mow coi. CMI. *CAO. SCIENCES EGGS. Life-size. 1. Great Creasted Flycatcher. 2. King Bird. 8. Night Hawk. 4. Crow. 5. Red-headed Woodpecker. 6. Yellow-billed C 1. Audubon's Caracara. 8. Black-billed Magpie. 9. Kingfisher. 10. Screech Owl. 11. Turkey Vulture. 12. Gamble's Partridge. 13. Bob-White. 160 HE STAND Isofi , • >f M 7 VoL THE STANDARD LIBRARY \^ OK Natural History EMBRACING Living Animals of the World and Living Races of Mankind EDITORS AND SPECIAL CONTRIBUTORS: Charles J. Cornish, F. C. Selous, Ernest Ingersoll, Sir Harry Johnston, K.C.B., Sir Herbert Maxwell, F.R.S., H. N. Hutchinson, F.R.G.S., J. W. Gregory, F.G.S., R. Lydekker, F.R.S., F.Z.S., and many other eminent naturalists Nearly Two Thousand Illustrations Vol. Ill FISHES, REPTILES, INSECTS 1909 THE UNIVERSITY SOCIETY INC NEW YORK COPYRIGHT, 1901-1902 By DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY COPYRIGHT, 1906 By THE UNIVERSITY SOCIETY COPYRIGHT, 1907 By THE UNIVERSITY SOCIETY Inc. COPYRIGHT, 1908 By THE UNIVERSITY SOCIETY Inc. BIOLOGY LIBRARY G THE STANDARD LIBRARY OF NATURAL HISTORY VOLUMES I. -III.: LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD VOLUME III. 211204 CHAPTER XV THE PERCHING-BIRDS SUCH an enormous host are included under this head — nearly 6,000 out of the total of 13,000 known birds — and so great are the difficulties connected with their systematic arrangement, that it has been considered best to begin the present chapter with the highest instead of the lowest types of the group. The extensive group of Perching-birds is defined mainly from the characters afforded by the structure of the voice-organ, and these are of much too technical a nature to be discussed Fhitt *r C. RiiiT] [M,fiawi N.B. JACKDAWS It is believed that the jackdaw it the bird referred to by Shakespeare as the Russet-fated Chough (Midsummer-Night's Dream, in. 2) here. Suffice it to say that, on account of these characters, the group is further divided into two sections, and each section again divided into two. THE CROWS, ORIOLES, FINCHES, AND THEIR ALLIES At the head of the tribe stands, by general though by no means universal consent, the Crow Family, of which the recognised chief is the RAVEN, a bird which has for thousands of years commanded a more than passing interest amongst mankind. Renowned as the truant from the Ark, or as the wonderful minister of the prophet Elijah, there are few even of the youngest amongst us who do not know of its striking personality. The poet and the dramatist have both made use of the raven, and it would seem that it has even found a place in the 65 5'3 ' Ph,t, b} Dr. R. If. Shuftldt] AMERICAN CROW THE PERCHING-BIRDS 515 mythology of the Red Indian. The smaller relatives of this celebrated bird, the ROOK, the CARRION-CROW, and the JACKDAW, and more distantly the JAY and the MAGPIE, are doubtless as familiar to our readers as the raven. Although probably un- known to many, the CHOUGH, with its glossy black plumage and brilliant red bill and feet, is a British bird, and lives still in certain parts of Eng- land, though fast verging on extinction. Another very remarkable member of the family is the HuiA, and this on account of the fact that the male and female differ markedly in respect of the shape of the bill, this being in the female long and sickle-shaped, and in the male short and cone- shaped. This bird frequents the wooded regions of North Island, New Zealand, living upon grubs found in decaying wood, and on berries. The female prccures the grubs by probing the holes which they have made in the sounder wood, the male by breaking away the decayed portions of the tree; but occasionally it happens that, having cleared away as much of the decayed material as possible, the latter is unable to reach his prey, in which case he calls up the female, and yields his find to her, to extricate with her longer bill. So great a difference in the form of the bill in the sexes of the same species is elsewhere unknown among birds. The Crows hold the important position of head of the Class birds, yet they are far outshone in splendour by many of the groups already examined, though, with the exception perhaps of the Humming-birds, these all pale before the BIRDS OF PARADISE. Varying in size from a crow to a thrush, the best known of the latter is the GREAT BIRD OF PARADISE, which was discovered towards the end of the sixteenth century, if not earlier. On their first discovery it was popularly supposed that these birds lived in the air, turning always to the sun, and never alighting on the earth till they died, for they had neither feet nor wings. Hence the Malay traders called them " God's Birds," the Portuguese " Birds of the Sun," and the Dutch " Paradise-birds." Seventeen or eighteen inches long, these birds have the body, wings, and tail of a rich coffee-brown, which deepens on the breast to a blackish violet or purple-brown. The top of the head and neck are of a delicate straw-yellow, the feathers being short and close-set, [Phot, ty Dr. R. U'. Shufildt] \_ffashingttn YOUNG AMERICAN BLUE JAY (NATURAL SIZE) The blue jay is a most remarkable mimic 516 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD mbling velvet. The throat-feathers have a scaly appearance, and are emerald-green in colour. T^e flank'feathers on either side of the body form a dense mass of long, dehcate, waving plumes, sometimes 2 feet in length, of an intense orange colour, and shining with a wonderful Lss These feathers can be raised and spread out at pleasure, so as to almost conceal wearer in a fountain-like rain of feathers. This wonderful plumage » worn by the male on y, the female being quite plainly dressed. In May, when they are m full dress, the male, fhttt b) C. Riid] \Wishaw, ff. B. A PAIR OF MAGPIES Wktn taken youngt the magpit is easily tamed, and can be taught to imitate human sounds assemble early in the morning to exhibit themselves, forming what are known as " dancing- parties," which take place on the topmost boughs of some giant tree. " From a dozen to twenty birds assemble together," writes Mr. Alfred Russell Wallace, " raise up their wings, stretch out their necks, and elevate their exquisite plumes, keeping them in continual vibration. Between- whiles they fly across from branch to branch in great excitement, so that the whole tree is filled with waving plumes in every variety of attitude and motion." The native hunter marks these playing-places, builds a shelter of palm-leaves in a convenient situation among the branches, and ensconces himself under it before daylight, armed with a bow and a number of arrows terminating in a round knob. When the dance is in full swing, he shoots through the roof of his shelter with the blunt arrows, stunning every bird he strikes, which, falling down at once, are immediately picked up by a boy in waiting below. Often a considerable number will be thus secured before the alarm is taken. Without coloured figures, or very numerous photographs from living birds, which we can hardly hope to get, it would be impossible, except at the risk of being wearisome, to describe all the wonderful combinations of form and colour which the feathers of the birds of paradise display. Breast-shields of metallic sheen, fans and crests in wonderful variety, feathers of a texture like velvet, or gorgeous colours, confuse one in their variety and combination. THE PERCHING-BIRDS 5*7 Pfttto b) Schalaitii Pti^tt. Co. CORNISH CHOUGH Very nearly extinct as a British bird Let it suffice to mention only the last dis- covered species — the KING OF SAXONY'S BIRD OF PARADISE. "Velvety black above," writes Dr. Sharpe, " and yellow- ish below, there is nothing very striking in the aspect of the bird itself, which is smaller than our song-thrush. But the 4 streamers ' which it carries ! Poised . . . on either side of the head is a long, shaft-like plume, from which depends, on the lower side only, a series of little flags of blue enamel, each quite separate from the one which precedes it, and not of a feathery structure in the least." Close allies of the Birds of Paradise are the remarkable BOWER-BIRDS of Australia. Conspicuously beautiful in coloration as are some members of this tribe, they are celebrated not so much on this account as for an extraordinary habit of constructing " bowers " or " playing-grounds " — a trait which appears absolutely unique among birds. "These constructions," observes Mr. Gould, "consist in a collection of pieces of stick or grass, formed into a bower; or one of them (that- of the SPOTTED BOWER-BIRD) might be called an avenue, being about 3 feet in length, and 7 or 8 inches broad inside ; a transverse section giving the figure of a horse-shoe, the round part downwards. They are used by the birds as a playing-house, or ' run,' as it is termed, and are used by the males to at- tract the females. The ' run ' of the SATIN-BIRD is much smaller, being less than I foot in length, and, moreover, differs from that just described in being decorated with the highly coloured feathersoftheParrotTribe. The SPOTTED BOWER- BIRD, on the other hand, collects around its ' run ' a quantity of stones, shells, bleached bones, etc. ; they are also strewed down the centre within." More wonderful still are the structures reared by the GARDENER-BIRD of New Guinea, presenting, as Professor Newton remarks, " not only a modification of bower-building, but an appreciation of beauty perhaps unparralleled in the animal world. . . . This species . . . builds at the foot of a small tree a kind of hut or cabin . . . some 2 feet in height, roofed with orchid-stems that slope to the ground, regularly radiating from the central support, which is covered with a conical mass of moss, and sheltering a gallery around it. One side of this hut is left open, and in front of it is arranged a bed of verdant moss, bedecked with blossoms and berries of the brightest colours. As these ornaments wither they are removed to a heap behind the hut, and replaced by others that are Phctt bj W. Savillf-Ktnt, F.Z.S. KING BIRD OF PARADISE native of New Guinea ; remarkable for the curltd tail-leathers 5i8 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Phott if W. Savillt-Ktnt, F.Z.S. QUEENSLAND RIFLE-BIRD This unique Australian representative of the Birds of Paradise it about the size of a pigeon. In plumage is black ivt;h a purple theen ; the throat is brilliant metallic emerald-green, like that of a humming-bird brown. Later black feathers, with large white spots at the tips, make their appearance among the brown. These spotted feathers eventually replace the brown, and the bird enters upon a second quite distinct phase — a black, spotted with white. Gradually this gives place to a plumage entirely unspotted, the feathers on the breast being spear-shaped. In the adult dress a wondrous variety of metallic reflections is acquired — green, purple, and violet. Associating in the autumn and winter in large flocks, starlings move from place to place in search of food. Sometimes the number of birds in these combined flocks rises to an enormous figure. One of the largest of these gatherings recorded in England existed on the property of the late Mr. Miles near Bristol. " This locality is an evergreen plantation . . . covering some acres, to which these birds repair fresh. The hut is circular and some 3 feet in diameter, and the mossy lawn in front of it nearly twice that expanse. Each hut and garden are, it is believed, though not known, the work of a single pair of birds, or perhaps of the male only; and it may be observed that this species, as its trivial name implies, is wholly inornate in plumage. Not less remarkable is the more recently described ' bower ' of the GOLDEN BOWER-BIRD. . . . This structure is said ... to be piled up almost horizontally around the base of a tree to the height of from 4 to 6 feet, and around it are a number of hut-like fabrics, having the look of a dwarfed native camp." Allied species, though building no bowers, yet clear a space of ground some 8 or 9 feet in diameter, on which to display themselves, and ornament this with little heaps of gaily tinted leaves, replacing them as they fade with fresh specimens. We pass next to the birds of the Starling Family, of which the BRITISH STARLING is the type. A bird so familiar needs no description here ; but we may draw attention to the many interesting phases of plumage this species undergoes. The first plumage is a uniform greyish Photo by W. Savillt-Ktnt, F.Z.S. RED BIRD OF PARADISE Found only on the small island of Waigiou, off the north-west coatt of Neiv Guinea THE PERCHING-BIRDS 5*9 of an evening ... by millions, from the low grounds about the Severn, where their r.oise and stench are something altogether unusual. By packing in such myriads upon evergreens, they have stripped them of their leaves, except just at the tops, and have driven the pheasants, for whom the plantation was intended, quite away from the ground. In the daytime, when the birds are not there, ths stench is still excessive. Mr. Miles was about to cut the whole plantation down, to get rid of them, two years ago, but I begged him not to do so, on account of the curiosity of the scene, and he has since been well pleased that he abstained." A similar but still larger congregation has been described; in this, about the year 1845, from 150,000 to 200,000 starlings were computed to rest every night, between the end of October and the end of March, in certain trees in the gardens of the Zoological Society in Dublin. The roof of St. Patrick's Cathedral, in the heart of Dublin, has from time to time been resorted to, as many as 2,000 seeking shelter there. "Possessing very considerable powers of wing," observes Yarrell, " these are turned to account in an extraordinary manner by the birdscomposing the flock. They wheel, close, open out, rise and descend, as if each were obeying a com- mander, and all this is done with the utmost marvellous precision while the flock is proceeding at a rapid pace through the air. At times it may extend in a long and nearly straight thread; suddenly an undulation is visi- ble along the line, and in a moment it takes the form of a thin and smoke-like cloud ; another moment, and it is a dense and almost perfect globe; then possibly, having preserved this appearance for a perceptibly longer time, it becomes pear-shaped, and in another instant has assumed a spiral figure ; an instant after it has spread out like a sheet, and its members are streaming softly along the ground, perhaps to alight, or perhaps once more to mount aloft and circle as before." There are few more magnificent sights in "the world than a flock of starlings when performing evolutions of this kind. Differing much, not only in general appearance, but also in coloration, from the common starling is the ROSE-COLOURED STARLING, so called from the beautiful rose-pink colour of the back and breast, set off by the rest of the plumage, which is black, glossed with violet, blue, and green reflections. This handsome bird occasionally visits Britain. Feeding largely upon locusts, these birds are much affected in their movements by the peregrinations of these pests; and this accounts for the sporadic appearance of the rose-coloured starling in huge flocks in places where it is generally seldom seen. Dull in appearance, ungraceful in flight, and with a harsh, unmusical note, the starling A, C. R.i£\ iaw, N. B. YOUNG STARLINGS Starlings, if taken -when young, are easily tamed and make excellent pets 520 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Phot, by J T Utwman COMMON STARLING Starlings appear to be on the increase in Scotland, 'whilst larki are laid to be on the decrease, owing to the destruction of their eggs by the former known as the Ox-PECKER would seem at first sight to have little to recommend it ; yet it is one of the benefactors of the larger African mammals, clearing them of flies and other insect-pests. Buffaloes, rhinoceroses, elephants, are alike grateful for its services, as it climbs about their huge bodies, picking off the liliputian enemies by which they are beset. But little appears to be known of the breeding-habits of these birds. In strong contrast to the dull-looking Ox-birds arethebeautifulGLOSSYSTARLlNGS and CRACKLES. The AFRICAN GLOSSY STARLINGS, indeed, repre- sent the most beautiful of all the members of the Starling Tribe. In one of the handsomest and best-known species — the LONG-TAILED GLOSSY STARLING — metallic green and purple-violet are the predominating tones in the plumage, glossed with copper reflections, and relieved by black or darker bars of green and purple. In another species — the GREEN GLOSSY STARLING of East- ern Africa — the shimmer of the plumage is so wonderful that the exact shades of colour are diffi- cult to describe, in that they change completely, according to the light in which the bird is held. The GRACKLES, or HILL-MYNAS, are Indian birds, with glossy black plumage, relieved by bare flaps of yellow skin projecting backwards These birds make excellent pets, learning both to I cts from the head immediately behind the eye. whistle and talk. * We come now to the beautiful ORIOLES — birds belonging to the temperate and tropical parts of the Old World. The males, as a rule, are clad in a vestment of brilliant yellow and black, but in some species the under-parts are relieved by rich crimson. One species — the GOLDEN ORIOLE — has on several occasions visited the British Islands, and even in one or two instances has nested there. But, as with all brightly plumaged birds in England, no soon is their presence discovered than they are doomed to fall to the gun of some local collector. The HANG-NESTS, COW-BIRDS, and RICE-BIRDS are American birds, bearing in many respec a resemblance to the Starlings, chiefly, perhaps, in the form of the beak. Generally black in plumage, in many bright colour is conspicuous. HANG-NESTS range from North and Central America to Southern Brazil. As a rule they are brilliantly coloured, the livery being bright orange and yellow, set off by black and white. The majority of the numerous species build remarkable nests, looking like long stockings, which they hang from the under side of the bough of a tree; they are composed of coarse grass deftly woven together. The COW-BIRDS are mostly South American, though the United States possess two or three species. Some, like the Cuckoos, are parasitic, dropping their eggs into the nests of other birds, to be hatched by the owners: the young cow-bird, however, dwells in harmony with his foster-brothers and -sisters, instead of ejecting them from the nest, like the young cuckoo. The name Cow-bird is bestowed upon these birds on account of the persistent way in which they haunt herds of cattle for the sake of the flies which congregate about those animals. The RICE-BIRDS are represented by some rather showy forms, and others of wonderful powers The typical RICE-BIRD, or BOB-O-LINK, is an especial favourite as a songster. Thoreau writes of this song: « It is as if he [the bird] touched his harp with a wave of liquid melody, THE PERCHING-BIRDS 521 and when he lifted it out the notes fell like bubbles from the strings. . . . Away he launched, and the meadow is all bespattered with melody." Where rice is extensively cultivated, however, this bird is by no means so enthusiastically welcomed, causing immense destruction to the standing crops — flocks numbering, it has been said, some millions alighting in the fields and leaving too little grain to be worth the trouble of gathering. We pass now to a group of exceedingly interesting birds, some of which are remarkable on account of the beauty of their plumage, others from their wonderful nesting-habits. The group includes many familiar as cage-birds, such as the LONG-TAILED WIDOW-BIRDS, the RED- BEAKED WAXBILLS, AMADAVATS, JAVA SPARROW, GRASS-FINCHES, MUNIAS, and so on, all of which are embraced under the general title of WEAVER-BIRDS, a name bestowed on account of their peculiar nests. Ph,u bj Dr. R. H: Shuftldt] Known also as the Meadow-starling, [ffasltixgteit MEADOW-LARK (NATURAL SIZE) This bird, a native of the Eastern United States, has occurred three times in the British Lla'nds, but it it doubtful 'whether these specimens "were wild Abundant in Africa, and well represented in South-eastern Asia and Australia, these birds bear a strong family resemblance to the Finches, from which they differ in having ten primary quills in the wings. One of the most peculiar is the South African LONG-TAILED WHYDAH- or WIDOW-BIRD. Strikingly coloured, this bird is rendered still more attractive by the extremely elongated tail- feathers, which are many times longer than the body, so long, indeed, as to impede its flight, which is so laboured that children commonly amuse themselves by running the bird down. Kaffir children stretch lines coated with bird-lime near the ground across fields of millet and Kaffir corn, and thereby capture many whose tails have become entangled among the threads. In brilliancy of coloration the Whydah-birds— for there are several species — are pressed hard 66 522 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD by the BISHOP-BIRDS, the handsomest of which is the red species. Sociable in habits, this bird throughout the year consorts in immense flocks, which in the summer consist chiefly of males. Of the more remarkable nest-builders, the most conspicuous are the BAYA SPARROWS, or TODDY-BIRDS, of India and Ceylon, and the SOCIABLE WEAVERS. The former suspend their nests by a solidly wrought rope of fibre from the under side of a branch, the rope expanding into a globular chamber, and then again contracting into a long, narrow, vertical tube, through which the birds make their exit and entrance. The latter — the SOCIABLE WEAVER-BIRD of Africa- builds a still more wonderful structure. As a thing apart it has no existence, a number of birds, varying from 100 to 300, joining their nests together, so as to form a closely interwoven structure, resembling, when finished, a gigantic mushroom. The structure is built among the branches of large trees, so that the tree looks as though it had grown up through a native hut, carrying the roof with it. Cartloads of grass are required to rear this structure, which is nearly solid. Seen from below, it presents a flat surface riddled with holes ; these are the entrances to the nests. Closely resembling the typical Finches in general appearance, and often gorgeous in coloration, is the group known as the TANAGERS, of which more than 400 distinct species are known to science. Ex- clusively American, the majority of the species are found in Central and South America, though a few move northwards into the United States in summer. The most beautiful are the SCARLET, CRIMSON-HEADED, and WHITE- CAPPED TANAGERS. The last- named is generally allowed to be the loveliest of the group. The entire plumage of both sexes is a beautiful cornflower-blue, sur- mounted by a cap of silvery-white feathers, a crimson spot on the forehead looking like a drop of th»t by lleighton Buxxard HAWFINCH A resident in the eastern and midland countiet of England of the sexes is worth " * of coloration, though but little in many are Wtt H^resTeyr ZZ^^Zg^ ^™°^'*^ ^ lar=ber of species, may be divided into ^^o^^^^^^Z America, are remarkable for their beauty, icmbers are the HAWFINCHES and GREENFINCHES. though rare in Scotland and Ireland, the HAWFINCH contrives the gardener, owing to its fondness for peas, though it nnn<=> m fV«'r. A'.~ 0~f;_ L .1 on by the numbers of noxious insects mixed with lichens i "of"; »"» f'ructure; outside it is composed of twigs inter- f dry grasses hned with fine roots and hair. The site chosen Among the weU-kno™ Common in many pa's of E to make "tsTmfch dtuked fully compensates for the da H S I" it destroy. The nest i a verfh ^'1 " '" Phc't, by C. YOUNG CHAFFINCHES The chaffinch is one of the commonest of the British Jinche Photo by C. Riid HOUSE-SPARROWS The sparrow is to be reckoned among the few really harmful birds 523 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD BULLFINCH Ulaclt -varieties are occasionally taken in a wild state. Caged specimens fed on hemp-seed frequently turn black varies, a favourite place being an old apple- or pear- tree in an orchard ; but the woods and fir plantations are not seldom resorted to. The GREENFINCH is an equally common British bird. Of a more confiding disposition than the hawfinch, it makes an excellent cage-bird, becoming with judicious treatment exceed- ingly tame. It is a useful bird, travelling during the autumn and winter in large flocks, and feeding on the seeds of wild mustard and other weeds. Its nest differs conspicuously from that of the hawfinch, being a somewhat untidy structure, composed of fibrous roots, moss, and wool, lined with finer roots, horse- hair, and feathers. Among the TRUE FINCHES, distinguished from the Grosbeaks by their less powerful bills, are several other well-known British birds. Of these, none are better known than the CHAFFINCH. Gay in appear- ance and sprightly in habit, this is a general favourite everywhere, and much in demand as a cage-bird. His short though delightful song possesses a peculiar charm, coming as it does with the earliest signs of returning spring. The fascination of this song has never been better expressed than in Browning's lines: — O to be in England Now that April 's there ; And whoever wakes in England Sees, some morning, unaware, That the lowest boughs of the brushwood sheaf Round the elm-tree bole are in tiny leaf, While the Chaffinch sings on the orchard bough In England now ! The nest, which is an exceptionally beautiful structure, takes about a fortnight to build. Closely woven, it appears to consist mainly of wool, into which moss and lichens of various colours are deftly woven. The outside is cunningly decorated with bits of lichen and the inner bark of trees, such as the birch, the whole being secured by a thin veil of spiders' webs. The lichen and bark serve to render the nest inconspicuous by blending it with the general appearance of the bush or small tree in a forked bough of which it is placed. Inside the wool is more closely felted even than on the outside, and this is covered with fine hairs, amongst which a few feathers are intermixed. The work of building seems to be done by the female only, though the male helps by bringing the materials. Of the GOLDFINCH, LINNETS, and BULLFINCH, by far the most popular and beautiful is the GOLDFINCH, which is, and probably will long remain, one of the most prized of cage-birds. Gifted "with the fatal gift of beauty," this bird is much persecuted by bird-catchers; and indeed, partly owing to the depredations of these men, and partly to improved methods of agriculture, which have diminished its feeding-area, this handsome bird is growing more and more rare every year. Next to the goldfinch perhaps the LlNNET is most sought after as a cage-bird. Large numbers are taken during the autumn, when the birds congregate in large flocks before departure on migration. Those captured in the spring are said to be very impatient of confinement, and only a small percentage seem to survive. The linnet is one of the most variable of birds in the matter of plumage, and for a long while the opinion was generally held, especially by bird-catchers, that several distinct species— THE PERCHING-BIRDS the RED, BROWN, and GREY LINNETS — existed. It is now known that these are all phases of plumage common to one species. In the male in full summer dress the forehead and centre of the crown are blood-red, whilst the breast is of a glossy rose-red ; but these bright colours do not seem to be acquired so universally as is the case with other birds which don a special breeding-dress, nor are they ever developed in captivity. Occasionally what are called LEMON- BREASTED varieties of the linnet occur in which the rose-colour of the breast is replaced by yellow. The BULLFINCH, though one of the common British birds, is by no means so abundant as the two foregoing species ; for whilst the other two travel in small flocks, the bullfinch is a solitary bird. Few birds perhaps have earned a more evil name than the bullfinch, which is accused by the gardener of inflicting enormous damage on the flower-buds of fruit-trees in winter and spring. " On the other hand," writes Mr. Hudson, " he is greatly esteemed as a cage-bird, and the bird-catchers are ever on the watch for it. But the effect in both cases is pretty much the same, since the hatred that slays and the love that makes captive are equally disastrous to the species." That it is diminishing in many districts there can be no doubt, and perhaps its final extermination is only a matter of time. Though by no means a remarkable songster in a wild state, in captivity it is capable of learning to whistle strains and airs of human composition with some skill, good performers fetching high prices. The SPARROW and the wild CANARY of Madeira — from the latter of which our cage- pets have been derived — are also members of the Finch Tribe, but are too well known to need fuller mention. Closely allied to the finches are the BUNTINGS, which are really only slightly modified finches. Several species are British birds, one of the commonest being the CORN- BUNTING, a bird which bears a wonderful resemblance to a skylark, from which, how- ever, it may be distinguished by its large beak and small claw on the hind toe. The YELLOWAMMER, or YELLOWHAM- MER, is another familiar roadside form in Phatt by J. T. Newman GREENFINCH Commonly known as the Green Linnet England, which scarcely needs description. The most celebrated of all the buntings is the ORTOLAN, or GREEN-HEADED BUNTING, a bird resembling its congener the yellowhammer, but lacking its bright coloration. It has acquired fame from the delicate flavour of its flesh, and to supply the demand for this delicacy immense numbers are netted annually by the bird-catchers of the Continent. Wintering in North Africa, these birds leave Europe in September in large flocks, and it is during this migration and the return journey in the spring that their ranks are so mercilessly thinned. Common over the greater part of it is somewhat surprising that the ortolan does not occur more frequently in the Islands, where it is only an occasional spring and autumn visitor. The SNOW-BUNTING, or SNOWFLAKE, is a regular winter visitant to the British Islands, some pairs indeed remaining to breed in the Highlands of Scotland every year, whilst its presence serves to enliven some of the dreariest spots of high northern latitudes, breeding-dress is a handsome bird, having the upper-parts black and the under white; its mate is somewhat duller, the black parts being obscured by greyish white, fulvous, and blackish THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD rhn» 4? tr. F. LINNET Oiu of thi most popular cage-birdt. The so-called Red-brown and Grey Linnets are but phases of plumage of the same species. The bird in the "igkt-hand corner is a greenfinch brown, whilst the white parts are less pure in tone. The full dress of the male is rarely seen in the British Isla'nds, save in specimens procured from Scotland ; for in winter, when the snow-bunting is chiefly captured, the plumage is altogether more rufous. Unlike the buntings so far described, the REED-BUNTING is to be found only in marshy places, but in suitable localities it may be found in the British Islands all the year round, being as common a species as the corn-bunting, and therefore not calling for special description here. The eggs of the buntings are remarkable for the curious scribble-like markings which cover them, and serve readily to distinguish them from those of any other British bird. CHAPTER XVI LARKS, TITMICE, HONET-EJTERS, AND THEIR KINDRED CONFINED almost entirely to the Old World, where they are represented by more than one hundred species, many of which have undergone considerable specialisation in the matter of plumage, so as to enable them to live in desert regions, the LARKS constitute a well-marked group, into the characters of which we need not enter here. The best-known member of the group is the SKYLARK. Common throughout the British , and of sober coloration, no bird is more universally beloved, and this largely on sweetness of its song, which is second only to that of the 'nightingale. Poets -writers alike have sounded its praises, many in passages that will be remembered as our language lasts. The skylark is one of the few birds which sing while on the •lgJK !uPCu nature °f the %ht at this time a11 must have watched, entranced the while by the beauty of the soiur. LARKS, TITMICE, HONEY-EATERS, THEIR KINDRED 527 Grahame, in his "Birds of Scotland," happily describes the nest as follows: — The daisied lea he loves, where tufts of grass Luxuriant crown the ridge ; there, with his mate, He founds their lowly house, of withered bents, And coarsest speargrass ; next, the inner work With finer and still finer fibres lays, Rounding it curious with its speckled breast. This bird displays great affection for its young, removing them under the fear of impending danger, or if the nest is meddled with. Occasionally, however, the bird sits close, instead of seeking safety by flight. Brighton enjoys the credit of consuming more larks than any other place in England, except London. It has been estimated that the number of larks annually entering the metropolitan markets alone reaches a total of 400,000 — 20,000 or 30,000 being often sent together; and the numbers eaten elsewhere in the country must be enormous, quite as large, indeed, as abroad. Most are captured from the hosts which arrive on the east coast of Scotland and England from the Continent on approach of severe weather, the birds making their appearance in thousands, forming a constant and unbroken stream for two or three days in succession. Close allies of the Larks, the WAGTAILS and PlPITS come next under consideration. The former range over the Old World, but are unknown in Australia and Polynesia. The pipits have a similar range, but one species is found in, and is peculiar to, Australia. Like wagtails, pipits are unknown in Polynesia; only two species occur in America. The WAGTAILS are generally black and white, grey and white, grey with yellow breasts, or yellowish green with yellow breasts. In the last-mentioned case, as in some specimens of the YELLOW WAGTAIL, the yellow predominates. These birds frequent streams and stagnant waters, like the RED and GREY WAGTAILS ; or corn-fields and meadows, as in the case of the YELLOW WAGTAIL. All these are commonly met with in the British Islands. SKYLARKS The numbers of tkylarkt teem to increase -wit A the spread of agricultural improvement 528 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD The PIPITS are duller-coloured than the Wagtails, have shorter tails, and evince less fondness for the water. The MEADOW-, ROCK-, and TREE-PIPITS are the commonest British species. Neither Wagtails nor Pipits are much given to perching, but tne TREE-CREEPERS spend their lives upon trees, some being specially modified for this mode of life, their tail-feathers being stiff and terminating in sharp points. By pressing its tail closely against the tree-trunk up which it is climbing, the bird obtains a wonderfully reliable support. Beginning at the bottom of a trunk, creepers quickly work their way up in a spiral direction, or sometimes in jerky zigzags, searching every crevice for tiny insects, their eggs and larvae, and flitting from the higher branches, when these are reached, to the base of another tree. Creepers are mostly dull-coloured, but the WALL-CREEPER has crimson patches on tb wings. This bird, which has occurred in Britain, haunts mountain-cliffs. The TREE-CREEPER, a resident in Britain, builds its nest behind pieces of loose bark, or under tiles, or in crevices of trees, walls, or hollow branches. In this nest are laid from six to nine eggs, pure white, spotted with red, or with a creamy ground-colour, with the spots thicker round the large end. Intermediate in position between the Creepers and the Titmice are the NUT- HATCHES. Chiefly inhabitants of the northern parts of both hemispheres, they extend as far south as Mexico, whilst in the Old World they occur plentifully in the Himalaya. The largest species is found in the moun- tains of Burma. One species is frequently met with in England, and occasionally in Scotland, but is unknown in Ireland. . The ENGLISH NUTHATCH may serve us as a type of the group. " Its habits," writes Dr. Sharpe, " are a combination of those of the tit and woodpecker. Like the former bird, the nuthatch seeks diligently for its insect-food on the trunks and branches of trees, over which it runs like a woodpecker, with this difference, that its tail is not pressed into the service of climbing a tree, nor doe it generally ascend from the bottom to th top, as a woodpecker so often does. On th contrary, a nuthatch will generally be foun in the higher branches, and will work i of the branches towards the trunk, and is just as much at home o limb as the upper. Its movements are like those of a mouse rathe than of a bird, and it often runs head-downward, or hangs on the under side of a branch an hammers away at the bark with its powerful little bill. The noise produced by one of thes birds, when tapping at a tree, is really astonishing for a bird of its size, and, if undisturbed it can be approached pretty closely. Its general food consists of insects, and in the winter th nuthatches join the wandering parties of tits and creepers which traverse the woods in scare of food. ... In the autumn it feeds on hazel-nuts and beech-mast, breaking them open b constant hammering; and, like the tits, the nuthatches can be tempted to the vicinity o houses in winter, and become quite interesting by their tameness." The nuthatch nests in hollow trees, plastering up the entrance with mud, and leaving a aperture only just sufficient to enable it to wriggle in and out. A remarkable nest may b seen at the British Natural History Museum. It was built in the side of a haystack, to whic the industrious birds had carried as much as 1 1 Ibs. of clay, and had thus made for themselve a solid nest in an apparently unfavourable position. fh»t» */ A. S. Rudland &> Stnl YOUNG SKYLARKS Se-vtra! broods are reared by each pair of birds in a season way down from one the under side of a LARKS, TITMICE, HONEY-EATERS, THEIR KINDRED 529 fhott by J. T. iiiwman The TITMICE occur in one form or another all over Europe, Asia, and Africa, and in the New World as far south as Southern Mexico. The family may be divided intoTRUE.CRESTED, LONG-TAILED, and PENDULINETITS and REED- LINGS, all but the penduline tits being repre- sented in England. Of the true tits, the best known is the BLUE TIT, which is no stranger even in London parks. Traveling in small bands throughout the autumn and winter, they may frequently be met with during a country walk, their presence being made known by a pretty tink- ling little note. This method of traveling is obviously advantageous, for the discovery of food at this time is an arduous task, and, if undertaken individually, many would surely starve, as Professor Newton points out : " A single titmouse searching alone might hunt for a whole day without meeting with a sufficiency, whilst, if a dozen are united by the same motive, it is hardly possible for the place in which the food is lodged to escape their detection, and, when discovered, a few call-notes from the lucky finder are enough to assemble the whole company to share the feast. . . . One tree after another is visited by the active little rovers, and its branches examined : if nothing be forthcoming, away goes the explorer to the next that presents itself, merely giving utterance to the usual twitter that serves to keep the wrhole body together. But if the object of search be found, another chirp is emitted, and the next moment several members of the band are flitting in succession to the tree, and eagerly engaged with the spoil." These little birds display great affection for their old nesting-places. An instance is on record where, so far back as 1785, a pair built their nest in a large earthenware bottle placed in the branches of a tree in a garden at Oxbridge, near Stockton-on-Tees. With two exceptions only, this bottle was tenanted by a pair of these birds every year till 1873. In 1892 Professor Newton, who had this account from Canon Tristram, was informed that the occupancy had ceased for four years. The LONG-TAILED or BOTTLE-TIT is a British species, deriving its name from the long tail. It is a pretty little bird, black and rose-colour above, with a rose-coloured abdomen, and the head, throat, and breast white. It enjoys the distinction of being one of the smallest British birds, and is found in woods and plantations all over England, though less common in Scotland. These tits have a curious habit of roosting during the winter, six or seven huddling together in a row, with three or four others perched on their backs, and two or three on the top. The nest, which is placed in a tree or bush, is a model of industry. Oval in shape, and roofed, with a small aperture near the top, it is composed of moss, lichen, and hair, closely felted and lined with an enormous collection of feathers, Macgillivray having counted 2,779 in a single nest. Other species of titmice occurring in Britain are the GREAT, MARSH-, COAL-, and CRESTED TITS. 67 NUTHATCH THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Pttttt kt J. T. tfrwman MARSH-TIT SEARCHING FOR INSECTS TAt marsh-tit may be distinguished from its ally , the coal-tit t by the absence of luhite on the nape of the neck Whether the REEDLINGS, or BEARDED TITS, as they are generally called, are really true titmice or peculiarly modified buntings is a moot-point. There is but one species, which is British, though found also on the Continent; but it is un- fortunately becoming more and more rare every year. The general colour of the upper-parts is cinnamon- rufous, except the head, which is pearly grey: between the bill and the eyes hangs a tuft of long black feathers ; hence the name Bearded Tit. The under-parts are white, tinged with yellow and pink, whilst the wings are variegated with white, black, and red. This tit lives in beds of reeds fringing the " broads " of the eastern counties of England, though even there it is now exceedingly rare. The same uncertainty that obtains with regard to the position of the Reedlings confronts the ornithologist with regard to the affinities of the liliputian GOLD-CRESTS. About six species are known, from the northern and temperate parts of the Old and New Worlds, extending as far south in the latter as Mexico. Two occur in Britain : one, known simply as the GOLD- CREST, orGoLDEN-CRESTED WREN, is fairly common ; the other, the FiRE-CREST, orFlRE-CRESTED WREN, is much rarer, but differs very little from its relative in general appearance. The GOLD-CREST is olive-green above, yellowish grey below, with a conspicuous crest of bright yellow and orange, banded on each side by two black lines. It has the distinction of being the smallest British bird ; and it is partly on account of its smallness, and partly owing to its shy, retiring habits, seeking concealment among the foliage, that it is so seldom seen, save by those who know where to look for it ; and these may find it all the year round in suitable places. In the spring this bird may be observed suspended in the air for a considerable time over a bush or flower, singing very melodiously, though few naturalists have ever witnessed this display. Mr. W. H. Hudson, one of these few, writes: " I have observed the male, in the love- season, hovering just above the bush, in the topmost foliage of which its mate was perched and partly hidden from view. It is when engaged in this pretty aerial performance, or love- dance, that the golden-crested wren is seen at his best. The restless, minute, sober-coloured creature, so difficult to see properly at other times, then becomes a conspicuous and exceedingly beautiful object; it hovers on rapidly vibrating wings, the body in an almost vertical position, but the head bent sharply down, the eyes being fixed on the bird beneath, while the wide open crest shines in the sun like a crown or shield of fiery yellow. When thus hovering, it does not sing, but emits a series of sharp, excited chirping sounds." The nest is a singularly beautiful structure, made of fine, dry grass, leaves, moss, and spiders' webs, woven closely together, lined with feathers, and suspended like a hammock beneath a branch of yew or fir. In this are laid from six to ten eggs of a pale yellowish white, spotted and blotched with reddish brown. The numbers of British gold-crests are vastly increased by the arrival on the eastern Photo by f. Kita) GREAT TIT Known also as the Ox-eye ; it is -very fugnacious in captivity, kitting birds e-ven as large as itsetf 53* , tf.B, 532 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD coast of gold-crests from the Continent " In autumn," writes Mr. Howard Saunders, " immense flocks sometimes arrive on our east coast, extending quite across England and the Irish Channel, and into Ireland. In 1882 the migration wave of this description, commencing on August 6 and lasting for ninety-two days, reached from the Channel to the Faeroes; in 188- the migration lasted eighty-two days; and again in 1884 for a period of eighty-seven days. . . On such occasions bushes in gardens on the coast are covered with birds as with a swarm of bees; crowds flutter round the lanterns of lighthouses, and the rigging of fishing-smacks in the North Sea is thronged with weary travellers. In April a return migration occurs." We pass now to the consideration of a few families of birds unknown in Britain, but interesting on account of the fact that they afford us another set of instances of adaptation to attain particular ends, so frequently to be met with in Nature. All the birds in question, though probably not related, have peculiarly modified tongues, apparently specially designed to aid in sucking up honey from flowers. The first group for consideration are the HONEY-EATERS of New Zealand and Australia. So great is the transformation which the tongue in these birds has undergone, that it forms one of the most elaborate organs of its kind, sur- passing even that of the Humming-birds. A description of this organ without the aid of anatomical terms and diagrams would be useless. Suffice it to say it is long, capable of being thrust out of the mouth, and brush-like. It is used to thrust up ^ jr the tubes of honey- bearing flowers> as well for the sake of the juice as for the insects gathered in such situations to feed on it. The best known of the Honey-eaters is the POE, or PARSON- BIRD, of New Zealand. Glossy black in colour, with vivid green and blue reflec- tions, it is rendered still more attractive by a pair of white tufts of feathers hanging from the front upper part of the neck, whilst on the back of the neck in the same region the feathers are of a loose structure, long, and curled forwards. Other honey-eaters are the WHITE-EYES SUN-BIRDS, and FLOWER-PECKERS. The WHITE-EYES, so called from a ring of white feathers around the eye, have a wide istnbution, being found in Australia, India, Africa, Madagascar, and Japan. Besides honey very partial to fruit, particularly figs and grapes, and also capture insects on the wing, after the fashion of fly-catchers. The SUN-BIRDS correspond in the Old World to the Humming-birds in the New, having, latter, a metallic plumage, varied in its hues and wondrous in its beauty: but ! not entirely dependent upon this lustre for their charm, for much of their our is gained from the non-metallic portion of the plumage, which is often vividly Ph». t, C. R.id] llfunaw, N. B. COAL-TITS Tkttt birds sho-w the 'white patch on the nape -very distinctly. a common British bird, staying the -whole year round • It is LARKS, TITMICE, HONEY-EATERS, THEIR KINDRED 533 coloured. The females are dull- coloured, whilst the males lose their beauty in the winter season. These birds are inhabitants of the tropical regions of Africa, India, and Australia, and seem to revel in the burning rays of the noonday sun. Nearly allied to the Sun- birds are the FLOWER-PECKERS of the Indian and Australian regions. These are all small birds, remark- able as much for the beauty of their nests as for the splendour of their plumage. The nests are purse-like structures, made of white cotton-like material, and suspended from a branch instead of, as usual, resting on it. One of the most beautiful birds of the whole group, which includes numerous species, is the Australian DIAMOND-BIRD. Of a general ashy-grey colour, this species is splashed all over with spots of red, yellow, orange, and black, whilst the tail-coverts are rich dark red. »>-v* Pkoto by W. F, Piggott] [Ltighti RED-BACKED SHRIKES Also called Butcher-birds, from their habit of killing small birds and mammals and hanging them up on thorns Photo by W. R,id] [ffiihaw, N.B. AUSTRALIAN MAGPIE common South Australian form, known also as the Piping-crow CHAPTER XVII SHRIKES, THRUSHES AND THEIR ALLIES, SWALLOWS, LYRE-BIRDS, CHATTERERS, BROAD-BILLS, ETC. THE Shrike Family are an exceedingly interesting group of birds, of world-wide distribution and of great diversity of appearance, varying in size from a bird as small as a titmouse to one as large as a thrush, and presenting a considerable range of coloration, some being very brightly, others dull coloured. From the hooked beak, and the presence of a notch in the tip of the upper jaw, they were considered by the older naturalists to be allies of the Birds of Prey, a decision still further supported by their hawk-like habit of capturing living prey in the shape of small birds and mice ; whilst the remarkable custom of impaling their victims, still living, on thorns has earned for them the popular name of BUTCHER-BIRDS. The limits of the family, owing to the diversity of the forms involved, have not as yet been finally determined by naturalists, some having included species which others hold have no place there. 534 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Five species are commonly included in the list of British birds, although only two occur with any frequency: of these, the GREAT GREY SHRIKE visits Great Britain every winter; whilst the smaller RED-BACKED SHRIKE is an annual summer visitor to those islands, breeding, however, only in England, occurring but occasionally in Scotland, and being almost unknown in Ireland, where only one specimen has ever been recorded. The RED-BACKED SHRIKE, writes Dr. Sharpe, " reminds us of a fly-catcher in the way in which Pit! captures its food, for it has undoubtedly favourite perches, on which it sits, and to which it returns after the capture of an insect. It is frequently to be seen on telegraph-wires, where it keeps a sharp look-out in every direction, and a favourite resort is a field of freshly cut grass. It also captures a good many mice and small birds, not pursuing them in the open like birds of prey, but dropping down on them suddenly. In the British Museum is a very good specimen of the larder of a red-backed shrike, taken with the nest of the bird by Lord Walsingham in Norfolk, and showing the way in which the shrike spits insects and birds on thorns ; and the species has been known . . . to hang up birds even bigger than itself, such as blackbirds and thrushes, as well as tits of several kinds, robins, and hedge-sparrows, while it will also occasionally seize young partridges and pheasants." Though undeniably unmusical, the red-backed shrike is nevertheless able to imitate with considerable success the notes of other small birds, decoying them by this means within striking distance — an accomplishment shared also by other members of the Shrike Family. The present species is attractively clothed in a plumage varied with black, grey, rufous, and chestnut-brown, the last being the predomi- nating hue of the upper-parts ; hence the name Red-backed Shrike. The habits of its congener, the GREAT GREY SHRIKE, are precisely similar. A caged specimen which had become very tame would take food from its captor's hands. When a bird was given it, the skull was invariably broken at once, after which, holding the body in its claws, the shrike would proceed to tear it in pieces after the fashion of a hawk. Sometimes, instead, the carcase would be forced through the bars of the cage — Cn lieu of thorns — and then pulled in pieces. Very different in appearance from the members of the Shrike Family are a group of possibly allied forms known as WAX-WINGS. Of pleasing but sober coloration, they are lemarkable for certain curious appendages to the inner quill-feathers, of a bright sealing-wax red colour, from which they derive their name : similar wax-like appendages occur also, some- times, on the tail-feathers. Breeding in the Arctic Circle, wax-wings occur in both the Old and New Worlds, though some species peculiar to the latter region lack the wax-like appendages characteristic of the majority of the species. These birds are erratic in their movements, and large bands occasionally the British Islands during the autumn and winter, the eastern counties being usually the favoured spots; but on the occasion of one of these immigrations, in the winter of 1872, iany were seen in the neighbourhood of the North of London. During the summer they feed insects, but in autumn and winter on berries and fruit. At this time they become very fat - Ph,t, iy IV. F. Pigfttt] [Leighten Buxx.ard REED-WARBLER A common bird, arriving in April, and lca-vin\ September ng agai 249 CEDAR WAXWING. (Ampelis cedrorum). $ Life-size. Fhttt bj J. T. Newman SONG-THRUSH A resident species, sometimet nailed the Ma-vis 535 r36 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Phut bj Scholastic Photo. Co. YOUNG THRUSH Thit photograph shows the mud-lined nest the spring migrants, remaining to nest, and leaving again in the autumn. Some, as the BLACK-CAP, WHITE-THROAT, CHIFF- CHAFF, GARDEN-, WILLOW-, and WOOD- WARBLERS, frequent woods, hedgerows, and gardens ; whilst others, as the SEDGE- and REED-WARBLERS, are found only near water affording sufficient shelter in the shape of reed-banks or osier-planta- tions. The BLACK-CAP and GARDEN-WARB- LER rank as songsters of no mean talent, being held second only to the nightingale. As if by common consent, the two former never clash, so that where black-caps are common there are few garden-warblers, and vice versd. Most of these birds build a typical cup-shaped nest of dried grasses, lined with finer materials, and placed near the ground; but that of the REED-WARBLER is a most beautiful structure, the dried grass of which it is made being woven around some three or four reed-stems, making it seem as if the latter had, in growing up, pierced the sides of the nest and are then captured and sold in large numbers for food in the Russian markets, and occasionally are sent over to London. Passing over a small group of comparatively uninteresting American birds known as " Green- lets," we come to the WARBLERS, a group which constitutes one of the largest families of birds of the Old World. The species included in this family vary greatly in their characters, so that it is by no means easy to give diagnostic char- acters, whereby they may be readily distinguished from the Fly-catchers on the one hand or the Thrushes on the other. The Thrushes, however, as a group, may be distinguished from the Warblers by the circumstance that in the former the young have a distinctive spotted plumage, differing from that of the adults, while the young of the Warblers are not so marked, their plumage differing but little from that of their parents. More than twenty species of warblers are included amongst British birds. Although some of them are but rare and accidental visitors to Britain, others are amongst the commonest of Ptloit bj J. T. Ntwman BLACKBIRD The male and female are quite different one from another, and in this differ from the Thrushes^ in -which the sexes are alike -espect THRUSHES AND THEIR ALLIES 537 in their course. The cup-shaped hollow is very deep, so that when the supporting reeds are bowed low in the breeze the eggs rest perfectly safe. We must pass now to a consideration of the Thrush Tribe, which, as we have already hinted, are very closely allied to the Warblers. Birds like the COMMON THRUSH and the BLACKBIRD are so common and so well known that they scarcely need comment here. The same perhaps is true of many other members of this group not popularly associated with the Thrush Tribe ; such are the RED-BREAST, or ROBIN RED-BREAST, as it is more generally called, and the NIGHTINGALE. Few birds have inspired so many writers as the nightingale ; it even holds a place in classical mythology. Professor Newton gives us one variant of a very common but pretty story : " Procne and Philomela were the daughters of Pandion, King of Attica, who in return for warlike aid rendered him by Tereus, King of Daulis in Thrace, gave him the first-named in marriage. Tereus, however, being enamoured of her sister, feigned that his wife was dead, and induced Philomela to take her place. On her discovering the truth, he cut out her tongue to hinder her from revealing his deceit; but she depicted her sad story on a robe which she sent to Procne, and the two sisters then contrived a horrible revenge for the infidelity of Tereus by killing and serving to him at table his son Itys. Thereupon the gods interposed, changing Tereus into a hoopoe, Procne into a swallow, and Philomela into a nightingale, while Itys was restored to life as a Photo hy W. F. Piggott ROBIN The young robin 'wears a distinct It-very , quite different from that of its f arena fhtto bj A. S. Rudland Son] STONE-CHAT A resident and generally distributed bird [Chtiter rows or under ledges of rock, as among the wheat-ears, which lay white eggs. The bird commonly known as the HEDGE-SPARROW is a close ally of the Thrush Family, having nothing to do with the sparrows proper — which are finches — as its name would imply. Another nearly related form is the DIPPER, or WATER-OUZEL. By no means brilliantly coloured, it is nevertheless an exceedingly interesting bird, and one never met with away from mountain streams. The group has a wide distribution, occurring in suitable localities in Europe, Asia, and the Rocky Mountains of America, and extending from Colombia to Peru and Tucuman. Squat in form, with rounded wings and short tail, the ouzel seeks the greater part of its food on the bottom of swiftly running streams. It is every- where, writes Dr. Sharpe of the commoner of the two British species, a shy and watchful bird, and, except in the breeding-season, appears to be solitary. By patient watching near the dipper's haunts, however, it is possible to observe the bird scudding over the surface of the water with a rapid flight and a vigorous beating of the wings, something like that of a kingfisher, until it alights on a rock or large stone in the middle of the stream. Its white breast then stands out in bold relief, and, after pausing for a moment, the bird commences to edge to the side of the rock, and either walks deliberately into the water, or disappears suddenly beneath the surface, seeking its food at the bottom of the stream, in the shape of larvae, caddis-worms, water-beetles, and small snails. The WRENS are probably near allies of the Dippers. The family includes a number of species of small birds, most largely represented in the New World, but distributed widely over the Old World also. Two occur in the British Islands : of these, one, the COMMON WREN, is found throughout Europe, and occurs also in Northern Africa, Asia Minor, and North Palestine; whilst the other, the ST. KILDA WREN, is only found on the island from which it takes its name. Considerations of space compel us to pass over three or four families, of comparatively little interest to any save the scientific ornithologist, in favour of the FLY-CATCHERS and SWALLOWS. The former, in that the young are spotted, appear to evince some affinity to the Thrush Tribe, but they have broad and natter bills than the latter, whilst the mouth is surrounded by more or less conspicuous bristles. They are entirely Old World forms, having their stronghold in Africa. Three species of fly-catcher occur in England, though only one, the COMMON or SPOTTED FLY-CATCHER, usually breeds in Great Britain, coming late in the spring from Africa. As its name implies, it feeds upon small insects, capturing them on the wing by sudden sallies, and returning immediately after to some perch, generally a garden-fence, or the bare bough of a tree. As a rule the prey is caught with a sudden dart, but sometimes only after a prolonged flight, when the bird will double and turn, as the necessity arises, with great skill. Its nest, Photo by C. Reid, Wishaiv. WAXBILLS. Waxbills are relatives of the Weaver birds, and take their name from the waxen appearance of the beak which is coral red Photo by C. Reid, Wishaw. INDIGO FINCHES The Indigo Finch or Indigo Bird is a well known member of a group of American Finches of which the Nonpareil Finch is another representative. SWALLOWS AND MARTINS 539 fhtto bj 7. T. Ntwman A PAIR OF WRENS Known nearly everywhere at the " Kitty " or " Jenny " JVren made of dry grass and moss, lined with horse-hair and covered externally with spider-webs and lichens, is usually placed in some sheltered position, such as a crevice in the bark of a tree or in the creepers covering the trellis-work of a house ; and owing to the skilful way in which it is covered externally, so as to resemble its surroundings, is difficult to find. The SWALLOWS and MARTINS constitute an exceed- ingly well-defined group of birds, and one which holds a con- spicuously high place in the regard of mankind, finding a welcome everywhere on account of the great benefits they confer by the removal of insect- pests in the shape of the smaller gnats and flies. These, were they not kept in check by the Swallow Tribe, would render most parts of the world uninhabitable. Rarely seen upon the ground, save when procuring mud for the construction of their nests, the birds of this group are all peculiarly strong fliers, turning and twisting with the greatest speed and precision. All have very short beaks and wide mouths, long wings and tails, and small and weak feet. A large number build their nests of mud, collected in small pellets and held together by the secretion of the salivary glands. These nests are commonly more or less cup-shaped, and fastened under the eaves of dwelling-houses or other buildings, or placed on a convenient beam or other ledge. The RED-RUMPED SWALLOWS and FAIRY MARTINS — species enjoying an enormous distribution, being found in India, Africa, America, and Australia — build very large flask- shaped nests, having the entrance pro- duced into a funnel often eight or nine inches in length. Others, like the SAND-MARTIN, excavate long tunnels, ter- minating in larger chambers, in the faces of sand-banks — a performance which must certainly be regarded as wonderful, when one realises the feeble tools with which the task of excavating has to be per- formed. Some species utilise the holes made by other birds, in one species this Photo by Scnolaitic Photo. Co COMMON WRENS, WITH NEST BUILT IN PHEASANT'S SKELETON In winter -wrens ha-ve a custom of seeking some hole or other convenient shelter and huddling together in small forties for the sake of warmth hole being itself bored within the burrow of the viscacha. THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD ftittt bj J. T. Niwmaa YOUNG SWALLOWS For hundreds of years it has been regarded as most unlucky to kill a sivalto-w 54°_ All are more or less migratory in their habits, some covering enormous distances in journeying to and fro between their winter retreats and their summer breeding-places. The COMMON SWALLOW and HOUSE-MARTIN, for example, leave the shores of Africa early in the spring and distribute themselves over Europe, thousands visiting the British Islands. After rearing in their respective breeding-places from two to three broods, they return with their offspring before the rigours of winter set in to the African Continent. The routes and destinations of the swallow are now well known ; but as much cannot be said for the house-martin, whose winter quarters are as yet enshrouded in mystery. That they must be somewhere in Africa is all that can at present be said. Three species of the Swallow Tribe visit England regularly every year, and re- main to breed. These are the COMMON or CHIMNEY-SWAL- LOW, and the HOUSE-MARTIN just referred to, and the little SAND-MARTIN. In the two first mentioned the upper-parts are of a dark steel-blue colour •with a metallic gloss, but they are, nevertheless, easily distinguished one from another, — since the swallow has a deeply forked tail, and a bright chestnut patch on the throat, with a similarly coloured band across the forehead ; whilst the martin lacks the chestnut markings, and is pure white beneath, with a large white patch on the lower part of the back, and a less markedly forked tail. Furthermore, the legs of the martin are feathered down to the claws, whilst the feet of the swallow are bare. The sand-martin is a little greyish-brown bird, with white under-parts. It is the earliest of the Swallow Tribe to arrive in Britain, and the first to depart LYRE-BIRDS AND SCRUB-BIRDS At the beginning of the account of the Perching-birds it was stated that the group was divided into two sections, and that each of these was further sub-divided into two. With the Swallows the first sub-division of the first section ended ; the second we are to consider now in the very singular LYRE-BIRDS and SCRUB-BIRDS of Australia. Rendered conspicuous on account of the remarkable lyrate tail, from which the name is derived, the LYRE-BIRDS, on closer acquaintance, prove to be exceedingly interesting forms, though materials for a really complete biography of the three known species a»-e not yet available. The males, it seems, are skilled mimics, reproducing the songs of other birds with great fidelity, this being especially true of the species known as PRINCE ALBERT'S LYRE-BIRD. During the courting-season the males construct hillocks, to which they resort to display their very beautiful and graceful tails, elevating them over the head, and drooping the wings after the fashion of a peacock, accompanying this display with certain spasmodic pecking and scratching actions. They are solitary birds, more than a pair never being seen together, and even these are exceedingly difficult to approach, stratagem always being necessary. But a single egg is laid, which has the appearance of being smeared with ink; whilst the young bird differs from that of all other perching-birds in the thickness of its downy covering and the great length of time in which it remains in the nest. The nest, made of sticks, moss, and fibres skilfully interwoven, and lined inside with the leaf of a tree-fern which resembles horse-hair, is a large domed structure, with a single aperture serving as an entrance. Lyre-birds are essentially ground-dwellers, feeding upon insects, especially beetles and snails, and keeping to the wilder regions of the country. CHATTERERS 54* The SCRUB-BIRD is an extremely interesting form, scientifically. Only the males are known at the present time, and these are dull-coloured birds of the size of a thrush. Of the female, eggs, and nest, we as yet know absolutely nothing. CHATTERERS, ANT-THRUSHES, BROAD-BILLS, ETC. The second major division of the Perching-birds embraces a few forms of considerable interest. The group of CHATTERERS includes several remarkable forms of very diverse coloration, many representing the most gorgeous of all South American birds. One of the most remarkable is the UMBRELLA-BIRD. This bird is funereal in appearance, being clothed in a plumage of deep black, with the head surmounted by a large, drooping, flat-topped crest, resembling in shape the familiar crest of certain varieties of the canary, whilst from the throat hangs a long lappet of feathers reaching nearly down to the feet. The female is duller than her mate, and lacks the peculiar plumes. The umbrella-bird is a forest-dwelling Photo by W. F. Pigfttl SAND-MARTINS This photograph sAovus a portion of a sand bank, pierced with the tunnel-like nests made by these feeble builders species, confined to the Upper Amazons, and dwelling in the tops of the highest trees, where it finds ample sustenance in wild fruits. But few naturalists have ever seen it in a wild state. Equally wonderful are the BELL-BIRDS, so called on account of their note, which bears an extraordinary resemblance to the sound made by a blacksmith upon an anvil, though it has often been likened to the tolling of a bell. Four species are known, in three of which the males have a pure white plumage, with much naked, vividly coloured skin on the face. One species has a curious pendulous process hanging from the forehead, thinly covered with feathers. By some this is said to be capable of erection during periods of excitement. Like the umbrella- bird, these are forest-dwelling species. For brilliancy of plumage amongst the Chatterers, the palm must be given to the COCKS- OF-THE-ROCK, in the males of which orange-red predominates, whilst the general effect is heightened by crests and curiously curled and frayed feathers growing from the lower part •of the back. The males indulge in remarkable love-displays, the performances being held in some open space, and in the presence of the females. One at a time each male appears to go through a kind of dance, accompanying his peculiar steps and hops with much swaying of the head and extending of the wings. When tired, the performer gives a signal which is under- stood by his fellows, and retires from the ring, his place being immediately taken by another. 542 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD - The nesting habits of the Chatterers vary greatly, — some building nests of mud and twigs, which they fasten on projections of rock in damp caves ; others simply lining holes in trees with dry grass. Some build a cup-shaped nest of lichens, others a simple platform of sticks, whilst some of the THICK- BILLED CHATTERERS hang large nests of leaves, plant-stalks, and wool from low branches, the entrance to the nest being from a hole in the side. The eggs vary in number among the different species from two to four, and in colour may be white, chocolate, pale salmon-coloured, or greenish blue, and are for the most part spotted. Closely allied to the Cocks-of-the-rock are the MANAKINS, for the most part small and thick-set birds, and in many instances brilliantly coloured — at least in the case of the males. Some seventy species are known, PHtc b) D. Li Sou*/] [Milbournt VICTORIAN LYRE-BIRD Lyre-birdi, -which are also knoivn to the colonists as " Pheasants," are great mimics all of which are confined to South America. They must be sought for, as a rule, in the forests or thick undergrowth of marshy places. The Manakin Family contains several species of considerable interest, on account of the peculiar modifications which certain of the quill-feathers of the males have undergone. In some species what are known as the secondary quill-feathers are peculiarly twisted, and have the shafts much thickened. With these modified feathers the birds are enabled, probably by clapping the wings and bringing the thickened feathers violently together, to make a sharp sound, which has been likened to the crack of a whip. Other species have the quill-feathers of the hand — the primaries, as they are called — similarly thickened, and they probably are also used to produce youngs. One species is known as the BAILADOR, 01 DANCER, on account of a very remarkable habit which the males have of dancing. Two males, choosing some secluded spot, select a bare twig, Phtt* b) W. Saviile-Kent, f Z.S. TAIL OF AUSTRALIAN LYRE-BIRD TAis crnamental tail is worn only by the male ANT-THRUSHES, PLANT-CUTTERS, WOOD-HEWERS 543 and, taking up a position about a foot and a half apart, alternately jump about two feet in the jair, and alight again on exactly the same spot from which they sprang. With the regularity (of clockwork one bird jumps up the instant the other alights, each bird performing a musical I accompaniment to the tune of " to-le-do — to-le-do — to-le-do," uttering the syllable "to" as he crouches to spring, " le " while in the air, and " do " as he alights ; and this performance appears ito be kept up till the birds are exhausted. Some of the manakins are very beautifully coloured. One species, for example, is black, with a blue mantle and a crimson crest; another, black, with orange-coloured cheeks and breast and similarly coloured band round the neck, green rump, and yellow abdomen. The females are generally duller in coloration. The ANT-THRUSHES, or PITTAS, are long-legged, short-tailed birds, of brilliant coloration, i having their headquarters in the Malay Archipelago ; but the family is represented in India! Australia, and West Africa. These birds are very shy and ex- ceedingly difficult to approach. One species, the large GROUND-THRUSH, is de- scribed by Wallace as one of the most beautiful birds of the East. Velvety black above, relieved by pure white, the shoulders are azure-blue and the belly a vivid crimson. The nest recalls, in the plan of its architecture, that of the Oven-birds, being more or less globular in form, and having a lateral entrance; it is composed of twigs, roots, bark, moss, leaves, and grass, and is frequently cemented with earth. The eggs are usually spotted, and have a creamy-white ground-colour : the spots may be brown, reddish grey, or purplish black. The curious PLANT-CUTTERS of the temperate regions of South America are nearly related to the Chatterers, though at one time it was believed they were allied to the True Finches. Constituting but a small family, the plant-cutters are remarkable for their strangely serrated beaks, the cutting-edges of which are armed with a series of fine saw-like teeth. This beak is used in cutting down plants; and as these birds appear to cut down a great number in sheer wantonness, they are much disliked in the neighbourhood of gardens and plantations. Plant-cutters are not conspicuous for the beauty of their plumage, and have a harsh and grating voice. The WOOD-HEWERS constitute a group of over 200 species, all of which are South American. They are for the most part small and dull-coloured birds, but nevertheless of consioerable interest on account of their nest-building habits. The most remarkable members of the family in this respect are three species of OVEN-BIRDS. These construct a massive nest of mud, bearing a more or less fanciful resemblance to a baker's oven; hence the name Oven-bird. Roughly globular in shape, its walls are of great thickness, and to prevent cracking hair and grass-fibres are intermixed with the mud ; the interior is gained through a small hole on one side of the nest, which leads into a passage terminating in a chamber containing the ^ggS) which are laid upon a bed of grass. Strangely enough, the bird seeks the most exposed Photo by A. S. Rudland & Stni BELL-BIRD So called from its wonderfully clear. bell-like note THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD on posts, rocks, or house-tops, or LITTLE HOUSE-BUILDER, builds its situations placing its nest on branches, in the forks of trees, < AnoTer species, known to the Spaniards as the CASARITA or LITTLE HOUSE-BUILDER Dunds ,ts nest at the bottom of a narrow cylindrical hole, which ,s sa,d to extend honzontally under- ground for nearly six feet. Other species build nests of st.cks and w,gs or of grass, wh.ch ,1. _ r--u: — Of the mud nest of the oven-bird, the inner are divided into chambers after the fashion chamber being lined with wool and feathers. The variation in the form, habits, and coloration of these birds is very great, some Pkatti tf A. S. Rutland &* $*r.i COCK-OF-THE-ROCK The cock-of-the-rock is a South American bird, of gorgeous coloration recalling the Woodpeckers and Tree-creepers, others the Titmice. The family of the TYRANT FLY-CATCHERS, though numbering some 400 species, is less interesting, or rather contains fewer peculiar forms, than the Manakin Family. The tyrant fly-catchers are American birds, and represent the fly-catchers of the Old World. One of the best known is the KING-BIRD, which is renowned rather for its pugnacious disposition than beautv of plumage. . The CRESTED TYRANT-BIRD has a curious habit of lining its nest with the cast-off skins c snakes, a habit which has caused a great deal of discomfort both to juvenile as well as adult egg-collectors, who, recognising the skin by the touch, have hurriedly with- drawn the hand, lest the owner of the cast-off coat should be in the vicinity. All the tyrant-birds are active and restless in their habits, and frequent marshy districts, sitting alone, perched on the dead branches of trees or bushes, whence they dart forth like the Old World fly-catchers on their prey. Some species, however, frequent bare plains ; others, also ground- dwellers, associate occasionally in flocks. Though the prey, which consists chiefly of insects, is, as a rule, captured on the wing, it is not invariably so. One species, for example, pounces down on crawling beetles, grasps them in its claws, and eats them on the ground. Some other species eat mice, young birds, snakes, frogs, fishes, spiders, and worms, the larger victims being beaten on a branch to kill them. One or two species will eat seeds and berries. The nest is often domed, and skilfully felted with moss, lichens, and spider-webs. The BROAD-BILLS are the sole representatives of the final sub-division of the Perching- birds. After the brilliant coloration, the next most striking feature is the great breadth of the bill. Their range is very limited, extending from the lower spurs of the Himalaya, through Burma and Siam, to Sumatra, Borneo, and Java. They seek the seclusion of forests in the neighbourhood of water, exhibiting great partiality for the banks of rivers and lakes, and feeding on worms and insects, many of the latter being captured on the wing. The nest of the broad-bill is a large and not very neat structure, oval in shape, with an entrance near the top, which is often protected with an overhanging roof. It is generally suspended from a low branch or plants near the water, and made of twigs, roots, and leaves, and lined with finer materials. From three to five eggs are laid. o o With these birds, probably the most primitive of the Perching-birds, this section en Many forms have inevitably been crowded out, whilst others have been but briefly notic nevertheless, all the really important groups have been more or less completely described in the majority of cases well illustrated. BOOK III. REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS BY W. SAVILLE-KENT, F.L.S., F.Z.S. REPTILES CHAPTER I CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS THE Reptile Class, as defined by modern scientific limitations, includes among the living animals of the world the several groups of the Crocodiles, the Tortoises and Turtles, the Tuatera, the Lizards, and the Snakes. In the popular mind the Frogs and Toads, and the Newts and Salamanders, are often held to belong to the same main section ; but these, as hereafter shown, claim, as Amphibians, an independent position of equivalent rank and value. In bygone geological ages the Reptile Class embraced a considerably larger number of groups ; some of the members, such as the extinct Dinosaurs, comprised titanic monsters from 60 to 80 feet in length. The Crocodiles and Alligators of the present day are the only living reptiles which in any way approach the extinct Saurians in their dimensions, or assist us in some small measure to realise their unwieldy forms and bulk. The members of the Crocodile Order, which, in addition to the Alligators, includes also the Caimans and so-called Gavials or Garials, agree with one another in the more or less ponderous lizard-like shape of their body, supported on well- developed but short and comparatively weak legs, in their special adaptation to an amphibious exist- ence, carnivorous habits, and restriction to tropical and sub- tropical climates. Among the salient characters of the CROCODILE, as the representative of its tribe, which specially adapt it for its aquatic habits, the long, power- ful tail is strongly compressed and thus fitted for use as an organ of propulsion, 69 Phott by W. P. Dandt, F.Z S. YOUNG NILE CROCODILE This ipecia luat -worshipped with di-vine honours and mummified after death by the ancient Egyptian* 545 546 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Photi kj If. P. Dando, F.Z.S. YOUNG BROAD-SNOUTED CROCODILE A native of West Africa, remarkable for the extreme shortness and great breadth of its nozzle and the feet are more 01 less webbed. The most strik- ing of its structural adapta- tions is, howevef, associated with the formation of the creature's skull. The manner in which a crocodile or alli- gator contrives to breathe or tc save itself from asphyxiation, when opening and shutting its mouth under water, as it may often be observed to do in the Regent's Park Menagerie, is a common source of wonderment to the onlooker. This seemingly difficult feat is compassed by virtue of the posterior nos- trils, or breathing-passages, being set so far back in the skull, and being so completely cut off from the mouth-cavity by specially developed bones of the palate, that they have no intercommunication with the mouth. It is this mechanism which enables a crocodile to seize and hold an animal underneath the water between its open jaws until it is drowned. Special valves at the back of the mouth prevent any water running down the creature's throat, while it is able itself to breathe unrestrainedly by allowing just the tip of its elongated snout, with the anterior nostril-apertures, to remain above the water's surface. In many species a conspicuous knob- like bony excrescence is developed at the extremity of the snout, by which the nostril-openings are raised turret-wise above the surface of the water. The eyes also being usually elevated above the level of the creature's head, the crocodile is able to approach its floating or bank-side prey practically unperceived, its huge body, limbs, and even the head, with the exception of the nose and eyes, being totally submerged. Although capable of moving with great activity in the water, crocodiles and their allies are usually ac- counted sluggish and slow movers on the land. Seen basking in the sun, as is their wont, by the hour together on some sand-bank, or creeping lazily thereon among their fellows, such a «-**— conclusion is natural. The A DEAD CROC°DILE Celerity, however with which A »><">-">«»£ individual. This particular animal has just been shot. The native, in the background give a good idea of its size — little less than 20 feet long CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS 547 even a huge 25-footer, as witnessed by the writer in the Norman River, North Queensland, will make tracks for and hurl itself into the water, if disturbed during its midday siesta by the near impact of a rifle-bullet, is a revelation. Crocodiles, moreover, as might be inferred from the slit-like contour of the eye-pupil, as shown by daylight, are to a large extent nocturnal, displaying their greatest activity, and being in the habit of traveling long distances along and away from the river-banks in search of food, or in connection with their migratory or mating instincts, under the cover of darkness. Of all living animals the crocodile and its allies are probably equipped most efficiently for both defence and aggression. The thick, horny shields, quadrangular on the back, tail, and under-surface, and adapted in shape and size to cover the head, limbs, and sides, constitute an almost impenetrable cuirass. As weapons of offence the formidable array of trenchant teeth, with which the powerful jaws are armed, have not alone to be reckoned with by the victim assailed. The crocodile's limbs and claws are relatively weak, and incapable of aggressive Phot, by Mr. W. Rau] {Philadelphia A CROCODILE Note the massive character of the tail, a -weapon ivherrwtth the creature can disable a horse or an ox, or sweep smaller fry into the "water mischief; but in the long, compressed, muscular tail the reptile possesses a terribly effective weapon, wherewith, with one swift, unexpected side-stroke, it will sweep a smaller animal into the water, or deal a blow of sufficient power to fell or disable a man or bullock. Thus well-nigh invulnerable, and cognisant of its marvellous power of jaw and tail, a full-grown crocodile will not hesitate to try conclusions with even such puissant adversaries as the bear, the tiger, and other large carnivora, when they approach the river's brink to drink. Not infrequently, too, the crocodile comes off the victor in these contests ; while, as sometimes happens, both of the well-matched foes are found dead side by side at the water's edge. The dread in which crocodiles are held by the natives of tropical countries, and the heavy toll they levy upon the riverside population, and more especially the women-folk in their accustomed avocations of water-carrying or laundry work, are too familiar to need dissertation. Hence it is that in every country, excepting those particular locations where the creature is a subject of misguided veneration or fetish worship, it may be said that every man's hand is against them, and the enmity most cordially reciprocated. All the members of the Crocodile Family propagate by egg-production. The eggs are 548 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD relatively small in size, those of the largest species not exceeding that of a goose in dimensions. In shape they are more or less symmetrically ovate, and encased with a hard, white shell. In the case of the crocodile, the female selects a suitable dry sand-bank near the river's edge, in which it excavates a hole of about 2 feet deep, and, having deposited from twenty to sixty eggs therein, mounts guard over them, sleeping on top of the nest by day, until the young are hatched. With the alligator, the site chosen for the nest is more usually among bushes or reeds at some distance from the water, and the eggs, which may be laid to the number of over 100, are covered over with leaves and vegetable debris, whose decomposition engenders the heat required for their successful incubation. In both instances the parent jealously guards the nest and repels all intruders until the eggs are hatched, and ultimately conducts the young ones to the water, where they soon learn to shift for themselves. Numbers of them, nevertheless, in their young and weak state, fall victims to vultures, hawks, ichneumons, and all manner of birds and beasts of prey. From their birth the little saurians are most vicious and irascible in disposition, hissing and snapping at or laying hold with bull-dog tenacity of a finger or other seizable object that may be held towards them. From their earliest days also they are eminently aggressive and carnivorous. Contenting themselves at first with flies and other insects, they speedily extend their attentions to frogs, lizards, fish, or any small animals which frequent the marshes and river-banks; and finally, with their concurrently in- creased appetites and dimensions, requisition such larger prey as sheep, goats, deer, horses, and, as before mentioned, even the human species, if they can steal a march on them unawares. Crocodiles are provided with relatively small gullets, and are necessarily in- capable of swallowing any prey whole which is of large dimensions. rn,,. b, w. saviiu.K.nt, p.z.s.-[ ~~~T\nif«rd.<,n.sia. Accordingly any big quarry which is seized and dragged into the river is disposed of piecemeal, the reptile rending the carcase in fragments with the aid of its terrible teeth and side-wrenches of its ponderous body. Of crocodiles proper, as distinguished from alligators, there are some dozen known species. From their last-named near allies they are distinguished by the entire absence of the supplementary bony armature which in most alligators underlies the outer horny cuirass on the under surface of the body. A more essential distinction is associated with the character The upper and lower teeth of the crocodile interlock, and the fourth lower tooth is received into a notch in the side of the upper jaw, and is consequently 3 visible when the mouth is closed. In the alligators, on the other hand, this bigger tusk-like tooth fits into a pit-like excavation in the upper jaw, and is invisible when the mouth is shut. The TRUE CROCODILES are found in the tropical regions of Africa, Asia, Australasia, and The largest is undoubtedly the estuarine species, ranging from the eastern iia, through the Malay region, to North and East Australia, New Guinea, and This wide range is a natural concomitant of their brackish- and salt-water es. Individuals of the species are, in fact, not infrequently met with floating on the e considerable distance from the land. An example of this estuarine species has rdcd which measured no less than 33 feet, while a length of 20 feet and over is by ) means of uncommon occurrence. tU»fmt, F.Z.3.1 lMilf,rd-,n.S., A QUEENSLAND CROCODILE The specimen referred to in the anecdote on page jjo by J. W. Me Lilian CROCODILE, WELL ILLUSTRATING THE CHARACTER OF THE DENTITION The loiuer tusk-like teeth fa into notches in the upper jaw, and are -viable -when the mouth is closed. In the alligator these teeth fa into fill in the uffer jaw, and are hidden from view under the like condition! 549 55° THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS, WITH YOUNG Notwithstanding their proverbially irascible dispositions, these reptiles, of all ages and dimen- sions, herd together on the most amiable terms The method adopted in Queensland and North Australia for capturing these destructive monsters is that of a running noose, so at- tached to a suitably flexible mangrove tree growing in the vicinity of its nocturnal runs as to constitute a gigantic spring-trap. A dead carcase or other suitable bait is added to lure the animal to its doom. The crocodiles thus caught are alive and uninjured, and can be dispatched or reserved for menagerie exhi- bition. A somewhat amusing incident attended the trans- port of a " reprieved " captive by steamship from Cairns to Brisbane, Queensland, a few years since. In the dead of night, when all but the watch and engineer had retired to rest (they have to anchor and lay-to at night in the Great Barrier Reef channels), the saurian managed to free himself from his bonds, and started on a voyage of discovery around the decks. Arriving at the stoke-hold, he either incontinently stumbled into it, or descended of malice prepense, sniffing the chance of a supper or a good joke at the engineer's expense. Anyway, the engineer was aroused from his peaceful dozings with the impression that the last day of reckoning had arrived, and, rushing up the hatchway, awakened the whole ship's strength with his frantic outcries. The NILE CROCODILE, the most familiar form in European menageries, and once abundant throughout Egypt to the Nile's delta, has now retired to the upper reaches of that great river. It never attains to the dimensions of the estuarine form. By the ancient Egyptians, as is well known, this species was pampered and worshipped with divine honours while living, and after death em- balmed and preserved in the catacombs. Other noteworthy croco- diles, of which space will allow only of the mention of their names, are the AMERICAN or ORINOCO CROCODILE, and the LONG-SNOUTED CROCODILE of West Africa, which distantly approach to the LONG- SNOUTED GAVIAL or GARIAL of India, in which the snout is elongated in a beak-like flut> */*«*"•' D. c*r«B, £,?.] \_phnad.ifhit manner, and armed with close A CROCODILE FROM SOUTHERN UNITED STATES rows of long, recurved teeth, _. , Sneriallv ariantorl fXr ,-fe of crocodiles, as compared -with those of alligators, are much less uniform in liu specially adapted lor its ex- ana- character CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS , clusively fish-eating propensities. Full-grown examples of the gavial may attain to a length of 20 feet. The TYPICAL or MISSISSIPPI ALLIGATOR is, as its name denotes, a North American form, having the modified dental and other structural details previously re- ferred to, but otherwise in size and its aggressively destructive habits nearly corresponding with the Oriental crocodile. A second species of alligator is found in China. Inthetropical South American rivers the place of the alligator is occupied by the CAIMANS, some of which attain to huge pro- portions, and are distinguished from the former by the greater development of the bony armature of both their back and under- surface, and by certain essential, but to the lay reader obscure, modifications of the skull. An ex- ample of the GREAT CAIMAN once did duty as a riding-horse to the naturalist Waterton, as all those familiar with his book of travels will remember. The habits of the caiman differ somewhat locally. From the main stream of the Lower Amazon they are in the habit of migrating in the dry season to the inland pools and flooded forests. In the middle districts of the same river, where the drought is excessive and protracted, the caimans are addicted to burying themselves in the mud till the rains return; while in the upper reaches of the Amazon, where the droughts are not prolonged, the caimans are perennially present. The eggs of these reptiles are much esteemed for food by the natives of Dutch Guiana. Phatt by Scholastic Pbolo. Co. MISSISSIPPI AND CHINESE ALLIGATORS The Chinese species, "which is the smaller of the two, feeds mainly upon Jish CHAPTER II TORTOISES AND TURTLES THE order of the Chelonians, including the Tortoises, Turtles, and Terrapins, with their allies, constitutes one of the most distinct and readily defined groups of the Reptile Class. The more or less complete bony shell, or carapace, which encases the body, and into which both head and limbs can in many cases be completely retracted, separates these reptiles very widely from the other orders. In some respects certain details of the skull- structure assimilate them to the Crocodiles ; but here again there is an entire absence of the rows of formidable teeth, the upper and lower jaws being sharply pointed, covered with horn, and thus converted into a trenchant beak. The two leading groups of the Tortoises and the Turtles are distinctly separated, by the respective conformation of their limbs, for a terrestrial or aquatic existence. The Tortoises have normal walking-legs, with toes and, in most instances, claws, fitting them for walking on the land or burrowing into the earth. In the True Turtles 552 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD these limbs take the form of flattened paddles, and in no instance are more than two of the toes provided with claws. The TORTOISES are sub-divided by zoologists into some six or eight subordinate groups or families, for the most part distinguished by the respective modifi- cations of their protective shells. This shell in all tortoises and turtles consists of two essential elements — the upper or back casing, known as the " carapace," and the under one, or so-called " plastron," which covers the ventral surface. In some forms these two elements are completely welded into one another, forming a continuous box-like shell ; in others they are more or less separate ; while in yet another series the lower shell is rudimentary. These distinctions have been found to constitute a convenient basis for classification. In the TRUE LAND-TORTOISES, which invite first attention, the upper and lower shells are completely united in a box-like form, and the neck, bent in the form of the letter S> can be completely retracted within it. The limbs are club-shaped, covered with horny scales or tubercles, and adapted for walking, the toes being unwebbed, and provided with strong claw-like nails. Pre-eminent among this typical terrestrial series come the huge GIANT or -ELEPHANT-TORTOISES, formerly abundant, as their fossil remains indicate, in Southern Europe, India, and North and South America, and now represented only in the isolated oceanic islands of Aldabra, off Madagascar, the Seychelles, and the Galapagos groups. Even within historic times they were very abundant in the islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues; but their huge size and lethargic habits, combined with their esculent qualities, have brought about their extermination. Those remaining in the islands mentioned are now so reduced in numbers that there is a possibility of their becoming extinct at an early date, and this notwithstanding the strenuous endeavours that are being made to save them. A large percentage of the small residue of these giant Chelonians have been transported from their island homes and presented to the London Zoological Gardens, where they are now comfortably housed. An instructive idea of the aspect and relative dimen- sions of these giant tortoises may be obtained by a refer- ence to page vii of the First Volume, in which one of these Chelonians is shown to be equal in size and strength to carrying a human rider. It is recorded that these reptiles were so abundant in the island of Rodrigues in 1691 that one might count as many as 3,000 of them in a single flock, and walk for over 100 paces upon their backs. All of these giant tortoises, as obtained from separate island groups, or islets of the groups, exhibit characteristic differences, indicating the length of time they have been separated from one another. The age to which these giant tortoises attain is altogether One example at Port Louis, Mauritius, ASIATIC TORTOISES A tortoise, like a turtle, turned over on its backt re f retents one if the most helflea of living animals Phttt by C. N. Mavrytni'] [Sm>r EUROPEAN TORTOISE A tortoise' t shell, or carapace, constitutes a able house, 'wherein the animal can entirely ' draw for shelter in inclement -weather, or "when attacked by enemies TORTOISES AND TURTLES 553 originally brought from the Seychelles, is definitely known to have lived for over 130 years from the date of its transportation. It is stated to have been of large size when imported ; and as these animals are notoriously slow growers, another couple of centuries may be safely added to its life-span. The Galapagos Islands down to recent times have produced the greater number of species of these tortoises, the carapace of the largest of these not infrequently measuring as much as 4 feet in direct length, and the weight of such an animal being over 400 Ibs. Highly interesting details concerning the Galapagos giant tortoises and their habits are contained in Darwin's "Voyage of the Beagle." At the time of that illustrious naturalist's visit they were still very abundant in the islands. He remarked that they abounded in both the higher and damper and the lower and arid districts, but gave preference to the former. Phttt by S. G. Pajn, f almost similar dimensions. A second closely related member of this family, known by the name of TEMMINCK'S SNAPPER, ttains to yet longer proportions, and is the largest known river-tortoise. The carapace in his species may measure over 2 feet in length, and has three strongly marked longitudinal idges. The head is relatively larger and the tail somewhat shorter than in the preceding pecies. It is a denizen of the southern districts of the United States, being met with in 'exas, Florida, and as far north as the Missouri. The habits of the two species are stated to be identical. Both of them frequent the Svers and swamps of the areas indicated, preferring the waters that have a muddy bottom, nd in some localities occurring in vast numbers. As a rule they prefer lying in deep water near the centre of the river or swamp they inhabit, but they also occasionally ascend to he surface and float in midstream with outstretched necks. Like other water-tortoises, they ome on land to find suitable locations for depositing their eggs. The name of Snappers, ommonly applied to these tortoises, bears reference to their inveterate habit of snapping nd biting viciously at everything placed within their reach. Even from the egg the young >f Temminck's species is wont to display this trait. The animals are somewhat esteemed for bod, and are consequently caught for the market. They will take almost any bait, but manifest a predilection for fish. Considerable caution has necessarily to be exercised in lealing with them in the boats, and it is a common custom to decapitate them immediately hey are hauled on board, otherwise they are capable of inflicting the most terrible wounds with their powerful cutting beaks on the persons of all or any who may remain within their reach. Bathing in waters tenanted by the pugnacious and distinctly aggressive snappers is a risky proceeding, and many cases of serious injuries that have happened to incautious adventurers in this direction have been recorded. The food of both the alligator and Temminck's snapper consists mainly of fish, and where common these tortoises must be ranked among the most potent agencies in denuding the rivers and lakes of their finny denizens. Not content with fish, the larger examples have been known to drag under water and devour such large water- fowl as ducks, and even geese. It is stated that the snappers exhibit a surprising amount of agility in the water, and swim after and capture the fish on which they feed. Such a feat seems scarcely credible of a bulky adult individual, while, moreover, it is provided with a remark- able and effective adapta- tion for taking its prey by stratagem. A very fine example of Tem- minck's snapper was for many years confined in a tank in the Reptile- Phcte by Schtljstu Photo. Co. A GIANT TORTOISE WITH A COMMON TORTOISE ON ITS BACK Illustrating their comparative d.mensioni 558 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD house in the Regent's Park Zoological Gardens. It usually lay prone at the bottom of ; its tank, giving little or no signs of life throughout the day, but was wont to display more activity and to move about its tank at night. At times, when ready for a fresh food-supply, it was observed that it would lie motionless as a stone, as usual, but with its mouth open to its widest gape. This attitude it would maintain for several hours together. The singularity of this action was that the gaping jaws displayed to view two elongate worm-like structures, which sprang close to one another from the floor of the mouth just within its entrance. These worm-like appendages were continually writhing to and fro, and presented in both aspect and movements a most remarkable resemblance to actual living worms. With this naturally provided decoy for fish there can be no need for the snapper to exhaust its energies in the strenuous pursuit of its quarry. To make the delusion complete, the head, neck, and chin of Temminck's snapper are decorated with small lobular or leaf- like membranous appendages resem- bling sponges or aquatic vegetation. The solid grey-brown triangular head of the animal itself might easily mistaken for a piece of rock, an thus decorated with seemingly natural growths the unwary fish come browsing along it, rush upon the wriggling worms at the entrance of the cavernous chamber, and are lost. A photograph of this interesting Chelonian is reproduced on page 560, which depicts it with its mouth open, and indicates both the position and the presence of the worm-like decoy- appendages. There are several water-tortoi presenting a considerable external resemblance to the forms already noticed which belong to distinct family groups. Thus the MATAMATA TORTOISE of Northern Brazil has at first sight, except for its short tail and nose-like proboscis, much in com- mon with Temminck's snapper. Fim- briated and foliaceous membranous outgrowths are developed on the head and neck to a much more luxuriant degree, and it would be interesting to ascertain if it possesses similar decoy-appendages inside the mouth. The so-called SNAKE-NECKED WATER-TORTOISES of South America, and the LONG-NECKED aquatic ones of Australasia, possess modifications of skull-structure and other details that indicate family distinctness. A broad external character that serves to separate this group from the Terrapins and all preceding forms is that the neck, when drawn within the cavity of the carapace, is not flexed in the form of the letter S, but simply bent sideways along the anterior margin of the body. The species belonging to this group, which includes the Matamata, Snake-necked, and Soft-shelled Water-tortoises, and also a few essentially terrestrial species, are distinguished collectively by the appellation of the " SlDE-NECKED " TORTOISES. fhtto b, S. G. Pajn, & Son, Ayltsbur), by f,rmi,sion of tht Hon. (falttr Rothschild ELEPHANT-TORTOISE Illustrating the ample chamber-like space provided -within the carapace for the retraction of the head and limbs TORTOISES AND TURTLES 559 TURTLES Certain of the Terrapins, or Water- tortoises, belonging to the groups above described •equent saline river-estuaries and salt marshes, but none are strictly marine. With the 'urtle Family, however, we arrive at an exclusively pelagic section, in which the animals re specially adapted for life in the high seas, the walking-limbs of the terrestrial and -esh-water species being replaced by long and powerful swimming-flippers. The shell in nese marine Chelonians is more or less heart-shaped and flattened, and the carapace and lastron are always separate, and never united in a rigid box-like form, as with the Land- ortoises. In common with those fresh-water tortoises which pass the greater portion of heir existence in lakes or rivers, the MARINE TURTLES resort to the land to deposit their [ggs. The locations chosen are the sand-beaches or isolated sandy islets in tropical oceans, '.-herein, after excavating hollows to receive them, the eggs are covered up and left to By pirmiision of thi New Tori Zoological Society SNAPPING-T URTLE Aho known as the Alligator-terrapin, -with reference to its long, alligator-like tail hatch with the heat of the sun. The eggs of turtles differ from those of the Land-tortoises and Terrapins in that their external covering is soft or leathery. So soon as the young turtles are hatched, they emerge from the sand, and instinctively make their way to the water. Many, however, are the perils that beset their course, and few there be out of perhaps 80 or 100 turtlets which gain the shore and get through into deep water, hawks and sea-birds of every description are waiting ready to pounce down upon them immediately they make their appearance, or to thin their ranks as they run the gauntlet of perhaps 100 yards or so to reach the sea in safety. Even at the water's edge the ordeal is by no means passed. Shoals of the smaller sharks and other predatory fish are continually cruising round in the shallow water, and have as high an appreciation of the toothsomeness of tender turtle as the proverbial London alderman. The writer was fortunate on one occasion, among the coral islands on the Australian coasts, to light upon a young turtle brood 560 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Pnm bf Tort &• Sen] \_Nclting Hill TEMMINCK'S SNAPPER The two white points "visible on the lower jaw represent the fair of •worm-like appen- daga which the creature uses as a bait to attract or just emerging from their san nest. The majority were assiste to the sea, and a few, reserved in the interests of science, were liberated in a bath of sea-water to have their first swim. Snap- shot photographs were taken, one of which, reproduced on page 561, serves to illustrate the great relative length of the paddle-like limbs at this early stage and the variety of postures assumed during natation. Of the typical Marine Turtles three distinctly characterised species are recognised by zoologists. These are the GREEN TURTLE, indispensable for soup at alder- manic banquets ; the HAWKSBILL, or tortoiseshell-producing turtle; and^the LOGGERHEAD. Of these three, the green turtle and the loggerhead more nearly resemble one another, and are apt to be confounded by the uninitiated. Such an error is very readily detected when the Chelonian comes to the table, the flesh of the loggerhead being rank and utterly unfit for food. In order, however, to be wise before the event, and to avoid a grievous misdirection of culinary energy — turtle being a standard dish in the coral seas — it is only necessary to count the number of large shield-like plates that flank each side of the central series in the creature's carapace. In the true green or edible turtle there are only four pairs of these large lateral shields, while in the loggerhead there are never less than five, and sometimes more. The loggerhead-turtle also, as its name implies, has a conspicuously larger and coarser head than the esculent species. The fact that while the green turtle is a strict vegetarian, feeding entirely on seaweeds, the loggerhead is altogether carnivorous, readily accounts for the diametrically diverse gastronomic properties of these two Chelonians. Both species attain to a considerable size, over 3 feet in length (the loggerhead being the larger and are found inhabiting the same waters throughout the tropics. The HAWKSBILL, or true tortoiseshell-producing turtle, never attains to quite as 1; dimensions as the two preceding species, though its carapace may measure as much as 2 feet 6 or 8 inches long. The structural feature that at once distinguishes the hawksbill from either the green or loggerhead species is the character of the horny shields developed on the surface of the carapace. Instead of the edges meeting in juxtaposition, as in those two ; forms, they overlap one another, like the scales of a fish, and are notable for their thickness and their exceedingly beautiful but variably marbled patterns. It is these marbled horny plates which constitute the tortoise-shell of commerce. In young individuals the substance is thin and very transparent, but thickens with advancing age, until in old individuals the plates may vary from \ to \ inch in thickness. Like the two preceding species, the hawksbill, within tropical seas, enjoys a cosmopolitan distribution. Its habits, like the loggerhead's, are essentially carnivorous ; but while the flesh is coarse and rank, the eggs are valued for the table. A OO A remaining member of the Marine Turtle series is the so-called LuTH or LEATHERY TURTLE. This Chelonian differs so materially in structure from the foregoing species as to be referred to a distinct family. The horny plates, so conspicuous in all the other types, are entirely absent, the bony carapace, which is distinctly seven-ridged longitudinally, being covered with a homogeneous leather-like skin. Both jaws are formidably hooked and cutting throughout their edges, and the paddles are destitute of the two rudimentary claws found in the preceding species. The leathery turtle grows to an immense size ; specimens TORTOISES AND TURTLES jhave been recorded measuring as much as 8 feet in total length and weighing over 1,600 Ibs. jits flesh is not only unfit for food, but is reported to be of a poisonous character. The coasts iof Florida and Brazil are among the areas where the leathery turtle is met with in the ^greatest abundance. The more ordinary method of capturing turtle for the market or to supply the deficiencies of the larder aboard ship in tropical climates is to land at night, preferably when the moon is full, on the islands to which the females are in the habit of repairing to deposit their eggs. This function is invariably discharged during the night hours, and unless the moon is up the presence of the reptiles is not easily determined. Time is generally given for the turtle to excavate its sand-burrow and lay its eggs, usually over a hundred in number, the proper Ph,tc by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] [Milftrd^n-Sit NEWLY HATCHED TURTLES ENJOYING THEIR FIRST SWIM The limbs at this early stage of their development are of an abnormal length v moment for the capture being that when, the task accomplished, it sets forth to regain its more accustomed element. The creature is then seized and turned suddenly upon its back, where it is left to struggle and flounder helplessly, being perfectly incapable of righting itself, while other captures are made. On outlying coral islands, such as those of the Lacepedes, off the Western Australian coast, several dozen of the Chelonians may represent one good night's haul, the choice of the fittest examples being left until the return of daylight. In many places turtles are pursued in the water and speared ; while in some locations, notably at Keeling Island, as recorded by Darwin, the animals are chased by the natives in sailing-craft. One man steers the boat, the other one standing in the bows on the look-out for turtle. A Chelonian being sighted, an exciting stern chase ensues, and on coming abreast with the quarry the look-out man plunges into the water straight upon the turtle's back, and 562 THE LIVING ANIMALS Fhac bf H. V. Ltclmann CUBAN TERRAPINS In common "with many other water-tortoises, or terrapins, this species is essentially gregarious in its habits isted, clings pertinaciously with both hands to the shell of the neck until the creature is exhaustec when it is dragged into the boat. The most remarkable method of taking turtle, however, is that practised in Torres Straits, as also at Mozambique and formerly in the West Indies. The sucking-fish, or remora, is in this case impressed into the service of the human fishers. Taking advantage of the fish's natural propensity to swim towards and adhere pertinaciously to any larger floating object, fishermen go out with specimens kept alive in a small well in the bottom of their boats. When in pursuit of turtle, a long light line is attached to the fish's tail ; and coming within sight of a Chelonian, the fish, with an abundance of slack or pay-out line, is thrown in the direction of the turtle. The remora immediately swims towards and adheres firmly to the under surface of the shell of the turtle, when it will suffer its body to be torn asunder rather than let go its hold of its newly gained sanctuary. Should the turtle be a small one, both fish and turtle are dragged with the line back to the boat. If, on the other hand, it is of large size, one of the natives plunges into the water, and, following the line down, secures the turtle. In the island of Ascension the cultivation and breeding of turtles for exportation in artificially constructed enclosures have for a considerable time been the subject of an important industry. There are doubtless many other locations on both the Australian coast-line and in the British West Indies where this highly profitable trade could be established. In addition to the green turtle, attention might also be. profitably directed at the same locations to the culture of the tortoiseshell-bearing species. Tortoiseshell possesses the singular and useful property of being susceptible of perfect amalgamation. Consequently a number of small-sized pieces can be welded so indistinguishably with one another as to serve the same use as the larger plates for commercial purposes. This amalgamation is effected by bevelling the edges of the two pieces that it is desired to unite along the proposed line of junction, and then, while they are held in juxtaposition in a metallic press, submitting them to the action of boiling water. CHAPTER III LIZARDS THE Lizard Tribe or Sub-order is notable as containing a greater number of specific forms than any other of the Reptilian groups, no less than 1 ,700 distinct species being described in the most recently published catalogues. While formerly regarded as constituting a separate and independent order of the Reptile Class, later investigations have demonstrated that lizards are so inti- mately related through sundry intermediate types with the Snakes that they cannot be recognised as constituting other than a sub-section of the same order. The two groups of the Lizards and Snakes are consequently, and with refer- ence more particularly to their commonly shared scaly armatures, technically distin- guished by the appellation of Scaled Reptiles. While the more typical members of the Lizard Tribe are readily distinguished from the Snakes by the possession of well- developed limbs, a no inconsiderable number of species are altogether devoid of these appendages, or possess them only in a partially developed or rudimentary condition. The British BLIND-WORM, or SLOW-WORM, constitutes an example of such a legless lizard, although on account of its outward snake-like appearance it is commonly regarded as a snake by the un- educated. In the South Euro- pean so-called GLASS-SNAKE, or SCHELTOPUSIK, here figured, the snake-like aspect and creeping habits are still more conspicuous, but yet when examined more crit- ically its lizard affinities become apparent. One of the most readily apprehended external characters that serve to distinguish this and the majority of the legless lizards from snakes is the posses- sion by the former of movable eyelids and conspicuous external ear-openings. Among snakes eyelids are invariably absent, the Fhott by E. C. jttkinten BLIND-WORM Notwithstanding its name, the blind-worm pos- sesses small, very bright little eyes Phett by W. StrvHli-Kent, F.Z.S. [Milftrd-m-Sta GLASS-SNAKE, OR SCHELTOPUSIK The presence of movable eyelids distinguishes this legless lizard from the true snakes Photo b) W. Savillt-Ktnt, F.Z.S.-] GLASS-SNAKE HHH1 [Mil/ord-, Snails constitute the favourite food of the glass-snaks 563 564 THE LIVING ANIMALS ,OF THE WORLD eyes, by way of compensation, being covered by transparent horny plates, which impart to these creatures that peculiar stony stare which un- doubtedly constitutes one of the most repulsive features of their tribe. There are, however, a few exceptional lizards devoid of eyelids, though these species do not take a snake-like form. Lizards, while distributed through- out temperate and tropical regions, attain to the zenith of their repre- sentation in size, number, and variety of form and colour in tropical and sub-tropical countries. The majority of species are essentially sun-wor- shippers, and in temperate climates, such as that of England, where they are but sparsely represented, pass the cheerless winter months in a state of torpid hibernation. The first position among the Lizard Tribe is usually accorded to the GECKO FAMILY — a group number- ing 280 species, which present several somewhat anomalous features and characteristics. In the first place, in contradistinction to the majority of lizard forms, they are for the most part nocturnal in their habits, and have their eyes specially modified to meet them. Geckos, as the exception to the ordinary lizards previously referred to, possess no eyelids and the pupil of the eye, as seen in broad daylight, is mostly represented by a narrow vertical slit, like that of a cat, or a nocturnal dog-fish. As the night approaches, however, the membranous diaphragm is retracted, displaying to view a symmetrically orbicular pupil of abnormal size and luminosity. Another prominent characteristic of the geckos is the peculiar modification of their feet, which in most instances are furnished with adhesive disks or pads, which enable these lizards to run with ease, after the manner of flies, on the smooth surface of a wall or window-pane, or even along th! ceilu s' r uTt is further noteworthy of the geckos that they are the only lizards which BURMESE GECKO possess the power of emitting Undcr-surface showing minute hexagonal tcalu and peculiar structure of tht adhesive toe-pads Ph,t . Savillt-Ktnt, F.Z.S. BURMESE GECKOS One of the largest members of the tribet measuring 8 or 10 inches in length **•*• */ LIZARDS 565 r Phttt, ty W. Savillt-Ktnt, F.Z.S. MADEIRAN GECKOS Madeiran geckos photographed through a glass •window-pane, shelving the peculiar formation of their adhesive toe-pads. One example it regroiving its recently amputated tail. These geckos often travel from Madeira to Co-vent Garden Market among banana bunches distinct vocal sounds. The name Gecko is, in point of fact, derived from the fancied resemblance to the word that constitutes the shrill, somewhat bird-like note of one of the most familiar species. " Tok," " toki," " chick, chick," " checko," and " tocktoo " are distinctive call-notes that are respectively associated with other members of the Gecko Family. The geckos are most numerously represented in the Indian and Australasian regions. None of them attain to large dimensions. They rarely exceed I foot in total length, and most frequently measure some 3 or 4 inches only. Geckos, in common with many other lizards, are notable for the facility with which their tail becomes detached and left in the hands of their would-be captor. In course of time a new tail sprouts out from the truncated stump of the original member, and within a few more months equals it in dimensions. It not infrequently happens that two or even three new tail-sprouts take the place of the original appendage, imparting to the little creature a most bizarre appearance. The above photograph includes an example of the Madeiran species in which a new tail-bud of a normal character has just commenced to grow. The nearest approach to the phenomenon of flight among lizards occurs in what are known as the FLYING-DRAGONS, belonging to the family of the Agamas, which next invites attention. These lizards are all of relatively small size, not exceeding a few inches in length, and inhabit the Indo-Malayan region. In these singularly specialised forms six or seven of the posterior ribs are abnormally produced on each side of the body, and so united together by thin, semi- transparent membrane as to form a pair of wing-like expansions. When not in use, these structures are folded, after the manner of a fan, closely against the animal's sides, while, when extended, they constitute a most effective parachute, wherewith the little creatures accomplish flying leaps from tree to tree, after the manner of the Flying-squirrels and Phalangers. The 566 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD colour of these wing-like structures varies among the many different specific forms, being in some instances spotted or reticulated like those of a butterfly. This same family of the Agamoid Lizards includes a number of species of very dissimilar aspect and habits, which are almost exclusively confined to the Old World or Oriental zoloogical region. Australia in particular is remarkably rich in representatives of this group, many of them of con- siderable size. Certain of these have within recent years been found to be endowed with the power of bipedal locomotion. The FRILLED LIZARD of Queensland and the northern territories of Western Australia was the first species in which this bipedal habit was authentically demonstrated in connection with examples observed in Australia and also brought to England by the writer, one of the last-named examples furnishing the photographs reproduced on page 567. In other respects this lizard is one of the most remarkable of its tribe. The peculiar Elizabethan collar-like frill, capable of erection or depression at the creature's will, imparts to it a most singular appearance. When at rest or undisturbed, this mem- branous frill-like structure is folded down in neat, symmetrical pleats around the lizard's neck. Should the creature be approached by man or dog or other aggressive animal, the mouth springs open to its widest, and simultaneously with this action the frill is erected like the sudden opening of an umbrella, and stands out at right angles around the neck, imparting to it a most formidable and threatening aspect. Dogs, in fact, which will habitually chase and kill larger lizards, such as the Monitors, will frequently halt and retire discomfited when confronted with a frilled lizard at bay with its frill erected. The brilliant colour of this frill, more especially in the male, adds very considerably to the formidable appearance of this lizard. While the body of this lizard is usually of a light brown colour, with more or less distinct darker transverse bars and reticulations, the frill-like membrane has a ground-colour in which orange and chrome-yellow chiefly predominate, and upon which are superimposed splashings and speckles of brilliant scarlet. While the total length of this averages 2 feet, the expanded frill in adult males is not infrequently as much as 8 or 9 inches in diameter. The peculiar, grotesquely human aspect presented by the frilled lizard when running on its hind legs only will be appreciated on reference to the^ accompanying photographs. This erect attitude is only assumed when the frilled lizard is traversing more or less considerable distances and moving on level ground. Under Phtit b) W.Savill,-Kint, F.Z.S. FLYING-DRAGON OF JAVA A lizard tuith -wing-like membranes supported by the abnormally developed ribs. It takes long flights from tree to tree Flint i; ff. Savillt-Ktnt, F.Z.S. FRILLED LIZARD AT BAY WITH EXPANDED FRILL bj If. Savillt-Ktnt, F.Z.S. FRILLED LIZARD WITH FRILL FOLDED UP Phttt by If.- Savillt-Ktnt, F.Z.S. FRILLED LIZARD RUNNING ON ITS HIND LEGS (VIEW FROM THE REAR) Phttt . Savillt-Ktnt, F.Z.S. FRILLED LIZARD RUNNING ON ITS HIND LEGS (BROADSIDE VIEW) 567 568 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD other circumstances it progresses on all-fours, after the manner of the ordinary members of its class. Several other lizards belonging to the family group of the Agamas have been demon- strated by the writer to move in the same manner as the frilled species. LESEUR'S WATER-LIZARD, also a Queensland form, which attains to a length of 3 or 4 feet, is a notable example in this connection. As implied by its name, it is semi-aquatic in its habits. It frequents scrubs in the neighbourhood of river-banks and backwaters, and passes a considerable portion of its time in shallow water with only its nostrils elevated above the surface. It is a most expert swimmer, sculling itself with grace and rapidity, aided only by its long, laterally compressed tail. Examples brought to England and kept alive for some years by the writer were observed, in hot weather more particularly, to sleep at nights in their water-tanks. The several instances of bipedal locomotion among living lizards, as here chronicled, ar of especial interest in correlation with the circumstance that certain extinct Dinosaurs habitually progressed on their hind limbs only. They, in fact, have left " footprints on the sands of time " which indubitably prove this assumption. There is, however, no relationship between the two groups, and the resemblance is one of pure analogy, just as both bats and birds fly, although they have no kinship. Among other interesting lizards included in the Agama Family, mention may be made of the singular JEW or BEARDED LIZARD of Australia — a flattened, broad-set form, some 14 or 15 inches long, brown in hue, and clothed with rough imbricated scales, but whose chief peculiarity consists of the ex- pansive beard-like development of the cuticle immediately underneath the animal's chin. As in the frilled lizard, this cuticular ex- crescence is only conspicuous when the creature is excited, at other times being contracted and indistinguishable from an ordinary skin-fold. When retiring to rest, these lizards, in their adult state, almost invariably climb up and cling to the rough bark of a convenient tree, and when young and more slender will also ascend saplings, on which they sleep, clinging by their inter- locked claws. Another member of the Agama Family which invites brief notice is the so-callec . DEVIL, or MOUNTAIN-DEVIL, of Western and Central Australia. This lizard is of comparativ small size, rarely exceeding 6 or 7 inches in length. Its feeble form and stature, however, are abundantly compensated for by the complex panoply of spines and prickles by which its head and limbs and body are effectually protected. The natural food of this singular izard consists exclusively of ants, the small black, evil-smelling species which often proves itself a pest by its invasion of the Australian colonists' houses being its prime favourite. These are picked up one by one by the rapid flash-like protrusion and retraction of the btt 5 creature's adhesive tongue, and the number of ants which are thus assimilated by a oloch lizard at a single meal is somewhat astonishing. A number of examples of this species were kept by the writer in Australia, and their gastronomic requirements fully satisfied Phut I) W. Savillt.Ktnt, F.Z.S. AUSTRALIAN TREE-LIZARD This ifeciet also runs on its hind legs (/) 0) £K JS LIZARDS every day by taking them into the garden and placing them in communication with a swarming ant track. By care- ful observation it was found that no less than from 1,000 to 1,500 ants were devoured by each lizard at a single sitting. The ant-devouring proclivities of these prickly little lizards can no doubt be turned to very useful and effective account in clearing ant-infested domiciles, and were in fact thus utilised by the Writer On more than One phttt */ ir. samiu-Ktm, F.Z.S. AUSTRALIAN WATER-LIZARD This lizard is of aquatic habits, and runs on its hind legs -when traversing long distancet occasion. The lizards included in the Agama Family are essentially inhabitants of the Eastern Hemisphere, none occurring in America. In the western continent, however, we find an equally extensive but structurally distinct group which presents many singularly corresponding types. This family comprises the true IGUANAS, many of them of considerable size, and a numerous assemblage of smaller forms. Among those species which present a striking parallel in size and aspect to the peculiarly characteristic Old World Agamas, mention may be made of the little so-called HORNED TOAD, or SPINY LIZARD, of California. This species might readily be taken by the uninitiated for a near relation of the Australian Moloch Lizard, or Mountain-devil, last described, its flattened diminutive form and bristling spiny armature seemingly justifying such a supposition. The crucial test afforded by the character of the dentition, however, distinctly indicates its true position to be with the Iguanas. In the Agamas the teeth are invariably developed from the apex, or summit, of the jaw. These teeth, moreover, are varied in character. In the Iguanas, on the other hand, the teeth are all more or less uni- form in character, and are attached to the outer sides of the jaw. The larger iguanas are, for the most part, exclusively fruit- and vegetable-feeders, and arboreal in their habits. The thick forest scrubs in the vicinity of streams and rivers are their favourite resort. After the manner of the Australian water- lizards, these Iguanas are expert swimmers, and delight in lying along the overhanging branches, whence at the slightest alarm they can pre- cipitate themselves into the water beneath. When swimming, the fore limbs are folded back against the sides, the tail only being used fh°t<,ty(f.saviii..Kint,F.z.s. as a means of propulsion. Sev- AUSTRALIAN WATER-LIZARD eral of the larger Iguanas, such Sho-wing attitude -when running as the common or tuberculated 570 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Phttt k) W. Savillt-Ktnt, F.Z.S. BEARDED LIZARD With its beard-like throat-membrane fully expanded Ph,i, by »f. Savilli.Ktnti F.Z.S.~\ [Milfird-on-Sia AUSTRALIAN JEW OR BEARDED LIZARDS Iht scales of the bearded lizard are exceedingly rough and sharp, sometimes cutting the skin of those ivho handle them incautiously found it in considerable numbers on the shores of the islands which constitute the Galapagos group. The lizards "were observed to spend much of their time swimming in the sea, but at no very great distance from the land. Experi- ments proved that they could live for a very considerable interval entirely submerged, examples sunk with weights for as much as an hour emerging entirely unaffected from the ordeal. While the Iguanas may be described as essentially American, one or two exceptional forms are found inhabiting the relatively remote regions of the Fiji Islands and Mada- gascar. The so-called Fiji BANDED IGUANA (photographs of a pair of which, once in the writer's possession, are reproduced on page 575) is a very beautiful creature. The body is shapely and well proportioned, and terminates in a tail of abnormal length — equal to quite twice that of the body — the entire dimensions measuring some 3 feet. The male is much more bright in hue than the female; for while the latter is usually of a uniform light green throughout, the male is variegated, with broad, alternating bands of brightest species, attain to a considerable length, 5 or 6 feet; their bodies are proportionably thick, and the white flesh, in this last-named variety more particularly, is highly esteemed as a table delicacy. The common TUBERCULATED IGUANA is an essentially handsome species, its skin being variegated with bands and shadings of brown and green, which are lightest and brightest in the males and younger individuals; the neck and snout and jaws are decorated with pro- jecting, rounded tubercles ; a large, baggy, dewlap-like membrane, capable of inflation at the animal's will, depends from the chin and throat ; and a deeply serrated crest of elevated scales extends from behind the head, down the centre of the back, nearly to the extremity of the tail. The Iguana Family includes a species with essentially marine proclivities, this being the GALA- PAGOS SEA-LIZARD. This animal was first discovered to science by the late Mr. Charles Darwin, who Phtto t>) If. Savillt-Ktnt, F.Z.S. A YOUNG BEARDED LIZARD Showing its habitual sleeping attitude LIZARDS 571 Ph,t» by if. Savillt-Ktnt, F.Z.S. AUSTRALIAN YORK OR MOUNTAIN -DEVIL A spinous lixard which inhabits the arid plains of Central Australia merald-green and pale French grey. Around he lips and eyes there are lines of brightest ellovv, and the throat is almost pure white. The small group of GIRDLE-TAILED .IZARDS belongs exclusively to the African nd Madagascan regions, its typical repre- entative being the Cape and Orange River olony species, illustrated on page 575. The ymmetrical whorls of long, spinous scales ncircling the tail in this and the allied orms constitute a prominent feature, and ave originated the popular name of Girdle- ails. The most aberrant representatives of le Lizard Tribe, with regard to one very mportant characteristic, are undoubtedly the wo species of HELODERM, or " SILATICA," as ley are called by the natives. These reptiles page 576) occupy the unenviable position of eing the only known lizards which possess oisonous properties, their bite having been emonstrated to be fatal to smaller mammals, nd to be attended by very serious symptoms in the case of human subjects being bitten. he more common MEXICAN HELODERM has been in residence at the Zoo for many years; it ttains to a length of from 18 to 20 inches, and its stout, squat body, short limbs, warty skin, nd peculiar colouring are calculated at first sight to awaken a feeling of revulsion in the beholder. Like the wasp, the salamander, and other animals whose conspicuous tints indicate their poisonous or other baneful properties, the heloderm is distinguished by a lurid ground- colour, varying in individuals from yellow-orange to flesh-pink, upon which are superimposed bold, network-like markings of blue-black or dark brown tints. Along the tail these reticu- lations usually take the form of more or less irregular rings. Although the heloderms possess such deadly properties, those at the Zoo manifest a by no means aggressive disposition, and allow their keeper or even strangers to handle them with impunity. In experiments pur- posely made to substantiate or refute the previously current rumours as to the poison- ous nature of these animals, two guinea-pigs succumbed to bites received in the course of the day. The owner of the reptiles, who was also bitten on one occasion through incautiously handling, suffered very severe, though happily not fatal, effects. In con- nection with its poison-dealing properties it is found that it possesses certain long and fang-like teeth, which are set loosely in the jaws, and which have grooves before and behind for the transmission of the poison, SPINOUS LIZARD, OR MOUNTAIN-DEVIL which is secreted by special glands situated Thh specie feeds exclusively upon ants close to their base. The favourite habitat of 572 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD J fhtto by W. Savidt-Kint, F.Z.S. A GROUP OF MOUNTAIN-DEVILS OF CENTRAL AUSTRALIA The spines of these lizards are so sharp that they "will pierce a tender hand the heloderm is the arid, sandy, and stony region on the western side of the Cordillera mountain- range. It is at the same time said to be rarely seen in those parts except during the rainy season, and also to be for the most part nocturnal in its habits. The family group of the MONITORS includes the largest of existing lizards, notably the semi-aquatic form common to North Australia and the Malay Peninsula and adjacent islands, which attains a length of 8 or 10 feet, and is not infrequently mistaken, as it rushes, on being disturbed, through the reeds and other rank herbage to the water, for a young crocodile. An exceedingly fine and well set-up example of these huge water-monitors, shot by Captain Stanley Flower in the neighbourhood of Singapore, is placed in the Reptile Gallery of the Natural History Museum. Another species, indigenous to the Southern Australian States, and having essentially arboreal habits, commonly attains to a length of 5 or 6 feet. The skin of one example of this species, obtained for the writer from the eucalyptus forests in Gippsland, Victoria, measures no less than 7 feet long. With reference to the elegant lace-like pattern of its skin-markings, this species is frequently associated with the suggestive title of the LACE-LIZARD. Among the more illiterate settlers it is generally known as a Gooana, the name being obviously a corruption of Iguana, and being, as a matter of fact, applied promiscuously, and in all cases incorrectly, to a number of the larger Australian lizards. All the members of the Monitor Tribe are inveterate egg-eaters. An Egyptian species, the NILE MONITOR, renders service to humanity through the gratification of this propensity in seek- ing out and devouring the eggs of the crocodile. The larger water-monitor of the North Australian and Malay regions has been reported to the writer to be particularly partial to the eggs of the turtle, digging them out of the sand in which the parent deposits them, and destroying them wholesale. The more strictly arboreal Southern Australian species preys to a very large extent on birds' eggs, climbing to the holes in the trunks and branches in which so many Australian birds build their nests, and not infrequently capturing and devouring also the parent birds and young. In the " bush " settlements this monitor is notorious for its depre- dations among the hen-roosts, both eggs and young chickens falling victims to its insatiable appetite. It is conse- HORNED TOAD regarded With but Scant favour 4 tpmj lizard, tome-what reumbling the Auxra'ian mountain-dc-vtl LIZARDS 573 by poultry-farmers, who frequently organise a " gooana " hunt for its special destruction. If surprised out in the open, the quarry at once rushes for a tree, and manifests the most remark- able agility in " swarming " up the smooth, massive trunk, and in dodging round to the side opposite to that on which the sportsman approaches. Not infrequently, trees being remote, the monitor will make for what appears to its apprehension the best substitute for one — viz. the upright figure of the nearest sportsman. Should this happen to be a "new chum" enjoying his maiden essay in "gooana" hunting, he will undoubtedly experience a new sensation as the animal, with its sharp cat-like claws, unceremoniously scrambles up to his head and shoulders. Brought to bay, a monitor pos- sesses a more formidable weapon than its teeth and claws wherewith to repulse the onslaught of the enemy. The long, tough, thong- like tail — not brittle and replace- able, as in many other lizards — is converted, for the time being, into a veritable stock-whip, where- with it will most severely punish incautious aggressors who venture too near. The potency of this offensive and defensive weapon is fully recognised by the reptile- keepers at the Zoo, who freely admit their reluctance to enter the cage of one of these large, long-tailed, but conversely very short-tempered monitors. All of the monitors, in consonance with their pre-eminently carnivorous habits, are more or less savage and intractable. The several species which have fallen within the writer's cognisance proved no exception to the rule. An Egyptian example, injudiciously introduced to the select society of his. extensive miscellaneous collection in a heated greenhouse, proved to be a veritable wolf in the fold, killing several of the choicest specimens before its vindictive propensities were detected and arrested. A com- paratively small and rare spiny-tailed monitor, brought by the writer, in company with the frilled lizards, to England from North-west Australia, would harass and bite any other lizard placed with it, and resent every friendly overture on the part of its owner, even after so much as a whole . twelvemonth's persistent attempts to tame it. Another, the South Australian monitor, or lace-lizard, was no exception to the rule, and had to be maintained in solitary confinement. This particular specimen, nevertheless, evinced, as the following anecdote will show, a very pronounced affection for its provided quarters. One day it effected its escape from the wire-enclosed cage with which it was accommodated in the writer's Brisbane garden, and after prolonged but unsuccessful searcliings it was given up for lost. Considerable astonishment was naturally experienced some ten days later, when the animal was discovered in the garden making frantic attempts to regain access to its former prison-house. During its ten days' absence it had evidently fallen upon evil times, for not only was it in a very emaciated condition, but also bereft of its long and handsome tail. Apparently, after the manner of its tribe, it had been manifesting a too w?rm fnttoby W. Savillt A«n», F.Z.S. HORNED TOAD This species is highly prized for In insect-desti tying procKvitiet 574 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD fhttt by W. P. Dand TUBERCULATED IGUANA This species is esteemed for food by American Indians interest in some neighbour's hen- roost, and received across its tail a stroke with a spade or other cutting instrument that was intended for a more vital region. Disgusted by such unfriendly treatment, it evidently determined that free board and lodg- ing at the hands of its former owner, albeit with the sacrifice of freedom, was a pleasanter line of life than liberty and a precarious commissariat, with added bodily risks. An almost identical episode of the voluntary return to captivity of an escaped monitor has been reported to the writer of a species from Borneo by Dr. G. D. Haviland. The monitors, as a rule, are not distinguished for brilliancy of colouring, shades and mottlings of brown or black being usually dominant. The male of the Australian lace-lizard, after newly changing its coat, is, however, an exception. In addition to the highly ornate lace-like reticulated pattern of its skin-markings, previously referred to, the throat of the animal is resplendent with mingled tints of sky-blue and lemon-yellow. It is necessary, however, to observe that its natural surroundings and the ardent rays of a sub-tropical sun are requisite to bring these brighter tints to their full development. Examples kept in close confinement in the London Zoological Gardens yield little or no indication of their colour potentialities. While the Monitor Family is net represented on the American Continent, we find there another group of lizards whose members are of considerable size, and agree in their carnivorous propensities and general habits in a marked manner with the Monitors. These are the " GREAVED " LIZARDS, named with reference to the peculiar skin-folding on their legs. One of the largest and most familiarly known representatives of this group is the TEGUEXIN, or DIAMOND-LIZARD, indigenous to the greater portion of tropical South America, and also to the West Indies. This lizard attains to a total length of a yard or more, ,,and is of a robust and thick-set build, with the hind limbs much longer and stouter than the front ones. The colour of the teguexin is also notable, the ground-tint being olive or tawny yellow, upon which are superimposed black bands and markings which for the most part take a transverse direction. Like ,//,£,,.] lEMhum. the Monitors, the tuguexin WALL- LIZARD in captivity exhibits a sulky This species is particularly abundant in Italy and aggressive disposition, Photo by E. C. Atkinson SMALL VIVIPAROUS LIZARD Occurs on heaths and commons in the South of England L, , fhtu b) 11. G. f. Sfur LIZARDS 575 Photo by If. Savillt-Ktnt, F.Z.S. BANDED IGUANAS A rare species from the Fiji Islands. Male to the right ; female -without bands to the left. The example crouching between them is a bearded lizard and cannot be safely kept in company with other less i powerful species. The attribute of bipedal locomotion is possessed by the teguexin. That this singular method of progression was an accomplishment possessed by one of the larger tropical American lizards was first reported to the writer from Trinidad. Some species of iguana was, in the first instance, anticipated to be the acrobatic performer. Several ex- amples of this family group were accordingly put through their paces at the Zoo, to ascertain if they could lay claim to the distinction. None of the iguanas available, however, rose (on their hind legs) to the occasion, and it was only on experimenting, as a derniere ressource, with the teguexin that a successful demonstration was accomplished. This lizard was found, in fact, to run bipedally more freely and persistently, when sufficient space was allotted it, than the Agamas. It seems singular that this bipedal power of locomotion should have so long remained undiscovered, and yet is possessed by lizards which have for a number of years been the denizens of many zoological gardens and other menageries. The fact that a comparatively large level area is a sine qua non for the exhibition of this phenomenon affords no doubt the explanation of this anomaly ; but the anomaly itself at the same time serves to accentuate the desirability, in the interests of both science and the animals' comfort, that exists for providing them in cap- tivity with a more liberal and reasonably sufficient space for their indulgence in those methods of locomotion that are natural to them in their native land. The Greaved Lizard Family includes some- what over one hundred species. While the Plutt by W. Savilli-Ktnt, F.ZS. SOUTH AFRICAN GIRDLED LIZARD nri f,/ F i majority agree with the teguexin in the pos- rkable for the spiny armature, -which is arranged in concentric . » « j i i T i_ .v r J ** - ~i ...jill A f*..*f*\ r^*^e*r\ ll»>-»Ho 4-H/at-O Of*a o \f*\1& girdles session of well-developed limbs, there are a few 576 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Phett tj ff. P. DanJn, F.Z.S. ARIZONA HELODERM (POISONOUS LIZARD) In the tuarted texture of its skin-surface the hdoderm differs conspicuously from other lizards retrograde forms in which the hinder limbs are entirely absent or the front ones reduced to mere stumps. These exceptional instances pave the way to the family of the Amphisbaenas, in which such or a still lower phase of limb development represents the normal condition. The Amphisbaenas are remarkable for their worm-like re- semblance, and for the circumstances that they live like earth-worms in bur- rows, that their eyes are functionless (being concealed beneath the skin), and that they are without ears. Other details of structure indicate a most rudimentary condition of develop- ment, and they consequently rank as the lowest group in the Lizard series. Another peculiarity of the Amphisbaenas is that, in place of scales, the skin of the body is divided into square segments, which form symmetrical rings like those of worms. In addition to this, these retrograde lizards possess the worm-like faculty of being able to move backwards and forwards in their burrows with equal facility. It is from this peculiar property that their title of Amphisbsena, signifying " moving both ways," is derived. The representatives of this family, including between sixty and seventy species, are widely distributed, being found in America, the West Indies, Africa, and also European countries that border the Mediterranean While the Teguexins present resemblances in one direction with the Amphisbaenas, or Worm-like Lizards, the higher or Monitor-like forms have much in common with the Typical or True Lizards, of which two small but well-known species — the SAND- and VIVIPAROUS LIZARD — are indigenous to the British Isles. All the members of the True Lizards, num- bering some hundred species, are inhabitants of the Old World, becoming scarce, however, towards the far east of the Asiatic Continent. All possess shapely bodies and well-developed limbs with five-toed feet, and are remarkable for the extreme activity of their movements, and in many cases brilliant colouring. The varying individual shades of the GREEN LIZARD'S brilliant emerald body are almost infinite, no two being quite precisely alike in this respect. In some a yellower, in others a bluer green predominates, while the females and young are more or less mottled or striped with brown. The under surface of the body is usually a more or less bright yellow, and the throat, in the males more particularly, at the breeding-season is frequently brilliant blue. The more conspicuous colour differences exhibited by this lizard are, however, intimately associated with the local habitat of the particular race. Those indigenous to Spain and Portugal, for example, are more or less ornamented with ocellated spots Photc by Scholastic Photo. Co. WHITE MONITOR Thh and other allied species appear to be dead as they lie basking in the sun LIZARDS 577 Ph»t» by H. G. F. Sfurrtll, Etrald-green secondary spots, as seen in daylight, were almost white.- If handled during the ime, the chamaeleon was wont to assume a colour nearly identical with his night garb; the two lines of pink patches, previously invisible, would appear, and, while the orange spotting mamed constant, the emerald-green changed to lemon-yellow. A chamaeleon in a rage is a decidedly grotesque object. The back is arched, the body especially the throat-pouch are inflated to their fullest extent, the mouth is opened, the e s roll, and the creature rocks itself to and fro and hisses in a most threatening manner. i, as often happens, it also simultaneously sits up on its haunches, the effect is doubtleis -ifymg as it is intended to be to a rival chameleon or an small animal which Phut by W. Savidt-Kint, F.Z.S. COMMON CHAMELEON OF SOUTH EUROPE AND NORTH AFRICA A minute or more rs often occupied by the chameleon in making a single far-ward step may sT^fe-i. . • J^ : , 11 Pbtte by W. Sa-ville-Ktnt, F.Z.S.] [Milford-on-Sta A CHAMELEON SHOOTING OUT ITS TONGUE TO CAPTURE A FLY The tongue is capable of extension to a length of no lea than f or 8 inches Pb,U b, C. M. Martin] A PHOTOGRAPH OF A CHAMELEON IN THE ACT OF CATCHING A BUTTERFLY The inflated extremity of the tongue is highly glutinous 583 Phot* by W. Savillt-Kent, F.Z.S.] [Mil ford-on- Sta THE TUATERA OF NEW ZEALAND Belongs to an ancient reptilt race of ivhtch it is the only li-vin survivor smallest pygmy chamaeleon of the Cape scarcely measures 2\ inches. THE TUATERA That singular reptile found on certain small islands lying to the north-east of New Zealand, and known as the TUATERA, differs in so many structural characters from all other lizards that it is assigned to a separate order. Externally the tuatera does not differ materially in form from an ordinary lizard. The skin, however, is peculiar for its leathery, granulated, and wrinkled texture; there is no trace of external ears; the eyes, adapted for nocturnal vision, have in daylight vertical pupils; and the bases of the toes are united by connecting webs. The deeper internal characteristics include the possession of supplementary so-called abdominal ribs, the presence of which are readily ap- prehended on handling the living animal. These structures, while absent in ordinary lizards, find their near equivalent in the breastplate of tortoises and turtles. The teeth are not implanted in distinct sockets, but attached to the summits of the jaws, which are developed in a beak-like manner, and in older individuals fulfil, after the manner of a beak, the functions of the worn- out incisor teeth. Tuateras have been exceedingly scarce of recent years, and in view of their scientific interest, and the risk of their possible ex- tinction, are now protected by the New Zealand Government. Among the multitudinous gifts of which their Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess of Wales were recipients during their recently accomplished world-embracing tour, a pair of living tuatera lizards formed one of the most singular and highly prized contributions accepted from the loyal New Zealanders. Vhott fy If. Savilli-Kint, F.Z.S.] [Milford-on-Sia A TAME TUATERA Is a great acquisition for a greenhouse, feeding on slugs, beetles, ana all noxious insects 584 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD venture to approach it. A number of other lizards, including tree-climbing varieties, were introduced to the company of the examples under observation, and until friendly acquaintance- ship had been established their advances towards the chamaeleons were always repelled. The majority of the chamaeleons lay eggs, but a smaller number produce living young, as with skinks and other lizards. Examples of the common European and North African species kept by the writer excavated holes in the earth, in which they laid their eggs, and then carefully covered them up again. Unfortunately these eggs were not fertilised. One South African species has been reported to the writer as being in the habit of placing and separately wrapping and fastening up each egg as deposited in the leaves of the tree in which it resided. While Africa and Madagascar represent the head centres of distribution of the fifty odd known species of chamaeleons, they enter Europe through the Spanish Peninsula, and extend east- ward to Arabia, India, and Ceylon. The largest known variety, which inhabits Mada- gascar, attains a length of 15 inches; the Pti,i, b) H. G. F. Sfurnll, Esy.\ DARK GREEN SNAKE A native of Italy and other countries bordering the Mediterranean. Accredited -with a particularly fierce disfositioa [ £a CHAPTER V SNAKES THE characteristic contour of a snake's body is too familiar to need elaborate description ; its leading features are, in fact, so nearly approximated by certain of the legless lizards, previously described, that the distinctions between the two can with difficulty be defined. Many of the snake-like lizards, including the Common Blind-worm, are altogether devoid of external limbs. In some snakes, on the other hand, and notably the large terrestrial Pythons, a spur-like development on each side of the base of the tail represents rudimentary hind legs. The Snakes agree essentially with the Lizards in the character of their scaly covering, the scales, however, being larger on their under-surface and specially adapted, as in the legless lizards, for creeping locomotion. The essential distinctions between the two groups have to be sought in the structure of the head. The most notable of these, as it obtains in the Snakes, is the very loose manner in which all the bones connected with the jaws are held together, thus providing for the greatest possible distension in the act of their swallowing their prey whole, as is the custom of all ordinary snakes. To achieve this end, the two halves of the lower jaw are not united together at their extremity or chin, as in lizards, but are merely connected with one another by an elastic ligament. In most snakes the bones of the upper jaw and palate are also attached to one another in a similar way. The eyes of a snake differ in a very marked manner from those of ordinary lizards. No snake possesses movable eyelids. The eye, in compensation, is protected by a transparent horny disk, continuous with the general epidermis, and is shed with it when the snake casts its skin. This feature imparts to snakes that fixed, stony expression of the eyes which undoubtedly contributes very materially towards increasing the feeling of repulsion with which snakes are commonly regarded. A few exceptional lizards, such as the Geckos, have a similar eye-construction, but it is not met with in any of the limbless or snake-like forms. No snakes, again, show any trace of external ear-openings, such structures, on the other hand, being distinctly developed in almost all lizards. The head itself of the snake is never compressed or elevated, as in most lizards, but flattened down and usually wider than the body, to which, however, it is united without a distinct neck. The tongue of the snake is slender, and terminates in two long, thread-like points; basally it is inserted into a hollow sheath, into or out of which the entire organ can be retracted or exserted at will. The somewhat uncanny, flickering action with which a snake, while moving, displays and as it were feels its way with its long, forked tongue represents another element which adds to the 74 585 586 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD disfavour with which these reptiles are commonly regarded. Among the uneducated even at the present day it is not unusual to hear the tongue, with reference to its peculiar shape and vibrating action, pronounced to be the seat and instrument of the animal's poisonous properties. The swift, silent, stealthy, gliding motions with which, apart from any visible organs of locomotion, a snake slides, as it were, along the ground and over all obstacles fill to the brink the measure for its condemnation in the estimation of all but the snake-devotee or the naturalist. The locomotion of the snake is, as a matter of fact, one of the most remarkable and beautifully contrived phenomena in animal mechanics. The peculiarly jointed and abnormally mobile ribs constitute the mystic deus ex machind by which the reptile accom- plishes its migration. These ribs articulate in pairs by a single mobile head with their respective segment of the vertebral column. At their opposite extremity they impinge on and are in muscular connection with the broad, slightly overlapping, shield-like scales which clothe the under surface of the body. The rib-muscles, contracting in rhythmical succession, raise the free overlapping edges of the shield-like scales, which, striking against the ground in the same regular order, push the body forward. Adopting an easily comprehensible simile, the snake's body is carried along the ground on the same principle as a pad- dle-wheel steamer is pushed along the surface of the water, the paddle-boards in the case of the snake being affixed to a long, narrow plane instead of a circular wheel. The poison-fangs of snakes are highly specialised structures, and their presence or otherwise was formerly considered sufficiently dis- tinctive for the separation of these reptiles into two sharply definednatural series. More recent investigations have, however, shown that such a system of classification is entirely artificial, both venomous and harmless species occurring among groups which are related to one another by essential structural characters. The teeth in the ordinary or harmless snakes are usually represented by two rows of slender, recurved, sharply pointed teeth in the upper jaw, and a single row of a similar character in the lower one. This recurved character of the dentition effectively assists the snake in gorging its quarry whole, nothing once seized by the hook-like teeth having a chance of retreating, the snake itself being unable to eject the prey upon which the teeth have fastened. In the most poisonous series, such as a rattle-snake, there is but a single row of recurved teeth in the upper jaw, and these are the equivalents of the inner set of the harmless species. Among the most venomous snakes the poison-fangs are tubular in character, the poison being received from the venom-glands at their open base, and discharged at the apex. In other forms the fangs have grooved channels only for the passage of the virus, while in the other species there may be an intermediate condition. In all cases the poison-secreting glands are modifications of the ordinary salivary glands of other vertebrate animals. They are situated, one on each side, immediately below and behind the eyes, and are in some instances so abnormally developed as to extend backwards along the sides of the body. Special muscles envelop these glands, and force the poison into the hollow base of the fangs when the mouth is opened to strike. fhtio by H. G. F. Sfurnil, £/j.] \_Eastbturnt DARK GREEN SNAKE Closely allied to the rat-snake of India, and preys in a similar manner on rats, mice, and birds Phtt,, by frtdk. Downtr f> by W. Savilli.Kint, F.Z S.] [Milftrd-tn-Sta RONTGEN RAY PHOTOGRAPH OF COMMON FROG The relatively small amount of bone -which enters into the structure of the skull is "well ihoivn in this photograph FROGS AND TOADS ' "(6bl *? A "lifj by tdMut* Photi. Co. ORNAMENTED HORNED TOAD The bite of this toad is highly venomous into which it retires during the months of drought, rushing out into the hollows filled by the thunder-showers while the rain is still actually falling. Even during the long drought these frogs continue their croakings from their retreats at night, and are very misleading to travelers, who customarily associate their presence with the immediate neighbourhood of water. There is a remarkable difference in the voice-timbre of the various species of frogs. In England, with its one indigenous variety, comparisons cannot be instituted. In countries, however, like Austrailia, where numbers of species live in close proximity, the phenomenon is very marked. Some only give voice in the evening or night, while others keep up their clamour throughout the day; with some the note is metallic and almost bell-like, while one diurnal croaking species, which congregates in great numbers in the eastern Tasmanian coast district, emits a loud percussive note closely resembling that of a stone-breaker's hammer. On several occasions, in fact, when driving through the areas these frogs frequented, the impression produced by their croaking was so realistic that the next turn in the road was expected to reveal the presence of a large gang of road-makers engaged in negotiating a wayside stone-heap. One of the most remarkable species is the FLYING-FROG of Java. The power of flight is simulated in this instance on a different principle to that which obtains in any other group. It is not accomplished through the medium of abnormally produced ribs with connecting membrane, as occurs in the Flying-lizards ; nor by means of a flap of skin stretched between the fore and hind limbs, as in the Flying-squirrels and Phalangers. In place of these the toes of all four feet are abnormally prolonged, and their interspaces bridged over to their tips by webbing. The body of this frog is about 4 inches long, while the webs of the feet, when fully expanded, cover collectively an area of fully 12 square inches; they thus constitute aerial floats, which enable their owner to make prodigiously long flying leaps among the trees in which it takes up its abode. The colours of this singular species are striking; the back and limbs are a deep shining green, the under-surface and inner toes yellow, and the webs black rayed with yellow. In common with the typical Tree-frogs, the toes of this Javan flying variety all terminate in a dilated adhesive disk. Among the oddities of the Frog Tribe prominence may be given to the singular SHORT- HEADED FROGS of East Africa. In these the head is so short, and the body, when puffed out, so nearly globular, that they have been aptly described as more nearly resembling india-rubber balls than frogs. Another notable form, inhabiting Chili, is remarkable for the circumstance that the throat-sac of the male is so enlarged and modified as to form a chamber on the under Photo ky (f. P. Dando, F.Z.S. ORNAMENTED HORNED TOAD Is accustomed to pro-wl round farmyards to pick up stray chicks and ducklings 76 602" THE'T'lVlNG ANIMALS OF THE WORLD surface of the body. In this sac the eggs laid by the female are deposited and pass through their tadpole phases. The HORNED FROGS, or HORNED TOADS, of South America constitute a distinct and interesting group. They are of large size, stout and rotund, gorgeously apparelled, and truculent in bearing. There are nearly a dozen known species, the distinctive feature from which they take their name having reference to the stiff, horn-like development of their upper eyelids. The largest species is a native of Brazil, whose body may be as much as 8 inches long. This species has the horn-like processes of the eyelids most prominently developed. A somewhat smaller but conspicuously handsome species, plentiful in the Argentine Republic, is at the present time represented by several individuals at the Regent's Park Gardens. In this animal the body is relatively more obese and toad-like than in the Brazilian form, but the horn-like angle of the upper eyelid is only slightly produced. The colours vary somewhat, the general ground-tint of the upper-surface is bronze-green or yellow, upon which are distributed large spots and blotches of dark olive or chocolate, having light yellow or golden margins. The spots on the limbs are the widest, and almost take the character of cross-bands. Bright claret-red lines are some- times developed in and among the body-spots. A very interesting account of the habits of this frog appears in Mr. W. H. Hudson's "The Naturalist in La Plata." Mr. Hudson reports it as being common on the pampas as far south as the Rio Colorado, in Patagonia. In the breeding-season it congregates in pools, and displays extraordinary vocal powers, which are exercised at night. The notes uttered are long, resembling those of a wind instru- ment, and are so powerful that on still evenings they may be heard distinctly a mile off. After the pairing-season the frogs disperse, and, retiring to moist places, bury themselves just deep enough to leave their broad green backs on a level with the surface. The eyes, under these conditions, look out as from a couple of watch-towers, and are on the qui vive foi any approaching prey. This consists of any moving creature which they can capture, such as other frogs and toads, birds, and small mammals. In very wet seasons they will frequent the neighbourhood of houses, and lie in wait for chickens and ducklings, often capturing and attempting to swallow objects much too large for them. In disposition they are exceedingly pugnacious, savagely biting at anything that comes near them. When teased, the creature swells itself out to such an extent that one expects to see it burst. It follows its tormentors about with slow, awkward leaps, its vast mouth wide open, and uttering an incessant harsh croaking sound. When they bite, these frogs hold on with the tenacity of a bull-dog, poisoning the blood of the creature seized with their glandular secretion. Mr. Hudson records two instances in which to his knowledge horses were killed through being bitten by a horned frog. One of them, while lying down, had been seized by a fold in the skin near the belly ; the other had been grasped by the nose while cropping grass. In both instances the vicious frog was found dead, with jaws tightly closed, hanging to the dead horse. "It would seem," Mr. Hudson remarks, "that they are sometimes incapable of letting go at will, and, like honey-bees, destroy themselves in these savage attacks." fh.t. kf Scholastic fh,,,. Co.] [Parsm, Gr,.n EUROPEAN GREEN TREE-FROG Indigenous to Southern Europe FROGS AND TOADS 603 The TREE-FROGS represent one of the most distinct groups of the tribe. All its members are more or less arboreal in their habits, repairing to the water only during the breeding-season, or leaving the trees to seek shelter in the earth or underneath stones or timber for the purposes of hibernation. As an adaptation for their special habits, the toes of the tree-frogs are provided at their tips with suctorial disks, so that they can walk on perpendicular or smoothly glazed surfaces after the manner of the Geckos among the Lizards. Another characteristic feature is the development on the under surface of their bodies of peculiar granular glands pierced by numerous pores, through the medium of which they rapidly absorb the moisture deposited by dew or rain on the surfaces of the leaves among which they live. The colours of the tree-frogs harmonise, as a rule, so com- '; pletely with those of their leafy environments that their presence very readily escapes detection. Many of the species, moreover, rival the chamaeleon in their capacity of quickly adapting their tints to that of a newly occu- pied surrounding. Green is naturally the dominant ground-tint of these frogs. Often, however, it is inter- mixed with stripes and bands of other colours, while sometimes the green hue is entirely replaced, as in the BLUE or BICOLOURED TREE-FROG of South America, which is brilliant azure above and pure white beneath. A very beautiful Australian species, abundant in Tasmania and Victoria, and appropriately named the GOLDEN TREE- FROG, has its grass-green overcoat thickly overlaid and embroidered with, as it were, the purest beaten gold. One small species of tree-frog is common on the European Continent, its distribution extending to North Africa and eastward throughout Asia north of the Himalaya to Japan. The species is imported into England in considerable numbers, and readily becomes acclimatised in a conserva- tory. Green above and whitish beneath constitute the prevailing tints of this species, such uni- formity being, however, varied by the presence of a darker, often nearly black, light-edged streak, that extends from the snout through the eye and ear along each side of the body, and sends a branch upwards and forwards on the loins. The male of this European species shares with many others of its tribe the possession of a large external vocal sac, which when inflated bulges out from the throat in a spherical form to dimen- sions little inferior to those of the creature's body. It may be Ptuu bf W. Savilti-Kint, f .Z.S., Milftrd-cn-Sta QUEENSLAND TREE-FROGS This spcciet is in the habit of making itself ut home in chamber "water-jugs [Eaitbour bj H. G. F. Sfurnll, Eiq.~\ COMMON TOAD T oads are accredited "with attaining an age of several hundred years 604 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD observed of examples of these frogs acclimatised in a conservatory that the falling of heavy rain on the roof is an almost certain incentive to their croakings. By pouring water resonantl} from a little height into another vessel, the writer also found that he could produce a frog- chorus at command. The European and other tree-frogs deposit their eggs in the water, some species constructing a symmetrical crater-like nest of mud for the reception of the eggs and tadpoles. Certain kinds, however, never leave the trees, having adapted their requirements to the naturally provider environments. Thus one Brazilian species deposits its eggs in the water almost invariably contained in the central cup of a tree, while another allied frog chooses for the same purpose the moist interstices at the bases of decaying banana leaves. A step further, resulting in complete independence of external water, is arrived at by the MARSUPIAL or POUCHED TREE- FROG of Central America. In this species the female develops a capacious pouch on her back, which opens backward, and wherein both the eggs — primarily assisted to their position by the male — and tadpoles undergo their characteristic transformations. As a contrast to the foregoing exclusively tree-dwelling forms, one very fine species common in Queens-; land has pronounced social proclivities. He is a fine fellow, with a bright pea-green coat and large, lustrous black eyes, and either with or without your leave invades your bedroom from the! adjoining verandah, and makes the lip of your water-jug his headquarters. Here he will " lie low " the livelong day. With the approach of nigh:, however, this lethargy is thrown aside, and he hops forth, making excursions through every room in search of black- beetles, spiders, moths, or other accept- able quarry. In this vermin-destroying capacity he is a welcome guest to all except perhaps the ultra-squeamish housekeeper, his occasional offence of an upset glass or cup during his excited chase of the wily cockroach! being readily condoned. He has £ playful habit too, during his midnight wanderings, of climbing up walls and ceilings, to which he readily clings with his adhesive toes, and mayhap drops down on the recumbent form of some peaceful sleeper, who, if a stranger, possibly wakes with an alarming apprehension of snakes or other uncanny intruders. When once this QUEENSLAND GREEN FROG has determined upon his camping-ground, he clings to it with remarkable pertinacity. You may deport hiir time after time, and even carry him half a day's journey into the wilderness, but he turns up again the next morning or the following one. Toads are distinguished from frogs by their sluggish creeping movements and by their non-possession of teeth. There are over eighty species, having collectively an almost cosmopolitan range, though they are not found in Australia, New Guinea, Madagascar, or the Pacific Islands. The common British species enjoys a wide distribution, being found throughout Europe, Asia excepting India, and North-west Africa. Its somewhat clumsy, brown, wrinkled, and warted body, with darker spots and markings on the upper-surface and white- speckled under-surface, will be familiar to every reader. With many it is an unwarranted Pniti by ScJitlaitic Phott. Co.] COMMON TOAD {Par tin' i Gretn The toad is highly appreciated by the horticulturist on account of its utility in destroying insect-pests FROGS AND TOADS 605 object of aversion, and in country districts is not infrequently accredited with venomous f properties. Toad-spawn is plentiful in ponds and ditches in the early spring, and may be distinguished from that of the frog by the fact of its being deposited in chain-like strings, the eggs being arranged in a double alternating row, instead of in irregular masses, as obtains with the last-named species. The individual eggs are, moreover, smaller, and deposited two or three weeks later in the season than those of the frog. A second and somewhat rarer British toad is known as the NATTERJACK. It may be distinguished from the ordinary species by the shorter hind limbs, the more prominent eyes, and the con- spicuous yellow, line down the middle of its back. It is also somewhat more active than the common species. The last member of the group which demands brief notice is the singular WATER-TOAD of Surinam. This animal, also known as the PIPA, is an inhabitant of the moist forest regions of the Guianas and Central America, and remarkable on account of the singular phenomena connected with its breeding habits. The eggs, from 60 to over 100 in number, are deposited by the female in the water in the ordinary manner, but at this stage they are taken in hand by the male and literally planted in the back of the female, whose skin in this region becomes abnormally soft and thickened at- this season. The young toads undergo their complete development in the parental integument, each egg and its resulting embryo occupying a separate primarily cylindrical. chamber, which by lateral pressure becomes hexagonal, resembling a honeycomb-cell. Eighty-two days are occupied from the time of the deposition of the eggs until the young toads emerge into the outer world, their appearance as they make their •debut, with here a head and there one or it may be two limbs thrust out from the surface of the parent's back, being highly grotesque. T HE Newts and Salamanders, or Tailed Amphibians, are distinguished from the preceding group of the Frogs and Toads by the retention of a tail 'throughout life. In this manner they very nearly resemble the advanced larval or tadpole phases of the latter, some instances, in fact, the .tn some instances, in earlier or externally gill-bearing tadpole phase is persistent. The geographical distribution of the Salamander Tribe is much less •extensive than that of the Frogs and Toads, but few are found south of the Equator, and they are entirely unknown in Australia or in Africa .•south of the Sahara. Two members of the group •are indigenous to the British Islands, where they are familiarly known as NEWTS, ASKERS, EFFETS, or EFTS. The larger and handsomer of the two, the CRESTED NEWT, occurs in ponds and ditches throughout the warmer months of the year. It grows to a length of nearly 6 inches, of which the tail •constitutes about one moiety. Its Phcto b) Jamti B Corr, Eiq COMMON OR SMOOTH NEWT This harmless little creature is accredited by many country feofle with -venomous properties 606 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD colour is more usually blackish or olive-brown with darker circular spots above, and yellow c orange-red with black spots or marbling beneath, while the sides are speckled white. In th< breeding-season the colours are more especially brilliant, and it is at this time that the mal< develops the serrated crest along the middle of its back, from which it takes its title. The eggs, or spawn, of the newt are deposited in a different fashion to those of the fro: and toad. In place of being aggregated together in an irregular or ribbon-like mass, eac: is deposited separately and attached to the leaves of water-plants. By the dexterous usd of its feet, the female newt twists or folds the' leaf, or a portion of it, around the egg, it<| viscid envelope allowing it to readily adhere, and it is thus effectually concealed or protecte from injury. When about a quarter of an inch long, the tadpole escapes from the egg. A] this early stage the gills are quite simple and the front limbs represented by mere knobsi Immediately in front of the gills are two fleshy lobes, by means of which the tadpole car* temporarily adhere to the surfaces of water-plants. Within a fortnight the little animal ha-: grown to double the size. The gills are now elegantly branched and the fore limbs wei! developed. The latter are, however, only bifurcated at their extremities, and it is some little time later that four distinct toes are possessed by each fore limb and that the hind limbs make their appearance. The gills, which have at this stage reached their most complex state of development, now begin to diminish in size, and are gradually absorbed, the lungs in the meantime acquiring their full functional proportions. The newt, having now passed from the fish-like to a reptilian' stage, is unable to live entirely beneath the water, and is obliged to come up tc the surface at intervals to breathe, or is adapted for living entirely upon land, Newts in their fully matured state, except during the breeding-season, pass much of' their time on land, and wander to con- siderable distances from the water. They ai al1 times> however, exhibit a preference for moist situations, such as a shady wood or damp cellar. T ., ,, , 111-1 Like the toad and blind-worm, the _,,. . 1 tits species often travels long distances from -water, taking up its residence in damp cellars and -vaults feeble, inoffensive newt has from the earliest time to the present day been the victim of the most unmerited dread and persecution among the -uneducated. In some country districts it is not only accredited with the property of biting venomously, but of spitting fire into the bitten wound. A property that is actually possessed by these creatures is that of reproducing lost parts. The Geckos and other lizards, as already recorded, are in the habit of reproducing their mutilated tails. The newt, however, beats that record to the extent of reproducing lost legs, and, it has been affirmed, eyes also. A second species of British newt, of somewhat smaller size and even more common; than the crested one, is the COMMON or SMOOTH NEWT. It scarcely exceeds 3 inches in length, and is distinguished by its smooth skin and relatively less conspicuous crest. In habits it is less. addicted to a prolonged aquatic residence than the crested form, and wanders to more] considerable distances from water. One of the largest and handsomest representatives of the family is the MARBLED NEWT of Southern France and the Spanish Peninsula, which attains a length of 8 or 9 inches. The upper-parts of the male at the breeding-season are bright bronze-green with irregular black markings; its crest is ornamented with black and white vertical bars, and a silvery white band is developed along the sides of the tail. The crestless female has a distinctive orange streak running down the centre of the back. The TRUE SALAMANDERS have no British representative, though the common or spotted species NEWTS AND SALAMANDERS 607 is abundant throughout Central and Southern Europe. Its conspicuous livery — in which bold markings of black and brilliant yellow are some- what equally balanced, no two individuals, how- ever, precisely corresponding — distinguishes it broadly from all other members of the group. The surface of the skin is very smooth and shining, and thickly set on the surface with glands and pores, from which a viscid and un- doubtedly poisonous secretion is exuded. In common with that of other salamanders, the tail is cylindrical, instead of compressed and oar- shaped, as in the Newts, and there is no crest down the back. The SPOTTED SALAMANDER frequents moist situations in mountain and forest districts. It is essentially nocturnal in its habits, lying up during the day in some suitable rock or mossy crevice, exposure of its sensitive skin to the direct rays of the sun speedily having a fatal effect. Large numbers of this salamander are sold as suitable and curious additions to the fernery and vivarium, and will survive for long periods, appropriate food and the necessary conditions of moisture being provided. Snails, worms, and beetles and other insects constituting its natural food, it fulfils as useful a r61e as the toad in the extermination of insect-pests, and may be as strongly recommended for introduction to the greenhouse. Salamanders repair to the water to breed, after the manner of newts, but the young are usually brought forth alive, though occasionally eggs are deposited, from which the young tadpoles almost immediately emerge. The number usually produced at a birth ranges from sixteen to thirty, but instances are recorded where there have been as many as fifty. Phot If. Savillt-Ktnt, F.Z.S.] [Milftrd-on-St SPOTTED SALAMANDERS Natives of Central Europe Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] \_Milford-on-Sta SPOTTED SALAMANDER The skin of the salamander exudes a poisonous secretion, and its bright colours advertise its non-edible properties to carnivorous birds andmammah 608 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD The colossus of the tailed Amphibian race is the GlANT SALAMANDER of China and Japan, which may attain to a length of from 3 to 3.} feet. The body, like that of the ordinary salamanders, is broad and depressed ; but the eyes are very small, and have no eyelids ; and the tail, which is relatively short, is compressed, and has a fin both above and beneath. This salamander lives entirely in the water, and is adapted for such an aquatic life by the possession of both lungs and gills. In its native habitat it is most usually found in small, clear mountain-streams, at elevations of from 700 to 5,000 feet above the sea-level, such streams being often not more than a foot in width, and more or less overgrown with grasses; in these the adults are usually found curled round the larger stones, while the smaller ones occupy holes and crevices among them. A representative of the tribe now commonly kept in aquaria is the Mexican AXOLOTL. It has usually a velvety black skin, and grows to a length of 9 or 10 inches. As generally known it presents a very newt-like aspect, or, more correctly, that advanced tadpole state of tj Jamei B, Carr, Eiq. YELLOW PHASE OF SPOTTED SALAMANDERS The first four orji-ve months of the young salamander's life are passed in the -water the newt in which the external gills are most highly developed. The animals breed freely in the water, eggs being laid, which pass through the earlier tadpole to the adult phase. Up to within comparatively recent times the foregoing metamorphoses were supposed to represent the Alpha and Omega of the animal's existence. Some exceptional examples, however, bred in an aquarium in which rocks projected out of the water, surprised their owners by gradually absorbing their supposed persistent gills, also their fin-like tail-membranes, and, crawling out on the rocks, were transformed into ordinary salamanders. The OLM, or BLIND PROTEUS, of the subterranean caves of Dalmatia and Carniola is a form with persistent external gills. Nearly allied is the North American form known as the FURROWED SALAMANDER. The latter, however, living under more normal conditions, has well-developed eyes. While possessing the customary number of limbs, the number of toes in the American type is four to each foot. In the European Proteus there are but three toes to the front and two toes to the hinder limb. In a yet lower form, the SiREN SALAMANDER of the South-eastern United States, a yet more primitive persistently gill-bearing condition is presented. Photographed & colored by W. Saville-Kent, F-Z-S- , nn WESTERN AUSTRALIAN SCARLET RO A member of the Sea-Perch family having excellent edible qualities. colored ^^NTLE'DEvfL-FISH or ARMED GURNARD- fbtle b} W. Savillt-Kint, F.Z.S.] AUSTRALIAN LUNG-FISH This fish is also known as the Burnett Ri-ver Salmon [Milfora-»n-S*a BOOK 17. FISHES CHAPTER I LUNG-FISHES AND CHIMERAS BY W. P. PYCRAFT, A.L.S., F.Zr.S. THOUGH amongst the lowest of the backboned animals, the Fishes are nevertheless an exceedingly interesting group, distinguished from all others by the possession of fins, which are divisible into two series, — an unpaired, ranged along the middle of the back and abdomen, and including the tail-fin; and a paired series, representing the fore and hind limbs of land animals. The body is either clothed with scales or naked, -and, being perfectly sustained by the water, needs no support from the fins, which serve as balancing-organs. In the brilliancy and beauty of their coloration fishes display a variety that cannot be •excelled by any other animals. Furthermore, the coloration is often rendered still more beautiful from the fact that it can undergo rapid changes of hue. Frequently this coloration is of a protective character, causing the fish to harmonise with its surroundings, and so escape the observation of its enemies. The colours of living fishes can only, for the most part, be indicated in the present pages when a pattern exists by the formation of stripes or spots; •but the wonderful variations in the form of the body will probably prove a revelation to many. LUNG-FISHES The LUNG-FISHES are a peculiarly important group, inasmuch as they form a connecting- link between the class Fishes and the land-dwelling Amphibians — the class containing the Frogs and Toads and their allies. They are accorded this position mainly because, like Amphibians, they possess true lungs, which almost entirely replace the gills, the breathing- organs of other fishes. One of the best known of the lung-fishes is the AUSTRALIAN BARRAMUNDI, or LUNG-FISH OF QUEENSLAND — the BURNETT or DAWSON SALMON of the settlers. It lives among the weeds at the bottom of muddy rivers, rising frequently to the surface to take in atmospheric air by the 'lungs, the gills alone being insufficient for breathing purposes. The flesh, which is salmon- coloured, is much esteemed as food. The adult fish is said to attain to a weight of 20 Ibs. -and a length of 6 feet. Other lung-fishes, eel-like in form, occur in the rivers of Africa and South America. The 77 609 610 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD African species is perhaps the better known of the two. On the approach of the dry season it buries itself in the mud at the bottom of the river, and when the latter becomes dry the mud hardens holding the fish a prisoner till the return of the wet season several months later. A considerable number of these fishes have from time to time been dug out and sent to England enclosed in the mud into which they had retreated. The writer remembers assisting in the liberation of some during the last meeting of the British Association at Oxford. So hard had the prison-walls become that the mass had to be plunged into tepid water ; this soon brought about a dissolution of the soil, and in a short time the fishes were swimming about as if in their native rivers. The African lung-fish is known also as the MUD-FISH ; its American relative as the LEPIDOSIREN, or SOUTH AMERICAN MUD-FISH. In the American species, as in its African relative, the fins are whip-like in form ; but the hinder or ventral pair, which correspond to the hind limbs of the higher vertebrated animals, are remarkable in that in the male they develop during the breeding-season numerous thread-like processes, richly supplied with blood, the function of which is as yet unknown. The young, both of the African and South American mud-fishes, bear external gills closely resembling those of the tad- poles of the frog and other Amphibia; traces of these gills remain throughout life in the African form. CHIMERAS Shark-like in their general characters, the CHIMERAS, now briefly con- sidered, are nevertheless regarded as constituting a very distinct group of great antiquity. The modern representa- tives of the group are few in number — five species in all. Of these, the species shown in the accompanying photo- graph and the SEA-CAT are remarkable for the possession of a movable tentacle on the snout. The under surface of this tentacle is armed with small spines, and fits into a hollow in the head. The first back-fin is supported in front by a strong spine, and can be depressed into a sheath in the body-walls. The teeth take the form of large plates closely united with the jaws, and studded with hardened points, or " tritors." One species widely distributed in the Mediterranean and Atlantic is taken usually in deep water; it is the largest living species, often attaining a yard in length. Its occurrence is, however, very erratic, months elapsing without any being taken ; at other times several will be caught in a few days. A closely allied fish is often exposed for sale in the Lisbon markets, where it ranks with the Sharks as a food-fish. The egg of the BOTTLE-NOSED CHIMERA is perhaps the only egg with a mimetic resemblance to a foreign object. It is elliptical in form, and bordered by a fringe, so as to present a close resemblance to a piece of seaweed. In the next chapter we begin the description of the great group of Fan- and Fringe-finned Fishes, which, briefly, embrace all fishes not grouped among the Lung-fishes, Chimseras, or Sharks. The anatomical characters used for the purpose of classifying this great group are not discussed here, save only in a few cases of prime importance, when features such as can readily be observed, without demanding an intimate knowledge of anatomy, are selected. Photo by A. S. Rudland & Sent BOTTLE-NOSED CHIMERA The remarkable structure in front of the mouth is probably an organ of touch WHITE-PERCH Tht so-cailed white perch it a species of bass, found in the rivers of the United States Phttt fy Dr. R. (f. Shufildt} [If aihingtcn SEA-BASS This is another American member of the Perch Tribe 6lT CHAPTER II THE PERCH FAMILY T Photo by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt] [Washington LARGE-MOUTHED BLACK BASS An exceedingly gamy fighter BY JOHN B1CKERDYKE, M.A. iHE thick-set, golden-bronze, dark-barred, hog-backed fish known as the PERCH has many striking characteristics, and is remarkable, among other things, for the vast number of its relations scat- tered all over the world. So numerous, indeed, are its cousins that ichthy- ologists have had to divide the Perch Family into a large number of groups. There are various species of perch found, as a matter of fact, in the fresh- waters and on all the coasts of the temperate and tropical regions. The COMMON PERCH, which is widely distributed over Europe, Northern Asia, and North America, is properly an inhabitant of rivers, lakes,, and ponds, but sometimes descends to brackish wa,ter, Itrruns4 up to about 5 Ibs. in weight, and is carnivorous, eating most kinds, pf fish, sn^aJJ. enqughv for. its swallow, including the fry of its own species, which are, in^ some waters, sh^ excellent bait. In England perch spawn in the spring, the eggs being held in a, band-like mass of gelatinous matter deposited on weeds or the roots of trees not far below the surface of the water. The spawn, as a matter of fact, is often collected by fish-culturists and hatched out. Swans and water-fowl gener- ally eat the eggs by the million, and wherever perch are pre- served these birds should, so far as possible, be kept from the water during the spawn- ing-season. At Henley and other places on the Thames those interested in fishery preservation place wire netting round the boughs and weeds where perch have spawned, to prevent the eggs being eaten by swans and ducks. Perch are usually termed voracious fish, but when large are extremely shy and difficult Phut fy W. Savilli-Ktnt, F.Z.S.] lMilftrd-on-Sta BUTTER-FISH A native of the tropical parts of the Indo-Pacifc Ocean 6l2 THE PERCH FAMILY ''613 [Ifaihingte of capture. There is a story told of a hungry little lake- perch which had its eye hooked out by accident. The angler, leaving the eye on the hook, lowered it into the water again, and a moment after hauled out a one-eyed perch ! Among the species of perch found in British waters are the RUFFE, or POPE, a very small and common river- fish of no great value; the BASS, a fine sporting sea-fish, which comes up the estuaries of rivers to spawn, and is much sought after by the ama- teur sea-fisher; the COMBER, or GAPER, a fairly common fish on the coasts of the West of England; a rare sea-fish known as the DUSKY PERCH, caught occasionally off the South of England ; the STONE-BASS, also called the WRECK-FISH, from its habit of following wreckage in the sea; and, lastly, the DENTEX, a rare species, not often caught off the British coasts, which attains the weight of about 70 Ibs. On the Continent there is the PlKE-PERCH, a fish having the appearance of a cross between a pike and a perch, and growing to 25 or 30 Ibs.; this voracious species is found in the lakes and rivers of the temperate northern zones, and is much esteemed for food. In the tropics there are a number of true SEA-PERCHES, which rarely enter fresh-water; they include the ANTHIAS, most beautifully coloured with pink and yellow, of which there are between 100 and 200 species. Some of the tropical sea-perches grow to an enormous size, and there are instances recorded of bathers having been attacked by them at Aden. Several monsters are stuffed in the Natural History Museum at South Kensington. Among the coral-islands live many very beautifully coloured sea-perches of various species. Perhaps the most remarkable of all is the BOAR-FISH, or BASTARD DORY, which has a prolonged snout, no doubt used for getting out its food from the crannies among rocks and other awkward places. F httc b} Dr. R. If. Shufeldt] AMERICAN "SUN-FISH" Not to be confounded 'with the true Sun-fisha described in Chapter VII CHAPTER III SCALY-FINS, RED MULLETS, SEA-BREAMS, SCORPION-FISHES, SLIME-HEADS, TASSEL-FISH, ME ACRES, AND SWORD-FISHES BY W. P. PYCRAFT, A.L.S., F.Z.S. FOR quaintness of shape, combined with beauty of coloration, the family of Scaly-finned Fishes has no rivals. The name by which they are collectively known refers to the scaly covering which invests the bases of what are called the median fins — the fins seated along the middle of the back and abdomen. A large number of distinct species have been described, the majority of which occur in tropical seas, and especially in the neighbourhood of coral-reefs ; but some frequent the mouths of rivers, which they occasionally ascend for a short distance. All are of relatively small size, of carnivorous habits, and but little used for food. The pattern of coloration commonly takes the form of bands or stripes, those in which this pattern is most marked being known as ZEBRA-FISH. One of the most beautiful is the 614-' LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Phttt by W. Savilli-Ktnt, F.Z.S.] [Milftrd-on-Sia THE MISCALLED ARCHER-FISH So named on account of its supposed habit of shooting -water at insects EMPEROR-FISH, which ranges from the east coast of Africa to the Indian and Malayan seas. The ground-colour of the body is deep blue, relieved by some thirty golden-yellow stripes running from the shoulder backwards to the tail. Crossing the head is a crescent-shaped bar of black edged with yellow, whilst a similarly coloured patch runs upward from the pectoral fins to within a short distance of the top of the back. This species, which attains a length of 1 5 inches, is highly esteemed for food in India. The most beautiful of all, perhaps, is the zebra-fish of the Indo-Malayan seas, which has the ground-colour of yellow, striped with vertical bars of blue edged with brown, a yellow tail, and an anal fin barred with narrow blue lines. A tubed-shaped mouth is a common feature of the fishes of this group, and two Indian species in which this character is especially well developed have acquired the habit of shooting therefrom a drop of water at insects resting on overhanging foliage fringing the sea or along the banks of rivers. Having sighted its quarry, it would seem the fish moves upwards to the surface of the water, and with careful aim ejects its liquid bullet with such unerring precision that its prey is invariably knocked down and speedily seized. On this account these fishes are commonly known as ARCHER-FISHES. The archer-fishes are sometimes kept in tubs of water, for the purpose of affording amusement to their captors. Somehow the shooting prowess of these fishes has been accredited to an allied form, shown in the above photograph. The peculiar shape of these fishes is sufficiently indicated by the photograph already mentioned, but a large series would be necessary to show the numerous variations, some of which are quite remarkable. The brilliancy of the coloration is probably protective, since the most brightly coloured forms live amongst coral-reefs built by gorgeous polyps, or coral-animals, so that amidst such surround- ings the fishes are quite in- conspicuous. The RED MULLETS occur chiefly in tropical seas, but one species inhabits Eurbpean waters, and occur sparsely around the British Islands. Occasionally, however, these fishes visit the British coasts in vast shoals, more than 5,000 having been taken in a single night in August, 1819, in Weymouth Bay, whilst in May, 1851, 10,000 were taken ' off Yarmouth in one week. fh«° b> "' *«"««-*•-'. F-z-sl Although about forty STRIPED RED MULLET Species of red mullet are The head h ornamented with brilliant blue and violet itrifci RED MULLETS AND SEA-BREAMS 615 Pbttt fy If, Savilli-Ktnt, F.Z.S.] BROWN SNAPPER The snappers are esteemed for the tablt [Mil/ord-m-Sie known, the European species is the most prized as a food- fish. Its fame, indeed, extends backwards to the time of the ancient Romans, who sought far and wide for large speci- mens, paying ruinous prices for them. " Then, as nowa- days," writes Dr. Giinther, "it was considered essential for the enjoyment of this delicacy that the fish should exhibit the red colour of its integu- ment. The Romans brought it, for that purpose, living into the banqueting-room, and allowed it to die in the hands of the guests, the red colour appearing in all its brilliancy during the death- struggle of the fish. The fishermen of our times attain the same object by scaling the fish immediately after its capture, thus causing a permanent contraction of the chromatophores containing the red pigment." Beneath the chin of the red mullets will be noticed two long finger-like processes ; these can be thrust forward and moved about, or laid back in a groove between the sides of the lower jaw, and are used to rake about in the sand and gravel at the bottom of the sea to discover burrowing shrimps or worms. Even dead food they are said to feel with these barbels, as they are called, before biting. The red colour has been observed in the Marine Aquarium at Plymouth to become darker when the fish rise from the ground, and to pale away when they descend. Two forms of red mullet occur in European waters, but it is not yet finally settled whether they represent distinct lMHford.tn.sta species. The one is the plain RED MuLLET,of a rich carmine- red above and silvery white below ; the other the STRIPED MULLET, or BUR-MULLET, which has a beautiful red colour on the back and sides, and from three to five bright yellow bands passing from head to tail. Till recently the striped form was regarded as the female of the plain red mullet, but many authorities incline to the view that the two are distinct species. The SEA-BREAMS are fishes of the tropical and temperate regions, represented by a considerable number of species. Only one is at all abundant on the British coasts, and this Photo br ff. Saville-Kint, F.Z.S.] RED SEA-BREAM Some species of sea-bream occasionally enter fresh-water 616 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD ghvto t) W. Saviltt-Ktnt, F.Z.S.] SNAPPER An Australian species of Sea-bream occurs especially on the south and south-west coasts of England and Ireland. It is of an orange-scarlet colour above, and somewhat silvery on the sides, with a large black spot on the shoulder. Several species of sea- bream occur in Australia, where they are known as SNAPPERS. On e of the largest of these, which attains a length of more than 3 feet and a weight of over 40 Ibs., is not only considered excellent eating, but is also the most popular sport- yielding fish of that colony. The ancient Romans kept a species of sea-bream, the GILT-HEAD, in their vivariums, where it grew extremely fat. This species is said to stir up the sand with its tail, to discover buried shell-fish. It is particularly fond of mussels, and the noise it makes in crunching them between its jaws is loud enough to be heard by the fishermen. Nearly allied to the Sea-breams are a group known, for want of a better name, as the THICK-RAYED FISHES, some of which rank as of prime importance among the food-fishes of the British Colonies. A general idea of the shape of the members of this family may be gathered from the photograph of an Australian GROPER. The name of LONG-FIN, given to one species, is bestowed on account of the fact that one or more of the rays of the breast-fin on each side is drawn out into a filament, often of very considerable length, which is used as an organ of touch. In other species, where the elongation is less, and more rays have under- gone modification, an auxiliary organ of locomotion is the result. At the Cape of Good Hope species of long-fin are very abundant, and preserved in large quantities for export. Other members of this family lack the elongated fin-rays altogether. The fishes known as the TUMPETERS of New Zealand and Tasmania belong to this section. They are considered by the colonists the best flavoured of any native fishes, and are eaten smoked as well as fresh. But two species are known, one ranging from 30 to 60 Ibs. in weight, and the other, a much smaller form, scarcely attaining a weight of 20 Ibs. ; the latter is the more abun- dant of the two, though con- fined to the coast of New Zealand. In the SCORPION-FISHES we have a small group in- cluding several forms remark- able for their ugliness, having added to an uncouth shape skinny appendages, which, '*««» */ w. saviiu-Kmt, F.Z.SJ iMUford^n-st* projecting from the body, KING-SNAPPER resemble rather leaves Of A member of the group of Slime- heads SCORPION-FISHES AND SLIME-HEADS 617 seaweed than parts of the fish. These appendages, by their waving motion, serve either to attract other fishes or to afford concealment by their resemblance to the surrounding weeds. The ground-dwelling forms have some of the rays of the breast-fin modified into finger- like processes, like those of the Gurnards, by which they both crawl and feel. Some members of the family bear a rather close resemblance to the Sea-perches. In addition to their ugli- ness, some have become especially offensive by the transformation of certain of the fin-spines into poison-organs. One of the ugliest, and at the same time most dreaded, of the family is the STONE-FISH figured on page 619. Each spine of the back fin is grooved. At the lower end of these grooves lies a pear-shaped bag containing a milky poison, which is conveyed to the point of the spine by ducts lying in the grooves. The native fishermen carefully avoid handling these fish; but persons walking with bare feet in the sea step upon the spines, and, receiving the poison into the wound, are killed. Phttt b} W. SaviUt.Kint, F.Z.S.] AUSTRALIAN GROPER Highly esteemed as a food-Jit A All the scorpion-fish are carnivorous, and differ from the majority of fishes in that they produce their young alive. The smallest of the Spiny-finned fishes are members of this group, some scarcely exceeding i|- inch in length. They are common amid the coral- reefs of the Pacific. Passing over some comparatively unimportant members of this family, we come to a small group of vegetable-feeders from the Indo-Pacific, of which the TEUTHIS is one of the best known representatives. They are chiefly remarkable for the fact that the abdominal cavity is surrounded by a complete ring of bones, and that the air-bladder is forked at ends. Some are rather brilliantly coloured. The SLIME-HEADS, which constitute the next family, derive their name from the presen on the head of large mucus-bearing cavities covered with a thin skin. The eyes are always of great size, indicating a deep-sea habitat, or at least a depth only dimly lighted. All indeed, save two species, descend considerably below the surface, one species having been found in 345 fathoms. The species of one genus are believed to inhabit still greater depths, for their eyes are extremely small, indicating degeneration through disuse. The copious supply of slime is also an indication of a deep-sea habitat. The members of this family vary much in size and shape, but the most remarkable of all is a small and rare species 78 6i8 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Photo b) A. S. Rudland & Sons INDIAN WEAVER-FISH One of the group of scorpion-jishet found off Japan, in which the scales have joined together to form a perfectly solid armour, whilst the paired fins of the abdomen have been reduced to a single spine, with a few vestiges of other rays. The next family, a com- paratively small one, includes the TASSEL-FISH, so called from the long and delicate feelers springing from the base of the breast-fins, of which they originally formed a part. Vary- ing in number from three to fourteen, these feelers can be moved independently of the fins. As these fishes all live in muddy water, and have the eyes obscured by films, such tactile organs are necessary, in order to enable them to procure their food. In some species they attain an enormous length. The flesh is highly esteemed. Some species have an air-bladder, which yields a good kind of isinglass, and forms an article of com- merce in the East Indies. The majority are small species, but some attain to a length of 4 feet. No less important than the preceding group, from an economic point of view, are the MEAGRES, a family of coast-haunting species of the tropical and sub-tropical Atlantic and Indian Oceans, exhibiting a special preference for the mouths of large rivers, into which they freely enter. Some, indeed, have become entirely fresh-water species. One of the most interesting of the family is the species to which the name of DRUM has been given, from the extraordinary noise which it produces — though some other kinds emit similar noises. " These sounds," Dr. Gunther writes, " can better be expressed by the word ' drumming ' than any other. They appear to be very frequently heard by persons in vessels lying at anchor off the coasts of the United States, where these fishes are very common. The precise method by which these sounds are produced is not known. Since they are accompanied by a tremulous motion of the vessel, it seems more probable that they are due to the beating of the tails of the fish against the bottom of the ship to get rid of the parasites with which that part of their body is infested." The drum attains a length of more than 4 feet and a weight of over 100 Ibs. Though forming but a single small family, the SWORD-FISHES are nevertheless to be reckoned amongst the most interesting ^of living fishes. Attaining a length of from 12 to 15 feet, exceeding vigilant, pugnacious, and powerful, they are amongst the most formidable of all fishes. They derive their name from the great develop- ment of the upper jaw, which forms a huge, tapering, sword- like weapon, covered along its under-surface with numer- ous small teeth. They attack, apparently without provoca- RAGGED SEA-SCORPION tion, Whales and Other large A tttond rcpraentati-vc of the tcorpion-Jiihtt ftu" Phut Ar W. Savilli-Ktnt) F.Z.S.] STONE-FISH A species of scorpion-fish dreaded on account of its poisonous spinet [Mitfird-tn-Sta Phttt by W. Savillt-Kint, F.Z.S.] TASSEL-FISH Valutdfor the isinglass it yitldi 619 [Milftrd-tn-Sta 620 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD cetaceans, which they invari- ably succeed in killing by repeated thrusts of the sword. It appears that occasionally sword-fishes make a mistake, and, after the fashion of Don Quixote, tilt at windmills, in the shape of large vessels, under the impression that they are whales. But this most grave error of judgment brings with it a heavy penalty, in that, having no power to make effective backward move- ments, the sword remains fixed, and is eventually broken off in the struggle for freedom. Frank Buckland reminds us that in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, London, is a section of the bow of a whaler impaled by one of these swords. That portion of the sword which remains is I foot long and 5 inches in circumference. " At one single blow," he writes, " the fish had plunged his sword through, and completely transfixed I3|- inches of solid timber. The sword had of course broken off and prevented a dangerous leak in the ship." In the British Museum is a second specimen of a ship's side in which the sword of a sword-fish is fixed. Photc by A. S. Rutland &° Sens SWORD-FISH The huge back-Jin ii said to be often used as a sail ivhen the Jish is floating near the surface of the -water CHAPTER IV HAIR-TAILS, HORSE-MACKERELS, SEA-BATS, DORIES, MACKERELS, SUCKING- FISHES, WEAVERS, FROG-FISHES, ANGLER-FISHES, BULL-HEADS, AND GURNARDS BY W. P. PYCRAFT, A. L. S., F. Z.S. OF the family of HAIR-TAILS perhaps the most important members are the SCABBARD- or FROST-FISH and the SNOEK. The first is common in the Mediterranean and the warmer parts of the Atlantic, extending northwards to the south coast of England, where it occurs at rare intervals. It is also known in New Zealand, where it is called the Frost-fish, and furthermore is regarded as one of the most delicious fish of the colony, its flesh being fine, tender, and of delicate flavour. On this account it is much in demand, but the supply is very uncertain. The conditions of capture, indeed, of this fish are unparalleled in the annals of fishing, for it can be taken neither with the rod nor the net. The would-be captor has to wait patiently under favourable conditions on the seashore for the fish to come t>) fcrcj Aihcndcn] [Cafe Town SNOEK This fish is also known as the Barracuda THE SCABBARD- OR FROST-FISH 621 and cast itself up on the beach. This happens with tolerable cer- tainty during the autumn and winter months, when the sea is calm and the nights frosty. Then the frost-fish come ashore alive, wriggling through the surf on to the beach. Two explanations have been offered for this extra- ordinary conduct. One is that the fish commits suicide; being pursued by a shark or other en- emy, it prefers uncertain life on land to certain death at sea ! The other and more probable hypothe- sis has it that the air-bladder of the fish becomes distended to enable it to reach the surface for food — for it is a deep-sea fish — and that the keen, frosty air prevents it from compressing the bladder and returning to the depths ; thus it gradually drifts into shallow water, is hurled shorewards by the surf, and finally wriggles itself on to the beach to die. The long stretches of sandy beach a few miles from Dunedin arc a favourite resort for frost-fish catching. Two or three men camp out at the foot of the cliffs overhanging the beach, pitching a tent and lighting a huge fire, so as to render life bearable during the long vigils. The " fishing " consists in perambulating the beach up and down shortly before dawn, and keeping a sharp look-out in the surf for the silver streak which betokens the approach of a victim. As soon as a fish is Phtt* by W. Savillt-Kint, F.Z.S.] [Milf»rd-< n-Sea FRINGED HORSE-MACKEI £L Note the great length of the Jin-rays Phete tr RtinMd Yhitlt & Co.] HORSE-MACKEREL The strong keel formed by ridged scale* running do-wn each side of the tail h a characteristic feature [Chanciry Lant, W. C. 622 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD descried, all that remains to be done, is to seize hold of it and drag it ashore, if it has not already stranded itself, and then dispatch it. The BARRACUDA, or SNOEK, is likewise a New Zealand species, attaining a length of 5 feet. It is found also at the Cape and South Australia. In New Zealand the flesh is exported to Mauritius and Batavia as a regular article of commerce, being worth .£17 per ton. The HORSE-MACKERELS, or SCADS, are represented by some very bizarre-looking forms. It is a large family, belonging to tropical and temperate seas. One species, the COMMON HORSE- FtittH bj W, Savilli-Kmt, F.Z.S.] [Milf»r