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WHY, WHEN, and How

BY

CLARENCE M. WEED, D. Sc.

'1

Professor of Zoology and Entomology, New Hampshire
College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts

ILLUSTRATED

Jffmtrth

NEW YORK
ORANGE JUDO COMPANY

COPYRIGHT i8gi
By CLARENCE M. WEED

COPYRIGHT 1903
By ORANGE JUDD COMPANY

Spraying has now come to be an established part of the
work of fruit-growing. — L. H. BAILEY.

The time is now ripe for the declaration that profitable
apple culture demands systematic spraying. — FREDERICK D.
CHESTER.

Spray! Spray! Spray! Spray for insects and for fun-
gous diseases. This is one of the secrets of successful fruit-
growing.— DELAWARE FARM AND HOME.

/ believe in spraying, for I have tried and proven it. In
many portions of our country to-day it is just as much a
necessity as is under draining, or fertilizing, or killing potato-
bugs. — MORTIMER WHITEHEAD.

The spray pump might well be adopted as the emblem
of the fruit grower, and on it be inscribed that old legend:
By this sign we conquer. — HON E. L. SMITH, Oregon.

Out of thirty-six tons of grapes last season I did not lose
five pounds by rot, but I shall spray, rot or no rot. Spraying
adds greatly to the health of the vines, and consequently to
the size and beauty of the fruit. — JOHN BURROUGHS.

// should be remembered that in all cases success is
dependent upon the exercise of proper judgment in making
applications. Know the enemy to be destroyed; know the
remedies that arc most effective; and, finally, apply, them at
the proper season. Be prompt, thorough and persistent.
Knowledge and good judgment are more necessary to success
than any definite rules. — E. G. LODEMAN.

256406

Preface to Second Edition

This little manual has been prepared for the
purpose of aiding owners of spraying machines to use
them to best advantage. The practical results of the
most recent investigations and experiments have been
embodied in it ; and technical terms, so far as possible,
have been excluded.

The development of the practice of spraying crops
furnishes a striking illustration of the practical results
agriculture may derive from scientific investigation
and accurate experimentation. Little more than a
decade has passed since Professor A. J. Cook, then
of the Michigan Agricultural College, began his
experiments in spraying apples to prevent the injuries
caused by the Codling Moth — experiments which first
proved to the horticultural public that the remedy was
safe and sure — and to his enthusiastic advocacy of the
process American fruit-growers are largely indebted
for the introduction of spraying machinery. The
success which followed spraying for the Codling Moth
naturally led to experiments in spraying for other
insects, and later for fungous diseases ; our early
knowledge of remedies for the latter being largely due
to the efforts of Messrs Scribner and Galloway, of the
United States Department of Agriculture. The estab-
lishment of the state experiment stations has greatly
aided the acquisition and diffusion of information upon
the whole subject.

vii

Viii PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION

The sources of those illustrations on the following
pages which are not original with the author, are
indicated in the legends below the pictures.

C. M. W.

-

New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts.
DURHAM, March, 1895.

Preface to Fourth Edition

In the revision for the present edition an attempt
has been made to bring this little book up to the best
knowledge and practice of the day. I am under
special obligations to Professor L. R. Jones for the
revision of the part treating of potato enemies, to
Professor F. A. Waugh for reading the proof through-
out, and to Mr W. E. Britton for the loan of the
electrotype used on page 106. Of course I am under
obligations also to the great number of workers who
have made possible the wonderful advance in spraying
operations during recent years. A book like this can
only hope to be a compilation of the results of many
minds, and I have not hesitated to draw freely from
many sources, giving due credit so far as practicable.
To all who have thus contributed to the possible use-
fulness of the book I extend cordial thanks.

C. -M. W.
DURHAM, N. H., May, 1903.

Contents

Principles of Spraying

PART I

SPRAYING THE LARGER FRUITS

Apple 57 Peach 73

Plum 69 Pear 76

Cherry 80

PART II

SPRAYING SMALL FRUITS AND NUKSKKV STOCK

Strawberry 85 Grape 95

Currant and Gooseberry.. 90 Raspberry 97

Nursery Stock 99

PART III

SPRAYING SHADE-TREES, ORNAMENTAL PLANTS AND
FLOWERS

Shade Trees 107 Rose 114

Flowers 115

PART IV

SPRAYING VEGETABLES, FIELD-CROPS AND DOMESTIC
ANIMALS

Potato 119 Asparagus 126

Cabbage 124 Grain Crops 129

Domestic Animals 12

SPRAYING CROPS

PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING

HABITS OF INSECTS — DEVELOPMENT OF PARASITIC
GROWTH MIXTURES AND METHODS EMPLOYED

Growing plants are liable to injury from two classes
of organisms, — namely, noxious insects and parasitic
fungi. Although these tiny foes are often considered
too insignificant to merit serious attention, they
annually destroy about $500,000,000 worth of crops
in the United States. By an intelligent use of the
spraying machine — a simple apparatus by which cer-
tain substances that destroy insect and fungous life
may be distributed over the surfaces of plants — a large
proportion of this loss may be prevented at compara-
tively slight expense. The object of this little manual
is to indicate why, when, and how to spray, to get
the best results.

The philosophy of spraying will be better under-
stood if one has a general knowledge of the habits and
methods of development of the insect and fungus
pests against which the spraying machine is used.
Nearly all of these organisms are weaker and easier
to destroy at some one period of their existence than
at any other : consequently, a knowledge of their habits
and history is often necessary to success.

SPRAYING AGAINST INSECTS

The insect against which the spraying machine
has been most generally used in the northern United

SPRAYING CROPS

States' 'is ' tfie ' Codling ''Moth-* or Apple Worm — the
little white worm that one too often finds near the core
of the dessert apple. The parent of this little pest is a
small chocolate-colored moth (represented at / and
g), which appears in spring soon after the blossoms
have fallen and deposits its eggs in various places
upon the young apples as well as upon the adjacent
leaves. In about a week these eggs hatch into

Codling Moth

a, injured apple; b, calyx where young larva generally enters; e, larva; d,
pupa; *, cocoon; g,ft moth; h, head of larva. (After Riley)

young larvae which often nibble a little of the green
surface of the leaf or the fruit before they crawl into
the little calyx cup at the outer end of the apple to
burrow into the pulpy part. Some of them enter at
other places. Once inside the larva continues
feeding as the apple develops, constantly increasing
in size, until, at the end of three or four weeks, it is
about three-fourths of an inch long, and appears as
represented in e. It has now finished its caterpillar

SPRAYING AGAINST INSECTS 3

growth, and, leaving the apple, it finds some crevice
in the rough bark, where it spins a slight cocoon, in
which it changes to the pupa or chrysalis state.
A fortnight later it emerges from the cocoon as a
full-fledged moth, like the one which laid the origi-
nal egg. Thus the curious life-cycle is completed.
There are generally two broods of the worms each
season.

By means of the spraying machine the fruit-
grower is able to place in the calyx ends of the young
apples a few particles of poison, so that when the
newly-hatched worm nibbles at the skin, the chances
are that it will eat one of these particles, and thus
cut short at the outset its own career. To do this the
fruit-grower usually mixes a quarter of a pound of
Paris green or some similar insecticide with a barrel
of water, and then, having the barrel in a wagon, he
drives along the rows of apple trees just after the
blossoms have fallen off, and sprays them. The little
particles of poison are thus distributed over the tree
in a spray, and when the water in which they are
suspended evaporates, they are left high and dry upon
the leaves and fruit, where they remain for several
weeks a menace to insect enemies, until the combined
action of rain and dew, wind and sunshine, dissipates
their poisonous properties. The spraying is most
effective if done just after the petals fall, when the
blossom end of the apple is wide open. As the young
fruit enlarges, the parts of the calyx close up, holding
the poison inside so it is ready for the little worms
when they attempt to eat their way to the core.
Probably many of them also get some of the poison
when they take their first meal on the green surface
of the. leaf or fruit. If the first brood of worms are
thus quite generally destroyed, there is no necessity,
usually, to spray for the second brood; because their

4 SPRAYING CROPS

would-be parents having died in infancy, the worms
of the second brood do not appear upon the scene.

Another insect against which the spraying
machine is often used is the Plum Curculio. This
pest has been for many ^ears one of the most destruc-
tive enemies of the plum-grower, and is the cause of
the worminess and premature dropping of the fruit,
with which so many owners of plum trees are
familiar. The adult Curculio is a small, hard beetle
(shown magnified at c), which appears in the plum

Plum Curculio

a, larva; 3, pupa; ct beetle, magnified; d, plum, showing crescent mark.
(After Riley)

orchard early in spring, and feeds upon the foliage
and flowers until the fruit is well formed. It then
attacks the young plums, gnawing at them to satisfy
its hunger, and cutting crescent-shaped marks in the
skin to deposit its eggs (d). In a short time these
eggs hatch into little grubs that feed upon the pulp of
the fruit, gradually working toward the pit. In a few
weeks they become full-grown (a), by which time
the infested plums have generally fallen to the
ground. The larvae then leave the fruit, and, enter-
ing the soil a short distance, change to pupae (b).
A little while later they again change and come forth

SPRAYING AGAINST INSECTS 5

as perfect beetles. There is but one brood in the
season.

As the eggs of this insect are deposited beneath the
skin of the fruit, it is manifestly impossible to reach
the larvae by spraying. But by coating the young
fruit and foliage with particles of poison we can kill
many of the parent beetles before they insert the
eggs, and thus part of the plums will escape. This is
not a perfect remedy, however, except perhaps in
large orchards, and must often be supplemented by
jarring the trees.

b

Canker Worm

^» eggs>f> larva; g; pupa; a, male moth; b, female moth. (After Riley)

Besides these two insects affecting the fruit of
orchard trees, against which the spraying machine is
especially used, there are many enemies of the foliage
which are open to destruction by similar means. One
of the worst of these pests is the Canker Worm,
which at more or less frequent intervals during the
last century has scourged both orchard and shade
trees in many parts of the United States and Canada.
It is represented in its different stages in the picture
above. The worm or larva hatches from masses of
small cylindrical eggs (e) deposited upon the bark of
the tree. It feeds upon the soft parts of the leaves,
causing a badly infested tree to appear brown and

6 SPRAYING CROPS

seared, as if scorched by fire. These worms continue
feeding for several weeks before becoming full
grown ; they then descend to the ground, burrow into
the soil a short distance, and spin silken cocoons,
within which they change to the pupa or chrysalis
state and later emerge as moths. The two sexes of
the moths differ greatly: the male (a) has large, well-
developed wings, while the female (b) is wingless.
The latter is of an ash-gray color. On emerging from
the chrysalis, she crawls to the base of the tree, and
ascending the trunk, deposits eggs on the twigs or
branches of the tree.

The Canker Worm, with nearly all other leaf-
eating caterpillars, falls an easy victim to the spraying
machine.

FEEDING HABITS OF INSECTS

Insects take their food in two ways : some bite
and others suck. The three species mentioned under
the last heading are examples of those insects which
take their food by biting, piece by piece, the tissues
of leaf, stem, or fruit of their host-plant. Because of
this they may be destroyed by placing particles of
poison upon the surface of the plant. A large pro-
portion of the injurious insects have such biting
mouth-parts ; but there is also an important class
which have instead of jaws a pointed beak that they
push into the cells of the plant, and suck out the sap.
Insects of this kind cannot be destroyed by coating
the food-plant with particles of- poison, for such par-
ticles will not enter their alimentary system; conse-
quently, one must use against them some insecticide
which kills by contact, either affecting the general
surface or reaching the interior through the breathing
tubes. The former are called Contact Poisons and
the latter Trachcal Poisons. Kerosene is the most

FUNGOUS DISEASES /

important of the contact poisons and pyrethum or
insect powder is a good example of a tracheal poison,
although the various vapor insecticides, like carbon
bisulphide and hydrocyanic acid gas, also belong here.

DEVELOPMENT OF PARASITIC FUNGI

Many other instances of the usefulness of the
spraying machine in controlling noxious insects will
be found on the later pages of this little book. To
illustrate the theory of its use against the fungus
enemies of crops, as well as the life history of the
parasitic fungi themselves, we may instance the
Dozvny Mildew, which causes the Brown Rot of
grapes.

The Brown Rot of grapes is a fungous disease —
that is, it is a diseased condition of the foliage or fruit
due to the presence of a fungus. This fungus is a
minute, parasitic plant that develops at the expense of
the tissues of the grape, thus causing blighting of the
leaf and decay of the fruit. It attacks all the green
parts of the vine, including the young shoots, as well
as the leaves and berries ; and, like other fungi, repro-
duces by means of spores — minute bodies correspond-
ing in function to the seeds of flowering plants.

When one of these spores falls upon a moist leaf
its contents divide into a number of distinct particles
which escape through an opening in the spore-wall.
Each of these particles moves about in the drop of
water on the leaf for a few minutes, then comes to a
standstill and germinates by sending out a little tube —
somewhat as a kernel of corn in moist soil sends out
its germinating radicle — and this tube penetrates the
epidermis or skin of the leaf. Once inside, the tube
continues to grow, pushing about between the cells of
the leaf, and forming what is called the mycelium or
vegetative portion of the fungus, which may be likened

8 SPRAYING CROPS

to the roots of the higher plants. As there is little
nourishment to be obtained between the cells, the
mycelium develops minute processes which push
through the cell walls and absorb the cell contents. A
small section of an affected leaf, greatly magnified,
is represented in the accompanying figure, the un-
shaded double-walled spaces representing the leaf
cells, the shaded part between the walls the mycelium
of the fungus, and the projections marked a, a, the
processes or suckers that penetrate the cells.

After this mycelium has developed in the leaf for
some time, it is ready to produce its spores. Conse-

Section of Leaf Showing Mycelium of Fungus

Magnified. (After Farlow)

quently it sends out through the breathing pores or
stomata of the leaf its fruiting branches. These bear
upon their tips small oval bodies which are the spores.
Some of these fruiting branches are represented mag-
nified on the next page. The "mildew" visible to the
naked eye is composed of these fruiting branches and
their spores. It only develops under certain atmos-
pheric conditions ; so that the mycelium may exist in
the affected parts of the vine for some time before this
outward manifestation of its presence occurs. Besides
the spores above described, which are produced during
the summer season, and consequently are called sum-
mer spores, there is developed in autumn a different
class of spores, by which the fungus passes through

FUNGOUS DISEASES 9

the winter. Hence, these latter are called the winter
spores.

It is evident from the above account of this
fungus parasite, that remedial or preventive meas-
ures are useless after the enemy has become estab-
lished within the tissues of the plant. But its ingress

Fruiting Branches

Greatly magnified

may be prevented by coating the green parts of the
vine with some substance having a destructive effect
upon fungus spores. The salts of copper have such
an effect, and in consequence have come into general
use as fungicides.

From the foregoing illustrations the reader will
have learned that spraying is simply an easy and prac-
tical method of distributing certain substances having

IO SPRAY IXC, CHOPS

a destructive effect upon insect and fungus life over
the outer surfaces of trees, shrubs, vines, and herba-
ceous plants. These substances are usually applied in
a finely powdered condition, and the tiny particles
stand guard over the plants, killing with remorseless
certainty any insect or fungus pest that attempts to
pass through their lines to reach the plant. The par-
ticles themselves do not enter the plant, but remain on
the outside until driven off by the combined action of
wind, rain, dew, and sunshine. This is not true, how-
ever, of the contact-killing insecticides, which are
applied directly to the offending insects and do not
remain on the plant in an effective condition.

Substances used to destroy insects are called
insecticides; those used to destroy fungi are called
fungicides.

INSECTICIDES USED IN SPRAYING

The insecticides used in spraying may be broadly
divided into two classes : ( i ) internal poisons, or
those which take effect by being eaten along with the
ordinary food of the insect; and (2) external irritants,
or those which act from the outside, — penetrating the
breathing pores, or causing death by irritation of the
skin. The most important insecticides are the poisons.
Of these the most popular are the various combina-
tions of arsenic.

Paris green is a chemical combination of arsenic
and copper, containing about 58 per cent of arsenious
acid; about 31 per cent of copper oxide and 10 per
cent of acetic acid. Technically it is called copper
aceto-arsenite. It is almost insoluble in water; but
there is often a small percentage of it soluble, and
to prevent the injury this may do to foliage it pays
to add a little fresh lime water (made by slaking fresh
lime in water) to the spraying mixture. It may be

INSECTICIDES II

used in spraying potatoes, apple trees, and most shade
trees, at the rate of four ounces to 50 gallons of water.
On stone fruits, use half this strength, unless lime is
added, although in the case of peaches great care must
be used if Paris green is applied. Arsenate of lead
is safer. Paris green is a heavy powder, and does
not stay long in suspension ; hence it must be kept
constantly stirred to prevent its settling to the bottom
of the vessel. Buy Paris green in as finely powdered
condition as possible, and get a reliable brand.
Paris green is sometimes adulterated with arsenious
acid, which gives a larger per cent of soluble arsenic
than should be present. Gypsum or calcium sulphate
is also often used as an adulterant. Most experiment
stations are able to give the names of reliable brands
of Paris green.

Color Tests for Paris Green — Upon this subject
Mr A. V. Stubenrauch says in a bulletin of the Illinois
Experiment Station : "Perhaps the simplest test to
determine whether a green has been extensively adul-
terated is the color test. Pure Paris green has a bright
green color, a shade or two lighter than emerald. Any
samples which have a dull or a pale, washed-out ap-
pearance should at once be discarded without further
question. By placing a small quantity in, say a
homeopathic vial, and tapping the latter gently on the
bottom or side, adulterants can be made to separate
from the green, and can then be seen as white streaks
or patches against the glass sides of the vial. The
pure green remains bright green against the glass.
Tn connection with the color test, Professor Wood-
worth of the California Station has devised the fol-
lowing simple test, which can be made by anyone and
which will show immediately if the sample is worthy
of any further consideration : Place upon a clean glass
plate a small quantity of green, what one can easily

12 SPRAYING CROPS

pick up on the point of a penknife ; tilt the plate at a
slight angle and gently tap the edge, just enough to
cause the green to flow down leaving a streak across
the plate. If the green is of good quality, the streak
will be a bright, light emerald green ; if adulterated, a
whitish or a sickly dull green. Any samples which
exhibit the latter are either adulterated or of low grade
and as such are not worthy of further consideration."

Arsenate of Lead — This poison has recently come
into general use as an insecticide. It has many ad-
vantages as it is a very fine insoluble powder, that
remains in suspension a long time and does not burn
the foliage even when applied at the rate of 3 or
more pounds to 50 gallons of water. It also adheres
to the foliage better than Paris green and may be seen
upon the leaves more readily so that the thoroughness
of the spraying may be more easily determined. On
the other hand it is rather slow in its action. It should
be bought in the form of a thick paste. "For the
garden or for the small orchard," writes Professor
John B. Smith, "this arsenate of lead in paste form
is the most convenient and reliable arsenical poison
that we have. There is no danger of using too much
of it, and it can be employed on plants of all kinds.
I used it on my roses to destroy the slugs and applied
it on all other plants that were subject to caterpillar
attack. It has the advantage of whitening the foliage
somewhat, so that its presence is easily recognizable,
and it has lasting qualities superior to any of the other
arsenical poisons known to me. In the peach orchard
there is nothing so good if leaf -eating insects are to be
combated." The forms of arsenate of lead upon the
market are Bowker's Disparene and Swift's Arsenate
of Lead.

London purple generally contains nearly the same
percentage of arsenic as Paris green ; but the arsenic

INSECTICIDES 13

is often in a more soluble form, and consequently
London purple is more likely to injure foliage than
Paris green, unless lime is added. It is a finer
powder than the green, -and remains in suspension in
water longer. It is also cheaper. Before using, the
soluble arsenic should be made insoluble by the addi-
tion of lime water. One of the best ways to do this is
to add three-fourths of a pound of lime to a pound of
London purple, and thoroughly mix them in a gallon
of hot water, allowing the mixture to stand two hours
and keeping it hot during this time if it can be con-
veniently done. In this way the soluble arsenic will
be rendered insoluble, and the London purple may be
used at the rate of 4 or 5 ounces to a barrel of water.
Or the London purple may be added to the water as
usual, and about 2 gallons of fresh milk of lime (made
by slaking lime in water) strained into the barrel.
If allowed to stand an hour, all the soluble arsenic is
more likely to be rendered insoluble than if used at
once. After London purple has been thus treated
with lime it can safely be applied to tender foliage at
a strength of 4 ounces to 50 gallons of water. Both
London purple and Paris green may be added to the
Bordeaux mixture (4 ounces poison to 50 gallons mix-
ture), as described more fully elsewhere, and then
the treatment with lime is not necessary.

Scheele's Green is another arsenical insecticide
recently placed on the market. According to a bulle-
tin of the -United States Department of Agriculture,
it "is similar to Paris green in color, and differs from
it only in lacking acetic acid ; in other words, it is a
simple arsenite of copper. It is a much finer powder
than Paris green, and therefore more easily kept in
suspension, and has the additional advantage of cost-
ing only about half as much per pound. When prop-
erly washed and prepared by the manufacturers it is

14 SPRAYING CROPS

less harmful to the foliage even than Paris green, is
quicker in effect, and should supplant the latter as an
insecticide. It is used in the same way and at about
the same strength as Paris green."

Hellebore is a vegefeble poison, and kills both by
contact and by being eaten. It may be applied in
water, i ounce to 3 gallons, or i pound to a barrel.
It is especially excellent in destroying the imported
currant worm.

Pyrethrum, or Insect Powder, is made from the
powdered flowers of plants of the genus Pyrethrum.
The greatest obstacle to the use of Pyrethrum has
been the difficulty in obtaining the pure, fresh article.
After long exposure to the air it loses much of its
insecticidal value. It is used mainly as a dry powder
or in water (i ounce to 3 gallons) ; but may also be
used in the form of a tea, or a decoction, a fume, or
an alcoholic extract diluted.

Arsenite of Lime — Persons having a large amount
of spraying to do often use this in place of Paris
green, as it is much cheaper. It is made by boiling
for 15 minutes or more

White arsenic 2 pounds

Salsoda 8 pounds

Water 2 gallons

After the arsenic is dissolved this makes a stock
solution which may be used at the rate of I pint to a
barrel of water, adding also 2 pounds of freshly slaked
lime. The chief objection to this is in the danger of
having white arsenic around the premises. It looks
so much like flour, baking powder and other domestic
powders that it is dangerous to the family.

Kerosene — Pure kerosene has lately come into
use as an insecticide for scale insects, especially the
San Jose scale. It is to be applied only to dormant

INSECTICIDES 15

trees in winter, and must be used with care and dis-
cretion in order not to kill the trees. It is to be
sprayed on until the bark is thoroughly moistened,
but spraying should cease before the kerosene begins
to run down the branches. The Vermorel nozzle with
one-twentieth-inch aperture is recommended for this
work. Apparently there is especial danger of injury
to the trees in the case of the peach.

Kerowater Sprays — During the last few years
considerable progress has been made in the making
of apparatus for applying kerosene in mechanical
mixture with water. Essentially this consists in
having the kerosene in one receptacle and the water
in the other and bringing the two together at the
nozzle in such a way that the two will combine in
the spray applied. In much of the apparatus now
upon the market, the two liquids enter the same hose
at the pump so that there is an opportunity for more
or less separation before the nozzle is reached, a fact
which leads to inequality in the percentages of ker-
osene in the spray at different times. The longer and
larger the hose the greater the danger. Consequently
the small bucket and knapsack kerosene and water
machines are much more likely to give satisfaction
than the large barrel machines.

As a matter of fact the kerosene and the water
should reach the nozzle through separate lines of
hose so that there will be no opportunity for such
inequalities as the present system involves. In some
of the best types of barrel sprayers this principle is
now adopted.

There is no question that these kerowater sprays
have many advantages, and are very useful in de-
stroying many sorts of insects.

Kerosene Emulsion — According to the Riley-
Hubbard formula in general use this is prepared by

l6 SPRAYING CROPS

adding 2 gallons of kerosene to i gallon of a solution
made by dissolving l/2 pound of hard soap in I
gallon of boiling water, and churning the mixture by
forcing it back into the same vessel through a force
pump with a rather sm^ll nozzle opening throwing a
straight stream, until the whole forms a creamy mass,
which will thicken into a jelly-like substance on cool-
ing. The soap solution should be hot when the
kerosene is added, but of course must not be near a
fire. The emulsion thus made is to be diluted before
using, with nine or ten parts of water to one part of
emulsion. The amount of dilution varies with differ-
ent insects. Soft water or rain water should be used
in diluting. If this cannot be obtained add a little
lye or bicarbonate of soda. For use against scale
insects potash whale oil soap is recommended.

Crude Petroleum — This substance has been used
to a considerable extent for winter treatment for
the San Jose scale. It is sprayed upon the bark as
recommended for pure kerosene and seems to remain
on longer in effective condition.

Lime, Salt and Sulphur Wash — This has lately
become the most generally recommended insecticide
for use against the San Jose scale. According to
Professor J. B. Smith the formula generally used in
New Jersey is :

Stone lime 50 pounds

Flowers of sulphur 50 pounds

Stock salt 50 pounds

Water 150 gallons

"Slake the lime with hot water, enough to do it
thoroughly, add the sulphur, stir well, and boil for
at least an hour, adding water as necessary. Then
add the salt, boil at least fifteen minutes more, and
dilute to make the 150 gallons, In boiling .use no

INSECTICIDES 17

more water than necessary to make a fluid mass.
Strain through a gunny sack and apply hot.

"The main point to be insisted on is that the
mixture be thoroughly boiled, so as to obtain the
complete combination of the sulphur and lime. Hog-
scalders were generally used last winter, but in at
least one case a small steam boiler proved economical
and satisfactory. Where large quantities of the mix-
ture are to be prepared, the steam boilers will prob-
ably prove most convenient."

For Georgia, Mr W. M. Scott, state entomologist,
gives the following directions:

"This wash may be prepared by combining lime,
salt and sulphur in several different proportions, but
the following appears to be the generally accepted
formula :

Quicklime 30 pounds

Salt 15 pounds

Flowers of sulphur 20 pounds

Water to make 60 gallons.

"Slake half the lime carefully and place it in a
large kettle with 25 gallons of water; grind the
sulphur up with a little water, breaking the lumps
as fine as possible by passing through a sieve and
add to the lime; boil. As it boils the liquid will
gradually become thinner and thinner, the lime and
sulphur dissolving simultaneously to form a deep
orange-red solution. When the sulphur has appar-
ently all entered into solution, which may take two
hours or more, slake the remainder of the lime, add
to it the salt, and pour the two into the lime and
sulphur solution. Boil the whole for from half an hour
to an hour longer, strain, and dilute with warm
water to 60 gallons. Do not let it become thoroughly
cold, but spray while yet warm.

l8 SPRAYING CROPS

"The principal care in making up this wash is
to make sure that the sulphur is thoroughly dissolved.
Flowers of sulphur is apt to be more or less lumpy,
and these lumps are very difficult of solution. The
more thoroughly the stllphur is ground up with water
before being boiled with the lime, the less time it
will take in boiling.

"An iron kettle must be used if the boiling is done
directly over a fire. A better and cheaper way, when-
ever a head of steam is available, is to place the sul-
phur, lime and salt together in a barrel half full of
water, conduct the steam through a pipe to the bottom
of the barrel and boil for two or three hours, with
occasional stirring, to make sure that nothing is set-
tling. If a boiler is convenient, a pipe might be so
arranged as to conduct steam to a number of barrels
at once."

Resin Soap — This substance is used for scale
insects, and to add to Bordeaux mixture for asparagus
rust. The soap is made by dissolving 7 pounds sal-
soda (washing soda) in 5 gallons of boiling water.
Then add 10 pounds resin and boil until the resin is
dissolved. This will require half an hour or more.
The result will be a yellow soap in the lower part of
the vessel with a brownish liquid above. The latter
is to be poured off, and the soap diluted as needed.

Fish-oil Soap — Professor J. B. Smith and others
report excellent results in the use of this substance
against plant-lice and similar insects. The soap is on
the market at about 12 cents a pound, but, according
to Professor Smith, it can be made much more cheaply
by the following formula :

Hirsh's crystal potash lye i pound

Fish oil 3 pints

Soft water 3 gallons

INSECTICIDES 1C)

Dissolve the lye in the water, heat to boiling, and
then add the oil. It should be boiled about two
hours, and when done water can be added to make up
for the loss by evaporation. For use as an insecticide
it is made into a dilute suds by dissolving i pound of
soap in 8 gallons of water. It is less liable to injure
foliage than kerosene emulsion.

Lime Spray is made by slaking a half-peck or a
peck of fresh lime in water, and pouring into a barrel
nearly full of water, straining the lumps out as it
enters the barrel. By means of this and the spray
pump, trees and vines may be literally whitewashed.
It is useful in mechanically coating plants so that
flea-beetles, and perhaps other insects, will not
molest them.

Tobacco Decoction — This is made by boiling
refuse tobacco stems or dust in water, or pouring
boiling water over them. This gives a concentrated
liquid, which is to be diluted with cold water, until
there are two gallons of water for each pound of
tobacco used. It is a good remedy for plant-lice.
A stronger formula, recommended by Professor M. V.
Slingerland, is to steep 5 pounds of tobacco stems in
3 gallons of water for 3 hours ; then strain and dilute
with enough water to make 7 gallons, when the
decoction is ready to use.

Whale-oil Soap — Dissolve in water at the rate of
2 ounces soap to i gallon water. This is good to
destroy plant-lice, rose slugs, etc. Good's potash soap
No 3 seems to be the best whale-oil soap for insec-
ticidal purposes.

FUNGICIDES USED IN SPRAYING

The principal fungicides used in spraying are
certain salts of copper, especially the sulphate of
copper and the carbonate of copper. These substances

2O SPRAYING CROPS

were first experimented with on a large scale in
France, and gave such satisfactory results that they
were adopted in a practical way by many vineyardists.
In America they have been used for this purpose only
about twenty years ; yCt, thanks to numerous inves-
tigations and experiments, their efficiency is well
attested, and they are in practical use over a large
territory. Their principal combinations are indicated
below :

Bordeaux Mixture — This fungicide originated in
France, and has become one the leading combina-
tions of copper salts. Since its introduction into
America there has been a constant tendency to dilute
the mixture more and more. The results from the
diluted mixtures have been apparently as good as from
those of full strength, and of course the cost has been
proportionately lessened. The different formulas are
indicated below :

Original or 22-Gallon Formula — Dissolve 6
pounds copper sulphate in I gallon hot water in an
earthen or wooden vessel. In another vessel slake 3
pounds fresh lime in i gallon water. Strain the
latter, and add to 20 gallons water. Now pour in the
dissolved copper sulphate and mix thoroughly. Keep
the mixture stirred while using. This strong mixture
is now seldom used.

Fifty-Gallon Formula — In 1889, while at the Ohio
Experiment Station, I experimented with potato blight
by diluting this mixture a little more than half, using
6 pounds copper sulphate and 4 pounds lime to 50
gallons water, instead of 22 gallons. This was ap-
plied to a number of plants besides potatoes, and
apparently gave as good results as undiluted mix-
tures. The same formula was also successfully used
in 1890, and has been so generally adopted since, that
it is now the standard formula.

FUNGICIDES 21

The most complete practical directions for mak-
ing the Bordeaux mixture are those published by
Professor B. T. Galloway, United States Department
of Agriculture, in Farmers' Bulletin No 38, which I
quote at length :

"It has been found," writes Mr Galloway, "that
the method of combining the ingredients has an
important bearing on both the chemical composition
and physical structure of the mixture. For example,
if the copper sulphate is dissolved in a small quantity
of water and the lime milk diluted to a limited extent
only, there results, when these materials are brought
together, a thick mixture, having strikingly different
characters from one made by pouring together weak
solutions of lime and copper sulphate. It is true,
furthermore, that if the copper sulphate solution and
lime milk are poured together while the latter or both
are warm, different effects are obtained than if
both solutions are cool at the moment of mixing.
Where the mixture has been properly made there
is scarcely any settling after an hour, while the
improperly made mixture has settled more than half.

"Briefly, the best results have been obtained from
the use of the Bordeaux mixture made in accordance
with the following directions : In a barrel or other
suitable vessel place 25 gallons of water. Weigh out
6 pounds of copper sulphate, then tie the same in a
piece of coarse gunny sack and suspend it just beneath
the surface of the water. By tying the bag to a stick
laid across the top of the barrel no further attention
will be required. In another vessel slake 4 pounds
of lime, using care in order to obtain a smooth paste,
free from grit and small lumps. To accomplish this
it is best to place the lime in an ordinary water pail
and add only a small quantity of water at first, say
a quart or a quart and a half. When the lime begins

22

SPRAYING CROPS

to crack and crumble and the water to disappear add
another quart or more, exercising care that the lime
at no time gets too dry. Toward the last considerable
water will be required, but if added carefully and
slowly a perfectly smooUi paste will be obtained, pro-
vided, of course, the lime is of good quality. When
the lime is slaked add sufficient water to the paste

Improperly and Properly Hade Bordeaux flixture

After standing one hour. The properly made mixture has just begun to settle

to bring1 the whole up to 25 gallons. When the copper
sulphate is entirely dissolved and the lime is cool, pour
the lime milk and copper sulphate solution slowly
together into a barrel holding 50 gallons. The milk
of lime should be thoroughly stirred before pouring.
The method described insures good mixing, but to
complete this work the barrel of liquid should receive
a final stirring, for at least three minutes, with a broad
wooden paddle. The copper sulphate solution should

FUNGICIDES 23

be poured into the lime, rather than the lime into the
copper sulphate solution.

"It is now necessary to determine whether the
mixture is perfect — that is, if it will be safe to apply
it to tender foliage. To accomplish this, two simple
tests may be used. First insert the blade of a pen-
knife in the mixture, allowing it to remain there for
at least one minute. If metallic copper forms on the
blade, or, in other words, if the polished surface of

Making Bordeaux Mixture

Pouring together the lime milk and copper sulphate solution

the steel assumes the color of copper plate, the mix-
ture is unsafe and more lime must be added. If, on
the other hand, the blade of the knife remains
unchanged, it is safe to conclude that the mixture is
as perfect as it can be made. As an additional test,
however, some of the mixture may be poured into
an old plate or saucer, and while held between the
eyes and the light the breath should be gently blown
upon the liquid for at least half a minute. If the

24 SPRAYING CROPS

mixture is properly made, a thin pellicle, looking like
oil on water, will begin to form on the surface of
the liquid. If no pellicle forms, more milk of lime
should be added.

"The foregoing directions apply to cases where
small quantities of the mixture are needed for more
or less immediate use. If spraying, is to be done
upon a large scale, it will be found much more con-
venient and economical in every way to prepare what
are known as stock solutions of both the copper and

Testing Bordeaux Mixture

The saucer or plate method and the knife method

lime. To prepare a stock solution of copper sulphate,
procure a barrel holding 50 gallons. Weigh out 100
pounds of copper sulphate, and after tying it in a
sack suspend it so that it will hang as near the top
of the barrel as possible. Fill the barrel with water,
and in two or three days the copper will be dissolved.
Now remove the sack and add enough water to bring
the solution again up to the 5o-gallon mark, previously
made on the barrel. It will be understood, of course,

FUNGICIDES 25

that this second adding of water is merely to replace
the space previously occupied by the sack and the
crystals of copper sulphate. Each gallon of the solu-
tion thus made will contain 2 pounds of copper sul-
phate, and, under all ordinary conditions of tempera-
ture, there will be no material recrystallization, so that
the stock preparation may be kept indefinitely.

"Stock lime may be prepared- in much the same
way as the copper sulphate solution. Procure a barrel
holding 50 gallons, making a mark to indicate the 50-
gallon point. Weigh out 100 pounds of fresh lime,
place it in the barrel and slake it. When slaked, add
sufficient water to bring the whole mass up to 50 gal-
lons. Each gallon of this preparation contains, after
thorough stirring, 2 pounds of lime.

"When it is desired to make Bordeaux mixture
of the 5<D-gallon formula it is only necessary to meas-
ure out 3 gallons of the stock copper solution, and, after
thorough stirring, 2 gallons of the stock lime ; dilute
each to 25 gallons, mix, stir, and test as already de-
scribed. One test will be sufficient in this case. In
other words, it will not be necessary to test each lot of
Bordeaux mixture made from the stock preparations,
provided the first lot is perfect and no change is made
in the quantities of the materials used. Special care
should be taken to see that the lime milk is stirred
thoroughly each time before applying. As a final pre-
caution it will be well to keep both the stock copper
sulphate and the stock lime tightly covered." Care
should be taken that there is always some excess
of lime.

A special advantage of the Bordeaux mixture is,
that arsenicals may be added to it, making a combined
insecticide and fungicide. Apparently arsenate of
lead is the most satisfactory for this purpose. Added
to Bordeaux mixture at the rate of 2 pounds to 50

26 SI'KAYJLXG CHOI'S

gallons it makes very effective insecticide and renders
the mixture more adhesive.

Care should be taken not to use the Bordeaux
mixture on fruit crops too late in the season. Traces
of it remain for some tir^e, notwithstanding numerous
rains, and are liable to cause unnecessary suspicions
when on marketed fruit. When a fruit crop requires
treatment within a month of the time of picking, it is
better to substitute some fungicide like carbonate of
copper, but it is doubtful if even these combinations
should be applied so near the time of the fruit harvest.
With nearly, if not quite all our fruit diseases, the
treatment should begin early and not continue
too late.

The experience of orchardists indicates that there
is danger in using Bordeaux mixture in which there
is not an excess of lime, as it causes a russeting of
apples somewhat similar to that caused by late frosts
in spring.

It sometimes happens that traces of Bordeaux
mixture remain upon the fruit, even when a consid-
erable interval elapses between the last application
and the ripening of the fruit. Such traces may be
easily removed by dipping in a solution made by
adding 2 gallons cider vinegar to 10 gallons water.
A good way is to have three tubs, one holding the
vinegar mixture and the other two pure water. Then
place the grapes or other fruit in wire baskets holding
15 to 20 pounds, dip them in the vinegar tub for
five minutes and then rinse in the two tubs of clear
water, afterwards spreading the fruit on frames or
shelves, something like those used in the fruit evap-
orators. Grapes can be treated in this way on a
large scale for six cents a hundred pounds.

Carbonate of Copper — This is commonly used in
the form of an ammoniacal solution made by dis-

FUNGICIDES 27

solving 5 ounces carbonate of copper in 3 pints of
ammonia and then adding to a barrel (50 gal-
lons) of water. To prevent loss from evaporation of
ammonia, the dissolved carbonate should be added to
the water immediately before spraying. It is a simple
fungicide, easy to make and apply, and as it is a
clear solution, there is no trouble With its clogging
nozzles. It has been successfully used to prevent apple
scab and various mildews.

A combination of carbonate of copper and car-
bonate of ammonia recommended by Professor F. D.
Chester as superior to the above, is made as follows :
"Mix together 3 ounces carbonate of copper and I
pound pulverized carbonate of ammonia. Dissolve this
mixture in 2 quarts hot water and add to 50 gallons
water." A barrel of this mixture costs 12 cents.

Professor Chester also reports good results from
copper carbonate prepared as follows : "Thoroughly
mix in half a pail of water, i pound of carbonate of
copper, to which is added 3 ounces of common glue
dissolved in hot water, then dilute to 25 gallons." It
would probably be better to dilute to 50 gallons.

Sulphate of Copper — Besides its use in combina-
tion with other substances, copper sulphate is often
applied to dormant vines and trees early in spring to
destroy the winter spores of fungi. For this purpose
it is used in a simple solution made by dissolving 2
pounds copper sulphate in 50 gallons water.

Extremely dilute solutions — one part of copper
sulphate to 1000 parts of water — have been used to
advantage in greenhouses to check such diseases as
carnation rust.

Potassium Sulphide — Dissolve y2 ounce of potas-
sium sulphide (liver of sulphur) in I gallon of hot
water. When cold apply in a spray. Used to prevent
gooseberry mildew and similar diseases.

28 SPRAYING CROPS

Soda Hyposulphite — Dissolve ^ ounce or i ounce
soda hyposulphite in 10 gallons water. This is espe-
cially recommended for gooseberry mildew.

Lye Solution — Professor William B. Alwood
recommends a solution oi 8 cans of concentrated lye
in 50 gallons water for spraying on trees and vines
early in spring, before the buds are started, to kill
fungus spores. If applied after buds are started
much damage might result.

Formaldehyde-Glycerine Mixture — Professor F.
D. Chester has lately used with success the follow-
ing combination in treating pear tree canker :
Formaldehyde (40 per cent), i pint; glycerine, 2
pints; water, 17 pints.

Caution — Most of the copper compounds cor-
rode tin and iron. Consequently, in preparing them
for use, earthen, wooden or brass vessels should be
employed ; and in applying them the parts of the pump
which come in contact with the liquid should be made
of brass.

COMBINATIONS OF INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES

Soon after fungicides came into prominence in
this country, the writer called attention1 to the advan
tages of so combining them with insecticides that both
may be applied at the same time and in the same
mixture. Before then, entomologists had worked out
remedies for insects, and botanists remedies for plant
diseases, but very little had been done in so combining
the treatment that the practical man might, so to
speak, "kill two birds with one stone." In the article
referred to I said : "The necessity of treatment for
both classes of injuries is at once apparent to all who
have experienced the serious losses due to these agents.
Obviously, it is of little use to save a plum crop from

lAgricultural Science, 1889.

COMBINING SPRAYING MIXTURES 2Q

the curculio, if it is to be destroyed by the fungous
disease known as fruit rot; to save raspberries from
the slug if they are to be ruined by anthracnose; to
save the grape buds from the flea beetle if the berries
are to be destroyed by black rot ; or to save a pear
crop from the ravages of the codling moth and curculio
if it is to be distorted and disfigured by the scab ; or,
to take an example which will strike home to a large
proportion of American farmers, it is scarcely worth
while to save the potatoes from the Colorado beetle if
they are to be ruined by more serious enemies — the
potato blights. While the necessity for preventing, so
far as possible, injuries of both these classes of organ-
isms is obvious, it is almost equally evident that there
will be a great loss of time and labor if each is treated
separately. For instance, the farmer who sprays his
potatoes with the arsenites two or three times for the
beetles, and then goes over them again with solutions
of copper sulphate for the blight, would have accom-
plished the same end in half the time by mixing the
copper sulphate and London purple or Paris green in
one solution and applying them together. -The same
is true of the treatment of apples, pears, plums, and,
in fact, of a large proportion of the crops liable to
injury by both insects and fungi."

Since the above was written a great many exper-
iments along the lines indicated have been made, and
we now have a number of satisfactory combinations.
Chief among these are the following:

Bordeaux Mixture and Arsenites — Add 4 ounces
Paris green to 50 gallons of Bordeaux mixture.
This is one of the very best combined insecticides and
fungicides. It may be used safely and effectively upon
a great variety of crops — such as potatoes for Colorado
beetles and blight, apples and pears for insects and
scab, and plums for curculio and leaf or fruit diseases.

3<3 SPRAYING CROPS

The remarks on page 26 concerning late applications
of the Bordeaux mixture are equally applicable to
this combination.

As already stated on page 25, the ar senate of
lead seems even better* than Paris green. Add to
Bordeaux mixture at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons.

Arsenitcs and Copper Carbonate — The Ohio
Experiment Station recommends the following com-
bination : Paris green 2 ounces, carbonate of copper
2 ounces, dissolve in 3 pints of ammonia, add l/2
pound lime and I barrel of water. It is advised that
this be substituted for the arsenite and Bordeaux com-
bination for the later sprayings of apples, pears,
plums, etc, so as to avoid the lime coating on the fruit.

Care must be taken in combining the arsenites
with other fungicide solutions, as one is liable thus
to produce a compound very injurious to foliage.
Paris green or London purple added to simple solu-
tions of copper sulphate, or to ammonia compounds
without lime, injures foliage vastly more than in
simple water mixture.

COST OF SPRAYING MATERIALS

The average retail and wholesale prices of the
various materials used in the spraying mixtures above
described are approximately indicated in the following
table :

WHOLESALE RETAIL

Per lb Per Ib

Ammonia (22 degrees Baume) $o 07 $o 25

Carbonate of copper (precipitated) 35 60

Carbonate of ammonia 12 30

London purple 06-07 10-15

Paris green 15 25

Pyrethrum 22-40 40-70

Soda hyposulphite 06 15

Salsoda oi/4 05

Sulphate of copper (granulated) 05-07 10-15

White hellebore 12 25

Whale-oil soap 08-10 15-20

HARMLESS TO FRUIT 3!

PREJUDICE AGAINST SPRAYING

It is quite natural that when most people first
learn that the fruit they eat has at some time in its
history been sprayed with poison they should object on
hygienic grounds. Both in Europe and America the
development of the practice of spraying has been
accompanied by occasional scares, the last one on this
side of the water occurring in September, 1881, when
the people of New York, Boston and other eastern
cities were agitated by an exaggerated "grape scare,"
due to the finding of particles of Bordeaux mixture on
some of the grapes in the New York market. But
when the spraying, either with the insecticides or
fungicides now commonly in use, is done with proper
reference to the time, methods, and conditions of treat-
ment, there is no danger to the consumer. Both prac-
tical experience and chemical tests have demonstrated
that apples sprayed early in the season with Paris
green or London purple retain none of the poison at
the time of ripening. The most recent demonstration
of this appears in the last report of the experimental
farms of Canada. A peck of Rhode Island Greening
apples that had been sprayed twice with Paris green
(i pound to 200 gallons of water) were care-
fully gathered, without rubbing, and tested for
arsenic. "The process to which they were submitted
is one that affords extremely accurate results, and is
considered the most delicate of all for the detection of
arsenic. It is capable of revealing the presence of one-
fifty-thousandth part of a grain of arsenic. If twenty-
three thousand bushels of apples contained two and a
half grains of arsenic, the minimum fatal dose for an
adult, the poison could have been detected by this
method." Notwithstanding the most careful analysis
no traces of poison were found ; and in conclusion, the

32 SPRAYING CROPS

chemist states: "I am of the opinion that further
experiments of this nature would only serve to corrob-
orate this negative result, and to prove that there are
no grounds on which to base a suspicion that our
sprayed apples are poisonous. The insoluble character
of this poison precluding its assimilation by the apple,
if such were possible, the infinitesimal part of Paris
green that can remain on the apple, the frequent rains
subsequent to the spraying, — all go to substantiate
the argument that there is not the slightest danger of
poisoning in using sprayed apples."

There is abundant evidence of a similar nature
concerning the use of copper salts on grapes. In France,
where a large proportion of the grape crop is converted
into wine, elaborate investigations have shown that
practically none of the copper salts are present in wine
from sprayed vineyards. Professor B. Fallot, of the
School of Agriculture of Montpellier, in recording the
results of one of these investigations, says : "The
figures obtained have proved once more that wines,
after the grapes have received numerous treatments
with large quantities of salts of copper, contain
scarcely a trace of this substance, and are entirely
harmless."

SPRAYING APPARATUS

The chief requisites of a good spraying machine
are that it be durable, easily worked, not too expensive
for the purpose desired, that it throw a fine spray and
have a good-sized cylinder, and that the reservoir
holding the liquid be large enough for the purpose
intended. For fungicides the parts touching the liquid
should be made of brass. Although twenty years ago
there was scarcely an implement for this purpose upon
the market, there are scores of them to-day, and
several manufacturers handle them exclusively. They

APPARATUS 33

may be had in all shapes, styles, and sizes, from the
small hand-spray pump to be used with a bucket, and
costing a dollar or two, up to the large power
machines costing fifty tihies as much.

There are four general styles of spraying
machines upon the market. First, we have the small
bucket pumps that serve a useful purpose where
only a comparatively small amount of spraying

Bucket Pump

is to be done ; then come the knapsack sprayers, one of
which is illustrated on page 34, which are especially
useful in spraying small vineyards and crops where a
horse cannot well be driven ; third, we have what may
be called the barrel class of sprayers, being good-sized
pumps to be attached to barrels mounted in various
ways ; and, finally, there are the large machines work-
ing either by engine or horsepower. For the general
purposes of the average farmer or fruit-grower the
barrel machines are much the most useful. They are
also of moderate cost, ranging from $8 to $16. They

34 SPRAYING CROPS

can be used in spraying all sorts of crops, and may
well be mounted on separate wheels, as in the Chester
sprayer shown herewith, or the barrel may be placed
in a wagon when in use.

A cheap and efficient homemade spraying cart,
designed by Professor F. D. Chester, is illustrated
on page 35. According to Professor Chester : "It can
be made by any wheelwright, and consists of a truck
mounted upon a pair of carriage wheels. Upon this

The Knapsack Sprayer

(Alter Bailey)

is placed a barrel holding 50 gallons, held in place
by a strap, which surrounds the same and which is
tied in front at either trace. The barrel has a tight-
fitting cover, firmly strapped in place ; upon this is
seated the pump. In the large cover is an opening,
covered by a lid for filling. Any good force-pump
can be used upon the barrel, but it is important that
it should be good, and the cheapest are in the long
run the dearest. The cheaper iron pumps are excel-
lent at first, but will soon corrode where caustic

APPARATUS

35

fungicides are used, even with the best of care. All
metallic parts that have contact with the fungicides
should be of brass. The pump should have a double
discharge, one for the spray and another to return a
portion of the fluid back to the barrel to keep the
same agitated." The pump should have a hose
attached, 15 to 20 feet long, with a good spray-nozzle
at the end.

A Handy Outfit

(After Chester)

For work in the nursery as well as many other
places an excellent spraying outfit "can be made by
firmly fastening a barrel, end up, on a sled made of
heavy durable timber. Mount upon the barrel a good
strong, double-acting force-pump provided with two-
hose attachments, to each end of which fasten 25 feet
of y2-mch hose. To the end of each hose attach a
Vermorel nozzle ; then with the necessary gearing for
hitching the horse, the outfit is complete. For oper-
ating the machine two men and a horse are required.
One man does the pumping and attends to the horse,

30 SPRAYING CROPS

while the other walks behind and directs the spray
over two rows at a time."1

A good outfit for use in the vineyard, recom-
mended by Professor Bailey, is illustrated below.
A barrel with pump is mounted crosswise on the
wagon, "and the driver rides and pumps. Another
man walks behind and throws the spray up under the
vines and on to all the clusters by means of a Ver-

A Vineyard Outfit

(After Bailey)

morel nozzle attached to a half-inch gas pipe. This
gas pipe has somewhat the form of a slim letter S,
the nozzle being attached to one terminal crook, the
other crook resting over the man's left arm. The
hose is attached near the shoulder. The pipe is so
long that the operator is not obliged to stoop, and he
can direct the spray in any direction, while the
apparatus hangs easily upon the arm. A globe valve

1 Galloway.

APPARATUS

37

just below the arm enables the operator to shut off
the stream at will."

A handy, homemade, wheelbarrow spraying out-
fit, gotten up by Professor Bailey, is useful in garden
work, especially in spraying small bushes. A Cyclone,
Vermorel, or Bordeaux nozzle is used to underspray
the foliage.

An Orchard Outfit

(From Delaware Experiment Station)

A plan for a desirable spraying outfit suggested
by the experience of Delaware orchardists is shown
above. After much experience Mr T. S. Derby
of Woodside, Delaware, says that the "essentials
for economy in time and labor, and for efficiency in

3 SPRAYING CROPS

orchard spraying, arc, first, an elevated platform at
least 12 feet from the ground, so that the spraying
is largely down hill ; second, two center uprights to
support the platform, instead of four corner uprights,
in order to allow the branches to sweep in under the
platform, without breaking them or tearing off the fruit
spurs ; third, a low center of gravity, brought about by
setting the bottom of the wagon directly on the axles ;

Pole Attachment The Bordeaux Nozzle

fourth, a form of extension or goose-neck reach to
allow the front wheels to turn short ; fifth, wheels
with at least 4-inch tires, and of ordinary height ; sixth,
a tank to hold 200 gallons."

Nozzles — The nozzle forms an important part of
the spraying outfit. There are many varieties of these

Spray Pipe Extension

upon the market ; some of them are better adapted to
certain kinds of work than others, so that it pays to
have several forms on hand where there is a variety
of spraying to be done. Some of the best forms arc
the Vermorel, Bordeaux, Climax, Cyclone, Graduating
Spray, Deming, Eureka, and McGowan. For spray-
ing large trees, some method of raising the nozzle
nearly to the top is generally necessary. Formerly
the commonest way of doing this was to fastcn^the

APPARATUS 39

nozzle and hose to a long pole, but a better way is to
use a half -inch gas pipe or a brass tube, 12 or 14 feet
long, attaching the hose at one end and the nozzle
at the other, or one of the bamboo extensions man-
ufactured by some spraying firms. One can also get
a handy arrangement for underspraying low bushes,
one form of which is shown in the illustration
below.

Agitators for Spraying Mixtures — With most
poisons held in suspension in water some form of
agitator is needed to keep the material from settling
to the bottom. "The agitators now in use," writes Mr
A. V. Stubenrauch, "are far from perfect or satis-

Underspraying Attachment

factory, especially upon long flat tanks ; and unless
they are continually watched unequal dissemination
is likely to result. It is not to be forgotten that the
liquid must be kept in motion throughout the tank.
It is not alone necessary that a current be created
near or around the opening into the pump. For this
reason the whirling paddle is perhaps the best, espe-
cially if constructed with tilted blades, something like
a screw propeller. It is a common practice nowadays
to attach a paddle to the pump handle, so that the
agitation may be maintained with every stroke of the
operator. At first sight this seems to be a good plan,
but it is, really, a mistake. If the paddle is a satis-
factory one, the labor to keep it going will be far too
great when added to that of pumping, and, in conse-
quence, the one will interfere with the other. Besides,

4O SPRAYING CROPS

a violent or quick motion is necessary for thorough
agitation, while for pumping, a regular, steady stroke
is the best. Therefore it is best not to attempt to
couple the two motions.

"Paris green, when "used alone, is, perhaps, the
only material which requires continual agitation; and
that, in the opinion of the writer, is a serious objec-
tion to its use, now that lighter-grained poisons have
been found which settle much more slowly and conse-
quently do not need continuous agitation. If we

An Agitating Device

omit Paris green from consideration, the liquids now
in general use can be sufficiently stirred at short inter-
vals— best while the rig is moving from one tree to
another. A separate agitating device is therefore
preferable. The operator can do more with the few
vigorous turns he is then able to give the agitator
than is possible when the motion is dependent upon
the pump handle. On large, flat tanks it is prac-
tically impossible to keep up a sufficient pressure and

APPARATUS 41

thorough agitation with the same stroke by hand.
Two or three paddles are necessary, depending, of
course, upon the length of the tank. These can be
connected to a lever on top, a few vigorous strokes
of which, at intervals, will suffice to keep up a very
thorough dissemination throughout the tank."

Fasten Pump on Side of Barrel — It is much better
to fasten the pump on the side of the barrel rather
than on the end. In the latter case the pump handle
is too high for a man to work to best advantage, and
the motion of the wagon is much less likely to keep
the liquid sufficiently agitated to prevent the settling
of the poison. When the barrel is on the side it is
much easier to keep the liquid agitated.

Homemade Strainer — ''It is a general precaution
that ought to be observed in all spraying operations/'
writes Mr W. M. Scott, "that everything going into
the spray pump barrel should pass through a strainer,
and this is particularly necessary in the case of mix-
tures containing lime. A very good homemade
strainer may be made from a strong wooden bucket
by boring an auger-hole in the bottom and inserting a
six-inch piece of iron piping. A piece of wire gauze,
preferably of brass or of copper, is then tacked over
the top of the bucket ; a most commodious and effective
strainer and funnel combined is thus obtained."

Fineness of Spray — In most spraying operations
the object is to distribute the poison as widely and
evenly as possible over the surface of leaf and fruit.
To accomplish this a fine spray is to be desired, for
the finer the drops of water containing the particles
of poison the more general will be the distribution of
those particles. Consequently it is generally desirable
to use nozzles which break the liquid up into a fine
mist that will settle slowly on all parts of the tree or
other plant, and when evaporated will leave the fine

42 SPRAYING CROPS

particles of poison rather evenly distributed over all
the exposed surfaces.

There are exceptions, however, to this general
statement. The one most notable is the case of spray-
ing for the codling motfc. Our present knowledge
regarding this insect has already been summarized
on page 2. As there stated, it seems especially
desirable in fighting this pest to be sure to lodge some
particles of poison inside the calyx of the young fruit.
Apparently this is not so well accomplished by a mist-
like spray as by one more coarse. Consequently it is
generally recommended that in spraying for the cod-
ling moth a spray be used that may be readily directed
against the young fruit, forcing good-sized drops to
lodge in the calyx so that on evaporation they will
leave behind a sufficient residue of poison to insure
the destruction of the young worms when they attempt
to enter the fruit.

Amount of Spray to Apply — In general, spraying
is to be carried simply to a point where foliage and
fruit are thoroughly moistened. As soon as leaves
begin to drip it is time to stop, for if the application
is continued the globules of liquid will run together,
leaving on evaporation an excess of material on some
parts and not enough on others.

On this phase of the subject, Professor L. H.
Bailey's advice is to "spray thoroughly or not at all."
And he, adds : "I should say that fully half the
spraying which I have seen in western New York the
last two years is a waste of time and material.
Squirting a few quarts of water at a tree as you hurry
past it, is not spraying. A tree is thoroughly and
honestly sprayed when it is wet all over, on all the
branches and on both sides of all the leaves. An
insect or a fungus is not killed until the poison is
placed where the pest is. Bugs do not search for

COST OF SPRAYING 43

poison, in order that they may accommodate the
orcharclist by committing suicide. The one spot which
is not sprayed may be the very place where a bud-
worm is getting his dinner. On the other hand there
are many fruit-growers who spray with the greatest
thoroughness and accuracy, and they are the ones who
in the long run will get the fruit."

COST OF SPRAYING

The cost of spraying depends, of course, upon
various conditions, such as the crop sprayed, number
of applications, apparatus, and mixture used, etc. It
is usually estimated that full-grown orchard trees can
be sprayed at a cost of 15 to 25 cents per tree per
season, while nursery trees can be treated with
Bordeaux mixture the first two seasons for about 25
cents per thousand trees per season.

Professor L. R. Jones, of the Vermont Station,
has summarized several seasons' experience of the
expense of spraying potatoes as follows : "It is im-
possible to give a general estimate that will suit all
cases, as there are so many varying conditions. The
amount of the mixture necessary to cover an acre will
vary all the way from 50 to 300 gallons, according to
the amount of foliage and the methods of application.
Where we have covered an acre with 50 gallons in
the middle of July, we have used 100 or 150 gallons
per acre on the same piece in August. Again, in the
latter part of August, we have sprayed a poor piece
of half-blighted plants with 100 gallons per acre, and
on the same day, on another piece where the ground
was covered with a mass of luxuriant leaves, we have
found it necessary to use fully 250 gallons per acre.
Again, . . . the number of applications varies with

44 SPRAYING CROPS

seasons. In 1891, a single application, made August
20, was sufficient on a piece of late potatoes, while
in 1892 three applications were necessary. In general,
we should plan for making three applications on all
except very early or very late potatoes. These three
applications will require from 200 to 500 gallons of
the mixture — on the average 400 gallons — used (in
Vermont) as follows: 100 gallons per acre the last
of July, 150 gallons per acre the middle of August, 150
gallons per acre the last of August. This estimate is
for a field planted about May 15 to May 20, and
which will yield 200 bushels per acre. In our work it
has taken (for three applications) about 2 gallons of
mixture per bushel of yield. On early potatoes a
fourth application may sometimes be necessary to keep
off the early blight, the first application being made
the first week in July; in this case it will take about
2J/2 gallons per bushel of yield. The mixture costs
us about % cent per gallon, as follows :

5 pounds blue vitriol at 7 cents ..................... $o 35

5 pounds lime at ^ cent .............................

Total cost of 50 gallons weak mixture .......... $o

"As most potato growers have to pay a little
more than this for blue vitriol, one cent per gallon is
about the average cost. The cost of applying also
varies much, depending upon luxuriance of growth
of plants, and upon apparatus used. In our work,
with a barrel pump, three men and one horse have
sprayed an acre well in two hours, when water was
convenient, or at the rate of five acres per day, making
the expense of labor about $i per acre. Others with
similar apparatus have said they could cover ten
acres a day."

PROFITS IN SPRAYING 45

The cost of spraying one acre of potatoes three
times is summarized thus :

MINIMUM MAXIMUM AVERAGE

200 to 500 gallons at i cent each. . $2 oo $5 oo $4 oo
Labor i 50 3 75 3 oo

$3 50 $8 75 $7 oo

"When we consider our gain of an average of 113
bushels per acre, worth last fall 80 cents per bushel,
or $90.40, the profit is great even at the maximum
expense."

PROFITS IN SPRAYING

The profit of spraying has been abundantly dem-
onstrated in nearly all parts of the United States.
The benefit derived is usually so marked that the man
who tries the method becomes its enthusiastic advo-
cate. In most cases there is not only a greatly in-
creased crop, but the quality of the crop is so improved
that it commands' a higher price; and in the case of
vines, or any plants living more than one year, the
plant is kept in a vigorous condition that enables it to
store up vitality for the following crop. In Ohio it
has been demonstrated that spraying can easily ad-
vance the value of the apple crop $20 per acre; and
in many states it has been shown that spraying is the
salvation of the grape-grower. In Vermont it has
been demonstrated that the potato crop can be
increased more than 100 bushels per acre by spraying,
while in New York it proves equally profitable to the
nurseryman. In California, fruit-growers generally
have adopted it with very gratifying results. Mr
D. W. Coquillett records an instance where a pear-
grower actually lost $2000 one season because he neg-
lected to spray to prevent codling moth attack. At
the Cornell Experiment Station an increase in cash

46 SPRAYING CROPS

value of $i a barrel on sprayed over unsp rayed apples
was obtained. There are many secondary profits in
spraying besides the prevention of actual damage.
The fruit becomes much larger in size; consequently
the yield is greatly increased, as is also the market
value of the product. The same is true of potatoes.
The keeping qualities are also very much improved—
an item of great practical importance. And accord-
ing to Mr B. T. Galloway, the application of Bordeaux
mixture has on many plants the effect of a tonic,
irrespective of its fungicidal value.

Spraying Is an Insurance — "There are always
elements of risk in the growing of fruit," writes
Professor L. H. Bailey in a famous bulletin on Spray-
ing Orchards. "The chief of these is frost, a difficulty
which will never be completely under control. The
second great element of risk is the injury wrought
by insects and fungi and the greater part of this injury
may be averted by the sprays. Now, it is impossible
to foretell by any considerable length of time, if any
or all of the difficulties which are liable to harass
the fruit-raiser will actually appear. One does not
know if his buildings will burn, yet he insures them.
We know that in four years out of five, some serious
injury of insects or fungi may be confidently expected,
and it is the part of wisdom to insure against it. Last
year, 1894, was a season of remarkable invasion of
apple-scab fungus, and those persons who sprayed
their orchards thoroughly had phenomenal results.
These experiences, aided by many publications upon
the subject, so advertised the value of the sprays that
much more spraying was done in the state this year
than ever before. But it has so happened, probably
because of the dry spring, that comparatively few
invasions of enemies have occurred this year; and the
sprays have generally given small results. There has

PKOl-TI'S IN SI-RAYING 47

now arisen, therefore, considerable indifference or
even opposition to spraying, and I expect to see much
less of it next spring then I saw this spring. If, then,
next year should be prolific in insects and diseases,
there will be a few orchards here and there which
will reward the forethought of the owner, and very
many others which will be monuments of the results
of neglect. It is a common fault with farmers that
they draw their conclusions from the behavior or
experiences of each recurring season, and do not con-
sider the aggregate results of a series of years. Every
operation should rest upon some fundamental reason
or philosophy, rather than upon any single half-
understood experience.

"A fruit grower wrote me as follows last July:

1 'You are always advising people to spray their

orchards. All my neighbors spent much time and

money last spring in spraying, but I did not spray

and my fruit is just as good as theirs.'

' 'I do not doubt your experience,' I replied ;
'this has been a dry year and there has been little
scab fungus. But you should have insured your
orchard against probable loss by spraying it.'

"A" few days later, the same correspondent wrote
again : 'We have had a heavy rain, but it seemed to
be poisonous to my potatoes and they are all black-
ened and wilted. What shall I do?'

"I hope that there was no feeling of scarcasm in
my reply : 'I am sorry to hear of your loss, but it
is now too late to avert the calamity. Your potatoes
were not insured.' '

Effect on Size of Fruit — There is a very general
agreement that apple trees properly sprayed with a
combined fungicide and insecticide yield larger fruit
than those not sprayed. A striking instance of this
as recorded by Lodeman, is illustrated in the picture

4« SPRAYING CROPS

below : "One hundred average unsprayed apples
filled a half-bushel basket evenly full; one hundred
average sprayed apples filled a bushel basket evenly
full. Thus the bulk of the crop of Maiden Blush was
practically doubled."

Spraying ,has also been found to have a decidedly
beneficial effect on the color of the fruit.

Tillage, Fertilizing, Pruning, Spraying — "Spray-
ing has come into use so quickly," writes Professor
L. H. Bailey, "that many people have come to look

upon it as the means of salvation of our orchards.
If spraying is to have the effect of obscuring or
depreciating the importance of good cultivation and
fertilizing then it might better have never come into
being. Trees must grow before they can bear, and
this growth depends upon food and proper conditions
of soil, more than it does upon the accident of
immunity from insects and fungi. There are four
fundamental operations upon which all permanent
success in most kinds of orchard culture depend, and
I think that their importance lies in the order in which
I name them — tillage, fertilizing, pruning, spraying.
Spraying is the last to be understood, but this fact
should not obscure the importance of the other
three."

SPRAYING TREES IN BLOSSOM 49

SPRAYING AND THE WEATHER

According1 to Professor J. B. Smith, spraying with
the arsenites alone "should not be done in the middle
of a very hot day, nor, if it can be avoided, on a very
hot sultry day. A hot sun on recently sprayed foliage
will bring out all the caustic property in the poison
applied, and will cause injury. After the moisture
has evaporated, and only the thin film, of dry poison
remains, the sun does not act further on it. On a
cool day spray at any hour. On a hot day spray during
the early morning or late in the afternoon." These
precautions are not necessary, however, when arsen-
ate of lead is used.

Frequent rains often occur during the spraying
season, and fruit-growers are sometimes tempted to
defer operations till dry weather, but according to the
experience of Mr W. J. Green, it is better, in the case
of the Bordeaux mixture at least, "to keep the work
going than to wait for dry weather. Of course it
would be impracticable to spray during a rain-storm,
nor would it be best to spray immediately before, but
if the mixture has two or three hours in which to dry
before a rain, it will adhere so closely that but little of
it will be washed off. Much of it will remain for
weeks, even during rainy weather."

SPRAYING TREES IN BLOSSOM

It is commonly believed that spraying trees in
blossom, in case the arsenites are used, endangers the
lives of the bees visiting the blossoms. In some
regions laws to prevent this have been enacted.
Spraying at such times seems unnecessary, and intel-
ligent fruit-growers would not practice it. The bees
are essential to the production of fruit, and there is
no excuse for destroying them.

5O SPRAYING CROPS

PRUNING TREES

To use the spraying machine to best advantage
the orchard should be carefully and intelligently
pruned. On this potnt Mr E. G. Lodeman writes:1
"The pruning and spraying of fruit trees are two
subjects which are closely related. This is especially
true in the case of the apple. Moisture is favorable to
the development of the apple-scab fungus. When the
tops of trees consist of a tangled mass of large and
small branches, they are much longer in dying out
than when they are open. Not only is a shelter given
to fungi, but their growth is encouraged, and each tree
becomes the distributing center of some disease. The
mischief is also aggravated by the fact that it is as dif-
ficult for any remedies to gain an entrance as it is for
the light and air. It is impossible to spray such trees
to advantage, even granting that the fruit borne by
them would warrant the expense. The head of the
tree should be open, so that all parts may be reached
easily with the spray." The presence of these useless
branches also requires the application of much more
of the spraying compound than is otherwise necessary,
thus involving a decided waste of time and material.
P>y all means prune your orchards properly before you
spray them.

In planting new orchards, the trees should be set
so far apart that when full-grown they may easily be
sprayed. They should not be nearer together than
40 feet each way.

A SPRAYING CALENDAR

Dr William C. Sturgis of the Connecticut Exper-
iment Station has published the following provisional
calendar of the spraying operations for the year. As

JCornell University Experiment Station, Bulletin 48.

A SPRAYING CALENDAR 51

the author says, it is, of course, impossible to give
accurate dates for various sprayings, on account of
the difference in latitudes and seasons. But the dates
are approximate, and the calendar has a decided value.

January and February — But little can be done
during these midwinter months in the way of spray-
ing, though a great deal by way of preparation. If
it has not already been done at the proper time, cut
out and burn the black knot of plum and cherry now,
and destroy all neighboring wild cherry trees which
are knotty. In the latter part of February do all
necessary trimming of vines and fruit trees, unless
this has been done in the autumn. Where anthracnose
has previously attacked grapevines, raspberries, or
blackberries, prune severely, cut out every trace of
diseased wood or cane and burn it. ... In open
winters, February is none too early to go over the
orchard carefully and collect and burn all leaves and
fruit from diseased trees, such as mummified cherries,
plums, and peaches, scabby or rotted pears and quinces,
and all blighted leaves. Remember that on the first
warm day the air will be full of the germs of plant
diseases from these fruits and leaves, if they are not
destroyed. Do not use them for bedding or mulch,
and do not throw them into the pig-pen.

March — The middle or end of this month will see
everything ready for winter treatment (copper sul-
phate, i pound to 25 gallons of water). Select a
warm day, or, if possible, several days of warm,
melting weather. In some seasons winter treatment
can hardly be made before April. This treatment is
especially good for diseases of pear and quince, for
anthracnose and for the black rot of grapes. Where
the latter has occurred the previous year, ploughing
between the rows, in order to cover up diseased berries,

52 SPRAYING CROPS

will be found of great advantage. This is the time
also for treatment for San Jose scale.

April — Put all spraying apparatus in thorough
order. Clean and riiase pumps, oil all bearings, see
thai the valves work well, and test the tubing for leaks.
If the winter treatment has been deferred until this
month, • see that it is finished before the middle of
the month.

May — This is usually the flowering month for
vines and fruit trees, and the first application of
Bordeaux mixture or other fungicide should immedi-
ately precede the opening of the flowers. Use your
own judgment. Apples are generally in bloom by
the second week in May ; quinces, pears, and grapes
usually not until somewhat later. The importance of
these early treatments can hardly be overestimated.
Watch to see when the petals begin to fall ; and make
a second application within a few days of that date.

June — The first part of June usually marks the
fall of the flowers of most fruit trees. Never spray
while trees and vines are in full bloom. Make the
second application as soon as the petals have fallen.
This will be late in May or early in June, for apples ;
a week or ten days later for other fruit trees and
grapes. Make the June treatment thorough. . . .
A good general rule to follow after the second spray-
ing is to let each additional treatment be made from
ten days to three weeks after the preceding one; the
shorter interval if there are heavy washing rains; the
longer if the weather is comparatively dry.

July — This month will close the treatment for most
diseases. To avoid the spotting of grapes by the Bor-
deaux mixture, the two applications during the latter
part of this month should consist of the ammoniacal
solution of copper carbonate. Early in the month

A SPRAYING CALENDAR 53

spray for black rot of quinces, and continue treatment
every two weeks until the last of August.

August — The spraying season closes this month.
For leaf -blight of strawberries, mow the leaves late in
July or early in August, and after allowing them to dry
where they lie, set fire to them and burn the bed over.
Thoroughly clean and oil all spraying apparatus, and
see that it is carefully stored.

September, October, and November — The months
of harvest. When picking fruit let one or two boys
follow and clean the trees of all diseased and mummi-
fied fruit, collecting it in baskets to burn. At the same
time gather and burn, as far as possible, all diseased
fruit which has fallen. In November clean the orchard
thoroughly of fallen leaves, especially if disease has
been prevalent, and burn them. Better to destroy
them now than in the spring, when the fungus fruit
will have come to maturity in and on the leaves.

December — The black knot fungus matures during
December and January ; attack it early in the former
month. Use the pruning knife unsparingly, cutting
out two or three inches above and below each knot.
Burn every knot and paint the wound over at once.

SPRAYING PRECAUTIONS

The man who uses a spraying machine assumes a
responsibility which he has no right to neglect. Some
precautions to be taken are indicated below.

Always label all poisonous preparations in plain
large letters, POISON. Never leave poisonous com-
pounds within the reach of children, ignorant persons,
or domestic animals. Never spray trees in blossom.

In using a compound with which you have had no
experience, and which is reported as at all liable to
injure foliage, use only weak mixtures, and, if pos-
sible, try its effects first on a small scale.

54 SPRAYING CROPS

Own a spraying pump yourself. If you have to
wait to borroiv your neighbor's, the chances are that
you will begin too late.

Spray in time; fogin early ; do not wait until the
horse is stolen and then try to lock the door by
spraying.

Do not spray indiscriminately, anything ani
everything. Adapt your means to your ends. Study
Ihe enemies of your crops and then fight them
intelligently.

Of two mixtures equally effective, choose the one
least liable to injure foliage. Take the trouble to add
a little lime to Paris green or London purple mixtures.

Never spray ripening fruit.

Always remember that spraying requires the
exercise of skill, judgment and knowledge, to get the
best results.

PART I

SPRAYING THE LARGER FRUITS

CL.

San Jose Scale

a, pear, moderately infested — natural size; £, female scale — enlarged
(After Howard)

Spraying the Larger Fruits

THE APPLE

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE TRUNK AND BRANCHES

The most destructive insect that comes under this
heading is the SAN JOSE SCALE or PERNICIOUS SCALE.
which has attracted so much attention during recent
years. This pest is now very generally distributed
over the United States and is yearly doing an enor-
mous amount of damage. It can at once be distin-
guished from the Oyster-shell Bark-louse by its cir-
cular scale, as shown at b in the figure on the opposite
page. This insect infests practically all kinds of
deciduous trees, and if unmolested it is liable to kill
them. It multiplies with marvelous rapidity, espe-
cially through the long seasons of the southern states.

Dr L. O. Howard describes the San Jose scale as
"perfectly round, or at most very slightly elongated
or irregular. It is flat, pressed close to the bark,
resembles the bark of the twigs in color, and when
fully grown is about one-eighth of an inch in diameter.
At or near the middle of each scale is a small, round,
slightly elongated black point ; or this point may some-
times appear yellowish. When occurring upon the
bark of the twigs or leaves and in large numbers, the
scales lie close to each other, frequently overlapping,
and are at such times difficult to distinguish without
a magnifying glass. The general appearance which
they present is of a grayish, very slightly roughened

58 Sl'RAVI. \G CROPS

scurfy deposit. The natural rich reddish color of the
limbs of the peach and apple is quite obscured when
these trees are thickly infested, and they have then
every appearance of being* coated with lime or ashes.
When the scales are crushed by scraping, a yellowish
oily liquid will appear, resulting from the crushing
of the soft yellow insects beneath the scales, and this

San Jose Scale

Apple branch, with scales in situ— natural size; enlarged scales above, at left
(After Howard)

will at once indicate to one who is not familiar with
their appearance the existence of healthy living scales
on the trees."

The young scale lice come out from beneath the
female scales, in spring, soon after the unfolding of
the leaves. They are minute yellowish creatures
which crawl about over the bark a short time, and
finally fasten themselves to it, generally on the new

THE APPLE 59

growth, where each secretes a scale and develops.
Some of them wander to the leaves and fruit, where
they mature. The infested leaves turn brown, but
do not have a tendency to fall as a result of the
damage.

This pest is most likely to be introduced into new
localities upon nursery stock imported from infested
regions. This is believed to be the way in which it
was first brought to the eastern states. It is also likely
to be carried upon fruit sent to market. In a given
locality the insects are most likely to be carried from
tree to tree and orchard to orchard by the young lice
crawling upon insects and birds and then crawling off
after they have lit upon other trees. They may also
be blown about by the wind.

Remedies — The two remedies now generally
employed in the eastern states are kerosene or crude
petroleum and the lime, salt and sulphur wash. The
latter has been rapidly gaining friends of late and by
many authorities is considered the most effective
remedy. Both of these insecticides are applied in
winter or early spring — before the leaves appear. The
application must be thorough — covering all parts of
the tree.

A piece of bark covered with the scales of the
OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE is represented on page 60.
If one of these scales be raised early in the spring,
there will be found beneath it a mass of yellowish
or whitish eggs, which hatch about the middle of
May into small lice, that appear as mere specks
to the naked eye. These move about over the
bark a few days, when they fix themselves upon it,
inserting their tiny beaks far enough to reach the sap.
Here they continue to increase in size, and by the
end of the season have secreted scaly coverings.

6o

SPRAYING CROPS

Remedies — During the winter and early spring
scrape the trunk and larger branches with a hoe, and
then thoroughly scrub with a scrub-brush dipped in a
solution made by adding .one part of crude carbolic
acid to seven parts of a solution made by dissolving

Oyster=shell Bark= louse

a, scales on apple twig; 6, female scale, back view, magnified; c, female scale
and eggs, under-side, magnified; </, male scale, magnified

one quart of soft soap, or one-fourth of a pound of
hard soap, in two quarts of boiling water. Then in
May or June, soon after the young lice have hatched,
spray with kerosene emulsion. When the lice are
young they are very readily destroyed by this sub-
stance. The lime, salt and sulphur wash appears to
be effective also against this pest.

Transformations of the Tent Caterpillar

(After Riley)

62 SPRAYING CROPS

There are frequently found on the limbs and
trunks of young apple trees, masses of a white, woolly
substance, beneath which are small, yellowish plant-
lice. These are the inserts known as the WOOLLY
APHIS. There are two forms of the insect, one
attacking the roots, the presence of which may be
easily detected by the knotty appearance of the infested
rootlets, and one attacking the limbs and trunk. Like
other aphides, these insects multiply rapidly during the
summer months, by giving birth to living young. They
injure the tree by sucking out its sap through their
tiny beaks. They are especially liable to infest young
trees, or those which are unhealthy.

Remedies — When on the trunk and limbs spray
with kerosene emulsion ; on roots apply hot water, or
kerosene emulsion, or dig in refuse tobacco powder
and stems.

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FRUIT

The insects affecting the fruit of the apple, which
may be fought by spraying, are the Codling Moth, and
the Plum and Apple Curculios. Of these, the COD-
LING MOTH or APPLE WORM is the most destructive,
and is, in fact, the most generally injurious apple
insect. Its life-history has already been described in
the Introduction (page 2). In fighting this insect
it is often desirable to supplement the spraying with
burlap bands upon the trees the latter part of June to
trap the worms when they change to pupae, crushing
them before they emerge as moths. Care should be
taken also to prevent the egress of moths in spring
from rooms in which apples have been stored.

In Oregon it seems to be necessary to spray late
for the second brood of worms. But if the burlap
bands were used persistently this probably could be
avoided.

THE APPLE 63

The APPLE CURCULIO is a small, dull brown, hard-
shelled beetle, with a long snout and four peculiar
warts on its back. The beetles drill holes in young
apples, both for food and the deposition of eggs. The
latter are laid at the bottom of the cavity, and soon
hatch into grubs or larvae that feed upon the pulp of
the fruit. They usually penetrate to the core, where
they continue feeding four or five weeks, when they
become full grown and pupate within the cavity of the

Apple Buds

apple. Two or three weeks later they emerge as per-
fect beetles, which pass the winter under boards or
rubbish. The fruit attacked by this pest becomes
dwarfed, gnarly and ill-shapen. Apples are often
seriously injured by the PLUM CURCULIO, which works
in a way similar to the apple curculio. Its life-history
is described on page 4.

Remedies — The injuries of these two insects, as
well as of several others of minor importance, may be
prevented to a considerable extent by spraying with the

64 SPRAYING CROPS

arsenical poisons. Spray first as soon as the blossoms
have all fallen, and again about ten days later. In
localities where the curculios are very injurious, one or
two more sprayings may often be made to advantage
at intervals of two weeks, especially on late varieties.
It will pay to add lime to the spraying solution (see
page 10), unless the arsenite is combined with Bor-
deaux mixture, which has the same saving effect. The
addition of lime is not necessary, however, if arsenate
of lead is used.

The poison is supposed to take effect in the case
of the codling moth by destroying the young
larvae just after hatching and probably while attempt-
ing to nibble through the skin ; while with the
curculios it takes effect upon the parent beetles, thus
preventing the deposition of eggs.

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FOLIAGE

A large variety of insects feed upon apple foliage.
Many of them are caterpillars of moths, and are easily
destroyed by spraying. Among the most injurious of
these are the CANKER WORMS, of which we have two
distinct species — the FALL CANKER WORM and the
SPRING CANKER WORM. The different stages of the
former pest are illustrated on page 5, where a resume
of its life-history will be found. When an orchard is
infested by canker-worms it is very desirable to spray
once before the blossoms open. The insects begin
hatching early in the season; if trees are not sprayed
until after the blossoms fall considerable damage will
be done before the worms are killed. One spraying
just before the blossom buds open will be of much
service. Another should be given as soon as the blos-
soms fall ; and if the canker-worms are very numerous
a third — a week or ten days after the second — will
be desirable.

THE APPLE 65

The TENT CATERPILLAR is another insect that is
often extremely destructive to apple foliage. This is
the creature that constructs the silken tent-like nests
so often seen in spring on the branching limbs of apple
and wild cherry trees. Its life-history is as follows:
The eggs are deposited during July in compact masses
of 200 or 300 each upon the twigs (e, c), and are

Apple Tree Flea=Beetle

(After Popenoe)

covered with varnish (e). The following spring
they hatch into caterpillars that feed upon the tender
foliage and make a silken tent in a fork of the twigs.
They become full grown in about six weeks (a, b).
They then leave the tree and crawl about in search of
a suitable shelter to pupate in. Having found this —
beneath a board, or in the cracks of a fence — they spin
an oval, silken cocoon (d), yellow when completed,
within which they change to pupae. In two or three

66 SPRAYING CROPS

weeks the reddish-brown moths come forth. These
deposit the clusters of eggs, after which they soon die.
There are a number of other caterpillars which
feed upon apple foliage, notably several species of
LEAF-ROLLERS, the YELLOW-NECKED CATERPILLAR, the
LEAF-CRUMPLER, the LEAF-SKELETONIZER, etc, all of
which are treated of in the author's Insects and Insecti-
cides, and all of which may be destroyed by spraying.
The APPLE-TREE FLEA-BEETLE is a small shining beetle
that is often destructive in the West. Spraying with
the arsenites checks it.

Apple Aphis

Much magnified

The Apple ApJiis — During spring the leaves and
tender twigs of apple are often covered with small
green lice or aphides. These are the insects known as
the APPLE APHIS. They injure the trees by sucking
the sap through their tiny beaks. The lice hatch from
eggs in spring as soon as the leaf-buds begin to expand,
and they increase with marvelous rapidity, so that
almost as fast as the leaves develop there are colonies
of the plant-lice to occupy them. They breed on apple
until July, when they largely leave the trees, and
migrate apparently to various grasses. Here they

THE APPLE 67

continue breeding until autumn, when they return to
apple, and the winged females establish colonies of
the wingless, egg-laying form upon the leaves. The
small, oval eggs are now laid on the twigs and buds,
and the cycle for the year is complete.

Remedy — On large trees it is seldom necessary
to apply remedies for this insect. Spray with tobacco
decoction or kerosene emulsion as soon in spring as
the eggs hatch — usually before the leaves expand.

The opening buds of apples are sometimes seri-
ously injured by the larva of the EYE-SPOTTED BUD-
MOTH. This is a small cylindrical worm, three-
fourths of an inch long, which lives in a rude case
made by fastening particles of dead leaves together
with silk. It attacks the buds, blossoms, and newly -
formed fruit as well as the leaves, and becomes full-
grown early in June. The larvae then pupate within
their cases, and in a few weeks emerge as small moths,
with two little eye-spots on each of the front wings.

Remedies — This is a difficult pest to contend with,
and the most promising remedy is to spray early, as
the buds are opening, with arsenate of lead or other
arsenical or a combination of an arsenical and the
Bordeaux mixture, continuing the treatment later as
recommended below.

FUNGUS ENEMIES

Probably no fungous disease of fruit is more
familiar to the general public than the APPLE SCAB,
or, as it is occasionally called, the BLACK SPOT. This is
due to a fungus which produces the well-known scabby
spots upon the fruit, and also attacks the leaves and
green shoots. It first appears on the leaves in the
shape of smoky, greenish spots, more or less circular
in outline. These gradually enlarge, and frequently
several of them run together, so as to form good-sized

68 Sl'RAYING CROPS

blotches; and as they grow older their color darkens,
finally becoming almost black. The upper surface of
the leaf is generally the one infested. Immense num-
bers of spores are produced on these blackened spots
of the leaf and fruit, forming most abundantly during
cool, wet weather. By means of these spores the
fungus reproduces itself; they are carried from leaf
to leaf and fruit to fruit by wind and rain, and ger-
minating, start the disease in a new situation. The
spores pass the winter on stored fruit, branches, fallen
leaves, etc, and in spring start the disease again. It
is especially destructive in wet seasons.

A disease called PINK ROT often attacks scabby
apples in storage, the fungus of the pink rot getting
access to the pulp of the fruit through the cracks in
the skin caused by the scab.

Remedies — In spring, just before blossoms open,
spray thoroughly with the Bordeaux mixture, repeat
the application after the blossoms have fallen, adding
arsenate of lead at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons, in
order to destroy the codling moth larvae, and other
insects, as well as the scab; ten days after this last
application, spray again with the combination of Bor-
deaux mixture and an arsenical. Do not apply the
Bordeaux mixture late in the season ; it is liable to
injure the skin of the apple by giving it a rough and
russet appearance. Fruit sprayed in this way is much
larger and finer than that not sprayed.

In southerly latitudes, orchardists are greatly
troubled by another fungous disease, the APPLE ROT,
which attacks the maturing fruit, rotting it and caus-
ing serious losses. Experiments in Kentucky by Pro-
fessor Carman have shown that this disease may be
prevented by treatment with Bordeaux mixture similar
to that indicated above.

THE PLUM

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FRUIT

The PLUM CURCULIO is by far the worst insect foe
of the plum. It is the cause of most of the common
worminess and premature dropping of the fruit. An
account of its life-history will be found on page 4.

Remedies — The evidence in hand indicates that
spraying with the arsenites is an effective way to fight
this pest, especially in orchards of considerable size.
This remedy acts by destroying the adult beetles
rather than the larvae. The trees should be sprayed
three or four times, at intervals of ten days or two
weeks, beginning, as soon as the blossoms have fallen,
with arsenate of lead in good strength or with Paris
green mixed with water in the proportion of 3 ounces
to 40 to 50 gallons. These sprayings will also destroy
certain other insects affecting the fruit, although it is
generally supposed that they will not kill the PLUM
GOUGER — an insect related to the curculios — which is
very injurious in some of the western states. The best
way will probably be to combine arsenate of lead with
the Bordeaux mixture as described under the next
heading, and so fight both the insect and fungus pests
at the same time. This is especially desirable because
some of the arsenites alone are liable to injure the
foliage when a series of applications are made, though
this is not true of the lead arsenate.

During recent years trouble has been experienced
in some localities because of the FRUIT-BARK BORER,
an insect that burrows channels beneath the bark.
There is some evidence to show that spraying the
trunks and larger branches with the combination of

7O SPRAY I N(i CROPS

Bordeaux mixture and Paris green will prevent such
injury. The first application should be made early in
the spring, and others follow at occasional intervals
until July.

FUNGUS ENEMIES

The BROWN ROT OF STONE-FRUITS is the most
serious enemy under this heading. Fruit affected by
this disease turns brown and rots, and generally de
velops on the skin a velvety or powdery brown coating.
This coating consists of a great number of minute
spores fastened together, end to end. If one of these
velvety masses be shaken over a glass slide and the
slide then put under a microscope, it will be seen that
a great many of the spores have separated and fallen
off. When one of these spores lights upon a green
plum, peach, or cherry, and a drop of water happens
to form over it, it sends out a germinating tube which
penetrates the skin of the fruit, and once inside de-
velops a mass of mycelium, disorganizing the tissues
and causing rot. Then this mycelium develops a new
mass of spores, and thus the fungus propagates itself.
After the development of the spores, the plums or
peaches dry up and hang on the limbs until the follow-
ing season, when they start the disease again. Even
the blossoms are often attacked.

The first step towards preventing this disease is to
pick off and burn the dry and mummied plums that
hang on the trees over winter. These carry the dis-
ease through cold weather and start it again in the
spring. The fruit rots worst when it hangs on the
tree until fully ripe. In commercial orchards it should
be picked before it is ripe. Rotting plums during the
ripening period should also be promptly removed.

During summer the leaves of plums and cherries
are often injured by the PLUM LEAF-BLIGHT or

THE PLUM 71

SHOT-HOLE FUNGUS, which first appears in the shape
of small dark purple spots scattered over the leaf.
These spots soon become brown, and the leaf tissue

Diseased Plum Leaf

(After Bailey)

composing them is dead. This dead tissue generally
drops out of the leaf in course of a few weeks, leaving
circular holes resembling shot holes. A microscopic
examination of the under surface of these spots gen-

72 SPRAYING CROPS

erally reveals one or more blackish points consist-
ing of the fruiting spores of the fungus. It is by
means of these that it passes the winter, and propa-
gates itself. The affecjed leaves often turn yellow
and fall off.

Remedies — It has been definitely proven that these
diseases may largely be prevented by spraying. A
treatment similar to that recommended for apple-scab,
one spraying with dilute Bordeaux mixture before
blossoms open, then two or three sprayings with Bor-
deaux mixture having an excess of lime and one of
the arsenites after the fruit forms, is the most prom-
ising treatment for both insect and fungus pests. It
may be necessary to make one or two late sprayings
with a carbonate of copper solution in case rot sets in.
The mummied plums should be picked off and burned
in the winter; and an early spring spraying with
simple solution of copper sulphate, applied before the
buds swell, is very beneficial. The Japanese plums are
very sensitive to sprays, but they are less liable to
these diseases.

THE PEACH

INSECT ENEMIES

The SAN JOSE SCALE is one of the most destructive
enemies of the peach. Winter spraying with the lime,
salt and sulphur wash seems to be the most effective
remedy.

The PLUM CURCULIO, whose life-history has
already been treated of on page 4, breeds in peaches,
as well as in plums, cherries, apples, and other fruits.
It is especially liable to injure peaches when there is a
failure of the apple crop. Some of the largest grow-
ers in America jar their peach trees systematically to
catch the curculios. Apparently it is still a question
whether the insect could be successfully fought by
spraying with arsenate of lead. Peach foliage is
especially liable to injury by some of the arsenites.

Peach foliage is occasionally attacked by the RED-
LEGGED FLEA-BEETLE, a small jumping beetle which
may be destroyed by spraying with arsenate of lead.

There are two distinct species of aphides or
plant-lice attacking the peach. One is called the
PEACH APHIS, and the other the BLACK PEACH APHIS.
The latter infests the roots and twigs as well as the
leaves. Both species are soft, blackish little creatures
that crowd t6gether on the foliage and twigs. During
the summer they reproduce viviparously. Spraying
with fish-oil soap, tobacco decoction, or kerosene emul-
sion, as early as possible after the pests appear in
spring, is the best remedy. The time to reach them
easiest is when the buds are swelling and the newly
hatched lice are on the bare twigs.

74

SPRAYING CROPS

FUNGUS ENEMIES

It often happens that in spring, soon after the
leaves begin to expand, the foliage of peach trees be-
comes curled and misshapen. The leaves are usually

Peach Leaf-curl]

(After Bailey)

thickened and discolored, and fall off in a short time.
All the branches may be attacked, or the injury may
be confined to only a part of the tree. When the dis-
ease is severe the young fruits fall off, and the crop
for the year is destroyed. The defoliated trees soon

THE PEACH 75

push out a new set of leaves, but too late to repair the
damage done to the fruit crop.

This PEACH LEAF-CURL is most injurious during
wet springs. It often ruins the peach crop over large
areas. It is uncertain in its attacks, some seasons
doing much damage and others comparatively little.

Remedies — It has been repeatedly demonstrated
that a single spraying with Bordeaux mixture in early
spring will prevent this disease. All trees should be
sprayed with a good strength of Bordeaux mixture at
least two weeks before the blossoms open. The appli-
cation should be so thorough as to cover the branches
and buds all over the tree. In all cases the nozzle
should be held below rather than above the part of
the tree being treated and the spray thus directed
upward will in falling wet the upper side of the
horizontal branches.

The BROWN ROT, already discussed as a plum
disease (page 70), is often extremely destructive to
peaches. It sometimes attacks the trees early in
spring, causing an injury to the twigs and blossoms
called blight, and again infests the fruit up to the
time of ripening, and even after it is gathered.

The most promising remedial measures are those
of picking off all the dry peaches hanging on the tree
during winter, and then spraying early 'in the spring
before the buds begin to swell, with a dilute Bordeaux
mixture, not more than 2 pounds copper sulphate to
50 gallons water, which may often be repeated to ad-
vantage just before the blossoms open. Then after the
blossom petals have fallen spray twice with an inter-
val of two weeks between. Peach foliage is very
easily injured, and care should be taken in spraying
it. Two or three pounds more lime should be used in
the Bordeaux mixture than usual, to avoid injury to
the foliage.

THE PEAR

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FRUIT

The fruit of the pear is attacked by both the COD-
LING MOTH and the PLUM CURCULIO. The injury of
the latter causes it to be knotty, gnarly, and one-sided,
ruining it for market purposes. Fortunately the in-
juries of both may largely be prevented by two or
three sprayings with arsenate of lead mixed with
water at the rate of I pound to 50 gallons. The first
application should be made as soon as the petals have
fallen, and the others at intervals of ten days or
two weeks.

Pear Tree Slug

(After Saunders)

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FOLIAGE

The leaves of pear, cherry, quince, and plum trees
are frequently attacked during June and July by a
greenish-black, slimy slug that eats the upper surface.
This is the PEAR-TREE SLUG. The adult is a four-
winged black fly that deposits eggs in the leaf early in
the summer. The eggs soon hatch into larvae which
become full-grown in four or five weeks. They then
shed their slimy skins, appearing in clean yellow on-es,
and soon descend to the ground, which they enter two
or three inches, and pupate in oval cocoons. A fort-

THE PEAR 77

night later the flies emerge. These larvae are easily
destroyed by spraying with hellebore or the arsenites.
In a number of the eastern states a small insect,
the PEAR PSYLLA, has recently caused serious damage
by sucking the sap from the leaves. The insects pass
the winter as adults, and in early spring deposit eggs
on the bark, especially about the buds. About a fort-
night later they hatch into young — called nymphs —
which suck the sap from the petioles of the leaves and
stems of the young fruit. Recent experiments have
shown that the young nymphs may easily be destroyed
by spraying with kerosene emulsion.

Pear Psylla

Magnified. (After Slingerland)

FUNGUS ENEMIES

THE PEAR LEAF-BLIGHT is the most destructive
fungous disease of the pear for which the spraying
machine may be successfully used. It occurs both on
the foliage and fruit ; on the former causing small,
discolored spots, and on the latter producing a very
injurious cracking of the skin. It appears soon after
the leaves develop, in the shape of small dull-red spots
on the upper surface ; then the lower surface becomes
spotted, and the spots gradually change to a dark

78 SPRAYING CROPS

brown color with black specks in the middle. The
affected portions enlarge, and finally the whole leaf
becomes diseased and falls off. The red spots also
appear upon the fruit ;*the skin becomes much rough-
ened and finally splits open in long cracks.

Remedies — Spray twice with the 50 or 6o-gallon
formula of the Bordeaux mixture, applying first about
one month after the blossoms fall, and again a month
later. If more than two applications of the Bordeaux
mixture are made after blooming there is danger of

Quince Leaf Blighir

giving the fruit a russet appearance. In case of early
pears only one application should be made after
blooming. If late applications are made the copper
carbonate or some similar fungicide should be used.
The effect of treatment with the Bordeaux mixture, as
shown in one of Mr Galloway's experiments, is illus-
trated on page 134.

By adding an arsenical to the Bordeaux mixture,
both insect and fungus injuries will be prevented.

The PEAR SCAB is a disease very similar to apple
scab, the fungus, in fact, being believed by many bot-

THE PEAR 79

anists to be the same species. At any rate, the chief
points in the life-history and remedial treatment are the
same as for the apple disease. Spray with dilute
Bordeaux mixture, first as soon as fruit buds open ;
second just before blooming; third as soon as blossoms
fall, and fourth about three weeks later.

Care should be taken not to apply the Bordeaux
mixture too late in the season. Early varieties should
have but one spraying with this mixture after the fruit
"sets," and late varieties but two. Where additional
applications are needed, use the copper carbonate
solution.

Pear trees, especially older ones in southern lati-
tudes, as well as apple trees, are often largely covered
with LICHENS of various kinds. Recent experiments
by Mr M. B. Waite show that these are destroyed by
spraying with the Bordeaux mixture.

The quince is subject to the leaf -blight above
discussed as a pear pest, and to various other diseases.
As a general rule, it should receive treatment similar
to that given the pear, although a larger number of
sprayings seem to be necessary.

THE CHERRY

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FRUIT

The PLUM CURCULIO, which has already been dis-
cussed under The Plum (page 69), is also exceedingly
injurious to cherries. The latter, however, usually do
not fall off when infested by the curculio larvae, but
remain on the tree until the fruit ripens. The remedial
measures suggested in connection with the plum are
equally applicable to this fruit.

Some varieties of cherries, especially the early
ones, are very susceptible to injury by arsenites.
Arsenate of lead seems to be the safest poison to use
on them. Do not spray early varieties more than
twice, or late ones more than three times.

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FOLIAGE

The twigs and under surface of the leaves of
cherry trees are frequently thickly infested during May
and June by small, shining black plant-lice, that suck
out the sap and deform the leaves. This insect is the
CHERRY APHIS. It winters over on the twigs in the
egg state. Early in spring the eggs hatch into young
aphides that insert their tiny sap-sucking beaks into the
unfolding leaves. In a week or ten days they become
full-grown, and give birth to young lice, which soon
develop and repeat the process. In this way they
increase with marvelous rapidity. Late in June or
early in July they leave the cherry, migrating to some
other plant. Here they develop through the summer,
and in autumn a winged brood again appears and

THE CHERRY 8 1

migrates back to the cherry. These migrants give
birth to young that develop into egg-laying females,
which deposit small, oval, shining black eggs upon
the twigs.

Remedy — Spray with kerowater, kerosene emul-
sion or whale-oil soap. This can be done most easily
and effectively early in spring, when the newly-hatched
lice are crowded upon the bursting buds.

The PEAR-TREE SLUG, which has already been
discussed as a pear insect, is probably as destructive
to cherry foliage as to that of the pear. Its life-history
on the two fruits is similar, and the remedies are the
same in both cases.

FUNGUS ENEMIES

The cherry is subject to much the same fungous
diseases that the plum is. The leaves are attacked by
the LEAF BLIGHT, and the fruit by BROWN ROT. The
remedial measures already suggested for these diseases
are applicable here.

PART II

SPRAYING SMALL FRUITS AND
NURSERY STOCK

Strawberry Leaf Affected with Blight

(After Garman)

Spraying Small Fruits and Nursery Stock

THE STRAWBERRY

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FOLIAGE

The transformations of the STRAWBERRY SLUG
have been well represented by Dr Riley in the figure
on page 86. The four-winged fly (3) appears in
spring, and deposits its eggs within the tissues of the
leaf or stem. The larvae feed upon the leaf, gnawing
small, circular holes at first. They develop in five or
six weeks into pale green worms (4, 6) about three-
fourths of an inch long. The larvae now go slightly
beneath the soil surface, and there they form cocoons
(7) within which they change to the pupa state (i, 2),
and later emerge as flies. In the southern states there
are two broods each season, while at the north there
appears to be but one.

Remedies — On the non-fruiting plantations this
pest may be destroyed by spraying or dusting with
hellebore or arsenate of lead. On fruiting plantations
this method may be used in localities where a second
brood of larvae appears after the fruit is gathered.

The STRAWBERRY LEAF-ROLLER is a small, brown-
ish caterpillar that folds the leaflets of the strawberry
by bringing the upper surfaces together and fastening
them by silken cords, and feeds upon their substance
till they look brown and scorched. It hatches from
eggs laid in spring upon the strawberry plants by a
small reddish-brown moth. The larva attains its full

86

SPRAYING CROPS

growth in June, when it is nearly half an inch long, of
a brown or greenish color, with a shining yellowish-
brown head. It pupates within the rolled leaf, and
about midsummer emerges as a moth. These moths
deposit eggs for a second brood, that feed upon the
leaves late in summer, changing to pupae early in
autumn; and, passing the winter in that condition,
emerge as moths the following spring.

Strawberry Slug

i, a, pupa; 3, 3, fly; 4, 6, larvae; 7, cocoon; 8, antenna; 9, egg, magnified
(After Riley)

Remedies — Mow the field soon after the crop is
gathered, and after leaving it a day or two to become
dry, burn it over. This destroys the leaf-rollers as well
as several other kinds of insects, and the spores of fun-
gous diseases. Scatter a little straw over the field
where the leaves are not thick enough to burn well.
The plants will not be damaged, but will soon send up
a new lot of leaves that will grow rapidly, and be free
from insect and fungus attack. If for any reason this
method is not desirable, the insects of the second

THE STRAWBERRY 87

brood may be destroyed by spraying or dusting the
plants in August with some poisonous insecticide.

The foliage of strawberries is also attacked by cer-
tain STRAWBERRY LEAF-BEETLES, the parents of the
STRAWBERRY ROOT-WORMS. On young non-fruiting
plantations, and on fruiting plantations after the crop
is gathered, these insects may be destroyed by spray-
ing with an arsenical poison.

FUNGUS ENEMIES

The STRAWBERRY LEAF-BLIGHT or RUST is the
most destructive fungus enemy of this fruit. "The
presence of the blight fungus," says Professor H.
Carman, "is first marked by the appearance of small
brown spots, varying from one-sixteenth to one-eighth
inch. As they become abundant the spots fuse, form-
ing extensive brown areas, and finally occupy the whole
leaf. Eventually most spots show at the upper side of
the leaves a rim of dull purple of varying width.
Towards fall this change in the color of the leaf is
more prevalent. If one of the spots be cut through
with a pair of fine scissors, the leaf will be found, at
the point where the spot is formed, much thinner than
elsewhere, because of the killing and drying out of
its substance. Examined under a microscope, the
fungus may now be found to have pushed through the
tissues of the leaf, and to have formed all over the
brown central region of the spot, but most abundantly
at its margins, small whitish tufts, looking like micro-
scopic shrubs. These are the fruiting parts of the
parasite, and are made up of numerous threads, each
bearing at its summit a long jointed spore. As these
latter ripen they are set free, and are scattered upon
fresh leaves by winds and rains, to germinate there,
push into the leaves, and form new spots." The fun-

88 SPRAYING CROPS

gus is propagated by these long spores throughout the
summer, but in autumn the threads of mycelium ''form
solid tissue-like masses in the dead parts of the spots,"
which finally appear at tne surface as small black dots.
By means of these dots or nodules the fungus passes
the winter. A leaf affected by this disease is repre-
sented on page 84.

Strawberry Leaf Folded by Leaf-roller

(After Garman)

Remedies — During July and August spray with
Bordeaux mixture or ammoniacal solution of copper
carbonate, at intervals of two weeks. Try mowing
and burning foliage soon after the fruit is gathered,
and then spray as just directed. Mowing and burning
at this time, without subsequent spraying, is believed
to increase rather than diminish the blight, at least

THE STRAWBERRY 89

southward; but mowing and burning may often be
done to good advantage, at least in southerly latitudes,
in autumn. On the whole the most satisfactory
method of keeping strawberry enemies in check is by
frequent renewals of the plantation.

THE CURRANt AND GOOSEBERRY

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FOLIAGE

The most destructive insect enemy of currant
foliage is the IMPORTED "CURRANT WORM. Early in
spring four-winged saw-flies deposit rows of small,
whitish, glassy eggs on the principal veins of the
under side of the lower leaves. In about ten days the
small worms hatch and eat circular holes in the leaf.
At first these larvae are whitish in color ; they moult at
short intervals, first changing to green, then to green
with numerous black spots, and at last back again to a
plain light green, with a tinge of yellow at the sides
and ends. The full-grown larvae descend to the
ground, where they spin tough brown cocoons beneath
the leaves and rubbish, within which they change to
pupae. From these cocoons the flies emerge early in
summer, to lay eggs for a second brood, which passes
the winter within the cocoons.

Remedy — Spray with hellebore — I ounce to 3
gallons water — as soon as holes appear in lower leaves.
Spray again ten days later. Or spray with arsenites
as soon as the leaves expand, but never after the
fruit sets.

Currant leaves are often specked with white by
the CURRANT LEAF-HOPPER, a small, pale-green insect,
one-tenth inch long, that lives on the under side and
sucks the sap. The chief damage is done by the first
brood, the insects leaving the bushes in early summer,
probably preferring at this time the more succulent
foliage of other plants.

THE CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY 9!

Remedies — Spray forcibly with kerowater, or
kerosene emulsion, pyrethrum or insect-powder — I
ounce to 3 gallons water ; or with tobacco decoction.
Begin early, before the insects get their wings.

The foliage on the tips of currant and gooseberry
stems is often blighted in spring by the FOUR-LINED
LEAF-BUG, a small insect represented natural size and

Currant Worms Eating Leaves

(After Riley)

magnified on page 92. The young appear early in
spring and suck the sap from the unfolding leaves,
causing them to wilt and appear blighted as in the
picture on page 93.

Mr M. V. Slingertand, who has studied this pest
thoroughly, finds that its eggs are laid in currant stems
and pass the winter there. Consequently pruning the
stems between September and April — burning the por^
tions cut off — will be a partial preventive ; and spray-
ing with kerosene emulsion early in the season, when

92 SPRAYING CROPS

the insects are immature, will destroy many of them.
The only other remedy suggested is that of jarring the
pests into pans containing kerosene and water.

The CURRANT Apfhs is a small, yellowish insect
found on the under sides of curled and blistered cur-
rant leaves early in summer. Such leaves are generally
tinged with reddish above. The insects apparently
migrate to some other plant during the summer,
returning to the currant in autumn, and depositing
small, black eggs upon the stems, especially about
the buds.

Fou r= lined Leaf=bug

Magnified and natural size. (After Slingerland)

Remedies — On account of the deformed leaves,
these insects are difficult to reach with insecticides.
Spray with kerowater or kerosene emulsion or tobacco
decoction quite early in the season, before the foliage
has expanded.

FUNGUS ENEMIES

For many years it has been impracticable to grow
foreign varieties of gooseberries in the United States,

THE CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY

93

on account of the attacks of the GOOSEBERRY MILDEW.
According to Dr B. D. Halsted, this mildew ''first
makes its appearance upon the young half-grown
leaves, and the unfolding terminal bud of the shoot.
In its early stage it has a cobwebby appearance, which
soon becomes white and powdery from the develop-
ment of the light summer spores. Soon after this,
thin patches of the same character may be found upon
the forming berries. Usually one side is more attacked

Currant Leaves Blighted by Leaf-bug
(After Slingerland)

than the other, and as the berry continues to grow
it becomes one-sided or curved, because the fungus
retards the development upon the infested side. If
the berry is entirely covered, its further development
is generally checked. Later in the season the leaves,
and especially their petioles, and the young stems
bearing them, turn to a rusty-brown color, and become
thickly coated with the fungus. The berries at the

94 SPRAYING CROPS

same time are covered with brown patches of mycelium,
which may readily be peeled off from the smooth skin
of the fruit."

Remedies — Spray with a solution of potassium
sulphide (liver of sulphur) at the rate of one-half
ounce to I gallon water. Begin as soon as the leaves
commence unfolding, and repeat the application at
intervals of eighteen to twenty days. The sulphide
dissolves more readily in hot than in cold water.
This treatment has proven entirely efficacious for a
number of years at the New York experiment station.
Early in the season the Bordeaux mixture may be
used instead of the sulphide if more convenient, and
it is desirable to spray with Bordeaux mixture after
the fruit is gathered, to prevent the various spot-
diseases, that often cause the foliage to drop off late
in summer.

General Treatment — One of the most successful
currant growers in New England gives his bushes
three sprayings each season, namely : first, with copper
sulphate solution in early spring before buds open;
second, with Paris green as soon as leaves come out ;
third, with Bordeaux mixture and Paris green after
fruit is picked.

THE GRAPE

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FOLIAGE

The GRAPE-VINE FLEA-BEETLE is a small, steel-
blue beetle that is often very destructive to grape-vines.
As soon in spring as the buds swell the beetles attack
them, and continue feeding for three or four weeks,
during the latter part of the time depositing small,
orange-yellow eggs in clusters on the under sides of
the leaves. The eggs hatch into small, dark-colored
larvae that gnaw irregular holes in the leaves. When
fully grown (three or four weeks after hatching), they
are about three-tenths of an inch long, brown in color,
with six legs, and four or five black dots on the back
of each ring or segment of the body. The head is
black, and there are numerous hairs on the body.
They now enter the soil, pupate, and a few weeks
later emerge as beetles, which feed upon the foliage
and lay eggs for a second brood of larvae.

Remedy — Spray with arsenites as soon as beetles
appear in spring; or else with the arsenited Bordeaux
mixture. Repeat in ten to fourteen days if necessary.

FUNGUS ENEMIES

The BLACK ROT of grapes has long been recog-
nized as the most destructive fungous disease which
American vineyardists have encountered. Generalh
the fungus first appears in the shape of round, reddish-
brown spots on the grape leaves. About a fortnight
later the attack on the berries will be noticed. The
effect on these is most disastrous ; as the mycelium
develops among the cells of the fruit the berries stop

96 SPRAYING CROPS

growing, and finally become disorganized, shapeless,
juiceless masses, shriveled to one-half their proper
size and fit only to develop the spores of the destroy-
ing fungus. And the/ do produce these spores, which
are massed together in little black pustules scattered
over the surface of the withered skin.

This Black Rot fungus is most destructive in
southern latitudes. As far north as northern Ohio arid
western New York it is much less virulent than in
Tennessee or the Carolinas. Like most fungous dis-
eases it develops with greater rapidity during damp,
hot weather, or when nights with heavy dews alternate
with hot days.

Remedies — Spray with the copper sulphate solu-
tion before the buds start, then with the Bordeaux
mixture four or five times, making the first application
when the first leaves are half-grown ; the second, when
the fruit has set, repeating the later sprayings at inter-
vals of about fifteen days. If disease persists so later
sprayings are necessary, substitute the ammoniacal
solution of copper carbonate for the last one or two
sprayings, to avoid spotting the fruit.

An account of the development of the DOWNY
MILDEW or BROWN ROT of grapes has already been
given in the Introduction (pages 7-9). This disease
has been, in years past, extremely destructive over a
wide area ; and it attacks disastrously both the foliage
and fruit. In southern latitudes it is said to be most
injurious to the former.

Remedies — The Bordeaux mixture is a practical
and efficient preventive of this disease. Spray first a
week or ten days before the vine blossoms ; second,
as soon as the berries are well set; and third, about
three weeks later. In very wet seasons it may be
desirable to spray a fourth time, but this is seldom
done.

THE RASPBERRY

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FOLIAGE

The RASPBERRY SLUG is the larva of a four-
winged black fly with a reddish abdomen, which
deposits eggs in the leaf during spring. They hatch
into small, whitish worms that feed upon the tender
foliage, and in a few weeks become full-grown. They
are then 1/4 inch long, of a dark green color, and
have the body thickly covered with spinose tubercles.
The slugs now descend to the ground, and construct
rather firm cocoons slightly beneath the soil surface.
They remain in these cocoons until spring, when they
come forth as flies.

Remedy — Spray the infested bushes with pow-
dered hellebore. Use from one-half to one pound of
hellebore to 50 gallons of water, and apply forcibly,
as soon as the worms appear.

FUNGUS ENEMIES

The ANTHRACNOSE or CANE-RUST of the raspberry
is one of the most vexatious diseases with which the
fruit-grower has to contend. Infested canes are char-
acterized by having numbers of peculiar, grayish,
depressed spots upon the surface, the spots usually
having a dark purple margin. This injury is accom-
panied by a splitting or cracking of the bark, which
becomes deeper as the cane ripens, and finally extends
nearly to the pith. The spores are developed usually
in the central portions of the spots, appearing to the
unaided eye as yellowish elevations. Canes so at-
tacked become dwarfed and worthless.

98 SPRAYING CROPS

Remedy — The raspberry is very sensitive to the
corrosive action of fungicides, and it must be sprayed
with care. Recent experiments at the Ohio Station
indicate that the dilute liordeaux mixture may be used
to advantage against this disease, although it is not a
complete remedy. Apply once before the leaves come
out, and two or three times afterward, though not after
the blossoms open. "Care should be taken to direct
the spray to the young growth, and avoid the old canes
after the first application." In Canada the recom-
mended treatment is to spray with copper sulphate
solution before buds burst, and with Bordeaux mix-
ture ten or fifteen days after leaves open, repeating
the latter soon after the old canes are cut out.

NURSERY STOCK

Nursery trees are particularly liable to attack by
the San Jose scale and others similar to it. The use
of the lime, salt and sulphur wash and fumigation
of dormant stock are the standard remedies. The
leaves of young apple trees are frequently rolled
together at the tips of the terminal twigs by a
greenish-yellow, slightly hairy worm about an inch
long. This is the LESSER APPLE LEAF-ROLLER. Its
life-history is as follows : The eggs are laid in spring
on the leaves of apple and other plants, the larvae soon
hatching to devour the foliage, some of which they
roll into a protective covering. Here they feed for
about a month, when they pupate within the folded
leaves, and a week or so later emerge as small orange-
yellow moths ; these moths lay eggs for another brood
of larvae, the imagos from which appear in August,
being also of the same orange color. These in turn
lay eggs for a third brood of worms, which emerge
during October as glistening reddish-gray moths,
which pass the winter in rubbish heaps and fence
corners and deposit eggs the following spring.

One often finds during winter, upon the twigs of
nursery trees, masses of dry brown leaves, which, when
pulled apart, are seen to surround a long, tubular,
horn-like case. These cases contain a brownish worm
or caterpillar, .about half an inch long. This is the
LEAF-CRUMPLER, and it often becomes one of the most
injurious of nursery pests. The parent is a small
grayish moth (d) that deposits its eggs during June
and July on apple, quince and other trees. These eggs
soon hatch into small brownish worms that construct
tubular, silken cases (a) within which they remain

100

SPRAYING CROPS

concealed when not eating. As they grow larger they
draw about the openings of their abodes many par-
tially eaten leaves, so that by autumn there is quite a
bunch surrounding eaA case (b). At the approach
of cold weather the cases are attached to twigs by
silken threads, and thus the winter is passed. As soon
as the leaves appear the larvae attack them, frequently
eating out the flower buds as well. They feed until
June, when they pupate within the cases. A fortnight
later the moths emerge.

Lesser Leaf = roller

a, larva; l>, pupa; c, moth; d, rolled leaf
(After Kiley)

•The APPLE LEAF-SKELETONIZER .s a brownish or
greenish larva, which spins a web upon the upper sur
face of the leaf, and eats the parenchyma, giving the
foliage a scorched appearance. The larvae hatch from
eggs laid late in spring by a little moth, and as they
grow older they spin a slight protective silken web on
the upper surface of the leaf, beneath which they feed.
When full grown (a) they vary from an olive or pale
green color to brown, are about half an inch long, and
have four black shining tubercles on the back, just
behind the head. About midsummer they pupate in

NURSERY £

slight cocoons, and two weeks later the moths emerge.
Eggs are laid by these moths for the second brood of
larvae, which when full-grown hibernate in thin
cocoons.

Remedies — All three of these pests are open to
destruction by spraying with arsenites. In regions

Leaf =cru nip ler

a, larval case; b, larval case with dead leaves; c, front part of larva; d, moth,
magnified. (After Riley)

where the Powdery Mildew is injurious as well as
these, a combination treatment may be employed,
adding five or six ounces of Paris green to each barrel
of Bordeaux mixture. Where fungicide treatment is
not necessary, spray with arsenites and lime, adding
the lime to prevent injury to the young and tender
foliage, unless arsenate of lead is used, as explained
in the Introduction, whenever either of the insects
threaten injury, — the earlier the better.

1O2 SPRAYING CROPS

FUNGUS ENEMIES

There are at least three fungous diseases of young
nursery trees to prevent which spraying pays. They
are: (i) the PEAR LEAF-BLIGHT, which affects quince
as well as pear stocks; (2) the POWDERY MILDEW,
which occurs upon apple and cherry, and (3) the
LEAF-BLIGHT or LEAF-SPOT of the plum and cherry.

According to Dr B. T. Galloway, the* body or vege-
tative system of the PEAR LEAF-BLIGHT consists of

Leaf ^skeleton izer

rt, larva; />, part of hack, magnified to show markings; c, head and front part
of larva, magnified; d, moth, magnified. (After Riley)

very minute, short, colorless filaments, which grow
between and through the delicate cells of the leaf,
"destroying all the latter with which it comes in con-
tact, and using their nourishment for building up its
own structure. As a result of this process, the leaf
shows, here and there on the surface, small, more or
less circular, dark brown spots ; these spots rapidly
enlarge, and by running together soon cause the entire
leaf to turn brown and then fall off. Before the latter

NURSERY STOCK

103

takes place, however, a close examination of the dis-
eased spots will reveal numerous little black specks ,
these contain the spores or reproductive bodies of the
fungus, which escape by rupturing the cuticle of the

Spraying for Plum Leaf blight

(After Galloway)

leaf with which they are covered. Under proper con-
ditions of moisture and heat the spores germinate, and
if this takes place on a pear leaf, the germ tube bores
its way into the tissues, soon develops into colorless
filaments, like those already described, and these in

IO4 SPRAYING CROPS

turn give rise to more spores." The fungus passes
the winter by means of the late summer spores which
remain attached to the fallen leaves.

Remedy — "Spray firet with the Bordeaux mixture
when the leaves are about two-thirds grown ; then fol-
low with other applications of the same preparation
at intervals of about twelve days, until five or six
sprayings in all have been made." (Galloway.)

The fungus of the APPLE POWDERY MILDEW dif-
fers materially from the species affecting pear leaves
just discussed. "Its vegetative system/' says Dr Gal-
loway, "instead of growing on the inside of the host is
almost wholly external, and obtains its nourishment by
means of suckers which it sends into the cells of the
leaf or stem as the case may be. It covers the various
parts of the plant with a grayish, powdery, meal-like
growth — hence the name Powdery Mildew."

Remedies — "Spray the seedlings with the ammo-
niacal solution or copper carbonate, first when the leaves
are about half grown, and thereafter at intervals of
twelve days. Following this plan three sprayings will
usually be made before budding, and at least two
after this operation, making five in all." (Galloway.)
Or the Bordeaux mixture may be used.

The LEAF-BLIGHT of the plum and cherry may be
prevented by spraying with the Bordeaux mixture.
Apply first when the leaves are one-third grown.
"Between this date and the time for budding three
more applications should be made at as nearly regular
intervals as possible. Ten days or two weeks after
the buds are inserted make the fifth application, then
follow with the sixth two weeks later." The effect of
spraying plum stocks is well shown in the picture on
page 103, reproduced from the Journal of Mycology.
Be sure that there is an excess of lime in the Bordeaux
mixture.

PART III

SPRAYING SHADE TREES, ORNA-
MENTAL PLANTS AND FLOWERS

An Outfit for Spraying Shade Trees

(From Connecticut Experiment Station)

Spraying Shade Trees, Ornamental
Plants and Flowers

SHADE TREES

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FOLIAGE

The WOOLLY MAPLE BARK-LOUSE is often one of
the most destructive shade-tree pests. Its presence is
shown in spring- and early summer by the occur-
rence upon the twigs of a brown, circular, leathery
scale about l/\. inch in diameter, beneath which is a
peculiar white, fluffy, cottony mass. In the spring
there may be found, in each of these masses, great
numbers (from 700 to 1000) of small, white, spherical
eggs. Early in summer these eggs hatch into young-
lice, which scatter over the trees, wandering about on
the twigs and leaves for a few days, and, finally, fixing
themselves upon the lower leaf surface, insert their tiny
beaks and suck out the sap. They remain in this posi-
tion several weeks, when a few of them become fully
developed winged males. These mate with the remain-
der, which are females, and soon die. But the females
remain upon the leaves until nearly time for the latter
to fall in autumn, when they desert them and migrate
to the twigs, attaching themselves by inserting their
beaks into the bark. Here they remain until spring,
the eggs gradually developing.

Remedy — Spray infested trees in June, when the
lice have just hatched, with kerowater or kerosene
emulsion.

io8

SPRAYING CROPS

The twigs of deciduous and coniferous trees are
often infested during winter by small bags or sacs
(e) suspended from the leaves or branches. If one of
the larger of these bags bC cut open, there will be found
within it a brown, membranous shell (the pupa-case of
the moth) filled with many small, yellow eggs (e). In
this condition the BAG-WORM or BASKET-WORM passes
the winter. Late in spring the larvae hatch, and form

Bag=worm

a, larva; t>, male pupa; c, female moth; dt male moth; e, bag- and pupa-
case cut open to show eggs : _/, full-grown larva with bag; g, young larvae with
their conical coverings. (After Riley)

little cases of fragments of leaves fastened together by
silken threads. Beneath these cases (g) they feed
upon the foliage, enlarging them as the larvae develop,
and during later life using bits of twigs or stems in
their construction. When fully developed, the worms
descend to the earth by means of silken threads, and
crawl about until they reach the bases of other trees,
which they ascend. This is the way the species

SHADE TREES

migrates. The larvae pupate within the cases, and
about three weeks later change to moths. The two
sexes of the moths differ greatly, the male (d) having
well-developed wings, while the female (c) is wingless.
The latter deposits her eggs in the empty pupa-case
from which she has emerged, falls to the ground,
and dies.

Remedies — Spray with an arsenical poison early
in summer when the worms are young. Pick off the
cases in winter.

White=marked Tussock-moth

a, female moth on cocoon; b, young larva hanging by thread
d, male pupa : e, male moth. (After Riley)

, female pupa;

The larvae of the WHITE-MARKED TUSSOCK-MOTH
is one of the most beautiful of our caterpillars. If the
trunks or larger limbs of maple, apple, elm, or any
other of the trees infested by this insect, be examined
in autumn or winter, one may find, scattered here and
there upon the bark, thin gray cocoons, many of them
being covered with large bunches of spherical white
eggs fastened together by a protecting froth-like mass.
In May, soon after the leaves come out, these eggs
hatch into small caterpillars, which feed upon the
foliage, becoming full-grown in six or seven weeks.
Their general color is bright yellow, with head and
tubercles on rear of back red, and four cream-colored

no

SPRAYING CROPS

tufts on back. About the middle of July the cater-
pillars spin thin, whitish cocoons upon the bark, and
a fortnight later come forth as moths. These lay eggs
for a second brood, which complete their transforma-
tions before winter sets in. The male moth differs

I

Apple Leaf

Denuded by young Web-worms

greatly from the female moth, the former being winged
(e), while the latter is wingless (a). The female
crawls upon the top of the cocoon (a) as soon as she
emerges from the pupa state, where, after mating, she
deposits her eggs in a single mass and dies.

SHADE TREES 1 1 1

Remedies — Spray trees as soon as caterpillars are
noticed, with arsenate of lead or some other arsenical
poison. Pick off egg cases in winter.

The work of few insects is more universally known
than that of the FALL WEB- WORM. Late in summer
and early in autumn the conspicuous, unsightly webs
of this pest may be seen in nearly every orchard and
hedgerow over a large portion of the United States.
The adult is a pretty, white moth (c), which deposits
eggs on the leaves of various trees early in summer.

Fall Web=worm

a, larva; 6, pupa; c, moth. (After Riley)

These soon hatch into young caterpillars that begin
at once to spin a protective web. They feed upon the
parenchyma of the foliage, leaving the network of
veins, and grow quite rapidly, enlarging the web as
they develop. The full-grown larvae are a little more
than an inch long, with the body densely clothed with
yellowish hairs. They now leave their nests and
descend to the ground, where they spin slight silken
cocoons within which they change to pupae.

Remedies — It is an easy matter to cut the webs
off and burn or crush the larvae. The pests may also

Transformations of the Him leaf Beetle

(After Kiley)

SHADE TREES 113

be destroyed by spraying with an arsenical poison when
the larvae are young.

During recent years the IMPORTED ELM LEAF-
BEETLE has been exceedingly destructive in many cities
of the eastern states, to that most beautiful of shade-
trees, the elm. The eggs (a) are laid on the under side
of the leaf in two or three rows. In about a week the
larvae hatch and begin eating the leaves, causing them
to look as if riddled with fine shot. They become
fully grown (g) in two or three weeks, when they
descend to the ground, and change to pupae (/). Ten
days later the perfect beetles (c, natural size; k, mag-
nified) come forth and eat the leaves, although the
damage done by the insect in this state is less than
that done by larvae. There are three or four broods
each season, and the beetles pass the winter in hollow
trees and under old leaves.

Remedies — Spray with arsenate of lead when the
eggs are being laid, in order to kill the larvae before
they have done any damage. The addition of a little
flour to the poison mixture seems to render it more
effective. To reach the tops of high trees a pump of
considerable power is required. In July destroy the
larvae as they come to the ground to pupate.

An excellent discussion of shade-tree insects and
methods of controlling them by Dr L. O. Howard may
be found in the yearbook of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture for 1895.

THE ROSE

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FOLIAGE

The ROSE SLUG is the young or larva of a four-
winged saw-fly. It eats the pulp of the leaves, giving
the foliage a scorched appearance. The eggs are laid
singly in the skin of the leaf, and the larvae hatch in
about a fortnight. They become full-grown in three

Rose Leaf hopper

a, adult; <5, pupa; magnified

weeks ; they have a small, round, yellowish head, and
a green body, which is soft and nearly transparent.
Leaving the bushes they burrow into the soil an inch
or two and make oval cocoons of silk mixed with par-
ticles of earth. They remain in these until the follow-
ing season, when they emerge as flies.

Remedies — Spray with arsenate of lead or
hellebore.

THE ROSE 115

The ROSE LEAF-HOPPER is a small whitish insect,
found on the lower surface of rose leaves, sucking out
the cell contents and giving the upper surface a white-
spotted appearance. The adult (a) is a little more than
i-io inch long, with a yellowish- white body, and
white semi-transparent wing covers. It has long hind
legs, by means of which it is enabled to make tremen-
dous leaps when disturbed.

Remedies — These little pests are much easier to
destroy before they are fully developed than after-
wards. Spraying or dusting with pyrethrum, or

ft,

Aphis

a, wingless form, magnified ; />, winged form, magnified; c, same, natural size
(After Saunders)

insect-powder, is a simple and efficient remedy.
Tobacco, in the form either of a powder or a decoction,
is also good ; and kerosene either in mechanical mix-
ture or in emulsion will destroy the pests.

FLOWERS AND POTTED PLANTS

Greenhouse plants are often seriously injured by
minute, reddish mites that congregate on the lower
leaf surface, spinning a fine protective web and suck-
ing out the juices of the plants through their tiny

Il6 SPRAYING CROPS

beaks. These are RED SPIDERS. They multiply be-
neath their silken webs, where one may find colonies
of individuals (so small as to be scarcely visible to the
naked eye) in all Stages of existence. The infested
leaves assume a yellowish hue, and many of them
finally fall off.

Remedies — The Red Spider flourishes best in a
dry atmosphere. It is seldom troublesome in green-
houses where the air is kept saturated with moisture
and the plants are sprayed with water every day. In
window gardens the plants should be sprayed with
water or soap-suds every day, as soon as they show
signs of the presence of this pest.

There are many different species of APHIDES,
PLANT-LICE, or "GREENFLIES," affecting various flow-
ering-plants. But all are quite similar in life-history
and habits, and the same remedies apply to each. They
all multiply with marvelous rapidity, on account of
their habit of giving birth to living young without the
presence of male aphides. They mature rapidly, and
obtain food by inserting their pointed beaks into the
stem or leaf and sucking out the sap. There are
generally two forms of them, one being winged
(b, c) and the other wingless (a). These insects are
the commonest pests of the flowering-plants.

Remedies — Spray with strong soap-suds or
kerosene in mechanical mixture or emulsion, fish-oil
soap, whale-oil soap, or tobacco decoction.

PART IV

SPRAYING VEGETABLES, FIELD-
CROPS AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS

Transformations of the Colorado Potato-beetle

(After Riley)

Spraying Vegetables, Field-Crops
and Domestic Animals

THE POTATO

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FOLIAGE

The COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE deposits its orange-
colored eggs (a) in masses, varying in number from
a dozen to fifty or more, on the under surface of the
potato-leaf, and occasionally also upon the leaves of
grass, smart-weed, or other plants in the potato field.
They hatch about a week later into peculiar little grubs
(b) that feed upon the foliage a few weeks. They
then descend to the ground, where just beneath the soil
surface, or under the rubbish above it, they change to
pupae (c). About ten days later they emerge as
perfect beetles. There are from two to four annual
broods, the number varying with the latitude ; and the
insect hibernates in the beetle state.

Remedies — Spray with almost any of the arsenical
poisons. Arsenate of lead has been found best by the
Maine Experiment Station. The application should be
made as soon as the beetles appear, in order to kill off
the first brood, and it must be repeated as often during
the season as is necessary to keep the pests in check.

The FLEA-BEETLE is one of the most troublesome
insect pests affecting potatoes. Although very small
it appears in enormous numbers and eats small holes
in the surface of the leaves. They thus not only injure
the tissues of the leaf directly, but the holes they make

120 SPRAYING CROPS

furnish easy access to the spores of disease-producing
organisms.

Remedies — Spraying with arsenate of lead and
Bordeaux mixture will prevent to a great extent at
least the depredations of this pest. The more thorough
the application the more effective will it be.

FUNGUS ENEMIES

There are at least two distinct fungous diseases
which are called the POTATO ROT or POTATO BLIGHT.
One of these is the LATE BLIGHT or DOWNY MILDEW,
due to the fungus Phytophora infestans; and the other
is the EARLY BLIGHT or LEAF-SPOT DISEASE, due to
the fungus called Alter naria solani. They may usually
be distinguished by the fact that leaves affected by
the former have on their under surface a white, velvety
mould, visible to the naked eye, but more readily seen
through the microscope ; with the Early Blight no such
mildew is present. With both, the foliage of plants
attacked becomes spotted with brown, and the spots
gradually enlarge, finally involving the whole leaf,
and then cause the stems to wilt and wither.

According to Professor F. L. Scribner, the life-
history of the DOWNY MILDEW POTATO ROT FUNGUS
may be summarized as follows : "The spores lighting
upon the leaves of the potato germinate in drops of dew
or rain, and the product of germination — the zoospores
— penetrate to the interior tissues of the plant, and after
growing for a time through these tissues, the mycelium
sends out, chiefly from the under surface of the leaves,
slender fruiting branches, whereon are produced a new
crop of spores. These may carry the disease to the
other plants in the field, or to the other parts of the
same plant ; that is, they may serve to spread the dis-
ease in the tops, which we term blight, over the entire
field, or by being washed into the ground they may

THE POTATO

121

reach the tubers and cause the rot. The fungus once
having gained entrance to the tubers, may or may not
vegetate rapidly. Its presence, however, is soon made
evident by a browning of the flesh underlying the skin,
and by more or less extensive discoloration and de-
pression of the latter." When such affected tubers
are planted, the disease is very likely to develop in the
plants from them.

(a) Yield of Unsprayed Plot ; (b) of Sprayed Plot

(After Jones)

The EARLY FLIGHT appears early in summer in
the shape of small brown, brittle spots, scattered over
the leaf. Careful inspection shows that their upper
surfaces are more or less roughened by darker areas
rising above the dead gray tissue. The spots grad-
ually enlarge, and finally run together to form large
brown patches, the intermediate tissues becoming
yellow or sickly green in color. The entire plant
finally withers, and dies long before the proper period,
the tubers being small — generally less than half full
size. But the tubers do not rot and are of fair quality.
This fungus has proven difficult to study in the field,

122 SPRAYING CROPS

the spores being produced only in the later stages of
the disease. It winters over in the spore stage on
the dead vines.

Remedies — A number of experiments have shown
that these diseases may be prevented by spraying with
the Bordeaux mixture, provided the seed potatoes used
are free from infection. To be sure of this, seed
should be obtained from regions where blight and rot
do not occur upon potatoes, or from fields which were
sprayed the year before. Then spray from two to four
times with the Bordeaux mixture, making the first ap-
plication when the vines are about one-half grown, or
earlier if signs of the disease appear, and repeat the
application when it is washed off — in about a fort-
night usually. Add half a pound of London purple or
Paris green to each barrel of the mixture whenever the
Colorado beetles threaten injury. While the best
results are most likely to be reached when the seed is
not infected, very satisfactory ones are obtained from
spraying crops from ordinary seed.

The beneficial effect of treatment with Bordeaux
mixture, as it resulted in some experiments by Profes-
sor Jones, of Vermont, is shown on page 121. The
treated vines yielded marketable tubers at the rate of
291 bushels per acre, while those untreated yielded
only at the rate of 993^ bushels per acre.

Br.ozvn Rot — Besides the two maladies already
discussed, there is a form of blight and rot called
"brown rot," due to bacteria. This occurs on tomatoes
and egg plants as well as potatoes, and is worst in the
south. There is no spotting of the leaves as in the
preceding blight, but the first symptom is a sudden
wilting of the entire top, which is soon followed by
the shriveling and blackening of the leaves and stems.
The disease passes from the stem to the tubers, causing
a browning of the interior, which is soon followed by

THE POTATO 123

soft rot. The beetles or other insects feeding upon
the diseased plants carry the germs to the healthy ones.
The germs also live over in the soil.

Remedies — Avoid land which has recently borne
diseased potatoes, tomatoes or egg plants. If the
disease occurs, all wilting vines should be removed and
destroyed at once and the tubers, if stored, should be
kept cool and dry. The chief remedial measure con-
sists in thorough spraying with arsenites, or Bordeaux
mixture and arsenites, to keep the vines free from the
insects which carry the germs.

THE CABBAGE

INSECT ENEMIES OF THE LEAVES

The transformations of the IMPORTED CARP, AGE-
WORM — the most destructive insect affecting cabbage
— are illustrated in the picture on page 125. The adult
is a common white butterfly, which deposits, singly or
in clusters of two or three each, small, yellowish-white
eggs upon the cabbage. The eggs soon hatch into
little green larvae that feed upon the leaves. In about
two weeks they become full-grown (a), when they
desert the cabbage plants, and finding some suitable
shelter — beneath a board or under a coping of a fence
— change to chrysalids (b). They remain in this con-
dition about ten days, when they emerge as butterflies,
to lay eggs for another brood of worms. The winter
is passed in the chrysalis state.

Remedies — Pyrethrum (insect-powder or buhach),
hot water and kerosene either in mechanical mixture or
emulsion, are the best remedies. The insect-powder
may be applied as a dry powder or be mixed with
water, in the proportion of I ounce to 4 or 5
gallons of water, and sprayed upon the plants. Dr
Riley states that "every worm visible upon the cab-
bages may be killed by the use of hot water at the tem-
perature of 130 degrees Fahrenheit. The water may
be boiling hot when put in the watering-can, but it
will not be too hot when it reaches the cabbage leaves."
Kerosene in mechanical mixture or emulsion can
advantageously be used when the plants are young,
though there would appear to be danger of tainting the
heads if applied to the fully developed plants. Which-
ever method of treatment is adopted, it should be

THE CABBAGE

125

carried into practice at frequent intervals, thus keeping
the worms well in check. If the plants are treated with
insect-powder once a week during the time the worms
are present, they will cause little or no trouble.

There are several other caterpillars affecting cab-
bage— especially the CABBAGE PLUSIA and the ZEBRA
CATERPILLAR — which sometimes necessitate a spray-
ing with kerosene emulsion or insect-powder.

The CABBAGE APHIS is a small, greenish insect,
generally covered with a whitish, mealy coating, that

Imported Cabbage=worm

a, larva; 6, chrysalis; c, female butterfly. (After Riley)

occurs in great numbers on the leaves and in the
heads of cabbage. During the summer months it re-
produces viviparously, but in autumn true males and
females are developed, eggs being deposited by the
latter upon the cabbage leaves.

Remedy — Kerosene in mechanical mixture or
emulsion and fish-oil soap are the most effective liquid
insecticides that can be used against this insect.

Young cabbages are often attacked by flea-beetles,
especially the WAVY-STRIPED FLEA-BEETLE. It is a
small, shining black beetle, i-io inch long, with a

126 SPRAYING CROPS

broad, yellow, wavy stripe on each wing-cover It
feeds upon the surface of the leaf, gnawing out little
pits. The females deposit minute whitish eggs upon
the roots of cruciferous plants, such as radish, cabbage,
turnip, etc, and the larvae feed upon these roots,
sometimes doing serious damage. The full-grown
larva is about l/4 inch long, with a yellowish-white
body, and brown head.

Remedies — Spray the plants with a strong tobacco
decoction, or dust on powdered tobacco.

In the southern states the HARLEQUIN CABBAGE-
BUG is a very troublesome pest. It feeds upon a
variety of cruciferous plants, such as cabbage, radish,
mustard, and turnip; and passes the winter in the
adult state. Early in spring eggs are deposited upon
mustard or radish plants, upon which the resulting
bugs develop. The second brood attacks the cabbage
and the insects continue to develop upon this crop until
autumn. According to Mr Howard Evarts Weed,
"there is but one efficient remedy for this insect, which
is, to destroy the brood which lives over winter, when
they congregate upon the mustard or radish plants.
Here they may be destroyed very easily by the applica-
tion of kerosene (not emulsified) by means of a hand
force-pump or common watering bucket. If the
insects are thus destroyed early in the- season, it will
almost wholly prevent injury later. The insects fly
but little, and are thus not apt to come from a neigh-
boring field." Those bugs or eggs which may be
seen on cabbage should be picked off and destroyed.

ASPARAGUS

The ASPARAGUS RUST is a very destructive fun-
gous disease in some regions. The damage it does
varies greatly from year to year. Experiments in

ASPARAGUS

127

New York, Delaware and other states show that its
injuries may be prevented to a great extent by spray-
ing with Bordeaux mixture to which rosin soap has
been added to make it adhere better. Professor F. D.
Chester's recommendations are as follows : "Dissolve
2 pounds of the rosin soap in the necessary quantity
of water and add to the Bordeaux mixture, which is
prepared in the ordinary way. The first application
in this section should be made about the middle of
July and repeated about two weeks later. The eco-

Harlequin Cabbage bug

a, b% nymphs; c, eggs; /", adult; gt adult with wings extended — all natural size;
d eggs, side view ; e, eggs, view from above— d, e, enlarged. (After Riley)

nomical spraying of asparagus demands a specially
devised spraying outfit, and should consist of a cart
with wheels sufficiently high so that the axles will
brush only the tops of the plants. On this cart is
mounted a barrel and a pump, the latter being con-
nected with a length of pipe running along the back
of the cart and parallel to the axles. To this horizon-
tal pipe are attached three tees and short nipples, to
which are attached the nozzles. By driving across a
field in the direction of the rows a rather broad strip
of plants can be sprayed as rapidly as it takes a horse
to slowly pace the ground.

128 SPRAYING CROPS

"The advisability of spraying asparagus will
depend on circumstances. If the rust has been serious
the year before, it is to be expected that it will make
its appearance on the*following season, and it would
be advisable to forestall its appearance by spraying.
It will not do to wait until it shows itself before
spraying, as it is then too late."

GRAIN CROPS

INSECT ENEMIES

The CHINCH BUG has long been recognized as
one of the arch-enemies of American agriculture. The
adult (h) is a small blackish insect, slightly less than

Chinch Bug

a, 1), eggs; <,, e,f, young; £-, nymph or pupa; h, adult. Magnified
(After Riley)

1-5 inch long, with the legs dark yellow, and their
tips black. The females deposit eggs about the roots
of grass and grain. From these hatch young bugs
(c) that do not differ in general form from the adults.
They suck the sap from various plants of the grass
family, gradually increasing in size, and moulting at
intervals. In a few weeks they become nearly full-
grown, but instead of changing to a quiet chrysalis
state, they simply moult again and continue feeding
as before. In these early stages, which correspond to

I3O SPRAYING CROPS

the larva and chrysalis, they are called nymphs. The
older nymphs (g) are nearly as large as the full-
grown bugs, differing mainly in the absence of wings.
In about a week they again moult and come forth as
adult bugs.

Remedies — Chinch bugs are easily killed by
kerosene, and by means of improved spraying
machines this substance can be used against them to
good advantage. The best time to choose in which
to kill them is when they are migrating from field
to field.

Variegated Cut worm

a, larva; b, moth. (After Kilcyj

Corn, oats, and other field and garden crops
suffer greatly from the attacks of CUT-WORMS, of
which there are many species. They are larvae of
medium-sized, night-flying moths, and are thick,
naked worms that curl up when disturbed. Most of
them feed upon grass or clover when young, becom-
ing about half grown by winter time, when they seek
the shelter of some log or stone, or burrow into the
soil. Here they hibernate, and in spring come forth

GRAIN CROPS 131

in search of food. They now attack a variety of
young plants, biting off the stems and feeding upon
the leaves. They become full-grown in spring or in
early summer, and pupate beneath the soil surface,
and three or four weeks later emerge as moths. The
larva (a) and moth (b) of the Variegated Cut-
worm (A gratis saiicia) are represented, natural size,
on page 130. Some species have two or more broods
each season, while others have but one. Cut-worms
are especially likely to do damage in fields and gardens
close to grass-lands, and to crops immediately fol-
lowing grass.

Remedies — Spray a small plat of clover with an
arsenical poison and then cut it late in the afternoon
and strew in bunches over the field to be protected.
The worms prowling about at night eat of the
poisonous baits and are killed.

The ARMY-WORM hatches from eggs laid by a
handsome brown moth between the sheaths of grass
blades. The larvae are at first green, but later be-
come ornamented with longitudinal stripes of yellow,
gray, and black. They feed upon the leaves of grass,
wheat, oats, rye, etc, and become full-grown in about
a month. Occasionally they become so numerous that
they exhaust their food supplies, and then are forced
to seek other feeding grounds. At such times the
"armies" appear, and moving in solid masses sweep
all grasses and cereals before them. The larvae
pupate in earthen cells, emerging a fortnight later
as moths.

Remedies — One of the most promising methods
of combating this insect is that of thoroughly spray-
ing strips of grass or other crops in front of the
advancing host with mixtures of arsenate of lead and
water.

DOMESTIC ANIMALS

INSECT ENEMIES

Our various domestic animals frequently suffer
from the attacks of LICE. Three of the commoner
species affecting horses and cattle are shown below.
Animals affected by them lose flesh and are weak-
ened. The lice generally deposit their eggs or "nits"
on the hairs.

Remedy — The best method of destroying lice is
to spray or wash the infested aninials with a well-
prepared kerosene emulsion. If this is well made it

Lice

a, l>, sucking ox-lice; c, biting horsc-loute. Magnified. (After Osborn)

can be applied to cattle and horses, hogs and sheep,
with no danger of injury to them, while it will destroy
all the lice with which it comes in contact. Professor
C. P. Gillette, who first gave this method a thorough
trial, recommends applying it with a force-pump and
spray nozzle, rubbing it in thoroughly with the
finger tips at the same time. It kills the lice, and
leaves the hair of the animal in good condition. The
lice may also be destroyed by treating with a strong
tobacco decoction — a .pound of tobacco being boiled

DOMESTIC ANIMALS 133

in two gallons of water — or a wash of carbolic-acid
soap. But the first-named remedy is best. The stalls
and woodwork of the quarters occupied by the in
fcsted animals should also be treated.

The HORN FLY is a recently imported insect that
often annoys cattle by sucking their blood and light-
ing upon their horns. The eggs are deposited in
freshly dropped cow-du-ng, in which the larvae

Horn Fly Cow=horn

magnified with hand of resting flies, reduced

(From Insect Life}

develop, and pupate in the soil beneath. There are
four or five broods each season. During hot weather
the transformations of the insect — from egg to
imago — may be completed within two weeks.

Remedies — Spray cattle twice a week, either
with kerosene emulsion, to which a little tobacco de-
coction has been added, or fish-oil, to which a little
carbolic acid has been added. Or rub on by means
of a brush or cloth. One stockman has had good
success by simply dampening the tips of the hairs with
a rag dipped in crude petroleum.

Unsprayed

Pear Leaf=blight Experiment— See page 78
(After Galloway)

i:

In d e x

Aphides

PAGE

Apple, The 57

aphis 65

curculio 62

flea-beetle 64

leaf-crumpler 99

leaf-roller 99

powdery mildew

rot

scab

skcletonizer ....

worm 2

Army-worm 131

Arscnate of lead 12

104

.67, 68

PAGE

1 1 6 Currant, The 90

aphis 92

bug 91

leaf-hopper 90

worm 90

Cut- worms 130

Domestic animals 132

Downy mildew of
potato

grapes.

7

I2O

67 [Elm leaf-beetle in

Eye-spotted bud-moth 66

100

senite of lime 14 Flowers

Fall web-worm
Feeding-habits of
Fish-oil soap . . .

Arsenites and copper carbonate. . 30

Asparagus rust 126

Bag- worm 108

Basket-worm . ..108

.. 67

• • 73

• • 95

. . 20

no
, 6
, 18
• "5

Gooseberry,
mildew .

Black-spot

peach aphis

rot

Bordeaux mixture

and arsenites

Brown-rot of stone fruits. ... 70, ._

grapes gCJIIellebore

potato i22,IIorn-fly

Bud-moth

Cabbage, The

aphis

plusia

worm .

rmaldehyde-glycerine mixture. 28

rour-lincd leaf-bug 91

Fruit-bark borer 69

Fungicides

The...

90

r • 93

uram-crops 129

•^e, The 95

flea-beetle 95

Harlequin cabbage-bug 126

14

133

66 Hyposulphite of soda 27

124
125

Canker-worm 5, 63

Carbonate of copper 26

Leaf-crumpler
skeletonizer

Cherry, The

aphis 80

leaf-blight 81

Chinch-bug 129 Lice

Codling-moth 2, 60, 76 Lichens

Colorado potato-beetle 119 Lime-spray

Combining insecticides and fun- Liver of sulphur.

gicidcs 28 London purple

Cost of spraying 43 Lye solution

Copper carbonate 26

sulphate 27

Cost of spraying materials 3OJNursery stock

Crude petroleum 1 6' Oyster-shell bark-louse.

Imported cabbage-worm 124

Insecticides 10

14

Insect-powder

Insects, feeding-habits of 6

Kerosene

Kerosene emulsion

Kerowater sprays

14
15
15
99
, 100
132
79
19
27

12

Maple bark-louse 107

Nozzles 38

99
.-. 59

136

INDEX

PAGE I PAGE

Parasitic fungi, development of. 7 Red-spider 116

Paris green loiResin soap 18

Peach *. . . . 73 ! Rose leaf -hopper 115

aphis 73) slug 114

leaf-curl 74'San Jose scale 57, 73, 99

rot 75 Scheele's green 13

Pear, The 76 Shade trees 107

slug 76, 81

leaf-blight 77, 102

psylla 77

scab 78

Pernicious scale 57

Petroleum, crude 16

Philosophy of spraying i

Plum, The 69

curculio ....4, 62, 69, 73, 76, 80

gouger 69

leaf-blight 102, 104

rot

Potassium sulphide

Potato, The

beetle

brown-rot

early blight 120

late blight 120

rot 1 20

Powdery mildew 102

Shot-hole fungus 71

Soda hyposulphite 27

Spraying against insects i

and the weather 49

apparatus 32

cost of 43

calendar 50

materials, cost of 30

nozzles 38

philosophy of i

precautions 53

prejudice against 31

profits of 49

trees in blossom 49

Prejudice against spraying. . . .

Profits in spraying

Pruning trees

Pyrethrum

70

-7

1 9

19 Strawberry, The..

22\ leaf-blight

leaf-beetles

leaf-roller :

root-worms

slug

Sulphate of copper.

45 Tent caterpillar

Quince, The 79 Whale-oil soap

Raspberry, The . . .

anthracnose

cane-rust

slug

Red-legged flea-beetle

97

85
87
87

8s
86

85

64
19

125

T9
White-marked tussock-moth .... 109

Tobacco decoction

Wavy-striped flea-beetle

Woolly aphis 60

bark-louse 107

Zebra caterpillar 125

ADVERTISEMENTS

"One Spraying Enough"

"DISPARENE"

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Sticks like Paint through Season-

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worm, cut worms, brown-tail moth, gypsy moth, potato
bug and similar insects.

"DISPARENE" is safer than any other insecti-
cide; kills the insects, does not burn the leaves, and
sticks like paint throughout the season, and is the only
arsenical insecticide known that can be safely used at
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Prof. E. D. Sanderson, Entomologist of the Delaware
Experiment Station, conducted in 1901 the most careful and
exhaustive series of experiments ever made against the codling
moth. As usual, " DISPARENE " gave the best results of any
insecticide used. He writes: "I have used * DISPARENE'
against the codling moth this year. It proved to be very much
superior to Paris Green, and destroyed a larger percentage of
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carefully conducted experiment. One thing which seems to me
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BOWKER INSECTICIDE CO.,

43 Chatham Street, Boston, Mass.

Send for our 48-page Catalogue with illustrations from photographs
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ADVERTISEMENTS

SPRAYING PREVENTS BLIGHT

ATO BUGS

SAVE YOUR POTATO,
(TOMATO, CABBAGE,
tJOMOD

5RAPE. COTTON AND
OTHER CROPS .

. PREVENT BLWHt
i DISEASES AND ROT.
..WORMS. MOTHS,ME(ICAN
LWEEVILS.ETC.

A&PINWACL Mf^^SO., JACKSON, Miew.

A SEVERE AND PRACTICAL TEST

Ithaca, N. Y., July 19, 1!K«.

Gentlemen: It gives me pleasure to report that your Potato
Sprayer is a great success. It docs its work efficiently and quickly.
/ can ntnu perform the work of spravin% potatoes in one-quarter of the
time formerly required, and one man and a horse will do the work
which formerly required the services of three men and a horse.
I shall hereafter recommend your sprayer to those who inquire of
me where a good machine can be secured.

Yours very truly, L. A. CLINTON,
Assistant Agriculturist, Cornell University Agr'l Experiment Sta.

LONDON PVBPLE

To obtain sorxn, MANOSOMK KRTIT spray
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which has been the popular, safe and

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"WORMS, CANKKR WORMS, Coin, ING MOTH,
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in the most approved methods of culture. Illustrated. 310
pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $1.00

Land Draining.

A handbook for farmers on the principles and practice of
draining, by MANLY MILES, giving the results of his extended
experience in laying tile drains. The directions for the laying
out and the construction of tile drains will enable the farmer
to avoid the errors of imperfect construction, and the disap-
pointment that must necessarily follow. This manual for
practical farmers will also be found convenient for reference
in regard to many questions that may arise in crop growing,
aside from the special subjects of drainage of which it treats.
Illustrated. 200 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . $1.00

Barn Plans and Outbuildings.

Two hundred and fifty-seven illustrations. A most valu-
able work, full of ideas, hints, suggestions, plans, etc., for the
construction of barns and outbuildings, by practical writers.
Chapters are devoted to the economic erection and use of
barns, grain barns, horse barns, cattle barns, sheep barns, corn-
houses, smokehouses, icehouses, pig pens, granaries, etc.
There are likewise chapters on birdhouses, doghouses, tool
sheds, ventilators, roofs and roofing, doors and fastenings,
workshops, poultry houses, manure sheds, barnyards, root pits,
etc. 235 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . .. $1.00

STANDARD BOOKS.

Herbert's Hints to Horse Keepers.

By the late HENRY WU.LIAM HERBERT (Frank Forester).
This is one of the best and most popular works on the horse
prepared in this country. A complete manual for horsemen,
embracing : How to breed a horse ; .how to buy a horse ; how
to break a horse ; how to use a horse ; how to feed a horse ;
how to physic a horse (allopathy or homeopathy) ; how to
groom a horse ; how to drive a horse ; how to ride a horse,
etc. Beautifully illustrated. 425 pages. 5x7 inches.
Cloth $1.50

Diseases of Horses and Cattle.

By DR. D. MC!NTOSH, V. S., professor of veterinary
science in the university of Illinois. Written expressly for the
farmer, stockman and veterinary student. A new work on
the treatment of animal diseases, according to the modern
status of veterinary science, has become a necessity. Such an
one is this volume of over 400 pages, written by one of the
most eminent veterinarians of our country. Illustrated. 426
pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $i-75

The Ice Crop.

By THERON L. HILES. How to harvest, ship and use ice.
A complete, practical treatise for farmers, dairymen, ice
dealers, produce shippers, meat packers, cold storers, and all
interested in icehouses, cold storage, and the handling or use
,of ice in any way. Including many recipes for iced dishes and
beverages. The book is illustrated by cuts of the tools and
machinery used in cutting and storing ice, and the different
forms of icehouses and cold storage buildings. Illustrated.
122 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . . . $1.00

The Secrets of Health, or How Not to Be Sick, and
' Hoiv to Get Well from Sickness.

By S. H. PLATT, A. M., M. D., late member of the Connect-
icut Eclectic Medical Society, the National Eclectic Medical
Association, and honorary member of the National Bacterio-
logical Society of America ; our medical editor and author of
"Talks With Our Doctor'' and "Our Health Adviser." Nearly
600 pages. An index of 20 pages,, so that any topic may be
instantly consulted. A new departure in medical knowledge
for the people — the latest progress, secrets and practices of all
schools of healing made available for the common people —
health without medicine, nature without humbug, common
sense without folly, science without fraud. 8l illustrations.
576 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . . . $1.50

STANDARD BOOKS.

Hunter and Trapper.

By HALSEY THRASHER, an old and experienced sportsman.
The best modes of hunting and trapping are fully explained,
and foxes, deer, bears, etc., fall into his traps readily by fol-
lowing his directions. Illustrated. 92 pages. 5x7 inches.
Cloth $0.50

Batty's Practical Taxidermy and Home Decoration.

By JOSEPH H. BATTY, taxidermist for the government
surveys and many colleges and museums in the United States.
An entirely new and complete as well as authentic work on
taxidermy — giving in detail full directions for collecting
and mounting animals, birds, reptiles, fish, insects, and
general objects of natural history. 125 illustrations. 204
pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $1.00

Hemp.

By S. S. BOYCE. A practical treatise on the culture of
hemp for seed and fiber, with a sketch of the history and
nature of the hemp plant. The various chapters are devoted
to the soil and climate adapted to the culture of hemp for
seed and for fiber, irrigating, harvesting, retting and machin-
ery for handling hemp. Illustrated. 112 pages. 5x7 inches.
Cloth. $0.50

Alfalfa.

By F. D. COBURN. Its growth, uses and feeding value.
The fact that alfalfa thrives in almost any soil; that without
reseeding, it goes on yielding two, three, four and sometimes
five cuttings annually for five, ten, or perhaps 100 years ; and
that either green or cured it is one of the most nutritious
forage plants known, makes reliable information upon its pro-
duction and uses of unusual interest. Such information is
given in this volume for every part of America, by the highest
authority. Illustrated. 164 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. $0.50

Talks on Manure.

By JOSEPH HARRIS, M. S. A series of familiar and
practical talks between the author and the deacon, the doctor,
and other neighbors, on the whole subject of manures and
fertilizers; including a chapter especially written for it
by Sir John Bennet Lawes of Rothamsted, England. 366
pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth f $1.50

STANDARD BOOKS.

Practical Forestry.

By ANDREW S. FULLER. A treatise on the propagation,
planting and cultivation, with descriptions and the botanical
and popular names of all the indigenous trees of the United
States, and notes on a large number of the most valuable
exotic species. Illustrated. 300 pages. 5x7 inches.
Cloth $1.50

Irrigation for the Farm, Garden and Orchard.

By HENRY STEWART. This work is offered to those
American farmers and other cultivators of the soil who, from
painful experience, can readily appreciate the losses which
result from the scarcity of water at critical periods. Fully
illustrated. 276 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . $i.oc

Irrigation Farming.

By LUTE WILCOX. A handbook for the practical applica-
tion of water in the production of crops. A complete treatise
on water supply, canal construction, reservoirs and ponds,
pipes for irrigation purposes, flumes and their structure,
methods of applying water, irrigation of field crops, the
garden, the orchard and vineyard, windmills and pumps,
appliances and contrivances. New edition, revised, enlarged
and rewritten. Pro/usely illustrated. Over 500 pages. 5x7
inches. Cloth. $2.00

Ginseng, Its Cultivation. Harvesting, Marketing and
Market Value.

By MAURICE G. KAINS, with a short account of its history
and botany. It discusses in a practical way how to begin with
either seed or roots, soil, climate and location, preparation,
planting and maintenance of the beds, artificial propagation,
manures, enemies, selection for market aixl for improvement,
preparation for sale, and .the profits that may be expected.
This booklet is concisely written, well and profusely illus-
trated, and should be in the hands of all who expect to grow
this drug to supply the export trade, and to add a new and
profitable industry to their farms and gardens, without inter-
fering with the regular work. New edition. Revised and en
larged. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . . $0.50

Truck Farming at the South.

By A. OEMLER. A work giving the experience of a suc-
cessful grower of vegetables or "garden truck" for northern
markets. Essential to anyone who contemplates entering this
profitable field of agriculture. Illustrated. 274 pages. 5x7

inches. Cloth. $1.00

4

STANDARD BOOKS.

Henderson's Practical Floriculture.

By PETER HENDERSON. A guide to the successful propaga-
tion and cultivation of florists' plants. The work is not one
for florists and gardeners only, but the amateur's wants are
constantly kept in mind, and we have a very complete treatise
on the cultivation of flowers under glass, or in the open air,
suited to those who grow flowers for pleasure as well as those
who make them a matter of trade. New and enlarged edition.
Beautifully illustrated. 325 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. $1.50

Mushrooms. How to Grow Them.

By WILLIAM FALCONER. This is the most practical work
on the subject ever written, and the only book on growing
mushrooms published in America. The author describes how
he grows mushrooms, and how they are grown for profit by
the leading market gardeners, and for home use by the most
successful private growers. Engravings drawn from nature
expressly for this work. 170 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. $1.00

Play and Profit in My Garden.

By E. P. ROE. The author takes us to his garden on the
rocky hillsides in the vicinity of West Point, and shows us
how out of it, after four years' experience, he evoked a profit
of $1000, and this while carrying on pastoral and literary
labor. It is very rarely that so much literary taste and skill
are mated to so much agricultural experience and good sense.
Illustrated. 350 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . $1.00

Fumigation Methods.

By WILLIS G. JOHNSON. A timely up-to-date book on
the practical application of the new methods for destroying
insects with hydrocyanic acid gas and carbon bisulphid, the
most powerful insecticides ever discovered. It is an indispen-
sable book for farmers, fruit growers, nurserymen, gardeners,
florists, millers, grain dealers, transportation companies, col-
lege and experiment station workers, etc. Illustrated. 313
pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $1.00

Fungi and Fungicides.

By PROF. CLARENCE M. WEED. A practical manual con-
cerning the fungous diseases of cultivated plants and the
means of preventing their ravages. The author has endeav-
ored to give such a concise account of the most important
facts relating to these as will enable the cultivator to combat
them intelligently. 90 illustrations. 222 pages. 5x7 inches.
Paper, 50 cents; cloth $1.00

STANDARD BOOKS.

Insects and Insecticides.

By CLARENCE M. WEED, D. Sc., professor of entomology
and zoology, New Hampshire college of agriculture. A practi-
cal manual concerning noxious insects, and methods of
preventing their injuries. Many illustrations. 334 pages.
5x7 inches. Cloth $1.50

How Crops Grow.

By PROF. SAMUEL W. JOHNSON of Yale college. New and
revised edition. A treatise on the chemical composition,
structure and life of the plant. This book is a guide to the
knowledge of agricultural plants, their composition, their
structure and modes of development and growth ; of the com-
plex organization of plants, and the use of the parts; the
germination of seeds, and the food of plants obtained both
from the air and the soil. The book is indispensable to all
real students of agriculture. With numerous illustrations and
tables of analysis. 416 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. $1.5°

Tobacco Leaf.

By J. B. KILLEBREW and HERBERT MYRICK. Its Culture
and Cure, Marketing and Manufacture. A practical handbook
on the most approved methods in growing, harvesting, curing,
packing and selling tobacco, with an account of the opera-
tions in every department of tobacco manufacture. The
contents of this book are based on actual experiments in field,
curing barn, packing house, factory and laboratory. It is the
only work of the kind in existence, and is destined to be the
standard* practical and scientific authority on the whole subject
of tobacco for many years. 506 pages and 150 original en-
gravings. 5x7 inches. Cloth. ..... $2.00

Cob urn's Swine Husbandry.

By F. D. COBURN. New, revised and enlarged edition.
The breeding, rearing and management of swine, and the
prevention and treatment of their diseases. It is the fullest
and freshest compendium relating to swine breeding yet
offered. Illustrated. 312 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. $1.50

Home Pork Making.

The art of raising and curing pork on the farm. By
A. W. FULTON. A complete guide for the farmer, the country
butcher and the suburban dweller, in all that pertains to hog
slaughtering, curing, preserving and storing pork product —
from scalding vat to kitchen table and dining room. Illus-
trated. 125 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. , . , $0.50

6

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UNIVERSITY OF .CALIFORNIA— BERKELEY

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