■

STUDIES FROM THE
ANTHROPOLOGICAL LABORATORY

aouDon: C. J. CLAY and SONS,

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE,

AVE MARIA LANE,

AND

H. K. LEWIS,
136, GOWER STREET, W.C.

M

ffilsBCDto: 50, WELLINGTON STREET.

lLnp>ig: F. A. BROCKHAUS.

i^eto lork: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.

Bombag anti Calcutta: MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltd.

\^All rights reserved.]

STUDIES FROM THE

ANTHROPOLOGICAL LABORATORY

THE ANATOMY SCHOOL

CAMBRIDGE

by

W. L. H. DUCKWORTH, M.A.

Fellow of Jesus College, University Lecturer in
Physical Anthropology

Cambridge .

at the University Press

1904

Canitritrge

PRINTED BY J. AND C. F. CLAY
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.

TO

ALEXANDER MACALISTER,

M.D., F.R.S., LL.D.,

PROFESSOR OF ANATOMY

IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE.

PREFACE.

'nr^HE following studies may be conveniently classified under
-^ four headings, viz.

I. Introductory account of the University Anatomical
Museum at Cambridge and its contents. This forms the subject
of the first essay.

II. Contributions to the Morphology of Man and the
Primates. Under this heading come Nos. 2 to 16 inclusive.

III. Craniological descriptions of specimens in the Uni-
versity Anatomical Museum at Cambridge. Under this heading
come Nos. 17 to 33 inclusive.

IV. The remaining three studies may be grouped together
as miscellaneous contributions to Human Morphology and to
Physical Anthropology.

While many of the studies have already been published,
Nos. II, 12, 13, 15, 16, 32 and 36, with many figures, now appear
for the first time. For permission to reprint the other com-
munications in their present form, my warm thanks are due to
the Council of the Anatomical Society (for No. 5); the Council
of the Zoological Society (for Nos. 7 and 8); the Council of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society (for Nos. 3, 34 and 35); the
Council of the Anthropological Institute (for Nos. 17 — 31 inch);
the Council of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society (for No. 33);
the Editors of the Journal of Anatomy and Physiology (for Nos,

viii Preface

2, 4, 6, 9, 13); and the Central Committee of the International
Congress of Prehistoric Archaeology and Anthropology (for
No. 10).

My thanks are also due to the Syndicate and Staff of the
University Pitt Press, to whom I readily acknowledge my
indebtedness.

It is hoped that the present volume may be the first of
a series dealing with the extremely rich collections contained in
the Anatomical Museum at Cambridge. It remains only to
add that Professor Macalister has consented to accept the
dedication of this tribute, such as it is, to his indefatigable
energy and enthusiasm for anthropological studies.

W. L. H. D.

jESUS College,
Cambridge.

August 27, 1904.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE

1. The Anthropological Collection in the Museum of Human

Anatomy, Cambridge . . . . . . . i — lo

2. Description of a foetus of Gorilla savagei . . . . ii — 18

3. A description of some dental rudiments in human crania in

the Museum of Anatomy {with assistance from D. H.

Eraser, Esq., Af.A., Cains College) .... 19 — 25

4. On irregularities in the conformation of the post-orbital

wall in skulls of Hylobates Jiuilleri, and of an aboriginal
native of Australia

5. On an unusual form of nasal bone in a human skull

6. Notes on the osteology of Gorilla savagei.

7. Note on an anthropoid ape in the Cambridge Anatomical

Museum ..........

8. Further note on specific differences in the anthropoid apes

9. Variations in the crania of Gorilla savagei

10. Os fractures des Orang-outans

11. Note on the pelvic and abdominal organs and anatomy of

Galago garnetti {Lemiiroidea) {in collaboration with

T. R. Elliott, Esq., M.A., Trinity College, Cambridge) 54—60

12. Notes on the dissection of the head of an aboriginal of

Australia {compiled with the assistance of R. Moore,

Esq., B.A., Christ's College, Cambridge) . . . 61 — 64

13. Description of brains of Primates in the University Ana-

tomical Museum, Cambridge 65 — 78

14. Measurements of a Negro (Kroo-native) .... 79

15. Measurements on the cranium bisected in the mesial

sagittal plane 80 — 90

16. Dissections of the upper limb of Gorilla, Hylobates, and

Cynocephalus ......... 9' — 97

17. A critical study of the collection of crania of aboriginal

Australians in the Cambridge University Museum . 98—130

18. Additional notes on crania of Australian aborigines . . 131 — 134

19. Notes on skulls from Queensland and South Australia . 135—140

26-

-28

29-

-30

31

32-

-38

38-

-40

41-

-50

51-

-53

Table of Contents

PAGE

20. Craniological notes on the aborigines of Tasmania . . 141 — 146

21. The craniology of the natives of Rotuma {with assistance from

A. E. Taylor, Esq., M.A., Downins^ College, Cambridge) 147 — 166

22. On a collection of crania, with two skeletons, of the Mori-

ori or aborigines of the Chatham Islands . . . 167 — 180

23. On crania of Eskimo in the University Museum . . 181 — 183

24. A contribution to Eskimo craniology {with assistance from

B. H. Pain, Esq., B.A., Emmanuel College) . . 184 — 202

25. Note on a skull from Syria ...... 203 — 211

26. Description of two skulls from Nagyr .... 212 — 224

27. Descriptive notes with the principal measurements of a

skull from Central Asia. Macartney Collection . . 225, 226

28. An account of skulls from Madagascar in the Anatomical

Museum of Cambridge University .... 227 — 236

29. Note on the skull of an Andaman Islander . . . 237 — 241

30. Some anthropological results of the Skeat Expedition to the

Malay Peninsula 242 — 255

31. Note on a skull labelled " Soemang-schadel ^ ," " Bukit-

Sapi," Upper Perak, 1902 ; now in the Museum of the

Royal College of Surgeons 256 — 259

32. List of some of the principal skulls in the University

Museum of Anatomy, obtained from ancient sites in the

County of Cambridge ....... 260

33. An anatomical description of some skeletons from the War

Ditches at Cherry Hinton 261 — 267

34. An account of some Eskimo from Labrador {with assistance

from B. H. Pain, Esq., B.A., Emmanuel College) . 268 — 273

35. Note on the dispersive power of running water on skeletons ;

with particular reference to the skeletal remains of

Pithecanthropus erecties ....... 274—277

36. Dental anomalies in the University Anatomical Collection 278 — 282

TABLES.

Table I. Principal Measurements .... to face p. 112

„ II. Indices . to follow Table I

„ VIII. Aborigines of South Australia . . . to face p. 122
„ A. Mr Laidlaw's Measurements of Semangs,

Skeat Expedition, 1899-1900 . . . to face p. 250

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL COLLECTION IN
THE MUSEUM OF HUMAN ANATOMY,
CAMBRIDGE.

The Anthropological Collection occupies ten cases in the Museum
of Human Anatomy, wall-cases being arranged round the sides of that
room, in addition to five spacious central cases. The contents of these
cases represent the results of the efforts of Professor Macalister and his
predecessor in the Chair of Human Anatomy, the late Sir George M.
Humphry, to bring together a thoroughly representative series of the
crania of the various human races. With such success have those
efforts been met that the collection is second to none in this country,
and comprises more than one subsidiary series — e.g., the Thurnam and
the Hutchinson Collections — of very considerable magnitude.

The very number of the specimens, however, renders the acquisition
of a comprehensive knowledge of the contents of this Museum a matter
of prolonged study, and it is with the idea of pointing out the rarer and
more interesting examples that these notes have been brought together.
At the same time, references are given to various periodicals in which
certain portions of the Collection may be found described in detail.

It is convenient to describe the specimens in the order of the cases in
which they are contained, and a rough sketch-plan of the Museum is
appended in which the cases are marked with numerals from i — lo.

Thus, on entering the Museum, there will be found immediately to
the left, a wall-case (No. i)\ containing (besides some bones of the
skeleton possessing no special anthropological importance) a series of
modern European crania, of which the following are the most interest-
ing :—

{a) Two skulls of Finlanders presented by Professor Retzius. The
interest of these specimens lies in the fact that there has been a

^ These specimens have recently been removed to Case No. 7 (see plan on
p. 10). W.L. H.D., 1904.

2 Studies in Anthropology

difficulty in determining the precise relationship of the Finns to other
European nations, some Mongolian affinities having been suspected.

{b) The skulls of Lapps are also of interest in consideration of the
obscure relations of that race ; and the similarity of these skulls to
certain crania of Savoyard origin is marked.

{c) A cast of the cranium of King Robert Bruce will be found here ;
and that the statement repeated by various authors as to the Neander-
thaloid characters presented by it rests on a slender basis, will be seen on

(a) Aboriginal Australian (21 15). {b) Aboriginal Tasmanian (2096).

Fig. I.

reference to the next case, No. 2, which stands beyond the wall-case
containing the preceding specimens, and contains plaster models of the

[a) Female (3342). {/>) Male (3324).

Fig. 2. — Natives of New Britain {IVil/ey Coll.).

The Cambridge Craniological Collection 3

crania of some of the classical examples of Prehistoric man ; among
which will be found the following, referable to Palfeolithic man — viz.,
the Neanderthal, Spy, and Engis crania ; and of those of later date,
the Cro-Magnon skull (early Neolithic period). Furthermore there is a
cast of the calvaria found by Dr Dubois in the Pliocene strata of Trinil,
Java ; it is attributed by its discoverer to a form known as Pithecanthro-
piis eredits, which is justifiably supposed to represent a precursor of Man.
A cast (2101) shows the cranium of an Australian aboriginal with some
very pithecoid features.

Turning back from case No. 2 towards the door there will be found
a case (No. 3) containing a variety of skulls, of which the following are
on that aspect of this case facing the door : —

{a) The crania of aborigines of Tasmania (a race now extinct ; cf
Nos. 2096-2100); and in close proximity to these,

{b) The crania of Australian aborigines — Nos. 2101— 2114 (for crania
of Tasmanian and Australian aborigines see fig. i); with the latter are
three specially prepared heads of Australian natives, showing the wavy
(not woolly) nature of the hair, and the plentiful beard; No. 2 115
(cf. fig. i) shows an extreme degree of prognathism, a character very
constant in aboriginal Australians.

{c) Melanesian crania, especially the " Willey Collection " (brought to
Cambridge by A. Willey, Esq., M.A., late Balfour Student), from the
Melanesian islands of New Britain and Lifu, occupy much of the re-
maining space on this aspect of case No. 3. The following are points
of interest in connection with this (otherwise) very homogeneous group :
(i) the great difference sometimes met with in the crania of the two
sexes (cf. fig. 2, crania Nos. 3342 and 3324) ; while in other instances
the difficulty (so marked in the case of the crania of African negro races)
of assigning the correct sex to a skull, occurs ; (ii) notice the specimen
No. 3324 (cf. fig. 2), for besides its generally massive character, it is
peculiar in having an erupted and displaced fragment of a tooth on the
margin of the nasal aperture. No. 3384 shows a similar condition.

The foregoing (New Britain) specimens may be regarded as typical
examples of the Oceanic-negro race.

{d) With the preceding may be contrasted skulls of Polynesian
origin, as represented by the Kanakas (ref. i), by the skulls brought by
J. S. Gardiner, Esq. (Fellow of Caius College), from the island of
Rotuma (see fig. 3, and Nos. 1809-1817), and by the well-authenticated
series of ten crania of the Mori-ori, a people formerly inhabiting the
Chatham Islands, but now practically extinct. It must be admitted
that authors are not entirely in agreement as to the afifinities of the
Mori-ori. The contrast in skull form is one of a series whereby the

4 Studies in Anthropology

Polynesians are distinguished from their Melanesian neighbours ; it
must not be forgotten that many intermediate forms are met with. By
taking extremes, the Polynesian skull is distinguished from the Mela-
nesian by its greater capacity, greater breadth, greater parietal eminences,
less massive brow-ridges, and higher orbits.

The Polynesian group contains three skulls of Maories, and four
crania from Raiatea, but otherwise is not so complete as the Melanesian
series. The next specimens worthy of note are three crania from
Madagascar (Nos. 1783, 1785), representing two of the cranial forms
met with in that island, whereof one is a modification of the skull form
commonly found among the Bantu races of Africa. The African
skulls will be found on that aspect of this case (No. 3) furthest removed
from the door, and comprise examples of 'West Coast' negroes, of
Kaffirs, of the Bush and Hottentot races of the Cape (refs. 3, 4, 5), of
Central African negroes, and the specimens from the batdefield of Tel-
el-Kebir. The latter, which we owe to the interest of Messrs Leigh-
Smith and Green, of Jesus College, include certainly two crania referable

Fig. 3. — Native of Rotuma {Gardiner Coll.).
(1814).

to a negro origin, although others of the series are skulls of Egyptian
Fellaheen. The collection of African skulls has been further augmented
by the Guanche crania from Teneriffe (ref. 6), and by the enormous
collection of crania of inhabitants of Egypt (ref. 9), ancient and
modern, which will be mentioned later. But the case under con-
sideration also contains crania from Syria (notice the specimen 1237 for

The Cambridge Craniological Collection 5

an example of occipital flattening probably of artificial origin), of
Jews (probably from Holland), and a fine series of crania of Punjabis,
presented by Dr Havelock Charles, and described by Professor Mac-
alister, assisted by Messrs E. M. Corner and R. J. Horton-Smith (ref 7).
The two skulls (Nos. 1204 and 1205) from Nagyr in the Gilgit
district of Central Asia may be noticed. These rare specimens were
obtained by Sir W. M. Conway during his exploration of the mountain
peaks of the Himalaya and Hindu-Kush. They are undoubtedly
of Caucasian type, and present no trace of Mongolian features ;
herein they afford contrast with cranial forms to be met with further
east, e.g., in Lada'kh, and in Eastern Turkestan (cf. a skull from
the Macartney Collection deposited in this Museum). Lastly, a skull
from Kamschatka may be referred to as exemplifying a race but seldom
represented in collections (cf. ref. 13). Case No. 4 is entirely occupied
by Egyptian crania, among which will be found representatives of the
inhabitants of Egypt under the Dynasties v. and xviii., also of the date of
the Roman occupation, and lastly Egyptians of modern times. For these
specimens the University is indebted to Professors Budge and Flinders
Petrie, as well as to F. W. Green, Esq., M.A., of Jesus College. The

Fig. 4. — Egyptian.

whole series has for some time past been under examination by Professor
Macalister, though the results of the investigation have not yet been
made available. The example of Egyptian cranium, represented in fig.
4, exemplifies the condition known as scaphocephaly, since the cranial
vault is here found to have assumed a keel-shape or scaphoid form.

The contents of the long case (No. 5) running down the centre of
the Museum are a number of skeletons, of which those of aboriginal

6

Studies in Anthropologij

Australians (at the end nearest the window) are noteworthy, No. 25
showing the form of pelvis (compressed laterally) met with in males of
this race. With this pelvic form may be contrasted that of the Eskimo
woman (No. 1873). The origin of the two skeletons of individuals of
the Bush race of South Africa is not exactly known, but they present
features not altogether typical of that race (for the skulls of which cf.
specimens No. 1738 et seq. in case No. 3). Of the remaining skeletons
that of Madame Barre' is worth notice; then follow skeletons of
East Anglians from near Cambridge, and lastly a most valuable
specimen — viz., the skeleton of an individual of the Long Barrow race,
which is referred to the Neolithic period in this country. This skeleton
forms part of the well-known Thurnam Collection, which was secured
for the University by Professor Humphry, and which comprises a large
series of crania of the inhabitants of Britain from the Neolithic period
onwards.

In the case No. 6 will be found another great collection of skulls of
Egyptians, chiefly of the periods following : Dynasty xii. (Memphis,

Fig. 5,. — Peruvian {Hntcliinson Coll.).

Nos. 1254-1362, Aswan, Nos. 1364-1459, Qurnah, Nos. 1509-15 10),
and Dynasty xxii. (Balsamum near Deshasheh, Nos. 3141-3258), and

1 "Madame Barre, a distinguished French iady, who bequeathed her body to
me."— Macartney. (Descriptive notes of the Macartney Collection.) This skeleton
is therefore evidently not that of Madame Barry, the famous actress of the eighteenth
century and rival of Mrs Siddons.

The Cambridge Craniologlcal Collection 7

with these two or three mummified heads may be observed, e.g. that of
a lady with hair of an unusual degree of blondness ; those of a physi-
cian, and a priest ; as was evidenced by the characters on the wrappings
and casings which have been removed.

In the case No. 7 will be found (on the aspect facing the door) the
extensive Hutchinson Collection of crania of Peruvians (cf. fig. 5), of
which some (No. 1987) show the effects of cranial deformation in a
marked degree. With these are arranged a few prehistoric crania from
Jamaica, presenting forms and deformations not unlike the preceding
examples. In the same case are a number of crania of the Eskimo
from Greenland and from Labrador, for some of which the University is
indebted to Dr Curwen, of St John's College (fig. 6).

Fig. 6. — Eskimo (1832).

Lastly, there may be noticed a series of crania from Vancouver's
Island and British Columbia (which also illustrate the effects of artificial
modification of cranial form in infancy), and a few skulls of North
American Indians. On the further side of the same case are placed the
crania of inhabitants of the British Isles, and here many specimens of
the Thurnam Collection will be found (notice No. 551 as an example of
the Saxon type of cranium and No. 468 as that of a Briton). These
crania may well be considered in connection with the contents of the
large wall-case No. 9, in which will be found representatives of several
classical epochs in the history of human culture in this land. Thus we
find the Long Barrow race (already mentioned as referable to the
Neolithic period), with characteristically long narrow skull and coun-
tenance. To this succeeds the Round Barrow race with broad round

8 Studies in Anthropology

skull and broader countenance. This becomes merged in the British
race of the Roman Conquest, and the latter in the Saxon and Anglian
types, to which the crania found at Brandon (and recognisable by the
dark brown staining they have received from the soil) seemed to be
referable as local varieties. A few Saxon crania from Goring will be
found in the small wall-case (lo) (note No. 666 and cf. ref. lo).

There remain the contents of the wall-case 8, which immediately
faces the doorway. This case is devoted to examples presenting con-
formations that depart from the ordinary or normal type (refs. 14,
15). There may be noticed the presence of a large wormian bone at
the lambda (os incae, from its supposed confinement to skulls of that
race) in both English and Peruvian crania. Division of the malar bone
is seen in skulls of an East Anglian and a Peruvian respectively.
Pressure deformations of artificial origin are seen in the crania of a
Vancouver islander, an Avar, and a native of MallicoUo respectively,
the latter two being very similar ; lastly an example of native trephining
may be noticed — viz., No. 1904, with which compare the New Britain
cranium No. 3340 in case 3.

In the end bay-case of No. 8" are placed crania of the bathrocephalic,
akrocephalic. scaphocephalic, and hydrocephalic varieties ;• whereof the
latter three may be ascribed to defective growth of the cranium, and
with these may be compared two examples of microcephalic crania.

Professor Macalister has quite recently completed the arrangement
of a new case in the ' Bone-room ' of the Museum for the exhibition of
specimens illustrating Kallmann's 'types,' and certain cranial abnor-
malities; of the latter. No. 2286 presents the characteristics of the
microcephalic skull in a very marked degree (ref. 12).

It may be repeated, in conclusion, that the present account deals
with a mere selection of some of the most interesting of the specimens,
which are now numbered by thousands. In addition to those described
in the present volume the following references to descriptions of
specimens in the Museum are appended.

Kanakas. — Prof. Alex. Macalister, F.R.S., y^wr. 0/ Anal, and Phys.,

Jan. 1898.
RorUMA.— -J. S. Gardiner, M.A., Jotir. of the Anthrop. Inst., Oct. 1898.

(Describes how the skulls were obtained.)

3. South African Crania. — F. Shrubsall, B. A., Jour, of the Anthrop. Inst.,
Nov. 1898.

4. Crania of Bush Races. — F. Shrubsall, B.A., Jonr. of the Anthrop. Inst.,
1897.

Crania from Ashanti. — F. Shrubsall, B.A., Jour, of the Anthrop. Inst.,
Nov. 1898.

The Camhridge Craniological Collection 9

GuANXHE Crania.— F. Shnibsall, B.A., Proc. Ca??ib. Phil. Soc, vol. ix.,
part 3.

Punjabi and Bengali Crania.— Prof. Macalister, E. M. Comer, R. J.
Horton-Smith, M.A., Proc. Canib. Phil. Soc, Apr. 29, 1895.

jMoor Crania from Ceylon.— E. M. Comer, M.A., Jour, of Anat. and
Phys., July 1898.

Egyptian Crania. — W. S. Melsome, M.D. (unpublished).

Saxon Crania.— R. J. Plorton-Smith, M.A., Jour, of the Anthrop. Inst.,
Nov. 1896.

Brandon Crania.— C. S. Myers, B.A., Jour, of the Anthrop. hist. , Nov. 1896.

Microcephalic Cranium.— Rev. C. Kempson, M.A., Jour, of Anat. and
Phys., Jan. 1898.

Cranium from Kamschatka. — Prof. Macalister, Jour, of the Anthrop.
Inst., 1887.

Divided Parietal Bone. — E. Barclay- Smith, M.D., Jour, of Anat. and

Phys., vol. wxm.— Proc. Anat. Soc, p. xxiv.
Malar Bone exhibiting Intra-jugal Arch.— E. Barclay-Smith, M.D.,

Jour, of A7iat. and Phys., vol. xxxii. — Proc. Anat. Soc, p. xl.
Plagiocephalic Egyptian Skull. — E. Barclay-Smith, M.D., Jour, of

Anat. and Phys., vol. xxxii. — Proc Anat. Soc, p. xxvi.
Abnormal Cervical Vertebr.e. — A. S. Grtinbaum, M.D., Jour, of Anat.

and Phys., vol. xxv.
Paramastoid Processes. — A. S. Grlinbaum, M.D., Jour, of Anat. and

Phys., vol. xxv.
Separation of Os Styloideum. — E. Barclay-Smith, M.D., Jour, of Anat.

and Phys., vol. xxvii. — Proc Anat. Soc, p. xxxvii.
Macalister: Variations in the Atlas Vertebra. Jour, of Anat. and Phys.,

vol. xxvii. ; also p. xxxviii. Proc. Anat. Soc, ibidem.
Macalister: Anomaly of the Basi-occipital bone. Brit. Ass. Report, Dover

meeting, 1899, ?• ^7^*
Kempson: Skulls from Addenbrooke's Hospital. Proc. Cavib. Anat. Soc, ib.
Laidlaw : Variations in the Os Calcis. Jour, of Anat. and Phys., vol. xxxviii.

Among the additions made to the collection in the course of the last few months,
the following are of special importance : the skulls of natives of Northern Nigeria
(presented by Lieut. R. V. Elphinstone), the Perkins Collection of crania from the
Sandwich Islands, and the Hayward Collection of New Zealand skulls. Dr Hose
(of Jesus College) has presented an unrivalled collection of crania from Borneo.
Other noteworthy specimens are the crania from Crete, the Veddah crania, and the
skeleton of a Semang collected by the Skeat Expedition to the Malay Peninsula.

23

10

Studies in Anthropology

2 3

aiTKANCt DOOR

Plan of Museum of Human Anatomy, containing the
Anthropological Collection.

MORPHOLOGICAL SECTION.

The following collection of articles comprises those which are de-
scriptive of several points of interest in human and simian morphology,
regarded from the standpoint of anthropology. The specimens to which
the descriptions refer are for the most part in the Anatomical Museum,
but one or two are to be found in the Museum of Comparative Anatomy,
and to such, definite references are given in the text.

DESCRIPTION OF A FCETUS OF
GORILLA SAVAGEI.

The specimen under consideration (fig. i) appears to be the smallest
representative of its species hitherto
described. It was presented (with
the skeleton of an adult female gorilla)
to the Museum of Comparative Ana-
tomy in the University by Capt.
Hopkins (H.M. Consul at Loanda)
in the year 1876. It is, unfortu-
nately, not quite uninjured, for the
outer aspect of the left upper limb is
lacerated, and the right foot is im-
perfect, and only attached to the leg
by a few tendons and ligamentous
bands. The preservative is alcohol.
The sex of the specimen is only just
recognisable from the conformation of
the external genitalia, which indicate
a male. The principal dimensions of
the trunk, head, and limbs are re-
corded in the subjoined table. One
may mention here that the length
from vertex to coccyx is 71 mm.
From the descriptive point of view,
the following notes have been made out :-

Fig. I. — Profile view of
foetal gorilla.

12 Studies in Anthropology

The head is relatively large, globular, and a nuchal depression is
conspicuous by its absence. The eyes are large and protruding, but
the eyelids are closed. The nose has no bridge, and so resembles the
adult organ, but its lower part seems to project rather more than in
older specimens. The ears are somewhat distorted and injured from
pressure ; an indication of inrolling of the helix appears on the right
side ; some of the tubercles still stand out imperfectly fused (especially
the antitragus). A puncture in front of the left auricle suggests imper-
fect closure of a branchial cleft. The mouth is characteristically large,
the upper lip being 'shallow,' and so differing from that of chimpanzees.

In colour, the skin is uniformly whitish or grayish, no indication of
the black pigmentation of older specimens being as yet apparent. The
whole body is hairless, no ' lanugo ' being perceptible. The upper
limbs are slender, the hands being wide and long, with stout fingers
and a short pollex [see figs. 2 and 3 (c and d)]. The lower limbs are
proportionately short, the joints are strongly flexed, and the foot dis-
tinctly pithecoid, i.e., with short, outstanding hallux, and prominent
halluceal musculature. Cutaneous 'grooves' are seen both on plantar
and on palmar surfaces ; and it is noteworthy, in view of the observa-
tions of Hepburn' on this point, that transverse grooves are quite
inconsiderable in comparison with those of the longitudinal and oblique
groups (see fig. 3, c and d).

The spinal column is bent into a convexity directed uniformly back-
wards ; at the lower end of the column the coccyx is visible through the
skin, appearing as several bluish and shining cartilaginous plates, about
3 mm. posterior to the anus.

The abdomen is full and rounded ; the umbilicus situate near the
pubes. The external genitalia are represented by an almost sessile
penis, a trace of the glans being just distinguishable ; the organ is still
grooved along its lower surface. Testes are impalpable.

The above description has been supplemented by a comparison of
this foetus with two human specimens in the Anatomical Museum,
which nearly approach the gorilla specimen in size. Their weights,
though recorded, were discarded as a basis of comparison. The two
human specimens were gharacterised as follows : — The first is repre-
sented in fig. 2, A and b, of this paper, and is the same as (3) of the
Table {q-v.), viz., a human foetus of 107-5 ™"^' extreme height, and
76 mm. from vertex to coccyx. It is stated to be of the age of
4^ months. The other human foetus. No. 29 of the Lee Collection in
the Anatomical Museum, measures much less (66 mm.) from vertex to

' Published in the Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 1882.

0?i a Foetus of Gorilla Savagei

15

Fig. 3-

A and B, outline drawings from photographs of palmar and plantar surfaces of
the extremities of a human foetus (No. 29 of the Lee Collection), said to be
4 months old.

C and D, corresponding palmar (C) and plantar (D) surfaces of the extremities
of the foetal gorilla which is here described.

All these are enlarged from photographs of the original parts. Thus C, with an
original length of 13 mm., has been enlarged 3^ times, and D (original length
15 mm.) has been enlarged 3^ times. A and B were originally of smaller size
than C and D respectively, but have been enlarged to similar dimensions for the
sake of comparison.

16 Studies in Anthropology

Cambridge exclusively, one must, in the first place, refer to Deniker's
monograph on the foetal gorilla'. This is the only description of a
foetal gorilla that I have been able to refer to ; the specimen dealt with
therein was much larger than the subject of this communication, being
about 196 mm. in total length, i.e., more than twice the length of the
Cambridge specimen. In the accompanying Table of Measurements,
I have recorded the dimensions of the Cambridge specimen side by side
with those published by Deniker of his gorilla, and I have added similar
measurements of a human fcetus reputed to be at the eighteenth week
(4^ months).

A brief survey of the table will show the close approximation in
actual dimensions of head and trunk of the (Cambridge) gorilla foetus
and human foetus, Deniker's specimen being much larger than either.
A word of warning must be given here as to the difficulty of accurate
measurements of the dimensions of such foetal specimens.

In the latter part of the table certain proportions are given. It is
interesting to notice in the Cambridge specimen {a) the smaller con-
tribution to the total height made by the limbs ; this one would expect
in an earlier stage than Deniker's specimen : {b) in the Cambridge
specimen, the upper extremity is of much greater length in comparison
with the lower than is the case with Deniker's specimen ; this, again, is
what one would expect in the younger animal.

As regards arm and forearm, the proportions are sub-equal in both
the Cambridge and Deniker's specimens (dolicho-kerkic); but as regards
thigh and leg, the figures (thigh =100; leg in Deniker's specimen = 67-3 ;
in Cambridge specimen = 76-4) show that the leg is very long in the
earlier stage, and that subsequent growth, as far as the stage of Deniker's
specimen, is chiefly ' thigh-growth,' after which, again, ' leg-growth ' pre-
dominates, as is shown by the index being greater than 83 in adult
gorilla (see Turner, Challenger Reports, " Bones of the Skeleton ").

Lastly, as regards thigh and arm, the greater length of arm in com-
parison with thigh found in the Cambridge specimen is probably a
reiteration of the indication given by excess of upper limb over lower
limb taken in totality, and depends on the lesser age of the specimen ;
it is also influenced by the comparatively dolicho-knemic character just
referred to of the Cambridge specimen (n.b. comparatively dolicho-
knemic, for its index, 76-4, does not place it in Turner's dolicho-knemic
class, for which, in fact, the index must be greater than 2,t,).

Turning now to comparisons between the gorilla foetus and human
foetus of approximately identical bulk and length. The stature being

' Published in Archives de Zoologie Experimeiita/e et Generale, 2" serie, tome iii. bis
supplementaire, 1885.

0)i a Foetus of Gorilla Savagei 17

taken as - loo, the human foetus shows a human character in that the
trunk forms a much smaller portion of this total than it does in gorilla,
and the lower limbs accordingly form a greater proportion than in
gorilla : this last fact is not, however, brought out by the figures for the
lower limbs, owing to the difficulty in making certain oi points de repere.
Inasmuch, however, as the first set of dimensions, viz., total length, and
length from vertex to coccyx, are more easily ascertained than limb-
length, greater importance should be attached to indications afforded
by the former. Secondly, the proportionate shortness of the upper
extremity has already appeared in man (32 p.c. pro 45 p.c. of stature),
and herein the elder gorilla foetus (Deniker's) with 50 p.c. has still
further departed from the human figure than has the younger specimen.
It would be more just, however, to compare Deniker's figures with
those relating to a human foetus of age corresponding to that of
Deniker's specimen. The shortness of the human forearm and manus
in comparison with upper arm is already distinct, as is manifested by
the figures {q.v.), and so is the excess of lower limb over upper limb.
On the other hand, in comparison of thigh with arm, the human foetus
is intermediate between the gorilla foetus and adult man.

To sum up, the general trend of evidence is to indicate that, in
considering the ontogeny of man in comparison with that of gorilla
(and probably of other anthropoid apes), the distinctive characters are
quite plainly manifested at even early stages in foetal life ; and this is an
indication of the importance to be attached to such differences as are
thus early shown.

From this consideration one is confirmed in the belief that in their
phylogenetic history, the stock of the anthropoid apes, as we know
them at the present time, diverged from the precursors of man at a
correspondingly early stage. As such a consideration is not without
importance in influencing one's views on transitional types between man
and apes, this discussion of the facts presented by the recorded figures
has been appended to the actual description of the foetal gorilla which
forms the subject of this communication.

18

Studies in Anthropology

Comparative Table of Measurements.

Colutntt I. Deniker's da

ta. Sp

;cimen.

sex ?.

,, 2. Gorilla foetus

in Cambridge Zoological Museum. Sex <f.

3. Human foetus in Cambridge Anatomical School. Sex <f.

Dimension.

I.

2.

3-

Vertex to plantar surface,

196

?88

io7'5

Vertex to coccyx, ....

135

71

?76

7th cerv. vert, to coccyx.

91

?45

?45

Head— Max. antero-posteriordiam..

58

?29

26-5

Max. transverse diam.,

48

?24

23'5

Vertex to chin.

60

32

31

Bizygomatic diam.,

49

?22

18-5

Interocular, internal, .

12

6

6

,, external, .

34

18

17

Nose— Height, . . . ■

20

8

5"5

Width

19

7'5

5

Ear— Height,

16

6

5

Width,

10

3'5

3

Width of rictus oris.

26

10(14

5'5

Horizontal circ. of head, .

173

88

83

Trunk— Deltoid width, . .

72

27 5

25 5

Width between axilla;.

61

18

18

,. mammillse.

32

II

12

Horizontal circ. of thorax.

166

?73

65

Presternal notch to pubis.

54

33

35

Umbilicus to pubis, ....

24

6

7

Iliac (intercostal) breadth,

47

?20

19

Upper extremity — Arm, .

53

21 K

19

Forearm, . . .

47

19R

i5"5

Manus to tip of medius.

38

13R

II

Palm

i9'5

7R

5'5

PoUex, ....

II

2-5 R

4

Index, ....

i6-5

3'5

4"S

Medius,

i7'5

45

5

Annularis,

15

4'5

4'5

Total length, upper limb.

138

53

45 '5

Lower extremity — Thigh,

49

17

19

Leg, . . .

33

13

16

Pes, length.

44

15

10

,, breadth,

13

7

4

Hallux, .

ii'5

2"5

2

2nd digit, .

S-5

25

?2-5

3rd digit, .

10

Trochanter to heel, ....

34

34

(Hallux)— Base of digit i— digit 2, .

9

2-5

Total length of lower extremity, less

pes,

82

30

35

Stature = 100— Vertex to coccyx, .

69

8o'7

707

Biacromial breadth,

23

31-2

23'7

Upper extremity, .

70

6o'2

42 -2

,, less manus.

5'

45'4

32-1

Arm,

27

238

177

Forearm,

24

21-6

144

Manus, ....

19

14 8

IO"2

Lower extremity, less pes, .

42

34'9

?32:5
31 6

Trochanter to calx.

53

?38-7

Pes,

23

17

9'3

Cephalic height, .

30'5

?36-3

28-8

Trunk=ioo — Upper extremity.

loi'g

74-6

45 '4

Lower extremity, less pes.

43'3

42-2

46

Trochanter to heel.

?47-8

44'7

Arm= 100— Forearm,

88-8

904

8r-6

Manus, . . .

7i'5

61-9

57 "9

Upper limb= loo — Lower limb.
Lower limb = ioo — Upper limb.

?42-4
121 '9

?75
I33'3

988
98-6

Adult gorilla, 118.
European, 69-5.

Adult

1

Thigh = 100 — Arm

io8-i

123-5

100

Adult gorilla, 119.
European, 72'5.

Adult

Thigh = ioo— Leg, ....

67-3

76-4

84-2

Adult gorilla, 83 + .
European, 83 + .

Adult

Weight,

31

26

A DESCRIPTION OF SOME DENTAL RUDIMENTS
IN HUMAN CRANIA IN THE MUSEUM OF
ANATOMY.

With assistance from D. H. Eraser, Esq., M.A., Caius College.

It is desired to draw attention to the occurrence in human crania of
small discrete dental masses which appear with great, though not with
absolute, constancy, on that portion of the alveolar margin of the upper
maxilla which lies between the last premolar and the first molar teeth.
These occurrences appear to us to raise some questions of interest which
may be stated in the following order :

(i) the nature of these rudiments ; which may conceivably be

(a) remnants of teeth of the milk or temporary dentition which
have not been completely displaced and ejected by their
permanent successors, or

(d) aborted or vestigial premolars which would correspond to
the 3rd premolars of the platyrrhine apes, or

(c) elements bearing no homological relation to those of either
of the two normal sets (temporary and permanent) of
the primate dentition ;

(ii) the frequency with which these rudiments appear : herein
considering the possible influences of

(a) Race,

(^) Age,

(r) Sex ;

and (iii) the bearing on the preceding questions, of observations made
on other primates and mammals than man, but especially on
the anthropoid apes.
The general position of these rudiments has already been indicated,

and the results of our observations on this point are embodied in a Table

20

Studies in Anthropology

of classification. It is necessary to note that this is not a common
situation for the occurrence of ordinary supernumerary teeth, by which
we mean teeth that resemble in size those immediately adjacent to
them : such teeth are of most frequent occurrence in the neighbourhood
of the incisors (see fig. i : mandible of an aboriginal Australian with a
supernumerary incisor) and of the molars (see fig. 2, for the occurrence
of a 4th molar tooth in the mandible of an Orang-utan). Secondly,
these rudiments are of small size (cf. figs. 3 and 4) and in no way com-

parable in this respect to- the additional premolars which are described
(see Tomes : Dental Surgery) as occasionally appearing in front of the
first molar teeth. Our observations further led us to notice that small
fossae or pits are not infrequent in the same position as the rudiments
where these are absent : such fossae presumably at one time contained
small dental masses similar to those we describe and they accordingly
have been incorporated in the record of the Table of classification.

Some Dental Rudiments in Human Crania 21

It is also interesting to note that the rudimentary masses occur
(rarely however) in the upper maxilla between the first and second pre-
molars, and in either case they may occupy positions on the inner or the
outer border of the alveolar margin, or both, or positions of an inter-
mediate nature. More rarely, we find indications of similar rudiments
in the mandible. The fossae or pits have a similar distribution.

Turning now to the consideration of the first important question, viz.
the nature of these rudiments, we recognise that their commonest
situation (between the 2nd premolar and ist molar teeth) does not by
any means preclude the possibility of their being persistent remains of the
" temporary " teeth, and while we cannot consider the question as finally
answered, the following considerations seem to us to discountenance the
view which regards these as fragments of "temporary" teeth : viz.

{a) the comparative constancy of their position on the alveolar
margin ;

{b) and the rarity of their occurrence in the mandible ;

{c) the differences which are exhibited by various races of Man in
presenting these appearances ; this will be more fitly dealt with later ;

{d) the comparatively great frequence of their occurrence sym-
metrically on both sides of the palate ;

{e) the fact that the recognisable persistent milk teeth are usually
of considerably greater size than these rudiments ; the rudiments are
admittedly in one case (2154, Australian) of fair size ;

(/) the variation in the frequency of occurrence which will be seen
to characterise the different species of anthropoid apes.

On the other hand there is a slight indication of greater frequency in
young adults than in senile individuals, but on the whole there is
sufficient evidence to justify the view that at least some of these
rudiments are not vestigial temporary teeth.

In considering the other possibilities regarding their nature, we have
had the advantage of a discussion with Dr Marett Tims, to whom the
specimens were submitted, and who suggests that these are examples
of dental rudiments considered to belong to a third or post-permanent
dentition, such as are very constantly demonstrably embedded in the
alveolar arcade of certain mammals (carnivora), though they do not as
a rule make their way to the surface. These are developed, however,
on the lingual side of the alveolar ridge, whereas the masses are observed
by us to occupy positions on the lingual or the buccal alveolar margin,
or even both simultaneously, so that while a certain number of these
rudiments probably fall into the category proposed by Dr Tims, on the

22 Studies in Anthropology

whole we think that it is most reasonable to adopt the view that they are
aborted third premolars which constitute a human type of dentition
similar to that of the New World Apes. Should further investigation
prove this to be a correct view, it would constitute a link connecting
man more closely with these platyrrhine primates.

We do not deal at present with the occurrence of enamel on these
rudiments though this is a point which should be worked out in detail ;
but just now there seems to be no direct inference to be drawn from
this subject in respect of the exact nature of the rudiments.

In looking at the second question, the factors influencing the
frequency of occurrence, it at once appears that while Sex has no
appreciable effect and Age but little, that of Race is most unmistakable.
To begin with, we found tio instances in three hundred crania of
Egyptians and only one in about fifty crania of Europeans examined :
whereas in the negro races and aborigines of Australia the frequency is,
comparatively speaking, very great. Of all these, however, the natives
of New Britain seem to present by far the greatest number, both abso-
lutely and relatively, of cases of. the abnormality. The aborigines of
New Britain are followed bythose of Australia and these by African
negroes : the American races also appear ; but whereas the number of
Peruvians examined was considerably over loo, only two presented
signs of these rudiments. These facts claim attention for this subject,
whatever be the exact nature ascribed to the abnormalities.

Finally, on examining a large series of crania of Anthropoid Apes,
the answer to the third question indicated is, that here also occurs
a curious variation in the mode of occurrence : for none of the lower
primates (about twelve were examined) afforded a case; no occurrence
was seen in six crania of Hylobates, and four of Chimpanzees : among
the Orang-utans available was one very important specimen which alone
(out of nine skulls) showed the occurrence, whereas no less than seven
out of thirteen Gorilla skulls presented examples of various modifications
of the anomaly.

The Orang-utan skull deserves a word of special mention : the
rudiments occurred in the mandible, not only between the 2nd premolar
and 1st molar, but also between the ist and 2nd molars on the left side :
now in the latter case there could be no question of the retention of
a temporary tooth or a fragment of the same, for the temporary series
does not extend backwards beyond the position of the second premolar.
This we regard as evidence of the independent origin of the fragment
but we recognise that it is difficult to argue from the case of an Orang-
utan to that of Man.

The extraordinary frequency of the occurrence of these anomalies in

Some Dental Rudiments in Human Crania 23

Gorilla skulls certainly points in the same direction as the evidence
from the Orang mandible. We would therefore conclude by expressing
the belief that though a classification of these rudiments may be needed,
yet some of them really represent aborted teeth which, if fully developed,
would confer on Man a dentition formula identical with that of the
platyrrhine apes.

In expressing this belief we admit that we are aware that there is a
strong tendency in certain quarters' to insist on a greater approximation
of the platyrrhine apes and Man than has hitherto been regarded as
justifiable, but we have tried to discuss in an impartial manner the signi-
ficance of the observations we have made.

The third and fourth figures show palates of crania of New Britain
(Melanesian) aborigines of the Willey Collection which has already
afforded such excellent material for research. These maxillae bear
rudiments, viz. in fig. 3, symmetrical masses on right and left sides
and on the lingual margin of the alveolar border, in fig. 4, a single
intermediate mass on the left side only.

CLASSIFICATION.
The Numbers ai-e those of the Catalogue of the Catnbridge Museum.

Class One rudiment between 2nd premolar and ist molar, on one

A. or both sides of Upper Jaw :

Kaffir — 1774 (one side).

New Britain — 3373 (see illustration, fig. 4), (one side).

New Britain — 3355 (one side).

New Britain — 3338 (both sides).

New Britain — 3354 (one side), also Class C.

Anthropoids :

Gorilla, No. 3 (both sides).

Gorilla, No. 5 (both sides), but see Class B.

Gorilla, No. 7 (both sides).

Gorilla, No. 8 (one side).

Class Two rudiments, between 2nd premolar and ist molar, on one

B. or both sides of Upper Jaw :

Aboriginal Australian— 2134 (two on each side of

upper maxilla, additional incisor in lower jaw).
Aboriginal Australian — 2154 (one side).
Manitoba — 1837 (one side).
1 Recent work by Dubois is particularly to be consulted.

24 Studies in Antkropology

Anthropoids :

Gorilla, No. 5 (one side).
Gorilla, No. 10.

Class Small pits or Fossk between 2nd premolar and ist molar,

C. on one or both sides of Upper Jaw :

New Britain — 3334 (one side).

New Britain — 3325 (both sides).

New Britain — 3328 (one side).

New Britain — 3354 (one side), cf. also Class A.

New Britain — 3379 (one side).

Negro — 1728 (one side).

Negro — 1776 (one side).

Kaffir — 1774 (one side).

Aboriginal Australian — 2 113 (one side).

Aboriginal Australian — 2159 (one side).

Aboriginal Australian — 2124 (both sides).

Aboriginal Australian — 2162 (both sides).

Peruvian — 1932 (both sides).

Peruvian — 1929 (one side).

N. American Indian — 1839 (one side).

Anthropoids :
None observed.

Class Fossae or Dental masses elsewhere than between 2nd pre-

D. molar and ist molar:

New Britain — 3362 (one side), pit between two pre-
molars.

Peruvian — 1987 (one side), pit between two premolars.

Italian (Paestum) — 1114, Dental masses (one side
between canine and ist premolar, the other
between the two premolars).

Anthropoids :

Gorilla at Hamburg, second canine (not a milk tooth)
(cf. Selenka, Menschenaffen, Part 2, Wiesbaden,
1899).
Chimpanzee: Liibeck Museum, No. 222.
Orang : Munich, No. 129^

^ Reference may be made to an interesting record of supernumerary teeth in
Anthropoid Apes provided by Selenka, Menschenaffen, Part i, Wiesbaden, 1898.

Some Dental Rudiments in Human Crania 25

Class FossK or Rudiments in the Mandible :
E. New Britain — 3344 (pit between two premolars, dental

rudiment between two premolars), one side.

Anthropoids :

Gorilla, No. 6, dental rudiment opposite 2nd molar,

one side.
Orang — D i, two masses on left side, one between

2nd premolar and ist molar, the other between

ist and 2nd molars.
Gorilla — Zool. Museum (2 small rudiments).

ON IRREGULARITIES IN THE CONFORMATION
OF THE POST-ORBITAL WALL IN SKULLS
OF HYLOBATES MULLERI, AND OF AN
ABORIGINAL NATIVE OF AUSTRALIA.

The first example (fig. i) is the skull of a specimen of Hylobates
muUeri, presented to the Cambridge Anatomical Museum by C. Hose,
Sc.D., of Jesus College. In the outer wall of each orbit is a nearly
circular aperture, most easily observed when the skull is viewed from
behind.

Fig. I. — Skull oi Hylobates mulleri (from the Anatomical Museum, Cambridge),
showing a perforation in the post-orbital wall.

The nature of such an imperfection in the orbital wall is of interest,
in view of the well known generalisation that the completion of the par-
tition between the orbit and the zygomatic fossa is characteristic of the
highest forms of Mammalia, and particularly of Primates.

Irregularities in Post-orbital Wall

27

In the genus Hylobates, the post-orbital wall is well developed
normally, but the present example does not, in my opinion, exemplify
a condition of retrogression or reversion on account of the imperfection
alluded to ; and this because the perforation is quite independent of the
spheno-maxillary fissure, which is the last remnant of the communication
between the orbit and the zygomatic fossa to be encroached upon by the
more complete forms of septum ; so that cases of reversion ought to
present us with an abnormally wide spheno-maxillarv fissure.

Fig. 2. — Skull of aboriginal Australian (No. 2163 in the Anatomical Museum,
Cambridge), showing an unusually wide spheno-maxillary fissure.

The perforations must therefore be regarded as due to defective
ossification, similar to that which not uncommonly occurs in the infra-
spinous fossa of the scapula ; no particular morphological significance
can thus be attached to the condition.

The second example (fig. 2), which is the skull of an Australian
aboriginal, does seem to bear evidence of an inferior type of conforma-
tion. As will be observed in the photograph, the spheno-maxillary fissure
is of unusual width, the post-orbital wall being deficient in extent, though
otherwise normally formed. There is thus an important difference
between this condition and that exhibited by the skull of the gibbon
first described, the deficiency in development of the post-orbital wall

28 Studies in Anthropology

denoting an inferiority in the human skull. Another skull of an
aboriginal Australian (No. 2126) in the same collection presents an
almost identical condition.

Two remarks in conclusion seem to be appropriate. In the first
place, when the members of the sub-order Lemuroidea (of the order
Primates) are compared with those of the sub-order Anthropoidea, in
respect of the outer portion of the orbit, it will be observed that the
transition from the mere post-orbital bar of the Lemuroidea to the post-
orbital wall of the Anthropoidea is a sudden one, and that in the lowest
of the last-mentioned forms (Anthropoidea) the post-orbital wall is fully
as well developed as in the Simiidae. If, then, the Australian skull pre-
sents a condition of reversion, it is not a reversion to a lower stage
among the Anthropoidea, but to a still more lowly form.

Secondly and lastly, when we compare normal examples of the
highest Primates, such as the Simiidas, with the Hominidae, we find that,
as a rule, the spheno-maxillary fissure is still more nearly closed in the
Simiidae than in the Hominidae, from which it seems justifiable to infer
that in this, as in several other respects, the Simiidae have reached
a further stage of development and specialisation than that attained by
the Hominidce. This consideration should certainly not be neglected in
any summary of the evidence for the relative positions of members of
the two families in question.

ON AN UNUSUAL FORM OF NASAL BONE
IN A HUMAN SKULL.

The skull here represented (fig. i) is that of an ancient Egyptian,
which was presented to the Anatomical Museum at Cambridge by Pro-
fessor Petrie. The point to which attention is called is the condition of

Fig. I. — Skull of ancient Egyptian, showing the unusually long nasal bone on the left
side. Notice particularly the line of foramina, which seem to denote the original
suture between the nasal bone proper and the uppermost part of the premaxiila.

the left nasal bone, which, as may be seen in the figure, is prolonged
downwards to an unusual extent along the margin of the nasal aperture.
The condition on the right side is obscure, owing to the destruction of
bone in this region ; the fragile nature of the specimen rendering it very
liable to such injury.

Two explanations of the conformation of the left nasal bone appear
to be possible. Thus it may be that ossification, commencing in the

30 Studies in Anthropology

nasal bone, has spread to an unusual extent downwards into the superior
lateral cartilage ; the case would thus be regarded as one of an unusually
large nasal bone.

Another explanation has been suggested by Professor Macalister.
If the skull of a young gorilla be examined, it will be seen (as in fig. 2)

Fig. 1. — Skull of young gorilla (Camb. Anat. Mas.), showing the premaxillary
bones extending upwards on the face till they meet the nasal bones.

that the premaxillary bones run upwards on the facial surface, skirting
the lateral margin of the apertura pyriformis nasi, and meeting, at their
highest parts, the nasal bones. The sutural lines are curiously persistent
even in adult specimens of the gorilla, much more so than in the orang-
utan, but a young example best shows the relations of the various
bones.

It is suggested that' such a relation of the premaxilla exists in the
Egyptian skull under consideration, in which an abnormally developed
facial extension of the uppermost portion of the premaxilla has become
fused with the nasal bone. It is very important to note that two or
three small foramina seem to indicate the former situation of the line of
junction. Without other examples, it does not seem possible to decide
which of these explanations is the correct one; but the condition is rare
enough in a human skull to render it worthy of being placed on record.

^

Fig. 2.

A and B, outline drawings of a human foetus (said to be 4^ months old), from

photographs, and of the actual size of the specimen.

C and D, similar drawings (of actual size) of fcEtus of gorilla.

14 Studies in Anthropology

coccyx, and was chiefly used in order to show that even at its age,
which is stated to be 4 months, the human characteristics of hand and
foot are clearly marked in the foetus. The hand and foot of this
specimen are therefore figured (fig. 3). A comparison of the external
forms of these human foetuses with that of the gorilla foetus leads to the
following remarks : —

The size of the head in gorilla appears, proportionately to the total
bulk, greater than in man, in whom there is a marked nuchal depression,
which, as remarked above, is not visible in gorilla.

The ears in all these specimens appear to have attained about the
same stage of development. A furrow, limiting the helix on its proximal
side, is rather more distinct in the human fcetus, and gives a more marked
indication of inrolling of the pinna.

T/ic eyes are large and bulging in both cases, gorilla and man alike.

The facial components of the head in man are distinctly smaller,
absolutely and proportionately, than in the gorilla foetus ; the jaws in
man are less prominent (less prognathous), the nostrils smaller and pro-
portionately rather farther apart, the rictus oris is distinctly smaller than
in gorilla : some of these facts are indicated by the respective dimensions
of the parts. (See Table of Measurements, p. 18.)

The neck in man is, even at this stage, more slender, and therefore
more distinct than in gorilla.

The trunk in the gorilla is stouter than in man ; the iliac bones seem
to have already acquired the features which are so characteristic of these
bones in adult examples. The navel is situated low down on the abdo-
minal wall in both cases.

The tipper extremities in man are more slender, absolutely and pro-
portionately, and the forearm and manus contribute much less to the
length of the limb than they do in gorilla ; the poUex in man already
reaches to the distal end of the first phalanx of the index digit ; in
gorilla the pollex is far shorter, barely surpassing the distal end of the
metacarpal bone of the second digit.

The lower extremities in man are more slender, and there is greater
apparent inward torsion of the thigh. The whole limb is relatively
longer in man, the ankle more slim, the plantar surface of the foot
less inverted than in gorilla. The human foot has already (see fig. 3,
A and b) attained to its characteristic conformation, and even in this
younger and smaller human foetus a few grooves are visible. These
may, however, be merely due to contraction, owing to the effect of the
preservative. Grooves are distinct on the plantar surface in gorilla ;
the appearance of the pes in the latter has already been described.

Turning now from the comparisons based on the material at

NOTES ON THE OSTEOLOGY OF

GORILLA SAVAGE I.

(i) An unusually large ifmominatum of Gorilla. The maximum
length of the bone is 412 ; the corresponding figures for the skeletons of
the large animals dissected by Duvernoy and by Owen being 350 mm.
and 360 mm. respectively. The specimen now shown also possesses
an unusually well developed anterior inferior iliac spine for a gorilla.
The specimen is in a private collection at Cambridge.

(ii) The University Anatomical Department possesses the crania of
hvo young Gorillas., in which there is independent ossification of that part
of the frontal bone adjoining the pterion region. Such an independent
ossification produces the appearance of a post-frontal bone, though it is

Fig. I. — Specimen of Chimpanzee's Skull, showing divided parietal.
Original in the Zoological Museum, Copenhagen.

difficult to determine whether the morphological value of this is different
from that of the smaller Wormian bones so frequent in this region.

(iii) The rare occurrence of a divided Parietal bone in a Chim-
panzee is illustrated by the specimen represented in the figure. The
original is in the Copenhagen Museum.

NOTE ON AN ANTHROPOID APE IN THE
CAMBRIDGE ANATOMICAL MUSEUM.

The specimen under consideration, which is an aged female, was
shipped to this country from the Gaboon River, West Coast of Africa.
In placing on record the results of the dissection of this anthropo-
morphous ape, I am met with the difficulty of being unable to refer
to it with confidence as either a true Chimpanzee {Anthropopithecus
troglodytes) or a genuine Gorilla {A. gorilla).

In a communication to' the section of General Zoology at the
International Congress recently held at Cambridge, I was able only to
mention the difficulty, and time did not allow of any discussion on the
subject. I have therefore ventured to return to this in rather greater
detail, and hope that I may be favoured with some advice thereupon.

I turn at once to the characters of our specimen, and, to summarise
these characters in the briefest manner, would note the general size
and bulk (stature nearly 1200 mm.). The loss, consequent on the
inadequate method of preservation employed, of almost all the hair,
shows that the colour of the skin is grey, with black patches where the
epidermis is retained, the face and the dorsal aspects of digits being of
the latter colour. The hip- and knee-joints are much more extensible
than in most specimens of the Anthropoid Apes ; the limbs and
extremities are distinctly slender.

The ears are remarkably asymmetrical, the upper half of the right ear
being absent. This is probably the result of a bite; a similar condition
is present (on the same side) in a Chimpanzee in the Zoological
Museum at Leipzig.

On its arrival the specimen was thought to be a female Gorilla, the
principal reasons, so far as I can ascertain, for the opinion being the
facts of its great bulk and the dark colour of the face and extremities.
But from the first time I saw it, I have had misgivings about the
correctness of this view, and these up to a certain point have been
strengthened by further observations.

An Anthropoid Ape

33

These doubts were raised by the following features presented by the
specimen : —

1. The large size of the ear. — Gorillas have usually small ears.

2. The comparative lack of supra-orbital prominence. — This is
marked even in female Gorillas.

3. The comparative breadth of the interorbital space ; which is
great when compared to that of many Gorillas.

4. Characters of the upper lip : the great distance from the base
of the septum nasi to the margin of the lip ; and the absence of the
median furrow which is so marked in many Gorillas.

5. The slenderness and narrowness of hand and foot.

6. The relatively great development of pollex and hallux.

7. The small size of the teeth ; these are much worn, the third
molars the least ; there are indications that, originally, four cusps were
present in the upper molars. As regards the lower molars, those of the
third pair show comparatively little wear, and have three large and two
subsidiary cusps.

The average transverse diameter of the crowns of the molar teeth
is 10-4 mm. as against 14 mm., which is the corresponding average in
the skull (at Cambridge) of an undoubted female Gorilla. [Cf. Table I.
infra.^

8. Muscular system. A plantaris muscle is present in the right
lower extremity. I cannot find any record of this in a Gorilla up to the
present.

Table I. — Dimensions of Teeth (in millim.).

Molar

"A."

Gorilla, ?
Skull at Cambridge

A.P. j T.

A.P. T.

Upper I R

,, 2 ,,

9 '5
10

10-5

12

10-5

10

1 1

10-5

95
II

9 '5
9*5

II

10

12

14
I^

i3"5
14

I L

12 14

i? 1 15

15 i I4'5

12 1 ?

1.=; 14
17 14*5
12-5 12-5
^b-h 1 14
17 i-t

,, 2 ,,

„ I L

,, a

" ^ "

1

A.P.=: Antero-posterior, T. = Transverse diameter of
crown of molar tooth.

34

Studies in Anthropologif

These are the principal points to which one refers in attempting
to assign the creature to a recognised species ; and, in my opinion, they
indicate that this specimen is more correctly designated a Chimpanzee
than a Gorilla. The hair is so scanty as to afford no reliable evidence
on the subject.

I have been led from this case to collect some illustrations and
descriptions of some of the Anthropoid Apes which have in former years
presented difficulties when the determination of their species for
descriptive purposes came into question.

The accompanying diagram, in which, however, the outlines are
carefully traced from photographs, will serve to recall some of those

No. I.

No. 1.
No. 3.

No. 4.
No. •;.
No. 6.

No. 7.

No. 8.

Outline tracings of the heads of various Apes.

Head of a female Gorilla, a stuffed specimen in the Natural History Museum
at Hamburg.

Head of a Chimpanzee with ears of considerable size.

Head of a Chimpanzee with smaller ears.

Head of Johanna : from a photograph of the living animal.

Head of the Ape "A," at Cambridge.

Head of Aubry's Chimpanzee: from the illustration in the original memoir,
NoiiveUes Archives dn Ahisc'inn.

Head of an Ape described by Hartmann in the Archiv fiir Anatoinie, 1876.
In Hartmann's paper it appears as No. i in the illustrations, and is there-
fore referred to a's Hartmann's example No. i. The figures Nos. 2 and 3
of the present illustration are taken from the same communication by
Hartmann.

Head of Mafuka: from Miitzel's drawing.

specimens. I would direct somewhat special notice to the representa-
tion of "Johanna," the large ape at Messrs Barnum and Bailey's
World's Show.

An Anthropoid Ape 35

In studying the creatures represented in the diagram, I paid special
attention to certain facial features, and in fact, with two exceptions
(Nos. 3 & 4), all the examples are drawn to scale in such a way that the
facial length is constant throughout the series — a method of illustration
which possesses obvious advantages in enabling comparisons to be made.
The variety of profile met with in these animals is the principal point
illustrated by this diagram.

I next proceeded to consider measurements of the face and ears, the
data being represented in Table II. (p. 36) and being provided by
records (in the cases of specimens "Au.," "Maf," "Liib. H," "Liib.W,"
and "Den."), by spirit-specimens (viz., "B," "A," "Cy," "Cr," "H," "F,"
"Lag. I, 2, 3," all at Cambridge), by "Johanna," and by a stuffed
specimen at Hamburg (" Hamb.").

The features more specially observed were : — the total facial length
and the part contributed to it by the upper lip ; the interorbital and
biorbital diameters, and the dimensions of the ears. Of these dimen-
sions I have constructed indices (Tab. II.) ; and a comparison of the
members of this group as arranged in the numerical order of the indices
is here presented (Tab. III. p. 37).

Thus arranged, it is to be observed that the Chimpanzee-like or
" intermediate " apes keep on the whole fairly closely together and
away from the genuine Gorillas that I have been able to measure — the
Chimpanzees furnishing the higher, and the Gorillas the lower terms of
the series in the case of each index.

In these respects, too, the position of " A " is evidently rather with
the Chimpanzees than with the Gorillas.

In the last table (Tab. IV.) I have presented some other dimensions
(in millim.) of the Ape " A," together with the corresponding figures
relating to six undoubted Gorillas at Cambridge, five of which, how-
ever, are immature. And I have added the corresponding figures
for "Johanna '' for the sake of comparison. Three indices show marked
contrasts between " A " and undoubted Gorillas.

In comparing " A " with undoubted Gorillas, one may also specially
remark the palmar breadth : this is very much less than in a Gorilla at
Cambridge of rather greater size, viz. " Cy," whereas the pollex in " A "
is much longer than in this Gorilla.

After ascertaining, however, that, from evidence supplied by teeth,
by facial features, and by the extremities, our specimen "A," while in
some respects intermediate, yet resembles the Chimpanzee rather than
the Gorilla, it is not encouraging to find Hartmann in 1876, after an
extended series of observations, pronouncing on none of these char-

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An Anthropoid Ape

37

acters as really of specific import. Thus he states', for instance, that
whereas in Chimpanzees large ears are the rule, yet individuals with
small ears are not unknown, and in fact he illustrates this (see fig. 3,
p. 34) : whereas again in Gorillas, though small ears are usual, one
sometimes finds examples in which these appendages are of large size.

Table III. — Specmiens in Niatierical Order.

Index I

Index 2

Superficies auris

"Johanna."

"Johanna."

Cambr. specimen "A."

Aubry's Chimpanzee.

Aubry's Chimpanzee.

Aubry's Chimpanzee.

Cambridge specimen "A."

Cambridge specimen "A."

"Johanna."

Chimpanzee "B."

Chimpanzee "B."

"Mafuka."

Deniker's Gorilla.

Deniker's Gorilla.

Chimpanzee "B."

Cambridge Gorilla "F."

Cambr. Gorilla "Cy."

Cambr. Gorilla "Cy."

„ "Cy."

„ "H." 1

Hamburg Gorilla.

"H."

„ ,, "Lag. i."?-rry.

Cambr. Gorilla "H."

,, "Cr."

„ "F." )

(PLiibeck Gorilla "H.")

„ "Lag. I."

„ "Lag. 2."

Cambr. Gorilla "Cr."

,, "Lag. 2."

„ "Lag. 3."

" Lag. i."l
"Lag. 2."j ^

,, "Lag. 3."

„ "Cr."

(PLubeck Gorilla "W.")

P "Lagos" No. 3.

Index I.

Index 2.

Distance supra-orb. crest to lip-margin
Interorbital diameter x 100
External biorbital diameter *

Table IV.

Sitting height 737

Palmar breadth 76

Pollex 60

Hallux 75

Length of pes 2 40

,, humems 293

,, radius , 252

,, femur j 260

,, tibia I 250

Index — Radio-humeral ; 85'3
,, Tibio-femoral [ 96*0
,, Humero-femoral I ii2';
,, Intermembral j 107

Cy.

H.

Cr.

"Job."
830

Lag. I

Lag. 2

Lag. 3

836

?

340

514

400

462

106

.S6

48

54

43

52

^4

22

17

28

21

24

71

47

22

46

33

33

282

142

no

2.35

168

13^

146

360

170

128

270

220

171

200

UT'

175

"5

305

195

1 40

165

290

?J7.S

90

360

182

150

156?

270

140

94

260

168

125

n6P

q.v8

102-9

89-8

?II2-8

88-6

81-9

82-5

93-1

?8o

1045

72-3

92-3

«3-4

87-1?

124-1

P97-I

142-3

75

120-9

114

128

i25"9

? 109-2

132-1

927

118-5

113-1

124-6

1 Zeitschrift filr Ethnologic, 1876.

38 Studies in Anthropology

But yet on finding the coincidence of so many characteristics of
Chimpanzee as in this animal, one may well be excused hesitation in
continuing to regard the specimen as a Gorilla.

However, it can hardly be described as an ordinary example of
Atithropopithecus troglodytes ; and I am inclined to think, in the absence
of contradictory evidence, that we have here a specimen of Du Chaillu's
Kooloo-Kamba. Its great size gives it some claim to an intermediate
position between A. troglodytes and A. gorilla.

But if an intermediate form, it differs appreciably from members of
another group of intermediate forms which we may call the Mafuka
group, and which is constituted by Mafuka, Johanna, and Hartmann's
example No. i (cf. fig. 7, p. 34).

Further Note on Specific Differences in the
Anthropoid Apes.

I. After reading a note on this subject in December 1898, I
learned that in the Zoological Museum at Jena is an Ape, the
determination of whose species has given rise to some discussion : the
point in dispute being, whether it should be described as a Gorilla or
a Chimpanzee. Through the kindness of Professor Haeckel I have
been enabled to examine the specimen and have arrived at the following
conclusion — that, although labelled "Jungerweiblicher Gorilla,"' neither
the stuffed skin nor the skeleton aiTords any evidence to justify the term
Gorilla ; and the facts that hardly a suture remains unclosed in the skull,
that every epiphysis has long been fused with its diaphysis in the limb-
bones, and that the teeth are much worn down, indicate that this was an
aged, and not a young female. The average transverse diameter of the
crowns of the molar teeth is 97 mm. (cf. the ape "A" at Cambridge,
where the average is io"4 ; and an undoubted female Gorilla with 14
mm.) ; and the mounted skeleton measures only 10 10 mm. in height
(less than 3 ft. 4 in.). On renewed careful examination of the skeleton
and of the skin, including observations on hair-colour, ear-dimensions,
characters of the extremities and face, I could find no reason for regard-
ing it as other than an old female Chimpanzee, but one considerably
smaller than our Cambridge specimen " A " (also an aged female).

^ The label rans: — ^'■Troglodytes gorilla (Cuv.). Junger weiblicher Gorilla, von
einem Urunga Neger, 1885, in der Kolonie Gaboon erlegt."

Specific lyijferences in the Anthropoid Apes 39

2. The foregoing instance is one in which a Chimpanzee is
incorrectly described as a Gorilla. The converse, whereby a Gorilla
is described as a Chimpanzee, may be noticed in the paper by Professors
Kiikenthal and Ziehen of Jena (in the Jenaische Zeitschrift fiir Natur-
wissenschaft, Band xxix. 1 894), entitled : " Untersuchungen liber die
Grosshirnfurchen der Primaten." On mentioning Gorilla engena, the
authors state that they themselves had no opportunity of making obser-
vations on cerebral hemispheres of this species. They draw up, however,
from the works of others, a list of twenty characteristic features of the
fissures of the cerebral hemispheres in this species. They proceed to
Troglodytes niger, of which they describe six hemispheres, with which
they combine descriptions of two hemispheres of Troglodytes savagn\
The latter specimens are in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons,
and are the cerebral hemispheres of a Gorilla that died in the Zoological
Society's Gardens in 1887. More interesting than the omission of the
authors to recognize the identity of Gorilla engena with T'oglodytes
savagii is the fact that out of the ten particulars in which the hemi-
spheres of T. savagii are stated to differ from those of T niger, in three
only does such divergence from T niger imply agreement with features
previously described by the authors as characteristic of Gorilla engena,
while in three cases there is divergence from these characteristic features
of Gorilla engena, and in the remaining four instances no comparisons
can be made. But further, from the examination of these hemispheres
of T. niger and savagii, the authors proceed to draw up a list of cha-
racters specially typical of the hemisphere of the Chimpanzee, and
seventeen of these affect features that appeared in the list for Gorilla
engena. Of these seventeen characters, thirteen actually present simi-
larities in conformation between the hemispheres of Gorilla engena and
of the Chimpanzee (i.e. T. niger and T. savagii of Profs. Kiikenthal and
Ziehen), while only four indicate differences of conformation. If we
may accept the data, no better proof could be adduced of the practical
identity of Gorilla and Chimpanzee in respect of cerebral convolutions.

3. The study of cerebral hemispheres of Gorilla and Chimpanzee
respectively (in my possession) shows in strong relief the diversity of
conformation that may be met with in the brains of the former. Con-
sequently the value to be attached to the arrangement of the cerebral
convolutions as a criterion of species is insignificant, and herein the
conclusion arrived at in the preceding paragraph is corroborated.
I should prefer, however, to postpone the further consideration of this
part of the subject until I have been able to consult the communication
so lately made to the Zoological Society on the brain of the Gorilla.

Two points respecting the geographical distribution of the Gorilla

40 Studies in Anthropology

appear to me to call for notice here. Last year (1898) the occurrence
of a Gorilla near Brazzaville on the Congo was recorded, and, in fact,
the specimen ("Cr, Cambr.") was brought to England. Secondly, in the
same year was published Captain Burrows's book, entitled T/te Land of
the Pigmies, which contains a photograph of an Ape described as a
Gorilla, which was shot at Stanley Falls. If we regard this Ape as a
genuine Gorilla, it follows that the eastward range of that animal is much
more extensive than it is commonly supposed to be ; but unfortunately
the evidence of the photograph alone does not support that specific title,
showing as it does that the specimen was possessed of distinct Chim-
panzee features. Without further investigation, therefore, no final
conclusion on this point can be arrived at.

I

VARIATIONS IN THE CRANIA OF
GORILLA SAVAGE I.

The following account results from observations made on more than
one hundred skulls of the gorilla. The actual number of specimens
available for establishing the desired facts was 109, and these are
distributed among several museums in this country and in France.

The observations are recorded in tabular form for facility of reference,
and in the following paragraphs the results of an examination of these
tables are presented, and in some cases commented upon.

Classified according to sex, 62 skulls are those of adult or aged males,
38 of adult or aged females, 13 of immature individuals.

The great size of the skulls of adult males is the most striking feature.
The brain-case is relatively small but it bears great bony ridges or crests
for the attachment of the temporal muscles. The facial skeleton is
enormously large and massive, the brow-ridges prominent, the orbits
high and angular, the nasal aperture wide with indistinct lo\ver margins,
the nasal bones resemble those of the Cercopithecidae. The palate is
very long and narrow with immense canine teeth. The jaw is massive
and the sigmoid notch is shallow.

^^'ith regard to observations on the prominence of the bony crests of
the cranium, in about half the number of female skulls there is coalescence
of the temporal ridges to form a sagittal crest of small dimensions : in
some skulls of adult females an arrangement of alternate ridges and
furrows is seen in the region of the sagittal suture : in five cases three
such ridges with intervening furrows are noticed.

In the skulls of adult males there is in every case a sagittal ridge,
varying considerably in height in different individuals : three degrees can
be recognised, viz., crests of about 20, 30, and 40 to 45 mm. in height
respectively. Specimens are evenly distributed among these three
classes, but rather fewer occur in the last, i.e. where the crests exceed
40 mm. in maximum height.

The height of these sagittal crests does not depend on age, for, in

42 Studies in Anthrojmlogy

some specimens with clean and little-worn teeth, the crest is developed
to an exaggerated extent, while in some evidently aged specimens the
height is not nearly so great. In one case of an old male this crest is
involved in a general pathological process affecting most of the cranium.

With regard to other bony prominences, large mastoid processes
occur in one case only ; infra-temporal crests are, as a rule, small and
oblique in direction, and are in no case produced into such spurs or
spiny processes as often occur in human crania. Figures represent the
relative extent of development of the tuber maxillare in the two sexes, in
neither of which was it at all usual to meet with such a comparatively
large tuber maxillare as commonly in certain human races contributes
considerably to the palate length. A large tubercle directed downwards
from the malar bone is seen in three male specimens, being probably
connected with the size and extensive origin of the masseter muscle.
Further correlations of a similar kind are noticed where the ascending
ramus of the mandible attains considerable width, as in three males,
measuring respectively 80, 77, 76 mm. across, while in two other cases
the angles of the mandible are much everted.

Again, the genial tubercle is not unfrequently represented by a sharp
ridge in adults of either sex, though in several it is absent, or replaced
by a depression. A styloid process was not observed in any of 94
specimens examined with regard to this feature : a frontal exostosis
behind the supra-orbital crest and between the converging temporal crests,
of a female specimen, is worth notice ; while the Eustachian processes
on the petrous bones (whose axes are nearly parallel) vary a good deal
in shape, being perforated in three cases, bifid in two others.

The observations on the conformation of the region of the foramen
magnum may thus be summarised : in one case only was there a distinct
trace of a third occipital condyle, so that this feature is very rare ; in one
case only was there an approach to a patent post-condylar foramen : the
condyles present a good deal of variety in size and position, — prominent,
oval, and everted or depressed, round, and small forms occur with almost
equal frequency ; cases occur {a) where a transverse groove interrupts
each condyle ; [b) where an almost longitudinal ridge modified the
articular surface ; and also {c) in which prolongations are sent off either
anteriorly or posteriorly, the form of the foramen magnum being
correspondingly modified. (Where a groove interrupts the articular
surface, the reason for its presence may be imperfect coalescence of the
parts of the condyles formed from the ex-occipitals with those formed
from the basi-occipital.)

Passing to the region of the pterygoid plates, one may notice that
the external plate is usually small, and not very strongly everted ; that

Variations in the Cf^a?iia of' Gorilla Savagei 43

a fossa on the external surface of the external pterygoid plate, or a ridge
(called pre-pterygoid) bounding such a fossa anteriorly, are both of rare
occurrence. A pterygo-spinous foramen is of more frequent occurrence.
Further cases are noticed wherein sharp spurs project outwards from the
free edge of the external plate ; where the hamulus of the internal plate
attains considerable size ; where the hamulus is represented by a quadrate
mass ; where the scaphoid fossa is prolonged down the internal pterygoid
plate to the hamulus.

The disposition of parts in the posterior region of the hard palate
is subject to a good deal of variation, the varieties being often attri-
butable to the frequent lack of union between the palatine processes
of the palate bones. They may be conveniently classified with regard
to the presence or absence of a posterior palate spine. The results
of observations on 105 specimens show that an indication of such
a spine is met with in one only out of every three cases. The
disposition of the vomer with regard to the palate bones also offers
some interesting varieties : thus, in four cases it appears in the hindmost
portion of the median suture of the hard palate, and is there embraced
by the palatine processes of the bones of that name ; in other cases (six
in number) the palate bones still do not meet, but are separated by
processes of the maxillte, and not by the vomer. In the situation of the
anterior nasal spine of Man, small tubercles are seen in four cases on the
facial surface of the premaxillary bones. The question whether such
tubercles really represent the anterior nasal spine of Man is rendered
difficult by the fact that in about 36 other cases (young individuals being
in a majority) a sharp spine is directed backwards from the posterior or
intranarial surface of each premaxillary bone, and comes into contact in
many cases with the vomer. It is suggested that such are indeed true
anterior nasal spines, which, owing to the great size of the incisor teeth,
and the consequent swollen condition and larger dimension of the
premaxilla in the gorilla, do not assume the prominent and conspicuous
position that they occupy in Man. In this connection it may be
remarked that the nasal spine is a feature of the infant human skull, and
that the latter in this respect differs from skulls of either young or adult
gorillas quite as much as does the adult human skull. It would be
interesting to observe stages between the backward and forward direction
of this anterior nasal spine in gorilla and Man.

The infra-orbital margins are, as a rule, much bevelled off; in one
or two cases, however, they are quite sharp in adults, though this seems
a persistence of a feature of adolescence. In no case among 102
specimens examined did a hamulus lacrymalis project over the orbital
margin on to the facial surface.

44 Studies in Anthropology

Of the teeth it may be remarked that the second lower bicuspids are
usually quadrituberculate : six cusps are sometimes seen in true molars;
one skull has acquired all the teeth of the permanent set, with the sole
exception of the canines, whose places are still occupied by their feeble
" milk " representatives. In another case five upper incisors are seen.
In two examples an additional molar tooth is present (in both on one
side, and in one jaw only), making six teeth posterior to the canine.
The two upper rows of post-canine teeth present varying degrees of
convergence towards one or other extremity of the palate.

With regard to the cranial sutures, it may be remarked that besides
the early synostosis of the components of the occipital and malar bones,
that of the two nasal bones is fairly constant in its occurrence. On the
other hand are cases where sutures remain open to a later period than
might be expected. In two skulls (both of females) is this the case with
the coronal suture : more notably is it the case with the spheno-basilar
suture, which was frequently found still unclosed in specimens otherwise
evincing signs of a fully adult condition (of this there are 13 examples,
mostly of male skulls) : in one case an ossicle was situated in the still
unclosed suture.

Of such ossicles in sutures examples are not rare, more especially in
young specimens ; the usual situations being the lambdoid suture, the
region of the lacrymo-ethmoid suture and the Glaserian fissure. Of the
region of the lacrymo-ethmoid suture, it must be said that it is more
usual to find the frontal and superior maxillary interposed between the
lacrymal and ethmoid bones, than to find a lacrymo-ethmoidal suture.

On one occasion only was there seen a spheno-maxillary suture
cutting off" the malar bone from the spheno-maxillary fossa. An infra-
orbital suture on the facial surface (pars facialis) is not uncommon, and
the infra-orbital canal on the orbit is less completely roofed in than in
Man. A table represents the data with regard to the conformation of
the pterion region : in one case (on one side, and in a young specimen)
was a spheno-parietal suture met with at this point. Hartmann {Der
Gorilla, Taf. xix. 2a) represents a similar conformation in the skull of
an adult male.

Of foramina the following notes were made : — The foramina spi-
nosum, Vesalii, and lacerum anterius are of inconstant and rare
occurrence. In one specimen intracranial appearances indicate that the
middle meningeal artery passed through the foramen ovale, even
though a foramen spinosum is present. Obelial foramina (10 examples)
often pierced the sagittal crest, without, however, penetrating to the
interior of the cranium. The olfactory foramina in the cribriform plate
of the ethmoid seem to be usually disposed in two ranks. The number

Vernations in the Ci'anid of Gorilla Savagei 45

of the infra-orbital foramina on each side is subject, as the table shows,
to considerable variation. The arrangement of the anterior palatine
foramen suggests that in the broadly expanded palate of the gorilla, the
foramina of Scarpa and Stenson are not, as in Man, crowded together into
one depression, but that the former two occupy the middle line, while
the two latter occupy lateral positions somewhat removed from that
region. The presence of a depression, sometimes so deep as to be
called a foramen on the exterior of the basi-occipital bone, was of not
uncommon occurrence ; possibly it replaces the pharyngeal spine,
though such a depression not unfrequently occurs in human crania.

I'he concluding remarks refer to the skeletons generally, and to
certain pathological features. Of the former, the occurrence of a
defective posterior arch of the atlas in an adult female, and of fourteen
ribs in a young specimen (at Le Havre), are noteworthy ; in the skeleton
of an adult male of very great size at Liverpool, the last lumbar vertebra
is ankylosed with the sacrum on one side ; in an adult male skeleton at
South Kensington the right olecranon fossa is perforated.

Of skeletons of 25 individuals examined, 6 (24 per cent.) were
affected by some pathological process. Of these, the skeleton of a large
adult male (presented by Henry Duckworth, Esq., to the Brown Museum,
Liverpool) shows signs of extensive disease, osteo-arthritic in nature,
in the left condyle of the jaw and glenoid fossa of that side. A
skeleton in the Museum of the Socie'te d'Anthropologie at Paris gives
evidence of much widespread necrosis of the skull, especially of the
left side of the face in the region of the orbital margins ; the left scapula
is also affected, and its squamous part perforated. The specimen
presented by Franquet, at the Jardin des Plantes, shows extensive
necrosis of the face in the region of the left upper canine tooth especially
(and one humerus is much shortened). In a specimen at South
Kensington ulceration has occurred near the base of the socket of the
left lower canine tooth, leaving a fistulous passage between this and the
exterior of the bone, being probably associated with dental caries. The
same condition obtains in a second specimen at Kensington, in addition
to extensive necrosis of the left humerus. Of other skulls affected by
morbid processes, those are most common in which ulcerative disease
has occurred near the roots of the canine teeth ; examples are also met
with of disease over the antrum on the face, on the external angular
process of the frontal bone, on the hard palate, and in the nasal fossae.

The foregoing observations may be considered in reference to the
frequency and prominence in skulls of gorilla of features which, when
met with in human skulls, are sometimes said to indicate a "simian"
type. And indeed such conformations seem to occur with greater fre-

46 Studies in Anthropology

quency in skulls of certain of the "lower" human than in the "higher"
human races. With regard to such points, a general review seems to
show that of the peculiarities of skulls of "low" human races, not so
many are "simian "as might be expected. But here it must be remarked
that such observations ought to be extended to crania of other members
of the family of anthropoid apes. Having regard to this, it is suggested
that the following are decidedly gorilla-like features of the skull of a
member of a "low" human race, viz. : —

(i) Fronto-squamous suture at pterion.

(2) Fronto-maxillary suture in orbit.

(3) Early and complete closure of foramen lacerum anterius.

(4) Absence of vesalian and post-condylar foramina.

(5) Diminutive posterior palatine spine.

(6) Diminutive styloid process.

(7) Flattened outline of squamous portion of temporal bone.

Whereas the following features, in which skulls of a "lower" human
race differ from those of a "higher" race, are not points which approxi-
mate them to the crania of gorilla : —

(i) Sphenoid contribution to glenoid fossa.

(2) Large tuber maxillare.

(3) Third occipital condyle.

(4) Trace in adult of suture dividing occipital squama from ex-

occipitals.

(5) Spheno-maxillary articulation outside the orbit cutting off the

malar bone from the spheno-maxillary fossa.

(6) External-pterygoid fossae, pre-pterygoid ridge.

(7) Large and spiny infra-temporal crests.

The last (6 and 7) sets of features are worthy of remark. Though
in the gorilla the glenoid fossa is large and flattened, and thus adapted to
movements of mastication, yet the presence of an immense "endo-
glenoid" tubercle prevents lateral movements. In correlation with which
is the fact of the small degree of development of the infra-temporal
crests and external pterygoid plates. In further correlation with move-
ments of the mandible_is the conformation of the region of the spine of
the sphenoid, in the gorilla much developed, so that the position of the
foramen ovale relative to the petro-sphenoidal fissure (which is deter-
mined by it) is seen to differ from that in Man, in whom the interval
between the two is relatively less than in the gorilla. Man in this
respect occupies a position intermediate between the orang and gorilla ;
the arrangement in the former being approached by that in the young
gorilla.

Variatioiis in the C?Yinia of Grorilla Savagei 47

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50

Studies in Anthropology

Table II.

The following figures relating to the frequency of occurrence of the
fronto-squamous articulation at the Pterion are of much interest. The
data were collected by Virchow and Ranke.

The percentage frequency of occurrence of the articulation of the
frontal bone with the squamous portion of the temporal bone in the
region named is as follows :

Europeans
West Africans .

(Ecker gives ao"/,))
Australians

(Virchow gives i6"9 "/„)
Mallicollese
Orang-utan
Chimpanzee
Gorilla . . . .

Percentage

I '53

S-66

50
33 "6

No. examined
11,000
830

422

987

Table III.

246

77
77

The human skull when compared with those of Gorilla and Orang-
utan appears to be more highly specialized in respect of

(3
(4

(5

(6

(7
The

(I

(2
(3

(4
(5
(6
(7

The greater size of the cranial portion.

The smaller size of the facial portion with associated greater

flexion of the base, and alteration in position of the

occipital condyles.
The larger mastoid processes.
The larger alisphenoid.
The lacrymo-ethmoidal suture in the orbit (herein Simia

agrees with Homo).
The small size of the premaxilla and its early fusion with

maxilla.
No diastema,
human skull is nevertheless less specialized in respect of

Later synostosis of certain cranial sutures, e.g. the sagittal and

temporo-parietal.
Smaller muscular crests and ridges.
Parieto-sphenoid suture at Pterion (herein Simia agrees with

Homo).
Wider spheno-maxillary fissure.
Larger nasal bones.
Shape of palate.
Reduction in number of molar cusps and in form of molar

teeth.

OS FRACTURES DES ORANG-OUTAXS.

Les lesions osseuses chez les singes anthropoides ont ete signalees
il y a deja quelque temps ; je rappellerai surtout les observations de
M. Rollet sur les squelettes des singes anthropomorphes des musees de
Paris ; aussi n'envisagerai-je pas la question a un point de vue gene'ral.

Je me contenterai de mettre sous vos yeux deux cas speciaux, qui
peuvent etre regardes comme les types d'une categorie d'exostoses
jusqu'ici peu connue, c'est-a-dire d'exostoses d'origine sympathique, ou
mieux, pour employer I'expression de Dupuytren, de cals vicieux.
Sur les photographies des os longs des membres d'un orang, vous
verrez d'abord un bel echantillon de la production excessive du cal
dans les os d'un avant-bras fracture en deux endroits distincts.
Le processus re'parateur ayant envahi la membrane interosseuse, a
determine la soudure des os qui, d^s lors, se sont trouves solidement
fixe's dans I'attitude de la supination. Les os de la jambe du meme
orang montrent egalement un cal surabondamment developpe, mais,
cependant, la fusion des deux os ne s'est pas effectuee, a cause pro-
bablement du mouvement de separation qui parait avoir accompagne les
fractures.

La piece suivante a ete trouvee dans une collection renfermant un
nombre considerable d'os d'orangs, qui sont arrives a Cambridge
entasses comme on les avait ramasses dans une caverne de Borneo. Je
m'empresse de vous dire qu'il ne s'agit pas du tout d'ossements fossiles,
car on savait que les orangs avaient ete tue's dans cet endroit quelques
annees auparavant. La collection renferme quatre cranes et une
quantite d'os provenant d'au moins cinq orangs adultes. La piece qui
nous interesse est un humerus droit, et ce qu'il a de remarquable, c'est
I'exostose qui se trouve a I'extremite inferieure de la diaphyse, exostose
qui m'a fait penser immediatement a celle que porte le femur du
Pithecanthropus erectus, surtout parce que dans les deux cas, c'est la
seule le'sion pathologique presentee par I'os. Je me suis demande' si les

52 Studies in Anthropology

deux exostoses avaient la meme origine, mais il ne me fut pas possible,
tout d'abord, de me faire une conviction. Aussi fut-ce avec une grande
satisfaction que je trouvai. en poursuivant mes etudes sur les os de
Borneo, une seconde piece qui nous fournit I'explication de la pre-
miere. Ce sont les deux os de I'avant-bras du cote droit (c'est-a-dire du
meme cote' que I'humerus) qui sont, comme vous le voyez, fusionnes a
la suite d'une fracture. Plus tard je rencontrai un os innomine fracture'
du cote' gauche, provenant probablement aussi du meme orang. Quant
aux os de I'avant-bras, vous remarquerez qu'il ne s'agit pas seulement
d'une fracture, mais qu'il existe aussi une luxation. A la suite d'une
fracture du cubitus a quelques centimetres au-dessous de son extre'mite
superieure, il s'est produit un deplacement vertical du radius, qui a
entraine avec lui le fragment inferieur du cubitus. C'est ainsi que le
radius est venu finalement s'appuyer sur la face superieure du condyle
externe de I'humerus, et voici les effets qui en sont resultes. Premiere-
ment, a la suite de la reunion de deux fragments du cubitus, arriva la
fusion des deux os de I'avant-bras. En second lieu, le frottement du
radius dans sa position nouvelle et anormale a determine la production
sympathique de I'exostose humerale, qui n'est done pas autre chose
qu'une masse de "cal vicieux." Par conse'quent, les mouvements de
I'articulation du bras avec I'avant-bras se sont trouves limites dans tous
les sens, et il est facile de s'en convaincre en regardant les photographies.
Je n'ai pas besoin de vous rappeler I'importance du role joue par le
membre ante'rieur dans la vie arboricole de I'orang. Mais ce n'est pas la
le point sur lequel je veux insister. Ce que je tiens a faire remarquer
c'est que si Ton avait trouve seul, dans un gisement quelconque,
I'humerus portant cette exostose, il n'aurait pas ete facile de reconnaitre
I'origine reelle de la lesion ; mais du moment que Ton possede les os
correspondants de I'avant-bras, il ne reste plus de doute sur I'explication
du phe'nomene. Je suis loin cependant de pretendre que la lesion
femorale du Pithecanthropus erectus soit le temoignage d'une fracture
quelconque. Dans les discussions qui ont surgi a propos de cette lesion
femorale, plusieurs hypotheses ont ete emises qui invoquent un etat
pathologique. M. Dubois I'attribua a un anevrisme de I'artere per-
forante superieure de 'la cuisse. M. Virchow regarda I'exostose comme
une preuve de I'existence d'un abces d'origine vertebrale, et, par
consequent, d'une carie de la colonne. Plus tard, M. Virchow a change
son avis en regardant I'exostose comme le produit de I'osteo-arthrite.
Une autre hypothese, celle de M. Bland Sutton, veut que la lesion soit
la manifestation locale d'une affection ge'nerale des muscles, connue sous
le nom de Myositis ossificans. II n'est pas necessaire de revenir sur ces
discussions ; je vous rappellerai seulement que M. Virchow a expose a

O.v Fractures des Orang-outans 53

Berlin des pieces interessantes qui pretent une grande probabilite' a sa
derniere fagon de voir. Les observations de M. Prochownik de Ham-
bourg sont aussi a citer a ce propos.

II resulte de mes observations que, chez les Primates, on rencontre
une cinquieme cate'gorie de ces etats pathologiques, a savoir les exostoses
qui se produisent a la suite d'une fracture, par I'extension du processus
reparateur bien au dela du siege primitif de la lesion. Les quelques
pieces nouvelles que j'ai cues a ma disposition pourront servir a une
e'tude plus detaille'e de Tanatomie pathologique generale des Primates.

NOTE ON THE PELVIC AND ABDOMINAL ORGANS
AND ANATOMY OF GAL AGO GARNETTI
(LEMUROIDEA).

(In collaboration with T. R. ELLIOTT, Esq., M.A.,
Trinity College, Cambridge.)

The specimen was obtained from a dealer who was ignorant of its
history. Presumably the animal came from South Africa. The body,
apparently that of an adult, excited interest in the first place because to
superficial examination it presented hermaphroditic characters. The
external generative organs were seemingly those of a male ; yet large
ovaries and uterus were evident upon the opening of the abdomen for
the purpose of injecting formalin. A more detailed study of the body
was therefore made to decide this point.

External characters.

Length — tip of snout to root of tail — 27 cms.
tip of tail „ „ —33 cms.

Total length — 60 cms.
Nails flattened : with the exception of that on the 2nd digit, of which
the form was the usual projecting talon with convex edge, the distal edge
of each was concave, and markedly so on the toes. This concavity was
natural, and not resultant from fracture.

Sexual organs. Clitoris stout, 6 mm. in length: sparsely covered with
hairs : prepuce present and meatus vertical. From anus to root of clitoris,
25 mm. Half-way between these points a depression devoid of hair : the
outer boundaries of the depression were formed by two knobby eminences :
the valley between these, about 3 mm. in diameter, was floored by thin
bare skin, in which no sign of a cleft could be discerned. Later dis-
section showed that the vagina abutted upon the right side of this
membrane. At first sight the lateral eminences resembled scrotal sacs ;
but upon the inner side of each was discovered a narrow pit, limited by
a semilunar fold of skin, and extending outwards into their substance.

Anatomy of Galago garnetti

55

This communicated with ducts in the mass of each, receiving a quasi-
sebaceous secretion from the subsidiary sex glands that were histologically
demonstrated as the basis of these dermal eminences.

Mammary glands, represented by a minute papilla in either axilla.

The hair about the perineal region was disposed divergently, but
showed distinct convergence at the anal opening.

Next the arrangement of the viscera was noted, the perineal region
dissected, and the internal generative organs examined after division of
the symphysis.

Finally the alimentary viscera were completely removed from the
abdomen.

56

Studies in Aiithj^ojjology

Urinary apparatus. In shape the bladder was conspicuously fusiform
and elongated : though empty, it rose behind the anterior abdominal
wall to a point quite 2 cms. above the symphysis. Representing the
urachus was a minute fibrous cord in the free edge of a broad peritoneal

Fig. 2.

fold, which lodged several vessels in their passage to the viscus. At the
upper level of the symphysis, the bladder received the ureters, and
narrowing conewise passed into the thin-walled urethra, a tube attached
by fibrous tissue to the ventral wall of the vagina. When dissected away
from this the urethra was seen to pass under the arch of the strong
crura clitoridis, and run upon the caudal surface of the clitoris to open
at its extremity by a vertical meatus. This condition is an advance upon
that described by Milne-Edwards and Grandidier {Histoire nattirelle
des fnammiferes de Madagascar) in Propithecus Edwardsi, wherein they

Anatomy of Galago garnetti 57

state that the urethra opens upon a fossa at the root of the clitoris,
whose under surface is channelled as a means of guiding the urine to its
extremity. In this species also the clitoris is pictured as hanging down
over the vaginal opening, so as to hide the latter ; but in the dissection
of the Galago no trace of a vaginal opening at the base of the clitoris
could be seen.

]nter?ial generative organs. The peritoneal arrangements in the
neighbourhood of the uterus were such that very deep utero-vesical
and recto-uterine pouches were formed. The latter pouch was limited
laterally by the broad ligaments of the uterus, reaching to an attachment
as high as the kidneys upon either side.

The vagina, which was in close contact but not in communication
with the urethra, was relatively very long, about 2 cms. Distally it
abutted upon the hairless area of skin between the dermal glands noted
above : this membrane absolutely barred the vaginal passage from an
opening upon the external world. Longitudinal rugae marked the inner
wall of the vagina, diverging in a couple of bundles to lateral recesses
which appeared on either side of the uterine mouth. These recesses
were so marked that the vagina was in form a duplicate of the uterus.

From the uterus, which was single, passed Pallopian tubes to embrace
either ovary. Arising from the root of the Fallopian tube, and not from
the fundus uteri, a fibrous band crossed to fatty tissue in the lateral
abdominal wall at the brim of the pelvis and below the level of the
symphysis. The ovary was unscarred and attached by a strong ovario-
uterine ligament. As remarked before, the peritoneal fold holding the
ovary and Fallopian tube passed up to a high attachment over either
kidney.

Neither the naked eye nor the microscope could discover corpora
lutea in the ovary'. The animal then had never menstruated, and,
thanks to the peculiar course of the urethra, would probably not have
been inconvenienced by the closure of the vaginal passage. Un-
doubtedly it was a female ; if adult, the minute size of the mammas
would indicate that the presence of the membrane was abnormal, and
gufificient to arrest development of the secondary sexual organs.

^ Addcndtim. Many large ova were present in the ovary, one or two of the
follicles being very near maturity. This confirms the opinion that the animal was
adult. Walter Heape has shown [Proc. Roy. Soc.) that menstruation may occur in
Macacus Rhesus and Cercopithecus Entellus without ovulation. Hence the argument
against the occurrence of previous menstrual discharges fails. Furthermore he found
that corpora lutea were not occupied by blood clots, as in the human female, and soon
became indistinguishable from the ovarian stroma. Hence the only deduction from
the histological examination of the ovary which is permissible, is that the animal had
reached the age of puberty but had not recently ovulated.

58 Studies in Anthropology

A few points were noted in the arrangement of the viscera and
peritoneum.

The stomach was of simple shape: the coecum was large, dilated, and
bent to a semicircle, but did not exhibit a special vermiform appendix.
From the hepatic flexure the transverse colon (fig. 3) swung inwards
and downwards for 5 or 6 cms., then turned abruptly back to the right
for 5 cms., and once again to the left. Each succeeding loop so formed
■was dorsal to its predecessor. Finally the colon at the left extremity of
the lowest loop turned up behind the zig-zag and ascended, narrowing,
to its flexure behind the stomach.

GALL BLADDER

RIGHT ACC DUCT
DUCT FROM PANCREAS,

Figs- .?, 4-

No appendices epiploicie were attached to the colic tube, but much
fat was stored in its peritoneal suspensory folds.

From the rectum, about i"5 cm. above the anus, was given off a
distinct slip of plain muscle tissue, the recto-coccygeus. (Cf. fig. 2.)

Peritotieimi. The relations of this were comparatively simple, for,
though intestinal rotation had occurred, secondary peritoneal attach-
ments had not yet been gained by the viscera.

A large mesoduodenum existed, so that this part of the small
intestine and the pancreas could be freely raised from the posterior
abdominal wall. Owing to the rotation of the gut the duodeno-jejunal
flexure was close to the left flexure of the colon. The mesentery of the
small intestine had not acquired the later attachment evident in the
human abdomen, but still took origin by a root common to it and part
of the transverse colon from within the duodenal loop. Nothing
corresponding to a Meckelian diverticulum could be perceived.

Anatomy of Galago garnetti

59

The ilio-coecal orifice was placed high, although the elongated
ccecum reached almost to the pelvic brim. The descending colon
and rectum were anchored to the median line by a large posterior
mesentery : but by displacement to the left the descending colon shows
the first stage of formation of what in the human is normal, viz. an
inchoate mesocolon arising from the upper half of the body of the left
kidney : this illustrates the formation of the retro-sigmoid peritoneal
pouches in man.

The foramen of Winslow is large and patent : passing behind the
stomach the lesser peritoneal sac expands into the cavity of the great
omentum. As in the human foetus, the great omentum is connected
only with the right half of the transverse mesocolon : in its left border
runs the tail of the extended pancreas.

Liver (fig. 5). Large and multilobulate. The preaxial portion is almost
equally developed upon either side of the median plane as indicated by
the falciform ligament. An exceedingly deep fissure subdivides the left

LINE OF OBLITERATED UMBILICAL VEIN

Fig. 5.

S. Spigelian lobe. R. Right lobe. C, C. Caudate lobe. Q. Quadrate
lobe. L.A. Left accessory lobe. R.A. Right accessory lobe.

B. Gall-bladder.

preaxial half so as to mark off a large left accessory lobe, which over-
laps the stomach and comes into linear relation by its lower border
with the spleen. A pons of hepatic substance joins the left with
the quadrate lobe across the obliterated umbilical vein. The right

60 Studies in Anthropology

accessory lobe is smaller, but is prolonged on the inner side so as to
partially hide the gall bladder and almost meet the right edge of the
quadrate.

The postaxial group behind the porta is well defined, but small, and
almost entirely in relation with the right accessory lobe. A large
Spigelian lobe lies between the ductus venosus (this secondary anasto-
mosis had been existent in the foetal Galago) and the inferior vena cava.

To the right of the vena cava and below the right accessory is a free
caudate lobe with digitate edge.

From the right accessory lobe proceeds a duct to join the common
bile duct between the origin of the cystic duct and the duodenum. The
common duct is then joined by the pancreatic, and at once enlarges
into a conical diverticulum Vateri of i cm. length. Cf. fig. 4. But
the actual orifice upon the duodenum is minute and partly sheltered by
a cushion.

The right kidney was higher than the left by its own length, and its
connective tissue was in close connection with the right crus of the
diaphragm. But the left suprarenal shared but slightly in the descent
of the kidney, for it lay close to the vertebral column above the latter
and almost on a level with its fellow of the opposite side.

The blood vessels of the limbs are not subdivided as in Nycticebus.

NOTES ON THE DISSECTION OF THE HEAD OF
AN ABORIGINAL OF AUSTRALIA.

(Compiled with the assistance of R. MoORE, Esq., B.A.,
Christ's College, Cambridge.)

The head in question had been partially dissected by Professor
Macalister. The brain has been removed, and the facial muscles
carefully cleaned and dissected. The present account deals principally
with the muscular attachments in the neighbourhood of the mastoid
process and pterygoid plates. The palate presents the following charac-
ters. It is extensive and elliptical in contour. Palatal ridges are very
distinct. The soft palate is long, very thick, and marked on its upper
(nasal) surface by a prominent thickened ridge, running mesially in a
position corresponding to the azygos uvulai muscle. The uvula is bifid.

The teeth are much worn, and on the right side the upper canine
and first premolar teeth are in an advanced stage of caries, a rare con-
dition in Australian aborigines.

The principal dimensions of the palate are :

Transverse diameters at 2nd molars :

external ... ... 65 mm.

internal ... ... 427 mm.

Sagittal diameter :

from prosthion to post-palatine spine 6 1 mm.

The muscular attachments in the regions adjacent to the mastoid
process presented the following appearance, the notes being arranged
under the headings of the several muscles.

M. reirahens aurem : on the right side has been removed : on the left
side, it forms a distinct band 35*5 mm. long by 47 mm. wide,
crossing the tendinous insertion of the M. sterno-mastoideus.

M. occipitalis : on the right side arises from the outer half of the superior
nuchal line and extends to within 25 mm. of the temporal ridge :
it is a thin band 5 7 mm. wide. On the left side, it forms a similar
wide (45 mm.), thin sheet.

62 Studies in Anthropology

M. styloglossus : on the right side arises from the anterior aspect of the
styloid process close to its free extremity : no origin from the
ligament : the styloid origin is mainly tendinous. The muscle has
not been left on the opposite side.

M. siylo-pharyngeus : on both sides arises from the superior half of the
inner surface of the styloid process : the origin being entirely by
muscular fibres and covering an extent of 18-5 mm. on the right,
1 5 "2 mm. on the left side.

M. stylo-hyoideiis : has been cut away on both sides.

The styloid process is stout and long : this is unusual in crania of
aborigines of Australia : the length of the right process is 33-2 mm.,
of the left 3 1 "4 mm. (measurements being made along the outer
aspect).

The following notes refer to muscles on the left side only.

Af. obliquus superior {capitis) : inserted into the inferior curved line and
adjacent part of the occipital bone : the insertion is mainly covered
by the M. complexus, but' extends slightly beyond the margin of the
latter muscle.

M. rectus capitis posticus major : inserted into the outer part (34 mm. wide)
of the inferior curved line and adjacent bone : divided into two
distinct muscular slips of equal size (on the right side no such
division is seen).

Jkf. rectus capitis posticus minor: insertion into the inner part (24 mm. in
extent) of the inferior curved line, and about the distal half of the
surface between this line and the foramen magnum. It is quite
equal in size to the M. rectus capitis posticus major, and is slightly
overlapped by it.

M. digastricus : attached to the anterior part of the digastric groove
largely under cover of the trachelo-mastoid : the anterior fibres are
chiefly muscular, while posteriorly, tendinous fibres predominate.
The occipital artery is, as usual, deeply situated in regard to this
attachment.

M. rectus capitis lateralis: inserted into the jugular eminence posteriorly
and internally to the styloid process, and between this and the next
muscles.

M. rectus capitis afiticus major : 1 , .. v j <. ..u u • • -4. 1

^ . . V these are attached to the basi-occipital

M. rectus capitis anticus minor : J

bone close to the mid-line and immediately in front of the foramen
magnum.

Head of an Australian Aboriginal 63

A large vein is seen (? coming through the anterior lacerate
foramen), passing down on the constrictors between these and the
internal pterygoid muscle: it takes a very tortuous course anteriorly
to the ascending pharyngeal artery, to which it seems to cor-
respond, though greatly exceeding it in size : it receives numerous
pharyngeal tributaries.

M. spleiiiiis: its width near its insertion is 55 mm.: in the mode of
insertion it corresponds closely with the normal conditions as
described in Cunningham's Practical Anatomy. Its internal border
coincides closely with the internal border of the sterno-mastoid
muscle, and the fibres of insertion _ are pierced by those of the
anterior part of the same muscle.

On the left side (not on the right), a small accessory slip arises
from the mastoid process, anteriorly, and slightly external to the
anterior limit of insertion and under cover of the sterno-mastoid
muscle : its other attachment is not present.

The occipital artery lies deeply to the posterior three-fourths of
the muscular attachment of the splenius muscle, and winds round
its posterior margin.

M. trachelo-mastoideus : the muscle is inserted into the anterior and
lower border of the mastoid, its anterior limit coinciding with that
of the M. splenius : in extent it measures 20 mm.

M. trapezius: this muscle is attached to the external occipital protuber-
ance and along the superior curved line of the occiput for a distance
of 27 mm. : the fibres of insertion are mainly tendinous. An
anomalous muscular slip is seen deep to the trapezius muscle and
in the middle line.

M. sterno-mastoid : this muscle is inserted by fibres which intersect those
of the M. splenius, into the upper portion of the base of the mastoid
process : beyond this it extends along rather less than the outer half
of the superior curved line of the occiput. (Normally in white races,
the extent is rather more than half: — Cunningham.)

M. cotnpkxus : the muscle is inserted in the area between the superior
and inferior curved Unes of the occipital bone, extending outwards
to a distance of 50 mm. from the median occipital ridge, near which
the great occipital nerve pierces it, cutting off a distinct slip super-
ficial to the rest of the muscle (this slip is found on both sides).
Superficially to the M. complexus lies the occipital artery near its
attachment and upon about its outer third. Deep to the muscle
are the M. recti postici major and minor, and the M. obliquus
superior.

64 Studies in Anth7'opology

The pterygoid muscles were next observed.

M. pterygoideus externus : on left and right sides alike the conditions are
similar : two heads, as usual, are seen ; the upper arises from the
infra-temporal ridge, and the lower from the whole external surface
of the external pterygoid plate.

M. pterygoideus internus : the anterior head which is small, arises from
the lower part of the tuber maxillare : the posterior head is much
larger and arises from the internal surface of the external pterygoid
plate.

Af. viasseter : on both sides this muscle has been cut away.

The following notes refer to other structures than muscles.

I. The internal maxillary artery :

Right side : cut short on the surface of the M. pterygoideus
externus : it disappears into the pterygo-maxillary fossa above the
external pterygoid, and there breaks up into terminal branches. Of
the branches that remain, the middle meningeal, anterior deep
temporal, and posterior superior dental are recognisable, but present
no anomalies.

Left side : conditions very similar to those on the right side :
the middle meningeal and posterior superior dental branches are
normal in appearance.

II. T/ze inferiormaxillary division of the Vth nerve gives off the chorda
tympani in the normal manner : a large branch comes off from this
division of the Vth nerve while still in the foramen ovale.

DESCRIPTION OF BRAINS OF PRIMATES IN
THE UNIVERSITY ANATOMICAL MUSEUM,
CAMBRIDGE.

The Anatomical Department has received during the last five years
collections of unusual value and number from Charles Hose, Sc.D.,
Resident in the Baram district of Sarawak, Borneo. Among the
specimens thus acquired are numerous brains of primate mammals,
especially those of the genera Semnopithecus, Nasalis (Cercopithecidge),
Hylobates and Simia (Simiidae). To these must be added examples of
brains of the rare Tarshis spectrum (Lemuroidea, Tarsiidse).

In the following pages will be found notes on several of these
examples with references to descriptions of specimens selected as typical
from the large collection in the Museum of the Royal College of
Surgeons in London, which has been exhaustively described recently by
Professor Elliott Smith (cf. Catalogue of the Museum of the Royal
College of Surgeofis, London : Physiological Series : Central Nervous
System, Part ii. 1903).

Lemur (? species) i. The right hemisphere only. Fig. i.
\Type-specimen Mus. R.C.S. D. 533.]

The sylvian fissure is turned slightly backwards at its upper and
posterior end. The depression indicative of the sulcus centralis of
higher forms is rather more distinct than in the typical example. The
sulci described in connection with the type form as representatives of the
inferior temporal sulci are here well seen : that spoken of previously as
the second, recalls in its position, the sulcus described in the brains of
higher forms as the collateral. The foregoing are the only remarks
called for : otherwise the agreement with the features of the type
specimen is very close.

Le^nur (? species) 2.

Several points in connection with the characters of the convolutions
and sulci call for notice here. In the first place, the posterior, i.e. post-
sylvian, part of the rhinal fissure is so shallow as to be practically

66

Studies in Anthropology

non-existent. Of the sulci anterior in position to the sylvian fissure, the
representative of the pre-sylvian of other forms is very faintly marked
and the same remark applies to the orbital of the left hemisphere (not
so on the right side).

SULCUS RECTUS

FISSURE OF SK

SULCUS ■ X •■ '
ORBITAL SULCUS -

■ - OLF .NERVE

.JAL FISSURE ' ■

RALLEL SULCUS

ISSURE OF SYLVIUS

,. INTRAPARIETAL SULCUS

CENTRAL SULCUS
SULCUS RECTUS

FISSURE OF 3YLVIUS

INTRAFARIETAL SULCUS

SULCUS RECTUS
. SULCUS " t ■
. SULCUS ORBITALIS

RHINAL FISSURE

Figs. I, 2, 3.

Thirdly, the region of the parallel sulcus is interesting. In each
hemisphere this sulcus is apparently of unusual length and this is due to
its fusion with the small sulcus found more commonly isolated in a
situation above and behind the termination of the normal parallel
sulcus. The junction of the two can still be made out in the right (but
not in the left) hemisphere, being indicated by a short branch running
backwards from the parallel sulcus, in the direction of the occipital pole

Brains of Primates

67

of the hemisphere. The elongated form of parallel sulcus thus produced
tends at its upper end to curve round the extremity of the sylvian
fissure and this gives strong support to the view expressed as to its
nature by Ziehen.

CALLOSO-MARQINAL
SULCUS

INTERNAL

PAHIETO-OCCIPITAL
SULCUS

~~-CALCARINE SULCUS

PPOCAMPAL FISSURE

PARALLEL SULCUS

INTRAPARIETAL SULCUS

INTERNAL PA R I ETO - OCCI PI TAL

SULCUS

CALCARINE SULCUS

Figs. 4, 5, 6^

Between the parallel sulcus and the margin of the temporal lobe are
two short sulci in the right hemisphere (one only in the left hemisphere)
more or less in line and parallel to the parallel sulcus itself These
short additional sulci are much better developed here than is usually the
case in the brains of Lemurs. On the mesial aspect of the hemisphere
the pars genualis of the splenial sulcus is not visible. The sulci referred
to in the typical description as the inferior temporal sulci are here

' The sulcus designated "internal parieto-occipital" in figures 4 and 6 is better
termed "paracalcarine," for its identity with the internal parieto-occipital sulcus of
the higher Primates still awaits establishment.

08

Studies in Anthi^opology

developed in an interesting way. The sulcus spoken of as "the second"
is here distinctly larger than usual and semilunar in form instead of
being rectilinear. This holds good for each hemisphere. Posteriorly,
in each hemisphere, it is almost but not quite confluent with the third
sulcus, which is here feebly developed in each hemisphere. The form
of the "second" sulcus in this specimen leaves little room for doubt
that it is homologous with the sulcus called "collateral" in Chrysothrix
and allied higher forms (though its identity with the sulcus of that name
in the human brain must remain doubtful).

Lemur (? species) 3.

While the foregoing specimen presented (among others) certain
conditions constituting a higher degree of complexity than is usual
among the brains of Lemurs, the present example differs in offering
variations consistently in the direction of simplicity. The pre-sylvian
sulcus is so shallow as to be barely recognisable : the intraparietal is
sinuous, and lacks the angular flexure in its hinder portion : the parallel
sulcus is rectilinear and, in comparison with the foregoing example, short:
the small irregular sulci at its upper and posterior end are not present,
nor is there anything more than an almost punctate depression between
the parallel sulcus and the lower margin of the temporal lobe. On the
mesial aspect no trace of the pars genualis sulci splenialis can be seen.
In other respects the description given for the type-specimen is here
applicable.

In all the three preceding specimens the rudiment of the central sulci
of higher forms is reduced to a single depression.

Loris gracilis {Type-spcciinen ; Mus. R.C.S. 1337 Ah.). Fig. 7. \The

brains here represented are, from left to right, those of Perodicticus

potto, Loris gracilis, and Galago crassica!idata.'\

The following remarks must be made in connection with this

specimen : the sulcus referred to in the description of 1337 Ah., is here

SULCUS RECTUS

PARALLEL SULCUS

I FISSURE OF SVLVIUS

FISSURE OF

SULCUS HECTUS

-FISSURE OF

"' PARALLEL SULCUS

'ARIETAL
SULCUS

Fig- 7-

Brains of Primates 69

not certainly distinguishable in either hemisphere, in fact with the
exception of the anterior rhinal fissure, there are no sulci which can be
distinguished from faint vascular grooves at the frontal end of the brain
(in either hemisphere). No alterations in the descriptions of the sylvian
fissure or intraparietal sulcus are needed. Behind the termination of
the latter, and separated by about 2 mm. of an intervening gyrus, there is
a faint transverse, i.e. coronal, depression in the left hemisphere, and
this may represent the detached pars transversalis of the intraparietal
sulcus. A very faint vascular groove occupies a corresponding situation
in the right hemisphere. The parallel sulcus is of interest in both
hemispheres. In the right hemisphere, there is seen above the upper
and posterior end of the parallel sulcus, a sulcus running almost perpen-
dicularly to it, from the margin of the temporal lobe to the region of the
upper end of the sylvian fissure. Above and parallel to this sulcus is
another and much shorter one. They are both probably referable to the
supra-sylvian system, though only the upper part of the first of the two
ought strictly to be regarded as falling within that category.

The parallel sulcus, it remains to be said, is in the right hemisphere
very short. On the opposite side, the parallel sulcus is longer and is
bent sharply forward at its upper extremity, the bent portion making an
angle of about 110° with the rest of the sulcus.

Immediately posterior to the point of flexion, but about 2 mm.
distant, is a small " punctate " sulcus ; this and the reflected part of the
parallel, are representatives in the left hemisphere of what in the right
hemisphere is an independent sulcus. Thus the diff'erence in the two
hemispheres of this individual is, in this respect at least, considerable.

No distinct sulcus is made out between the parallel sulcus and the
lower margin of the temporal lobe : herein the brain in Lo?'is gracilis is
simpler than that of most Lemurs.

The same irregularity of the cortex about the upper end of the
parallel sulcus occurs in Loris as in Lemur. In neither has it attained
a position of stability.

Galago garnetti {^Type-specimen 1337^, AIiis. R.C.S.). Cf. Fig. 7.

As regards the rhinal and the sylvian fissures, the description given
for 1337 B is quite applicable. With the description of the intraparietal
sulcus, we meet with the first of a series of differences. In both hemi-
spheres the intraparietal sulcus though slightly sinuous, lacks the
posterior offshoot described in the type-specimen. Nor is there any
sulcus between it and the occipital pole, though the spot occupied by
the short sulcus referred to in the type-specimen, as a possible repre-
sentative of the detached terminal part of the intraparietal sulcus, is
marked by an almost imperceptible depression. In both hemispheres the

70

Studies in Anthropologij

parallel sulcus is extremely feebly developed, more particularly on the
left side : but on the right side, the sulcus is clearly distinguishable from
the vascular grooves found near it. No other sulci occur behind the
sylvian and the intraparietal sulci. Anteriorly and in each hemisphere
will be found a faint rudiment of the sulcus rectus, more distinct on the
right than the left. The same difference between the two sides holds
good for the feeble orbital sulci. No other sulci mark the lateral
convexity of the cerebrum.

On the mesial aspect, no appearances are seen which necessitate any
addition to or alteration of the typical description. It will thus be seen
that this brain and that of the Galago garnetii {i'^T)! Bb) at the Royal
College of Surgeons are closely similar to one another.

Nasalis larvatus. No. i88 \Type-speciinen 1338 7^ Se77inopithtxus entellus.
R. C. S. Miiseiim\ Fig. 8.

CCNTRAL SULCUS

ARCUATE SULCUS

SULCUS RECTUS

ORBITAL SULCUS

FISSURE OF SVLVIUS

INTERNAL

PABIETO-OOCIPITAL

SULCUS

CALCARINE SULCUS

INTRAPARIETAL SULCUS

SULCUS LUNATUS

ARALLEL SULCUS

COLLATERAL SULCUS

CALLOSO- MARGINAL
SULCUS

SULCUS
QENUALIS

INCISURA TEMPORALIS OR
RHINAL FISSURE

IPPOCAMPAL FISSURE

Fig. 8.

Brains of Primates 71

The left hemisphere has been detached from the rest of the ence-
phalon. It is somewhat remarkable as a confirmation of the nearness of
the relation of this form to Semnopithecus, that the plan of the cortical
fissures and convolutions should be practically identical in both.

jVasa/is larvatus. No. 3, 188^ \Type-specimen : Scmiiopitheais enfeUus,
1338 F.A.C. Mus. R.C.S.\

This specimen differs from the type in respect of the pars post-
centralis superior of the intraparietal sulcus, which is here rudimentary
and represented by a circular depression only, better marked in the left
than in the right hemisphere. There is no sulcus transversus below the
central sulcus, and the precentral sulcus is represented by two very faint
depressions in the left hemisphere, and a hardly recognisable depression
in the right hemisphere. The inferior occipital sulcus is short and
shallow in the left hemisphere, and in the right hardly recognisable : the
other occipital furrows are not so well developed as in the type-
specimen, though they are distinct. The calcarine runs out on to the
lateral convexity of the occipital lobe as in the type-specimen.

As regards the mesial aspect, the specimen also agrees remarkably
closely with the type-specimen.

Nasalis larvatus, 188 c, Hose don" 3 \^Type : Mus. R.C.S. 1338 Fa.\

The cerebral hemispheres of this specimen have been separated
from the lower parts of the encephalon. The general characters of the
brain require no special mention : the arrangement of the fissures and
convolutions follows fairly closely that of the type-specimen. The
following points appear worthy of special mention in the left hemi-
sphere.

The sylvian fissure presents no trace whatever of an incipient
anterior limb of the fissure of Sylvius (though such an incipient fissure
is visible on the right side of the brain).

Below the lower end of the Affenspalte are two inferior occipital
sulci of sinuous outline and running almost sagittally in direction
skirting the inferior margin of the hemisphere. A fissure here runs out
from the mesial aspect where it is seen to be continuous with the
collateral system of sulci.

The Affenspalte differs slightly on the two sides ; on neither side
is the floor of the transverse occipital sulcus continuous with that of the
internal parieto-occipital sulcus, but in the right hemisphere, it runs
over well on to the mesial aspect of the hemisphere : on the left side
the part that runs over on to the mesial aspect is separated by a

72 Studies in Anthropology

submerged gyrus from the rest of the Affenspalte. In both hemispheres
the intraparietal sulcus runs into the transverse occipital. On the mesial
aspect the calcarine ends posteriorly by turning sharply upwards (in
each hemisphere), suggesting the upper limb of bifurcation of the
calcarine of most Cercopithecidae ; the internal parieto-occipital sulcus
does not run into the calcarine.

The collateral system is represented on the left side, by an inner
and an outer sulcus, the inner being long, though not reaching the
calcarine ; the outer short and running posteriorly over on to the
lateral convexity. Very different is the arrangement in the right
hemisphere : the two upper sulci (an anterior triradiate and a posterior
linear) represent the inner component of the system in the left hemi-
sphere : while the representative of the outer sulcus of that side is here
linear and much reduced in complexity : it just reaches the lateral
convexity.

The foregoing are all the remarks specially called for by this specimen
which otherwise, as has already been said, closely agrees with that
selected as typical of the genus Semnopithecus. (N.B. the occipital
operculum of the right hemisphere was subsequently dissected away so
as to expose the underlying submerged gyri.)

Brain of JVasa/is larvatus, i88 d. {^Specimen presented by C. H. to
W. L.H.D. August 1898) {Type- specimen Mus. R.C.S. 1338 Tvz.].

This specimen presents in reference to the fissures and sulci of the
cerebral hemisphere one or two points which deserve special notice.
On both sides the representative of the pars postcentralis superior of
the intraparietal sulcus is absent. On the other hand the intraparietal
sulcus itself gives off (at the summit of the arch which it describes on the
surface of the hemisphere) a short rectilinear branch which might be
regarded as compensatory to that which is absent. The upper pre-
central sulcus is indicated in each hemisphere by a deep linear groove
nearly sagittal in direction. This sulcus is much more distinct than in
many brains of Semnopithecus, and in all the (3) other Nasalis brains
(6 hemispheres) it is less well marked than in the present instance

The Affenspalte exhibits in each hemisphere an interesting stage
in the transition from the type found in Macacus and other low
Cercopithecidiie, to that found in Hylobates, for the convolution
surrounding the end of the internal parieto-occipital sulcus, which
is submerged in the Macacus brain, has here almost but not quite
completely emerged. The inferior occipital sulcus is more definite and
rectilinear than in the other specimens of Nasalis (and most Semno-
pitheci) and recalls the character presented by this sulcus in Macacus.

Brains of Primates

73

Braiti of Ateles variegatits {Fig. 9). \Type-specime71, Mus.R.C.S. 1337 He^^

The left hemisphere has been detached from the rest of the encephalon
and may be described first. The general description given for the

CENTRAL SULCUS

SULCUS RECTUS

IHCUATE SULCUS

ORBITAL SULCUS

ORBITAL SULCUS

TRAPAHPETAL SULCUS

- TERMINATION

OF INTERNAL
»«■ OCC. SULCUS

RALLEL SULCUS

ISSURE OF SYLVIUS

INTERNAL

PAHIETO-OCC

P

TA

'v

SULCUS

(

CALCARINE

y

SULCUS

-■

\

COLLATERAL

S

JL

SULCUS

GENUALI3

NGISURA T£MPORAi.,s OH RHINfl
FISSURE

Fi£

cerebral fissures and sulci in 1337 He. applies fairly well here. There
are one or two slight alterations needed however. Firstly the dividing
gyrus between the sylvian fissure and the parallel sulcus is much
better marked in this specimen than in that taken as the type (herein
Ziehen's drawing' receives justification): the upper precentral sulci
in the left hemisphere of this specimen are merely linear, though
in the right hemisphere they conform to the description. A deep
sulcus passes up over the supra-orbital margin and is not too far
forward to be a fronto-orbital sulcus (corresponding to that so named in

^ yenaiscke Zeitschrift, Bd. xxix.

74

Studies in Anthropology

Man)\ The occipital end of the hemisphere is rather less richly
convoluted than in 1337 He. and in particular the inferior occipital
sulcus is only represented by two linear depressions : beyond these, i.e.
towards the occipital pole, a deeper fissure cuts into the cortex and
probably represents one of those described in 1337 He. as superior in
position to the inferior occipital sulcus.

The other sulci conform to the typical description. On the mesial
aspect, the same remark applies. Note that the collateral is represented
by two sulci. Otherwise no special description is necessary.

Hylobates muller-i I. Fig. 10.

The right hemisphere has been detached from the remainder of the
encephalon. As regards the general characters of the fissures, sulci^and

CENTRAL SULCUS

thapabietal sulcus

SULCUS LUNATUS

rRANSVERSE
OCCIPITAL SULCUS

IKCISUHA TEMPOBALIS
OH RHINAL FISSURE

Fig. 10.

^ I am inclined to think it must be admitted that the fronto-orbital may be
occasionally developed in quite a lowly type of brain.

Bi'dins of Primates 75

convolutions, the following notes refer to the left hemisphere. The
general arrangement is very similar to that of the type-specimen (Mus.
R.CS. 1338 Ga.).

The superior limiting sulcus does not join the fronto-orbital. On the
mesial aspect, the calcarine sulcus bifurcates posteriorly and is not joined
by the internal parieto-occipital.

The right hemisphere of the same brain presents few special
characters ; the independence of the pars postcentrals superior sulci
interparietalis may be mentioned : the sulcus rectus bifurcates posteriorly
and shows the fusion here of the "arcuate " with the " straight " element.
Mesially, the principal point to notice is the division of the calloso-
marginal sulcus into anterior and posterior parts which do not join, and
the posterior of which runs upwards on to the lateral convexity. The
exact arrangement is obscured, as by a remarkable coincidence the bullet
which deprived the animal of life has lodged at the point of division and
has broken up the surrounding cortex somewhat. The other sulci
require no special mention, except that three sulci represent the collateral
system. This specimen shows very clearly an advance on the con-
dition common in the upper part of the Affenspalte in Semnopithecus
and Nasalis. The following diagrams, Fig. ir, will show what is
referred to.

(i) The essential point is that the gyrus x which had only partially
emerged in Nasalis, has made its appearance definitely on the surface in
Hylobates.

The lower part of the occipital operculum persists however.

(ii) Another point is the possession (by Hylobates) of an inferior
occipital operculum (fold " op.") which is not fully indicated in Semno-
pithecus, though strongly marked in Macacus. The following points are
not shown in the diagram.

(iii) The arcuate sulcus and the sulcus rectus are confluent.

(iv) The outer limb of the H-system of sulci on the orbital surface
of the frontal lobe here forms a fronto-orbital sulcus running upwards
over the supra-orbital margin.

(v) The frontal operculum now asserts itself and a distinct over-
lapping fold is demarcated by an incipient superior marginal sulcus of
Reil, and note moreover that whether vascular strands have any influence
in creating the fissure or not, nevertheless there was here found in the
superior limiting sulcus of Reil (and also in the fronto-orbital sulcus) a
distinct vessel.

76

Studies in Anthi'opologj)

TRAPARIETAL SU1.CUS

SSURE OF SVLVIUS

PARALLEL SULCUS

ENTRAL SULCUS

RAPARIETAL SULCUS

Fig. II.

The upper hemisphere is that of a specimen of Nasalis larvatus, the lower
that of an example of Hylobates milleri.

(vi) The parallel sulcus tends to turn round the upper end of the
sylvian fissure.

(vii) The upper precentral sulci for the first time become clearly-
marked. They are two in number, and more or less sagittal in direction.

The mesial aspect.

Presents comparatively few features of interest. The combination of
sulci in the "collateral" region is perhaps most noteworthy.

Brains of Primates 77

Hylobates mulleri IT.

The left hemisphere has been detached from the remainder of the
encephalon. The fissures, sulci and convolutions of the left hemisphere
agree closely with those of the type-specimen [1338 G., Mus. R.C.S.].

The following points seem noteworthy.

(i) The presence of a sulcus above the upper and posterior end of
the parallel sulcus.

(ii) The fronto-orbital sulcus appears remarkably clearly as the outer
limb of the H-shaped complex on the orbital surface of the frontal lobe.
The sulcus limitans superior of Reil does not meet the fronto-orbital
sulcus, though a vascular furrow forms a superficial connection between
them. The sulcus rectus shows practically no evidence, except in its
extent in the posterior direction, of its fusion with a sulcus arcuatus.

The sulci on the mesial aspect require no special comments.
(N.B. the internal parieto-occipital sulcus does not unite with the
calcarine : an intercalated sulcus is present : the calcarine sulcus bifur-
cates posteriorly, sending a (lower) limb over on to the lateral convexity :
three sulci are seen as representatives of the collateral system.)

In the right hemisphere very few points call for special mention.
The great upward prolongation of the parallel sulcus is remarkable and
rare. In this, as in the last hemisphere, a small depression below the
central is the representative of Ecker's transverse sulcus of the human
brain.

The same remarks apply here (as to the left hemisphere) as regards
the superior limiting sulcus of Reil and the fronto-orbital, calcarine,
internal parieto-occipital and collateral sulci. The extreme posterior end
of the calloso-marginal sulcus is separated by a shallow depression from
the anterior part of the sulcus.

Hylobates mulleri III.

The left hemisphere which has been detached from the rest of the
encephalon presents the following features of interest as regards the
fissures, sulci and convolutions.

The superior limiting sulcus of Reil almost joins the fronto-orbital
sulcus. The internal parieto-occipital sulcus on the mesial aspect runs
superficially into the calcarine. In other respects the agreement of this
specimen with the selected type is very close. Notice inter alia the
dimensions of cerebrum, viz. breadth 54 mm., length 63 mm. (R.) and
62 mm. (L.), height 41 "5 mm. The pars postcentralis superior of the

78 Studies in Anthropology

intraparietal sulcus is separate from the rest of that sulcus : behind its
upper end, the calloso-marginal sulcus just emerges on the lateral
convexity of the hemisphere : in a somewhat similar way, a branch of
the calcarine sulcus just reaches the lateral convexity at the occipital
pole. The internal parieto-occipital sulcus joins no other sulcus
externally, but on the mesial aspect it joins the calcarine sulcus super-
ficially. Three sulci represent the collateral series. These remarks
apply almost without modification to the several sulci of the right
hemisphere ; in this hemisphere is clearly seen the modification of the
outer limb of the H-shaped system of orbital sulci into a fronto-orbital
fissure.

The island of Reil, which has been exposed in the left hemisphere,
bears a centrally situated oblique groove which looks rather deeper than
a mere vascular impression, an example of which is also seen in the
anterior part of the insula : the groove first mentioned may very well be
a rudiment of the sulcus centralis insulae of higher forms : but on the
other hand the sylvian artery being relatively very large might also be
accountable for it.

MEASUREMENTS OF A NEGRO (KROO-NATIVE).

Stature (vertex to heel)..
Vertex to tip of coccyx . .
Vertex to umbilicus
Vertex to tuber ischii — sitting

height
Umbilicus to heel
Umbilicus to upper borde

symphysis pubis
Height of symphysis pub
Span of arms
Upper limb — total length

Arm

Forearm ...
Ulna

Breadth of palmar surface
Length — pollex ...
,, index ...

„ medius

,, annularis

,, minimus

Upper margin of symphysis pubis

to heel
Anterior sup. iliac spine to ad

ductor tubercle
Length — thigh ...
leg ...
pes

hallux ...
second toe
third toe
fourth toe
fifth toe

Milli-

Milli-

meters

meters

1694

Face :

811

Supra-orbital margin to chin 125

643

Maximum bi-zygomatic

breadth

122

856

External bi-orbital breadth

124

1050

Ear — height

65

,, breadth

36

136

,, index ...

55'4

40

Circumferences :

1654

Maximum thoracic

900 \

768

Abdomen

852

301

Arm

312

238

Forearm ...

292 ^
443

? 260

Thigh

94

Leg

367

63

Pollex

74

74

Hallux

87^

77

Mouth — angle to angle ...

45

69

Eye — rictus

30

55

„ interorbital breadth...

iS

Nose — height

49

892

,, width

43

Circumference of head

562

454

Breadth of head

120

454

Length of head

151

415

Extreme plantar breadth ...

90

217

Breadth index of head

79'4

47

Breadth index of Skull

37

(approx.)

77-4

29

Nasal index: on face

877

26

Femur (R.), length

483

23

Tibia „ ,,

405

Fibula ,, ,,

400

* These records are only approximative owing to the oedematous state of
the body.

MEASUREMENTS ON THE CRANIUM BISECTED
IN THE MESIAL SAGITTAL PLANE.

The anatomical and zoological departments contain a number of
crania of man and other mammals, which have been mesially bisected.
Such preparations afford opportunities for demonstrating the peculiar
morphological features of the human cranium, and further enable
comparisons to be drawn to some extent between crania of various

Fig. I.

Measurements on the Cranium 81

human races. With a view to giving some illustrations of the morpho-
logical differences in question, a number of linear and angular measure-
ments have been made (cf. Fig. i), and they are set forth in the
appended tables A — D. The following notes deal with the main
results provided by those figures.

The measurements (Table A) include data collected from Turner's
monograph on Human Crania in the Challenger Reports (skulls marked
"T"), with those provided by Brough-Smyth's {Aborigines of Victoria)
drawing of the bisected cranium of an aboriginal of Australia. The
remaining specimens are in the Anatomical Museums at Cambridge.
The skulls marked " Eu." are European, and those marked "Au." are
of aboriginal natives of Australia.

A review of the figures recorded in the Table (A), shows that the
characters they represent are of value in distinguishing Man from Apes
and lower animals rather than as a means of differentiation of the
several human races. This remark is perhaps specially applicable to
the angular measurements. In regard to the spheno-ethmoidal angle
(which is so to speak intermediate between the sphenoidal angle of
Ecker, and the angle of Landzert), the gradual decrease in the numerical
value of the angle from the lower mammals to Man, gives a good indica-
tion of the gradual increase in the development of the frontal lobes of
the brain which characterizes the Hominids.

The foramino-basal and foramino-sellar angles, small in the lower
forms, increase in the Simiidje and Man. This change represents the
phases in the evolution of the human foramen magnum in relation to
the cranial base.

The spheno-maxillary angle is greater in aborigines of Australia than
in the white races and gives an expression of the degree of prognathism.
It is to be preferred to the facial angles determined on the exterior of
the cranium.

The changes in the position of the "perpendicular radius," with
respect to the bregma, correspond in a general way with changes in
mass of the frontal cerebral lobes.

In Table B, the dimensions of the frontal, parietal, and occipital arcs
and chords are set forth ; in all cases the occipital region is most curved,
the parietal region least, the frontal region being intermediate between
these extremes. But the aborigines of Australia do not in this respect
provide strong contrasts with the white races.

Table C contains records of the values of the occipital angles of
Broca as measured in various crania. The gradual change in the
position of the foramen magnum in the evolution of the human cranial
form from that of lower mammals, is well shown.

D. 6

82

Studies in AnthropoLogij

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Measurements on the Cranium

83

Table B. Cotnparison of Chords and Arcs.

Description of skull

Eu.

No. I

Eu.
No. 2

Au.

2US

Au.
2127

Au. 3
T.

Au. S
T.

Au. ?
T.

Au. i
2116

Frontal arc
Frontal chord

135
116

130
116

134
115

"5

lOI

143
118

130
108

122
102

125
no

Parietal arc
Parietal chord

149
141

131
i'7

131

121

132
1.9

137
121

125
119

128

"5

134
125

Occipital arc
Occipital chord

109
81

125
98

112

99

1 12
86

121

99

119

81

no

87

i'7
100

Table C. Occipital angles of Broca.

No. of skull

No. i.

No. ii.

No. of skull

No. i.

No. ii.

European, No. i
European, Xo. 2
Australian, No. 2118 ...

9°

14°

9°

12°

19°
13°

Orang ...
Gorilla ...
Macacus (? Sp.)

33°

40°

41°

Australian, No. 21 16 ...

19"

24°

Cynocephalus babouin

--0

^ t

67"

Australian, King Jimmy
Australian, No. 2127 ...

21°
23°

30°

Cercopithecus (male) ...
1 Horse {Eqinis caballus)

29°

37"
86°

Young Chimpanzee ...

30°

43"

Dog [Canis familiaris)

78°

89"

No. i. Angle between Opisthio-nasal line and plane of Foramen Magnum.
No. ii. Angle between Basi-nasal line and plane of Foramen Magnum.

Table D gives measurements made upon the facsimiles of the
preceding tracings with a view to investigating the extent of the endo-
cranial cavity before and behind the perpendicular drawn from the
central point of the " middle-cranial base," or Hne from the basion to
the prosphenion (spheno-ethmoidal junction) (cf. Fig. 13). But the
variations .seem to be too wide to provide any grounds for a general
statement.

The tracings reproduced in illustration of the foregoing observations
are as follows :

Fig. I, Orang-utan; Fig. 2, European No. i; Fig. 3, European No. 2;
Fig. 4, Australian 2116; Fig. 5, Australian 2118; Fig. 6, Australian
2127; Fig. 7, Chimpanzee; Fig. 8, Gorilla; Fig. 9, Baboon; Fig. lo,
Macacus; Fig. 11, Cercopithecus; Fig. 12, Dog; Fig. 13, Orang-utan.

6—2

84

Studies in Anthropology

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Memurements on the Cimnium 87

Fig. 6.

Fig. 7.

Studies in Anthropology

Fig. 9.

Measurements on the Cranium 89

Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.

90

Studies in Anthropology

I

FiV

^3-

t:^

DISSECTIONS OF THE UPPER LIMB OF GORILLA,
HYLOBATES AND CYNOCEPHALUS.

A number of apes are being dissected in the Anthropological
Laboratory, and the following notes deal with some of the more
interesting regions hitherto examined. The specimens include examples
of the Lemuroidea and Anthropoidea as will be observed from the names
appended to the descriptions of the structures dissected.

The posterior mterosseous nerve.

The distribution of this nerve attracts a considerable amount of
attention, in view of the record (made by Hepburn) of its contributing
a branch to penetrate the interosseous membrane and supply the
M. pronator quadratus in Hylobates. With the object of investigating
the frequency of this anomaly (for such it must be considered) a young
Gorilla (Mus. Cant. " Lag. 3 ") and a young Cynocephalus mormon
were examined. The following notes refer to the general relations of the
nerve in the Gorilla (Fig. i).

\

JOINT LEVEL

M e COMM OIG.

M E. MIN OIG

JOINT LEVEL

Fig. I.

92 Studies in Anthropology

The musculo-spiral nerve was not found in the external bicipital
groove : here the M. supinator longus is fused with the M. brachialis
anticus (and also with the M. triceps) : an incision having been made
into the substance of the M. supinator longus near its junction with the
M. triceps, the musculo-spiral nerve is exposed running deeply to the
former muscle.

The musculo-spiral nerve is then found to divide as in Man (the
MM. supinator longus and extensor carpi radialis longior had to be
separated artificially at their common origin) ; just before division, it
supplies twigs to the M. supinator longus, to the M. extensor carpi
radialis longior and to the M. supinator brevis (see scheme). The
radial division also supplies the M. supinator longus on its deep surface,
passes outwards beneath that muscle and becoming superficial in position,
supplies fibres to the adjacent surfaces of 2| digits on their dorsal aspect.

The posterior interosseous division is deeply placed, the great extent
to which the muscles are fused rendering its exposure dependent on
the removal of muscular tissue. It crosses the M. extensor communis
digitorum obliquely, passes deeply to the M. extensor secundi internodii
pollicis, under the tendon of which it terminates. Its branches of supply
do not include a perforating twig to the M. pronator quadratus, and it
ends terminally in the loose connective tissue over the posterior carpal
ligament. The appended scheme (Fig. i) shows the several branches
dissected out.

In the cynocephalous monkey (Fig. 2) the conditions are very similar :
a slight difference is noted in the order in which branches are supplied
to the extensors, but no perforating branch could be discovered. The
second figure shows the distribution of the nerve.

JOINT LEVEL

M E O M. POLL.

Fig. I.

From these two dissections, the conclusion that the perforating
terminal branch described in Hylobates by Hepburn is anomalous and
not a constant feature, must be regarded as corroborated.

lyissectiojis of the Uppn^ Limb of Goiilla, etc. 93

Extensor tnusadature of the fore-arm.

The following descriptions are drawn from dissections of several
members of the Primates carried out in the Anthropological Laboratory.

A. Deep Extensors.

M. extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis.

Nydicebus (Lemuroidea). The muscle is present and resembles
that of Man, but there is no carpal insertion.

Hapale jacc/n/s (Anthropoidea, Hapalids). The muscle is repre-
sented by the portion which is carpal in Man, not by its metacarpal
component. This carpal extensor has a common origin with the
M. extensor indicis.

Cynocephalus viorino7i (Anthropoidea, Cercopithecidae). The
muscle consists of three distinct portions, one of which is meta-
carpal, the other two being carpal to the trapezium. A tendon
crosses all the other intervening extensor tendons, to reach the
M. extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis from the tendon of the M.
extensor indicis.

Hylobates mulleri 9 (Anthropoidea, Simiid^e). The muscle arises
(much as in Man) from radius, ulna, and interosseous membrane.

Gorilla savagii ( $ " Lag. 3 " Anthropoidea, Simiidte). The
muscle arises distally on the radius, ulna, and interosseous mem-
brane, and divides distally into carpal and metacarpal portions.
From the metacarpal portion, a tendinous slip runs on to the first
phalanx. The muscular tissue descends far on the tendons.

]\L extensor primi internodii pollicis (Extensor poUicis minor).
Nydicebus : the muscle is absent.

Hapale : the muscle is derived from the M. extensor indicis.
Cynocephalus : the muscle is absent.
Hylobates : the muscle resembles the M. ext. oss. met. pollicis in

possessing origins from the radius, the ulna and the interosseous

membrane. As in Man, the attachments are distal to those of

the M. ext. oss. met. pollicis.
Gorilla (Lag. 3) : the tendon arises from that of the M. ext. oss.

met. pollicis.

M. carpi radialis longior and brevior.

Hapale: both muscles are present in similar situations to those

occupied by them in Man.
Cynocephalus : the muscles have a common origin, from the external
epicondyle with the M. ext. comm. digitorum, and ext. min.
digiti.

94 Studies in Anthropologij

Hylobates : the M. extensor longus comes from the outer supra-
condylar line and is distinct from the shorter muscle which
comes from the condyle itself.

Gorilla : the muscles originate as in Man : at their origins they are
closely connected : to a distance of about 60 mm. below the
external epicondyle they take fleshy origin from the intermuscular
septum between them and the M. ext. comm. digitorum. Passing
downwards the tendons are closely attached to one another till
they pass beneath the tendon of the M. ext. oss. metacarpi pollicis.
Below this they are separable and attached to the bases of the
metacarpal bones II and III much as in Man.

M. extensor secundi internodii pollicis :

Nyctkebus : the muscle is distinct from the M. ext. indicis.
Cyfiocephahn : the muscle is present and distinct.

M. extensor communis digitorum.

Hapale : the muscle tendons are united by an aponeurosis over the
dorsal carpal surface.

Cynocephalus : a slendef muscle arises by a common origin from
the extensor aponeurosis of the forearm, with the M. extensores
carpi radiales longior and brevior and minimi digiti. It is inserted
into the index, third, fourth and fifth digits and between the
tendons a membrane is stretched.

Hylobates : in the forearm there is a partial origin from the inter-
muscular septa and adjacent muscle sheaths. On the back of
the hand the tendons spread out and are connected by an
aponeurotic membrane.

Gorilla : the muscle arises from both forearm bones from the
interosseous membrane from the intermuscular septum between
it and the M. supinator brevis, upon the sheath of the latter
muscle : the ulna slip is very deeply and very distally situated,
proximally the attachment is traceable to the external epicondyle,
the most proximal part of the origin being in common with the
extensores carpi radiales and ulnaris.

M. supinator longus.

Gorilla : the muscle arises from the supracondylar line, and from
the deep fascia overlying it : the insertion is into the base of
the styloid process of the radius.
M. extensor indicis.

Hapale : the muscle gives off the M. ext. pr. inter, pollicis.
Cynocephalus: the muscle is independent and slender, arising from
the ulna alone : it gives off a slip to join the tendon of the M.
ext. OSS. met. pollicis.

Dissections of the Upper Limh of Gorilla, etc. 95

M. extensor digiti medii.

Cynocephalus : the muscle is separate and slender : it arises from
the ulna below the M. ext. indicis.
M. extensor digiti medii et digiti annularis.
Hapale : the muscle is present.

Hylobates : the muscle arises from the ulna below the M. extensor
secundi internodii pollicis, and spreads out in the hand into an
aponeurosis resembling that of the M. extensor comm. digitorum.
M. extensor minimi digiti.

Hapale : the muscle is present ; as in Man it is joined by a slip

from the M. ext. comm. dig.
Cynocephalus : the muscle arises from the extensor aponeurosis and
the intermuscular septum between it and the M. ext. comm.
digitorum. It gives a slip to the riJig finger.
Hylobates: two separate muscles: (i) from the M. ext. comm.
digitorum a slip is given off to the little finger : (2) an accessory
muscle which is partly blended with the M. ext. comm. digitorum
and partly with the M. ext. carpi ulnaris.
M. extensor carpi ulnaris : present in all forms examined.
M. anconeus.

Hylobates : absent or blended with the yi. ext. carpi ulnaris.
M. interosseus dorsalis primus.

Nydicebus : this muscle does not arise from the first metacarpal at
all, but solely from the second metacarpal bone. This appear-
ance is seen in the higher Primates also (cf. note by Dr St J.
Brooks, Joiirfi. Anat. and Physiol, vol. xxii. 1888, p. 92). In
Nycticebus the radial artery is minimal in si^e and largely replaced
by a median artery.

The Palmar fascia in Gorilla {Lag. 3), left upper extremity.

There is no M. palmaris, the deep fascia over the flexor aspect of
the forearm is thick and increases in density and thickness as the carpus
is approached : over the anterior annular ligament it attains thickness of
2 mm. (the fibres being mainly transverse in direction) and passes
distally to form the palmar fascia. Still more distally, fewer transverse
and more longitudinal fibres are encountered and more fat is seen. No
M. palmaris brevis occurs.

Finally about 5 mm. above the distal ends of the metacarpal bones,
the fascia splits into four portions each running distally along the line of
the digits and wrapped round the tendon sheaths, being attached on
either side to these, and to the metacarpals. Between the latter, the

96

Studies in Anthropology

fascia is attenuated, to form a slight covering for the interdigital vessels
and nerve. Radialwards, the fascia blends with that over the M.
abductor indicis and the thenar muscles, ulnawards it blends similarly
with the fascia covering the muscles of the hypothenar group.

The poUiceal 7nnsculatiire.

M. flexor longus pollicis.

Nycticebus (tardigradus) : the muscle is distinct : its tendon is joined

by a slip from the common deep flexor muscle.
Cynocephalus : there is no separate long flexor muscle ; the M. flexor

digitorum profundus provides a shp for the pollex.
Gorilla (Lag. 3): there is no separate long flexor muscle of the pollex.

The following table gives the results of dissection in Cynocephalus
mormon of the short muscles of the pollex.

Muscle

Origin

Insertion

■

I.

M. abductor pollicis.

The anterior annular liga-

The base of the proximal pha-

ment.

lanx of the pollex.

1.

M. opponens pollicis

The anterior annular

The shaft of the first metacar-

(a well developed

ligament.

pal bone.

muscle).

3-

M. flexor brevis pol-
licis :

A. "radial" part.

The anterior annular liga-

The base of the proximal pha-

ment.

lanx of the pollex ; to the
ulnar side of the insertion of
the M. abductor pollicis.

B. "deep "or "ulnar"

Apparent origin from the

The base of the proximal pha-

part.

trapezium and trapezoid.

lanx of the pollex.

4-

M. adductor obliquus

Apparent origin from tra-

The base of the proximal pha-

pollicis.

pezium and trapezoid.

lanx of the pollex, to the ulnar
side of the M. flexor brevis
pollicis.

5-

M. adductor transver-

The shaft of the third

Along the ulnar side of the

sus pollicis.

metacarpal bone.

proximal phalanx of the pol-
lex and extending to the base
of the distal phalanx. Cf.
Gorilla.

The polliceal musculature in Gorilla.

The M. adductor transversus pollicis runs for a considerable
distance along the proximal phalanx of the pollex, and almost reaches
the distal phalanx, as in Cynocephalus {v. supra). A similar condition
is reported by Brooks {Journ. Anat. and Physiol, vol. xxii. 1888, p. 87),
in the manus of Hylobates and in the pes of Hylobates, Simla, and
Anthropopithecus niger.

Dissections of the Upper Limb of Gorilla, etc. 97

A comparison of the polliceal musculature in three examples of the
Simiid?e (viz. Hylobates, Simia, and A. niger), gave the following results.

General arrangement.
M. opponens pollicis.

M. flexor brevis pol-
licis :

(A) radial portion.

(B) ulnar portion.

M. adductor obliquus

pollicis.
jM. adductor transver-

sus pollicis.

M. slip from the M.
adductor obliquus
or transversus, to
the first metacarpal
bone.

r\I.slip from M. adduc-
tor obliquus pollicis
to the radial sesa-
moid bone.

Anthropopithecus
niger (Chimpanzee)

Most human.
As in Man.

As in Man.

Fibrous band: &
so more reduced
than in Man.

?

Takes origin from
the shaft of the
third metacarpal
bone.

Infrequent.

Infrequent.

Simia
(Orang-utan)

Less human.
Feebler than
Man.

As in Man.
Larger than in
Man.

Takes origin from
the shaft of the
third metacarpal
bone.

Not uncommon.

Infrequent.

Hylobates
iGibbon)

Least human.

As in Man with the addi-
tion of an accessory M.
adductor opponens.

As in Man.

Larger than in Simia or
Man.

Tendency to extension to
ungual phalanx.

Takes origin from the
proximal half of the shaft
of the third metacarpal
bone. It tends as in
Gorilla and Cynocepha-
lus to be inserted into
the ungual as well as the
proximal phalanx of the
poUex.

Frequent, and described
as yi. adductor oppo-
nens pollicis.

Infrequent.

The hypothenar miisailaiurc in Gorilla {Lag. 3, AIiis. Cant.).

M. abductor minimi digiti ;

Origin, (a) from the pisiform bone and adjacent ligaments.
(jS) from the ulnar side of the fifth metacarpal bone.

Insertion. The base of the pro.ximal phalanx of the little finger.
M. fle.xor brevis minimi digiti.

Origin. The unciform process.

Insertion. With the preceding muscle.
M. opponens minimi digiti is also present.

These muscles lie superficial to the denser part of the palmar fascia,
which passes deeply to them, blending with their sheaths and is lost at
the shaft of the fifth metacarpal bone.

D. 7

A CRITICAL STUDY OF THE COLLECTION OF
CRANIA OF ABORIGINAL AUSTRALIANS IN
THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY MUSEUM.

Material. The number of crania is, in all, thirty-eight, and of these,
twenty-nine are crania of adults, five of aged persons, and four of
youths.

Sex. Of the adults, five are females and twenty-four are males.
The five aged are all males. Of the four young skulls, two belonged to
youths of about eighteen to twenty years of age, one a child of seven or
eight, and one a young female of about twelve or thirteen years.

Geographical Classificatiofi. Ten specimens are from South Australia,
and with ten skulls of " Murray " natives, form a group of twenty South
Australians.

Six specimens are from New South Wales and four from Victoria,
two from Western Australia, one from the Northern Territory of South
Australia, and one from Melbourne (but the exact locaHty whence the
last was obtained is not recorded).

Of the source of four specimens, three of which accompany complete
skeletons, there is no record.

Slate of Preservatio7i. The state of preservation varies widely, as
may be gathered from the tables of measurement, and from the detailed
descriptions of the individual specimens.

INTRODUCTORY FOOTNOTE.

A description of these skulls was commenced by Prof. Macalister, and the present
writer has had the benefit of Prof. Macalister's notes and measurements. The notes
have been incorporated in the craniological part, and the measurements were revised
and added to in the craniometrical part of the present work, which is thus an
extension of that begun by Prof. Macalister.

Descriptions of Crania 99

Flan of work.

Measurements were made and tabulated.

A carefully detailed description of each specimen has been written,
describing the age, sex, state of preservation and appearances presented
in the several normae : individual peculiarities were recorded. This
series of descriptions follows the numerical order of the Cambridge
catalogue, without regard to the grouping of the crania according to
districts or tribes.

Tables I and III.

i. Discussion of the measuretnents. These, which number about
forty-six, are arranged in a table of general measurements, and the
corresponding averages are arranged in another table.

Tables II and IV.

ii. For skulls upon which all the above measurements could be
made, a series of thirteen indices has been made out, the number of
indices varying for skulls which are not complete : the averages of these
indices are arranged in a separate table.

Tables F, VI, VII.

iii. Tables of additional measurements are three in number, and
comprise :

(a) Measurements of the mandible.

(fi) Miscellaneous : lengths of sutures, &c.

(y) Dimensions of teeth (two tables).
And for these the averages are arranged in the respective tables.

Tables VIII and VIII a.

iv. Special tables present the measurements of certain groups of
crania, viz., all those of South Australians ; all those from New South
Wales ; and all those from Victoria. In these tables the indices and
a limited number only of measurements will be found.

Table IX.

v. The method of seriation has been applied to the whole series of
indices and to the indices of the group of South Australians. Also to a
few of the principal measurements of the same.

7 — 2

100 Studies in Anthropology

Table X.

vi. All the averages of the measurements made have been reduced
to the figures which present their relationships to the average basi-nasal
length taken as loo. (This of course has already been done for the
basi-alveolar length in calculating the alveolar index of the averages.)
This table is divided into four columns which correspond to the four
columns of the table of averages (Table III). In a subsidiary table
are appended the corresponding values as calculated for series of
(i) Andamanese Islanders; (2) Fijians ; (3) Islanders from Torres
Straits ; these are taken from Sir William Flower's memoirs in the
Jour7ial of the Anthropological Instittite.

Table XL

vii. The frequency of the occurrence of a certain number of
characters such as the epipteric bone, third condyle, &c., was observed,
and the results have been tabulated.

Table XII.

viii. All the available figures representing the average cubic
capacity, cephalic and other indices, have been brought together into
one table, so that for instance the average cubic capacity is calculated
from 150 cases. The authors whose memoirs have been referred to in
this connection are —

Dr Barnard Davis {Thesaurus Craniorum).

Sir William Flower {/our?i. Afith. Inst, and Cat. Roy. Coll.
Surgeons).

Sir William Turner ("Challenger" Report).

MM. Quatrefages et Hamy {Crania Ethnica).

M. Cauvin {Bull. Soc. d'Anth. de Paris, 1883).

Table XIII.

ix. Is an additional table, which is really a seriation, and as such
will be discussed with the other seriations of Table IX.

Two skulls have been longitudinally bisected : measurements
made on "rubbings" of these have been tabulated with the corre-
sponding measurements made on rubbings of similarly bisected skulls
of anthropoid apes and other animals. In the same table are the
corresponding measurements made by Sir William Turner on similarly
treated skulls of Australians [cf. pp. 80 et seq.\

The skulls of three adult and one aged males present considerable

Descriptioiw of Crania 101

divergences from the usual type. They will be referred to as "doubtful"
skulls and the averages of the male skulls, unthout these four "doubtful"
skulls, have been arranged in a special column throughout the tables.

Descriptive part. The work has been resolved into a series of
descriptions (craniological) accompanied by measurements (cranio-
metrical part). Besides the detailed descriptions, as yet unpublished, a
series of short notes have been written, describing individual peculiarities.
From the whole series of descriptions, that of the typical skull has been
deduced, and this differs in no important respect from those already
published.

Measurements : Explanatory details. Measurements were made with
a craniometer (Flower's) graduated in millimetres, and with a steel tape ;
and the cranial capacities were estimated by using No. S shot, which
was arranged by shaking the skull and occasional use of a wooden
rammer. The mean of two observations for each specimen, not differing
by more than lo c.c, has been recorded : exceptions to this rule must
be made with regard to very imperfect skulls.

Other measurements were made according to Flower's instructions.
The jugo-nasal breadth and arc are measured according to the directions
of Oldfield Thomas in the Journ. of the Anth. Institute., vol. xiv.
P- 333- The anterior palatine breadth is that between the roots of the
canine and first premolar teeth ; the posterior palatine breadth that
between the first and second molar teeth. The horizontal circumference
did not include the greatest prominence of the glabella.

Discussion of the tables. Looking over the facts presented by the
various tables, in Table I it may be noticed that the average cranial
capacity of twenty-six specimens of both sexes is 1252 c.c. The average
capacity of the male skulls is i269"9 or 1235, according as the four
doubtful skulls are included or not. These values accord fairly well with
those recorded for other series (by Turner, Flow'er, and others).

The maximum length exceeds the ophryo-occipital length by a good
deal more in the males than in the females, and thus gives an indication
of the greater and more frequent prominence of the glabella in the
former sex.

The maximum breadth was usually on or about the parieto-squamous
suture, but in one or two instances considerably below this.

The difference between the two sexes is clearly shown in the relative
magnitudes of the bi-asterial and bi-stephanic breadths, for in the males
the bi-asterial distinctly exceeds the bi-stephanic breadth, whereas in
females the two are about equal, the bi-asterial breadth in females being
smaller,- rather than the bi-stephanic breadth being greater, than in males.

As regards the measurements indicating facial breadth {i.e.., the

102 Studies in Anthropology

external bi-orbital, bi-zygomatic, bi-malar and other breadths) the males
exceed the females by very little, except in the case of the bi-zygomatic
breadth ; in this the difference between the sexes is pronounced, and is
doubtless related to the greater mass of muscles working the lower jaw,
and occupying the zygomatic fossa, of males. It must be admitted that
this comparison is only drawn from three female skulls, but it is borne
out by the dimensions of female skulls in other collections.

The bi-zygomatic, besides exceeding the other measurements of facial
breadth, often nearly coincided with the maximum parieto-squamous
breadth of adult males, but in the young skulls was much below that
breadth. This again indicates the relative size of the masticating
muscles in the two cases.

Height The basi-bregmatic height, in most cases, is slightly smaller
than the maximum parieto-squamous breadth. This will be referred to
later in connection with the group of skulls from South Australia.

The palato-maxillary length is very great in several specimens ; the
mean value is considerably affected by the presence of the four " doubtful "
skulls.

The comparative lengths of the frontal, parietal and occipital arcs
respectively are of considerable interest in view of the generalisations of
M. Cauvin on this subject. {Bulletin de la Soc. d'Anth. de Paris, 1883,
p. 253.) This writer states that in the crania of Australians (and of
Papuans and Melanesians) the parietal arc exceeds in length the frontal
occipital arcs. In thirty-one specimens of both sexes described by
Sir William Turner, the frontal and parietal arcs of eight (five males,
three females) were almost equal in length ; in twelve (eight males, four
females), the frontal was in excess ; in eleven (seven males, four females),
the parietal was in excess of the frontal.

In the Cambridge collection, out of thirty-three skulls of both sexes,
the frontal and parietal arcs of three (two males, one female) were of
equal length ; in fifteen cases (thirteen males, two females) the frontal
exceeded the parietal ; in fifteen cases (fourteen males, one female) the
parietal exceeded the frontal arc.

Combining all these with the additional cases cited by Sir William
Turner (in vol. ii. of his, report) it appears that of sixty-nine skulls of
adults of both sexes, the frontal and parietal arcs are of equal length in
eleven cases, the frontal is in excess in twenty-nine cases, and the
parietal arc is in excess in twenty-nine cases also.

With regard to the occipital arc : in thirty-four cases out of thirty-six
recorded by Sir William Turner, the parietal arc exceeded the occipital;
in the remaining two (a male and a female) the occipital arc exceeded
the parietal.

Descriptions of Crania 103

Of thirty-one cases in the Cambridge Museum, the parietal was
greater than the occipital in twenty-nine, less in two (both males). So
that of sixty-seven cases the parietal arc exceeded the occipital in sixty-
three. So that in this respect M. Cauvin's generalisation holds good.

But as regards the frontal and parietal arcs, it appears from a study
of sixty-nine skulls of adults of both sexes from the Cambridge and
Edinburgh collections, the two arcs are unequal nearly five times as
often as not, and that when unequal the frontal arc is just as often the
longer of the two as not. So that there is no confirmation of this part
of M. Cauvin's statement.

Oblique parietal arc {Macalister). Mention must here be made of
the measurement called by Professor Macalister the " Oblique Parietal
Arc." Its plane lies in the general direction of the fissure of Rolando.
The mean value in this series is remarkable as being nearly the same
for both sexes. No other large series of this measurement are as yet
on record, but the following may serve as examples met with in the
Cambridge collection.

Australians ...

. 343 mm. av

both sexes.

A Tasmanian

. 336

N. A. Indians

. .365

, av.

of 3.

Negroes

. 368

, av.

of 5.

New Zealanders

■ 368

, av.

of 3.

Ancient Peruvians ..

■ 371

, av

of ^:;.

Modern Europeans ..

• 370

, av.

of 2.

Kaffirs

• 375

, av.

of5.

A Carib

• 375

A Murray Islander ..

• 375

,' In

the Liverpo

An Eskimo (male) ..

3«4

Mandible. The mandible accompanies the cranium in eighteen
specimens. The measurements show the excess of the average dimen-
sions of the male over the female mandible. In both, the coronoid
and condylar heights are nearly equal ; in both, the intergonial exceeds
the gonio-symphisial length, the excess being more pronounced in male
jaws.

Average Indices. The average indices have been calculated in two
ways and the results arranged in two tables (IV, and IVa), one contain-
ing the averages of the indices in distinction from the indices of the
averages arranged in the other ; the former, though less correct, has the
advantage of admitting a greater number of instances, and the differences
between the two tables will be found for the most part insignificant.

Breadth Index. The mean breadth index of thirty-eight specimens
is 70'5 ; of twenty-nine males 70; of five adult females ya'g. Four
specimens are above the upper limit of doHcho-cephalic skulls (three

104

Studies in Anthropology

males, one female) ; the highest individual index is 76"6, which with the
second highest 76, belongs to "doubtful" skulls. Without the four
doubtful specimens, the mean breadth index of twenty-five males is 69'2.
The lowest index is 64 '9, that of the cast of the skull of King Rufus
Billy (a Murray native) ; though the exact state of the sutures of this
scapho-cephalic specimen cannot be ascertained, the sagittal appears to
be free from synostosis. The next lowest index is 65 '9 (No. 21 12, in
which sagittal synostosis is nearly complete).

Vertical Index. The mean vertical index of thirty-four crania is
69'6; that of twenty-six males 69*8; that of three females 68-6. The
mean height of twenty-five male skulls is 130-5 mm. and their mean
breadth is 132 mm. ; of four females the mean height is 121 mm., the
mean breadth is 128 mm. Altogether the series of skulls is dolicho-
platycephalic.

Gnathic Index. The mean gnathic index of twenty-nine skulls is
IOI-2, of twenty-two males ioi"8, of three females 1027. Here again
the doubtful skulls disturb the average, for when excluded, it is found
that the mean index of nineteen males is 102 '15. The highest individual
index is 1087 (a South Australian male. No. 21 15). From the averages,
the whole series and the skulls of each sex fall within the mesognathous
group.

Nasal Index. The mean nasal index of thirty-two skulls is 55 '6,
of twenty-six males 55 '4, of two females 53*25. They fall within the
platyrrhine group. The highest individual index is 65-1, and one of the
" doubtful " skulls possesses the lowest nasal index of the series, viz.,

ATA-

Orbital Index. The mean orbital index of thirty-one skulls is 82-6 :
that of twenty-four males 81-2 ; of three females 8y4; accordingly the
males are microseme, the females mesoseme. One of the doubtful skulls
has an index of 927 : after exclusion of the four doubtful skulls the
mean index for twenty males is 80*5.

Palato-Maxillary Index. The mean palato-maxillary index of
twenty-nine skulls is 1117 ; of twenty-two males iio'4; of three females
ii2'6. Among the males, in four cases a low palato-maxillary index is
associated with a high degree of prognathism, the two most pronounced
cases being

Skull

Palato-maxillary Index

Gn.-ithic Index

No. 2115

,, 2127

lOI'S
92-2

1087
io7"i

Descrijitions of Crania 105

On the other hand the very doHchuranic skull No. 2140 with an
index of 97 has a gnathic index of but 100.

Fa/ate Length. It might be mentioned in this connection that the
comparatively low palato-maxillary index in many Australian crania is
due to excessive length rather than reduced breadth ; but this palatine
length is much increased in many cases by a large tuber maxillare ;
herein, it is thought, lies a difference between these crania and the
doHchuranic crania of anthropoid apes ; for in the latter (in the majority
of instances, so far available) the maxillary tuberosity is frequently quite
insignificant and does not add to the palatine length, so that in this
respect the palate of anthropoid apes resembles that of the more highly
civilised races of man rather than the aboriginal Australian.

Total Facial Index. The figures for the total facial index do not
accord very well with those published by Dr Topinard {El. d'Anth.
Gen.., p. 919), where 107 "2 is given as the mean index of seven
Australians. In the Cambridge collection the mean index of fourteen
skulls is 95'4) of ten males 96"2, of two females 93*6 ; and in the whole
series two males out of ten only have indices above 100. The general
indication then is of a longer face than that of the Australians referred
to by Topinard. For the superior facial index of Broca, nineteen skulls
give an average of 73"4, thirteen males of 737, three females 74'i.
Topinard, quoting Broca's figures, gives 697 as the mean of twenty-
seven Australians. Sir William Turner's "Challenger" Report contains
figures which give 65-1 as the mean index of twenty-eight skulls. Both
these observations denote faces shorter than those of the skulls in the
Cambridge collection. Sir William Turner's series contained only three
skulls from South Australia, whereas the majority of the skulls here
described are from that district, and none of these presents an index
below 71.

Facial Indices. It might be supposed that this is a feature charac-
teristic of skulls from South Australia, but it must be admitted that no
great reliance can be placed on such an index as this, depending as it
does on the position of the ophryon. The superior facial index of
Kollmann avoids this difficulty, and it is interesting to find that here
again the indices of the skulls at Cambridge indicate a longer face on
the average than do the indices calculated from the data furnished by
Sir William Turner in the memoir already referred to. (Thus, the mean
index of twenty-one skulls is 517, of fifteen males 51 "8, of two females
54. Turner's figures give 48*8 as the average of thirty-three skulls, of
twenty-one males 48*6, of nine females 48*9. Again, the average index
of eleven skulls from South Australia in the Cambridge collection is 52*2. )
To sum up the facts presented by these facial indices. From three

106 Studies in Anthropology

facial indices evidence appears that the skulls in the Cambridge collec-
tion, in which South Australians predominate, have a proportionally
longer face than those from other districts. The relation of this feature
to prognathism cannot be overlooked, and perhaps the difference
between the South Australians and other series may be too slight to
warrant any conclusions being drawn ; but the recurrence of the same
difference in three indices respectively is remarkable.

The average stephano-zygomatic index (of Topinard) indicates that
the skulls are highly phaenozygous, the males more so than the females.
(Average index of twenty-one skulls is 79"9, of fifteen males 76'5, of
three females Si'g.) The mean gonio-zygomatic index of fifteen skulls
is 72 "9, which agrees fairly well with the figure quoted by Topinard, viz.,
75 "5 as the average of four Australians.

Naso-Malar Index. The naso-malar index is of considerable interest
owing to the small range of variation throughout this series. The range
through twenty-seven skulls is less than 7 units (the range of the cephalic
index through twenty-nine males being nearly 12 units). The average
index of thirty skulls is iii'4, of twenty-three males iii'2, of three
females 11 0*4. In his paper in the Journal of the Anthropological
Institute, vol. xiv. p. 333, Oldfield Thomas gives iii"i as the mean
index of sixteen Europeans. One would expect the average value for
the modern European skull to be somewhat greater than this, or else
that of the aboriginal Australian to be somewhat lower.

Dental Index. The mean dental index of thirteen skulls is 45*2, of
eight males (excluding the doubtful ones) 45 '8, of two females 49'25.
The fact of the female sex possessing the higher index agrees with the
figures recorded by Sir WiUiam Flower, viz., 44*8 as the average of
twenty-two males, 46 -i the average of fourteen females. The relatively
smaller basi-nasal length in the latter sex probably is the cause of this
apparent discrepancy.

Table VI.

Of the tables of additional measurements but little can be said at
present. With regard to the dimensions of the posterior nares, it may
be remarked that while the breadths are nearly equal, the height is only
one-half that of the apertura pyriformis of the nose.

The average least distance of the temporal crests is 87-5 mm. (for
twenty-two males), and in three females they did not approach nearer
than 106 mm.

Teeth. As regards the dimensions of the teeth, the combined lengths
of the lower molars exceed those of the upper set, and the same relation
holds good for the combined lengths of molars and premolars. This

Descriptions of Crania 107

confirms the statements of Professor Turner in the Journal of Anatomy
and Physiology, vol. xxv. p. 461. With regard to other statements in the
same paper, viz. those referring to the apposition of the teeth, the con-
firmation is not so clear. Professor Turner makes the statement
concerning a skull from South Australia, that the two sets of teeth are in
contact by their cutting edges "when the condyles of the lower jaw were
articulated, and placed in contact with the ridge that bounded the back
of the glenoid fossa, and the teeth clenched."

The following specimens at Cambridge were available for examination
with regard to this point, and the following notes present the results of
such an investigation : —

No. 2101. South Australia (a cast and not the original skull).

When the condyles rest in the glenoid fossa no such apposition as
was described is observed ; on placing the mandible in such a position
that apposition occurs, it is found that the condyle is resting on the
rounded anterior border of the glenoid fossa formed by the anterior root
of the zygoma. This might well be the position in life, as room would
be afforded for the interarticular cartilage.

No. 2 1 15. South Australia, male.

The lateral superior and two left lower incisors only persist. On
placing the jaw in the desired position firmly, the condyles are found
fiot to be in contact with any part of the floor or boundaries of the glenoid
fossa, being separated by an interval of less than i mm., which was
presumably occupied by the interarticular cartilage.

No. 2128. South Australia, male.

Arrangement very similar to No. 2 115, but the right condyle just
touches the anterior border of its glenoid cavity.

No. 2137. When the mandible is placed in the position in which
the incisors bite surface to surface, a considerable area of the condyles
is found to touch the glenoid fossa. It is here to be remarked that the
glenoid fossje of this specimen are very shallow and flattened, the
flattening being most pronounced in the region of the anterior border of
the cavity, so that the anterior root of the zygoma is indistinct. It is
submitted that such a shallow glenoid fossa is an approach to a state
that is usual in anthropoid apes. (Among Australian crania Nos. 2138,
2139, and 2140, exhibit the same feature in a less marked degree.) But
even here the condyles are not touching the back of the glenoid fossa
when the teeth are in apposition.

No. 2138 approaches most nearly to the state of affairs described
by Sir William Turner. Dental apposition still occurs when the condyles
are in the posterior part of the glenoid fossa.

Nos. 2139 and 2140 give no very definite evidence, but it seems

108 Studies' in Anthropologij

as if the condyle must occupy an anterior position in the glenoid fossa
in order that the teeth may be in apposition. The influence of the size
of the interarticular cartilage in determining this position has been hinted
at by Topinard {L Atithropologie^ 1892). With regard to the occur-
rence of this apposition of incisors in races other than Australian,
Sir William Turner remarks that he had observed it in a Malay, a
Bushman and an Eskimo, while in i860 Sir John Lubbock wrote in
an account of the Danish kitchen-middens (in the Natural History
Review), "the tumuli have supplied us with many skeletons of this
period. ...one curious peculiarity is that their front teeth did not
overlap as ours do, but met one another, as do those of the Green-
landers at the present day. This evidently indicates a peculiar manner
of eating."

Further with regard to the occurrence in prognathic or orthognathic
skulls, it may be mentioned that the same arrangement was observed in
a very orthognathic skull dug up at Chester. It must be added that
this specimen gave signs of deformation (though not posthumous) which
may be responsible for the appearance of orthognathism.

The grotip Jrom South Australia. Table VIII contains the indices
and a few of the principal measurements of the group of skulls from
South Australia, which form so large a proportion of the Cambridge
collection. The chief point of interest is in the relative magnitudes of
the cephalic and altitudinal indices. Considering averages, the breadth
index is 70-2 ; the height index 68*9 ; the average skull is therefore
dolicho-platycephalic. As regards the sexes, the mean breadth index of
fifteen males is 69 "6, the mean height index of twelve males is 69' 15 (no
appreciable difference) ; the three females, however, have a breadth
index of 71 "4 and a mean height index of 65-2, and so are very dolicho-
platycephalic. Regarding now individual indices, the results as regards
the males are different. In thirteen cases out of seventeen, the height
index was less than the breadth index (of these nine were males, three
females, one a youth). Sir William Turner says that of twenty-two
crania from South Australia which he examined, seventeen had a lower
height index than breadth index. This is exactly the same proportion
as in the Cambridge collection. Combining the two sets of data, from
a total of thirty-nine crania from South Australia, thirty are dolicho-
platycephalic (nineteen males, ten females, and a youth) ; in two, the
two indices are equal ; in seven males the height index exceeds the
breadth index.

As regards other indices, the gnathic is somewhat higher in this
group than in the whole series, and the facial indices, as has been said,
show a longer face to exist in this collection than in the skulls from

Descriptions of Crania 109

other districts. With regard to the frontal, parietal and occipital arcs,
their relative lengths are much the same as in the whole series. (Com-
bining the measurements given by Sir William Turner of South Australian
skulls, with those in this collection, it appears that of twenty-three skulls,
in three the frontal and parietal arcs are equal, in nine the parietal arc
is the greater, in eleven the frontal, the occipital exceeding the parietal
in two cases, and the frontal in one.) From this review of the features
of crania from South Australia it must be admitted that no other
striking feature other than the occurrence of dolicho-platycephalic skulls
distinguishes them from aborigines from other districts. At the same
time there is a slight difference in their facial indices, which may also
prove distinctive.

Groups from Neiv South Wales and Victoria. The Table Villa
refers to the measurements of the groups of skulls from New South
Wales and Victoria respectively ; they do not contain sufificiently large
numbers to justify any general conclusions.

Seriations. Table IX. The method of seriation of characters has
been applied in many cases without modifying the value of the averages
as already calculated. There is, however, one notable exception, viz. the
vertical or height index of the group of crania from South Australia. By
examining the factors of this index, the basi-bregmatic height was found
to be the disturbing element, and in consequence its seriation was care-
fully studied, figures relating to twelve well-authenticated male skulls
being used. (Average height = 1 29*25 mm.) In forming a seriation with
5 units as its modulus, it was found that the crania fall into two groups
almost symmetrically arranged with regard to the average figure, the
groups being characterised by basi-bregmatic heights greater or less than
about 129 mm. respectively.

The small number of skulls renders this statement somewhat unim-
portant. By collecting all available data, the total number of adult male
South Australian skulls was raised to twenty-four ; and in a similar
seriation the same grouping is again observed, while it is much more
marked when the modulus is 2 units (the diminution in this respect
being justified by the increased number of specimens under con-
sideration).

It may be urged that the choice of the modulus (2 or 5) whereby
these features were brought out, was quite arbitrary, and this indeed is
the case. It seemed then that a modulus of a different dimension
should be taken, and as in the actual measurements no less difference
than I millimetre is taken account of, the choice of unity as modulus
would be somewhat less arbitrary. Arranged in seriation thus the
arrangement is somewhat obscure, and if plotted out in the form of a

110 Studies in Anthropology

curve, the curve is now discontinuous, whereas with 2 as the modulus it
was quite graphic. Still a trace of the same arrangement remains and
the whole subject is thought worthy of notice.

The interest of this double grouping lies in the fact that according
as a skull falls within one or the other group, so it is (at any rate in
80 per cent, of cases) dolicho-platycephalic, or the reverse.

If the race were homogeneous, one would expect the curve of the
number of examples to rise gradually, attaining its maximum at the
average {a),

whereas in the case of these male South Australians the curve happens
to be of this sort {b),

z^^a^.r::::v.

two groups being observed. It seems then as if the dolicho-platycephalic
individuals form a section only of the natives of South Australia. The
number of cases (24) here considered is perhaps small, but the constant
way in which the double maximum has been seen, first with twelve cases,
then with twenty-four, warrants some amount of attention being paid to
this method of grouping. At any rate if confirmed it would be a very
graphic indication of the mingling of two types, and this is perhaps not
far removed from what might be expected in the case of the South
Australians, where an admixture of a Melanesian with a Tasmanian
element is already suspected. To sum up, while the average male skull
from South Australia is feebly dolicho-platycephalic, a study of individuals
shows that few present this characteristic of the average skull, and that
in fact they are either distinctly dolicho-platycephalic, or decidedly
hypsi-cephalic. If both these types were met with in equal frequency,
the average skull would have breadth and height indices equal. Actually,
however, for twenty-four male skulls examined, the decidedly dolicho-
platycephalic class are somewhat in excess of the decidedly hypsi-cephalic
class (viz. 14 : 10) so that the average skull turns out to be as already
said, feebly dolicho-platycephalic.

At the risk of rendering this discussion tedious, it must be said that
the fact of a single character being the basis of an argument affecting
the race was considered unsatisfactory, and it was thought that some
confirmation of the groupings ought to be obtained from a study of

Descriptions of Crania 111

other characters. At first a number of seriations were made out for
other characters, and it may be said at once, without any evidence
of a decided nature being brought out. Next the specimens were
arranged in order of size, as regards indices and several dimensions.
This is in fact another kind of seriation. The difficulty occurred that
among the twenty-four skulls the differences between the third, fourth,
and fifth, for instance, with regard to any character {e.g. maximum
length), might be much less than the differences between the twenty-
second, twenty-third, and twenty-fourth in order. So that this table
proved somewhat fallacious and certainly unwieldy.

Accordingly a modification was introduced (and I am much indebted
to my friend Mr P. E. Bateman, of Jesus College, for aid in this
arrangement) whereby the range of variation in the magnitude of each
measurement or index was divided into six equal portions (the number
six happened to be convenient, but is quite arbitrary), and all skulls
whose dimensions placed them in the same division were regarded as
occupying the same place in the order of the specimens. Thus there
might be two specimens in the first rank, five in the second, and so on.
Table XIII presents the arrangement.

With such an arrangement one would expect to find differences
emphasized, if any exist. Also the curves corresponding to the figures
would be expected to show signs of groups, if such are present. But as
a matter of fact this particular arrangement does not admit of any
statement as to groups being made, and the corresponding series of
curves indicates a double grouping in the case of basi-bregmatic height,
but in this alone, among the most important measurements studied.
Next the corresponding set of figures was worked out for the average
South Australian (as inferred from average dimensions) and the average
Tasmanian. A comparison of these with each other, and with the
individual South Australians, has so far only resulted in showing that
one skull from South Australia (No. 2 114), besides its superficial
appearance, is in proportions nearly aUied to the average Tasmanian
type. As the whole of this method of seriations aims at the bringing
forward of the individual characters, rather than those of the hypo-
thetical average skull, no great importance ought to be attached to the
last observations. It is very probable that when tables similar to
Table XIII have been made out for an equal number of individuals
from Tasmania on the one hand, and other districts in Australia on the
other, important results may accrue.

Measurements in terms of Basi-fmsal lengths. Passing to Table X.
Here are arranged the principal measurements expressed in terms of
the basi-nasal length. They have thus most interest in comparison

112 Studies in Anthropology

with other groups of crania whose measurements have been similarly
modified. Such are the groups of Andamanese Islanders and Fiji
Islanders in the memoirs of Sir William Flower, and the group of
Torres Strait Islanders described by Oldfield Thomas in the Jourti.
of the Anthrop. Inst. (cf. Table X a). Adult males of these groups are
arranged in a comparative table with the adult male Australians.
The most striking features are these : the micro-cephalic character
of Australians is emphasized ; the basi-bregmatic heights of Australians
and Fijians contrast strongly (the latter being the higher of the two) ;
the Torres Strait Islanders hold an intermediate position in this respect.
The small bi-auricular breadth of Australians is to be noticed, as well as
the relative lengths of frontal and parietal arcs, where again there is
no confirmation of the statement that the parietal arc is the greater in
Australians. The basi-alveolar length has been discussed as the gnathic
index ; here it shows a less prognathic face than those of Fiji or Torres
Strait Islanders.

Concluding Tables. In concluding this paper, attention is directed
to the Table which gives the averages of several indices as collected
from all available sources, notably the average breadth index of 214
skulls of both sexes being 70*95, the average height index from 171
skulls being 71*5. Finally the Table XI presents details of an
anatomical nature referring to the occurrence of what are regarded as
anomalies in European crania ; possibly the traces of a third occipital
condyle and of a divided occipital bone are the most significant.

The Tables having reference to measurements made on rubbings
of longitudinally bisected skulls of Australians, Europeans, and also
of apes and lower animals, are of considerable interest, which is
of a general zoological nature, rather than anthropological. These
measurements have been considered in the Morphological Section
{q.v. pp. 80 et seq.).

ABLE I.

MALE

FEMALES AND YOUTHS

ti9

2122

21 10

2120

2121

2124

2130

2132

2111

ged

Adult

Adult

Adult

Adult

Age 12

7 or 8

Adult

\ Young
\ Adult

53
53

1348
188

1138
180

(?)
175

1075 (?)
177

1243
173

1240
176

1210
176

n65

183

73
77

185

175

170

174

171

167

174

179

185

178

'75

175

173

176

176

180

J?

135

127

124

128

127

123

134

129

?9 (?)

no

107

104

lOI

108

105

106

103

^8

107 ?)

100

107

97

104

105

107

93(?)

[ ■:

118

1 12

102 (?)

106

100

102

no

108

103

95

9o(?)

88

91

92

99

96

)8

I 12

105

(?)

103

96

95

log

106

5' (?)

133

123

(?)

123

108

110

125

123 (?)

(g

122

1 10

(?)

108

95

98

118

U4

^5

94

90

(?)

90

78

76

lOI

95

)2

104

103

(?)

95

86

90

103

roo

58 (?)

(?)

1 10

(?)

(?)

95

90

107

(?)

J3(?)

96

89

(?)

89

76

82

97(?)

92

V (?)

66

65

(?)

68

55

56

65 (?)

63

[0(?)

98

103

(?)

96

82

85

92

95

H

•O- ^^

99

96

92

84

91

94

94

:8

.32 ^)

127

H5

"5

118

122

126

n8

18 •

125

122

1 11

115

120

123

123

117

'9
78

112

109

100

1 10

109

120

no

107

90

82

72

89

86

75

81

84

P

34

33

29

3}

35

33

33

34

1O

29

28

27

26

25

28

29

28

5-

3'

37

(?)

35

3'

34

3'

37

1-3

44

41

(?)

37

37

37

40

39

:i

51

45

(?)

49(?)

41

39

47 (?)

45

2

28

25

(?)

25

23

21

28

28

?)

53

57

(?)

54

45

45

57

55

?)

68 .,

63

(?)

63

56

55

63

62

19

134

126

''I

114

124

118

132

130

22

122?)

124

128

114

131

124

120

127

35

55?)

53

59

54

46

67

59

54

0

61

51

46

60

55

44

53

54

?2

3.0 ?)

278

284 (?)

272

287

278

303

277

|0

346?)

344

330 (?)

344

340

326

346

342

'4

116

114

(?)

106

95

105

1 12

1 12

X)

5-3

495

481

490

483

485

500

505

U

30

28

(?)

29

26

32

27

27

|2

45

38

(?)

! 41

31

34

39

38

27

28

27

(?)

24

21

23

27

28

95(?)

194

191

(?)

190

179

177

178

i8s

^7(?)

197

200

(?)

1 200

183

182

190

'93

Table I. PRINCIPAL M K A.sL'KEMEXT^

3104 "9$

3106 ' SI07 iu8

m

(?)

CT

1«7

i«4

lOl

9J

MS

79

aii4

aiiS

aiiy

Aid

Adull

Aduh

■ 300

■«s

\ii

!Si

.7«

1«7

■«3

;^

130

iS

10;

103

M7

97

93

H7

133 (')

87

90

87

1^

"S

^

5?S

In

iS '

loj

■00

1J«

■'■'

".

!»

J,,

j„

tii

?'

6(

h

U7

«!

'it

<7

(7

54

'9S

3Si

3«

108
S07

31

39

39

Aged < Adult Aged

7J

:sr

99(0

9>

"^

i«

103 ;

aiaS

iu6

J127

Aged

Adult

Adull

IS08

,0=,

lino 1

19s

',li

183

190

173

178

139

97

99

91

89

ff

I!«0)

"4

"3

90

90

(?)

<%

(!)

loot')
6S

r<"

99

96

lU

97

130

118

8S

,f

88

3'>

30

!9
31

31

31

3!

39

46

s

!6 1

64 1

S9 '

14S
71

"S

13!

S"

S7

309

''8

3S7

3>3

47S
■•9

498 ,

3S

[I35(?) 13<»(?>[ IJJS

»I33 1 ai34 '

Adult Adult,
'Sji(?) >36o I

3136 2137 3138

Adult Adult Adull

Adull Adult

34« ' 36J(f) 346 347 3SS

Vauih Adull Adult

130

1^

■03 P

97

91

fl

i

4

V)

m

U4P'

(?)

(?)

31

?

"(

4S

i

V

11S(

S7

i*

0(

•7>(

31
39

1

' Adull Agt I
! 107S(?) 114)

17« 184 1?) J71

SJS

2II7

2118

2119

2122

1

2123

2125

2126

1

2127

69

67 '9

694

71-8

717

7i-3

67-4

! 67-8

1

73-8

648

69-9

70-2

69

67-7

76

67-2

I04

100

105-8

96-1

95

100

99

1

107-1

84-6

854

74-4

70-5

1
81

77-5

79-5

80

51

62-5

62-7

54-9

1 56-9

58-7

58-1

53-1

io8-4

1 125

(?)

128-3

1 -^

126-4

112-3

i 1 14-5

! 922

I

(?)

(?)

(?)

96-4

(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

' 73-7 (?)

71-3

(?)

72*2

66-7

(?)

72-6 (?)

80-5

! 52-6

47-1

(?)

49-6

48-9

50-8

5o(?)

58-5

77-4 (?)

699

74-8

82

852

87-5 (?)

75-8

80-5

i (?)

(?)

74

71-4

(?)

(?)

' (?)

(?)

1 IO-2

109-9

II 1-8

111-5

110-8

114

112-4

107-8

46

41-6

(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

43-4 (?)

I

^EMALE

S

YOUTHS

2II0

2120

2121

2132

2111

2124

2130

2135

1 70-6

70-9

72-3

76-1

705

73-4

69-9

747

1 7o'6

65-7

6s

71-6

64-5

68-2

69'3

77

1

104

(?)

104-3

97-9

ion

97-6

93 '4

95-8

90-2

(?)

94-6

77-5

94-9

83-8

91 "9

7S

i 55-5

(?)

51

59-6 (?)

62-2

56-1

53-8

60

! iio'S

(?)

116-7

1 10-5

1 12-7

124-5

1223

117-3

91-8

(?)

(?)

95 4

(?) j

90

96-5

(?)

72-35

(?)

72-35

77-6

(?)

70-4

74-5

70-1

: 528

(?) 1

55-3

52(?)

51-2

50-9

50-9

47

813

(?) '

78-9

85-6

(?)

96-3

95 45

932

797

(?)

(?)

68-8

(?)

yyi

76-4

(•').

1 107

(?)

1 1 1-6

108-7

112

110-5

116-7

113-3

(?)

(?)

SO

48-9

46-8

(?)

(?)

44-3

11. INDICHf

Number of tkull

J.0,

7.04

2105

2.«i

„«,

310S

2.,2

2..3

2114

2..5

2117

2.,8

2119

2.«

2123

2125 1 2I2<

12127

Index, Cephalic

649

70,

73 ■

707

7i

68-4

73-3

65-9

688

7S'i

674

69

67-9

694

71-8

717

713

67-4

678

.. Vmical

(?)

72-4

701

691

73-I (?)

65-3

(?)

74-2

73s

M-5

631

73-8

64-S

69-9

70-2

69

677

76

672

Alveolar

(?)

107-8

,033

■os-9

(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

,00

1065

1087

,04

100

ios-8

.)«-.

95

.00

99

107-1

Orbital

77-8

786

!6i

7»

(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

84-6

842

846

84-6

85-4

74-4

8,

77-5

79-5

80

Nasal

64

S2

5J7

S3-.

(?)

(?)

(?)

54-3

5.

6s- .

5>

SI

6J-S

62-7

S4-9

56-9

587

58-1

531

Palalo-n..«il!.ry

I02-9

1077

113

ICO

(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

"4 5

(-')

,01 5

.084

112-5

(?)

, -8-3

126-4

.12-3

114-5

92-=

Facial (tolal)

87S

(?)

(?)

957 (?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

92

(?)

(?)

(?)

96-4

(.')

I '•"'

(?)

(?)

Facial, superior (Broca)

7J8S

m

(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

79-S (?)

(?)

76-4

73-7 (?)

71-3

(?)

72-2

667

i (?)

72-6 (?)

80-5

Facial, superior (Kollniann)...

s=

m

47-6 (?)

47 7(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

55-3

(?)

54-3

52-6

47-1

(?)

49-6

48-9

50-S

50(?)

58-5

Slcphuno-iygDmaiic

707

m

76-2 (?)

8r6(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

72(?)

(?)

8=7

77-4 (?)

699

74-8

82

85-2

87-5 (?)

75-8

80-5

Gonio-iyKoraatic

7Z-,

(.')

(?)

82-6 (?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

6s3i

(.')

(?)

74

7.-4

(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

Naso-malar(Oldfield Thomas)

MOJS

,.3-1

1?)

n,3

(?)

(?)

?

(?)

.,09

.,.-.

,,,

,LO!

io.j9

niS

,,,;

MOS

.14 ',,2-4

1078

Dental (Flower)

e,

"'

47S

(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

.

46

41-6

l?l

(?)

.?,

43'4(?)

3128

MALES

FEMALES

YOUTHS

Numbf of skiiU

'•',

2.3.

2.33

2.34

2136

2.37

2138

2.39

2.03

2„<>

2,2.

2»<

2.32

21,.

2.30

2135

Inric)*. Cephalic

67

66-3

747

76

766

71-3

694

70

72-9

70-6

71-1

706

70-9

72-3

76-1

70s

73-4

699

74-7

„ Verticiil

66-i

(?)

TO

(?)

(?)

707
99

687
99

73-3

716
98-,

68-8

«9-i

70-1

(?)

70-6

65-7

(.?)

65

97-9

64-s

68-2
97-6

693
93-4

95-8

OrbiUl

80

(?)

7S6

90

927

8, -4

763

767

»7-8

78-6

(?)

90 =

(?)

94-6

77-5

94-9

838

91-9

78

Na3.il

I'alato-maxillLtry

so

(?)

474

50

112s

11S8

100

no

1101

97

(?)
(?)

sys
110-5

(?)
(?)

SI
1167

59-6 (?)
110-s

62-2

56-1

124-5

122-3

60

Facial (total)

■■li

,oi-i

993

(?)

892

942

99-3 (?)

105-2

(?)

91-s

(?)

(?)

95-4

(?)

90

965

(?)

Facial, superior (Broca)

:; =

6965

694

807s (?)

847

769

68-1 (?)

69-s

(?)

72-3S

(?)

72-3S

77-6

(•>)

704

74-5

701

Facial, &upt:rior {KoUmann)...

5075

(?)

533

S17

48s

53-8 (?)

SS'

48-5

49-3 (?)

48-2

(?)

52-8

(?)

553

52(?)

512

50-9

50-9

47

Slephano-iygomaUc

7.-.

(?)

788

7S7

84-3

80 (7)

766

68-s

8s-5(?)

71-6

(?)

8.-3

(?)

78-9

85-6

(?)

96-3

95-45

93-2

Conio-iygomutic

70-4S

(?)

7--3

779

71-6

(?)

75

69-6 (?)

74-5

(?)

79-7

(?)

(?)

68-8

(?)

731

76-4

(?)

Naso-malar(Oldficld Thomas)

,0,1

(?)

..07

1137

J097

110-3

,,06

■14

1..7

iij-,S

,,07

(?)

,„6

,08-7

,13

1105

1167

..33

Denial (Flower)

4S6

(?)

31-6

(?)

44-S

(?)

4=7

44 7

'■"''•

45.

I.')

(?)

(?)

SO

48-,

46-8

44-3

Crania of Abofigines of' Australia

113

Table III.

All the skulls

Averages

29 adults, 5 aged, 4 youths

No.

Range

Cubic capacity

12^21

26

1020

1535

Maximum length

185-1

38

173

202

Ophryo-iniac length

178

37

166

195

Ophryo-occipital length

182

37

173

194

Maximum breadth

131

38

118

142

Bi-asterial breadth

108

34

97

119

Bi-stephanic breadth

103

34

89

118

Bi-auricular breadth

11.^

34

J 06

122

Minimum frontal breadth

94

37

79

104

External bi-orbital breadth

107

37

95

120

Bi-zygomatic breadth

128-5

21

108

145

Bi-malar breadth

H5'5

30

95

128

Bi-maxillary breadth

92

31

76

103

Jugo-nasal breadth

roo

30

86

117

Naso-mental length

III

16

90

121

Ophryo-alveolar length

95

22

76

105

Naso-alveolar length

66-5

28

55

75

Basi-alveolar length

100

27

82

112

Basi-nasal length

99

33

84

no

Basi-bregmatic length ...

128

33

115

139

Basion to obelion, length

124

31

I II

134

Basion to lambda, length

114

33

100

122

Basi-iniac length

81

33

70

9a

Basion to opisthion, length

35

33

29

41

Breadth of foramen magnum

30

ii

25

33^

Orbital height

33

32

29

3&

Orbital breadth

43

31

36

45

Nasal height

48

30

39

57

Nasal breadth

26

32

21

32

Palato-maxillary length

58

29

45

68.

Palato-maxillary breadth

64

29

55

71

Arcs: Frontal

129

37

114

146

Parietal

128

37

114

145

Occipital superior

65

37

46

84

Occipital inferior

49

35

35

61

Supra-auricular ...

293

33

272

3'8

Oblique parietal ...

345

33

323

380

Jugo-nasal

112

30

95

129

Horizontal circumference

509

38

475

540

Anterior palatine breadth

29

31

27

34

Posterior palatine breadth

40

31

31

49
30

Minimum inter-orbital breadth

25

34

21

Occipito-spinal length ...

193

31

178

210

Occipito-alveolar length

200

28

182

220

114

Studies in Aiithropologij

Table III. — continued.

Averasres

All the males

24 adults, 5 aged

No.

Range

Cubic capacity
Maxiinum length
Ophryo-iniac length
Ophryo-occipital length
Maximum breadth
Bi-asterial breadth
Bi-stephanic breadth
Bi-auricular breadth
Minimum frontal breadth
External bi-orbital breadth
Bi-zygomatic breadth
Bi-malar breadth
Bi-maxillary breadth
Jugo-nasal breadth
Naso-mental length
Ophryo-alveolar length ...
Naso-alveolar length
Basi-alveolar length
Basi-nasal length
Basi-bregmatic length
Basion to obelion, length
Basion to lambda, length
Basi-iniac length
Basion to opisthion, length
Breadth of foramen magnum .

Orbital height

Orbital breadth

Nasal height
Nasal breadth
Palato-maxillary length
Palato-maxillary breadth
Arcs: Frontal

Parietal

Occipital superior

Occipital inferior . .

Supra-auricular ...

Oblique parietal ...

Jugo-nasal
Horizontal circumference
Anterior palatine breadth
Posterior palatine breadth
Minimum inter-orbital breadth
Occipito-spinal length ...
Occipito-alveolar length

1269 '9
188
183
183
132
109
102
115
98
108

119

94
102
114

98

68
103

lOI

125
i'5
81

35
30
33
41
49
27

.'59

65

130

129

67

48

307

345

113

514

30

41

25

'95

203

20
29
29
29
29

25
28
26
29
29
15
23
24
23
12
16
22
20
25
25
23
25
25

24

25

29
29

29

27

25
26

23
29

24

24
27
24

175
166

17.^
118

97

89

106

79

97

123

109

82

94

108

90

60

95

93

122

117

109

70

30

25

29

36

43

25

53

59

115

118

55

35

279

323

104

475

27
35
22

179

182

1535
202

195
194
142
119
118
122
104
120

145
128

»o3
117
121
105

75

112

no

^39

134

122

90

41

33

38

45

57

32

68

71
1 46

145

84

61

310

380

129

540

34

49

30

210

220

Crania of Aborigines of Australia

115

Table III. — contifiiied.

Males,

without

4 doubtful

ones

Averages

21 adults, 4 aged

No.

Range

Cubic capacity

1235

17

1020

1445

Maximum length

188

^5

175

202

Ophryo-iniac length

185

25

166

195

Ophryo-occipital length

183

2S

173

194

Maximum breadth

'31

25

118

140

Bi-asterial breadth

109

21

97

119

Bi-stephanic breadth

lOI

24

89

118

Bi-auricular breadth

114

22

106

122

Minimum frontal breadth

98

25

79

104

External bi-orbital breadth

108

25

97

120

Bi-zygomatic breadth

131

12

123

141

Bi-malar breadth

iiS

'9

109

128

Bi-maxillary breadth

93

20

82

103

Jugo-nasal breadth

101-5

19

94

"7

Naso-mental length

"3

9

108

121

Ophryo-alveolar length

98

13

90

105

Naso-alveolar length

67

18

60

73

Basi-alveolar length

103

17

95

112

Basi-nasal length

lOI

22

93

109

Basi-bregmatic length

130

22

122

139

Basion to obelion, length

.124

20

"7

134

Basion to lambda, length

114

22

109

122

Basi-iniac length

82

22

70

90

Basion to opisthion, length

35

22

30

41

Breadth of foramen magnum

29

22

25

33

Orbital height

33

21

29

36

Orbital breadth

41

20

36

45

Nasal height

50

21

43

52

Nasal breadth

27

2r

25

32

Palato-maxillary length

Hi

18

11

68

Palato-maxillary breadth

65

18

59

71

Arcs : Frontal

131

25

"5

146

Parietal

128

25

118

145

Occipital superior

66

25

55

84

Occipital inferior

48

24

35

61

Supra-auricular ...

307

21

279

310

Oblique parietal ...

343

22

323

356

Jugo-nasal

"3

19

104

129

Horizontal circumference

51.^

25

475

540

Anterior palatine breadth

30

20

27

34

Posterior palatine breadth

41

20

35

49

Minimum inter-orbital breadth

25

23

22

30

Occipito-spinal length ...

195

20

179

210

Occipito-alveolar length

204

18

191

220

116

Studies m Anthropology

Table III. — contmued.

All the females but one

Avei-ages

5 adults

No.

Range

Cubic capacity

"74

2

1138

1210

Maximum length

177

5

175

180

Ophiyo-iniac length

173

4

170

175

Ophiyo-occipital length

176

4

175

178

Maximum breadth

128

5

124

134

Bi-asterial breadth

104

5

lOI

107

Bi-stephanic breadth

10.5

4

97

107

Bi-auricular breadth

109-5

4

106

112

Minimum frontal breadth

94

4

88

99

External bi-orbital breadth ... ...

105-5

4

103

106

Bi-zygomatic breadth ... ... ...

124

3

123

125

Bi-malar breadth

115

3

108

118

Bi-maxillary breadth

94

3

90

101

Jugo-nasal breadth

100

3

95

103

Naso-mental length

108-5

2

107

no

Ophryo-alveolar length

89

2

89

89

Naso-alveolar length

67-5

2

65

68

Basi-alveolar length

97

3

92

103

Basi-nasal length

95

4

92

99

Basi-bregmatic length

121

4

"5

127

Basion to obelion, length ... .:.

118

4

III

123

Basion to lambda, length

107

4

100

I to

Basi-iniac length

81

4

72

89

Basion to opisthion, length

32

4

29

33

Breadth of foramen magnum ...

27*5

4

26

29

Orbital height

34

3

31

37

Orbital breadth

39

3

37

41

Nasal height

45

I

45

45

Nasal breadth

26

3

25

28

Palato-maxillary length

56

3

54

57

Palato-maxillary breadth

63

3

63

63

Arcs : Frontal

122-5

4

i'4

132

Parietal

121-5

4

114

128

Occipital .superior

56

4

53

59

Occipital inferior ' ...

52-5

4

46

60

Supra-auricular ...

284

3

272

^°l

Oblique parietal ...

344*5

3

344

346

Jugo-nasal

111

3

106

114

Horizontal circumference

49'

5

481

500

Anterior palatine breadth

28

3

27

29

Posterior palatine breadth

39

3

38

41

Minimum inter-orbital breadth

26

3

24

27

Occipito-spinal length ...

186

3

178

191

Occipito-alveolar length

197

3

190

200

Ci^ania of Aborigines of Australia

iir

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122 Studies in Anthropology

Table VIL DIMENSIONS OF TEETH.

Number of Skull

Combined len
molar

gths of three
teeth

Combined lengths of molars
and premolars

Upper

Lev

\'tr

Upper

Lower

Males

Right

Left

Right

Left

Right

Left

Right

Left

2IOI

34

34

39

38

49

49

54

53

2102

32

32

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46

46

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2105

31

32

34

35

48

45

50

49

2II5

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32

35

36

51

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32

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(?)

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46

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2II8

29

29

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42

42

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(?)

2127

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(?)

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43(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

2128

31

32

35

33

47

(?)

(?)

(?)

213I

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(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

37

(?)

2133

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(?)

(?)

(?)

46(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

2134

30

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(?)

(?)

44

(?)

(?)

(?)

2137

29

30

31

32

43

44

46

46

2138

32

35

37

37

46

47

52

51

2139

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35

(?)

44

44

49

49

2140

39

37

40

(?)

50

50

57

(?)

Females

2110

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(?)

(?)

32

(?)

(?)

(?)

35

2121

32

31

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(?)

46

46

(?)

(?)

2132

29

30

33

(?)

(?)

(?)

46

(?)

Youths

2111

30

3i

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(?)

44

43

(?)

(?)

2135

29(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

42(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)

Average of males

32
(10)

32-5
(10)

36

(8)

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46
(II)

46

(9)

49

(7)

50
(5)

Average of females

30-5

(2)

30 "5

(2)

33
(I)

^(0

46

(I)

46 46

(I) (I)

(?)

BLE VI

Av. of M.
excluding
No. 2131

No.

Range

Average

of
Females

No.

Range

2II7

—

--

—

—

69

'5-1

69-6

15

64-9 - 75-1

71-4

3

70-6 — 72-3

73-8

^4-2

69-15

12

63-2 - 74-2

65-2

3

65 — 70-6

104

)87

103

10

96-1 — 108-7

104

2

104 — 104-3

84-6

56-1

81-5

II

70-5 — 86-1

92-4

2

90-2 — 94-6

51

>5"i

55-2

12

50 - 65-1

53-25

2

51 - 55-5

108-4

•.8-3

109-7

10

100 — 128-3

1 1 3-6

2

110-5 — 1 16-7

(?)

)7-8

93 '9

5

87-5 - 97-8

91-8

I

91-8

(?)

'9-5

74-15

6

71-3 — 79-5

72-35

2

72-35— 72-35

52-6

;5'3

5 '7

7

47-1 — 55-3

54-05

2

52-8 — 55-3

(?)

52-7

73-3

5

69-9 — 82-7

80-1

2

81-3 - 78-9

(?)

72-3

69-8

4

65-35— 72-1

79-7

I

79-7

IIO'3

3"i

1 10-8

ID

109-1 — 113-1

1 11-15

->

1 10-7 — 1 1 r6

46

t9-5

457

4

41-6 — 49-5

50

I

50

1300

35

1264-5

9

1080 — 1368

1 138

I

II 38

187

02

186-7

15

175— 202

178

3

177—180

129

42

130-8

15

120 — 139

127

3

126—128

138

39

129-25

12

122— 139

121

2

115— 127

104

12

104-2

9

96 112

99-5

2

96 103

ICXD

10

100-4

12

93 106

95-5

2

92 99

33

35

327

II

31 35

36

2

35 37

39

45

40-4

II

36 45

39

2

37 41

49

57

48-4

12

43 51

47

2

45 49

25

32

26-7

12

25 32

25

2

25 25

Tini.B VIII. ABORIGINES OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

>

....

.,,...

^

^ofS" '■'°- """S"

Mi!

.„,

-"-

excluding No. Range

Female.

K„„.

Number of skulL

>.o.

2I»

:i<M

».os

2,«S

jjo;

2,08

>.>z

...3

2..,

JUS

21 17

2118

2,28

z.

■ 2,.3

2„0

a.2.

2...

- h

-

-

-

- , -

Index: Cephalic

64'9

702

73-1

707

7.

68-4

73-3

6S9

68-8

75-1

67-4

69

679

7.8

67

74

7 7.-2

70-6

72-3

70-S

702 20 649 — 7S-I

69-95

64-9 — 75-.

fti

6

IS 64-9 - 7S-.

71-4 3

-06 -. 72 -,

.. Venr.ai . ,

703

691

73-1 P)

6s-3

(?)

74 =

73-S

66s

632

73-S

648

70-2

66s

r-

70-1

70-6

6S

64-s

68-9 1 n 1 63-2 - 74-2

69-4

63-2 - 74-2

69

IS

.2 632 - 74->

6S-2 3

65 - 70..

,. Alveolar

107'8

103-2

.05-9

(f)

(?)

(?)

(!)

100

1065

,087

104

.00

96-1

.00

,00

(?)

,04

104-3

.0,-.

103 14 1 96-1 —1087

103

96-. -108-7

103

.0 j 96-. —.087

.04

.04 -101-,

,. Urb,ul

77-«

7««

86-1

78

(?)

(?)

(!)

(!)

84-6

84-2

84-6

84-6

as-4

705

So

78

6 , (?)

902

94-6

94-9

S3-5 IS 70-S9-94-9

8.-1

70-S - 86-.

8

s

. . 70-S - 86'.

92-4

90 J - .,4-

.. Nasal

04

5?

S3-2

S3'l

(!)

(?)

(?)

S4'3

SI

6S'I

i'

5.

62-i

54-9

5=

47

5SS

s.

62-2

54-9 ; 16 1 47-4 - 6S-1

S4-6

47-4 - 65-.

55

2

SO - 6s-.

S3-i5 2

5. - ;: .

., l'alato-rn.ixil!afy

,o!'9

1077

..3

lOO

(?)

(?)

(?)

(!)

II4-!

(?)

lor;

.084

1.2 s

128-3

.08s

,20

3 (?)

..0-5

.[67

,.27

.,1-25

.4

.00 -.28-3

1.07

.00 -.=8j

109

7

.00 -.2S-3

1.3-6

,,oj ,,„-

., I-«cial (lol;.l)

»7'i

r-

057

")

"i

1?)

(?)

(?)

(!)

92

(!)

(?)

96-4

97-S

94

5 , (!)

9.-8

(?)

(?)

93-7

7

87-S - 97-S

94

93

9

87-S - 97-8

9.-8

.„s

„ Facial, superior (Broci).,.

72«i

!!!

(?)

79-i

(?)

764

(!)

7.3

72-2

7^-7

75

2 , (!)

72-3S

72-35

(!1

73-9

t

7.-3 - 79-S

74-3

71-3 - 7^-5

74

.5

71-3 - 79-5

72-35 5

-2JS 72-35

„ Facial,superior(Kollrnann)

S2

(?)

(?)

Si-3

(?)

543

S2-6

47-.

,9-6

So-75

S3

3 \ (!)

52-8

55-3

51-2

52-2

.1

47-1 - 55-3

5.-9

47-1 - 55-3

51

7

47-1 - SS-3

S4-OS 2

528 - 55-3

Sicpliano-iygomaiic

707

m

.')

(?)

(?)

(!)

8=7

(!)

699

82

7.-2

78

8 - (?)

8.-3

78-9

(?)

769

8

69-9 — 827

75-9

69-9 — 82-7

73

3

69-9 — 827

8o-i ;

81-3 - 78-9

,, (junio-iygomaiic

72-,

(?)

if)

(?)

(?)

(!)

'! u

(!)

(?)

7. -4

70-45

72

3 (!)

797

(?)

(?)

71-9

<•

65-35- 797

70-3

65-35- 7:5

69

s

65-35-- 72-1

79-7

79-7

.. N»5o.mal«r

""'

1131

!■-)

1?)

(?)

(?)

I10-9

i.l'i

II.

IIO-2

.099

...-5

.09.

.10

7 1 (?)

..07

...-6

.12

1 10-95

14

1091 -I13-.

.10-S

.09-. -..ji

no

s

109-. -..3-1

.I.-.5 2

,,07 ..1-6

„ Denul (I'lowcr)

«)

(!)

>:,

«

(?)

(?)

(?)

(!)

(!)

(!)

495

46

4.6

(!)

4S-6

«

6 i (?)

(?)

io

46-8

447

'

33-6 — so

43-3

33-6 - 40-s

45

'

4.-6 - 495

50

SO

Cubic capacty

m

1155

.OfO

.368

(?)

(?)

(?)

(!)

.34»

,27S

u,p

,3»

.225

.348

.>35(?)

,s

5 1 (?)

1138

.075 (?)

..65

■ 260

12 .080-. 53S

.28=

.080—1335

.264

S

9 1 1080— .368

.138

.!,»

Mftximuni length

!<«

iSl

191

IS6

193

187

.89

185

i«

187

.93

188

■ 88

>o 1 ,77

180

.77

183

186-35

20

175- 202

.88-,

.75- '"=

.86

7

.5 175- 202

.78 J

,77 .80

Maximum breadth

131

1!7

135

13=

13J

137

i20

130

139

.jc.

,29

.3.

.35

.26

.

2 126

.27

.28

129

130-7

!0

.20- 142

.31-S

120- .42

130

8

IS [ .!o- 139

127 ,1

126 .28

Ilnsi-bregmaiic hei^jht

(P!

.11

-7,

n6(?)

126

(?)

I3S

139

■33

.3!

138

■15

.32

.25

.

7 .24(?)

.17

"5

1.8

.28

16

.15- 139

129-9

122- IW

1:9

25

.2 122- .39

.2.

..S-.27

llasi-alveohr lentil,

(?)

(?)

(!)

.06

99(!)

.,.-

.04

10.

98

.03

.

(?)

.03

9«

95

.03-2

13

95 .12

.04-3

96 .12

104

2

9 96 .12

99-5 :

96 103

ltii3i-iias:il Icngili

I'M

101

(?)

99

106

93

10 i

100

101

.02

103

.

0 (?)

99

92

94

100 16 1 92 1.0

loi-.s

93 .")

.00

4

.2 93 106

95-5

92 .»

Orbitiil htif-lu

Orbital btcadlh

3i

J,

"

(?)
(?)

(?)
(?)

(?)
(?)

(!)
(!)

"

32

3»

10

39

4,

44

32

3 (?)
= (?)

^'

35
37

39

33-5 1 .5 \ 3. 37
40-2 .5 1 36 45

3275
40-5

31 Ji
36 IS

32

'

1. 36 4S

36

39

35 37

N.isnl l.ciiihl

SO

'"

(?)

(?)

46

■"

4-

49

48

5.

50

;l I

45

49

45

48-6

.6

43 57

49

43 -.7

48

43 51

47

4i 49

Crania of Aborigines of Australia 123

Part of Table IX.

Seriations of Basi-Bregmatic Height.
Adult well-authenticated males from South Australia are considered only.

Cambridge University collection

All available specimens

Modulus 2 units

Modulus 2 units

I20 — 122

1

120 — 122

1

122 — 124

2

122 — 124

3

124 — 126

3

124 — 126

5

126—128

0

126—128

1

128 — 130

0

128—130

1

130—132

3

130—132

5

132 — 134

0

132—134

8

134—136

1

134—136

1

136-138

1

136—138

2

138— I4O

1

138—140
140—142

1
1

Modulus 5 units

Modulus 5 units

115— 120

—

120 — 125

8

120 — 125

5

125—130

3

125—130

1

130—135

9

130—135

4

135—140

3

135—140

2

140—145

1

124

Studies in Anthropology

Table X. MEASUREMENTS COMPARED WITH
BASI-NASAL LENGTH = loo.

! A

B

C

D

Cubic capacity

12647

1257-4

1222-8

1235-7

Maximum length

187

186-1

186-1

186-3

Ophryo-iniac length

179-8

182-2

182-2

182-1

Ophryo-occipital length

183-8

182-2

182-2

185-3

Maximum breadth ...

132-3

130-7

129-7

134-7

Bi-astei'ial breadth ...

109-r

107-9

107-9

109-5

Bi-stephanic breadth

104

lOI

100

108-5

Bi-auricular breadth

114-1

113-9

112-9

115-3

Minimum frontal breadth ...

94 '9

97

97

98-9

External bi-orbital breadth

108-1

106-9

106-9

1 1 1 -05

Bi-zygomatic breadth

129-8

131-7

129-7

130-5

Bi-malar breadth

116-7

117-8

ii6-8

121-05

Bi-maxillary breadth

92-9

93-7

92-8

98-9

Jugo-nasal breadth ...

lOI

lOI

100-4

105-3

Naso-mental length...

112-1

1 12-9

111-9

114-2

Ophryo-alveolar length

95 '95

f

97

93-7

Naso-alveolar length

' 67-2

67-3

66-3

7 '-05

Basi-alveolar length

lOI

102

102

102

Basi- nasal length

100

100

100

100

Basi-bregmatic length

129-3

129-3

128-7

127-4

Basion to obelion, length ...

I25"25

123-8

122-8

124-2

Basion to lambda, length

ii5'i5

113-9

1 12-9

113-7

Basi-iniac length

81-8

80-2

8i-2

85-3

Basion to opisthion, length

35 "3?

34-65

34-65

33-7

Breadth of foramen magnum

303

29-7

28-7

28-9

Orbital height

33'3

32-7

32-7

35-8

Orbital breadth

43 "4

40 -6

40-6

41-05

Nasal height

48-5

48-5

49-5

47-4

Nasal breadth

26-3

26-7

26-7

27-4

Palato-maxillary length

58-6

58-4

64-85

58-9

Palato-maxillary breadth

64-6

64-35

64-35

66-3

Arcs: Frontal

1 30 '3

128-7

129-7

128-9

,, Parietal

129-3

127-7

126-7

127-9

,, Occipital superior

65-65

66-3

65-3

58-9

,, Occipital inferior

49 "5

47-5

47-5

55-3

,, Supra-auricular

295-95

304

304 ^

298-9

,, Oblique parietal

348-5

341-6

339 "6

362-6

,, Jugo-nasal

II3-I3

II I -9

II I -9

116-8

Horizontal circumference ...

5 '4-1

508-9

507-9

517-9

Anterior palatine breadth

29-3

29-7

29-7

29-5

Posterior palatine breadth ... •

40-4

40 "6

40-6

4' 05

Minimum inter-orbital breadth

25-25

24-75

24-75

27-9

Occipito-spinal length

194-9

193-1

193-1

195-8

Occipito-alveolar length

202

201

202

207-4

Mandible: Symphysial height

31-6

31-7

31-7

35-3

,, Coronoid height

59-5

60-4

58-4

62-1

,, Condylar height

56-6

57-4

55-4

59-5

,, Gonio-symphysial length

80-4

81-2

81-2

84-7

,, Intergonial breadth

96-3

97

96

96-8

,, Intercoronoid breadth ...

97-6

97

96

99-5

Crania of Aborigines of Australia 125

Table X. MEASUREMENTS COMPARED WITH
BASI-NASAL LENGTH = loo.— continued.

A

B

C

D

Mandible : Intercondylar breadth,
external

,, Intercondylar breadth,
internal

,, Breadth of ascending

ii5'75
77-9

ii6-8

77-7

115-8
78-2

118-9
78-9

ramus ...

37-4

37-6

37-6

37-9

„ Basi-mental length

110-7

I II '9

III -9

"5 '3

„ Ophryo-mental length

137-8

138-6

138-6

i39'5

Length of parieto-sphenoid suture

(7-8) (9-4)

(7-9) (8-8)

(7-2) (7-9)

(6-8)(ii-i)

Length of lacrymo-ethmoid suture

(8) (7-9)

(8-4) (7-7)

(8) (7-4)

(5-3) (7-4)

Height of posterior nares ...

^•3

25 '5

25 '5

24-8

Breadth of posterior nares

27-2

27-2

~1

29*5

Length of floor of nasal cavity ...

M"i

53-6

53-6

j2-6

Least distance between temporal
crests

93-8

88-7

86-6

I II -6

Column A. All the skulls.

,, B. All the males.

,, C. Males without four doubtful specimens.

,, D. Females.

126

Studies in Anthropology

o

H

o

H
Pi
O
a,
O
p^

o
Pi

c w

w
ffi >->

H <

<
I— I

<
p:i

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o

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p-

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pa

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rt

Australians

0 f>

so

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OS

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t^ M t^ -i- <Omo ?• •*• r> OsO •* 0 <s Osso
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00

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f^o f> OsOoooo fofoi- >o«<oo r> r^so
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(12)
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so

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t^ 0 "~. 0 r- OS 0\ >o " n 00 >ooo 'OOO >o
OsrJOOe>eiOr'30ro«c^Mf'^'*f»

tr.

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Minimum frontal breadth

Bi-auricular breadth

Horizontal circumference
Supra-auricular transverse arc
Frontal arc
Parietal arc
Occipital arc

Length of foramen magnum

Basi-alveolar length
Bi-zygomatic breadth ...
Bi-malar breadth
Interorbital breadth

Orbital breadth

Orbital height

Nasal height

Nasal breadth ...

Crania of Aborigines oj Australia

127

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1^

2

c

ax:

c

o

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1)

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to -^

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1) ~
— o

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c: iJ

+-»'*-» •— D ^ U '^

Z-i^"

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<-> if, T-

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c r, >- c -^

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l_l <l, l_( I— I t~'

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S-O Jj~ a;-^:

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128

Studies in Anthropology

<

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>

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Crania of Aborigines of Australia 129

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130 Studies in Anthropology

Table XIII is a seriation of South Australian crania : the Cambridge
specimens are denoted by numerals ; Turner's specimens are T^—T^
inclusive; F^—F^ are specimens described by Flower, Z'is a Tasmanian
cranium at Cambridge and Av represents the average Australian
cranium.

The table gives the results of an analysis (for the suggestion
of which I am indebted to the Rev. P. E. Bateman, M.A., of Jesus
College, Cambridge) undertaken with a view to ascertaining if the
suggestion of two distinct groups of the forms of the skull, a sug-
gestion provided by the measurements of the basi-bregmatic height,
could be confirmed from the figures provided by other characters.
The method of seriation has already been explained, and the present
analysis is a modification of the ordinary method. Some sixteen
characters represented by numerical expressions are chosen for in-
vestigation : the total range of value given by each is divided arbitrarily
into six groups representing equal ranges of variation between the
extremes. For any character we thus have the crania divided into six
groups : in the seriation each cranium within a group is distinguished
only by the number of that group. Thus the groups are i — 6, crania
A, X, Z, may come within Group i, and would each be represented by
the figure i and not by their individual character as shown by the value
of the particular index in question in their cases ; to take a further
example cranium No. 2101 is in Group i as regards its breadth-index,
in Group 6 as regards its nasal-index and so on (cf. table).

Now what one might expect, were two homogeneous groups present
among the collected crania, is that in each group the allied skulls
would when tested by the several indices, come to possess the same
designative figure : that they would in fact come within the same group
out of the six formed as described, by the division of the range of
variation of each character. But the table cannot be said to show this,
so that the present mode of analysis lends no support to the suggestion
that the South Australian aborigines may contain two different stocks,
distinguished by their cranial proportions : or at least it seems as if such
distinction were confined almost wholly to the single character of the
basi-bregmatic height of .the skull.

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON CRANIA OF
AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

The following notes refer to three male skulls : of which one is in
the Cambridge Museum, the others in the possession of Dr Haddon
and the Rev. J. B. Lock, respectively : the exact localities whence they
came could not be ascertained. The principal points of interest are
the following : The skull ^ is a heavy-browed prognathous skull
of small cubic capacity ; the central upper incisor tooth on the right
side has been punched out. The remaining teeth are in good preserva-
tion ; synostosis commencing in the sutures near the pterion on each
side denotes the maturity of the specimen. It is a typical male skull
of the " hypsistenocephalic " variety, and resembles specimens from the
North-western parts of Australia and from Queensland.

In the specimen B, a large trephine hole (made post mortem
apparently) pierces the right parietal bone. The niost noticeable
feature is the irregularity of the contour of the cranial vault in the
median sagittal plane ; this conformation, which has been termed
bathrocephalic', is unusual in skulls of aboriginal Australians. Besides,
the specimen is scaphocephalic to a degree noticeable even in an
Australian skull, and this is no doubt connected wdth the early oblitera-
tion of the sagittal suture, of which only slight traces persist (though
the wisdom teeth have not yet completely perforated the alveolar
margins). An exception to the last statement must however be made
in the case of the third molar on the left side of the mandible, which
is cutting its way through the alveolar border so displaced that its
crown looks directly forwards instead of upwards ; and abuts on the
posterior surface of the adjacent second molar. The molar teeth are

1 Two other skulls in the Cambridge collection, one being that of a French-
woman, present this peculiarity. In an article by Giacomini in the Ay-chives
Italii'nnes de Biologic, 1882, p. 251, a similar skull is figured, and the brain contained
in it is described as possessing a double Rolandic sulcus. This, however, does not
invariably accompany the deformity, for the Rolandic region was normal in a bathro-
cephalic head dissected in this Anatomy School.

132 Studies in Anthropologij

all of great size, and show but slight evidence of usage. The petrous
bones bear sharp eustachian processes on their inferior surfaces, and
the foramen ovale on the left side is only separated from the petro-
sphenoid suture by an exceedingly thin bony lamina, and even the latter
is absent from the right side on which the foramen spinosum is deficient.
These are probably examples of the persistence of a state of affairs
normal in the fcjetus.

Sku/l 2154 itt the Cambridge Catalogue. — This is another very
prognathous specimen presenting in a marked degree the features
typical of the aboriginal Australian cranium. It is the skull of an
adult male, but is not of advanced age, as the wisdom teeth have not
long pierced the alveolar margins of the jaws. The right central upper
incisor has been punched out. Marked scaphocephaly is shown, but
it is noteworthy that the sagittal suture is here quite unaffected by
synostosis. There is a large epipteric ossicle on the left side.

Measurements relating to these three specimens have been recorded
in tabular form. On comparing these with the figures drawn up as
averages from measurements of the crania already in the Museum
(of. pp. 98 ^/ seq.), I find exceedingly little deviation from the average.
Two points are worthy of remark however : the orbital breadth, 47 mm.,
of the skulls, exceeds the average (41 mm.) drawn from measurements
of twenty male crania: and the skulls A and 2154 are a good deal
lighter than the average skull ; this diminution in vi^eight seems to affect
both cranium and mandible. Lastly, observations made in reference
to certain characteristics of Australian crania, gave results as follows :
Hypsistenocephaly, supra-orbital notches (not foramina), vesalian fora-
mina and a transverse occipital torus, occur in each specimen. The
glenoid cavities are moderately deep in A, but much more shallow in B
and in 2154, and in the latter give evidence of osteo-arthritis. The
great wings of the sphenoid are deeply channelled on their external
surfaces in A and 2154, but not in B.

The outline of the squamous part of the temporal bone on the side
of the cranium, shows an angle where the mastoid portion joins it in A
and 2154, but in B the transition is more gradual.

Cranium denoted by A in the possession of Rev. J. B. Lock.
,, „ B' „ „ Dr Haddon.

„ „ No. 2154 in the Anatomical Museum.

Crania of Australian Aborigines

133

THREE CRANIA OF AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES.

Table of Measurements.

Catalogue number ...

A

2154

B

Age

Adult

Adult

Adult

Sex

s

a

i

Cranial capacity

1225

1 180

1300

Maximum length

180

175

'93

Ophryo-iniac length

175

171

183

Ophryo-occipital length

176

170

189

Ma.ximum breadth ...

127

133

'30

Bi-asterial breadth ...

107

104

112

Bi-stephanic breadth

108

100

108

Bi-auricular breadth

119

116

112

Minimum frontal breadth ...

98

90

95

External bi-orbital breadth

no

106

107

Bi-zygomatic breadth

137

136

123

Bi-malar breadth

118

98

115

Bi-maxillary breadth

98

98

89

Jugo-nasal breadth ...

103

102

lOl

Naso-mental length ...

120

114

1 lO

Ophryo-alveolar length

9b

82

89

Naso-alveolar length

74

64

64

Basi-alveolar length

102

108

99

Basi-nasal length

IOC

98

100

Basi-bregmatic length

132

132

136

Basion to obelion, length

130

127

124

Basion to lambda, length

117

no

115

Basi-iniac length

82

73

80

Basion to opisthion, length

41

33

34

Breadth of foramen magnum

32

30

27

Orbital height

34

30

34

Orbital breadth

47

41

42

Nasal height ...

52

46

44

Nasal breadth

32

29

31

Palato-maxillary length

59

56

60

Palato-maxillary breadth

68

62

71

Arcs: Frontal

124

124

136

Parietal

124

iiS

141

Occipital superior

72

66

68

Occipital inferior

44

45

47

.Supra-auricular

297

293

295

Oblique parietal

343

346

353

Jugo-nasal

118

no

114

Horizontal circumference

496

487

515

Minimum inter-orbital breadth

26

n

25

Occipito-spinal length

191

170

195

Occipito-alveolar length

201

180

205

Mandible: Symphysial height

.34

36

33

Coronoid height

64

62

56

Condylar height

60

59

51

Gonio-symphysial length

75

80

80

134 Studies in Anthropologi)

Table of Measurements — co7itimied.

Catalogue number ...
Age

Sex

Mandible :

Inter-gonial breadth
Inter-coronoid breadth
Inter-condylar breadth, exterior
Inter-condylar breadth, interior ,
Breadth ascending ramus
Angle

Basi-mental length ...

Ophryo-mental length

Weight of jaw

Weight of jaw and .skull

Weight of skull

Length, parieto-sphenoid suture ...

Length, lacrymo-ethm. suture

Choante, height

ChoanK, breadth

Length, floor of nasal cavity

Combined length three molar teeth

Length, molars and pre-molars

Least distance between temporal crests

Index: Cephalic ...

Vertical
Alveolar

Orbital

Nasal

Palato-maxillary

Facial (total)

Facial superior (Broca)

Facial superior (Kollniann)

Stephano-zygomatic

Gonio-zygomatic

Naso-malar (O. Thomas) ...

Dental (Flower)

Pterion-ossicles

Tuber maxillare
Inferior temporal crest
Posterior pal. spine ...
Frontomaxillary suture
Spheno-maxillary suture (sub-orbit)

A
Adult

90
104
130

91

33
123°
no
141

80
707
627

R.L.

13.8

22

32

53

29 29

32 31
)43 43

145 45
99

70 "6
73 "4

lOI

72 "3
61 -5
ii5"3
97-76

69 "34
54
78-8
65-68
114-6
42*6

absent
absent
large
spiny
obtuse
absent
present

2154

Adult

S

105
100
12 I

88

36

107°

108

135
92

593
501

L.

L.

7-5
26
28
57
29

41

92

72-6

75 '4
110-2

73'2

63*4
106-9
100-74

60-3

47'i

73 '5

77-2
107-8

41-8

absent
present
large
spiny
acute
absent
absent

B

Adult

96

94

"5

72

33
110°

103
135
85
749
664

R.L.
1 1. II

L.

8.9
20

29

52

57

52
106

67-4
70'5
99
81

7o"5
118-4

91 "2
72-35
52
87-8
78-04
112-87
52

absent
absent
small
tubercle
bifid
absent
absent

^ w denotes a wormian bone.

NOTES ON SKULLS FROM QUEENSLAND
AND SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

Two of the specimens under consideration were added to the
University Museum by T. Flood, Esq., M.D. They are from Croydon,
in North Queensland.

No. I is the very dolicho-cephalic skull of an adult male, which
possesses many striking features known to characterise Australian crania.
Thus, its external dimensions are small, and so is its capacity (1255 c.c);
the brows are massive and overhanging, the upper jaw large with strong
supporting malar bones and zygomatic arches.

In norma verticalis it is distinctly phccnozygous ; synostosis has
progressed to a considerable extent in the sagittal suture, less in the-
coronal ; there is a single parietal foramen.

In norma lateralis, prognathism is almost the first feature that one
notices (though it is not brought out by the figure of the gnathic index).
The mandible is massive, with a lower angle (108°) than usual (120°),
the sigmoid notch is shallow. On the left side there is a fronto-squamous
articulation at the pterion, and the contour of the squamous portion of
the temporal bone on the skull is much depressed, the angle between
squamous and mastoid portions being exceedingly open, so that there is
almost a straight line from pterion to asterion. The temporal ridges are
double but indistinct.

In norma basilaris a large, wide palate with a large anterior foramen
is seen. The channelling of the greater alfe of the sphenoid near the
pterion, so marked in some Australian crania, is absent in this case.
Some arrest of development seems to have affected the internal pterygoid
plate on the right side. The glenoid cavity is remarkably shallow. A
third and median condyle is seen on the anterior part of the Hp of the
foramen magnum.

In norma occipitalis the pentagonal form is marked ; a transverse
torus crosses the occipital bone near the inion, other muscular crests

136 Studies in Anthropology

and ridges are not strongly developed. The conceptacula cerebelli are
not very prominent, so that the skull rests on the opisthion and molar
teeth when on a plane surface (and without the mandible).

In norma facialis, nasal synostosis is observed to be almost complete,
the lower margins of the apertura pyriformis indistinct ; the right upper
median incisor has been lost early in life. The vault of the skull,
though fairly rounded in the frontal region, is ill-filled and gable-shaped
posteriorly to the bregma.

No. 2 is a very long and prognathic female skull, apparently of about
the same age as the male skull just described. Allowing for the sexual
differences (which concern chiefly the prominence of the glabella and
the stoutness of the facial skeleton), there is much general similarity of
the two skulls.

In norma verticalis this female skull is somewhat coffin-shaped and
the zygomatic arches are just obscured from view. It is remarkable
that synostosis of the bones of the brain-case has practically not com-
menced (being limited to a slight indication at the left stephanion) ; the
wear of the teeth however would indicate an age certainly as great
as that of the male skull just described, where synostosis had long
commenced.

In norma lateralis it appears that all parts of the face and the
mandible contribute to the appearance of prognathism. The mandible
• is strong, with a more open angle than in the other case ; the sigmoid
notch is shallow. The nose is very flat ; there are epipteric ossicles on
each side, and the contour of the squamous portion of the temporal
bone on the wall of the cranium is much flattened ; the basi-bregmatic
length is considerable.

In norma basilaris, a wide, deep palate with large anterior foramen
is seen ; the glenoid fossae are shallow ; the occipital condyles prominent
and everted, with post-condylar fossae and foramina.

In norma occipitalis a transverse torus crosses the occipital bone :
the digastric groove is very deep, but muscular ridges are otherwise
feebly developed.

In norma facialis the scaphocephalic character involving the frontal
bone is at once evident. The nose is very wide, its borders sharp
above but indistinct below. Both median incisors have long been
lost (or extracted artificially), and their sockets are occupied by deep
fossae.

The above notes present the more interesting features of the
specimens. To select the characteristics of the pair would be to
emphasize: (i) the prognathism, (2) the great vertical height from
basion to bregma, (3) the shallowness of the glenoid fossa. Of these.

Skulls from Queensland and South Austrcdia 137

the marked prognathism is interesting from the fact of the same
characteristic distinguishing Melanesian skulls ; the same may be said
of the basi-bregmatic height. As regards this latter, the result is a
height index greater than a breadth index. Such a condition is common
in Melanesians, common in skulls from the more northern parts of
Australia, but progressively rarer as one advances to the south.

Of the significance of a shallow glenoid fossa, the third character-
istic mentioned, one can speak only with much less confidence. The
feature is not constant in Australians and occurs in skulls of other
races. It is a persistence of a state of affairs normal in earher life (and
is noticed in various races, notably in the South Australian skull
hereafter described).

It remains to compare our Queensland skulls with others from the
same locality. Such are recorded by Flower, Turner, De Quatrefages,
Hamy, Cauvin cf alii. The female skull here described bears a marked
similarity to a female skull figured in the Crania Eihnica as that of
an Australian woman from "Camp in Heaven." For other comparisons
vve are dependent on recorded measurements ; of such there are the
cases described by Professor Turner, who records dimensions of some
six skulls from Queensland. These, though in the small cephalic index
and high vertical index corresponding with the two skulls here con-
sidered, seem absolutely of greater dimensions, the facts being indicated
by the greater length and horizontal circumference.

In one of Professor Turner's cases the cubic contents were 15 14 c.c,
which is remarkably high for an Australian cranium.

Professor Flower records the measurements of a female skull from
Queensland, where the cephalic and vertical indices are equal — an
unusual occurrence, the latter being usually the higher in skulls from
this region. The figures also indicate that this female was platyrrhine ;
herein it agreed with the " Croydon " female skull, and it appears that
the nose is more flat in the females than in the males of these tribes.

(This skull (1043) approaches the female "Croydon" skull nearly
in measurements and capacity.)

Lastly, M. Cauvin has recorded the indices relating to several skulls
from Queensland ; from these tabulations one sees that the cephalic
index very rarely exceeds 7 1 .

It might be noticed in conclusion that the male skull here described
bears a general resemblance, confirmed by examination of measure-
ments, to a skull in the University collection from the northern
territory of South Australia, so that probably the same influences have
determined the particular type in both instances.

The third skull is that of a microcephalic adult or aged male from

138 Studies in Anthropology

Adelaide. It was presented by Dr Watson, and has been longitudinally
bisected. The left half is a good deal damaged and fractured, and
the mandible is absent. Synostosis of the sagittal and lambdoidal
sutures is almost complete. The most striking features about the
cranium are : the very massive prognathous upper jaw, with small
but sharp nasal spine ; the marked scaphocephaly ; the great basi-
bregmatic height ; the remaining condyle is curiously prominent and
everted ; the squamous and mastoid portions of the temporal bone
join at a sharp angle on the side of the skull, herein offering a marked
contrast with the skulls from Queensland.

The arrangement of the infra-orbital canal on the right side is
remarkable, for on the floor of the orbit is a small and shallow canal,
but a large foramen opening further back on the spheno-maxillary
fissure transmits the bulk of the nerve.

The section discloses the great extent of the air-sinuses in the bones
of the face as well as the great thickness of the skull-wall in the region
of the occipital protuberance : the long, slender, forwardly-directed
posterior clinoid processes are also to be noticed.

On the whole, the dimensions of this skull accord fairly well with
those of other skulls from South Australia, but the basi-bregmatic height
is the greatest in this case of all the South Australian crania in the
University Museum.

SknU.s from Queensla7id and Soutli Australia 139

DIMENSIONS OF AUSTRALIAN SKULLS (Nos. i and 2
FROM North Queensland ; No. 3 from South Australia).

Age

Sex

Cubic capacity ...
Maximum length
Ophryo-occipital length
Ophryo-iniac length
Occipito-spinal Ieny;th
Occipito-alveolar length
Maximum breadth
Bi-asterial breadth
Bi-auricular breadth
Bi-stephanic breadth ...
Minimum frontal breadth
External bi-orbital breadth
Minimum inter-orbital breadth
Bi-zygomatic breadth ...
Bi- malar breadth
Bi-maxillary breadth ...
Jugo-nasal breadth

Orbital height

Orbital breadth

Nasal height
Nasal breadth ...
Palato-maxillary length
Palato-maxillary breadth
Arcs: Frontal ...

Parietal ...

Occipital superior

Occipital inferior

Oblique parietal

Jugo-nasal
Horizontal circumference
Length; opisthion to basion
Basi-mental length
Basi-alveolar length
Basi-nasal length
Basi-glabellar length
Basi-bregmatic length ...
Basion to obelion
Basi-lambdoid length
Basi-iniac length
Ophryo-mental length
Ophryo-alveolar length
Naso-mental length
Naso-alveolar length ...
Width of foramen magnum ...
Length of molar and pre-molar teeth

Skull

Skull

Skull

I

2

3

Adult

Adult

Adult

<?

?

<r

1-55

1205

1 300 ?

179

176

188

178

176

186

175

171

183

184

178

199

T90

p

211

123

123

134

92

94

lOI

112

107

1 1 [

"3

97

95

91

92

87

lOI

103

i04 ?

-5

23

T - P

132

123

1 ^50 ?

11 1

108

I '5?

89

86

98?

93

97

100 ?

32

5i

32

39

40

40

47

43

45

27

27

25

56

57

69

62

65

65

135

131

125

123

'f:

134

59

70

49

43

47

340

340

105

107

no

489

485

510

39

35

39

lOI

108

?

94

97

Ill

97

97

103

106

105

112

135

136

141

127

3

131

117

105

120

«4

71

83

136

125

p

89

75

95

III

'05

p

63

68

29

29

30?

43 '5

p

p

140

Studies in Anthropologij

Dimensions of Australian Skulls — continued.

Skull

I

Skull

Skull

3

Age

Adult

Adult

Adult

Sex

cf

?

cT

Anterior palatine breadth

28

33?

31

Posterior palatine breadth

.^5

39

40

Length of parieto-sphenoid suture R.

10

1 1

6

„ L.

7?

6 + wi

4 sq. fr.

Length of lacrymo-ethmoid suture R.

6

9

ri

L.

8

7

9

Choante: height

21

24

24

,, breadth

28

28

31?

Anterior to posterior nasal spine

5.S

49

55

Mandible :

Height at symphysis...

U

33

Coronoid height

63

60

Condylar height

65?

56?

Gonio-symphysial length

85

77

Inter-gonial breadth

91

91

Inter-coronoid breadth

95

91

Inter-condylar breadth, external

121

lOI

Inter-condylar breadth, internal

81

74

Breadth of ascending ramus

3+

35

Angle of ascending ramus ...

108°

124°

Weight of skull —

With mandible

736

635

Without mandible

551

4«5

Least distance between temporal crests {i.e

• behind coronal suture)

98

98

Supra-auricular transverse arc

295

^95

300

Indices : Cephalic

687

69 '9

7i"3

Vertical

7 5 '5

77 '3

75

Gnathic

96-9

100?

107-8

Orbital

82

82-f

80

Nasal ...

57 5

62-8

5*^ 5

Palato-maxillary

1107

114-2

106-15

Facial (total) ...

97-6

98-4

5

Facial superior (Broca)

67-4

61

73-8?

Facial superior (Kollmann)

477

44*7

52-3?

Stephano-zygomatic

8v6

78-9

73-8?

Gonio-zygomatic

69

74

>

Naso-malar ...

1 12 '9

110-3

I ro?

Dental (Flower)

44-8

?

?

' w indicates a wormian Ixuie.

CRANIOLOGICAL NOTES ON THE ABORIGINES
OF TASMANIA.

The rarity of the osteological remains of the aboriginal Tasmanians
justifies the presentation of the following notes on the specimens in
the Anatomical Museum at Cambridge. The specimens are five in
number and a note as to their provenance is appended. They will
be considered in the numerical order in which they appear in the
Cambridge Catalogue.

The first specimen (figs, i and 2), numbered 2096, is a male^ skull
and fairly complete, though only fragments of teeth remain and the
mandible is absent. The capacity is small (1130 c.c) ; the breadth

Fig. I. Skull of Tasmanian: norma verticalis.

index (73"9) places it in the dolichocephalic category, and the altitudinal
index, being lower than the breadth index, confers on it the character of
platycephaly. Of the other indices, the most interesting are the nasal

' The donor believed it to be a female skull, but there is but little doubt that this
is not so, and the sex is almost certainly male.

142

Studies in Anthropology

(64*9), which indicates great relative breadth of the nasal aperture, and
the stephano-zygomatic, which indicates that the specimen is highly
phsenozygous. Of the general characters of this skull, it remains to say
that the glabellar prominence is extremely well marked, that the mastoid
processes are small, the zygomatic arches slender, and other muscular
ridges well marked. Synostosis is observed at the pterion on each
side, the parietal and sphenoid bones articulating in this region. As
regards the facial skeleton, the nasal bones have evidently been strongly
upturned, as in the crania of aborigines of Australia. The overhanging
brow-ridges give great apparent depth to the orbits, and the lacrymo-
ethmoid suture is very short. When viewed in norma basilaris, the

Fie

Skull of Tasmaniaii: norma lateralis.

palate is seen to be elliptical, the choan?e small, the pterygoid plates
small, though allowance must be made for reduction through weather-
ing; the tuber maxillare is not conspicuously large. An important
point is the shallowness of ttie bony auditory meatus, which on one side
is perforated. On one side the inferior petrosal sinus grooves deeply
the side of the basi-occipital (the notch thus produced must not be
confounded with the rare notch indicating a separation of the basi-
occipital into anterior and posterior portions).

The next specimen, 2097, is a mandible belonging to an adolescent
individual, inasmuch as the third molars have only just made their way

Crania of Ahorigines of Tasmania 143

to the surface. It is noteworthy that although this mandible presents
features characteristic of a lowly race in respect of the short ascending
ramus and shallow notch, yet the chin is well developed. The genial
tubercles are short, but quite distinct. The teeth are large, and, with
the exception of the two second molars, in good preservation. Both
the molars just mentioned show the effects of carious degeneration,
which on the left side has led to an alveolar abscess, communicating by
a fistulous opening with the buccal aspect of the maxilla. The socket
of the first molar tooth on the same side seems also to have been the
seat of a similar abscess, though of much smaller dimensions. The
small size of the mandible when compared with the next specimen
suggests that it is that of a female.

No. 2098 is likewise a mandible, probably that of a male, being
much stouter than the last. It has been exposed to a considerable
amount of weathering, and all the incisor and both canine teeth have
been lost {post mortem). The chief points of interest are as follows : —
The chin is prominent, though not so much so as in 2097. The genial
tubercles are replaced by a low vertical ridge. The body of the
mandible is massive, the ascending ramus short, and the sigmoid notch
shallow. The molar teeth are large, and their crowns so divided as to
present a pentacuspidate appearance in the case of the second and
third, and probably of the first, although there does not remain enough
of the crowns of these teeth to justify a more decided statement. This
is quite possibly the mandible belonging to the following specimen.

No. 2099 is the fore part of a male skull and face without the
mandible. The facial characters are so like those of the first described
specimen (No. 2096) as to render further description superfluous. As
regards the general characters of this skull (No. 2099), it will be found
that the higher degree of prognathism (index ii3'2) is accompanied by
greater skull-breadth and stouter zygomatic arches than in No. 2096.
The palate is larger and is elliptical, the auditory meatus remains on the
left side only, and is shallow. The basi-occipital is notched by the
inferior petrosal sinus, as was the case in No. 2096, but more deeply
than m the latter. Within the cranium the interesting points to notice
are : the strong impressions made by the frontal cerebral convolutions
on the endocranial surface' ; the small size of the crista galli and dorsum
sellae. The floccular fossa is small, and the borders of the foramina
optica curiously thickened. The frontal and the temporal bones
articulate at the pterion on each side.

Specimen No. 2100 is a calvaria, seemingly that of a male. Synos-
tosis is far advanced, especially in the coronal suture, and is more

^ Cf. Schwalbe: review by Laloy : L'Anthropologie, 1904.

144 Studies in Anthropology

pronounced endocranially than on the exterior of the skull. Two small
wormian bones are seen at the lambda. On the right side, epipteric
ossicles seem to have been present, but are almost indistinguishable.
On the left side the squamous and frontal bones seem to have articulated
at the pterion. The mastoid processes are very small, the auditory
meatus shallow. Post-orbital frontal compression is marked ; the
calvaria is long and lozenge-shaped and its capacity small (1130 c.c).

It is now possible to review the series as a whole, and the first point
to notice is that out of three specimens available for observation two
possess a fronto-squamous articulation in the region of the pterion.
According to Turner {Challenger Reports, "Human Crania") this has
not been hitherto recorded in crania of aborigines of Tasmania. It is
further noteworthy that in the remaining specimen the appearances,
though obscure owing to synostosis, denote that the spheno-parietal
suture was very short. With regard to general appearances, the
specimens resemble other crania of aboriginal Tasmanians, such as
those described by De Quatrefages {Crania Ethnica). The most
perfect specimen, viz. the example first described (2096), presents fairly
typical features, which are evidently in most respects exaggerations of
the characteristics of the crania of aboriginal Australians. Especially is
this the case in regard to the following specific points, viz., capacity,
post-orbital frontal compression, glabellar prominence, nasal bones (flat
and upturned), width of nasal aperture, indefiniteness of the lower
margins of that aperture (bothro-craspedote character), prognathism,
macrodontism, smallness of mastoid processes, flatness of contour of
squamous portion of temporal bone, channelling of the ali-sphenoids,
shortness of the lacrymo-ethmoidal suture, presence of a rounded
transverse occipital torus, and in the characters of scaphocephaly,
phjenozygism, and the possession of the lozenge-shaped outline in norma
verticalis. But there remains at least one craniological difference to
notice. The Tasmanians have not quite such elongated skulls as the
neighbouring aborigines of Australia. The difference is noteworthy,
and is possibly associated with the smaller average size of the Tasmanian
aboriginal, for it is the exception to find a high degree of dolichocephaly
among the dwarf races. On the whole, however, judged by their cranial
characters, the affinities of the Tasmanian aborigines are evidently with
the aborigines of the neighbouring island-continent, rather than with
any other race, and in these characters no striking resemblances to any
of the dwarf races are demonstrable.

The foregoing statements will give some idea of the characteristic
features of the crania of Tasmanian aborigines in the Cambridge
Museum. The following notes are descriptive of the provenance of the

Crania of Aboi^igines of Tasmania

145

specimens, and a table of measurements is appended. Two of the
specimens, No. 2096 and the mandible 2098, have been photographed.
The mandible is approximately of the same dimensions as regards
breadth as that of No. 2096, and the photograph was reproduced in the
Journal of A7iatomy and P/iysiohgy, vol. xxxiv. {Proc. Anat. Soc).

Two photographs are appended to the present account, viz., figs, i
and 2, representing the specimen 2096 in norma verticalis (fig. i) and
in norma lateralis (fig. 2) respectively. The numbers are those of the
Cambridge Catalogue.

No. 2096. Skull of Tasmanian; from Mr T. Anford, Tasmania, 1845, per the Rev.
H. G. Tomkins. Mr Anford believed it to be the skull of a female.

2097. Presented by James Bonwick, Esq., with specimen No. 2100.

2098. No reference ; it was with No. 2096, to which, however, it does not
belong.

2099. Bears a card on which is written :
" Mr Chas. Harrison (?), Sudbury, from Mr Edmund Abbott,"

and on the reverse: " Port L "

2100. Skull of Tasmanian; presented by James Bonwick, Esq.

Dimensions of Skulls of Aborigines of Tasmania
{Cambridge University Collection).

No.
No.

No.

No.

No. of skull

Sex

Age

Cubic capacity ...
Maximum length
Ophryo-occipital length
Ophryo-iniac length ...
Occipito-spinal length
Occipito-alveolar lengtli
Maximum breadth
Bi-asterial breadth
Bi-auricular breadth ...
Bi-stephanic breadth ...
Minimum frontal breadth
External bi-orbital breadth ...
Minimum inter-orbital breadth
Jugo-nasal breadth
Bi-malar breadth
Bi-zygomatic breadth ...
Bi-maxillary breadth ...
Ophryo-mental length
Ophryo-alveolar length
Nasi-mental length
Nasi-alveolar length ...
Basi-mental length
Basi-alveolar length ...
Basi-nasal length
Basi-bregmatic length

D.

2099

2096

2100

Male

Male

Male?

Adult

Adult

Aged

?

1 130

ii3o(app.)

180

180

174

^n

172

^11

184

■3

192

5

i33(P-)

130 (p.)

109

105

112

118

118

107

100

96?

92

84

88

104

103

105?

24

25

24

93

94

?

no

108

?

?

124

?

85

87

?

129?

2

82

87

102

-}

58

58

no

■3

103

98

91

95

12

3

123

146

Studies in Anthropology

Table — continued.

No. of skull ..

Sex

Age

Basion to obelion, length
Basion to lambda, length
Basi-iniac length
Basion to opisthion, length
Breadth of foramen magnum

Orbital height

Orbital breadth

Nasal height
Nasal breadth ...
Palato-maxillary length
Palato-maxillary breadth
Horizontal circumference
Supra-auricular arc
Oblique parietal arc ...
Frontal arc
Parietal arc

Occipital arc (superior)
Occipital arc (inferior)
Jugo-nasal arc

Male ?
Aged

502
285

340
124

128

Lower Jaw : No.

2og8

2097

Symphysial height

31

22

Coronoid height

52

51

Condylar height

55

50

Gonio-symphysial length

77

70

Intergonial breadth

95

80

Intercoronoid breadth

85

84

Intercondylar breadth (exterior)

105

103

Intercondylar breadth (interior)

67

71

Breadth of ascending ramus

34

31

Angle of ascending ramus

108°

1.4°

2099

2096

2100

Indices :

Cephalic

•

73-9

72-3

Vertical

68-4

Alveolar

II3'2

103 "15

Orbital

76-3

78-4

?

Nasal

63 '4

64-9

?

Palato-maxillary

105

1 23 "5

Superior facial (Broca)

?

70-2

Superior facial (Kollmann)

?

46-8

Stephano-zygomatic

?

8o-6
I io'6

Naso-malar

iio'75

THE CRAXIOLOGY OF THE NATIVES OF
ROTUMA.

(With assistance from A. E. Taylor, M.A.,
Downing College, Cambridge.)

I. Jntrodudory.

A COLLECTION of humati crania was made by J. S. Gardiner, M.A.,
Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, on the occasion of
his visit to Rotuma in 1897. Of the history of that island, and of the
appearance, customs, and traditions of its inhabitants, Mr Gardiner has
given a very complete account, which was published in extenso in the
Journal of the Anthropological Institute (vol. xxvii, June — October, 1898).

The present account of the human crania consists of a general
description of the specimens, followed by a discussion of the con-
clusions to be drawn from this study ; finally, detailed descriptions of
the individual specimens, together with some numerical data, are
appended.

The crania are nine in number, and from their general appearance,
they would appear to have lain partially covered by a very dry sandy
soil ; in consequence of which the gelatinous constituents of the bony
tissue have been largely removed, leaving the specimens in a brittle and
fragile state. Some of the specimens show signs of weathering. Six
crania are fairly complete with mandibles ; there are two incomplete
crania from which the facial bones and mandibles are missing, and there
is a single calvaria. All the skulls are adult ; and, in all, the facial
bones have suffered more damage than those of the cranial vault. With
two exceptions the skulls are those of males; there is one skull (1817)
which is probably, but not certainly, male, and there is one female
skull (181 1).

148 Studies in Anthropologij

II. General Results.

Excluding the female skull (1811), the specimens fall into three
groups, as follows : —

(a) Typical Polynesian of the western variety. The qualifying
adjective western is found to be necessary, inasmuch as the researches
of De Quatrefages and Hamy show that the Western and Eastern
Polynesians are to be contrasted in respect of cranial type. In the
following notes, the term Polynesian is to be taken as signifying Western
Polynesian, and indeed the Western Polynesian is to be regarded as the
Polynesian par excellence in respect of skull-form. The specimens of
Polynesian aspect are the following: — Nos. 1809, 1813, 1814, 1815,
1816, 1817. It must be mentioned that the cephalic index ranges in
this series from 71 to 86 '5.

(^) Typical Melanesian ; represented by a single specimen, viz.,
No. 1812. (See fig. i, on p. 154. below.)

(y) A form intermediate between the two preceding types, partaking
of characters distinctive of both Polynesian and Melanesian crania ; a
single specimen. No. 18 10, figures in this group, to which the female
skull, No. 181 1, is more nearly allied than to either of the foregoing.

The indication of craniology is thus that the island is inhabited by
people of the tall brown -skinned Polynesian type, and also by individuals
of the shorter and much darker-skinned Melanesian type, as well as by
individuals possessing physical characters (such as stature, skin-colour,
hair-colour, form of the hair, and the like) intermediate between those
of the two foregoing stocks.

Since Rotuma is so situated geographically as to render it accessible
to either Polynesians or Melanesians, such a combination of cranial
forms is what one would have expected a priori to find among its
inhabitants. It is now. appropriate to adduce some evidence from the
proportions of the crania, in support of the foregoing statements as to
the way in which they may be classified. For this purpose several
tables have been drawn -up, the first of which shows that from the
consideration of several of the principal indices, the differences pre-
viously mentioned are fully corroborated. In Table A. the most
striking contrasts are seen between the indices of the chief averages as
obtained from the skulls No. 1809, 18 13, 1814, 181 5, 1816, 18 17, on
the one hand, and the skull No. 181 2 on the other. For this rea.son
the former skulls have been associated in a single group (a), while the
latter (No. 181 2) is regarded as a representative of a second group (^).

Crania of Aboiigines of Roturna

149

Table A.

Index

from the

averages

for i8og,

etc.

1812

1810

Breadth index ...

80

71

74-6

Height index

in

73'2

—

Alveolar index...

98-1

105

—

Orbital index

84-5

80-9

95'i

Nasal index

46-7(?)

55

46

Palato-maxillary index

io9"8

110-3

ii6*4

Naso-malar index

i05'4

109

1 08 "4

Cubical capacity

155^

1405

1310

Group ...

a
"Poly-
nesian "

/3
"Mela-
nesian"

7
"Inter-
mediate"

Table B.

Breadth index ...
Height index ...
Alveolar index
Orbital index ..
Nasal index
Palato-maxillary index
Naso-malar index
Cubic capacity

Group ...

;-5 u

! S a

80

77 '5
98-1

84-5
467 (?)
109 "B

105 "4

Ceo

797
75*5
98-6
9 1 '6
47 "9

1 1525
(Deniker)

73 '2
105
80-9

110-3

109

1405

fc-=H

boc 5
*- S 5

71 '4

74 '9

103 '4

80 -6

55-6

I 1460
(Deniker)

150 Studies in Anthropology

The specimen No. 1810 will be seen to occupy an intermediate position
inclining in some respects to group (a) and in others to group (/3).

In the next place it is necessary to show that of the two groups just
described, the first (a) may definitely be recognized as approximating
to the Polynesian, and the other (^) to the Melanesian type form.
With this aim in view, Table B. was drawn up, and is next to be
considered. A glance at the figures will establish the correctness of the
proposition that among the Rotuma crania a Polynesian group and a
Melanesian specimen are present.

That Rotuma is liable to be visited by Polynesians and by Mela-
nesians is not only a matter of surmise from the consideration of its
geographical situation, but is also evidenced by the information collected
by Mr Gardiner {loc. cit., reprint, pp. 4 et seq.\ which shows that the
inhabitants do actually vary in appearance to a considerable extent, the
majority, however, resembling men of the Polynesian type, the Mela-
nesian element being apparently subordinate in amount. Mr Gardiner
records that the Rotuman legends mention the advent of visitors from
Tonga, Samoa, and Niuafoou, but naturally reliable historical evidence
on the subject of the peopling of the island is scanty in the extreme.
It is noteworthy that Mr Gardiner mentions that while Polynesian or
Micronesian strangers might be adopted through marriage into a
Rotuman family, Fijians and Melanesians on the contrary were always
treated as inferiors, and when dead their remains were buried on some
islet on the reef, apart, that is, from the Rotuman burial-places.
Linguistically the affinities of the Rotuma natives are with the Samoans,
who may be taken as representing the Polynesian type, rather than with
the Fijians, who represent a Melanesian stock.

From the foregoing considerations it will be seen that the evidence
of craniology is in accord with that furnished by the external appearance,
the traditions, customs, and language of the natives of Rotuma. There
remain two points for discussion in connection with this part of the
study of the natives of Rotuma. In the first place, the proximity of
Rotuma to the Micronesian area suggests the possibility of the presence
of what might be referred to as a Micronesian constituent in the
population of the island. This is a subject hard to deal with cranio-
logically, because there has not yet been established satisfactorily in the
Micronesian area a cranial form sufficiently constant to justify its
description as a type-form. Indeed, so far as the researches of one of
us go, Micronesian skulls are more closely matched by a skull from
Easter Island (separated by the whole breadth of the Pacific Ocean)
than any others from the more immediate vicinity of that island-group.
There is consequently but one observation to be recorded in this

Crania of Abo?igi?ies of Rotuma 151

connection. One might expect, in the Micronesian area, the occurrence
of skulls with Mongoloid features, inasmuch as the islands of Micronesia
have been subject to immigration, on a fairly considerable scale, from
the Asiatic mainland. The fact, then, that the Rotuman skull.
No. 1814, though of the Polynesian type, also presents the ^longolian
characteristic of large and widely divergent malar bones, is worthy of
mention in this connection.

The other point remaining for consideration is the inquiry whether
one should look for other cranial morphological types beyond those
already mentioned. In this connection, too, there is but one fact to
record, viz., that the Rotuman specimen. No. 1815, is, superficially
at least, very similar to a skull from Vancouver Island, now in the
Cambridge Collection. No stress need be laid on this observation,
however, beyond the remark that, after all, the form of the skull, even
in the most isolated communities where the character has become
almost stereotyped, is liable to occasional varieties departing far from
the usual form, and that in a case where two skulls from widely separated
localities are compared, it is of course possible that either specimen
may constitute an abnormality. In conclusion, then, no elements
beyond the Polynesian and Melanesian can be distinctly demonstrated
to exist in the population of Rotuma, when one is confined to the
evidence afforded by this collection of skulls.

III. Detailed Descriptions of the Crania.

The individual specimens will now be described in the numerical
order of the catalogue of the Cambridge Anatomical Museum.

1809. This specimen consists of the bones of the cranial vault with
the two temporal bones ; the facial skeleton, including the mandible,
being absent. The sex was male.

The general form in norma verticalis is brachycephalic (breadth-
index =81). The maximum breadth occurs in the region of the parietal
eminences. Synostosis has commenced in the sagittal suture, at each
extremity of which it has advanced further than in the intermediate
portion. The parietal foramina are inconspicuous.

In norma lateralis, massive supra-orbital ridges are very noticeable ;
hereby the length of the skull is considerably augmented. Examination
of the curve of the cranial vault leads to the observation that flattening
is marked from the junction of the middle and posterior thirds of the
sagittal suture onwards, being continued beyond the lambda. The
external occipital protuberance is moderately prominent. The mastoid

152 Studies in Anthropology

processes are massive and much prolonged downwards. At each
asterion there have been wormian ossicles. On the posterior part of
the frontal and on the parietal bones, the temporal ridges are redupli-
cated. At the pterion, the parietal and great wing of the sphenoid
articulate with one another.

In norma facialis, the massive brow-ridges again attract attention.
In comparison with the inter-parietal breadth (which is the maximum
width of the skull) the frontal width seems unusually small. The
maximum breadth occurs at a level far above the bases of the mastoid
processes. The vertical height of the skull is great, though actually
it is exceeded by the figure representing the maximum transverse
diameter.

In norma basilaris, the following points are to be noticed : — The
glenoid fossae are of moderate depth only ; the occipital condyles are
somewhat asymmetrical in position as regards the margin of the foramen
magnum ; the endocranium presents no features of special interest.

In norma occipitalis, the form of the skull is pentagonal, and, as
has been noted, the maximum breadth is found at the parietal emi-
nences, from which level the lateral parietes converge so that the
inter-mastoid diameter is relatively small. Distinct asymmetry in the
positions of the occipital condyles is again noticeable ; that of the left
side descending to a lower level than its fellow of the right side, so that
a slight degree of plagiocephaly is produced.

1810. A male skull, the base of which has been to some extent
destroyed ; the basilar portion of the occipital bone is imperfect ; the
nasal bones and ethmoid are also incomplete, so that the internal orbital
walls are imperfect.

In norma verticalis, the general form of the skull is oval. The
cephalic index places it in the dolichocephalic class (index 74"6) ; it is
also phsenozygous ; synostosis is seen in the sagittal suture, and the
skull presents a ridge-like elevation along the line of this suture ; there
are two small parietal foramina.

In norma lateralis, the brow-ridges are massive and prominent, the
face prognathous, the temporal ridges well marked, and the mastoid
processes large. A ridge marks the line of articulation of the sphenoid
and temporal bones, and the coronal suture is synostosed near the
pterion, where the sphenoid and parietal bones meet.

In norma facialis, the brow-ridges and zygomatic arches are again
noticed as being massive. A depression, seen above the left external
angular process on the frontal bone, indicates probably that injury had
been sustained here through a blow.

The frontal bone shows post-orbital compression and is, generally

Crduia of Aborigines of Rotuma 153

speaking, developed to an extent small in comparison with that of the
other cranial components. The orbits are shallow with very oblique
roofs, and the lachrymal fossae are particularly shallow. The nasal
aperture is long and narrow, and the remnants of the nasal bones
suggest that these were also long, narrow, and not very prominent.
Sub-nasal fossae are distinct (amblycraspedote character).

In norma basilaris, the teeth are seen to be large and not much
worn. The palate has a parabolic outline. There are large infra-
temporal crests, long styloid processes, deep glenoid fossjE, and
prominent mastoid processes.

In norma occipitalis, the skull appears scaphoid. The external
occipital protuberance is inconspicuous, but there is a well developed
transverse occipital torus. At the right asterion is a small wormian
bone.

Large Pacchionian depressions mark the endocranium. The angle
of the mandible is small, being nearly 90°.

181 1. A female skull with the mandible in fairly good preservation ;
the ethmoid bone and septum nasi are, however, much damaged.

In norma verticalis, the skull is of moderate length (it is mesati-
cephalic) ; the parietal eminences are well developed ; there are two
parietal foramina ; the principal sutures are unclosed.

In norma lateralis, prognathism is very marked, especially the sub-
nasal variety of the character ; the frontal region is not full, the muscular
crests, brow-ridges, and mastoid processes are feebly developed. The
sphenoid and parietal bones articulate on either side : there are wormian
bones in the lambdoid suture. The curve of the cranial vault runs fairly
uninterruptedly from nasion to opisthion ; slight flattening occurs at the
bregma, and again between the obelion and the lambda, the latter
flattening contributing to the formation of a slight but distinct occipital
renfiei7i€7it ; the inion is not prominent, nor are the occipital crests large.

A small fissure indicative of a suture dividing the malar bone
horizontally is observed to start from the temporo-malar junction on
either side. On the left side a variety of the pterygo-spinous foramen
is seen.

In norma facialis, the orbits are rather low, with deep lachrymal
depressions : the apertura pyriformis nasi is wide, with large, deep
pre-nasal fossae, of the type so frequent in Polynesian crania (cf.
M.diCa\\s\.&r, Joiernal flf Afiafo?ny and Fhysio/og)>, Jan., 1898). The nasal
bones are wide and flat.

In norma basilaris, the palate is seen to have a parabolic contour ;
the condyles are placed slightly asymmetrically on the margin of the
foramen magnum.

154 Studies in Anthropology

In norma occipitalis, the outline is pentagonal with very distinct
flattened areas above and below the parietal eminences. A wormian
bone is seen at the lambda. The angle of the mandible is nearly 90° ;
the coronoid processes large and higher than the condyles ; the sigmoid
notch is shallow.

Female characteristics are well marked in this specimen.

1812. A male skull with the mandible; the zygomatic arches and
the condyles of the mandible are broken ; the bones of the cranial
vault show evidence of weathering. Before proceeding to the detailed

Fig. I. Skull No. 1 81 2. Melanesian type.

description, it may be remarked at once that this skull is in many
respects typically Melanesian ; at the same time, it closely resembles
a skull in the Cambridge Collection labelled " Skull of a Bushman
chief" (to which a similar description applies, and which is therefore
not a typical Bush skull).

In norma verticaHs, great elongation is noticed (the cephaUc index
is 71). The skull is phfenozygous ; there is marked post-orbital frontal
compression ; the sutures are complex, and in the left half of the
coronal suture is a long narrow wormian bone.

In norma lateralis, the glabella and brow-ridges are prominent ;
a moderate degree of prognathism is observed. The external occipital
protuberance is large, but the mastoid processes of moderate size only.
The sphenoid and parietal bones articulate on either side, and at each
asterion is a wormian bone. The spheno-palatine foramen is very
large on each side and is visible from the spheno-maxillary fossa.

Crania of Aborigines of Rotnma 155

In norma facialis, shallow wide orbits with bevelled outer margins
are seen ; the lachrymal fossae are deep. On each side the maxilla
and sphenoid cut off the malar from the spheno-maxillary fissure. The
nasal bones are short and upturned, wider below than above ; the
apertura pyriformis nasi is wide, with indistinct lower margin.

In norma basilaris, the palate appears parabolic in outline ; the
glenoid fossae are of moderate depth. On the right side the foramina
spinosum and ovale are confluent with each other and with the petro-
sphenoidal fissure.

In norma occipitalis, the outline is pentagonal ; small parietal
foramina are seen.

The mandible is massive, the angle large, and there is a depression
in front of the gonion. The molar teeth decrease in size from before
backwards.

1813. A male skull of very great size. The specimen is in good
preservation ; the mandible accompanies it ; parts of the inner walls of
the orbits have been destroyed.

In norma verticalis, the form is elongated ; on either side of the
sagittal suture is an area of flattening which gives rise to a slightly keeled
appearance. No parietal foramina are present. The temporal ridges
are rather tortuous.

In norma lateralis, prognathism is distinct ; the supra-orbital ridges
and the external occipital protuberance are large and massive. The
frontal bone recedes rapidly from the glabella, and the median sagittal
arc of the cranium is regular except near the lambda, where the
conformation is slightly bathrocephalic, the appearance being the more
pronounced in consequence of the massive transverse torus crossing
the occipital bone. The coronal suture is synostosed on the right side
just above the pterion ; on both sides the sphenoid and parietal bones
articulate in this region. The temporal ridges are well marked ; at the
right asterion is a wormian bone.

In norma facialis, the orbital apertures are seen to be high and
their margins bevelled ; the apertura pyriformis nasi is of moderate
width, the lower margins being indistinct ; the nasal bones are large.

In norma basilaris, a hypsiloid palate is seen ; the teeth are slightly
worn down, the molars decreasing in size from before backwards ; the
first molars of the upper jaw have four cusps, of the lower have
five cusps, the second molars resemble the first as regards the number
of cusps, the third molars of the upper jaw have three cusps, and their
vis-a-vis in the mandible five cusps. The teeth on the left side of
the mandible are irregularly placed. The very great capacity of this
cranium is to be specially noted. It is allied to the Polynesian type.

lo6 Studies i?i Anthropologif

but also resembles certain crania from North America in the Cambridge
Museum.

1814 (fig. 2). A large and almost perfect male skull with mandible;
there are several perforations, probably due to injury incurred in ex-
humation. The great prominence of all crests and ridges giving
attachment to muscles indicates the great physical development of the
individual.

Fig. 2. Skull No. 1814. Norma lateralis.

In norma verticalis, the skull is of moderate length; the sagittal
suture is closed at the obelion, and no parietal foramina are present.

In norma lateralis, the skull appears moderately prognathous, the
prominence and massive character of the brow-ridges, external occipital
protuberance, mastoid processes, and zygomatic arches are marked.
The frontal bone retreats somewhat rapidly from the glabella backwards,
there is no flattening at the bregma, and the median sagittal arc is
regular as far as the lambda, where a slight tendency to bathrocephaly
is noticed. The sphenoid and parietal bones articulate at each pterion
near which the coronal suture is closed. At each asterion is a wormian
bone. As regards the facial bones, the profile is flattened.

A peculiar condition exists at the upper portion of each mastoid
process (fig. 3). The temporal ridge traverses the parietal bone and
descends to the lambdoid suture, where the parietal bone is thickened
and overlaps the occipital, passing backwards over it like a sort of
operculum. But the temporal crest now running forwards is not

Crania of A horigines of Rotuma

157

confluent with the posterior zygomatic root on the temporal bone, for
it is separated from that ridge by a deep fissure running obliquely up-
wards, to end in the squamo-parietal suture ; this fissure is in turn

Fig. 3. Skull No. 1 81 4. Showing curious ridges near asterion.

overlapped by a thickening of its anterior lip, which is continuous with
the posterior root of the zygoma. In the absence of evidence to the
contrary, it is suggested that the fissure separating the temporal ridge
and the posterior root of the zygoma represents the original line of demar-
cation between the squamous and mastoid {i.e., petroraastoid) elements
of the temporal bone. Traces of a similar arrangement appear in
No. 1S13.

In norma facialis, a depression, probably the relic of a wound, is
seen over the left orbit ; the orbits are shallow, with high orifices, and
bevelled orbital margins ; the nasal bones are small and narrow. The
apertura pyriformis is wide and has well-marked sub-nasal fossae. On
the left side is a small bony tubercle on the lower margin of the nasal
aperture. There is a slight post-orbital compression of the frontal bone.
The canine fossae are practically non-existent, and this combines with
the much splayed and massive malar bones to confer on the countenance
a decidedly Mongolian cast.

158

Studies in Anthropology

In norma basilaris, an hypsiloid palate is seen ; the glenoid fossae
are deep, the zygomatic arches outstanding. On the left side is a
double pterygo-spinous foramen. The great development of the ridges
on the occipital bone reminds one of the corresponding region in the
gorilla, especially of immature specimens.

Fig. 4. Skull No. 1814. Showing tlie horizontal line of the skull.

In norma occipitalis, the chief features are the extraordinarily
prominent occipital ridges and crests.

The mandible is massive, the coronoid processes being higher than
the condyles ; a deep notch is seen in front of the gonion. The
symphysion is prominent. Some crenation is seen on the surface of
the crowns of the molar teeth.

181 5. A male skull with mandible; much of the facial skeleton is
absent ; muscular ridges and processes are moderately well-marked.
There is a slight degree of prognathism.

In norma verticalis the form is oval but posteriorly truncated ;
the skull is of moderate length and cryptozygous ; synostosis is seen in
the sagittal suture from the obelion to the lambda ; there are very small
parietal foramina ; on ejther side of the sagittal suture is an area of
flattening.

In norma lateralis, the chief feature is the prominence and high
development of brow-ridges, external occipital protuberance, mastoid
processes, temporal ridges, and other bony crests. On each side the
sphenoid and parietal bones meet at the pterion, near which the coronal
suture is closed. The frontal bone retreats rapidly from the ophryon,
but the median sagittal arc is regular till interrupted by a slight bulging

Crania of Aborigines of Rotitma 159

of the occipital bone beyond the external occipital protuberance. At
the left asterion is a wormian bone, and there is a slight exostosis behind
and below the left parietal eminence. The occipital condyles are very
prominent ; and on the left side the middle meningeal artery threw out
an external branch.

In norma facialis, the orbits are seen to be shallow and wide ; the
lachrymal fossae are deep ; orbital margins are sharp ; the remains of
the nasal bones are sharply upturned.

In norma basilaris, the only point to notice is the depth of the
glenoid fossfe.

In norma occipitalis, the outline is pentagonal, and synostosis of
the lambdoid suture is noticed near the lambda.

In the mandible the angle is large, the coronoid processes are higher
than the condyles ; the chin is prominent ; anteriorly to the gonion is
a well-marked notch.

The teeth show slight crenation ; the third molars are the smallest,
and these and the first molars are pentacuspidate, the second molars
are tetracuspidate.

1816. A calvaria of the male sex. In norma verticalis, the contour
is obovate and brachycephalic, with slight post-orbital frontal com-
pression ; the right half of the coronal suture is closed, the left half
being closed near the pterion ; the sagittal suture is tortuous and
synostosed at the obelion. As regards the endocranium, synostosis is
almost complete, showing that this process commences and is com-
pleted earlier on this surface than on the exterior of the skull. There
is one parietal foramen (the left). The calvaria is much broader below
the parietal eminences, but this appearance may be due to posthumous
deformation or pressure.

In norma lateralis, the brow-ridges are moderately prominent ; the
external occipital protuberance of similar development ; the median
sagittal arc is regular. The same description applies to the transverse
arc as seen in norma occipitalis.

181 7. A much damaged skull of which it is hard to determine the
sex, which is probably male. The facial skeleton is absent, as is also
the mandible and much of the base on the right side. The cranium
is large, with but moderately marked prominences and muscular ridges.

In norma verticalis, the outline is ovoid, with outstanding parietal
eminences ; brow-ridges are not prominent. There are no parietal
foramina ; the sutures are not tortuous. It is particularly noteworthy
that there is considerable asymmetry (plagiocephaly), flattening on the
right side being accompanied by corresponding bulging outwards on
the left.

160

Studies in Anthropology

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Crania of Aborigines of Rotuma

161

Table D. SKULLS FROM ROTUMA.

Measurements

1809

1810

1811

1812

1813

1
1814

1815

1816

1817

Maximum length ...

189

185

172

183

203

187

193

178

176

Ophryo-iniac length

175

175

169

178

191

185

186

176

173

Maximum breadth

149

137

131

130

150

148

148

154

149

Bi-auricular breadth

?ii4

120

107

115

118

132

123

124

Ri-stephanic breadth

114

94

104

106

"5

122

123

114

?

Bi-zygomatic breadth

7

136

121

?I28

? 140

148

?

?

Basion to nasion ...

?97

?

97

96

III

no

Ill

97

Basion to prosthion

?

?

97

lOI

105

? "5

?

?

Basion to bregma

142

?

132

134

147

147

149

140

Basion to lambda ...

120

?

115

117

133

? 123

130

T18

Basion to inion

87

?

8i

84

94

90

90

79

Basion to opisthion

34

?

34

34

42

37

40

35

Orbit: height

?

39

33

34

? 41

38

38

?

,, breadth

41

41

42

?47

46

44

p

Ap. py. nasi: height

?

63

48

51

? 58

?62

?

>

,, ,, breadth

?

29

30

28

? 27

29

>

Pal. max. : length

?

55

52

58

6r

?59

?

?

„ breadth

?

64

62

64

? 60

67

?

?

Jugo-nasal arc

?

105

102

no

124

120

?

?

Jugo-nasal width ...

p

97

94

lOI

? 112

no

?

?

Dental series

?

?43

?.38

?43

50

?

?

?

Horizontal circumference ...

518

509

483

507

555

534

540

523

522

Nasi-alveolar height

?

82

65

69

? 74

80

?

?

?

Bi-gonial breadth ...

?

103

99

103

102

116

102

?

J

Indues.

Cephalic

80-9

74-6

76-1

71

73-9

79-1

76-7

86-5

84-6

Height

77-8

?

767

73'2

72-4

78-6

77"2

79 '5

Alveolar

?

?

100

105

?

i04-5(?)

?

?

?

Orbital

?

95' I

8o-s

80-9

87 --(P)

82-6

77*3

?

?

Nasal

?

46

62-5

55

46 -Si?)

46 -8(?)

?

?

?

Palato-maxillary ...

?

ii6'4

119-2

1 10-3

98 •3(?)

ii3-6(?)

?

?

Naso-malar...

?
Circa

io8-2

108-5

109

101-8

no

?

Circa

?

Cubic capacity

1550

1450

1315

1405

1720

1600

1695

1550

•53°

In norma lateralis, no marked prominence of brow-ridges or other
muscular ridges or processes is to be observed. At each pterion the
sphenoid and parietal bones seem to have come into contact, but there
is now synostosis of the coronal suture in this region. The frontal
bone rises fairly steeply from the ophryon, and the median sagittal arc
is regular, with slight elevation at the bregma and slight sub-iniac
bulging of the occipital bone ; at each asterion is a wormian bone.

In norma basilaris, the only point to notice is the shallowness of
the glenoid fos.sa.

162

Shidies in Anthropology

1809

1810

Crania of Aborigines of Rotuma 163

1811

164

Studies in Anthropology

Crania of Aborigines of Rotuma 165

1815

1817

166 Studies in Afithropology

In norma occipitalis, the form is pentagonal in outline ; the maxi-
mum breadth is found in the mastoid region ; in addition to wormian
bones at each asterion, there are two others of larger size in the
lambdoid suture. The inion is not prominent ; there is a small
exostosis on the right parietal eminence.

Ltsf of Tables.

A. The three groups.

B. Groups a and (3 with Melanesian and Polynesian types.

C. Certain cranial characteristics.

D. Measurements and indices.

Figures on pp. 162 to 165 inclusive.

Outline drawings of all skulls in norma lateralis.

Figures in the Text.

(i) Skull 18 1 2. Melanesian type (p. 154).

(2) Skull 1814. Norma lateralis (p. 156).

(3) Skull 1814. Showing curious ridges near asterion (p. 157).

(4) Skull 1814. Showing horizontal line of the skull (p. 158).

ON A COLLECTION OF CRANL\, WITH TWO SKELETONS,
OF THE MORI-ORI, OR ABORIGINES OF THE CHAT-
HAM ISLANDS. WITH A NOTE ON SOME CRANIA
FROM THE SAME ISLANDS NOW IN THE MUSEUM
OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS.

The following notes are descriptive of ten crania, with two skeletons,
which have been recently added to the Anatomical Collection at
Cambridge. The only information that is available respecting their
provenance is to the effect that they were sent to this country by
Mr H. A. Travers, of Wellington, New Zealand. Mr Travers's collec-
tion is mentioned by Professor Turner in the Challenger reports, and it
is believed that the specimens now under consideration are certainly
genuine. Eight appear to be male skulls, and two (with the skeletons)
are probably those of females.

The description will fall into two subdivisions, in the first of which
the most important characters of the specimens will be enumerated ;
and this will be succeeded by a brief discussion on the degree of
resemblance of the crania to those already treated of by others under
the description of Mori-ori or Chatham Island skulls'. In the first
place, whereas the members of this series of ten skulls are very generally
alike, they agree particularly in presenting a combination of features
much more suggestive of an affinity with a Polynesian than with a
Melanesian physical type. Thus the breadth of the cranium is distinctly
greater (relatively) and the parietal eminences are more outstanding
than is the case in typical Melanesian crania ; the cranial capacity,
however, does not afford a means of discrimination, though it is slightly
in excess of the average value obtained from Melanesian series, the
crania being in fact of moderate size. A striking feature which they
share with typical Polynesian crania is a rounding off of the angle of
the mandible, whereby the estimation of the value of that character in

1 Poll has x&CQ.x\\\y {Zeitschr. fiir Morph. ttml Anthrop. Band v., Heft i.) published
an exhaustive memoir on all the known skeletal remains of the Mori-ori.

168 Studies in Anthropology

degrees is rendered more difficult than usual. The glabellar prominence
is in few cases well developed, and herein, again, the affinity is with
crania of Polynesian rather than of Melanesian origin. Symmetrical
flattening on either side of the sagittal suture gives rise to a very
distinctly pentagonal appearance in norma occipitalis ; this has already
been recorded as a characteristic of a Mori-ori skull described by Hyrtl
(quoted by Turner). There is no case of a fronto-squamous articulation
at the pterion, although in several cases epipteric ossicles are seen.

Finally we may mention two classes of abnormalities, the first of
which might be described as adaptive, though its real significance is not
quite clear. It consists in a tendency, which is quite marked among
these skulls, to the production of bony paracondylar processes on the
occipital bone. In the second class the variations are pathological and
consist in extreme attrition of the teeth together with a sort of disloca-
tion, so that the surface of the roots comes into play in the alveolar
plane. Many cases of alveolar abscess were indicated by the condition
of the tooth sockets. And finally, the frequency of the ravages of osteo-
arthritis in the bones of the skeleton is very marked ; Dr H. A. Forbes,
of Liverpool, confirms this observation from the inspection of skeletons
actually in the Chatham Islands, and the skeleton of a Chatham
Islander in the Dresden Anthropological Collection presents unequi-
vocal evidence of the existence of this condition.

With the above exceptions, comparatively few abnormalities have to
be noticed.

The following notes refer to the individual features of the several
crania : —

No. I. Skull of an adult female with nearly complete skeleton.
General preservation good. Few teeth remain, and these are
much worn down. At the root of the left upper median incisor
is a cavity, looking as if a cyst or abscess had existed here.
The only other remarkable point is the conformation of the
occipito-atlantic joint, which presents a rare abnormality.
Paracondylar processes are present on each side, and of such
a size that they articulate laterally with the articular surfaces
of the atlas. Moreover, on the right side, the tip of the
paracondylar process articulates with the extremity of the
transverse process of the atlas. The left styloid process is
perforated at its base by a foramen in addition to the normal
foramen styloideum. Many signs of osteo-arthritis are seen
about the pelvis and the lumbar section of the vertebral
column, rendering the measurements of the bodies of lumbar
vertebrae of comparatively little value.

Crania of Aborigines of the Chatham Islands 169

No. 2. Sex doubtful. Aged individual. Teeth much worn.
Sagittal suture completely closed. Two parietal foramina.
Small paracondylar processes present. Mastoid processes
(especially^the right) very small. Posterior palatine spine bifid.

No. 3. Large male skull. A good deal weathered. The teeth are
much worn. On the margin of the foramen magnum there is
situate anteriorly a depression (probably for articulation with
the odontoid process of the axis). The carotid canals are
imperfectly closed in at the apices of the petrous bones.

No. 4. Adolescent individual, probably a female. The third
molars not yet evident. The sagittal suture is, however, almost
completely closed by synostosis, but there is no trace of
scaphocephaly. One large parietal foramen. The teeth are
of excellent quality. On the anterior margin of the foramen
magnum is a small pit, possibly for the reception of the tip of
the odontoid process of the axis.

No. 5. Skull of an adult male. The teeth in good preservation.
The nasal bones are extremely reduced in size, especially in
breadth. Large wormian bones at the pterion on either side.

No. 6. Massive skull of an adult male. The mandible is thickened
anteriorly to the ascending ramus so as to resemble the
condition present in many mandibles of Eskimo. There are
paracondylar processes, that on the right side being small. The
occipital condyles throw out projections anteriorly (cf. Poirier,
Traiic d'' Anatojnie /iinnai/ie, tome i*"", p. 384).

No. 7. Massive skull of an adult male. Teeth much worn down.
The posterior palatine spine is bifid. The occipital condyles
send forward processes on to the basilar process of the occipital
bone.

No. 8. Skull 'of an aged male. Slightly weathered. Teeth much
worn and signs of an abscess cavity conterminous with the
antrum of Highmore on the right. There is also a cavity of
doubtful nature in connection with the socket of the left upper
median incisor. The posterior palatine spine is bifid. Large
paracondylar process on the right side.

No. 9. Skull of an adult male Weathered and platybasic. Most
of facial skeleton destroyed. Many teeth lost. The chief
features are the flattened areas on either side of the sagittal
suture, the ruggedness of the temporal crests in that region,
and the high degree of prominence of a well-marked transverse

170 Studies in Anthropology

occipital torus, the latter character resembling that described
by Miklouko-Maclay in an Australian cranium {Pivc. Linn. Soc.
N.S. IV., vol. viii.).

No. lo. Skull of an adult female with complete skeleton. Teeth
much worn. Cavity in connection with socket of left upper
lateral incisor. Signs of alveolar abscesses in margins of
mandible in the region of the molar teeth. The posterior
palatine spine is bifid. There is a wormian bone (epipteric
ossicle) at each pterion. Incipient development of paracondylar
processes is observed.

We may now turn to the second portion of the present communica-
tion and herewith inquire how far these characters and dimensions
accord with accounts previously published of genuine Mori-ori crania.

Of such accounts, that written by Professor Sir William Turner in
the Challenger reports is of first-class importance, as constituting the
earliest summary of the osteological characters of these Pacific Islanders.
But not less important, owing to the quantity of material dealt with and
the minuteness of the investigations by which it is characterised, is the
work of Dr Scott, of Otago, on the osteology of the Maori and the
Mori-ori {Transactions of the Nezv Zealand Institute, vol. xxvi., 1893).
In this exhaustive report the skulls of nearly fifty Mori-ori natives are
described, and the resulting indices compared with those published
earlier by Turner. The latter observer had at his disposal only about
half the number of skulls mentioned in reference to Scott's work.

Most of the measurements made by Scott have been adopted in the
present paper, and in consideration of the comparatively small number
(ten) of the crania at Cambridge, comparisons will be herein instituted
in the main with Scott's results, without bringing into line in every case
the results of Turner unless there is a particular reason for so doing.
As a matter of fact, we may sum up the matter by saying that the
present crania differ in no important respects from those at the disposal
of the above-mentioned authors, whose own accounts will be seen, from
Scott's monograph, to be remarkably consistent. Finally, the study of
the hitherto undescribed JVIori-ori crania in the Museum of the Royal
College of Surgeons tends to exactly the same conclusion.

For comparison of results, the table on p. 172 has been devised as
the most convenient means of enabling the figures to be compared with
the minimum of cross-references.

Adopting the order of arrangement followed by Scott, the cranial
capacity will be the first subject of comparison. From the table it
appears that in both series the average value for specimens of both

Crania of Aborigines of the Chatham Islands 171

sexes would be designated as mesocephalic, but that when males alone
are considered, the designation must be megacephahc in Scott's series
and mesocephalic in the Cambridge collection. The difference, in the
case of males alone, is not great (19 c.c), and in the combined data for
skulls of both sexes there is practically identity in the results. The
range of variation is represented by the figure 395(10) in the Cambridge
series, as against 365(29) for males and 465(38) for both sexes in Scott's
records. Finally, the Cambridge series contains one specimen of
exceptionally high capacity similar to those mentioned by Scott, as
having been recorded by De Quatrefages and Hamy (average of three
male skulls 1,600 c.c); this specimen at Cambridge has a capacity of
1,685 ^-C- (No. 3). The small number (two) of the female skulls at
Cambridge scarcely justifies detailed comparison of the averages obtained
from their measurements with the more extensive series recorded by
Scott.

In the succeeding indices the agreement between the two sets of
figures is quite remarkable ; in three indices, viz. nasal, gnathic (alveolar),
and palatomaxillary, the accordance would have been probably even
greater than is actually the case were it not for the weathering of the
bones, which has for one of its results to render accurate measurements
unusually hard to obtain. At the same time, the difference might
almost be accounted for by the difference in number of the specimens.
Such agreement affords strong evidence in favour of the authenticity of
the Cambridge specimens.

One or two indices and measurements mentioned by Scott have not
been included in the table, and are more conveniently referred to here.
In the first place, the index of the foramen magnum yielded Scott the
following figures: Average 87-3(48) for the sexes taken together; with
this we can compare the corresponding figure for the Cambridge skulls,
viz. 90-5(10) with a range of 35-8 units, as against 23-5 in Scott's
observations. Secondly, the ophryo-spino-auricular angle gives results
strikingly consistent with Scott's (see p. 173).

The nearness of these average results is the more striking when it
is remembered that Scott's measurements were made with the aid of
Broca's goniometer, while in the case of the Cambridge specimens the
angles were measured after the including lines had been drawn through
the several points projected by means of Broca's stereograph.

In considering the relation of the basi-nasal length to the mesial
vertical circumference, we find that the former dimension is in the
Cambridge specimens 25-3 per cent, of the curve over the vertex from
basion to nasion, as compared with 247 per cent., which is recorded by
Scott as the corresponding figure in his series.

172

Studies in Antkropologij

In this table the figures within the small brackets denote the number of skulls
available for statistical purposes.

Skulls of both sexes

available
data

Skulls ^ Skulls
of both I of
sexes males

Distribution into groups

Per

cent.

Totals

Per
cent.

Totals

Per
cent.

Character

Cranial capacity

Mega-
cephalic

Meso-
cephalic

Micro-
cephalic

Scott's series
Cambridge series

1460(47) 1416(38) 1455(29)
i452'i(57)* '4'5(io) 1436(8)

39'5 13

30 2

34"2

26-3

50

Character

Cephalic Index

Brachy-
cephalic

Mesati-
cephalic

Dolicho-
cephalic

Scott's series
Cambridge series

76-1(58) 76-3(40) 76-3(30) I

76-4(68)* 78(10) 78-1(8)

2-5 31

77-5
70

Character

Vertical Index

Akro-
cephalic

Metrio-
cephalic

Tapeino-
cephalic

Scott's series
Cambridge series

5
7r6(5i)*

72-7(41) 72-6(31)
72-5(10)1 72-2(8)

2
0

4-9
0

21

7

51-2
70

18 ,43"9
3 30

Character | Orbital Index Megasemic

Mesosemic

Micro-
semic

Scott's series
Cambridge series

90-1(63) 89(42) 88-6(32)
89-8(72)* 87-8(9) 87-7(7)

20
4

47-6 18
44 "5 4

42-9
44-5

4

I

9 '5
II

Character

Nasal Index

Platyrrhine xMesorrhine ^ Leptor-
rhme

Scott's series
Cambridge series

46-8(63) 46-8(42)
46-5(72)* 44-6(9)

46-1(32)
44-3(7)

0
0

0 1 15
0 2

35-7
22-4

27
7

64*3

77-6

Character Gnathic Index

Prognathic

Meso-
gnathic

Ortho-
gnathic

Scott's series ... 97-6(56) 97-7(41) 97-8(31)
Cambridge series 97-3(65)* } 96(9) 96-4(7)

0 0 i 22

0 0 2

537

22-4

19 1 46-3
7 77-6

Character

Palatomaxillary Index

Brachy-
uranic

Mesuranic

Dolich-
uranic

Scott's .series
Cambridge series

1 19 "5(47)
118-9(57)*

120-8(39) 120-8(30)
1 16-3(10) 115-4(8)

35

8

897
80

4
0

10-3 1 0 0

0 2(?) 20(?)

1 1

* It must be noticed that the figures thus marked refer to data collected from all available sources,
i.e. Scott's results from all sources combined with those yielded by the Cambridge specimens: for
economy of space it was thought permissible to place these figures in the positions they now occupy,
although, as will be seen, those particular lines are otherwise exclusively devoted to the Cambridge
specimens.

Crania of Aboiigines of the CJiatham Islands 173

Male

Both sexes

No-

Average

No.

Average

Scott's observations
Cambridge series ...

32
7

67°
67° 30'

42
9

67° 30'

68°

The data resulting from the measurements of the several segments
of the median sagittal arc may be summarised in the following table : —

Description
Specimenb

of

Males
(Scott)

Approximate
correspond-
ing frequency
in the whole
Cambridge
series

Whole

Cambridge

series, actual

data

Males
(Scott)

Approximate
correspond-
ing frequency
in the Cam-
bridge series
(males only)

Cambridge

series (males

only;, actual

data

F > 0

...

22(32)

26(32)

8(10)

22(32)

28 (32)

7(8)

F > P or

0

20(32)

22 (32)

7(1°)

20 (32)

20 (32)

5(8)

P > F „

0

r (32)

6(32)

2 (10)

5 (3^)

8(32)

2(8)

P < F „

0

13(32)

16(32)

5 (10)

13 (32)

16(32)

4(8)

0 > F „

P

5 (3^)

3(33)

1(10)

5 (32)

4(32)

1(8)

0 < F „

P

16(32)

10(32)

3M

16(32)

12(32)

3(8)

Explanatory Note. — F, P, and O indicate the respective lengths of the frontal,
parietal, and occipital arcs. In modifying the data yielded by the Cambridge speci-
mens, in order to make a closer comparison with Scott's figures, fractions have been
ignored, and the nearest whole number has been recorded. This will explain what
might otherwise be considered as errors.

From which one concludes that the two series are extremely alike.

From the measurements, we may now turn to a number of points
of descriptive anatomy dealt with by Scott, the first whereof to be
considered is the general shape of the cranial vault. Herein the
Cambridge specimens entirely agree with the description provided by
Scott ; the same remark applies to the sutures, but no case of an
interparietal bone occurred (among Scott's forty-nine skulls). As regards
the region of the pterion, the new series presents five ossicles in this
situation in the teti skulls examined (Scott : twenty-six in nineteen
skulls). Other wormian bones are slightly less frequent than in Scott's
series. Scott mentions the occurrence of paramastoid processes on one
side or both in each of four skulls (? out of forty-nine). It may be
possible that the term paramastoid includes processes that we should
call paracondylar. However this may be, we noticed no unusual

174 Studies in Anthropology

paramastoid processes, but in five skulls unusually well developed
paracondylar processes are seen (see especially No. lo), and we may
now allude to the splendid collection of nearly seventy Mori-ori crania
in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons ; among these a long
paracondylar process occurred once and on one side only. Aural
exostoses are not to be seen in the Cambridge series, but one specimen
at the College of Surgeons presents this condition. Out of seven of
the (ten) Cambridge specimens, there are four with absence or closure
of the postcondylar foramen on both sides, and in the other three this
foramen exists on one side only. Scott gives its frequency of occurrence
as twenty-three (? out of forty-nine skulls), on one side only, and
complete absence in eight cases. In two male skulls at Cambridge the
massive transverse occipital torus noted by Scott is present. The
position of equilibrium of the Cambridge crania may be summarised
as : anterior mastoid, four out of ten (Scott : one in forty-nine) ; posterior
mastoid, four out of ten (Scott: eleven out of forty-nine); anterior
condylar, two out of ten (Scott : four out of forty-nine). The pterygo-
spinous foramen of Civinini is not seen in one of the Cambridge
specimens, even in an incomplete form (Scott met with it — incompletely
developed, however — in six cases).

The nasal bones conform precisely to Scott's description. Out of
the ten Cambridge skulls, four are oxy-craspedote, and five bothro-
craspedote (Scott says that the nasal margin is "rounded off" in twenty
out of forty-nine skulls). As regards the so-called third occipital condyle,
a faint marking in one of the Cambridge specimens suggests that an
articulation may have existed in the situation of this process. Much
more distinct are the facets shown by two skulls out of the sixty-five
at the College of Surgeons. Of the lacrymal bone, it can only be said
that while two (in the same skull) are fenestrated, this tendency, as well
as that to the formation of a fronto-maxillary articulation within the
orbit, is less marked in the ten Cambridge specimens than in Scott's
series. The mandible has already been commented on.

It remains to notice the usage of the teeth, and we may mention
that Scott remarks that the Mori-ori and Maori crania agree closely
in this particular. Without quoting his description in detail, we may say
that the curious usage and partial dislocation referred to by Scott and
mentioned in the earlier part of this communication was observed by
Scott in Maori as well as Mori-ori crania, and can also be seen in
sixteen out of sixty-eight specimens in the College of Surgeons (the
Mori-ori crania of the Barnard-Davis collection are here included). So,
too, signs of alveolar abscesses, similar to those noted in the Cambridge
specimens, were seen by Scott in the crania of his collection. One of

Crania of Abori^^incs of the Chatham Islands l7o

the Cambridge skulls shows a curious pit behind the third upper molar
on both sides, which may have contained an additional tooth, but no
trace of such a supernumerary structure remains'. In one adult skull
at the College of Surgeons (No. 765 N) the third molar is diminutive.

Finally, it may be mentioned that an asymmetrical condition of the
foramen magnum, and a tendency to the production of exostoses in the
form of processes and bony bars (cf. Griinbaum, Journal of Anatomy
and Physiology, vol. xxv.), near its posterior and lateral margins,
characterise the specimens at Cambridge as well as those at the College
of Surgeons.

To sum up, then, the chief value of the new series of Mori-ori
crania will be based on the corroborative evidence they afford of the
generalisations so often referred to in the course of this paper. At
the same time, we are now in a position to regard them as quite typical
specimens of the Mori-ori race, the differences of whose cranial character-
istics from the Maori have been thus summed up by Scott, in speaking
of the Mori-ori skull : — " It differs from the Maori skull mainly in its
lesser height, both absolute and relative to length and breadth, the
greater excess of the parietal over the frontal width, the higher orbits,
and the narrower nasal opening. The depressed and retreating forehead
is also a very marked feature of many Mori-ori skulls. It is slightly
broader relatively to its length, and somewhat more prognathous. The
cranial capacity is also somewhat less. But, as already pointed out,
there is often a very close resemblance between Maori and Mori-ori
skulls. The variation of the indices, though somewhat more restricted
than with the Maoris, is still considerable, and points, like the traditions
of the people, to an origin from the two great Pacific stocks. The
different types of Mori-ori skull have been already sufficiently described."

From the study of the skulls we must now turn to that of the other
bones of the skeleton, and the following notes embody the results
obtained from observation of the two skeletons now at Cambridge : —

T/ie Scapular Indices are represented by figures higher than those
yielded by scapulae of Europeans or Polynesians, but on the other hand
are respectively lesser and greater than the average index afforded by
Melanesian scapulae.

The Clavicular Index. — Comparative data are still scanty, but it may
be mentioned that these indices exceed those of European females and
even of negresses by a good deal.

^ A similar pit occurs in the upper maxilla of an orang-utan cranium in the
Anthropological Institute at Munich : it is the more remarkable since this orang
cranium possesses already two supernumerary molar teeth immediately in front of
the pit referred to.

176 . Studies in Anthropology

Platycneniia. — The skeleton No. lo shows a distinct degree of
platycnemia. The other skeleton, however, does not possess this
character, so that no reliance can be placed on this indication.

Platymcria. — These indices show an extreme degree of platymeria.

In comparing the foregoing data with the records provided by Scott,
it may be noticed that the scapulae of the Cambridge skeletons are
broader and therefore of an inferior type to those measured by Scott;
that the degree of platycnemia, on the other hand, is less marked in
the Cambridge specimens than in Scott's series ; and that the differences
that may exist between the right and left limbs of the same individual
are so considerable as to seriously discount the value of conclusions
drawn from any but very large series of measurements.

Stature. — The indication here is of extremely small stature —
1470 mm. and 1441 mm. respectively. Allowance being duly made
for the sex, the indication is rather against the skeletons having belonged
to the ordinary or unmixed Polynesian type.

In conclusion, the evidence from the skeletons possesses little value
in determining the race to which the individuals belonged. At least,
however, one can note the getleral absence of signs of inferiority (or
what are usually regarded as possessing such a significance), while the
extremely diminutive stature of these females might possibly be cited as
an exception to such a general indication.

The pelvic indices place the specimens in the mesatipellic group of
Turner. It should be remarked that whereas the female pelvis in any
case affords but little evidence of weight in assigning to any particular
race a given skeleton, the indication here is still further obscured in the
case of No. i (A) owing to the occurrence of osteo-arthritis. It remains
to be said that Turner is inclined to place Melanesians in the mesati-
pellic group, while he supposed that Polynesians would probably come
within the dolichopellic division. The fact that this index brings the
Chatham Islands skeletons into relation with the Melanesians, while
their cranial characters are those of Polynesians, need not be regarded
as of great moment in the present state of our knowledge of the subject.
On the other hand, Scott records the indices of two male and one
female Mori-ori pelves, and these are all platypellic.

The proportions of the' sacra place these in the platyhieric group, the
influence of sex being felt herein. The index of B is very high and
only surpassed in Turner's records by that of the sacrum of a Hindu
female, viz., 127. Scott remarks that of three sacra measured by him,
one (a male) was platyhieric ; the two others (male and female re-
spectively) were at the upper limit of the subplatyhieric group.

As regards the lumbar indices, disease has much modified the shapes

Crania of Aborigines of the Chatham Islands 177

of the lumbar centra of No. i, hence no doubt the figure io6"4, which
falls in with those found in non-pathological spines of some Australians
and Tasmanians. On the other hand, 93*2 the index of No. 10 is
practically identical with the average figure deduced from observations
on twenty-three Irish females (Cunningham, quoted by Turner).

The radio-humeral and tibio-femoral indices may be considered to-
gether. They would place the skeletons either actually, or almost in
the same group as Polynesians or Melanesians, according to Turner.
No conformation indicating inferiority is denoted by such an association.

The intermembral index shows that No. i (A) has similar propor-
tions to the average European, the index of No. 10 (B) being a little
higher {i.e. with slightly and only very slightly longer upper extremity).
The effect of stature may be responsible for the difference.

As regards the femoral-hujneral index, both skeletons show figures
(7 3 '5 3.nd 7 1 "7) but little removed from the average figure (72 '2) given
for Europeans (Broca).

Little more can thus be added to the remarks of Scott, who from
the observation of five skeletons concludes that these "show in most
instances a very close correspondence with what we find among the
Maoris."

Mori-ori Cratiia.

Tables I. II. and III. present the principal dimensions, etc., of the
crania and skeletons. Table IV. refers to observations made on the
crania of Mori-ori natives in the Museum of the Royal College of
Sursreons in London.

178

Studies in Anthropologij

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Maximum brea
Ophryo-iniac It
Basi-bregmatic
Nasal height
Nasal width
Orbital height
Orbital width
Basi-nasal leng
Basi-alveolar le
Horizontal circ
Jugo-nasal wid
Jugo-nasal arc
Ce]ihalic index
Altitudinal ind
Alveolar index
Nasal index
Orbital index
Naso-maiar inc
Cranial capacit
Palato-maxillat
Index of the fo
Occipito-spino-
Foramen magn
Foramen magn
Palato-maxillai
Palato-maxillai
Frontal arc
Parietal arc
Occipital arc :
Occipital arc:
Total sagittal a

C?Yirda of Aborigines of the Chatham Islands 179

Table II. Mori-ori Skeletons.

A. With Cranium No. i.

B. With Cranium No. lo.

Dimensions whence Indices
are calculated

A

B

Indices

A

B

Length: humerus

285

271

Pelvic (Brim)

92 '5

91-4

,, radius ...

211

217

,, humerus and radius ...

496

488

Sacral ...

ii6-8

1269

,, femur ...

388

378

,, tibia ...

,, femur and tibia

322
710

307

68s

Lumbar

1 06 '4

93*2

,, clavicle
Scapula :

141

'38

Radio-humeral

74

76-4

height ...

145

131

breadth

99

94

Tibio-femoral

83

8i-2

Sacrum :

length ...

107

89

Intermembral

69-8

71-2

breadth

125

"3

Pelvic brim :

Humero-femoral

73*5

717

conjugate diameter ...

125

118

transverse diameter ...

135

129

Scapular

68-2

717

Tibia :

Tj fantero-posterior ...

27

27

Clavicular

49 "4

50 "9

(transverse

11

18

y fantero-posterior ...

27

30

Tibia (platycnemia) ...

777

66-6

(transverse

21

18

(60 L.)

Femur :

T^ fantero-posterior ...
(transverse

21

21

Femur (platymeria) \

72-4R.

)7oR.

29

30

and

r and
J L.

J fantero-posterior

21

21

1

70 L.

(transverse

30

30

Lumbar vertebra: :

Total pelvic ...

72-5

76-6

sum of anterior diameters ...

125

iss""

sum of posterior diameters ...

133

124*

Scapular, infraspinous:

Total height of pelvis ...

185?

182?

Total breadth of pelvis...

255

237

Right

917

90-4

Pubo-ischiatic length ...

94

90

Scapula :

Left

90-8

90 "4

infraspinous length : right side

108

104

infraspinous length: left side

109

104

Index ofcavity of pelvis

69-6

697

Middle of shaft of femur:

sagittal diameter on R.

23

"3

Index of femur at )

95

100

sagittal diameter on L.

24

23

middle of the shaft j

100

100

transverse diameter on R. ...

24

24

transverse diameter on L. ...

24

24

Stature (from femur)

r,47o

1.441

* B, f

atholc

gical.

Table III. The Same.

A. With Cranium No. i.

B. With Cranium No. 10.

180

Studies in Anthropology

Table IV.

To indicate some characters presented by Mori-ori crania in the
Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. The total number
examined was sixty- five.

Character

No. of
examples

Asymmetry of foramen magnum

Third occipital articular surface

Scaphocephaly without synostosis
in sagittal suture

Aural exostoses ...

Paracondylar process as in No. lo
Mus. Anat. Cant.

Excessive wear (with partial dis-
location) of molar teeth

Very Melanesian in appearance...

Strong resemblance to Maori skull
at Cambridge ...

Catalogue Nos. of specimens
presenting the chai^acter

5 761—762 — 763— 765 E — 765 Zh

I
765 Zm — 765 Zq

765 K

765 N

765 R

765L..M..U..Zb..Zc..Zg..j
J ! Zh . . Zv . . Zw . . Zx . . Zy . . Zz
'•^ \\ and three others from the
Barnard Davis collection ...

Per-
centage

765 Zs

765 c

7-69

I '53
I '53

- 20
1*53

ON CRANIA OF ESKIMO IN THE
UNIVERSITY MUSEUM.

The Cambridge collection has been enriched by six skulls, and
a complete skeleton, of Eskimo from Labrador, presented by
E. Curwen, Esq., M.D., St John's College, Cambridge. The accom-
panying table gives their principal measurements and indices, which
depart in no very important points from those already recorded by
other observers. With these are arranged similar figures relating to
the other crania of Eskimo in the University Museum. It may
be added that the ten specimens as a series are characterised by {a) the
small size of the nasal bones, {b) the form of the foramen magnum,
which is long and in some cases almost pyriform, a backward pro-
longation encroaching on the squamous part of the occipital bone,
{c) the tendency to reduplication of the infra-orbital foramina with
persistent infra-orbital sutures.

The following notes deal in the briefest way with features of
interest in individual specimens :^ — ■

Catalogue No. 1832. Inscribed " Eskimo, Davis Straits, Dr Skae."
This is a very large adult male skull with prominent cheek
bones ; foramen magnum very large ; mandible wide with
everted angles. The sphenoidal spines are of unusual size,
and the remaining teeth well worn.

No. 1833. Skull of Eskimo, Holsteinborg, S. Greenland.
Probably an adult female. The foramen magnum is of
considerable size, with postcondylar foramina. The man-
dible is wide, and the sigmoid notch very shallow.

No. 1834. Skull of Eskimo, Greenland, Macartney collection.
This is the skull of an adult male ; the facial parts are flat,
but the nasal spine is long and sharp. The palate is of
considerable width, the foramen magnum very long, the
foramina ovalia are placed rather more externally to the
pterygoid plates than usual.

182

Studies in Anthropology

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Cubic capacity
Maximum length.. i
Maximum breadth
Basi-bregmatic height ...
Basi-alveolar length
Basi-nasal length
Orbital height

Orbital breadth

Nasal height

Nasal width

Cephalic index
Vertical index
Alveolar index
Orbital index
Nasal index

Palato-niaxillary index ...
Facial (Kollmann) index
Stephano-zygomatic index
Gonio-zygomatic index ...
Naso-malar index

1)
U
C3
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\-t

s

'0

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On Crania of Eskimo 183

No. 1867. Skull of Eskimo, from S. Greenland (purchased
from the Lowestoft Museum). The skull of an aged male,
with edentulous upper jaw. The roof of the cranium can
be removed, and thus the cephalic index can be calculated
from measurements on the interior of the brain-case which
more nearly represent the dimensions of the cerebrum. The
internal measurements give a cephalic index of 74"3 ; the
external 71 '9.

No. 1868. Skull from Port Hope, Ailek, Labrador, presented by
E. Curwen, Esq., M.D. This is a large and heavy male
skull with massive jaw ; the nasal bones are remarkably
diminutive ; the sphenoidal spines large ; the foramen mag-
num long and oval.

No. 1869. Eskimo from Blackhead, Hopedale, Labrador,
presented by E. Curwen, Esq., M.D. From a grave with
bronze ornaments. This is an immensely long and rather
high skull ; the facial bones have been in great part lost.

No. 1870. Eskimo skull from Hopedale, Labrador, presented
by E. Curwen, Esq., M.D. A long and high skull.

No. 187 1. Eskimo skull from Cape x\ilek, Labrador, presented
by E. Curwen, Esq., M.D. Foramen magnum very large;
mandible massive with large teeth.

The three immediately preceding specimens have suffered so much
from weathering that few remarks can be made with regard to them.
The cranial portions seem to present the typical appearances.

No. 1872. Skull of Eskimo female, Cape Ailek, Labrador,
presented by E. Curwen, Esq., ALD. A large massive skull
with flattened facial bones.

No. 1873. Female skeleton from Labrador, presented by
E. Curwen, Esq., M.D. The skull is small and the
foramen magnum of remarkable shape, the nasal bones
small, the sphenoidal spines long and sharp. The skeleton
measures 1407 mm. in height; and the pelvis seems re-
markably large in both transverse and conjugate diameters.

A CONTRIBUTION TO ESKIMO CRANIOLOGY.

(With assistance from B. H. Pain, Esq., B.A., Emmanuel College.'

In the course of the winter of 1899 — 1900 a number of Eskimo
were exhibited in London at Olympia, and owing to the kindness of
Mr Taber, the manager of this part of the exhibition, we were enabled
to obtain measurements of the individuals of the party.

A description of these Eskimo and of the tables of the measure-
ments communicated by us to the Cambridge Philosophical Society
(in March, 1900) will be found in this volume {v. infra, p. 268).

The measurements afforded us the means of drawing to scale a
diagrammatic figure representing the average male adult Eskimo, and

i.

d.

Fig. I.

this figure was then sufficiently reduced to bring it into line with those
published by Professor Thomson, of Oxford, in Knowledge, June ist,
1899. In fig. I, our diagram for the adult male Eskimo {a) will
be found compared with corresponding diagrams for adult males of
(^) Anglo-Saxon, {c) Negro, and (d) of aboriginal Australian origin.

A Contribution to Eskimo Craniology 185

The remainder of our other communication consists of notes on
the conditions of Eskimo life in Labrador, the native land of the
individuals in question, and of comments on the general results of our
observations in the light of records published by earlier workers
(especially Virchow and Boas). It would be superfluous to recapitulate
the conclusions arrived at, and in the present communication an attempt
is made to determine the relations subsisting between the head and
skull of the Eskimo, so as to obtain some idea of the modifying
influence on cranial form and contour to be attributed to the overlaying
soft tissues. In the second place, we have summarised observations on
a large number of Eskimo crania which were studied by one of us
in several European museums. Lastly, we record without comment
notes furnished by Mr Taber on the Eskimo of Labrador, which
are not specially of the nature of observations on their physical
conformation.

Comparison of the Form of the Head with that of the
Skull of the Eskimo.

Dealing in the first instance, then, with the comparison of the forms
of the head and of the skull respectively, we naturally turn to the tables
of measurements, and in the first place it is convenient to consider some
absolute linear dimensions, without reference to the indices which are
derived from them.

Number of Subjects measured. — From our measurements of the
heads of the Labrador Eskimo, we obtained averages resulting from
observations and records of eleven of the chief dimensions ; and the
material on which the observations were made consisted of eleven adult
males and ten adult females, the measurements in the two sexes being
treated of independently. (Table I.)

Number of Crania available. — In determining the corresponding
dimensions of the Eskimo skull, we selected as many skulls of
Labrador Eskimo as possible, supplementing the limited number
of these by skulls of Greenland Eskimo. In this way we obtained
averages based on observations of a number of crania of Eastern
Eskimo varying from twenty and seventeen in the case of adult
males, and from eight to eleven adult females (it was not possible at
the time to obtain more undoubted female skulls than these).

The most important points in the accompanying Table (No. I.), to
which attention should be drawn, are as follows : — ^Firstly, the length
of the head is absolutely great both in males and females ; and the
same holds good with regard to the breadth of the head in the males,

186 Studies in Anthro'pology

in whom also the facial dimensions are of absolutely great size, both as
regards the nasi-alveolar length and the bizygomatic breadth. The
great size of the head is indicated also by the large figure representing
the average horizontal circumference. Other comments on the dimen-
sions recorded in Table I. will be made in connection with the indices,
and it is now necessary to note the results of a comparison of the
average dimensions of the head and of the skull respectively in the two
sexes. (Table I a.)

The Head and the Skull compared in respect of Maximum Length.
As the Table I a shows, close approximation is observed in the case of
the maximum lengths of head and skull among the males, the average
length of the head being 191 "15 mm., and that of the skull 190 mm.
From these figures it follows that the thickness of the soft parts over-
lying the skull of the living subject is but i'i5mm., or •575 mm. in
front and an equal amount at the occiput, supposing the thickness to
be the same in each case (which is not, of course, actually true). But
such a margin as i'i5 mm. is quite inadequate, and the only conclusion
is that there is an error in the determinations. It may be that the
figure 190 mm. is too high for a correct representation of the average
skull-length, or that i9i'i5mm. is too low to serve as a proper repre-
sentative of the head-length, or else, what is probably the case here,
both these contingencies coexist. We are led to this conclusion from
the consideration of the records made by Virchow {Zeitschrift fiir
Ethnologic, Bd. xii.), for on combining with our figures those recorded
by Virchow, we are enabled to calculate the average head-length of
fourteen adult Labrador Eskimo, and this is found to be 192 -4 mm.
in place of 191 'is. So that had we as many heads available for study
as we had skulls {i.e. 20), the difference between the average head-length
and the average skull-length would probably be still greater. Moreover,
two of the Labrador skulls measured were weathered to a considerable
degree and to some extent had been flattened ; these skulls yielded
figures which denote a greater horizontal length than the skulls originally
possessed, and therefore helped, no doubt, to raise the value of the
average skull-length to the high figure which actually represents it.

In the case of the collection of data referring to female heads and
skulls (Table I a) a very much greater discrepancy between these two
dimensions will be found to obtain on the average. Herein the head-
length is probably too great, and indeed we were conscious at the time
of making the measurements that this was the case, for the thick growth
of hair and the manner of plaiting and of arranging it generally interfered
to a considerable extent with the attempts to record the head-length
with accuracy.

A Contribution to Eskimo Craniology 187

Nasi-alveolar {or Upper Facial) Length. — A noteworthy approxima-
tion is observed in the case of the nasi-alveolar length as measured on
the head, when it is compared with the corresponding dimension of the
skull. In the living subject the alveolar point, being superficial, is not
hard to determine, but there is generally some difficulty in ascertaining
the exact situation of the nasion. This difficulty is particularly great
in the Mongolian races and their allies, in which category we may
provisionally place the Eskimo, and the difficulty is not always
overcome even by close attention to the careful instructions of
Topinard.

The Orbit. — Close approximation is observed in the case of the
orbital diameters in the males, though this is not the case in the females,
so far as orbital width is concerned. The effect of this upon the orbital
index will be realised subsequently. The modifying cause is probably
a greater thickness of the subcutaneous tissues and a greater adipose
deposit in this region in the female.

Horizontal Circumference. — The figures representing the horizontal
circumference of head and skull require mention solely in order to
indicate that the great excess of this dimension of the head over the
corresponding measurement of the skull in the females is almost
certainly due to the same influence as was mentioned with reference
to the length of the head in females, viz., inaccuracy of measurement
due to the amount and the mode of dressing the hair. It follows that
the figure relating to the head is rather too great.

The A^ose. — The nose and its dimensions next claim our attention.
In both sexes the nasal height measured on the living subject approxi-
mates closely to the corresponding dimension as measured on the skull ;
but in respect of nasal width a most remarkable difference exists, and
is attributable not only to the expansion of the alaj nasi in the case of
the head, but also and more characteristically to the narrowness of the
apertura pyriformis nasi of the skull. (As will be mentioned in another
connection, a nasal index of 32*7 has been observed by one of us in a
Greenlander skull.) ^^'e have supplemented the foregoing discussion
of the measurements by diagrams drawn to scale on quadrille paper,
and embodying all the dimensions observed by us which can be studied
in norma facialis (figs. 2, 3). In preparing the diagrams, which are
half the actual size of the originals, the average values of the maximum
breadth of head and skull for the two sexes respectively were first
marked. Outlines from photographs of male and female Eskimo
skulls were then used as guides in the completion of the contours,
which are thus those of the photographs mentioned, but modified in
accordance with the values obtained for the several dimensions. It

188 Studies in Anthropology

must be noted that the average value of the bigonial breadth has been
made use of, but as this was determined on the Hving persons only,
and not on crania, no discussion on this part of the subject is possible.

Indices. — We may now pass on to the subject of cranial indices,
and we must in the first place compare those based on the average
dimensions of the Eskimo head, with those which are derived from
the average dimensions of the skull in this race. And inasmuch as
our own observations relate to two series of skulls, one being the
Cambridge series, and the other that of the museum of the Royal
College of Surgeons in London, we have combined data from both
these collections in order to arrive at an average value for each
dimension based on a sufficiently large number of individual records.
But it is necessary to state very explicitly that three sets of data are
to be kept quite apart and distinct for the very sufficient reason that
in this combined series of indices (based on the study of male and female
crania in both collections), the data relating to each sex are kept
entirely apart ; whereas in two other series of averages referred to
hereinafter as the College of Surgeons series and the Cambridge series
respectively, the average figures are derived from observations on
males and females without distinction. We will therefore first take
Table No. II., where the data for male skulls are kept distinct from
those relating to female crania. Our measurements enabled us to
determine the indices of the averages in five sets of dimensions, so as
to afford average figures for five indices. It is perhaps hardly necessary
to mention that this gives a slightly different result from a simple
determination of the average of the indices. The indices are as
follow : — The cephahc or breadth index (the maximum length and
not the ophryo-occipital length of the head or skull being employed),
the facial index of Kollmann (nasi-alveolar facial length and bizygomatic
facial breadth), the naso-malar index of Oldfield Thomas (jugo-nasal arc
and chord), the orbital and the nasal indices (of Broca).

Co7-rcspondence of Ifidices of Head with Skull in Males, compared
with correspoideiice of the same Indices in Females. — We find a slight
difference between the sexes when we compare the correspondences
and the divergences of the indices in the head and skull respectively.
For instance, the sexes differ when the breadth index is in question,
but they agree in respect of the orbital and the nasal indices, and on
the whole the agreements are greater than the differences.

The Males alone.- — If we consider the males alone, we shall fi.nd that
the facial and the naso-malar indices reveal, by their similarity in head
and skull, a close agreement as regards the proportions expressed by
those indices, from which we argue that these indices, when obtained

A Contrihution to Eskimo CranioJogy 189

from measurements of crania, afford relatively reliable information as
to the proportions of the face in the particular race under consideration
(the Eskimo). Especially is this the case with KoUmann's facial
index. It must not, however, be forgotten that these remarks refer to
the case of the average and not to that of the individual example. In
the next place, but always treating of the males alone, the breadth,
the orbital, and the nasal indices yield average values more or less
different in the head and the skull respectively, the greatest divergence
being presented by the nasal index. Reverting to the breadth index,
we see that the figure for the Eskimo head (77) differs from that
of the skull (7 1 '5) by no less than 5-5 units. The difference is estimated
by Boas {Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, 1895, Band xxvii.) at 2-2 units for
the Eastern Eskimo, and though this figure appears to us to be too
low, yet we think that 5-5 is undoubtedly too high. In fact, this
difference is influenced by the two factors mentioned previously in
discussing the relation of the maximum length of the head to the
maximum length measured upon the skull. We there saw that our
observations in the case of the head yielded a figure (191 '15 mm.)
probably below the true average, whereas the corresponding measure-
ments on the skull gave (in consequence of two weathered skulls being
admitted) too high an average figure (190 mm.). Both influences
determine the magnitude of the difference of 5-5 which we are now
discussing, but the study of the indices shows us that inasmuch as the
average breadth index of the skull obtained by us agrees closely with
those obtained by earlier observers', we should therefore attribute a
more prominent part to the former (viz., the measurement of the length
of the head in the living) than to the latter (viz., the measurement of
the length of the skull) in producing the discrepancy in question, and
Bordier's record (Topinard, op. cit., p. 409, average index of four
Eskimo heads 737) supports this conclusion. In other words, the
difference observed between the cephaUc indices of the average head
and of the average skull is greater than is probably the case in reality ;
and it is probably due to the fact that the figure (77) representing this
index for the average head is too great, and not so much to the
fact that the figure (71 '5) which is the index for the average skull
is too small.

Orbital Index. — In the two remaining indices, differences of con-
siderable degree are also found to exist when the figures relating to the

' Cf. Topinard, Elements d' Anthropologie Genhale, p. 357 ; De Quatrefages and
Hamy {Crania Ethnica, average breadth index of two Eskimo skulls from Labrador
in the Blumenbach collection, 70 "5) ; also Boas, loc. cit., and Schenk [Bullelin de la
Soc. Neiichatel: de Geographie, 1899).

190 Studies in Anthropologij

average head are compared with those yielded by the average skull.
This difference in the case of the orbital index is probably determined
by the slight inaccuracy in determining the width or horizontal diameter
of the orbit in the living subject. As a rule it is almost impossible to
determine this diameter in a way strictly comparable to that employed
when the skull is being measured. Males and females are alike in
respect of this difference in the orbital index, and the disturbing cause
is probably the same in both.

Nasal Index. — As regards the nasal index, we find here, as we
should expect, the greatest difference between the cephalic and the
cranial figures, amounting to nearly 19 units. As was previously re-
marked, there is a great difference between the nasal width as measured
on the living subject and the width of the apertura pyriformis nasi,
known as the nasal width of the skull.

Female Examples. — The preceding remarks refer to male subjects.
When we pass to the consideration of the female crania, we find in
respect of the cephalic or breadth index a much closer agreement
between the average head and skull than in the male. It must be
remembered that we are dealing with very small numbers of specimens
here, as undoubted female Eskimo skulls, especially from Labrador,
are scarce. Carr's figures, quoted by Topinard {op. cit., p. 376), give
a figure (yo'g) considerably below ours (73'i), so that we cannot
suppose that the sexual factor is accountable for the difference between
the average male and the average female skull in respect of the breadth
index as shown in our table. We think that further discussion will be
more profitable when a larger number of female heads and of female
crania have been measured, and the results will almost certainly show
that the correction necessary to obtain the cephalic index of the living
individual from the index yielded by the skull will be different in the
two sexes. Such an allowance for the sexual factor is made in other
instances by Mies (see Ripley, BAnthropologie, 1896, and Topinard,
op. cit., list of references, p. 374).

With regard to the facial index, it is equally hard to explain the
discrepancy that exists between the average female head and skull.
Most probably the determination of the nasi-alveolar length in the living
is the disturbing factor. The remarks already made with respect to the
naso-malar, to the orbital, and to the nasal indices in the males apply
equally to the females and need no supplement in this place.

Other Series of Measurements and Records. — It remains to mention
the results of our measurements of the Eskimo crania in the museum
of the Royal College of Surgeons and of those in the Cambridge
Anatomical Museum. We may repeat the warning that the figures

A Contribution to Eskimo Craniology 191

we are now considering relate to all Eskimo crania, male and female
alike, in each of those collections, whereas up to this point we have
kept the data based on observations on male crania apart from those
yielded by female skulls. We have, moreover, in the case of the series
at the museum of the College of Surgeons, a larger number of indi-
viduals than was available for the construction of Table I a, on which
to base our conclusions ; and at Cambridge skulls from Labrador form
a very large proportion of the whole series. The data enable us to
calculate the five average indices already spoken of in connection with
the measurements of the head (viz., the cephalic or breadth index, the
facial index of KoUmann, the naso-malar index of Oldfield Thomas,
the orbital index of Broca, and the nasal index of Broca). We will
first institute comparisons of the cephalic or breadth index of the skulls
in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons comprising males and
females, with the same index derived from the study of male skulls
alone (from the College of Surgeons and from Cambridge). We see
(Table III.) that when male skulls alone are considered the index of
the average (71 "5) is slightly lower than the average of all the Cambridge
skulls (eleven in number) measured; while it is distinctly below that
(72"o3) of the males and females measured at the College of Surgeons
(twenty-four in number). In the whole series of comparisons the
differences do not exceed 2-5 units, except in the case of the facial
index of Kollmann, where the difference amounts to 3'i8 units. But
the disturbing series is that at Cambridge, and the modifying factor is
almost certainly the index given by an adult female skull (1872) which
amounts to the unusually high figure of 62 '3 ; and since only six skulls
of this series were available for the determination of this particular
index, the influence of a single index of such high value is brought
out very strongly in the average. On the whole, then, we conclude
that the records of Table II. amount to a very close approximation
to the actual state of cranial proportions in the Eastern group of
the Eskimo. We have also analysed the cranial characters of the
Labrador Eskimo as represented by the specimens presented by
Dr Curwen to the Cambridge Anatomical Museum ; we have carefully
revised the measurements of these skulls (cf. page 182), and the indices
derived from the measurements, and in working out the averages of
the indices obtained, it became apparent that the greatest divergences
from the averages were met with in the skulls of the Labrador
Eskimo, and not among the skulls of the Greenland Eskimo.
Not only was the greatest divergence in the averages found in the
cephalic, vertical, and nasal indices, and also in the horizontal cir-
cumference of the Labrador Eskimo skull, but in the ten specimens

192 Studies in Anthropology

which comprise the series, the Labrador skulls were the most divergent
from one another. In the cephalic index this was most striking, the
highest index of all the ten skulls being provided by a Labrador skull
with an index of 75*4, and the lowest of all the ten skulls being that
of a Labrador skull with an index of only 65-8. Again, considering
the horizontal circumference in the series of ten skulls, the largest
circumference (of 550 mm.) is that of a Labrador skull, and the smallest
circumference (476 mm.) is also that of a skull from Labrador. A
similar variation was found in the facial index of Kollmann — the
average was 54"36, but the greatest index above this number was that
of a Labrador Eskimo skull (index = 62-3). So the point which
seems to be worth emphasising is this : that in comparing Labrador
and Greenland Eskimo, the greatest divergences are to be met with
in the crania of Labrador Eskimo, and that the crania of the
Greenland Eskimo are more constant in the particular features
observed.

The actual figures and the average indices will be found in
Table IV. {q.v.).

Certain Craniologic.\l Characters of the Eskimo.

The second part of our communication deals, as has been previously
intimated, with certain craniological features of the Eskimo as viewed
in the light of observations incidentally made in the course of the fore-
going investigations. The following are those to which special attention
has been paid : —

The scaphocephalic character of the Eskimo cranium ;

The frequency of a persistent infra-orbital suture ;

The asymmetry of the foramen magnum ;

The usage of the teeth, especially of the incisors ;

The thickening of the body of the mandible ;

The characters of the skull of the Eskimo child ;
and the percentage frequency of several of these will be found in
Table V.

Scaphoid Skulls and Obliteration of Sutures. — It is well known that
a scaphoid appearance of the cranium (most easily perceptible when
the view is that of norma facialis or occipitalis) is very common in
Eskimo crania ; and whereas such a degree of scaphocephaly is very
commonly (but by no means invariably) associated with obliteration,
either partial or complete, of the sagittal suture in the skulls of other
races, such synostotic fusion of the two parietal bones is in the

A Contribution to Eskimo Craniologi) 193

Eskimo crania not nearly so common as in those of other races.
An extreme degree of development of the scaphoid character is to be
seen in the skull labelled A.B., 8, 15, T41, of the collection in the
Anatomy School at Copenhagen, and this skull presents no sign of
even incipient obliteration of the sagittal suture. We have tested
the accuracy of the statement, as regards Eskimo crania in general,
by observations on twenty-eight crania of Eskimo in the museum of
the College of Surgeons in London. In eleven of these the scaphoid
character was strongly marked, but only in one of the eleven was there
anything more than quite a negligible amount of sagittal synostosis.
Other very good examples of the degree of scaphocephaly which may
be attained before the sagittal suture has become obliterated is to be
observed in the cranium No. 48A of the Anatomical Museum at
Kiel, and in an Eskimo skull at Halle. In the former (cf. fig. 4),
obliteration of the sagittal suture is incipient only. The other three
crania represented in fig. 4, though not Eskimo, are not without
interest, as showing the absence of the scaphoid character of the
cranial vault in specimens in which the sagittal suture had become
obliterated at an early (and in one case at an almost infantile) period'.
This is a convenient place to mention that in contrast to the foregoing
condition, where the sagittal suture remains unclosed, and also to the
next subject of consideration, viz., the persistence of the infra-orbital
suture on the facial aspect of the cranium, there may occur in aged
individuals a very complete synostosis even among the Eskimo. Such
an aged Eskimo skull is to be seen in the Stuttgart Museum. In this
specimen synostosis has occurred even in the maxillo-malar suture, which
has been obliterated thereby.

Infra-orbital Suture. — The comparatively great frequency with which
the facial part of the infra-orbital suture persists in adults seems to
be another characteristic of Eskimo crania. The following data have
been collected by us in illustration of the frequency of this occurrence : —

In the very large collection of skulls of the Greenland Eskimo
in the anatomical museum of the University at Copenhagen, one hundred
and eighty-five examples were examined, and the suture found in eighty-
one skulls on one or the other side of the face. Of the collection of
Eskimo crania in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in
London, twenty-four were examined, and nineteen showed persistence
of the suture, in fifteen of which the persistence was bilateral, the suture
remaining on one side only in the other four specimens. Combining

1 We thus have evidence that \'ircho\v's well-known generalisation on this subject
is not without exceptions.

D. 13

194 Studies in Anthropologij

the two sets of observations, we may say that the suture persisted in
one hundred out of two hundred and nine crania of Eskimo adults.

It would seem from observations on crania of the gorilla that
persistence of the suture may be associated with great lateral expansion
of the upper maxilla, for in the crania of gorillas the suture persists
for a considerable time : the well-known characteristic of Eskimo
skulls, viz., great bi-malar width, would thus be explained. But this
is not an entirely satisfactory explanation, for in the orang-utan, an ape
in which there is at least as great a development of the upper maxilla
in the lateral direction as in the gorilla, the infra-orbital suture is closed
comparatively very early.

The Contour of the Foratnen Magnum. — The foramen magnum and
its surroundings next claim attention. The pyriform shape due to
imperfect ossification at the posterior margin is a very frequent char-
acter, though it is perhaps hardly correct to speak of it as an anomaly,
for it is apparently a retention of the infantile character of this foramen.
It was observed in nine out of twenty-four skulls in the museum of the
Royal College of Surgeons, and in four out of eleven cases at Cambridge.
Asymmetry of the marginal contour is also not uncommon ; some-
times the condyles are involved in the distortion. At Copenhagen,
two hundred and nine Eskimo crania were examined with reference
to the occurrence of asymmetry in the margin of the foramen magnum,
and three instances of this condition occurred. At the museum of
the Royal College of Surgeons the frequency of this asymmetry in
Eskimo skulls was much greater, viz., four cases among twenty-eight
crania. Combining the two sets of data, the frequency observed is
seven in two hundred and thirty-seven crania.

Additional Facet oti margin of Fora/nen Magnum. — As regards the
frequency of occurrence of an additional articular facet on the anterior
margin of the foramen magnum, this was presented by three skulls
only out of one hundred and eighty-five crania of Greenland Eskimo
(Copenhagen collection) examined.

Eustachian Processes. — It is convenient to mention in this place
that two out of fifty-five Eskimo skulls (at Copenhagen) bear large
Eustachian processes on the petrous bones on either side (such pro-
cesses being commoner in the lower than in the higher races, and not
infrequent in gorilla skulls).

The Teeth. — The following notes refer to the condition of the
teeth : — Among the Eskimo skulls in the Copenhagen collection,
the appearance described long ago (1861, Nat. Hist. Revieiv) by
Lord Avebury as characteristic of Greenlanders is not met with very
frequently. The Copenhagen skulls are mentioned separately as being

A Contribution to Eskimo Crauiology 195

those of Greenlanders, but the appearance referred to (the incisors
meeting edge to edge and the surface becoming much worn) is not
frequent among the Eskimo crania in the collections in London and
Cambridge, including crania from Labrador. In one skull at Copen-
hagen the lateral incisors had not been developed, although the skull
was that of an adult. The palate in this specimen is wide and the teeth
large. In three crania of the same Eskimo series, and also (and
especially) in the Eskimo skull No. 48A of the anatomical collection
at Kiel (the specimen figured in connection with synostosis and scapho-
cephaly), the same curious dislocation of the molars so frequent among
Maori and Mori-ori skulls (where there is great usage of the lateral
surface of the crown and of the exposed root or roots) is observed
(cf p. 174).

Thickenifig of the Mandible. — The next point to which we must refer
is a remarkable thickening of the body of the mandible, not exclusively
confined to, but very common in, Eskimo and Greenland crania.
The thickening is most marked about the level of the second molar
tooth, and is due to a subperiostial deposit, the exciting cause of which
is uncertain. This thickening was observed in six out of twenty-four
Eskimo crania in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, and
in four mandibles out of eight at Cambridge.

Nasal Skeleton. — Several points in connection vn\h the nasal skeleton
deserve special mention. Thus in two skulls out of fifty-six at Copenhagen,
well marked pre-nasal fossae were observed ; again, in the Anatomical
Museum at Kiel, where there is a collection of some ten skulls from
Greenland, excessively attenuated nasal bones are seen in specimen
No. II, while No. 19 of the same series has the lowest nasal index
(viz., 327) with which we have yet met.

Crania of Children. — The Kiel series, moreover, contains three
crania of Eskimo children, which are of special interest, for they
enable us to learn which of the striking characters of the adult
Eskimo cranium have been early acquired, and which are assumed
comparatively late in the period of growth from childhood. Other
crania were carefully observed with this object in view, and the
opportunity was taken of similarly observing some crania of Eskimo
children at Copenhagen. Though the support of numerical data cannot
yet be appealed to, it is submitted that the following characters
the adult Eskimo crania appear very early, and therefore may be re-
garded in the adult as retentions of infantile characters. These are : —

I. The dolichocephalic character. (Two mesaticephalic Eskimo
crania were seen at Copenhagen, but these were not crania
of children and possibly not of pure Eskimo.)

13—2

196 Studies in Anthropology

2. A megasemic orbital aperture.

3. A pyriform contour of the foramen magnum.

4. A flattened nasal skeleton.

5. Prominence of the chin. (This prominence is perhaps more

apparent, in consequence of the condition referred to in
No. 4, than real.)

6. Small mastoid processes.

7. A longitudinal palatine torus.

8. Persistence of the infra-orbital suture.

Whereas the following characters have been acquired by the skull in
the course of growth : —

1. A low nasal index, depending on relative narrowness of the

apertura pyriformis nasi.

2. A scaphocephalic cranium without sagittal synostosis.

3. Greater prominence of the malar bones.

In concluding this paper, we wish to refer to two other specimens at
Copenhagen, viz., A.B., a, 56, a Greenland cranium remarkable for being
atypical in its facial though typical in its cranial features, and thus con-
stituting a transitional type; and No. 159, where the external pterygoid
plate is most curiously perforated and a reduplication of Civinini's
foramen may be seen (the question of weathering is excluded). Finally,
we have to reserve the consideration of the brain of the Eskimo,
though the accounts of Chudzinski and Hrdlicka are not quite in
accord on this subject, and the subject is one of great interest.

References to and explanations of the accompanying tables will be
found in the text ; but further, we have added a series of notes provided
by Mr Taber, and it should be understood that they are recorded
without comment and as nearly as possible in the form in which they
were communicated to us, for they belong to rather a different aspect
of anthropology from that to which we have endeavoured to confine
ourselves in the foregoing communication.

Table I.

Note I. It is to be noticed that in four cases the figures here given differ slightly
from those published in the Proceedings of tlie Cambridge Philosophical Society.
The four figures are marked thus x , as in the case of the facial breadth. An
error in the measurement of this dimension in one of the men, "John," was
detected in revising the averages, and raises this average by -5 mm., and in the
case of the women an alteration of 'i mpi. is needed ; the other two are altered,
i.e.., slightly increased, by the inclusion of the measurements of another individual,
so that these averages are now based on data from five instead of four individuals.

A Contribution to Eskimo Craniology 197

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Studies in Anthropology

Table I a.

Note I. The above dimensions, with the exception of the maximum length and the
horizontal circumference, are reproduced in the diagrams (see figs. 2 and 3).

Note II. The average value for the maximum length of the head when the records
made by Virchow are combined with our data is 192 '4 mm. (fourteen heads).
Virchow's other data have not been worked up into combination with ours.
Cf. Virchow, Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, Band xii, 1880.

Note III. See also Schenk, Bull, de la Soc. Neuchat. de Geographic; abstracted in
the Cmtralblatt fiir Anthropologie, 1900. Two skulls of Labrador Eskimo in
the Lausanne Museum are described, and among other measurements we find:
Hor. circ. 540 and 533, average 536-5 (2), which with our figures gives an average
of 526 for nineteen skulls, supposing the Lausanne skulls to be those of males.
Facial breadth, 137 and 134, average 135'5 — with our figures gives I38'6(i9) as
the average. But our figures are only very slightly altered thereby.

Table II.

Table III.

Males

Males and

Males

Females

Indices

Data provided
in Table I A

Indices based on data
provided in Table I A

'

R.C.S.

C.

Head

Skuli

Head

Skull

Head

Skull

Skull

Skull

Cephalic or breadth

77

7i'5

74"5

73"i

Cephalic or breadth

77

71-5

72-03

71-8

Facial (Kollmann) ...

5>"4

51-8

.507

54*2

Facial (Kollmann) ...

5 '"4

51 -8

51-18

54*36

Naso-malar (Thomas)

io9'6

107

108-3

io6-i

Naso-malar (Thomas)

109-6

107

106

107-9

Orbital

81-9

87-5

857

90-1

Orbital

81-9

87-5

88-5

88-65

Nasal

64-1

45 "3

62*4

44

Nasal

64-1

45'3

42-8

45'5S

R.C.S. Museum of Royal College of Surgeons.
C. Cambridge Anatomical Museum.

Table IV. Averages of Measurements of the Ten Skulls of
Eskimo in the Anatomical Museum at Cambridge.

I. Average Cephalic Index — "jv^. 10 skulls (Labrador and Greenland).

Greatest divergence above = 75-4 ) , , , , , , ,,
, , < n\ both Labrador skulls.

,, ,, below = 65-8 )

4 Greenland skulls. Average Cephalic Index=iv^.

6 Labrador ,, ,, ,, ,, =72-08.

Greatest divergence above = 75*4 ) , , r , , , ,,
, , / r.\ both Labrador skulls.

„ ,, below = 65*8 1

A Co7it?ibution to Eskimo Craniology 199

II. Average Verttail /fu/cx= J yf,. 9 skulls. Labrador and Greenland.

Greatest divergence above = 79" 2 (

, , ^1 both Laoraaor skvMi.

„ ,, below = 09"3 )

III. Average Ordi'ta/ /nddx=8H'6^. 8 skulls. Labrador and Greenland.

Greatest divergence above =94'/ — a Labrador skull.

,, ,, below =78'6

IV. Average A'asal Index = ^~.-~.z^. 7 skulls. Lal:)rador and Greenland.

Greatest divergence above = 2 of 50 — one was a Labrador skull.

,, ., below = 40"3 — a Labrador ■skviW.

V. Average /arw/ (Kollmann) /«rt'(?jf=54-36. 6 skulls. Labrador and Greenland.
Greatest divergence above = 6'2'3 — a Labrador skull.
,, ,, below = 49-3

VI. Average Naso- Malar Index =io-]'i). 7 skulls. Labrador and Greenland.
Greatest divergence above = ii3'6 — a (Greenland skull.

,, ,, below= i05"3 ,,

Average o( Labrador skulls = i07"5 — (more constant).
VII. Average Gojiio-zygomatic Index = 80' •,. 7 skulls. Labrador and Greenland.
Greatest divergence above = 89 — a Greenland skull.
,, „ below=72"3 ,,

Average Labrador skull = 81 '07 — (more constant).

VIII. Average Stephano-zygowatic Index — So'<). Labrador and Greenland.

Greatest divergence above = 9i'5 — a Labrador skwW.
„ ,, below =74-6 — a Greenland skull.

IX. Average Palato-maxillary Index — i i2"i. Labrador and Greenland.

Greatest divergence above = 120 — a Greenland skull.
,, ,, below =105"3 — a Labrador ■^xiW.

X. Average Horizontal Circtiinference=^ -.ly ^. Labrador and Greenland.

Greatest divergence above = 550 — a Labrador skull.
,, ,, below=476 — a Zrt^W(7;' skull.

Table of Variations in Ten Eskimo Skulls at Cambridge.

Index or Character

Range

Extremes

Labrador or Greenland

Average

of

Variation

Highest

Lcnuest

I. Cephalic ...

71-8

9-6

75-4- 65-8

Labrador

Labrador

II. Vertical

li'f'

9-9

79*2— 69-3

,,

„

III. Orbital

88-65

i6-i

947— 78-6

,,

Greenland

IV. Nasal

4.^'.'^.'^

9'7

500— 40-3

,,

Labrador

V. Facial (Kollmann)

54-.^6

130

62-3- 49"3

,,

Greenland

VI. Naso-malar

107-9

8-3

113-6— 105-3

Greenland

,,

VII. Gonio-zygomatic ...

80- ^

6-7

89-0— 72-3

,,

,,

VIII. Stephano-zygomatic

80-9

16-9

91-5— 74-6

Labrador

,,

IX. Palato-maxillary •..

II2-I

i4"7

120 — 105-3

Greenland

Labrador

X. Horizontal circum-

ference ...

.=^i.S'5

74-0

550—476

Labrador

Labrador

200

Studies in Anfhrojjology

Table V.

Frequency of occurrence of certain anomalies

Per cent, (figures
in brackets indi-
cate the absolute
number examined)

Aboriginal

Australians.

Per cent.

Gorillas.
Per cent.

Persistence of pars facialis of the infra-orljital

suture

Pyriform shape of the foramen magnum

Asymmetry of the foramen magnum

Third articular facet on margin of foramen

magnum
Eustachian spines on basal surface of petrous
bones ... ... ... _ ...

Thickening of the body of the mandible

47-84 (209)
40 (35)

2"95 (237)
i-6i (185)

3-63 (55)
30 (32)

43'4
1515

i8-8

I

Miscellaneous Notes furnished by Mr R. G. Taber.

I. Names. — No family names. Tribal names derived from district, e.g., Nack-
vack tribe, etc.

II. Religion. — These Eskimo are all Christians. The Moravians, who are
missionaries and traders, have had a station at Hebron for about 80 years.
"Wise men" or "Conjurors" disappear when a tribe becomes Christian-
ised. One of Taber's Eskimo was formerly a "wise man," but since
becoming a Christian has retired from that profession.

III. Marriage. — This is celebrated according to the Moravian rite among the
Christianised Eskimo, one of the missionaries officiating ; should the
services of a missionary not be available, marriage would probably not be
postponed on this account. Polygamy has ceased among the Christianised
Eskimo. One of Taber's Eskimo had two wives formerly.

IV. Inter-inarriage, and Half-breeds. — As a general rule half-breeds are uncommon.
The Eskimo never, so far as is known, intermarry with Indians in
Labrador, so the parentage of the half-breeds, as in the case of the child
Nancy in Taber's party, is generally European and Eskimo. So great is
the dislike of the Eskimo for the Indian, that when two parties meet at a
trading post of the Hudson Bay Company, they invariably camp far
apart, in some cases on different banks of a river.

V. Movements. — In summer the Eskimo of Labrador wander considerable dis-
tances along the coast and over the islands; the Indians in summer also
invade Labrador, retiring in winter, though in summer they may travel as
far north as Cape Chudleigh.

VI. Cli?>ia/e of Labrador. — Taber has written a detailed account of this in an
American periodical called Outing. In winter there is daylight between
9 a.m. and 3 p.m. The general appearance of the environs of Hebron is,
to judge from photographs, desolate in the extreme.

A Contribution to Eskimo Craniologi) 201

VII. Decrease in the Eskimo Population is ascribed by Taber to the following
influences: — Use of European dwelling-places. Cooked food ; the Eskimo
cook almost all food now, except certain small fish, which are eaten
raw. Admixture by marriage. General changes in mode of life owing to
European influence.

VIII. General Folklore. — Taber is about to publish the accounts furnished by the
Labrador Eskimo of the origin of the seal; of the origin of the "Northern
Lights" ; also a legend of a great flood.

IX. Kajaks. — The Labrador model is identical, even in details, with that in use in
Greenland and figured by Nansen {Eskimo Life). One of Taber's Eskimo,
"John," said that balancing by means of the paddle was not necessary
for a good kajak man, who would be quite independent of such an use of
the paddle.

Fig.

Fig- 3-

<^'i^'

Views in Norma Facialis. (Nos. 1—4) and Norma Lateralis (Nos. 5 — 8)

OF Four Skulls from the University Museum of Human Anatomy

AT Kiel.

The Eskimo cranium (Nos. 4 and 8) is very scaphoid, yet synostosis in the sagittal

suture is not complete. In the three European crania (Nos. i — 5, 2 — 6, 3 — 7) the

smallest of which (Nos. 2 — 6) is a very young skull, complete obliteration of the

sagittal suture through premature synostosis is seen to have occurred without any

accompanying scaphocephalic appearance. In two of the European crania (Nos. i — 5,

2 — 6) practically no deformation has occurred, though in the smaller of these,

synostosis was very complete in all the cranial sutures. In the largest European

cranium (Nos. 3 — 7), some distortion has been produced in the direction of akro-

cephaly.

These specimens afford examples of exceptions to the general rule enunciated by
Virchow as to the relation between cranial growth, and synostosis of cranial sutures.

NOTE ON A SKULL FROM SYRIA.

The specimen under consideration is the massive skull of an adult
male which was picked up near Damascus after the massacres of i860.
For the loan of this specimen I am indebted to C. W. Cunnington, Esq.,
and I have made some notes descriptive of its more striking features.
Mr Cunnington kindly made some of the measurements which are
appended.

The skull (cf. fig. i) is of considerable weight and capacity (the latter
being about 1650 c.c). It bears four distinct wounds to which no doubt
death was due. At the bregma is a large and nearly quadrate hole,
from which the missing piece of the left parietal bone was no doubt
removed by a sword-cut, of which unmistakable evidence is afforded
by the clean-cut character of the posterior margin (45 mm. in length).
From this side, a crack or fissure traverses the left parietal bone obliquely
to end eventually in the lambdoid suture. At the external angular
process of the frontal bone on the left side, is a large deficiency due
to destruction of the superciliary margin and parts adjacent to it, leaving
a depression of cup-like shape and about 20 mm. in diameter. The
third wound is a clean cut 36 mm. long just above the right parietal
eminence : and a fourth wound is seen as a clean-edged incision dividing
the root of the left zygomatic arch. Part of the lateral margin of the
skeleton of the nose is absent from the right side, but there is no certain
indication that this deficiency is of a traumatic nature. However this
may be, the condition of the bones of the cranial vault affords abundant
evidence of violence.

Most of the teeth have dropped out, but those remaining are of large
size and good quality. Otherwise the skull is in good preservation and
has suffered little or nothing by weathering. Having remarked the
massive glabellar prominence and other muscular ridges and promin-
ences, the asymmetry of the specimen next demands attention. . The

204 Studies in Anthropologij

skull is plagiocephalic. There is great parieto-occipital flattening, but
this is much more marked on the right than on the left side, so that
there is comparatively great backward projection on the left side of
the conjoined parietal bones (the sagittal suture has long been closed
by ossification). But it is remarkable that while thus laterally asym-
metrical, there is no concomitant torsion or even lateral flexion of the
basis cranii, and that the occipital condyles, though dissimilar in size,
are on the same horizontal plane (which is a somewhat unusual
occurrence in plagiocephalic crania).

From the indices (see Table) the skull will be seen to be brachy-
cephalic, akrocephalic, orthognathous, microseme, and leptorrhine. The
figure representing its cubic capacity places it in the megacephalic
division (Flower).

The skull may be compared in the first instance to a specimen in
the museum at Nicosia, Cyprus (for a sketch of which I am indebted to
my brother, the Rev. H. T. Forbes Duckworth, M.A.), in which the
same features of prominent brow ridges with parieto-occipital flattening
are seen to be associated. But the Nicosia skull does not present
marked asymmetry.

Turning to the Syrian skulls in the Anatomical Museum at Cam-
bridge, I will only mention here, as a full description of these skulls
will be published by E. M. Corner, M.A., that at least two types are
recognisable, and that of skulls presenting parieto-occipital flattening
of a degree comparable with that of the Damascus specimen, only one
was found, whose outline is here figured (cf. No. 2, fig. 2). The latter,
however, while resembling the Damascus cranium in this respect, in all
others resembles more closely a skull figured by Topinard and described
as the artificially deformed cranium of a Maronite (cf. No. i, fig. 2).
According to this author, artificial deformation is habitual among the
Maronites. This must not be overlooked in basing comparisons on the
contours of various crania from this region.

For accounts of other skulls from Syria, we are indebted to Pruner-
Bey and Dr Paul Langerhans. In a communication made in 1866 to
the Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris', Pruner-Bey describes a series of
about sixteen crania, and it is interesting to note that twelve of these
were collected under similar circumstances, and at about the same time
as our Damascus specimen, so that there is reason to suppose that they
belonged to individuals whose lives had been lost in the massacres. Of
these twelve, three present features distinctly akin to those of Arab
crania, while the remaining nine are as a series characterised by the

' Bulletins de la SocUte (f Anthropologie de Paris, 2^ Seiie, tome i, p. 563.

J

On a SJx'uII from Syria 205

great prominence of the glabella, in addition to unusually massive
mastoid processes and nuchal crests. Now it is noteworthy that Pruner-
Bey, while mentioning the brachycephalic character as a feature of the
group, and speculating on the cause of the parieto-occipital flattening,
which is also frequently present, yet concludes that the crania represent
" le type semitique de la branche syrienne," while admitting in the next
words that "par leur structure massive, par leur volume et par le
grossissement des traits de la figure, ils different sensiblement du crane
arabe."

He subsequently admits the possibility of the skulls having belonged
to a mixed race, and suggests that two of them may have been those of
individuals with Turkish blood in their veins. As a group, however,
they could not be referred to a Turanian stock.

Now from this description I think that the Damascus skull would
come well into line with the nine crania described as a group by Pruner-
Bey, and it may be repeated that the circumstances under which they
were procured were similar. But I do not think that from the published
description Pruner-Bey is justified in the conclusion that the series
represents the Syrian branch of the Semitic type.

Before continuing this discussion, it will be as well to refer to Dr Paul
Langerhans' careful paper in the Archiv fiir Anthropoiogie, Band vii,
1873, entitled, "Die heutigen Einbewohner des Heiligen Landes." The
author had at his disposal eight skulls from Es Salt, said to be
relics of a skirmish between Government troops and Beduins. These
specimens are not described in detail, as they are not considered of
sufficiently authentic origin. Six other crania (Amman, Philadelphia)
are considered to be of indubitable Beduin origin : these are dolicho-
cephalic and less capacious than the Damascus cranium, and bear no
general resemblance at all to that specimen. Dr Langerhans, it should
be noted, finds a difference between the true Beduin skulls and those of
the peasant population of Syria, the latter possessing somewhat larger
skulls than the former.

From a perusal of Dr Langerhans' communication, it will be con-
cluded that the Damascus cranium is very improbably that of a Beduin,
and having excluded that contingency as completely as possible, we
may turn to the characters of the skulls of Turks, remembering that
Government (i.e. Turkish) troops were involved in the later stages of the
" massacres," and that this consideration must not be neglected in
forming an opinion of the nature of the Damascus cranium.

Taking the various descriptions of the Turkish cranium in their
historical order we may note that Vesalius (quoted by Blumenbach,
Hamy and others), in his Corporis hiimani fabrica (sixteenth century),

206 Studies in Anthropologic

mentions the occipital flattening of the skulls of Turks, and remarks on
the part played by the midwives in the artificial production of such
deformity in infants (it is noteworthy that this deformation is mechanic-
ally produced in the skulls of new-born infants when the presentation,
to use the language of the obstetrician, has been of the occipito-posterior
variety).

Sandifort {Talndcz cranioriim diver sarum nationuni, eighteenth cent.)
figures as his typical Turkish skull, a cranium with immensely prominent
glabella reminding one of the Damascus and Nicosia specimens : occipital
flattening is not a feature of the figure given by Sandifort.

Blumenbach gives a series of descriptive characters of the Turkish
skull which is almost completely realised by the Damascus specimen
(see quotation by Davis in Thesaurus Craniorum, p. 124, viz., " Calvaria
fere globosa : occipito scil. vix ullo, cum foramen magnum pene ad
extremum baseos cranii positum sit. Frons latior. Glabella prominens").

\^Carus figures a Turkish skull, but I have not been able to consult
the reference.]

Retzius {Ethnologische Sdiriften, 1864) figures (Plate 111, fig. 6)
the cranium of a Turk considered to be of typical form : the parieto-
occipital flattening referred to by Blumenbach is well seen. Retzius
places the Turks in his division " Brachycephalae orthognathic"

Davis (in the Thesaurus Craniorum), from the consideration of two
crania of Turks in his possession, comments favourably on the accuracy
of Blumenbach's description.

Weisbach, in 1873 {Mittheiiungeti der Anihropologischen Gesellschaft
in Wien, p. 220) gave a description of the cranial forms of the Turks,
based on the examination of about seventy crania from the suburbs of
Constantinople. He admits (cf. Hamy in Crania Ethnica) that there
may be included crania of "Albanesen, Tscherkessen, Syrier, Araber,"
but he excluded all that gave any evidence of negroid affinities. He
figures a skull somewhat resembUng the Nicosia specimen. Weisbach
concludes from his observations that " Der Schiidel der Turken ist
mithin mittelgross, schwer (dick knochig), kurz, hoch, relativ breit, in
sagittaler und coronaler Richtung sehr stark gewolbt "— all of which
features are reproduced in the Damascus skull with the exception of
the cranial capacity which renders necessary the substitution of the
term megacephalic for "mittelgross."

Floiver {Catai. Roy. Coll. Surg.), however, records the capacities of
two crania of Turks, and these are respectively as great as and greater
than that of the Damascus specimen. Capacities of over 1,600 c.c.
are also quoted by other authors.

Batuy in F A^ithropologie, 1895, insists on the " aplatissement parieto-

Oti a Skull from Syria 207

occipital commun a tous les Turcs " and the development in vertical
height : and the same author in Crania Ethnica (wherein an extensive
bibliography will be found), gives a remarkable note in describing the
southward expansion of the Turks into Syria, where they are said to
have produced a marked influence as far as "la montagne des Ansaries "
and "les Yehalines." "La montagne des Ansaries" may be presumed
to be the range of that name to the north of the Lebanon. The note
just referred to deals with the characters of skulls measured by M. Leon
Cahun, who obtained them when on a scientific mission to " la montagne
des Ansaries." The quotation runs as follows : " Cinq cranes d'Ansaries
de Kerdaha pres Calbie sur sept recueillis par le voyageur, offrent la
deformation parieto-occipitale plus accusee a droite qu'a gauche. lis
ont en commun I'indice 84*57 diam. a-p. 175 diam. tr. max. 148." And
certainly the specimen figured in Crania Ethnica is not lacking in other
resemblances to the Damascus cranium, in which, as has been already
indicated, the parieto-occipital flattening is more accentuated on the
right than on the left side (just as in the Ansarie's). The religion which
has gained their peculiar name for the Ansaries seems to have been
practised in Northern Syria for the last thousand years (cf. Lyde, The
Asian Mystery, p. 67). Lieut. Walpole {The Atisayrii, vol. iii, p. 342)
indeed suggests that they are referred to even by Pliny, and adds a note
as to their physical appearance, "They are a fine large race with more
bone and muscle than is generally found among Orientals : browner
than the Osmanlee but lighter, fairer than the Arab." Walpole more-
over recognises that their numbers have been recruited from very
various ethnical sources.

Dr V. Luschan has in the Archiv fiir Antliropologie (Bd. xix, 1891)
recorded the results of an enquiry into the cranial forms of inhabitants
of Lykia, and finds that brachycephalic crania are there as frequent as
the dolichocephalic varieties ; he further refers certain hypsi-brachy-
cephalic crania to what he calls an "armenische" or "armenoide" race:
as similar skull-forms occurred on two occasions in very ancient graves,
V. Luschan bases hereon a theory of the existence of an aboriginal
"Armenian" race in this region. The Damascus skull agrees with some
of these skulls from Lykia in being hypsi-brachycephalic, and with the
" Armenian " skull figured in Dr von Luschan's paper (fig. 17) in its
general contour.

Professor Sergi in his Ursprutig des Mittelliindischen Stammes de-
scribes various skull-forms occurring on the Mediterranean shores, but
the Damascus skull can be referred to no form considered by Sergi to
be characteristic of the "Mediterranean" race: on the other hand its
rotundity and elevated character assign to it a place among the crania

208 Studies in Anthropology

compared by Sergi {Ursprung des Mittelliiiidischen Stammes — Deutsch
von Dr Byhan, p. 134) to Mongolian skulls.

Finally, the frequency of occurrence of brachycephalic crania in
Asia Minor is further insisted upon by Elisyeef (who found the average
breadth index to be 86, the number of observations being 143) and
Chantre (breadth index: average of 120 observations on males, 84'5).
The two latter observations are quoted by Ripley in his Races of
Europe (1899).

The attempt to sum up the evidence may now be made, and it will,
I think, lead to the following conclusions : —

(i) That the Damascus cranium is very similar in general contour
and especially in the peculiar character of its asymmetry to
certain skulls from "la montagne des Ansaries '" (one of which
is figured in Crania Ethnica, Plate Lxxxv, figs. 3 and 4),
immediately to the north of the Lebanon range,
(ii) That the Damascus cranium resembles nine of the skulls obtained
in Syria under similar circumstances by M. Girard de Rialle,
and described by Pruner-Bey in the Bulletin de la Societe
d^ Anthropologic de Paris (1866, p. 563 et seq.).
(iii) That the Damascus cranium resembles skulls described or
figured by Sandifort, Blumenbach, Davis, Weisbach, Flower,
Hamy, et aliis, as typical Turkish crania, and also, in certain
features, the skull in the Museum at Nicosia.

(iv) That the description of the Damascus cranium as representing
a form common among peoples of Turkish origin, is not
prejudiced by the fact that Pruner-Bey ascribed the nine
skulls (referred to in conclusion (ii) as similar to the
Damascus cranium) to the Syrian branch of the Semitic
type, considering they did not correspond to any Turanian
type. For as regards the Syrian branch of the Semitic type,
the features in which the said nine skulls resemble that
somewhat vaguely defined cranial form are not clearly
stated by Pruner-Bey, whereas the clearly specified features
wherein they depart from the Arab type of cranium are
the very characters which one would from the study of the
various works quoted, bring together as typical of the skulls
of Turks.

(v) That if the argument in No. (iv) is sound, the Damascus skull
and skulls like it might warrantably be described as Turanian,
as this type is understood by some authors {ex. gr. von
Holder), but that as descriptive of cranial forms, such

On a Skull from Sy?ia

209

terms as Turanian and Semitic are better avoided until they
have been more clearly defined.

(vi) Lastly, that large, heavy-browed massive skulls with occipital
flattening occur in many localities adjacent to the eastern
shores of the Mediterranean ; they seem to be associated
with the Turkish inhabitants of those regions, and when
they combine a high altitudinal index with distinct brachy-
cephaly, are compared by Sergi to " Mongolian " crania.
They thus come into line with certain crania found in the
Crimea by Demidoff (cf. Exploration de la Russie meridio-
nale), in Kurdistan (cf. Crania Ethnica), and lastly, they
have some points of resemblance to a skull found in
Eastern Turkestan which is mentioned in an elaborate
memoir by Professor Rudolf Hoernle in the Transactions
of the Royal Asiatic Society. The latter specimen, which was
found in a mound with a number of MSS., is a short, broad
skull with the same parieto-occipital flattening as the
Damascus skull, from which, however, it diff~ers in being
much less massive. It is to be hoped that future research
will enable the whole of the lacunae between the foregoing
examples to be filled up, till a completely imperceptible
transition from one form to another shall be demonstrable.

Dimensions, etc., of a Syrian Skull.
up after the massacre of i860 :

Maximum length...
Ophryo-iniac length
Maximum breadth
Bi-auricular breadth
Bi-stephanic breadth
Bi-zygomatic breadth
Measurement from Ba^ion to Glabella
Nasion . .

From near Damascus, picked

Orbital height
Orbital breadth ...
Nasal height
Nasal width
Palato-maxillary length

Alveolar point

Bregma

Obelion

Lambda

Inion ...

Opisthion

180
180
148

120

'44
116
107

105
I ■;2

145
119

7«
37
.U
4.^

D.

14

210 Studies in Anthropology

Palato-maxillaiy breadth ... ... ... ... ... 68

Jugo-nasal arc ... ... ... ... ... ... .. 115

Jugo-nasal width... ... ... ... ... ... ... loi

Horizontal circumference ... ... ... ... ... 526

Radii :

Auriculo- Alveolar ... ... ... ... ... ... 106

-Nasal ... ... ... ... ... ... loi

-Glabellar 108

-Bregmatic... ... ... ... ... ... 139

-Obelial 135

-Lambdoid ... ... ... ... ... 112

-Iniac ... ... ... ... ... ... 81

52'2

Indices.

Cephalic (or breadth)

Altitudinal (or height) ... ... ... ... ... ... 84*4

Alveolar ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 9^'^

Orbital 79"i

Nasal 43"8

Palato-maxillary (Flower) ii9*3

Naso-malar 113 '8

Facial (KoUmann) 53'4

Stephano-zygomatic ... ... ... ... ... ... 83*4

Other measurements and indices :

Nasi-alveolar length ... ... ... ... ... 77

Angle of Cloquet ... ... ... ... ... ... 68°

Angle of Jacquart ... ... ... ... ... . . 74°

Cubic capacity ... ... ... ... ... ... 1)650 .

The illustrations accompanying this note are : — ^>

Fig. I. — The Damascus Cranium in Norma Lateralis: left side.
,, 2. — Outline tracings of four crania all reduced to the same dimensions (i-e., the
naso-lambdoid line is identical throughout the series).

No. I. — Simple deformation in a Maronite skull (from Topinard). 1

,, 2. — Specimen 1237 in the Cambridge Anatomical Museum [a

skull from Bassus Tower, Syria, forming part of the

Tyrwhitt Drake Collection]. -.

,, 3. — A skull in the Nicosia Museum, Cyprus. ;.

,, 4. — The Damascus skul'l. *

A Skull from Syria

211

No. r.

No. 2.

N". 3-

No.

14-

DESCRIPTIOxN OF TWO SKULLS FROM NAGYR.

To the Cambridge University Collection there have recently been
added two skulls from the capital of Nagyr, a small state in Central
Asia'. By the kindness of Prof. Macalister I am enabled to give the
following description of them : —

The skulls are numbered 1204 and 1205 respectively, in the Cam-
bridge catalogue, the measurements, which were made with Flower's
craniometer and a steel tape, are given in millimetres.

The skull 1204 is a female skull whose sex is indicated by an
inconspicuous glabella, faintly defined superciliary ridges, temporal ridges
and external occipital protuberance, with slender zygomatic arches.
It is in a good state of preservation, the left side being a good deal
more bleached than the right ; no remains of skin or adhering hairs
are to be seen. The more conspicuous parts missing are as follows :
the lower jaw, all the teeth except four (first and second molars on
either side), the lacrymal bones, the hamular processes of the internal
pterygoid plates, the left styloid process (that on the right side though
quite short (8 mm.) does not appear to have been broken off). The
OS planum of the ethmoid is much damaged on either side.

This skull is fairly symmetrical ; the right parietal eminence is the
more pronounced ; on the left side is a parietal foramen.

At the right asterion are three large wormian bones, and at the left
asterion a single one. The temporal ridge of the right side is more
pronounced than that on the left (and the remaining molar teeth of
the right side have larger dimensions than those on the left). There
is a post-condylar foramen of large size on the right side, in front of
and external to which is a remarkable eminence perforated at the top
where the bone is attenuated. This is due to pressure of the right
sigmoid sinus causing absorption of the bone and consequent dilatation
of the sinus in this region (just before its termination). The anterior
condylar foramina are large but neither is subdivided. The foramen

1 The skulls were obtained by Sir W. M. Conway, during his late mountaineering
expedition in the Hindu-Kush district.

Description of two Sknlh from Xagyr 213

spinosum is incomplete on either side, but this is possibly due to injury.
The nasal bones are curiously asymmetrical. The suture between them
is oblique in direction and at its highest point is 3 mm. to the left
of the remaining trace of the metopic suture, whereas its lower end
reaches to the middle line of the face ; the width of the nasal bones
at their upper ends varies correspondingly, for the right nasal bone is
6 mm., and the left 4 mm. wide at this end. The anterior opening of
the nose is also asymmetrical, the right superior maxillary bone being
hollowed out to a much deeper level than is the left : the septum of
the nose is strongly deflected to the left.

The dentition has been perfect. The premaxillo-maxillary suture is
still visible ; the sagittal suture shows no signs of synostosis nor has the
spheno-basilar suture yet synostosed. These facts assign an age of from
18 to 21 years to this skull.

The general shape and contours are of a refined type, the forehead
being high, no prominent glabella, distinct frontal eminences with a
slight flattening immediately posterior to these. The curve of the vault
reaches its culminating point just at the bregma and begins to descend
some 40 mm. posterior to this point. From the obelion, the posterior
curve continues to the lambda, after passing which it is interrupted by
a considerable bulging out in the region immediately above the inion.

In norma verticalis the skull is seen to be cryptozygous and dolicho-
cephalic. The breadth-index, 69-94, is remarkably low. There is a
depression at the level of the upper part of the temporal ridge, below
each parietal eminence, below which again is an eminence above the
mastoid process and it is at this level that the breadth of the skull
is greatest. The transverse arc is quite regular, without flattening
or upraising at the vertex. The mastoid processes are small, in fact
feminine, and the same description applies to the face generally.

The coronal, sagittal, and lambdoid sutures are of moderate com-
plexity. In the coronal suture just above the left stephanion appear
the remains of a wormian bone, interrupting the suture for some
15 mm. ; ossification has taken place around the circumference for
about half its extent. The sagittal suture becomes more simple for
a space of 25 mm. in the region of the obelion. The lambdoidal suture
is characterised by the wormian bones already referred to. On the
right side there is a large foramen in one wormian bone and another in
the base of the mastoid process.

On the left side are two foramina near the base of the mastoid
process, formed by the juxtaposition of notches in the borders of the
temporal and occipital bones respectively. The metopic suture persists
for a distance of 2 mm. only.

214 Studies m Anthropology

This skull weighs 419 gms. ; decidedly light. The cranial capacity
(using No. 8 shot) is 1470 c.c, an exceptionally high figure for a female
skull. As regards the face ; the orbits are mesoseme, and droop
slightly and externally ; there are shallow supra-orbital notches. The
nose is mesorrhine and the lower margins of its anterior opening are
rounded, the spine is small and the profile outline is nearly straight.
There is a well marked depression immediately below the infra-orbital
foramen. The palate is distinctly elliptical, of no great depth ; the
posterior nares are small. The occipital condyles are small, their inner
and anterior lips are prominent and not much elevated above the plane
of the foramen magnum.

An internal occipital protuberance can be felt and the torcular
herophili seems to have been situated on its left side.

Turning now to the skull No. 1205, a series of contrasts present
themselves. No. 1205 is a male skull — the prominent glabella, super-
ciliary ridges, occipital protuberance and mastoid processes as well as
the stoutness of the zygoma, indicate this. It is not in so good a state
of preservation as is No. 1204^ and the following parts are wanting: —
The lower jaw, styloid processes, right internal pterygoid plate, left
hamular process, left inferior turbinated bone, the posterior part of the
vomer and the left lacrymal bone. Three teeth alone remain and the
alveolar arch has undergone a considerable amount of absorption.

The most striking features are : the rough and uneven surface ; very
marked dolichocephaly (index 68"28), considerable flattening in the
region of the obelion, where there are two parietal foramina ; the skull
is also slightly plagiocephalic. There are two wormian bones on the
right side below the asterion. The appearance of the condyles is
noticeable. The left condyle is subdivided by a somewhat obhque
sulcus so as to present two oval articular areas. The articular surface
of the right condyle is constricted, at about the same level, but is not
completely interrupted.

There is a post-condylar foramen on the right side. The outer
pterygoid plates are much everted and on the left side a bridge of bone
connects the base of the external pterygoid plate with the base of the
spine of the sphenoid. . This is the superior variety of the pterygo-
spinous ligament ossified. On the right side a depression exists
immediately external to the external pterygoid plate.

The age of this skull is not very closely indicated. The third
molars on either side have been lost and their alveoli closed, and
since ossification is just commencing in the sagittal suture in the region
of the obelion, it may be assumed that the person had passed middle
age. The general contour is characterised by the very prominent

Description of tivo Skulls from Nagyr 215

glabella, with a depression immediately above it, the curve of the vault
reaches its maximum about 25 mm. posterior to the bregma, and the
region of the obelion is much flattened as has been already remarked.
Beyond the lambda there is a considerable bulging out of the occipital
bone, reduced at the occipital protuberance, whence a well-marked
occipital crest descends to the opisthion. Altogether this contour is
somewhat irregular, contrasting strongly with that of No. 1204.

On a horizontal plane, i.e., in norma verticalis, the skull is seen to
be phaenozygous, and its left side is somewhat flattened. The transverse
arc in the region of the coronal suture is quite regular. Posterior to
this, the highest point of the arc is seen to be at a distance of 1 7 mm.
to the left of the middle line ; still more posteriorly this arc is
interrupted by the flattening in the region of the obelion.

The sutures are moderately complex. The outline of the squamous
portion of the left temporal bone overlapping the parietal bone, is
noticeable as it culminates in a sharp spine vertically above the external
auditory meatus ; on the right side the outline of the corresponding
suture is more regular. The remaining teeth are of large size and show
signs of having been well used. The cranial capacity, 1375 c.c, and
the weight, 667 gms., afford contrasts with the skull No. 1204.

The orbits are mesoseme ; though their respective iiidices differ
considerably ; there is a supra-orbital notch on the right side and
a supra-orbital foramen on the left side. The lower margins of the
anterior nares are rounded ; the nose is mesorrhine, inclined to the
leptorrhine type : the nasal spine is large. The alveolar index shows
that the skull is orthognathic, but is not reliable owing to the absorption
of the alveolar arch, the effect of which, aggravated by the length of
time that has elapsed since the skull was interred, is to reduce the basi-
alveolar length. The palate seems to have been elliptical. Traces
of a premaxillo-maxillary suture remain, but these are lost near the
middle line of the palate.

There is a somewhat large foramen in the basi-occipital on the lip
of the foramen magnum midway between the condyles, corresponding
to the attachment of the suspensory ligament of the odontoid process of
the axis. The internal occipital protuberance corresponds in position
with the external, and the torcular herophili was situated on the right
side of this point.

Such are the characters of the two skulls. The contrasts between
them arise rather from diff'erences of sex and age than from any other
causes. Their type is Caucasian in spite of the low figures representing
their respective cephalic indices. There may be compared with them
the following examples : —

216 Studies in Anthropology

First, the series of skulls from the Hindu-Kush, described by
Dr Garson in 1888 (i.). These came from localities at distances from
Nagyr of thirty to one hundred miles. Of the five skulls two are dolicho-
cephalic, the remainder are mesaticephalic ; the most dolichocephalic
had a breadth index of 7 2 '3, and a general comparison of their measure-
ments with those of the two Nagyr specimens brings to light a general
resemblance'.

Secondly, there are two skulls from Srinagar briefly described by
Captain Cunningham (ii.) in 1854. Sketches of the two skulls (a male
and a female) are given, and the difference between these skulls and
the shorter skulls with wider zygomatic arches of tribes more Mongolian
in type is noticed. No measurements, however, are given. From the
sketches, a general resemblance to the Nagyr skull is apparent, more
particularly as regards the shape of the palate in the female skull. The
same sketches are referred to in the Crania Ethnica of Quatrefages
and Hamy.

In the third place, come the skulls presented to the Societe' Anthropo-
logique de Paris by M. de Ujfalvy in 1882 (iii.) i they are described
as having been obtained from a Mussulman cemetery in Kashmir.
A committee was appointed to examine and report on the skulls, but
so far no report has been available.

Turning to measurements on living persons there may be mentioned
M. de Ujfalvy's account of a native of Hunza whom he measured (iv.).
This man was dolichocephalic with a cephalic index of 73 '84. To
obtain the corresponding index for the skull itself, two units should be
subtracted according to Broca {Bull. Soc. (T Atithrop.^ 2nd series,
vol. iii. 1868). The resulting index of 71 "84 is quite comparable with
the foregoing instances. M. de Ujfalvy at the same time took measure-
ments of a native of Naghar (? Nagyr), but these were not placed on
record in the Society's report.

Such are the cases for direct comparison. On looking through the
catalogue of the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, the following
crania from Hindustan seemed to present points of similarity to those
from Nagyr, viz., Nos. 632, 634, and 670; their measurements have
been tabulated with those of the Nagyr skulls (Table II).

As to the character and mode of life of the inhabitants of Nagyr,
there is some little diversity of opinion expre.ssed by travellers. The
name is almost invariably coupled with that of Hunza ; Nagyr and
Hunza are the chief towns of two small states (of the same names

' Dr Garson has remarked the prominent brow-ridges common to the Nagyr
skull, No. 1205, and to the Hindu-Kush skulls, also on approximation of the cranial
capacity in one case.

Description of two Slmlls from Nagjjr 217

respectively) and are situated on opposite sides of a tributary of the
Gilgit river. The whole district is also referred to as Kanjut, and is
on the frontier between Kashmir and the Pamirs. Of the inhabitants
of Hunza but one opinion is expressed : that they are dangerous
brigands. This description has been extended to the natives of Nagyr
by some writers ; others assign to them a more peaceful occupation.

Of modern writers, the traveller Vigne, in 1842, referred to the gold-
washing carried on at Nagyr, and also to the renowned beauty of the
women (v.).

Capt. Cunningham {op. cii. (ii.) p. 38) says, " Hunza-Nager is a small
tract of country situated on the upper course of a large feeder of the
Gilgit river."..."! presume that this district was formerly inhabited by
the Dards, and that they were displaced by the Kirghiz nomads." The
cranial characteristics of the Kirghiz described by Topinard {Revue
d'Anthropohgie, 1887) do not support this view.

In 1869 the late Dr Leitner made the first of a remarkable series of
contributions to the literature of this subject. In a communication (vi.)
to the Anthropological Society in this year (1869), Dr Leitner stated that,
"Khajuna is the remarkable language of Hunza and Nagyr."... "Although
not unacquainted with a variety of languages, I was unable to find any
connection between the language of Hunza-Nagyr and that of any
other country."..." The people of Dardistan seem to have the remnants
of an old civilization somewhat resembling the purest parts of the Aryan
polity. This has, however, been obscured by the introduction of
Mohammedanism into the country. "..."The position of woman is in
every respect higher than among the Hindus."

Other writings of the same author describe the Nagyris as " short
and stout, and fairer than the people of Hunza,'' who are described as
" tall skeletons," and are " desperate robbers," and again " the people
of Nagyr are a comparatively mild race ; they carry on goldwashing,"
with historical references to this occupation of the Dards by Herodotus,
Ptolemy, and native Kashmirian chroniclers (vii.).

Other accounts (viii.) published by Dr Leitner (including the Hunza
and Nagyr Handbook, 1889) give additional information, but are perhaps
rather of philological interest. In 1891 (ix.), reproductions of photo-
graphs of Nagyris were published, and it was stated that " Hunza and
Nagyr are but one tribe divided into two rival sections." Still more
recently the difference in character of the two are strongly insisted
upon (x.). Dr Leitner has published a .series of measurements of
this people which will doubtless be of much value.

Other descriptions of the Dards are given by Drew (xi.). They are
supposed by him to have come from the North and North-east (reference

218 Studies in Anthropologij

to Sir G. Campbell's work being made). The same author (xii.) again
says: "Whether we judge from language or physiognomy, the con-
clusion is inevitable that the Dards are an Aryan race." Their castes
are enumerated ; the Shins and Yashkuns being regarded as the most
ancient, and as composing the race, called Dard, that invaded the
country, and took it from earlier inhabitants. The Yashkun without
any Shin are found in "Nagar\" Gen. Maclagan (xiii.) considers these
tribes as Aryan. Lieut. Gordon (xiv.) states that the people of Hunza
and Nagyr are alike in character and religion and describes them as
having " an evil reputation with their neighbours, as robbers and man-
stealers, treacherous, cruel, and cowardly."

The description of a native of Hunza, by M. de Ujfalvy, has been
referred to (iv.). M. de Ujfalvy thought this man resembled the natives
of Herzegovina'-. The features were thus described " des sourcils epais
allant sans interruption d'une bosse sourciliere a I'autre ; des bosses
sourcilieres peu prononcees, et la depression entre le nez et la glabelle,
presque nulle " ; the profile resembled that of a Greek statue.

In a review of Dr de Ujfalyy's Ethno/ogische Beschreilmng der Volker
Cetitral-Asiens, the author's classification of these races is appended,
in which the " Khadschuna " are placed in a subgroup under the group
"Die Hindu-Kusch-Inder "; while "Die Darden " fall within another
subgroup under the same group (xv.).

Sir W. W. Hunter (xvi.) thus notices this people, "The people of
Hunza and Nagyr belong to the caste called Yeshkiin by the Shins of
Gilghit, but known among themselves as Biirish... Mohammedanism sits
but loosely upon them " ; while Dr G. Capus (xvii.) refers to Tomaschek's
opinion that "la peuplade des Kachounas dans le Dardistan sont un
reste de ces aborigenes non-ariens parce qu'ils possedent, ainsi que les
Kafirs, les Daradas, et certains Tadjiks de la montagne, une methode de
compter vige'simale." A general account of the tribes of this district
is given by Prof. E. E. Oliver (xxi.), and reference to the appearance
of the Hunzas by Mr E. F. Knight (xxii.).

Dr Leitner, as has been said, described the language spoken by the
inhabitants of Hunza-Nagyr as unconnected with any of the neighbouring
dialects. On this subject the following light was thrown by Dr Hyde
Clarke (xviii.). "This language (the Khajuna) was for some time un-

^ Sir W. M. Conway, however, says "the people are something of a mixture
(Yashkuns, Shinas, and lower caste of earlier folk)." Letter to Prof. Macalister.

^ The Hunza man had a cephalic index of 73 ■84; whereas in a summary of the
Anthropology of Herzegovina, Dr Weisbach (Vienna) describes the natives of the
latter country as Hyper-brachy-cephalic (index Sj'^). Revue cV Anthrop., 3" Serie,
tome iii, 1888, p. 742,

i

Description of ttvo Skidls from Nagyr 210

classified since it has no neighbouring congeners. The group of lan-
guages furnishing the key to it has representatives in Abyssinia, Caucasia,
and the Indian Archipelago ; a Siberian class and two American classes
are also related, as is also the Rodiya or language of the Pariahs of
Ceylon. This group, the Sibero-Nubian, must have had possession of
the whole of India before the advent of the Dravidians." Col. Biddulph
classifies the languages of Dardistan thus: (i) Boorishki or Khajuna...
the language of the Boorish or Yeshkuns spoken in Hunza, Nager, and
Yassin ; (2) Shina, spoken at Gilgit ; (3) Khowar, the language of
Chitral (xix.).

M. de Ujfalvy says the language of Hunza-Nagyr is non-Aryan, and
(presumably) separates the " Khadschuna " from other Dards. He refers
to the opinions of Tomaschek and Biddulph, as to the meaning and
origin of the terms " Khazunah " and " Burich " respectively (xx.).

In accordance with the affinities of the Khajuna language as described
above, a comparison has been instituted between the measurements of
the Nagyr skulls on the one hand, of those of various natives of Ceylon
on the other. A general review of the figures shows that the two Nagyr
skulls resemble each other more closely than any of the skulls com-
pared with them (see Tables III and IV); the most interesting com-
parison is afforded by the data for the Rhodias of Ceylon (presumably
the Rodiya mentioned by Dr Hyde Clarke).

Table I.
(Measurements of the Skulls are in millimetres.)

Indices

Skull, ?
Nagyr, 1204

Skull, i
Nagyr, 1205

(Bi) Cephalic

(Hi) Vertical

(Ai) Alveolar

(Oi) Orbital

(Ni) Nasal

Stephano-zygomatic
Palatine
Naso-malar ...

69-94

6994

95?

86-43 (R)

50

97-5
ii5"4
110-50

68-28

70 '43
97-10?
82-06 (R)

52-72
82-4

ii3"33

220

Studies in Afithf^opology

Table I. — contitiued.

Skull, ? I Skull, S
Nagyr, 1204 I Nagyr, 1205

Cranial Capacity

Maximum Anteroposterior Length
Maximum Transverse Diameter ...
Basi-alveolar Length
Basi-nasal Length ...
Basi-V;regmatic Length
Length: Basion to Liion ...

,, ,, Opisthion

,, Opisthion to Glabella ...

,, Nasi-alveolar

,, of Spheno-parietal suture

Breadth of Foramen magnum

,, from Pterion to Pterion ...

,, from Stephanion to Stephanion ...

,, from Asterion to Asterion

,, Bi-zygomatic

,, Bi-maxillary

,, Inter-auricular

,, Minimum Interorbital

,, ISIinimum P^ontal

,, Bi-orbital (at Fronto-malar suture)

Orbital Breadth

Orbital Height

Nasal Breadth

Nasal Height

Maximum Length of the Palate ...
Maximum Breadth ,, outside arch

,, ,, ,, inside arch

Arcs : —

Antero-posterior curve. Frontal arc
Parietal arc
Arc from Lambda to Inion ...
., Iniun to Basion

,, Liion to Opisthion...

Supra-auricular arc
Jugo-nasal arc...
Breadth at external border of Orbits : for Naso-malar Index
Horizontal circumference ....
Posterior Nares : —

Maximum Breadth (between Intl. Pterygoid plates)

Height

Length of Interpalatine suture

The Superior Maxillary Bone : —
Maximum Height
Mean Height .
Minimum Height

1470 c.c.

[375 c.c.

183

186

128

127

95?

101 ?

100

104

128

131

63

87

31

38

137?

144

60

75?

10

15R 17L

27

29

104

112

117

103

105

104

120

12^

89

96

107

"3

19

22

lOI

95

102

lOI

37

19

32

32

22

29

44

55

52

57?

60

64

42

45?

T29

i23

125

122

88

65

(>h

94

32

55

302

.307

105

no

9.'i

98

508

507

27

30

23

23

14

17

57

72?

35

47

17

23

Description of two Skut/.s from Xagyr

Table I. — continued.
Dimensions of Teeth. Skull, ? Nagyr, 1204.

Skull, $ Nagyr, 1205.

221

Antero-posterior

Transverse

diameter

diameter

On

the Right:—

Molar I

10

r I

Molar 2 ...

9

10

On

the Left:—

Molar I ...

7

10

Molar 2 ...

8

8

On the Left Side:—
2nd Premolar
rst Molar
2iid Molar

Transverse
diameter

II
10

Table II. Comparison of Measurements of Skulls from Nagyr
with those of Skulls from the Hindu-Kush described by Dr Garson
(i.) and with isolated examples of Dolichocephalic Skulls which
were obtained from other parts of Hindustan.

u

X

<u

rt S

r.

!= -

hH

'w

Skull

~ P

= •£

3 —

^

>~^

0 S

= tfl

s ^

x:

4=

^ j-i

"y. 5

■x t

c3

bo

bo

E^

l«

pq

1)

Nagyr (1204)

508

183

128

69-94

12B,

69-94

Nagyr (1205)

507

186

127

68-28

131

70-43

Gound : No. 634 in the catalogue of 1
the Rov- Coll. Surgeons ... )

505

188

127

67-6

134

71-3

Hindu-Kush B ...

5 '5

i8r

136

75-1

128

70-7

C

483

177

128

72-3

123

69-5

D

500

178

134

75-8

129

72-5

E

^08

170

140

79 '5

127

72-1

F

490?

179

^11

74-3

128

71-5

M. de Ujfalvys Hunza (iv.)

p

?

?

73-84
(71-84)

?

?

.Skull from Madura, 670 in catalogue)

67-4

of Roy. Coll. Surgeons j

507

184

124

143

/ 1 1

Skull of a Mussulman, 632 in catalogue)
of Roy. Coll. Surgeons )

512

189

1^5

66-r

132

69-8

222

Studies in Anthi^opology

Table III. Comparison of Measurements of Nagyr Skulls
with those of Living Rhodias.

Craniometric

Anthropometric

Skull

Nagyr,

1204

(female)

Nagyr,

1205

(male)

Rhodia
(male)

Rhodia
(female)

Antero- posterior diameter ...
Maximum transverse diameter
Cephalic Index
Horizontal circumference ...
Minimum frontal breadth ...

183
128

69-94
508

lOl

120
107
95

186

127

68-28

507

95

125

"3

98

190-66 (6)
139-5 (6)
73-16
541-16 (6)
io6-i6 (6)

181 -66 (6)
137-81 (6)

75-86
544-66 (6)

94-83 (6)

Bi-zygomatic breadth

Bi-auricular breadth ...
External Bi-orbital breadth...

120 (12)

117(12)

98-66

The above measurements of Rhodias are given by M. Emile Deschamps in his
account of "Les Veddas de Ceylan," \x\. V Anthropologic for 1891 ; photographs of
male and female Rhodias are also given; in the profile view of a Rhodia chief the
brow presents the same feature of prominent glabella with a depression immediately
above it as does the male skull from Nagyr. The figures in the table above, when
allowance is made for the difference between Anthropometric and Craniometric
observations, afford some interesting comparisons ; those of the respective horizontal
circumferences being remarkable. Topinard (xxv.) states that for a skull with a
circumference of 50S mm. (horizontal) there should be added 35 mm. to approximate
to the corresponding anthropometric measurement. In the case of Nagyr, 1204,
this would give 543 mm., and for Nagyr, 1205, the anthropometric equivalent would
be 542 mm. The figures for male and female Rhodia heads are given above.

Table IV. Comparison of Measurements of Skulls from Nagyr
with those of Skulls of Natives of Ceylon other than Rhodias.

Skull

Nagyr,
1204 ?

Nagyr,
1205 <J

Veddah S

Veddah ?

Tamil s

Capacity

1470

1375

1277 (22)

1 139 (10)

1336(13)

Height Index

69-94

70-43

73-8(21)

73-2 (10)

73-6(13)

Basi-Nasal length

100

104

98-7 (18)

93-4 (8)

102-5 (13)

Basi-Alveolar length

95

lOI ?

94-2 (16)

88-3 (8)

99-7 (10)

Alveolar Index

95

97-10

95-2 (16)

94-5 (8)

97-7 (lo)

Orbital Index

86-43

82-06

89-2 f2l)

89-4 (10)

86-7 (iO)

Interorbital breadth...

19

22

22-2 (21)

21-7 (10)

23-5 (13)

Nasal Index ...

50

52-72

52-5 (21)

52 (8)

53-7 (13)

Cephalic Index

69-94

68-28

71-6(20

71-2 (11)

70-8 (13)

The measurements of the Veddah and Tamil skulls are those given by Drs Paul
and Yx'xVl Sarasin (xxiv.). The numbers in brackets indicate the number of skulls
whence the average is deduced.

Description of hvo S/xu/h from Nagy, 223

Dr Deniker has most kindly communicated detailed measurements
of the series of skulls of Kashmiris, presented to the Societe Anthropo-
logique de Paris by M. de Ujfalvy. The series comprises six skulls of
males and three of females. Apart from measurements, Dr Deniker
says that the prominence of the inferior nasal spine and the shape of
the apertura pyriformis of the nose (that of an ace of hearts}, are
characteristic of this series. For the measurements the following
arrangement exhibits the principal features, with which those of the
skulls from Nagyr may be compared: —

Male Skulls.

Skull

Breadth
Index

Height
Index

Nasal
Index

Nagyr, 1205

Average of five male skulls from Kashmir ...

Extremes ... ... ... ... -,

Kashmir skull, No. 9 (male)

63-28

73-28

75-6

70"6

6.v6

70-43

70-7

73*4

65-8

67*2

52-7

48-3

54-7

41-5
?

No. 9 is described separately, as Dr Deniker suspects deformity.

Female Skulls.

Skull

Breadth
Index

Height
Index

Nasal
Index

Nagyr, No. 1204

Kashmir, No. 5

No. 6

No. 4 (child ?)

69-94
72-3
74
75-9

69-94

74*7
70-7

77-7

50
5I-I

43-8
54-5

The conclusion is, that the skulls from Nagyr might well fall into
a group including these skulls from Kashmir, except as regards their
breadth-index, though even this pronounced feature is surpassed by one
of the Kashmir skulls. It seems probable that this may prove to be
a specific distinction of skulls from Hunza-Nagyr.

224

Studies in Anthropology

REFERENCES.

(i.) Dr J. G. Garson. yournal of the Autln-opological Instihite, \o\. yi^m., 1889.
(ii.) Capt. Cunningham. Ladakk attd the surrotutdittg countries, 1854.
(iii.) M. de Ujfalvy. Bidlctins de la SociHe d'Anthropologie de Paris, 3'= Serie,

tome v., 1882, p. 212.
(iv.) M. de Ujfalvy. Bulletins de la Society (T Anthropologie de Paris, 1881,

p. 600.
(v.) Vigne. Travels, 1842, vol. ii. p. 288.
(vi.) Dr G. W. Leitner. Journal of the Anthropological Society. Meeting of

Nov. 30th, i86q.
(vii.) Dr G. W. Leitner. Indian Antiquary, Jan. 5th, 1872, p. 8.
(viii.) Dr G. W. Leitner. Report of the British Association, 1875, p. 176.
(ix.) Dr G. W. Leitner. Asiatic Quarterly Review. New Series, vol. ii., July,

October, iSgt, pp. 139, 204, 243.
(x.) Dr G. W. Leitner. Asiatic Quarterly Reviera. New Series, vol. iii.,

January, April, 1892, p. 53.
(xi.) Drew (F.). British Association Report, 1874, p. 149.
(xii.) Drew (F.). Northern Barrier of India, 1877, p. 167.
(xiii.) Gen. Maclagan. Encyclopcedia Bntannica. Article "Kashmir."
(xiv.) Lieut. Gordon. The Roof of the World, 1876, p. 139.
(xv.) Archivfiir Anthropologie,'Ez.r\A. x\\i., 1887.
(xvi.) W. W. Hunter. Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1886, vol. v. Article

"Gilghit."
(xvii.) Dr G. Capus. Revue Scientific ue, 3'= Serie, tome xvii., Jan. to July, 1889,

p. 7.
(xviii.) Dr Hyde Clarke. Indian Antiquary, 1872, August 2nd.
(xix.) Col. Biddulph. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. xvii. New

Series, 1885.
(xx.) M. de Ujfalvy. Bulletins de la Socii'te d' Anthropologic de Paris, Seance du

[6 Mars, 1882, p. 226.
(xxi.) Prof. E. E. Oliver. Pathan and Biloch, 1890, pp. 320 — 327.
(xxii.) E. F. Knight. Where Three Eniph-es meet, \%(^i. (Longmans.)
(xxiii.) Emile Descliamps. "Les Veddas de Ceylan," Z'^«//i?v/o/^^>, 1891.
(xxiv.) Paul and Fritz Sarasin. Ergebnisse nalui-ivissenschaftlicher Forschungen auf

Ceylon, 1893.
(xxv.) Dr P. Topinard. Elements a' Anthropologic Generate, 1885, p. 711.
(xxvi.) Col. Biddulph. Races of the Hindu- Kush.

DESCRIPTIVE NOTES WITH THE PRINCIPAL
MEASUREMENTS OF A SKULL FROM CENTRAL
ASIA. MACARTNEY COLLECTION.

This is a brachycephalic male skull: the parietal eminences are very
prominent, with flattened areas anterior and posterior to them. It is of
middle age judged by the conditions of teeth and sutures. Prognathism
not marked. In norma lateralis only slight glabellar prominence is seen:
the curve is regular to the obelion, whence as in many brachycephalic
.skulls it turns sharply down, to again change its direction at the external
occipital protuberance which is represented by a sharp uncinate process.
The conceptacula cerebelli are not prominent. Muscular ridges and
crests other than the occipital are but slightly developed.

In norma facialis, the face appears broad, but owing to the damaged
character of the specimen this is not certain. The orbit appears
moderately high with sharp margins. The canine fossae are shallow.

The lower margin of the apertura pyriformis nasi is indistinct and
the ridge representing the canal for the anterior superior dental nerve is
all that demarcates the inferior nasal from the facial surface.

The palate is small, the tuberculum however being of large relative
dimensions.

A certain degree of "lipping" of the margins of the occipital
condyles is observable.

The prominence of the parietal eminences is well seen in norma
occipitalis, the mastoid processes being small and somewhat incurv-ed.

The specimen shews distinct resemblances to the " Sarmatian "
type of von Holder.

The teeth are small and worn down.

The endocranium — nothing remarkable is to be noticed.

Lengths :

Maximum

163

Ophryo-occipital

161

Ophryo-iniac ...

161

Occipito-spinal

176

Occipito-alveolar

183 (?)

15

226

Studies in A7ithropology

Breadth: Maximum transvei^se ...

141

Bi-stephanic

114

Bi-mastoid

?

Bi-auricular

?

Minimum interfrontal

87

External bi-orbital

96

Inter-orbital

?

Horizontal circumference

481

Face: Height: Ophryo-alveolar

90

Nasi-alveolar

70

Nasal height

49

Nasal width

?26

Orbital height

33

Orbital breadth

35 (?)

Basi-glabellar length

99

Basi-nasal length

92

Basi-alveolar length

?9^-

Basi-bregmatic length

136

Basion to Obelion

122

Basion to Lambda

107

Basion to Inion ... ' . . .

65

Basion to Opisthion

38

Diameter (transverse) of foramen magnum

29

Palate: Length (Flower)

50

Breadth ,,

64

Bi-zygomatic breadth

122 (?)

Indices.

Breadth

86-5

Height

83-4

Height-Breadth

96-45

Alveolar

100 (?)

Nasal

53'i

Orbital

94-3

Palato-maxillary

78-1

Stephano-zygomatic ...

93'4

Facial (Kollmann's)

57'4

Facial (Pruner Bey)

i35<>

AN ACCOUNT OF SKULLS FROM MADAGASCAR
IN THE ANATOMICAL MUSEUM OF CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY.

The University collection contains three skulls from Madagascar, of
which one was presented by the Rev. C. P. Cory, the other two by
the Rev. J. W. Mathews. The donor of the first writes to say that
he obtained the specimen himself from the east coast, at some risk,
for the natives venerate the dead, and is of opinion that it belonged
to an individual of one of the woolly-haired tribes, probably the
Betsimisaraka. The other two skulls are labelled " Skull of a Betsileo "
and "Skull of a Hova " respectively'.

'In no case does the mandible accompany the skull ; the principal
features of the latter are as follows : —

The first, that of a native of the Betsimisaraka or Betsimsarak tribe,
has been embedded in vegetable mould, some of which still adheres
to its base, and which has stained the bone a brownish-red colour.
The zygomatic arches, pterygoid plates, and alveolar border have
sustained some damage. The absence of strongly marked muscular
ridges and other features distinctive of sex causes some hesitation in
pronouncing on this point, but the balance of evidence appears to
indicate a female ; the remaining teeth are of large size and being
but little worn indicate that the individual was in the prime of life.

The profile view (norma lateralis) shows slight prognathism ; the
general outline of the face is somewhat flattened, the naso-frontal
depression being quite shallow, and the forehead high ; the contour
of the cranial vault is uninterrupted by flattening, and forms a con-
tinuous curve from nasion to inion. On either side, the frontal and
temporal bones are separated at the pterion by a narrow spur-like

^ The Betsimisaraka tribe occupies the east coast, the Betsileo the central southern
districts.-— Sibree.

15—2

228 Studies in Anthropology

projection of the parietal bone. The conceptacula cerebelU are large
and bulging.

In norma facialis, narrowness is a notable feature, the orbital axes
droop slightly externally, the canine fossae are remarkably shallow, and
the lower margins of the apertura pyriformis of the nose are indistinct.

In norma basilaris, the palate is seen to be wide and deep and
its anterior foramen of considerable size. The occipital condyles are
small, rounded, and everted, and are situated towards the anterior part
of the lip of a large foramen magnum.

The specimen labelled " Skull of a Betsileo " is that of an adult
male. Like the preceding it has been stained by the action of vegetable
juices, and is in a fairly good state of preservation, though the zygomatic
arches and the internal skeleton of the nose have been somewhat
damaged. The sex is unmistakably indicated by the prominences of
the glabella and inion, as well as by the prognathous upper jaw and
the large size of the remaining teeth. The cubical capacity is also
considerable.

In norma lateralis, the prognathism appears to be mainly sub-nasal,
the profile of the face is somewhat flattened and the fronto-nasal
depression shallow. The curve of the cranial vault as in the preceding
specimen is uninterrupted by flattening from ophryon to inion. The
sutures, as a whole, are remarkably free from synostosis, and there is
a wormian (epipteric) ossicle at each pterion.

In norma facialis a slight degree of scaphocephaly is noticeable, and
the face is long and narrow- with sharp-bordered orbits whose axes are
nearly horizontal. The nasal bones are short and flat, the nasal
processes of the maxillse massive, the canine fossae remarkably shallow,
and the inferior margins of the apertura pyriformis of the nose are
replaced by gutters {gonttiircs simiennes).

In norma basilaris, the width and shallowness of the palate with
moderate tubera maxillaria are to be noted. On the right side the
foramina spinosum and ovale are confluent.

Description of Figures.

[skull of Makua (to the left).
Fig. I. — Profile views (norma lateralis) of ^ skull of Betsimisaraka.

(skull of native of Mobangi (to the right).
Fig. 2. — Norma facialis of the same.
Fig. 3. — Skulls of Dyak from Borneo (to left), and Hova from Madagascar in

norma lateralis.
Fig. 4. — Norma facialis of the same.

The writer is indebted to Mr F. \V. Green, of Jesus College, Cambridge, for the
aVjove photographs.

230 Studies in Anthropology

The third specimen is labelled " Skull of a Hova," and is in good
preservation, though it has been perforated in the region of the obehon.
The full dentition and the closure of the basilar suture indicate maturity,
and the stout zygomatic arches, pronounced glabella, and large teeth
indicate the male sex of this specimen. It is bleached as though it had
lain in dry, dusty soil, and thus presents the first of a number of points
of difference from the two preceding skulls. For this is a short, round
skull, prognathic to a slight degree only when viewed in norma lateralis.
In norma facialis, the width of the face appears greater than in the two
preceding cases; the orbits are large and their axes droop slightly
externally, the canine fossae are deep, the nasal bones prominent, the
apertura pyriformis wide and with sharp inferior margins.

In norma basilaris, the shortness of this skull is evidenced in the
arrangement of the structures at its base. The palate is wide and
deep, the remaining teeth but little worn. Some destruction, due to
weathering, has occurred near the foramen magnum, which is of
moderate (relative) size and roughly diamond-shaped.

The above notes on the craniological features of the specimens may
now be supplemented by a few' words on the table of measurements.

With regard to the first specimen, the Betsimisaraka, the cubic
capacity is 1450 c.c. ; the maximum length is considerable, viz., 186 mm. ;
the dolichocephalic character is clearly shown by the breadth index,
which nearly approaches the vertical index. (71= breadth index,
70 = vertical index.)

In the case of the Betsileo skull, the cubic capacity is somewhat
greater than in the preceding example, being 1480 c.c, the lengths
almost identical ; the cephalic index again denotes marked dolicho-
cephaly and equals the vertical index (72"4).

In the third case, the cubic capacity falls short of that of either of the
preceding specimens, being only 1315 c.c. The breadth index denotes
the marked brachycephalic character and somewhat exceeds the vertical
index. A dental index could be calculated and the figure (43' 15) places
this skull in the mesodont group.

It is now possible to institute comparisons between these skulls and
to attempt to trace resemblances between each in turn and specimens
from other parts of the world. First, it is evident from a brief survey,
that Madagascar can furnish at least two types of crania ; for the two
specimens first described correspond nearly in general features, and
both differ from the third. Thus appearances indicate that the Betsi-
misaraka and Betsileo skulls are long and narrow, with narrow and
flattened faces ; to such general features may be added similarity in the
shape and disposition of the tympanic ring at the external auditory

i

Crania of Aboiigines of Madagascar 231

meatus (viz., downward prolongation) ; the comparatively deep glenoid
fossa ; the relatively large foramen magnum. Whereas the Hova skull
is broad, the face wide, the nose prominent, there is but slight downward
prolongation of the tympanic ring, and the glenoid fossa is shallow.
Some of which is reiterated by the table of measurements, which leads
to the recognition of similarity between the first two, particularly in the
following points : —

Character

Cubic capacity
Horizontal circumference
Maximum length
Maximum breadth ...
Naso-malar index ...

Betsimisaraka

Betsileo

Hova

1450

1480

1315

5"

515

483

186

185

168

132

134

138

io8"5

X097

ii3"5

while both contrast with the Hova in all respects save the breadth.
Such facts point to what has already been expressed in earlier publi-
cations, viz. : that among the various races now inhabiting Madagascar
some are distinctly dolichocephalic, others decidedly brachycephalic.
And, moreover, that the former type is that of the wilder tribes whose
affinities seem to rank them with the negro races, while the latter class is
represented by the more civilised Hovas, who are regarded as of Malayan
origin.

The evidence for such statements comes from several sources, for
instance the physical appearance, the language, history, legends, customs,
and arts, of the respective tribes, and this paper will be concluded by
a brief review of the results of the study of the first of these, more
particularly in respect of craniology.

The accounts already published of the Betsimisaraka and Betsileo
tribes are not very numerous. A good bibliography up to the year
1885 is given by Professor Max Leclerc in a most interesting paper
published in that year in the Revue cT EtJmographie. It is therein
recognised that a great diversity of races is met with in Madagascar.
There seems to be no certain evidence of the characters of the aboriginal
inhabitants.

The earliest race of which any record is left (the Va-Zimba) has
been thought to be allied to the Bantu family. It was succeeded by
various tribes which agree in certain negroid characteristics and among
which are the Betsimisaraka and Betsileo. But here the difficulty arises
of ascertaining whether the features referred to as negroid approximate
these tribes to the African or to the Oceanic negro.

232 Studies in AntJtropology

MM. de Quatrefages and Hamy report {Crania Ethnica) that of the
various tribes some (viz., the Sakalaves and Antchianakas) are nearly
allied to the Bantu family, whereas others (such as the Antankares and
Betsimisarakas) are more decidedly negro than the former. Leclerc
hip. cit.) suggests a common origin for these and the Betsileo tribes,
and regards this original race as African. Herein he is opposed to
such writers as Grandidier, Oliver, Sibree, Ellis, who regard such an
origin as "Oceanic"; while de Quatrefages in a later work' (1889)
than the Crania Ethnica considers the races of Madagascar as allied
to the Papuans rather than to the, negroes of Africa. Writing in 1892,
Professor Sibree described the Betsileo as a race darker in colour
than the Hova, probably descended from Melanesian ancestors or from
a mixture of dark and light Pacific Islanders, and supports the state-
ment by evidence from the character of certain ornamental carvings ^
Another view is that of Mace-Descartes (quoted by Leclerc, loc. cit.),
who regards the Betsileo as allied to the Hova race.

MM. de Quatrefages and Hamy besides basing their opinion as to
the Papuan afifinity of these tribes on considerations of language, remark
on certain of their cranial characteristics, notably hypsistenocephaly and
frontal compression, which are known to distinguish Papuan skulls.
But of the series of figures they publish, it appears that in the case of
three male Betsimisaraka skulls only, do the proportions approach those
of Melanesian skulls, for in these three the dimensions give to the
average a marked degree of hypsistenocephaly and a moderately low
nasal index. In contradiction to such an indication must be mentioned
the high figure representing the orbital index. In the same table,
measurements relating to two female Betsimisaraka skulls show that in
these the vertical index is as much below the breadth index as it was
above it in the case of the male skulls ^

Finally, a skull from Madagascar in the Museum of the Royal
College of Surgeons is distinctly platycephalic. So that from measure-
ments on actual specimens but little evidence can be brought forward
with regard to the Betsimisaraka, and even less with regard to the
Betsileo skull.

This being so, the Betsimisaraka and Betsileo skulls in the
Cambridge Museum were compared with other specimens in that
collection with the following results. From appearances no distinct
resemblance to the Melanesian skulls can be discovered, the chief

^ Histoh-e generate des Races Htimaines.

- Certain Betsileo designs of carving almost exactly reproduced in the Hervey
islands. Sibree : Joiiniat of the Anthropologicai Institute, 1892.
^ A condition characteristic of female skulls of various races.

Crania of Aborigines of Madagascar 233

differences being in respect of size of facial skeleton, prognathism, and
depth of canine fossae. Neither can resemblances be traced to the
Kaffir skulls, or to some negro skulls from the west coast of Africa.
There are, however, two African skulls which bear a general resemblance
in shape to the Betsimisaraka skull. One of these is that of a ^Vlobangi
native from Central Africa about a thousand miles from the mouth of
the Congo, the other that of a Makua native from near Zanzibar.
Besides the general aspect and contour, the Mobangi skull is not far
removed in proportions from the Betsimisaraka. The Makua skull is
much smaller than either and agrees only in minor details of measure-
ment. Figures representing some of the chief dimensions of these
skulls have been arranged in a comparative table, together with figures
relating to the specimen from Madagascar, in the museum of the Royal
College of Surgeons. (Flower's Catalogue, No. 1306.)

So that if one might argue from so few examples, the indications
are to regard the affinities of these tribes (despite their language) as
approximating them to certain African negro races, though it is possible
that the latter themselves may have some connection, as yet unrevealed,
with the Oceanic negroes {v. Max Leclerc, ioc. at.).

There remains to consider the Hova skull. Though the date of the
arrival of the Hovas in Madagascar is uncertain, yet there seems to be
some evidence for placing it in the 7th century a.d. Physical con-
formation, tradition, and language point to an origin which may be
referred to as Indonesian.

MM. de Quatrefages and Hamy {Crania Ethnica) record the
occurrence in a Hova skull of a cranial deformity previously met with
in the Malay peninsula. These authors also state that the Hova skulls
resemble certain skulls of the Antankares (one of the wild tribes of
Madagascar who have mingled with the Hovas), and describe an
Antankare coffin as very similar to those in use in the Philippine
Islands, while the skull of the contained corpse was brachycephalic, and
of an Indonesian type. The measurements recorded by these authors
as the mean of two male specimens, are not closely approached by those
of the Hova in the Cambridge collection, for the latter is of smaller
capacity and more distinctly brachycephalic than the former. No
strong resemblance can be traced to either the Polynesian specimens
or to a skull from Manilla in the Cambridge museum. However a
most striking similarity is found between the Hova skull and that of
a Dyak from North Borneo in the same collection, and this similarity
in form and proportion is confirmed by the principal measurements and
indices, which have been tabulated side by side, and in almost every
instance correspond closely, the only notable exception being the nasal

234

Studies in Anthropology

index. On searching for measurements of other Indo-Malayan skulls,
two specimens in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons seem
to approach in proportions those just mentioned, and the figures
relating to these have been added to the comparative table. Finally
the measurements of a skull from the Philippine Islands (recorded in
the same volume of Flower's Catalogue) present a number of features
similar to both the Hova and Dyak skulls, and are of increased interest
in consideration of the statements of MM. de Quatrefages and Hamy
in regard to the Antankare and Hova tribes of Madagascar {v. supra).

In conclusion, a study of the specimens at Cambridge shows that
the Hova skull finds its counterpart in one from Borneo, and differs
widely from the Betsileo and Betsimisaraka skulls ; that the two latter
agree in such features as distinguish them from the Hova, and resemble
certain skulls from the African continent rather than any Oceanic
specimens'.

Table I.

Dimensions of Skulls from Madagascar in the Anatomical
Museum, Cambridge University.

Catalogue No. of Skull ...

1783

1784

1785

Sex

—

Male

Male

Approximate Age

Adult

Aged

Adult

Cubic capacity

1450

1480

1315

Maximum length

186

i8s

168

Ophryo-iniac length

179

178

162

Ophryo-occipital length ...

183

183

165

Occipito-.spinal length

179

192 (?)

170

Occipito-alveolar length ...

187

200 (?)

178

Maximum breadth

132

134

138

Bi-asterial breadth

106

1 10

109

Bi-stephanic breadth

109

109

120

Bi-auricular breadth

III

"5

117

Minimum frontal breadth

94

98

92

External bi-orbital breadth ....

98

108

105

Minimum inter-orbital breadth ...

27

27

29

Bi-zygomatic breadth ... ...

115 (?)

130 (?)

130

^ Since the foregoing account was written, I have read the important paper on
Skulls from Madagascar by Prof. Virchow ("Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft
fiir Anthropologic": Sitzung vom 18 Juli, 1896). Without attempting to discuss
this paper, I will mention that the measurements there given of two Hova skulls
approach most nearly those of the Betsileo skull described in the present paper.

Cranki of Aborigbies of Madagascar 235

Table I. — continued.

Catalogue No. of Skull ...

1783

1784

1785

Se.x

—

Male

Male

Approximate Age

Adult

Aged

Adult

Bi-malar breadth

.08 (?)

"5

"3

Bi-maxillary breadth

9o(?)

100

92

Jugo-nasal breadth

94

103

96

Ophryo-alveolar length ...

92

92

87

Nasi-alveolar length

70

68

65

Basi-alveolar length

95

roi (?)

92

Basi-nasal length

95

lOI

95

Basi-glabellar length

105 (?)

109

102

Basi-bregmatic length

130

134

132

Basion to obelion, length

128

132

122

Basion to lambda, length

11^

119

no

Basi-iniac length ...

80

85

75

Basion to opisthion, length

39

38

34

Breadth of foramen magnum

32

31

31

Orbital height

30

5i

33

Orbital breadth

35

40

37

Nasal height

49

50

45

Nasal breadth

28

31

28

Palato-maxillary length ...

49(?)

53

52

Palato-maxillary breadth

58(?)

65

65

Anterior palatine breadth

28

28

27

Posterior palatine breadth

37(?)

42

41

Arcs : Frontal

131

133

129

Parietal

128

128

114

Occipital; to Inion

69

66

60

Occipital; Inion to Opisthion ...

50

50

46

Supra-auricular

303

310

309

Oblique parietal ...

351

363

359

Jugo-nasal arc

102

113

109

Horizontal circumference

^11

515

483

Height of choanre

55 C^)

>

30

Breadth of choanfe

r- (?)

33

3o(?)

Length of floor of nasal cavity

38(?)

?

36

Least distance between temporal crests

94(?)

104 (?)

124 (?)

Weight of skull (without jaw) ...

445

b55

418

Combined length of three molar teeth ...

28 L.

Combined length, molars and pre-molars

—

—

41 L.

Indices: Cephalic

71

72-4

82-1

Vertical ...

70

72-4

78-6

Alveolar

100

100 (?)

97

Orbital

857

80-25

89-2

Nasal

57'i4

62

60

Palato-maxillary

?

I22--6

125

Facial superior (Hroca)

80 (?)

70-8 (?)

66-9

Facial superior (Kollmann)

60-9 (?)

52-3 (?)

50

Stephano-zygomatic

94 •« (?)

83 -i (?)

92-3

Naso-malar

108-5

109-7

"3"5

Dental (Flower)

43"i5

236

Studies in Anthropologij

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NOTE ON THE SKULL OF AN ANDAMAN
ISLANDER.

The Cambridge Ethnological Museum contains the skull of an
Andaman Islander which forms part of a collection of objects from
the Andaman Islands presented by Colonel Temple.

Fig. I. Norma verticalis.

The specimen (which bears the following distinctive marks and
description, "No. 45, • Changa-lot-cheta,' as carried by relatives of the
deceased, in memoriam ") is in fairly good preservation : the mandible
is present, and this and the cranium have been smeared with red and

238

Studies in Anthropology

white paint. A sling of plaited vegetable fibre is attached between the
zygmotic arches and would enable the skull to be easily suspended
or carried about as suggested in the foregoing description. It is not
proposed to enter into a discussion of the ethnological significance of
such a method of preparation of the skull, but the photographs (cf. figs.
2, 3, 4), shew the general characters of the decoration and of the sling.

The skull is that of an adult individual, the sex not being evident,
but probably male. The general aspect is cuboid, the skull being
distinctly short. Fig. i shows the skull in norma verticalis ; it is
brachycephalic and crypto-zygous : no synostosis of sutures is observed :
there is a single parietal foramen on the left side.

Fig. 2 shows the skull in norma lateralis : the prognathism is sub-
nasal, and distinct, though not revealed by the alveolar index : the

Fig. 2 Norma lateralis.

glabella is flattened, as are also the nasal bones ; the lacrymo-ethmoidal
suture is of good length (right side, 8-5 mm. ; left side, 9-5 mm.) : the
spheno-parietal suture measures 12 mm. on each side and contains

Cranium of an Ahojiginal Andainan Islander

email /^ccir'l/^ l Ko i-r^nvillo onH C'r\r»or-»/-\iH mt^of i-r\ fK^i ^-^'/-^Inc

239

a small ossicle. The maxilla and sphenoid meet to the exclusion of
the malar bone from the boundaries of the spheno-maxillary fissure in
each orbit. Infantile characteristics are denoted by the feebleness of
the temporal and other muscular ridges, the small size of the mastoids,
and the shallowness of the external auditory meatus. The frontal bone
rises abruptly above the nasion, the bregma is the highest point of the
sagittal arc, there is slight flattening at the obelion, and no protuberance
or torus on the occipital bone ; the skull rests (on a plane surface) upon
the molar teeth and the opisthion.

Fig. 3 is a view of the skull in norma facialis ; the skull wall is
markedly protuberant in the pterion region, suggesting high development

Fig. 3. Norma facialis.

of the frontal lobes of the brain, and the transverse cranial arc is well
rounded even posteriorly to the bregma. The nasal bones are flat, but
the nasal aperture is not strikingly wide. The canine fossee are not
deep, and both malar bones undivided. On the left side there is
destruction of the alveolar margin of the jaw, which is apparently the
result of disease of the teeth and of alveolar abscesses.

240

Studies in Anthropology

Fig, 4 shows the skull in tiortna basilaris : a large molar tooth
showing much wear remains on each side of the palate, which is small
and has a blunt posterior spine. The two pterygoid plates on each side
are also small and no (pterygo-spinous) foramen of Civinini is seen.
The glenoid fossa is of moderate depth ; the carotid canal is completely
covered in, and small eustachian processes are present on each side.
The styloid processes and occipital condyles are small and the foramen
magnum is not pyriform. Postcondylar foramina are present on each
side. In norma occipitalis the contour is pentagonal ; several wormian
bones are present on each side of the lambda.

Fig. 4. Norma basilaris : jaw alongside.

The mandible is small and the teeth relatively large ; the mandibular
notch (sigmoid) is of moderate depth, and the angle of the ramus and
body of the mandible exceeds 90°. The following notes refer to the
teeth. The first and second molars on each side are of the normal
human form and tetracuspid. The third molars are of smaller size than
the preceding and have three large cusps, viz. : antero-external, antero-
internal, and postero-external ; while the postero-internal cusp is very
small and a small accessory cusp is seen between the antero-external
and postero-external cusps and on the outer border of the crown. The
dimensions of the crowns of the lower molar teeth are as follows (in
every instance the antero-postero diameter is given first, followed by
the transverse diameter) :

I

Cranium of an Aboriginal Andaman Islander 241

Right side :
First molar, 12 x 11-5 mm.
Second molar, 11 x n mm.

Left side :
First molar, 11-5 x 11-5 mm.
Second molar, 1 1 x 1 1 mm.

The principal dimensions of the skull itself are as follows : —

Third molar, it x io'5 mm.

Third molar, 1 1 x 1 1 mm.

Maximum length, 159 mm.
Maximum breadth, 129 mm.

The chief indices are as follows
Cephalic index, 8r"i
Height index, 84"3
Alveolar index, io2"2

Basi-bregmatic height, 134 mm.
Horizontal circumference, 470 mm.

KoUmann's facial index, 447.
Orbital index, 82-9.
Nasal index, 48"8.

In reviewing the several features which have been mentioned, there
will be noticed a distinct lack of osteological characteristics denoting
morphological inferiority ; there are, however, certain infantile features
which have been retained to maturity. Such retention of infantile
features is common among individuals of the races of small stature,
among whom the Andamanese are to be placed. No argument as
to the inferiority of the Andamanese skull can therefore be based on
this observation.

As regards comparisons with other Andamanese crania, the present
example is quite representative ; its dimensions fall within the limits of
those recorded by the late Sir William Flower in his classical account
of the osteology of the aborigines of the Andaman group of islands
{Journ. Anthr. Inst. ix.).

16

SOME ANTHROPOLOGICAL RESULTS OF THE
SKEAT EXPEDITION TO THE MALAY PENINSULA.

(a) Description of a Skeleton of a Pangan Semang^.

(/') Notes on the Measurements made by F. Laidlaw, Esq., B.A., Trin. Coll.

1. The Natives Measured.

2. The Measurements and Results therefrom.

3. Notes on Two Specimens of Hair.

4. Notes on Two Outline Tracings of the Feet.

(a) The Skeleton of a Pangan Semang.

Description of the Skull.

Description of the Bones of the Skeleton.

3. Critical Notes on the Skull.

4. Critical Notes on the Bones of the Skeleton.
List of Measurements.

I. The skull (figs, i and 2), which is in excellent preservation, appears
to be that of a male, and is certainly that of an adult. When viewed in
norma verticalis it is ellipsoid, mesaticephalic and just ph?enozygous ;
it is somewhat asymmetrical, the left side being rather flatter than the
right. Synostosis has occurred in the sagittal suture at the obelion, and
in the coronal suture on each side at and below the stephania. Several
depressions or pits with almost circular margins are seen on the frontal
bone ; they are probably local evidences of a general pathological
condition found to obtain in almost every part of the skeleton. The
glabellar prominence is very moderate in amount, the frontal curve bold,
the antero-posterior arc of the cranial vault regular with the exception of
a slight interruption at the bregma. No prominence marks the position
of the inion. At the pterion, the sphenoid and parietal bones join on
each side of the skull. Muscular ridges are feebly developed, and the
zygomatic arch is slender. The nasal profile is comparatively fiat, but

^ The Pangans are a tribe of the aborigines known as Semangs, whose affinities
would seem to be with the aborigines of the Andaman Islands. The Sakai are
another aboriginal group found in the Malay Peninsula, and though now not always
distinguishable from the Semang, must be regarded as having been originally distinct
from these. Moreover their affinities are not with the aboriginal Andamanese so
much as with the Veddah aborigines of Ceylon.

TVild Aborigines of the Malay Peninsuld 243

the nasal spine is large ; prognathism of the sub-nasal or alveolar, and
of the dental varieties, is marked ; the teeth in the upper arcade project
well beyond those of the lower jaw in the incisor region. The trans-
verse cranial arc is well rounded and is not scaphoid even posteriorly
to the bregma ; the orbits are mesosemic with bevelled margins ; the
lacrymal hamulus is diminutive, the lacrymo-ethmoidal suture of con-
siderable length on each side ; the malar bone is excluded from entering
into the boundaries of the spheno-maxillary fissure by the junction,

Fig. I. Skull of Pangan Semang: norma verticalis.

posteriorly to it, of the sphenoid and maxilla. The nasal bones are
large and rather flat ; the apertura pyriformis nasi is cordate in outline,
and its lower margins are extremely indistinct (orygmo-craspedote).
The canine fossae are moderate in depth ; a wide gap separates the
alveoli of the two median upper incisor teeth ; a blunt spine projects
from the malar process of each superior maxilla. The palate is hyp-
siloid in contour, the teeth large and blackened, and the anterior sur-
faces of the incisors and canines have been filed. The tuber maxillare
is of large size, the posterior palatine spine blunt and notched. The
glenoid fossae are deep, the paracondylar processes small. No special
note is necessary on the conformation of the margins of the foramen
magnum. In norma occipitalis the contour is almost circular, and the
lambdoid suture presents denticulations of moderate complexity. The
chief features of the mandible are the slightness of prominence of the

I 6 — 2

244 Studies in Anthropology

chin, the shortness of the ascending ramus, and the shallowness of the
sigmoid notch. Reference to the list of indices shows that this skull
should be described as mesaticephalic, metriocephalic, mesognathous,
chamaeprosopic, microsemic,platyrrhine, mesoprosopic, and mesocephalic.
2. The whole of the vertebral column, with the exception of the
coccyx, has been preserved. On the cervical region no special notes
have to be made, no additional foramina are seen in the atlas, and the
lower vertebral spines (except the seventh) are bifid. No marks of

Fig. 2. Skull of Pangan .Semang: norma lateralis.

inferiority are observed here or in the thoracic region ; the lumbar
region appears very straight when the several vertebrae are placed in
apposition, but the intervertebral discs when m situ may have given
a very different aspect to this region. It is noteworthy that the signs
of the periosteal inflammation so widespread in this skeleton are hardly
observable here (i.e. in the vertebral column). There is no special
remark to make about the sacrum. The scapulae are small, with deeply
excavated subscapular fossae ; they are relatively very broad, and the in-
ferior angle is curiously truncated in each ; the roughness of the surface
of the bone due to periostitis is well marked here, the bone near the
vertebral border having actually been perforated in the right scapula.
The same roughness is very marked on the somewhat large acromion
processes, especially at the attachment of the middle part of the deltoid.
The coracoid is large in each scapula and the upper border very straight.
The clavicles show evident signs of disease. It is doubtful, however.

JVild Aborigines of the Malay Penmsula 245

whether this very pecuHar form is altogether pathological ; the peculiarity
consists in the exaggeration of the normal curve (with concavity directed
forwards) of the outer part of the bone. The two portions of the bone
meet at about a quarter of its length from the outer end, at an angle
which in the right clavicle is nearly go degrees.

The sternum is flat, and the gladiolus and manubrium still separate ;
only six facets for rib-cartilages can be distinguished on each side.

The ossa innominata give useful evidence as to the sex of the
individual, for the smallness of the subpubic angle indicates clearly the
male sex. The ilia are, however, somewhat splayed, and their crests
not so much incurved anteriorly as in European pelves. The ilio-
pectineal lines are prominent ridges.

There are twelve ribs from each side, showing in many cases
irregularities of surface due to pathological causes ; there is accordingly
some difficulty in identifying the side to which certain of them belong,
the upper margins in particular being very sharp.

The bones of the hand and foot are incomplete in number, and the
chief remark to be made is that the ravages of disease are very marked
in the bones of the feet, and especially so in the os calcis of each foot
and in the metatarsals, the fifth being particularly deformed.

The long bones of the limbs are present, with the exception of the
right radius and ulna. The humeri and tibiae bear many traces of
periostitis, the fibular, the radius, and ulna of the left side to a less
extent than the bones first mentioned, the least affected of all being the
femora. The latter are, in fact, the only bones which afford reliable
information. They are rather straight in the shaft; no pilastering is
seen, though the line^ asperse are fully developed ; there are distinct
accessory adductor tubercles ; and partly owing to a flattening of the
anterior aspect of the shaft opposite the popHteal space, partly to its
own development, the anterior limit of the articular surface of the lower
end terminates on a very marked prominence. Platymeria (transverse)
is distinct, and no bulging of the shaft is seen posteriorly in the
popliteal space.

3. Speaking generally, the characters of the skull are not such as
will cause it to be referred at once and unhesitatingly to any well
recognized type. It would not have been surprising to find that such
a skull was brachycephalic and microcephalic, like the crania of .\nda-
manese and other Negrito races. But the specimen under consideration
is mesaticephalic (787) and mesocephaUc (capacity 1,425 c.c).

We note, however, certain characters of inferiority. In the first
place may be mentioned two features (often seen in lower races) which
are to be regarded not as racial peculiarities, but as constituting reten

246 Studies in Anthropologij

tions of conditions normal in infancy ; these are rotundity of contour in
norma occipitalis, and shortness of the ascending ramus of the mandible.
The condition of the teeth and of the cranial sutures leaves no doubt
as to the skull having reached full maturity.

In the next place, the conformation of the skeleton of the nose, and
the prognathism, which is of the variety known as subnasal, and is
moreover both alveolar and dental, constitute resemblances to skulls
met with frequently among the negro races ; moreover, the resemblances
are to African and especially certain Central African crania rather than
to those of Oceanic negroes. The lack of distinctness in the characters
which usually determine sex is also in favour of this view.

No definite resemblance could be traced, however, to the crania
of Bush natives of South Africa (and this is all the more noteworthy
because in certain characters the other bones of the skeleton resemble
those of the Bush race in the Cambridge Museum), nor to the crania
of the natives of the Punjab, nor to a skull from Manilla, nor lastly to
that of a Veddah. But it is important to notice that the facial features
are similar to those of certain crania from Sumatra, Java, and Borneo
(cf Nos. 882, 927, 966, 967, in the Museum of the Royal College of
Surgeons) and to one Andamanese cranium in the same collection.
From the morphological standpoint we may say, then, that the cranium
presents several features common to the lower races, any of which may,
however, occur in skulls of the highest races ; and further that the
concurrence of such characters in the same cranium confers upon it
marks of inferiority not revealed by a superficial examination.

4. Comments oh the Skeleton. — It is necessary again to refer to the
pathological changes that have taken place in the skeleton. It is note-
worthy that the articular surfaces of the bones are, comparatively
speaking, but little affected, the non-articular surfaces suffering most.
Thus this is not a case of osteo-arthritis, but there are not lacking
conditions resembling those described by Virchow {Zeitschrift fiir Ethio-
logie, 1895, p. 709) in the humerus of a bear, under the name of
Hohlengicht. [It is a matter for discussion whether the disease was
that called by Virchow {Joe. cit.) elephantiasis.]

The skeleton seems, to have been originally slight and slender, and
the individual was of small stature, probably about 1,497 nim., which,
as will be seen later, is a stature very near the average of Pangan men.

In comparison with the dwarf skeletons of Bush natives, several
points of comparison present themselves. Firstly, the size and propor-
tions of the scapulae are not unlike in the two cases, though the
acromion and coracoid processes are much more massive in the Semang
skeleton. It may not be out of place to mention that the Bush and

\

Wilcl Aborigines of the Malay Peninsula 247

Semang scapulae differ alike from those of the orang-utan and chimpanzee,
somewhat less from that of the gorilla.

The second point of similarity is the slenderness at the lower ends
of the femora in the Bush and Semang skeletons alike.

In the third place, an accessory adductor tubercle appears on the
femora of both skeletons.

Lastly, the size and general shape of the ossa innominata and the
comparative lack of curvature of the iliac crests constitute further
resemblances. On the other hand, differences obtain in the sacra, and
on the whole the Semang bones are larger. The great length of fore-arm
said to characterize the Andamanese is not present in the Semang.

To sum up, then, we find here again certain signs of similarity with
the skeleton of one of the lower races and departures from the higher
types ; the platycnemia has not been discussed, as the evidence derived
from such pathological specimens scarcely justifies it.

From such a general comparison, we must turn to the special com-
parison of this skeleton with those described by Professor Sir William
Turner in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (vol. xl,
Part I, No. 6) as representative of Sakais'. But from the figures and
description of the first of these examples, consisting of the skull with
parts of the skeleton, it can only be concluded that the resemblances
with the Semang skeleton which forms the subject of the present contri-
bution are quite insignificant. The following figures for various characters
will demonstrate clearly these differences.

Character

Turner's Specimen
from Kampar

Cambridge
Specimen

Skull:

Capacity

iis=^

1425

Breadth index

74-6

787

Height index...

76-5

72

Nasal index ...

58-5

5 5 "3

Orbital index

78

82-3

Skeleton

• Sacral index ...

102

io8-6

Pelvic (brim) index ...

108-5

?

Radio-humeral index

8o-2

78-3

Tibio-femoral index ...

80-9

877

Platymeric index

78

747

^ Intermembral index...

68-3

68-2

Femoro-humeral index

687

\ 72-3
\ 7f8

Estimated stature

1365

1497

^ For the meaning of this term, cf. footnote on p. 24^
- Closest approximation.

248

Studies in Anthi^opology

The comparison need not be pushed further, and this part of the
subject must be concluded with the remark that even among aboriginals
of the Malay Peninsula, who agree in the possession of small stature,
the variations in skeletal and cranial morphology are very considerable.

The second example described by Turner is a skull possessing
a certain number of points of resemblance with the Cambridge specimen,
and these are exhibited in the following table : —

Character

Turner's Specimen
from Pahang

Cambridge
Specimen

Cranial capacity
Breadth index
Height index
Nasal index ...

1385
79 '4
766

51

1425

787

7-
55 "3

Finally, when comparisons are instituted between the Cambridge
specimen and the " Pangghan " skull described by Virchow (quoted
by Turner, op. cit. p. 119), the following results are obtained, as shown
in the table : —

Character

Virchow's
■ Pangghan '

Cambridge
Pangan

Capacity
Breadth index
Height index
Orbital index
Nasal index ...

1370

8i-5

76-9

80

50

1425

787

72
82-3

The similarity is no greater than in the preceding case. On the
whole, the conclusion that will be arrived at is, in my opinion, that
intermediate forms of skull connect the distinctly dolichocephalic and
brachycephalic types described by Turner, and that it is impossible to
say whether the intermediate or either of the extreme types is the
original one'. It would be out of place to enter into a discussion of
the cranial characters of the Malays, but examination of the Malay
crania in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in London
shows that here also a great diversity of cranial form obtains.

^ It is by no means unlikely that the original Semangs were brachycephalic, the
Sakai being dolichocephalic.

Wild Ahoiigines of the Malay Peninsula 249

5. List of Measurements of Skull and Other Parts
OF the Semang Skeleton.

Measurements of Skull.

Description : Pangan Semang from

Bi-zygomatic breadth

I.S4

Malay Peninsula, collected by

Orbital height

33

W. Skeat, M.A.

Orbital width

40

Nasal height ...

47

Cranial portion :

Nasal width

26

Maximum length

179

Tugo-nasal arc...

107

Maximum breadth

141

Jugo-nasal width

97

Basi-bregmatic height...

129

Horizontal circumference

^11

Cranial capacity. Each observa-

Indices:

tion (2) gave 1425 c.c. = meso-

Cephalic

787

cephalic

Altitudinal

72

Alveolar

102

Facial portion:

Facial (Kollmann's) ...

46"2

Basi-nasal length

99

Orbital

82-3

Basi-alveolar length

lOI

Nasal

55 '3

Nasi-alveolar length ...

62

Naso-malar

110-3

Measurements of Bones of the Skeleton.

Anterior
height of
Centrum

Posterior
height of
Centrum

Bone, etc. :

R.

L.

Lumbar vertebrae:

Humerus

308

305

First

23

25

Radius ...

?

239

Second

23

25

Femur ...

426

425

Third

24

25

Tibia

374

372

Fourth

25

23

Ulna

?

253

Fifth

27

21

Fibula

365

361

Index given by com-

Radio-humeral in-

bined tigures...

97

'5

dex

p

78-3

Femur, special measure-

Tibio-femoral index

877

87-5

mtutsfor: —

Intermembral index

?

68-2

Phityineria :

R.

L.

Femoro-humeral in-

Transv. diam.

27

27

dex

72-3

71-8

Antero-posterior diam.

20

20

Platymeric index

74"7

74 7

/ Length v

V 93 /

/Breadth ,
V, lOI /

Platyciiemia :

Sacrum ...

Transv. diam.

21

19

Scapula — height

117

125

Antero-posterior diam.

33

29

,, breadth

I02

103

Platycnemic index ...

63-6

65-5

Sacral index

108

•6

Popliteal region :

Scapular index ...

87-1

82-4

Transv. diam.

33

34

Clavicle ...

IIQ

129

"M.N."

26

25

Claviculo-humeral

" M.P."

23

23

index ...

38-6

42-3

Popliteal index

69-6

67-6

1

250 Studies in Anth^opoJogij

6. Note on the Photographs. — The skull is represented as viewed in
norma verticalis (Fig. i), and in norma lateralis (Fig. 2), orientated in
each case according to the " Frankfort " horizontal line.

The appearances will be found described in Section i.

{b) Measurements on the Living.

The natives measured, cf. Table A, were eleven in number, and of
these five were adult males, three adult females, and three immature,
viz., a boy of fourteen, a girl of fifteen to seventeen, and a female child
of three to four years. With regard to the elder girl, a review of the
measurements led me to disregard them in the computation of the
averages for adult females, although this individual in other respects
might be looked upon as practically mature. Mr Laidlaw's notes on
each individual are appended.

Mr Laidlaiv's descriptive notes on the individuals measured.

1. Residence, Sungei Bumit in Aring. Formerly top teeth were
filed down with sandstone in Malay fashion. Skin much scarred. Lips
thick, slight straggly beard. Feet curved inwards and much splayed,
Httle toe of left foot missing. Non-Mohammedan, stated his age to be
forty-five years. Formerly married, no children.

2. Residence, Sungei Bumit. Slightly deaf. Lips thick. Feet
contours normal. Head shaved with a razor given him by Penghulu
of Kampong Buntal. Unmarried, Pandak's brother-in-law. Very
restless.

3. Slave living near Kampong Buntal. Parents lived in jungle of
Ulu Lebit. Middle finger of right hand deformed. Age stated by
himself to be seventy years. Married, with two children. Colour
3 Topinard's scale. Eyes dark, rich brown. Hair short, woolly, very
dark dull brown. Rampong Buntal.

4. Brother of No. 3. Slave, captured when very young. Religion,
Mohammedan. Colour. 3 Topinard's scale. Colour vision normal or
nearly so, tendency not to distinguish between dark shades, dark purples
being compared with dark reds, but rejected. The boy is very nervous
and taciturn. Residence, Kwala Aring.

5. Residence, Sungei Sam. Son of No. 7. Skin a little lighter
than Topinard's No. 3. Hair wiry, very closely curled. Teeth not
filed, much worn, but white and undecayed. Non-Mohammedan.
A slave ; parents Pangans of Sungei Lebih. Has a moustache.

Ml

lour Ear shape

Teeth

aolly

moderately
large

moderately
So jrly large, lobe not
distinct

several incisors

missing, teeth

stained with betel

U

68 \y

66

to

not tiled, white,

much worn, no

decay

6 filed, decay

789 IOI"2

bearded: brow-
ridges prominent

6s

64

hardly any left

nky

lay

69

ort.

35

81 • I ! 97"4

6 upper teeth filed

Teeth (milk-den-
tition) quite regular,

upper median
incisors very large,

laterals smaller,
canines large, lower I
incisors small but 1
recrular

D-our

^ IVIAD

I

Wild Aborigines of the Malay Peninsula 251

6. Petai or Petema. Residence, Sungei Sam. Skin a shade
lighter than No. 5, covered with skin disease of a mild type. Eyes
dark brown, strongly marked superorbital ridges. Eyes very restless.
Has a moustache and beard of woolly hair. Six front teeth of upper
jaw filed, slightly decayed. Has a humorous expression about the
mouth. Parents from Sungei Gala.

7. Slave at Sungei Sam. Skin darker than No. 3 Topinard. Feet
much splayed, as in No. i. Eyes dark brown. Skin diseased.

8. Slave at Sungei Sam.

9. Slave girl at Kampong Buntal. Unmarried, but sexually mature.
Feet and hands small and delicately shaped. Hair short, thick, and
woolly. Parents lived in Ulu Aring. Inclined to steatopygia.

10. Wife of No. 3. Skin rather redder than No. 3 Topinard.
Hair black and lanky like a Malay's. Eyes very dark brown. Parents
and grandparents Pahang Sakais living on Sungei Sahan, tribe now
moved down stream, no Malay admixture admitted. Mother of No. 11.
Breasts very pendulous.

11. Daughter of No. 3 and No. 10. Skin colour No. 3 Topinard,
but rather redder. Eyes dark brown, darker than in parents. Teeth,
milk teeth, perfectly regular, the upper pair of incisors very large, two
next smaller, much as in English children.

From the measurements provided, I have calculated the averages
for each sex, and have embodied the results in a diagram which will
show the general outcome of this method of dealing with the data
(fig. 3). The consideration of this I propose to defer temporarily
while dealing with the other observations of Mr Laidlaw. In the first
place, the colour of the skin seems in general to be dark brown or
chocolate, but there are two cases in which it was lighter than in the
rest, and this point is of importance as confirming the statement made
by recent observers (Martin) that the aborigines of the Peninsula may
be divided, on considerations bearing on skin-colour, into at least two
well marked classes, the one with a lighter skin than the other. As
regards the colour of the eyes, a corresponding difference is not re-
corded, and in all instances the colour is a dark brown, probably of the
shade so common among primitive races.

On coming to work through the notes on hair, it is found, however,
that whereas in the majority it is woolly or closely curled, there is one
instance of an adult, the woman Kebang, in whom the hair though
black is not curled, but straight ; this difference again confirms the
remarks of earlier observers, and in the lantern slide showing a group
of Semang examples of each kind of hair may be seen.

Finally, it is very interesting to notice that among the specimens

252

Studies in Ajithropologij

of hair shown is that of the child Kepar, of whose parents one (the
father) is of the curly-haired type, the mother being the one example
of all those observed presenting straight hair ; the specimen of the
child's hair shows that she resembles her mother in this respect.

With the mention that only one bearded man was observed, I may
pass from the consideration of the hair to that of the teeth, which in
many instances were seen to be filed ; in one instance caries was
noticed. In the skull sent to Cambridge the teeth are encrusted, as
is so often the case with the teeth of crania of East Indian natives in
general, with a dark deposit, probably betel nut. The front teeth in
specimen have been filed (cf. account of the skull).

CAUCASi^iH. LA;«iLO-/M£;iiqAN! s, ^EG;^o. t.

ESJdldO.O.

PAKGAN.6.

PA;<GAN.a.

Fig. 3. Diagrams showing relative proportions of average Caucasian, Negro,
Eskimo, Pangan Semang (male), and Pangan Semang (female).

Returning now to the measurements, it may be first noticed that
the index of the head (cephalic index) gives for the men an average
of 78-9, which agrees fairly well with the figures obtained for the skull
previously described. The women would seem to have heads of a more
spherical form, for the corresponding average index for these is 8i'i ; a
greater number of examples (only three are available) would probably
modify this figure somewhat.

Next the nasal index may be considered, and this yields the
remarkable figure of ici"2 as the average for five adult males, and
97-4 as that for three adult females. A very great nasal width is
indicated hereby, and to one famifiar with the measurements in question

Wild Aborigines of the Malay Peninsula 253

the figure alone gives a fairly good idea of the conformation of this
particular feature.

The majority of the remaining measurements are, as has been
already said, embodied in diagrammatic forms in the drawings to which
attention may now be directed.

In the first diagram (fig. 3) is seen the figures of the adult Pangan
individuals of the two sexes compared with one another. It is necessary,
moreover, to notice, though it is not indicated on the diagram, that the
average man with a stature of 1,491 mm. (about 4 feet 9 inches) exceeds
the woman by about 83 mm. or 2,2 inches.

Secondly, the position of the presternal notch with reference to the
bi-acromial line should be remarked.

Lastly, the Semang diagram may be compared with those of other
races. I have represented for comparison diagrams (for two of which
I must express my indebtedness to Professor Thomson of Oxford) of
adult males.

1. Anglo-American. . ... ... stature 1,705.

2. Negro ... ... ... ... ,, 1,680.

3. Eskimo (Labrador) ... ... ,, Ij577-

\_Cf. Joiini. Anthrop. Inst., vol xxx, 1901.]

Which combine with the Semang to form a curiously regular series
(diminuendo).

The following notes refer to the specimens of hair : —

No. 2 ( $ ). — Close coils ; hair of a frizzled type characteristically

negrito. Diameter of coils = 15 mm.
" Kutun " ( ? ). — F"rizzly hair, which is long and thus to some

extent unlike the preceding.
"Pandak" (^). — Close coils; same type as "No. 2." Diameter

of coils 15 mm. (less in parts).
" Bihiyah " ( ? ). — ? Malay female ; long, straight hair tied in coil;

quite different from the three preceding examples.

* " Pa-Gelugor " ( c? aged). — Hair frizzly and rather long (about

70 mm.), and thus differing somewhat from No. 2.

* "Apiat" (? sex). — The hair has much the same characters as

that of " Pa-Gelugor," but is slightly shorter.

* " Kachoug " (? $ ). — The hair is frizzly and closely resembles

that of " Kutun."

[* The last three examples are from Jarum in Raman. j

254

Studies ill Anthropology

Notes on the outline tracings of the feet.

Maximum
length

Maximum

breadth

"Pandak" R

L

246
246

i03'5
97

"Yak Bertik" R

228

96

L

230

90

"Ragong" R. ...

23'
229

99

lOI

The tracings of feet comprise the following : —

" Pandak." — Right foot : broad ; hallux turned inwards slightly.

Left foot : like right foot, but the small toe seemingly
absent (cf. note on No. i, p. 250). (Fig. 4. i, 2.)

■:R2iii.<f

Tx,vdLa.v, a

Fig. 4, Pandak cf

"Yak Bertik." — Smaller foot; hallux as in Pandak's foot; the outer

border of the foot is straight. No special differences

between right and left feet, except that in the left

foot the toes do not seem to have been properly

pressed against the ground. (Fig. 4. 3, 4.)

The appearance of the tracings of the left feet of Pandak and of

Yak Bertik give some confirmation of the statement made by Mikluko-

Maclay to the effect that in the feet of the Semang tribes the outer toes

are curved inwards and beneath the inner toes (cf. Zeitschrift fiir

Ethnologic, viii, p. 228).

Wild Aborigines of the 3£alaij Peninsula 255

YlK'Be.UI. 2

Fig. 4, Yak Bertik ?

Tl.jcnj.?.

Fig. 4, Ragong <J

T\.ij'.''^. 0

" Ragong." — No special points of difference in right and left feet ;

the toes are all clearly marked; the hallux is not

inverted so distinctly as in the two preceding cases.

(Fig. 4- 5, 6.)

In none of these examples is the second toe longer than the hallux.

The measurements are given on the preceding page.

note on a skull labelled " scemang-
schAdel c//' "Bukit-sapi," upper PERAK,
1902; now in the museum of the royal
college of surgeons.

The former owner of the skull was a member of the tribe of
Penghulu Dakabo (?), of Goyal (i.e., " Mount ") Sapi, about eight miles
{ivegestiinden) from Kuala Kenering in Upper Perak. The skull was
that of an old man who had been buried between three and four years.

The grave was completely concealed in the underwood and sur-
rounded by primeval forest, and Dr Grubauer, who dug up the
skull, says that he would have been quite unable to find it without
the assistance of Penghulu Dakabo himself; in fact, the grave was still
further concealed by a tree which had accidentally fallen across it, and
which had to be moved before the tops of the "grave-posts" could be
found. The latter consisted of a number of short posts planted in
the ground diagonally, and leaning over the skeleton, so as to protect
it from falling earth, the skeleton itself lying untouched beneath them.

The skull is a small one, with the mandible attached, and the sex
claimed for it appears the correct one. The age of the individual must,
again (as claimed), have been well advanced, as synostosis is observed
in a marked degree in the coronal and sagittal sutures. No teeth
remain in their sockets, but seven accompany the skull. Signs of
alveolar abscesses are seen in the upper jaw. The whole skull is stained
as though by some vegetable juice, which has imparted a yellowish
tinge to the specimen. Vegetable fibres remain in the orbits, and in
the foramina about the base of the skull.

As regards the general characteristics of this skull, it may be said
at once that it does not present evidence of a low stage of evolution,
and, indeed, in many respects it is as highly developed as many skulls
of civilised Europeans. Evidence for a lowliei rank than these could
only be demonstrated, if at all, by a very careful analysis of the morpho-
logical features of the specimen now in question.

Description of a Scmang Skull 257

The cranial portion of the skull is well filled and muscular ridges
do not interrupt the uniformity of its contour. The individual cannot
have been characterised by any great physical development. The
brow-ridges are, however, quite distinct and impart much expression
to the facial part of the skull. The skeleton of the nose is moderately
prominent, and there is prognathism of the subnasal variety — i.e., the
alveolar border of the upper jaw is prominent. The specimen may
now be considered from the several fiormae in order.

In norma verticalis the skull is brachycephalic and obovate in
form. The zygomatic arches are just concealed by the skull-wall, and
the specimen is, in consequence, cryptozygous, but on the borderland of
phaenozygism. Synostosis has invaded the median parts of the coronal
suture, and has almost obliterated the anterior three-quarters of the
sagittal suture. Two parietal foramina are seen. Muscular ridges
are, as have been mentioned, so feebly developed as to be hardly
distinguishable.

In norma lateralis subnasal prognathism is seen. The naso-frontal
depression is accentuated by prominent brow-ridges, above which the
median sagittal curve of the skull rises abruptly, making the forehead
appear high. The curve in question is continued without interruption
to the inion, where there is a roughened area. The zygomatic arches
are stout in proportion to the size of the skull, the mastoids being of
moderate size. The sphenoid joins the parietal bone at each pterion.

In norma facialis there is seen a well-rounded transverse cranial arc ;
the face is wide, though absorption of the jaw accentuates this feature.
The orbits appear of moderate height (though the index shews them
to be micro-semic) with bevelled outer margins ; the os planum of the
ethmoid is of good height, and the lacrymo-ethmoidal suture of fair
length (lo mm.). The lacrymal hamulus is absent from each side.
The pars facialis of the infra-orbital suture persists on the left side.
The nasal aperture is of moderate width, the nasal bones small and
upturned, curiously like those of Australian aboriginals ; the lower
nasal margins indistinct. The nasal spine is at the end of a ridge
(lophacanthic type).

In nor?na basilaris a long hypsiloid palate is seen, the tubera
maxillaria are small ; no teeth remain in the alveoli, and these are in
many instances obliterated, owing to absorption of the jaw. The
glenoid fossae are deep, the tympanic bone is not perforated and is of
fair length, the styloid processes variable, the right being long, the left
short. A pterygospinous ligament must have been present in life.
The foramen magnum has no special features, being quite comparable
to that of the normal European skull.

D. 17

258

Studies in Anthropology

In norma occipitalis an approach to a pentagonal outline is seen ;
there are two or three Wormian bones in the lambdoid suture, and
a remnant of the suture dividing the inter-parietal from the supra-
occipital element of the occipital bone is seen. On a plane surface
the skull rests on the alveolar margins of the jaw and on the tips of the
mastoid processes.

The mandible has a prominent chin, an obtuse angle and shallow
sigmoid notches. The teeth are well worn, decayed, but not apparently
filed.

Judged by the indices, the skull is to be described as short, flat,
and broad-faced, orthognathous, with flattened orbits and narrow nasal
aperture. The last character, however, is not properly represented by
the figure of the nasal index, which is unusually low, owing to the
remarkable position of the nasal spine. The skull is microcephaUc as
regards capacity.

Measurements of Skull.

Cranial portion:

Facial portion :

Indices:

Maximum length ...

167

Basi-na.sal length

96

Cephalic ...

85

Maximum breadth . . .

132

Basi-alveolar length ..

964-

Altitudinal

82-6

Basi-bregmatic height

128

Nasi-alveolar length..

62 +

Alveolar ...

100

Horizontal circumter-

Bi-zygomatic lireadth

13'

Facial (Koll-

ence

482

Orbital height

.54

mann's) ..

47*2

Orbital width

41

Orbital

82-0

Nasal height ...

48

Nasal

44-81

Nasal width ...

21-5

Capacity : — two determina-

tions gave 1,245 c.c

and

1,250 c.c. respecti

vely ;

1,245 c.c. is the

more

correct figure

1 Falsified by great development of the nasal spine.

It presents some remarkable resemblances to a cranium in the
Cambridge Ethnological Museum, which I described in Man (1902. 28);
the shprtness of the cranium and the general rotundity are alike in
each, as is also the sriiall figure of the cranial capacity. Where the
Semang skull differs from the Andamanese skull just mentioned, it
resembles a skull described by Turner as that of a Sakai, and figured
in a communication to the Royal Society of Edinburgh (vol. xl,
Part I, No. 6). The Sakai skull agrees with the subject of the present
account in the possession of promihent brow-ridges, and consequently
flattened orbits, the nasal bones and aperture have similar characters

Description of a Semang Skull 259

in each. But Turner's "Sakai" is dolichocephalic, so that the cor-
respondence of type is not far-reaching. No very close resemblance
can be traced between the Semang here described and the skull from
Pahang described by Turner, or the "Pangghan" described by Virchow
(see comparisons in "Some Anthropological Results of the Skeat
Expedition to the Malay Peninsula," Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xxxii,
1902, p. 142), or the Semang Skull in the Cambridge Collection.

To sum up, then, this specimen of a Semang skull is to be regarded
as an example of the short type of Negrito skull, which is thus shewn
to be variable in the essential characteristic of the relation of length to
breadth. It still remains to be proved whether the long or the short
skull is the original Negrito one, and at the present day there are
seemingly to be found Negrito skulls in the Malay Peninsula which (by
their form) link up the extreme long and short types.

17-

LIST OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL SKULLS IN
THE UNIVERSITY MUSEUM OF ANATOMY,
OBTAINED FROM ANCIENT SITES IN THE
COUNTY OF CAMBRIDGE, ETC.

Barrington
Bartlow ...
Burwell ...
Barnwell ...
Barton Road

Chesterton (gravel beds)...
Huntingdon Rd. (Roman site
Jesus Lane
Various (Queens' Coll., S. John's Coll
Sidney St)

Castle Hill

Chippenham

Comberton (near Roman villa

Fulbourn (war ditches) ...

Girton (ancient cemetery)

Haslingfield

Hauxton (coprolite diggings)

Kingston ,, ,,

Litlington ...

INIadingley

Great Chesterford, Essex

Saffron Walden, Essex ..

Brandon, Suffolk...

Grand total

Percentages

Character of skull

Long,
narrow

31
II

23

103

61 -6

Medium

23

55

33

Short,
broad

5 "4

Total

5

7

I

46

2

167

Ifote: — The figures for the Brandon crania are admitted because this town is so
near the border of Cambridgeshire as to be practically within the scope of this sketch.
These figures are from measurements by Dr C S. Myers of Caius College. They are
thus to be clearly distinguished from the earlier figures which are estimates only, not
supported by actual measurements, but which nevertheless will, it is believed, prove
not far removed from the actual figures. The number of skulls of mean proportion
will probably be increased when these estimates are checked by measurements, and
the proportions will thus be nearer those obtained by Dr Myers for the Brandon
skulls.

AN ANATOMICAL DESCRIPTION OF SOME
SKELETONS FROM THE WAR DITCHES
AT CHERRY HINTON.

The series comprises five nearly complete skeletons, with an
isolated and imperfect skull. The state of preservation of the bones
is good, but affords no clue to their age. In the present account
the chief characteristics of the crania and skeletons are noted, and two
tables record the principal dimensions of the skulls and bones.

Of the five skeletons two are of males, three of females. Of the
former, one is that of a tall, strong man past the prime of life, the
other that of a much younger and weaker man. Of the rest, two are
skeletons of young females, one of an aged woman ; of the two younger,
the soundness and regularity of the teeth are conspicuous features, and
in one case metopism is observed, the cranial capacity in this case
being exceptionally large. The skeleton of the old woman is less
perfect, so that the measurements are less valuable ; the platycnemic
condition of the tibite is to be remarked.

The tables of measurements indicate that the cranial capacity of
these specimens is large ; the absolute length of the skulls as a series,
or individually, is considerable, and the breadth index shews that the
series is dolichocephalic. All the specimens are dolichocephalic except
two; of these one is just within the mesaticephalic group (75'i), the
other at the upper limit of the same group (79'4)- I" each case the
vertical or height index is lower than the breadth index, so that
the series is tapeinocephalic.

All are orthognathic, the index in the case of one female skull
being remarkably low. The series is leptorrhine, though in two cases
the index (50) denotes a mesorrhine skull. In one case the nasal index
is exceptionally low, but here posthumous deformation seems to have
affected the shape of the facial bones. The other indices do not refer
to more than one or two cases, and need not be noticed in detail,

262 Studies in Anthropologij

The sacral indices place the males in the platyhieric division (as
Europeans, this would be expected). Of the corresponding indices for
the females, one is below loo, and so places this sacrum in the dolicho-
hieric group (this sacrum is composed of 6 pieces).

As regards the breadth-height index of the pelvis, the mean for the
two males places them in their proper position as Europeans, though
the indices differ by lo (83-8 — 737). The indices for the three females
vary by very small amounts only : the average is rather too high for
European females, indicating that these pelves are rather higher than
usual, in proportion to breadth.

The brim index of the pelvis, as regards the males, is much lower
than usual; in one case where it is 65 '4, the amount of damage
sustained by the pelvis makes the index of very little value. The brim
index of one female pelvis only is available : this agrees well with the
average figure quoted by Professors Flower and Turner; and the
actual dimensions of this pelvis reproduce almost exactly the average
dimensions deduced from eleven female pelves measured by Professor
Turner'.

The dimensions of the segments of the limbs may be here con-
sidered. The radio-humeral index shews that all except one male are
brachykerkic. The exception is the weakly male already referred to,
and here the index of 8o"8 denotes a dolichokerkic limb.

With regard to the corresponding relation in the lower limb, all are
brachyknemic, though the females are relatively longer " legged " than
the males (using the term " leg " to indicate the limb from the knee to
ankle). These specimens do not depart far from the average of
Europeans as regards the intermembral and femoro-humeral indices
respectively.

The femora and tibiae were examined and measured in order to
determine if the pilastered or platycnemic conditions are present ; in
one case, a young female, the femur is distinctly pilastered, and in one
case, the aged female, the tibia is very distinctly platycnemic. The
respective indices bear out this conclusion.

Finally, it must be admitted that it is hard to assign these skeletons
to a definite race ; but 'one may say with some confidence that they
are post-Roman. By the process of exclusion, as they are not of the
long barrow or round barrow races, nor of the broad-faced coffin-shaped
type of the Saxons of Southern England, they must be either Belgic
or Anglian, and hitherto there are no definite criteria upon which we
can depend for distinguishing these,

^ Challenger Report, ii. 34.

Skeletons from the War Ditches at Cherry Hinton 263

Details regarding the individual skeletons.

N'o. I. The skeleton of an adult or aged male of considerable height, about
1690 mm. The skull has a somewhat prominent glabella, and marked bulging
above the inion which is marked by a strong downwardly directed spine ; other
muscular crests and ridges are not so well marked ; the massiveness of the hamular
processes of the internal pterygoid plates may be noticed. The right jugular fossa
has three compartments, and there are two on the left side. The upper molars have
been lost and their sockets absorbed; they persist in the lower jaw. Synostosis in
the cranial sutures is observed at several points. The bones of the lower extremity
are large, the femur and tibia being massive, with strongly marked crests for muscular
and ligamentous attachments; especially is this the case with the tibial eminence for
the attachment of the ilio-tibial band. The right tibia bears an upwardly directed
spur on its outer and anterior surface, about 20 mm. above the lower end. This spur
is grooved on the inner side, probably for the long extensor tendon of the hallux.

The vertebral column deserves mention for the sharp spine surmounting the
odontoid process of the axis vertebra, and also for the exostoses from the left side
of the first lumbar vertebra, articulating with similar though smaller exostoses from
the last dorsal and second lumbar vertebrce respectively.

The xiphoid cartilage is ossified almost completely, and is perforated centrally by
an opening about 4 mm. in diameter.

No. 2. The skeleton of a young woman nearly 15.S0 mm. in height. The
skull is long, and appears somewhat "coffin-shaped" in norma verticalis ; there is
pronounced bulging over the inion which is not well marked, other muscular and
ligamentous attachments being but feebly developed. The apertura pyrifonnis of
the nose is very narrow. All the teeth are sound, the third pair of upper molars have
not long appeared. The mandible is strong with low angle.

The chief feature to be noticed in the skeleton is the inclusion of the 5th lumbar
vertebra in the sacrum, which thus consists of 6 pieces, although the last lumbar
vertebra is only joined to the lateral masses of the sacrum by bony tissue, the lumbo-
sacral intervertebral disc persisting ; the sacral index in this case is correspondingly
low, as has already been noted. The dental index 41 '4 may be noted as the only one
available in this series ; the skull being accordingly microdont.

No. 3 is the skeleton of a young female about 1460 mm. in height. The skull,
like others of this series, has suffered some posthumous deformation by pressure. It
is long, narrow, metopic, and remarkably capacious ; the forehead is high and there is
some tendency to approach the klinocephalic form, as a zone of flattening crosses the
sagittal suture just behind the bregma. Bulging of the occipital region is marked.
The occipital and sphenoid bones are not yet synostosed, so that the individual's age
was about 20 years. The foramen magnum is large, the palate broad, and a perfect
set of teeth present in upper and lower jaws. The nasal aperture is exceedingly com-
pressed.

The limb bones in several cases have epiphyses still separate ; the femur has a
very wide and deep intercondylar notch; both femora are strongly pilastered. The
pelvis has been much damaged ; the epiphyses for the iliac crests have not yet joined
those bones. The right hand, with the lower parts of radius and ulna, are missing.

264 Studies in Anthropology

No. 4 is the skeleton of a young male; the bones of the lower limbs from the
knee downwards are absent. The skull has the lowest altitudinal index and the
highest naso-malar index of this series, so that it is a low skull with projecting nasal
bones and nasal processes of superior maxillae.

The second upper pair of molar teeth have been lost, and their sockets obliterated,
probably prematurely, to judge from the appearance of the other teeth. The skull is
long and narrow, the inion marked by a sharp ridge, other crests for muscular or
ligamentous attachments being but feebly developed. The sphenoidal spines however
are large and sharp ; the margin of the external pterygoid plate is serrated.

The bones of the upper limb are less massive proportionately than the femora,
which are long and peculiarly wide and antero-posteriorly compressed, especially
near the lesser trochanters, where there seems to be some sort of deposit on the
exterior of the bones. The pelvis has been much damaged.

No. 5 is the skeleton of an aged female, and is about 1470 mm. in height. The
skull is microcephalic, 1305 c.c. in capacity; synostosis has progressed some way
in the sagittal suture. The mastoid processes are very small, the zygomatic arches
slender, the canine fossse deep.

The bones of the skeleton have been somewhat damaged, and the pelvis especially
has suffered; the iliac crests have more than usually sinuous outlines. The other
point to be noticed in this skeleton is the marked platycnemic condition of both tibire
{index 69).

Skeletons from the War Ditches at Cherry Hintoii 265

TABLE OF MEASUREMENTS OF SIX HUMAN
SKELETONS FROM CHERRY HINTON.

L The Skull.

No. of Skull

I

4

6

2

3

5

Sex

Male

Male

Male ?

Female

Female

Female

Age

Aged

Adult

Aged

Adult

Adult

Aged

Cubic capacity ...

1550

1615

1450?

1480?

1650

1305

Maximum length

193

.87

189

188

195

180

Ophryo-occipital length

188

187

187

187

'94

178

Ophryo-iniac length

183

184

175

180

192

176

Occipito-alveolar length

210

191

?

202 ?

196

189

Occipito-spinal length

200

188

?

198

199

183?

Maximum breadth

145

140

150

137

141

134

Bi-asterial breadth

117

109

102

no

"3

107

Bi-auricular breadth

122

"5

123

"5

109

112

Bi-stephanic breadth

113

120

122

106

126?

114?

Minimum frontal breadt

h ... 100

95

99

96

107 ?

90

External bi-orbital brea

-Ith ... 107

98

103

105

109 ?

95?

Jugo-nasal breadth

9S

92

?

96?

?

88

Minimum inter-orbital 1

)readth 29

24

27

31

31 ?

20

Bi-malar breadth

115

112

?

p

113?

105

Bi-zygomatic breadth

137

128

?

?

118

Bi-maxillary breadth

91

94

84?

. 91

80

Ophryo-mental length

145

138

138

J 44

134

Ophryo-alveolar length

95

95

90

98

85?

Naso-mental length

126

112

118

117

Ill

Naso-alveolar length

73

70

71

71

60?

Basi-mental length

105

100

106?

110 ?

95

Basi-alveolar length

99

9f

?

96

92

89?

Basi-nasal length

104

100

104

99

109

97

Basi-bregmatic length

1.^6

130

143

133

136

•30

Basion to obelion, lengt

\\ ... ■ 137

128

144?

126

133?

128

Basion to lambda, lengt

1 ... 121

114

127

"3

117

118

Basi-iniac length

1 81

84

82

79

90

88

Basion to opisthion, len^

?th ... 1 37

38

34

36

39

38

Breadth of foi-amen ma^

jnum ... 1 30

31

31

30?

28

30

Orbital height ...

; 33

■ 32

?

39

37

32

Orbital breadth ...

41

38

39?

38

33?

Nasal height

48

51

52

53

42

Nasal breadth

24

23

23

19?

21

Palato-maxillary length

56

50

52

54?

52?

Palato-maxillary breadtl

... 1 ?

55?

61

52

52?

Horizontal circumferenc

e ■•• 535

531

530

520

540

505

Horizontal pre-auricular

arc ... 235

282

280

220

250

220

Horizontal post-auriculai

arc . . . 300

249

250

300

290

285

Supra-auricular arc

308

313

320

3r2

316

297

Oblique parietal arc

372

363

330

367

375

352

Frontal arc

'32

137

134

127

130

123

Parietal arc

133

129

135

134

131

120

Occipital arc, .superior

72

68

65

72

60

66

Occipital arc, inferior

50

50

50

45

=;8

54

Jugo-nasal arc

"5

113

.

106

?

. 98

266

Studies 171 AntJiropology

I. The Skull. — Continued.

No. of Skull

I

4

6

2

3

5

Sex ...

Male

Male

Male?

Female

Female

Female

Age

Aged

Adult

Aged

Adult

Adult

Aged

Anterior palatine width

27

29

?

28

30

25

Posterior palatine width

?

40?

?

37

40

p

Lower jaw :

Symphysial height

.^3

29

30

30

30

Coronoid height

67

67

63

62

54

Condylar height

64

55

59

51

56

Gonio-symphysial length

71

69

71

71

65

Intergonial width

109

101

104

97

82

Intercoronoid breadth

102

97

?

?

82

Intercondylar breadth external

125?

117

122 ?

no ?

109 ?

Intercondylar breadth internal

85?

80

80?

85?

74?

Breadth of ascending ramus ...

34

39

35

39

30

Angle of ascending ramus

,24°

"3°

113°

124°

p

Additional measurements :

Inter-pterionic breadth

115

112

lOI ?

100 ?

122 ?

no

Choanal height

25

20

?

26

?

24

Choanal breadth

33

28

26

?

30?

Length, lac-ethml. suture, R.

?

?

?

?

p

Length, lac-ethml. suture, L.

' \^^>.

?

?

?

->

Length, sphen. parietal sut. R.

17?

14

?

>

'9?

Length, sphen. parietal sut. L.

?

14

?

12

21 ?

Distance from ant. to post, nasal

spine ...

56

53

p

52

58

50?

Least distance between tem-

poral crests ...

94

121 ?

129

100 ?

p

Length of 3 molars combined

?

?

?

29

34

Length of molars & pre-molars

?

?

?

41

p

Indices :

Cephalic

75'i

74*9

79"4

72-9

72-3

74"4

Vertical

70 "5

69 '5

757

707

697

72-2

Alveolar

95 '2

91

?

97

84-4

91-8?

Orbital

80-5

84-2

100 ?

97 '4

97?

Nasal

50

45T

44-2

35-8?

50

Palato-maxillary

?

no

"7-3

96-3?

100 ?

Facial, total

94 "5

9275

?

p

88

Facial, superior (Broca)

69-3

74-2

?

3

?

Facial, superior (Kollmann) ..

53 '3

547

?

?

?

Stephano-zygomatic ...

82-5

93'75

?

3

p

Gonio-zygomatic

79-6

78-1

?

>

69*5

Naso-malar

ii7'3

122-8

?

IIO-4?

?

I II "4

11. • Averages of Indexes.

A

ve rages of

All

Males

Females

Cephalic Index
Vertical Index

74-8
7 1 "3

75
70

73-2
70-8

Alveolar Index
Nasal Index

91-9
47 '4

93-1
47'5

907
47'i

Skeletons from the IVar Ditches at Cherry Hinton 267

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-!">'>>>r'- rt J: Jx X -11-. iHn

AN ACCOUNT OF SOME ESKIMO FROM
LABRADOR.

(With assistance from B. H. Pain, Esq., B.A., Emmanuel College.)

In the autumn of 1899 a party of 27 Eskimo were brought from
Labrador to this country by an American gentleman, Mr Ralph G. Taber,
and were exhibited at Olympia' during the latter part of that year and in
January, 1900. The following account deals with the more important
of their physical characteristics, and we are much indebted to Mr Taber
both for the opportunities he afforded us of making measurements and
for his courtesy in answering numerous enquiries about Eskimo-life in
Labrador. The measurements were made by means of the following
instruments : Carson's Anthropometer, Martin's Anthropometer and
Callipers, Cunningham's Craniometer (for radial measurements), and
the strengths of "pull as archer" and of the grasp of the hands respect-
ively were recorded by means of the instruments in use in the Anthropo-
metric investigations of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. Finally
a phonograph was used to record some Eskimo words. The measure-
ments are recorded in a table which follows this communication and
some of the chief results are reproduced in a diagram which is com-
pared with similar diagrammatic representations of other human races.
The latter are taken from an article on Physical Anthropology in
a recent number of Knowledge written by Professor Arthur Thomson
of Oxford, to whom we desire to acknowledge our indebtedness for
such comparative material.

It is convenient to mention here that in making the measurements
our work was much facilitated by one of the Eskimo women, Esther
Enutsiak, who acted as an interpreter; and finally, that owing to the
thick and somewhat rigid sealskin garments of our subjects, some of
the measurements proved very difficult to obtain with accuracy.

^ The Exhibition Hall in Kensington, London.

Physical Proportiojis of the Eskimo 269

These Eskimo comprise members of five families. Their native land
is that part of Labrador which is situated in the region of E. long. 64°
and N. lat. ^2>° ; there has been in this neighbourhood for some eighty-
years a Moravian settlement called Hebron, and the missionaries have
certainly influenced the Eskimo in this district very considerably : it
may be added that the missionaries are also traders. To judge from
the photographs of this part of Labrador the country is of a desolate
and forbidding aspect : moreover communication by land is almost
impracticable and trading or fishing vessels are only able to approach
Hebron during a very short period in the summer months of the year.
We may here mention that the University Anatomical museum received
a few years ago a donation of Eskimo skulls from Hopedale (presented
by Dr E. Curwen, St John's College) : Hebron is as much as four
hundred miles north of this place, but the physical type is probably
very similar in both instances. These Eskimo thus belong distinctly
to the Eastern group of their race with whom the Greenlanders are
usually ranked, and so are to be compared or in some particulars con-
trasted with the " Central," and " Western " or Alaskan groups of this
stock. There is, however, reason to believe that the Labrador Eskimo
have been less subject than any of the other branches to foreign in-
fluences and admixture, and this consequently enhances the interest
they possess from the standpoint of physical anthropology. It is
a matter of great regret that they are so few in number ; Mr Taber
estimates at something under 2000 individuals the whole Eskimo popu-
lation of an area in Labrador about equal to that of Great Britain ; such
paucity of numbers when taken into consideration together with the
fact of their liability to many forms of disease may well cause the
gravest apprehensions for their permanence. (For these diseases, &c.,
cf. Turner, Annual Report of the American Bureau of Ethnology, vol. xi,
pp. 187 et seq. )

The appended figures will afford an idea of the average stature of
males and females respectively, the difference being on the average
about 80 mm. in favour of the former. But there is a considerable
range of variety presented by the males, of whom Tapeka-Pinnit and
Alukt-Mikiuk represent the highest and lowest extremes respectively.
(Herein differing from the Ungava Eskimo — cf. Turner, loc. cit. p. 184.)
The skin colour and complexion does not differ nmch in the two sexes.
but was rather paler than might have been expected, though this is
probably due to the conditions of life at Olympia, viz. in almost constant
confinement indoors, and in exposure to the glare of electric arc-lamps
(cf. Turner, loc. cit. p. 185). One or two of the men exhibit however
a coppery tint. Freckling was not observed, but one woman had

270 Studies- in Anthropology

several moles (naevi) on the face. There was no tatooing to be noticed.
- In all the men the hair of the head is abundant, thick and rather coarse,
lank, and of a jet-black colour. It is cut evenly round the head just
below the ears. The hair of the women is carefully braided, partings
being made on the head in the transverse and antero-posterior directions,
and the four masses of hair thus separated being gathered up into four
plaits, which are looped around the sides of the head.

In the men a beard appears to be developed, but is comparatively
late in appearing and never seems abundant. The moustache and
whiskers are also of feeble development only.

These Eskimo are thus remarkably uniform in the characters pre-
sented by the hair both in amount and distribution : an exception must
be made as regards colour in the case of a half-breed child (Nancy) in
whom the hair is lighter. In other children the hair is quite as black
as in the adults.

The colour of the eyes is even more constant, there being no
exception to the rule that the iris is of a dark brown tint (though not
quite black, as Keane says). In several cases, some conjunctivitis has
occurred, and in one instance had been very severe, for it had produced
extensive corneal opacity. Epicanthus is not quite constant and is only
seen in one of five females : it is distinctly more frequent in the men
(6 out of lo possessing this characteristic fold).

The ears, though large, are according to the human standard well-
shaped ; the lobule is usually quite well-developed. The indices are re-
corded in the table and shew quite a "high" type of ear to be the rule.

The nose is very flattened and the alse wide, and thus the index
is higher than one would expect from the cranial proportions of the
nose, the cranial aperture of which is, on the aveiage, narrower than
in any other human race.

In comparing our results with the records of other observers, we
find but little need for comment, for the Labrador Eskimo seem to
present all the features previously regarded as characteristic of this hyper-
borean race. Our comparisons relate less to the external characters,
such as skin and hair colour, than to the results of measurements.
We have found the following the most important works of reference
(Virchow, Zeitschrift filr Ethnologie, Band xii, 1880; Boas and Turner,
in the annual volumes vi and xi respectively of the Reports of the
American Bureau of Ethnology, also Boas, in the Zeitschrift fiir Ethno-
logic, Band xxvii).

Taking these in order we note that Virchow's communication {Zeit-
schrift filr Ethnologie) is of particular interest, for it records the principal
characteristics of a party of eight Labrador Eskimo exhibited in Berlin

Physical Proportions of the Eskimo 271

in 1880: these Eskimo came from Hebron and Nackvack, and whereas
five had been partially educated by the Moravians, the remainder had-
never been subjected to any civilizing influence of European origin.
It is therefore interesting to observe that one of these more primitive
Eskimo became a prey to hysterical excitement of some violence, under
the ordeal of being measured. Some of the members of this party were
subsequently taken to Paris and unfortunately contracted small-pox
with fatal consequences. In comparing the results of our observations
with those of Virchow, we have to note a general concordance, with the
following exceptions only. In the first place, the average stature obtained
by us is rather less than the corresponding figure in Virchow's table : the
smaller number of individuals at Virchow's disposal would have an
important effect in determining this result. We would further suggest
that the figure 1189 (mm.) which Virchow records as the span in the
woman Bairngo, is very disproportionate. Secondly, Virchow notes
a depth of cutaneous pigmentation which was not presented by our
subjects. Finally it should be noted that Virchow's account is most
elaborate, and includes psychological data : in the case of the Eskimo
lately in London Dr Rivers will publish an account of their psychology.
In comparison with the Eskimo of Ungava Bay (about 200 miles
from the home of our Eskimo) described by Turner, a greater variation
in stature is observed by us ; the apparent shortness of the lower limbs
is a feature in each case, and the toes were noticed to be somewhat
turned in during walking and the hands and feet to be relatively small
in the Hebron Eskimo.

Boas' publication in the Report of the A??i. Bureau of Ethnology
is mentioned here for the sake of the valuable references to literature
which it affords. The second publication, as reported in the Zeitschrift

272

Studies in Anthropology

fier Ethnologie, 1895, gives figures for the stature of Labrador Eskimo
which are very similar to those we obtained for males (i.e. 1575 (Boas)
• — -1577) though a slight difference exists in the case of the females
(1480 (Boas) — 1497). Boas speaks of the great elongation and great
height of the skulls of eastern Eskimo and this we noticed could be
ascertained even in the living Labrador Eskimo : our figures for the
cephalic index in the living do not however indicate so considerable
a degree of dolichocephaly as the figures recorded by Boas. But we
have dealt specially with the craniology of the Labrador Eskimo in
a previous memoir {v. supra, p. 184).

It remains to refer to the diagram which embodies the results of
measurements of 10 Eskimo males from Labrador: the other three
figures are as follows: (No. 2) obtained from results of measurements
of 10680 American soldiers, (No. 3) from 2020 male negroes, (No. 4)
from 20 Aboriginal Australian males. Our figure for the Eskimo male
from Labrador will be seen to occupy a position intermediate between
the negro and the white man.

The illustrations accompanying this note are

Fig. I. Shewing average Proportions of Male Eskimo from Labrador.
Fig. 1. ,, ,, ,) "Caucasian."

Fig. 3. ,, ,, ,, Negro.

Fig. 4.

Aboriginal Australian.

COMPLETE LIST OF AVERAGES.

Measurement
.Stature

Shoulder to Ground
Tip of Middle Finger to Ground
Patella to Ground
Sitting Height

Height of Auditory Meatus from Ground
Height of Chin from Ground ...
Span

Biacromial Breadth
Radii: Auriculo-bregmatic

,, Auriculo-nasal. ...

,, Auriculo-alveolar

Great Trochanter to Ground

Strength (pull as archer) (67-2 lbs.) in Kgm.

qn-Pnafh ^ ^^'Sht Hand (grasp) (65-4 „ ) ,,
snen^in ^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^ ^^

Cranial Length
Cranial Breadth ...
Face: Total Length

Male

Female

1577

1497

'275

1182-5

568

580

459'8

407 '3

810

797

1456

1406

1343

1292

i627"9

1447

379

340

140-4

133-5

9875

92-5

10 1 "4

98

868

—

30-48

29-65

28-57

191-15

190-25

147 '65

141-8

127

116-5

Physical Proportions of the Eskimo

273

Measurement

19

Face: Breadth

20

Nasi-alveolar Length

21

Jugo-nasal Width

22

Jugo-nasal Arc

23

Interocular Breadth

24

Orbital Cavity, Height ..

25

Orbital Cavity, Breadth..

26

Bigonial Breadth

27

Ear: Height

28

Ear: Breadth

29

Head : Horizontal Circumference

30

Head: Transverse Circumference

31

Nose: Length

32

Nose: Breadth

Male

Female

1417

1 36 '5

73"i5

69'35

ii6-6

112-25

127-1

121-25

33'5

31-6

34-9

36-6

42-6

42-7

I3I"2

126-2

67-5

63-6

36-1

30-2

559"5

547 '2

3.?9

319

57 "4

5i'25

36-8

32

TABLE OF INDICES.

(From Measurements of Heads, not of Skulls.)

Cephalic (or Breadth)

Altitudinal (or Height) (n. b. from auricular radii)

Alveolar (n. b. from auricular radii)

Orbital

Nasal

Nasomalar...

Aural

Kollmann's Facial
Gonio-zygomatic ...

Male

Female

77

74"5

73-5

70-7

102-6

105-9

81-9

857

64-1

62*4

109-6

108

53

47*4

51-6

50-8

93'i

91-4

NOTE ON THE DISPERSIVE POWER OF RUNNING
WATER ON SKELETONS: WITH PARTICULAR
REFERENCE TO THE SKELETAL REMAINS OF
PITHECANTHROPUS ERECTUS.

Among the objections raised against the acceptance of Dr Dubois'
view as to the nature of the fossil bones found by him in Java and
ascribed to an animal form intermediate between the apes and Man
{Pithecanthropus erectus), there was one which disputed the community
of origin of the several remains : it was urged in fact that since the
distance separating the calvaria (skull-cap) and the femur was 48 ft. 9 in.
(15 metres), the two bones could not have belonged to the same indi-
vidual. Now it is very important, if not essential, for Dr Dubois'
theory that the two bones should be regarded as having formed part
of the same skeleton, and the objection was met by the response that
experience would shew that the distance by which they were separated
is not too great to preclude the possibility of their possessing a common
origin in a single skeleton. It must be further explained that the
remains were discovered in the bank of a river even now of considerable
size, and that Dr Dubois suggests that crocodiles probably played a part
in securing the dispersion of the bones of many of the animals which
perished in the much larger pliocene representative of the modern Solo
river.

The object in view m the present account is to shew that a stream
of much smaller volume than the Solo river is capable of dispersing
remains of skeletons over a distance considerably greater than the fifty
feet or so required by Dr Dubois' theory. Incidentally two other
points are illustrated by the specimens used in demonstration of this
proposition.

In the northern part of Carnarvonshire there is a large marshy tract
of upland some hundreds of acres in extent, situated immediately to the
south-east of Penmaenmawr. This marshy plateau is drained by several
mountain streams, the general direction of which is roughly east by

Dispersive Power of Running Water on Skeletons 275

north. While walking over this eastern versant in the spring of 1901
I noticed a number of bones of animals dispersed along the line and
in the bed of one of these streams, at that time of very small dimensions,

In the map the stream is shewn flowing upwards from left to right,
and the thin lines are contours indicating the slope.

though probably melting snow in winter, or prolonged rains, would have
increased it temporarily. At the time in question the width of the
stream was about 4 feet.

18—2

276 Studies in Anthropology

The first bone I picked up was the right humerus of a horse, and
I at once noticed in it indubitable signs of the disease known in human
pathology as Osteo-arthritis and vulgarly as " Rheumatics." Struck
by the reflection that one of the bones found by Dubois was also
a pathological specimen, and that Virchow had discussed the possibility
of Osteo-arthritis being the cause of the disease in that case (cf. Zeitschrift
fiir Ethtiologie, 1895), I determined to investigate the remainder of the
bones, and in particular to endeavour to determine how far such
fragments of the skeleton could be dispersed by such a comparatively
small stream as I had before me.

Examination of the bones indicated that two, and only two animals,
shewn by the characters of the bones to be small horses, had perished
here. There seems no doubt that the animals had been mired in the
marsh during the preceding winter, the state of the bones suggesting
this limit of time. Furthermore, as numerous ponies roam in a semi-
wild state over the neighbouring hills and marshy tracts, there is no
reason to suppose that the animals had been specially brought to this
spot to be destroyed.

The investigation was further simplified by the discovery that of the
two animals, one was a young individual (between three and four years)
and the other (the rheumatic one) aged. Thus the identification of the
several remains was rendered much more easy than would otherwise
have been the case.

The remainder of my examination resolved itself into pacing the
distances between the various bones, and I contented myself with the
observations embodied in the accompanying map ; this shews the
position of the more important parts of the skeleton of the older
animal, which I have denoted by the letter " A " ; the positions of
one or two bones of the other pony " B " are also indicated, as well
as some ribs and digital bones (phalanges) whose ownership was not
determined with certainty.

I. The important point brought out by the observations is that the
two humeri of the animal "A" were separated by a distance of 153 feet
along the bed of this small stream. In comparison with this, the
distance of 15 metres (48 feet 9 in.) demanded by Dr Dubois for the
Javan bones can be granted without difticulty.

II. A few other points seem worthy of notice in this place. Firstly,
the possibility of dispersion by wild animals was here excluded : the
bones exhibit no signs whatever of having been gnawed by dogs, which
are almost the only animals that could be suggested as responsible.
Foxes are excluded for the same reason. Secondly, it will be noticed

Dispersive Powei^ of Running Water on Skeletons 277

that the ribs have been carried furthest down stream, no doubt owing
to their Hghtness.

Again, if the distance of 153 feet from humerus to humerus should
appear to prove too much, it must be mentioned that the course of the
stream runs down at an angle of about 8° on the average ; the small
volume of water at work would thus be to some extent compensated.

III. The foregoing notes present the chief points of interest in
connection with the subject in question. Two further remarks appear
appropriate with regard to the bones themselves.

In the first place, the bones shew that the shoulder-joint of the pony
" A " was in an advanced stage of the disease called Osteo-arthritis.
Such an advanced stage of this condition is rare, though not unknown,
in the horse. The subject derives a special interest from the point
of view of the relation of disease to diet, whether in Man or the horse.
A purely vegetable diet would not seem to be an efficient safeguard
against the onset of Osteo-arthritis. This subject has been ably dis-
cussed by Dr Balfour in the Edinburgh Medical Journal (Feb. 1870,
p. 713), where special reference to Osteo-arthritis in the horse is made.
Again, Virchow (Joe. cit. Z.fiir EtJmologie) describes a not dissimilar con-
dition in bones of the extinct cave-bear ( Ursus spelaeus) under the name
of Hohlen-gicht. Evidence of similar conditions in early Tertiary ungu-
lates was given by Professor Marsh at the International Congress of
Zoologists at Leyden in 1895. Secondly and lastly, the water of this
particular stream and marsh seems to have contained sufficient acid
(whether vegetable or other) to lead to disintegration of the bones in
certain places. This effect must be very carefully distinguished from
those of Osteo-arthritis. In the latter, the joint-surfaces and the neigh-
bouring parts of the bones will be affected, and in such a way that
erosion and eburnation (polishing) of the joint-surface is found accom-
panied by bony outgrowth around the margins of the latter. Erosion
due to acidity of the water first affects the very thinnest parts of the
bones and is accompanied of course by nothing in the way of exostosis.
The scapula of " A " shews both conditions very excellently, the joint
region affording evidence of Osteo-arthritis as already said, and the
blade of the scapula being perforated in its thinnest part by the solvent
action of the water.

DENTAL ANOMALIES IN THE UNIVERSITY
ANATOMICAL COLLECTION.

The following notes have been drawn up as a first contribution to
the description of dental anomalies in the crania in the University
Museum of Anatomy. The specimens are arranged according to their
provenance, under the following headings :

A. Teeth appearing in abnormal positions.

B. Accessory teeth.

C. Dental rudiments and accessory dental cusps.

D. Miscellanea.

Under A, the following examples are described :
(i) Canines displaced, Nos. 3268, 1943, 2 114.

(2) Premolars displaced, Nos. 2980, 1226.

(3) Molars displaced, Nos. 1767, 12 18, 1887.
Under B, the following examples are described :

(i) Teeth in situ, Nos. 1215, 1919, 2134, 3356.

(2) Alveoli for accessory teeth only, Nos. 1988, 1749.
Under C, the following examples are described :

(i) Rudiments or their alveoli; Nos. 3734, 3355-

(2) Cusps, Nos. 3369, 3325, 3344, 1733, 1731.
Under D, the following examples are described :

(i) Geminated teeth, Nos. 11 14, 1968.

(2) Miscellanea, Nos. 1833, 1795, 3321.

A (i). Displacement of Canine Teeth.

Cata-
logue

No.

1 State of
Provenance Preser-
vation

Age

Sex

Features of interest

3268

1943
2114

Egypt
(native)

Peru
(aboriginal)

S. Australia
(aboriginal)

Good

Good
Good

Adult

Adult
Adult

?Male

Male
Male

The upper canine teeth are about to appear on
the palatine surface instead of in their normal
position. Cf. No. 1943 Peru, 2114 Australian,
and a Negro skull in the Museum of the Roy.
Coll. Surgeons, London.

A tooth, seemingly the canine, appears in the
canine fossa, on the left side of the face : another
tooth has made its way to the palatine surface.
Cf. 3268 and also for references 2980.

The canine teeth have made their way to the
facial surface of the maxilla ; and on the left
side a (Paccessory) premolar tooth appears on
the palate. Cf. 3268, 1943, and for references,
2980.

Dental Anomalies

279

A (2). Premolars displaced.

Cata-
logue

Provenance

State of
Preser-
vation

Age

Sex

Features of interest

2980
1226

Europe
Hindustan

Good
Good

Adult
Adult

?
Male

One upper premolar tooth having been crowded

out, appears on the palatine surface. Of. Nos.

1218, 1226, 1943, 2114, 3268.
One upper premolar tooth having been crowded

out, appears on the palatine surface. Cf. for

references 2980.

A (3). Molars displaced.

Soudan
Punjab

1887 Jamaica
I prehistoric

Good

Adult

Male

Good

Adult

Male

Good

Adult

Male

The third upper (left) molar tooth has emerged
on the facial aspect of the maxilla. Cf. 12 18.

The third upper (right) molar tooth has emerged
on the buccal aspect of the maxilla. Cf. 1767,
1887, and an Australian skull in Dr Haddon's
collection : also an orang-utan skull in the
Amsterdam collection.

The appearance is identical with the preceding.

B (i). Accessory Teeth.

Hindustan

Good

Adult

Male

Peru
[aboriginal)

Good

Voung

?

S. Australia
(aboriginal)

Good

Adult

Male

N. Britain
^aboriginal)

Good

Adult

?

An accessory premolar tooth is seen on the left

side of the mandible.
An accessory incisor tooth is seen embedded in

the premaxilla, immediately behind the left

median incisor tooth.
An accessory incisor tooth is seen on the right

side in the mandible. Its small size suggests

that it may be a retained "deciduous" tooth.
An accessory full-sized premolar tooth is seen in

the mandible on the left side. Cf. 12 15.

B (2). Alveoli no longer containing Accessory Teeth in situ.

Peru I Good
(aboriginal)
Mobanghi Good

(Congo,
aboriginal) |

Adult
Adult

Male A pit (4 mm. wade) is seen behind each upper
third molar tooth.
? A pit similar to those seen in 1988, is seen behind

I the last upper molar of the right side.

280

Studies ifi Anthropologij

C(i).

Rudimentary Teeth, or Alveoli for the same.

Cata-
logue
No.

Provenance

State of
Preser-
vation

Age

Sex

Features of interest

3734
3355

Chatham

Island

(aboriginal)

N. Britain

(aboriginal)

Good
Good

Adult

About
9

Male
?

Very small pits are seen in positions similar to
those of No. 1988 (q. v).

The interest of this specimen is dependent on the
discovery of a small dental mass occupying a
pit on the alveolar margin (upper maxilla), and
the left side, superficially to the point at which
the second premolar is about to emerge. The
significance of this occurrence is not quite clear;
on the one hand the small mass may be regarded
as homologous with certain dental masses of
similar size and appearance, which are often
found in adult skulls from New Britain, and
which may represent a third premolar ; on the
other hand, the occurrence of this small mass in
a skull of the age of that under consideration
(8 or 9) may be thought to afford evidence that
this (and similarly situated masses in adult
crania) is but the remnants of the second
molar of the milk series. Against this view
may be urged the consideration that this mass
is comparatively deeply embedded, like the root
of a tooth, whereas in the process of removal of
the deciduous teeth, the root disappears earliest.

3369

C(2).

N. Britain
(aboriginal)

Accessory Cusps.

3325

3344

N. Britain
(aboriginal)

N. Britain
(aboriginal)

Good

Good

Good

Adult Female

Adult

Imma-
ture

Male

? Female

On each side of the upper jaw, the first molar tooth
bears an additional antero-internal cusp on its
lingual surface. The symmetry is very striking:
also the resemblance in position of these ac-
cessory cusps to the more frequent varieties of
the small dental masses previously described
must be mentioned : it looks almost as though
such isolated masses might in some cases become
freed with the first molar tooth. Otherwise
they may be regarded (as Dr Tims thinks) as
constituting mere accessory cusps due to out-
growths of the cingulum and consequently of
no great morphological value.

It is perhaps worth mention that this skull
has neither fossae nor dental masses in the
unusual situation previously discussed (v. p. 19;
for literature, cf. Windle, Anatomischer Anzeiger,
18S7, Bd. II.).

The first upper molar tooth on each side bears a
supernumerary cusp, precisely corresponding to
those of 3369, but of larger size: small pits
which probably once accommodated dental
vestiges also occur in this skull.

The second left upper molar tooth bears a super-
numerary cusp, situated however externally or
antero-externally : the foregoing examples (3369
and 3325) have been antero-internal in position.
Cf. Windle, Anat. Am. 1887, Bd. II.

Dental Anomalies

281

Cata-
logue
No.

Provenance

State of
Preser-
vation

Age

Sex

Features of interest

1733
1731

S. Africa
(Kaffir)

S. Africa
(Kaffir)

Good
Good

Adult
Adult

Male
Male

A supernumerary cusp is borne by the first upper
right molar tooth : the cusp is internal and
similar in appearance to those in 3369 and
3325 : the condition is here uni-lateral.

The first upper left molar tooth bears a super-
numerary cusp or vestigial tooth on the anterior
surface of the antero-external root. The cusp
is knob-like.

D (i). Geminated Teeth.

1 1 14

1968

Paestum

Peru
(aboriginal)

Good Adult

Good

Adult

Male

Male

The teeth are a good deal worn. There remain
the following: on the right side, the lateral
incisor, canine, premolars, and first two molars,
the second being very carious. The third molar
has probably been destroyed in exhuming the
skull. On the left side, the same teeth are present
with the exception that the second molar is
absent and has long been lost [intra vitam).
Finally the third molar remains and it is the
tooth which presents the interesting feature in
the present connection, for at its root it bears a
secondary (geminated) tooth, represented by an
enamel-clad knob about 5 mm. in diameter
projecting from between the lingual and postero-
external roots of the third molar ; moreover an
additional cementum-clad mass crosses the root
of the geminal element. The latter is directed
straight backwards, and nousageof itsenamel can
be seen, so that it was of no use to the possessor.
This specimen should be compared with the
Peruvian skull No. 1968, where the secondary
mass remains, though the tooth in connection
with which it was developed (and which is also
the third molar though of the right side), has
been lost.

The noteworthy feature is the third molar on the
right side : above the alveolar surface projects
a small rounded knob, about 5 mm. in diameter:
the alveolar margin has been broken away and
shews that this tuberous mass projects from the
end of a peg-shaped tooth, of which it represents
the crown, embedded in the alveolus : the latter
tooth-mass overlaps the terminal knob which
rests upon it like an egg in an egg-cup. More-
over the long axis of the tooth is set obliquely, so
that the crown, such as it is, is directed backwards
and inwards instead of directly downwards.

This is an example of Gemination and is of
great interest in comparison with No. 11 14, an
Italian skull from Paestum ; in the latter skull
the third molar and its offshoot are both present :
it seems as if in the present case only the offshoot
remains, the molar having been partly destroyed
and lost.

18-5

282

Studies in Anthropology

D (2). Miscellanea.

Cata-
logue
No.

Provenance

Greenland

(Eskimo)

N. Zealand

(aboriginal)

N. Britain
(aboriginal)

State of
Preser-
vation

Age

Sex

Features of interest

1833
1795

3321

Good
Good

Good

Adult
Adult

Adult

Female

Male

Male

The right lower third molar tooth is of unusually
large size.

Lower jaw : three incisor teeth only : the absent
one apparently being the left lateral. All the
crowns are considerably worn down, those of
the third molar teeth above and below having
suffered the least. The first molar teeth on each
side of the lower jaw are specially interesting.
Though not apparently more exposed than the
second molar or than the second premolar teeth,
they have been much more abraded, and in
addition, the crowns have been slightly inverted
so as to bring the outer (labial surface) of the
crown and even of the outer roots into play, so
that the enamel has been lost on this side of the
crown. Such a condition of the molars was, as
far as I know, first described by Scott in Maori
Crania (Proc. N. Z- Instil. 1895, 3) and occurs
also among the Mori-ori (Chatham Islanders)
with considerable frequency.

Unerupted teeth are distinguishable deeply im-
planted in the mandible, below the first molar
tooth on each side.

NAMES OF AUTHORS, AND OF DONORS TO THE
UNIVERSITY ANATOMICAL COLLECTION AT
CAMBRIDGE.

Abbott, 145
Anford, 145
Avebury, 1 94

Balfour, 277

Barnard Davis, 174, 206, 208
Bateman, iii, 130
Biddulph, 219, 224
Bland Sutton, 52
Blumenbach, 205, 206, 208
Boas, 185, 189, 270, 271, 272
Bonwick, 145
Broca, 83, 105, 177, 216
Brooks, 95, 96
Budge, Professor, 5
Byhan, 208

Cahun, 207

Campbell, 218, 224

Capus, 218, 224

Carr, 190

Cauvin, 100, 102, 137

Chantre, 208

Charles, Dr Havelock, 5

Chudzinski, 196

Clarke, 218, 219, 224

Conway, Sir W. M., 5, 212

Corner, E. M., 5, 204

Cory, 227

Cunningham, D. J-, 177

Cunningham, 216, 217, 224

Cunnington, 202

Curwen. 181, 183, 191, 269

Davis ; see Barnard Davis

Demidoff, 209

Deniker, on foetal Gorilla, 16, 223, 224

De Quatrefages, 100, 137, 144, 148, 171,

189, 232, 233, 234, 236
de Rialle, 208
Deschamps, 222, 224

de Ujfalvy, 216, 218, 219, 221, 224

Drake, 210

Drew, 218, 224

Dubois, calvaria discovered by, 3, 52,

274, 276
Du Chaillu, 38
Duckworth, 204

Ecker, 50, 77, 81

Elisyeef, 208

Elliott Smith, 65

Ellis,^ 232

Elphinstone, Lieutenant R. \ ., 9

Forbes, 168
Flood, 135

Flower, 100, loi, 106, iJ2, 130, 137,
204, 206, 208, 233, 234, 241, 262

Gardiner, J. S., 3, 147
Garson, 216, 221, 224
Giacomini, 131
Gordon, 218, 224
Grandidier, 56, 232
Green, 4, 5, 228
Grubauer, 255
Griinbaum, 175

Haddon, 131

Hamy, 100, 137, 148, 171, 189, 205

207, 208, 232, 233, 234, 236
Harrison, 145
Hartmann, on anthropoid apes, 3:

38, 44
Hayward collection of crania, 9
Heape, 57
Hepburn, 91
Hoernle, 209
V. Holder, 225
Hose, 9, 65
Horton-Smith, R. J., 5

206,

37.

284

Studies in AidJwopology

Hrdlicka, 196
Hunter, 218, 224
Hyde Clarke ; see Clarke
Hyrtl, 168

Knight, 218, 224

Kollmann, cranial types of, 8

Kiikenthal, 39

Laidlaw, 242, 250, 251
Landzert, 81
Langerhaus, 204, 205
Leclerc, 231, 232, 233
Leigh- Smith, 4
Leitner, 217, 218, 224
Lock, 131
Lubbock, 108
V. Luschan, 207
Lyde, 207

Macalister, i, 5, 98, 153, 212
Macartney, 181, 225
Mace-Descartes, 232
Maclagan, 21S, 224
Marett Tims, 21
Marsh, 277
Mathews, 227
Mies, 190

Miklucho-Maclay, 170, 254
Milne-Edwards, 56
Myers, 260

Nansen, 201

Oldfield Thomas, loi, 106, 112, i^
Oliver, 218, 224, 232

Pain, 184, 268

Perkins collection, 9

Petrie, 5

Poirier, 169

Poll, 167

Prochownik, 53

Pruner-Bey, 204, 205, 208

Ranke, 50
Retzius, 206
Ripley, 190, 208
Rivers, 271
Rollet, 51

Sandifort, 206, 208

Sarasin, 223, 224

vSchenk, 189, 198

Schwalbe, 143

Scott, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176,

177, 282
Sergi, 207, 208, 209
Sibree, 232
Skae, 181
Skeat, 246-248

Taber, 184, 185, 200, 201, 268, 269

Temple, 237

Thomas ; see Oldfield Thomas

Thomson, 184, 253, 268

Thurnam collection, i, 7

Tomkins, 145

Topinard, 105, 106, 108, 189, 190, 204,

217, 222, 224
Travers, 167
Turner, Sir W., 81, 100, 105, 107, 108,

109, 130, 137, 144, 167, 168, 170, 176,

177, 247, 248, 258, 259, 262, 269, 270,

271
Tyrwhitt Drake ; see Drake

Vesalius, 205
Vigne, 217, 224

Virchow, 50, 52, 185, 186, 193, 198, 202,
234, 246, 248, 259, 270, 271, 276, 277

Walpole, 207
Watson, 138
Weisbach, 206, 208
Willey collection, 3
Windle, 280

Ziehen, 39, 67, 73

GENERAL INDEX.

Aboriginal Australians; crania, 2, 3,
23, 24, 27, 81-84, 86, 87, 98 et seq.
131-140; measurements of, 1 13-129,
^i}^-' '34' 139) 14O' varieties of, 130

Aboriginal Tasmanian ; cranium, 2,
130, 141-146

Aftenspalte ; see sulcus lunatus

Africa, 32

African crania, 4

Akrocephalic cranium, 8

Andaman cranium ; comparison with
other Andaman crania, 241 ; dimensions
of teeth, 240, 241 ; general description,
112, 238-240; infantile characters in,
241; measurements, 126; provenance,

237
Angle; foramino-basal, 81, 82 ; foramino-

sellar, 81, 82; occipital, of Broca, 83;

spheno-ethmoidal, 82; spheno-maxil-

lary, 81, 82; squamo-mastoid, 127
Anglian crania, 8
Antankarenatives (jtv Madagascar crania),

233.
Antchianaka natives {see Madagascar

crania), 232
Anterior lacerate foramen, 127
Anthropoid apes, 11, 19-25, 28, 30-48;

nerves of, 9[, 92
Anthropoidea (Sub-order of Primates), 28
Ape; muscles of cynocephalous, 93-96
Apposition of teeth, 107
Arcs; cranial, 82, 83, 102
Arcuate sulcus ; see Sulcus
Artificial removal of teeth, 127
Asia minor; crania from (see Turkish

and Lykian crania), 208
Ateles variegatus; brain, 73, 74
Auditory meatus; in a Tasmanian cra-
nium, 142
Avar; cranium of, 8
Axis ; cribriform, 82 ; basi-occipito-
sphenoidal, 82 ; orbital, 127

Bantu races; crania, 4
Base line of cranium, 82
Base of cranium ; middle, 83
Basi-bregmatic cranial height, 102, 103,

rii; seriations of, 123, 129
Basi-nasal length, 1 1 1
Basi-occipito-sphenoidal axis, 82_
Bathrocephalic cranium, 8, 131]
Betsileo native {see Madagascar crania),

231. ^33. 234
Betsimisaraka native {see Madagascar

crania), 231, 233
Bi-asterial cranial Ijreadth, loi
Bi-stephanic cranial breadth, loi
Bile duct ; in Galago garnetti, 60
Bladder; in Galago garnetti, 16
Bones ; of Orang-utan, 5 1
Borneo ; crania from, 9
Brain ; Anthropoid apes, 39 ; Ateles
variegatus, 73, 74 ; Galago crassicau-
data, 68 ; garnetti, 69, 70 ; Hylobates
miilleri, 74-76; Lemur, 65-68; Loris
gracilis, 68; Nasalis larvatus, 70-72,
76 ; Perodicticus potto, 68 ; Primates,

Brandon ; crania from, 8

Brazzaville ; Gorilla from, 40

Breadth Index, 103

Breadth; maximum cranial, loi

British Columbia ; crania from, 7

Briton ; cranium of a, 7

Bush race; crania, 4, 154

Calcarine sulcus ; see Sulcus
Calloso-marginal sulcus ; see Sulcus
Cambridge ; anthropoid apes in Anat.

Museum, 35-37
Capacity; cranial, loi
Caucasian type of Cranium, 5
Central African Negroes ; crania, 4
Central Asia ; crania from, 5
Central sulcus ; see Sulcus

286

Studies in Anthrojjology

Chatham Islands ; crania from ; see Mori-

ori crania
Chimpanzee, 22, 35; crania, 24, 31;

brain, 39 ; heads, 34
Choanae ; measurements of, 120, 121
Chords; cranial, 82, 83
Collateral sulcus, 65, 68, 70-78
Colon ; in Galago garnetti, 58
Compensatory sulcus ; see Sulcus
Condyle; third occipital, 127
Crania ; aborigines of Torres Straits,

126
Crania ; Andamanese ; see Andaman cra-
nium
Crania of Australian aboriginals, 2, 27,
50, 81-84, 86, 87, 98 et seq., 113-
1 28 ; average values of measurements,
1 1 3-1 18; additional measurements,
120, 121 ; measurements of the man-
dible, 119; dimensions of teeth, 122;
seriations of basi-bregmatic height, 123;
measurements compared with basi-
nasal length, 124-126; comparison of
measurements reduced in proportion
to the basi-nasal length, 126; table
of anatomical characteristics of, -127;
averages of cranial indices from all
sources, 128
Crania ; from Cambridgeshire, 260-268 ;
detailed descriptions, 260, 263, 264 ;
provenance, 260, 261
rania ; Chimpanzee, 50 ; dolicho-platy-
cephalic, no; Eskimo; see Eskimo
crania; European, 50; Fijian, 112,
126; from Madagascar; see Madagas-
car crania; from Nagyr; see Nagyr
crania ; from Rotuma ; see Rotuma
crania ; from Syria ; see Damascus

^ ^ .- cranium ; Hylobates miilleri, 26 ; Cio-

^ "■•<<rilla, 30, 50; hvpsicephalic, no; in
Anatomical Museum, 1-9 ; of Malli-
collese, 50; Melanesian, 148-151 ; Mi-
cronesian, 150, 151; Mori-ori ; see
Mori-ori crania ; New Britain natives,
2 ; of Hominidae and Simiidae com-
pared, 50 ; Orang-utan, 50 ; Pangan
.Semang ; see Pangan cranium ; Poly-
nesian, 148-151 ; sections of, 85-90;
Semang ; see Pangan cranium ; South
Australian, 108-111 ; specialisation of
human, 50; of Tasmanians, 130, 141-
146; Torres Straits, 112; weights of,
120, 121 ; West African, 50. ■See also
Cranium
Cranial arcs and chords, 82, 83, 102
Cranial breadth; bi-asterial, 101; bi-

stephanic, loi ; maximum, 101
Cranial capacity, 101
Cranial length ; maximum, 10 1
Cranial radii, 82

Cranial ridges {see Supra-orbital ridges),

33, 41, 42, 47' 48
Craniological description ; method, 99,

lOI

Cranium ; Bushman, 154; Chimpanzee,
31 ; Rotuma native, 4 ; aboriginal
Tasmanian, 2; Esquimaux, or Eskimo,
7 ; Egyptian, 5, 29 ; measurements of
bisected, 80 ; Peruvian, 6

Crest ; infra-temporal, 127 ; temporal,
103, 120, 121

Crete ; crania from, 9

Cribriform axis, 82

Crimean crania, 209

Cro-magnon ; cranium, 3

Cynocephalous ape ; muscles of, 93-96 ;
nerves of, 91, 92

Damascus cranium ; provenance, 203 ;
sword-cuts on, 203 ; teeth, 203 ; brow
ridges, 203 ; indices, 204 ; asymmetry,
204 ; comparison with other Syrian
crania, 204-208; measurements of, 209,
210; illustrations of, 211

Dards ; see Nagyr

Deformed crania, 8

Dental anomalies in the Cambridge Ana-
tomical Collection, 278-282

Dental anomalies in crania from ; Egypt,
278; Peru, 278, 281; Australia, 278,
279; Europe, 279; Hindustan, 279;
Soudan, 279; Punjab, 279; Jamaica
(prehistoric), 279; New Britain, 279,
280 ; Mobanghi (Congo), 279; Chatham
Islands, 280; S. Africa, 281; Europe
(Paestum), 281; Greenland, 282; New
Zealand, 2S2; in an Orang-utan cra-
nium, 279

Dental Index, 106

Dental rudiments, 19, 20; in aborigines
of Australia, 22; in American races,
22; in antnropoid apes, 22; in Euro-
peans, 22; in New Britain natives, 22;
in Peruvians, 22

Dimensions of foetus of Gorilla, 18; of
man, 18

Dispersion of skeletons by water, 274,
277

Displacement of teeth, 278, 279

Division of cranial bones in anthro-
poid apes; malar, 47, 127; occipital.

Division of occipital bone, 127
Dolicho-platycephalic crania, no
Dyak cranium, 233

Ears (in anthropoid apes), 32; Gorilla,

33, 36, 37; Chimpanzee, 37
Egyptian crania, 5, 6, 29
Engis ; cranium, 3

General Index

287

Eskimo crania; at Cambridge, 7, 181 ;
nasal bones, t8i, 187; foramen mag-
num, 181, 192, 194 ; infra-orbital suture,
181, 192, 193; descriptions of indi-
vidual specimens, 181, 183; table of
measurements, 182; comparison of head
with cranium, 185-192, 197, 198, 201 ;
comparison of facial dimensions in
head and cranium, 187; comparison
of circumference in head and cranium,
187; cranial indices, 188-190; special
features of Labrador specimens, 191,
192, 198, 199; special features of
specimens from Greenland, 191, 192,
198, 199; anomalies in, 200; scapho-
cephalic examples, 192, 193, 202 ; usage
of teeth in, 192, 194, 195; thickening
of the mandible, 192, 195; juvenile
specimens, 192, 195; eustachian pro-
cess, 194; nasal bones, 195; typical in
cranial but not in facial features, 196;
foramen of Civinini in, 196

Eskimo heads; sexual differences, 185,
188, 189; the nose, 187, 189, 190

Eskimo; physical proportions of, 184,
197, 271; miscellaneous notes, 200,
201 ; diagram of head and skull, 201 ;
Labrador tribes, 269; average stature,
269, 272; hair, 270; skin colour, 270;
ears, 270; nose, 270; comparisons with
other records, 270-272 ; hysteria in,
271 ; psychological data, 271 ; short-
ness of lower limbs, 271 ; toes inturned,
271; measurements, 272, 273; indices
of measurements, 273

Esquimaux ; see Eskimo

Extensor muscles of forearm, 93-95

External pterygoid fossa, 127

External pterygoid plate, 127

Face; proportions in anthropoid apes, 37

Facial breadth; measurement, 102

Facial Indices, 105

Fallopian tubes; in Galago garnetti, 57

Fellaheen; crania, 4

Femur; of Pithecanthropus erectus, 52

Fijian crania, 112

Finlanders ; crania, i

Fissure; rhinal, 65, 66, 69, 70, 73, 74

Fissure; sylvian, 65-71, 73-75

Foetus; of Gorilla, 11, 12, 13; human,

12, 13 ; figures of ditto, 13 ; dimensions

of, 18
Foot of Gorilla foetus and human foetus,

15
Foramen; anterior lacerate, 127
Foramen magnum ; in anthropoid apes,

42, 47
Foramen; mastoid, 127; parietal, 127;
post-condylar, 127; spinosum, 49;

vesalian, 127; cranial, in anthropoid

apes, 44, 45, 47
Foramino-basal angle, 81, 82
Foramino-sellar angle, 8r, 82
Fossa; external pterygoid, 127
Fossil mammalia, 274
Fractures; in bones of Orang-utan, 51
Frontal Operculum, 75
Fronto-maxillary suture, 127

Galago crassicaudata ; brain, 68
Galago garnetti, 54; brain, 69, 70; colon,

58 ; genitalia, 55, 56 ; liver, 59 ;

stomach, 58
Geminated teeth, 281
Genitalia; of Galago garnetti, 55, 56; of

foetus of Gorilla, 12
Genual sulcus, 70, 73, 74
Gibbon (Hylohates), 22, 26, 27
Gilgit ; crania from, 5
Glenoid fossa; in anthropoid and human

crania, 46, 47 ; sphenoid contribution

to, 127
Gnathic Index, 104
Gorilla, 11-17, 19-25, 30; brain of,

39; cranium, 30; muscles of, 93-97;

palmar fascia in, 95; foetus, 11-17;

Deniker's work on foetus, 16
Gorilla foetus; hand, 15
Goring; crania from, 8
Gound; cranial measurements of a, 221
Greenland ; crania from, 7
Guanches; crania, 4

Hallux ; Gorilla, 33

Hamulus lacrymalis, 127

Hand ; of Gorilla foetus and human

foetus, 15; and foot of Gorilla, 33
Hapale jacchus (marmozet) ; muscles of,

93-95
Head ; of Chimpanzees, 34 ; of Gorilla,

34; of foetus of Gorilla, 12, 14
Height; basi-bregmatic, 102, 103
Hindu-Kush ; crania from, 216, 221
Hottentot ; crania, 4
Hova native; see Madagascar crania, 232,

233
Human foetus, 13
Hunza; measurements of a native, 218,

221; see also Nagyr
Hydrocephalic cranium, 8^
Hylobates miilleri ; brain, 74-76 ; crania,

22, 26, 27; muscles of, 93-97
Hypothenar muscles; of Gorilla, 97
Hypsicephalic crania, no
Hypsistenocephalic skulls, 131, 132, 136-

i3«

Incisura temporalis; see Rhinal fissure
Index ; breadth or cephalic, 103; dental.

288

Studies in Anthropology

io6; gnathic, alveolar, or prosthionic,
104; palato-maxillary, 104; nasal, 104;
naso-malar, 106; orbital, 104; total
facial, 105; vertical, 104 j facial, 105

Indo-Malayan crania, 234

Inferior maxillary nerve ; in Australian
aboriginal, 64

Inferior occipital operculum, 75, 76

Inferior occipital sulcus, 71, 72, 74

Inferior temporal sulcus, 65, 67, 68

Infra-orbital canal, 49 ; foramen, 49 ;
suture, 49, 127

Infra-temporal crest, 127

Internal maxillary artery ; in Australian
aboriginal, 64

Internal parieto-occipital sulcus ; see Sul-
cus

Inter-orbital space ; Gorilla, 33

Intra-parietal sulcus ; see Sulcus

Island of Keil, 78

Italian cranium (Paestum), 24

Jamaica ; pre-Columbian crania from, 7

Jena ; Chimpanzee at, 38

Jews ; crania, 5

Johanna (a large Chimpanzee), 34^38

Kaffir crania, 4, 23, 24
Kamschatka ; cranium from, 5
Kanakas ; crania of, 3
Kashgar skull, 225, 226
Kashmir; crania from, 217, 223
Khajuna ; see Nagyr
King Robert Bruce ; cranium of, 2
Kooloo-Kamba ; a Chimpanzee, 38

Labrador ; crania from, 7

Labrador Eskimo ; see Eskimo

Lacrymal hamulus, 127

Lacrymo-ethmoidal suture, 49, 120, 121

Lapps ; crania, 2

Lemur ; brain, 65-68 ; muscles of, 93-96

Lemuroidea (sub-order of Primates), 28

Length ; maximum cranial, loi ; of nasal
fossae, 120, 121 ; ophryo-occipital, loi;
palate, 105

Ligament; pterygo-spinous, 127

Limbs; of foetus of Gorilla, 14; propor-
tions of, 16 ; proportions in anthropoid
apes, 37

Lips ; Gorilla, 33

Literature of specimens in the Anatomy
Museum, 8, 9

Liver of Galago garnetti, 59

Long Barrow race, 7

Loris gracilis; lirain, 68

Lykian crania, 207

Madagascar; crania from, 4; provenance,
227; general description of the Cam-

bridge specimens, 227, 228, 230;
illustrations of the Cambridge speci-
mens, 229 ; comparisons with other
Madagascar crania, 230-234, 236 ;
measurements, 234-236 ;. comparisons
with other crania, 230-234, 236

Madura ; cranial measurements of a
native, 221

Mafuka; a Chimpanzee, 34, 36-38

Makua native, 233

Mammary glands; in Galago garnetti, 55

Malar bone; division of, 127

]\Iallicollo native ; cranium of, 8

Mandible ; in anthropoid apes, 42 ;
measurement of, 103, 119

Manilla cranium, 233

Manitoba ; cranium from, 23

Maori crania, 4

Mastoid foramen, 127

Mastoid process; in a cranium from
Rotuma, 156, 157

Measurements; Andamanese crania, 126;
Australian aboriginal crania, 113—
129, 133, 134. 139, 140; bisected
crania, 80; choanae, 120, 121; facial
breadth, 102; Fijian crania, 126; of
mandible, 103, 119; of a Negro (Kroo-
naiive), 79; of Tasmanian crania, 145,
146; of teeth, 122; of Torres Straits
crania, 1 26

Mediterranean race, 207-209

Melanesian crania, 34, 148-151

Method of craniological description, 99,

Microcephalic cranium, 8 B^

Micronesian crania, 150, 151

Middle cranial base, 83

Miscellaneous dental anomalies, 282

Mongolian features in a cranium from
Rotuma, 157

Mori-ori crania, 3 ; Polynesian affinities
of, 167, 168 ; mandible, 167 ; pen-
tagonal appearance from behind,
168; paracondylar processes, 168;
deformation of the teeth through use,
168; osteo-arthritis, 168; detailed
descriptions of, 168-170; specimens in
other Museums, 170, 171 ; comparison
of Cambridge specimens with other
specimens, 170-175; general results of
the study of the Cambridge specimens,
175; table of measurements, 178;
morphological characters, 180; skele-
tons, i75-i77> 17Q

Muscles; Anthropoidea, 93-97 ; extensors
of forearm, 93-95 ; of head of Australian
aboriginal, 61-64 ; of Gorilla, 33, 93-
97 ; of Hapale jacchus (Marmozet), 93-
95; of Hylobates miilleri, 93-97; hypo-
thenar (of Gorilla), 97; of Lemuroidea,

G-e7ieral Index

289

93-96 ; Nycticebus tardigradus, 93-96 ;
polliceal, 96, 97 ; pronator quadratus,
91, 92 ; of Simla satyrus, 97
Musculo-spiral nerve, 91, 92

Nagyr ; crania from, 5 ; provenance, -212;
general description, 212-215; sexual
differences, 215; Caucasian features,
215; comparison with other crania,
215-219; measurements, 219-223;
conclusions regarding, 223 ; literature,
224

Nagyr ; physical features of the inhabi-
tants, 2 (6-218

Nasal bone (unusual form), 29, 30

Nasal fossae; length of, j 20, 121

Nasal Index, 104

Nasal skeleton ; in anthropoid apes, 43,

44'. 47

Nasalis larvatus ; brain of, 70-72, 76

Naso-malar Index, 106

Neanderthal cranium, 3

Negro ; crania, 24 ; measurements, 79 ;
" West Coast " ; crania, 4

Negroes (Central African) ; cranium, 4

Nerves; of anthropoid apes, 91, 92; of
a cynocephalous ape, 91, 92 ; musculo-
spiral, 91, 92 ; posterior interosseous,
91, 92

New Britain natives; crania, 2, 3, 8,

23-25
New Zealand ; crania from, 9
Nigeria; crania from, 9
North American Indian crania, 24
Nose; in anthropoid apes, 43
Nycticebus tardigradus; muscles of, 93-

96

Occipital angles of Broca, 83

Occipital bone; division of, 127

Occipital operculum ; inferior, 75, 76

Oceanic negroes ; crania, 3

Ontogenetic history of Hominidae, 17

Operculum ; frontal, 75

Ophryo-occipital length, 101

Orang-utan, 22, 24, 25 ; supernumerary
tooth in, 20

Orbit; in anthropoid apes, 43-45, 47

Orbital axis, 127

Orbital Index, 104

Orbital sulcus, 70, 73, 74

Os incae, 8

Os innominatum, 31

Ossicles; at pterion, 127; in sutures, 44

Osteo-arthritis ; in an Australian skull,
132; in the Horse, 276, 277; in the
Cave Bear, 277; in extinct Ungulata,
277; effects compared to those of dis-
integration by acids, 277

Ovary; of Galago garnetti, 57

Palaeolithic man ; crania of, 3

Palate; of Australian aboriginal, 6r; in
anthropoid apes, 43, 48

Palatine length, 105

Palato-maxillary Index, 104

Palmar fascia ; in Gorilla, 95

Pancreatic duct ; in Galago garnetti, 60

Pangan cranium ; provenance, 242 ; des-
cription, 243 ; illustrations of, 243,
244 ; comments on, 245 ; features of
inferiority, 245, 246 ; comparison with
other crania, 246-248, 258, 259 ; nasal
skeleton, 246; prognathism, 246; con-
clusions, 248 ; measurements, 249, 252 ;
indices, 252

Pangan natives; descriptive notes, 250,
251 ; physical proportions, 251-253;
skin colour, 251 ; eye-colour, 251 ; hair,
251, 253; teeth, 252; feet, 254, 255

Pangan skeleton; vertebral column, 244;
provenance, 242 ; sternum, 245 ; pelvic
bones, 245 ; ribs, 245 ; hand and foot,
245 ; limb bones, 245 ; pathological
conditions, 246; comparison with other
skeletons, 247 ; comparison with the
living, 253

Parallel sulcus ; see Sulcus

Paramastoid process, 127

Parietal bone (in Chimpanzee); divided, 3 1

Parietal foramen, 127

Parietosphenoid suture, 120, 121

Pathology; skeletons of anthropoid apes,
45 ; skeletons of Orang-utans, 51-53

Perinaeum; in Galago garnetti, 55, 56

Peritoneum ; in Galago garnetti, 58

Perodicticus potto ; brain, 68

Peruvian ; crania, 6-8, 24

Phylogenetic history of Hominidae, 17

Physical proportions; of Eskimo, 184,
271; of Negro, 184, 271; of Anglo-
Americans, 184, 271 ; of aborigines of
Australia, 184, 271

Pithecanthropus erectus ; calvaria, 3, 274

Plan of Museum, 10

Platyrrhine monkeys, 22

Pollex; Gorilla. 33

Polliceal muscles, 96, 97

Polynesian aborigines; crania, 3, 4, 148-

151

Post-condylar foramen, 127

Post-frontal bone, 31

Post-orbital bar, 28

Post-orbital wall, 26-28

Post-palatine spine, 127

Posterior interosseous nerve, 91, 92

Precentral sulcus; see Sulcus

Presylvian sulcus, 66, 68

Process; paramastoid, 127; styloid, 127

Prognathism; in Australian crania, 136

Pronator quadratus muscle, 91,. 92

290

Studies in Anthropology

Pterion; sutures at, 49, 50; ossicles at,

127
Pterygoid plates; in anthropoid apes, 42,

43, 47, 48; external, 127
Pterygo-spinous ligament, 127
Punjabi crania, 5

Queensland; crania from, 135-137

Racial differences; among the aborigines
of Australia, 130

Radii; cranial, 82

Raiatea; crania from, 4

Recto-coccygeus muscle; in Galago gar-
netti, 58

Rhodia natives ; cranial measurements,
222

Rolandic sulcus ; see Sulcus centralis

Rotuma; crania from, 3, 4, 147-166

Rotuma crania; descriptions, 151-159;
measurements, 160, 161 ; outline draw-
ings, 162-165; nasal margins, 160;
infra-orbital suture, 160; post-palatine
spine, 160; malar bones, 160; lacrymo-
ethmoidal suture, 160; pterion region,
t6o, 161 ; palatine torus, 160; pterygo-
spinous foramen, 160; foramen mag-
num, 160

Round Barrow race, 7

Rudimentary teeth, 280, 281

Sakai crania, 247, 248, 258

Sakalava natives {see Madagascar crania),
232

Sandwich Islands; crania from, 9

Saxon cranium, 7-9

Scaphocephalus, 5, 8, and (Fig. 4)

Sections of crania, 85-90

Semang cranium {see also Pangan cra-
nium); provenance, 256; general fea-
tures, 256; detailed description, 257,
258; measurements, 258; indices, 258;
comparisons with other crania, 258,

259

Semang; skeleton of, 9

Semnopithecus, 72, 75

Seriations, 123, 129; of basi-bregmatic
height, 123, 129; of cranial measure-
ments of Australians, 123, 129, 130

Sex ; differences according to, in crania,

3

Sexual differences in anthropoid apes, 32
Sexual organs; Galago garnetti, 54
Simla satyrus; muscles of, 97
Simian features of human crania, 45, 46
Skeat expedition, 9

Skeleton; Australian aborigines, 6; Bush-
men, 6; Eskimo, 6; Long Barrow man,
6 ; Madame Barre, 6 ; from Cambridge-
shire; sacra, 262; pelves, 262; limb

bones, 262 ; conclusions, 262 ; detailed
descriptions, 263, 264; measurements,
267 ; of a Pangan Semang ; see Pangan
skeleton; of a Semang; see Pangan
skeleton; of the Mori-ori; see Mori-ori
skeletons

Skin; of foetus of Gorilla, 12

Skulls {see also Crania) ; anthropoid apes,
41; from Central Asia; see Kashgar
skull

South Australian crania, 108-111

Specific features; of anthropoid apes,
32; of crania of Tasmanians, 144

Sphenoid ; contribution to glenoid fossa,
127

Spheno-ethmoidal angle, 82

Spheno-maxillary angle, 81, 82

Spheno-maxillary fissure, 27, 28

Spheno-maxillary fissure and fossa; in
anthropoid apes, 44, 47

Spheno-maxillary line, 82

Spheno-maxillary suture outside orbit,
127 '

Spheno-parietal suture in a Tasmanian
skull, 144

Spinal column; of foetus of Gorilla, 12

Spine; post-palatine, 127

Splenial sulcus, 67

Spy; crania from, 3

Squamo-mastoid angle, 127

Srinagar; crania from, 216

Stanley Falls ; Chimpanzee from, 40

Stomach ; in Galago garnetti, 58

Styloid process, 127

Sulcus; arcuate, 70, 73-75; calcarine,
70-75, 77, 78; calloso-marginal, 70,
73' 74' 78; centralis, 6^, 68, 70, 71,
73, 74, 76; collateral, 65, 68, 70-78;
compensatory, 70, 72, 74; genualis,
70, 73, 74; internal parieto-occipital,
70-75. 77, 78; intra-parietal, 69-74,
76, 78; inferior occipital, 71, 72, 74;
inferior temporal, 65, 67, 68; lunatus
(Affenspalte), 70-72,74-76; orbital, 70,
73, 74; parallel, 66-70, 73, 74, 76;
precentral, 71, 73, 76; presylvian, 66,
68 ; rectus, 68, 70, 73-75, 77 ; of
Rolando; .vir Sulcus centralis ; superior
limiting of Reil, 76, 77; splenial, 67;
transversus, 71,77; transverse occipital,

7'' 7- . . .
Superior limiting sulcus of Reil, 76, 77
Supernumerary tooth; in Man, 20; in

Orang-utan, 20
Supra-orbital ridges; Gorilla, 33, 41
Suture; at pterion, 49; fronto-maxillary,
127; infra-orbital, 49, 127; lacrymo-
ethmoidal, 49, 127; parieto-sphenoid,
120, 121; spheno-maxillary, 127
Sylvian fissure; see Fissure

General Index

291

Syria; crania from, 4
Syrian crania {see Damascus cranium);
descriptions, 204-208; figures, 211

Tables of statistics of variation in anthro-
poid apes; crania, 47, 48
Tadjiks; see Nagyr

Tamil natives; cranial measurements, 222
Tasmanian aborigines; crania, 3, 141-145
Tasmanian cranium ; endocranial impres-
sions, 143; spheno-parietal suture, 144;
specific characters, 144; measurements
of, 145, 1 46
Teeth, 106; apposition of, 107; Austra-
lian aboriginal, 61 ; Gorilla, 33, 44,
47; measurements of, 122; milk, 19,
21; rudiinents of, ig; supernumerary,
20; artificially removed, 127
Tel-el-Kebir; crania from, 4
Temporal crests, 103, 120, 121
Teneriffe ; crania from, 4
Third occipital condyle, 127
Tooth ; supernumerary, in Man, 20
Torres Straits; crania from, 112
Total Facial Index, 105

Transverse occipital sulcus, 7[, 72
Transverse sulcus, 71, 77
Trephine hole in an Australian skull, 131
Trunk; proportions in anthropoid apes,

Tuber maxillare, 127

Turkish crania; historical descriptions of,

205-208
Typical crania, 8

Urethra; in Galago garnetti, 56
Uterus; in Galago garnetti, 57

Vagina; in Galago garnetti, 57
Vancouver's Island ; crania from, 7, 8,

Variation; in Gorilla crania, 41

Va-Zimba natives, 231

Vedda natives; cranial measurements

222
Veddah; crania of, 9
Vertical Index, 104
Vesalian foramen, 127

Weight of crania, 120, 121

CAMBRIDGE : PRINTED BY J. AND C. F. CLAY AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.

i>6g. Sec

^1 Bdg. Sec.

JAN 4 1973

JAN 1 5 1969

GN Duckworth, Wjmfrid Laurence

8 Henry

D3 Studies from the

anthropological laboratory,
the anatomy school, Cambridge

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