une ligne fronto-nasale légérement relevée en arriére de la base du bec, puis un peu déprimée en avant du front. Le front lui-méme, un peu convexe, ne se * Ces mesures out été prises a V’aide de I oculaire micrométrique. 160 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. trouve pas dans le plan de la ligne fronto-nasale, mais parait légérement relevé au dessus de celle-ci. L’ampoule glandulaire est située dans la partie supérieure et postérieure de la téte. Observée par transparence (sur une préparation an baume), elle montre un arriére-fond de forme ovoide appendu en dessous du segment supérieur. L’appareil entier est entouré d’une épaisse couche de muscles circulaires et longitudinaux dont les fibres se croisent & angles droits. Le canal excréteur légérement dilaté a l’origine (partie contractile) offre ensuite un calibre régulier, 4 peu prés cylindrique, et une direction rectiligne jusqu’ au bout du bec. Observée a un fort gros- sissement, sa paroi offre une fine striation dans le sens de la longueur. N.B.—Les sujets tués dans l’alcool, le chloroforme, etc. montrent leur ampoule a I’état cont-acté. Observée avant Vexpulsion du contenu, celle-ci offrirait des dimensions bien plus grandes. Antennes gréles et allongées (longueur 1°5 mm), formées de 12 articles : 3 de moitié plus long que 2; 4 pluscourt que 3, un peu plus long que 2. Le labre, difficile & voir, se montre sur la téte observée de profil comme une saillie convexe et sur la téte vue d’en haut (fig. 8), comme une proéminence & contour arrondi dépassant la base du bec des deux cétés. Le tentorium (fig. 9 et 10) est une lame quadrangulaire prolongée par quatre piliers. I] y a deux piliers postérieurs courts fixés au bord antérieur de la lame basilaire et deux piliers antérieurs longs aboutissant en dedans de Vanneau qui soutient l’antenne. L/orifice laisse comme toujours passer Voesophage et les connectifs nerveux. Le ganglion sous- oesophagien, de forme ovale. est placé entre le tentorium et le menton. Les muscles abducteur et adducteur de Pantenne s’insérent sur la face dorsale du tentorium. Les échancrures maxillaires, relativement assez grandes, offrent un petit tubercule sur lequel s’articule le cardo de la maxille, EUTERMES HANTANAE DE CEYLAN. 161 Les mandibules (fig. 9 et 10), bien différentes de celles de VE. monoceros,* sont représentées par deux piéces & peu prés triangulaires venant, dans la position fermée, en contact par leur sommet. Ce dernier, formé d’ une chitine épaissie, est tronqué obliquement. L’articulation de la mandibule (fig. 9) correspondant & l’articulation mandibulaire ventrale des Termites en général, se trouve sur le bord de l’échancrure maxillaire un peu en arriére du cadre de ’antenne. Le muscle adducteur, relativement trés faible, est & peine plus épais que Vabducteur. Le menton (fig. 11), plus large que long 4 la base, rétréci dans sa partie antérieure, s’articule sur deux baguettes chiti- neuses qui renforcent les bords latéraux du trou occipital. (Ces baguettes s’observent également chez les autres Hutermes.) Les maxilles sont petites, la 2™¢ dent du lacinia a peine visible, le peigne formé de 6 a 7 cils, le galea relativement un peu plus grand. Il y a, comme chez les Termites en général deux glosses et deux paraglosses, insérés sur le bord antérieur de la ligule et deux palpes labiaux composés de trois articles. La langue (hypopharynx) petite, en forme de poire allongée, est comme toujours fixée & la face dorsale de la ligule. Les contours de la cavité buccale peuvent étre distingués sur la figure 7 (vue de profil) ainsi que ceux du pharynx et de Voesophage. Thorax petit, ensellé. Bord antérieur du pro- notum relevé derriére la téte, non échancré. Bord postérieur du metathorax relevé de facon &@ s’adapter au 1¢™ segment abdominal. . Abdomen renflé, ovoide, de structure membraneuse (tergites et sternites indistincts). Pattes gréles et allongées. Tibias élargis dans leur partie moyenne, rétrécis vers les bouts. Une coche bien marquée a * Les Eutermes de Ceylan (soldats) peuvent, suivant la forme des mandibules, étre répartis en 3 groupes :— (1) Mandibules formées d’une lame aplatie, tranchante, prolongée en avant par une épine (#. monoceros Koen., lacustris Bug., Eschericht Holm., ceylonicus Holm., Hornt Wasm. (2) Forme intermédiaire avec une épine courte insérée obliquement (Z. longicornis Holm.). (3) Mandibules plus ou moins triangulaires dépourvues d’épine (E. rubidus Hav. grand et petit soldat, hantanae Holm., Kotuae Bug.). 162 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. la jonction du quart supérieur et des ? inférieurs. Deux épines plus fortes (internes) au bout de chaque tibia. Bord inférieur du 3™e article tarsien, comme chez les Hutermes en général, fortement prolongé. EXPLICATION DES FIGURES. Planche XXIV. Fig. 1.—L’imago. ~X 13. Fig. 2.—Téte et pronotum deVimago. x 31. Fig. 3.—L’ouvrier vu de cété. X 23. Fig. 4.—Téte de lVouvrier, préparation au baume. xX ° 43. L’appareil maxillo-labial & été enlevé afin de rendre les dents des mandibules plus apparentes. Fig. 5.—ULarve d’ouvrier longue de 1°8. xX 37. Les antennes ont 12 articles. On voit par transparence la chaine des ganglions ventraux. Planche XX V. Fig. 6.—Le soldat vu de cété. X 31. On distingue par trans- parence les six ganglions abdominaux. Fig. 7.—Téte et thorax du soldat vus de cété. X 49. On voit par transparence l’ampoule glandulaire et le canal exeréteur. Le pharynx et loesophage qui étaient remplis de débris de bois (d’un noir opaque) ont pu, grace a cette circonstance, étré exact- tement dessinés. Fig. 8.—Téte du soldat, vue d’en haut, avec Pampoule glandu- laire et le canal exeréteur. x 49. Les saillies qui se voient des deux codtés de la base du ‘bec, en dedans des maxilles, reponse aux deux bords du labre. Fig. 9.—Téte du soldat avec les mandibules rapprochées. x 49. a cadre articulaire de l’antenne, e échancrure maxillaire avec Varticulation du cardo, / insertion du labre, m mandibule, m son articulation, o trou occipital, ¢ tentorium. Fig. 10.—Téte du soldat. x 49. Mandibules écartées une de Vautre (luxées) au moyen des aiguilles. Fig. 11.—Téte du soldat. x 49. L’appareil maxillo-labial préparé et remis en place. aa | ; Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. 1X., Part XXXV. r Plate XXIV. ull s . 2. *- = o* ; nies kes ; 3 ‘4 “ide se a 4 . 2 : . a ’ , i? e pp : =p ‘ a <— ao Se i a EuUTERMES HANTANAE At * eae: ee a er ae Ete So s ee i - yg Awe ae oan . a at i 9 Pre af Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. 1X., Part XXXYV. ©. nei Plate XXV. EUTERMES HANTANAE. ‘ a oe ° a : hie ade i ae Bes _ BE i A aa gl, eles 4 Weditie= | r a 7 a : ee Pa 4 a, o ? my iy, " ‘ ‘ 7 Vi | j 7 ay 5 vs : 5 a " a a bal #! . ie ul te | ee Be ee a ; i RE-CLASSIFICATION OF MULLERIA AND HOLOTHURIA. 163 PROPOSED RE-CLASSIFICATION OF THE GENERA MULLERIA AND HOLOTHURIA. By JOSEPH PEARSON. (With one Plate.) HE suggestions embodied in the present paper are the result of a careful examination of a large number of species of the genera Mulleria and Holothuria. These two genera are separated from each other by a single character, namely, the presence of anal teeth in the former and the absence of these structures in the latter. The only point in favour of this basis of classification is that it is convenient and simple. But taxonomic distinctions must necessarily be made in accordance with relationship, and there is good reason for believing that the accepted classification based upon the presence or absence of anal teeth gives no true conception of the affinities of this group. For example, the relationship between Miilleria miliaris and Holothuria mar- morata is much closer than that between the latter species and Holothuria impatiens ‘or than that between WMiilleria miliaris and Miilleria maculata. The affinities of the various species of the group are rendered much clearer by a systematic examination of the calcareous ring. This structure has never before received the attention it undoubtedly deserves, and one finds it dismissed with such statements as “‘ typically Aspidochirote ” or ‘‘ without poste- rior prolongations.” As a result of such a careful compara- tive study not only of the calcareous ring, but also of the other organs of the body, I have been impressed with the need for a more scientific classification than the one at pre- sent in vogue. I propose to unite the genera Mnlleria and Holothurta under the latter name, and to divide the genus into five sub-genera. 164 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. The genus Holothuria, as it is at present understood, will be composed of three sub-genera—(1) Bohadschia, to which such a form as Holothuria marmorata belongs ; (2) Halodeima, which will include Holothuria atra and its allies; and (3) Thymiosicya, of which Holothuria impatiens may be regarded as the type. The genus Miilleria will be divided into two sub-genera—(1) Actinopyga, including such forms as Miilleria miliaris ; and (2) Argiodia, to which Milleria maculata and its allies belong. Diagrammatically the proposed changes may be represented as follows :— Sub-genera :— ( Bohadschia , Genus Holothuria 2 Haloderma | Genus Holothuria l Thymiosicya ' ein Us ie Sethe Actinopyga | ; Genus Mijllersa { Argiodia J There are only four characters of any taxonomic value in the genus. These are (1) the arrangement of the ambulacral appendages ; (2) the nature of the spicules ; (3) the presence or absence of anal teeth; and (4) the structure of the calcareous ring. The number and arrangement of the tentacles, Polian vesicles, and stone canals are variable characters even within the limits of a single species. This is also true of the Cuvierian organs. | AMBULACRAL APPENDAGES. The ambulacral appendages show considerable variation within the genus both as regards the kinds of appendages and also their distribution. It is difficult to say whether any members of the genus are supplied with true pedicels only, although many authors have described such species, and Ludwig gives this character in his diagnosis of the genus Holothuria. Most workers at the group have not examined living specimens of the forms they RE-CLASSIFICATION OF MULLERIA AND HOLOTHURIA. 165 have described, and in many cases it is absolutely impossible to distinguish a true pedicel from a papilla, except in a living specimen. Many so-called pedicels have the appearance of a true pedicel, but they are not used by the animal as anchoring or locomotory organs. The distinction is easily seen in the living form, and I do not remember having seen a living Holothurian in which the dorsal appendages to any great extent had the power of attaching themselves to a foreign surtace. The sub-genus Bohadschia is said by many authors to have true pedicels all overthe body. After examin- ing a living specimen of Bohadschia vitiensis I said: “The pedicels are irregularly scattered, and the sucking discs are apparently not well developed, since the animal does not appear to use them much.’’* In many forms true pedicels are present on the trivium, and the bivium is covered with papillz which may have a cylindri- cal shape and a well-developed sucking disc, or may be conical and may be devoid of sucking discs. In many cases true pedicels may be scattered among the dorsal papille. Again, some species have no true pedicels, and these forms are more highly specialized than those which have pedicels on the trivium. The absence or presence of pedicels appears a reliable means of separating the two sub-genera Halodeema and Thy- MIOSICYM. NATURE OF THE SPICULES. The spicules in the genus may consist in'the simplest forms of dichotomously branched “ rosettes.” It is easy to conceive how these may give rise first to perforated plates and later to “buttons” and ‘‘ tables.” Those forms possessing tables and buttons may be regarded as more highly specialized than those in which the spicules are in the form of ‘“ dichotomous rods”’ and “ rosettes.” * Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. IX., Part XXXIV., p. 59. Z 6(10)13 166 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. CALCAREOUS RING. The primitive aspidochirote calcareous ring was composed of ten simple pieces (five radials and five inter-radials) without anterior or posterior prolongations (Pl. XXVI., fig. 1). The radial longitudinal muscles were attached to the radial pieces, and in consequence these were notched anteriorly for the insertion of the muscles, and because of this the radial pieces were larger and stronger than the inter-radials (Pl. XXVI., fig. 2). The tentacular ampulle arose near the anterior end of the calcareous ring, and in consequence the anterior end of the ring became scooped out at twenty places (ampullary notches) corresponding to the twenty tentacles (Pl. XXVI., fig. 3). Such a type is seen in the sub-genera Actinopyga and Bohadschia (Pl. XXVL., figs. 4 and 5). In Bohadschia vitiensis the inter- radials do not project so far forward as the radials. This difference gradually becomes emphasized, and at the same time the ampullary notches become less and less marked, until in the sub-genera Argiodia, Halodeima, and Thymiosicya the ampul- lary notches are rarely clearly marked, and there is a marked difference between the radials and inter-radials in respect of the amount of anterior prolongation. Coupled with this we find that the anterior projections of the radials and inter- radials are clearly separated by a deep indentation (Pl. XXVLI., figs. 6, 7, and 8). ANAL TEETH. The presence of anal teeth is not a primitive character, although the anus of the primitive Holothurian was probably pentagonal.* I am inclined to think that the appearance of the anus in Bohadschia is more primitive than the conditions in Halodeima and Thymiosicya. In the latter ’sub-genera the anus is generally rounded, and the papille are not grouped around it in any definite manner. In Bohadschia the anus is surrounded by five groups of papilla, which give the anus a * That is to say, in the contracted condition. In Bohadschia vitiensis the pulsating anus is alternately rounded and pentagonal during the conditions of diastole and systole, respectively. RE-CLASSIFICATION OF MULLERIA AND HOLOTHURIA. 167 five-rayed appearance in the contracted condition. It is not difficult to understand how these groups of papillz may be converted first into eminences very richly provided with spicules, and later into five calcareous masses. The presence of anal teeth in Actinopyga and Argiodia does not necessarily point to a close relationship between the two sub-genera, and it is possible that in the group under discussion, as in some of the Dendrochirotz, these structures have little or no phyletic significance, and may have arisen independently in the two sub-genera. AFFINITIES OF THE FIVE SUB-GENERA. Taking these four characters and applying them to the five eub-genera, we find that with regard to the ambulacral appendages Actinopyga is the most primitive, since, with few exceptions, the pedicels are arranged in three rows on the trivium. In Bohadschia, which in other respects shows close affinities with Actinopyga, the pedicels are scattered over the trivium, with the notable exception of Bohadschia graffet. The species of the sub-genus Bohadschia are described by many as having pedicels all over the body. If such be the case, this would strengthen the claim of Bohadschia to be considered the most primitive member of the genus. J’hymio- sicya, with its complete lack of true pedicels, may be regarded as the most highly specialized. The evidence of the spicules points to Baba and Bohadschia being the most primitive sub-genera, and also indicates their close relationship. The same conclusion is forced upon one by a comparative study of the calcareous ring. I have already pointed out how the pentagonal anus of Bohadschia may be more primitive than the condition of things seen in the other sub-genera, and that the anal teeth of Actinopyga and Argiodia may be readily derived from the condition of things found in Bohadschia. The weight of evidence goes to show that Bohadschia and Actinopyga are more closely related to each other than to the 163 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. other three sub-genera, and that Bohadschia is the more primitive form. The genera Argiodia, Halodeima, and Thymiosicya are united on the common ground of similarity of spicules and calcareous ring. I show the relationship of the sub-genera in the following diagram :— Thymiosicya Argiodia Halodeima Actinopys@ Bohadschia / Ancestral {| Aspidochirote I give below the diagnoses of the genus and the sub-genera. xenus HOLOTHURIA. Linn. (= Miilleria, Jager 1833 + Holothuria, Linn. 1758.) Usually twenty peltate tentacles, exceptionally more or less. Ambulacral appendages, pedicels alone, papille alone, or with both. A single bundle of genital tubes on the left side of the dorsal mesentery. Calcareous ring without posterior pro- longations or long retractor muscles. Cuvierian organs often present. Anal teeth sometimes present. RE-CLASSIFICATION OF MULLERIA AND HOLOTHURIA. 169 Sub-genus Actinopy@a.* Bronn. (= Actinopyga, Bronn, 1860, partim ; Wiilleria, Jager, 1833, partim.) Generally twenty tentacles, but occasionally more. Ambu- lacral appendages, papillz on the bivium and pedicels on the trivium, the former being scattered and the latter being usually arranged in three more or less distinct rows. Anal teeth present. Calcareous ring has well-marked bevelled ampullary notches, and the anterior border has no deep indentations between the radials and inter-radials. The radials extend almost as far forward as the inter-radials. Spicules small, generally taking the form of dichotomously branched. rods or spinous rods, or both. Tables and “‘ buttons” never present. Eight species :— Actinopyga agassizi (Selenka), Actinopyga echinites (diger), Actinopyga formosa (Selenka), Actinopyga lecanora (Jager), Actinopyga mauritiania (Quoy & Gaimard), Actinopyga miliaris (Quoy & Gaimard), Actinopyga obesa (Selenka), Actinopyga serratidens, (Pearson). Sub-genus Bonapscuis.}+ Jager. (= Bohadschia, Jager, 1833; Holothuria, Linn. partim ; Sporadipus, Brandt, 1835, partim.) Twenty tentacles. Ambulacral appendages, pedicels, and papille. The trivium bears pedicels only, which are generally scattered, but which may be arranged in three rows. The bivium may bear either papillz only, or papillze mixed with pedicels (? or pedicels only). Anus surrounded by five groups of papilla and in the contracted condition generally pentagonal in shape. Anal teeth absent. The calcareous ring closely * This sub-genus is almost identical with Bronn’s genus Actinopyga. I therefore retain this name. { The sub-genus which I now establish for H. marmorata and the related forms is practically identical with Jager’s Bohadschia. I there- fore propose re-establishing this name, which has long been discarded. 170 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. resembles that found in Actinopyga. Spicules in general similar to those of Actinopyga. Five species :— Bohadschia marmorata (Jager), Bohadschia argus (Jager), Bohadschia vitiensis (Semper), Bohadschia paradoxa (Selenka), Bohadschia graffei (Semper). Sub-genus ARaiop1A.* Sub-gen. nov. (= Miilleria, Jager, 1833, partim ; Microthele, Brandt, 1835, partim.) — Twenty tentacles. Ambulacral appendages, papille on the bivium and pedicels on the trivium ; no arrangement into rows discernible. Anal teeth present. Calcareous ring having no well-marked ampullary notches. The anterior border deeply concave between the radials and inter-radials. Spicules well-developed and consist of tables and buttons. Four species :— Argiodia maculata (Selenka), Argiodia parvula (Selenka), Argiodia excellens (Ludwig), Argiodia flavo-castanea (Théel). Sub-genus HALODEMA.{ Sub-gen. nov. (= Holothuria, Linn. partim ; Microthele, Brandt, 1835, partim ; Sporadipus, Brandt, 1835, partim ; Trepang, Jager, 1833, partin ; Cystipus, Haacke, 1880.) Generally twenty tentacles, occasionally more or less. Ambulacral appendages, papillee on the bivium and pedicels on the trivium. Generally no arrangement into rows discern- ible. Anal teeth absent. Calcareous ring having no ampul- lary notches. The anterior border deeply concave between the radials and inter-radials. Spicules rarely perforated, plates only, or tables only. Se tables and perforated plates or buttons. 7 t6d0Uc = With white teeth. + adc = the sea; Seitua = monster. RE-CLASSIFICATION OF MULLERIA AND HOLOTHURIA. 171 This sub-genus contains a large number of species, of which Halodeima atra (Jager) and Halodeima monacaria (Lesson) are representative. Sub-genus THymtiosicya.* Sub-gen. nov. | (= Holothuria, Linn. partim ; Fistularia, Forskaal, 1775 ; Trepang, Jager, 1833, partim.) Twenty tentacles. Ambulacral appendages, papillz only, which are often situated on wart-like eminences. Anal teeth absent. Calcareous ring similar to that of Halodeima. Spicules, tables, and buttons. This sub-genus contains a large number of species, of which Thymiosicya impatiens (Forskaal) and Thymiosicya spinifera (Théel) may be said to be typical examples. The following is a brief key to the sub-genera :— A.—Calcareous ring with well-marked bevelled ampullary notches. The anterior border of the calcareous ring does not show the usual clear separation of radials from inter-radials. The inter-radials extend almost as far forward as the radials. Spicules small, and taking the form of dichoto- mously branched rods, or spinous rods, or both. (a) With anal teeth. BA aid crate a he Ae late ntee Actinopyga. Bah. 8 A RM eRe tig from dorsal integument. 570. Fig. 8d.—‘‘ Grains ” from the ventral integument. xX 500. Fig. 8e.—Calcareous ring. X 1}. Actinopyga lecanora (Jager). Fig. 9.—Calcareous ring. X23. ® Sow 2° Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. 1X., Part XX XV. Plate XX ViT. G. H. del. ARGIODIA MACULATA, Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. 1X., Part XX XV. Plate XXVIII, Piero a: Pe ree IG COS LRNS ie IeB hak Fie. 2.—ARGIODIA MACULATA, Fic. 3.—ARGIODIA FLAVO-CASTANEA, Fia. 4.--ARGIODIA PARVULA, Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. 1X., Part XX XV. Plate XXIX. 5b sa J.P. del, Fie. 5.—Acrinopyca SERRATIDENS. Fie. 6.—ActTInoPpyGa MILIARIS. Fic. 7.—ACTINOPYGA ECHINITES, Fig. 8.—ACTINOPYGA MAURITIANA, Fie. 9.—AcTINOPYGA LECANORA. SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 191 NOTES ON THE SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. By Captain R. B. Srymour SEwett, B.A., I.M.S. Surgeon-Naturalist to the Marine Survey of India and Honorary Assistant Superintendent, Zoological and Anthropological Section, Indian Museum, Calcutta. (With five Plates and one Map.) HE collections on which the following notes are based are - two in number. ‘The first of these is a very extensive one from the Ceylon pearl banks and neighbouring waters. This collection was made by Mr. T. Southwell during the years 1906-09, when he was Scientific Adviser to the Ceylon Pearl Fishery Syndicate, and comprises 326 samples ; at the time when the Syndicate ceased its operations, this collection was handed over to Dr. J. Pearson, the Director of the Colombo Museum, and I have to thank him for entrusting it to me for examination. The second collection was made by Mr. S. W. Kemp, of the Indian Museum, during the month of February, 1913, at Paumben and Kilakarai on the south coast of India. The collections proved to be exceedingly rich, containing in all 87 species and varieties, of which five are new to science, namely, Acrocalanus similis, Scolecithricella pearsoni, Centropages trispinosus, Acartia southwelli, Acartiella kempi, gen. nov. ; and in addition I am able to record the occurrence of the following hitherto unknown forms :— Eucalanus mucronatus, 3; Labidocera pavo, 3; Acartia amboinensis, 2 ; Tortanus forcipatus, 3. In the accompanying table I have given a complete list of the various species and varieties, and have indicated by + the various localities in which they were present. For the most part the species are widely distributed, but it is of interest to note that the species of the genera Hucheta, Scolecithrix, Scolecithricella, and Candacia appear to be very largely confined to the region of the pearl banks lying to the west of Karativu island, between it and the overialls, including 192 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. Dutch Moderagam, Karativu, and Alanturai paars, all of which localities proved to be exceedingly rich as regards the Copepod fauna. The positions of the various localities in which collections were made are shown on the chart, but in the case of many of the paars they are approximate only. Family, CALANIDA. Genus Calanus, Leach. CALANUS MINOR (Claus.). * Calanus minor, Giesbrecht, 1888, p. 331. — Giesbrecht, 1891, p. 282. Cleve, 1901, p. 5. — A. Scott, 1902, p. 422. Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 241. —_—_—____—— Wolfenden, 1905, p. 995. ? Calanus caroli (2), Wolfenden, 1905, p. 994. Calanus minor, Cleve, 1905, p. 186. A. Scott, 1909, p. 7. ———— Sewell, 1912, p. 354. Undinula caroli (2), Sewell, 1912, p. 356. Calanus minor, Pesta, 1913, p. 30. This species is comparatively rare on the pearl banks, and is absent altogether in the majority of tow-nettings. Most of the specimens obtained were females. Wolfenden (1905) obtained a female calanid, of which he gives neither a full description nor any figures, from the Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagoes : he believed this form to be the hitherto- unknown female of Undinula (Calanus) carol, Giesbrecht. I obtained what appeared to be similar examples from the Burma coast, but a subsequent examination showed that they were in reality examples of Calanus minor, and, as I have — pointed out below (p. 199), there seems to be some reason for believing that Undinula caroli is merely a variety of Undinula darwini, Giesbrecht (3). * In the majority of cases the list of references only includes those that refer to the occurrence of the species in Indian waters. SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 193 CALANUS TENUICORNIS, Dana. Calanus tenwicornis, Cleve, 1904, p. 186. - A. Scott, 1909, p. 8. This species was represented by a single female taken near Karativu Paar. Its occurrence is of some interest, as it is the first occasion on which it has been recorded from Indian coastal waters. Genus Canthocalanus, A. Scott. CANTHOCALANUS PAUPER (Giesbrecht). Calanus pauper, Thompson, 1899, p. 275. —_—_—_—_—_—— Cleve, 1901, p. 5. A. Scott, 1902, p. 400. —______-___—. Cleve, 1903, p. 357. —— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 241. —_+—___—_— Wolfenden, 1905, p. 995. Canthocalanus pauper, A. Scott, 1909, p. 9. Calanus pauper, Pesta, 1912, p. 43. Canthocalanus pauper, Sewell, 1912, pp. 315 and 355. Calanus pauper, Pesta, 1913, p. 30. CANTHOCALANUS PAUPER, var. PLUMULOSUS, Wolfenden. Canthocalanus pauper, var. plumulosus, Sewell, 1912, p. 355. This species was universally distributed over the pearl banks and neighbouring waters, occurring at times in large numbers. Wolfenden (loc. cit., p. 994, 1905) has called attention to a curious modification of the furcal setze which is occasionally met with in Undinula vulgaris, Paracalanus aculeatus, Calocalanus pavo, and Huchirella bella var. indica. This modification consists of “ a more or less dichotomous 194 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. branching, repeated in the sub-branches, the whole forming a sort of brush,” and he has proposed that examples showing this character should be considered as a variety under the name “ plumulosus.” I have previously (loc. cit., pp. 355, 357, and 359) recorded a similar modification in Canthocalanus pauper, Undinula caroli, and Acrocalanus longicornis. Numerous specimens, both of the above species and of Undinula vulgaris, showed this peculiarity, and a study of these examples has caused me to alter my opinion. I am inclined to regard this branching of the setee merely as an abnormality and not a true variety. In the tables below I have given the results obtained from an examination of the furcal sete of a series of individuals of these two species, in which this peculiarity was present to a greater or less degree ; in all cases the seta showing the modification is indicated by +. Canthocalanus pauper. No. and Sex. Left Furca. Right Furca. Ca a ea ayo oat Bie it PAGS AP SOUR Les a ate uen Gibaie ea NS 2. ¢ ale i . + : A Anis ; ne ae Oy Fu é 5 . 5g ee cre ee (eee 6 3 app) ae a : Sie ty ah A ae ‘ +. : : Sees 8 ¢ : : : : + + . ore 96 ‘ yee cd : : ; ay 10 2 Ses ane a ise, cape ate ae a Bice aU on ae BES ets toga ies Sel Pa Va ae hii hoa hs a ae Saas es 2 ee ee sg) tat fe eater le Lag Soar ichetshwy aay eh jeeaw i ote ae ees Toe ; . : : Sei ne . . AE Op 16 9 + + 4. . te sche) (er a Loe FRY EON oa Sie, ot hl oe nail “gue 199 + +o. + + . |< 20 @ ~ t+ + : : , Number of times each seta sO) LOM AL velG a3 Dy le lio ee: 1 affected SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 195 Sex. Left Furca. Gane a ~ +: -t+++- » +++. +- Po. O She fe fe $e tH: - $+: ++: — for) 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 4040 40 4040 40 4040 40 40 40 40 4040 4040 40 40 40 O5 O3 OF 05 O3 O35 . +-+-+.- +. cm. The + +. Number of times each 4 seta affected 3 on Stee cies opts b++++tt: t4+4+4+: alee -f+++ +: Undinula vulgaris. 2 — - f+ $+: -f+H: -+++4++++- i -t4+t+4- ae 2 -t4+t+ 0° -f4++: 4° +o tt++: +444: Sls a Lallate aire 3 - fe fete $44: Right Furca. + == i oe 5 12. Alb) 18 18 15 20 14 10 Mane , a & &r 35 Oo Sic oO te Hs [as] a) 588 > Of a” & a] ° + o 4 3 g S oof M1 ° oH Pals ed oe o 23 oe as Eg a) q 2 ie {cd} 2, n a a) = He PO ng OD Sa BUREN SESS a* > Sostpades Fara ss° _—S ll O'"naU From the above it is evident that there is little or no regularity in the disposition of the plumose sete in any particular individual, in some cases only a single hair showing this change, in others all ten doing so; it is quite exceptional to find any attempt at symmetry in the arrangement. Tt will be noticed that in the number of individuals affected, the proportion of females is larger than that of males, but a 196 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA. difference such as this might easily be accounted for by the greater preponderance of females in the catch. With regard to the total number of hairs affected and their relative position, it is quite clear that on the whole far more setze are abnormal in the female than in the male, and, further, the sete most frequently affected are those that possess the greatest length, 7.e., numbers 2, 3, and 4. I have on one occasion found a similar “ plumose ” seta arising from the tip of a damaged antenna in an example of Acrocalanus longicornis. In this case the antenna had obviously been damaged on some previous occasion, the terminal segments being broken off ; subsequently the stump had healed, and from the scar this seta had arisen. I am of the opinion that this plumose modification is an abnormality produced by injury to, and subsequent re- generation of, the seta, and, further, the prevalence of this change in spermatophore-bearing females of Undinula vulgaris would tend to show that the injury is frequently caused during the act of deposition of the spermatophore by the male. 93 Genus Undinula, Scott. UNDINULA VULGARIS (Dana). (Pl. XVILI., figs. 1 and 2.) Calanus vulgaris, Giesbrecht, 1896, p. 318. -—_—_—_—_—__——— Thompson, 1899, p. 275. —____—_—— Cleve, 1901, p. 5. —_—_—_—_—_— A, Scott, 1902, p. 400. —__—_—_—_——— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 357. Cleve, 1903, p. 357. —_— Cleve, 1904, p. 186. Wolfenden, 1905, p. 994. Undinula vulgaris, A. Scott, 1909, p. 16. Sewell, 1912, pp. 315 and 356. Calanus vulgaris var. plumulosus, Wolfenden, 1905, p. 994. Pl. XCVL., figs. 21, 22. UOndinula vulgaris var. plumulosus, Sewell, 1912, p. 356. SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 197 This species was widely distributed throughout the regions investigated. Numerous examples were obtained showing the modified tail setae as described by Wolfenden (vide ante, p- 193), but, as I have already pointed out, I do not consider this condition to be a true variation. Several examples were obtained which show the double spine on the left side of the posterior thoracic margin. This modification was first described by Giesbrecht (1893, Pl. VILI., fig. 28). I have since obtained specimens from the east side of the Bay of Bengal, in the neighbourhood of the Andaman Islands and Mergui Archipelago, in which this condition is even more pronounced. In these specimens the left side of the thoracic margin is considerably swollen, and forms a stout prominence projecting outwards and backwards, and bears two stout spmes—the dorsal projecting backwards and somewhat upwards, and the ventral pointing vertically downwards and being considerably swollen at its base. We thus have three forms, which appear to be quite distinct from one another, for I have up to the present failed to discover any intermediate forms. UNDINULA DARWINI (Lubbock). Calanus darwini, Thompson, 1899, p. 275. —__—__——— Cleve, 1901, p. 5. ——_—_—_—— A. Scott, 1902, p. 400. —— = hompson é& scott; 1903;%p; 241: Cleve, 1903) pada. —__—_—_——— Cleve, 1904, p. 185. = aa ea WY Oluenden, 1o0b, pi 994 Undinula darwini, A. Scott, 1909, p. 17. ——_—__—_—_——— Sewell, 1912, p. 356. ———_— — — — Pesta, 1913; p: 30, ig: 13. This species was much less common in the Ceylon collections than the preceding, though it is of frequent occurrence in other parts of the Indian Ocean. According to Giesbrecht (1893, Pl. VII., fig. 29), both first and second abdominal segments are furnished with a row of sharp spines on the 2D 6(10)13 198 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. posterior margin, and the posterior thoracic margin on the left side is produced backwards in a rectangular projection ; but a study of numerous examples from various localities in the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal has shown that these characters are subject to very considerable variation. As regards the spinulation of the abdominal segments, many specimens possessed spines only on one of the segments, while in some cases spines were absent altogether. Again, in numerous examples the posterior thoracic margin formed almost a uniform curve, with a very slight rounded projection towards the ventral side ; in other cases this prominence was. more marked and formed a somewhat triangular prominence, while in a few cases the typical projection was present. In this species, as in U. vulgaris, it would appear that there are three forms of the posterior thoracic margin, which are quite distinct from one another, and a close examination of a large number of specimens has failed to show any correlated change. UNDINULA DARWINI, var. CAROLI (Giesbrecht). Calanus caroli, Giesbrecht, 1888, p. 331. Giesbrecht, 1893, p. 91. Pl. VIIL., fig. 36. 3, Wolfenden, 1905, p. 994. Pl. XCVII., fig. 41. Undinula caroli, A. Scott, 1909, p. 18. This form was first described by Giesbrecht (loc. cit., 1888), who considered that it was a distinct species. Wolfenden (loc. cit., 1905) obtained examples from the Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagoes, and associated with these were several females, which he considered to be the hitherto- unknown female. According to his brief description these forms were distinguished from the female Undinula darwini by the absence of teeth on the distal portion of the margin of exopod 3 in the second and third pairs of swimming feet, and by the presence of a few fine spines on the first basal of the first pair. The absence of the marginal teeth separates these females from the present form, in which these teeth invariably occur exactly as in U. darwini, and the fine spines on the first basal of the first leg is a character that. I have found — te SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 199 present in Calanus minor, As I have previously mentioned (vide ante, p. 192), I consider that these forms are in all probability examples of Calanus minor. As A. Scott (loc. cit.) has pointed out, the form known as U. caroli 3 is easily recognizable from U. durwint $ by its constantly smaller size and by the structure ot the fifth pair of legs. In a tow-netting taken at “ Investigator ” Station No. 470 (Sawi Bay, Kar Nicobar, December 7, 1912), large numbers of both forms were present, associated with numerous examples of Undinula darwint 2; a comparative study of the two forms of male has given the following interesting results. The proportional. lengths of the abdominal and furcal segments in the two forms are— Undinula darwini: 45: 41: 32: 27: 25: 23. Undinula caroi: 45: 41: 31: 27: 24: 22. The proportional lengths of the antennal joints are as follows :—* ; Segments : 1-9) 355. 6. 17. 8-95 102 1. 125 13) 145° 15. U. darwint .. 121 82 26 27 40 26 31 38 46 46 49 U. caroi =... +118 79 24 26 39 28 30 37 45 45 50 Segments : 16. 17. 18. 19. 20: 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. U. darwint .. 49 51 53 57 46 46 51 51 46 18 U. carola .. 50 51 58 56 47 47 53 53 50 19 The structure of the first four pairs of swimming legs is exactly. similar in the two forms, not only as regards the spinulation, but also in the proportional lengths of the various segments ; thus the proportional lengths of the segments and end spine in the third leg of the two forms are as follows :— U. darwint. U. carol. First Basal he UPR! Risse 17°9 Second Basal = Se ote 8°3 Exopod 1 .. Ret LRZON 2 fi-0 Exopod 2 .. : a Lae Oe 14°5 Exopod 3 .. si re ik! eae 30°0 End spine Be Isobar 18-3 Totallength .. 100-0 100-0 * Tn all cases the total length of the antenna has been taken = 1,000. In this way it is found that comparison between specimens of unequal size is greatly facilitated. 200 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. As a result of a careful study, it appears that the sole appreciable difference between these forms lies in the structure of the fifth pair of legs. The question then arises, Are we justified in considering these forms to be distinct “ species ”’ ? Examples of variation in the structure of the sexual appen- dayes have been described in other species, e.g., Labidocera kroyert (Brady) ; and the similarity of the two forms is so close, even to the lengths of the antennal segments and the proportions of the swimming feet, that I submit we could only get such a close resemblance in individuals of the same species, and J believe that the form described by Giesbrecht under the name Calanus caroli is merely a variation of the male of Undinula darwins. Genus Eucalanus, Dana. EUCALANUS ATTENUATUS (Dana). Eucalanus attenuatus, Thompson, 1899, p. 276. ~~ Cleve, 1901, p. 6. . Cleve, 1908, p. 362. = Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 242. -—— ——- Wolfenden, 1903-06, p. 996. ——- Cleve, 1904, p. 189. Sewell, 1912, p. 357. A few examples occurred in the collection from the pearl banks. EUCALANUS SUBTENUIS, Giesbrecht. Kucalanus subtenuis, Cleve, 1901, p. 7. —__________—— §cott, 1902, p. 401. Cleve, 1903, p. 363. Se hompson i ScOb otey pee —_______—_ —___-— Wolfenden, 1903-06, p. 996. Cleve, 1904, p. 190. —--——— Seott, 1909, p. 21. , ——______—__——_ Sewell, 1912, p. 358. This species was on the whole well represented in the collec- tions. SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 201 EUCALANUS MUCRONATUS, Giesbrecht. Eucalanus mucronatus, Cleve, 1901, p. 7. -Cleve, 1903, p. 362. - Cleve, 1904, p. 189. ee - Wolfenden, 1905, p. 996. —__—— Scott, 1909, p. 20. Several examples of this species were obtained, although it was by no means common. Hitherto only the female form has been known, but in a tow-netting from Dutch Moderagam Paar, associated with several females was a single male specimen, that shows the following characters :— $. Total length, 3°3 mm. The proportions of the cephalothorax and abdomen are as 7:1. The head and first thoracic segments are fused, but the fourth and fifth thoracic segments are separate. The anterior extremity of the head region is produced in a spike, as in the female. The abdomen consists of four segments, of which the second and third are slightly longer than the first, and the anal segment is quite short. The furcal setze are asymmetrical, the second seta on the left side being much longer and stouter than the others. The first antenne are long, over-reaching the tip of the furcal rami by the last five or six segments. The proportional lengths of the various segments are as follows, and for purposes of comparison [ give the lengths of the segments in the female :— Segments: 1-2. 3. 4. Dos Omit | O—Seee lOve Pho lae ) Los Oe a 23 2b 25) 2b 2Zhe29. “S034 34 39h 43 Gg. .. 6969 24 24 24 24 26 52 38 38 48 52 Segments: 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22, 23. 24, 25. Q. .. 45 49 49 49 53 53 49 49 41 41 29 41 gd. ..' 52 53 52 52 48 48 41 AL Bie ate) Oa Bs: In the main the proportions of the joints are very much the same, the principal differences being the fusion of segments 1 and 2 in the female, and the short 22nd segment in the male. 202 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. The second antenna, mouth parts, and the first four pairs of swimming legs are similar to those of the female. The fifth swimming legs are of interest, in that both are present, thus resembling the condition found in FL. attenuatus (Dana) and #. elongatus. The left leg is the longer, and when folded back reaches to the extreme tip of the furcal rami; the right leg is somewhat stouter, and the terminal segment bears a stout seta. An immature male was also obtained in the same locality. In this individual the abdomen consists of three segments only, the third not yet having undergone division. Both legs of the fifth pair were present, but were equal in size. EUCALANUS PILEATUS, Giesbrecht. Eucalanus pileatus, Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 242. -— Cleve, 1904, p. 189. ——_—_ — Wolfenden, 1905, p. 996. A. Scott, 1909, p. 21. - Sewell, 1912, p. 357. Only a few examples of this species were obtained. EUCALANUS MONACHUS, Giesbrecht. Eucalanus monachus, Cleve, 1901, p. 6. = oe Cleve, 1903, p. 362. Thompson & Seott; 1903, p: 242. —- Cleve, 1904, p. 189. ee = WVoltenden, LOUa; pmwo0: es _ A Scott, 1909, p20. Sewell, 1912, p. 357. This species was fairly well represented in the collections. EUCALANUS CRASSUS, Giesbrecht. Eucalanus crassus, Cleve, 1901, p. 6. Scott, 1902, p. 401. — Cleve, 1903, p. 362. SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 203 Eucalanus crassus, Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 242. ——-—_——-— Uleve, 1904, n. 189) = ee W Olfenden, 1905,:p. 996; Se eas OCOtb, 1909. pa 1G) —— -——— Newell, 1912, p. 357. Numerous examples were obtained. EUCALANUS SUBCRASSUS, Giesbrecht. Eucalanus subcrassus, Giesbrecht, 1888, p. 334. as Giesbrecht, 1891, p. 282. gta rie aaa eee lesbrecht; 1896; p. 317. ee IE LIB gs ee — = Thompson & Scott, 1903, p: 242. e a Cleve, 1904, p. 190. = ——-—- Wolfenden, 1905, p. 996. -———_— ——— Scott, 1909, p. 21. Sewell, 1912, p. 358. Sh Pesta, 1912, p. 44, fig. 3. s==— - Pesta, 1913, p. 31. Examples of this species were common ; it appears to be widely distributed throughout the Indian Ocean and its offshoots. Genus Rhincalanus, Dana. RHINCALANUS GIGAs, Dana. Rhinealanus cornutus, Thompson, 1899, p. 276. Cleve, 1901, p. 8. ——— —- A. Scott, 1902, p. 402. —— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 242. Cleve, 1903, p. 368. Cleve, 1904, p. 196. = - Wolfenden, 1905, p. 996. kee : —- A. Scott, 1909, p. 23. = =~ Sewell, 1912, p. 358: Although widely distributed in Indian waters, this species is by no means common in surface collections. A few examples were obtained on the pear] banks. 904 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. RHINCALANUS GIGAS, Brady. (?) Rhincalanus gigas, Thompson, 1899, p. 276. Rhincalanus nasutus, A. Scott, 1902, p. 401. 2 Cleve, 1903, p. 368. — Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 242. —-—~ — Cleve, 1904, p. 196. ee Wolfenden, 1905, p. 996. ee gigas, A. Scott, 1909, p. 24. There is some doubt whether Rhincalanus gigas, Brady, and Rhincalanus nasutus, Giesbrecht, are synonymous. The differences that distinguish them are, apart from size, which per se cannot be regarded as a specific character, of a trivial character, and [ am inclined to agree with Scott (loc. cit., 1909) that they are merely forms of one species. Several examples of the form corresponding to fk. nasutus were obtained on the pearl banks. Genus Mecynocera, Thompson. MECYNOCERA CLAUSI, Thompson. Mecynocera clausi, A. Scott, 1902, p. 422. — — Cleve, 1903, p. 364. Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 242. — — A. Scott, 1909, p. 25. Although by no means common, several examples were obtained, all of which proved to be females. Genus Paracalanus, Boeck. PARACALANUS ACULEATUS, Giesbrecht. Paracalanus aculeatus, Giesbrecht, 1888, p. 333. — Giesbrecht, 1891, p. 282. -—___-—_-+_——-_ Giesbrecht, 1893, p. 164. Pl. 1X., figs. 20, 26, 30. Paracalanus parvus, 'T. Scott, 1894, p. 26. Pl. I., figs. 9-14. Paracalanus aculeatus, Dahl, 1894, p. 12. SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 205 Paracalanus aculeatus, Giesbrecht, 1896, p. 318. Giesbrecht & Schmeil, 1898, p. 24. —_—____--————_ Cleve, 1901, pp. Sand 47. Pl. VI., figs. 1-10. Acrocalanus pediger (3 only), Cleve, 1901, p. 35. Pl. L, figs. 15-20. Paracalanus aculeatus, A. Scott, 1902, pp. 402 and 423. Cleve, 1903, p. 366. Cleve, 1904, p. 194. ———_—_——_—————— Wolfenden, 1905, p. 998. PI. XOVL., figs. 12-15. ——_—__—_—__—______———_ Sars, 1905, p. 2. Paracalanus clever, Carl, 1907, p. 7. Paracalanus aculeatus, A. Scott, 1909, p. 26. Pesta, 1912, p. 44, fig. 4. Sewell, 1912, pp. 326 and 358. Pesta, 1913, p. 31. As the above synonymy sufficiently indicates, considerable confusion has arisen as regards this species, which was first described by Giesbrecht in 1888 from the female only. The first record that I can find in the literature of the occurrence of male examples is that by Dahl (1894), but gives no description or figures. Cleve (1901) in the account of his investigations on the Malayan Plankton describes a male form, but from his description it is quite obvious that the specimens before him were immature, and had not adopted the final sexual characters. In the same paper, however, he has described a new species of Acrocalanus under the name A. pediger. In his description he gives a detailed account of the structure of both male and female forms, and his conclu- sion, that they are specifically the same, appears to have been accepted. To Carl (1907) belongs the credit of being the first to recognize that the two. sexes described by Cleve do not belong to one another, that whereas the so-called female (vide infra, p. 211) belongs to the genus Acrocalanus, the male is undoubtedly a Paracalanus ; he, therefore, separates this latter sex and proposes for it the name Paracalanus clevei. During my investigations on the Copepoda of the coast of Burma and on the present collections from the Gulf of Mannar, 25 6(10)13 206 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. I have met with numerous examples of this male form, and a study of its structure has convinced me that it is the true male of P. aculeatus. I give below a description of these individuals :— 3S. Total length, 1:2 mm. The abdomen and cephalothorax have the relative pro- portions 1: 2°6. The head and first thoracic segments are fused, as are also the fourth and fifth thoracic segments, though in the latter region traces of the original line of division are distinctly visible ; the posterior thoracic margin is rounded. The abdomen consists of five segments, having, with the furca, the following proportional lengths :-— 13:2927 22202790) 17: 12; The furcal rami are symmetrical, and the proportions of lensth to breadth are 12: 9. The First Antenna.—As in the case of the adult male of P. parvus, so here also we find that the basal segments of the antenna become fused together into three joints—the first and second, the third to the sixth, and the seventh and eighth segments respectively being fused. The proportional lengths of the joints are as follows :-— Segments: 1-2. 3-6. 7-8. 9 10. 11, 12. 18. 14. 165. 117 157 68 20 26 28 31 40 40 40 Segments: 16: 17. 18. 19. 20. 21,. 2% 23: 24. 25, A3 543 0 46° 746546) 46) 437949) 3400 Si The antenna when folded back only reaches to the end of the abdomen. Second Antenna.—This appendage exactly resembles those of the sexually mature males of P. parvus (vide Giesbrecht, 1893, Pl. TX., fig. 23) and P. serratipes (vide Sewell, 1912, Pl. XV., fig. 7). As I have already pointed out, the nipple- like termination of the exopodite is a sexual character developed in adult males in the three genera Paracalanus, Acrocalanus, and Peizocalanus (loc. cit., 1912, p. 336). The mouth parts are similar to those of other adult males of the same venus. SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 207 The First Pair of Legs.—Basal | bears a single seta on its inner border, and is devoid of any spines either on its surfaces or the external margin. Basal 2 bears the usual S-shaped seta on its distal inner border, and is likewise devoid of spines. Exopod 1 bears a single inner seta and has no marginal spine. Exopod 2 has a single inner seta and bears a short transverse row of needle-like spines on the outer margin. Exopod 3 has four inner sete : the usual two marginal spines are present, and in addition there is a row of three or four teeth on the proximal part of the outer border. The end spine is long and slender, being nearly as long as the whole exopodite. The endopodite is two-jointed, and reaches to the level of the joint between exopuds 2 and 3. The Second Par of Legs—Basal | bears a single inner seta and no spines. Basal 2 has no spines or sete. Exopod | has a well-developed marginal spine, and bears in addition a transverse row of sharp spinules on its outer and posterior aspect. ‘There is a single inner seta. Exopod 2 bears a marginal spine, and in addition has a row of six curved claw-like spinules on its outer margin, and three triangular spines on its anterior surface. A single seta is present on the inner margin. : Exopod 3 bears two marginal spines and a row of spinules on that part of the outer margin proximal to the first spine. Five sete arise from the inner border, The terminal spine is a trifle longer than the last segment, in the proportions 9 : 8. Endopod 1 is small, and the outer border ends in a short spine. A single seta is present. Endopod 2 bears an oblique curved row of spinules, usually five or six in number on the posterior surface, and a longi- tudinal row of four or five needle-like spinules on the outer border, which also terminates in a small spinous process. A corona of small spinules is situated on the anterior aspect near the distal margin. A pair of sete are present on the inner border. 208 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA. Endopod 3 bears seven seta, and a few spinules are present posteriorly. The Third and Fourth Pairs of Legs are very similar to the second pair, but the terminal spine on the fourth exopodite is shorter than the segment preceding it. The Fifth Pair of Legs —These, as in all adult males in this genus, are asymmetrical : the left leg consists of a somewhat swollen basal portion and a terminal part composed of four segments. There is an obvious hinge between the basal and terminal portions, and the proportions of the segments are 20:15:15: 15:12. The last segment ends in two unequal spinous processes, and the penultimate segment bears a single spine at its distal external angle. The right leg is composed of a basal and two free segments. It is much shorter than the left, and ends in two unequal spines. PARACALANUS PARVUS (Claus.). Paracalanus parvus, Cleve, 1901, p. 8. —_—________--—---— A. Scott, 1902, pp. 402 and 423. —--—_______—- Cleve, 1903, p. 367. —_—__---_—_—_——— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 243. --— Cleve, 1904, p. 194. —_—_--—___——_ var. indicus, Wolfenden, 1905, p. 998. Pl. XCVL., figs. 7-11 and 16. -- A. Scott, 1909, p. 27. —__—_——--— Sewell, 1912, p. 358. Numerous examples were obtained in the various localities, and its distribution in Indian waters appears to be almost universal. J agree with Scott (oc. cit., 1909) that the minute differences noted by Wolfenden between specimens taken in the North Atlantic Ocean and those from Indian seas are not of sufficient importance to justify the separation of the latter as a special variety. \ PARACALANUS SERRATIPES, Sewell. Paracalanus serratipes, Sewell, 1912, p. 3382. Pl. XV figs. 6-10. SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE) GULF OF MANNAR. 209 This species was first obtained from the Burmese coast ; a few examples occurred in the collections from the pearl banks, which undoubtedly belong to the same species ; they however, differ slightly from the Burmese specimens in that the terminal segment of the first antenna is somewhat longer in proportion to the preceding segments, but in all other respects these examples agree with the type specimens. Genus Acrocalanus, Giesbrecht. ACROCALANUS LONGICORNIS, Giesbrecht. Acrocalanus longicornis, Giesbrecht, 1888, p. 332 ; Gies- brecht, 1891, p. 282. os Cleve, 1901, p. 5. ee hampsdreds neous OUsy Pp. ater SS WWolienaen.) 1 0005. pa L000: git, LEE i Sewell, 1912, p. 358. Pesta, 1913, p. 13, fig. 14. a Examples of this species were fairly plentiful ; it appears to have a wide distribution in Indian seas. ACROCALANUS GRACILIS, Giesbrecht. Acrocalanus gracilis, Giesbrecht, 1896, p. 318. ——_____--——_———__ Cleve, 1901, p. 4. —————_—— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 243. —______---___—— Cleve, 1903, p. 356. --———. Cleve, 1904, p. 184. ———---—- Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1003. ——______--___—_—. Scott, 1909, p. 29. - —_—___—— Sewell, 1912, p. 359. This species was by no means common in the collections all the examples obtained were females. 210 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. ACROCALANUS MONACHUS, Giesbrecht. Acrocalanus monachus, Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 243. --—__________——. Cleve, 1903, p. 356. —--—————_———. Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1002. ——--——_—__-—_—_——- A. Scott, 1909, p. 30. —--—_—_—___—___—_—_- Sewell, 1912, p. 359. A few specimens were obtained. ACROCALANUS GIBBER, Giesbrecht. Acrocalanus gibber, Giesbrecht, 1888, p. 332. ee Giesbrecht, 1891, p. 282. —--—_—_———_ Giesbrecht, 1896, p. 318. —_—_—---————_—— Thompson, 1899, p. 276. ——_—__---———-- Cleve, 1901, pp. 4 and 36. Pl. IL., figs. 1-16. Acrocalanus pediger (f° part), Cleve, 1901, pp. 5 and 33. Pl. L., figs. 1-14. Acrocalanus gibber, A. Scott, 1902, pp. 402 and 423. Acrocalanus gibber, Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 243. Acrocalanus pediger, Cleve, 1903, p. 356. Acrocalanus gibber, Cleve, 1904, p. 184. rs Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1003. ———_—_—_ A. Scott, 1909, p. 29. —_—___---__-—_—_- Sewell, 1912, pp. 315 and 359. Considerable confusion appears to have arisen with regard to this species. The original description was based on female examples only, and this form is easily recognized by the shape of the body and the partial separation of the first thoracic segment from the head region. Cleve (loc. cit., 1901) described a form from the Malay Archipelago which he considered to be the adult male ; these examples, though closely resembling the female as regards the armature of the swimming legs, yet differ considerably in the shape and structure of the cephalo- thorax. In the same paper he described a form which he named A. pediger, but as 1, have already pointed out (vide SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. ZY ante, pp. 205, 206), the male of this so-called Acrocalanus is in reality the male Paracalanus aculeatus. The supposed female is undoubtedly an Acrocalanus, but is an immature male ; the presence of a fifth leg on the left side and the segmentation of the abdomen are sufficient to indicate the sex, and the form apparently corresponds to the male Acrocalanus gibber. In the Ceylon collections numerous examples of this immature male were present, and in almost every case were associated with both immature and mature females of the above species. ACROCALANUS GARDINERI, Wolfenden. Acrocalanus gardineri, Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1004. PI. XCVIL., figs. 5, 10, 14-21. Sewell, 1912, p. 359. The above name was given by Wolfenden to certain adult males that he found in Professor Stanley Gardiner’s collections from the Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagoes. In the present collections are several examples that agree very fairly well with Wolfenden’s description and figures. These males are usually associated with females that appear to belong to the species A. gracilis, and I am inclined to regard A. gardineri and A. gracilis as synonymous, but, at the present time, the data at my disposal is not sufficient to warrant a definite pronouncement on this point. ACROCALANUS SIMILIS, sp. nov. (Pl. XVIL., figs. 3-5.) Several examples, both male and female, of a species of Acrocalanus were obtained at several stations in the Gulf of Mannar. At first sight I took these specimens to be examples of A. inermis, a species that was described by me (loc. cit., 1912, p. 334, Pl. XVI., figs. 1-9) from the coast of Burma, but a closer examination revealed the fact that, although the resemblance between these two forms is very close, yet they differ in several characters, and I consider that the present examples are in all probability a new species, for which I propose the above name. 212 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA. 2. Total length, 0°75--0°80 mm. The proportions of cephalothorax and abdomen are as 3: The head and first thoracic segment are fused together, as also in adult specimens are thoracic segments 4 and 5, though in immature forms the line of separation between the latter can readily be made out. 'The posterior thoracic margin is rounded and is devoid of spines. The rostrum is bifid, and is long and slender. The abdomen consists of four segments, having with the furcal rami the following proportions: 17: 10: 10: 15: 13. The first segment shows a prominent genital swelling on the ventral aspect. The first antenna when folded back reaches to the end of the furcal rami, the first and second segments are fused, and the line of separation between segments 8 and 9 is not com- plete, being only present on the posterior aspect. The antennal joints have the following proportions :— Segments): 1-2..0°6. 420 95. 96. foe 8. 0) TOMS. ove dias 120 32 32 36 36 29 26 28 28 29 34 38 Segments: 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22, 28, 24. 25. 36 36 40 40 44 44 44 48 44 52 44 60 The mouth parts closely resemble those of A. inermis, but the mandible is slizhtly different : the arrangement of the teeth is the same, but the separate first tooth has a longer and somewhat narrower basal portion. ‘The swimming legs in these two species are very similar: in both cases the external margin of the exopodites is devoid of any spines, but in the . present form there are no spines on the posterior aspect of exopod 2 in the second to fourth pairs. 3. Total length, 0:8 mm, The proportional lengths of cephalothorax and abdomen are 2°25: 1. The abdomen consists of five segments, having with the furcal rami the proportional lengths 10: 20: 15: 15: 13.312: —=- -— SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. ies First Antenna.—As in other members of this genus, the basal segments are fused together to form two large joints. The proportional lengths of the various joints are as follows :— Segments: 1-6.-:7-S) 9. 10... 11. 12: 18, 342. 15; 16: ISGuaiomee see 29 829 oGn tot Oo Og Segments: 17. 18, 19, 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 39 41 44 44 48 48 48 44 29 Second Antenna.—As in other members of the genus, in adult males the last joint of the exopodite is devoid of sets, and forms a nipple-like projection. The first to fourth pairs of swimming feet are the same as in the female ; the fifth leg on the left side is present, and consists of a somewhat swollen basal segment and four free joints : the terminal joint bears two unequal sete, and the penultimate joint has a short spine at its distal external angle. It is obvious that this species is very closely related to A. inermis, from the Burma coast, but it differs from it in the following characters :— (1) The total length is somewhat smaller. (2) The terminal segment of the first antenna in the female is somewhat longer, and there are no transverse rows of spinules on segments 1-6. _ (3) There are no spinules on the posterior thoracic margin. (4) There are no spines on the posterior aspect of exopod 2 of any of the swimming legs. (5) The rostrum is long and slender. It is possible that these differences may be merely due to altered environment, but for the present I prefer to consider the above a new species, and I have therefore given it the name A. similis. Genus Calccalanus, Giesbrecht. CALOCALANTS PAVO (Dana). Calocalanus parvo, Gieskrecht, 1896, p. 317. ---_—_—__———. Thompson, 1899, p. 277. —_______---——. Cleve, 1901], p. 5. Qn 6(10)13 214 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. Calocalanus pavo, Scott, 1902, pp. 402 and 423. Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 243. —-——---—___— Cleve, 1903, p. 357. —--—__—__—_—_—. Cleve, 1904, p. 186. —_—_---___—— Wolfenden, 1905, p. 999. ——---__—_——- Scott, 1909, p. 30. ——_-.-—______—- Sewell, 1912, p. 359. This species is widely distributed throughout Indian waters. Several examples were obtained on the pearl banks. CALOCALANUS PLUMULOSUS (Claus.). Calocalanus plumulosus, A. Scott, 1902, pp. 403 and 423. —__--________—___— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 243. —_—_---—______—____-——. Wolfenden, 1905, p. 999. —_— A Scott, 1909, pai. —___________— Sewell, 1912, p. 360. A few examples were obtained from Dutch Moderagam Paar. Family PSEUDOCALANIDA. Genus Glausocalanus, Giesbrecht. CLAUSOCALANUS ARCUICORNIS (Dana), Clausocalanus arcuicornis, Thompson, 1899, p. 277. ——____---_-__—_— Cleve, 1901, p. 5. —_—_____--——_____——- Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 248. —_---___________-—. Cleve, 1903, p. 359. ——---_________—_ Cleve, 1904, p. 188. ——_--—_______—_——. Wolfenden, 1905, p. 999. —_—---_______-__ A. Scott, 1909, p. 32. ——_---—_____—__—__——-_ Sewell, 1912, p. 360. Several] examples were obtained on the pearl banks, SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 215 CLAUSOCALANUS FuURCATUS (Brady). Claus.calanus furcatus, Giesbrecht, 1896, p. 317. ~- Cleve, 1901, p. 5. ——_—_—_—_—_—____—_——.. A. Scott, 1902, pp. 403, 423. —___—_—____—— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 244. ————_—_-—__+_—_—_—_——. Cleve, 1903, p. 360. —_—_—--.--—____—_— Cleve, 1904, p. 188. —________—_——— Wolfenden, 1905, p. 999. — A. Scott, 1909, p. 32. Examples of this species were comparatively common ; both it and the precediny species DE to have a qace distribution in Indian waters. Genus Eucheta, Philippi. KUCH2ETA MARINA (Prestandrea). Eucheta marina, Thompson, 1899, p. 278. Cleve, 1901, p. 7. —_—_____-__—_- A. Scott, 1902, p. 403. —_——________—— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 244. —______—__—_— Cleve, 1903, p. 363. — Cleve, 1904, p. 190. —_—___—_—-———— Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1007. PI. C., figs. 19 and 20 (8). Eucheta indica, Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1008. PI. C., figs. 12-16 (9). Eucheta marina, A. Scott, 1909, p. 67. Pl. XIX, figs. 9-20. = Sewell, 1912, p. 360. Pesta, 1912, p. 45. —_—________—_—_- Pesta, 1913, p. 32. Several examples of this species, belonging to both sexes, were obtained on the pear! banks. 216 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. EUCHZETA CONCINNA, Dana. Euchexta concinna, Cleve, 1901, p. 7. ——--——_—_—_——— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 244. —____-__—_--—— Cleve, 1908, p. 368. —_______--———— Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1008. Pics ; figs. 1-6. ——---_____—— A, Scott, 1909, p. 65. Pl. XIX.., figs. 21-27. ——__--_____——_ Sewell, 1912, p. 360. This species was by far the most common example of the genus present in the Ceylon collection. EUCHZTA WOLFENDENI, Scott. Eucheta marina, Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1007. Pl. C., figs. 7, S Octo 7s AS: Euchexta wolfendeni, A. Scott, 1909, p. 68. Pl. XVII., figs. 1-12. Two examples of this species were obtained from Karativu Paar and Dutch Moderagam Paar, respectively. This species apparently has a wide distribution in Indian waters, for I have recently obtained specimens from tow- nettings taken off the Andaman Islands, and from the Ganjam coast. Family SCOLECITHRICIDA. Genus Scolecithrix, G. Brady. SCOLECITHRIX DAN#& (Lubbock). Scolecithrix danz, Thompson, 1899, p. 279. os — Cleve, 1901, p. 9. —_—----_——_ — A. Scott, 1902, p. 403. - --——---— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 245. ——___.----_--——. Cleve, 1903, p. 568. SS Cleve, 100 por =) ee ee ee ee ee ee SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. PAINT Scolecithrix danx, Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1009. A. Scott, 1909, p. 88. --__—— Sewell, 1912; p. 360. This species was comparatively rare in the collection, Genus Scolecithricella, Sars. SCOLECITURICELLA PEARSONI, sp. nov. (Pl. XVII, figs. 6, 7, and Pl. XVIIL., figs. 1-4). A single male and several females of a species of Scoleci- thricella were obtained at Dutch Moderagam and Karativu Paars. The examples appear to. belong to a hitherto unde- scribed species, and I have given it the above name after Dr. J. Pearson, the Director of the Colombo Museum, who kindly entrusted the present collection from the Ceylon pearl banks to my care for the purpose of examination. The characters of the above species are as follows :-— 9. Total length, 1°0 mm. The proportions of cephalothorax and abdomen are 3°5: 1. The cephalothorax is robust, and is uniformly rounded dorsally. The head and first thoracic segment are fused together, as also are thoracic segments 4 and 5. The rostrum consists of two stout spinous processes. The abdomen has four segments, showing with the furcal rami the following relative proportional lengths :—6:3:3:1: 2. The first antenna is short and reaches, when folded back, to the posterior end of the thorax : it consists of twenty joints having the following proportional lengths :— Segments: 1-2. 3. 4 5 6 7 810. 11, 12-18. 14, L022. 2st 2p 28. 23 5S. .23 btw 29 Segments: 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22, 23, 24-95, 43 47 47 51. 51 51 58 66.89 105 The first and second, eighth to tenth, and twelfth and thirteenth segments are respectively fused together, and so are the twenty-fourth and twenty-fifth. ad 218 7 - SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. The second antenna and mouth parts are similar to those of other members of the yenus. The First Pair of Legs.——The first basal joint bears no external spine or internal seta; the external margin bears a series of fine curved spinules, diminishing in size proximally; the second basal joint bears no marginal spine, but carries a single seta on its inner distal angle. The exopodite consists of three segments : exopod 1 bears no marginal spine; exopod 2 has a single spine, as usual; exopod 3 in most cases bears a single spine on the external margin at its distal extremity, but in two of the specimens examined (a é and a 2) there was a second spine present at the junction of the middle and distal thirds. The end spine is long and slender, and is equal in length to the preceding two segments. The endopodite consists of a single segment having a well-marked rounded swelling on the external border, and across the base of this swelling is a transverse row of needle- like spines. The Second Pair of Legs.—The first basal bears a single seta internally, and is finely serrated on the proximal two-thirds of the outer margin. The second basal is produced at both the internal and external distal angles in a triangular spinous process. The exopodite consists of three segments: exopod | bears . a single seta internally, and externally is armed with a long spine that reaches as far as the base of the spine on the succeeding segment ; exopod 2 bears a single internal seta, and the external spine extends well beyond the base of the proximal spine on exopod 3. On the posterior aspect are two rows of small spinules, one row extends vertically down the centre of the segment and the second runs horizontally along the distal margin ; exopod 3 bears four setz on its internal margin, and externally is armed with three teeth of more or less equal size. On its posterior aspect, this segment carries three curved rows of spinules. Terminally, the end spine is broad and somewhat curved, having a finely-serrated outer margin. The endopodite is two-jointed: endopod 1 bears a single inner seta, and externally is produced at its distal extremity * . ae ss ase ee ee ee ee ees SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 219 in a sharp spinous projection; exopod 2 bears five sete and terminates in a small apical spinous process, while on its posterior aspect it carries a series of sharp needle-like spines. The Third Pair of Legs—Basal 1 bears a single internal seta, and is finely serrated on its external margin ; basal 2 has a spine-like projection on both inner and outer ends of the distal margin. Both exopodite and endopodite consist of three segments : exopod | has a single external spine and one internal seta ; exopod 2 is similarly provided ; exopod 3 bears three external spines ; all the marginal spines are of equal size. In addition, certain of these segments are armed with rows of spinules ; the second basal segment carries a series of small spines on the triangular projection of its distal margin, behind the base of exopod 1 ; exopod 2 bears a transverse row of spines parallel to its posterior distal margin, and exopod 3 bears two rows of spines, one distally alony the transverse border and one shaped like 7 about the middle of its length, both on the posterior aspect. Endopod 1 bears a single internal seta, and terminates externally in a sharp spine-like process ; exopod 2 is similarly provided, and in addition is armed with long needle-like spines on its posterior aspect. Endopod 3 bears five sete, and is armed with spines like the preceding segment. The fourth pair of legs are similar to the third pair, but are armed with a transverse row of spines of the first basal segment, and the marginal serration on this segment is absent. The fifth pair of legs have the form characteristic of the genus. The single segment bears three spines ; the outer is extremely small and arises from the external margin; the second arises distally and is somewhat longer ; the third spine is large and projects inwards from the inner margin ; it is finely serrated on its internal border. $. The total length, 7-0 mm. The proportional lengths of cephalothorax and abdomen are 3:1. The abdomen consists of four segments having, with the fureal rami, the following proportions : 15 : 25: 20 : 22: 10. 220 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA. The first antenna consists of eighteen joints, having the following relative lengths :— Segments : he 2. 33 4, 5. 6. ile 8-14. 15. 64 32 29° 2527925). 25 2b 5132.32 Segmenta: (16, 17." //18.> 49) 2008 21. 22. 23. 24-25. 50 64 68 68 TI 75 43 86 8696 The eighth to the fourteenth segments inclusive appear to have fused to form a single joint. The second antenna, mouth-parts, and swimming legs are the same as those of the female. The Fifth Pair of Legs —Each leg has a stout basal segment and a short one-jointed endopodite ; the right exopodite con- sists of three segments ; exopod 2 bears a row of small spines on the distal part of its inner margin ; exopod 3 is somewhat claw-shaped, terminating in a sharp point and having a swollen base. The proportional lengths of the basal joint and exopods are 24 : 22: 16:8; the relative length of the endopod is 8. The left leg has the basal joint produced in a somewhat swollen rounded projection distally. The exopod is two- jointed, each joint being of nearly equal length : the terminal joint is tapered, ending in a sharp point. The endopod is short and spine-like. Tribe HETERARTHANDRIA. Family CENTROPAGID/L. Genus Centropages, Kroyer. CENTROPAGES FURCATUS (Dana). Centropages furcatus, Giesbrecht, 1889, Sem. 1, p. 811. - Giesbrecht, 1891, p. 282. — Giesbrecht, 1893. Giesbrecht, 1896, p. 317. Thompson, 1899, p. 279. Cleve, 1901, p. 5. A. Scott, 1902, pp. 403 and 423. ee ep aa SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 221 Centragages furcatus, Cleve, 1903, p. 359. —__——— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 246. Cleve, 1904, p. 187. Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1016. A. Scott, 1909, p. 113. Pesta, 1912, p. 46, fig. 5. Sewell, 1912, pp. 315 and 360. Pesta, 1913, p. 32. This species is widely distributed throughout Indian waters, and numerous examples were obtained from the pearl banks. CENTROPAGES ORSINI, Giesbrecht. Centropages orsinii, Giesbrecht, 1889, Sem. 1, p. 811. Giesbrecht, 1891, p. 282. Giesbrecht, 1893. Giesbrecht, 1896, p. 317. Cleve, 1901, p. 5. A. Scott, 1902, pp. 404 and 423. Cleve, 1903, p. 359. Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 247. Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1015. PI. XCVIIE; fies “1, 4085-110 12 3s and 5, 13 Q. A. Scott, 1909, p. 115. Pesta, 1912, p. 46, fig. 6. Sewell, 1912, pp. 315 and 362. - Pesta, 1913, p. 32. Examples of this species were of common occurrence, and were widely distributed throughout the areas under investi- gation. CENTROPAGES TENUIREMIS, Thompson & Scott. Centropages tenuiremis, Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 247. Pl. I., figs. 14-18. Centropages arabicus, Cleve, 1903, p. 371. PI. XVI figs. 1-9, and Pl. XVIL., fig. 1. 2a 6(10)13 222 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. Centropages tenuiremis, Sewell, 1912, p. 363. Pl. XXIV., figs. 6-7. This species has now been reported from the Arabian Sea, . the coastal waters of Ceylon, and the coast of Burma. It was present in several of the tow-nettings from the pearl banks, but never in any considerable numbers. CENTROPAGES DORSISPINATUS, Thompson & Scott. Centropages dorsispinatus, Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 247. Pl. I., figs. 19-25. Centropages notoceras, Cleve, 1903, pp. 359 and 378. Pl. XVII., figs. 2-10, and eel, XV Geos Sewell, 1912, p. 360. Several examples of this species were taken in a tow-netting at Kilakarai at the head of the Gulf of Mannar. As I have already pointed out (loc. cit.), the descriptions given by Thompson & Scott and Cleve differ in several details ; the present specimens agree exactly with those from the Persian Gulf and from Burma. CENTROPAGES ELONGATUS, Giesbrecht. Centropages elongatus, Giesbrecht, 1896, pp. 317, 322. Pl. V., figs. 3-6. A. Scott, 1902, p. 404. PI. I., figs. 13, 14. —_—________—— Cleve, 1903, p. 359. —______—_——— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 246. Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1014. PI. XCVIIL., figs. 2, 3, 9, 10, 14. A. Scott, 1909, p. 113. This species is comparatively rare in the present collections. A few examples of both sexes were obtained at Dutch Modera- gam, Krusadai, and Jokenpiddi Paars. SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 223 CENTROPAGES GRACILIS (Dana). Centropages gracilis, Cleve, 1901, p.%5. --—_—_——— Cleve, 1903, p. 359. ——_-___-_———— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 247. ———_————— Wolfenden, 1905," p. 1013, Pi: XCOVIII., fig. 7. —_-——_-_+———_ A. Scott, 1909, p. 114. A single example of a mature female was obtained at Jokenpiddi Paar. CENTROPAGES TRISPINOSUS, sp. nov. (Pl. XVIII., figs. 5-8.) A single example, a female, of apparently a new species of Centropages, was taken in a tow-netting at Kilakarai. The single specimen obtained presents several characteristic features in which it differs from all previously described speci- mens, and I have therefore given it the above name. 2 Total length, 1:4 mm. The proportional lengths of cephalothorax and abdomen are 3:1. The head and first thoracic segment are quite separate, as also are thoracic segments four and five. The dorsum is uniformly rounded. The posterior thoracic margin is rounded, and is armed with three short spines situated rather towards the ventral side. The rostrum consists of two slender processes. The abdomen possesses three segments having, with the furcal rami, the proportional lengths 4 : 3 : 2: 2. The genital segment is somewhat barrel-shaped, and has a rounded swelling on the dorsal apect. The first antenna, when folded back, reaches to the end of the abdomen. The number and relative lengths of the basal segments are not easily determined; apparently several segments are fused together to form the second joint, and. the eighth and ninth are also partially fused, and the twenty-fourth and twenty-fifth segments completely so. 224 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA. The proportional lengths of the various joints are as follows :— Segments: 1. 24. 5. 6 7 89. 10. 11. 12 18 43 43 14 17 28 37 23 26 37 63 Segments: 14: 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 28, 24-25. 68 68 77 86 88 77 51 46 31 34 43 The Fifth Pair of Legs.—Both rami are three-jointed. Exopod 1 bears a marginal spine, but has no internal seta ; exopod 2, in addition to the single external marginal spine, bears the usual spine on its inner border. This spine is long and has a somewhat swollen base ; it tapers gradually to a fine point and bears no teeth on its surface. Exopod 3 has two marginal spines and a finely serrated end-spine. The endopodite reaches to the level of the joint between exopods 2 and 3. Endopod 1 presents a well-marked rounded swelling at its distal external angle. The remaining appendages appear to be very similar to those of Centropages alcocki (Sewell, 1912, p. 338, Pl. XVIL., figs. 1-7), but the serrations on the terminal spines of the swimming feet are not so coarse and are less widely separated. Genus Pseudodiaptomus, Herrick. PSEUDODIAPTOMUS AURIVILLII, Cleve. Pseudodiaptomus aurivillit, Cleve, 1901, p. 48. Pl. VI., figs. 11-22, and Pl. VIL., figs. 1, 2. —__-___-_______— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 248. PI. I1., figs. 24-26. —__-___-_______— A. Scott, 1909, p. 116. —__-_____-________——_ Sewell, 1912, p. 363. Numerous examples of both sexes were obtained in the present collections. The male was first obtained by Thompson and Scott, but as they give no description of its structure I give below a brief account of some of the more salient features. SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 225 3. Total length, 1:1 mm. Proportional lengths of cephalothorax and abdomen 2: 1. The head and first thoracic segment are fused completely and thoracic segment 4 and 5 partially so; the postero-lateral border of the fifth segment is, as in the female, armed with a large backwardly projecting spine. The rounded anterior ** forehead ”’ terminates ventrally in a bifid rostrum composed of long fleshy processes. The abdomen consists of five segments having, with the furea, the following relative proportions :—16 : 25: 24:24:11: 21. Segments 2 to 4 inclusive are armed round their posterior borders with a series of triangular spines. The first antenna on the right side is modified to form a grasping organ ; it is composed of twenty joints, having the following relative proportional lengths :— Segments: 1. 2. 3. 4, Bee Va ce 8. 9: 10: 95 52 24 14 14 19 14 14 24 28 Segments: 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19-20. 21-23. a4. 24 98 66.5% 62) 435 118s P14. 165 The knee-joint is situated between segments 18 and 19, and the “‘ Endabschnitt ” consists of two joints only, segments 19 and 20 and 21 to 23 being respectively fused together. Segment 10 bears a long spine-like seta, and segments 12 to 16 are all armed with needle-like spines; the seventeenth segment bears a lamellar process on its anterior aspect ; both segments of the knee-joint are armed with lamellar plates, that on the proximal segment being armed with needle-like teeth, while that on the distal is unarmed. The Second Antenna—The two rami are of nearly equal length ; the last joint of the exopodite is swollen and nipple- shaped. The endopodite is of the usual type. The Second Mazilliped—Basal 1 is three-fifths as long as broad ; it bears four setz on its anterior border and carries a single stout spine-like seta distally ; basal 2 is beset with fine hairs proximally, and about the middle of its length bears three stout sete; it is about twice as long as broad. The terminal portion of the appendage consists of the usual five segments. 226 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. The First Pair of Swimming Legs.—Basal 1 bears an internal seta, andis armed with a few spines on its anterior aspect near the base ; basal 2 bears a corona of spines distally on its outer and anterior surfaces. The rami are in exact agreement with Cleve’s original description (loc. cit., 1901). The remaining swimming legs are similar to those of the female, and the fifth pair of legs correspond exactly with the description given by Thompson and Scott. PSEUDODIAPTOMUS SERRICAUDATUS (T. Scott). Pseudodiaptomus serricaudatus, A. Scott, 1902, p. 404. PITS fig. 6: ee — Clove, 1903, 02568. ee eS Lom pson er ecGbn, 1 ous p- 248. Cleve, 1904, p. 196. Tollinger, 1911, p. 177. Examples of this species were of common occurrence throughout the area under investigation. Family TEMORIDAL. Genus Temora, W. Baird. TEMORA DISCAUDATA, Giesbrecht. Temora discaudata, Giesbrecht, 1889, Sem. 1, p. 814. aie Giesbrecht, 1891, p. 282. - Giesbrecht, 1896, p. 317. - Thompson, 1899, p. 280. —___---_____—— Cleve, 1901, p. 9. - A. Scott, 1902, pp. 405 and 428. Cleve, 1903, p. 369. - Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 248. - Cleve, 1904, p. 198. -—— Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1023. a ————s eee a —S se SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. pei Temora discaudata, A. Scott, 1909, p. 118. ——_-__—_—_————. Pesta, 1912, p. 47, fig. 7. —-——_—__—_———- Sewell, 1912, p. 365. Pl. XXII., : figs. 8, 9. Numerous examples of this species were obtained ; as the above list of references shows, it is widely distributed through- out Indian waters. TEMORA STYLIFERA (Dana). Temora stylifera, Thompson, 1899, p. 280. Cleve, 1901, p. 9. SEE ae Coup, 1002) pe 404. Cleve, 1903, p. 369. -—-— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 249. -— Cleve, 1904, p. 198. eet WV ONENOON LOU a= pl O2c. ——---_—— Sewell, 1912, p. 366. The above species also appears to be widely distributed throughout Indian waters ; it was common in the present collections. TEMORA TURBINATA (Dana). Temora turbinata, Giesbrecht, 1889, Sem. 1, p. 814. == lesprecht, 80 l'on. 282: = psprecht S96; p. 318. ——_-—————— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 249. —_—_——— Scott, 1909, p. 118. Se esta, L9L2 pe 48) fie 8: Se ell Re Sa Gli es a UCT Se This species also was common in the collections, and appears to be widely distributed in these waters. 228 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. Family LUCICUTIID. Genus Lucicutia, Giesbrecht. LUCICUTIA FLAVICORNIS (Claus.). Leuckartia flavicornis, Cleve, 1901, p. 7. Lucicutia flavicornis, A. Scott, 1902, p. 405. —_—_____—————— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 249. Cleve, 1903, p. 364. Cleve, 1904, p. 192. Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1012. A Scott, 1909, p. 125. Sewell, 1912, p. 366. A few examples only were obtained. Genus Metacalanus, Cleve. METACALANUS AURIVILLII, Cleve. Metacalanus aurwillii, Cleve, 1901, pp. 7, 43. PL. IV., figs. 16-25, and Pl. V., figs. 1-6. —_—_____---—————— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 248. Pl. I1., figs. 18-20. —_____---____—_——_ A. Scott, 1909, p. 146. Numerous examples of this species were obtained. It has now been reported from the Malay Archipelago and Ceylon, and I have myself found it in the Plankton of the Tenasserim coast. It was also of frequent occurrence in the “ Siboga ” collection, and is probably widely distributed throughout the Indian seas. Owing to its small size, however, it is very liable to be overlooked. Family CANDACIIDAi. Genus Candacia, Dana. CANDACIA XTHIOPICA (Dana). Candacia xthiopica, Thompson, 1899, p. 281. -——_—_—— Scott, 1902, p. 405. | SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 229 Candacia xthiopica, Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 250. = = Gleve, 1903, p. 358. —____--_—_———— Scott, 1909, p. 151. Sewell, 1912, p. 366. Only a few examples were obtained in the present collections. CANDACIA CATULA (Giesbrecht). Candacia catula, Giesbrecht, 1896, p. 317. ——_____—_— Cleve, 1901, p. 5. Scott, 1902, p. 405. Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 250. Cleve, 1903, p. 358. Cleve, 1904, p. 186. Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1012. Scott, 1909, p. 152. Sewell, 1912, p. 367. This species appears to be widely distributed throughout Indian waters. It was by no means common on the pearl banks, but several examples of both sexes were obtained. > CANDACIA BRADYI, A. Scott. Candacia bradyi, Scott, 1902, p.406. PI. L., figs. 9-12 (8). -___——_—— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 250. Candacia tuberculata, Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1013. Candacia bradyi (3 part), Carl, 1907, p.9. PI.I., figs. 11 and 14 and PL ROVE. , figs. 40-44 (3). Scott, 1909, p. 156. Pl. XLVII., figs. 1-9 (6). ___________. Pesta, 1912, p: 49, fig. 9'(9). —_—_—__—_—_—— Sewell, 1912, p. 366. PI. XXIII., figs. 6 and 7 ( ). This species appears to have a fairly wide distribution — throughout Indian waters. Its occurrence has now been reported from localities ranging from the Persian Gulf to Amboina and the Phillippines. 2H 6(10)13 230 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. CANDACIA DISCAUDATA, Scott. Candacia bradyi (° part), Carl, 1907, p. 9. Pl. L., figs. 8-10, 12-13. Candacia discaudata, Scott, 1909, p. 157. Pl. XLVIL., figs. 10-20. Sewell, 1912, p. 367. The first to describe this species was Dr. J. Carl ; he, however, only had the female sex before him, and he made the mistake of associating his examples with Candacia bradyi, Scott, of which at that time only the male was known. Scott, who does not appear to have been acquainted with Carl’s Paper, re- described the species from the Siboga collection under the above name. Several examples of both sexes were obtained from the pearl banks, so the known distribution of this form is extended considerably to the westward. CANDACIA PACHYDACTYLA, Dana. Candace pachydactyla, Cleve, 1901, p. 5. Candacia pachydactyla, Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 251. —__________—————_ Cleve, 19038, p. 358. Cleve, 1904, p. 187. Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1013. Scott, 1909, p. 153. Sewell, 1912, p. 368. Although this species appears to be widely distributed throughout Indian waters, it was of rare occurrence in the present collection. CANDACIA TRUNCATA, Dana. Candacia truncata, Thompson,»1899, p. 282. Scott, 1902, p. 405. Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 250. Cleve, 1903, p. 358, SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 231 Candacia truncata, Cleve, 1904, p. 187. Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1013. Scott, 1909, p. 155. Sewell, 1912, p. 368. This species also appears to have a wide distribution, but only a single specimen was found in the collection. Family PONTELLID&. Genus Calanopia, Dana. CALANOPIA ELLIPTICA (Dana). Calanopia elliptica, Giesbrecht, 1896, pp. 317, 325. PI. V., figs. 7-9. ——-—_-————— Thompson, 1899, p. 282. Cleve, 1901, p. 5. ————-_—_———_ A. Scott, 1902, pp. 406 and 423. Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 251. —_—_—_--——_—_—_— Cleve, 1903, p. 356. —_——_--—————. Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1023. | ——--——_—_————_ A. Scott, 1909, p. 177. Pl. XLVIIL., figs. 1-5. —_—___—_—_—_--— Pesta, 1912, p. 50, fig. 10. Calanopia sp. (= ¢ juv.), Pesta, 1912, p. 52, fig. 12. Calanopia elliptica, Sewell, 1912; p. 368. -———_——— Pesta, 1913, p. 32. This species is of comparatively common occurrence in Indian waters ; examples of both sexes were plentiful in the Ceylon collection. The form described by Dr. Pesta (loc. cit., 1912) is, in my opinion, a young and immature male ; the form of the fifth appendage is exactly similar to that found in young males just before they undergo the sexual moult. CALANOPIA AURIVILLIT, Cleve. Calanopia aurivillii, Cleve, 1901, p. 37. Pl. IL, figs. 17-23, and PI. IIL., figs. 1-10. ——--——_—_—— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 251. 232 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. Calanopia minor, Sewell, 1912, p. 368. Calanopia aurivillu, A. Scott, 1909, p.181. Pl. XLVIIT., figs. 16-20. Numerous examples of both sexes were obtained in the Ceylon collections ; they agree exactly with the descriptions of Cleve and Scott. I have re-examined the specimens which I recorded from the coast of Burma under the name C. minor and I find that for the most part they do not belong to that species, but are examples of C. aurivillit. CALANOPIA THOMPSONT, A. Scott. Calanopia thompson, Scott, 1909, p. 17a. Pl. XLIX. - figs. 1-8. Sewell, 1912, p. 368. Numerous examples of this species were obtained from the Ceylon pearl banks ; they were especially common in a tow- netting from Marichchukkaddi Bay. Its occurrence in these waters increases the range of this species very considerably. ee CALANOPIA MINOR, A. Scott. Calanopia minor, A. Scott, 1902, p. 406. PI. L., figs. 1-5. —_—_—__—_—_—_—— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 251. Cleve, 1903, p. 356. Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1023. A. Scott, 1909, p. 177. Pl. XLVIILI., figs. 6-10. Pesta, 1912, p. 51. Sewell, 1912, p. 368. A few examples of this species were obtained on the pear banks, but on the whole it was comparatively rare. Genus Labidocera. LABIDOCERA ACUTA (Dana). Labidocera acutum, Giesbrecht, 1889, p. 27. —____--—____—— Giesbrecht, 1891, p. 282. SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 233 Labidocera acuta, Giesbrecht, 1896, p. 317. —______——— Thompson, 1899, p. 282. Cleve, 1901, p. 7. A. Scott, 1902, p. 407. Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 251. Cleve, 1903, p. 363. Cleve, 1904, p. 191. Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1016. Scott, 1909, p. 164. Pesta, 1912, p. 52, fig. 13. Sewell, 1912, p. 368. Pesta, 1913, p. 32. This species was of common occurrence in the Ceylon collections. As the above list of references indicates, it has a wide distribution throughout Indian waters. LABIDOCERA KROYERI (Brady). Labidocera kroyeri, Cleve, 1901, p. 7. Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 251. Scott, 1909, p. 165. Sewell, 1912, p. 369. Labidocera kroyert var. stylifera, Thompson & Scott. Labidocera kroyert var. stylifera, Thompson. & Scott, © 1903ssps 252. Uy S45. FB) 6S 85 OP IOS aE Ez 66 84 25 11 22 33 25 40 25 33 Segments: 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19-21, 22-25. 44 36 44 40 76 120 131 145 ' The second to fourth segments inclusive are fused together to form a single joint ; the “ endabschnitt ” consists of two joints, segments 19-21 and 22-25, respectively, being fused. The seventeenth segment bears a row of needle-like teeth on its anterior margin ; the eighteenth segment bears a row of needle-like teeth anteriorly, and distally is armed with two claw-like spines, of which the proximal is the larger; the nineteenth segment carries a tooth-plate armed with acicular teeth, and the plate is produced beyond the distal extremity of the joint in a sharp spinous process. The mouth-parts and swimming legs are the same as in the female. The Fifth Pair of Legs— Each consists of three segments, and that on the right side forms a well-developed Eraepine apparatus, as figured. 248 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. I have much pleasure in dedicating this species to Mr. S. W. Kemp, of the Indian Museum, who kindly made the collections for me at Kilakarai and Paumben, in which this species occurred, Genus Tortanus, Giesbrecht. TORTANUS GRACILIS (Brady). (Pl. XXI., fig. 5.) Tortanus gracilis, Cleve, 1901, p.5. Pl. VIL, figs. 11-14. A. Scott, 1902, p. 423. ——_—_-——--—— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 254. ———_--—__-—_-- Cleve, 1903, p. 369. —-——.--_——— Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1026. —_—___—.-—-— A. Scott, 1909, p. 190. —-——_--__—-—— Sewell, 1912, p. 377. Several examples of this species, belonging to both sexes, were present in the Ceylon collections. Both Cleve and Wolfenden are inclined to believe that this species and the following, 7’. forcipatus, are synonymous, but a careful study of the examples in the present collection has shown that this view is absolutely untenable. For the purpose of comparison I give below a few details of structure in this species. 9. The first antenna consists of seventeen joints, having the following relative proportions :— Segments: .a—7., 988. 9-10. Te als Pasta a 6 aa Sie WS 7 o2 > 285 28) 0 Wz: 52 52 59 Segments: 18. 19. 20. 21, 22; 23. 24: 25: 67 68 81 65 61 80 91 37 Segments 1-7, 9-10, and 13-14 are, apparently, respectively fused together. The fifth pair of legs, as pointed out by Cleve (loc. cit., 1901), are asymmetrical, but the degree of asymmetry is very slight, and not in the least comparable to that present in the corresponding appendages in 7’. forciputus. SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 249 3. The grasping antenna consists of sixteen joints, having the following proportional lengths :— Segments : 1-5. 6. We 8. 9. 10: alg. 12. 62 11 19 16 SU Ray ae 24 Segments : 13. 14, pe 16. Wes 18: 19-21. 22-25, 49 67 67 62... 7615 ESP ls3si > 252 The fifth pair of legs correspond exactly with the description and figures given by Cleve (loc. cit., 1901). TORTANUS FORCIPATUS (Giesbrecht). (Ele XE fiat! Gs) Tortanus forcipatus, Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 254. This species was first described by Giesbrecht from female examples only. In the present collection numerous examples were found, and associated with them were several examples of a hitherto undescribed male, which I have no doubt is the unknown male of this species. $. Total length. Proportional lengths of cephalothorax and abdomen, 5 : 3. The head and all the thoracic segments are separate. The abdomen consists of tive segments having, with the furcal rami, the following proportional lengths :—14: 15: 12:9: 13: 70. In 7’. gracilis the corresponding proportional lengths are: 14:14:11:8: 15:72. The furcal rami are symmetrical ; four furcal sete arise from the distal end of the ramus, and of these the second is the longest. The fifth seta is quite short, and arises from the lateral border. The grasping antenna consists of sixteen joints, having the following proportional lengths :— Segments : 1-5, 6. 7. 8. 9-10. alale 12. 13% UVA. LS 20F 2 203526229) Ba Dake as Segments: 14, 15, 16, 17. 18. 19-21, 22-25 62 59 62 75 98 150 183 250 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. So far as its structure is concerned, the grasping antenna very closely resembles that of 7. gracilis : segments 17, 18, and 19-21 are all armed with rows of needle-like teeth. The fifth pair of legs show distinct ditferences from the corresponding appendages of 7’. gracilis ; these can best be seen by comparing the figures given. 2. In the female 7’. forcipatus the first antenna consists apparently of seventeen joints, having the following pro- portional lengths :— Segments: 1-7. 8. 9-10. 11. 12. 13-14. 165) 6. 99°. 23 aap DAS ats} ollie 42 48 Segments: 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 2de') 24 4 20s 54.5759) N68. S82) eT ATL. O92 48 The fifth pair of legs are markedly asymmetrical and correspond exactly with the figure given by Giesbrecht (1893, Pl. 31, fig. 15). The occurrence of the hitherto unknown male is of interest and the differences that it presents to the male of 7’. gracilis show that these two forms are undoubtedly different species. REFERENCES. Carl, 1907.—‘‘ Copépodes d’Amboine.’’ Revue Suisse de Zoolo- gie, Vol. 15, p. 7. Genéve. Cleve, 1901.—‘* Plankton from the Indian Ocean and the Malay Archipelago.” Kongl. Svenska. Vetenskap. « Akadamiens, Handlingar. Bd. 35, No. 5. Stockholm. Cleve, 1903.—‘‘ Report on Plankton collected by Mr. Thorild Wulff during a Voyage to and from Bombay.” Arkiv for Zoologi, Bd. 1, p. 327. Stockholm. Cleve, 1904.—‘‘ The Plankton of the South African Seas.” Marine Investigations in South Africa, Vol. III., p. 177. Cape Town. Dahl, 1894.—‘‘ Die Copepodenfauna des unteren Amazonas. Berichte de Naturforschenden Gesellschaft zu Freiburg Vol. VITII., p. 10. Freiburg und Leipzig. SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 251 Giesbrecht, 1888.—Elenco dei Copepodi pelagici raccolti dal tenente di vascello G. Chierchia durante il viaggio dela R. Corvetta “ Vettor Pisani ’’negli anni, 1882-1885 e dal tenente di vascello.”” F. Orsini ‘‘ nel Mar Rosso nel 1884.” Atti. Accad. Lincei. Roma(4) Rend. Vol. 4,Sem, 2, p. 330, Roma. Giesbrecht, 1889.—Ditto, ditto. Atti. Accad. Lincei. Roma (4) Rend. Vol. 5, Sem. 1, p. 811, and Sem. 2, p. 24. Roma. Giesbrecht, 1891.—‘‘ Elenco dei copepodi pescati della R. Cor- vetta ‘vettor Pisani’ secondo la loro distribuzione geo- graphica.”” Atti. Accad. Lincei. Roma (4) Rend, Vol. 7, Sem. 2, p. 276. Roma. Giesbrecht, 1893.—“* Systematik und Faunistik der Pelagische Copepoden des Golfes von Neapel und der Angrenzenden Meeres-Abschnitte.”’ Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel, Vol. XIX. Giesbrecht, 1896.—‘* Ueber pelagische Copepoden des Rothen Meeres.”” Zoologische Jahrbiicher. Abt. fiir Systematik, &c. Bd. IX., p. 315. Jena. Giesbrecht und Schmeil, 1898.—Copepoda, 1 Gymnoplea, Das Tierreich, Lieferung 6. Berlin. Pesta, 1912.—‘*‘ Copepoden aus dem Golf von Persien.’? Wissens- chaftliche Ergebnisse der Expedition nach Mesopotamien. Annalen des R. R. Naturhistorischen Hofmuseums, Bd. XXVI., p. 39. Wein. Pesta, 1913.—** Copepoden aus der Arabischen See und Nachtrag.”’ Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der Expedition nach Meso- potamien. Annales des K. K. Naturhistorischen Hofmu: seums, Bd. XXVII.,p.18. Wien. Sars, 1905.—Liste préliminaire des Calanoides recueilles pendant les campagnes de 8. A. § le Prince Albert de Monaco, avee diagnoses des generes et des espéces nouvelles. Ite Partie. Bullet. du Musée Océanographique de Monaco, No. 26. Monaco. Scott, T., 1894.—‘‘ Report on Entomostraca from the Gulf of Guinea, collected by John Rattray, B.Sc.’ Transactions, Linnean Society, 2nd Ser., Zoology, Vol. VI., p. 1. London. Scott, A., 1902.—‘‘On some Red Sea and Indian Ocean Copepoda.” Proceedings and Transactions of the Liverpool Biological Society, Vol. XVI., p. 397. Liverpool. Scott, A., 1909.—‘‘ The Copepoda of the Siboga Expedition,” Uitkomsten op Zoologisch, Botanisch, Oceanographisch en Geologisch Gebied. Vol. XXIX., Pt. I. Leiden, 252 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. Sewell, 1912.—** Notes on the surface-living Copepoda of the Bay of Bengal,” I. and II. Records of the Indian Museum, Vol. VII., p. 313. Calcutta. Thompson, 1899.—‘‘ Report on two collections of tropical and more northerly plankton.’ Proceedings and Transactions of the Liverpool Biological Society, Vol. XIV., p. 262. Liverpool. Thompson and Scott, 1903.—‘‘ Report on the Copepoda.” Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fisheries and Marine Biology, Pt. L, Supplementary Report No. VII., p. 227. Royal Society, London. Tollinger, 1911.—Die geographische Verbreitung de Diaptomiden. Zool. Jahrbiicher: Abt. System. Geog. und Bidl., Vol. XXX., p. 1. Jena. Wolfenden, 1905.—‘“‘ Notes on the Collection of Copepoda.” The Fauna and Geography of the Maldive and Laccadive Archi- pelagoes, Vol. II., p. 989. Cambridge. SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 253 12/20-2-13 13-2-13 39 14-2-13 22-2-13 24-29-13 25-2-13 Date. 8-11-08 13-11-08 4-11-08 4-11-08 5-11-08 5-11-08 6-11-08 14-11-08 11-11-08 11-11-08 12-11-08 4-11-08 eT, APPENDIX. Kilakarat. List oF COLLECTING STATIONS. Tow-net in shallow water, 0-2 fathom. Tow-net from weeds. Tow-net from weeds in 2 ft. of water. Tow-net from weeds over shallow water. Tow-net over weeds, 4 ft. of water. © net in 3 fathoms. Tow net over 3 fathoms of water. Between Kilakarai and Apa Island. Tow net over 2 to 3 fathoms. Paumben. Tow-net over 4 ft. of water. Q netin 2 it. of water through “ Yostera”’ bed. Surface tow-net. © net, on shelly ground in | fathom. Anaivilundan Paar. Depth in Time, Fathoms of Net. 7.30 A.M. Pe 0 8 A.M. an 0 Nadukudda Paar. 12 noon 5 P.M. 8 A.M. 12 noon 7.30 A.M. 12.30 P.M. oococe Koopay Paar. 12 noon 5 P.M. 0 ae ) 8.30 A.M. “a 0 5 P.M. Tees 0 Position. Dutch Anaivilundan. West side. Dutch Nadukudda. South. West. 6(10)13 Date. 11—4-07 30-10-08 30-10-08 31-10-08 31-10-08 31-10-08 15-10-08 15-11-08 16-11-08 7-2-08 7—-2-08 22-2-08 17-11-08 18-11-08 19-11-08 19-11-08 20-11-08 20-11-08 22-11-08 23-11-08 9-407 10—4-07 11—4-07 17-11-08 17-11-08 3-12-08 9-4—07 7-11-07 7-11-07 19-11-07 6-11-07 6—11—07 6-11-07 Tailor 7-11-07 20-11-07 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. Vankalai Paar. Depth in Fathoms of Net. 12 noon 5.30 P.M. 5.30 P.M. 8 A.M. Periya Paar Karat. 5-5.30 P.M. .. gu SiO Aer oe 8-8 .30 A.M. .. 8.30 A.M. 12 noon Ariupu Paar East. 8 A.M. North Cheval Paar. 8-8.30 A.M. .. 4—4.30P.M. .. 4—4 .30 P.M. 8-8.30 A.M. .. oooocooo°ods Periya Paar. eoooococooconane o°oaoam 0 BD WS Position. 14 mile W.N.W. do. 24 miles N.N.W. South end. South end. 1 mile W. by 8. 1} mile N. by W. 24 miles N.W. 24 miles N. by W. 24 miles W.S.W. South shoal. North-East Cheval Paar. | | go 0 @ > © CO ee Os Oe .30 A.M. .30 A.M seUiDsinig 38 oo ONAN nue o> OPAnIVIy pete ae ) PANT anaes onoone SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 255 Depth in Date. Time. Fathoms Position, of Net. 8-11-08 Bont CoA) Asie A (ee — 27-11-08 .. 5.30 P.M. as OMeae — 28-11-08 .. 7.30 a.m. avs O) s- — Mid-East Cheval Paar. 7—-2-07 ae Sh.) wae oe 0 == 8—2-07 as | SHS OOPAe Min 45 0 ss: 8—2-07 ae) L211 SOP at 0 a 8—2-07 S| UE S10) Ge ame 6 == 3-11-07 Oe 443 OEP SVs 0) = 4—1]1—-07 Fe OH Oo OpARiin se 0 == 4-1 107 So) tHe) Ane os ce ee — 4-11-07 ce Gad 1s AM, ps OF. — 4—11—07 a4 allow eats 4. == 5-11-07 8—-8.30 A.M. .. 0 — 5-11-07 Ag Sool) Amie os 4. — PAD O7 45 Gath si)) mann | 0 == 21-11-07 .. 8-8.30Aa.m.. ) East side. 3—2-—08 .. 44.30P.M. . 0 do. 18-2—09 7.30 A.M 0 = South-Hast Cheval Paar. 6—2—07 O=O RT OUSP ONT ae 0 — 7-2-07 SSO OPAL NE ae 0 — 23-11-07 .. 8-8.30a4.m. . 0 North edge. 16—2-—09 Be PacWany 0 — : 16-—2—09 .. 5.30P.M. 6 — South Cheval! Paar. 19-2-—09 si) ORE AVE re Gaia — 20-2-—09 a AGC ats OBes7 — 20-2-09 ao Uf Acai: as Ge cas — South-West Cheval Paar. 20-2-—09 ao Beet) wave ee OWS. — 21-2-09 BOW RAO PAGE Le Grasse — 21-2-09 7. veb2 nNoom es OW ae —— Mid-West Cheval Paar. 22-107 Sh o— 4 Pains Getta — 23-1-07 .. 8-9 A.M. nits (Si oa — 23—-1-—07 ate lard O—MPrivinver 6 — 23-1—07 se L0=5'. 45 Piet 6 — 24-1—07 .. 8-9 A.M. 0 ne 24—1-07 .. 8-9 A.M. ae 6 — 24—1—07 .. 12.30~1.30 P.m. 0 — 256 Date. 25-1-07 25-1-07 6-2-07 9-2-07 9-2-07 30-3-07 30-3-07 30-3—07 30-3-07 31-3-07 31-3-07 31-3-07 1—4-07 1—4-07 1—4—07 2-4-07 2-407 6-2-08 28-11-07 28-11-07 4—2-08 4—2-08 26-11-08 26-11-08 27-11-08 1—2-08 1—2-08 2-—2-08 3—2-—08 28-—3-09 21-10-08 22-10-08 29-10-08 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. Depth in Time. Fathoms Position. of Net. 8-9 A.M. 8-9 A.M. Fp 12-12.30 p.m. 8—8.30 A.M. oat) Nait, Sc 8-8.304.M. .. 8 JO ORASVian 5.302.M. .. 5-5.30P.M. .. 8 o0 AME. 8-8.30 A.M. . 5—5.30 P.M. 8-8.30 A.M. .. S870 OVAL eens 5-5.30 P.M. .. —8§.30 A.M. .. —§,.30 A.M. .. —§8.30 A.M. . West edge. do. Peo SFPADDDRDCARPOHAOCOMROCODRSOOMVMS — — West Cheval Paar. 8-8.30 A.M. .. Ogre. — 8 So 0 Auvinen (iteae — North-West Cheval Paar. 4-4.30P.M. .. OW ae = Mid-Cheval Paar. 8=8. 30 A. 0 .. Hast side. North-Central Cheval Paar. 12 noon Le Oy) Ae — 5.30 P.M. aC (Okie = 8 A.M. ae 0 = Challai Paar. 8-8.30 A.M. .. CO A — Hoal Bx) meals 6 0 .. 1 mile west. 8-8.30 A.M. .. Oreo do. 8-8 .304.M. .. 0 .. 3miles west. Stlavatiurat Paar. 12 noon Be Ont ne — K pndache Paar. 8 A.M. Ae Ome — 8-8. SORA Mice LO lies — 8 A.M. ae QO f29, WNear to; SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. Date. 22—2-09 6—4—07 6—4—07 7-4-07 74-07 28-11-07 29-11-07 29-11-07 14—2—08 17—2-08 14—2-09 14—2-09 15—2-09 15—2—09 15-—2-09 16—2-09 10-2-09 10-—2-09 11-2-09 11—2—09 10-—2-—07 11-2-07 12—2-—07 13—2-07 14—2-07 17-—2-07 18—2—07 ig aay ee 10-2-08 11-—2-08 27-1-07 28-1—07 28-1-07 28-1-07 28-1—-07 28-1-07 29-1-07 29-1-07 20-—2-07 Time. 7 SOV Mt, Moderagam Paar. 30 P.M. . Jo0) PeMs 5 .30 A.M. . ses AG IViN, = i or > 00 PR OOM NG ee .40 P.M. oO GO El i 5 P.M. 5 P.M. 7.30 A.M. 12 noon Depth in Fathoms of Net. Jaggerboom Bank. 0 SACTTOCCCAOmMFTOacoNRSo Old Dutch Jaggerboom Bank. 0 6 0 0 Position. South. do. do. North end. do. North. do. do. South. Marichchukkaddi Bay. 88.30 A.M. Kudrimalai Paar. 10-10.30 a.m. Dutch Moderagam Paar. 5.30-6 P.M. .. 8-8.30 A.M... 12-12.30 P.m. 12-12.30 p.m. 5—5.30 P.M. 5—5.30 P.M. 8-—8.30 A.M. A 8-8.30 A.M. .. 7.30-8 A.M. .. 0 0 OCFHODBSDHOAaD 2 miles out. 257 14-11-06 14-11-06 26-1-07 29-1-07 30-1-07 30-1-07 31-1-07 31-1-07 4—3-07 4—3-07 5-3--07 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. Time. 7.30-8 A.M. .. 5-5.30P.mM. . 5-5.30P.m. . 5-5.30 P.M. .. 8—-8.30 Aum. .. 8—9 A.M. 5-5.30P.u. ., 5-5.30 P.M. . 8-9 A.M. 55. 30be 1h 8-8.30 A.M. .. 8-8 .30 A.M. 12-12.30 P.M. 5—5.30 p.m. 5—5.30 P.M. Toate te Teale .30 P.M. | | A mmonw og oe .15 P.M. eae OH Karaitivu Paar. 9 A.M. 9 AM 12-12. 30 P.M. Deo UMP Mien ree epue 30 P.M. 5-5.30P.mM. . 8-8.30 A.M. .. 12-12.30 p.m. = 8.00 AUMe wallets, 5.4 De DO EP HIV aee Seo AMIN —5.30P.M. . 5 8.30 a.m. Deo OP SVie mene 5.30P.M. .. So UBACIVinn as ate OE aIViemee —8.30 A.M. .. 8.30A.mM. . .15 P.M. OEP SMe 8-8.30 A.M. .. 5-5.30P.M. .. 5-5.30P.M. .. 8—8.30 A.M. .. Depth in Fathoms of Net. DROOARDROORHRSOSSOHROABSSOAHSSORSBSCSOADSSABSDSOROAS 0 Cage. Position. 14 mile to the east. do. Old Dutch site. SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 259 Date. 5-3-07 5—3-07 5-3-07 6—3-07 6—3-07 8—3-07 8—3-07 14-3-07 14—3-07 15—3-07 15—3-07 16—3—07 16—3-07 18—3-07 19-—3-07 20-—3-07 20-3-—07 21-3-07 21—3-07 21-—3-07 14—2-08 14-2-08 15—2—08 7—2-09 1-11-07 1-11-07 2-11-07 2-11-07 2-11-07 2-11-07 21-07 2-1-07 2-1-07 1-2-07 1-2-07 1-2-07 1-2-07 1-2-07 2-2-07 3-2-07 12-3-07 13-3-07 13-3-07 14-3-07 14-3-07 Time. sie & cial NG 11M Om WD Oo .30 A.M. Te LM OL To OPAS Mes noi) Te 5oO)Ps Ma). Be PART. SSO Pye 5) a ONPeMin le 8 A.M. .30 P.M. fitness co H H Or CO CO Or ~1 00 iS M. .sg0 A.M. . SBD) TERN Lp 580) Acute. 45 OU PP ENE t). RoE SVireear soa, Go SOARING 6 Depth in Fathoms of Net. 6 0 0 Position. .. 2} miles to the eastward. Karaitivu Shoal, North End. 4-4.30P.m. .. 4—4.30 P.M. 8-8.45 A.M. 8-8 .45 A.M. 4-4,.45 P.M. .. 4-4.45 P.M. .. ROOF OK © Alanturai Paar. S=8), 30) Aum ai. ofall) WAM 6b 1223 Okeavs SR OOPAS Neate. 12-12.30 P.M. 12-12.30 p.m. oO avin ris 5-5 .30 P.M. 5—5.30 P.M. Sse OFARMeaeers 5h oO Pies. 5-—5.30 P.M. .. 5-5.30 P.M. .. 8-8.30 A.M. 8-8.30 A.M. .. DOAGTARMOCAGACISOAS 260 Date. 27-3-07 27-3-07 27—3-07 28-3-07 28-3-—07 13—4—07 13-—4-07 14-407 144-07 16—4—07 17—4-07 17—4-07 18—4—07 18—4—07 19-407 1-2-09 1—2—09 42-09 5-2-09 8-2-09 8—2-—09 19-11-06 20-11-06 21-11-06 22-11-06 52-07 (2)-2-07 223-07 23-3-07 26-3-07 18-2-08 18-2-08 27-1-09 271-09 27-1-09 281-09 281-09 29-109 3—2-09 3-2-09 1—2-—09 2-2-09 4-2-—09 4-11-09 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. Depth in Time, Fathoms Position. of Net. 8—-8.30 A.M 0 = 8-8. 30 a.m 6 — 5-5.30 P.M 6 — 8-8 .30 a.m 0 — 5-5.30 p.m 0 = 5-5.30 P.M 0 — 5-5.30 P.M 6 = 8-8.30 a.m 0) — 8-8 .30 a.M 6 = 5-5.30 p.m 0 — 8—8.30 A.M 0 = 5-5 .30 P.m 0 an 8—8.30 a.m 0 eae 5-5.30 P.M 6 = 8—8.30 A.M 6 — 7.30 A.M 0 —_ 12.30 p.m 0) — 5.30 P.M 0 ae 12 noon Oy ei — 7AM. .. © .. 4$ mile to the north. 12 noon ae Om he do. Muttuvaratu Paar. - pure 0 a ==, 6 eee poke 0 as — ise i) _— 12-12.30 p.m. 0 = 12-12.30P.mM. (?) — 5—5.30 P.M. ... 6 — 8—8.30 a.m. 6 == 8—8.30 A.M. 0 — 8—8.30 A.M. 0 North end. 8-8.30 M.A. .. 6 do. 7.30 A.M. 0 — 9.30 a.m. 0 == 5.30 P.M. 0 — 12 noon 0) — 5.30 P.M. 0 13 mile to the east. 7.30 A.M. 0 do. Donnan’s Muttuvaraiu Paar. 7.30 A.M. oe Onunse — 12 noon on 0 .. North end. Hamilton's Muttuvaratu Paar. 5.30 P.M. Si On eens — LOOP MMcame oye OSCE: — 7.30 am. .. O .. 14 mile to the west. 12 noon ae (erica F do. SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 261 Depth in Date. Time. Fathoms Position. of Net. 5-2-09 oa Or ESE -- © .. 14 mile to the east. 6-2-09 ST (iy tai uit Or ke do. 6—2-09 ae OOn AA Onsen: do. Krusadai Paar. 1411-06 2: (2) 6 = ies 1-06-33 (2) 1 see 19-11-06. (2: (2) 1 se 25-11-07 8-8 .30 a.m 0 a 25-11-07 8-8 .30 A.M 5 — 26-11-07 8—8.30 a.m 0 — 26—11—07 4-4 .30 P.M 5 West side. 27-11-07 .. 8-8.30a.m 5 do. 15—2-—08 .. 44.30P.m 0 —_ 15—2-08 oon 4—4) SOP vie 6 — 16—2-—08 .. 8=8.30 A.M. 0 —- 16—2-—08 -j 44 OPN eye 0 South side. 17—2-08 .. . S=SeSO\A.Mer 0 do. Dutch Bay Spit. 30-1-09 [2D Poe 6 0 os . 4) miles north. 31—1-09 Be dines ONACNTS Ss Oe es do. 31-1-09 .. 12noon .. °O .. 4 miles west. Talaiwvillu Paar. ° 4—3-09 5.30 P.M. oo One — 5—3-09 7.30 A.M. Ae Oras — 5—-3-09 5.30 A.M. GF: — Navakkaduwa Paar. 5-3-09 a Ono0 P.M. ae OhSe —_ 6—3-09 = » ¢.30 A.M. BG Ops — Jokenpiddi Paar. 11-3-09 ee Uae Nis as Owe s2 — 11-3-09 ees OO ALI a: Ge — Karkopanni Paar. 7-3-09 Se POO TAS MeN Macs OV Bt. — Chilaw. 9—3-09 be binaO! Pees Le Ome — Nadalaikula Paar. 4—3-09° eee] ne OLAcMis ye Uso = 43-09 Bee oh oO ARNE NS Gees: — Bar Reef. 29-109 ie SPM. .. ,.0—.. 2£ miles north. 30-1-09 at ho OO AGM. Pe Or. 2s —— : a = 42 300n 50H Orr ise — 2M 3 6(10)13 262 elas) DoF AE SO OE era ee Lo C2 Oh aN Ne eM eo Sa ae eo Cun aie SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. EXPLANATION OF: PLATES. Plate XVII. Undinula vulgaris (Dana), var. .. Undinula vulgaris (Dana), var. .. Acrocalanus similis, sp. Nov. Acrocalanus similis, sp. nov. Acrocalanus similis, sp. nov. Scolecithricella pearson, sp. NOV... TONE 5 Scolecithricella pearsont, sp. Plate XVIII. Scolecithricella pearsont, sp. Scolecithricella pearsont, sp. Scolecithricella pearson, sp. Scolecithricella pearsont, sp. Centropages trispinosus, sp. Centropages trispinosus, sp. Centropages trispinosus, sp. Centropages trispinosus, sp. Plate XIX. Acartia amboinensis, Carl Acartia amboinensis, Carl Acartia amboinensis, Carl Acartia amboinensis, Carl Acartia amboinensis, Carl Acartia amboinensis, Carl Acartia amboinensis, Carl Acartia southwelli, sp. nov. Acartia southwelli, sp. nov. nov... nov... nov... nov... nov... nov... nov... NOW. > Plate XX. Acartiella kempi, gen. nov.; sp. nov. Acartiella kempi, gen. nov. ; sp. nov. Acartiella kempi, gen. nov.; sp. nov. Acartiella kempi, gen. nov. ; sp. nov. Acartiella kempi, gen. nov. ; sp. nov. Plate XXI. Labidocera pavo, Giesbrecht Labidocera pavo, Giesbrecht Labidocera pavo, Giesbrecht Acartiella kempv; gen. nov. ; sp. nov. Tortanus gracilis (Brady) Tortanus forcipatus (Giesbrecht) Left posterior thoracic margin, lateral view. Left posterior thoracic margin, dorsal view. 9, 8rd leg. 9, 4th leg. 6, 5th leg. @, dorsal view. 2, Ist leg. Q, 2nd leg. Q, 3rd leg. Q, 5th leg. 36, 5th pair of legs. Q, lateral view. 2, Ist antenna. Q, 2nd leg. Q, 5th leg. . 9, lateral view. . 9, abdomen, view. .. 9, Ist antenna, basal joints. . 9, Maxilliped. .. 9, Ist leg. .+ 9, 3rd Jeg. ~. 9, Sth leg. .. 6, 5th pair of legs. .. 9, 5th leg. dorsal 9, lateral view. Q, Ist antenna. 6, lst antenna. Q, 2nd leg. 6, 5th pair of legs. . 6, dorsal view. . 6, grasping antenna. .. 6, 5th pair of legs. 9, 5th pair of legs. .. 6, 5th pair of legs. .. 6, 5th pair of legs. Plate XVII. Spolia Zeylanica. Vol. IX, Pt. XXXV. Spolia Zeylanica. Vol. IX. Pt. KXXV. Plate XVIII. Spolia Zeylanica. Vol. IX, Pt RXV. Plate XIX. Fa University Press,Cambridge Vol DO Puen Spolia Zeylanica Spr aa Spolia Zeylanica Vol IX, Pt XXXV. Plate XXI. Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. 1X., Part XXXV. Viz WE Vil. VItl. IX. Xx. XI. XII. XAT. EXeIIV;: XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. NAMES OF PAARS. Anaivilundan. Nadukudda. Koopay. Vankalai. Old Dutch. Outer Vankalai Periya Karai. Periya. Arippu. Kalitidal. Cheval. Challai. Silavatturai. Kondachi. Jaggerboom Bank. Moderagam. Old Dutch Jaggerboom Bank. Old Dutch Moderagam. Kudrimalai. Alanturai. Hamilton’s Muttuvaratu. Krusadai. Lonnan’s Muttuvaratu. Talaivillu. Jokenpiddi. aN - Narakadu Putlam Lake j Xe Mar oF THE GULF OF MANNAR. SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. ‘Table showing the Distribution of Species and Varieties. -Calanus minor (Claus.) Calanus tenuicornis, Dana .. Canthocalanus pauper (Giesbr.) Undinula vulgaris (Dana) .. Undinula darwini (Lubbock) Undinula darwint, var. caroli (Giesbr.) . Bucalanus attenuatus (Dana) Bucalanus subtenuis, Giesbr. Hucalanus mucronatus, Giesbr. Bucalanus pileatus, Giesbr. .. BRucalanus monachus, Giesbr. ERucalanus crassus, Giesbr. . Eucalanus subcrassus, Giesbr. Rhincalanus cornutus, Dana Rhincalanus gigas, Brady. . Mecynocera clausi, Thompson Paracalanus aculeatus, Giesbr. Paracalanus parvus Claus. ).- Paracalanus serratipes, Sewell Acrocalanus longicornis, Giesbr. Acrocalanus gracilis, Giesbr. Acrocalanus gibber, Giesbr. .. on Acrocalanus monachus, Giesbr. Acrocalanus gardinert, Wolfenden Acrocalanus similis, sp. nov. Calocalanus pavo (Dana) .. Calocalanus plumulosus (Claus.) Clausocalanus arcuicornis (Dana) Olausocalanus furcatus (Brady) Buchezta marina (Prestand.) Buchzta concinna, Dana .. Euchexta woljfendeni, A. Scott Scolecithriz dane (Lubbock). . Scolectthricella pearsoni, sp. NOV. Centropages furcatus (Dana) lentropages orsinit, Giesbr. . . ‘opages elongatus, Giesbr. Centropages gracilis (Dana) . . ws lentropages tenuiremis, Thompson & Scott... Centropages dorsispinatus, Thompson & Scott. ypages truspinosus, Sp. NOV. an diaptomus aurivilli, Cleve ~ diaptomus serricandatus (T. Scott) _ Lemora discaudata, Giesbr. .. __ Pemora turbinata (Dana) _— Pemora stylifera (Dana) Lucicutia flavicornis (Claus.) Metacalanus aurivillii, Cleve Candacia zthiopica (Dana) .. Candacia catula, Giesbr. .. ° Candacia bradyi, A. Scott . Candacia discandata, A, Scott Candacia pachydactyla, Dana Candacia truncata, Dana... Calanopia elliptica (Dana) .. Calanopia minor, A. Scott - Calanopia aurivillii, Cleve . Calanopia thompsoni, A. Scott Labidocera acuta (Dana) .. Labidocera kroyert (Brady) .-. Scott he Labidocera kroyeri var. burmanica, Sewell Labidocera menuta, Giesbr. .. Labidocera pavo, Giesbr. Labidocera pectinata, Thompson & Scott Labidocera kroyeri var. stylifera, Thompson & Pontella dane var. ceylonica, Thompson & Scott He Pontella investigatoris, Sewell Pontella fera, Dana ne Pontella securifer, Brady Pontellopsis armata (Giesbr.) Pontellopsis kramert (Giesbr.) ~ Pontellopsis herdmant, Thompson & Scott Pontellopsis perspicax (Dana) Pontellopsis regalis (Dana) .. Pontellina plumata (Dana) .. Acartia erythrza, Giesbr, Acartia dane, Giesbr. Acartia spinicauda, Giesbr. . Acartia negligens, Dana Acartia centrura, Giesbr. Acartia bispinosa, Carl Acartia amboinensis, Carl - Aeartia pietschmani, Pesta . Acartia southwelli, sp. nov. -- Acartiella kempi, sp. nov.: gen. Nov. Tortanus gracilis (Brady) Vankalai Paar. Nadukudda, Paar. Koopay Paar. Periya Paar. | sleateetes ae Bele} eal ya le + ee ee se ++ SH hi oe ee OG Periya Paar Karai. Cheval Paar. set [aedn sateen oes ee ee ee hear ae aS Challai Paar. - +/+ Sea en PPR amg STE Ole Bile D++++ FF 4:47: ++ pti Silavatturai Paar. Kondachi Paar. ee ee ++ Jaggerboom Bank. | Old Dutch Jaggerboom Bank. | Moderagam Paar. | Marichchukkaddi Bay. Kudrimalai Paar. | Dutch Moderagam Paar. Karaitivu Paar. | Alanturai Paar. Muttuvaratu Paar. | Hamilton’s Muttuvaratu Paar. | Krusadai Paar. + +: Se See ee D+ Sole tsieashncactats ieee SS eee ea +) See oe eee oF SSS Sa permite eo Gini Ae pio. Monn 5 SP ee eS ear ae iy eek wares et oe 5 SRS nO ES OO DEE TEs eS A ee 5 rag Oe EET ee : ee ee ee ee ee ee 15 Seis Sa ie eer ec oe, eee aoa Doe EEE FES AE EEE ee i sfirteincie teat 3 Geer en ie ees cols eer Dt DD ++ Se ee ++: iste ee ee pS Po ame See SPI ee Sine coe +4: DHL: Bia onetes +t: Siceeae wma eae eth Nee Rargmch eck appre Me ot Co oan Oe LE+EH: L+H: Cocina 3 FETE RE Re Re Re ape on gees BIE 3C> Pale pone es Esp we ee beck 263 | Donnan’s Muttuvaratu Paar. | Talaivillu Paar. | Karkopanni Paar. | Navakkaduwa Paar. | Dutch Bay Spit. : : | Jokenpiddi Paar. pee eicectantateme ae + Get ig rete ear Fs iC ae ad 2 SEE a ee SO i Dit Pete a et aoe Dea Oh Ge concice a pa Ps a ce Rae ee ee oer oe Bor ro Fai rere eS SCR Seas tcl Bora in oer ee eee cen eaeees Olerarats + D+ Tortanus forcipatus (Giesbr.) Sie fatal tala tate las wal ocala 'alis ctocelniete = Leeaames o Bee, ee) ae Sl el OF . 2N REVIEWS. 265 REVIEWS. 1.—Ceylon Stone Implements.* THE publication of this volume marks the first attempt on the part of a resident to give a connected account of stone-age discoveries in Ceylon and to formulate theories as to the uses to which the stones were put, their age, and their place in the great scheme of lithic remains which is being tentatively con- structed by the efforts of Kuropean antiquaries, not without doubts, disagreements, and controversies. Of these labours, it is to be feared that the late Mr. Pole was almost totally ignorant. Whenever the stone-age literature of Ceylon grows to respectable proportions and can be summarized and surveyed by a master of the science, honourable historical mention will always be accorded to Mr. Pole, who was not only the first in the field of inquiry, but who persisted in the face of incredulity and discourage- ment, until his discoveries, in themselves humble, were confirmed by the Doctors Sarasin and placed beyond dispute by subsequent investigations. The death of Mr. Pole in June, 1913, adds an additional pathos to the publication of the volume which he never lived to read, and renders the task of examining it in detail one of more than usual delicacy ; but it would be a dereliction of duty to permit this work to go forth unchallenged as representing the reasoned conclusions of inquirers into the questions raised by his discovery of stone-age remains in Ceylon. To the most casual reader it will be at once apparent that Mr. Pole was little qualified either by temperament or by acquired knowledge to decide these questions. Almost any stone showing signs of human fracture was to him an imple- ment, to which he would confidently assign a use, with the result that the greater part of his collection was composed. of * «Ceylon Stone Implements,”’ by John Pole, Scarborough estate, Maskeliya, Ceylon. Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta, 1913, 266 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. what others would discard as “ chips.’ Thus, on page 8 we read that— With almost a total absence of secondary chipping any single chert flake might rank as a scraper, re-chipping is very rare. On page 26— Should the material have fractured conveniently, little or no work was expended. On page 31— Any flake may have been applied to this purpose, without having on it any mark of manufacture. These passages show that Mr. Pole was unacquainted with the most elementary rules either of logic or of lithic manu- facture. Scientific method imperatively demands the eli- mination of all specimens which do not carry upon their faces undeniable proofs of their human origin and design; and to introduce a number of ‘‘ may haves ” and “ might have beens ” is only to darken counsel. In the case of objects so debatable and so ambiguous as stone implements not unfrequently are, the inquirer must hold fast to the legal maxim, De non appa- rentibus et de non existentibus eadem est ratio. Mr. Pole divides his book into two parts, one concerned with chert, the other with quartz implements, apparently for the sake of convenience and not as implying any difference in time or in phase of culture. There is, in fact, at present no reason for supposing that the two materials were not simulta- neously employed. When, however, he quotes. from the Doctors Sarasin that Ceylon quartz implements are to be assigned to the Magdalenian age, he is adopting a theory which will find little support among prehistorians acquainted with the facts, and which is almost certainly negatived by the recent discovery of pigmy implements. It was the mis- fortune of the brothers Sarasin that their stay in the Island was far too short for adequate collection and study of the material available; and their conclusions must be treated with corresponding reserve. It is also regrettable that they, as well as Mr. Pole, should have handled and actually published illustrations of pigmy implements without recognizing the type or the importance of the discovery. Several specimens figured in Mr. Pole’s Pl. IIL. (quartz) are undoubtedly pigmies. REVIEWS. | 267 One word should be said concerning the supposed palzoliths figured in Plates I. and IT. (chert). The probability of these dating back to the paleolithic age has the high authority of the late Mr. Bruce Foote. My own opinion on the subject, after an examination of the stones, is that it would be unsafe to regard them as certainly belonging to so early a phase, unless it can be shown that paleolithic types persisted in Ceylon till a very recent date, as was undoubtedly the case in Tasmania. According to my view there is nothing in the workmanship which differentiates them beyond controversy from a clumsy neolithic chopper or even core, while the unworn and recent appearance of the material contributes to throw doubt upon their extreme antiquity. It should be added that their type, if they were admitted to be paleolithic, would cause them to be referred to a pre-mousterian age, that is, to a period antedating the earliest complete skeletons which we possess from France and Belgium, the Neanderthal skull, and probably even the Gibraltar remains. There is nothing incredible in this theory ; but for its acceptance it needs strong confirmation based upon a larger and more varied collection of stones than is at present available. Indubitable paloliths will be discovered in Ceylon first, if at all, in gravel-beds. 7 I would add in conclusion that the Colombo Museum has lately acquired the whole of the late Mr. Pole’s collection of stones. With the consent of the authorities I have gone care- fully through the entire series, and among much that- was worthless I have found a really considerable number of un- doubted stone implements, including scrapers (round and hollow), borers, blades, and in particular over sixty pigmy implements of quartz. One large round scraper of chert is by far the finest specimen which I have yet seen from Ceylon, and is worthy of a place on the shelves of any Museum; of the pigmies, many are of the best type and deserving of the closest study. On comparing the available implements with the specimens selected for illustration in Mr. Pole’s book, it is at once apparent that the author, with all his merits, was not qualified to distinguish the bad from the good. Itis even more 268 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. lamentahly obvious that he had the opportunity, by making a judicious selection from the stones in his possession, of produc- ing a work which would have: been of immense value to students, and which might have inaugurated a new era in the history of the Stone Age in Ceylon. The illustrations contained in the book and contributed by Mrs. Maclure and Mrs. Harper are admirably done. It is melancholy to reflect that the excellence of their drawings renders the conviction so much the more inevitable that the majority of the stones figured are waste chips, not completed implements. November, 1913. C. HARTLEY. 2.—Poisonous Snakes of India and Ceylon.* THE enlarged third edition of Major Wall’s book, which is publishéd by the Bombay Natural History Society, and which treats so thoroughly with the posionous snakes of British India, is particularly well arranged and lucidly written, avoiding that complexity which so often characterizes books of this type, and which is so confusing to the general reader. The first portion of the book deals with the identification of the poisonous snakes, chiefly by means of scaling and head shields, and is illustrated by clearly printed diagrams which should prove extremely useful, as the shields, which are often difficult to examine on a living specimen, are here clearly portrayed, and the necessary explanation is reduced to a minimum. Each snake is concisely and clearly described, only those features that are necessary for its identification being given, to which are added.short notes on its distribution, dimen- sions, colour, and poison. Of the “ Kraits” Major Wall recognizes twelve species, two of which, Bungarus ceylonicus and Bungarus ceruleus, occur in Ceylon. The * “