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FRENCH FORESTRY

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STUDIES IN
FRENCH FORESTRY

THEODORE S^WOOLSEY, Jr.

Consulting Forester, Author of French Forests and Forestry (Tunisia, Algeria

Corsica), and Executive Member Interallied War Timber

Committee, Paris, 1917-1919

WITH TWO CHAPTERS BY

WILLIAM B. GREELEY

Forester, U. S. Forest Service, and formerly Chief, Forestry Section,
C. and F., S. 0. S., American Expeditionary Forces

NEW YORK

JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc.

London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited
1920

.W6

Copyright, 1920,

BY

THEODORE S. WOOLSEY, Jr.

ATLANTIC PRINTING COMPANY
CAMBRIDGE, MASS., U. S. A.

LIBRARY

N, C. State College

TO
R. P. W.

1324-^

PREFACE

The material for this book was collected largely in 1912. Adminis-
trative work in the United States Forest Service, teaching at Yale Forest
School, and service in the Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., during the war
prevented an earlier completion of my task.

The success of the American Expeditionary Forces in securing its
timber supply, under conditions existing in France in 1917-18, was due
chiefly to the extraordinary capacity of the commanding officers at Tours
and the American lumbermen and foresters who assisted them through-
out France. These efforts might have failed, however, if the American
E. F. had not been so ably seconded by I'Administration Generale des
Eaux et Forets under the direction of M. Dabat, Conseiller d'fitat,
Directeur, and by M. Antoni, now an Inspecteur General des Eaux et
Forets and Sous-Directeur, as well as by the French officers and officials
working under or in collaboration with General de Division Chevalier,
D. S. M., Inspecteur General du Service des Bois, notably:

Lieut.-Col. Joubaire, Armand, Conservateur des Eaux et Forets a
Saumur, President de la Commission Forestiere d' Expertises.

M. Emery, Auguste, Conservateur des Eaux et Forets, Ministere de
r Agriculture, Paris.

Lieut.-Col. de Lapasse, Louis, Conservateur des Eaux et Forets a
Bordeaux, Gironde.

Lieut.-Col. Buffault, Pierre, Conservateur des Eaux et Forets, a
Aurillac, Cantal.

Lieut.-Col. Deroye, Nancy, Meurthe et Moselle, Chef du Service For-
estier d'Armee.

Lieut.-Col. Mathey, Alphonse, Conservateur des Eaux et Forets a
Dijon, Cote d'Or.

Lieut.-Col. Schlumberger, Pierre, Conservateur des Eaux et Forets a
Colmar, Alsace.

Commandant Badre, Louis, D. S. M., Lispecteur des Eaux et Forets,
Liaison Officier Americain, G. H. Q.

Commandant Jagerschmidt, Jean, Inspecteur des Eaux et Forets,
Membre de la Commission Forestiere d' Expertises.

Colonel Steiner, Directeur des Etapes, Service Forestier, a Vesoul et
Valleroy.

Capitaine Sinturel, Emile, Inspecteur Adjoint des Eaux et Forets,
Chef du Secteur Forestier de Gray, Haute-Saone.

VI PREFACE

Capitaine Fresson, Maurice, Officier de Liaison aupres du Delegue
Americain au Comite Interallie des Bois de Guerre.

Capitaine Vantroys, Henri, Inspecteur Adjoint des Eaux et Forets,
Membre de la Commission Forestiere d'Expertises.

Capitaine Oudin, Auguste, Inspecteur Adjoint des Eaux et Forets,
Membre de la Commission Forestiere d'Expertises.

Capitaine Roux, Edgar, Inspecteur Adjoint des Eaux et Forets, Ad-
joint a M. le General Chevalier.

Capitaine Rive, Andre, Garde General des Eaux et Forets, Membre de
la Commission Forestiere d'Expertises.

Capitaine Hurteau, Henri, Garde General des Eaux et Forets, Membre
de la Commission Forestiere d'Expertises.

Capitaine Coulon, Jean Pierre, Membre du Bureau de la Centre des
Bois de Bordeaux.

Lieutenant Girault, Pierre, Garde General des Eaux et Forets,
Membre de la Commission Forestiere d'Expertises.

Lieutenant Sebastien, Maurice, French Delegue, C. I. B. G.

Lieutenant Detre, Leon, Adjoint au Bureau du Delegue Americain au
Comite Interallie des Bois de Guerre.

Capitaine Fresson and Lieutenant Detre lal)ored assiduously in my
own office on the Executive Committee of the Interallied War Timber
Committee. Lieut.-Col. Parde and Commandant Hickel gave much per-
sonal help, and Commandant Hirsch, Director of the Bureau des Vege-
teaux Combustibles under the Ministre de I'Armement, assisted in the
purchase of manufactured cordwood.

The local French officers in charge of forests and conservations at all
American operations everywhere in France gave the utmost help.

During this allied campaign cooperation was the key to final victory.
To General Lord Lovat, K. T., K. C. V. O , K. C. M. G., C. B., D. S. O.,
Director of Forestry of the British Expeditionary Forces; Colonel John
Sutherland, C. B. E., Assistant Director of Forestry and British Repre-
sentative on the C. I. B. G.; Major Viscount de Vesci, who served on the
C. I. B. G. after the armistice; General MacDougall, C. B., Chief of the
Canadian Forestry Corps; General White, C. M. G., in charge of C. F. C.
operations in France; Lieut.-Col. Lyle, the Canadian member of the
C. I. B. G.; and to Commandant Parlongue, Belgian delegate to the
C. I. B. G., thanks are due for hearty cooperation and assistance in a
campaign for timber supplies which overshadowed for the time being the
management and preservation of French forests. To those who worked
in the World War this spirit of cooperation has left the pleasantest of
memories. Many whose names are not given here gave freely to help
the American E. F. As a matter of fact these very efforts, which helped
to gain the victory for the allied cause, were detrimental to the forests of

PREFACE VU

FVance. Many forests were clear cut with no satisfactory provision for
regeneration, and in others the growing stock of sawlog material was so
reduced that ^'normal" production cannot be secured for a century or more.
Yet, it must be recognized that this destructive use of the French forests
helped to save France and her armies. It is for this reason that it seems
fitting to make this acknowledgment to those who cooperated in direct-
ing and facilitating the American manufacture of French timber and the
acquisition of the raw supplies.

THEODORE S. WOOLSEY, Jr.
January 1, 1920.

CONTENTS

Page

Preface v

Introduction xiii

CHAPTER I

Impressions of French forestry 1

Economic needs and national traits 1

Significant public phases of French forestry 2

Forest and land conservation 6

Private forestry in France 12

Forest problems of France and the United States 15

CHAPTER II

The role of forests 17

The value of forests 17

Forest influences 19

CHAPTER III

Forest regions and important species 25

Physical and climatic features — industry 25

Forest regions 29

Important forest species 40

CHAPTER IV

Forest statistical data 45

Private forest owners 45

CHAPTER V

Natural regeneration 65

French policy 65

French silvicultural methods 70

High forest systems 71

Coppice systems ., 92

Care of the stand after regeneration 105

CHAPTER VI

Artificial reforestation 114

French policy 114

Seed 117

Nurseries 122

Planting 125

Field sowing 132

X CONTENTS

{

CHAPTER VII

Control of erosion in the mountains 140

French policy and summary of reforestation 140

The damage 147

Corrective measures 153

Typical reforestation areas 168

CHAPTER VIII

Forestry in the Landes 169

The dunes 169

History of reclaiming the Landes 173

Fixing the sand 177

Management of maritime pine forests 186

CHAPTER IX

Government regulation and working plans 206

Mensuration in working plans 206

Regulation of cutting 215

Working plans 243

CHAPTER X

Features of French national forest administration 261

Brief summary of legislation 261

Administrative organization and education 268

Protection 275

Betterments 290

Sale of timber 293

CHAPTER XI

Private forestry in France 315

General discussion 315

Examples of the best private forestry 323

CHAPTER XII

The American Forest Engineers in France 336

Timber in modern warfare 336

The organization of Forest Engineers 338

The Forestry section of the Expeditionary Force 340

Sawmills and logging equipment 343

The production of fuel wood 347

What the Forest Engineers accomplished 348

Cooperation with the forest agencies of France 351

Forest troops loaned to French and British armies 357

What the American woodsmen learned in France 358

The war a vindication of French forestry 358

APPENDIXES
A to L 360-536

ILLUSTRATIONS

A valley in Alsace-Lorraine Frontispiece

Fig. Page

1 Rainfall and summer temperatures 26

2 The richest silver fir (with spruce) stands in France are found in the State

forest of La Joux (Jura) 32

3 Larch and cembric pine in the Canton of Melezet, communal forest of Villaro-

din-Bourget 33

4 (o) The communal forest of Manigod (Haute-Savoie) 39

4 (6) The communal forest of Gets 39

5 Distribution of six important forest trees 42

6 (a to /) State forest of Hez-Froidmont 58-59

7 (a) Natural regeneration of spruce 85

7 (6) Spruce stand in the Melezet Canton, communal forest of Villarodin-

Bourget 85

8 Pure larch in the communal forest of Tignes 90

9 (a) Pole stand of spruce in the communal forest of Beaufort 109

9 (6) Spruce and fir in the Canton du Mont, communal forest of Thones-Ville . . 109

10 (a) Costly system of dams to prevent erosion in the bed of a French torrent . . 154

10 (6) An expensive masonry dam, Gave de Pau (Hautes-Pyrenees) 154

10 (c) Log and dry stone dams to prevent erosion at Var-Moyen (Alpes-Mari-

times) 155

10 (d) Wattle work on small side gullies and masonry dam in main ravine in

Ubaye area (Basses- Alpes) 155

11 (a) Retaining walls on a hillside that had been slipping down 159

11 (6) Walls to prevent avalanches with an inspection trail in the foreground. . . 159

11 (c) Walls to prevent avalanches 159

12 Paved drains at Bastan (Hautes-Pyrenees) 161

13 (a) Wattle work in a ravine in the Verdon-Superieur (Basses- Alpes) area. ... 163

13 (6) Bed of small ravine stabilized by wattle work 163

14 (a) The Rata ravine at Ubaye (Basses- Alpes) after the reclamation work was

finished 166

14 (b) A mountain village in the Pyrenees menaced by erosion 166

14 (c) Preventing further erosion by larch plantations in Ubaye area (Basses-

Alpes) 166

15 Protection dune at Lacanau-O'cean in State forest of Lacanau (Gironde) .... 171

16 Barrel price of turpentine at Bordeaux 185

17 (a) Maritime pine 57 years old during improvement felling 194

17 (b) Small tree being tapped to death prior to utilization for mine props 194

18 French turpentine tools 197

19 (a and b) Examples of stand graphics 216-217

20 (a and b) Growing stock compared with present stock and with the normal

stand 257

21 A graded trail, which serves as a compartment boundary, and which can be used

by tourists 291

INTRODUCTION

No student can fail to see that forestry may attain its optimum de-
velopment under the favorable climatic, regenerative, and vegetative
conditions that exist in France. Dr. Martin, of Tharandt, remarked,
after a tour of French forests, that "Natural regeneration is more suc-
cessful and far more general than in Germany because of the mild cli-
mate, sufficient rainfall, and prolific seeding." Natural regeneration of
sessile oak in the valley of the Adour is not only certain but easily ob-
tained; and what could be simpler than the clear cutting of maritime
pine, followed by complete seeding? Even the high forests of peduncu-
late oak in mixture with beech are naturally regenerated because the soil
and seed may be made ready for regeneration by the application of forest
science.^ The silver-fir stands in the Vosges, Jura, Savoie, Haute-Savoie,
and the Pyrenees regenerate naturally. Even spruce can be reproduced
with but little artificial aid. But when Martin predicted, in 1906, that
artificial forestation was on the increase in France, he missed the mark.
With the shortage and high cost of labor to-day, France is further away
from artificial regeneration than ever before, except to repair the ravages
of war and counteract the results of past improvident and excessive
exploitation.

The value and necessity of maintaining a conservative forest policy is
to-day recognized in France as never before. It is generally admitted
that the area (18.7 per cent) already in forest is insufficient. France had
to import heavily before the war and her timber needs cannot be met
from local sources even with the return of Alsace-Lorraine. What
countries will furnish this timber deficit is difficult to predict. The cost
of importing timber from the United States has been accentuated by the
increase in steamship and railway freight rates, and by the unfavorable
rate of exchange, since to-day it takes 10 to 11 French francs to equal one
dollar. Even with the timber France can buy from countries with de-
preciated currency and with the timber she should receive from Germany
as reparation, every acre of waste land should be forested. France can-
not afford to neglect maintaining and increasing her natural forest re-
sources, not only for their direct returns, but also for their indirect value

1 Soil preparation is usually obligatory, and it is often difficult to maintain the proper
proportion of oak in the north or west of France because good oak-seed years occur only
every 10 to 12 years.

xiii

XIV INTRODUCTION

as protection against unfavorable climatic conditions, erosion, drought,
frost, and hail, as well as providing a playground for the millions that will
flock to France during the reconstruction period. French statesmen
have seen France saved by her forests, and the agitation in the press
against overcutting during the last phases of the war was merely a re-
action from the excesses made necessary by war demands. When the
history of the defense of France is written the part played by French
forests should be recognized. These forests gave fuel and lumber during
the crisis of ocean transportation, when every available ship was required
for men, munitions, food, and other necessities which could not be wholly
supplied from local sources. Then, too, the large forested areas in the
line of actual fighting proved a point of defense which apparently could
not have been spared. It is impossible to determine what would have
occurred without the forests of Compiegne and Villers-Cotterets. Had
France wasted her forest resources in the past (like Spain and Italy) the
war might have been a draw or a defeat, instead of a victory.

In the past French forests have suffered from abuse. Much of the
damage in the Alps, Pyrenees, Central Plateau, Landes, and Gironde
occurred during or before the Middle Ages, and a part of the damage at
least resulted either directly or indirectly from war. The two great
achievements of French forestry are the repair of this damage and the
reforestation of eroded soils in the mountains as well as the reclamation
of the sand dunes along the Gulf of Gascogne and Pas-de-Calais. The
leaders responsible for these two achievements, Demontzey and Bremon-
tier, will long live in the history of France. Who will successfully re-
forest and rehabilitate the land damaged by the war of 1914? There
are more than a million acres to be restored to productivity, as well as
innumerable forests whose growing stocks must be enriched by economy
at a time when the economic demands for wood products will be at least
double the normal consumption.

There are certain features of French forest administration and manage-
ment that deserve emphasis: the State, Communal, and Institutional
forests are almost invariably managed on longer rotations than are
private forests of the same species and situation. It is evident from
what is taught at Nancy, that, in a narrow sense, the rotations in State
forests are clearly not financial : (1) In protection forests the trees should,
in theory, be left standing until they decline in vigor; the product will
then have but small value. (2) In a great country like France commerce
requires wood of large size. To obtain this it must be cut at an advanced
age. This leads to retaining a considerable unnecessary capital, and de-
creases the interest returns to a figure that is too small for the private
owner. These two considerations justify the State ownership of a
certain number of forests, which alone can logically accept this situation

INTRODUCTION XV

(low returns) for the general welfare. In times of emergencies, such as
have just passed, the wisdom of maintaining State forests as storehouses
of heavy timber cannot be questioned. On the other hand an unneces-
sarily long rotation means an excess growing stock, or forest capital,
which must earn so much greater income to be profitable; besides there is
apt to be more damage from fungi, insects, and windfall. Yet, because of
the favorable climatic and soil conditions already emphasized, little
silvicultural damage has resulted. The tendency in State management,
where cHmate and species permit, is toward the high-forest systems and
away from coppice and coppice-under-standards. These conversions
also necessitate cutting less than the growth for many years, as well
as increasing the rotation. There is always a safety valve, however,
because, as Professor Jolyet puts it, "Prudence demands frequent inven-
tories — repeated every ten years for example — establishing the oscilla-
tion of standing timber volumes." This frequent stock-taking is a safe-
guard against retaining overmature timber, because the working-plans
officer is sure to demand its removal. But on the whole the average
French State forester is perhaps overconservative. This has been inbred
into him, for the French code itself prescribes that 25 per cent of the
yield in communal forests shall be set aside for emergencies. This rule
was due to the overcutting of two centuries ago. During the past few
years some State forests have been cut to the extent of ten to eighteen
annual yields and perhaps this will prove to French foresters that the
growing stock in such forests as Risol and Levier (Jura) have been ex-
cessive and can be reduced without danger. Private forests, chiefly
coppice and coppice-under-standards, on the contrary, are heavily cut —
perhaps overcut — on short rotations, which is liable to gradually im-
poverish the soil. The high prices prevailing since 1916 have tempted
many private owners to dispose of their forests entirely or at least to
make inroads on the growing stock. This was but natural when prices
doul)led in 1917 and trebled in 1918. Undoubtedly the private forests
in France yield a higher rate of interest on the investment than do State
forests, but the product is inferior and not so essential to French in-
dustry. Private owners are practically unfettered in the treatment,
management, and exploitation of their forest lands, provided the clearing
of timber is not intended. According to the Forest Code :

" Opposition to the clearing can only be formulated for the timber whose preserva-
tion is recognized as being necessary —

" 1. For the maintenance of soil on mountains or slopes.

" 2. As a protection against soil erosion and silting up of creeks, rivers, and torrents.

"3. For the preservation of springs and water courses.

" 4. For the protection of dunes and coasts against erosion by the sea and encroach-
ment by sand.

"5. As a protection of territory in that part of the frontier zone which shall be de-
termined by regulation of the civil authorities.

" 6. For the sake of public health."

XVI INTRODUCTION

Exactly the same law ^ applies to Algeria and Corsica and it is rigidly
enforced where large areas are to be deforested and where the public
interest is at stake. It does not apply to —

1. Timber sown and planted and less than 20 years old.

2. Parks or fenced gardens.

3. Isolated stands less than 10 hectares (24.7 acres) in extent and if
not on mountains or slopes. But the private owner is exempt from his
land tax for "areas sown or planted on the summits or slopes of mountains
and upon the dunes or waste lands."

This law against the clearing of land is fully justified by the forest his-
tory of France. A country with only about 18.7 per cent of forested
area cannot afford to allow further deforestation, even if unintentional.
For this reason excessive cutting or abusive treatment which would result
in complete destruction comes under the prohibition of this law. Who
would advocate further deforestation of mountain land after the disasters
of erosion in the French Alps and Pyrenees; or the deforestation of sand
dunes after the difficulties of reparation have been driven home? The
observance of this law against cutting strategic forests along frontiers has
been fully justified by the war of 1914, when France was protected against
German drives. Ample provision ^ is made for the enforcement of the
law, and for reparation in case the law is violated, but on the other hand
its application is liberal when it comes to clear cutting, followed by natural
or artificial regeneration, as is the practice in the maritime-pine stands in
the Landes.

The art of the French forester lies in his keen perception of the true
objective and in his simple methods. In thinnings he attacks the stand
in its top story, to allow the development of the trees that will form the
future commercial stand. He deals with stands rather than with trees —
the correct viewpoint. In the regulation of yield of selection forests he
computes the cut with an admittedly inaccurate formula, but he gets his
desired results — a reasonably equal annual cut — and he realizes that
with oft-repeated inventories the inaccuracies of the formula will he cor-
rected. His mensuration is a rough guess, many refinements (used even
in the United States with its extensive conditions) being omitted as un-
necessary to the objective. If he makes an error in estimating the
volume of a sale this slack is taken up in the bidding, and there are
stringent laws against illegal combinations in restraint of true competi-
tion. Timber sales are kept small so as to give the small local millman a
chance as well as to increase competition. No logging is done by the
State, as in Germany, except experimentally in Alsace-Lorraine.

2 See Part VI of the Algerian Forest Code, pp. 184-188, French Forests and Forestry,
Theodore S. Woolsey, Jr., John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

3 See Chapter X on " Legislation."

INTRODUCTION XVll

It is as a silviculturist that the French forester is at his best, and regu-
lation statistics are rarely allowed to interfere with silviculture. One
State forester was deliberately departing from his working plan because
good silvics demanded a group-selection cutting instead of the shelter-
wood.

The success of the State Forest Administration is largely due to its
splendid 'personnel; the Director is the only political appointee, and no
doubt this position will soon be assumed by a technical forester with
breadth of vision. Though woefully underpaid, even in these times, the
morale of the service has not been broken and it is most unusual for a
forester to retire to take a more lucrative position elsewhere. The
authority is clearly decentralized and the Conservator (or "District
Supervisor" as the position really is) has full authority to handle his
district without undue interference. Given more money for a modern
office estal^lishment he would be able to spend more time in the forest
with his inspectors — a needed improvement.

One of the perplexing problems which confronts the American student
of French forests is to understand the units of measure in common use.
For example, a stand of 200 cubic meters, or steres per hectare, conveys
no concrete idea to the forester accustomed to speaking in terms of board
feet or cords per acre. To avoid this difficulty the American units of
measure have been adopted in this study and the following equivalents
used in conversions:

1 pound (avoirdupois) = 0.4.53.59 kilogram

1 pound (Troy) = 0.37324 kilogram

1 millimeter = 0.03937 inch

1 centimeter = 0.3937 inch

1 meter = 3.28083 feet

1 meter = 1.09.3611 yards

1 kilometer = 0.62137 mile

1 square millimeter = 0.00155 square inch

1 square centimeter = 0.1550 square inch

1 square meter = 10.764 square feet

1 square meter = 1.196 square yards

1 square kilometer = 0.3861 square mile

1 hectare = 2.471 acres

1 cubic millimeter = 0.000061 cubic inch

1 cubic centimeter = 0.061 cubic inch

1 cubic meter = 35.314 cubic feet

1 cubic meter = 1.3079 cubic yards

1 liter = 1.0.5668 quarts (liquid)

1 liter = 0.26417 gallon (liquid)

1 liter = 0.9081 quart (dry)

1 liter = 0.11331 peck

1 hectoliter = 2.83774 bushels

1 gram = 15.4324 grains

xviii INTRODUCTION

1 gram = 0.03527 ounce (avoirdupois)

1 gram = 0.03215 ounce (Troy)

1 kilogram = 2.20462 pounds (avoirdupois)

1 kilogram = 2.67923 pounds (Troy)

1 franc = 19.3 cents (normal rate)

1 stere ^ = 0.277 cord (3.6 steres = 1 cord)

1 cubic meter (au reel) = 285 board feet (mfg.)

1 cubic meter (mfg.) = 420 board feet (mfg.)

These are exact equivalents and can be changed back to the metric
system without error, with the exception of the board feet equivalent
which varies with the size of the timber, method of manufacture, and
product. A cubic meter in large logs yields more board feet than from
small logs; a mill ecjuipped with a band saw yields more per cubic meter
than does a wasteful circular saw; and if logs are cut into large dimension
stuff, or ties, the yield from a cubic meter is higher than if the product is
inch boards. The only authoritative data on the ratio between cubic
meters (au reel) on the stump and board feet are those secured by the
U. S. Army during 1917-19. In the Landes where the American mills
equipped with circular saws cut 148,585 cubic meters the product was
41,437,304 board feet, mill tally, or 278 board feet to one cubic meter.
The ratio varied from a minimum of 227 board feet at Sabres to 287 at
Candale. For general calculations it may be said that 3^ to 4| cubic
meters of standing maritime pine is equal to a thousand board feet. In
the Jura silver-fir stands 144,203 cubic meters yielded 43,639,876 board
feet, or 303 board feet to the cubic meter. Here the timber was larger
than in the Landes. At one sawmill (Morteau) a cubic meter averaged
383 board feet, at Mouthe only 311. In round figures it takes 2| to 3|
cubic meters of silver fir to cut a thousand board feet. For general com-
putations it would be safe to count 4 cubic meters of maritime pine or 3
cubic meters of silver fir to the thousand board feet. In the Dijon hard-
wood belt it was found that 319 board feet were secured from the average
cubic meter, or 3 to the thousand. As an average converting factor for
all saw timber logs in France 3h cubic meters to the thousand is suggested,
and for different sized timber, the following:

Small timber 4^ to 1,000 board feet

Medium timber 4 to 1,000 board feet

Average timber 3^0 1,000 board feet

Large timber 3 to 1,000 board feet

Very large timber 2i to 1,000 board feet

When dealing with stands, from 10 to 40 per cent must be deducted for
fuel.

* In his statistical work (Notes sur les Forets de I'Algerie) Marc took 3 steres of fuel
to 2 cubic meters, 50 poles to 1.30 cubic meters, ties at their full volume less 30 per cent.
He counted 1 cubic meter as 750 kilos and 12 steres to one ton of charcoal.

INTRODUCTION xix

Frequently it is of convenience to use rule-of-thumb methods for quick,
rough calculations. With exchange at 5.18 francs to the dollar, and
taking 420 board feet to the manufactured cubic meter, 285 board feet to
the cubic meter of standing timber (unmanufactured) and 3.6 steres
(stacked cubic meters) to the cord, we have: (a) To reduce francs per
cubic meter of manufactured timber to dollars per thousand board feet,
multiply by 0.46. (6) To reduce francs per cubic meter of standing
timber to dollars per board foot, multiply by 0.64. (c) To reduce francs
per stere to dollars per cord take 0.7.

For example: 100 francs a cubic meter for boards is equal to $46 a
thousand; 50 francs a cubic meter of standing timber is equal to a stump-
age rate of $37 a thousand; and 10 francs per stere is $7 a cord. It is
obvious that these approximate ratios would vary with the rate of ex-
change, and in case (h) to the per cent deducted for cordwood.

Any student who has toured the forests of France must be impressed
with the occasional difference between the theoretical forestry that is
described in the text-books and the practical forestry one sees in the
different regions. The writer has accordingly tried to combine the
practice with the theory. An excellent illustration of the difference be-
tween text-book and field forestry is found in the aleppo pine forests in
the Provence, already alluded to. In theory these light-demanding
coniferous stands might be managed by the shelterwood system. In
actual practice not more than 15 to 20 per c'ent of the volume is removed
in gradual selection cuttings. Yet in any study it is necessary to rely on
text-books. Accordingly, the writer addressed the Director of the Waters
and Forests Service at Paris in regard to the foremost standard authori-
ties. These are:

(1) Silviculture — Le Traite de Sylviculture de MM. Boppe et Jolyet (Berger-
Levrault, Editeur — 5 Rue des Beaux- Arts, Paris) .

(2) Forest Economy — (all phases of forestry) L'Economie Forestiere de M. Huffel
— 3 Tomes. (Laveur, Editeur — 13 Rue des St. Peres, Paris.)

(3) Forestation — Guide de Planter et Semer — D. Cannon (Laveur, Editeur).

(4) Reboisement — Restauration et Conservation des Terrains en Montague (Parties
1, 2, and 3, Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, 1911).

(5) Forest Law — Code de Legislation Forestiere, par Puton et Guyot (Laveur,
fiditeur).

(6) Organization — Aide-Memoire du Forestier (Imprimerie: Jacquin, Besangon
(Doubs)).

An authoritative synopsis of the original working plans of some notable
forests is contained in the Appendix. The formal statistics given in
Chapter IV is from "Statistique des Forets de France" (Volumes 1
and 2).

Of necessity much of the material is borrowed from authoritative French
sources, and no claim can be made for originality. This was impossible

XX INTRODUCTION

if a true picture of French forestry was to be drawn. One of the editorial
problems was, then, to decide what should be quoted and what should be
merely digested. Exact translations only are written with quotation
marks. Information digested (but not in the exact words of the original
source) is not quoted. To accurately depict the French viewpoint it was
considered advisable in many cases to adhere quite literally to the form of
expression used by the French author, and yet, because of the need for
reducing the verbiage, a complete translation could not be given. Oc-
casionally whole chapters of a French work have been condensed and
given in tabular form, as for example Table 11.

One of the first questions that confronts the student is which forests to
visit. There are many communal and national forests in France under
formal technical management and naturally the student of French
forestry should visit those which will furnish the most instructive lessons
typical of French forest management. Conservateur de Lapasse, now
stationed at Bordeaux, furnished the following list of forests with relative
data. These he thought were most worth a visit:

INTRODUCTION

XXI

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INTRODUCTION

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INTRODUCTION Xxiii

The foregoing list of forests is not necessarily conclusive, since it is a
matter of individual opinion which are the most typical and instructive.
It is, therefore, of interest to give, in addition, another list furnished by
Henry, for years Assistant Director of the National School of Forestry at
Nancy. The fact that many of the forests mentioned in the preceding
table are duplicated by Henry make it all the more authoritative, espe-
cially since the list which follows was compiled in collaboration with his
professional colleagues. According to Henry: ''In such a vast region as
the Central Plateau, one cannot cite a single characteristic forest. It is
necessary to examine quite a number."

This list is classified by forest regions rather than by conservations or
administrative divisions:

VOSGES

1. Periegelaine Lorraine: Forest of Haye (Calcareous soil), Amance (clay).

2. LaVoge: Darney.

3. Basses-Vosges (Gres Vosgien) : Celles, Bois Sauvages, EUieux.

4. Hautes-Vosges (Granite): Gerardmer, Rudlin.

JURA

1. First Plateau: Forest of Moidons.

2. Second Plateau: La Joux, Levier.

3. Third Plateau: Pontarlier, La Fuvelle.

4. Haute-Jura: La Risoux, Le Mont d'Or (almost wholly grazing).

ALPS

L North Alps.

(a) Pre-Alpes (Calcaires) : Forest of Grande Chartreuse, La Bauges

(b) Hautes-Alpes : La Maurienne, La Tarentaise (Briangon).
2. South Alps.

(a) Pre-Alpes (Calcaires) : Le Luberon.

(6) Hautes-Alpes: Vallee de Barcellonette, Foret des Alpes-Maritimes — Massif
d' Alios.

CENTRAL PLATEAU

1. North: Le Morvan.

2. South: La Montague Noire I'Aigonal.

PYRENEES

1. East: Forest of Entrevals.

2. Central and West: Luchon, Iraty.

PROVEN5ALE

Forest of Maures et de I'Esterel.

GIRONDINE

1. Oaks de I'Adour: Forest of Titieux.

2. Maritime Pine of the Landes and the Dunes : Forests near Mimizan and Arcachon.

Provided we may judge from the lessons of French forest history the
following conclusions are fully warranted, and, because they are gener-
ally applicable to countries of the temperate zone, should be brought
home to every citizen of the United States:

xxiv INTRODUCTION

(1) No great nation can prosper without controlling forest destruction
and without practicing forestry. Decadent nations (outside the tropical
zone about which we know little) have no considerable areas of valuable
forests, either in public or private hands. Under modern civilization,
decadence and widespread, permanent devastation of an existing forest
resource are inter-related, especially in localities with somewhat deficient
rainfall. With forest devastation the local population within potential
forest areas decreases.

(2) From the national economic viewpoint the indirect benefits of
forests have a bearing on the nation's health, climate, and general
prosperity.

(3) The financial returns or direct benefits from ■permanent forest pro-
duction are usually less than the average net profits secured from other
forms of conservative business, and the risk of growing forests is con-
siderable — the more extensive the conditions usually the greater is the
risk. But in some cases private forests can be handled properly as a
conservative investment provided the economic conditions are satisfac-
tory and provided technical and financial assistance is given by the State.

(4) If forest production and an equitable annual yield is to be sus-
tained obHgatory regulation is essential, not only in private but also in
pubhc forest management, but the success of mandatory forestry on
private land is very doubtful if the owner maintains his forest solely for
its return in money, unless the State cooperates.

(5) Where private owners are not restrained by law and where the sole
aim is immediate financial profit, their forests are usually destroyed, and
during the process of disintegration often constitute a public menace.
This rapid realization of growing stock or capital is because the forest is
usually a poor permanent investment and because of the inherent human
tendency toward rapid gain.

(6) The far-reaching results of forest destruction are often slow in
making themselves felt, but are cumulative in their adverse effect on the
public interests. The correction of forest denudation is so slow and so
exceedingly expensive that most if not all mountain forest areas should be
controlled by the State.

(7) With the harvest of virgin stands stumpage prices (and the cost of
the wood products) increase until they attain the cost of producing timber
under forest management. Even when all the timber of a nation is being
grown as a crop, prices of material of the same quality tend to increase
with the intensity of civilization.

(8) In great land States (such as many of the United States) the
business of forestry with its related industries will, next to agriculture, be
the chief source of prosperity. The value of forest land generally de-
creases after forest destruction and increases according to the amount of

INTRODUCTION XXV

net revenue earned by forest production, subject to the development of
the use of land for other purposes.

(9) As a new country with vast timber resources develops industrially
the per capita consumption may show a decline as a result of the use of
other materials for construction; there is, however, a certain limit beyond
which consumption cannot fall without serious economic handicaps. The
tendency of modern commercial progress is to create new uses for woods
which overbalance substitution and other factors checking consumption.
Similarly, with more intensive settlement, forests for recreational uses
become more and more essential to national efficiency and health,

(10) The milder the climate (in the temperate zone) the more rapid is
forest production, and consequently the shorter is the time required to
grow forest crops on soils of similar capacity. Therefore, large areas in
the United States are admirably adapted to forest production.

(11) No nation has learned and taken to heart the benefits of forestry
without first experiencing economic shortage, disasters from floods,
erosion, over-grazing, and other adverse results of forest devastation.

The conclusion is inevitable that the public is the ideal long-term forest
owner because it can take a part of its profits in indirect benefits; there-
fore, a very much larger proportion of the forests of the United States
should be owned and managed by the Federal, State, and local govern-
ments. Where the private-forest owner uses his property so as to damage
the interests of others he must be restrained by wise laws, properly ad-
ministered and enforced, but the success of mandatory forestry on private
lands held solely for direct profits is very doubtful, unless there is State
cooperation.
According to Marcel Prevost of the French Academy:
" The trees of France must be protected. Precisely because the tree lasts so much
longer than the human life, it should not belong absolutely to the man who is the nomi-
nal owner. It should become a part of the communal inheritance. Society has a right
to exercise a 'surveillance ' over the owners of trees. . . . God knows I do not favor
any intrusion into private affairs by the State ! Nevertheless, if I were a legislator I
would vote for a law which would forbid the whimsical felling of high forest trees, and
which would require every Frenchman to set out at least two trees during his life or to
pay for having them planted."

What better exhortation could there be as an introduction to French
forestry, since its inherent characteristic is "Sacrifice of present benefits
for the future generation." As Boppe put it, "Silviculture is a science
relating to the phenomena of the development of the average forest and
the art of cutting it without hindering its physiological requirements."
The French forester does not wish to disturb Nature's equilibrium. His
work is in the forest rather than on paper. If I have correctly portrayed
the spirit of the French forester I shall be satisfied.

This study is based upon a three-months' trip through French forests in

XXvi INTRODUCTION

1905, six months in 1912-13, and in part by trips through forests in 1917-
19 in connection with the work of the Engineers (Forestry), U. S. Army.
This volume supplements " French Forests and Forestry," published in
1917 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., which described the forests and forestry
of Algeria, Tunisia, and Corsica.

Acknowledgment is made to C. M. Ballard for preparing the text for
publication and seeing the book through the press, to Commandant
Badre, who reviewed the technique, and to many friends who made
valuable suggestions. The photographs were taken by Commandant
Thiollier unless otherwise indicated.

Studies in French Forestry

CHAPTER I

IMPRESSIONS OF FRENCH FORESTRY

By W. B. Greeley
Formerly Lieut.-Col., 20th Engineers, A. E. F.

Economic Needs and National Traits (p. 1). Forestry a National Art.

Significant Public Phases of French Forestry (p. 2). The Special Legal
Status of Forests, A Penal Code of Their Own, Laws Dealing with Forest Fires, State
Control of Forest Devastation, A Striking Infringement of Property Rights, Tax
Exemptions on Forests.

Forest and Land Conservation (p. 6). Stabilization of the Gascon Sand Dunes,
Forestation of Communal Lands, Flood Control in the Alps, Expropriation of the Use of
Land for Forest p]nterprises. Private Forests in Conservation Projects, The Core of
Publicly Owned Forests, Checkered History of the State Forests of France, The Extent
of the Public Forests, Their Technical Management, The Communal Forests of France,
Educational Value of the Public Forests.

Private Forestry in France (p. 12). Its Economic Basis, Forest Versus Farm
Crops, The Importance of Private Forestry to France, Returns from Private Forests,
Forest and Sawmill Divorced, Lumber Manufacture Adapted to Forestry Practice,
Private Forestry on Its Own Feet.

Forest Problems of France and the United States (p. 15). Intensive Use of
Limited Resources in France, The Handicap of Lumber Shortage, America's Problem —
Idle Land.

Not alone in its technical practice does the forestry of France offer much
of interest and value to Americans. In the attitude of the French people
toward their forests, in the historical and legislative development of their
forest policy, in their public forest enterprises, and in the economic situa-
tion of France as regards the supply and use of timber, the United States
may glean a deal that is suggestive and illuminating. Notwithstanding
contrasts between new and old world conditions, we may learn much in
seeing how a nation just as democratic and individualistic as our own has
met a forest situation similar in some respects to what America herself is
approaching.

Economic Needs and National Traits. — Forestry in France rests upon
two main bases. The first is economic necessity; the second, national
temperament. The shortage of home-grown timber compels France to

2 IMPRESSIONS OF FRENCH FORESTRY

import from 30 to 40 per cent of the wood products which she requires.
Hence the timber produced in her own forests not only has a high value
but is utiHzed far more closely than is now possible in the United States.
Intensive use of forest land — particularly the maintenance of forests on

large areas of mountain slopes and sand plains unfit for farm crops

follows of necessity. But, to an almost equal degree, forestry in France
is an expression of the thrift, the conservatism, the love of beauty, and
the social inheritances of the French people. The genius of the French
for making the most of small things, developed by centuries of close and
frugal living, is expressed in the thrifty growing of wood on odds and
ends of poor land, in hedges, in the rows of trees bordering roads, canals,
and farms. The love of the chase and the social prestige conferred by the
ownership of forests and hunting preserves, so highly prized by the old
seigneurs, survive in modern France. Many forests have been preserved
to serve as a beautiful setting for a chateau. We will not interpret
forestry in France rightly as a purely economic development. The
national traits and habits of her people have contributed largely to it and
are reflected in her forest legislation and public policies.

Forestry a National Art. — By the same token, the American is im-
pressed by the well-nigh universal understanding of forestry on the part
of the French people. Forestry in France is far more than a propaganda.
Like American agriculture, its practice is much older than its science.
It is a rural art, ingrained in the lives and habits and modes of thinking
of the people. Deputies in Parliament write newspaper articles on forest
fires or forest taxation or reforestation in the Alps. The local silviculture
is a part of the farm lore of the region — on the same footing as the care
of vineyards or the growing of wheat. It is not to be inferred that
forestry practice in France is uniformly good or that her forest policies
command united support. The French are far too individualistic a race
for that. Local antagonisms, as on the part of the Alpine mountaineers,
have handicapped public efforts; and the commercial considerations of
the moment have outweighed conservative forest management in the case
of many land owners, even on occasion in the case of the State itself. But
a striking difference exists between France and the United States in that
forestry with us is still largely a governmental activity alone, an educa-
tional development working downward from the top, whereas in France
it is an established art — a common possession of the rural population.

SIGNIFICANT PUBLIC PHASES OF FRENCH FORESTRY

The Special Legal Status of Forests. — Forest conservation has thus
become almost an instinct of the French people. This makes it easier to
understand certain public phases of forestry in France which are of
special interest and suggestiveness to Americans. First among them is

A PENAL CODE OF THEIR OWN 3

the legal recognition of forests as a resource standing apart from other
resources in its need for extraordinary care and protection. In this
principle of French law are reflected the timber and fuel-wood famines,
actual or threatened, through which France has passed, and the prolonged
struggles which she has waged to check sand dunes on the Gascon Coast
and torrential erosion in the Alps. Because of the long period of time
required to restore forests once destroyed or impaired and because of the
far-reaching public interests which they serve, forest property is given a
special status in French jurisprudence both as regards the police powers
and duties of the State and as regards the rights of private ownership.
Under the French theory, a shortage of cereals or other farm crops can be
made good in a year or two, but public injury from the destruction of
forests may be irreparable for a generation. Hence, the State must in-
tervene with special measures for the protection of forests which are
applicable to no other forms of property.

A Penal Code of Their Own. — Probably the most striking application
of this principle is found in the protective features of the National Forest
Code. The common law alone is regarded as inadequate for the protec-
tion of forests in France, which are placed under what is practically a
separate penal code of their own. This code applies particularly to the
forests under public administration but certain features of it are extended
to private forests. Furthermore, the private forest owner may place his
property under public administration and thereby obtain the full pro-
tective benefits of the forest code. Many penal provisions of the code
were taken bodily from ordinances of Louis XIV. After the revolution-
ary upheaval had subsided, republican France extended to her forests
many of the severe and restrictive forms of protection which they were
accorded under the "ancien regime." There is nothing comparable in
French jurisprudence concerning other classes of property.

In the maze of detailed prohibitions and penalties in the penal section
of the forest code, one gains a deal of light upon French conceptions of
forest conservation. A fixed schedule of fines and imprisonments is
applicable for trespass and other violations of the code solely upon veri-
fication of the fact that an offense was committed. Considerations of
good faith or mitigating circumstaneos are excluded. Aside from penal-
ties to the State and civil damages to the owner of the forest for tangible
losses which have been sustained, the code authorizes further damages for
intangible injuries such as the disruption of a plan of management. These
are adjudged as not less than the penal fine. Thus the trespasser who
cuts green timber, however innocently, pays a fine — the commercial value
of the stumpage cut — and an additional sum representing the value of the
trees to the owner for further growth or seed production. If trees are
cut which were planted or sown by hand and do uot exceed five years in

4 IMPRESSIONS OF FRENCH FORESTRY

age, imprisonment is obligatory, together with a fine of 3 francs for every
tree.

While the admission of mitigating circumstances is forbidden, the
courts are compelled to impose severer penalties when a trespass is re-
peated within twelve months, when it is committed at night, or when
illegal cutting is dono with the saw. In the last two cases the purpose
of the heavier punishment is to discourage trespasses under circumstances
which render them difficult of detection. The difficulties of the State
service in preventing unauthorized grazing on public forests and the
stress placed upon the protection of forest reproduction from injury by
grazing have led to exceptionally severe penalties for offenses of this char-
acter, involving obligatory imprisonment in most cases. The mere pres-
ence of sheep or cattle in a public forest is penalized and the stated fines
are doubled if the animals are discovered in woods under 10 years of age.

Laws Dealing with Forest Fires. — The provisions of the forest code
dealing with fire are of special interest to Americans. Fires may not be
set for any purpose within 600 yards of a forest under public administra-
tion except by land owners, or in the exercise of public franchises, or with
the permission of a forest officer. While the incendiary firing of cut tim-
ber is punished by imprisonment for limited periods, an incendiary fire in
a forest is punishable by imprisonment at forced labor for life, a distinc-
tion which well illustrates the French viewpoint toward forest conser-
vation. The forests of the Mediterranean provinces of France, which
experience a summer drought and fire hazard comparable to our South-
west, are placed under the protection of a special fire code. Surface
burning by land owners to destroy underbrush, a practice formerly com-
mon at the time of harvesting cork oak bark, is expressly forbidden.
Neither the owner of the land nor anyone else may set fires within 600
yards of any area of forest or brush land from June 1 to September 13 in
each year. The departmental governor alone may authorize the use of
fire within forest or brush lands for charcoal burning or other industrial
purposes. And any owner of forest or brush land in this region can com-
pel his neighbors to share the cost of a fire trench, or break, at the ])oun-
daries of adjoining holdings. These breaks must be from 60 to 150 feet
wide and kept clear of herbs, brush, and resinous trees.

The forest penal code, which these examples illustrate, is more terrify-
ing on the statute books than in actual enforcement. This hardly could
be otherwise in view of the tact and diplomatic skill of French forest
officers and their effort to overcome local antagonisms to the forest
policies of the State. Nevertheless it is a striking expression of the
national instinct of forest conservation.

State Control of Forest Devastation. — The same solicitude toward
forests as a resource requiring exceptional public safeguards is illustrated

A STRIKING INFRINGEMENT OF PROPERTY RIGHTS 5

by the laws concerning the denudation of privately owned forest lands.
Here again the minute restrictions of the old kings were swept aside by
the great outburst of democracy and individualism in the Revolution.
For a considerable period following 1791 private owners were freed from
all control and many forests were destroyed. This was in part a neces-
sary process of converting forests into wheat fields, but apparently went
too far and contributed to the acute shortage of forest ]3roducts which
France experienced near the middle of the Nineteenth Century. In time
the wave of revolutionary freedom was checked by a reawakening of the
conservative instincts of the French toward their natural resources. The
law against the devastation of forest land, which was enacted substan-
tially in its present form in 1859, has often been called a striking anomaly
in the jurisprudence of modern France. It restricts the rights of private
ownership in one class of property alone — forest land — which is
singled out for special interference and control by the State.

The French Government does not dictate how the private forest owner
shall cut his timber but, with the exception of small, isolated tracts or
enclosed areas adjoining dwellings, holds him responsible for not destroy-
ing his forest or converting the land to other uses without prior warrant
from the State. Violations of the law are judged solely by the fact that
forest land has actually been devastated. Whether this resulted from
the methods of cutting, from fire, from over-grazing, or from dehberate
clearing for agriculture is immaterial. So is the intent or good faith of
the owner. If " defrichement " has actually resulted, without permission
in advance, the owner of the land is liable to a fine of as much as $115 per
acre. He may also be ordered to reforest the denuded land within a
prescribed period.

These penalties may be avoided by obtaining the consent of the State
to the destruction of a forest in advance. This requires a declaration of
intent by the owner of the forest eight months in advance, investigations and
reviews by various forest and other administrative officials, and a final
decision by the Minister of Agriculture. The request of an owner to de-
stroy his forest can be denied on the ground that its preservation is
essential to protect water sources, to protect mountain slopes from
erosion, to prevent the movement of sand dunes, or to safeguard the public
health or the national defense. Many attempts have been made to
amend the law so that the destruction of a private forest may be forbidden
on the ground that it is needed by the immediate community or by the
country at large for growing timber. None of them has yet overcome
the resistance to this further invasion of the rights and liberties of the
property owner.

A Striking Infringement of Property Rights. — The control of private
forests and forest devastation thus stands as an interesting compromise

6 IMPRESSIONS OF FRENCH FORESTRY

between the French instinct for forest conservation and their present-day
spirit of personal liberty. With its limited application the value of this
law exists largely as a support of the efforts of the Government to prevent
deforestation on mountain slopes where torrential erosion is liable to occur.
The law is of special interest to Americans, however, because it expresses
a far-reaching principle — the responsibility of the private forest owner
for keeping his land productive as a forest. The significance of this in-
fringement of the rights of private ownership can be appreciated only in
the light of the sacredness of property rights in France. A people fully
as jealous of individual liberties as ourselves have not hesitated to curtail
property rights — in the case of forests as distinct from all other classes
of land — because of the special public interests which forests serve.

Tax Exemptions on Forests. — The distinctive value of forests as a
national resource is also recognized by the French in their methods of
taxation. All forest plantations are accorded tax exemptions in varying
degrees during the first 30 years. This exemption from tax burdens is
complete in the case of plantations on mountain slopes or summits or on
sand dunes or other barrens. Otherwise forests in France are taxed on
their current income. Under the law of 1907 land in all forms of culture
is classified periodically in accordance with its productivity. There may
thus be three or four classes of forest land as determined by soil, timber
species, and the value of wood products. The net yearly income from
each class of forest is then fixed from a study of sample areas. All forest
properties are classified and assigned an income rating. This represents
the average net yearly receipts for wood and timber after deducting costs
of upkeep, fire pi'otection, administration, thinnings, planting, and other
cultural measures. The national and local taxes usually amount to 8 or
10 per cent of the net income.

FOREST AND LAND CONSERVATION

Stabilization of the Gascon Sand Dunes. — Another striking chapter
in the economic history of France, in keeping with her national attitude
toward forests, has been the recognition of forestry and related land
problems as a special field for public initiative and development, together
with the value of "the armor of the forest" for stopping destructive
movements of soil and water. At the beginning of the Nineteenth Cen-
tury, a large section of southwestern France was menaced by the sand
dunes along the Gascon Coast. Various attempts to check this invasion
during the preceding century had been futile. Many of the dunes were
moving inland at rates varying from 30 to 100 feet a year, burying farms
and villages in their path.

A successful method of combatting the dunes was finally evolved

FLOOD CONTROL IN THE ALPS 7

through stabiHzing the outer waves of sand with mats of brush and hardy
herbs and then sowing the ground with maritime pine, a fast-growing
pitch pine native to the region. A national project for stabiUzing and
foresting the entire Gascon dune belt, of some 250,000 acres, was initiated
in 1810 and completed during the following 60 years. In the prosecution
of this work, section by section, each land owner was given the choice of
doing the work himself under State supervision or of placing his land
under the custody of the National Government which then proceeded
with reforestation at its own cost. Once the forest was established the
owner could acquire possession of his land by reimbursing the public out-
lay upon it with interest. Otherwise the State retained possession until
its expenditures had been recouped from sales of timber and naval stores.
This process, in fact, was surprisingly rapid, owing to the low cost of plant-
ing, the rapid growth of maritime pine in the humid climate of the region,
and its early yields of turpentine and timber. The Government of
France, which did practically all the planting itself, has retained in the
whole dune belt some 150,000 acres. Most of this has been incorporated
in permanent State forests which form a pi'otective belt along the coast
and are managed with special precautions to prevent fresh outbreaks of
the old peril. The remaining land has been restored to its original private
and communal owners.

Forestation of Communal Lands. — The successful reforestation of the
dune belt led to another public forestry enterprise in this region. A law
passed in 1857 ordered the planting of all the barren and unused land
owned by communes throughout the great sand plain known as the
Landes. Again the State stood ready to shoulder the work if the owners
of the land were unwilling or unable to carry it out and to retain possession
of the planted forests until the cost of their creation had been returned.
This time, however, State planting was unnecessary. The communes
carried out the law themselves and under its far-sighted terms 185,000
acres were added to the public forests of France.

Flood Control in the Alps. — In the control of torrential erosion in the
Alps, with its destructive effects upon the farm lands in the lower valleys,
France has undertaken another public forestry enterprise of a far more
difficult character. The erosion was traceable directly to forest denuda-
tion and excessive grazing of the Alpine pastures. The difficulty has lain
chiefly in the resistance of the mountain people to outside interference in
the exercise of their ancestral rights and the pastoral pursuits upon which
their livelihood largely depends.

Following the severe floods of 1859 a law "on the reforestation of the
mountains" authorized the designation of restoration areas within which
existing forests were placed under public control and the planting of de-
nuded lands was decreed as necessary in the public interest. Private

8 IMPRESSIONS OF FRENCH FORESTRY

owners who declined to reforest their lands were expropriated by the
State, with indemnities, but could reacquire their property within five
years after planting had been finished by reimbursing the Government
for all outlays expended upon it. Communal lands, under hke conditions,
were not condemned but were taken possession of by the State, to be
planted and held until revenues from the newly created forests had wiped
out the account.

Under the obstacles created by hostile local sentiment and the reluc-
tance of the French Government to deal with it forcefully, this project has
made but slow progress. The law was changed in 1882 owing to the
opposition of the mountain communes to what they asserted, with some
degree of justice, was the practical confiscation of their lands without
indemnity; and since that time all areas where planting or other intensive
measures were needed have been acquired outright by the State. The
protection of mountain watersheds in France has thus taken a course
almost identical with that in the United States under the terms of the
Weeks law, that is, public acquisition and absolute control of important
"key" areas. The French Government has thus acquired about 200,000
acres on the headwaters of important streams in the Alps, and the work is
still being continued. In addition some 52,500 acres of communal lands
were reforested under the earlier law and placed under public adminis-
tration.

Under the law of 1882 France has also attempted to enforce a new and
significant principle in watershed protection. This is the designation of
large protection belts in the mountains, surrounding the limited areas in
which serious erosion is actually taking place and must be combatted by
intensive methods. In these protective zones, which were designed to
prevent the starting of fresh torrents, the administration was empowered
to forbid any use of land or forest which would destroy the vegetative
cover. And to extend further the general scheme of prevention, the
grazing of certain communal pasture lands was placed under public con-
trol. The administrative procedure devised for carrying out this system
has been exceedingly cumbersome and has sought to conciliate local oppo-
sition at every turn with many provisions for safeguards and indemnities.
Its practical value has been very small, and the effort of the French
Forest Service to check mountain floods has of late years been concen-
trated mainly upon the acquisition of land at critical points by the State
and its systematic reforestation.

The actual work done in the Alpine gorges and on their adjoining
slopes is an example of intensive conservation fully as striking as the
stabilization of the sand dunes. Tree planting is the primary method,
but it was necessary at many points to hold the soil or stop the cut-
ting action of streams before planting was possible or would be effective.

THE CORE OF PUBLICLY OWNED FORESTS 9

Small gullies have been blocked with dams of sod or loose stones or with
brush rip raps. More elaborate dams of rubble or masonry have been
built in the channels of many torrents, sometimes at intervals of a few
chains to check erosion and the rush of floodwater and afford soil-collect-
ing basins which would later be planted with trees. Rubble or masonry
dams or walls have been constructed at various points to stop the caving
of banks or check incipient land-slips or snow-shdes. Hardy shrubs have
been set out in masses of glacial drift or the talus of a slope where the
ground was too unstable or too sterile to support trees. But the general
aim is to get the land under forest cover as soon as it can be done. French
foresters and engineers are agreed that an extensive mantle of forest is the
final solution to watershed protection.

Expropriation of the Use of Land for Forest Enterprises. — One of the
legal principles developed in these pul^lic forest enterprises of France sug-
gests a modus operandi for State or Federal projects in America where the
reforestation of private land is deemed necessary in the public interest.
It bears points of similarity to the plan already adopted by some of our
States to encourage the planting of private land. This principle is not
the purchase or condemnation of private property — but the expropria-
tion of its tenure, or occupancy, for a sufficient period to establish forests,
with provision for ultimately restoring the land to its owner after it has
repaid the cost of the enterprise. Apphed in the southwestern sand
plains where planting was cheap and tree growth rapid and where returns
from the new forest were realized in a relatively short time, this method
succeeded. Applied in the Alps, where reforestation was much more
costly and the climate much more rigorous, it amounted to practical con-
fiscation and failed. In both instances it bears proof of the French atti-
tude toward the conservation of forests and soil as a dominant public
interest, taking precedence over the rights of private property.

Private Forests in Conservation Projects. — Another illustration of
the same national viewpoint, l^rought out in the development of French
policy in dealing with sand dunes and mountain torrents, is the provision
of law placing all forests within the perimeters of control or restoration
projects, whatever their ownership, under the "regime forestier." That
is, such forests not merely are subject to the law preventing denudation;
they can be cut only in accordance with methods approved by the State
service. They are also accorded in full the special and stringent pro-
tective measures carried by the penal section of the forest code. Private
forests on the critical areas embraced in public conservation projects are
thus given a special status — subject both to public control and an ex-
ceptional degree of public protection.

The Core of Publicly Owned Forests. — Another interesting and sug-
gestive fact about France is the extent to which her forestry develop-

10 IMPRESSIONS OF FRENCH FORESTRY

ments and activities have centered around and grown upon a core of
publicly, owned forests. These national and community holdings fit-
tingly express the forestry sense, or instinct, of the French people. Their
extension, their standards of administration, their educational influence,
the technical service entrusted with their care — these have been first
and last the greatest supports of forestry development in France. Yet
their history has not been one of smooth, uninterrupted progress. In
certain chapters it reminds us strildngly of the history of the pubHc
domain in the United States.

Checkered History of the State Forests of France. — The first effect
of the French Revolution was toward the nationalization of the forests
of the country. The royal domains, largely forested, were declared to be
the property of the State. A law of 1789, placing church property at the
disposition of the nation, added more forests to the public holdings. In
1792 the forests owned by emigres of the old nobility were confiscated.
Then a counter, individualistic movement, tending to break up national
control, set in. In the reaction against the abuses and usurpations of the
old seigneurs, and during the lax administration of the earlier revolu-
tionary period, the rural communes were encouraged to take possession of
the old royal, noble, or ecclesiastical forests under any sort of pretext
based upon entailed rights or old claims. Many properties of the fugitive
nobility were restored to their former owners. Large areas of State
forests were sold outright under the individualistic economic theories of
the times. Every subsequent revolutionary overturn was followed by
fresh disposals of State timberland. Up to the beginning of the Third
RepubHc the attitude of the French toward their public domain was
similar at many points to that in the United States during the Nineteenth
Century.

Under the Third Republic the policy of France has turned definitely in
the opposite direction. Alienations of national forests have been re-
stricted practically to minor adjustments of communal claims. On the
other hand, the State holdings have been enlarged steadily by plantations
in the sand dunes and by the purchase and reforestation of mountain
lands in connection with the protection of watersheds. Most important
of all, the forest code has placed public forests of every kind, including
communal lands and the properties of pubhc institutions, under a unified
public administration, by an expert service of exceptionally high technical
standards and practical ability.

The Extent of the Public Forests. — These public forests now comprise
nearly 8,000,000 acres, about one-third of the forested area of France.
3,000,000 acres of this total are the property of the French nation, the
community forests together aggregating considerably more than the
holdings of the central government.

EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF THE PUBLIC FORESTS 11

Their Technical Management. — The forest code estabHshes the
principle that all of these public forests must be handled under a precise
scheme of management, the main point of which is to fix the amount of
wood which may be cut yearly without reducing the growing stock, or
capital, and to prescribe the methods of cutting so as to maintain the
productivity of the forests. The importance attached by the French to
their public forests is illustrated by the fact that the management plan
for each unit must not only be approved by the high council of the Forest
Service and by the Minister of Agriculture but must be authorized by a
decree of the President of the Repubhc. The function of State and com-
munal forests is settled to be the supplying of national industries with
the classes of products which they most need, particularly large timber
which may not be grown on private lands because it is less profitable.
The purpose of State and other public forests is thus to supplement the
materials produced iji the largest quantities by other owners with choice
timber whose growing is long and costly, a distinction which often dis-
appears, however, under the scale of values fixed by supply and demand.

The Communal Forests of France. — The communal forests of France
are one of the most interesting and suggestive phases of her public
forestry. The French Commune may be compared with the New Eng-
land township — a self-governing, rural community of exact geographical
limits. In the break-up of the old order these httle communities, which
usually had held entailed rights to the use of wood and forage from royal
or seigneurial estates, asserted their claims so vigorously as to acquire
many small tracts of forest and pasture land in fee simple. Their forest
holdings were increased in various ways, as through the planting of
185,000 acres in the southwestern sand plains under State supervision.
To-day they form a sixth of the forests of France. Under the terms of
the forest code, the great bulk of them are administered as part and parcel
of the public forests. While still serving their original purpose of fur-
nishing supplies of wood, especially fuel, for local use, they thus are im-
portant contributors to the national lumber pile.

Some communes own and operate their own small sawmills. These
community forests are important sources of revenue for hundreds of
French villages, reducing taxes and affording the means for constructing
town halls, roads, and other local improvements. The situation in
France would be paralleled if every village in New England or the Lake
States owned 500 or 1,000 acres of forest, kept continuously in the highest
state of production, furnishing the timber locally needed, affording a sub-
stantial income for community purposes, and providing steady employ-
ment for a number of its citizens.

Educational Value of the Public Forests. — The real value of the pubHc
forests of France, as of her whole forestry system expressed in the "regime

12 IMPRESSIONS OF FRENCH FORESTRY

forestier," can be gauged only in an appreciation of the administrative
skill of the French, of their practical genius for cooperation, and of the
intelligence of many rural classes. These factors have extended the
technical practice in public forests far beyond their own limited areas.
Public forests and their staff of trained officers are to be found in every
section of the country. They set the standards and their results have
demonstrated good forestry to every timber owner in France — in his
own immediate neighborhood. How to cut and restock timberland has
thus become a common knowledge of the people. The local forest
officers of the State are recognized leaders and advisers in all forestry
matters. Direct forms of cooperation with private land owners have
resulted in the special recognition given to associations of forest own-
ers and in the opportunity to place private holdings under the techni-
cal methods and legal protection of the "regime." The public forests
have thus had a marked educational value and have given stimulus and
direction to the whole forestry development of France.

This fact is indeed suggestive to the United States. In our first steps
toward forest conservation, pubhc forests, Federal, State, and municipal,
should have a dominating part. They should be created in every section
and be identified with its local problems of fire hazard, of timber growth,
and of provision for future needs. They should develop the technical
practice adapted to our varied forest types and make it common knowl-
edge by concrete demonstration, the most effective of all educational
measures. In democratic America, as in democratic France, a core of
pubhc forests will prove the key to progress.

PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE

Its Economic Basis. — Private forests in France obviously are on a
footing totally different from that in the United States. Aside from the
national conservatism of the French, their love for forests as things of
beauty, and the social inheritances which put their forests in high regard,
the high price and close utilization of wood afford an economic basis for
the successive cropping of timberland. The prevailing stumpage values
of French timber in 1917 averaged at least five times the prices for corre-
sponding species in the United States. The American Army, for ex-
ample, paid about $36 per thousand feet on the stump for oak timber of
all grades in the Loire River Valley and up to $50 per thousand feet for
silver fir and spruce in the Vosges Mountains. A crop of hardwood
coppice, grown in 20 years, brought at the same time from $50 to $60 per
acre for fuel as it stood in the woods. These were inflated war-time
rates, but on a pre-war basis the disparity between timber values in
France and the United States is almost equally great. This is due not
alone to the shortage of timber in France and the necessity of importing

THE IMPORTANCE OF PRIVATE FORESTRY TO FRANCE 13

a third of the lumber which the country uses. Low conversion costs are
an important factor. The forests of France for the most part are very
accessible. The simple methods of manufacture by small local mills,
with almost no investment or overhead charges, are inexpensive. The
wages paid to forest labor, 5 francs, or less than $1 per day in 1917 and
still less before the war, is very low. With lumber prices influenced by
the importations of Baltic and other foreign stock, with keen competition
for all stumpage put upon the market, the standing timber gains the
benefit of the low costs of manufacture. The situation in the United
States, where manufacturing charges are the chief element in the mill
price of lumber, is reversed in France. The standing tree takes a third or
more of the selling price of its products.

Forest Versus Farm Crops. — France contains large areas of land —
in her eastern and southern mountains, in the southwestern sand plains,
and in the rugged hills on the headwaters of the Marne and Seine —
which are fit only for timber production or for grazing. The presence of
such land — of relatively low value — is a further stimulus to private
forestry; 1,500,000 acres of private forests, for example, were created out-
right by planting maritime pine in the Landes. Her forests are not hm-
ited, however, to areas too poor for cultivation. The economic balance
between forests and farm crops has shifted at various periods in French
history. At the time of the Revolution the country was short of agri-
cultural products, especially cereals, and a large acreage of forest was put
in tillage. Fifty or sixty years later the pendulum swung back. Short-
age of farm labor appears to have been the immediate cause. Many
rural proprietors in central and northern France, finding their fields lying
fallow year after year, resorted to tree planting. There has been no im-
portant change since that time with probably a shght tendency in later
years to increase the farm area at the expense of the forest.

We in the United States are prone to think that the farm must always
be given right of way over the forest; and doubtless that is the safest
guide in our present stage of development. The economic growth of
France has carried her beyond such broad assumptions. The demand
for wheat and the profit in growing it compared with the demand for
timber and fuel and the profit in growing these products are the considera-
tions which govern. The area devoted to forest is fixed by the balance
struck — over comparatively long periods of time — between all the
economic necessities of the country; and that balance has not thus far
hmited her forests, either publicly or privately owned, to non-agricultural
lands. This sort of readjustment is impending in some of the older parts
of the United States.

The Importance of Private Forestry to France. — Two-thirds of the
forests of France are privately owned. Her 16,000,000 acres of private

14 IMPRESSIONS OF FRENCH FORESTRY

forests, which for the most part are fairly well cared for and kept in con-
tinuous production, are a striking object lesson to Americans who are
wont to regard forestry as possible only for the Nation or State. About 30
per cent of them are devoted to the production of hardwood fuel. Other-
wise their technical management, while less regular and uniform and usu-
ally less conservative, does not differ in essential respects from that of the
pubhc forests. Upon her privately owned forests France depends for the
bulk of her lumber and fuel wood.

Returns from Private Forests. — While aesthetic and social considera-
tions and the play of national conservatism have their part in this result,
forestry is a real business in France. Large areas of woodland are held as
long-term investments and often are highly regarded as stable securities
for the investment of family or institutional funds. Well-managed oak
and beech forests yield net revenues of from 2^ to 4 per cent. Such
forests may furnish a crop of coppice every 20 or 25 years and at the same
time usually carry an over story of high-grade timber, which may require
200 or 240 years to mature but is actually harvested in small quantities
at every periodic cutting. A large forest property is split into lots or
compartments containing sprouts or timber of different ages. Some
material is harvested every year or at least every 4 or 5 years. There is
thus an actual current revenue in keeping with the size of the whole
property; and the problem of accrued carrying charges, which is so bur-
densome to the owner of undeveloped timber in the United States,
scarcely exists in France.

Forestry as a commercial business is most highly developed in the
pineries of the Landes where the low value of the land and the combined
yields of naval stores and timber make it exceptionally profitable. Net
returns of 6 per cent on investments in southern pineries are not un-
common. Here also the revenue is practically continuous. The larger
properties contain blocks of timber of varying ages, and aside from a
steady return from turpentine orcharding, realize every few years upon a
small cut of stumpage.

Forest and Sawmill Divorced. — The great bulk of the French forests
is in separate hands from the timber-using industries. This has an im-
portant bearing upon their management. The forest is relatively inde-
pendent of the sawmill. The forest owner determines the amount and
location of the stumpage which he wishes to cut from year to year.
Foresters or forest rangers are employed on all of the larger properties,
and the cutting area is selected, marked, and estimated by them. The
sawmills are uniformly small and most of them are portable. In the
eastern mountains there are many little stationary mills, driven by steam
or water power, which obtain their logs from the yearly cuttings on any
one of a dozen or more forest properties in their vicinity. Logs are

INTENSIVE USE OF LIMITED RESOURCES IN FRANCE 15

hauled by ox teams, in full tree lengths, for distances up to 15 or 20 miles,
to these little mills. In the level pineries of the south a light steam trac-
tor of the "locomobile" type, operating a band saw 3 or 4 inches wide, is
almost universal. These little mills roam about the Landes, picldng up a
few hundred cubic meters of timber here and there, sawing it into boards,
and then passing on, leaving neat, triangular cribs of lumber to be hauled
out by the two- wheeled mule carts of the region whenever it has seasoned
sufficiently.

Lumber Manufacture Adapted to Forestry Practice. — In a word, the
lumber manufacturing industry has grown up on and adapted itself to
a system of forest management which permits but small cuttings at any
one place in any one year or series of years. Cases are rare when the well-
being and permanence of the forest are sacrificed to the requirements of a
manufacturing enterprise — an exact opposite of the situation so com-
mon in the United States where the manufacturer owns the timber and
has denuded one forest region after another in order to supply his large
stationary mills to their maximum capacity. While this relation is
largely a result rather than a cause of the economic status of private
forestry in France, it indicates the industrial adjustments which will be-
come necessary in America as our emphasis shifts from supplying saw-
mills to growing timber.

Private Forestry On Its Own Feet. — Private forestry in France stands
largely upon its own merits. It is mainly a free reaction to the economic
requirements of the country and an expression of the thrift and habits of
its people. Aside from tax exemptions on plantations under 30 years of
age and assistance in technical practice, it receives no public subsidies or
support. The laws against devastation have restricted the decrease of
forest areas in the French mountains — but elsewhere have not had an
important effect. It is probable that the greatest public leverage upon the
private owner to keep his timberland productive has been the stimulus
and example of the pubhcly owned forests, with their wide distribution
throughout France and their high standards of technical practice.

FOREST PROBLEMS OF FRANCE AND THE UNITED STATES
Intensive Use of Limited Resources in France. — The forest problem
of France is totally difi^erent from that of the United States. Intensive
use of a limited land area to support her dense population is forced upon
France. Her situation would be paralleled if a third of the people in
the United States were crowded into an area somewhat smaller than
the State of Texas. At the best, France must import a large volume of
wood products. France has had to strike a close balance between her
needs for lumber and her needs for farm crops and, notwithstanding the
number of mouths to be fed, has had to devote a considerable acreage of

16 IMPRESSIONS OF FRENCH FORESTRY

agricultural land to timber production. Intensive methods of growing
successive crops of timber form a necessary part of her national economy.
The shortage and high cost of wood have given an impetus to the practice
of forestry as a business which is scarcely approached in any part of the
United States.

The Handicap of Lumber Shortage. — Lack of cheap lumber is an
economic handicap in France. It is apparent, particularly in her rural
districts, where a new structure of any kind is a rare sight and the ancient,
moss-covered farm buildings give an impression of decadence which is
only partly real but nevertheless portrays forcibly the low standards of
rural improvements which not only reduce the comfort and wholesome-
ness of country life but inevitably lower the efficiency of agricultural in-
dustries. The manufacturing industries of France suffer from the
scarcity and high cost of timber. The per-capita consumption of lumber
is not more than 100 board feet per annum, less than one-third that of the
United States. In other words, France illustrates the evils of a situation
where lumber is a luxury, in part — an imported luxury. Her 18 per
cent of forested land is not enough. Her intensive forestry can but
partially offset the effects of a shortage of timber-producing land.

America's Problem — Idle Land. — It is not our problem in the
United States to strike a close balance between the forest and the farm.
That can be left to the economic adjustments of the future. We have an
ample area of forest land beyond all requirements for agriculture. It is
rather our problem to put idle land to use. The United States contains
probably 500,000,000 acres of forest land. Our uncut virgin timber has
been reduced to not more than 150,000,000 acres. Of the 350,000,000
acres of cutover land at least a third has been reduced by heavy cutting
and forest fires to unproductive wastes. An area of forest land at least
five times that of all the forests of France combined is producing nothing.

Timber has been cheap and plentiful in the United States as compared
with other nations. Our per-capita consumption of lumber is two or
three times that of any of our principal competitors. It is our problem
to keep timber cheap and plentiful, to make it unnecessary to restrict the
use of wood in domestic industries or export trade, to avoid reductions in
the per-capita consumption of lumber toward the lowest limits of civilized
existence which it has reached in France. This does not require as yet
the practice of intensive European forestry. It can be accomplished by
the simplest measures of protection and regeneration which will keep
timberland productive. The starting point must be to stop the devasta-
tion of the forest lands now being cut and to put our millions of idle acres
at work growing trees. This will require not only a large share of public
cooperation but also, as in France, a recognition of the obligations carried
by forest ownership.

CHAPTER II >
THE ROLE OF FORESTS

The Value of Forests (p. 17). Objective, Dangers of Deforestation, Fundamen-
tal Causes, Obligation of the State.

Forest Influences (p. 19). Effect on Temperature (Air Soil), Wind, Frost, Hail,
Humidity and Rainfall, Water Level, Springs, Floods, Avalanches and Erosion, Health,
Recreation, and Beauty, Literature and Art.

THE VALUE OF FORESTS

Objective. — The objective of this chapter is to give the American
forester an insight into French views — somewhat ideahstic to be sure —
on the role that the forests play in national hfe and to summarize briefly
the technical viewpoint on "forest influences." Huffel's exposition on
forests and springs is given in full in the Appendix, p. 361, and Jacquot's
statement on the physical, economic, and social rule of forests, on p. 381.

Dangers of Deforestation. — If forests fail to yield a good revenue,
should they be cut? or are they worth financial sacrifices? French policy
is based on the economic fact that her forests are worth the sacrifice, and
her forest history points unfalteringly to the evils of reckless deforesta-
tion. Who could view the eroded Alps, Pyrenees, or the torrents of the
Lozere and think otherwise? The penalty for using up forest capital is
too great.

" When the mountains are baked ^ all is ruined. The rains . . . fall in torrents
and rush off the denuded soil. They first carry off the vegetable cover. The mountain
shows its rocky skeleton, the rocks break up, cones of erosion are formed, landslides,
gullies, unstable slopes become so many running sores by which the substance of the
mountain is carried down. The rocks offer more or less resistance according to their
texture, but none withstand. Even granite splits up into enormous blocks which roll
irresistibly down into the valleys. . . . When the highlands are ruined, what becomes
of the plain? . . . The river becomes a torrent when it rains, carrying down earth,
trees, and rocks. Swollen beyond measure, it flows over the plain in a sudden flood
which destroys houses, flocks, villages, and people. . . . The sudden flood is char-
acteristic of denuded countries . . . the mountain can no longer supply the valley
with water. Now is the time of drought and famine. Irrigation is impossible for the
rivers are dry. . . . The cultivators try to continue the struggle by means of
reservoirs and costly dams."

What a picture, but how true! Look at deforested countries and they

1 G. A. Pearson kindly reviewed this chapter.

2 Deboisement et Decadence. F. Regnault. La Revue, March 1, 1904.

17

18 THE ROLE OF FORESTS

all bear the same evidence: Palestine, Assyria, Arabia, Greece, Tunisia,
Algeria, Italy, Spain, Persia, Sardinia, Dalmatia. To-day England is
the only virile Great Power without extensive forests; what she has are in
her colonies. It appears that decadence goes hand in hand with de-
forestation. Which is the foundation stone of a nation's dechne? Is the
sequence decadence-deforestation or deforestation-decadence? Or is de-
forestation simply a general lack of foresight coupled with poor forest man-
agement?

Fundamental Causes. — What is the fundamental cause of deforesta-
tion? According to Regnault:

"It is well to seek the causes. They are of various kinds. The most important is
civilization itself. Civilization increases the sale value of wood, and provides the means
of transport, without which sales would be very limited. It awakes greed in the mind
of the landowner and at the same time allows him to satisfy his greed. Thus the barest
countries are always the seats of the oldest civilizations. Certainly, when the landowner
finds it to his interest to plant, he does not hesitate to do so. Thus the trufHe industry
has caused the plantation of more than 148,000 acres of oak in the Vaucluse; and re-
cently the oil trade has caused the jilantation of an immense olive forest round Sfax in
Tunis. But such cases are quite exceptional.

"The cutting of trees is a source of immediate profit, but it entails later a great dimi-
nution of revenues. Hence reboisement meets with great difficulties, not only in the
want of money, but in the hostility of the inhabitants. These people were originally
hunters, woodsmen, petty cultivators, but especially herdsmen, enjoying rich pastures
and large herds of cattle. The destruction of the forest forces them to change their liveh-
hood. They become shepherds and goatherds, for sheep and goats are the only animals
which can exist on the soil when it has become impoverished. These animals live on
young shoots and buds, and prevent the forest from growing again. The shepherds
themselves oppose every attempt at reboisement, pulling up young trees, destroying
seedlings, etc., for they fear to lose their living. They even burn the forest in order to
obtain further areas, until the mountain disintegrates and their last resources are
swept away by landslides and erosion.

"The political condition is of great importance. A strong government enforces respect
for the forests."

Obligation of the State. — Speaking of the deforestation in France
Regnault calls upon the State to do its duty : ^

"While the State is thus so badly neglecting its duty, all the authors who have studied
the subject of deboisement are agreed that the State is the only possible source of salva-
tion. They wish to forbid all clearings by communes or by private persons, and to make
the private interest yield to the public good. A despotic government can indeed en-
force blind obedience on the part of its subjects, but in a republic, where every one is a
judge and critic of policy, the best laws are useless unless the citizens understand their
utility."

After a careful study of the Loire watershed, Benardeau, then Conserva-
tor of Forests at Moulins (Allier), concluded as follows:*

5 La Foret, A. Jacquot, 1900.

■* Correction de la Loire et de ses Affluents, F. Benardeau, deuxi^.me edition, 1906.

EFFECT ON TEMPERATURE (AIR SOIL) 19

"To summarize: forests scarcely cover 13 per cent of the surface of the valley of the
Loire, while the average for France reaches 18.7 per cent. Two per cent only of the
wooded area was under forestry regulations. . . . We must not, therefore, be too
surprised about the damage which everybody regrets today, but for which every one is
in a way responsible. All the vital interests of the country, its military force, its agri-
culture, its industry, its commerce, its navy, the climate, temperature, the conservation
of the soil and of the waters which supply it, even the existence of a part of the popula-
tion which lives by manual labor in the neighborhood of forests, or from the product of
its stock in mountainous regions, have an interest in the Loire problem which is really
connected with the most serious problems of economic pohcy. Considering the con-
tinual development of material interests that periodic inundations jeopardize, the public
executive power will not hesitate to agree to the necessary sacrifices, especially if they
recall that the single flood of June 4, 1856, not counting the human lives, houses, goods,
manufactures, and harvests destroyed, has cost 33.4 million dollars for defence better-
ments and lines of communications.

"The improvements that are required, owing to the bad condition of the Loire and
Allier Rivers, are just as useful as a work made for the national defense and where the
budget (with the backing of public opinion) has always been on such a generous scale.
For the complete suppression of erosion and of sand deposits, it appears necessary to
give the Service des Eaux et Forets sufficient resources, in order that improvements may
be made in advance of the damage, which is incessant in the basins of these rivers."

It is true that the discovery of iron, cement, coal, gas, and electricity
has tremendously reduced the need of wood. Yet a French writer says:
"Even without modern uses of iron, cement, and coal there is an in-
sufficiency in the world's wood production which some time will be keenly
felt by the great powers of the world."

There is therefore every incentive to inculcate in the minds of all
students the national need for wise forest management. This study, the
French beheve, should begin in primary and secondary schools. Arbor
day (fetes de I'Arbre) celebrations are required by law. There are French
societies organized for the promulgation of forestry. The Jura has sixty-
eight such societies and the Touring Club de France has a standing com-
mittee on conservation. In France the planting of trees as a celebration
at births is often practiced, and in Alsace trees are often planted at both
births and marriages. To celebrate the birth of the "King of Rome" in
1811 an entire forest was planted. It is felt necessary to make the love
of forests and realization of the necessity for their wise use a part of
French national life.^

FOREST INFLUENCES

Effect on Temperature (Air Soil). — According to investigations
started by Mathieu at Nancy in 1886, the mean annual temperature is
less in the forest than outside. Other investigators have confirmed these

5 The French viewpoint is admirably presented by Jacquot in his summary of "The
Forest, from a Physical, Economic, and Social Viewpoint." A brief and translation is
given in the Appendix, p. 381.

20 THE ROLE OF FORESTS

early French investigations. The results of an experiment (1869-1888)
in a beech forest at an altitude of 1,115 feet showed the mean annual tem-
perature inside the forest to be 0.45° C. less than outside. In thirteen
experiments at various altitudes in pine, spruce, beech, and larch forests,
the forest temperature averaged 0.66° C. less than in the open. The
difference was greater in summer than in winter. The mean maximum
days at Nancy averaged 24° 0.48' C. (76° F.) in the open and 21° 0.51' C.
(70° 0.7'F.) in the forest. In the cold weather the average outside the
forest was -5° 0.12' C. (31.89° F.), inside -4° 0.24' C. (31.91° F.). The
investigation thus showed that the temperature extremes were raised 3°
to 5° C. by a forest cover, but that the temperature in the forest was
warmer in winter and cooler in summer. In other words, the forest acts
as an equahzer of temperature.^

The Nancy research officers estabhshed the following laws: (1) The
mean annual temperature that was reached is |° C. less in the forest than
in a nearby open area. (2) This difference in temperature, while shght
during the winter months, is greater in summer. (3) The minimum
temperature is raised in the forests by nearly 1° C. and the maximum
lessened about 2° C. In other words, there is a decided difference be-
tween the minimum and maximum of 3° C,

In addition it may be said that conifers lessen winter extremes of tem-
perature more than do broadleaves and that the denser the summer
foliage the cooler the forest in comparison with the open areas. These
differences are greatest at 35 to 40 feet above the soil.

Investigations by Cuif ^ show conclusively that soil is almost 4° C.
warmer during July in the open than under high forest or under coppice.
He also proved that soil temperature variations outside and inside the
forests are less extreme than the variations in the air temperature by from
2° to 4° C.

Wind. — The value of forests as shelter belts against the wind is
proved for agricultural crops and for water surfaces to prevent evapora-
tion.

Frost. — It has always been recognized that forest cover prevents
frosts. They are less frequent and less severe under cover, which is the
reason why the shelterwood system must be applied to beech. Without
the top story the beech seedlings would be frost-killed. In 1912 Cuif ^
proved that the forest cover prevented damage from late frosts and
showed that in the State forest of Amance (Meurthe-et-Moselle) oak

« Huffel, Vol. I, pp. 45-67.

^ Influence du Convert de la Foret sur la Temperature du sol a diverses profondeurs,
par M. E. Cuif. Bulletin de la Societe des Sciences, 1909.

* Action de la Foret sur les Gelees Tardives, par M. E. Cuif. Annales de la Science
Agronomique frangaise et etrangere. Sept., 1912.

WATER LEVEL 21

plantations after cutting were badly frosted two years out of three, while
the plantations under scattered seed trees were not damaged.

The frost penetrates the soil about one-half as far in the forest as on the
outside. According to four experiments (quoted by Huffel) the average
soil depth of frost outside the forest was 17 inches, while inside the ground
was frozen only to the depth of 11^ inches.

Hail. — Hailstorms are less frequent in the forest than outside. Huffel
quotes Riniker (1881 Die Hagelschage), who says: "In general hailstorms
stop at the border of well-stocked mature forests. Both on the plains and
in the mountains one often sees hailstorms cut in two or divided when
they pass above wooded stands . . . small coppice would not do
this." France had studied the effect of hailstorms on forests and vice
versa, but by the decree of January 20, 1892, the work was discontinued
and no decisive results were obtained. Jacquot notes the fact that of the
eighteen departments where hail does the most damage fourteen are the
least forested.

Humidity and Rainfall. — Huffel^ says that "the relative humidity
of the air is greater under a stand than in the open, not, as one would sup-
pose, because the atmosphere of the forest holds more vapor, but because
it stands at a lower temperature and is nearer its saturation point."
According to Fautrat's experiments in the Ermonville Forest in 1876 the
air under the stands showed 7 per cent to 12 per cent greater moisture
content than in the open.

French foresters believe that forests mean more rainfall and, as Huffel
puts it, "The rain increases according to the progress of forestation," and
"it rains more, all things being equal, in the center of a large stand than
on its border, and more on the border than a few miles away, that the
difference appears to be independent of the season of the year, but is
slightly greater during rainy years and less during a drought." The
French viewpoint is given more fully under "Springs" (in the Appendix,
p. 361), but French statistics collected near Nancy are at least significant.
If the rainfall (a) in the forest is represented by 100, the rainfall (6) near
the forest and (c) well outside would, on the average, be (6) 93,3 per cent
and (c) 76.5 per cent. It is at least safe to assume that forest tends to
increase rainfall.

Water Level. — Experiments ^^ show that the water level the year
round is unquestionably lower in the forests than in openings, and that
there are smaller fluctuations in the water level in the forests than else-

^ Vol. I, pp. 67-81, especially p. 75. It should be stated here that the theory that
forests increase rainfall (except under rare circumstances) is not accepted by American
meteorologists.

1" E. Henry and A. Tolsky. Les Forets de Plaine et les Eaux Souterraines. Annales
de la Science Agronomique frangaise et etrangere, 1902-03.

22 THE ROLE OF FORESTS

where. The level is lower under a mature stand than in young growth,
the differences being greater in a dry than in a wet climate. Where there
is a great deal of rainfall the difference may not exceed 9 or 10 inches.
Henry's observations at Nancy (see Appendix, p. 379) confirmed these
conclusions (about 1 foot difference) and De Lapasse now cites proof on a
large scale. It was already proved that surface water in the Landes and
Gironde had dried up, after extensive areas had been sown, planted, and
drained, in the Nineteenth Century, but it was not until 1917 that proof
was secured that if these forests were cut the water level would rise again.
This has now been proved in the forests of Porge (Gironde) where 8,649
acres were clear-cut during the period from 1904 to 1911; where 5,436
acres were clear-cut in the forest of Solferino (Landes) during the period
from 1905 to 1911; and where 1,236 acres were clear-cut in the forest of
Soulac. In the latter case the timber was 65 years old; the felling began
in 1912 and was finished in 1914. According to accurate data secured by
Conservateur de Lapasse the former water level at Soulac was 3.3 feet
below the floor of the local church. At the end of 1916 the water began
to flood the chapels to the depth of 2 inches and on January 6, 1917, the
water flooded the central nave and the church itself to a depth of 6 inches
and the chapels to a depth of 19 inches. In the same locality (Soulac) ^^
the water level of the wells rose 27| inches; the local hotel cellars, for-
merly dry, had standing water to a depth of 8 inches. According to de
Lapasse this is proof positive that clear cutting these mature pine forests
has materially raised the water level. Such a conclusion is of immense
importance in connection with drainage problems.

Springs.^'" — According to Huffel, ground in a forest is better watered
from the atmosphere than are the bordering plains. This difference is
greater in winter than in summer — may be 20 per cent more. In the
mountains forests unquestionably diminish run-off and bring about a
greater infiltration of water which may ultimately feed springs. This is
due not only to the obstacles which trees, roots, and litter present to
prevent run-off, but also to the greater porosity of the forest soil and to
the fact that snow melts slower under forest cover. Both French and
Russian experiments have proved, however, that the water level in the
forest on level ground is about one foot lower than in the fields. On the
other hand, the variation in water level is less in the forest; the infiltra-
tion is slower; in other words, the forest is a regulator of water levels (as
with temperature). Huffel concludes that forests increase precipitation,
retain a part of the rainfall on branches and return it to the air directly,

11 LTnfluence de la Foret sur le Regime des Eaux a Soulac, pp. 1-8, M. de Lapasse,
1917.

12 See Appendix, p. 361, for a more detailed discussion of this subject, as presented by
Huffel.

HEALTH, RECREATION, AND BEAUTY 23

decrease evaporation, favor infiltration in the mountains and may or may
not favor it on level ground in cold or temperate climates, yet he concludes
that "Nevertheless, it must be observed that springs are only numerous
and important in mountain regions, and that there the forests are favor-
able to them.''

Floods, Avalanches, and Erosion. — No one can read Chapter VII
"Control of Erosion in the Mountains," without becoming convinced that
forests lessen the intensity of floods and avalanches and largely decrease
erosion and the formation of "torrents."

Health, Recreation, and Beauty. — The French ^^ claim that the
forests have exerted a beneficial effect on the health of mankind. Life in
the forest is especially beneficial in various nervous diseases. In India
there is less cholera in the forest regions than in plains. In the forest of
Haguenau there was less disease in the middle of the last century while
the cholera epidemic was raging in Europe proper. The leaves of trees
seem to filter the air and forests are so-called "reservoirs of pure air."
Forest soil is especially unfavorable to the development of microbes. In
the Landes, after the sand dunes were reclaimed, the birth rate rose and
the death rate fell; in 1878 Trelat reported that the fever had practically
disappeared in those regions. "The forests furnish pretty places for the
invalid as well as corners of recreation . . . this need of the beauti-
ful is deep rooted in our very nature." Fontainebleau, Compiegne,
Grande Chartreuse, and Riidlin are famous recreation forests in France,
but there are many others. One might say that every State forest
region is a recreation ground for the French people. The forests around
Nice, the Vosges near Gerardmer, and almost the entire Alps and Pyre-
nees are visited annually by thousands. One might almost say that
without its forests France would not be worth living in. Broilliard ^^ in
1911, toward the end of a hfe spent in the National Forest Service, speaks
of the forest as "poetry and perfume of the earth." He says that the
tree gives the forest its charm, since it is found in a thousand forms on the
slopes, in clumps, in battalions, on the borders, near small openings, and
even around the former Roman Camp at Morey. The old trees act as
protectors of the species. In his old age he still can dream of the pretty
paths, openings, undergrowth of varying aspects at different seasons,
summer tranquility, autumn fruits, and sombre lines. Huffel claims
that "the beauty of our forests is an object of public utihty."

On June 29, 1899, Daubree ruled that since "the Federal and communal
forests often contain famous trees, because of historical or legendary in-
terest or because of their grandeur or exceptional size, such trees belong
to the aesthetic wealth of France. They add to the beauty of the land-
is ficonomie Forestiere, Vol. I, pp. 199-206.
"Beautes de la Foret, par Ch. Broilliard, 1911.

PROP tK I J Lion/iAi

H. C. State College

24 THE r6le of forests

scape, they bring visitors into the regions where without them they would
stay away. We must love and appreciate our forests. The local people
have a real attachment for these evidences of a bygone age and see them
disappear with regret. I attach great importance to this and they
should be constantly protected by the Forest Service. They should
never, under any pretext, be included in the cut as long as they show
signs of life."

Literature and Art„ — Naturally the forest has stamped its mark on
French literature. Russeau spent much of his time in France and did
much to make the forests popular, Chateaubriand drew wonderful
pictures of American forests but they were not very real ; they were more
the product of his imagination. Lamertine was a great admirer of the
French forests and La Fontaine was the son of a professional forester.
William Shenstone, who flourished in England in 1760, was undoubtedly
influenced by his knowledge of the French forests.

It is well recognized that all forms of art are founded on nature. Some
persons believe that the gothic arch was suggested by the arcades of the
forest. In painting, almost every landscape owes much to the color and
shape of trees. Of the earlier French painters Claude shows most love of
foliage, but few of his pictures look as if he had painted them in the
woods. In every European forest the trees are so dense that it is difficult
to paint modern forests. In the words of a Frenchman, "You foresters
should think of this and not only space the trees, since then and then only
may the carefully tended forests become useful to the artist as well as to
the lumberman." Diaz was a man who spent most of his time in the
woods. The Brabigan school painted woods more or less; but Corot
(like Claude) had no use for a "regular forest." What he wanted was a
group of trees for the purpose of composition.

While some of these French claims regarding forest influences may be
questioned by the scientist, yet no one familiar with the history of forest
economics can question for a moment the statement that no nation can
afford to destroy its forests because their direct and indirect benefits have
an increasingly important influence on national efficiencyo

CHAPTER III
FOREST REGIONS AND IMPORTANT SPECIES

Physical and Climatic Features — Industry (p. 25). Area and Topography,
Climate, Agriculture, Other Industries, Water Power, Commerce, Government.

Forest Regions (p. 29). Broad Divisions, Plains, Parisienne Zone, Gironde Zone,
Proven^ale Zone, Mountains, Vosges Zone, Jura Zone, Alps Zone, Central Plateau
Zone, Pyrenees Zone, Some Mountain Forests in Detail, Vosges, Alps, Pyrenees.

Important Forest Species (p. 40). Acreage and Distribution, Pedunculate Oak,
Sessile Oak, Beech, Hornbeam, Holm Oak, Cork Oak, Silver Fir, Scotch Pine, Maritime
Pine, Norway Spruce, European Larch, Aleppo Pine, Exotics, Use of Exotics. (See
Appendix, p. 387, for data on species.)

PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC FEATURES — INDUSTRY i

Area and Topography. — France is a western country in western
Europe, hexagonal in form, bounded northwest by the North Sea, Strait
of Dover (Pas-de-Calais) and the Enghsh Channel (La Manche) ; west by
the Atlantic Ocean; southwest by Spain; southeast by the Mediterranean;
east by Italy, Switzerland, and Germany; northeast by Germany, Luxem-
burg, and Belgium. From north to south its length is about 600 miles,
measuring from Dunkirk to the Col de Falgueres; its breadth from east
to west is 528 miles, from the Vosges to Cape Saint Mathieu at the ex-
tremity of Brittany. The total area is estimated at 207,170 square
miles, including the island of Corsica, which comprises 3,367 square
miles. The coast hne of France extends for 384 miles on the Mediter-
ranean, 700 on the North Sea, the Strait of Dover, and the Channel, and
865 on the Atlantic. The country has the advantage of being separated
from its neighbors by natural barriers of great strength over the greater
part of its frontier, the Pyrenees forming a powerful bulwark on the
southwest, the Alps on the southeast, and the Jura and the greater por-
tion of the Vosges Mountains on the east. The frontier generally follows
the crest hne of these ranges. Germany possessed both slopes of the
Vosges north of Mont Donon, from which point the northeast boundary
is conventional and unprotected by nature. France is geographically
remarkable for its possession of great natural and historical highways
between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic Ocean. The one following

■* These data are furnished by the service geographique de I'armee, except where
otherwise noted. See Appendix, p. 495, for data on Alsace-Lorraine, now restored to
France.

25

26 FOREST REGIONS AND IMPORTANT SPECIES

the depression between the Central Plateau and the eastern mountains
by way of the valleys of the Rhone and Saone, traverses the Cote d'Or
hills and so gains the valley of the Seine; the other skirting the southern
base of the Cevennes, reaches the ocean by way of the Garonne Valley.
Another natural highway traversing the lowlands to the west of the
Central Plateau unites the Seine basin with that of the Garonne.

Climate. — The north and northwest of France bear a great resem-
blance, both in temperature and produce, to the south of England, rain
occurring frequently and the country being consequently suited for
pasture. The rains are less frequent in the interior but when they do
occur are much heavier, so there is much less difference in the annual rain-
fall there as compared with the rest of the country than in the number of
rainy days. The annual rainfall of the whole of France averages about
32 inches; the precipitation is greatest along the Atlantic seaboard and in
the elevated regions of the interior. It attains over 60 inches in the basin
of the Adour (71 inches at the western extremity of the Pyrenees), and
nearly as much in the Vosges, Morvan, Cevennes, and parts of the Central
Plateau. The zone of level country extending from Rheims and Troyes

to Angers and Poitiers with the ex-
ception of the Loire Valley and the
Brie, receives less than 24 inches of
rain annually (Paris about 23 inches),
as also does the Mediterranean coast
west of Marseilles.

The prevailing winds, mild and
humid, are west winds from the At-
lantic. Continental climatic influ-
ences make themselves felt in the
east wind which is frequent in winter
and in the east of France, while the
Mistral, a violent wind from the
northwest, is characteristic of the
Fig. 1 (after Jolyet).— The black areas Mediterranean region. The local
represent rainfall of over 24 inches, the climates ^ of France may be grouped
hatched area 16 to 23 inches, and the dot- , j-u f u • r, ^^ i^^; v.„

, , ox ic- 1 rru 4.- r under the followmg seven designa-

ted areas 8 to 15 inches. The portions of ° °

France left blank represent summer tern- tions: (1) Sequan chmate, charac-
peratures of over 68° F. terizing the Seine basin and northern

France, with a mean temperature of
50° F., the winters being cold and the summers mild. (2) Breton cli-
mate, with a mean temperature of 51° F., the winters being mild and
summers temperate; it is characterized by west and southwest winds and
2 Based on the six Ecological zones proposed by Dr. Mayr of Munich, the Nancy
(Traits Pratique de Sylviculture, 1916, Jolyet, pp. 414-418) school recognizes the fol-

OTHER INDUSTRIES 27

by frequent fine rains. (3) Girondin climate, characterizing Bordeaux,
Agen, Pau, etc., having a mean temperature of 53.6° F., with mild winters
and hot summers; the prevailing wind is from the northwest; the average
rainfall about 28 inches. (4) Auvergne cKmate, comprising the Ceven-
nes, Central Plateau, Clermont, Limoges, and Rodez; mean temperature
51.8° F., with cold winters and hot summers. (5) Vosges climate, in-
cluding Epinal, Mezieres, and Nancy, having a mean temperature of
48.2° F., with long and severe winters and hot and rainy summers. (6)
Rhone climate, experienced by Lyons, Chalon, Macon, and Grenoble;
mean temperature 5L8° F., with cold and wet winters and hot summers;
the prevaihng winds are north and south. (7) Mediterranean chmate,
at Valence, Nimes, Nice, and Marseilles; mean temperature 57.5° F.,
with mild winters and almost rainless summers.

Agriculture. — Of the 39,000,000 population some 17,000,000 depend
upon agriculture for a livelihood, though only about 6,500,000 are engaged
in work on the land. The cultivable land occupies some 195,000 square
miles, or about 94 per cent of the total area. Of this, 171,000 square
miles are cultivated. There are besides 12,300 square miles of unculti-
vable area covered by lakes, rivers, towns, etc. ; only 37,672 square miles
are in forests (241.2 million acres). While wheat and wine constitute the
staples of French agriculture, the distinguishing characteristic is the
variety of its products. Cereals occupy about one-third of the cultivated
area. For the production of wheat, in which France is self-supporting,
French Flanders, the Seine basin, notably Beauce and Brie, and the
regions bordering on the lower course of the Loire and the upper course
of the Garonne are the chief areas. Rye is grown in the poor agricul-
tural territories of the Central Plateau and in the Parisian region. Maize '
covers considerable areas in Landes, Basses-Pyrenees, and other south-
western departments.

Other Industries. — In France, as in other countries, the development
of machinery, whether run by steam, water power, or other native forces,

lowing zones as occurring in France:

(1) Laurentum, with minimum temperature of — 10°C., where "everywhere orna-
mental shrubs with persistent leaves can be cultivated in the gardens."

(2) Castanetum, with occasional temperatures down to —25° C, where the mari-
time pine and chestnut can be grown.

(3) Carpinetum, with temperature down to —.30° C, where there are drought, hot
summers, but dangerous frosts and extremes of cold. This includes most of the rich
Normandy forests.

(4) Mountains, broadly speaking (for the same exposure) for each 3.3 feet of altitude
the average temperature diminishes 1.2° C. and the rainfall increases 10 per cent. Ex-
ceptions occur, depending on the slope of the mountain and on the latitude. Typical
of the mountain climate are abrupt changes in temperature, severe frosts coupled with
intense heat (radiations solaires) during the day.

28 FOREST REGIONS AND IMPORTANT SPECIES

has played a great part in the promotion of industry. With the exception
of Loire, Bouches-du-Rhone, and Rhone, the chief industrial depart-
ments of France are to be found in the north and northeast of the country.
The department of the Seine, comprising Paris and its suburbs, which has
the largest manufacturing population, is largely occupied with the manu-
facture of dress, millinery, and articles of luxury (perfumery, etc.), but it
plays the leading part in almost every great branch of industry with the
exception of spinning and weaving. The typically industrial region of
France is the department of the Nord, the seat of the woolen industry,
but also prominently concerned in other textile industries, in metal work,
and in a variety of other manufactures, fuel for which is supphed by its
coal fields.

Water Power. — France is relatively poor in coal, and even in ordinary
times must import a large amount for use by its factories. Since Ger-
many's destruction of the collieries of the north, which have supplied
about three-fourths of all the coal mined in France, the situation is made
difficult even with the Sarre basin. Fortunately for France, she is rich
in hydraulic power. The water power is estimated at nine to ten milhon
horse power. Of the European countries only Norway and Sweden
possess a larger amount of available hydraulic power. Still more for-
tunate for France, most of her water power is to be found in the South,
free from war damage, particularly in the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Ceven-
nes, and the Jura, although some water power is available in the Vosges
and the Central Plateau. During the war the water power development
in France has received a tremendous stimulus. Many new factories have
been built in which the motive power is electricity, generated by hydraulic
force, for the manufacture of machinery, munitions, and other supplies
necessary for the army. The manufacture of products necessary for
military purposes has not only absorbed all the power which at first was
left unutilized because of the discontinuance of a number of factories en-
gaged in the production of ordinary commodities, but it was soon found
necessary to increase the available water power. Thus several of the
Pyrenees water power companies have raised the dam of a lake which
served as a reservoir by seven feet and thus increased its reserve in water by
1,300,000 cubic meters, and obtained a proportional increase in the avail-
able waterpower. Several water power establishments in the Alps and in
the Pyrenees have entirely changed their equipment and adapted their
factories for the manufacture of products needed by the Government.
The Government has rushed the completion of a number of factories in
the course of construction and has taken over in the Central Plateau
several waterfalls for the development of water power. During the war
the Government increased the available hydraulic power by at least
60,000 horse power. The Government not only sought to develop water

BROAD DIVISIONS 29

power for the manufacture of war necessities on its own initiative, but
also secured the cooperation of private hydraulic companies. This de-
velopment will probably decrease the use of coal and fuel wood during the
next decade.

Commerce. — Being in the main a self-supporting country, France
carries on most of her trade within her own borders and ranks below
Great Britain, Germany, and the United States in volume of exterior
trade.

Goverament. — The principles upon which the French constitution is
based are representative government (by two chambers), manhood
suffrage, responsibility of ministers, and irresponsibihty of the head of the
State. France is divided into 86 administrative departments (including
Corsica), or 87 if the territory of Belfort, a remnant of the Haut-Rhin de-
partment, be included. These departments are subdivided into 362
arrondissements, 2,911 cantons, and 36,222 communes. (See Alsace-
Lorraine, p. 495.)

FOREST REGIONS

Broad Divisions. — The forest regions of France may be divided into

two broad divisions — the plains and the mountains. As might be sup-
posed, conifers predominate in the mountains and the broadleaf species
in the plains. In this latter region there are ravines and hills but the
maximum altitude does not exceed 1,970 feet. The winter season lasts
4 to 5 months, the vegetative season 7 to 8 months. In the mountains
the winter lasts 7 to 8 months and, at altitudes of 5,900 to 6,560 feet, the
snow remains until June 15, and begins to fall shortly after the middle of
September. There is no spring or fall — only winter and summer.
Naturally this results in rapid growth with very regular rings, as opposed
to the somewhat irregular growth in the plains forests owing to the varia-
tions of climate during the growing season. The forest divisions of
France (as distinguished by Boppe) are:

1. Plains —

(a) Parisienne: (1) West, (2) Center, (3) East.

(b) Gironde: (1) Oaks of Adour, (2) Landes, Gascoyne.

(c) Provengale.

2. Mountains —

(a) Vosges: (1) Lorraine plains, (2) Basses-Vosges, (3) Hautes-Vosges, (4) (5) see text.
(6) Jura: (1) First plateau, (2) Second plateau, 1,640 to 1,968 feet, (3) Third plateau,
2,625 to 2,953 feet (4) Haute-Jura.
(c) Alps: (1) North, (2) South.
id) Central Plateau: (1) North, (2) South,
(e) Pyrenees: (1) East, (2) Central, (3) West.

30 FOREST REGIONS AND IMPORTANT SPECIES

Plains. — From the foregoing it is seen that the plains forests may be
divided into three general zones: (1) Parisienne; (2) Gironde; (3)
Provengale.

Parisienne Zone. — The Parisienne Zone includes more than half of
France, and the forest wealth is composed of broadleaf trees except where
conifers have been artificially introduced. Hornbeam is a characteristic
species, sessile oak and pedunculate oak the most numerous. Beech
abounds but it is not necessarily typical of the region because it extends
into the mountain zones. The Federal administration has introduced
such species as ash, maple, and elm to a considerable extent. Less
valuable species typical of this zone are the willows, limes, and poplars.
The annual rainfall averages 27.5 inches, most of it occurring in the sum-
mer. Droughts are rare and on the whole the chmate may be termed
exceedingly favorable for tree growth. It is partly for this reason that
natural regeneration of such species as oak is comparatively simple in
France while almost unattainable in many parts of Germany. The pre-
vaihng wind is west. The best high forests in France that produce ex-
ceedingly valuable oak logs are found in this zone. There are, of course,
coppice and coppice-under-standards.

This general region can be subdivided into three parts: (1) West,
wliich includes such forests as Fontainebleau, d'Orleans, and Montargis.
This hmited area is bounded by the valleys of the Perche and Bretagne.
The chmate is exceedingly mild and humid. (2) Center, including the
Sologne, where a moist silicious soil has been partly deforested. This
includes the Champagne region where the tree growth is quite ordinary.
(3) East, which includes the Argonne, the Langres Plateau, the Plains of
Lorraine, Franche-Comte, and Bourgogne. Here 25 per cent of the area
is forested and most of it is in coppice-under-standards, although con-
versions are the order of the day where soil will permit.

Gironde Zone. — The second important zone — the Gironde — fol-
lows the ocean from Bayonne to the Loire, and includes two subdivisions :
(1) the oaks of the Adour, and (2) the maritime pine of the Landes-
Gascoyne. The important species are maritime pine, occidental oak,
and pyrean oak. The sessile oak is almost entirely lacking, and the holm
oak is found chiefly on limestone soils. The maritime pine, which now
reproduces naturally but originally was estabhshed by artificial means
(see pp. 182), is the species of the Landes-Gascoyne. It grows on pure
sand and has increased the value of land worthless for agriculture many
thousands per cent.

Provencale Zone. — The third important zone — Provengale — is dry
and hot and borders the Mediterranean between Nice and Port Vendres.
The region is indented by the Maritime Alps and the Pyrenees at each
extremity and extends up the Rhone as far as Valence. The important

JURA ZONE 31

species are the holm oak, white oak, aleppo pine. On the sihcious soils of
the Maures and the Esterel maritime pine and cork oak form the predomi-
nant stand with a thick undergrowth of heather. In this region trees
rarely attain large size, but yield good fuel charcoal and tanbark. The
secondary revenue from truffles is in places as much as $38.60 per acre.
The prevalent northeast wind, known as the "mistral," is a source of
danger during the fire season. This is especially significant since in this
region there is much less rain than in the Parisienne.

Mountains. — The mountains are divided into five main zones: (1)
Vosges, (2) Jura, (3) Alps, (4) Central Plateau, (5) Pyrenees.

Vosges Zone. — The Vosges begins at 1,150 feet elevation. It is rich in
forests; fir, beech, and spruce are the dominant species at certain points;
oak and hornbeam disappear completely toward the summits. The spruce
continues with the fir to the highest altitudes. Much Scotch pine has
been artificially introduced. The zone extends to a maximum altitude
of 4,590 feet, but the average hmit of tree growth is at 4,100 feet. Be-
tween the maximum and minimum altitudes five types of stands have
been distinguished: (1) the Lorraine plain; here coppices of hornbeam,
oak, and poor quahty birch have led to an increase in the per cent of beech
in order to improve the soil. Where, however, the conditions are ex-
ceedingly bad, Scotch pine is being introduced. (2) Basses- Vosges ; here
silver fir is the typical species. (3) Hautes- Vosges ; on account of the
granitic formation it is well watered, but the forest area is much cut up
by farms and grazing lands. Here are found a number of protection
forests. Two less important subdivisions are: (4) where on the south
slope toward the Franche-Comte plains the schists give place to syenites
and porphyries and the fir is replaced by the oak. There was formerly a
good deal of coppice alternating with field crops in this region and there
is still much simple coppice grown for bark production. The fifth (5)
(la Vosge), also relatively unimportant, is apparently an island of varie-
gated sandstone where high forests of oak and beech predominate on
the fine-grained sand.

Jura Zone. — Exceedingly rich mountain forests are found in the
Jura. They are less extensive than in the Vosges but much richer. In
the Vosges the soil is silicious, while in the Jura it is calcareous. The im-
portant commercial Jura species are silver fir and Norway spruce. In
this region there are four subdivisions, based on altitude: (1) The first
plateau really belongs more to the plain than to the mountain region, but
fir has been introduced. (2) In the second region, with an altitude of
1,640 to 1,970 feet, the fir is mixed with spruce. The best fir forests of
France are found on the rich soil above this first escarpment on Jurassic
formation. The forests of Levier and La Joux (Fig. 2) are world famous.

32

FOREST REGIONS AND IMPORTANT SPECIES

(3) In the third division ^ the average elevation is 2,620 to 2,950 feet but
extends to 3,940 feet. The chmate is severe and the production less than
in the lower zone. After windfall, provided insects can be kept out, the
soil usually seeds naturally to a good stand. With fir, spruce, and beech
there is some sycamore. The rainfall averages more than 39 inches
a year. The forest of Risoux is typical. (4) The Haute- Jura, like the
Haute- Vosges, is chiefly valuable for grazing, such as is found in the forest
of La Dole.

Fig. 2. — The richest silver fir (with spruce) stands in France are found in the
State forest of La Joux (Jura). Note the clear boled stand from natural regeneration.
During the war the Canadians cut heavily in this superb forest.

Alps Zone. — The third great mountain subdivision, the Alps, ex-
tends from the Lake of Geneva to the Mediterranean — from the limit of
tree growth to the sea level. In the lower mountains, up to 1,970 to 2,130
feet, one finds such typical plains species as the white oak, holm oak,

3 Jolyet claims the third Jura plateau is a myth and prefers the term "Hautes chaines
du Jura" to "Haute-Jura" for the fourth subdivision.

CENTRAL PLATEAU ZONE

33

chestnut, and Scotch pine. At higher elevations there is mountain pine,
larch, and cembric pine. (See Fig. 3.) This latter species extends to the
limit of tree growth, although larch is considered the most valuable of the
Alpine species. The most notable stands are the beech of Vercors, the
spruce of Tarentaise, the mountain pine of Embrunais, the fir of such rich
valleys as the Var, and the larch of Briangonnais, of Queyras, and of
Comte de Nice. French foresters divide the Alps into two regions: (1)
North Alps, which extends as far as Pelvoux. The valleys face the

Fig. 3. — Larch and oembrio pine at an altitude of 7,050 feet (north exposure)
in the Canton of Melezet, communal forest of Villarodin-Bourget. The soil must be
worked to facilitate regeneration.

north and the stand is fairly intact. The chief species are beech, fir,
spruce, while larch is rare. (2) In the South Alps, from Pelvoux to the
Mediterranean, there are southerly exposures and a variable and severe
climate. Here is found the greatest damage from torrents. There are,
however, good stands of fir and spruce, while the larch is exceedingly im-
portant. There are also aspen, Scotch pine, and chestnut. Consider-
able damage from grazing is experienced.

Central Plateau Zone. — The Central Plateau includes the mountains
of Morvan, where beech is the important species, and the Cevennes, with
its .stands of Austrian pine.

34 FOREST REGIONS AND IMPORTANT SPECIES

Pyrenees Zone. — The fifth and last mountain zone, to my mind per-
haps the most attractive for the traveler, has been divided into two
divisions: (1) The Eastern Pyrenees and (2) the Central and Western
Pyrenees which is influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. The dividing fine
between this zone and the eastern zone is the basin of the Aude and the
Ariege. In the eastern zone the climate is more hke the Maritime Alps
but moister, the rains being less torrential, however, and consequently
the floods are not so dangerous. The cliief species are fir, beech, and
mountain pine. In the Department of the Aude the fir is almost as good
as in the Vosges and Jura. Here the mountain pine does not form pure
dense stands but is found in mixture with spruce and larch. There has
been considerable overgrazing. A typical forest area is the Montague
Noire. In the second division (central and western) there are irregular
west winds, and there is more rain and better forage. The same species
are grown as in the eastern division but the stands are denser, with a
larger percentage of beech mixed with the conifers. Scotch pine largely
replaces the mountain pine. Typical forests are Luchon, Bareges, and
Cauterets.

Some Mountain Forests in Detail. — Of all the forest zones or regions
of France, those of the four great mountain areas — Vosges, Jura, Alps,
and Pyrenees — are most interesting to the American forester. For a
more intimate view of local conditions in the Jura reference is made to the
Appendix where the essentials of a working plan for the forest of Grande
Cote is reproduced. Let us consider in greater detail some of these
mountain regions.

Vosges. — Before the Vosges ^ were acquired by the State they be-
longed to the Due de Lorraine, to lesser nobles, and to various abbeys.
Since they were largely maintained for fuel and for shooting it is not sur-
prising that a great deal of forested area still remains — 37 per cent of the
total land acreage being now in forest. A total of 520,041 acres of forest

is divided as follows:

Acres

State 139,522

Communal 291,563

Private 88,956

Total 520,041

Considering the region as a whole, and separating the area of plains
forests from the Vosges forests proper, the species, in order of importance,
are: Beech, 60 per cent; oak, 30 per cent; miscellaneous species, 10 per
cent. Of the strictly mountain area the species on the Vosges sandstone
in order of importance are: Fir, 75 per cent; beech and miscellaneous

^ Sommaire sur les Forets domaniales du Departement des Vosges. Mongenot.

VOSGES 35

species, 18 per cent; Scotch pine, 6 per cent; spruce, 1 per cent; on the
mountain granite formation fir comprises 51 per cent; spruce, 18 per cent;
pine, 1 per cent; and beech, 30 per cent. It is clear then that in the
mountains fir is the important species, and mature, fully stocked stands
yield from 350 to as high as 1,000 cubic meters (12,360 to 35,314 cubic
feet) per hectare; about 26,000 to 74,000 feet board measure per acre.
In the so-called plains forests of the Vosges the product in logs is only 30
per cent, due to the larger proportion of broadleaf trees, while in the
mountains sawlogs ("work wood") reach 55 per cent of the total pro-
duction. On 20,000 hectares (49,420 acres) of coniferous forests the
average volume from forested hectares was 317 cubic meters (11,194.5
cubic feet), about 23,000 feet board measure to the acre, and on the vari-
ous forests included in this average, the average by forests varied from
196 to 390 cubic meters (6,921.5 to 13,772.5 cubic feet per hectare), or
about 14,000 to 30,000 feet board measure to the acre. The total average
yield in cubic meters for the entire Vosges was 245,574 (8,672,200.2 cubic
feet) in 1870-79; 231,835 (8,187,021.2 cubic feet) for 1880-89; and 314,046
(11,090,220.4 cubic feet) for 1890-99, these latter yield figures being con-
siderably above normal owing to increased windfall and the consequently
forced cut. The price per cubic meter (35.3 cubic feet) since 1877 has
been 1 to 3 francs (19 to 58 cents) higher in the mountains than in the
Vosges plains, due in part to the larger proportion of logs and to the de-
creasing demand for hardwood fuel. The average price per cubic meter
(35.3 cubic feet) taken to the nearest franc for the whole region was 8
francs ($1.54) in 1871, 16 ($3.09) in 1876, 15 ($2.89) in 1879, 8 ($1.54) in
1887, 13 ($2.51) in 1898; in 1914 the price had risen to 20 francs ($3.86)
and in 1918 to 55 francs ($10.61). In the mountain region it is of interest
that the price for logs on the Vosges sandstone brought 1 to 6 francs
(19 cents to $1.16) more than for the same class of material on the granite
formation; it is safe to draw the conclusion that, during 1890-99, the
price was at least on an average of 5 francs (96 cents) more. The table
which follows shows the money yield per forested hectare (2.5 acres) in
even francs (and in dollars per acre) by 10-year periods from 1870 to 1900,
separately for the mountains and plains forests and averaged for the
whole region. The figures in parentheses are dollars per acre:

1870

Mountains 55(.$4.24)

Plains 30($2.32)

Average 45($3.47) 50($3.85) 55(14.24) 85($6.55)

The decreasing net values for the plains forests and the increasing
values of the mountain forests is due to the decreasing price of fuel and

1880

1890

1900

55 ($4.24)

65(15.02)

100($7.72)

35(12.70)

30($2.32)

45($3.47)

36 FOREST REGIONS AXD HIPORTAXT SPECIES

the increase in the price of sawlogs. This increase and decrease is tj^pical
of almost all portions of Europe since the introduction of coal and the
scarcity of logs of large dimensions. Naturally it should influence the
silvicultural poUcy pursued. It means that high forest systems should
replace coppice and coppice-under-standards whenever local conditions
permit. The conversion is not always simple from the economic stand-
point on account of the demand of the communes for a steady revenue.
Conversions mean increasing the gromng stock, an economy which com-
munes cannot always afford, because of their local needs for wood and
because of the money returns from auctions of timber which make taxa-
tion that much less.

Alps. — According to Huffel ^ the Alps comprise 19,305 square miles,
one-fifth of which is forested; of this forest area nearly two-thirds is in
private hands and one-tliird communal — the remainder State forests, not
including areas under reforestation. The forests tributarj^ to Xice have
typified systematic grazing devastation. The basin of the Durance is the
most devastated because drought has accentuated the evils of overgrazing
and overcutting, and the torrential rains have completed the damage.
The Department of the Basses-Alpes is only 18 per cent adiuilly forested
(26.3 per cent classed as "forest") and on an average produces but one-
half a cubic meter (17.6 cubic feet) per hectare (2.5 acres) per year for the
area under "forest"; four-fifths of this production is firewood, equal to
about one-tenth cord per acre per year. It is only fair to say that most
of this area belongs to the communes, the State owning only a few refores-
tation areas. The basin of the Drome and the basin of the Isere and
Haute-Savoie have favorable chmates and soil. The area is in the transi-
tion zone between the South (dry) Alps and the North (wet) Alps. Of
217,448 acres of communal forest, half the area is in high forest, a quarter
in coppice, and the rest blank. During the period 1877 to 1886 it pro-
duced only 1.9 cubic meters (67.1 cubic feet) per hectare per year, or a
revenue of 33 francs ($6.37), w^hile the coppice production was 1 cubic
meter (35.3 cubic feet) or a revenue of 1.27 francs ($0,245), since the fire-
wood brought but httle return — a combined yield of about three-fifths
of a cord per acre per year. From the reforested areas of this region the
revenue is as yet nothing. Of the two important Federal forests near
Gap the forest of Durbon jdelds 1 cubic meter (35.3 cubic feet) or 10
francs ($1.93) per hectare per year, (77 cents per acre), and the forest of
Boscodon 2.5 cubic meters (88.3 cubic feet) or 30 francs ($5.79) per year
($2.32 per acre). The larch forests of the Alps, Embrunais, and Brian-
gonnais are considered the most interesting. The forest of jNIont-
Gene^Te at the source of the Durance, at an altitude of 6,235 to 8,200 feet,
comprises 2,281 acres of which 1,359 acres are forested. It is a high
5 Economie Forestiere, Vol. HI, pp. 391-397.

ALPS 37

forest with a 150-year rotation and includes cembric pine, Scotch pine,
and larch. In the communal forest of Puy-Saint-Pierre, below Briangon,
the larch is managed on a 200-year rotation. In the aggregate the larch
forests of France comprise about 121,000 acres and are treated as regular
high forests, except when maintained purely for protection purposes,
when light selection cuttings are made.

In the Haute-Dauphine there are several Federal forests in good con-
dition. The best known is the Grande Chartreuse, north of Grenoble.
Of the total of 16,061 acres 13,343 acres are productive. Before the
aboHshment of the monastery 368 acres were reserved simply as a scenic
forest. Since the separation of the church from the State this has been
added to the productive area and is now being conservatively lumbered.
The rotation is 162 to 225 years. For the period 1865 to 1905 the aver-
age production for the whole area of this forest was 1.8 cubic meters (53.6
cubic feet) per hectare (2.5 acres) per year, or 2.2 cubic meters (77.7 cubic
feet) for the productive areas (120 board feet). The gross revenue for the
whole forest during this same period was 17 francs ($3.28) per hectare per
year, or a net of 10.3 francs ($1.99) for the productive area, 20.5 francs
($3.96) and 12.4 francs ($2.39), equal to $1.58 gross and 96 cents net per
acre per year.

The Savoie comprises some 56,833 acres of forests; here the climate is
considered favorable and it is the best wooded part of the French Alps.
Six-tenths of the forest area is communal and the State owns but 1,483
acres — the forest of Belle Vaux above Thonon where the spruce pre-
dominates. A typical communal forest of this region is that of Vailly
opposite Lausanne on the Lake of Geneva. At an average altitude of
3,600 feet spruce is 50 per cent of the stand, beech 29, and fir 21. The
average revenue, 1886-1902, was 7.17 francs ($1.38) per hectare per year,
or but 55 cents per acre.

It is significant that the proportion between fuel and logs is as 211 is to
110, where, as the working-plans officer says, the proportion ought to be
as 60 is to 100.

Another interesting forest in Savoie is in the valley of Fier,^ near the
little village of Thones, comprising 321 acres. It shows what recovery
can be made when a forest is properly managed. The growing stock in-
creased from 54,000 cubic meters (1,906,956 cubic feet) in 1895 to 60,000
cubic meters (2,118,840 cubic feet) in 1900, notwithstanding the regular
annual cut. Wliile this forest is considered almost normal to-day, in
1840 the growing stock had been so reduced that the commune proposed
to open it to goat grazing, something that is rarely done except in the case
of brush land. The recovery which this region has made under French
forest management is a lasting tribute to the foresters of the Repubhc.
^ Une Jolie Foret. A. Schseffer, pp. 1-4.

38 FOREST REGIONS AND IMPORTANT SPECIES

This region was only ceded by Italy in 1860, and prior to that date the
forests had been overcut and damaged, the prices were low, and there was
a large amount of overmature diseased timber. A. Schaeffer, for many
years chief of working plans, with headquarters at Grenoble, has studied
the rotation, cutting period, stand per hectare, increment, and financial
yield before and after past working plan revisions, and has proved that
the conservative management introduced by the French is successful.
These forests, classed according to yield production, may be grouped in
fom' classes:

1. Those forests with a yield of over 6 cubic meters (211.9 cubic feet)
per hectare (2.5 acres) per year. These are found on the sandstones,
schists, warm calcareous soils, and alluvial soils near the lakes of Geneva,
Annecy, and Bourget. Such jdelds are almost comparable with the
famous Jura and Vosges.

2. The second- and third-class forests are yields between 4 and 6
meters (141.3 and 211.9 cubic feet) and between 3, 4, and 2 meters (141.3
and 70.6 cubic feet) respectively. Here, either the soil or the climatic
conditions are naturally poor producers. Sometimes this intermediate
yield is due to the mediocre combination of both climate and soil.

4. The fourth class of forests is where the production is less than 2
cubic meters (70.6 cubic feet) per hectare (2.5 acres) per year. These are
located in the high valleys or rocky slopes where the climate is severe or
relatively dry. (See Fig. 4, a and 6.)

Pyrenees. — The forests of the Pyrenees may be differentiated in two
ways, by geographical location or by zones of altitude. The geographical
differentiation has already been described. On account of their impor-
tance and interest to the American forester, it is well worth while to add
the altitude zones in order to make the regional distribution complete.

In the first altitude zone, above 3,280 feet, fir and beech are found pure
and in mixture. Fir predominates in the central and beech in the eastern
and western Pyrenees. Mountain pine and Scotch pine predominate
near Mont-Louis. The limit of tree growth is 7,530 feet for mountain
pine, 6,890 feet for fir, 6,230 feet for beech; usually typical grazing forests
begin at an altitude of from 5,580 to 5,740 feet; sessile oak reaches 5,085
feet in the eastern and pedunculate oak 4,593 feet in the western Pyrenees.

The second zone, 1,640 to 3,280 feet, has beech as the chief species with
fir and oak as secondary.

In the third zone, 1,640 to 560 feet, there is oak with beech and chestnut,
sessile oak in the eastern and pedunculate in the western and central
Pyrenees.

The fourth zone, below 660 feet, has the same species as the third zone
with the addition of holm oak and maritime pine.

PYREENEES

39

•2 I '^^SS

(N

flT3 ^ O OJ QJ

."S b '-I "^

:?s all's

: a; o =« i^-*^

40

FOREST REGIONS AND IMPORTANT SPECIES

IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES

Acreage and Distribution. — The figures that follow show the propor-
tionate area stocked with each of the principal species in France in the
forests under State supervision. These statistics are based on Huffel's
figures of 1904, corrected proportionately to conform to the official statis-
tics on total forest area pubhshed in 1912 by the Service des Eaux et
Forets.

According to these figures, broadleaf trees occupy 77 per cent of the
area as against 23 per cent for the conifers. There are no accurate figures
for private forests, nor for communal and institutional forests not under
State supervision, but Huffel estimates that for all of France the timber
oaks occupy 35 per cent of the ground, the holm oak 4 per cent, misceha-
neous broadleaf trees 41 per cent, and the conifers about 20 per cent.
Table 2 follows:

TABLE 2. — AREA OCCUPIED BY BROADLEAVES AND CONIFERS

Species

Acres,
productive forest

Per cent of total area,
productive forest

Oak

1,796.000

1,194,000

717,000

264,000

1,053,000

5,024,000

455,000
430,000
262,000
178,000
116,000
30,000
54,000

1,525,000

27.5

Beech

18.2

TTfirnbipmn ....

11.0

TTnlm nnk . . .

4.0

Miscellaneous broadleaves

16.0

Fir

76.7
7.1

6.5

4.0

Spruce

2.7

Larch

1.8

Aleppo pine

0.4

Miscellaneous

0.8

23.3

Grand total

6,549,000

100.00

As the foregoing table indicates, the occurrence of the various species
depends chiefly on climatic conditions and the oak is unquestionably by
far the most important and typical timber species. The timber oaks not
only occupy 27.5 per cent of the total productive forest area under work-
ing plans but are also encouraged in regeneration in their fight against
other species, and in many State forests the oak is grown to unprofital^ly
long rotations in order to supply industry with the class of wood which it
requires. Two important species are the sessile and pedunculate oak;
they occur in mixture and separately. Oak is found all over France ex-

ACREAGE AND DISTRIBUTION 41

cept in the higher mountains and in the regions bordering the Mediterra-
nean and the Atlantic Ocean. The essential silvicultural characteristic
of each of these species is given on pp. 387.

Beech is the second important species and occupies 18.2 per cent of the
productive forest area. It is found everywhere except in the highest
mountains, on the Mediterranean, and plains of the southern Atlantic
coast line, including the Gironde, Landes, and Dordogne. The distribu-
tion of beech is shown in Fig. 5,

The hornbeam, although it occupies 11 per cent of the productive area,
is not an important timber species notwithstanding its wide distribution.
It does not grow to large size and its chief function is to supply fuel and
to maintain soil conditions. The distribution of hornbeam is shown in
Fig. 5.

The holm oak is confined chiefly to the regions not occupied by the
timber oaks, by beech, and by hornbeam. It is often found in mixture
with cork oak (whose distribution is given in Fig. 5) and with aleppo
pine.

Silver fir occupies 7.1 per cent of the productive forest area and is
especially adapted to the climate prevailing in northern, eastern, and
central France, and is a typical species of the Vosges, Jura, Alps, and
Pyi-enees. It reaches its optimum development in the Jura.

Notwithstanding that Scotch pine occupies 6.5 per cent of the produc-
tive forest area, it does not grow naturally in level country, but only in
the mountains of the Vosges, Central Plateau, Alps, and Pyrenees; it has
not grown naturally in the Jura, since in that department it cannot main-
tain its struggle for existence on limestone soil. But because of its use
for forestation it is found in every department in France except ten; it
forms at least one-tenth the stand of technically administered forests in
twenty-six departments.

The maritime. pine commercially is one of the most important timber
species of France, but is limited to a comparatively small region, as shown
by Fig. 5.

Norway spruce is found only in the higher mountain regions of the
Jura, Vosges, and Alps, and does not grow naturally in the Pyrenees.
Outside of these mountain regions it is unimportant, since the mild
climatic conditions of the plains do not favor its growth.

The larch also is confined even more markedly to the higher mountain
regions. Its natural habitat is the Alps.

These five broadleaved species and six conifers are the important trees
of France. How they are distributed in the different forest regions has
already been explained. To give a more intimate view of French silvi-
culture, the writer has included monographs on these principal species.
The data are not original; much are freely translated from authoritative

FOREST REGIONS AND IMPORTANT SPECIES

E — Maritime pine (Pin maritime) F — Aleppo pine {Pin d'alep)

Fig. 5 (after Jolyet). — Distribution of six important forest trees in France.
Key: Dominant, ■■; subordinate, ^Mi rare, li^u^^l ; very rare or lack-

ing, L

USE OF EXOTICS 43

sources, but it was considered very essential to present the data so as to
give, as nearly as possible, the French viewpoint on the silvics of each
important species. In order not to encumber the text these data on
species are given in the Appendix.

Exotics. — Jolyet, on the authority of Belgian and French authors,
cites the following exotics as of possible value in France:

Red oak (Quercus rubra L.), rapid growth; hardy.

June oak {Quercus pedunculata, var. tardissima Simonkai), hardy.

White ash (Fraxinus americana L.), hardy; rapid growth.

"Parrotia" (Parrotia persica C. A. Meyer), much hke beech but can develop on dry,
shallow, limestone soils; Carpinetum zone.

Common walnut (JugJans regia L.), cabinet wood; Carpinetum zone.

Black walnut (Juglans nigra L.), cabinet wood; Carpinetum zone.

Butternut; White walnut {Juglans cinerea L.), cabinet wood; a hardier tree: Carpine-
tum zone.

Shellbark hickory {Hicoria ovata (Mill.) Britton), cabinet wood; Carpinetum zone.

Mocker nut hickory {Hickoria alba (L.) Britton), cabinet wood; Carpinetum zone.

Yellow birch (Betula lutea Michxf.), cabinet wood.

Black cherry {Primus serotina Ehrh.), cabinet wood; Carpinetum zone.

Aspen {Populus Iremuloides Michaux), furnishes soft wood; hardy.

Yellow linden {Tilia rubra var. euchlora C. Koch), furnishes soft wood; hardy; from
Crimea.

Manchurian hnden {Tilia mandschurica Ruprecht and Maximovicz), furnishes soft
wood; hardy.

Honoki; Japanese magnoha {Magnolia hypoleuca Siebold and Zuccarini), furnishes
soft wood; rapid growth.

Yellow poplar {Liriodendron tulipifera L.), furnishes soft wood; Carpinetum zone.

Locust {Robinia pseudacacia L.), a durable hard wood; hardy.

Tree of heaven; Allan thus {Ailantus glandulosa Desf ontaines) , rapid growth and
hardy; near ocean in Laurentum zone, and in Castanetum zone.

Chinese "cedar"; Cedrela {Cedrela sinensis A. Jussieu), quality of ash but hardier;
near ocean in Laurentum zone, and in Castanetum zone.

Keaki {Zelkova acuminata Planchon), wood like elm; requires fresh soil; Carpinetum
zone.

Douglas fir {Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Poit) Britton), rapid growth; hardy.

White fir {Abies concolor (Gord) Parry), rapid growth; hardy.

Oriental spruce {Picea orientalis Carr.), drought enduring; comes from Asia Minor
between Trebizond and Erzerum.

Lodgepole pine {Pinus coniorta Loudon), hardy for "Karst" soils.

White pine {Pinus strobus L.), rapid grower; hardy; hable to borers and parasites,

Norway pine; Red pine {Pinus resinosa Alton), rapid grower; hardy; free from insect
danger.

Use of Exotics. — Certain conclusions can be reached regarding the
introduction of exotic species:

(1) Exotic species are almost always uncertain, even after they have
reached the saphng or pole age. Local species should be favored.

(2) If exotics are used they should never be employed on a large scale

44 FOREST REGIONS AND IMPORTANT SPECIES

until they have been thoroughly tested over a rotation under similar
conditions.

(3) When employed there must be a definite justification for not using
local trees —

(a) QuaHty of wood (not contained in local species) required by na-
tional wood industries.

(b) Rapid growth or hardiness under adverse soil or chmatic conditions.
France is poor in tree species (see p. 40) and particularly needs cabinet

woods and woods easy to work, like yellow poplar. She requires trees
hardy on unfavorable sites, but nevertheless, because of the high cost of
foreign tree seeds the use of exotics, even though of proven worth, is
rarely practicable. There are, of course, exceptions to tliis fundamental
rule — notably Scotch pine, whose range has been increased largely by
artificial means. Too often the forester may be tempted to use an exotic
which has been grown successfully in botanical gardens. This is poor
practice and should not be followed. Beware of exotics, because they
rarely succeed and are subject to insect and fungous damage!

CHAPTER IV
FOREST STATISTICAL DATA

Private Forest Owners (p. 45). Ownership, System of Cutting, and Production,
Forest Areas and Per Cent of Species by Departments, Analysis of General Statistics,
Management Statistics, Costs of Administration, Statistics of Fir Stands in the Jura,
Statistics for Levier.

Private Forest Owners. — About one-tenth the French forest area
belongs to the State, two-tenths to communes and pubHc institutions,
and seven-tenths to private owners. There is an incredible number of
small owners, a fact never before noted by Enghsh or American writers.
In 1912 there were 1,538,526 private forest owners^ (excluding the com-
munes, which are really groups of small joint owners). There were fully
1,446,200 owners with less than 25 acres, only 82,285 owners with forests
of 25 to 1,253 acres, and but 742 owners of forests over 1,235 acres. Take
any department at random: In the Puy-de-D6me 101,510 acres out of
the total area are in the hands of 32,684 owners, each owning less than 25
acres, and there are only 628 owners who possess more than 25 acres each.
Even in the Seine-et-Marne, just west of Paris, there are 50,787 acres in
the hands of 31,085 owners. Out of ten departments, taken at random,
there were 97,710 owners with less than 25 acres of forest each, their
average holdings being 3.2 acres. This is of the utmost importance; it is
the key to the stability of France. In other countries the forests are
usually in the hands of large owners; in the Republic of France the forest
land, as well as the agricultural land, is divided among the people. There
are few large estates remaining. Out of all the private forests in France
there are only seventy-nine over 2,500 acres; in twenty-one departments
there are none of this size. In the United States there are millions of
farmers owning small woodlots, but according to the Society of American
Foresters :

"A few men have secured vast amounts of private timber and timberlands. Already
1,802 owners control more than 79,000,000 acres of the forest lands of the United States.
In Florida 182 holders own more than 9,000,000 acres. In Michigan over 5,000,000
acres are held by 32 owners. In Louisiana 27 holders own more than 6,000,000 acres.
In the Pacific Northwest three owners have more than 9,000,000 acres. And these are but
typical instances."

1 The figures of the total number of owners, given in the official French Forest Atlas
of 1912, do not check with the owners under the various size classes. This discrepancy
cannot be explained but does not affect the conclusions.

45

4:6

FOREST STATISTICAL DATA

From a national and political standpoint France is unquestionably the
gainer by having her forests in small holdings. From the standpoint of
forest management and the treatment of individual stands small owner-
ship necessarily implies that each owner will cut spasmodically to satisfy
his needs in the village or farm. The large owner, on the contrary, upon
competent technical advice, manages his forest as a permanent business
and adheres fairly well to a sustained annual yield and to regulated fell-
ings. Other things being equal, having forests in small holdings benefits a
nation hut deteriorates the stand.

Ownership, System of Cutting, and Production. — The summaries
that follow (taken from the official statistics of 1912) have been some-
what modified by the cutting and destruction made necessary by a great
war. But fundamentally the statistics will probably remain correct as
regards forest area because of the stringent laws against deforestation.
For the next hundred years the wood production will probably be at least
10 per cent less than during the past century. This means that in the
next decade the production will be, say, 20 per cent less, while during the
period 2010 to 2019 the loss may be only 1 per cent. In other words, the
recovery will be gradual and progressive if a proper forest policy is fol-
lowed. Detailed statistics (p. 50) show that 18.7 per cent of the total
area of France is in forests. A summary of forest ownership, system of
management, and annual production follows:

TABLE 3.

SUMMARY OF FOREST OWNERSHIP, SYSTEMS OF MAN-
AGEMENT, AND ANNUAL PRODUCTION

Total
area,
acres

Unpro-
ductive,
acres

Coppice,
acres

Coppice-
under-
stand-
ards,
acres

Under
conver-
sion,
acres

High

forest,
acres

Annual production "

Ownership

1,000
board feet

Cords

State

2,963,861

4,815,148
15,988,857

662,590

366,226

188,632
610,901

81,357

64,109

645,992
4,856,214

202,627

792,539

2,471,332
5,856,947

43,735

241,186

33,008
106,314

3,590

1,529,825

1,476,186
4,558,481

3,311,836

288,745

355,061
1,205,555

68,292

496,664

Communes and pub-
lic institutions

Private

Communes and pub-
lic institutions

943,422
3,157,516

66,719

Totals

24,430,456

1,247,116

5,768,942

9,134,553

384,098

10,876,328

1,917,756

4,664,379

"A factor of 3.5 cubic meters of logs to 1,000 board feet and 3.6 steres of fuel to
one cord was used to obtain the column "Annual production." Because of deple-
tion during the war these statistics are probably 10 to 20 per cent too high.

Table 4 which follows shows the average annual per hectare production
in cubic meters by departments.

These data are classed especially for Federal, communal, and institu-

OWNERSHIP, ETC.

47

TABLE 4. — AVERAGE ANNUAL PER HECTARE PRODUCTION IN CUBIC
METERS BY DEPARTMENTS

Department

Ain

Aisne

Allier

Alpes (Basses)

Alpes (Hautes)

Alpes-Maritimes

Ardeche

Ardennes

Ariege

Aube

Aude

Aveyron

Belfort (Territoire de) .

Bouches-du-Rhone

Calvados

Cantal

Charente

Charente Inferieure. . . .

Cher

Correze

Corse

Coted'Or

C6tes-du-Nord

Creuse

Dordogne

Doubs

Drdme

Eure

Eure-et-Loir

Finistere

Card

Garonne (Haute)

Gers

Gironde

Herault

Ule-et-Vilaine

Indre

Indre-et-Loir

Isere

Jura

Landes

Loir-et-Cher

Loire

Loire (Haute)

Loire-Inferieure

Loiret

Lot

Lot-et-Garonne

Lozere

Maine-et-Loire

Manche

Under technical management

Logs Fuel

4.0
2 1
LO

0.2
0.2
0.3
0.9
0.3
0.7
LI

L4
2.0
0.4
0.3
0.9
LO
0.2
0.6

0.4

6.8
0.3
1.4
1.1
1.3

0.3
1.6'

1.4
0.5
0.8
1.3
2.1
1.6
1.2

0.25

1.1

0.3

1.8
0.08

1.2

2.7
1.4

o;r

0'55

2.6

0.8

2.5

0.7

0.8

3.4
1.0
2.1
1.6
1.5
2.0
0.4
2.7

3^3'

1.2'
0.3
2.8
1.9
1.4
0.2
0.9
3.4
0.2

1.9
2.0
2.2
0.2
3.2
0.6
2.0

0.25

1.2

2.5

1.5
6.32

Communal and
institution

Logs

1.3

1.6

0.6

0.05

0.26

0.4

0.1

0.4

1.2

0.6

0.2

0.1

0.4

0.2

0'6'
0.1
0.1
0.7

0^1
0.4

0'2'

L7
0.3
0.2
0.05

0.5
0.6
1.0

0^5'
0.3

0'8'
1.1
1.4
0.8
2.4
1.1

o^r

0^3
0.2

0'4

1.0

2.6

2.6

0.35

0.24

0.2

1.3

2.4

0.8

3.1

0.6

0.9

3.9

0.3

L2'
1.8
2.2
3 2
2.2
0.5
2.5

2'2'

2'7'
0.8
2.1
1.15

LO'
1.5
2.9
1.2
0.4
2.0
2.4

0'8'
2.6
1.0
2.0
0.8
0.4

4^1'

2^5'
0.5

2^5'

Logs Fuel

0.2

0,8

0.3

0.08

0.15

0.1

0.5

1.0

0.1

0.5

0.5

0.1

0.3

0.1
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.4
0.6
1.1
0.1
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.2
1.4

0'3
0.2
0.1
0.4
0.7
2.7
0.4
2.9
2.3
0.3
0.1
0.1
1.1
0.4
0.1
0.2

1.8

2.1

2.7

0.62

0.45

0.5

0.8

2.2

0,9

2,0

1.4

2.3
3.1
2.7
0.4
0.7
2.5
2.7
2.6
1.3
1.8
0.9
1.9
1.9
2.7
0.8
1.9
1.8
2.0
0.5
2.5
2.7
1,8
1,7
1,6
1,0
1,8
1,1
1,2
3,2
2,0

Logs Fuel

0,1
0,4
0,3
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.3
0,4

0^4

0^1

0,1

0,05

0,02

0,1

0^2'
0,6

0'4'
0,3
0,6
0,2

0^7'

0^1
0,1

0,2
1,3

o^r

0,5

0^2'
0,3
3,0
0,1
3.7
1.5

o'r

0.1
0.9
0.3

0^2'

PROPERTY UiSKAKi

n. C. State College

48 FOREST STATISTICAL DATA

TABLE A. — Continued

Under technical manangement

Private

Comn

Department

Federal

Communal and
institution

aunal

Logs

Fuel

Log.s

Fuel

Logs

Fuel

Logs

Fuel

Marne

Haute-Marne

Mayenne

Meurthe-et-Moselle

1.5
0.8
3.7
1.0
0.8
1.9
0.6
2.5
1.0
0.7
1.9
1.3
0.6
0.3
0.1
3.6
1.9
1.5
2.0

3.4
2.2
1.6
2.6
2.6
2.7
3.8
1.7
2.0
1.8
2.3
0.5
3.0
1.2
0.1
1.2
2.1
2.6
1.5
0.3
0.1
3.8
1.6
2.5
3.2
4.4
3.0
1.3
3.8
0.4
0.5
1.6
1.4
1.5
1.9
3.0

0.9
0.6

0'5'
0.5

0^6
2.3
0.3

0^6
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.3

o'g'

0.7
0.2
0.7
0.7
0.2
0.9
0.3
1.4

0'7'

o;4'

0.1

o.r

L4'
0.3

3.1
2.3

2.'7'
2.5

4^6'
2.2
2.0

2^2'
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.4

3^6
3.5
2.8
0.7
0.9
3.2
3.1
2.2
3.9
2.6
2.5
1.7
3.0
0.6
0.5

2^4'

2^0'

2.7

0.4
0.6
0.2
0.8
0.5
1.0
0.4
1.4
0.6
0.5
1.2
0.8
0.3
0.4
0.8
1.5
0.5
0.5
0.2
0.5
0.5

0^3'
0.2
0.5
0.1
0.9
0.2
0.1
0.3

0^2'
0.1
0.2
0.9
0.3

1.9
2.1
1.5
1.7
2.0
2.0
4.0
2.0
2.4
2.6
2.6
1.1
2.0
1.7
1.1
2.0
3.1
2.7
1.9
1.3
1.2
0.5
3.0
2.3
2.3
3.0
2.2
1.7
0.9
0.5
0.5
2.5
2.0
3.1
1.5
2.6

0.2
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.3
1.8

LO'
0.5

LO'
0.3
0,1
0.2
0.1

o^r

0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4

0^3
0.1
0.2
0.1

0.8

0:3'

0:3'
0.5
0.2

0.8
1.1
2.0
1.1

1.4

0.3

Nievre

Nord

Oise

5.0
1.5
2.1

Orne

2.2

Pas-de-Calais

Puy-du-D6me

Pyrenees (Basses)

Pyrenees (Haute)

2.4
0.3
1.5
0.6

Pyrenees-Orientales

Rhone

0.6
3.3

Saone (Haute)

2.2

2.1

Sarthe

Savoie

2.2
0.4

Savoie (Haute)

0.2
0.2
0.2
0.3
1.4
0.9
0.6
0.7
0.4
0.3
0.1
0.4
0.8
0.2
2.5
0.6

0.5

Seine

0.6

Seine-et-Marne

2.5

Seine-et-Oise ....

2.4

Seine-I nf er ie ure

1.7

Sevres (Deux)

3.6

2.6

Tarn

1.4

Var

0.4

0.1

Vendee

1.5

Vienne

3.5

Vosges

1.3

Yonne ....

2.1

tional forests which are under technical State management and for
private and communal forests which are ordinarily not under technical
supervision. The figures for each class of owner are divided into logs and
fuel, and represent, the number of cubic meters which the forests produce
per hectare and per year. In order to reduce these figures to American
units of measure (board feet and cords) the figures in the log column
should be divided by 3.5 and figures in the fuel column by 0.277, the
approximate answers being 1,000 board feet and cords. A study of these
figures shows clearly that the forests under technical management pro-
duce a much higher proportion of sawlogs to fuel than do the private or

FOREST AREAS 49

communal forests not under management; for example, take the depart-
ment of Ain: the Federal forests produce more than three times as much
saw timber as fuel, while the private forests produce nine times as much
fuel as saw timber,

A somewhat similar ratio holds for other departments.

Forest Areas and Per Cent of Species by Departments. — Table 5
which follows shows by departments: (a) per cent forested; (6) total forest
area, areas under technical management, and areas not under State work-
ing plans; (c) for the forests under technical management the per cent of
the important species given to the nearest tenth.

50

FOREST STATISTICAL DATA

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FOREST AREAS

51

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52

FOREST STATISTICAL DATA

A comparison of the ten most heavily forested departments with those
least timbered is given below:

TABLE 6. — MOST HEAVILY AND THE LEAST FORESTED DEPARTMENTS

Numerical

Most heavily forested

Least forested

order

Department

Per cent forested

Department

Per cent forested

2

Landes

Gironde

55.4
46.2
49.5
36.9
35.7
33.8
32.5
31.5
29.8
29.8

Manche

Seine

Vendee..

3.2

3 7

3

Var

Vosges

4 3

4

Finistere

Loire-Inferieure..
C6tes-du-Nord. . .
Pas-de-Calais ....
Mayenne

4 4

5

Ariege

4 5

6

Jura

4 7

7
8
9

Saone (Haute) ....
Marne (Haute) . . .
Cote d'Or

5.4
5.8
5.9

10

6.5

38.1

4.8

An analysis of the heavily forested departments discloses that two were
sand wastes (Hke parts of Minnesota and Michigan) but were reforested ;
five are mountainous, or very hilly; and two are hilly or too wet for agri-
culture. The least forested departments are largelj^ agricultural land or
moors. When it is considered that the final use of this land has been
evolved after centuries of settlement, the present-day use is significant,
and it is especially noteworthy that there is to-day much land growing
timber which is suitable for agriculture, yet the French Forest Code
recognizes that it is in the public interest to retain the land now under
forest for the production of timber, even ivhere it could grow agricultural
crops.

Analysis of General Statistics. — General. — The following facts are
shown by Tables 3 to 6: (o) Out of 24.5 million acres of forest land less
than one-third is under technical forest management. (6) Less than 5
per cent of the entire forest area is unproductive. A larger proportion of
State and communal forest land is unproductive because the State and
communes own most of the mountain slopes requiring conservative cut-
ting, and where considerable areas cannot support tree growth, (c) More
than two-thirds of the private forests are treated under coppice, or coppice-
under-standards; less than one-half of one per cent of this area is being
converted into high forest. Only two-fifths of French forests are under
high forest, (d) The total annual production of French forests is esti-
mated at 1,917,756,000 feet board measure and 4,664,379 cords of fuel.

State Forests. — According to the original statistics on State forests:

ANALYSIS OF GENERAL STATLSTICS 53

(a) There are no State forests in the departments of C6tes-du-Nord,
Dordogne, Lot, Lot-et-Garonne, Rhone, Vienne (Haute). (6) The six
departments with the most State forest area, in the order of importance,
are: Ariege, Alpes (Basses) Vosges, Cote d'Or, Loiret, Drome, (c) The
six heaviest producing (State forest) departments, in the order of their
importance, are: Vosges, Seine-Inferieure, Cote d'Or, Aisne,^ Jura,
Meurthe-et-Moselle.2 (d) The unproductive land in the State forests is
chiefly in the mountains, notably in the departments of Ariege, Alpes
(Hautes), Pyrenees-Orientales, Drome, Isere, Alpes (Basses).

Communal and Institution Forests. — • There are no communal and in-
stitution forests under State control in the following departments: (a)
Calvados, C6tes-du-Nord, Finistere, Indre-et-Loire (Inferieure), Lot,
Maine-et-Loire, Mayenne, Morbihan, Orne, Vendee. The largest areas
are in the (h) Vosges, Saone (Haute), Cote d'Or, Doubs, Meuse, Marne
(Haute), but as regards production (c) Saone (Haute) is first with Doubs,
Vosges, Jura, Meuse, Cote d'Or, in the order named, (d) The unproduc-
tive land is also in the mountains, notably in the following departments :
Alpes (Hautes), Var, Ardeche, Isere, Pyrenees-Orientales, Alpes (Basses).

Private Foi^ests. — The statistical data on private forests and on com-
munal and institution forests not under management is less trustworthy,
(a) .But it is certain that there is privately owned forest land in every de-
partment of France, with a minimum ownership of but 121 acres in the
Seine which includes Paris (this corresponds to the District of Columbia
in the United States). (&) The largest areas of privately owned forests
are in the Landes, Gironde, Dordogne, Var, Nievre, Marne. The Var
moimtain forests produce but httle saw timber though the acreage is
large, (c) The heaviest production of private forest land is found in the
Landes and Gironde, together 3,008,483 cubic meters (corresponding to
445,253,000 feet board measure and 340,963 cords of fuel), Nievre, Dor-
dogne, Marne, Cote d'Or, together 1,871,144 cubic meters (or about
88,928,000 feet board measure and 481,563 cords). Certain features of
production are illustrated by these figures and by the original statistics.
In the Landes the fuel produced was about one-third the volume of the
timber, while in the Gironde (also a maritime pine producing department)
the ratio of fuel to timber was as 8 is to 6. Moreover, in the Nievre,
Dordogne, Marne, and Cote d'Or, where private forests are largely cop-
pice and coppice-under-standards, the total timber production was but
one-fifth that of the Landes and Gironde, but the fuel produced exceeded
the latter two departments by more than 140,000 cords, (d) There is
less unproductive forest privately owned than pubhcly owned, although
the total area of private forest is about double that in the hands of the
State, communes, and institutions.

2 Heavily devastated by the war operations of the Germans and the French.

54

FOREST STATISTICAL DATA

Management Statistics. — Unquestionably the management of French
State forests is over-conservative. No systematic attempt has been
made to follow financial rotations. There have been excess growing
stocks,^ due in many cases to over-careful working plans that followed an
era of overcutting. In communal forests, managed by the State, this
excess is usually 25 per cent and often more. As contrasted with those
publicly managed, the forests in private hands are managed on shorter
rotations and far too great an acreage is in coppice, or coppice-under-
standards. As an illustration of this tendency to short rotations we
find eight-tenths of the private forests in coppice or coppice-under-
standards, no-tenths in conversion, and only two-tenths in high forest.
With State forests five-tenths in high forest, three-tenths in coppice
and coppice-under-standards, and two-tenths in conversion.

This variance in the length of rotations is further illustrated by the de-
tailed statistics for each department. Take some typical examples:

VOSGES (CONIFERS)

System of treatment

Coppice

Coppice-under-standards .

Conversions

High forest

Length of rotation in years

Under
State control

25-40
100-132
120-150

Private or uncon-
trolled communal

15-25 (few 35)

'"'80^100'(few'l20)""

Some are cut for paper
pulp at 30.

For the high forests under State control the prevalent rotation is 144
years, while notable State forests like Gerardmer, Ban d'fitival, la Bresse,
Cornimont, and Champ have 150-year rotations.

SAVOIE (HAUTE) (CONIFERS)

System of treatment

Coppice

Coppice-under-standards

Conversions

High forest

Length of rotation in years

Under
State control

144-180

Private or uncon-
trolled communal

6-10
10-25

30-100

3 For example, in the State forest of Berce (Sarthe) there are compartments with 700
to 800 cubic meters of oak to the hectare, worth 30,000 to 40,000 francs. In the forest of
Levier silver fir runs as high as 1,000 cubic meters per hectare, or 25,000 francs, on soil
worth 100 to 200 francs per hectare.

MANAGEMENT STATISTICS

55

The rotation of 180 years is chiefly for forests at high altitudes where
the growth of spruce or fir is slower. Chamonix is 200 years (see p. 252),
Samoens 162 to 180, and the forest of Houches 180 to 240. These are all
selection forests in a severe mountain climate.

SAVOIE (CONIFERS)

System of treatment

Coppice

Coppice-under-standards .

Conversions

High forest

Length of rotation in years

144-180

Private or uncon-
trolled communal

6-10
10-25

30-120

These long high forest rotations are for selection forests in the moun-
tains. A few run even higher, notably Pussy communal at 200, Tignes
communal 180 to 240, and Bramans 198 to 264. The State forest of Belle-
vaux is 144 years. These communal forests with long rotations were
formerly overcut and are now being improved and a suitable growing
stock accumulated.

VAR (MARITIME PINE, ALEPPO PINE, HOLM OAK, COMMON OAK)

Length of rotation in years

System of treatment

Under
State control

Private or uncon-
trolled communal

Coppice ...

18-25
25-30

10-18

High forest .

60-80

50-60 and less

PYRfiN^ES-ORIENTALES (MOUNTAIN PINE, HOLM OAK, BEECH, MISCELLANEOUS)

Length

of rotation in years

System of treatment

Under
State control

Private or uncon-
trolled communal

Coppice

18-26
32-40

15-20

High forest

150-180

Devastated

56

FOREST STATISTICAL DATA

The mountain pine in the regular State high forest of Barres is handled
on a 180 to 200 year rotation, and the fir and mountain pine in the com-
munal forest of Bolquere, 240 years.

ORNE (BROADLEAVES)

System of treatment

Coppice

Coppice-under-standards .

Conversions

High forest

Length of rotation in years

Under
State control

20-30
150-180
150-180

Private or uncon-
trolled communal

8-12

Short

The oak and beech in the State forest of Econnes is managed on a ro-
tation of 180 years; State forest of Bourse 180 years; State forest of Bel-
leme 200 years; State forest of Reno-Valdieu 180 years. The pine which
has been introduced in this region is not yet mature.

OISE (BROADLEAVES)

Length of rotation in years

System of treatment

Under
State control

Private or uncon-
trolled communal

.

10-15

CoDDice-und6r-stiindtirds . ■

20-35

18-25

80-150

The State forest of Hez-Froidmont (see Fig. 6 (ato/)), oak, beech, etc., has
a rotation of 150 years. Compiegne (where the Germans were stopped)
150 for high forest and 35 for the coppice and coppice-under-standards.

HAUTE-MARNE (BROADLEAVES)

System of treatment

Coppice

Coppice-under-standards .

Conversions

High forest

Length of rotation in years

Lender
State control

25-40

144-150
144-150

Private or uncon-
trolled communal

14-25 (few 30-40)

COSTS OF ADMINISTRATION

57

There are no rich notable State forests in this department. The State
forest of d'Auberive is managed on a 150-year rotation; Bussieres 144; de
la Haie-Renault 144; all of these are being converted from coppice and
coppice-under-standards to high forest.

YONNE

(BROADLEAVES)

Length of rotation in years

System of treatment

Under
State control

Private or uncon-
trolled communal

12-18

Coppice-under-standards

Conversions

20-30
150-180
150-180

20-25

High forest

40-50 (Scotch pine)

Here four-fifths the forest area is under rotations of less than 25 years.

LANDES (MARITIME PINE)

Length of rotation in years

System of treatment

Under
State control

Private or uncon-
trolled communal

10-20

Coppice-under-standards

20-25

Conversions

High forest .

60-120 {

60-80

12-16

GIRONDE (MARITIME PINE)

System of treatment

Coppice

Coppice-under-standards

Conversions

High forest

Length of rotation in years

Under
State control

1^25
15-25

50-72

Private or uncon-
trolled communal

12-15
20-25

45-60 (resin)
1.5-30 (mine props)

Costs of Administration. — As Huffel points out, it is difficult to say
authoritatively just what it costs to manage the State forests because the
budget provides also for the management of communal forests and public
establishments, for game and fish protection, for control of deforestation,
for the reforestation of eroded mountain lands, for dune protection and for

Fig. 6 (a to c). — State forest of Hez-Froidmont. First working group: (a — top
left) Oak and beech saplings; (6 — top right) Poles; (c — bottom) Seed felling in
course of exploitation, illustrating thorough utilization and use of long, clear lengths.

58

Fig 6 {d to/).-State forest of Hez-Froidmont. (d-top left) Appearance after
seed felling is completed; (e — top right), (/-bottom) Secondary felling showing
regeneration secm-ed by seed felling. The advance growth in the background will be
cut back, so as to assure an even-aged stand. cq

60 FOREST STATISTICAL DATA

grazing betterments. Much the same thing is true in the United States,
where the Forest Service has a lump-sum appropriation to cover all man-
ner of scientific work and investigations as well as for the management
and protection of the National Forests. Huffel^ makes the conclusion:

"Taking everj'thing into consideration, it is estimated that $173,700 is about the
expense for the management of the State forests; this figure corresponds to 6 cents per
acre. It is estimated that protection costs 16 cents per productive acre; maintenance
absorbs 12 cents per acre; communal and departmental tax 16 cents per acre. We have
then the following revenues and costs per productive acre in State forests for 1892
(which is considered a typical year) :

Per cent of
gross revenue

$2.26 Net yield, or 81.2

.06 Cost of management, or 2.5

.16 Cost of protection, or 5.8

.12 Maintenance, or 4.5

.16 Communal and departmental tax, or 5.9

$2.76 Gross revenue 99.9

"The expense for the personnel in France represents only 23 cents per productive
acre, or 8.3 per cent of the gross revenue."

It is of interest to note that this cost figure is less than those for Ba-
varia, Prussia, Saxony, or Wiirtemberg where the lowest (Wiirtemberg)
absorbs 12.1 per cent of the gross revenue for personnel.

Statistics of Fir Stands in the Jura. — One of the questions asked by-
private forest owners and others interested in the yield of forests is : What
will forests (naturally regenerated) return in lumber or money? The
answers given to this question by normal yield tables, usually based on
planted stands, are often so high that they cannot be apphed, without
much guesswork and modification, to American conditions. Actual
averages of compartments or whole forests are more rehable for the pur-
poses of judging what forestry can attain. (See also Chapter XI.)
Therefore the statistics ^ which follow, for fir-spruce forests in the Jura
mountains of France, somewhat comparable to spruce-fir stands of
northern New England, are of particular interest and value. They show
what forestry can attain (as a maximum) under favorable conditions on
non-agricultural mountain land over whole compartments of 15 to 30
acres.

(a) Compartment 18, fifth working group, State Forest of La Joux
(second Jura Plateau), 60 per cent fir and 40 per cent spruce, fully stocked,
thrifty stand planted after a windfall in 1812; 100 years old in 1912.

* Pp. 408-409, Vol. I, ficonomie Forestiere.

^ Based on unpublished data supplied by Devarennes, Inspector, French Forest
Service, in charge of Jura workmg plans in 1912.

STATISTICS OF FIR STANDS IN THE JURA

61

Diameter,

Number of

trees

per acre

Volume, cubic
meters
per acre

Approximate a

breast-high,
inches

Board feet
per acre

Cords
per acre

10
16
22
28
Totals

45.6
63.6
24.8
3.2
137.2

32.4

112.0

88.0

24.0

256.4

5,700
32,300
23,400

7,200
68,600

4.8
15.0
11.8

1.6
33.2

(6) Same forest and working group but compartment 19 and fro7n
entirely natural regeneration; 100 years old, but 90 per cent fir and 10 per
cent spruce.

Diameter,

Number of

trees

per acre

Volume, cubic
meters
per acre

Approximate a

breast-high,
inches

Board feet
per acre

Cords
per acre

10
16
22

28
Totals

67.2

98.0

35.2

4.0

204.4

47.2
170.8
123.6

24.0
365.6

8,400

45,300

33,800

7,200

94,800

7.2
22.6
16.4

1.6

47.8

Such yields seem incredibly high, and the larger number of trees and
the higher yield on the area naturally regenerated is especially note-
worthy. The fact remains that these yields were attained, within at
least 10 per cent, allowing for a possible 10 per cent error in estimate.

(c) Pure spruce, 100 years old from natural regeneration on a compart-
ment in the forest of Ouhans (first Jura Plateau) ; altitude 2,300 feet.

Diameter,

Number of

trees

per acre

Volume, cubic
meters
per acre

Approximate a

breast-high,
inches

Board feet
per acre

Cords
per acre

10

16

22

Totals

97.2

84.8

13.2

195.2

60.8

151.2

54.4
266.4

10,600
39,600
14,500
64,700

9.2

21.6

7.2
38.0

<* These conversions (a, 6, c, d) were made as follows : For lO'-inch trees 4 cubic meters
were counted to the 1,000 feet after 30 per cent subtracted for cordwood. In the other
diameter classes 3 cubic meters were counted to the 1,000 feet, after subtracting 20 per
cent for the cordwood in the 16 and 22 inch classes and only 10 per cent of the 28-inch
class. Two cords were considered equal to 1,000 board feet.

62

FOREST STATISTICAL DATA

(d) Ninety per cent fir, 10 per cent spruce, 100 years old from natural
regeneration on a compartment in the forest of St. Point (third Jura
Plateau); altitude 3,280 feet.

Diameter,

Number of

trees

per acre

Volume, cubic
meters
per acre

Approximate a

breast-high,
inches

Board feet
per acre

Cords
per acre

10
16
22

Totals

76.8

64.0

13.6

154.4

44.8
119.2

57.6
221.6

7,800
31,800

15,400
55,000

6.8
15.8

7.6
30.2

These four compartments average almost 71,000 board feet per acre
and indicate what can be attained in 100 years as a maximum with
thrifty, vigorous stands of silver fir under proper forest management.

Statistics for Levier. — The Federal forest of Levier " perhaps contains,
next to La Joux, the best large body of silver fir in the Jura and is one of
the richest and most productive in France. It is situated near PontarHer
and rests on three plateaus cut by more or less deep valleys. With inter-
spersed private and communal forests it makes a stand of about 24,000
acres of almost pure fir. It runs up to 800 cubic meters to the hec-
tare (80,000 to 85,000 board feet to the acre). There is an excellent
road system. The forest was formerly the property of the Prince de
Chalon, afterwards Phihp II, of Spain. It was added to the Federal
domain in 1674, with the exception of the forest of Vignory which was
sold to the king in 1782, and the forest of Gonailles which was not joined
to the royal domain until 1725. The forests of Aro and Maubhn were
despoiled by the neighboring communes. One canton has the right "for
timbers in case of fire or in other cases resulting in the destruction of in-
habited places." The same communes have the right to remove stumps
and debris, and some grazing. The grazing right, however, is not ex-
ercised. The total area of this Federal forest is 6,713 acres, of which
6,702 acres are productive. There are eight working circles with an
average area of 838 acres, and 193 compartments with an average area of

^La Foret Domaniale de Levier, par G. Mongenot, 1912, pp. 1-23, Lucienn Laveur,
Editeur.

Since this forest was a notable American center during the war, considerable detail
is given.

The forest of La Joux is the richest in the Jura, the yield amounting to 15.8 cubic
meters per hectare (about 1,900 feet board measure per acre) per year. The gross
revenue has averaged for a period as high as $15.12 per acre per year. The net revenue
is approximately $14.81 per acre per year.

STATISTICS FOR LEVIER 63

35 acres. The soil is generally deep, fresh, and rich in humus, and the
rainfall is 4.5 to 6.5 feet per year. The fir comprises 90 per cent of the
stand and the spruce 10 per cent. The beech is, unfortunately, rare.
Fir 160 years old yields timber 115 to 131 feet in length and when 210 to
260 years old it is 3 to 4 feet in diameter. Seed years occur every two
years and reproduction is easy if there are no briars. In the past there
has been but httle insect damage, but recent windfalls which were not
immediately barked occasioned some insect damage. The fungus,
Aecidium elatium, when it affects trees, is removed in thinning. Under
present conditions game is quite rare and the hunting is annually let
for $79.13. Before regular logging the timber is generally lopped and
lightly squared with the axe and the smaller pieces barked. It is hauled
in full lengths. There are 42 miles of local forest roads, 6.5 to 16.4 feet in
width, which are maintained at an annual expense of about $3,474. There
are also 29 miles of rather poorly laid out old roads, and the entire forest
is bounded by a rough stone wall, 39 inches in height, to prevent grazing
and trespass. There are two small nurseries (one near the Ronde Ranger
Station). Formerly the yield was fixed at one and a half trees of 1.33
meters (4.26 feet) diameter per hectare (3f trees per acre) per annum.
These moderate cuttings, below the real capacity of the forest, accumu-
lated a considerable reserve. In 1818-1820 Lorentz inspected this forest
and advised the cutting of all the old trees over the young growth. In
1844 the yield was 7 cubic meters per hectare (2.8 cubic meters per
acre). In 1861 the yield was by volume coupled with improvement
selection cuttings every four or five years without hmitation of volume.
This proved a happy innovation because it diminished the excess growing
stock and saved a great many trees that were declining in vigor. From
1881 to 1894 the average yield was 10.27 cubic meters per hectare (4.1
per acre) per year, worth $32.47 or 33.17 per cubic meter (about $10 per
acre). Of this yield, it should be mentioned, however, that 10 per cent
was branch and stump wood. The compartments were made approxi-
mately equal. This was an error, since it would have been better to have
them differ somewhat in size and follow natural features for boundaries.
In 1894 the working plan was revised and all trees 9.5 to 60 inches in
diameter were cahpered, giving 231 trees per hectare (94 trees or 49,000
feet board measure per acre). The yield per cent was established at
2.35 per cent, plus a fraction of the excess volume, bringing the total cut
up to 2.74 per cent. During the years 1905 to 1911 the yield was 11.93
cubic meters per hectare (4.8 per acre) per year, or a revenue of $16.12
per acre. This amounted to 2.66 per cent of the total volume. In 1911
it is interesting to note that the windfalls amounted to 11,134 cubic
meters and were sold at $42,196. During 1916-1919 about eighteen an-
nual yields were cut to supply the armies.

64 FOREST STATISTICAL DATA

This is the history of a forest where the results of sound management
have proved increasingly beneficial. It is cited in connection with the
study of forest statistics to illustrate the liistory of a well managed forest
and to drive home the increasing benefits derived.

CHAPTER V^
NATURAL REGENERATION

French Policy (p. 65). General, Nancy School Policy, Assist Nature, Study Soil
Conditions, Soil Preparation.

French Silvicultural Methods (p. 70). Systems of Cutting, The Market.

High Forest Systems (p. 71). Clear Cutting Oak, Clear Cutting Maritime Pine,
Clear Cutting Aleppo Pine, Spruce Strip Fellings, Shelterwood Cuttings in Oak, Seed
Felling, Secondary Felling, Final Felhng, Shelterwood for Beech, Shelterwood for Oak-
Beech, Shelterwood for Maritime Pine, Shelterwood for Scotch Pine, Shelterwood for
Fir, Shelterwood for Spruce, Shelterwood for Fir and Spruce in Mixture, The Selection
System in Broadleaf Stands (Beech), Fir Selection Fellings, Spruce Selection Fellings,
Selection Fellings for Scotch and Aleppo Pine, Group Selection for Fir or Spruce, Group
Selection for Larch (and other methods). Treatment for Scenic Forests.

Coppice Systems (p. 92). General, Simple Coppice, Coppice with Field Crops,
Selection Coppice (Beech), Coppice-Under-Standards, A Substitute for Coppice-Under-
Standards (Futaie Claire), Conversions.

Care of the Stand After Regeneration (p. 105). Intermediate Cuttings, Clean-
ing (and Freeing) Young Stands, Thinnings, Improvement Fellings.

FRENCH POLICY

General. — The French forester has always been a close student of
soil conditions, seed crops, and methods of seed germination, because his
ideal has always been to obtain the natural regeneration of forests.
And to-day high labor costs will make artificial forestation almost pro-
hibitive. It has been argued that natural regeneration is the more
costly in the end, because to regenerate forests naturally took 15 to 20
years or more and that even then the results were unsatisfactory. But
in France, with a mild climate, plenty of rainfall, rich soil, and species
that produce seed crops in abundance, natural regeneration has succeeded
and will be continued, except when normal forest conditions must be
restored in the devastated war zones and where the damages of past over-
cutting have not yet been completely repaired.

The French forester is a student of nature. For generations he has
been taught "Imiter la nature, hater son cBuvre, telle est la maxime
fondamentale de la sylviculture." His simplest problem is where he can
clear-cut the entire stand and yet secure his second crop without plant-
ing; his difficulties increase as the cuttings must be varied in degree and
in number so as to tempt the next generation of trees to gain a footing

1- Professor Hawley kindly reviewed this chapter.
65

66 NATURAL REGENERATION

in competition with grass, weeds, and undesirable species. But he recog-
nizes that success cannot always be obtained under these difficult condi-
tions without assisting nature. Consequently he is ready to wound the
ground covered with grass so that the seed can germinate in the mineral
soil, or he may have to cut back briars or heather which is crowding out
the commercial stand.

In the United States there are three schools of forest sentiment: (1)
The lover of primeval forests wants to spare all trees for the sake of their
beauty. He does not care whether trees mature and die and go to waste.
(2) The lumberman, who buys forests for profit. After stripping off the
merchantable timber he lets the soil take care of itself if he cannot sell
to a land speculator. (3) The State preaches a middle course — grow
timber as a crop and cut the stand when it ripens. This should be the
forester's Golden Rule. Let us profit by the example of a country like
France and use nature to help us in our task. Natural regeneration is
the aim in France and, in the United States, with our high labor costs,
forestry will be a business failure for some time to come unless 95 per cent
of our forest soil can be stocked without sowing or planting.

Nancy School Policy. — Jolyet argues that :

"In France silviculture has always aimed at securing regeneration by the play of
natural forces alone, man intervening only for exploitation, so as to give more or less
space to the crowns of trees selected as seed trees, and more or less light to the soil
destined to receive the seed. Our silviculture teaches us, moreover, that artificial re-
generation is not only onerous, but in addition gives poorer results. And this viewpoint
is fully justified. In reality, if you plant or sow by day labor, you are forced for economy's
sake to reduce to a minimum the quantity of seed, or the number of plants per unit of
area . . . and the owner is forced to retain for as long a period as possible all these
trees which have cost so much ; he will do his utmost to preserve even the most decrepit
specimens . . . they will have, therefore, on the whole, a reduced vitality. On the
contrary, if you employ natural regeneration, the seed trees sow on the soil of the
cutting area without counting the seeds ; the seedlings come in excess numbers and in this
mass of individuals, amongst which commences an active fight for existence, the weaker
and less sturdy are eliminated by the most vigorous which remain masters of the soil.
The stand will then be composed of trees selected by nature herself, on whose vitaUty
and longevity you have the right to count."

This latter argument is perhaps contrary to the reasoning of some who
claim that young trees are only weakened by undue competition and
that thinnings (made so as to favor the most vigorous trees) should
eliminate this struggle to decide the survival of the fittest. But it re-
mains a fact that with proper thinnings natural regeneration produces a
finer forest than any feasible plantation and better than the average
sown stand.

Assist Nature. — But the forester knows from bitter experience that
satisfactory regeneration cannot always be secured from nature alone;
adverse soil conditions may have to be bettered, suitable seed trees may

STUDY SOIL CONDITIONS 67

be lacking, frost may destroy seedlings when it is too late to await natural
regeneration longer. "It is rare," says Jolyet, "without question, when
the conditions are such that any production of acorns or nuts is absolutely
impossible; it is, on the other hand, quite common to find this production
insufficient."

To await natural regeneration under these conditions is, therefore,
often poor forestry; particularly with virgin stands which have not been
under intensive forest management, it is often best to aid nature. In
many German forests, it is argued that natural regeneration at best is
difficult and uncertain and requires more time and consequently a longer
rotation; so why not plant or sow at once and be done with it? In
France, as already explained, the conditions are more favorable. In the
Landes natural regeneration is almost certain ; in the silver fir reasonably
certain; in the spruce or Scotch pine quite possible of attainment; in
aleppo pine attainable; with beech usually certain, as with the oak, under
favorable conditions. In mixture with beech the regeneration of the oak
is often more difficult because it cannot compete with the more shade-
enduring species.

Study Soil Conditions. — It is, therefore, vital to thoroughly under-
stand the properties, constitution, and influences of the forest soil upon
the final results attained. Like agricultural soil the forest soil ^ is mineral
and organic. But the forest soil is more complex and more difficult to
keep in proper condition; moreover, conditions are constantly changing
so that what are normal soil conditions at the beginning of the regenera-
tion period should gradually change as the canopy is opened up. Forest
soil has (1) a dead Htter of leaves, twigs, bark; (2) a humus or decayed
litter; (3) a vegetable soil or mixture of hunuis with the mineral soil; (4)
a mineral soil coming from the decomposed rock, and (5) the base rock
itself. It takes years to get a normal forest soil (that may be ruined by
over-exposure or fire), while the agricultural soil can be acquired arti-
ficially by introducing the necessary elements that may be lacking. Of
these ingredients, in forest soils, humus is the most important. True
forest humus is beneficial; on the contrary, acid humus is harmful and
prevents or hinders regeneration. Acid humus, infrequent in French
forests, may be due to a number of causes — insufficient heat, too much
moisture, drought, or sterility. In everyday practice the forester is
troubled more by the physical texture of the soil and with the htter and
vegetable cover than by the chemical composition or the presence or
absence of chemical ingredients. A soil baked by the sun or packed by
grazing usually prevents regeneration, as does a cover of dry leaves,
grass, sod, or weed growth. For example, a growth of heather under

2 Traite Pratique de Sylviculture, Antoine Jolyet, Bailliere et Fils, Paris, pp. 298-358.

68 NATURAL REGENERATION

Scotch pine absolutely prevents reproduction. Jolyet holds that "the
depth of a soil from the rock base will be always greater in the forest
than on bare groimd. This is due to the greater rapidity of decomposi-
tion, owing to the effect of water infiltration which is charged with car-
bonic acid by percolating the litter." Forest soil is deepened not only by
decomposition from the underlying rock, but also by the accumulation of
humus from above.

Every forester should study the depth ^ and character of soils. A deep-
rooting tree on a shallow soil cannot develop its root system properly and
normally, but on a shallow soil with an outcropping rock such trees as
aleppo, mountain, or Austrian pine possess root systems that penetrate
the rock fissures and make the most of a sterile soil. A soil covered with
tree growth is always more porous than the same soil denuded. It is
not enough for a soil to receive the water necessary for tree growth; water
must be stored or retained in such form Liat it is available for use when
required by the tree during the vegetative period. On a bare though
porous soil the run-off is excessive.

Soil Preparation. — Soil preparation is often necessary in any kind of
cutting, yet in France the sentiment is everywhere in favor of natural
regeneration, preferably without the additional expense of artificial soil
preparation. But the more the system departs from nature's method,
the more the soil must be worked. With the shelterwood system there
must be more soil preparation than with the selection method. The suc-
cess of natural regeneration depends on the proper number and location
of trees bearing seed, the right amount of light or shade for the develop-
ment and existence of the young seedling, as well as upon proper texture
of the ground free from weed cover. But it is only under the most favor-
able conditions that some kind of soil preparation is not necessary for the
successful regeneration of a species like spruce. In theory, the forest
could wait until natural regeneration came in without assistance. In
practice, the regeneration would often be incomplete; it would come in
slowly and seed trees valuable for timber of the highest quality would
decrease in value and become firewood. Even with very full seed crops
some kind of assistance may have to be given natural regeneration usually
for three reasons: (1) Because of a dense vegetable cover which prevents
the seed coming in contact with the mineral soil ; (2) because of an exces-
sive cover of undecomposed dead needles, or (3) because the surface of the
soil itself is too compact.

The vegetable cover is often too thick because, unfortunately, as trees
mature their cover is less dense — especially with species hke oak or

3 Very shallow soil, less than 6 inches deep; shallow soil, less than 12 inches deep;
slightly deep soil, less than 24 inches deep; deep soil, less than 3.28 feet deep; very deep
soil, over 3.28 feet deep, — according to French classification.

SOIL PREPARATION b9

Scotch pine — consequently weeds and shrubs take possession of the
soil. Under such conditions it is an obhgatory rather than an optional
expense to remove this cover. It js not always necessary to regularly cul-
tivate the soil. On the contrary, it is usually better to keep the surface
of the soil where the seed can reach it. It suffices, then, to tear up the
vegetable cover. This work should be locahzed on those areas where there
are seed trees and where there is suitable light for seedhngs. The opera-
tion should be carried out only during the seed year, otherwise the vege-
table cover will reinstate itself before any benefits have been received.

In oak forests, where the regeneration is prevented by grass or herba-
ceous growth (Jolyet, p. 362), the soil preparation must usually be carried
out over the whole surface of the ground. The rake is the best imple-
ment for this purpose. The seed crop cannot usually be determined
accurately before the month of August, so that the work should not be-
gin before this date, although it may be continued during and after the
crop has fallen. In certain forests, it was the practice to drive hogs
over the area to be seeded; this gave very fair results. The hogs ate up
a large amount of seed no doubt, but in wounding the soil they gave a
thorough soil preparation which cost nothing. In mature Scotch pine
forests it is usual to find a cover of heather or shrubs which practicahy
prevents regeneration. With a mattock or hoe it is usually possible to
weed the area and encourage regeneration. The work is costly, no
doubt, but it can be diminished by locahzing the soil preparation on
parallel strips or in spots. The cultivated strips should have a width
of 5 feet and should be separated by uncultivated areas of about 10 feet.
This would cover about one-third of the entire ground. Spots are even
more economical; they may be 5 feet square and 10 feet apart. This
covers about one-ninth of the total area. In spruce stands similar meth-
ods may be of value. The choice of implements to use is usually gov-
erned by local conditions, although in Germany the so-called forest
plow is favored. It has but one wheel and is hght enough so that one
horse can pull it. It wounds the soil without actually turning it over,
and is not sharp enough to cut the roots which it may cross.

Where the leaf htter is too thick, as in certain pure stands where the
dead leaves decompose very slowly, the roots of the seedhng cannot be-
come established in mineral soil before the summer drought. The top
layer and humus dry out and this results in the death of the seedling.
With a good, strong iron rake, dead needles can be mixed with the humus
on spots about 29 inches square and 5 feet apart. In some forests in
France a regular harrow is used for this work. Where the soil surface is
too compact it must be wounded if the regeneration is to be a success.
This is especially true on compact soils, such as clays, where there has
been grazing before the seed felling.

70 NATURAL REGENERATION

FRENCH SILVICULTURAL METHODS

Systems of Cutting. — French silviculture is especially simple. Where
the German silviculturist may describe twenty or thirty different methods
of cutting, French authors generally confine themselves to a comparatively
few. Special methods of cutting, or variations from regulated systems,
they leave to the individual silviculturist who uses his judgment in vary-
ing standard methods so as to meet local conditions. These variations,
as well as special emphasis on the object of cutting and method of attain-
ing the end, are usually cited in the local working plan. The systems
used in France are: (1) Clear cutting, (2) shelterwood (progressive cut-
ting), (3) selection felhngs, (4) group fellings, (5) coppice, (6) coppice-
under-standards, (7) conversions. A routine description of these stand-
ard methods does not seem necessary, but instead the French method of
application of silviculture to the more important species has been studied
and cited. The illustrations are from original French working plans.

The Market. — According to Huffel, forests have always played an
important role in the national hfe. First, for hunting and food; then,
until the Nineteenth Century, the forest furnished fuel, timber for houses
and ships, tools and utensils, honey and wax, dead leaves for manure,
nuts, various fruits, and resin. Grazing was important, and as late as
1560 the forest of Haguenau in Alsace was described by the number of
hogs it would support. Additional products were strawberries, rasp-
berries, mushrooms, moss, plants, twigs, cones, heather, and ferns, much
of which were collected by the poor, since the French have always con-
sidered that "the forest is the cloak of the poor." In the present century,
although the tendency is decidedly toward the production of saw timber,
three-fourths of the output is still firewood. In 1815 Paris consumed
0.50 cords per inhabitant; in 1865, 0.13, and in 1900, but 0.05 cords per
inhabitant. Not only has the use of charcoal for cooking fallen off, but
factories use coal to the almost total exclusion of wood or charcoal. The
early writers, prior to the discovery of coal, often predicted a wood
famine, and had not coal been discovered their predictions would have
come true, because to supply the equivalent of the present coal consump-
tion of France more than ten times the total forest area would be necessary.
Fortunately for the timber resources the use of wood is becoming less and
less. Iron was first used for shipbuilding in 1843; iron and cement have
largely replaced wood for houses. The great demand to-day is for a good
quality of boards, mine props, ties, paving blocks, wood pulp, tan bark, and
cork, as well as for such products as turpentine, rosin, alcohol, etc. This
rough summary of the decreasing use of wood products and the change in
kind of material required is merely given as an illustration to show how
necessary it is for the forester to study the future needs of the country.

CLEAR CUTTING OAK 71

He must be far-sighted, since he cannot count on present demands. Gener-
ally speaking the world's industry demands more and more high forests
for timber and fewer coppice forests for fuel and minor products.

HIGH FOREST SYSTEMS ^

Clear Cutting Oak. — In the valley of the Adour [70] above Dax the
pedunculate oak grows in areas subject to inundations and where agri-
culture is not feasible. It is practically pure, with rapid growth and a
remarkable longevity. These forests are celebrated for the enormous
quantity and quality of the oak wood which they produce and especially,
in former years, for the ship timber which was used when wooden battle-
ships were built. With such a warm climate the trees are prolific seed
producers. Abundant crops of seed are borne every year. On the other
hand, late frosts must be guarded against. These high forests are not
treated by any regular system since the fertility of the soil, coupled with
its depth and freshness, enables the trees to seed and the seedhng to live,
notwithstanding the overstory of old trees and notwithstanding the
underbrush; apparently the only danger is hog grazing, which does con-
siderable damage, but in this wet region the growth of shrubs and vines
is almost tropical in character and forms such a dense thicket that the
young seedlings are in pai't protected against such injury. It is interest-
ing to note that the seedlings, which in other parts of the country would
be suppressed by the underbrush, shoot up through the entanglements,
twisting their terminal shoots in the direction where there is most light.
This results in the production of rather crooked trees. [74] These ped-
unculate oak forests of the Adour are regenerated to-day very successfully
by a simple system. Taking for granted that there are always acorns ready
to germinate and that these will survive the cover of the old trees, the
old trees are clear cut in one felling. At the same time all the briars, un-
dergrowth, oak seedlings (damaged by exploitation or suppressed by
the cover) are cut level with the ground. The shoots from these very
young stumps have practically the same qualities as seedlings. Al-
most invariably this clear cutting will be followed by the development
of an incalculable number of young oaks which rapidly cover the soil
with a complete stand which in time develops into an oak high forest.
In the valley of the Adour the growth of the young oak is sufficiently
rapid so that cleanings are rarely necessary. Thinnings, on the con-

^ Since the high forest systems are of paramount importance in the United States
their apphcation to typical species has been given in detail.

Note. — The bracketed numbers refer to page references in La Foret, by Boppe, the
source of much of this material.

72 NATURAL REGENERATION

trary, are very important in all the young stands. With clear cutting it
is naturally necessary to regulate grazing. On account of the richness of
the soil the grazing is quite valuable, and the communes even insist on the
clearing out of the briars and underbrush which formerly protected the
young oak. Under these conditions the grazing is prohibited two years
before the clear cutting in order to enable the seedlings to establish them-
selves to the very best advantage, and in addition the area cut over is
closed for 12 years after felhng operations [75], making 14 years of closure.
Clear Cutting Maritime Pine. — The maritime pine is essentially a
hght-demanding tree, and while it can stand the average winter in the
northeast of France it cannot withstand unusual cold. It furnishes an
abundance of seed every year with remarkable regularity. It was for-
merly treated by a sort of crude selection system. The great importance
of the tree is on account of its resin production. Formerly it was tapped
for resin and when a tree was dying it was cut. In these openings the
young seedhngs came up but developed poorly because there was in-
sufficient light. On account of the prolific seed production after clear
cutting and because cones open under the effect of the sun's heat, after
the trees are felled, it is essential that the species be clear cut. Scattered
seed trees after felling are unnecessary. The young seedlings develop
excellently in full sunhght and are neither damaged by the heat nor by
the spring frosts. According to the working plan for the State forest of
Carcans the following silvicultural operations are in force:

"1. Successive regeneration by clear cutting preceded by tapping to death.

"2. Thinning by tapping to death the superfluous stems of those which are of poor
quahty after the trees reach 26 years of age. Tapping alive trees which have reached a
diameter of 13 inches.

"3. Thinnings in young stands in order to obviate the extremely slow growth of
very dense stands."

It should be noted that the maritime pine immediately bordering the
ocean is never clear cut but is maintained as a protection belt against the
sand dunes. Only dead and dying trees are cut from this shelter belt.
As a matter of fact the trees, owing to the wind, are inferior in quality
and stunted in growth.

Clear Cutting Aleppo Pine. — On account of the dry soil conditions
which are prevalent in aleppo pine or stone pine forests, clear cutting
is rarely advisable (see pp. 88-89). The forester in charge of the impor-
tant aleppo pine forests around Marseilles uses a conservative group-
selection system, making it a point never to expose the soil.

Spruce Strip Fellings. — Notwithstanding the development of various
forms of strip felhngs in Germany and Switzerland, they have not been
practiced to any extent in France. This is only another illustration of

SEED FELLING 73

the simplicity of French silviculture and the absence of variations from
the few standard systems of cutting which have been in use for centuries.
The keynote to French practice is that the method of natural regenera-
tion should closely approximate nature's method. "Strip cuttings,"
according to Jolyet, "are nothing more than a variation of clear cutting."
In theory, at least, it should succeed with spruce, provided the strips are
not too wide. They should be in the shape of long rectangles and should
extend up and down the slope with their axis preferably at right angles to
the prevailing wind. Since this method of cutting has not been de-
veloped by French silviculture, the details will not be discussed here.

Shelterwood Cuttings in Oak. — Some of the best high forests [81] of
France are composed of sessile oak (with some beech in mixture) on sandy
loam soil. These soils are often quite sandy in character and yet splendid
forests, such as Perseigne, Berce, Blois, Senonches, Belleme, result.
Thanks to the mild climate, the acorn crop is frequent but by no means
annual, as in the valley of the Adour. In this region an acorn crop can be
counted on every 6 to 8 years; besides the sandy soil is particularly favor-
able to natural seeding. In former days hunting to hounds was ex-
tremely popular, so that it was fortunately necessary to have high forests
rather than coppice. The first regular method of cutting applied to these
high forests was the so-called "tire et aire" — successive clear cutting
with a reservation of eight seed trees per hectare (2.5 acres). Unfor-
tunately the acorn crop did not always correspond with the year of re-
generation felling and the soil was soon covered with weeds and heather.
It is ordinarily sufficient, however, to have an acorn crop the year before
felling, or at least within two or three years after.

To-day these oak (beech) forests are treated by what the French call
the method of progressive ^ fellings (shelterwood system), or "system of
natural regeneration and thinnings." This method means felling not at
one time by a clear cutting, but instead by a number of cuttings succeed-
ing one another and removing progressively all the old trees. These cut-
tings are called seed fellings, secondary felhngs, and final fellings which
together constitute the regeneration fellings.

Seed Felling. — Seed felling, as the term impHes, aims at starting
regeneration. In order that the seedhngs may start two things are
necessary : plenty of seed and a chance for development for the seedlings
after they have germinated. Three steps comprise these seed fellings:
(1) The crowns of a certain number of trees designated as seed trees are
isolated. This gives light for the development of the seed trees as well
as for the development of the existing seedlings. The isolation of these

^Also termed "regular method" for high forests. The French have never copied
the German term "shelterwood." They prefer "progressive cutting" (coupes pro-
gressives).

74 NATURAL REGENERATION

crowns may vary. A so-called "dark" felling, according to Bagneris, is
when the lateral branches of the crowns of the reserved trees touch when
the wind is blowing. In an "open" or "hght" felhng the space between
the crowns may be 7 to 16 or 20 feet. A "dark" felhng has this advan-
tage, in that the seed trees are more numerous, the acorns are better
scattered over the entire surface of the felling area, and the seedlings are
better protected against the late frosts. The trees chosen for seed trees
must be sound and must have well developed crowns. (2) All trees,
other than seed trees, whose foliage extends to the ground and is therefore
suppressing seedlings, are removed. Beech, or hornbeam, which often
forms a valuable understory in order to preserve soil conditions up to the
time of the seed felling, is cut. (3) If the soil is covered with weeds they
are cut level with the ground, as are also oak advance growth unsuit-
able for future regeneration. The soil, after a seed felling, must be
cleared of all low growth. If necessary, the surface of the soil is loos-
ened by wounding it. A successful seed felling is where there are one
or two seedlings per square yard. Often there is practically a carpet of
young oak.

Secondary Fellings. — The next step is to gradually remove the seed
trees and to gradually free the existing seedlings without causing too
much damage. These secondary fellings in oak stands are usually two
or three in number. Care should be taken not to expose the existing
seedlings to late frosts, not to damage too many seedlings in the lumber-
ing operations, and to retain enough seed trees in localities where seed-
lings have failed. It is also essential not to remove the seed trees so
rapidly that the gi'ound may run wild to weeds. The best time to mark
secondary fellings is during the summer, since the state of the vegetation
can be more accurately determined. The removal depends primarily on
the condition of the ground. If the seed crop is poor it may be necessary
to again cut back the weeds and to wound the soil. If, on the other hand,
the seedling growth is very luxuriant, cutting can be much heavier. The
result of the secondary felhng is to increase the growth and development
of the seedling crop and to enable it to maintain possession of the ground.

Final Felling. — As soon as the young crop is complete and the first
seedlings have developed into saplings, it is time for the final felling, which
is really a final secondary felling and which is generally termed final fell-
ing. This felling merely removes the remainder of the seed trees at one
stroke, since it is rarely advisable to hold over a few seed trees even where
regeneration may be lacking in a few spots. When seed trees are held
over it means that very valuable timber decreases in value, since as soon
as these mature oaks are isolated, epicormic [92] branches develop, the
crown deteriorates, large branches die, and there is great danger of rot
or damage from insects. The regular high forest (shelter wood) aims at

FINAL FELLING 75

the complete natural regeneration of the proper species of uniform age.
It has the advantage of preserving the soil and of producing regularly-
formed trees, but the disadvantage of possible damage from insects, snow,
wind, and weeds unless the species are mixed.

According to De Gail ^ the regular shelterwood system was adopted all
over France during the last half of the last century.

"The rotation was divided into a certain number of periods, generally of equal
length, frequently four or five. For each one of these periods there was a corresponding
periodic block on the ground. During each of the periods the corresponding block had
to be regenerated while the others were run over by improvement cuttings. The
volume to be removed each year in the regeneration fellings formed the chief yield and
was the quotient of the existing volume in the periodic block in question, growth in-
cluded, divided by the number of years forming the period. Improvement fellings were
assigned by area at regular intervals, the volume to be reahzed remaining unfixed."

The objection to this system was that it was good in theory but did not
work out on the ground. Too many sacrifices had to be made for regu-
larity, and damage resulted from fire, wind, and insects. Very fre-
quently the whole scheme was disarranged by unforeseen damage, and
yet the working-plan scheme depended for its success on orderly ar-
rangement. Exactly the same yield was unnecessary each year, but
great differences had a bad effect on the regulation, as, for example, after
an enormous cut following an unforeseen windfall. In 1878 an endeavor
was made to correct the weakness by first subtracting accidental yields
from the major yield before the regular annual cut was prescribed. But
even this was not entirely satisfactory, chiefly on account of windfall in
such regions as the Jura and Vosges.

The forest of Paridas working plan stated that during the regeneration
of this oak forest it is usually necessary to fence to prevent damage from
game. The old oak is growing close together and very heavy openings are
made in this stand, since the luxuriant grass crop seems to assist the oak
regeneration inasmuch as it freshens the soil. After regeneration cutting
there are about 80 trees per acre with the openings often 100 feet across.
Occasionally the cuttings are made lighter because of the danger of briars
and weeds. There is very rapid growth and the rotation is 120 years.
Where thickets of blackberries have come in they are removed at the first
cleaning when the reproduction is 12 to 15 years old. If cut earher they
spring up again. There has been some damage to the oak from the
"sidium" disease, which must be sprayed with salt as a curative and pre-
ventive, but there is danger of the salt hurting the roots. Where the oak
stands are very dense there is much less seed, as is illustrated by condi-
tions in the Paridas forest. The oak sometimes comes in even in dense
heather but frequently it is necessary to cut strips in the heather to en-

'^ Nouvelles Tendances et Methodes d'Amenagement, No. 2, 1907, S. F. deF. C. et B.

76 NATURAL REGENERATION

courage regeneration. The regeneration period is 30 years. Light thin-
nings are made every 10 years, and usually after 35 years the canopy of
the crowns is complete.

Shelterwood for Beech. — Beech forests are still important in France
[130] on the Parisian Plateau, on the Plateaus of Lorraine, Bourgogne,
Franche-Comte, on the lower mountain slopes of these regions, and on
all the mountains in the fir zone. The regeneration of beech is always by
the shelterwood method (progressive fellings), but regeneration by clear
felling is absolutely impossible, since the beech seedlings are very susceptible
to damage from late frosts and from drying out. While it is true that the
mast is not more frequent than the acorn crop, yet it is easier to secure
beech seedhngs, since on account of its tolerant quahty the advance
growth is often existing at the time of the seed felling, even if the cover is
considerable, whereas the oak seedhng must be freed from overhead
cover. This step is not so necessary with the beech since it is so tolerant.
There is less danger of the beech seedlings being damaged by weeds or
briars than of the oak. The seed felling with the beech is always light,
since the seedlings cannot stand a rapid opening up. When there is a
thick carpet of undecomposed dead leaves on the ground wounding the
soil is quite necessary in order to expose the humus. This is sometimes
secured by driving hogs through the area just before the seed felling, in
order to let them, without expense, dig up the weeds and wound the soil.
Frequently it is sufficient to let in enough light to eat up the leaf cover.
The secondary fellings are also "dark," and often it is necessary to hold
over trees which should be felled, on account of the danger of making too
large openings. This means that instead of two or three secondary fell-
ings, as with the oak, it may be necessary with the beech to make three
or four secondary felhngs. This has no drawbacks since the young beech
seedlings can stand the shade of the seed trees. The final felling is made
as soon as the seedlings have grown to the sapling stage and it should
not be held over too long because of the damage which results to the
saplings. The final felling always removes all the remaining trees.

Shelterwood for Oak=Beech. — A feature of oak and beech naturally
regenerated is the maintenance of the soil in good condition and a suit-
able mixture of beech in the understory. The tolerant beech always has a
tendency to take possession of the soil and therefore it is often necessary
to favor the oak. This can be done by reserving more oak seed trees in
the seed felling and by cutting the beech in the understory, by hastening
the secondary felling and making it rather open wherever oak seedhngs
have established themselves. Otherwise, they may be crowded by the
tolerant beech. The seedling of the oak may be favored by wounding
the soil. When the seedlings are freed, and in the thinning, the oak also
may be favored. According to Inspecteur Badre it is very difficult to

SHELTERWOOD FOR OAK-BEECH 77

maintain beech and oak in mixture, side by side, for the beech always
dominates the oak unless it is progressively freed from the surrounding
beech. The most practical solution is to grow the oak in small groups,
which can often survive the struggle with similar groups of beech without
assistance. The forest of Pare et St. Quentin has had working plans
made in 1869, 1884, and 1905. As a result of experience a rotation for
120 years was found too short because of the large proportion of oak.
It was, therefore, increased to 150 years. Where there is difficulty in
regeneration, according to the following most recent working plan, the
cuttings would be regulated according to seed crops rather than to the
sequence of f elhngs as developed :

"The density of the seed fellings will be regulated so as to allow for the requirements
of the species — oak and beech — which should be forced into the proper mixture
(about half and half). The existing understory must be completely removed above
this size, and under no pretext whatever should it be allowed to form part of the future
stand. The seed fellings will be followed by secondary and final fellings laid out ex-
clusively according to the cultural needs. The improvement cuttings should aim at
the establishment of a high forest with a suitable mixture of species and as fully stocked
as possible; they will be carried out by the use of regular normal thinnings, the removals
limited to trees already dead or almost wholly so. ... In the young stands the
valuable species will be carefully freed and, in accordance with their needs, the softwoods
and species of secondary value will be sacrificed."

The working plan of the forest of Malmifait is as follows :

"The regeneration fellings which remain to be carried out during the second period,
consist solely of secondary and final fellings. The secondary fellings will be made care-
fully according to the amount and vigor of the existing reproduction. Where considered
advantageous, the natural seeding will be assisted by soil preparation during seed years,
coupled with the dibbling of acorns and beech nuts if necessary; this will be supple-
mented, if need be, by plantations which will be set out in systematic lines in order to
make future clearings easier and cheaper. Seedlings and plants must always be pro-
tected at the start against the briars and the grass, as well as sprouts of species of secon-
dary value. The final felling will take place as soon as regeneration is secured, and with-
out too much delay, in order to lessen the damage, always considerable, caused by the
exploitation and removal of the trees. When the cutting area is completely cleared, all
the damaged stems must be cut back. It will be carefully seen to that the game, espe-
cially the wild boar and hares, do not increase to an excessive degree. Thanks to this
precaution it will be unnecessary to build wire fences, which are very expensive and
which usually give only mediocre results, around the compartments recently seeded;
especially since the patrol force of the Malmifait forest is composed of a single employee
who, without question, would find it difficult to maintain the fences in good order and
to watch continually the rabbit holes. But in the areas where the mammals are most
dangerous, it may be unsafe to start reforestation by means of plants, whose stems
should be protected by wire netting fastened to stakes."

An interesting example of field practice in marking ^ shelterwood fell-
ings was studied in the oak-beech forest of Pare et St. Quentin. Before

^ In France the marking hammers are kept locked up by the forest assistant or in-
spector, and when trees are marked they are stamped both on the roots and at breast-

^8 NATURAL REGENERATION

beginning the inspector explained to the rangers the fine points of the
marking. In the area marked he illustrated the need of favoring beech,
especially trees with well-developed crowns, on account of the necessity
for plenty of seed. The trees cut were calipered and every record checked
by being repeated by the tallyman. All poor trees were cut, notwith-
standing the need of beech in mixture on account of its being insufficient.
The marking passed the long way with the cutting area, and in some
places it was noticed that regeneration was protected against rabbits by
wire netting. The marking was very carefully executed, and the first
time the rangers went over the felling area they merely blazed the trees
to be cut. As a protection they went over this same area a second time
to see whether mistakes had been made. At this second trip they
stamped and blazed the roots of the trees left, and in addition, because of
their great value, talHed the number of large trees left standing. It was
explained that seed felhngs were held up in 1911 and 1912 because of poor
seed years. The local inspector favored seed fellings by area as well as
improvement cuttings by area, since it would obviate extensive calcula-
tions of yield.

Shelterwood for Maritime Pine. — The shelterwoocl system should
never be applied to maritime pine. Clear cutting is, and must be, the
invariable rule except in protection belts along the dunes.

Shelterwood for Scotch Pine. — The shelterwood system is sometimes
apphed to Scotch pine. Here the seed felling is made very open, the
secondary felhngs are delayed and are rarely more than one or two in
number and the final felling comes early. It really takes on the aspect
of clear cutting with the reservation of seed trees [160]. The forest of
Ermenonville presents an interesting study in the treatment of Scotch
pine in the Paris region.^ The soil in the fourth, fifth, and sixth working
circles of this forest is quite sterile over some 3,672 acres and therefore
unsuitable for broadleaves. The rotation is 80 years of eight periods and
the regeneration is nominally by the shelterwood system, although the
results thus far, without sufficient artificial assistance, are very imperfect.
The forty to sixty seed trees per acre are chosen with care and distributed

height. The trees marked for any cutting are usually tallied by five-centimeter classes
(2 inches) . If any marked tree is blazed twice on the bole it means that it must be limbed
and the top cut off before it is felled to prevent damage to existing reproduction. The
forest guards check the cutting after it is finished and go to every stump to see if the
tree was marked. If all right the stump is stamped on the top. The guards and rangers
are always on the lookout for windfall and dead wood. When found the tree is numbered
consecutively and the following data secured : serial number, circumference, and general
location. It is a guard's special duty to look out for windfalls in spring so that they may
be disposed of while they are still salable.

8 Traitement du pin sylvestre dans la region de Paris, par L. Parde, Nos. 19 and 20,
March 1 and 15, 1905. Revue des Eaux et Forets.

SHELTERWOOD FOR SCOTCH PINE 79

as uniformly as possible over the area. The soil is cleared of brush, cones,
and needles, either in strips or in spots, and there is artificial sowing where
young seed trees are available. According to Parde :

"If necessary the regeneration will be completed by plantations at the time of the
first improvement felling when the seed trees will be cut. For my part, I confess that
I am now rather disposed to admit that, so far as the Scotch pine high forests aromid
Paris are concerned, the regeneration by artificial means would be preferable to the
shelterwood method actually followed."

Various steps have been taken to assist regeneration, such as raking
strips and spots during the seed years ; in addition the young seedhngs
are sheltered by means of branches, which is apparently very favorable
to their development. If the natural seeding fails the plantations must
be made promptly before waiting for the first improvement cutting.
Assisting regeneration in this locality has cost as much as $8.70 per acre,
while restocking blanks costs about $12.19 (1905 labor prices). Not-
withstanding the expense of $8.70 for soil preparation, the regeneration
is in poor shape, due to local droughts. Even with a large number of
seed trees retained, the cost in windfalls has been heavy.

In the forest of Fontainebleau there are some 822 acres of Scotch pine.
The regular rotation is 72 years and the same methods have been applied
as in the forest of Ermenonville. Probably one-tenth of the surface has
been naturally seeded, chiefly from advance growth rather than from the
results of seed fellings. In the forest of Rambouillet, on 4,942 acres of
Scotch pine, but 680 acres have been regenerated successfully. According
to Parde:

"In practice the preparation of the soil has consisted in a light harrowing which
removes the very thick mat which covers the soil; this mat is piled up at the foot of the
reserved trees. The harrowing is followed with broadcast seeding, 6.2 pounds per acre,
when, in order to work the seed into the soil, it is again harrowed lightly and covered
with branches."

Even after soil preparation regeneration has not been successful, and
it will be necessary to sow or plant artificially. Probably it will be nec-
essary to abandon the seed trees and to cut clean and sow broadcast by
the method described above. The conclusion reached, as a result of the
attempt of natural regeneration of Scotch pine around Paris, is that
the present shelterwood system will probably be abandoned, at least
until further experiments determine upon a successful method. Appar-
ently it is unnecessary to leave seed trees scattered over the area under
regeneration, since these trees are damaged by windfall and their extrac-
tion damages seedhngs, increases the area under fellings, and makes the
protection against game more difficult. Experiments are recommended with
the two following systems :

80 NATURAL REGENERATION

1. Cut clear strips at right angles to the wind and remove the stumps.
Clear the ground cover and harrow. Sow artificially with protection of
branches. If seeding does not take place within a few years plant at
once before the ground cover comes back. Never wait more than five
years.

2. Proceed as in the case of the system described above, but with the
reservation of seed trees.

Of the two methods, the one without seed trees is probably preferable.
The product would sell better; there would be no windfall; insect damage
would be lessened; with the surface completely cleared, temporary nur-
series would be more conveniently estabhshed where planting was neces-
sary; fencing would be less costly; there would be no damage to young
stock in the final fellings.

Shelterwood for Fir. — In order to secure fir regeneration it is necessary
to have a deep fresh soil and a humid climate; the chemical composition is
less important. In order that fir seedlings may develop properly it is neces-
sary to preserve the shelter of the cover stand as a protection against dry-
ing out and against spring frosts. It is also necessary to have a thick humus
cover and a protection against summer drought and weeds. The seedlings
establish themselves under the immediate shelter of the seed trees. In
every case the young seedlings develop naturally during the first five to
ten years under the cover of the mother stand. Therefore, any system
of clear felhng is out of the question, but the shelterwood method may be
successfully used. In fir stands advance gi'owth almost always exists,
therefore the seed felling is really a light secondary felling, since its object
is to allow this advance growth to develop. This first secondary felhng
or seed felling is made very conservative so as to remove the cover gradu-
ally and not to expose the seedlings to drjdng out or to permit weeds to
take possession of the soil. Even if suppressed for a number of years, fir
seedlings have the ability to develop into good trees after the cover has
been removed. The other secondary felhngs which follow should also be
"dark," since a gradual removal of the cover is essential. On the other
hand, the final felling should always be complete on account of the danger
from windfall and because of the damage which results to the old isolated
trees from drying out. De Gail has shown (see p. 75) that because of
windfall and the consequent irregularity of the stand (and derangement
of working plans) the shelterwood system for fir is fast proving unsuccess-
ful. An excellent illustration of the derangement of working plan yields
by windfall is in the forest of Gerardmer (Vosges). On September 1,
1908, the inspector reported that, in the first, third, fourth, sixth, seventh,
and eighth working circles, which had a prescribed annual yield of 11,971
cubic meters, on account of tremendous windfalls 46,378 cubic meters, or
the yield for almost four years, had already been cut. As a result of the

SHELTERWOOD FOR SPRUCE 81

windfalls of 1902 the conservator favored a return to an irregular selec-
tion instead of the shelter wood system. The selection preferred is one
regulated by volume and by area. In the fir forest of Noiremont (Jura)
the seed felhng removes practically two-fifths of the volume, the two
secondary felhngs one-fifth each, and the final felKngs one-fifth. After
the final felhng in this forest there were openings 33 feet across where the
parent trees had been cut. Here the openings were being planted up.
The improvement fellings in this forest, regulated by area, remove the
badly suppressed trees, badly formed trees, those dry topped, and the so-
called "wolf" trees. But even under the favorable conditions existing
the shelterwood system may be abandoned. In the forest of Risol they
have a rule of cutting not more than 100 cubic meters per hectare at one
time. According to the ranger's records:

"Cultural operations should always be directed with the aim of developing as much
as possible the growth of existing stands without sacrificing anything for regularization.
The ripe trees should always be removed when encountered in the fellings, but on condi-
tion that their retention is not considered necessary for reproduction."

In the saphng stands the dominant beech is almost invariably cut. In
the pole stands the suppressed and damaged trees are removed, and in the
high pole stands quite heavy thinnings in the top story are begun. All
beech not needed for reproduction is removed.

Shelterwood for Spruce. — While the spruce is not essentially a
tolerant species like the fir, yet it is not exactly a hght-demanding species
Hke the oak; it does not grow while under direct cover, and while it will
come in naturally on pastures, some side cover is desirable on account of
its demanding fresh soil. It is deeper rooted than the fir and more
difficult to secure. The seed of the fir is quite heavy, is of average size,
and cannot be carried great distances. On the other hand, most of the
cones are at the top of the tree; they open, not because of the heat, but
because of the moisture at the end of the September rains. The spruce
cones, to the contrary, are lower down on the tree and most of them are
found at the ends of the branches; they open under the influence of heat,
especially when the dry east wind is blowing, so that the seed may be
carried some distance from the tree. Moreover, the spruce seed does not
germinate well under the immediate cover of the mother tree nor do the
seedlings germinate successfully on dry needles, therefore the best condi-
tions for the germination of spruce seedhngs are openings in the mature
stands, exposed to the full sunhght, and where the mineral soil is at least
partially bared. In theory, at least, the shelterwood method of pro-
gressive fellings is appHcable to this species, but unfortunately there are
difficulties. The tree is subject to windfall on account of its superficial
root system and the heavy foliage. It is therefore necessary to make the

82 NATUR.\L REGExNERATION

seed fellings conservatively but, after the seedlings arc once established,
to cut the mature stand very rapidly [193]. As with the fir, the shelter-
wood system has not been wholly successful.

Shelterwood for Fir and Spruce in Mixture. — Fir and spruce are very
often found in mixture. From the economic viewpoint they have about
the same value. It is silviculturally advisable to have them in mixture
since, when mixed, insect and fungous damage is not so dangerous and the
soil is better conserved. When in mixture advance growth of fir is quite
common under the old stand. It is therefore necessary to fell old trees
here and there in order to enable the spruce to profit by the light and
establish itself in the center of the openings. While the advance growth
of the fir has the advantage of age the spruce seedlings develop more
rapidly and make an excellent mixture. The more you want to favor the
spruce the larger the openings should be made. It is also advisable to
favor it by wounding the soil. The mixture can be regulated in the clean-
ings and thinnings that follow [202].

The Selection System in Broadleaf Stands (Beech). — In practice
the [137] treatment by selection fellings is not systematically applied
in France to broadleaves. The beech is an exception. Because of the
irregularity of beech regeneration, even if treated by the method of pro-
gi-essive felHngs, it may often assume the character of a selection forest.
The beech may be treated under the selection system except in those
forests where it is mixed with fir. In theory, at least, the selection system
is very simple. In the working plan the exploitable or maximum size of
trees is given and the amount, either in number of trees or in cubic
meters, that should be cut each year. The entire forest is cut over, and
trees above the stated diameter limit are removed to the amount of the
estimated yield. In practice the forest is often divided into a number of
compartments and, for the sake of economy in lumbering, the selection
fellings are concentrated on a portion of the forest. Selection felhngs
avoid the crisis of regeneration which other more regular methods pre-
cipitate at the time of the seed fellings. Moreover, the classic selection
felling is only suitable to shade-enduring species. Selection fellings
mean irregularity as opposed to the regularity of clear cutting, shelter-
wood (progressive fellings), etc., [213]. Practically speaking the classic
selection felhngs of a few trees from the entire area under treatment is
never applied in France except possibly in the sub-alpine forests where,
in order to assist the forest in its struggle for existence against unfavor-
able climate and soil conditions, a light selection (or improvement) fell-
ing is usually employed. Clear cutting, even by strips or by the shelter-
wood method, is extremely dangerous in the mountains, but in the sub-
alpine forests, where the larch is one of the most important species, the
simple selection felling becomes a group selection, since the larch (see

FIR SELECTION FELLINGS 83

p. 89) is a light-demanding species and considerable openings in the
stand must be made. With cembric pine, or mountain pine, the openings
can be much smaller and the removal of a single tree is sufiEicient. With-
out question the tendency in France, as in other European countries, is
away from the original tree selection. Instead, especially with somewhat
intolerant trees, the practice is now to cut in groups so that, preferably,
there are clumps of even-aged trees ah over the forest which can be
thinned.

Fir Selection Fellings. — In theory, at least, the fir should be treated
under selection fellings except for the difficulty of lumbering all over a
forest and the danger on the other hand of compressing fellings into too
small an area and thereby maldng too gi*eat openings. Consequently,
in fir forests, selection fellings run over the same area on an average of
every eight years, removing about 12\ per cent of the stand. For this
reason, even in fir stands, the selection assumes the character of a group
or hole selection system. At high altitudes, in theory, the per cent re-
moved at one time should be small, but in practice as high as 18 or 20 per
cent may be cut in order to make logging feasible. For example, in the
communal forest of Cette-Eygun (p. 17 of the working plan) the method
of exploitation is as follows:

"These two working groups will be treated by the selection method; the high altitude,
the severe climate, the danger of avalanches, the slowness of reproduction at the higher
elevations, the control of water flow, the obligation in a country habitually and essen-
tially pastoral to keep stands open for grazing so far as possible, necessitates maintaining
a dense forest on all areas and slopes, and ratifies the choice of this selection method for
all regulated mountainous forests."

About 18 per cent of the stand is cut at one time.
Mathey argues (Societe de Franche-Comte et Belfort) that to obtain the
regeneration of spruce in the Alpine forests, the following are necessary:

1. Maintain shelter belts and groups of trees as a precaution.

2. Encourage the mixture of broadleaf trees and conifers so that the
former comprise at least 12 per cent of the upper story and 13 per cent of
the lower story, or 25 per cent in all.

3. Remove the sod in spots where it is desired to favor the develop-
ment of seedhngs.

4. Cut conservatively. In the lower working gi'oup cut every 6 or 8
years over the same area. In the average working group (4,000 to 5,000
feet altitude) cut every 10 to 12 years, and in the upper working gi'Oup
(5,000 to 6,000 feet altitude) cut only every 14 to 16 years. Areas above
6,000 feet should be considered zones of protection solely. It is abso-
lutely essential to be conservative in the treatment of these forests.

For the best management of a selection forest it is necessary for the

84

NATURAL REGENERATION

forester to have in mind the normal or average local number of trees per
acre for the different diameter classes; then by a comparison of the normal
with the actual stand it can be determined whether the forest has too
many or too few trees of the different size classes. Such data would be a
guide to determine from what diameter classes in a selection forest trees
should preferably be cut. The following table, compiled by Huffel,
shows average figures per acre for fir in different regions.

TABLE 7.— AVERAGE FIGURES PER ACRE FOR FIR

Number of fir trees per acre

Diameter,

breast-high,

Alpes

Vosges

Lorraine

slope

French Jura Mountains

Pre-Alpes
of Dauphine

inches

(average
for

toward

Savoie)

Low

Average

High

3,200 to 3,460 feet

6 «

12 0

8.4

12.0

8

3.2

9.4

10

2.1

6.0

32.0

6.4

2.3

7.0

12

1.6

4.3

26.8

5.6

1.9

5.1

14

1.2

3.1

21.2

4.2

1.5

3.6

16

10

2.2

17.8

3.5

1.2

2.6

18

0.8

1.6

12.9

2.6

0.9

1.7

20

0.6

1.1

9.2

1.8

0.6

1.0

22

0.5

0.8

6.1

1.2

0.5

0.6

24

0.4

0.6

3.4

0.7

0.4

0.4

26

0.4

2.4
1.4
0.9
0.5
0.4

0.5
0.4

28

30

32

34

Total

11.4

40.5

135.0

26^9

9T3

43.4

° Smaller trees are not calipered.

Schaeffer ^ gives the follow^ing formula for the management of a
selection forest:

"1. Establish a curve of a normal high forest, as has been indicated (see p. 214)
according to the existing stand.

"2. Calculate the jdeld by any method (if you wish, even by the number of trees),
provided it is simple, taking care to adopt a figure less than the maximum yield which
has been determined. . . .

"3. First cut the over-stocked age classes.

"4. Arrange for periodic stocktaking in order to revise the yield and to make sure
that it approaches the type of forest desired."

Spruce Selection Fellings. — Contrary to fir forests it is rare that ad-
vance growth is found under the parent spruce stand. Therefore, selec-
tion by groups or holes is always necessary, since it assures the regenera-

8 Un Type de Futaie Jardinee, S. F. de F. C. et B., A. S.

Fig. 7 (a). — Natural regeneration of spruce in the openings where it has sufficient
light. Under partial cover the seedlings have not as yet come in.

(6). — Spruce stand in the Melezet Canton, communal forest of Villarodin-Bourget,
running 146 trees per acre and 109 cubic meters (36,000 feet board measure). Here
.selection fellings removed trees declining in vigor until openings have gradually been
made. Since the soil became partially sodded and covered with spruce needles no
regeneration has succeeded. Had the openings been made at once, instead of gradu-
ally, the reproduction would have been secured.

(c)-(d). — Natural regeneration of spruce in the Melezet Canton, communal forest
of Villarodin-Bourget, at an altitude of 6,060 feet. No regeneration of spruce came in
after ordinary selection cuttings, which removed only a tree here and there. After a
windfall gave sufficient light (and wounded the soil) reproduction has succeeded in the
following proportions : Spruce, six-tenths; larch, three-tenths; cembric pine, one-tenth.

(85)

86 NATURAL REGENERATION

tion a sufficient amount of light and at the same time it does not open up
the forest enough to allow weeds to come in (see Fig. 7, A to D). The
openings made are not quite so large as in the Scotch pine, because the
spruce does not demand the same amount of hght. Frequently in spruce
stands the felHng of one large tree makes an opening large enough to
favor the introduction of spruce seedlings, although usually two, three,
four, and even five trees may be cut [199].

A study of the spruce stand in the Savoie, by Thiolher (see Fig. 7),
showed that, on the whole, regeneration is difficult. In a wet, mild
climate, at lower altitudes, the spruce behaves much like the silver fir,
but at higher altitudes the spruce must be differently handled. To
secure spruce regeneration:

(a) The seed must come in contact with fresh mineral soil, or soil
covered with humus of another species. If, for example, the ground is
covered with grass, or spruce litter, this must be worked and the soil
bared.

(6) Isolated spruce saplings suffer from the snow, so every effort should
be made to secure clumps or gi'oups for regeneration.

(c) To secure thrifty, well-developed crowns, early and frequent thin-
nings are indispensable; but if too heavy the height growth is decreased,
the cover is broken, and the trees become branchy; if too hght, or if begun
too late, the growth is slow and the trees are never really merchantable
for timber.

(d) Since the spruce requires full sunlight for best development it is
best grown in even-aged clumps or stands. But since it is so liable to
windfall some form of selection fellings is desirable and necessary at these
altitudes. This shows the vital necessity of not practicing a selection
system by cutting single trees but rather groups of trees. These groups
are then developed by successive cutting into fairly even-aged stands.
Thiollier stated to the author personally that these three cultural rules
should therefore be followed:

"1. The young stands must always be kept dense; the thinnings should only remove
trees without a future and free the crowns of the best stems without ever opening up
the stand.

"2. When a stand or a clump becomes of exploitable age, to regenerate it; make
openings (or holes) whose size varies with the altitude, the kind of soil, exposure, to be
made after an examination of existing blanks.

"3. The soil cover (grass, brush, spruce litter) should be broken up by irregular seed
spots so as to form flat areas in the holes or blanks where the seeding should take place.
If regeneration fails, plant in the center (of openings) with at least five trees spaced 12
inches."

In other words, Thiollier recognized the necessity of assisting natural
regeneration, and that the ground must not be allowed to run wild.
Since fir or beech is almost invariably mixed with spruce care must al-

SELECTION FELLINGS FOR SCOTCH AND ALEPPO PINE 87

ways be taken to favor the spruce if this species is especially desired. But
judging from results studied in France the practice of sacrificing a fair
species hke fir for spruce (which brings a little better price) is poor
technique, and there is danger of windfall.

The spruce and fir regeneration in the forest of St. Martin d'Arc is
favored by cleaning out the birch, aspen, and other less desirable species.
In the case of pine a complete cleaning is made wherever groups require
more light; with fir the cleaning is gradual and partial. In this particular
forest the cutting period is 15 years with a separate rotation for each
species, whereas in other parts of the Savoie the working plans officer
usually establishes one rotation to cover all species. In the improvement
cuttings undesirable trees are often left because if all undesirable ones
were cut it would mean a too heavy felling. In the neighborhood of
Thonon (Savoie), above the Drance River, the selection fellings take
place every 12 to 14 years, according to the working plan, but, in practice,
they cannot take place quite so often because the amount to be removed
is limited and accidental fellings consume too much of the yield. On this
rich soil the spruce comes in best in the openings. The protection zone
covers a 30 per cent rocky slope where only windfall is removed. In the
forest of Bonnevaux a selection cutting removed one tree from the center
of a group of three — a diseased tree, one that was suppressed, and a
stag-headed tree — as well as two trees which were suppressing fir repro-
duction. An opening 66 by 98 feet was made at one place because of the
removal of a large tree with a bad crown. The cut probably removed 25
per cent of the stand, the amount removed being necessitated by the
poor condition of the trees. In the forest of Grande Chartreuse, cut over
by selection fellings, weeds have come in in the openings which were made
to favor the reproduction of spruce, since fir here reproduces under cover
before the spruce can gain a foothold. In the forest of Chapelle d'Huin
beech and a little oak are mixed with the fir. Beech is cut rather heavily,
especially in cleanings, because firewood values have decreased to such an
extent. There is too much beech coming in under the old stand of fir but,
curiously enough, under the beech there is a good deal of fir. In this
locality, for the value of cord wood removed, the peasants will cut the
beech; thus the cleaning is made free of charge.

Selection Fellings for Scotch and Aleppo Pine. — Ordinary selection
felhng is not suitable for Scotch pine; gi'oup selection, when apphed to
a hght-demanchng species, must produce two results — it must diminish
the number of stems in the stand so as to open it up sufficiently and it
must make openings large enough so that the seedlings will receive the
necessary light, at least during the middle of the day. The size of these
openings or holes depends on the height of the tree and distance from
the seed trees. It is usually necessary to concentrate these fellings on,

88 NATURAL REGENERATION

say, one-fifteenth of the forest. Under the same conditions it is pos-
sible to make the openings 2 to 4 acres in area. The diameter of the
opening is usually at least one-half the height of the neighboring trees. As
soon as the regeneration starts it is necessary to open up around it in
order to give it sufficient hght for development, always bearing in mind,
however, that too wide openings, which become choked with brush,
are consequently expensive to clear. This hole-selection method has
been applied to aleppo pine, but until experiments in Algeria in the
Oran Conservation are completed by Conservateur Laporte, no final
decision can be reached as to the best method of treatment. It is very
significant, however, that near Marseilles the working plan calls for
the shelterwood system, that is, progressive feelings, but the local in-
spector preferred the method as described in the following statement
furnished the author personally :

"The aleppo pine is the only coniferous species of the calcareous regions of the Medi-
terranean Provence. Besides this species there is only the holm oak and the pedunculate
oak treated under coppice and furnishing nothing but firewood. In the Department of
Bouches-du-Rhone the aleppo pine ordinarily forms almost pure stands or mixed with a
small per cent of oak (.0 to 15 per cent).

"The forests of aleppo pine occupy the lower mountains where the altitude ranges
from sea level to 2,600 feet. The calcareous soil is generally on steep slopes, which are
usually rugged. There are numerous rock benches and stone slides with but little
vegetation. The climate is characterized by hot and dry summers. The average
annual rainfall is 20 inches at Marseilles to 28 inches at Areasque (in the center of the
small mountainous forest situated to the northeast of Marseilles). The average number
of rainy days is 85, chiefly in autumn and spring. During 1912 there was an almost
complete drought for two months — July and August.

"The aleppo pine is admirably adapted to these conditions, which any other indige-
nous species would not be able to stand. It is essentially light-demanding, endures
drought, and is vigorous. It has a very light foliage and is easily regenerated by natural
means. But while it stands heat and prolonged droughts, its growth suffers neverthe-
less, and its remarkable thrift when near water . . . shows it can thrive on fresh
soil. The young seedlings suffer from drought if the roots are not well into the soil;
they are often burned by the sun in the summer if it is especially hot and dry. On cer-
tain rocky slopes where the stand is open it is difficult to get regeneration under the old
trees; on the other hand, the soil should not be allowed to run wild, since it must be pro-
tected against the heat of the sun; cuttings must be light.

"The treatment by regular high forest (shelterwood) with a rotation of 60 years and
with the division of the forest in three periodic blocks (each to be regenerated in turn
within 20 years) has been followed in a number of forests for 50 years. But the looked-
for regularity has not been obtained on the arid and rocky soil which one finds on most
of the area under management.

"Uniform stands have been obtained only on several areas where the soil was deeper
and richer; these are the exception rather than the rule. In reality most areas treated
by the shelterwood system have always remained in a transition stage. On the contrary
the selection system is adapted to the regional conditions. Forests of more than 741
acres are divided into working groups whose area ordinarily does not exceed this. Each
working group is divided into a certain number of felling areas, usually 10 to 16, which

GROUP SELECTION FOR LARCH (AND OTHER METHODS) 89

are cut over each year successively (the area of each felHng area usually varies from 12
to 49 acres) . The number of the felling areas also fixes the periodicity of cutting over
the same point, 10 to 16 years . . . and at each cut the trees which have attained
exploitable size (12 to 14 inches in diameter) along with the badly shaped and over-
mature trees are removed; at the same time the trees, where they are too thick, are
thinned, thereby freeing the promising seedhngs. The yield is not fixed; the cut re-
moves each time 15 to 20 per cent of the standing material. Seedlings ordinarily come
in quickly where the stand has been opened; and if the neighboring trees shut off a
portion of the sun's rays when it is low on the horizon the effect is not bad for the seed-
lings, but on the contrary preserves them against the dangers of excessive heat and
drought, due to the intensity of the light and the lightness of the cover.

"The selection method gives in the end excellent results from the cultural viewpoint
and is perfectly suited to the silvics of the aleppo pine, both as to the soil and climatic
conditions. It assures the conservation of the stand, something that is essential in a
region where the percentage of wooded areas is much too small (14.2). It yields short-
stemmed trees, to be sure, but 36 feet of height growth is sufficient for very mediocre
soil. Moreover, the length of the stem is of secondary importance, because at the saw-
mill the aleppo pine is cut into small boards for shipping crates. From the economic
viewpoint there is the objection of giving a very great latitude to the officer who does the
marking, since there is no fixed yield, but it must be remembered that because of frequent
fires ... it does not seem feasible to establish a precise working scheme which
would have to be incessantly revised and whose provisions would be constantly re-
versed."

Group Selection for Fir or Spruce. — In high altitudes, or perhaps on
rocky soil, the advance growth is rare and it may be impossible to wait
for it to install itself. There are usually groups of advance gi-owth,
however, and these may be gradually uncovered by removing the stand
surrounding them. As these groups develop other trees are removed
so that they become larger and larger until the ground is completely
stocked. This method has given very good results and often is the only
one that can be employed. If there are no groups of advance growth
an old tree may be cut here and there in order to start seedling growth.
If the openings are too large there is danger of weeds taking possession
of the soil [174]. Spruce reproduces better with group selection than
with selection by single trees.

Group Selection for Larch (and Other Methods). — Near Briangon
there are numerous interesting examples of the treatment of larch forests.
(See Fig. 8.) In the communal forest of Villard St. Panerace the larch
comprises an open park-like forest where cattle grazing is allowed.
The cutting made is really an improvement felling, but the young
growth is always freed even if a good tree has to be cut. On the other
hand a good many poor trees are left rather than make large openings.
According to the working plan it is a seed felling, but on the ground
it was a selection felhng by groups. According to the working plan
no sacrifices are to be made to regularize the stand and yet the inspector
is not advised systematically to make a regular stand irregular. In

90

NATURAL REGENERATION

another portion of the forest the marking illustrates the freedom and
flexibility of French silviculture. Here the cutting was the removal
of small groups of trees and the groups left were occasionally thinned.
Trees were left along roads and around a small mountain swamp. The
openings were rarely more than 33 to 49 feet in diameter and the groups

Fig. 8. — Pure larcli at an altitude of .5,970 feet, in tlie communal forest of Tignes.
The stand totals 49 trees per acre and 4,5 cubic meters (11,000 feet board measure).
A selection felling has resulted in an open stand, because the ground (grass covered)
was not worked to assist regeneration.

left were preferably on rocky ground and very steep slopes. The cutting
in one locality where conservatism was indicated by the steep slopes
removed, in a hght selection system, about 20 per cent of the stand.
An experiment was being tried out by cutting in strips running hori-
zontally around the slopes. The strips cut were about 100 feet in width

TREATMENT OF SCENIC FORESTS 91

and the uncut strip, which was thinned, was about 65 feet wide. In
the same locality in the forest of Ban de Puy-Saint Pierre the selection
system was used because it did not interrupt the local grazing. The
local inspector stated that if there had been no provisions in the working
plan (by Broilhard, December 31, 1855), he would have used the shelter-
wood method on the lower gentle slopes and a conservative selection
system higher up where the slopes were steep. According to page 13
of the original working plan the secondary fellings are not necessary.
"The regeneration fellings fall into a seed felling and a final felling."

The trees reserved after the seed felling should be at least twenty
per acre. Grazing should be forbidden in each division when it comes
to be regenerated, and the extraction of underbrush should be made
at the time of seed felling. When the natural reseeding is less than
half completed, say 7 years after the seed felling, the ground still un-
stocked should be cultivated in horizontal strips 20 inches wide, spaced
3.3 feet. Moreover, any openings still remaining at the final felling
should be planted. The final cutting will take place when the reseeding
is completed, and the seed fellings shall not be started again until after
the ground is fully stocked. The rotation is 200 years.

Treatment of Scenic Forests. — Forests retained as semi-parks for
recreation are always high forests and are usually free from working-
plan regulation so far as the specific amount to be cut is concerned. A
selection system is usually applied but in reality it is a light improvement
cutting, removing only the dead and dying trees. The young stands
are often thinned. For example, in the working plan for the forest
of St. Antoine in the Vosges (for the years 1908-1939), special provi-
sion is made for the scenic working group designed to protect a gorge
with waterfalls and precipitous slopes. In the selection system used
the fine, big trees are favored and are retained as long as possible for
their natural beauty. According to the working plan:

"The aim of this scenic working group is to form and to keep a stand of beautiful
trees without striving for regularity and without a necessity for economic exploitation.
Each year after having marked the windfall and dead trees and having subtracted their
volume, the remainder of the yield should be cut from the entire compartment . . .
by selection ... see to it not only that the stand is not opened up, but also that
it is maintained sufficiently dense. In the young stands remove only the trees wholly
dominated and the stems too dense which will certainly become valueless. In the high
forest . . . remove only the overmature or wholly defective trees . . . the
greatest prudence will always be the maxim. The selection fellings will be extended
over a large area in order to cover the working group one and one-half times during the
cutting period."

In all forests under working plans famous trees are always reserved
from cutting.

92 NATURAL REGENERATION

COPPICE SYSTEMS

General. — Economically and silviculturally the application of any
coppice system over large areas is a grave error. Tassey estimated the
loss in France, due to the large areas in coppice, at more than 60 million
dollars per year. In fact all the best French authorities condemn cop-
pice and especially short rotations, yet to-day we find four-fifths of the
private forests in some form of coppice. Even in the State forests more
than one-third of the producing forest area is in coppice (largely cop-
pice-under-standards). Furthermore, nine-tenths of all coppice in
France is managed on too short a rotation.

In the past this type of stand was very profitable because of the
high prices of tannin bark and firewood. But to-day, on account of the
large decrease in these values, coppice is becoming less and less profit-
able, and so far as economic and silvicultural conditions permit, these
stands are being transformed to high forest. One of the main objections
to conversions is that it is necessary to increase the growing stock, and
communes dependent on local wood supphes cannot afford this economy.
In some localities where tannin bark is the chief product, coppice rota-
tions have been as short as 12 or 15 years. In other locaHties the coppice
of sessile oak has been continued, but with a longer rotation so as to
produce mine props and stulls. With this longer rotation (which often
amounts to 30 or 40 years) it is necessary to thin coppice in order to
give the best chance for development to those trees which will produce
mine props 16 to 33 feet in length. The management of simple coppice
is popular with private owners because it has frequently given a certain
fixed income, it requires little or no skill, less money is tied up in grow-
ing stock, and because there is Httle danger from insects or fungus.
Except in very wet locaHties, however, it results in positive damage to
the soil. According to Boppe: "There is grave danger from frost,
especially to species like beech, and to have successful coppice stands
for generations a mild chmate is essential."

Furthermore it is necessary to study the sprouting longevity of the
species in the coppice.^" For example, the sessile and pedunculate oaks
in France sprout well up to 40 or 50 years of age, while other oak species,
such as holm, do not sprout vigorously after 25 or 30 years. But as a
matter of fact most private coppice in France should be cut on double
its present rotation. Some species (oak, hornbeam, ash, maple, alder)
reproduce vigorously from the stump, others (beech and birch) sprout
poorly but make up for this deficiency by prohfic seeding; the aspen

i°See "Le Traitement des Bois en France, "Broilliard, Nouvelle Edition, especially
pp. 62-236. Since the coppice systems will not be widely used in the United States the
French application to the various species has not been given in detail.

SIMPLE COPPICE 93

does not sprout from the stump at all but produces root suckers in
abundance. These qualities must always be considered. The chief
species found in French coppice stands are locust, poplar, maple, oak,
beech, ash, elm, alder, birch, and hornbeam. In a great many localities it
is becoming very popular to introduce conifers into the coppice stand
with the idea of converting them gradually into high forest and in order
to have the conifers increase the production of timber. Maritime pine
and aleppo pine are also being introduced in coppice stands in the south
of France.

The following official figures give an idea of the relative yield of
timber and fuel from simple coppice, coppice-under-standards, and high
forest :

state and communal

Simple coppice

Coppice-under-standards .
High forest

Simple Coppice. — The important technique is to cut at the right
season and to cut smooth, sloping stumps close to the ground. In
France the season to cut oak is from March to May; for hornbeam,
March to April; for birch, November to December. August is the
most unfavorable month in which to cut coppice, and on fire hues it is
often of value to cut in August so as to weaken and decrease the sprout-
ing. It is of interest that there are two variations to the rule of cutting
low stumps: (a) In holm-oak stands where the ground is dry and the
climate hot, the stump may be cut 2 inches beloiv the ground to increase
sprouting; (6) on wet ground, where there is often standing water (as
in the Sologne) the stump may be cut 5 to 8 inches above the ground.
This method would be followed with willow along the river beds. To
maintain coppice in good condition the better species, such as oak, must
be occasionally planted or sown in the blanks; these seedlings must be
usually protected from suppression by the more rapidly growing sprouts.
When the coppice rotation is 25 years or more one thinning, about 8
years before the end of the rotation, is necessary for the following reasons:
The growth of the coppice will be increased; the first-year standards will
endure isolation better; valuable species, and especially seedlings, can be
assisted by cutting weed species which are competing with them; coppice
suppressing the lower branches of valuable reserves, which would start
rot, can be cut out; and short lived species can be removed before they die.

94 NATURAL REGENERATION

Coppice with Field Crops. — " Sartage," the combination of coppice
with field crops, has been largely condemned in France as poor silvi-
culture, but Jolyet beheves in it "since the potash resulting from burn-
ing the branches enriches the soil sufficiently to permit with some
success the cultivation of grain." On the other hand Boppe [222] calls
attention to the damage from fire, the decrease in the amount of oak,
the washing away of soil foods on the slopes, and the difficulty of in-
creasing the rotations.

Selection Coppice (Beech). — While considerable difficulty has been
experienced in treating beech under the simple coppice system, it can
be worked in selection coppice (taillis furete), since the selection cuttings
enable the retention of part of the stand which protects the shoots
against the first autumn frosts. It is usually worked on a diameter-
hmit basis and furnishes a great deal of charcoal for manufacturing
purposes. Huffel, who likes this method, says [147] that "the treat-
ment in selection coppice is really a methodical treatment and perfectly
rational, justified by the silvics of the beech and the exceptional condi-
tions of the coppice. . . . When employed correctly it gives good
results."

Correctly apphed, the selection coppice does protect the young beech
from frost, but since the best sprouts are being cut continually the
stand must in time deteriorate. In practice, with a 30-year rotation,
one-third of the stand in each compartment would be cut every 10 years.
Naturally it is difficult to cut the larger sprouts from a clump without
damaging some of those that remain.

Coppice-Under-Standards. — Coppice-under-standards is composed of
two distinct elements: the lower story, the coppice, which is cut clean
on a short rotation, and the upper story, or reserve,^^ which is usually
managed on a rotation four to five times the length of the coppice.
The object of this kind of management is to increase the proportion of
timber. It is now generally admitted as being inferior to high forest
without the advantages of coppice. The species composing the coppice in
coppice-under-standards evidently should have splendid sprouting ability
and should also be species that will endure some side shade. The hornbeam,
the maple, and the linden are the chief species; heech and oak are less valu-
able. The pyrenean oak is used as coppice a good deal in the west of
France, birch is useful on sandy soils, and poplar on wet soils. The chief
skill in managing a coppice-under-standards forest is the choice of the
upper story, which should be chosen from species of a light foliage so as
not to suppress the under story, and should be selected so far as possible
from seedlings or root suckers as a second choice. The pedunculate and
sessile oak are of the first importance as standards, although ash, elm,
" See Jolyet, pp. 225, 250, 382, 431-439 for data on coppice-under-standards.

COPPICE-UNDER-STANDARDS

95

and maple are good associates. Even with light fohaged oak three to
six per cent of the coppice is lost through shading. The alder and linden
are not so good on account of their thicker fohage, and beech can be
used only in exceptional circumstances. The foliage of the hornbeam
is too thin. Most stands of coppice-under-standards have been
ruined through careless selection of the trees to be reserved. These
reserved trees should be carefully distributed over the area so that the
crowns can be isolated. According to Inspecteur Galmiche [233] the
following space should be allowed for oak standards of the following
ages: 50 years, 22 square yards; 100 years, 89 square yards; 150 years,
145 square yards. According to Jolyet two-thirds to one-third the grow-
ing space should be reserved for the coppice and a normal number of
reservesi2 are per acre: IR = 20, 2R = 12, 3R = 8, 4R = 4. Broil-
hard prefers not to specify any exact number of reserves as an ideal,
but advises the forester to mark as many as possible if good trees can
be found. He cautions against stopping the reservation of standards
simply because 20 to 25 or more have been secured. If good trees can
be secured it is better to go ahead and mark them. In a coppice-under-
standards forest near Oloron in the Pyi'enees the foresters are guard-
ing against keeping too many standards. They argue that, with too
much of a reserve, the coppice does not grow well in youth and the
reserves do not develop so thriftily. As explained by the local inspector
the Nancy Forest School teaches the value of retaining many standards
for the simple reason that they yield a larger percentage of timber, but
rather than adopt this practice the local inspector favored conversion
to a high forest. The normal number per acre in this section is four 3R,
twelve 2R, and twenty-four IR standards. It is claimed that with
many reserves they cannot grow such good trees and the oak is pre-
vented from coming in as thriftily as it otherwise might. Major Hirsch,
the owner of the famous forest of Amboise, reserves all the standards he
can secure and in view of eventual conversions this seems the best pohcy
for those who can afford it. Badre believes in greatly increasing the number
of standards to secure quick conversions, especially in Normandy where up

12 The French name their reserves as follows :

French name

Age,

30-year coppice

rotation

Key letter used
by author

Baliveau

Moderne

30-60
60-90
90-120
120-150
150-180
180-210

IR standard
2R standard

Ancienne, 2d class

3R standard

Ancienne, 1st class

Vieille Ecorce, 2d class

FiTi ftnnrlnrrl

6R standard

96 NATURAL REGENERATION

to 600 per acre are sometimes reserved. Thiollier ^^ gives four rules for the
improvement of coppice-under-standards : (1) Lengthen coppice ro-
tations; (2) increase the density of the reserves and thin when coppice
is 20 years of age; (3) concentrate the oak on the soil best suited to it;
(4) choose standards best suited to the soil. Gazin/* one of the best
foresters in France, in private employ, has called attention to the bad
effect of higher labor costs on coppice exploitations and the necessity for
reserving more standards and planting. He advocates using 100-foot
strips through the cutting area, cutting clean the coppice on half the
strips and the ripe standards on all strips so as to (1) get mine props from
the coppice held over; (2) crowd out the weed trees; (3) enrich the stand;
(4) improve the soil by having uncut strips. Such procedure is mani-
festly a compromise so as not to reduce the revenue too much during the
process of increasing the growing stock.

The following rules for the choice of standards have been developed
in France: ^^ (1) All reserved trees (standards) must be of sufficient
distance apart so that the branches of their crowns cannot join before
the end of the rotation which is beginning. If they do join sufficient
Hght will not be admitted to allow the coppice understory to develop.
(2) It is not absolutely essential to have the reserves evenly distributed
over the cutting area because to do this means to sacrifice the choice of
species. For instance, it is better to have some grouping of the reserves
if by so doing some good oak standards can be secured. (3) It is ad-
vantageous to reserve a great number of standards near the forest
boundaries to serve as a wind protection and to prevent the soil in the
interior of the cutting areas from drying out too much. (4) It is also
advantageous to have the reserves, so far as possible, situated near the
logging roads and compartment hues, since it makes cutting cheaper
and the product more valuable, at the same time giving the forest the
appearance of richness. (5) A good, sound oak should always be favored
as against other species for the reserve. (6) If two trees are oak of
equal vigor the largest should be reserved if it will last until the next
rotation. (7) If neither of the two trees is oak, reserve the next best
species and the straightest, thriftiest tree. (8) The selection of first-
year standards should be made personally by an experienced forester.
Broilhard adheres to the rule: "It is always the vigor of a tree that
should determine its retention, and those are the big trees which enrich
the coppice." A good coppice-under-standards is impossible with a
short rotation for the coppice, because the length of clear bole of the
standards is determined by the height of the coppice. With a rotation

13 Taillis et Futaie Melanges, par E. Liouville (Thiollier cited). Besangon, 1911.
" Coupes de Taillis sous Futaie par Bandes Alternes. Brochure, pp. 73-85.
15 Jolyet, pp. 235-239.

COPPICE-UNDER-STANDARDS

97

of 15 to 20 years the coppice is necessarily short-boled. Broilliard there-
fore concludes that the rotation for a coppice-under-standards should
be 30 to 40 years or more unless the soil is very rich, but unless repeat-
edly freed the oak shows a tendency to disappear.

It is becoming more and more popular, with the decrease in fuel
values, to plant conifers in coppice-under-standards, especially on
rather thin soils and where there are considerable blanks. According
to Jolyet, such species, to make their introduction a success, should
have the following qualities: (1) Rapid gi'owth, especially during the
initial years when there is competition with the rapidly growing coppice;
(2) intolerance (or at least not tolerant); (3) light-foliaged crown; (4)
hardiness (especially against late frosts); (5) must be windfirm. Not-
withstanding these rules the species most frequently introduced are:
(Locusts) Austrian pine, (birch) Scotch pine, white pine, alder, larch,
and spruce. The spruce is clearly neither hght-foliaged nor wind-
firm.

In the third conservation the financial yield of the coppice-under-
standards has been classified,!^ according to the soil, into six groups :

TABLE

COPPICE-UNDER-STANDARDS

I. — "Calmatages'

II. — Sandy clay . . .

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

"Maris "

Clay

Calcareous marl.
Rocky

Rotation,
years

20-25
40

32-38
32-36

32

Annual

average

net

yield,

per

acre

$4.63
3.01
2.54
3.09

0.85

Communal forests

Rotation,
years

20-26
20-27
20-29
20-30
24-36

Annual

average

net

yield,

per

acre

$2.54 up
3.01
1.62
0.93
0.46

Annual
average
net yield
on 25-year
rotation,
per acre

Coppice

$2.54
2.16

1.38

0.93
0.70
0.39

The coppice-under-standards system is typical of France but is
merely a weak compromise between the high forest (the forest of the
future) and the coppice (the forest of the charcoal and cordwood age
which is past). French writers, like Broilliard, show clearly that it
pays to hold good trees over as reserves, by citing the value of a IR
standard as 20 cents, a 2R standard as $2, a 3R standard as $8, and
a 4R to 5R standard as $20, without taking into consideration the
damage the standards do the coppice, for, as a rule, the better the stand-

1^ Traitement et Amenagement d'un Taillis sousFutaie, M. A. Mathey, 1909. S. F.
111.

98 NATURAL REGENERATION

ards the poorer the coppice, except on the richest of soils. But from
the American viewpoint the question must always arise: "If standards
pay well, why not have high forest and be done with it?" In the ma-
jority of cases the owner of the coppice-under-standards probably pre-
fers this system, since he has not so much capital tied up as he would
have in the high forest, and because he not only gets his returns oftener
but gets besides some saw timber.

A Substitute for Coppice-Under-Standards (Futaie Claire). — Accord-
ing to Huffel (pp. 327-333, Vol. II), a new method of treatment must
be adopted for the oak-beech stands in the northeast of France:

"In a large part of France, and precisely that part where there are most public for-
ests, the natural regeneration of broadleaf trees, where oak is the chief species, is at-
tended by great difficulties. The seed crops are often very rare, separated by intervals
of almost 2.5 years. (There were no complete crops in Lorraine from 1861 to 1888.)
Furthermore, in this region, the oak grows on fresh (compact) clay . . . where
weeds grow rapidly and prevent natural regeneration. These difficulties, and others
. . . decided our predecessors to abandon the treatment of forests under regular high
forest (futaie pleine) in the northeast of France. . . . They had pictured instead

. . a coppice-under-standards. . . . But when fuel wood commenced to be
menaced by coal . . . they looked for a substitute for the coppice-under-standards
which would produce a minimum of fuel and a maximum of saw timber. Two solutions
were adopted. In the State forests they generally undertook the conversion of the
coppice-under-standards to regular high forest. ... It ended, in many forests, by
their abandoning the conversions. . . . The attempts at conversion put a great
many of our best stands in a state of disorder. . . . Then they thought best
to substitute for the coppice-under-standards what they called 'high forest over
coppice,' that is to say, by multiplying as many times as possible the number of
standards in the compound coppice. . . . The coppice-under-standards became
gradually, under the influence of exaggerated reserves, a sort of irregular high forest
over a decrepit coppice, formed mostly of weed trees in which the oak had entirely dis-
appeared. . . . Where the young standards were oak . . . the harm was not
irreparable. A systematic felling of three-fourths the 2R standards . . . would
reform the coppice. . . . But where these IR standards or superabundant 2R
standards were beech the situation was very grave. . . . They will be forced after
one or two rotations to complete the conversion to high forest. . . . The high forest
over coppice, where you mark 200-300 standards from the coppice (aged 25 to 30 years)
is nonsense and ends sooner or later in an 'impasse' from which it is difficult to get out.

"It seems possible to form a type of forest, more easily secured in the northeast of
France than the regular high forest, and more productive in saw timber than the cop-
pice-under-standards. It is with this aim in view that we now sketch a kind of ex-
ploitation which we call by the old term 'open high forest' (futaie claire) that our pre-
decessors frequently used for discribing the isolated oaks which they grew above their
coppice."

Huffel accordingly proposes in effect a selection high forest with
oak as the principal species with fellings on a 15-year cutting cycle
regulated by area. With a 120-year rotation there would be trees in
the first compartment 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105, and 120 years old;

SUBSTITUTE FOR COPPICE-UNDER-STANDARDS (FUTAIE CLAIRE) 99

and in the fifteenth compartment 1, 16, to 106 years, or in correspond-
ing size classes,

"These trees are so mixed up, that at every point there would be seed trees. . . .
We would thus succeed in profiting by all partial seed crops. . . . Moreover these
(seed) trees are isolated, that is to say, they would not form a continuous complete
stand with one story. Between the largest (oldest) trees there would be openings,
whose size would be determined by the tolerance of the species, and by the need of light
for the seedlings. . . . Each age class must occupy equal areas in the forest. . . .
If we had ten, then each would cover one-tenth of an hectare (2.5 acres). In the oak
forests, for which we suggest this kind of a felling, it would be advisable, as a precaution,
to leave a portion of the area unoccupied . . . so as to favor the germination and
maintenance of seedlings which might come in, mixed with . . . weeds and sprouts.
When the time for cutting arrives the less vigorous and less desirable trees in all size
classes will be felled in excess of the normal number assigned to the size class. At the
same time the young seedlings, poorly formed or lacking in vigor, would be cut back and
the others freed." . . .

This type of forest, Huffel claims, would have the following advantages
over the coppice-under-standards :

(1) Almost all seed would be used no matter where or when it is
produced,

(2) The systematic and frequent cutting over the same area would
insure the maintenance of the seedlings by disengagement cuttings,

(3) This frequent cutting would also make it possible to leave only
small intervals between the large trees and the saw timber would
therefore be increased over that obtained in coppice-under-standards.

(4) The large trees would have longer boles,

(5) The frequency of felling would allow the removal of defective
trees and weed species,

(6) The felling would be hghter and hence better for the stand,

(7) The improvement felling so necessary in coppice-under-standards,
though often omitted, would not be so vital because of the frequent
regular fellings,

(8) "The operation of marking the fellings (without being more
difficult to make them correctly in the coppice-under-standards) will be
in every case clearly and precisely regulated. They could not depend
on the arbitrariness of some man who changes the method of treatment
of the forest by unreasonable multiplication of IR standards of second-
ary species, or of being ruined by the excessive felHng of large trees,"

As empirical figures, subject to variation, Huffel gives the "normal"
number of trees for each diameter class. These data would be used as a
guide and for the purpose of comparison with the actual stand when
the fellings are made:

100

NATURAL REGENERATION

D. B. H.,

Average number

D. B. H.,

Average number

inches

of trees

inches

of trees

8

28

20

6.1

10

17.6

22

5.1

12

12.8

24

4.8

14

10

26

4.4

16

8

28

4

18

7

It is too early to give the results of this suggested departure from
standard methods. The greatest danger appears to be from tolerant
species which may usurp more than their share of the soil. Oak demands
full sunlight for its regeneration. Will this be secured? Then, too, how
would Huffel's "futaie claire" cUffer from a group selection system with a
cutting cycle of 15 years?

Conversions. — If we accept the arguments against the coppice and the
coppice-under-standards systems these forests must be converted into high
forest, and to-day there are 241,189 acres, one-fifth of the State forest area,
in France being transformed into high forest.^^ This is easy in theory
but difficult to execute satisfactorily except on rich soils with good
conditions for natural seeding. The procedure ^^ for conversions varies
with the quahty of the stand:

(A) With rich coppice-under-standards: (1) Increase the rotation of
the coppice to reduce sprouting; (2) increase the number of standards;

(3) every 10 to 12 years thin out the coppice and favor the standards;

(4) at the end of the new rotation make seed felUngs, secondary fellings,
and a final felling as required by the silvicultural conditions; (5) fill
in blanks with rapidly growing hght crowned species.

(B) With a rundown coppice on poor soil rather than wait for the
lengthening of the rotation or the gradual reservation of standards, it
may be best to: (1) Make a heavy improvement cutting; (2) plant the
blanks, and (3) protect the plantations by frequent cleanings and thin-
nings.

Between the extremes of (A) and (B) there may be many combina-
tions and variations. In case (A) the coppice rotation may be increased
70 to 80 years, since aging the coppice increases the soil fertility and
assists the future regeneration. The thinnings can realize the d3dng
trees in the coppice, reduce the number of sprouts to each stump, while
the cover will hinder sprouting. If the seed felhngs are Hght, beech and

17 According to Huffel (p. 328, Vol. II, footnote 2) : "From 1876-1892, 348,000 acres
of State forest formerly under conversion were made into coppice-under-standards.
The acres of coppice under conversion were 699,000 in 1868, 717,000 in 1876, and
368,000 in 1892." In 1912 the area was further reduced to 241,189 acres.

18 Jolyet, pp. 149, 252, 260.

CONVERSIONS 101

other tolerant species will be favored against the more desirable oak.
After the final felling great care should be taken to free the oak. Con-
versions should begin only where the conditions are favorable and not
all over the forest.

Cuif/^ in charge of research at Nancy, favors conversions by group
selection rather than by the shelterwood for the following reasons: (1)
It is apphcable to large and small forests ahke; (2) forest capital is more
evenly distributed; (3) the method approaches nature; (4) it profits by
seed trees here and there; (5) mixtures are encouraged; (6) each species
can be cut when ripe with coppice-under-standards. He favors the
best stems and seedhngs, cutting sprouts level with the ground to pro-
vide them with good root systems; he plants in the openings and cuts the
coppice back to favor the best trees.

Probably the best-known conversion ^o in France is that for the State
forest of Amance undertaken by the Nancy Forest School. It was
started by Lorenz in 1826 and the working plan was revised in 1856, 1877,
1888, 1901, and 1908. It offers the best chance in France for a detailed
study of conversion methods as apphed to hardwoods. In the original
working plan Cuif says:

"The conversion of a coppice-under-standards to open high forest (futaie claire)
does not seem to present very serious difficulties. It is even hkely that it would auto-
matically follow the application to a coppice-under-standards of a rotation equal to the
period of an open high forest. It would suffice then, in order to accomplish this, to add
to the reserve every 15 years the oak and ash seedlings which would be found mixed with
the young coppice shoots and to ehminate systematically from the high forest the beech,
elm, and light woods which it actually includes. This method of procedure would
surely lead to the final aim. But the conversion would be long, and it would require
sacrifice even greater than the coppice, destined to disappear only gradually and only
because of natural forces would furnish products without commercial value. In order
to alleviate this inconvenience we propose to adopt the following rules in marking the
conversion fellings which follow one another at 15-year intervals:

"1. Preserve all the reserves of the oak and ash species except those which are
defective or too weak to warrant the hope of seed.

"2. Complete lopping of coppice around these reserves, this lopping being extended
far enough so that the circumference of the crowns may l^e freed completely and bathed
in sunlight.

"3. Levying of a moderate yield among the trees 10 inches and above in diameter
among the other species, the large beech with many by preference being eliminated.

"4. In those localities where the cover of oak and ash reserves is lacking, form wath
these trees (also small beech, elm, and hnden, or with coppice poles) an open stand ca-
pable of serving as a nurse stand for the oak and ash. These plantations should be made
in the same year as the felling; they should aim to introduce these two species in the
parts where they are totally lacking.

1' Personal notes supplied the author in 1913.

20 Amcnagement de la Foret domaniale d' Amance (Meurthe et Moselle), 1908. Par
Cuif.

102 NATURAL REGENERATION

"5. Reserve all oak or ash wherever found, but take pains to free all seedlings and
sapUngs.

"These general principles being stated, the management of a conversion in open
high forest requires: (1) Forest descriptions by divisions on the ground destined to form
separate units; (2) the results of the stock-taking made in each of these divisions; (3)
the regulation of felhng during the first period of 15 years with an indication of the yield
and the approximate amount of annual planting; (4) a critical analysis of the products to
be realized before and after the conversion."

In the forest of Montargis conversion, according to the working plan,
the following cultural rules are given :

"Except on several areas which are quite open, natural regeneration of the old poles
can readily be obtained, but we do not pretend that the regeneration mixed in the old
pole stands will thrive. The sprouts are usually not to be feared as a general rule be-
cause of their overmaturity and because of decaying stumps, but, on the other hand,
there will be an insufficiency of seed coupled with a rapid deterioration of the soil and
encroachment by the heather. Moreover, it is felt that it will often be advisable not to
wait too long for a complete natural reproduction but, that it will be better to secure a
second crop by artificial restocking. We are convinced that for these stands only resin-
ous species are suitable."

In this forest the coppice is held over to a rotation of 70 to 80 years
in order to secure complete cover, good seed bearers, soil protection,
and to protect the young seedhngs from the frost as well as to weaken
the sprouts. It will also be necessary to free the seedlings during the
first 20 years. In order to encourage seedhngs to come in the ground
is worked, but only where there is a probability of an acorn crop. Soil
wounding here costs from $1.15 to $1.50 per acre. The hornbeam and
beech will be cut first because they form too vigorous stands, but in
one place where the beech had come in after the seed felhng (because
httle light was admitted) it will not be sacrificed; instead it will be
retained. In another working group, where the coppice had been ruined,
the ground was planted to Scotch pine which was first thinned after 15
years and afterwards every 10 years. An interesting plantation of
Scotch pine had been made on the south side of a compartment along a
road in order to protect the interior stand against the sun. In some
worn-out blanks single Scotch pine had been planted in November and
December, separated by at least two meters from the neighboring
sprouts. In this conversion the chief factors were: lengthening the cop-
pice rotation, securing all possible seedlings and root suckers for the reserve,
filling up blanks with conifers, repeated cleanings to favor the reserve so
that the coppice would be gradually shaded out and the forest trans-
formed to a high forest.

In the forest of Huit a coppice-under-standards forest is being con-
verted into a conifer high forest. Spruce has been planted in rather a
poor, open coppice-under-standards. At the age of from 10 to 15 years

CONVERSIONS 103

quite a proportion of the spruce was suppressed by the sprouts, and in
the 1912 felhng a great deal of damage was done. It is clear that the
spruce should have been hberated some time ago. The 1912 cut removed
all the poor material and kept all the best poles, although some of the
older standards were cut in the openings; the coppice is still coming up
strong, but where lots of standards have been reserved, it is fast dis-
appearing and becoming suppressed.

The Scotch pine introduced at Baccarat (Basses- Vosges) at an alti-
tude of from 900 to 1,900 feet, is now 70 to 80 years of age. Most of
the area was in coppice-under-standards. Nine pounds of Scotch pine
per acre was sown in cultivated strips 24 inches wide and 5 feet apart
on the areas ruined. The broadleaves on such poor soil yield each
year about four cords and 62 cents per acre. The total cost spent on
conversion amounted to about $12 per acre; this did not include the
cost of cleanings at two years of age at $2.40 per acre; at 4 to 5, 6 to 8,
and 8 to 10 years at costs of $1.54, $1.54 and 38 cents, a total cost of
$5.86 per acre. Thinnings began at 10 to 15 years and paid for them-
selves up to 15 years; at 26 years they netted 39 cents per cubic meter;
at 35 years about $1.05 per cubic meter, and at 44 years a net yield of
$1.44 per cubic meter (about 11 cents, 29 cents, and 40 cents cord net);
owing to deterioration of the soil it was found necessary to underplant
with fir and beech at 25 to 30 years at an additional cost of $9.60 per
acre. This makes a total cost of $27.46 per acre on soil preparation,
seed, sowing, cleanings, and underplanting. Counting the former broad-
leaf forest yielding at 62 cents per acre per year, the Scotch pine at the
end of 59 years has shown an annual yield of $2.01 per acre, or $1.39
more. Apparently this conversion will prove a sound business venture.
Even with good technique it takes time to make conversions. In the
communal forest of Vuillecin (near Pontailler, Doubs), the oak and
beech comprise 0.6 of the stand and fir and spruce.

According to the special fellings scheme:

"In order to obtain a systematic conversion to conifer high forest and in order to
accelerate the transformations with the aid of artificial restocking and local thinnings
... the compartments have been divided into two groups. In the first group we
have assigned compartments . . . where the conversion to conifers is the least
advanced and where, because of the poor condition of the coppice, the large number of
old beech which still remain, and because of the plantations which have been lost, im-
provement is needed at once. It will require about 30 years ... to complete the
restocking which is required. . . . These compartments are to undergo transforma-
tion cuttings at the start, being something like shelterwood fellings followed by planta-
tions, then by thinnings whose renewal will depend on cultural requirements.

"The second group will include the remaining compartments under improvement
cuttings.

"A. — Transformation cuttings. The compartments of the second group shall num-
ber four; two with 5-year and two with 10-year intervals. Thus it will be possible to

104 NATURAL REGENERATION

give, without undue delay, all necessary care to the existing plantations, to complete
them where necessary, and make sure of the transformation of the compartments of the
first group during the period (30 years).

"B. — Improvement cuttings. The compartments of the second group shall be
thinned twice during the period of 30 years, or once every 15 years.

"1. — Transformation cuttings. The first two cuttings (transformation) shall aim
to give to the existing plantation what is considered a sufficient number of trees to pro-
tect the restocked areas, which shall be made after the cutting, provided that is neces-
sary.

"The second two cuttings shall remove the overmature material that remains stand-
ing so that each compartment of the first group shall be completely converted into
conifer high forest by 1939.

"From 1910 to 1939 all the restocking shall be done exclusively in the compartments
of the first group. Spruce should be used, as heretofore, for i)lanting since it has given
excellent results; on the poorer soils, however, it might be well to try out Austrian pine
and Scotch pine.

"2. — hnprovement cuttings. These shall be carefully executed and shall consist of:
(1) Extraction of fir most liable to rot and old oak or beech of poor quality that has
become useless . . . general development of existing conifer poles; (2) thinnings in
the poles where they are too thick, and cleanings in the thickets and saplings to assist
the more valuable species, and to free them . . . removal of crooked stems and dead
trees; (3) in the pole stands where the broadleaves dominate, the best beech should be
resowed and, so far as possible, the conifers of all ages."

The best-known example of a conversion attempted in the United
States is found under the direction of the Yale Forest School. Accord-
ing to a statement issued by the school:

"The general plan of management for Maltby Park may be summarized as follows:
It is handled in conjunction with other forest lands owned by the New Haven Water
Company, the total area being in the neighborhood of 9,000 acres. The hardwood
stands will be managed on some modification of the shelterwood method, such as the
polewood coppice system, on a rotation between 60 and SO years. Several problems in
connection with this method remain to be solved, such, for example, as the influence of
sprouts which start after thinnings, on seedling reproduction which later on it is desired to
secure.

"Where conifers have been underplanted the hardwoods will eventually be removed,
and a coniferous or mixed stand obtained. It is believed that, on account of the rela-
tively slow growth and low yield per acre of the hardwood species, better financial re-
sults could be obtained by converting all the hardwood stand to coniferous forest but,
until approximately 2,000 acres of open land on other parts of the holdings are planted,
this policy will not be adopted."

Under the condition existing at Maltby Park probably even better
silvicultural results would have been secured if the hardwoods had been
cut more heavily and if more money had been spent in freeing the
plantations suppressed by the coppice sprouts. The value of the land as
watershed would not have suffered because the area under conversion
comprised only a small per cent of the drainage area.

INTERMEDIATE CUTTINGS 105

CARE OF THE STAND AFTER REGENERATION

Intermediate Cuttings, — Especially with natural regeneration, clean-
ings, thinnings, and improvement cuttings are particularly important.-^
With natural regeneration there are always weed trees to be cleaned
out of the stand, and valuable seedlings and saplings to be protected
and favored; the over-dense stands must be thinned to prevent undue
competition; and later on the stand must be continually improved by
the elimination of the poorer specimens. According to Bardrillart a
cleaning "is a cutting designed to clean or 'purge,' as one might say,
a forest of a part of the wood, briars, brush, weed trees that damage the
growth, or trees that are dead or dying, or too numerous." It is very
much like weeding a garden. As a rule, private owners in France over-
look the necessity of weeding or cleaning their forests because there is
a definite expense involved. The French employ the term "to free a
stand" as synonymous with the term "to clean," with the shght differ-
ence that they free a valuable species from crowding while they clean
out a seed tree to avoid injurious competition. According to Jolyet
"the chief aim of a thinning is always to favor the growth of the best
trees . . . . to maintain a stand in the best vegetative condition,
or a mixture in the desired proportions . . . and to increase the
yield." It thus appears that thinnings also free and clean the stand,
but at a later period in its development, and their main objective is to
increase the growth by reducing unnecessary competition for light and
growing species, and at the same time reahze merchantable timber.

In France the term "improvement cutting" means, as the words
imply, the improvement of the stand by thinnings, or fellings which yield
money returns. There appears to be no clearcut distinction as to the
age of the stand when improvement fellings are applied, as may be seen
by the quotation from the Malmifait working plan (p. 112).

From the standpoint of silviculture it is essential that intermediate
cuttings be ordered, in current working plans, by area and not by volume.
Forest valuation should never interfere, as it has in the past, with silvi-
culture. If the forester aims at checking excessive cuts he should pre-
scribe the area to be cut over each year with a maximum volume merely
as a check. Too often in the past the French forester has marked an im-
provement cutting in a compartment only to find that it could not be
properly executed because the working plan prescribed a maximum cut
of 80 cords, whereas the marking properly executed should remove
180 cords. Happily errors due to restraining the silviculturahst from

21 In France the marking, which requires real technique, is always done under the
personal supervision of a forest assistant, assistant supervisor, or supervisor. Even
district foresters take part in important marking conferences.

106 NATURAL REGENERATION

really "purging" the stand are now well recognized in France and are
avoided. Intermediate fellings should begin early, should be repeated
as often as necessary, and should be governed only by good silvics.

Cleaning (and Freeing) Young Stands.- — Jolyet describes cleanings
as "the operation, which consists in retarding the development of
secondary or too ambitious species, tending to improve the normal
development of the future stand, consists in freeing these seedlings
or 'degagements.' " Boppe says that "cleanings should aid the normal
development of the best species, favor seedlings against sprouts, and
should be started early, since they are only justified if in good time."
They should be repeated as often as necessary to protect the more valu-
able species. Schaeffer,-^ one of the foremost French conservators,
recognized that cleanings referred especially to young stands. He
wrote :

"It is admitted today that a cleaning should only include small timber, and con-
temporaneous authors reserve this term for the whole cultural assistance to be given
young stands. However broad this definition may be, it appears to me to be still in-
complete, for it lacks the idea of clearing brush from a soil under a mature stand. ' Clean'
should signify: To make clean, clear; to relieve the soil of a forest of the weed growth
(shrubs) means to many the very essence of cleaning; this aspect of the question should
not be overlooked."

But without doubt the most important aspect of cleaning is the
cutting of small immature timber to improve the stand.

Most important timber species, such as sessile oak, even when 10
to 15 years old, have a slow rate of growth as compared with the weeds
or poorer species which surround them. Therefore it is necessary to
free them and assist them in their competition with weeds and poorer
species. It is not necessarily desired to entirely cut out interfering
shrubs or species, but rather to favor only the valuable species in their
fight for existence, provided the surrounding brush does not interfere
with the growth of the terminal shoot. It is even an advantage to
have it in mixture, since it promotes height growth and prevents snow
breakage or other damage. All weeds cut in a clearance are valueless.
To remove them would be expensive, to burn them often dangerous.
Where they must be cut level with the ground it would be unwise to
leave them, and the usual practice is to pile them around the base of
the reserved trees which still occupy the felling area before the final
cutting. The forest guards are the ones who should make the cleanings
and it is essential that the same individual trees should always be favored
in subsequent operations, since it is obviously poor policy to favor one

22 See Boppe, pp. 94, 134, 162, 200, 248, 254; and Jolyet, pp. 9.3, 114, 134, 154, 174,
186, 200, 239, 243, 248, 254, 385.

23 Du Nettoiement dans les Bois. Par A. Schaeffer, Besangon.

CLEANING (AND FREEING) YOUNG STANDS 107

sapling at one clearance and a different one at another [94]. A shade-
enduring species such as beech, of course, does not require freeing to
the same extent as does a hght-demanding species such as oak [134].
Even the maritime pine, which is a rapidly growing species and a prolific
seeder, requires assistance against the genista, with which it is often
in mixture [154]. Scotch pine, until it has developed above the heather,
must always be assisted [162]. The young spruce does not resist shrubs
even as well as the fir, and notwithstanding its rapid growth at the
start it may often remain dominated by weeds unless cleanings are
practiced [200]. In coppice-under-standards, it is particularly essential to
protect the best species and the best seedlings or sprouts against competition
with inferior species and weeds [SJ^S]. In conversion [254] cleanings are also
essential.

One of the most important objects in freeing desirable species is
to give them the preference over less desired species which may be
more rapidly growing during youth. For example, in a mixed birch
and Scotch pine stand, the birch might damage the Scotch pine, which
is the more valuable, unless assistance were given it.

According to Schaeffer cleanings in regular high forest should first of
all destroy the weed trees, briars, and weeds which develop on rich
soils, so as to conserve light, water, and food for the future commercial
stand. But he cautions all foresters against the unnecessary cleaning
of light-foliaged, short-lived trees that will do no material damage to
the valuable species. He favors the Bagneris method of only topping
competing unmerchantable weed trees instead of cutting them off at the
stump. This method, which prevents sprouting, and though cheaper, it
must be recognized, means more work because it must be done oftener;
it should rarely be appHed in the United States. The best time to clean
out weeds from young growth is in the late summer or autumn; but for
cleanings in stands the spring is best because, if too heavy, the stand
has time to recover before snows. In fir the period is less important, but
the winter is best.

In selection forests the procedure is somewhat different. There are
two schools; one believes that the ground cannot be too densely covered,
while the other, led by Gurnaud, believes in periodic cleanings in the
understory. Probably the theory of at least partial cleanings in selection
forests is correct, but care must be taken to study the soil conditions.
Some soils may need every shrub or weed as a protective cover. But
since most selection forests are in the mountains, moderate cleanings
are usually advisable at the time of felling the saw timber. This
cleaning removes small trees damaged by exploitation, weed trees,
holly, and even beech which is not required for soil cover in the moun-
tains.

108 NATURAL REGENERATION

In coppice cleanings protect the seedlings. They must be started
4 or 5 years after cutting the coppice and continue for 15 or 20 years.
They act as a thinning in increasing growth and in removing the briars
and weeds, weed trees, and poor stems of more valuable species. The
increased growth due to a cleaning may be 40 to 50 per cent or more.
Where the coppice is grown under standards the cleaning is all the
more essential, because the best standards are of seedhng origin, a class
of tree especially protected by the cleaning. To give the best results
cleanings, according to Schaeffer, must be made every 3 or 4 years.
The growth of the standards is increased. Jolyet is satisfied with clean-
ings at 5, 10, or 15 years.

Thinnings. — Thinnings have three main objects: (1) To eliminate
the least desirable specimens; (2) to increase the rate of height and
diameter growth of the final stand by artificially removing a portion of
it in order that the competition for existence need not weaken the best
trees; (3) to improve the quality of the trees of the final stand. (See
Fig. 9, a and h). It is erroneous to believe that a very dense stand
means rapidity of height growth. To secure proper development trees
must have sufficient growing space so that their crowns can increase in
vigor.

While thinnings do not always result in a greater final yield the
quantity of large, good-quality timber is certainly increased and the
intermediate plus the final yield of a thinned stand is always more
than the final yield of an unthinned stand. Thinnings decrease insect
and fungus loss as well as windfall and snow breakage. There is a
general feeling among foresters that the French believe in making heavier
thinnings than do the Germans. The old axiom of thinning early and
often is actually practiced in the forest in France and is advocated in
the text-books. The French believe in thinning the top story in order to
decrease the struggle for existence among the dominant species. ^^ On the other
hand, as in other divisions of French silviculture, the French methods are
simple and direct. They have not classified the thinnings, as have the
Germans, into a large number of grades.

In coppice with long rotations the French believe in moderate thin-
nings [111].^^ Most thinnings start in France when the stand is 20
years old and continue every 6 to 20 years. They are marked by the
guards and rangers under the personal direction of the inspector, assist-
ant inspector, or forest assistant [134]. With a species hke maritime

-^ The bracketed page references are to Jolyet.

25 This naturally is not an ironclad rule. In the forests of Mouthe and Fuvelle (Jura
fir) up to 50 to 60 years the thinnings were largely in the understory; only after the stand
had closed were the thinnings in the top story. This is logical. After 60 to 70 years the
thinnings in fir may remove up to one-fifth the stand.

THINNINGS

109

pine it is invariably the practice to make heavy thinnings -^ in order
that the crowns may be fully developed when tapping for resin begins.
These start at 10 years of age and continue every 5 years until tapping
to death begins at about 20 years. Jolyet says [155]:

A B

Fig. 9 (a). — Pole stand of spruce at an altitude (west exposure) of 4,590 feet in the
communal forest of Beaufort. There are 364 trees per acre, yielding 117 cubic meters
(23,000 feet board measure). The thinnings thus far have too much hght to permit
crown development.

(6). — Spruce and fir running 255 trees and 283 cubic meters (74,000 feet board
measure) to the acre, in the Canton du Mont, communal forest of Thones-Ville, at an
altitude of 3,120 feet on a west exposure. Thinnings have been insufficient to free the
crowns of the most promising trees.

26 This is entirely proper with maritime pine but with spruce or fir, for example, care
should be taken not to open up the stand too suddenly. The chief danger in the United
States is of too heavy thinnings because of the need of a large cut at one time to reduce

110 NATURAL REGENERATION

"At 15 years there is a second thinning (made with an axe), this coupled with a
pruning of the remaining trees up to the maximum height the face wUl reach, that is to
say up to 6.6 to 9.8 feet above the ground. At 20 years there is a third thinning, pre-
ceded by the tapping of the trees destined to be felled. There is no reason to try to
maintain the vigor of these trees; the essential is to realize as quickly as possible all the
resin which they can yield; they are . . . tapped to death at 25 years, and at 30
years there is a fourth and a fifth thinning, always preceded by tapping to death. After
the fifth thinning is cut out the stand becomes very open; it is hardly complete. This
condition is, however, favorable to the growth of maritime pine, since the crown, when
well thinned or in full sunhght, produces more rapidly the substances necessary for the
formation of wood and resin. The pine trees which remain are now called pins de place
and are tapped alive, that is to say they are worked with a moderate number of faces so
as to obtain a reasonable amount of resin without compromising the vitality of the tree.
This tapping will be continued, moreover, during the entire hfe of the tree (with 1 or 2
years of respite). In addition the thinnings (every 5 years) are continued in the stand
until the time comes for regeneration by clear cutting; it should be imderstood that each
thinning is preceded by the tapping to death of the trees marked for feUing."

In Scotch pine it is often dangerous to wait until trees are large enough
to yield mine props; it is better to start thinnings earher, say at 18 or
20 years, as purely cultural operations. After once starting they should
be made every 7 to 8 years [163]. In mixed stands [182], such as beech
and fir, the thinnings should favor the fir against the beech, since the
latter is essentially adapted to an understory rather than to the major
stand [182]. In even-aged stands it is the French practice to choose
the trees which should form the future stand and then favor them in
the thinnings. The mere removal of suppressed or intermediate trees is
not countenanced, since the French beheve very firmly in thinning the
upper story [200]. The chief aim in making thinnings in the coppice
of a coppice-under-standards stand 8 to 10 years before the coppice is
cut is to increase the diameter growth of the most vigorous trees which
will make the best standards for the upper story during the succeeding
rotations [245].

Another operation, in reahty a thinning or loosening (depressage)
in seedhng stands, is very necessary in crowded maritime pine regenera-
tion, and often in dense clumps of Scotch pine reproduction, to prevent
damage by fungus through overcrowding. Jolyet -^ says of it :

the cost of logging. Huff el says in the preface to Vol. II of Economie Forestiere:
"Exaggerated thinnings are fatal to the health and finally to the very existence of forests.
By breaking the cover and uncovering the soil, they diminish or destroy its productive-
ness. The humus disappears; the soil dries out, packs and hardens. The forest is
invaded by weeds, heather, and grass; the valuable species are gradually ehminated.
If made too suddenly thinnings cause windfall. Too heavy thinnings are imeconomic
since they increase the volume of branches and sapwood, yield short tapering boles.
. . . They also decrease the quality of wood. . . ."

27 Influence des Eclaircies dans les Peuplements reguUers de Sapin. E. Cuif,
1905.

IMPROVEMENT FELLINGS

111

"It is necessary to break up these thickets by cutting a certain number of seedHngs.
The term ' depressage ' (hterally loosening) explains well enough the nature of the work
which is done with a bill hook or pruning iron. To sum up, the 'depressage' is not a
freeing (degagement), but more nearly a first thinning executed in very young stands."

There can be no question but that thinnings are profitable when the
trees to be cut can be sold. As a concrete example of increment the
following is cited for a fir stand in France:

Plot A,
thinned

Plot B,
unthinned

1913 value of stand

$889.13
667.01

$1,687.78

43 39

Sales since 1893

Totals

$1,556.14
1,113.41

$442.73
3.76
1.37

$1,731.17
1 323 21

Price in 1893

Difference

$407 96

Per cent of value increment

2 80

Increase in average price per

cubic meter (per cent) . .

.97

Thus thinnings, properly executed, mcrease average annual revenue
and the unit of value of the final product. On account of the larger
logs in another plot the price increment per meter was 17 cents. Cuif
believes that good thinnings will enable the State to decrease the ro-
tations.

Huffel cites some authoritative figures for the growth per cent for a
spruce forest thinned and unthinned. Starting with 20 years the growth
per cent is 0.7 for both stands; at 50 years the unthinned stand was
growing at the rate of 4.3 per cent and the thinned at 4.5 per cent, at 100
years the growth per cent for the unthinned stand was 2.6 and for the
thinned 3 per cent.

The losses througn poorly executed thinnings may be lasting.
Schaeffer ^^ cited a case where a compartment was ruined for 30 years
because the officer in charge of the marking did not study the stand
curves in the working plan (see p. 216). He cited diameter Hmit mark-
ing as abominable. Important marking, according to French behef,
should always be executed under the direction of a trained officer.

Improvement Fellings. — French text-books do not refer to " improve-
ment fellings" as such. They describe freeings, cleanings, thinnings, and
accompanying cultural operations. But in State forest and communal
working plans there are always instructions under the head "Coupes
d' amelioration," as distinct from regeneration fellings and freeings.

In the forest of Argon according to the original working plan, when

28 Sylviculture Administrative. A. Schaeffer. Besangon, 1907.

112 NATURAL REGENERATION

the stand is 50 to 60 years old there are careful thinnings in the poles
and the removal of dry, suppressed trees and final felhngs with light
thinnings in the pole stands and the gradual ehmination of the beech.
According to the working plan :

"1. In the spring, one shall carefully reconnoiter the windfall, dry trees, dead trees,
or those declining in vigor; the volume shall be determined from the volume table.
Under the head of defective wood should be included all trees seriously defective, such
as rotten, fungus infected, or very crooked trees, or those exuding resin or showing
cancer."

This clean-up in the almost mature stands is in effect an improve-
ment felling. In the forest of Malmifait, under the heading "Improve-
ment Fellings," the working plan prescribed the following:

"The cultural rules to apply will vary according to the working group. In the third
group (the first to be regenerated so far as the mature reserves are concerned, which
must be zealously kept to furnish most of the future seed trees), it is necessary that only
dead and dying trees be cut and everywhere on those areas where it is impossible to find
suitable seed trees in the poles; on those areas all the trees are defective or hollow. In
the poles the young trees of desirable species, which must furnish the future seed trees,
will be freed rather energetically and prepared for seeding purposes along with the mature
reserves and especially when these reserves are lacking; moreover the thinnings will be
very fight so as not to expose the soil; otherwise the seeding would be started (prema-
turely) along with briars and grass which would form, later in the third period, an ob-
stacle to natural reproduction. The same cultural rules will be applied in the fourth
group, but with even greater moderation; it wiU be possible to sacrifice some of the old
trees which are hollow or in mediocre condition in favor of good stems, stiU young,
existing in the poles; but here, also, the thinning as a whole win be fight. . . . In the
young growth of the fifth group, where old reserves are lacking or few in number, the
oak must be freed, and the good beech as required; there should be no hesitation, in the
areas where the oak is the dominant species and where the beech is insufficient, in
sacrificing the former of these two species to assist the latter, so as always to make sure
of a proper mixture of these two species.

"Finally, in the compartments of the second group where it will be necessary to pass
most often, the special cutting scheme provides for four fellings instead of two, for the
other groups, during the last 26 years of the period; the improvement cutting will take the
form of cleanings, liberation cuttings, or thinnings, according to the condition of the
stands; besides it is necessary, wherever the regeneration does not take hold, to assist
the seeding by means of wounding the soil and to complete it by plantations of oak
and even beech where necessary. It is essential to continually see to it at the start that
the seedlings and plants are not choked by the briars . . . and later on that the
promising individuals of the good species should not be hindered in their growth by
secondary species. These operations are especially delicate. So far as possible they
will actually be done by the employees as betterments (improvement work). They
must be carefully and progressively executed at short intervals on the same ground.
Often, especially at the start, it would be better to cut out the weed trees gradually
rather than to remove them all at the same time, which would uncover the seedlings
too brusquely. . . . Often it will be preferable to kill the weed trees by girdling
rather than to cut them level with the ground, which would favor the production of
vigorous sprouts, able to very rapidly interfere with the young growth of valuable
species."

IMPROVEMENT FELLINGS 113

Judging from this quotation the term "improvement felhngs" in
France is used rather as a general term to signify any kind of intermediate
felling. It has been employed by some officers in a narrower sense to
denote the improvement of mature stands prior to regeneration, where
dead, dying, and diseased trees are cut out systematically to reahze
profit on what would otherwise constitute a loss.

CHAPTER VI 1
ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION

French Policy (p. 114). General, Choice between Sowing and Planting.

Seed (p. 117). Cultural Value of Seed, Seed Testing, Rules for Seed Control.

Nurseries (p. 122). Location of Nurseries, Nursery Practice, Two Sample Nurs-
eries.

Planting (p. 125). Cultivation and Spacing, Age of Plants, Time to Plant, Planta-
tion by Holes, French Planting Technique, Cover and Protection, Species and Methods
to Use, Chief Dangers.

FiBLD Sowing (p. 132). Prepared and Unprepared Soil, Amount to Sow, Season for
Sowing, Summary of Sowing Methods as Applied to Species and Regions.

FRENCH POLICY

General. — Notwithstanding the sentiment in France in favor of
regeneration by natural means it is obvious that with only 18.7 per cent
of the land under forest, considerable areas must be restocked artifi-
cially if France is not to suffer for lack of wood (of the kinds needed).
Thus far the Government has devoted the most time and revenue to
the reclamation 'of the sand wastes in the Landes (see Chapter VIII)
and to the reforestation of lands in the mountains (see Chapter VII),
denuded through past improvident overcutting and overgrazing. Next
in importance has been the planting and sowing in the Sologne and
Champagne. Besides this restocking of barren areas there has been
occasional sowing and planting to supplement natural regeneration
when this has been a partial failure. There are always fail places in
natural reproduction where nature must be assisted to maintain pro-
duction and to keep the present stand from deterioration. For example,
with more than three-fifths of the forest area in coppice or coppice-
under-standards these stands must be continually sown to oak or under-
planted (the usual practice) to prevent blanks. In conversion from
these systems to high forest more desirable species than can be secured
by natural seeding must be introduced.

Too frequently, however, the private owner has allowed his forest to
deteriorate because sowing or planting involved direct expenditures
to-day, with returns deferred until the next generation.

To practice good forestry is to save, so it is somewhat surprising that

1 Prof. J. W. Toumey, Dean of the School of Forestry, Yale University, and Lt.-Col.
A. S. Peck kindly reviewed this chapter and made many valuable suggestions.

114

CHOICE BETWEEN SOWING AND PLANTING 115

to-day there is not a larger per cent of French territory under well-
managed forest. The main reasons for this deficiency can be traced to
the vicissitudes of families and of the nation, coupled with the selfish-
ness of pleasure-loving nobles, kings, and pohticians. Yet, curiously
enough, the search after pleasure, in the form of hunting and shooting,
is responsible for some of the most famous high forests of France.

Trees are sometimes planted as shelter-belts for the fields on the
right of way along the railways. This apparently is a wise use of land
otherwise unproductive, but it is very hard on the eyes of travelers.
Where the railroad grade passes through cuts trees have been planted
to hold the earth and prevent erosion. This is a practice which American
railroad engineers might well follow. At Toulouse cypress trees are
planted along canals to protect them against drying winds.

Roadside tree planting is practiced very generally throughout France
and results in endless rows of trees flanking the highways which is one
of the characteristics of the French countryside that impresses itself
most indelibly on the traveler.

French writers ^ class (a) the forestation of the Landes and mountains
as obligatory forestation and {h) the stocking of poor agricultural land
or waste land, which has never been cultivated, as optional. From the
standpoint of public economics no nation can afford to permit land
suitable for growing crops of trees to lie idle. If the individual cannot
afford the proper forestation the State must step in. There should be
no waste land nor should its use for forestry be optional. It should be
obligatory, but with the alternative of yielding ownership to the State
under equitable conditions. With at least 300,000 acres partially or
completely denuded by the recent war, France has a vital problem of
reforestation to meet and must import a large portion of her seed or
plants. It would certainly be a just settlement if the Germans were
made to furnish much of the seed and plant material.

No attempt will be made to treat the subject of artificial stocking
systematically; instead only the most interesting and instructive phases
of the problems will be covered in varying detail.

Choice between Sowing and Planting. — According to such foresters
as Lorentz and Parade field sowing is considered especially useful on a
large scale, since it is alleged to be simpler and cheaper than plantations
and because the result is more nearly like the natural forest. On the
other hand, it is recognized that the plantation is surer and results in
more regular stands. Therefore where the soil is dry, where it is de-
nuded, and where it is eroding, as in the majority of cases in the Alps,
planting is preferable to sowing. While no absolute rule can be formu-
lated for the choice between sowing and planting, Demontzey, the
2 For example, see Jolyet, pp. 467-468.

116 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION

father of mountain planting, believes that planting is usually preferable
and that sowing should be done only in special cases, since the sowing,
while sometimes less costly than planting, is less certain and often in-
complete. Sowing is best, according to the French writers, on some
kinds of rocky soil where plantations are made with diflficulty, where
seed is very cheap, and where the soil need not be previously prepared.
Otherwise it is usually more expensive.

Planting was neglected for a long time in France, but Government
forestation has given it an impetus and formally established its desira-
bility under certain conditions. Planting makes possible the control
of species, mixtures, and spacing, and is generally considered better on
very rich soils where weeds abound, where there is damage from rodents
or squirrels, and in hot and dry regions where the young trees cannot
be protected but must resist the heat. For successful direct seeding,
it has been found necessary that (1) there be no dense cover that will
shut out the light, (2) the young plants should have a little protection
against the snow, (3) the soil should not be too exposed to heaving by
frost, but that it should have a moist surface, and (4) the slopes should
not be too steep. Otherwise the plants will be eroded or covered by
earth transported by flood water. There are other considerations.
Certain seeds take more than a year to germinate so that they remain
exposed for a long time to the different agencies of destruction. For
example, cembric pine seeds and some species of ash belong to this class.
Therefore, planting is to be preferred to sowing for these species. Not-
withstanding this, however, cembric pine is sometimes sown because of
the shortness of the favorable season at the high altitudes and the diffi-
culty of handling labor in these out-of-the-way places. Of course,
species which develop a long taproot at the start are better sown, as,
for example, the holm oak and the maritime pine. In the case of the
cypress it is better to plant because a certain number of seeds bear
plants having a pyramidal form. In Savoie and in the Basses-Alpes
sowing is often employed, in connection with planting, at high alti-
tudes and on stable ground for the cembric pine, the mountain pine,
and the larch; spruce is also sown in Savoie. In the Basses-Alpes,
Drome, and Vaucluse acorns and aleppo pine seed are sown; beech
nuts are also sown in the Basses-Alpes. Aleppo pine comes up well
from sowing operations in the Maritime Alpes. Scotch pine, Corsican
pine, and maritime pine are sown successfully in the northeastern part
of the Gard department. Elsewhere in this department sowing is re-
served for the summits and high altitudes where the wind is very strong.
The sowing of Scotch pine on heather has been employed in the Central
Plateau, in which region sowing and planting generally give about
equivalent results. In the Ardeche the sowing of fir under the shelter

CULTURAL V.AXUE OF SEED

117

of open stands of beech or pine often succeeds, as in other places where
this species is suited to the cHmate. In the Lozere seeding is employed
only for the pedunculate oak, chestnut, and Scotch pine. In the Aude
and the Pyrenees-Orientales holm oak and maritime pine are sown.
Pedunculate oak, chestnut, and aleppo pine in this region are both sown
and planted, with a preference for sowing.

SEED

Cultural Value of Seed. — It is important for successful artificial
forestation that the real cultural value of the seed to be used should
be known in advance. Much attention has been given to this point.
After comparing the results obtained at Paris and Barres with those
at other experiment stations, Fron concludes that the average seed
value of the principal tree species, bought in the open market, is as
given below. This signifies that for larch 10 pounds must be used
where the sowing plans call for 4 pounds.

TABLE 9. — AVERAGE SEED VALUE

Species

Scotch pine. . .
Mountain pine
Austrian pine.
Maritime pine.
Aleppo pine. . .

Spruce

Larch

Fir

Average
purity,
per cent

95+

95+

95+

95+

95+

95+

80-85+

88+

Average

germinatioi

per cent

75-80+

70

75-80+

75

80

75-80

45-50

20

Duration of

test, days

Average

cultural value,

per cent <*

70-75+
66+
70-75+
70+
75

70-75
40+
16.6(Zurich)

Obtained by dividing the product of germination and purity coefficients by 100.

The experiments conducted also emphasized the fact, now so generally
known, that forest tree seeds cannot be stored successfully without
losing so much of their germinative per cent that storage becomes un-
profitable, unless kept in air-tight retainers — not yet generally em-
ployed by seed houses. Scotch pine, with a cultural value of 74 to 79
per cent, was reduced to 49 to 58 per cent the second year, 28 to 45 per
cent the third year, and less than 5 per cent the sixth year. These are
maximum losses. The cultural value of mountain pine and Austrian
pine decreases as rapidly, but maritime pine stands storage much better,
and even after 10 years' storage has a cultural value of 40 to 60 per
cent. Spruce seed values decrease rapidly with storage; if 73 to 77 per
cent the first year, they are 53 to 62 per cent the second, and but 26 to
44 per cent the third year. It might almost be said that larch seed

118

ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION

cannot be stored; if 39 to 44 per cent the first year, it is only 16 to 18
per cent the second, and 5 to 8 per cent the third year.

Seed Testing. — As a result of these experiments a fixed procedure was
adopted for official tests on tree seeds. It must be known ^ (1) whether
seed can germinate and what the germination per cent will be; (2) per
cent of impurities, since the germination per cent plus the purity per
cent gives the cultural value of the seed, subject to practical field condi-
tions which always modify the supposed cultural value. In addition
to the above factors it is also necessary to know (3) germinative
energy.

In 1872 germinative seed tests were started at the secondary school
for rangers and guards at Barres. An experimental seed-testing station
at Paris was established in 1884.^ There were 117 analyses in 1895
and 2,201 in 1902-03. The object was to control and better the tree-
seed market of France. This seed-testing laboratory enabled the State
to purchase seed with a guaranteed germinative per cent, and the cumu-
lative result of germinative tests at the various stations has made it
possible that no one need purchase or sow tree seeds without knowing
their germinative value. The first column following gives the gross
amount of seed required for a complete test, and the second column the
amount usually required in the laboratory for the actual test.

TABLE 10. — SEED REQUIl

lED

Birch and analogous species

Seed required,
complete test

Seed required,
actual test

Grams

Troy
ounces

Grams

Troy
ounces

Scotch pine, Corsican pine, aleppo pine

Spruce, larch, alder, hornbeam, maple

Cembric pine, fir, cedar, oak, beech

Acacia, ash, linden, maritime pine

50
100
200
250

1.6
3.2
6.4

8

20
30
50
100

0.6
1.0
1,6

3.2

3 Analyse et Controle des Semences Forestieres, par A. Fron, Paris, 1906, pp. 1-128.
Those interested in seed control should study this monograph.

^ So far as possible the French forest administration collects its own seed. Various
local dry-kilns have been established as, for example, at Murat (Cantal), Puy-de-
Dome, and Gap for Scotch pine; at Modane, Briangon, and Cavanasse for mountain
pine, although some Scotch pine is produced at Cavanasse. At Salzman, Corsican
pine seed is produced. At Montiers (Savoie) spruce; and aleppo pine at Font-de-
rOrme (Vaucluse), d'Aubagne (Bouches-du-Rhone). Maritime pine is secured from
Lavandee, although a part is secured from permittees who have the right to collect
cones in the dunes of Gascogne. Larch and cembric pine are purchased in the Hautes-
Alpes and Basses-Alpes and distributed from Embrun and Barcelonette. It is in-
teresting to note that the larch seed is collected by beating the trees when they are
ready to shed, between January 1 and March 1.

SEED TESTING 119

For determining the weight by volume one and one-half quarts
are usually required. It goes without saying that the samples from
each lot must be chosen with the utmost care. First, the shipment
must be thoroughly mixed, then at least ten samples, selected from
different places in the pile, are mixed and a final average lot selected.
When the seed comes in sacks ^ samples can be extracted from each
sack or from a certain proportion mixed together and sampled as given
above. Where samples must be sent away for testing they must be
labeled and sealed in air-tight bags, but if the water content of the
sample is to be determined the shipment is made preferably in corked
glass or air-tight metal boxes. It is of value to keep samples of seed
known to be normal to use as a basis for comparson ; with reliable samples
officers that are not experts can readily check species and, occasionally,
varieties. The separation of the debris from the real seed can best be
made by hand. The seeds are placed on a glass and separated from the
wings, particles of cone, refuse, debris, wood, sand, and damaged or
puny seed by the use of a penknife. The operation must be completed
as soon as possible to guard against changes in weight due to drying.
The absolute weight is determined by averaging the weight of two
lots of 1,000 seeds each; with this figure the number of seeds to the pound
can be decided by multiphcation. When the amount of seed per quart
is to be secured a number of quarts must be averaged owing to the
variations usually encountered.

A reliable germination test must include four separate lots of 100
seeds each, or for acorns and nuts four of 50 seeds each; the choice of
which seeds to use must be by lot to eliminate absolutely the personal
element. After the tests on each lot the results ought not to vary more
than 10 per cent for seed with high germination powers nor more than
15 per cent for seed germinating around 50 per cent. Before the germi-
nation tests it is customary to soak conifer seeds in sterilized luke-
warm water for from 6 to 15 hours. This time counts on the total length
of time allowed for germination. For germination Fron recommends
a heavy sterilized blotting paper or sand with a Schribaux stove, the
humidity l^eing kept at 50 per cent to 60 per cent during the entire test.
No chemicals are used. The temperature is maintained between
20° C. (68° F.) and 30° C. (86° F.); for conifers Fron recommends a
temperature of 20° C. to 25° C. (68° F. to 77° F.) during 18 hours, and
25° C. to 30° C. (77° F. to 86° F.) during 6 hours, but Schwappach
recommends 25° C. and 30° C. (68° F. to 86° F.), respectively. Mari-
time pine can stand up to 35° C. (95° F.) for short intervals. Ordinarily
no light is admitted, but alder and birch appear to germinate more

5 In Germany the sampler (Sonde) of Professor Noble, made by Mathes, of Tharandt,
Saxony, has been used with success.

120 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION

rapidly if they are exposed to daylight. The official duration for tests
has been 30 days for Scotch pine, Corsican pine, spruce, larch and most
conifers, willow, alder, elm, hornbeam, maple, oak, and beech, and 42
days for maritime pine, aleppo pine, mountain pine, fir, and white
pine (P. strohus).

After these tests are completed note is always made as to how many
of the ungerminated seeds are still fresh, but these figures do not enter
into the calculation of cultural value.

To obtain the actual sowing value of any seed the product of the
coefficient of purity and the germination per cent is divided by 100.
The germinative energy is measured by the number of seeds which have
germinated after a fixed period, which is usually 10 days for species
germinated for 30 days in all and 14 days for those requiring 42 days to
complete the normal tests.

The following variations are allowed in deciding whether to accept
purchases or not : For germination per cent, 5 per cent for species running
90 per cent and more ; 8 per cent for species less than 90 per cent ; purity,
2 per cent and 3 per cent; cultural or real value, 6 per cent and 9 per
cent. As Fron remarks, "If the cultural value were guaranteed at 80
per cent but showed only 70 per cent or less, the seed could be accepted."
For American conditions such percentages set too high a standard; they
should be at least 10 to 20 per cent less.

The water content of samples is found by taking 10 to 20 grams
(0.3 to 0.6 ounces T.) and maintaining it for three days at a tempera-
ture of 105° C. (221° F.). The loss in weight after being dried gives
the desired per cent when divided by 100.

The station record shows how the tests were made, the amount of
seed received and actually used, date seed was shipped and received,
how packed, and conditions after transport.

Rules for Seed Control. — French foresters have tried to have all
sales of tree seeds controlled by the State so that buying would be done
on the basis of cultural value rather than on a gamble, but as yet no
such regulation is in general force. The proposed rules to govern the
analysis and control of forest tree seeds are as follows:

"Article I. — Name of method of analysis and of control.
A. The aim of the analysis and control of forest seeds is as follows:

1. To centralize everything touching on the study, analysis, and control of

forest seed.

2. To contribute to the continuous improvement of collected forest seeds

sold or utilized in France, based on the results of authentic samples of
different kinds and by researches on the physiologic growth, selection,
and variety with the aim of practical results.

3. To contribute to the study of exotic forest species by experiments carried

out on the seeds locally and in arbor etums and experimental plots.

RULES FOR SEED CONTROL 121

B. So far as the analysis and control of forest seeds is concerned the experiments
will determine:

1. Correctness, so far as possible, of genus or species.

2. The purity.

3. Absolute weight.

4. The actual weight in case demand is made.

5. Germinative figure and germinative per cent.

6. Water content.

The experiments must be carried out in conformity with exact technical methods.
The experiments with knife without being proved by germination may suffice for the
large seeds (cembric pine, oak, beech, etc.), but give only approximate results. The
results given by the experimental service are obtained by experimenting with average
specimens, that is to say that the advertisements of the analysis executed by the ex-
perimental service cannot be utihzed by the vendor as exact data on the value of a
given purchase.

Article II. — Control of the sale of forest seeds.

1. Analysis of control. Contract houses (with the aim of controUing the sale of
forest seeds) and experimental service can conclude contracts with seed
merchants entitled contracts of control. The list of houses placed under
the control of the experimental service can be mailed free to persons who
demand it. It may be pubhshed. The conditions of these contracts are
as follows :

A. The house promises to observe the rules in every particular.

B. The house engages to indicate on the bill the guarantees for the merchan-

dise sold and dehvered to the purchasers under the conditions given in
the certificates of control and to furnish, at the expense of the house, an
analysis of control.

C. The purchasers of seed from a controlled house acquire, if purchasing the

minimum amount stipulated, without further formality and without
special authorization, the right to have a free analysis by the experi-
mental bureau of the material purchased.

D. The controlled houses must agree that the analysis made by this bureau

shall be final for the purposes of fixing the amount of the bill. If the
results of the analysis do not correspond with the guarantee given, they
promise to make it up to the purchaser.

E. The houses controlled do not pay any annual charges to the testing bureau

. . . since the expenses are borne by the Maison de Commerce. . . .

F. The houses which do not guarantee to their purchasers free analysis or

which do not even give a limited guarantee cannot be admitted as houses
controlled by the bureau.

G. The controlled houses are forbidden to furnish several certificates of free

analysis for a single sale of the same sort of seed. Each certificate is
valuable only for the special sale for which it has been delivered.
H. It is forbidden to insert in the contracts of control any stipulations con-
cerning the probable analysis cost. The analysis of this kind must be
paid for according to the tariff." ^

^ Such a system of general seed control is needed in the United States. Under
present conditions a private purchaser of forest tree seeds has no guarantee of the real

122 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION

NURSERIES

Location of Nurseries. — Judging from visits to a number of nurseries
(1) near areas under natural regeneration and (2) at regular forestation
projects, France has not much to teach us in the minutiae of modern
nursery practice. What there is to learn is chiefly along the lines of
policy. For example, French foresters have demonstrated that in the
forestation projects in the mountains it is important to have small local
nurseries near the area to be forested, while the tendency in the United
States has been to maintain large central nurseries from which stock
can be shipped. On the National Forests in the United States, according
to Greeley:

"The policy has been pretty generally adopted of maintaining large nurseries rather
than small ones, notwithstanding the shipping cost and the danger of the stock drying
out in transit. A few years ago a large number of so-called ranger nurseries were es-
tablished on almost every Forest, but this proved expensive and unsatisfactory. Many
of the rangers wasted time .on their nursery work and it seriously interfered with their
regular executive duties."

At Barcelonnette, in the Basses-Alpes, they have tried three kinds of
nurseries: (1) Permanent or central nurseries, (2) so-called "flying"
nurseries, and (3) fixed local nurseries.

Permanent or central nurseries are now rare. Small temporary or
"flying" nurseries in or near the area to be sown are extremely popular.
After they have produced once or twice and the nearby planting is
completed they are abandoned. The small fixed local nurseries, often
two or three in each working group, are placed conveniently near plant-
ing sites where for a number of years material will be required.

Departing somewhat from this practice. Dinner, an eminent author-
ity on forestation, had very few temporary nurseries in the Maritime
Alps because he believed in thorough irrigation, and it was often diffi-
cult to secure a certain water supply near the planting site. Dinner
used 1 to 3 year old untransplanted stock and developed a formula to
govern the size of his nurseries. For 100 acres of planting site his nursery

, ^ planting site area 100 -^t ■ ■< ^\ 4. u.\,- i j

covered 1 acre or ' = -r— He said that this worked

nursery area 1

out with remarkable accuracy, and cautioned against establishing nurs-
eries at too high an altitude (where the climate is severe) because of
the increased cost of working.

The following general principles have been developed in France
to govern the establishment of nurseries:

cultural value. Other commodities, such as lumber, wool, or cotton are sold on the
basis of grade or quality. If our export of tree seeds is to grow a definite scheme of
seed control will be essential in order to protect foreign purchasers against fraud.

NURSERY PRACTICE 123

It is advisable to locate nurseries near the land to be restocked to
reduce the inconvenience and cost of transport, provided the climate
is not too severe. They are usually established on a bench where the
soil is sufficiently deep and fresh, near a brook or a spring, and near a
forest house or camp.

The higher the altitude the more the plants may suffer from frost,
from throwing, or from the snow; therefore the nursery should not be
established at an altitude higher than the average elevation at which
the species are to be used; in the Alps and Pyrenees it is rarely advisable
to establish nurseries at a higher elevation than 5,600 feet. It must be
borne in mind that the growing season at high altitudes is very short,
the growth is slow, and the dangers from snow, etc., considerable. Nurs-
eries in the Cevennes or the Central Plateau are rarely higher than
4,600 feet.

If it is necessary the plants can be transported and heeled in where
they are to be used at high altitudes the autumn preceding field work;
or they can be heeled in at the nursery itself in order to retard vegetation
where nurseries are situated considerably below the planting area.
One should not hold stock at the nursery for later shipment into higher
altitudes if the nursery is much lower or on a warmer site. Ship earlier
and heel in where they are to be planted.

The usual nursery practice in regions where regular reforestation
work is carried on is as follows: The soil is cultivated to a depth of 16
to 20 inches, leaving the humus near the surface, and the French pohcy
is to use plenty of fertilizer — either manure or any standard chemical
type of plant food. As much vegetable mould as possible is retained
in the soil. It favors the seedling, the transplant, and all other forms of
vegetation, and sometimes doubles the growth. Usually sowing is in
strips 2.6 to 3.9 feet in width according to the slope; the sowing on the
strips is usually in drills about 1.1 inches apart. Conifers are covered
with about 0.4 inch of soil. To conserve the freshness of the soil the
area sown is often covered with one layer of moss or pine needles. Some-
times flat stones are placed between the drills to prevent throwing and
to conserve the moisture. Before germination the seeds are protected
against birds; weeding is done as required. As a protection against the
sun in summer lath shade frames are used or else branches are stuck
in the ground at each side of the strips and inchned toward the center.
As a rule, the simplest possible methods are followed.

Nursery Practice. — One moderate watering is favored and then only
when the germination is being hindered by drought or the health and
vigor of the plants require moisture. But much irrigation washes the
soil, decreases its fertility, and exaggerates the growth of the plants,
so that later they are all the more susceptible to drought. Irrigation

124 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION

should l)e followed by cultivation. Yet it should be noted that Dinner
departed from this policy in the Maritime Alps where the climate is
especially dry.

The object is to produce nursery stock which will have: ^

"1. A complete well-developed root system, with regular and numerous rootlets.

"2. A straight regular stem, a well branched and vigorous crown with lateral
branches proportionate to the age of the stock.

"3. Fohage or buds complete and well-formed.

"4. A healthy appearance, the stem and roots without any wound or suspicious
scars."

Two Sample Nurseries, — A model nursery representing the best of
French nursery practice ^ is to be seen at the Barres Secondary School
for Rangers. The seed here is carefully stored. It is left in sacks no
longer than necessary and is frequently shifted so as to be thoroughly
aerated. As a general rule, the scales and debris are kept with the
seed, approximating the natural method of leaving the seed in the cones,
which is recognized as the best. The nursery consists of twenty-seven
plots, each 0.037 acre in extent, with two-thirds in cultivation and one-
third in paths. The work is very systematically arranged. Every year
one plot is sown, another transplanted, while the third furnishes the
plants for shipment after a year in the transplant beds. Each plot con-
sists of ten strips 33 feet long and 3.3 feet wide, separated by 2-foot
paths. Each strip has six lines of plants, single or double, separated
by 6.3 inches from axis to axis with a margin on the edge of 3 inches.
The sowing for most species ^ is done as early in the spring as possible,
beginning not later than March 15.

An annual is usually sown and plowed in once every three years to
enrich the soil. A very simple sowing board is used, V-shaped (double
or single), and about 1 inch deep. This is merely pressed in the ground
in a straight line and the seed distributed along the bottom of the de-
pression thus made.

The beds are protected against birds and rodents by small frames 4
inches high covered with 1-inch, or smaller, wire mesh. The frames
are covered with a few branches for protection against the sun for six
to eight weeks after the seed has germinated. Rodents have been suc-
cessfully destroyed by strychnine which was mixed with flour, placed
in a pan, and covered to protect it from the rain. Very little success has
resulted from treating oak acorns; the general policy is to kill the rodents
rather than to prepare the seed so that it will not be eaten. Stones
are often placed between the transplant lines to hold the moisture in the

7 See Boppe, pp. 349-392.

* From notes supplied by the director of the school.

8 A species like silver fir would be sown in the fall.

CULTIVATION AND SPACING 125

soil and prevent throwing. As a general rule, untransplanted stock is
recommended in big planting operations, 2 to 3 year-old conifer seed-
lings being preferred. Transplanted stock, on the other hand, is used
to complete natural regeneration. Here the cost is less important be-
cause only a small percentage of the total area need be planted and
better success is secured, since it is less likely to be crowded out. The
plants are never pulled and are not watered before shipment because
of the danger of heating while en route. Baskets or open boxes are
generally used for shipping.

It should be borne in mind that large nurseries, such as the one just
described, are no longer numerous, many of them having been abandoned
in favor of small local nurseries near the planting site. Much more
typical is the small local nursery at Royat in the Central Plateau, which
is situated in a narrow valley on a 6 per cent west slope. The main
product here is 3-year-old spruce fir or Scotch pine seedlings. There
is no transplanting, since it is considered too expensive. The fir is sown
under lath frames 6.5 feet wide and placed 2.5 feet above the soil and
the pine is sown in drills spaced 3 to 4 inches apart. Shade frames, 10
to 12 inches above the ground, are used for the Scotch pine also during
the heat of the first year.

PLANTING

Cultivation and Spacing. — In planting, Jolyet says " cultivation
should usually be considered indispensable — always advantageous."
The great aim of planting is the use of the most economical local means
to get the roots in touch with the humus and the soil. Complete culti-
vation is, of course, never necessary and would only increase the danger
of erosion. Planting trees in horizontal strips is often advantageous in
dry regions, but the general preference of the forester should be for
holes or spots. As a rule, the French favor much wider spacing in
plantations than do the Germans. Bartet even suggests spacing spruce
6.5 feet apart owing to its superficial root system and in order to give
the crown a chance for development. In Germany the average distance
for spacing spruce is usually 4 feet and sometimes closer. The French
rule is never less than 3.3 feet and never more than 10 feet. Intolerant
species Hke maritime pine can be spaced wider apart than a tolerant
species such as fir; and as a general rule, rapidly growing species can be
spaced wider than species that are slow growing during the seedling
and sapling stages. Ordinarily the spacing is 5 to 6.5 feet. It is cer-
tainly apparent, without going into further detail, that the French
system is more in accordance with American practice, namely, wide
spacing and comparatively few trees per acre as contrasted with the
close spacing in Germany.

126 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION

Age of Plants. — ''In every conifer plantation aimed at restocking
mountain slopes you should follow the principle of having the plants
as young as possible."

The ages indicated below vary according to the nature of the species,
the altitude of the nursery, and according to whether the plants are
transplanted or not: Cypress, 2 to 3 years; fir, 3 to 4; spruce, 3 to 4;
larch, 2 to 4; cedar, 2 to 3; Scotch pine, mountain pine, Corsican pine,
Austrian pine, and Cevennes pine, 2 years (occasionally 3) ; aleppo pine,
preferably 1 year (sometimes 2); cembric pine 3 to 5; ash, 2 to 6; beech,
1 to 5; chestnut, 1 to 4; sessile oak, 1 to 4; other broadleaves, 2 to 6.
Older plants, 4 to 5 years old, are used in certain limestone soils where
the ground is badly heaved by the frost, on very steep slopes where
snowslides are feared and where the plants may be torn out if they
are not deep-rooted, and also on unstable shallow ground where there
is danger that the young plants may be covered with debris already
eroded. The natural larch stock secured from neighboring stands is
usually ball-planted at 5 to 8 years of age.

At Barcelonette (Basses-Alpes) the local rule still holds that the
younger the plants the better the success. Austrian pine is ordinarily
used at 2 to 3 years of age with 4 to 5 year plants on exceptionally diffi-
cult and steep talus. Larch and mountain pine are used at 2 years of
age and cembric pine at 3 to 5 years, the stock rarely being transplanted.
(See also p. 165.)

Time to Plant. — It has been found best to plant coniferous trees in
the spring because the soil is then fresh and the plants will have one
whole growing season for development before the severe autumn weather.
If solidly rooted in the soil they can resist to better advantage the frost,
erosion, sliding snow, and drought, as well as the wash of heavy rains.
The autumn, however, is sometimes used for planting conifers at high
altitudes because of the shortness of the working season.

The deciduous species, which are habitually planted at lower altitudes,
may be set out in the spring before the beginning of vegetation but
ordinarily this is not done until the autumn. Soil and climate have
weight in deciding upon the proper season. For example, in the Ardeche
the autumn plantations alone give satisfactory results on limestone soils
situated at low altitudes. Planting is preferably done also in the autumn
in the Aude since frosts are rare at this season and because in the spring
there are often prolonged rains which may completely wash out the soil
from around the plants. Dinner stated that in the Maritime Alps, in
the zone where it does not freeze hard in winter, he can plant in the
fall, but higher up in the mountains he must plant entirely in the
spring.

At Marseilles in the forest of La Gardiole the best time for planting on

FRENCH PLANTING TECHNIQUE 127

this limestone soil is in November, December, and January so as to
benefit from the late autumn rain.

At Barcelonette autumn planting, especially when done in September
or in October, gives very good results in the high altitudes.

Plantations in Holes (or Spots). —While to have a complete stand
from the start 4,000 spots to the acre would be required, this number is
largely reduced to an extent varying with the region and on the species
in order to cut down the cost of forestation and thinning. Dense planta-
tions are reserved for land which presents very difficult conditions on
account of the soil or of the climate. The depth and length of the spots
is ordinarily 16 to 12 inches, the size being reduced where the plants
may be badly damaged by the frost or where the slope is very steep.
On difficult slopes the conifers are often planted by the French i° in
clumps of two to three seedhngs; the larch is usually planted single.
With transplanted stock the single plants are used in the case of the
broad leaves, except that beech is sometimes planted in pairs. Protec-
tion is frequently afforded by overturned sod or by stones. According
to Dinner, he is obliged by the Paris office to do some sowing, but would
otherwise do all his reforestation by planting. The main feature of his
planting technique is the size of the holes. The Paris authorities impose
a size of 10 inches square, but Dinner uses 16-inch "spots" and even
larger if the ground is bad. He feels that the secret of success is in
large spots which hold the moisture, whereas small spots would be dried
out. On large areas he plants strips of broadleaved trees as future fire
belts. Where there are 1,600 to 2,000 plants per acre the whole expense
is $10 to $12 per acre with labor at 70 to 80 cents a day. The average
loss through his inspection is 25 per cent, some seasons being almost
nothing, but other years 60 to 70 per cent. At Barcelonette the plant-
ing in spots or in bunches (that is, three or four plants to the spot) is
favored. They count 2,000 spots per acre and three plants per cluster.
This cost (in 1912) $3.86 to $5.79 per acre without the cost of the stock.

French Planting Technique. — The usual implements employed are
the pick, mattock, and shovel. When digging a hole the grass is thrown
to the right, the fine soil to the left, and the poor bottom soil in front.
When the tree is planted the fine soil is placed immediately around the
roots and the poorer bottom soil above. In this way the humus is left
where it is most needed to enrich the root system. The French favor
the use of stones to protect the planting spot from washing and to pro-
tect the surface from drying out ; often in extensive planting operations,
furrows are plowed to assist the hand work.

1° See French Forests and Forestry, already cited, especially pp. 41-43, 77-87. This
planting of more than one seedling in a spot is distinctly French and would rarely be
advisable in the United States.

128 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION

Care is, of course, taken to keep the rootlets fresh and moist during
the operation, a fundamental of successful planting. The usual method
of planting is as follows: A few handsful of fine soil are placed next to
the roots while the root collar is held close to the ground. With the
right hand the planter fills in the loose soil after arranging the roots
so as to lie naturally. The ground is pressed lightly with the hands
after the soil is filled in. Soil is usually piled an inch above the root
collar to allow for natural sinking. But the French are very careful
not to plant too deep since this checks the roots, encourages false roots,
and induces rot. On very dry ground, or sand, the planting is cheaper
than on very compact moist soils where they rarely plant below the
root collar. In very dry regions where rocks are not available, a mound
4 to 12 inches high is often built up on the south side of the plant for
protective purposes.

For really difficult planting the French favor ball planting with the
ball of earth 3 to 4 inches in diameter. This conserves the moisture,
but of course costs much more. It is always necessary that the ball of
earth adhere to the surrounding soil, since if this contact is not made
the soil will dry out and the beneficial results of ball planting be lost. De-
montzey adopted a so-called bush or clump method of planting which is
sometimes used in Algeria, in which three or four plants are placed
together. This was alleged to be cheaper and surer. Apparently French
foresters argued that there was no danger of too many plants and that
there would always be one most vigorous plant that would survive in
the competition for existence. This method is only used in the moun-
tains. The disadvantage is that, if there are contagious diseases, all
plants will be affected and succumb.

In water-logged soil the French prefer ridge planting rather than
mound planting. They call a stand planted by the mound method,
where it is necessary to pile up 3 or 4 cubic yards of earth per thousand
plants, a "plantation-de-luxe." The plowed ridges ordinarily used
are much cheaper, since the work can be done on a large scale. Another
special method used by the French is the so-called basket method.

"The method consists in excavating a hole (like a cone upside down) 2 to 3 feet
wide at the top and 10 to 14 inches in depth; all around the sides of this hole a series
of short or average-sized stems (generally broadleaf) are placed 4 to 6 inches apart and
placed so that the stems form the skeleton of a basket. Then the whole is filled with
loose soil, mixed with humus, if that is possible."

This results in a little green island of trees and is especially useful
for planting in torrent beds or on thin soil.

Occasionally it has been found possible to plant profitably on un-
prepared soil by simply making a hole in the earth with a spade or
stick, inserting the plant, and pressing down the soil with the foot.

COVER AND PROTECTION 129

Of course this is an exceedingly cheap method. It has, however, the
disadvantage of favoring a high percentage of loss. It is only desirable
on exceedingly rich or fertile soil where the spade, dibble, or grub hoe
can be used to advantage. With very compact clay the method is
rarely successful, since the roots will not secure sufficient aeration.

In the forest of La Gardiole, on exceptionally difficult ground, the seed-
lings are raised in pots and set out directly without disturbing the root
system. This system is very expensive. When 2-year-old aleppo pines
are planted in pots the stock cost, prior to 1912, approximately $4.82
per thousand trees plus transport; to-day it would be at least $10 to
$12. In the drier localities where sowing by the seed-spot method had
been employed, the few surviving seedlings were under the shade of
the stone which anchored the branches or under the shade of the stumps
or the larger branches. Apparently even better results would have been
secured if heavier protective cover had been used. The object of the
reforestation project of La Gardiole was to serve as an example to the
surrounding population and if possible to temper the hot climate of
Marseilles.

Cover and Protection. — On slopes or soils that are so unstable that
forest trees cannot be planted at once it is first necessary to anchor the
soil with grass or shrubs. The best shrubs to use are those of rapid
growth, since they must be able to take possession of the soil and fight
successfully against the effects of erosion. Usually the seed of French
grass and rye-grass pure or in mixture is used. The sowing is done in
the spring from the top down in order that the lower lines of sowing
will not be covered with debris from the higher elevations. Since the
seed is so small it is covered with an extremely thin layer of soil. Strips
of sod are planted in order to stop the erosion of the surface soil and
in order to make possible the growth of trees. These strips or benches
of sod are planted horizontally on the slope. In very easily eroded soil,
such as the glacial muds, it is often necessary to protect the Inrush or sod
by fascines in horizontal strips. No general rule can be laid down as
to when to apply sod and when to use brush, but it is true that shrubs
resist erosion better and are often preferable to sod in maintaining
certain kinds of unstable ground. The shrubs are sown or planted,
layered, or suckered. The hazel may be sown or planted, while the
cherry and the alder are planted. The willows and the poplars are
usually layered but the aspen and the willow may be reproduced from
slips.

It is of interest to note that the seeding of some of these shrubs often
takes place naturally after the bed of a stream has been fixed by means
of correction works. It often happens, however, that the slopes are
too steep to be stabiUzed by any vegetation. In such cases it is neces-

130

ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION

sary to wait until the talus can be terraced when it assumes a suffi-
ciently gentle slope to permit this work. The natural talus frequently
corresponds to a slope of 67 per cent while, with the use of terraces,
the ground can be stabilized up to a 100 per cent slope. (See Chapter
VII.)

Species and Methods to Use. — Jolyet ^^ advocates the planting of
coniferous stands since they furnish a larger percentage of timber.
While he recognizes the force of. the argument in favor of mixed forests
he favors a coniferous stand with some broadleaves to assist in the
preservation of soil conditions and to make natural regeneration more
convenient. He recommends the introduction of a very Jew species of
exotics. As for conifers he recommends the planting of spruce and
Scotch pine, and where there is a choice as to which of these to plant
he prefers Norway spruce on account of its rapid growth and high yield.
If for some reason or other so-called exotics have to be introduced Jolyet
especially favors the Japanese larch and the Douglas fir. He cites an
ideal plantation (made at Nancy by Cuif) spaced 5 by 5 feet, which
contained the following species in the ratio indicated: As major species,
spruce 44 per cent; Scotch pine, 31 per cent. As secondary species,
Japanese larch, 6 per cent; Douglas fir, 13 per cent; "concolor" fir,
3 per cent; beech and sycamore (each one-half), 3 per cent. Total,
100 per cent.

Dinner, head of the " Reboisement " at Nice (which includes the
drier portions of the Southern Alps), uses aleppo pine on hmestone soil
and maritime pine on sandy soil (only) up to 2,100 feet; for altitudes
of 2,100 to 4,500 feet he has found Austrian pine (see p. 167) better
than Scotch pine, his 20 years of experience having shown that it grows
more rapidly and has fewer enemies; above 4,500 feet he prefers larch.

For various soil conditions Jolyet recommends the following species
and methods:

TABLE 11.— FORESTATION METHODS FOR TYPICAL SOIL CONDITIONS
IN FRANCE «

recommended

(1) Areable land

For profit

Scotch pine

April-May. Broadcast 7 pounds per
acre with oats. Cultivate (plow) in
autumn, again in spring. Harrow,
sow, and harrow in

" Compiled and digested from Jolyet, pp. 468-520.
11 Quellos essences faut-il planter? Par Jolyet. Besangon, 1911, pp. 1-15.

SPECIES AND METHODS TO USE

131

Objective Product Species recommended |

(2) Light areable land

Permanent har-
dy forest with
natural regen-
eration

Scotch pine often mixture with
broadleaf, desirable

(3) Heavy areable land

Sow May 1 to 31 in plowed furrows, 2 to
3 inches deep and 5 feet apart, 480
pounds of acorns per acre

(4) Brush and pastu

Permanent forest

Scotch pine

ow as in (2) or as above in strips
if ground cannot be plowed; strips
should be east and west. If brush,
short strips 12 inches wide; if light,
brush double width. Strips 5 to 8 feet
apart. Preferable to cultivate in
autumn and in spring, sow April 15 to
May 15, 4^ pounds per acre. If desir-
able to economize sow on portions of
strips. On rough ground use seed
spots 14 inches square, 6j feet apart.
Increase size if brush is thick and tall.
Occasionally sowing 7 pounds per acre
broadcast on heather has succeeded if
sheep are grazed afterwards to work
the seeds into the ground. Maritime
pine, if in Laurentum (see p. 27) zone,
can (a) broadcast 11 pounds per acre,
(6) sow strips 7 pounds per acre, (c)
seed spot 3 pounds per acre

(5) Barren land {dry and hilly) '

Reclamation and
soil cover

Of secondary
importance

Few spruce or larch or Scotch
pine, best sites with Aus-
trian pine as major species.
Sometimes Scotch pine can
be used more freely. Use
beech, maple, linden, horn-
beam, willow, alder, etc. In
mixture according to condi-
tions.

Plant 5 by 5 feet. Take advantage of
favorable pockets of soil. Use grub
hoe and work soil well 3 to 8 weeks or a
season ahead of planting. Plant in
autumn preferably. Must be finished
before April 1. Holes should be at
least 10 inches square. Fill in with
humus. Dirt put under sod, then sod,
and lastly the dirt from bottom of
holes. Cover with flat stones. Plant
on still day

For example, see Jolyet, pp. 467-468

(6) Bogs and swamp land

Reclamation and
drainage

Of secondary
importance

Alder, birch (white pine),
mountain pine, Murray pine
(Scotch pine where layer of
alios)

Mound planting (or perhaps plow 2 fur-
rows and plant on upturned ridges of
earth)

132 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION

Objective | Product Species recommended |

(7) Small scale {lots of less than 2j acres)

on fresh soil)

Hornbeam, acacia (or alder Broadcast with easy natural

regeneration

Chief Dangers. — The dangers to sown or planted seed arise mainly
from drought, mammals, insects, and birds. For rabbits, a source of
much damage in France, it is considered necessary to fence with wire
mesh usually 3 feet high, the barrier leaning away from area protected,
and sunk 8 to 12 inches under the ground. Mice and other small rodents
are killed with poisoned oats or barley. For birds poison is used, or
in the case of seed spots, a cover of wire mesh. To avoid damage from
drought, deep, large, well-prepared holes are used in planting, and the
young trees protected with flat stones; these holes or spots must often
be protected under especially unfavorable conditions by a layer of brush.

FIELD SOWING

Prepared and Unprepared Soil. — When sowing is attempted soil
preparation is usually necessary to give the young seedhngs a start
against weeds and grass. The previous vegetation must often be re-
moved and the soil cultivated. This cultivation enables the soil to
absorb water, diminishes evaporation, and permits the rapid develop-
ment of the root system and relieves the young plants of competition
with weeds for water. Soil preparation, on the other hand, increases
the danger of the young plants being frozen or thrown, and in light soils,
especially on slopes, may result in erosion. Seed may be broadcasted,
as in ordinary agricultural practice, after the surface of the ground
is cleared. For broadcast sowing, cheap seed is a necessity.

Sowing in patches is merely localized broadcast sowing. This method
is a convenient means of supplementing partial failures in natural re-
generation, and is especially useful in introducing more valuable species
into a natural stand, which varies a great deal in quality, since it per-
mits the choice of the best spots and the adaptation of the proper soil.
Seed spots are considered economical, but there is always considerable
danger from mammals and from weeds. Sowing in continuous or broken
strips requires less seed than broadcasting, and there is less danger
from the uncleared areas. The sown strips are 20 to 40 inches in width
with 3 to 10 feet of uncultivated land between the strips. On level
ground or gentle slopes, it is the custom to run the lines east and west,
but always horizontally on slopes above 7 or 8 per cent. Where there
is danger of water collecting, the lines must be broken, even on hori-
zontal strips. There will then be 16 to 20 feet of sown strip separated
by 5 to 10 feet of unsown strip.

AMOUNT TO SOW 133

Where the sowing is on unprepared soil the ground must be loose,
the seed must be cheap, and the growth of the species sown rapid, so
that it can protect itself against the weeds. The best example of suc-
cessful broadcast sowing on unprepared soil is the sowing of maritime
pine seed on the sand dunes of the Landes and Gascogne. Another
well-known example is on the Central Plateau where Scotch pine has
been successfully sown without any advance soil preparation. Occa-
sionally, the sowing has been followed by sheep grazing, in order that
the sheep may eat out the heather and let the seeds get to the soil.
The hoofs of the sheep cover the seed sufficiently, but failures following
this method are even more frequent than successes. According to my
original notes,

"At Cleremont-Ferrand in the Central Plateau Scotch pine region one of my
friends mentioned a former method used for the cheap artificial stocking of Scotch
pine by broadcast sowing. The seed was sown plentifully in the fall and during the
winter rains sheep were allowed to trample the seed into the sod. The results I saw
were very good, but I found no one who had practiced it himself."

Sowing without soil preparation outside the Landes is best justified
on rocky soil in the mountains, at the foot of cliffs — in other words,
where cultivation is impossible. If the soil is fresh and there is no fear
of mice and grass, broadcast sowing is often successful after snowfall
(see p. 136) or on the bare soil. One advantage is that it can be done
when other work is impossible. When sowing on rocky ground the
seed should be thrown up hill from below so that it will get some pro-
tection under the rocks. Where there is danger of erosion, broad-
casting should not be attempted.

There are a number of short-cut sowing methods which find favor in
France and which are well known in the United States, such as hoeing
the soil and covering the seed; dibbling to complete regeneration; at
high altitudes, where the ground is fresh and where regular cultivation
is impossible or difficult, the dibbling or cane method of sowing (see
p. 167) may be advisable.

On the whole, these special broadcasting or planting methods are
justified only where made necessary by peculiar conditions and rarely
are as successful as really thorough soil preparation.

Amount to Sow. — The amount of seed to use naturally varies with
the soil, slope, and local climate, and also, of course, with the size of
the seed, quality, method, and season of planting. The amount sown
must be increased if there are droughts, frost, or mammals to allow for
prospective losses.

The sowing figures used by the French foresters are shown in the
following table (after Boppe) :

134

ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION

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SOWING METHODS AS APPLIED TO SPECIES AND REGIONS 135

Season for Sowing. — The natural time to sow is when nature sows,
but this is often impossible owing to the price of labor and the difficulty
of seed collection. The best season for sowing seeds ripening toward
the end of summer is the autumn or winter. This has the additional
advantage that the seeds germinate early in the spring and get the
start of the weeds. The spring gives the best results when species ger-
minate quickly and when there is danger from rodents.

The directions for sowing which are standard in France have been
summarized in the following table. It covers the more important species
only :

TABLE 13.— SEASON AND METHOD OF SOWING CHIEF SPECIES

Species

Method

Season

Oak

Sowing best on account of taproot; deep soil,

can plow L6 to 2.4 inches deep; dibbling

good.
Like oak.
Broadcast under partial cover best; 0.4 to

0.8 inches.
Only need partial cover at low elevations;

cleared soil by strips or seed spots, rake

into soil; all methods applicable; strips

and seed spots especially good.
Best for direct seeding; no need of cover; if

seed is expensive planting is better.
Better than Scotch pine for limestone soil;

same method.
Direct seeding.

Bears heat and drought; bare ground.
Soak seed in water 15 to 20 days before

sowing; like spruce; needs moist soil but

good for rocky ground.

Spring.

Beech. .

Hornbeam

Spruce . .

Autumn.
Spring.

Autumn or spring.

Scotch pine

Austrian pine

Maritime pine. . .
Aleppo pine

Summary of Sowing Methods as Applied to Species and Regions. —

In the Alps at high altitudes the sowing of larch, mountain pine, and
cembric pine is usually done with seed spots or furrows of variable size.
In the seed spots three to four seeds of cembric pine are planted, and
eight to ten of larch or of mountain pine. They are then covered by
hand. In the furrows one or two seeds per running 0.4 inch of soil are
sown. In the case of the larch it is especially necessary to sow strictly
according to the germinative per cent, which often varies from 40 to 70.
The amount of soil needed for covering depends on the size of the seed.
Larch and mountain pine are covered with 0.4 inch of soil, while cembric
pine seeds are covered with 0.8 inch. Seed bought in the autumn is
sown the following spring. The spring sowing, while securing the benefit
of the heat and humidity favorable for germination, does not always
resist the summer drought. Autumn sowing often gives the best results
because the seed can germinate early in the spring, thus getting a start

136 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION

over the seed sown later. Broadcast sowing in the spring on snow where
the mineral soil is bared often succeeds. According to my original notes:
"Another special method of sowing was illustrated by a splendid larch stand near
Barcelonette. Here European larch was sown broadcast before or during a snow
storm. The moisture conditions here, however, are much better than in many parts
of the western United States where we have tried this method without success. Per-
haps one reason we have failed is that the French soak the seed in water for about a week
(larch three weeks) before sowing so that it will germinate. We might try this out on a
small scale. I am still convinced that we should not try to sow on our most difficult
ground; that for the very worst soil we must use spots or a substitute (such as ball
planting), but that the cost will be prohibitive for some years to come."

In the Ventoux sessile and holm oak are sown. Eight hundred to
1,600 seed spots each, 12 inches square and 12 to 16 inches deep, are
sown per acre with 60 to 120 quarts of acorns. Shrubs are placed as a
shelter over the seed spots and as a further protection stones are heaped
up to the south side. In each seed spot the fifteen to twenty acorns are
covered with 0.8 to 1.1 inches of soil; this depth is varied. The sowing
is generally during November and December after the collection of the
acorns and before the frost, or, if it is not done at this time, in February
and March. In the Basses-Alpes seed spots are used for sessile and holm
oak and aleppo pine, species of a temperate climate. These seed spots
are 10 to 14 inches deep and in each spot are placed five to six acorns or
eight to ten pine seeds. The sowing is generally in the autumn. In the
Maritime Alpes aleppo pine and maritime pine are sown in seed spots in
the spring; 2,400 seed spots per acre are prepared 16 inches square and
12 to 18 inches in depth. The same method is used for sowing chest-
nut and oak. In the Cevennes and Central Plateau strip sowing is
sometimes employed.

In the Var (near Marseilles) the conditions are unfavorable to tree
growth. There are rains from September 15 to December 15, and from
February 15 to April 15. The great drought occurs in June and it is
somewhat dry during the short winter season. During a hot summer
day the temperature rises to 37° C. (98.6° F.), and during the night it
rarely falls below 25° C. (77° F.). The soil is hmestone and once bared
of tree growth is difficult to restock. Under these conditions there is
but one method of artificial restocking with aleppo pine. The sowing
is done in large seed spots, 3.3 feet long by 1.6 feet in width and 10 to
16 inches in depth. The whole seed spot is sown thickly, so that often
as many as ten plants germinate in one spot, but because of drought
few survive after a year or so. Immediately after sowing the surface of
the seed spots is covered with brush held in place by rocks. This brush
protects against rodents, heat, and wind. The top of the seed spot is
usually left 0.8 to 1.2 inches below the rest of the ground in order to
collect moisture.

SOWING METHODS AS APPLIED TO SPECIES AND REGIONS 137

In the Puy-de-D6me ^^ seed spots are often used, protected by bunches
of brush or scattered in the coppice stands which are being improved.
In the first case oak or pine is sown pure or in mixture; in the second,
oak is sown with beech.

In the Haute-Loire stands of spruce, Scotch pine, mountain pine, and
cembric pine have been obtained by means of broadcasting or by seed
spots. The Scotch pine is usually broadcasted and the other species
sown in seed spots 3.3 to 6.6 feet apart. These species do not give as
good results as would the fir if there were the necessary protection
available. In open beech stands Scotch pine or mountain pine is often
sown in strips 14 inches in depth and 16 inches wide, the length depend-
ing on the size of the opening. Sometimes these strips are cut into seed
spots 16 inches square. In this region sowing is done in the spring or
even later, toward the middle of May. The amount of seed used is about
9 pounds per acre. It is sown generously and covered lightly with loose
soil. After the sowing seed spots are covered with branches which are
left until the beginning of the autumn. The seed spots are visited in
the following spring or autumn in order to free the young plants of
leaves or dead needles which cover them.

In the Lozere (Central), Aveyron, and the Correze broadcast sowing
of Scotch pine generally succeeds on sandy soil partially covered with
short heather, but poor results are certain on land occupied by genista
and tree heather. Success is best assured by opening up seed spots only
2 inches square in the midst of the heather in order to avoid heaving
by the frost. Near Nimes maritime pine has been successfuly repro-
duced by broadcasting 7 pounds per acre on heather in the autumn just
before the winter rains. The heather is then cut and for protection the
litter left as it lies. Sowing of this kind is done very late in the spring
just before hot weather. In the department of the Lozere there is also
sowing of oak and chestnut. The slopes are generally not excessive
and the seed spots are opened up in the spring and in the autumn are
sown with acorns and chestnuts, despite the damage usually done by
rodents; 3.4 bushels of acorns or chestnuts are used per acre for 1,000
seed spots.

In the Gard and Herault, Scotch pine, Corsican pine, and maritime
pine are sown in seed spots in the spring; chestnuts and acorns in the
fall. The seed spots are 12 to 16 inches square and 6 inches deep. It
takes 6 pounds of conifer seed or 3.4 bushels of acorns or chestnuts per

^2 Digested from Demontzey. Elers Koch, of District 1, U. S. Forest Service, once
wrote me: "It makes me weep to think of all the good money used in feeding pine seed
to the chipmunks. ... If there is going to be any money spent on the Lolo Forest for
reforestation, it is going to be for good strong nursery stock, and we will have something
to show for it."

138 ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION

acre. In the Aude the sowing is done with seed spots in the autumn,
the spring being generally too rainy and day laborers too difficult to
secure. Sixteen hundred to 2,000 seed spots, 12 to 16 inches square and
12 inches deep, are used per acre. This takes 60 to 80 quarts of acorns
or 120 quarts of chestnuts. The conifer seed, such as Scotch pine,
Austrian pine, or aleppo pine, is sown at the rate of 2.2 pounds per 1,000
seed spots. Fir seed is also sown in the autumn in seed spots 4 to 5 inches
square and 3 inches deep, 800 to the acre where there are open beech
or pine stands.

In the Pyrenees, in the eastern part, sowing is used only for sessile
and holm oak and in order to introduce fir under the shelter of other
species. The seed spots, about 1,000 per acre, having the same size
as those in the Aude, are sown with fifteen to twenty acorns each. The
young seedhngs obtained are cultivated. The stones which may cover
them are removed and every 2 or 3 years trees or brush which suppress
them are removed until they reach the age of 8 to 10 years, when the
young stands are cut back, after which they grow very rapidly. The
cost of sowing depends on the region, on the method, and on the kind
of seed. As an average the cost of day labor per acre for broadcast
sowing was 46 cents, $1.73 for sowing with a very Hght soil cover at high
altitudes, and $2.31 to $4.62 for sowing by seed spots. To this expense
must be added the cost of the seed, 41 cents to $1.07 per bushel for
acorns or chestnuts and 44 cents to 88 cents per pound for conifer seed.
To-day all these prices are double or triple — or even more.

According to one authority " maritime pine will not grow if the soil
is more than 4 per cent lime, but ordinarily the reproduction is easy on
bare soil, since the seed is both winged and abundant. With 75 per cent
germination and broadcast sowing it takes about 10.6 pounds of seed
per acre, with strip sowing 7 pounds, and with seed spots 4.4 pounds,
but these figures may be doubled or tripled under unfavorable conditions.
Where sowing fails it is often customary to fill in by planting, which
can be successfully done if the seedhngs planted are 1 to 2 or more
years old.

On the Combre dune the sowing was 9 pounds per acre of maritime
pine, 8 of "genista," and 3.5 kilograms of "gourbet." (See p. 182 for
additional data on sowing sand dunes.) ^^

14 La Foret, par L. Boppe, pp. 47, 205, 206, 332-341.

15 In 1912 a member of the U. S. Forest Service raised the follo^dng questions regard-
ing the French f orestation practice :

1. Question. — Is there any way to treat refractory seed to make it come up the first
season? Answer. — See p. 119.

2. Q. — What methods and tools do they use in nursery transplanting? .4.—
Seedling stock is usually preferred; transplanting methods have not been systematized
as in Germany. See pp. 123, 124.

SOWING METHODS AS APPLIED TO SPECIES AND REGIONS 139

3. Q. — What fertilizer do they use in seed beds? How much? A. — Ordinary
commercial fertilizers in quantities determined by local soil conditions. See p. 124.

4. Q. — ' What sort of packages are used for shipping nursery stock? Is stock
puddled? ^. — Seep. 125.

5. Q. — What ages of nursery stock are chiefly used? A. — See p. 126.

6. Q. — What spacing is generally adopted in planting? If we assume that we
cannot thin are we justified in spacing widely? A. — See p. 125. The P>ench justify
wide spacing even with intensive thinnings.

7. Q. — Just what tools and methods are used for field planting? A. — See pp.
127, 128.

8. Q. — -Is pine seed generally sowed broadcast or in drills in the seed beds, and
why? A. — See p. 124. Cultivation is easier and it takes less seed.

9. Q. — Do they use much seedling stock or transplants in conifers? A. — Seed-
ling stock is very much preferred because it is cheaper.

10. Q. — What spacing and arrangement of transplant rows is adopted? Do they
irrigate transplants? A. — See pp. 123, 124.

Since the officer who raised these questions had the supervision of a very large and
important nursery it is desired to emphasize their importance by special page references.

CHAPTER VII
CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS

French Policy and Summary of Reforestation (p. 140). Introduction, His-
torical Summary of Legislation, Law of 1882, Statistics of Reforestation.

The Damage (p. 147). Erosion and Precipitation, Rocks and Soils Easily Eroded,
Definition of a Torrent, Formation of Torrent Gorges, Causes of Torrents in Mountain
Forests, Damage Caused by Torrents.

Corrective Measures (p. 15.3). Policy and Summary, Technique of Dams,
Walls and Protection Against Avalanches, Rock Drains, Paving Channels, Tunnels and
Aqueducts, Wattle Work (Garnissage), Forestation, with examples.

Typical Reforestation Areas (p. 168). Regions.

FRENCH POLICY AND SUMMARY OF REFORESTATION
Introduction. — According to Daubree, the Minister of Agriculture:

"The Waters and Forests agents charged with the application of the laws which affect
to such a high degree the national safety and property will, in the performance of their
duties, continue to use the most absolute devotion and wiU show, as in the past, that
they are worthy servants of the repubhc."

The Minister thus emphasized the responsibihty and efficiency of the
officers on reforestation work because he reahzed the direct bearing of
forestation in the mountains of France on the future prosperity of the
rich valleys many miles from the watersheds now being forested.

Moreover Huffel remarked: "The case of the forest is special because
the abuse can continue a long time before the consequences become
evident." According to an official report :i

"The opinion of the (local) population is profoundly modified; confidence has taken
the place of enmity. Communes, of whom a large number were formerly refractory,
struck with the advantages of reforestation, assured, moreover, by the moderation and
by the spirit of broad conciliation of the Forest Service, ask for the execution of work
(in this locality) at home. This is an omen of happy augury which cannot but encour-
age the administration to persevere in the way outlined in order to regenerate the moun-
tains and assure the safety of the rich valleys."

The necessity of forested mountains has always been recognized,
states an official report. Bernard Palissy (1510-1590) advocated the
protection of forests; he paved the way for Surell, Cezanne, Gras, Breton,

^The material on reforestation is taken mainly from " Restauration et Conserva-
tion des Terrains en Montague," Volumes I and III, 1911, and from Demontzey's
treatise on "Reboisement."

140

INTRODUCTION 141

Mathieu, Costa de Bastelica, and, finally, Demontzey, whose reforesta-
tion work for France will never be forgotten.

There is always greater rainfall in the mountains than in the plains; ^
this favors erosion on the one hand, but on the other is more favorable
to tree growth. This greater rainfall is due to the well-known effect of
the colder air on the moisture-laden atmosphere, as it is forced to rise
on meeting a mountain range. But, when an altitude of about 6,500
feet is reached, the rainfall begins to decrease again, and only scattered
trees or groups of trees are found. The distribution of this rainfall has
an important bearing on the problem of reforestation. Up to 45° north
latitude the rain is evenly distributed, whereas in the south there is
Httle moisture in summer, the rainfall being evenly distributed between
winter, spring, and autumn. But in the Alps the climate seems to have
become drier, a fact due, as some authors say, " to the intervention of
man" though others say it is because the air has really become drier
through climatic changes. Possibly these two views can be reconciled.
The Waters and Forests Service says:

"The direct intervention makes itself felt in mountain regions by felling trees along
the forest hmits, by unregulated grazing, and in certain places by too conservative
forest feUings, as M. Thirion has indicated."

In the mountains the forester must avoid leaving too many trees
which would become overmature and at the next felling could not assure
the perpetuation of the forest, because, if the stand has not been opened
up while the trees are vigorous, it is certain that regeneration will not
be complete; and if at the same time, as happens only too often, the
forest has been opened to grazing, its ruin has been completed through
having too few trees and trees of very mediocre quality. To this fact
can be attributed the so-called receding of the forest growth in the high
mountains. The stand not having been thinned when the trees were
vigorous and healthy and grazing not having been forbidden, surfaces
covered with old stands have not been able to reseed and the forest has
been forced to disappear. M. Flahaut says:

"In the lower mountains the passage of the plains climate to that of the heights is
at first favorable to tree growth. As you rise, the pressure diminishes, the capacity
of the air in water content is less, the rains are less frequent and less abundant, the
heaviest winds increase the transpiration. These conditions are unfavorable to tree
growth; when extreme they become fatal and completely prevent it; they are on the
contrary favorable to herbaceous growth. Commencing at a certain altitude, which
varies according to the geographic situation of the mountains, according to the cU-
matic conditions, and even according to the topographic detail, the tree growth is
then impossible."

2 A brief summary of the campaign for forestation in its broader sense will help to
an understanding of French sensibihties on the deforestation caused by the Great
War, The statement by the French Government has been followed, for it gives the
oflBcial viewpoint.

142 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS

Historical Summary of Legislation. — The first complete law on re-
forestation dates from July 28, 1860.^ Up to that time methods of pre-
venting flood damage had been tried out locally and sporadically, "most
active when the catastrophies took place, weakening as the remembrance
became effaced."

The disastrous inundation of 1840 brought the problem to the front.
In 1846 a proposed law "relative to the reforestation of the mountains
and the conservation of forest soil" failed to pass the Chamber of Depu-
ties. It was considered too drastic and provoked numerous objections
because of economic questions, aiming especially at the grazing industry,
which it aroused and antagonized. The bill was retired several months
after it was presented, and for ten years a means of combatting inunda-
tion was not considered further. A veritable cataclysm was necessary
to bring up the question anew. In June, 1856, terrible floods ravaged
the valleys of the Rhine, the Loire, the Rhone, Garonne, and the Seine,
causing the loss of a great number of lives and doing damage amounting
to more than $38,600,000. A law had been made in 1858 for the defense
of towns against floods, but it was not until July 28, 1860, that the law
on the reforestation of the mountains was passed. It was received with
great disfavor by the grazing interests. "The reforestation," they said,
"would do away with grazing; the forest would everywhere replace the
pastures." Very vigorous objections were made, even to the extent of
armed resistance. After the law of June 4, 1864, was passed, which
authorized forestation, they learned very quickly that they were mis-
taken. But the law of 1864 could not produce results. Grassing alone
was not in itself sufficient to fix the sliding land where it was heavily
eroded, land whose preservation affected the pubHc interest. Besides
the law of 1864, which included the same principles as the law of 1860,
also contained some faults — "a collection of defects, any one of which
was enough to kill it." The appropriations were too small for the work
to be accomplished, but the main defect of the law was that the com-
munal lands could be taken over without pay7nent. The dispossession
was only temporary, to be sure, but the conditions governing the return
of the land were onerous and inequitable. "Since 1874 a devoted repre-
sentative of the mountain population, Doctor Chevandier (of the Drome)
was asking, if not the actual repeal of the legislation on reforestation,
at least a very material modification of its provisions."

In 1876 the Government proposed a law destined to replace the laws
of 1860 and 1864. The Chamber passed it in 1877, but the Senate com-
mittee opposed it with a counter project, which included the regulation
of grazing. The Government withdrew the bill and sent to the Senate

2 " Restauration et Conservation des Terrains en Montagne," Premiere Partie,
pp. 1-4.

LAW OF 1882 143

in 1879 a new proposed law which, after having been modified in certain
of its provisions, became the law of April 4, 1882, on the "Restoration
and the Conservation of Mountain Lands."

Law of 1882. — The law clearly recognized reforestation as obligatory
public work. Local commissions examine the plans proposed by the
Forest Service and finally the law itself (Art. 2), and not merely a decree,
determines the boundaries within which the work must be executed —
that it only applies to land actually damaged or in '' actual and present
danger." Within the estabhshed boundaries the work is carried out on
lands belonging to the State in fee simple, which acquires them either
privately or by expropriation (Art. 4). Moreover, the private owners,
the communes, or the public institutions can retain the ownership of
their land if they reach an understanding with the State before the
expropriation and if they engage to carry out, within the time allotted,
the work of restoration under the conditions prescribed by the Waters
and Forests Service administration and under its control. The State
subsidizes this reforestation work because of its value to the public and
in order to repay the owners for their sacrifices. The law also prescribes
the *' reservation" (for a period not to exceed 10 years) of grazing grounds
whose degradation is not far enough advanced to justify expropriation;
and the boundaries are established by decree. The deficiencies (without
doubt wilful in the provisions concerning grazing) have rendered the
apphcation of the law extremely difficult. In the United States most of
the additions to western National Forests can be made only by Congress,
but a Presidential decree is sufficient for eliminations. The same dis-
tinction is made in France, where reforestation boundaries are made
by law and grazing betterment boundaries by decree.

"From the considerations which precede, it results that parhament, guided by the
dominating thought of reconciUng the pubhc interest with that of the mountain in-
habitants, did not wish that the boundaries be excessively restricted. The original
organic law did not foresee the inclusion of vast areas in order to regulate water courses;
it only gave the administration the power to take the live sores, the lips eroded by tor-
rents, where actual and present dangers presented themselves."

The law of 1882 ordered the revision of the former boundaries, which
were found much too extended. It follows that the law did not aim
to create vast forests capable of yielding large revenue in the future,
but rather the concentration, over limited area, of intensive work —
dams, etc. — accompanied now and then by forestation.

But if these lands yield nothing in money to the State, that does not
mean that they are of no value to the local community, for they protect
the villages, the roads, the railways, and the crops of rich valleys against
torrents or avalanches. However, in certain regions, the problem has
been considered somewhat differently. It has appeared (the damage

144 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS

being small) that it was possible with the approval of the public to
make the boundaries larger and to really reforest on a considerable
scale. In the lower part of the Cevennes, including the departments
of the Gard and Herault, a region which has neither large lakes nor
glaciers to regulate the water flow, it has seemed best to create considerable
forested areas.

"The great forest which one dreams of forming in this region will act like an enor-
mous spring; it would tend to retard the collection and then the runoff of water, by
decreasing the volume and by storing most of it in order to give out released water,
flowing with checked or diminished speed, to the tremendous profit of business and
agriculture. . . ."

The era of hesitation and doubt in regard to the execution of the
reforestation work has passed; mistakes very rarely occur. The cer-
tainty of the methods used for combating floods at their starting points,
which finally consists only in a series of small, inexpensive measures, is
to-day recognized. The facts estabhshed the value of French methods.
The soil is stabilized, the aridity and barrenness of the slopes disappear
as the forest and grass growth is re-established, and "the torrent muddy
and menacing changes into a brook harmless and even beneficent"; this
is what has happened in many localities through the application of the
law of April 4, 1882. Everywhere the efficiency of the reforestation work
is apparent.

"The provisions of the law of 1882 relative to grazing, despite the efforts of the
administration, have not been able always to give the results expected, because of the
opposition of the mountain people. Must one fall back on force? Nothing should
oblige too rapid a march, or the attempt to do everything at once; everything, on the
contrary, induces one to advance cautiously and progressively in a way which the
study of the past has shown full of difficulties and possible dangers. One feels that
much more would be obtained by example rather than by force. Encourage, by liberal
grants, the individual initiative; stimulate everywhere good will; make an appeal very
skillfully to the intelligence and interest of communities and individuals."

Such is the administration program adopted in order to bring the
grazing population to a better comprehension of the value of the regula-
tion of grazing land.

The work of grazing betterment, which is in every way the necessary
counterpart of reforestation, has been greatly extended, but there are
still obstacles to be met.

"Grazing betterment work has been criticised on the ground that it has only ephem-
eral duration; the habits of the mountaineers are in poor keeping with the betterment
of a common weal, and people have proposed different remedies. Some have recently
asked, in order to smooth out the deficiencies of the law, to place the communal grazing
under 'a grazing regime,' similar to the regime applicable to the administration of
the communal forests."

STATISTICS OF REFORESTATION 145

With this brief sketch (translated and digested from official sources)
of the development of reforestation legislation it must be clear what a
task it has been to secure the legislative authority for the reclamation of
these devastated areas.

Statistics of Reforestation. — The figures which follow show the ex-
penditures and acreage as of January 1, 1909. The areas comprise the
land within the boundaries of the projects acquired under the terms of
the budget for reforestation and often include the remains of ruined
forests which require improvement. Land of this nature has been in-
cluded under the term "land restocked." The land impossible of forest-
ation includes the rocky areas of shifting soils, or areas at too great an
altitude. Land of the last two classes perhaps can some day be in part
reforested. Discrepancies exist between the area of the land belonging
to the State and the area reforested partly because the State has of its
own volition decided not to expropriate land where the conditions have
become more favorable, and partly because, in some places, the neces-
sary nurseries and paths could not be constructed. Moreover where
the compartments are of considerable extent the area to be forested is
naturally Hmited by the local labor supply, for it appears to be good policy
to employ the local mountaineers, so that they can receive in salaries an
equivalent of the revenue which they lose through loss of grazing ground.
This delay is not disadvantageous, for it gives the soil an excellent rest.
The expense does not stop with the restoration work, for the maintenance
cost is becoming greater from year to year, and a comparison of the re-
sults on January 1, 1893, and on January 1, 1909, sixteen years later, is
of interest. During 32 years — 1860 to 1891 — 248,863 acres were
purchased and 16,951 acres were reforested. During the period from
1893 to 1909 — 16 years — the area purchased was 263,740 acres and the
area forested was 194,236 acres. These figures show that during the
latter period the work progressed twice as rapidly as at the start. The
Alpes contain about 65| per cent of the eroded areas of France, with 23^
per cent in the Cevennes and Central Plateau and 11 per cent in the
Pyrenees. In 1894 Demontzey reported that there were 1,462 distinct
torrents in France, divided as follows: Alpes, 1,138; Cevennes and Central
Plateau, 206; and Pyrenees, 118. Huffel says that "two-thirds of the
torrents of Europe are in France."

For the three main forestation divisions (1) the Alpes, (2) the Cevennes
and the Central Plateau, and (3) the Pyrenees — the official summary of
the work undertaken is given in Table 14.

During the period from 1860 to 1909 the work executed by the com-
munes (see Table 15) amounted to 21.6 per cent, by the departments
23.4 per cent, and by the State 54.9 per cent of the total expenditures
of $1,433,994.59 to reforest 134,064 acres. The contribution of the

146

CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS

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EROSION AND PRECIPITATION

147

State included money or seed and plants, the plants having been esti-
mated below their actual value.

TABLE 15.— SUMMARY OF FORESTATION BY COMMUNES, 1860-1909

Area
refor-
ested,
acres

Amount spent

Departments

By the com-
munes

By the
departments

By the State

Total expense

Alpes

66,539

48,169
9,479

9,877

$159,428.48

55,813.81
35,843.09

58,603.74

$151,217.76

123,803.13
44,164.76

18,830.41

$349,176.16

271.501.52
106,814.37

58,797.41

$659,822.40

Cevennes and Central
Plateau

Pyrenees

Miscellaneous depart-
ments

451,118.43
186,822.20

136,231.56

Total

134,064

$309,689.12

$338,016.06

$786,289.46

$1,433,994.59

Most of the forestation work done by individuals (see Table 16) during
the period from 1860 to 1909 was paid for by the individuals. The de-
partments assisted them to the extent of 5.3 per cent of the total expense

TABLE 16.— SUMMARY OF FORESTATION BY INDIVIDUALS, 1860-1909

Departments

Alpes

Cevennes and Central
Plateau

Pyrenees

Miscellaneous depart-
ments

Total

Area
refor-
ested,

13,092

107,442

7,887

3,967

132,388

Amount spent

By in-

$72,862.02

383,4.35.79
54,011.72

17,051. 47i

departments

$4,151.09

42,427.33
1,987.90

By the State

.$27,286.33

270,860.93
24,543.67

115.80 13,847.72

$527,361.00 $48,682.12 $336,538.65

Total expense

$104,299.44

396.724.05
80,543.29

31,015.00

$912,581.78

and the State 36.9 per cent, leaving 57.8 per cent to be paid for by indi-
viduals — a total amount of $912,581.78 spent to reforest 132,388 acres,
or a cost of $6.89 per acre.'*

THE DAMAGE

Erosion and Precipitation. — It has already been pointed out (see p. 141 )
that the rainfall is heavier in the mountains than in the plains, and that

« In addition to expenditures for reforestation, allotments during the 10 years from
1899 to 1909 for the improvement of grazing amounted to $110,440. These figures
show the enormous damage that has resulted from deforestation (mostly due to over-
grazing) in the mountains of France, which should serve as a warning to all other coun-
tries where abuse of forest or grazing lands is in its infancy.

148 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS

as a general rule the precipitation increases with the altitude. Accord-
ing to an official report :

"While atmospheric precipitation gives birth to torrents in the mountain regions,
one must not overlook the fact that this same moisture enables the creation of forest
stands to diminish the violence of floods."

It is clear, therefore, that the rains have a double effect. From one
viewpoint they damage the mountains; and from the other they make
forests possible and thus prevent disastrous erosion.

A part of the abundant rainfall is absorbed by the ground, a part is
evaporated and a part runs off in streams. The quantity of water
absorbed naturally depends on the character of the soil and on its vege-
tative cover. The runoff depends on the slope for its speed, and the
evaporation (which is often very great) depends upon the water being
available. Natural vegetation plays an important part. On impervious
rocks practically all the water either runs off or is evaporated. On per-
meable ground, especially if it is wooded, most of the water is absorbed.
The desirability, therefore, of having the slopes forested is apparent. On
the other hand, one must not lose sight of the fact that on impermeable
surf aces " certain ground sometimes . . . absorbs water to the satu-
ration point and slides according to the degree of slope."

After prolonged rains or storms the water erodes the surface of the soil
and forms ravines. While this form of erosion is dangerous it is not
nearly so difficult to control as landslides, which occur where the per-
meable soil is saturated and slides over an impermeable surface. Snow
frequently causes damage; it forms avalanches which erode ravines by
tearing away the surface-of the soil. Hail acts mechanically in detaching
little particles of rock and in facilitating the movement of large rocks
down steep slopes. Variations of temperature and wind all assist in
erosive action. "The wind is a denuding agent which is often very
active." According to my notes:

"In the Maritime Alpes on a windy day thousands of particles of rock and soil are
moved by the wind; this makes a peculiar noise which struck me as being especially
mournful."

Sometimes a considerable mass of water accumulates under a glacier
and when it breaks out erodes a ravine with great rapiditj^

Rocks and Soils Easily Eroded. — In the Alps the soils which disinte-
grate the more readily are the marls, the schists, the gypsums (including
the so-called "terres noires"), and, finally, the detritus and the glacial
and alluvial sediment. The very great abundance of land of this
nature explains the intensity of the damage done by torrents in this
region. Most of the slopes are steep, and the water of storms or heavy
rains concentrates rapidly in the arroyos and is laden with debris of

DEFINITION OF A TORRENT 149

every kind resulting from superficial erosion. The black schists dis-
integrate in small fragments and form small ravines analogous to those
in the granites and in the mica schists of the Cevennes and of the Central
Plateau. The other "black soils" are even more easily washed and
erode with very great rapidity. Soils of this kind are deeply ravined
as soon as they are denuded. Glacial deposits also erode with extreme
ease. These muds, often soaked to a great depth by rain or by melted
snow, flow wherever they are not held in place by vegetation. The
ravines that they make deepen very rapidly and become the courses of
torrents which transport the detritus into the valleys below. It often
happens that erodible soil rests on a steep, rocky, or compact clayey
bed. Here the water filters into the top soil and great masses of earth
are detached and slide to the bottoms of the ravines. Unstable ground
frequently flows in a rock-mud-water lava. Fragments of all kinds of
rock accumulate in the ravines and mix with the eroded earth from the
black soil, forming a fluid mass which shdes slowly or rapidly according
to the slope of the stream bed and the amount of rain.

In the Cevennes and the Central Plateau the slopes formed by gneiss,
mica schists. Paleozoic schists, and granites disintegrate the most easily.
True torrent gorges are not formed on them, but instead a multitude of
furrows and ravines, which transport great quantities of sandy material
and fragments of rocks. It is a region of torrential rivers rather than of
torrent courses such as are found in the Alps. The Pyrenees are char-
acterized by an abundance of glacial or semi-glacial deposits. The
granites disintegrate and the detritus covers considerable areas. In
the Corbieres the marls are especially exposed to erosion, which form
short, straight torrent gorges or ravines which have numerous branches
that feed and fill up the water courses with detritus.

Limestone is usually fissured, so that rain water rapidly penetrates
the interior of the rock if the surface is not protected by thick grass or
by well-rooted forest vegetation. Where the soil becomes denuded
steady and deep erosion often forms gorges that have abrupt slopes.
It is clear that excess of water is the chief danger on all easily erodible
soils. From the forester's standpoint, however, too little water or
drought is the greatest obstacle to the reclamation of land of this type,
for the soil becomes baked and excessively arid as soon as it loses its
protective vegetative cover. The soils thus suff'er from the extremes of
too much moisture and lack of moisture.

Definition of a Torrent. — The snow on the high mountains protects
the rocks and soil against various disintegrating agencies but not against
erosion due to glaciers and to subglacial water. Erosion of the soil
and of the rocks accordingly takes place below the limit of perpetual
snow, a limit that ranges from 8,850 to 10,800 feet in the Alps and in

150 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS

the Central and Western Pyrenees. In the Eastern Pyrenees and in
the Cevennes and the Central Plateau there is not much year-long snow.
Even after deducting the areas protected by snow in the Alps and Pyi-e-
nees, vast areas of erodible ground remain. The north and northeast
slopes remain covered with snow for considerable periods in each year
and consequently suffer less than the other slopes. On these slopes the
variations in temperature are less sudden and of less extent, the rains
are even less intensive, and the vegetation is habitually more vigorous
than on south slopes. Therefore most of the torrent gorges are formed
on south and west slopes. A French definition of a torrent gorge says
it is:

"A temporary water-course in which the water concentrates after heavy rainfall
and acquires, because of its mass and because of the slope of the stream bed, a con-
siderable live force. The characteristic trait of torrent gorges is the faculty which they
possess of reuniting in a single flood all the water falling within a certain time on an
extensive area. This faculty is due to the configuration of the ground and the principal
feature of a torrent gorge, that which gives it being is a collecting basin which favors
the rapid concentration of rainfall. The basin of reception of a torrent, called also the
funnel, is a more or less complete circle on whose steep slopes falls the water of heavy
rains. . . . The Gavarnie 'circus' in the Pyrenees is a good example. . . . The
torrents run in very short valleys, which cut the mountains at right angles to the slope
just as in simple depressions. Their slope may exceed 6 per cent for their entire length
but it varies a great deal and is never less than 2 per cent. They have an entirely
special characteristic in that they flow in areas determined by their courses, resting
upon one another and diverging because of their deposits. According to Scipiongras,
a torrent is a water course whose rise is swift and violent, whose slopes are considerable
and irregular and which often raises certain parts of its bed because of the deposit of
material; it is this which makes the water diverge at the time of floods."

Torrent gorges may be the courses of temporary or permanent streams
whose beds are not yet fixed and which perform the work of carrying
away the mountain for deposit in the plain. The following definition
is also of value:

"A torrent gorge is a temporary or permanent water course in which the water
concentrates with extreme rapidity after heavy rains and by its energy of movement
digs out its bed, which is considerable because of the mountain slope and because of
the increase in density of the material transported. The soil and deljris of all kinds
eroded by the waters are deposited on the plain."

These different definitions support each other. Ravines have the
same character as torrent gorges but are less strongly marked. "A
ravine is a branch of a torrent gorge in process of formation. ..."

Formation of Torrent Gorges. — The energy of movement or force of
water that flows down a steep slope is greater at the base of the slopes
than at the summit and erosion is therefore greatest at the base. It
also follows that the lower part of the slope is often erodible ground

CAUSES OF TORRENTS IN MOUNTAIN FORESTS 151

and, moreover, it is ordinarily little protected by forest vegetation, for
in France much land of this type is in fields or is devoted to agriculture.
The formation of a torrent gorge involves three distinct areas: (1)
An area on which rain water falls before it runs into the "thalweg" or
collecting basin; (2) an eroded area, the torrential gorge or bed; and
(3) an area of deposit, the delta or torrential cone. Surell designates,
under the name of the basin of reception —

". . . The region in which the water collects and floods the ground, but, when
concerned with work of restoration, it is preferable to consider the entire collecting basin
under the general definition of basin; . . . the space at the bottom of which runs a
course of water and into which all the slopes are drained."

Torrent gorges that form on steep mountain slopes are short and
usually run at right angles to the slopes. Where the slope is gentle
the length of the gorge increases and the curves or bends in the gorge
probably increase. These curves seem to be due to the unequal resist-
ance of different parts of the hills. A torrential cone does not always
exist at the base of the torrent gorge. Sometimes the gorge or the
drainage way extends to the bottom of the valley and the material borne
by the torrent is deposited in a river which carries it away.

Causes of Torrents in Mountain Forests. — Huffel says that torrential
rains, easily eroded surfaces, and steep slopes promote torrents. Tor-
rent gorges — the products of erosion — may be due immediately or
directly to natural conditions or operations, but are usually directly
or indirectly due to the destruction of the soil cover by the residents of
the region in which they occur. It is conceivable that an exceptional
storm might start erosion that would form a torrent gorge in a virgin
forest. An accumulation of overmature timber or natural windfall
coupled with a heavy snowfall and rapid melting may produce avalanches
and denuded slopes. The area at the upper limit of tree growth is
always liable to damage from the normal snowslides which are so preva-
lent in high mountains. Numerous other causes of "normal" damage
by nature to forested areas could be cited, but under the usual condi-
tions this change in topography — a change which is continually going
on all over the world — is slow and localized. Where valley after
valley that was once forested is being eroded and where there are numer-
ous torrents nature is not alone to blame. The destruction must be
due (1) to deforestation and (2) to the breaking of the soil surface.
In France the once forested mountain areas that are now being repaired
at so great expense were overcut, burned, and overgrazed. This might
be termed collectively "abusive use." Even to-day typical examples
abound (see also p. 153).

At Mont Dore (Puy-de-D6me) there are Roman mineral springs, and
around the watering places there has been partial deforestation caused

152 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS

by fire and grazing. On the west side of the valley there are belts of
forest that extend from the foot of the slope almost to the top. On the
east side, which faces the west or the south, the forest belt is narrower.
At the head of the valley there is hardly any forest at all, because the
slopes are rocky and very steep. Above and between the present forest
zones grazing by sheep had started erosion and landslides. The soil,
permeated with water, loosens and slides down, the slides producing great
gullies. This is a good example of how small torrents begin.

At Barcelonnette it was pointed out that the beginning of ravines on
bare grass-covered slopes was usually due to grazing by sheep and par-
ticularly to permanent bedding grounds at the heads of high mountain
valleys. According to my field notes:

"The Ravine de Roche Noire (Basses- Alpes) 50 to 60 years ago was merely a cow
trail or a path where wood was sledded down the slope. The soil, formed of a schist-
marl, has now been eroded to a depth of 30 to 40 feet. As no dams were built when the
slopes of this ravine were reforested the erosion has continued, and it is now necessary
to build low, dry stone dams to prevent further damage. Without these dams, which
are built without masonry binder, the erosion will eat in 20 inches after a single bad
storm. It was explained that this erosion was not caused by grazing but was merely
due to the falling of rocks, through natural causes, from the precipices above. This
raises an interesting question : What would the natural erosion in the Alps have amounted
to without the advent of man! The local inspector said that while sheep grazing is
still doing great damage it cannot be forbidden or even summarily restricted because
it is the sole industry of the mountain villages, and drastic restrictions would mean the
depopulation of the countryside."

Damage Caused by Torrents. — We have already seen that " a tor-
rential wash" is a fluid mass which carries material of all sizes and whose
speed is dependent upon the slope and upon the amount of rainfall.
This material comes from a number of sources. It may consist of debris
from the disintegration of rocks, carried by gravity, by water, or by
avalanches; (2) it may be due to simple erosion by rainwater, to slides,
or to the movement of glaciers; (3) it may include trees, branches of
trees, and debris from fellings, which, even if small, are dangerous ele-
ments in washes because, on account of their light weight, they do not
stop until the slope becomes very gentle and they form temporary dams
behind which the water accumulates only to break forth and inflict greater
damage lower down. Each year torrents and ravines cause material and
even great damage and, only too often, loss of human life. Such acci-
dents direct public attention to their danger. The direct losses during
17 years are estimated in Table 17, and it is very noteworthy that the
damage was always less in the areas where erosion betterments had been
started:

POLICY AND SUMMARY

153

TABLE 17 — LOSSES FROM NOTABLE TORRENTS FROM 1890-1907

Year

Locality

Financial loss

18901

Bassin des Gardens (Lozere)

1225,810

317,485
337 750 "

1891)
1891

Bassin de la Beaume (Ardeche)

1892

Le glacier de Tete-Rousse (Haute-Savoie)

1895

Bassin du Gave Pau (Hautes-Pyrenees)

10 000

1897

Bassin de la Pique (Haute-Garonne)

100,000 «

48 250

1897

Bassin de la Haute-Ariege (Ariege)

1897

Bassin de Bastan (Hautes-Pyrenees)

50,000 «
9,650

10,000 a
2 000

1899

Bassin de I'Allier (Ardeche)

1899

Bassin de la Pique (Haute-Garonne)

1899

Bassin de I'Arve (Haute-Savoie)

1900

Bassin de la Beaume (Ardeche)

1,761,125
10 000

1901

Bassin de la Pique (Haute-Garonne)

1901

Bassin du Tarnon (Lozere)

57,900
96,500
115,800
1,000'^
15,000 «
2,000 «
500 «

1904

Bassin du Doron (Savoie)

1906

Bassin de I'Arc (Savoie)

1906

Bassin de Bastan (Hautes-Pyrenees)

1906

Bassin de Gave de Pau

1907

Bassin de la Lergue (Herault)

1907

Bassins de I'Herault et de la Dourbie (Gard)

1907

Bassin de la Ceze (Gard)

1,000"
200 000

1907

Bassin des Gardons (Gard)

1907

Miscellaneous basins (Lozere)

5 000"

Total 1890-1907

3,376,770

"■ Amount of loss estimated.

CORRECTIVE MEASURES

Policy and Summary. — Briot, formerly a conservator in the French
Forest Service, was the first to make a fight against ''dead works" in
reforestation as opposed to Hving plantations of grass, shrubs, or trees.
The final judgment of the French foresters seems to be that though to
permanently reclaim an eroded area vegetation is essential, yet dams, walls,
and like works are also necessary. During the early work in the Alps,
the operations of the French engineers might possibly be criticised on the
ground that they depended too much on masonry dams (see Fig. 10, a to d)
and purely artificial corrective works rather than on the permanent vege-
tation (grass, shrubs, and trees) which is necessary if erosion is to be
-permanently corrected. Briot did a great deal of good in agitating for less
masonry and for more vegetation. He argued that to get at the root
of the evil the correction must start at the top of the slope because other-
wise the clams fill up with silt and the slopes remain as bad as before.
Possibly Briot went to extremes in his propaganda against the methods
then current, but to-day it is unquestionable that the results of his
attacks have been beneficial. The present methods are the result of
having wasted public money and of having profited by the mistakes.

154 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS

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POLICY AND SUMMARY

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156 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS

One of the first problems to arise — a prolDlem of great importance
practically — was : How much ground should the work of restoration
cover? According to Surrel and his followers it is necessary to include the
entire receiving basin of a torrent and the slopes of the gorge. To-day
it is still felt to be best to include as large an area as possible to take in
the torrent basins and their slopes. The communes usually, with their nar-
row self-interest, argue for withdrawing the minimum area; the Forest Ser-
vice, on the other hand, realizes the technical requirements and desires to
set aside the area already eroded and the area immediately threatened.

The correction of the effects of a "torrent" comprises a number of
operations, all closely related to their effect upon the surface of the
slopes and the bed of the stream: Dams (barrages), walls, rock drains,
protection against avalanches, the paving of channels, the building of
tunnels and aqueducts, wattle work (garnissage), and the introduction of
grass, shrubs, or trees.

Concisely stated, a theoretical torrent above a rich village might be
controlled somewhat as follows: Where a ledge of rock crosses a stream
bed, and where there are good foundations, a base masonry dam is con-
structed; at the same time dry stone dams are built higher up the main
bed to prevent deeper erosion of the stream bottom. A slope in danger of
sliding into the main bed is fixed by a masonry retaining wall. Small,
incipient gullies are rocked over as drains to prevent further erosion and
to act as permanent drains. Small ravines are held in place by wattle
work and garnissage (p. 162). Beginning at the top of slopes that
are liable to erosion selected areas are first sodded; then, as soon as the
soil is stable enough, shrubs are planted on the slopes and in the stream
beds. After shrubs are established and the soil is held in place trees are
planted. Wattle work may be necessary here and there where the soil
is crumbling away, and the main bed of the torrent perhaps must be paved
to prevent further washing below the base dam.

An illustration of the corrective methods employed (see also p. 168)
in full swing is afforded by the torrent of St. Julien, in Savoie. Here the
schist is easily eroded, for it is very friable. The torrent begins at an
altitude of 9,186 feet, is 6.2 miles long, and covers some 4,942 acres of
land, of which 1,866 acres belong to the State. The village of St. Julien
had been damaged, parts of a railroad and wagon road had been washed
away, and portions of Mont-Denis were gradually sliding and were being
washed away by the torrent. The corrective measures employed were
as follows :

Where there was danger that the stream might undermine a promi-
nent ridge, and to reduce the flow of water in the main channel, it was
conducted 843 feet through a 32 per cent tunnel cut through solid rock.
Where the stream passed the village it was paved to prevent further

TECHNIQUE OF DAMS 157

erosion. In order to reduce the slope of the stream bed to approxi-
mately a 5 per cent grade, where the erosion was most severe, it was
necessary to construct twenty-six small and three large dams. Along
one stretch there was one dam every 85 feet. The catchment basin is
being grassed over and planted. In addition a very complete system
of rock drains has been built on the most dangerous slopes. A drain
13 feet deep and 5 feet wide cost $2.31 per running yard; one 5 feet deep
and 3.3 feet wide cost only 97 cents per yard. It was necessary to put
in a holding wall at the foot of the slope, where erosion was particularly
severe. The trees planted included alder, willow, Scotch pine, ash, oak,
maple, and poplar. It is interesting to note that for planting Scotch
pine, two-year seedlings are used in spots with two seedlings per spot.
The spots are 12 to 20 inches square and number about 2,800 per acre.
The cost of stopping the movement of the earth on Mont-Denis, together
with the system of trails that it was necessary to build, was $30,494,
and the improvements on this one torrent alone have cost, so far (1913),
over $129,310.

This example affords an excellent illustration of the difficulty of cor-
recting erosion after it has once started, and shows the absolute necessity
of not letting it get a start. Much of the difficulty has been caused by
waiting too long l^efore beginning corrective measures.

Technique of Dams. — The principal objects of dams are (1) to stop
material transported by the water, (2) to diminish the speed of the
water, (3) to prevent further erosion, (4) to prevent the, enlargement
of the torrent bed and the erosion of the border talus, and (5) to hold up
unstable slopes. Dams are constructed in torrents and ravines that
are under active erosion. It is usually advisable to establish dams of
about the same size, that they may be homogeneous, and to avoid the
installation of secondary dams of doubtful stability. Of course, uni-
formity of construction cannot always be maintained. The dams must
be constructed to fit local conditions, and usually the torrents have a
double character. Their slopes are eroding and the material eroded is
carried along in the flood. In certain places it is sufficient to construct
a stone step across the bed to prevent further erosion. As the construc-
tion of these stone dams is entirely a work of engineering based on the
stress which they must withstand, no details of construction are given.
Above each dam it is customary to construct a rough paved area at the
level of the dam, 2| to 5 feet in thickness. It is constructed with stones
which cannot be used in the masonry work. These paved areas are
made to diminish the drop upstream so as to decrease the pressure of
the water collected behind the dam. But there can be no ironclad pro-
cedure. So far as the work of correction is concerned, it is usually best
to construct only absolutely necessary dams at the base of the torrent

158 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS

until the small dams at the head have been built. The base dam must
be faced upstream on a part of the stream bed which is absolutely stable.
It is necessary to avoid building so-called ''suspended" dams, which
must necessarily disappear as the stream erodes upward or downward.
It often happens that a torrent is intersected by a rocky barrier. This
barrier or le.dgc is an excellent point for the base dam.

Many of the dams in the Alps are simple, some of them consisting of
a single log staked in position across the bed of a ravine. The general
tendency is to avoid building expensive masonry dams and to build
simple stone dams without mortar. Formerly it was often the practice
to curve the face of the dam, but now they are built straight, for ex-
perience has proved that the curved dam is not necessary to withstand
the average pressure.

Walls and Protection Against Avalanches. — The main protective
measures against avalanches are walls, benches, or steps with wattle
work or high stumps. (See Fig. 11, a to c.) Avalanches are very
frequent in the high mountains, and most of them follow the depres-
sions or the lines of least resistance, where they do not cause a great
deal of damage. But it is often necessary to prevent them, especially
if they menace villages or carry great quantities of eroded material or
if they damage forested areas. Walls (or benches) are usually built
where the snow begins to slide. The walls are built of dry masonry and
usually have a total height of 6| feet and a minimum length of 50 feet.
The width at the top is from 24 to 31 inches, depending on the height.
The depth of the foundation varies with the ground and is sometimes as
much as 5 feet. So far as possible, large stones are used, preferably of
the same width as the wall. Masonry is used when dry stone of the
proper size and quantity is not available. On a slope that has a practi-
cally uniform grade walls are run on the level at equal distances apart.
Where the snow slides in regular runways, the walls are really dams,
some with a clear height of 10 feet and a width of 31 inches at the top,
with an increase of one in five inches to the base. In Savoie, where
there is no resistant material at hand for such construction and where
consequently it is not possible to build regular barriers, it is necessary
to build benches, a bench being a flat pocket in the rock 3.3 feet wide
and about 33 feet long. Where possible, this is inclosed with a small
wall on the outside of the cut to collect debris. The benches constructed
in the Pyrenees are of two different types: (1) Horizontal platforms
about 6| feet wide, slopes slightly downward toward the mountain.
The talus is held by a dry stone wall with a decrease in width of 1 in 5
toward the top. Its length is 16 to 49 feet, 33 feet being the average.
These platforms are 26 to 33 feet apart horizontally and about 33 feet
below one another. (2) The platform cut into the side of the mountain

t.T>^'^

di

I^HBk*-? jgtjSl^S^

^^^^/ •'

H^HHP^^

^^^HH|fM

--^ '^^W

^^^^^B/B^'i^ rf~~

■i? ■'^MfSB

^ttlESI^B

^^H^HBf

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S

Fig. 11 (a). — Retaining walls on a hillside that had been shpping down. (French
oflBcial photograph.)

(b). — Walls to prevent avalanches (at top) with an inspection trail in the fore-
ground. (French official photograph.)

(c). — Walls to prevent avalanches. (French official photograph.) 159

160 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS

serves as a support for dry stone barricades that jut out about 6^ feet.
If the walls or benches are in a forested region the plantations are made
under their protection; here they are considered only temporary for
when the trees take hold protection is no longer necessary. Sometimes
it has been found advisable to establish ordinary snow walls to turn snow
slides from their course; where pockets of snow are heaped up by the
wind it is often necessary to build walls 3.3 to 5 feet high back of the
drifts to prevent the snow from blowing over. Wooden snow fences
and wind shields, so common in the western United States, are not
used in France. The tendency in France is ever toward simplification
in the protection against avalanches; sometimes chunks of earth are cut
out of a steep slope 13 to 16 feet in length and 3.3 feet in width at the
bottom. Stakes are then set at the lower limit of the cut and are bound
together with branches. With a large number of these steps cut in the
slope avalanches can often be prevented, for the pits or steps act as
catchment areas for loose material that slides down. These pits are
often placed 7.5 to 10 feet apart vertically and 6.5 feet apart horizontally.
Where there is danger from shdes in partly forested areas, or where the
timber has been killed by fire, dead and dying trees in improvement
fellings are cut, and their stumps, 2 to 5 feet high, used to anchor the
snow.

Rock Drains. — Saturated soil loses all cohesion and flows on a steep
slope; it even slides on underlying strata that are less permeable. These
earth movements are due to the infiltration of water coming from pro-
longed rains, from the melting of snows, from deep springs, and from
irrigating canals that are not leak-proof. Such movements are combated
by drainage, which makes the soil cohere and thus prevents slides. In
order to accomplish this work canals or drains are built to conduct the
water into the valley bottoms. (See Fig. 12.) Where considerable
ground is in movement it is not possible to open trenches sufficiently
deep for drainage, but by digging a large number of drains the soil can be
dried up and a sufficiently resistant surface formed to prevent it from
disintegrating. The average depth of such drains is 6.5, 5, and 3.3 feet.
The deepest drains, called "collectors," ordinarily have a width at the
bottom of 28 inches and an increase in width toward the top of 1 in 5.
The best drains have a concave base, built on a radius of 10 or 20 per
cent, and are so constructed as to form a canal of triangular construction.
Above this base the ditch is filled with stones of all sizes, the largest
being placed at the bottom. Drains 6.5 feet deep for the chief drainage
and 3.3 feet deep for the lateral drainage generally suffice. The triangular
section is sometimes replaced by a half-circular section or by a rectangular
section, which is easier to construct. Second-class or third-class drains
have a depth of 3.3 to 5 feet and a width at the bottom of 16 to 24 inches.

ROCK DRAINS

161

The drains must be large enough to insure the prompt runoff of water.
Under exceptional circumstances the French have managed to dry ground
to a great depth, sometimes up to 10 to 13 feet, but the expense is much
greater. First-class drains are generally built where the slope is steep, in
order to assure rapid runoff. They are less Hkely to be dislocated by soil
movements. At the head of drains little walls are constructed as props.

Fig. 12. — Paved drains at Bastan (Hautes-Pyrenees).
graph.)

(French official photo-

When the drainage water is abundant it is often united in a paved trench
built in the valley bottom to carry the water under the dams. Where the
soil movements are due to a leaky canal it is often better to stop the cause
of the infiltration rather than to take up the expensive work of drainage.
To prevent running water from eroding the soil it is often advisable to
collect it in Httle canals, about 20 inches in depth, which follow the slope
and which are filled with little stones or fascines. These canals can be
replaced by paved drains if the earth is in movement. Trees are planted

162 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS

as soon as the drainage has made the soil sufficiently stable. Drainage
has always been satisfactory where it has been used to stop superficial
slides over a small area or to dry up saturated soil. Where earth is
sliding over a nonpermeable surface the timber still standing is almost
invariably cut so as not to retain surplus water.

Paving Channels. — The typical torrent is almost dry except during a
period of storms. To prevent erosion, enlargement, and changes in the
main channel bed it is necessary to pave the bed. This facilitates the
passing of the detritus during floods, especially below the base dam.

Tunnels and Aqueducts. — In a few places it is necessary to use tunnels
or aqueducts to conduct excess water through ridges or over artificial
obstacles, such as roads or railways. For example, near Thonon (Haute-
Savoie), where the limestone soil is badly eroded, a road is protected by
carrying the wash from a ravine over it on an aqueduct.

Wattle Work (Gamissage). — On steep slopes (more than 60 per cent)
and in small ravines wattle work is often necessary. (See Fig. 13, a and
6.) A common method is to stick willow shoots in the ground 1 to 3
feet apart and to weave willow branches in between the shoots to hold
the rocks and shifting earth. The shoots take root and when established
assist in holding the sod, when forestation becomes possible. Another
system of building wattle work (now largely abandoned) was to lay the
brush straight up and down the stream bed and pin it in position with
cross pieces every 6.5 feet. The latest method is to lay the brush as
formerly but to hold it in place with two stakes driven in the soil in the
shape of a V, the head of the V pointing down stream. According to
Demontzey:

"The 'garnissage' correction of little dry ravines and the consolidation of unstable
slopes is as follows:

"In the dry ravines of the Alps 'garnissage' is often used in the bed of the stream;
stems of branches are laid on the bottom so that the ends of the branches may be toward
the top. By dry ravines is meant those that carry no water during normal times or
those in which there is a very small trickle of water. The branches are so placed as
to form a shghtly concave surface, and are held in place here and there by cross pieces
fixed in place by stakes. The most common form of 'garnissage' employed during the
past years has been to place brush on the bottom of the ravine and then to mat it down
by interwoven branches. When completed, the branches form squares on top of the
debris. Winter willow or poplar branches are used, and the ends are covered with
earth, commencing from the top of the ravine and extending downward, so that they
can take root and form a living protection. Most 'garnissage' eventually results in
vegetation that forms a permanent protection against erosion. In the Maritime Alpes
where branches cannot be had at a reasonable expense, the flow of water in the ravines
is controlled by a series of little dams formed of balls of sod, used alone or combined
with stone. When the water falls it is stopped at each dam so that it cannot attain
sufficient velocity to be dangerous. The debris backs up behind each little dam and
further lessens the velocity of water. . . . The dams must become larger and larger
down stream in order to resist the floods . . . until these dams reach a height of 3.3

WATTLE WORK (GARNISSAGE)

163

CQ o

r -«
I a

— a.

164 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS

feet and a length of several yards. Where sod cannot be obtained layers of branches
alternating with layers of stone are used. Sometimes also these ravines are held in
place by small dry stone dams some 16 to 23 inches in height, solidly anchored. In
the high mountains, in certain places, some of the ravines are filled with stones just as
if they were small drainage canals. This method of cover has given good results on
slopes situated at an altitude of 6,500 feet in the upper Verdon valley. In addition to
fixing the ravine bottom, a necessary precaution to prevent erosion from extending
farther up is to construct just below the summit a so-called consolidation wall about
20 inches in height, which if well anchored holds the ground. After this wall is built
the soil around it can often be sodded over. The methods used for fixing unstable
banks or slopes are extremely variable. If their instability is very pronounced they
must be sustained at the bottom by transverse works very much like the wall that
holds up the side of the ridge. Some slopes can be held up by a superficial cover of
branches held in place by stakes or poles, such as are used in a ravine. Under the
shelter of this cover natural vegetation can easily be developed. Little horizontal
structures, wattle work 10 to 12 inches high, or fascines reinforced by layers of shoots
between which are sown forage plants, are used everywhere. Where stones are abun-
dant little walls of dry stone are built, topped with sod."

Forestation, with Examples.^ — The purpose of dams, walls, drains,
wattle work, and other artificial "dead works" is to stop the movement
of the surface soil, because until that is anchored forestation is impossible,
and before the final protective cover is planted the surface must often
be held in place by grass or shrubs. It is clear from the French literature
on reforestation that engineers have not always admitted or realized the
importance of vegetative cover for permanent reclamation:

"Some geologists have expressed the view that a torrent is a phenomenon whose
development cannot be stopped. If this opinion is accepted there is nothing to do but
to let the destruction of the mountain go on and try to defend the valleys against the
results of torrents. Some feel that protection against torrents can be obtained in a
certain measure (when the limit of slope erosion has approached) by instalhng a canal
to conduct the eroded material from the foot of the mountains to the river. But the
danger is not overcome. The detritus is merely transported from the torrential valley
to the main valley. Others believe that it is impossible to slow up the torrent by
these canals and use the water for commerce. They beHeve that a dam can be built
high enough to retain the flood waters and that these waters, once stored, can be used
for commerce or for agriculture, thus making the flood a benefit rather than a damage.
Quite often this method is possible, provided the ground and the economic conditions
permit, but it cannot be considered a general answer to the problem. Foresters take
another point of view. We have already seen that the rapidity of erosion depends on
the fluid mass, on the slope, on the river bed, and on the resistance of the ground. Is
it not necessary, therefore, to try to retard the flow and diminish it and to retain the
rocky debris which is shding on the slopes? This result can be obtained only by a
forest cover on the soU in and between the existing ravines."

Surrel (quoted by Huffel) concluded that: " (1) Forests stop the forma-
tion of torrents; (2) deforestation delivers the soil as a prey to torrents;

5 The methods of forestation are described in Chapter V and the chief species used
in French reforestation work are given in the Appendix, p. 407.

FOREST ATION, WITH EXAMPLES 165

(3) the development of forests tends to stop torrents; (4) the fall of
forests redoubles the violence of torrents and can even start them afresh."

An interesting study^ that illustrates methods of reforestation is an
area in the basin of the Ubaye (see Fig. 14, a) which comprises some 46,661
acres, 18 per cent of which was natural forest, now bearing only 34 per
cent of a stand. The species growing naturally include larch, fir, spruce,
mountain pine, beech, oak, alder, and willow. The species introduced
artificially are Austrian pine, ash, locust, birch, green alder, and aspen.
Of the species growing naturally the larch is the most valuable and is
found at its optimum in the forest of St. Paul. Unfortunately the growth
of Austrian pine slows up and the needles turn yellow when 15 to 25
years of age. Prior to this the tree makes good growth.

In this region the hmit of stable soil is a slope of 45 per cent. Where
the slope is less than this the ground can be planted immediately, but
where it is more the ground must be first sodded before it can be planted
to tree growth. Where the slope is 60 per cent or more grassing cannot
be undertaken, for the instability of the soil is an absolute obstacle. In
this event it is necessary to construct artificial dams or to wait until the
accumulation of talus has abated.

Two general methods have been used to grass over ground that has been
eroded — sowing forage seed and planting sod. The first method was
formerly used over large areas in this region but is now limited to un-
stable soil. "Sainfoin" and "fenasse" (see p. 408) were used separately
or mixed in the proportion of three to one. The seed was sowed in small
trenches or in horizontal Hues at variable distances apart. On an
average 18 pounds of seed (costing $9.65) was necessary to sow one acre
of eroded ground. The labor amounted to $6.75, making a total cost of
$16.40 per acre. But as a result of experience laying sod has proved to be
the best method. Large tufts of Clamagrostis argentea were cut from
near-by grass land and planted in rows 1| to 3 feet apart, or in quincunx.
The sod costs $3.83 a thousand. Still another method that is often used
to fix rapidly the slopes of mountains or ravines is to sow "bugrone
arbrisseau" or to propagate hippophse rhamnoide, or willows, by suckers.

Sowing was formerly employed in reforestation, but to-day the pref-
erence is for planting. Cembric pine, larch, and mountain pine are sown
at high altitudes, provided the slope is not more than 30 per cent to 40
per cent and there is enough vegetation or rock to protect the young
seedlings against water and sun. Otherwise planting is considered
necessary. The seed is sown in the spring, at these high altitudes about
the end of May. Although the spring sowing is often burned out by the
sun, if the sowing is delayed too late the germination is retarded and the

6 Etude sur les Forets et les Reboisements de la Vallee de I'Ubaye, par H. Vincent,
1909.

Fig. 14 (a). — The Rata ravine at Ubaye (Basses-Alpes) after the reclamation work
was finished. (French official photograph.)

(6). — A mountain village in the Pyrenees menaced by erosion. (French official
photograph.)

(c). — Preventing further erosion by larch plantations in Ubaye area (Ba
Alpes). (French official photograph.)
166

FORESTATION, WITH EXAMPLES 167

seed is more exposed to mice and to birds. The seed sown in the autumn
is covered almost at once by snow, and in the high mountains the period
from September 1 to October 30 is considered the best time. Excellent
results were occasionally obtained in the past by sowing broad cast on
the snow, especially by the notable sowing at Barcelonnette in the years
1842-1846. Now, however, an entirely different method is employed,
known as the stick method (a la pointe du baton) (see p. 133).

"The workman, who wears a little apron sack belted to his waist, holding 4 to 6
pounds of seed, is given a stick 1 to 1| inches in diameter and 12 to 16 inches in length.
With this stick, one end of which is pointed, he makes little furrows in the soil at suit-
able places. The depth of these furrows should not exceed 0.8 to 1.2 inches and the
length should be between 8 inches and 3.3 feet. In this diminutive trench he places
pinches of seed carefully spaced; one or two seed to each 0.4 inch is amply sufficient;
as a rule the workmen tend to put in too much, and the seed is thus wasted. Exper-
ience has shown that this "stick sowing" gives surer and better results than sowing
by any other method. It is, moreover, quicker and cheaper. Its cost does not exceed
$3.86 to $4.82 per acre. The amount of seed used per acre is variable, an average
perhaps of 8.8 pounds for the larch and mountain pine and 22 pounds for cembric pine.
Moreover, the seedlings obtained by this procedure have also the advantage of being
ready for removal for fall planting if desired."

This is a local method, however, which has not received wide official
sanction. At Barcelonnette (see p. 136 for further discussion) consider-
able success was attained by sowing larch seed on the snow in March or
April, especially when it was sown on the grass immediately before snow
fall. In this region the fir is both sown and planted, but apparently,
according to the local inspector, the best results were obtained by sowing-
seed spots. Spruce is usually planted. Planting is generally employed
where the soil is bare. According to French practice transplants are not
necessary. Here, in accordance with French practice, good-sized rocks
were placed south of seedlings on south slopes in grass where there was
danger from sun and drying. It is curious to find in the Barcelonnette
region a considerable use of Austrian pine, although Scotch pine grew
there naturally. According to the local inspector:

"The foresters in France always like to change things. This apparently was the
only reason for using an exotic when a local species would have given better results.
In this locality, for planting on plateaus in grass, the hole is dug 12 by 12 by 12 inches
with a grub hoe. The richest soil is placed next the roots and the sod is turned up-
side down and replaced around the plant. On steep slopes the method is somewhat
different. The hole is dug 10 to 12 inches deep, 4.5 to 6 inches wide, and 12 to 14 inches
in length, and care is taken not to cut the sod below the hole, if there is any, in order
to avoid erosion. A peculiar method of planting in grazing land, where pubUc interest
demands grazing and yet some tree shelter is desired, is to plant a group of fifty trees
and then another group about 160 feet away."

One of the best examples of reforestation in the Alps is in the valley
of the Drome above Valence, called the Luc working group. Corrective

168 CONTROL OF EROSION IN THE MOUNTAINS

measures were begun in 1865, and on January 1, 1899, 1,547 acres had
been reclaimed at a total expense of $67,656.15, or about $42 per acre.
The species planted were chiefly Austrian pine and Scotch pine, but in-
cluded various broadleaf trees. The Scotch pine is to-day doing very
well. In another nearby project the cost was $40 per acre, divided as
follows :

Cost of soil purchase $9.10

Corrective works (dams, drains, etc.) 11 . 60

Plantations (grass, shrubs, trees) 19 . 30

Total $40.00

These costs would now be doubled or tripled, but today the difference
in the present rate of exchange and the normal must be deducted to get
the relative cost in dollars.

A remarkable example of the control of a torrent which did a great
deal of damage from 1832 to 1847 is to be found at La Grollaz. The
correction work was started in 1880. To-day the torrent is a pretty
brook with waterfalls over artificially constructed cement dams protected
by an absolutely dense cover of alder, which holds the soil immediately
along the brook. Further up from the stream Scotch pine has been
planted, so that the result is a pretty New England trout stream bordered
by trees 50 feet in height. This illustrates the two great principles in the
control of erosion: first, to stop the earth from moving as a whole and,
second, to cover it with shrubs, nurse trees, and forest.

TYPICAL REFORESTATION AREAS

Regions. — To give a picture of the conditions in the principal regions,
important reforestation areas (see Fig. 14, c) in the Alpes, sub-Alpes, Cen-
tral Plateau, Cevennes, and Pyrenees are described in considerable detail,
the material being furnished in the official report, " Restauration et Con-
servation cles Terrains en Montague." The routine and systematic
descriptions (given in the Appendix, p. 422) of the conditions following
erosion, and the tedious difficulty (see Fig. 14, c) of stopping the damage,
emphasize the dangers and costs of overgrazing and deforestation.

CHAPTER VIII
FORESTRY IN THE LANDES

The Dunes (p. 169). Introduction, Kinds of Dunes (Causes), Rate of Advance,
Local Conditions.

History of Reclaiming the Landes (p. 173). Periods of Work, Before Bremontier,
The Bremontier Period, The Dune Commission, The Bridge and Road Service, Waters
and Forests Service, Statistics.

Fixing the Sand (p. 177). Construction of Coast Dunes, Forestation, Special
Betterments in the Landes, Cost and Price Data.

Management of Maritime Pine Forests (p. 186). Objects of Management
(Protection Forests), Silvicultural Systems, Intermediate Fellings, Rotations, Felling
Cycles, Working Groups, New Tapping Scheme, Tapping Other Species, Resin Sales,
French Tools for Tapping and Their Use, French and American Methods Contrasted,
Technique of Tapping, Effect of Tapping, Utihzation, Logging and Local Specifications,
Yield of Maritime Pine, Protection.

THE DUNES

Introduction. — The reclamation and forestation of the sand wastes of
the Landes and Gironde between Bayonne and the Garonne River
(north of Bordeaux) is perhaps the best possible illustration of the bene-
fits of forestry to the individual, to the community, and to the nation.
The individual who pioneered in sowing these sands made a handsome
profit, the communities were saved from obliteration by the encroach-
ment of the sand dunes and, after being bankrupt, became rich, and lastly
France found itself sovereign of departments producing handsome
revenues instead of having to furnish them assistance. Before foresta-
tion the Landes was populated with a shiftless class of "poor whites"
eking out a livelihood. To-day it is one of the most progressive and per-
haps the most -prosperous region in France, with good schools, splendid
churches, and up-to-date communal buildings. Nor should the indirect
benefits of this work be overlooked; a region formerly fever-stricken be-
came healthy, and to-day places like Arcachon and Mimizan are health
resorts both in summer and winter. Much of this land was sand, worth-
less for agriculture and mediocre for grazing, but nevertheless an ideal
soil for the rapidly growing, resin producing maritime pine. Bremontier,
a great engineer and believer in forestry, was able to put the work of
stabilizing the dunes and forestation on a sound basis during the years
1787 to 1817 and the problem was solved during his administration. He
proved to the canny French that the work was sound financially. The

170 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES

parallel between the so-called sand wastes of the southern United States
and the great Landes region in southern France is most striking. What
has been accomplished in the Landes? In place of virtually worthless
fever-stricken land the French have a balance sheet of: (1) Revenue
producing forests, protected from fire; (2) a protection for such important
industries as agriculture; (3) a needed supply of timber/ mine props, and
resin products; (4) a healthy land to live in and largely increased popu-
lation.

Is it to be wondered at that the French Chamber of Deputies has de-
clared that producing forests are of paramount necessity to the nation
and insist on their perpetuation, or that reforested land of this class
should be exempted from taxation for thirty years? But it should be
noted that the French Government itself took the initiative financially
and technically in the reclamation and sowing of the Landes; it blazed
the trail for the private owner.

The Landes is a triangular area of some 1,977,000 acres ^ bounded by
the Atlantic Ocean and the three rivers, Garonne, Midouze, and Adour.
Three-quarters of a century ago this was mostly an unhealthy sand
waste of swamp land, ponds, brush, and limited scrubby stands of
maritime pine and a scattering of oak with other broadleaves. There
was no system of roads and the chief industry was sheep and goat graz-
ing. As early as 1737 the reclamation of this waste land was under
consideration, but only after Chambrelent and Bremontier had shown
that drainage and forestation was practicable did the State secure the
law of 1857 which provided for the (a) drainage of communal land and
(6) the construction of a system of roads to feed the areas drained and
forested. Without these betterments the continued forestation on a
large scale would have been well-nigh impossible.

The drainage was finished in 1865 and cost only $172,484 to drain
468,767 acres (which had been purchased from the communes), and by
1860 $1,238,095 had been spent on roads. The communes had forested
183,000 acres by 1891 (or three-fourths the waste area they owned) and
the forestation of private land had not lagged behind. It should be
emphasized that to-day the State and communal forests under working
plans occupy the poorer sands on the dunes almost entirely on a strip
within four miles of the ocean. They form protection belts for the richer
private forests and agricultural land which is found on the better soils
inland. The system of management described later in this chapter

1 The principal exploitations of the American Forest Engineers, A. E. F., were in
the Landes south of Bordeaux. They cut 41.4 million board feet. Major Swift Berry,
who was stationed in the Landes for two years, kindly reviewed this chapter and made
many valuable suggestions which were incorporated in the text.

2 Huffel, Vol. I, pp. 177-184.

KINDS OF DUNES (CAUSES)

171

applies to public forests under working plans. The distinction between
public and private management is described on page 186. The State
and communal forests thus lie mostly in the dunes and the private forests
in the level Landes behind the dune region.

Kinds of Dunes (Causes). — The maritime dunes of France are formed
of sand usually drifted from the ocean or occasionally from the beds of
rivers near the sea. The sand dries out on the beach or river bed at
low tide and is blown inland. The normal dune is entirely a natural
phenomenon, but its movement far inland is usually caused and accentu-
ated by the destruction of bordering forests and soil cover. Huff el ^ says:

Fig. 15. — Protection dune at Lacanau-Ocean in State forest of Lacanau (Gironde).
The sand is held in place by planting maram grass on the wind-swept dunes.

"Two kinds of dunes are found on the shores of Gascony: (1) Recent new dunes
which were fixed during the last century; (2) very old (prehistoric) ones, known locally
by the name of mountains, which are still covered to-day with very old forests of pine,
live oak and cork oak. These mountains do not form (as the recent dunes do) chains
of ridges separated by little ravines parallel to the shore; their confused grouping tends
to show that they formed at a period when the shore line was not so remarkably straight,
as it became in recent times, under the action of the north-south currents."

These recent dunes * may be of three kinds: (1) High dunes; (2) flat

3 Huffel, Vol. I, p. 152.

^ Notes sur les Dunes de Gascogne, par J. Bert, 1900, which has been largely followed
in tracing the history and development of the dune reclamation work. River sand in
the dunes probably comes down into the Bay of Biscay from the streams of the Pyre-
nees and is then, according to Major Berry's conclusions, thrown up on the beaches.

172 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES

dunes; and (3) scattered dunes. Types (1) and (2) require no fm-ther
elaboration. Type (3) are dunes where the sand had formed irregu-
lar banks or mounds on adjacent level areas. Near the ocean the western
slope (facing the sea) is 4 to 25 per cent and the eastern slope 7 to 75
per cent. Dunes are rarely more than 200 feet high, the maximum
height being 292 feet in the forest of Biscarrosse. See figure 15.

Rate of Advance. — The ends of a dune usually advance more rapidly
than the center, but the ridges are about parallel to the beach and at
right angles to the wind. They are irregular and form mounds of various
shapes. The rate of advance inland has been estimated at from 33 to
164 feet per year, depending unquestionably on the wind and on the
local topography. The average is probably 65 to 80 feet per year.
There is another phenomenon connected with the dunes — the erosion
of the shore line by the sea. According to my field notes :

"At La Teste, during the period 1886 to 1912, the sea has eaten away 2,231 feet of
shore dunes opposite the ranger house at Gaillouneys, and at the ranger station of La
Sallie 623 feet has been eroded between 1886 and 1912 (86 and 24 feet per year)."

It appears reasonably certain that the forest of Biscarrosse (partly
logged by the American E. F. in 1918) extended to the ocean in the
13th century. Huffel ^ finds no reference to moving sand prior to 1580
when Montaigne wrote: "Along the ocean in Medoc my brother, le
sieur d'Arzac, saw his land covered with sand that the sea vomited over
it . . . the inhabitants say that for some time . . . they have
lost four leagues of land." ^ A "lieve" of land was about 4.4 kilometers
or 2.7 miles. If this is correct it might be argued that the destructive
action of moving sand in France dates from about the year 1200 ij the
land was covered for 4 leagues inland (17.7 kilometers or 11 miles) at
the rate of 50 meters (164 feet) a year. But this is only conjecture.

Local Conditions. — There are fresh water ponds between the dunes
from the Gironde to the Adour. Only one of these (Arcachon) is con-
nected with the sea so as to form a bay. The average elevation of these
ponds varies from 39 to 59 feet (Hourtin and Lacanau) and from 6 to 19
feet (Soustons). These ponds are typical of the dune region and are
responsible to a large extent for the unhealthy chmate of the region
prior to the systematic drainage undertaken by the State. The water

^ Huffel, Vol. I, p. 153.

6 That the area from Biscarrosse north to the Etang of Cazeau has been forested
for a long period is evidenced by ancient vested rights which permit residents of the
community to cut trees for fuel and construction. It was originally one estate, but has
since been divided through heirs into a multitude of holdings. The owners can take
the resin but have no right to cut the trees. The portion logged by the A. E. F. was
on the newer dunes planted by the French Government, and possibly a little farther
south than the old forest.

PERIODS OF WORK 173

hollows (lettes) between the dunes were also a source of fever. In
former days there was considerable cattle, sheep, and goat grazing
which did a great deal of damage. According to Bert:

" After the execution of the first work, the water holes between the dunes furnished
quite good drainage ground for some time. But because of the drying action of the
pine, the grass production disappeared little by little; the grazing in the region of the
dunes became practically of no value."

This has had an important bearing on the attitude of the communes,
since the restocking of the sand areas often meant the physical oblitera-
tion of their grazing, and because grazing was often disastrous to the
artificial forestation and had to be curtailed or forbidden altogether.
Bert says:

"One of the most important problems confronting the Dune Commission was the
ownership of the land. The dunes were evidently regarded as belonging to the State
and the forestation was certainly alluded to at that time as belonging to the Nation,
to the republic, to the Government, and as royal property. If this private property,
whether belonging to individuals or to communes, had been left to shift for itself it
certainly would have been lost to the Nation. But possibly a great deal of trouble
would have been avoided if the land, then worthless, had been exappropriated at its
actual sale value instead of being merely sown or planted by the State after having been
abandoned by its original owners. It is significant that one or two owners in after
years had their lands returned to them upon payment, with interest, of the cost of
forestation. On account of the damage done by grazing these private rights were
gradually extinguished by purchase by the State."

This is similar to the policy now followed in the Alps (see p. 143).

The climatic conditions are favorable to the growth of maritime pine
since the extremes of temperature are 3° and 23° C. (37.4° and 73.4° F.)
for cold and heat, the average rainfall 31 inches, and the average number
of rainy days 200. An unfavorable climatic factor, which is often dis-
astrous but which can be alleviated by shelter belts, is the violent west
winds so typical of the region (see p. 204, "Fire Protection ")• According
to my field notes :

"In the vicinity of the Lacanau Ocean (forest of Lacanau) the average tempera-
ture throughout the year is 13° 54' C. (56.3° F.); in summer the average is 20° 48' C.
(68 .9° F.), and in autumn 13° .32' C. (56.3° F.). There are 102 clear days annually,
with a rainfall of 32 inches, coupled with frequent fogs. Violent west and southwest
winds are very frequent."

These violent winds made the fixation of the sand all the more cUfficult.
The main dune area (see p. 177 for statistics) is between the Gironde
and Adour rivers in a strip 3 to 4 miles wide and 145 miles in length,

HISTORY OF RECLAIMING THE LANDES
Periods of Work. — Five periods ^ are distinguished in the develop-
ment and reclamation of the dunes :

^Bert, id. (seep. 171).

174 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES

1. The groping of those who preceded Bremontier, 1734-1786.

2. Bremontier himself, 1787-1793 (with interim).

3. The Dune Commission, 1801-1817.

4. Administration of the Bridge and Road Service, 1817-1862.

5. The Waters and Forest Service, 1862 on.

(1) Before Bremontier. — Before Bremontier's time, a number of
persons had suggested the possibiUty of reclaiming the dunes and pre-
venting the disasters caused by the advancing sand. Following a dis-
astrous fire in the forest of Teste in 1716 the forest was resown by its
communal owners in 1717, although there is a possibility that the records
are inaccurate and that the sowing was natural rather than artificial.
De Ruat, a member of the Bordeaux Parhament, argued in 1776 that it
was perfectly practicable to sow the dunes, and on March 23, 1779, a
decree in council accorded him perpetual ownership of a concession in the
Teste region if he would reforest the area and prevent the sand from
further encroachment. He had to pay, as purchase price, two pounds
of wheat for each acre. Desbiey, former receiver at Teste, on the 25th
of August, 1774, presented a statement to the Academy of Sciences at
Bordeaux arguing that the sowing of the dunes was entirely practicable.
In 1779, De Villers wrote a special report on the possibility of fixing the
Gascogne dunes. In 1778-1779 a commission studying the dune problem
proposed interior plantations of trees, with plantations of genista and
little bundles of straw held in place by stakes to hold the genista in place.
According to Bert:

"It therefore appears certain that the methods of sowing and fixing dunes were
known before the first experiments of Bremontier. They had been appUed to a cer-
tain extent by Peychan, taken account of by De Ruat, and described by De Villers."

Tassin made some claims of originating the dune protective work
but, apparently, in the words of Bremontier:

" He told me positively that my sowing and plantation of the dunes would never
have been considered except as a brilliant theory which it is impossible to make
practical use of."

Bremontier's « credit for this great reclamation work rests on his
devotion, activity, persistence, and clearness of vision rather than on
an origination of ideas or methods. He was the man "to put it across."

8 According to the Indian Forester, p. 415, Vol. 21, 1895, July 10, history has given
Bremontier the credit for being the father of dune reclamation in France, but it is
certain that there was considerable sowing on the dunes before Bremontier's time.
In 1734 Alaire de Rust planted or sowed pine and oak on the dunes. In 1779 this work
was continued by De Rust's grandson, but owing to fires the experiment was not suc-
cessful. In 1773 the Comte de Mont Ausier presented a petition to the King to under-
take dune reclamation, but at that time it was declared illegal. In 1777 Desbiey

PERIODS OF WORK 175

(2) The Bremontier Period. — Following the study of drainage in
the Landes, completed in 1773, the Controller General, by letter dated
September 20, 1786, put at the disposition of the proper authorities
"the sum of 50,000 livres (about $9,650) to be employed in works aimed
at assuring the execution of a canal in the Landes and of finding efficacious
means of fixing the dunes."

This work was assigned to Bremontier who, in turn, appointed Pey-
chan, of Teste, who had taken charge of the sowing of the water hollows
between the dunes for De Ruat. The earliest important document
signed "Bremontier" is dated September 28, 1781, wherein he calls
attention to the necessity of having 90,000 livres (about $17,370) to
assure the maintenance of local roads. According to the Memoir of
De Villers dated 1779:

"Work was commenced near the sea at a point above the high tides in order to stop
the sand in the areas planted, protect these parts by layers of wattle work or fascines,
scattering the pine seed evenly over the ground with acorns here and there and a quan-
tity of bush and plant seeds in order to fix the sand in place. The furze, genista and
maram grass appear especially suitable to accomplish this object."

On the 21st of April, 1797, Bremontier sent Peychan, who was in
charge of the experimental work at Teste, specific directions which did
not mention the use of genista, furze, or maram grass seed recommended
by De Villers, but, nevertheless, Peychan mixed the genista seed with
that of the pine, and since then it has been recognized that the mixture
was indispensable. The work began March 12, 1787, and in 1793
practically the whole amount appropriated had been spent. Peychan
was succeeded by Dejean as Inspector of Works.

(3) The Dune Commission. — The Dune Commission, 1801-1817, on
the recommendation of Bremontier, was appointed August 5, 1801, after
a lapse of some years following Bremontier's first experimental work.
The commission was composed of the Prefect of the Gironde; Du Bois;
Bremontier, Engineer-in-Chief ; Guyet-Laparde, Conservator of Forests;
and three scientists from a Bordeaux society. Bremontier was the

wrote a paper on the sowing of pine seed. In 1778 the engineer Baron de ViUers was
sent by Louis XVI to study the question of dune reclamation with special reference
to the harbor at Arcachon. He recommended in his report the sowing of pine seed
and that the seed must be prevented from being blown away, and he solicited a trial
of the system. In 1784 Bremontier was set to carry on this experiment, being aided
by a private landowner named Peychan. This gentleman had previously made several
successful attempts and he had covered the seed with branches to prevent it from
being blown away. In 1787 Bremontier began the work of dune forestation, but the
first experiments were failures, since he refused to use the Peychan method of covering
the soil with branches to prevent damage by wind. In 1802 Bremontier's enterprise
can really be said to have been successfully started and to be inaugurated as a success-
ful project.

176 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES

ruling genius of the commission until he was appointed Inspector General
of Roads and Bridges at Paris. He claimed that the cost would not be
more than 4,000,000 livres (about $772,000).

In 1804 the new Inspector of Dune Work, Dejean, covered the sowing
with branches with the ends stuck about 4 inches in the sand, using
heather, genista, and furze, as well as tamerisk and pine branches.
In the same year he was able to report that the trees sown in 1788 and
1789 at Teste (Gironde) produced 2,196 pounds of resin and that many
trees had reached 12 inches in diameter at the end of 14 or 15 years,
while in the Landes 30 years is necessary to reach the same size. On
September 17, 1808, the first public auction was held by the Forest
Service agents to sell resin and turpentine secured from reforested areas.
The cost in 1807 was about $9.26 per acre but varied considerably (see
p. 183). In 1810 locust, chestnut, poplar, and oak were planted with
some success.

(4) Bridge and Road Service. — The administration by the Bridge
and Road Service, 1817-1862, followed the commission form of adminis-
tration which had established the methods of sowing, regulated the pro-
ductions of the sown areas, and had practically solved the question
of ownership. The principle of an artificial dune was described by
Bremontier as early as 1787, but the first work of this kind was under-
taken some years later by the Forest Service which was able to suc-
cessfully stop the sand. The permanent administration of these areas
and the continuance of the work, however, required a stable organization,
and the commission was therefore terminated in 1817, the work being
turned over to the Bridge and Road Service. At that time the Forest
Service was in bad odor and could not count on the liberality of appro-
priations which the Bridge and Road Service could secure.

(5) Waters and Forest Service. — As the stands began to mature it
was increasingly difficult to keep distinct the work of the Forest Service
and that of the Bridge and Road Service which, until 1862, had charge
of the reclaimed areas. The engineering details of barrier dunes and
drainage had been solved so the main problem was to protect and manage
the forests. It was therefore entirely logical to turn the entire forestry
work over to trained foresters, which was done in 1862. This organiza-
tion is still in charge.

Statistics. — Huffel ^ says there are the following maritime dunes in

France :

9 Huffel, Vol. I, pp. 149-150.

CONSTRUCTION OF COAST DUNES
TABLE 18.— AREA OF FRENCH DUNES

177

Departments

Area in acres

Main ownership

30,147

3,954

33,606

1° 252,046

2,422

Two-thirds private, one-third State

State

One-half State, one-half private or

communal
Private

Loire-Inf., Vendee, Charente-Inf.
Gironde, Landes

Departments on Mediterranean. .

322,175

One-half private, one-half State

The dune areas in the Gironde and Landes are about equal. The
maritime pine covers a large area outside the dunes. There is a total
forest of 1,656,630 acres in the Lot-et-Garonne, Landes, and Gironde
divided as follows :

Oumership Acres

Private and communal forest 1,510,549

Communal forest under State control 17,411

State forest 128,670

1,656,630

By 1899 there were 140 miles of artificial barrier dunes in the Landes
and Gironde Departments alone, the first barrier dune having been
constructed in 1833 (see p. 178).

FIXING THE SAND
Construction of Coast Dunes. — It has already been seen that the
ocean sand, if unchecked, drifts inland and submerges everything of
value in its path. The theory of fixing or stabihzing the sand is to secure
and maintain the following conditions.

Desired conditions Objective

Gradual shelving beach ... To allow the waves to break their force without eroding or
washing the dry sand.

Barrier dune To dam the drifting sand.

Grass or vegetable cover . . To maintain the sand in place on and around the barrier
dune. (See Fig. 15.)

Forest protection belt To help maintain the sand in place and to protect the

merchantable stands from the effects of the wind.

The underlying principle is as follows: ^^

"Every fixation system is founded on the following principle : In the mass of bare sand
susceptible of being eroded by the wind, the transport takes place grain by grain. . . .

10 This is substantially the same area as was reported in 1822; in 1800 Bremontier
had estimated it at 271,815 acres and at over 281,420 acres in 1803, while Villers had
grossly overestimated the area in 1779 at 878,913 acres.

" Boppe, pp. 478-481.

178 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES

Therefore, if the displacement of the surface particles can be stopped there is nothing
to fear regarding those underneath, and the entire mass is fixed.

"The method consists in sowing the maritime pine under cover. It is to a land-
owner at Teste, Pierre Peychan — often known as Maitre Pierre — • that we owe this
method, both simple and practical, about which he advised Bremontier, and which we
stiU use almost without modification.

"To keep the seed from being buried by the sand a cover of brush is laid over the
entire surface seeded. This precaution is necessary not only for holding the seed but
also for protecting the young plants against the action of the moving sand; for the
moving crest of particles, projected without and against the growing stems, wears
them out to a point when they fall over; being no longer able to hold up their heads,
most of them would thus die. In practice, bundles of fagots up to 1,000 per acre are
scattered over the area to be forested. These fagots are 3.3 feet in circumference
measured on the withe and 4.3 in length. For their manufacture the gorze (ajouc) is
the species preferred; then comes the genista (genet), then the heather, tree heathers,
the ronches (reed of fresh water marshes), and pine branches; but these latter have
the disadvantage that too often under cover, cryptogamic diseases break out. The
thorns, briars, ferns, and light woods do not protect the soil sufficiently. . . .

"Immediately after the sowing of the seed the areas sown are covered over, or better
still, the two operations are carried out at the same time. The brush is placed as you
proceed toward the sea, the large ends facing (the sea) and the branches of each tier
covering the base of those which proceed them. Then in order to keep this cover in
place, the workmen put good sized (pelletees) sand on the portions where no seed has
been sown and spread it on the outstretched branches, about 12 inches apart, measur-
ing from the centers. The sole improvement made on the system of Pierre Peychan
and Bremontier is that of fixing the cover in place by means of small poles placed across
and held down by notched stakes driven into the sand."

At the end of the day's work the last row is securely fixed so any wind storm will not
wreck the work already done.

"To sum up, it is really a dead cover which has been placed on the soil. But it
would not last indefinitely, it is but the beginning to be followed by a living cover
which will carry on its role."

Otherwise the sand coming from the ocean would be blown landward
and would continue to cover the areas which had been reforested. There-
fore to start with:

". . . Therein was established above high tide at a distance of 100 to 165 feet a
wattle work fence or palisade. As the new sand drifted in front of this obstacle a
part passed through the spaces between the planks or the wattle work holes and banked
up behind. Little by little the sand rose and covered the palisade which was then
gradually raised until the dune was 33 or 49 feet above the the level of the sea."

When the proper height was attained, the sand was planted to maram
grass in order that it might be held in place. Once it was fixed in this
manner it had to he maintained, since with every storm there were areas
to be repaired. (See Fig. 15.)

"In 1858 " there were 17 consecutive days of storm; the littoral fine was broken at
several points and it was impossible to repair it with sufficient rapidity. More than
f9,650 damage to sown areas was done in the Department of the Landes alone."

12 Les Landes et les Dunes de Gascogne, par. ch. Grandjean, Paris, 1897.

13 Boppe, pp. 471-481.

CONSTRUCTION OF COAST DUNES 179

According to Grandjean:

"In the Gironde the pahsade was estabhshed quite close to high tides . . . but in
the Landes on the contrary it was 490 feet from high tide. This pahsade having been
successively raised until the dune attained an elevation of 20 to 26 feet and the talus
becoming too steep they established (5 feet to the west) a cordon of fagots at the foot
of the talus."

This lessened the steepness of the slope and was an excellent modifica-
tion. The tendency has been to build the artificial dunes farther from
the sea, up to 820 to 980 feet. In 1851 the artificial barrier or coast dune
was constructed as follows:

"At 165 to 260 feet from the high tide mark, parallel to the shore that is to-day per-
pendicular to the direction of the wind, a palisade is built of joists 4.7 inches wide and
1.2 inches thick; these joists are deeply imbedded in the sand with a projection of 3.3 feet
above the soil; they are spaced 0.8 to 1.2 inches from each other. After each storm
the sand, driven by the wind, accumulates in front of the palisade and piles up on the
other side through the spaces left between the joists; according to the size of the particles
the equilibrium between the piles on the two sides is more or less readily established.
This operation is repeated until the artificial dune is 33 to 39 feet high above high tide.
The theory of this method is that the wind is harnessed by man to do his work. The
slope is quite rapid on the talus facing the sea and the best grade or relief is always an
important problem which must be studied locally. The surface is fixed with maram
grass (gourbet, calam agrastis arenacea) secured by sowing or by root suckers. The
maintenance work consists chiefly of repairing the breeches made by the sea or wind."

To-day the profile of these artificial dunes is being reversed, and the
slopes are gently inclining toward the sea and abrupt on the land side,
since it has been found by experiment that this gives better results.

"This new profile is secured by placing (parallel to the shore) successive lines of little
hedges about 24 inches in height built of pine branches at the foot of which the sand
accumulates. The skill consists, according to the form of the shore line and the prog-
ress of the sand, in placing these obstacles at the desired point to assist the dune to
form its ridge line at such a distance from the shore that the slope can extend on the
most practical incline. These very cordons, coupled with the maram grass sowing
without a branch cover, can stop and hold in check the ' whistle-wind ' and the ravines
that the wind bores in the dune. . . .

"Moreover, it is marvelous to see how experienced foresters know how to use the
growth to model the dune sand, something so mobile and capricious; where the (de-
sired) profile has been secured they use the maram grass to fix these points, or on the
contrary, pull out or thin the plant when they wish the wind to remove the piles of sand
or mounds which have become useless or troublesome. Frequently hedges parallel
to the coast are flanked with dikes whose direction is perpendicular to them, when these
can be further subdivided into crow's feet or reverse dikes.

"When winding shores with sharp points are exposed to very violent wind, a care-
ful study of the situation only can determine the places where defense work must be
established, and what direction to give them. . . . Finally, on points where the sea
in eroding its shores and breaks into waves without depositing sand the material be-
comes scarce . . . the force of the waves is reduced by the erection of a forest of solid
stakes driven into the sand and called break-water (brise-lame) . The tamerisk, with
its long flexible branches, renders the greatest service in consolidating all these dead

180 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES

works by a live growth. At the same time they try to replace the former profile out-
lined by the caprice of the waves by a suital^le artificial beach with a grade as low as
5 or 6 per cent, so that the wave can roll in, losing its power of erosion. Moreover,
each point demands a special solution. ... In fact the final dune profile is not yet
discovered; perhaps it will never be."

At Lacanau they began the artificial slope of the protective dune at
33 feet from high tide and extended it 148 feet to where the palisade
originally stood. The protective dune was 52 feet high and 13 feet wide
(across the top) with sand barriers at each side of the top. The dune
then sloped gradually to a bench 164 feet farther back; perhaps about
65 feet farther on the lowest point was reached and the sand rose again
to another dune where the protective pine zone began.

At Lacanau there were four kinds of barriers against sand erosion:
(1) To prevent the erosion of the tops of barrier dunes upright stakes
were placed 1.6 feet apart, 1.3 feet in height, with interwoven branches
and genista to prevent the sand from sifting through. Here the
ordinary palisades had been abandoned because the natural method
just described is considered cheaper to maintain when once the protective
dune is raised to the proper height by use of the palisade method. Here
the artificial dunes were 52 feet in height. (2) To protect the rear of the
protective dune rows of genista 2.3 feet high were sunk 1.1 to 1.3 feet in
the soil. This resulted in keeping the rear of the protective dune to the
proper height. (3) To hold the sand branches were laid on the sand to
prevent wind erosion. (4) To hold and build up areas where the sand
had been excavated by the wind near the ocean clumps of genista 1.6
feet in circumference were planted in quincunx. The French specifica-
tions for the "Fixation and Maintenance of Dunes" is given on page 429
of the Appendix. This gives a very minute and accurate account of the
methods now in use. According to Lafond:^^

"The littoral dune is the best defense in the dune region. If it is abandoned or if
its maintenance is not kept up, new natural dunes invariably form and, blown by the
wind, cover successively not only the forests created at great expense but afterwards
additional country."

North of Bordeaux the protective dune seems to have assumed special
importance. Parallel to the ocean and at a distance of about 656 feet
from high tide a plank^^ palisade, formed of planks 8 inches wide and
spaced 1.2 inches is sunk in the sand. As soon as the sand accumulates,
as in other dune regions, the palisade is raised about 31 inches. After
the dune has once been formed it is of course planted to maram grass.

1^ Fixation des Dunes, par M. A. Lafond, Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, 1900.

15 Frequently ordinary wattle work made of sticks 6.5 feet long and 2.5 inches in
diameter sunk 1.6 feet in the sand and 1.6 feet apart is used. These pieces are then
woven with branches and shrubs to a point 1.6 feet above the sand level.

CONSTRUCTION OF COAST DUNES 181

The height of the artificial dunes in this region is usually 33 feet. Lafond

says:

"If higher, they cost much more to estabUsh and are more difficult to maintain, and
they give more of a lever to the winds, moreover, if they are built too high. Usually
a lower height is sufficient."

From Point Arvert to Point Coubre (Charente Inferieure Department)
the height of the artificial dune is usually 23 feet. At Requin it is
extremely variable, being from 6.5 to 65 feet, and at Volcan 43 feet. From
the Tournegand Canal to Palmyre it is 16 feet in height and from there
on to the Grande-Cote it is but 13 feet. This shows how the height of the
artificial dune must vary with the local conditions.

The destruction of these littoral dunes comes either from the wind or
from the sea. The wind is the commonest danger but the sea the most
difficult to combat. According to Lafond:

" A littoral dune not too high and bordering a permanent beach is on the whole
easy to maintain. It is sufficient to keep the maram grass plantation (executed at the
time of construction) in good condition and to maintain its original density on the
different parts of the dune surface; the beach sand blown by the wind slides along the
dune where it is scattered as nourishment for the clumps of maram grass. The ex-
cess amount passes behind the dune and is scattered in the littoral hollows (ledes).
It does not cause any damage, however, because it is only a smaU amount and covers
the soil so slowly that the brush or shrubs can grow as fast as the sand covers the soil
and also keeps it fixed."

It is not nearly so easy to maintain a high protective dune at Coubre.
Here the sand accumulates at certain points and forms hummocks which
must be fixed immediately. " The formation of hummocks is avoided
by not allowing the maram grass bunches to grow too thick and by
removing every obstacle on the dune."

If hummocks of sand are formed their summit has to be broken so
as to make the sand mobile and allow the winds to blow it away. If
these irregularities can be avoided then, so far as the wind is concerned,
the artificial dune can maintain itself.

Lafond says a dune can always be kept in good condition by means of
maram grass plantations judiciously placed so as to hold the sand in the
depressions and let it blow over the humps so as to have nothing but
regular slopes or long undulations.

When the littoral dune is washed by the waves during storms it usually
suffices to build barriers to retain the sand in place and permit it to re-
sume its original shape.

"If the breech is quite considerable, to smooth it over the sand is topped by means
of fagots planted in quincunx; often these quincunx are placed in two barrier lines,
the one completing the action of the other. Where the erosion by the water is caused
by dangerous currents then it is a very serious undertaking and masonry or expensive
cement work is often necessary."

182 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES

Lafond describes in great detail special problems caused by the action
of the ocean currents.

Forestation.^^ — It has been seen that the first step is to make sure that
the protection dunes are stable, and that the first essential is to sow or
plant maram grass on the slopes toward the sea about 60 to 70 feet from
high tide. It is usually planted in November to February since, if planted
later after the rains have ceased, it is apt to die. It is dug up from maram
bunches (which are too thick) and usually six to eight shoots are planted
at one place. It is cut 8 inches below the soil when collected and is
dibbled 12 inches deep in the sand; it is spaced 31 inches apart near the
sea and farther back 20 inches. This wider spacing near the ocean is
because it needs plenty of fresh sand in order to thrive, yet inversel}^ if it
is covered with too much sand it dies out and must be replanted.

The next step is to sow the maritime pine coming back to the barrier
dune.

According to a report published in 1834 the method of sowing was as
follows :

"Pine seed, mixed with genista, furze, or maram grass was used for sowing in the
littoral zone. It was covered with branches of genista, furze, or pine according to the
locaUty. . . . These branches were laid flat and placed as if they were ferns. . . .
They were held in place on the soil with a httle sand (thrown broadcast)."

The methods have remained about the same. According to the in-
structions of May 16, 1888, 9 pounds of pine per acre with 8 pounds of
genista or 9 pounds of maram grass pure were used; in either case it
took 400 fagots of 44 pounds each for the covering.

The present method of sowing takes about 18 pounds of seed ^^ per
acre of maritime pine, 1.8 of genista, and 1.8 of maram grass. The
tendency is to sow too densely. The correct method of sowing means
scattering the seed, theoretically about 1 to 2 inches apart. The seed
is then covered with branches held down by sand. The cover is abso-
lutely essential so that the sand will not burn the seed and so that the
surface will not blow. A second method is by holes 4 inches deep and
20 inches apart, covered with genista and held down mth sand. A
third method now used is sowing in ditches 8 inches deep and 8 inches
wide. These are then covered with sand and with a light brush cover.
For dry localities the best time to sow is in October but for wet localities
in March. When maritime pine is occasionally planted wild stock is
used. According to Boppe (already cited) :

IS The land tax on forested land on mountains, dunes, or waste land is exempt for
thirty years; three-fourths the land tax is remitted on any cleared soil that is afterwards
planted.

1' Maritime cones are collected from January 1 to March 1. Genista seed is collected
in June and July and thrashed the end of July; maram grass is collected in August.

COST AND PRICE DATA 183

"For this purpose, instead of using pure maritime pine seed, the following mixture
is sown per acre: Maritime pine, 26 pounds; furze, 2.6 pounds; genista, 2.6 pounds;
maram grass, 2.6 pounds; miscellaneous seed to attract birds, 2.6 pounds. This for-
mula is used in the Coubre Dune. In the Landes practice the maritime pine is re-
duced to 9 pounds per acre, while the genista is increased to 8 and the maram grass to
3.5 pounds.

"The pine, the genista, and the furze come up simultaneously, and it is usually
noted that the pines are better if the necessary seedlings are more numerous, moreover
the cover rots where it hes and gives the soil its first supply of organic material. When
the forestation is commenced at the very base of the dune the first stands established
for a distance of 660 to 980 feet damaged by the ocean winds usually remain stunted
and crooked; but under cover of this protective zone the stands which follow it de-
velop normally; it is even stated that the pines on a dune yield more resin than those
growing on (ordinary) ground."

Special Betterments in the Landes. — Next to the fixation of the sand
and the drainage work one of the greatest problems in the Landes has
been road construction, since paved roads have proved extremely expen-
sive. It is for this reason that narrow-gauge railroads are so popular
when a large area is to be worked. A special kind of wagon road is
built of wood blocks 14 by 4 inches laid vertically. The usual dune
road is the so-called "paillage." Such roads are 8.8 to 6.5 feet in width
and the sand is dug out to a depth of 4| inches and thrown to one side.
Then twigs and branches are placed in the l)ottom and a cover of pine
needles and moss placed on top. Roads of this type are confined largely
to the dunes or pure sand areas. All main roads in the flat Landes are
macadamized and the others are dirt roads, sometimes covered with
needles.

Cost and Price Data. — Bremontier's original estimate for the dune
control and forestation was about $772,000 (see p. 170). The final cost^^
of reclaiming 195,212 acres totaled $1,854,344 or $9.50 per acre. In
addition $656,200 was spent on maintenance of roads, forest houses, fire
lines, and barrier dunes, making a grand total of 2^ million dollars.
But just as Bremontier predicted, the annual revenue from this land,
which would otherwise have been worthless, is more than the original
amount spent. According to Huff el ^^ the total Dune and Landes pine
forest (including State, communal, and private) comprised 1,611,121
acres which represents an investment of $10,331,290 on the following
basis :

18 Huffel, Vol. I, p. 159.

13 Huffel, Vol. I, pp. 182-183. The average costs are low because of the partial use
of natural regeneration after the original dune forestation had been completed; this
explains the difference between $9.50, $10.75 and $4.25 per acre.

184 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES

Totals
74,131.3 acres of dunes reforested by the State at a cost of

$10.75+ per acre $926,400

1,536,989.3 acres of private and communal interior holdings

forested at $4.25- per acre 6,602,530

1,611,121 acres of soil at a cost of $0.77+ per acre 1,258,360

$8,787,290

Road betterments 1,544,000

$10,331,290

This is equal to an average investment of only $6.41 per acre. A con-
servative estimate of yield, before the war, was .$2.22 per acre per year.
Thus if taxation is eliminated the original investment yields over 30
per cent as a national "speculation," but it must be noted that the real
soil value was almost nothing at the time the investment was made.
It is at least significant that prior to 1914 timber appraisals of young
stands used an interest rate of 7 per cent for the calculations, which is
unique in forest technique and is due to the high returns and to the risk
from fire.

Huff el estimates the average forest revenue in the Landes at $2,702,000
net per year, representing a new capitalization including timber of at
least $86,850,000, or about $54 per acre. As a matter of fact State
forests with growing stock have been sold for around $60 per acre and
to-day average more than $93 per acre for land purchased at less than a
dollar! The bare soil sold for $16 to $32 an acre prior to 1914 — in
other words, it was capitahzed on the basis of what it could produce in
resin and timber.'-"

The artificial barrier dunes cost about $96 per mile. The forestation
cost has been as high as $38.60 per acre in the Landes and in the Coubre
dunes only $14.20. In 1817 a large area was sown at a cost of $15.05
per acre. In 1827 Dejean reported ~^ the cost per acre had been reduced

20 J. H. Ricard says that unpeeled mine props sold for 15 francs per English ton in
1903, and up to 18 francs in 1908: ties of various specifications 2 to 3.40 francs; squared
timber 22 to 25 francs per ton. Regarding land values Ricard says that the bare land
sold in 1835 at 8 to 15 francs per hectare as a minimum, with 30 to 40 francs as an
average. In 1910 the values were 40 francs minimum, 100 francs ($7.72 per acre)
average, and up to 300 francs maximum (.$23.16).

21 The details were as follows :

Francs per hectare

Cutting 1,400 fagots at 0.80 francs per 100 11 .20

Working them up at 0.80 francs per 100 11 . 20

Transport 1,500 to 2,000 meters at 4 francs per 100 56.00

Drying at 1 franc per 100 14.00

Miscellaneous fagot expense at 0.75 francs per 100 10.50

One-half hectoliter maritime pine seed 10.00

5 kilograms genista seed 2 . 50

Miscellaneous expense and repairs 4.60

Total 120.00 (or $9.26 per acre).

COST AND PRICE DATA

185

Year

Civil War!

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Fig. 16. — Barrel price, in dollars, of turpentine at Bordeaux.

186

FORESTRY IN THE LANDES

to $9.26. To-day there would be natural regeneration. The cost per
acre for hoeing (to 8 inches deep) and clearing fire lines has been, accord-
ing to Bert, about $6.50, or for a fire line 33 feet wide $26 per mile.

The price of turpentine at Bordeaux from 1861 to 1911 is shown in
Fig. 16. The extremely high price per barrel (340 liters or exactly 359
liquid quarts) in 1862 was because of the American civil war.

According to Conservateur de Lapasse, writing from Bordeaux De-
cember 16, 1919, the average prices per liter (1.05671 hquid quarts) of
resin (resines ou gemmes) for the past 14 years were as follows:

TABLE 19.— PRICE OF CRUDE RESIN

Year

Price per liter,
dollars

Year

Price per liter,
dollars

1906

0.050

1913

0.048

1907

0.052

1914 «

0.054

1914*

0.025

1908

0.052

1915

0.046

1909

0.058

1916

0.093

1910

0.071

1917^

0.125

1911

0.079

1918

0.135

1912

0.071

1919

0.208

° Price up to the war.
* Price August 1 to October 1, 1914.

'^ In 1917 the franc ran 5J to the dollar, in 1918 about 5| to 5f , and in 1919, 5f to 11|.
The normal rate $0,193 to the franc has been used in conversions.

MANAGEMENT OF MARITIME PINE FORESTS

Objects of Management (Protection Forests). — The objects of State
management are to protect the soil from drifting sand and to produce
resin, lumber (short length), ties, mine props, paving blocks, and other
special wood products. The aim of the Government has apparently
been greater volume production, disregarding consideration of the
sizes in which it is produced, while private owners look to resin pro-
duction and to higher stumpage values involved in larger timber. This
is natural, because the poorer soils where State timber grows could not
produce tall, large saw timber. The State is now looking more to
receipts from resin. But according to Barrington Moore:

" The essential difference between Government and private management is that
the former aims to produce a maximum volume of wood, whereas the latter aims to
produce as much turpentine as possible and considers the wood as secondary. As
might be expected, the Government must care for the needs of the community as well
as for revenue. The Government foresters themselves admit that turpentine is more
profitable than wood. . . . The silvicultural difference is, briefly, that the Government
thins its forests hghtly in such a way as to keep a complete canopy in order to grow

OBJECTS OF MANAGEMENT (PROTECTION FORESTS) 187

the trees tall and straight and keep a maximum number per acre, whereas private own-
ers choose the best trees to leave and thin heavily around them to give each tree full
sunlight and encourage a large crown development."

Yet, as a matter of fact, the best timber is in private hands because
the private forests usually occupy the richest soils, while the State
forests are along the coast. In the Landes and Gironde most of the
dune forests are in public hands and they are primarily held as a zone
of defence against drifting sand. Of necessity they are heavily thinned
relatively to allow the crown development so necessary to a light-demand-
ing species. Moreover, so far as my own investigations show, even State
forests outside protection working groups are now managed for resin rather
than for lumber. Private forests are in less exposed situations and are
managed solely for profit, and resin yields more than two-thirds the income.

According to an unpublished official note it appears that protection
working groups must be handled with great conservatism:

" . . . The protection ^^ working group will then be treated with cuttings having
a selection character; a physical exploitability will be applied, taking count, however,
in a certain measure, of the special vegetative conditions of the maritime pine. Tap-
ping without killing will be practiced, but with prudence, the yield in resin being first
sacrificed in the interest of keeping the stand as fully stocked as possible in the essen-
tial role of protection. Experience has shown that the faculty given executive agents
by the special decisions governing exploitation of the coast working groups, of com-
mencing the apphcation of tapping without killing pine measuring 12 inches and over
in diameter (instead of 14 inches in the other working groups), has had unfortunate
results on the increment and longevity of the trees faced. In the last marking we have
really been obliged to let a considerable number of pine clearly over-worked remain
idle in order to allow them to heal their scars which were too numerous and too wide.

"Being selected for protection working groups the 'production in wood is only second-
ary; on the other hand the production in resin can return an important revenue from
these stands. But this production will not continue sustained unless it is not over-
whelmed by a premature chipping of the trees exposed to the ocean winds, and con-
sequently growing under less favorable conditions than the stands in the interior.
Accordingly we beheve that the reverse of this has been carried out and under penalty
of making mistakes it is essential that the pine of the coast working groups be treated
conservatively and only tapped without kiUing when they reach a size which will en-
able them to stand this operation. We are of the opinion that, as in the case of the
exploitation working groups, the tapping without killing cannot be applied until the
trees measure at least 14 inches in diameter. In the seventh working group the fellings
will take place on the basis of special recommendations; the work done will follow the
principles which have just been explained."

22 Cultural rules for protection working groups, unpublished note by De Lapasse,
dated December 21, 1908: The general forest conditions of the Landes and Gironde
have already been described (see p. 169) and also the silvical characteristics of the
maritime pine (see p. 401). Mature stands 60 to 70 years old average 10,000 to 20,000
board feet to the acre; this high yield from small timber is because the soil is fully
stocked. On private land mature timber runs 60 to 70 trees per acre and in State
forests 100 or more.

188 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES

On the Lacanau (Gironde) State Forest the dune protection strip,
according to the current working plan, is 2,625 feet wide where only
the dead and dying trees are cut. In the State Forest of Carcans
(Gironde) the protective zone is classified into three distinct parts and
the growth of the dune forests as you approach the ocean (east to west)
is similar to the decrease in growth as you near the Hmit of tree growth
in the mountains: (1) The littoral zone of mere shrubs which is 535 to
1,322 feet wide. (2) A zone of badly formed trees of no commercial
value, of slow growth and open formation. (3) A third zone where the
stand is sufficiently dense to be tapped but which is maintained without
tapping as a protective barrier. It is very significant that these trees
which are exposed in part to the rigors of the ocean winds are not tapped
at all but are maintained exclusively as a protective zone.

Silvicultural Systems. — Next to the protection working group (which
is in the shape of a long strip five-eighths of a mile parallel to the ocean)
additional working groups (in strips) are laid out from west to east.
These are treated as high forests by the shelterwood compartment
system with the usual seed fellings and secondary felhngs omitted, since
regeneration is easy by clear cutting without the necessity of seed trees
or the shelter of a portion of the mature stand. The seed is furnished by
the tops of the felled trees. The normal compartment is 247 acres
which may be leased for tapping or sold for cutting as a unit or in as
many as four sub-units, especially if because of dunes or previous fires
the character of the timber differs. Final cutting is clear for the unit.
All tops are lopped out and left or scattered to lie flat on the ground to
assist reseeding. Before felling all underbrush and seedfings are felled
flat for the same purpose. The cover of moss, needles, limbs, and
brush prevents any movement of the sand before the pine seed has a
chance to sprout. Under this procedure natural reseeding nearly always
occurs. On areas in which it fails solving is done. Because of sod, high-
water table, etc., natural seeding is frequently not so successful in the
private forests. Sowing there may be broadcast or in plowed strips.
Planting is also done extensively, largely with seedlings collected from
nearby stands. Grazing is not permitted for about four years after
sowing or planting on private areas. Immediately around Arcachon
the maritime pine is under the selection system and is kept entirely cleared
of undergrowth, since it is maintained as a sort of pleasure park for
tourists. In the nearby forest of La Teste some clear cutting was
practiced entirely too near the sea and after two years the regeneration
had only partially succeeded. It would have been much better to have
left a protective zone of virgin timber for seed, since clear cutting
close to the sea is always dangerous, especially with the current fire
danger.

INTERMEDIATE FELLINGS 189

Intermediate Fellings. — After the stand has been regenerated the
sapling thickets are thinned by the so-called "depressage" (see p. 110),
before they reach merchantable size, to avoid fungous damage, and
cleanings are sometimes necessary to protect the pine against the
heather.

Under "Improvement Cutting" the Biscarrosse working plan pro-
vides :

"Cleanings and thinnings without tapping. Commence the cleanings in the re-
generated 'periodic blocks' 5 years old; at the same time lop the lower whorls of the
vigorous shoots and cut the weeds which suppress the pine. These (cultural) opera-
tions should be made periodically every 5 years and wiU become thinnings at 10 to 15
years; thus the stand will be systematically thinned and when about 20 to 25 years
old there should be about 200 stems per acre. Do not hesitate to cut back the weeds at
each period, both broom and furze, with the double object of doing away with thickets
which promote conflagrations and to give the pine the air and light so necessary for
good growth. It is, in effect, absolutely proven in the Landes that the pineries on
cleared soil grow much better than those with thick understory (of weeds) . In the older
stands the thinnings (without tapping or with the axe) have almost entirely the char-
acter of weedings; the advance seedlings of no value at the time of regeneration will then
disappear under the cover of the dominant story."

Pruning usually starts at 10 years of age. The typical 3-inch tree is
naturally pruned up to 2 feet above the ground, while the typical tree
of 6 inches is pruned artificially up to 10 to 12 feet above the ground.
The branches, which are left as they fall, take about 5 years to rot.
This pruning is done every 5 years. In order to protect stands from
fire at the time of cleaning the genista is now cut. Stands artificially
sown are usually mixed with a dense stand of genista 10 feet high; con-
sequently the pine has to be freed. . The first thinning or cleaning is
quite heavy and one stand was noted where there were 800 trees per acre
before the thinning that showed only 480 per acre after the thinning.

Regular thinnings ''with the axe" without tapping (see p. 110) are
thus usually necessary before the trees are large enough to stand a face.
At about 25 years, depending on the growth, the regular thinnings
by tapping to death begin, often preceded by tapping to exhaustion
(see quotation below). This merely means that instead of at once fell-
ing a tree, which is superfluous or of poor quality, it is first heavily
tapped for a period and then tapped to death and cut after four or more
years of very intensive tapping. This type of thinning is continued
every 5 to 10 years until the stand is mature and rather open (see p. 192).

In the forest of Biscarrosse (Landes) thinnings by tapping alive are
conducted as follows : -^

23 Extract from the revised working plan for Biscarrosse (Landes) forest containing
an inspection note from De Lapasse of December 21, 1908. Reference is made to page
193 where the new 4-year cycle (for thinnings and tapping) is fully explained.

190 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES

"The thinnings made every 5 years will aim to open up the forest. This favors
both the production of wood and resin in maritime pine. The thinnings will aim to
maintain the timber in a good state of growth by placing it under the best conditions
for increment; owing to the fact that the maritime pine is a light demanding species
one should not forget that in the case of this species the underwood as well as the sup-
pressed trees are valueless and that the upper story alone is of interest. This cul-
tural rule seems much surer than that given in the working-plan report.

"In the regenerated stands the thinnings with tapping wUl commence at about
25 years of age, or as soon as the timber shall have attained a sufficient size to enable
it to stand a face. Except when the removal of a pine is more or less urgent tapping
to death or 'tapping to exhaustion' will be followed. The 'tapping to exhaustion'
will precede the application of tapping to death by at least the length of a period
(5 years) ; it can then be accomphshed by one or by two faces according to the size of
the trees. This method of tapping will be apphed to the entire stand of each periodic
block during the period which precedes regeneration. The tapping without killing
(gemmage a vie) will continue to be appHed to the pine 14 inches and over at breast
height. Very vigorous trees measuring at least 16 inches in diameter can be intensively
tapped without killing and receive two faces. This method of extracting the resin
can be made general and will be justified chiefly during the three or four periods pre-
ceding regeneration.

"The application of 'exhaustive tapping' and of intensive tapping without kiUing
(without injury to the stands) has been rendered possible by the decision of the Direc-
tor General, dated March 23, 1908, who has authorized the Mont-de-Marsan inspection
to reduce the sizes of the faces in height and in diameter."

It should be particularly noted that so-called exhaustive tappings
which precede the usual thinnings by tapping to death is a new feature
of French practice aimed at the increase of resin production in State
forests. This means that there is a good deal of marking expense.
In 1905, in the inspection of Mont-de-Marsan, 15,180 acres had to be
marked; the work lasted practically continuously from February, 1915,
to July 8, and the marking removed on an average of almost exactly 40
trees per acre, or 612,455 trees. This illustrates the heavy thinnings
followed in State forests — so necessary for maritime pine to develop
good crowns. The first cleaning in private forests takes place at 4
years, and the first tapping to death for thinning at 15 years. By 30
years the stand is pretty well reduced to its final number and tapping
of all trees alive begins. The "Landes" rule is that no permanent tree
should be tapped until it is at least 13 inches in diameter. All private
tapping is now being done 4 years to a face.

Rotations. — The State forest rotations adopted in the past have been
70 years with fourteen periods of 5 years each, 72 years with twelve
periods of 6 years each, 75 years with fifteen periods of 5 years each,
and 80 years with sixteen periods of 5 years each. When the length of
the period is six years the consecutive tapping is separated by one year
of rest. In a large number of forests, however, the final rotation is
preceded by a transitory rotation which usually differs for each working

WORKING GROUPS 191

group. Rotations in private forests are usually shorter. The average
is between 55 and 65 years and, where the production of mine props is
the chief objective, the rotations can be reduced to about 40 to 50 years.
With the new 4-year thinning cycle the present rotations may be slightly
reduced.

According to the working plan for the forest of Biscarrosse, revised
January 7, 1910, the maritime pine has a 75-year rotation. The forest
is divided into fifteen periodic blocks. The growth data available show
that the maximum growth of the maritime pine is between 40 and
50 years; therefore a transitional rotation of 60 years has been recom-
mended. It is almost certain that as the humus in the different maritime
forests fertilizes the soil the growth will become more rapid, so that the
proverbial 70 to 75 year rotations may be generally reduced to 55 to 65
years.

According to this working plan "The yield is estabhshed by area;
the surface of each periodic block is run over by a clear-cut regeneration
felling, exploited during the period having the same numerical order as
the periodic block. "

Felling Cycles. — In the past the felling cycle was almost invariably 5
years, but sometimes 4 to 6 years. In the future it will usually be 4 years
(see p. 193). In the past the trees were resined for 4 years and felled the
fifth year. But in the forest of Carcans a 6-year period allowed 5 years
for tapping and the usual 1 year for felling.

"Working Groups. — According to De Lapasse the past method of
management was as follows:

"These forests are divided into working groups whose number varies from two to
six, according to their importance and size; working groups are estabhshed in long strips
parallel to the ocean, bounded by parallel fire lines, the first working group being placed
on the east side of the forest. In each working group the periodic blocks are numbered
in the order in which regeneration is fixed, from the north to the south. In each forest
the working plans have estabhshed a group without predetermined treatment, to in-
clude the dune and littoral zone, designed to form a shelter belt which protects the re-
mainder of the stand against wind action and sand coming from the west.

"The scheme is very simple. During each 5-year period each periodic block (except
those to be regenerated and those including young growth) is run over by a thinning with
turpentine operations. The trees which are to be removed are, before they are cut,
tapped to death during a period of 4 years; simultaneously, the pines which have
reached 14 inches in diameter and above are tapped alive for 5 years. The oldest
periodic block in turn is regenerated by clear cuttings preceded by tapping to death
all the trees. These are felled during the fifth (see 'New Tapping Scheme,' p. 193)
and last year of the period. The periodic blocks of young growth are run over by or-
dinary thinnings without tapping. At the beginning of each period (every 5 years)
each working group is completely marked (and valued) to compute the material of the
clearcut regeneration fellings (to be sold standing) and the trees to be tapped alive where
the contractor receives only the resin."

192

FORESTRY IN THE LANDES

With the new 4-year tapping cycle a working plan for a maritime pine
forest having a 68-year rotation and 17 periods would normally be worked
as follows :

TABLE 20.— WORKING PLAN FOR A MARITIME PINE FOREST

s

8

Tapping periods

1

1

J

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15 1 16

17

>

1921

1925

1929

1933

1937

1941

1945

1949

1953

1957

1961

1965

1969

1973

1977

1981

1985

>

5

M

to

to

to

to

to

to

to

to

to

to

to

to

to

to

to

to

to

s

<

1924

1928

1932

19S6

1940

1944

1948

1952

1956

1960

1964

1968

1972

1976

1980

1984

1988

I

64

R

„

g

g

g

g

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

G3

G2

Gg

I

II

60

Gg

R

"

e

e

e

e

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

G3

G2

II

III

56

G2

Gg

R

"

e

e

e

e

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

G3

III

IV

52

G3

G2

Gg

R

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e

e

e

e

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

IV

V

48

ge

G3

G2

Gg

R

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e

e

e

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

V

VI

44

ge

ge

G3

G2

Gg

R

"

e

e

e

e

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

VI

VII

40

ge

ge

ge

G3

G2

Gg

R

"

e

e

e

e

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

VII

VIII

36

ge

ge

ge

ge

G3

G2

Gg

R

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e

e

e

ge

ge

ge

ge

VIII

IX

32

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

G3

G2

Gg

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e

e

e

ge

ge

ge

IX

X

28

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

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G3

G2

Gg

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"

e

e

e

e

ge

ge

X

XI

24

ge

ge

ge

ge

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ge

ge

G3

G2

Gg

R

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e

e

e

e

ge

XI

XII

20

ge

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ge

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e

e

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XII

XIII

16

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Gg

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XIII

XIV

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ge

G3

G2

Gg

R

"

e

e

XIV

XV

8

e

e

e

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

G3

G2

Gg

R

"

e

XV

XVI

4

e

e

e

e

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

G3

G2

Gg

R

"

XVI

XVII

0

"

e

®

e

^

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

ge

G3

G2

Gg

R

XVII

Data furnished by Conservateur de Lapasse, April 7, 1920. Key to abbreviations
used in above table :

R — Regeneration fellings, by clear cutting after tapping to death during 4 years.
The felling takes place at the end of the fourth year (winter up to January) of the period
and during the first year (winter after January) of the next period.

Gg — 1. Exhaustive general tapping (gemmage-epuisement general) during the period
that precedes regeneration. All trees receive at least one face. 2. Continued tapping
ahve.

G2 — 1. Exhaustive tapping during the period which precedes Gg. All trees 10
inches and over in diameter are given one face. 2. Continued tapping alive.

G3 — 1. Moderate exhaustive tapping during the period which precedes G2. All
trees 11 inches and over in diameter are given one face. 2. Continued tapping alive.

ge — 1. Rapid exhaustive tapping or tapping to death of all excess trees which must
be quickly removed by thinnings. 2. Slow exhaustive tapping of trees which will be
gradually removed in thinnings. 3. Tapping alive with one face of all trees at least
12 inches in diameter. Also the felling of damaged trees at the end of the fourth year
of the period and during the first part of the first year of the next period.

" — No cultural operations.

e — Cultural operations without tapping. 1. In the young stands beginning with
about 5 years: freeing of seedlings and clearing of brush heather. 2. In stands 10 to
20 years old: " depressages," and thinnings with gradual pruning of lower branches up
to a height of 11.5 feet on the bole. The foregoing system (which slightly modifies the
past procedure in state forests as can be seen from the text) is now (1920) to be standard
for all forests under public forest management.

NEW TAPPING SCHEME

193

New Tapping Scheme. — The French have abandoned the fifth year
of tapping (see Fig. 17, a and b) because of the following objections: (1)
Difficulty of chipping the face when it is over 9.8 feet in height; (2) this
high face, which is often too deep because of the difficulty of accurate
chipping, heals poorly or at least very slowly; (3) an important part of
the bole is damaged by a high face. For these reasons the tapping period
has been changed from 5 to 4 years. The dimensions for the faces now
are:

TABLE 21.— WIDTH AND HEIGHT OF FACES

Year

Width

Height

Centimeters

Inches

Centimeters

Inches

1

2
3

4
Total

9
9

8
7 to 6

3.5
3.5
3.1

2.75 to 2.36

60
60
75
95
2.90 meters

23.6
23.6
29.5
37.4
9.5 feet

With the former fifth year system in vogue the total height was 3.70
meters (12.1 feet) before 1904; 3.40 meters (11.1 feet) from 1904 to 1909;
and 3.20 meters (10.4 feet) since 1910. A translation of the official tap-
ping rules is given in the Appendix, p. 429.

According to Cattin and Saint- J ours a period of rest of 1 or 2 years is
not always necessary with strong, thrifty trees, although the annual
growth is unquestionably increased if the rest is given. On the Florida
National Forest in the United States there are 6 years of tapping followed
by 3 years of rest ; with the French system of tapping such a period of rest
is generally considered unnecessary.

In the forest of La Teste trees but 7, 10, and 12 inches in diameter each
(being tapped to death) had three faces the first year and later four to five.
The trees tapped alive had one face only. Formerly, the faces began on
the south side and went to the north, then to the west, and then to the
east. Now the first face is placed on the east side of the tree (away from
the ocean) where the growth is best, then to the west; the third and fourth
faces being regulated by the contour of the tree. The best growth in this
locality is always opposite the ocean and the prevailing winds.

This reduction in the length of the tapping period, when applied to
forests being worked on 5-year cycles, will mean the revision of working
plans. The regeneration by clear cutting will be every 4 years instead of
5 years as formerly, and the cycle for thinnings will also be reduced from 5
to 4 years. In the future the cleanings will be made earfier after re-

194

FORESTRY IN THE LANDES

generation, since experience has shown the inconvenience of waiting for
5, 6, or 7 years as was formerly done.

Fig. 17 (o). — -Maritime pine 57 years old during improvement felling. The face
on the first tree, which is being tapped aUve, has been worked only one week.
(&). — Small tree being tapped to death prior to utihzation for mine props.

Tapping Other Species. — According to unpubHshed notes loaned the
writer by Cuif in 1912, he has concluded finally that the tapping of
Austrian or Scotch pine will never be commercially practicable without a
decided increase in present turpentine and rosin prices.^^ This agrees
with the results in other forests which are not usually tapped for resin.
For example, in Corsica, during the extremely high prices caused by the
American Civil War, Corsican pine had been tapped for awhile and then
abandoned ; the same was true of California yellow pine.

2^ Le Gemmage du pin nou- d'Autriche et du pin sylvestre en Meurthe-et-Moselle,
par Cuif, 1912 (unpublished notes).

RESIN SALES • 195

Resin Sales. — According to a digest of resin sales made at Mont-de-
Marsan, October 5, 1909, for the period 1910 to 1914, inclusive, the policy
of favoring the small operator is just as much in evidence as with ordinary
timber sales in other parts of France. The payments which are made
annually vary between $400 and $2,000 and, ordinarily are less than
$1,500. If a large company, for example, desired to secure a considerable
area for resin operations, it would be necessary for it to bid in a number
of contiguous or nearly contiguous resin sales, some of which might be
advantageously located for a small local operator. This clearly results in
a better price and gives the small operator an excellent chance to secure
areas convenient to his home. Each bidder is supplied with detailed
data as to the stand and estimated products, boundaries, methods of
removal, and charges, as in the case of ordinary timber sales. An
example follows:

"Article 1. — Forest of Biscarrosse — Fifth series. — Affectation 1 (p) Canton dune
de Jaongue-Soule. First lot, area 91 acres.

Clear-cut regeneration felling, with privileges of tapping to death for 4 years from
1910 to 1913, comprising the exploitation of 15,379 pines, to wit:

D. B. H. inches = Poles 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
15,379 pines = 235 3248 3938 3857 1898 841 707 486 118 30 13 6 2

Estimated products: Lumber 3,164 cubic meters; firewood, 1,186 stares; resin 1,762
hectoUters.

Boundaries: N. fire hne boundary of the Gironde; E. fire line parallel No. 2; S. second
lot; W. communal water hollow of Jaongue-Soule.

Removal: By the Cugnes and Brofond roads.

Accessory exploitation: Lopping understory. Products may be left as they lie.

Charges: Repair of roads, $173.70.

Fire tool box: The contractor shall install, either in a tapper's cabin or in a special
locked box, in a place to be designated by the local forest officer, the following tools —
2 axes, 2 sickles, 2 shovels, and 2 rakes. The kind of tools will be selected by the head
ranger; they will remain the property of the contractor who will keep them intact and
in good condition; the depot will be ready by January 31 following the sale."

The following special clauses were specified :

"The extracting of resin will take place in the following manner instead of as specified
in Art. 19 of the specifications (see Appendix, p. 429) :

Of the trees to be tapped alive those so designated by the Forest Service may re-
ceive two faces.

If the period of tapping is 5 years, the face may be raised 23.6 inches during the
first two years; 25.6 inches during the third and fourth years, and 27.5 inches during
the fifth, provided the total height of the face does not exceed 10.5 feet. If this period
is four years, the face may be raised 25.6 inches the first year, 27.5 inches during the
second and third years, and 29.5 inches during the fourth, provided the total height
of the face does not exceed 9.2 feet. In all cases the width of the face must not exceed
the following dimensions: During the first year 3.5 inches, during the second 3.1 inches,
during the third 2.8 inches, during the fourth 2.4 inches, during the fifth 2 inches.

196 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES

The decrease in the width wUl be made gradually in such manner that the width at
the end of each year will equal that of the next year.

The faces will be made . . . so as to divide the circumference of the tree in three
practically equal parts, the second face to be opened at the right (facing it) of the first.
The faces shall be raised by following the grain of the wood. The other non-conflicting
stipulation of Article 19 shall remain in force."

The regular French specifications covering resin operations are given
in full, as are those for the United States and for British India, in the
Appendix.

Each operator is informed that payment must be made annually for
a period of five years, that in the thinnings the pines to be tapped to
death are marked with two imprints of the State marking hatchets, one
on the bole and one on the roots, while trees to be tapped permanently
(gemmage a vie) with one face are stamped once on the bole; if two faces,
two stamps on the bole, one below the other. Contractors who do not
furnish the fire fighting tools (prescribed under "charges") must under-
stand that they will be bought by the Waters and Forests Service and
charged to their account. Foreign workmen can be hired only up to
10 per cent of the total number employed. A fixed price for the trans-
portation of products from Federal forests is agreed upon with the local
railways and the rates furnished the contractor. In some instances
the Forest Service has built both narrow and broad gauge railways on
State forests which are leased to the operator or to connecting lines.

French Tools for Tapping and Their Use. — Fig. 18 ^^ shows the principal
French tools used in tapping maritime pine to secure the resin for the
manufacture of turpentine. The letters following correspond to those in
the figure.

(a) Barrasquit d'Espourga. — This tool is used to shave off the bark
of trees to be tapped. This is a preliminary operation made at the
beginning of each year; the workman shaves the bark vertically from
top to bottom to remove the dry and hard superficial bark, so as to make
the tapping easier. The area cleaned is 11.8 to 13.7 inches wider and
3.9 to 5.9 inches higher than the dimensions of the proposed face. It
should be noted, however, that the shaving is usually done with an
ordinary axe for the first year of tapping, because the face is low and
easily reached; for the second year of tapping it is sometimes done with
an axe or with the short-handled barrasquit. Before the third or fourth
year, the cleaning is always done with the instrument shown in the
figure. The "barrasquit de barrasque," a similar tool, is used to scrape
the dry, solidified resin from the face at the end of the season. This

25 Adapted from Plate IX, Bulletin 229, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. The names of
the instruments have been added in the legend under the figure and the description of
use materially changed and corrected.

FRENCH TOOLS FOR TAPPING AND THEIR USE 197

SCALE OF INCHES

Fig 18. — French Turpentine Tools, (a) Barrasquit d'espourga; (6) Palette (or
palinette); (c) Hapchot (new model is called bridon) ; (d) Rasclet; (e) Place-crampon
(or pousse-crampon).

198 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES

so-called scrape is collected in a bucket at each tree, or is allowed to fall
on a piece of cloth spread around the base of the tree.

(6) Palette (or Palinette). — A flat trowel, or scrape, for transferring
the soft resin from the pots (attached to the trees) to the collection
bucket. The short handle shown in the figure (6) is of wood, usually
reinforced with an iron band. The wooden bucket, or "I'escouarte,"
usually holds 5.2 gallons. When the bucket is full the resin is trans-
ferred to a barrel, used for transport to the turpentine still, or is stored
temporarily in a "bare," a wooden tank sunk in the sand and protected
with a wooden cover. A bare holds 60.7 to 92.4 gallons.

(c) Hapchot {new model is called Bridon). — This is the special axe
for clipping the face. The successive shavings are made from right to
left, or from the top downward; the left hand is placed on top, resting
against the iron of the axe; the right hand underneath grips the wooden
handle (see Fig. 17b). Each shaving is cut clean and thin and starts
the resin canals flowing again after they have become clogged up. The
length of handle depends on the height of the incision above the ground;
it is used for clipping faces of the first, second, and third year periods.
If used for the fourth and fifth years (fifth year now generally abandoned)
the workman must use a ladder, usually simply a notched pole.

(d) Rasclet. — The curved cutting edge (at the right) is used for
clipping the high faces of the fourth or fifth years of tapping. The tool
has a long handle and is used like the hapchot, described above. The
straight cutting edge (at the left) is used for making incisions to hold thin,
flat pieces of wood which prevent the gum from dripping on the gi-ound
and guide it into the pot.

(e) Place-Crampon (or Pousse-Crampon) . — The place-crampon is
used for inserting at the base of the face the zinc blade, or crampon,
which finally guides the resin into the pot without any waste. The
workman holds the place-crampon in his left hand with convex face
(shown in Fig. 18) toward the soil, the edge on the lower part of the
face where he wishes to insert the gutter. It is then tapped with a wooden
mallet, held in the right hand, and an incision made about one-fifth of
an inch into the wood of the tree. The place-crampon is then pulled
out, the gutter tapped into place, and the pot is then hung below the
gutter. The tin trays which hold the resin (in use at La Teste) were 2.3
by 6 inches; but usually earthenware pots are used of the same capacity.-^

26 In 1836 (according to J. H. Ricard) H. Serres suggested terra cotta troughs in-
stead of the wasteful "box" cut in the base of the tree. Hughes, in 1841, suggested a
small earthenware pot but the improved methods were not adopted until about 1855
or later. Galvanized sheet-iron "cups" have been tried because they are lighter
than the earthenware pots. The nail to hold the cup is a bad feature, since it might
be left in the butt log and cause damage to saws at the mill. Probably the ideal "cup"

TECHNIQUE OF TAPPING 199

French and American Methods Contrasted. — The main difference
between tapping methods in France and the United States on National
Forests seems to be in the width of the face and the annual rate of in-
crease in its height, and the number of faces per tree. In the United
States the first streak cannot begin higher than 10 inches above the
ground. In France it can be anywhere above the root swelling. In
the United States the maximum depth of streak is 0.5 inch; in France
it is approximately 0.4 inch. In the United States in Federal tapping
operations ^^ no tree less than 10 inches can be tapped, and trees 16
inches and over can have two faces, while trees 10 to 16 inches can
have but one face. In France the minimum diameter of trees tapped
alive on State forests (trees to be removed in thinnings can be tapped
to death no matter how small) is 13 inches and the number of faces is
specially designated by the local forest officer. In the United States the
face can be 12 to 14 inches wide with no specified decrease in width as
the face proceeds up the tree. In France it is 3.5 to 2.4 inches, decreasing
each year as the distance above the ground increases. The maximum
height increase per year in the United States is 16 inches, while in France
the face can be lengthened 24 to 26 inches, and even up to 39 inches
in case of 4-year tappings. Without exhaustive experiments the best
methods to follow cannot be stated, but tentative results from the Florida
Forest in the United States show the French method is not applicable
to mature, large timber and that the yield in resin per square inch of face
is slightly greater with the American (Government) method of wide faces.

Technique of Tapping. — The trees (on State forests) for tapping alive
are blazed on the bark and stamped " AF " at the base and at breast height.

It is necessary ^^ for a good worker to be able to cut a thin, even slice
of wood to increase face and to continue the face vertically following the
grain of the wood. The sHver is about 3 inches wide, 5 to 7 inches long,
and usually less than 0.4 inch deep. The first step is always to smooth
the outer bark with the axe. The tendency is to bark too large rather
than too small an area. In placing the gutters care should be taken
not to cut into the tree with the place-crampon more than 0.2 inch; this
is a sufficient depth, inasmuch as the gutter is glued by the sap as soon as
it flows, and besides if the gutters are set too deep it is very difficult to
remove them in the autumn. The gutter should, of course, be sHghtly
inclined toward the ground so that the sap will run off into the cup.
has not yet been invented. It must be easy to place, secure, easy to remove, and must
not damage the tree.

Ricard states that the yield of resin is greatest near the ocean, with thrifty, rapidly
growing trees, with thin chipping at frequent intervals, and with hot weather.

-'' It would be unwise to attempt to pass legislation limiting the size of trees that
should be tapped. This is a technical problem to be solved for each forest.

28 Le Pin Maritime (Manuel Pratique) par R. Cattin et J. J. Saint-Jours.

200 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES

There seems to be a good deal of variation in the frequency of tapping.
Some chip once a week during the entire season, others every 5 days,
while still others will only chip once every 12 to 15 days; this latter
method decreases the resin flow. On the whole, it is better to chip at
regular intervals, with the rule that the chipping would be more frequent
during the hot weather in the summer than during the spring or autumn.
A common rule followed in the Landes is to "chip once every 5 days from
May 15 to September 15 and once a week during the remainder of the
period."

The cups are usually cleaned seven times a year and the rain is poured
out after chipping. The trees are scraped once sometime between
October and December. It is usually recommended to begin the first
of March and continue until the end of October.-^

It is not only necessary to secure a quantity'^" of gum but also to secure
a good quality. Therefore, it should not be allowed to deteriorate in the
cups. Yet to collect too frequently means unnecessary expense. To dip
ten times per season is hardly necessary, while seven or eight times is a
good average. Five [collections a year, on the other hand, is not often
enough. The difference between good, clean resin and that which is full
of chips and other debris may be as much as a dollar per barrel.

Effect of Tapping. — There is no question but that the turpentine
operation decreases the rate of growth of maritime pine, but, on the
other hand, it makes the wood harder and more durable and the im-
pregnation even extends to the heartwood. The general opinion is
that tapped trees are better for flooring, boards, ties, and planks, while
untapped pine is better for telegraph poles, mine props, and box boards.
Unquestionably the quality of the wood diminishes after 25 to 30 years
of tapping alive, and is inferior to wood cut from trees tapped to death for
only 3 to 4 years.

29 J. H. Ricard, writing in 1910, made the following conclusions: Tapping opera-
tions are from March to October. The face should be chipped every 8 days in spring
and fall and every 4 to 5 days in summer. The pot should be emptied every 2 to 3
weeks and there should be one barrel for storage per 1,000 trees tapped. There are
about 40 chippings per season and the cut should be less rather than more than 0.3
inch; wide faces are unnecessary because the resin comes from the sides of the cut and
"the return in resin has not been proportional to the surface of the face." After 4
years of tapping.trees should be given a rest of 2 to 3 years. Trees under 8 inches in
diameter are rarely tapped unless they are to be removed in thinnings. A workman
can chip 1,000 to 2,000 pine per day, according to the ground, and often tends about
4,000 trees.

30 The workmen received, before the war, one-half the resm for their pay and the
operator or owner furnished the cups and gutters. The smoothing off of the bark
begins the last of February and the scraping off of dried pitch is usually finished in
early December. In the interim the resin tappers work at clearing underbrush and
pruning young stands.

UTILIZATION, LOGGING, AND LOCAL SPECIFICATIONS 201

Utilization, Logging, and Local Specifications. — The trees from early
thinnings which range from about 6.5 to 12 feet in length and from 3 to 4
inches in diameter up are utilized for mine props. They are peeled when
intended for use in the coal mines of France, and left with bark on for
export to England. Props are also taken from the tops of mature trees
cut for lumber.

Later thinnings are utilized for props or sawlogs and so far as possible
for telegraph poles. These poles range from 26 to 49 feet in length; first-
class poles must have a diameter inside bark of 6 inches at 3.3 feet from
the butt and 4.5 inches at the top; and the second-class poles, 10.5 inches
3.3 feet from the butt and 4.5 inches at the tops. All poles are peeled in
the woods.

In cutting saw timber the felling is done with saws, and the logs are
immediately bucked into lengths of 6.5 to 13 feet; 9 feet is the usual
length. These short lengths are to eliminate crooks and to make hand-
ling easier. The logs are then peeled, since after seasoning they are far
easier to handle. The bark left on the ground also serves to build up
the soil. Logging is done with two-wheeled mule carts, the logs being
lifted by hand into the carts, the tires of the wheels are wide enough to
permit their use on sandy roads.

Many of the sawmills are stationary and are located on the railroads.
Logs are hauled to these sawmills for considerable distances on the met-
alled roads with the same conveyances. However, because the coupes
are usually small, the bulk of the lumber cut in the Landes is produced
by small portable band mills that are set in the middle of the tract to
be cut. The lumber is then hauled to the station in mule carts. These
small band mills are quickly moved from one site to another, and their
adaptation for use under similar conditions in America seems desirable.
A large part of the production of such mills consists of sawed railroad
ties.

The following is a summary of the specifications of wood products cut
from maritime pine:

Telegraph poles. — 23 to 39 feet in length and up to 39 inches in diameter inside
bark, 4 inches.

Piling. — All lengths minimum diameter at the small end, 13 inches.

Box boards. — 6.5 to 7.7 feet in length and 8 to 12 inches in width, 0.4 to 0.8 of an
inch thick.

Flooring. — Length variable, width 3.1 to 5.9 inches, and thickness 1.1 inches.

Beams (Grosse Charpente). — Length from 13 feet up by 9.8 to 12.6 by 7.1 to 7.8
inches.

Joists. — Length from 9.8 feet up and 7.1 to 7.8 inches by 3.9 to 4.3 square.

Charcoal. — Usually sold in lO-barrel lots (barrel of 300 quarts).

Ordinary fire wood. — Length 3.3 feet with sale unit a stack 3.3 feet long on the base
by 4.4 high.

Lath, etc. — Miscellaneous dimensions.

202 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES

Bert is authority for the following data:

"Two culjic meters (about 550 board feet) of maritime pine will furnish 1 ton of
boards. For rough calculations the average volume of mine props is ... 20 mine
props to' the ton. A cubic meter of fuel wood weighs 0.7 ton, expanding to 1| steres.
The weight of a stere (0.227 cord) is 0.467 of a ton. A barrel of resin (Gironde) of
235 quarts weighs 0.2415 of a ton with a density of 1.05. A barrel of resin (Landes)
of 340 quarts weighs 0.357 of a ton."

A 235-quart barrel produces 110 pounds of turpentine and 352 pounds of dry
material, chiefly resin.

Yield of Maritime Pine. — In 1892 there were 105,763 acres of conifer
State high forests in the Landes, and in addition, 22,625 acres, or between
one-fourth and one-fifth as much as the productive area, had to be given
up to protection. The production amounted to 30,072 cubic meters of
timber (about 8,360,000 feet board measure or 80 feet per acre) and 4,161,-
960 pounds of resin.

The yield of maritime pine stands ^^ in the Mont-de-Marsan Inspection
for the year 1905 showed a total of 47.6 cubic meters per acre (on an area
of 22.2 acres) for pine 40 to 50 years old. According to Lapasse:

"The resinous products represent approximately one-fifteenth the total weight
or 7 per cent of the yield in weight of a maritime pine felling; the proportion of the
product realized then, in weight, is wood product fourteen-fifteenths or 93 per cent,
resinous products one-fifteenth or 7 per cent. The production of resin is variable;
it depends on the density of the stand, on the underwood, on the state of growth, the
size of the trees, the age of the face, the distance from the ocean, and on the skill of
the workman. The yield attains its maximum in open stands completely cleared of
undergrowth, situated near the sea and during the second or third year of tapping.
A humid and hot atmosphere favors the secretion of gum. The yield in resin is, on an
average for 1,000 trees tapped alive, 640 quarts . . . per year, and in 5 years, the dura-
tion of the tapping alive, 10,200 quarts. One might say that . . . 166 pines can yield
annually a barrel of resin, but in order to collect 100 quarts it is necessary to have 50
pines tapped alive, each tree producing an average of two quarts. In the thinnings
1,000 trees tapped to death may yield (according to the size of the trees) from four to
six barrels of 340 quarts each or an average of five barrels or 1,700 quarts per year
and in the 4 years' duration of the tapping to death, 6,800 quarts. In this case, 200
pines . . . produce annually a barrel or 59 pines tapped to death are necessary to
obtain 100 quarts of resin. In the regeneration fellings with pine 65 to 70 years old
with four faces each, each face can produce 1^ quarts or 6 quarts per tree per year.
One thousand pines tapped to death should produce 6,000 quarts or about 18 barrels
per year, and 24,000 quarts in 4 years. An acre stocked on an average with 80 trees
will yield about 480 quarts of resin per year and 1,920 in 4 years. To collect 100 quarts
of resin it is necessary to have seventeen pines tapped to death per year."

These figures are below rather than above the average. In the thin-
nings marked during 1900 to 1905 on a total area of 57,847 acres in the

31 Rendement des Forets Domaniales de pin maritime dans les dunes landaises. Revue
des Eaux et Forets, June 1906. To simplify the calculations the author has taken a
liter as equal to 1 Uquid quart, whereas a liter is really 1.05671 quarts (liquid).

PROTECTION 203

Inspection of Mont-de-Mars an, with the trees averaging 40 years in
age, the average yields per acre were as follows: (1) Timber products,
22 pines removed, with a volume excluding branches of 3.6 cubic meters,
about 1| cords (or roughly 750 board feet). (2) Resin products, total
yield for the 5 years of tapping, including the pine tapped alive, 340 quarts.

The average return per acre from the timber was $3.42 (average price
95 cents per cubic meter on the stump). During this period the value
of resin varied from $10.61 to $17.37 a barrel (of 340 quarts). Exclud-
ing 50 per cent of the value of the resin as the labor cost the net value
of resin rights was $1.98 per 100 quarts, and the total average yield from
thinnings was $10.15 per acre ($2.03 per year). Thus the yield from
resin is twice that of timber.

During the same period the clear-cut regeneration fellings yielded
an average of 131 trees per acre (80 to 84 trees per acre is a fairer average),
and the yield per acre was 48 cubic meters — 6,500 quarts of resin (about
10.9 thousand feet board measure) at a total net price of $116.76 per
acre ^^ for land which, had it not been forested, would not only have
been worthless to-day hut would even have constituted a menace.

For the year 1905 the gross receipts from all the State forests in the
Landes Department amounted to $111,788, with an expense for adminis-
tration of $15,976, making a net revenue of $91,941 for 56,762 acres,
or a net yield per acre per year of $1.67. In 1889 there was a deficit of
$7,008 in the Landes. Eight years later, 1897, there was a net surplus
of $5,793 while, after eight years more, the revenue had increased to
almost $96,500. This increase in revenue was partly in producing
capacity and partly in the increased value of the product.

It is interesting to compare the yield in cubic meters, steres, and
hectoliters (100 quarts) with the annual charge.^^ According to data
furnished by De Lapasse in one locality 62,840 trees furnished a total of
14,640 cubic meters, 5,489 steres, and 7,900 hectoliters at a total annual
charge of $9,090.

On a unit basis per tree the yield is 0.28 cubic meter, 0.08 stere,
0.12 hectoliter at an annual cost to the operator of 13 cents. The rela-
tive yield from thinnings is naturally very much less, since the trees
are that much smaller.

Protection. — When the dune reclamation work began, the commission
(see p. 173) found it very necessary to have a permanent local force to
prevent grazing trespass. This trespass was considered forest trespass
and therefore forest guards were placed in charge, and as early as 1809
the Prefect of the Gironde decreed that " burning can under no circum-

^' Huff el cites the average net yield as $2.22 per acre per year, which agrees closely
with Bert's estimate of $2.16.
33 Huffel, Vol. I, p. 183.

204 FORESTRY IN THE LANDES

stances extend over more than one-sixth the land owned by each com-
mune," and the local forest officer must be consulted. It is interesting
that, dating from 1741, there was a law that there could be no grazing
for 5 years following the burning of forest land. A similar law is now
in force in Tunisia and Algeria to punish the natives for burning over
grazing ground.

Even when the tendency to set fire decreased, accidents tended to
increase the fire danger in a region where the hazard was already very
great. Notwithstanding the strict rules and fines against setting fire
within 328 feet of forest, heather, or wood, fires have always done con-
siderable damage in the maritime pine belt due to inflammable under-
brush and regeneration, high winds, and drought. During the 10-year
period, 1883-1892, only 254 acres were burned or 0.0002 of the area
(protected by the State service) per year and 0.002 per year of the
communal forest area. In the area not under Federal control the
relationship between the area burned each year and the area not burned
was as 0.78 is to 100. In other words, 11,621 acres were burned over
each year out of a total area of about 1,482,626 acres.

In the Landes the regulations are extremely strict against trespass
and against the use of fire by contractors. The following is an example:

"It is strictly forbidden:

"1. To smoke, to light matches, or to carry a fire of any kind whatsoever in the
forest or on forest soil.

"2. To damage, move, or tear up any stakes, signs, poles, boundary notices, or
notices of any kind whatsoever erected by administrative authority.

"3. To remove sand, dry pine needles, sod, or any other product of the forest soil.
Violations will be followed by prosecution."

According to Bert:

"The protection measures include; (1) Installation of tool caches in forest houses
and in the cutting areas; (2) the establishment of telephone lines connecting certain
forest houses with the nearest telegraph office; (3) the construction of watch towers
in the Inspection of Mont-de-Marsan."

Additional protective measures are: The establishment of charcoal
pits is not allowed in the interior of pine forests (except in cleared open-
ings at least 33 feet from the nearest tree); charcoal burning cannot
be done before the first of October or after the first of April of each
year (that is, during the fire season), and the charcoal could not be
removed until nine days after the burning was finished; stacks of saw-
mills had to be covered with spark arresters and the ground cleared.
The conclusion was finally reached that fire fines were indispensable.
Accordingly main fire lines at right angles to the direction of the wind,
about 3,280 feet apart and 33 feet wide, were constructed; in addition

PROTECTION 205

each forest was divided into compartments of 247 acres, separated by
fire lines of 33 feet in width. The weeds, grass, and vegetable debris
were all removed from the lines. As a rule these lines were used to back-
fire fro7n, since they alone would not stop the average fire.^^

Another important item of protection in the State forests is against
a root fungus, which greatly decreases growth and ultimately kills the
trees. It is transmitted through the roots and is controlled by digging
a trench about 2\ feet deep around infected areas. Such areas are
detected by the fact that the reproduction within them starts to die.
Owners claim that this disease usually appears where the roots of living
trees are injured by fire. That is one reason for not permitting burning
of charcoal among standing timber. A preventive measure is to thin
the timber before it reaches the sapling stage.^^ There is some damage
from caterpillars, and there was some good-sized areas in the State
forests (near Lacanau) that appeared materially damaged in 1918.

^< See p. 275 for additional data on intensive fire protection.
55 See p. 110 for the details of early thinnings (depressage).

CHAPTER IX
GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

Mensuration in Working Plans (p. 206). Summary, Units of Measure, Volume
Tables, Rule-of-Thumb Methods, Ocular Estimating, Calipering; Stands, Stand Graphics.

Regulation of Cutting (p. 215). Broad Aims of French Regulation Policy,
Application to United States, Abuses Led to Legislation, The Policy of "Reserves,"
Summary of Principles and Methods, Management Subdivisions, Rotations and Cutting
Cycles, The Normal Forest, Regulation of Cut, Pure Area, Diameter Limit by Single
Trees, Area and Age, Method of 1883, Area (Volume) Allotment by Periods, The
Gurnaud Method.

Working Plans (p. 243). General, The Working Plan Report, Chamonix Working
Plan.

MENSURATION IN WORKING PLANS

Summary. — The greatest achievements of French mensuration are:
(1) The recognition that mathematics and formulae are distinctly second-
ary to silviculture and that exactness in forest mensuration, especially
in yield data, is relatively unimportant if there is frequent stocktaking
and good silviculture. (2) The use of graphics in depicting the stand
instead of cumbrous, unintehigible tables. (3) The development of
empirical data for selection forests. (4) Simple and workable methods
unfettered by the application of theory. ''. . . it^ heads straight
for the desired goal."

Broilliard, a leader in French silviculture, said, in the preface to the
second edition of his "Le Traitment des Bois en France"

" . . . fearing to give too many figures to readers, persuaded, as I still am to-day,
that mathematics leads silviculture into errors and that equations . . . never dis-
close the secret of the living forest. The increasing weight of mathematics in forest
studies is full of dangers, notably in Germany (where the experiment stations engage in
calculations without end). Too often mathematics works on a false base; it leads to
the idea of absolute conclusions, always different with the phenomena of nature; mathe-
matics does not give, moreover, the solution of this simple problem: What is the future
of a tree, of a stand? . . ."

On the other hand there are weaknesses: (1) Confusion and variation
in the use of the cubic meter and in squared log content formulae, and in
the use of diameters or circumferences. There is a distinct lack of
standardization. (2) The excessive use of short-cut methods. (3) The

1 Mensuration in France, by Donald Bruce, pp. 686-690, Journal of Forestry, No. 6,
Vol. XVII. Donald Bruce and H. H. Chapman kindly reviewed Chapter IX.

206

UNITS OF MEASURE 207

lack of more accurate local volume tables which could have been easily
and cheaply obtained. (4) Failure, through lack of funds, to keep
abreast of scientific investigations and to contribute more to forest
science.

But the French viewpoint is of great value to the American forester
even if the details of mensuration practice can rarely be used without
modification.

Units of Measure. — The unit of measure for logs, piling, poles, and
props is the solid cubic meter- which contains 35.3 cubic feet or approxi-
mately 285 board feet log scale.

Contrary to the general belief in the United States it is agreed in
France that there is much confusion because the cubic meter is not
used in a uniform manner, and one writer said : ^

"I defy two Frenchmon, living 12.5 miles apart, to understand each other when they
speak of cubic meters according to the usage of their locality even if they use the same
tariff."

This confusion, due largely to different methods of measurement and
calculation, has led to the demand for a ''legal cubic meter" which
a committee defined as follows:

"The volume of a log shall be equal to the volume of a cylinder having the circum-
ference of the log measured at its middle point to the nearest 2 centimeters (0.8 inch)
and its length measured to the nearest 20 centimeters (8 inches). The measurement
of the circumference shall be made with a melastic tape at right angles to the axes of
the log. . . . The volume (thus obtained) shall be called a legal ^ cubic meter."

But to be complete there must be standard rules for reductions on
account of defect or irregularities. The following were proposed: (1)
Measure between knots or swellings. (2) Where a log becomes irregular
the purchaser can cut it off and remeasure. (3) Defect deductions to
be made by joint scale. (4) Logs with checks or lightning marks clear
to the heart can be rejected. (5) Logs must be at least 6.5 feet in length,

Cordwood^ is measured by the stere, a stacked cubic meter, and
is usually cut in 1 meter (3.3 foot) lengths, and in statistical work it is
sufficiently accurate to count 1 solid cubic meter as yielding 1| steres of

2 For a discussion of converting factors see the Introduction. Those who have much
converting to do should draw a converting-graph based on the best data obtainable for
the conversion problem in hand.

3 Solide et Metre Cube, B., S . F . de F — C. et B., Sept. 7, 1908, J. Banchereau.

■* An interesting comparison between the new and old French measures is given on
pages 14-19 of Carnet — Agenda du Forestier. Besangon, 1902. Paul Jacquin, Im-
primeur. It should be noted that in France logs are measured ovtside bark, while in
the United States log scaling is always wisw/e bark.

^ See also classes of cordwood and saw timber given under "Sale of Timber," page
307.

208 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

piled fuel. Cordwood is frequently sold by the ton; this is an excellent
system. It compensates at once for species and for seasoning. For
the measurements of log lengths the French prefer a melastic tape, and
for diameter® an accurate adjustable caliper to take maximum and mini-
mum diameters, or a diameter tape if only one measurement can be
taken. The French policy is clearly to avoid unnecessary and costly ac-
curacy when something less exact will serve just as well.

Volume Tables. — Volume tables for estimating the cubic (metric)
contents of standing timber are simpler and more standardized in France
than in the United States. There are no volume tables in use which give
the contents of trees in terms of the manufactured product. The fol-
lowing classes of volume tables are used :

(1) A "universal" table, based on diameter, total height, and taper
of a tree (there are also tables giving contents of cylinders of given
diameter and length which must be reduced by a form factor).

(2) Merchantable log length table, especially designed for standards
or for high forest trees, based on diameter and the merchantable length
of the bole (to a top limit of 9.8 inches) classified by 2 or 4 meter lengths
(6.5 to 13.1 feet).

(3) Cordwood tables, based on the diameter of standards and whether
(a) very branchy, (6) average, (c) mediocre, or (d) few branches.

(4) Local volume tables for (a) total or (6) merchantable contents in
cubic meters based on diameter alone are common and are usually based
on the type (1) table and on local diameter and height measurements.
It is customary to give the name of forest, working group, year table was
made, author, soil, part of tree included, silvicultural system, species,
altitude, and general quality.

Cordwood from the top or from branches is estimated by using a ratio
of the bole; this varies with the species, height of the tree, age, top cutting
limit for saw timber, and silvicultural system. The results are naturally
subject to wide variations. An average figure for oak high forest is
60 per cent to 75 per cent saw timber with 25 per cent to 40 per cent fuel
(of this fuel one-third is fagots) ; for beech the figures for saw timber
would be 10 per cent to 20 per cent less; for fir or spruce 80 per cent to
90 per cent saw timber and 20 per cent to 10 per cent fuel. But in statis-
tical computations the French usually figure that 100 cubic meters gross
yield of standing timber will give in (a) hardwoods, 80 cubic meters of
timber and 20 cubic meters (equal to 30 stacked steres) of fuel; in (6)
softwood, 90 cubic meters of timber and 10 cubic meters (15 steres) of
fuel.

6 Huff el thinks there may be a 5 to 10 per cent difference between the measurements
and vohime computation of a lot of large irregular logs even if great care is taken.
Much of the data' which follows is from Huff el, Vol. II.

VOLUME TABLES 209

It is clearly established that trees of the same (a) species, (6) diameter,
(c) silvicultural system, and (d) height yield a greater volume as they
increase in age but the variation is usually disregarded in ordinary valua-
tion surveys, except so far as it is represented in local volume tables.
The wide variation between local volume tables for the same species and
diameter is merely a repetition of experience in all countries. But an-
other complication arises in working plan revisions. It is desired to esti-
mate the present stand accurately yet to-day's stand must be compared
with the stand at the last revision because the original stand plus the cut,
minus or plus the difference between the original stand and the present
stand, gives an accurate line on growth. It is, therefore, necessary to
compute the volumes to be compared by the same volume tables. In
fact, with hundred per cent estimates, each compartment or working
group is in reality a permanent sample plot which at each working plan
revision gives fairly exact data on growth and yield.

The sample volume table which follows is for spruce and fir in the Jura.
To the figures given 10 per cent must be added if branches are included.
The volume tables supplied the local officers also give the volume by cir-
cumference and heights for one to nineteen trees (omitting the volumes
for ten and twenty trees) to facilitate multiplication when figuring results
of valuation surveys:

210

GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

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CALIPERING STANDS 211

Rule-of-Thumb Methods. — There are various rule-of-thumb methods^
ah based on the metric system. They are chiefly of value in stimu-
lating local forest officers to study the laws of diameter, height, and
volume.

(1) Bouvard formula: F = | D'^H which is somewhat conservative, though used for
coppice-under-standards .

(2) d'Auverne formula: V = 7/10 volume of cjdinder of size of middle girth, for
oak cut to top limit of 11. 8 inches.

(3) Villers-Cotterets formula: V in steres = circumference in centimeters minus one
meter {i.e., 1.70 — 1.0 or 0.7 steres) used for beech locally.

(4) Algan formula: V = 0.33 D-H. Used for spruce 5.9 in diameter at small end;
or V = 0.42 D'-H.

(5) Plank formula: P = h ND^.

In the Vosges it is customary to estimate in "board feet" or planks 4 M long X 0.25
wide X 0.025 thick or 1/40 plus or minus of a cubic meter.

Ocular Estimating. — In regular fully stocked stands of coppice or
young high forest ocular ^ estimating is exceedingly accurate, and coppice
is rarely estimated by any other method since the number of steres per
hectare can be gauged if the age and soil quality are known. Then too
it must be remembered that each compartment has been cut over for
generations and where the rotation or treatment has not been modified
there are usually the records of past cuts to base estimates upon. Such
ocular estimates for coppice can be made within 90 per cent of the actual
cut or even closer so that they answer for sale purposes and the price is
usually a lump sum per hectare. High forest timber, except when in
the sapling stage, is never estimated ocularly.

Calipering Stands. — The French measure the diameter or circum-
ference of standing timber at 1.50 meters (4.92 feet) or 1.30 (4.26 feet)
above the ground and on hillsides they measure the breast-height point
from the uphill side of the tree. They often take into account the fact
that the largest diameters are parallel with the wind or the crown or
root development; this would apply especially to an intolerant species
Hke the maritime pine in the Landes where there are strong winds from
the ocean. But generally these points are waived since the errors in
calculating volumes are even greater. In accurate estimating the mer-
chantable sawlog length is almost invariably measured or approximated
in the field; this is especially important with standards. In growth
studies in coppice-under-standards the length of the merchantable bole

7 V = Volume in cu. m.; D = d. b. h.; L = length of merchantable bole; H = total
height, d = middle diameter of .standing tree; P = plank; N = number of trees.

8 A rule-of-th>imb method given by Huffel (p. 120, Vol. II) for estimating mature
(a) fir or (6) oak stands is to multiply the average merchantable length by from (a) 25
to (b) 30 the answer being cubic meters per hectare. This illustrates the bearing of
height on volume in fully stocked stands.

PRonnrr ubhaki

212 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

is often periodically measured by hand, through the use of ladders or by
dimbing the tree.

When stands must be cahpered, the following principles govern the
valuation survey:

(1) Diameter classes are 5 centimeters (or 1.97 inches).^

(2) It is not customary to note the height classes of all trees calipered
except in very large valuable timber; instead, the merchantable height
of a few normal trees of varying size is secured from felled trees or by
measurement. The results are averaged graphically and a local volume
table made for the compartment, cutting area, or working group. The
height classes are usually 2 to 4 meters (6.5 to 13.1 feet).

(3) In merchantable stands 100 per cent estimates are almost uniform;
with cheap labor this is fully warranted.

(4) In timber sales estimating is always done when trees are marked
for cutting. The usual and necessary errors in estimating are considered
6 per cent of the true volume even under favorable conditions; in virgin
or mature stands they count for possible errors up to 10 per cent to 13
per cent. But the French defend the volume table method of obtaining
volume, even in experimental work, against the German and Swiss
sample tree methods. In other words, they prefer volumes based on a
local table of 40 to 50 trees rather than on 5 to 10 sample trees chosen by
mathematical averages^" but selected on the basis of judgment.

9 The 1-inch diameter classes used by the U. S. Forest Service for its early working
plans was an absurdity. The writer used 3-inch diameter classes for estimates in western
yellow pine in Arizona and New Mexico. Captain Kittredge reported that 20 cm. cir-
cumference classes (2J inch d. b. h. classes) were used in the Cote d'Or. In practice
the French usually measure regular trees once; and irregular trees twice in order to
secure the average diameter.

10 The valuation surveys in private forests bought by the A. E. F. were made as
follows, according to a report by Dunning:

Estimators are equipped with calipers and scribes or marking hammers. They
proceed through the timber in parallel strips, mark each tree to be cut, taking the cir-
cumference at lm30 from the ground, or in the fir of the Jura at lm50. The tally-
man repeats each circumference announced to avoid mistakes. Trees from 20 to 30
cm. in circumference are recorded as poles. In hardwoods trees below 50 cm. are not
usually marked.

The estimators rate the height of each hardwood tree in meters usually to a top
circumference of 60 cm.; if serious crooks, forks, or large hmbs occur the height is taken
as far as a reasonably straight log can be obtained.

In uniform stands of pine the chief of detachment or tally-man estimates the average
height for each circumference class, the trees being tallied by 10 or 20 cm. classes, and
the estimators announce onlj^ the circumferences. In open stands of old pine the
height of each tree is taken.

In the fir of the Vosges the circumference only is taken, heights being given by
circumference classes in volume tables, to a top diameter of 20 cm.

When the average height method is used allowance is made for exceptionally short

CALIPERING STANDS 213

border trees or broken trees by diminishing the circumference.

Average heights are obtained by eye estimates, by measuring sample felled trees,
or by some simple method such as the use of two sticks of equal length.

The chief of detachment or tally-man also determines for each stand the average
middle circumference for each breast-height circumference class. This is usually done
by eye or by determining the average taper per meter of length by measuring sample
felled trees. In the large fir of the Jura it is impracticable to estimate the middle cir-
cumference, and volume is taken from tables based on circumference at ImSO and
curved heights.

For felled trees the length and middle circumference outside bark is taken.

Maritime, Scotch, and Austrian pine are talHed separately. In hardwoods, where
occasional individuals of several species occur, these are tallied with the more numerous
species which they most closely resemble, for example, poplars as birch, locust as oak,
and hornbeam as beech. Sometimes larch is thus tallied as Scotch pine.

Small trees which would be broken during felling operations are sometimes marked.

Standing dead trees are tallied if sound.

Cordwood. — In stands of pine the amount of fire-wood in steres is roughly taken as
one-fifth of the number of cubic meters of saw timber, unless the chief of detachment
considers the conditions unusual, when he estimates the variation accordingly. In
the silver fir forest of Levier, Doubs, the number of steres of fire-wood was taken as
one-tenth of the number of cubic meters of saw timber.

For hardwoods the chief of detachment estimates for each stand according to condi-
tions whether the number of steres of fire-wood is 1, I5, or 2 steres to the cubic meter of
saw timber.

Estimates of coppice are made in steres per hectare, according to species, age, density,
etc., and depend much on the experience of the estimator.

Reports on private forests consist of the tally (kept much the same as in America),
the estimates of fire-wood and other products, and a description of the various factors
of location which affect the value of the timber.

Computation. — Using the middle circumference and height to a top circumference
of 60 cm., the volume is taken from a table of contents of cyhnders. The same method
is used for all species, except in the large fir timber of Doubs State Forests where the
tally-man records the cubic contents of each tree directly in the field from a volume
table. Although volume tables exist for the pines of the Landes, men of the C. F. E.
say that no tree tables are used in that office.

Accuracy. — The methods used are probably as nearly accurate as any in common
use. For saw timber the principal factor affecting the estimate is height. Pine stands
are usually uniform and the average height by circumference classes can be estimated
closely.

In the large fir timber in the selection forests of Doubs and Jura, separate volume
tables are used for distinct site classes where the height growth varies greatly.

For hardwoods the height of each tree is estimated and French foresters vary greatly
in their height estimates. One chief of detachment may instruct the men to take heights
only to the first large branch, fork, or serious crook, while another may insist that
heights be taken to the top circumference limit as long as the trunk can be divided into
straight log lengths to eliminate the effect of crook, etc. In hardwoods the height factor
greatly affects the accuracy of the estimate.

Cordwood estimates depend much on the experience of the estimator, and can be
only approximate. Wherever possible measurement of the piled wood after cutting
should be made.

For saw timber under American methods of exploitation, check scales of logs after

214 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

Stand Graphics. — Under the leadership of Schaeffer," now conservator
at Vesoul, the routine descriptions of selection forest stands (which "had
to be done, were a great bore, and were never looked at") have been
largely replaced by graphics based on the stock sheet for each compart-
ment and for the forest. The objective is to picture the size classes of the
stand so the marking will be guided accordingly. This, perhaps, is the
feature of French mensuration and can be applied in the United States
under intensive conditions. This method and its interpretation is
illustrated by Figs. 19 (o) and 19 (6) (after Schaeffer) which depict the
number of trees per hectare per (5 centimeter) two-inch diameter class at
breast height in fir-spruce selection forests. Certainly these graphics
would disclose inaccurate and untrustworthy valuation surveys.

No. 1 represents a pure high forest of ten acres, where there is not a
single tree less than 35 centimeters in diameter. It shows at once past
regeneration has been a failure.

No. 2 is for a younger stand, similar in character and where no trees less
than 20 centimeters in diameter, breast-high, have been calipered.

No. 3 represents a selection high forest, where the number of trees is
approximately inversely proportional to the squares of the diameters.
Consequently the curve approaches an hyperbola and the stand is more
satisfactory to the forester.

No. 4 shows at once that the stocktaking was carelessly done, for evi-
dently those who were supposed to caliper did not scrupulously measure
all trees, but estimated a good many with the eye. This accounts for
the evident error in classifying more trees 20, 30, and 40 centimeters in
diameter than trees 25 or 35. In any compartment, of course, certain
diameter classes may predominate, but there would be no such irregu-
larity like the teeth of a saw as is shown in No. 4.

No. 5 represents a forest of 10,000 acres and consequently unevennesses
have been eliminated but it is clear there are too few trees per acre,
especially in the larger age-size classes.

No. 6 is a young pole stand where the large number of stems less than
20 centimeters in diameter are coming into the merchantable class. The

removal from the woods will nearly always fall short of the French estimates, especially
in the large fir timber of the Jura, owing to defect and a certain amount of unavoidable
breakage.

Conclusions. — Methods used are as nearly accurate as practicable, when properly
applied, for standing saw timber, felled trees, and counted material. Cordwood esti-
mates are only approximate, depending on the experience of the estimator.

The men are usually capable and experienced enough to apply the methods to
advantage.

" Interpretation des Graphiques de Peuplements. A. Schaeffer, B. S. F. de F.-C. et
N., No. 6, 1912. Since the figures are merely to illustrate methods, no conversions to
American units were made.

BROAD AIMS OF FRENCH REGULATION POLICY 215

evolution of a regular stand from the pole stage to maturity is shown in
graphic No. 10.

No. 7 shows the progress of a forest toward the normal state. It is a
forest which was formerly poor but which is becoming more valuable,
owing to the conservative fellings. The curves show that presently it
will be more nearly normal. At the first stocktaking the stand was open;
trees of all diameters developed freely, but now the stand is well stocked
and the young trees have ceased to increase in number, either (a) being
eliminated or (6) after a successful struggle for existence have reached
higher diameter classes. The curve of the third stocktaking is approach-
ing the normal by a sort of wave movement very characteristic in a
forest conservatively managed.

No. 8 represents a forest in poor condition and where the yield is low.
The old trees continue to accumulate and the density of this old excess
growing stock is damaging the young growth, which is very deficient.

No. 9 shows a compartment where, despite the conservative treatment
and contrary to all prearranged plans, the volume has decreased from
AtoB.

REGULATION OF CUTTING

Broad Aims of French Regulation Policy. — The aim and objective
of practically all forest legislation during two or three centuries culmina-
ting in the revised forest code of 1827 was to prevent the destruction,
diminution, and impoverishment of French public forests in quantity and
in quality. The success of this legislation depended largely on the press-
ure for timber or for the capital it represented. The demand was natur-
ally greatest (1) near the large towns, Hke Paris, which were the commercial
timber centers, and (2) during times of stress, when families and govern-
ments needed the raw product or money.

Working plans,^^ or management plans as they are sometimes called, to
enforce a wise use of forests, were finally required by law simply because
it was found that systematic forest production with a sustained yield
could not be obtained without them. Forest history has proved that
even the trained forester cannot be trusted not to overcut unless he is
systematically guided and controlled by a working plan that prescribes
the maximum amount to be cut. And after centuries of practice the
French consider a sustained yield for each forest and working group
essential for the following reasons:

'2 Huffel says (in a footnote, p. L5, Vol. Ill): "Out of 504 forests or working groups
. . . in Meurthe-et-Moselle, there are 230 . . . antedating the forest code
of 1827, 187 .. . prior to 1789, and 15 . . . prior to 1860, the oldest dating
from 1726."

216 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

\ No. 2

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10 15 20 25

20 25 30 35 10 15 50 55 GO

20 25 30 35 10 15 50 55 GO

Inventory.

Normal Material.

No. 6

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— BMret Inventory.

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Second Inventory

Normal Material.

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35 10 15 50 55 GO 65 20 25 30 35 10 15 50 55

Fig. 19 (a). — Examples of Stand Graphics.

BROAD AIMS OF FRENCH REGULATION POLICY 217

No. 7

I First Inventory.
Second Inventory.

Third Inventory.

Normal Material.

20 25 30 35 10 45 50 55 60

No. 8

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— 1 — 1 —

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20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 00

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Fig. 19 (6). —Examples of Stand Graphics.

218 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

1. Local wood markets must be stabilized; and local needs, which can
only be supplied from certain forests, must be met.

2. Lumberjacks, and other forest workmen who Hve in local villages,
must be suppHed with work.

3. An annual revenue is necessary for the communes since it takes the
place of income from taxes; it is not so necessary for the State owning
forests all over France, but is considered a convenience.

Working plans are necessary because it is difficult to distinguish be-
tween the capital or growing stock, which is "property held in trust "^^
and the annual income or growth which constitutes the owner's returns.

The main trouble with forest crops is that they become merchantable
only after a long time. The yield is essentially periodic. There is a
final yield at the end of the rotation, and only if thinnings are profitable
or practicable is there in addition an intermediate yield. After a forest
is once established, this disadvantage of deferred yield is obviated by hav-
ing part of the crop mature every year and thus give a sustained annual
yield, which, if necessary, may be periodic instead of annual.

The longer the rotation the larger the growing stock and usually with
long rotations the per cent earned by the capital invested is less than
with short rotations. For example, a coppice on a rotation of 20 years,
in theory at least, has less than one-fifth the growing stock when ripe of
a high forest with a 100-year rotation. In practice, since the high forest
soil yields more heavily, this disparity is even more marked. Due to the
small interest returns from long rotations private owners frequently
favor coppice with a short rotation, notwithstanding the consequent
damage to the soil. On the other hand, the French State policy has
been to grow the kind of wood most needed rather than that which
would be most profitable.

The beginnings of forest regulation in France make interesting reading
because often we see conditions depicted which bear some resemblance
to the conditions during the past decade in the western United States.
The beginning of systematic cutting in the great Vosges^^ fir-spruce forests
is of particular interest:

"At the commencement of our era the Sylva Vosagus belonged to the imperial
treasury. Later the great abbeys such as Remiremont, Senones, and Moyenmoutier
divided the ownership of this immense domain with the Lorraine dukes, who inherited
from the emperors. The Vosges fir stands thus belonged to a few very rich and power-
ful owners who began a systematic improvement (of the stands) at an early date, an
improvement not only of grazing and of wood usage but also of fellings for the supply
of the trade. The method adopted by the Vosges foresters for this objective was the
construction of sawmills. Set up on small streams which supplied the power . . .

" d'Amenagement. Puton, pp. 1-18.
" Huff el, Vol. Ill, pp. 108-110.

APPLICATION TO UNITED STATES 219

they were pretty well over the whole region at the end of the 15th century. . . «
The sawmills, which belonged to the dukes and abbeys who had built them, were leased
with the stipulation that the number of trees that could be sawed would be furnished
each year. These trees were cut in the watershed where the sawmill was located . . .
or here and there. Thus there was a real selection felling, with the yield in number
of trees, fixed not by the productive capacity of the forest, but according to the out-
put of the sawmill . . . about 200 fir of average size per year. When the country
tributary to a sawmill was exhausted the forest was closed and the felling was transferred
to another area. Thus the Lorraine foresters obtained an exact idea of the relation
between the area of the forest and the number of trees which it could annually yield
without being depleted."

Application. to United States. — The theoretical need of working plans
has been recognized by the U. S. Forest Service for the last ten years
but no systematic recording of management plans has yet been done
except on a very few Forests. As a result, a number of National Forest
divisions or working groups have possibly been overcut; later on this
may mean hardship to the local interests. Obligatory working plans are
needed to-day for all National Forest areas which are being intensively
logged. It is not enough to refuse to make sales because of fear of over-
cutting — there must be a definite scheme planned in advance. Other-
wise the Forests will unquestionably suffer. Such is the lesson from
France. And it is equally important to provide transportation to tap
virgin timber where literally millions of dollars of raw product is going to
waste every year, notwithstanding the timber famine which has been
predicted.

We must, of course, recognize that we are in a transition period, and
when regulating virgin stands the excess growing stock must be reduced.
Moreover the practical conditions often make it appear advisable to
make very large sales so as to compete with offerings of private owners.
There are forests, like the Plumas, where some over-cutting is probably
necessary because the Forest Service owns but a small proportion of
the timber, the bulk being in private hands. In such case the choice
may be between (a) leaving islands of inaccessible uncut timber or
(b) overcutting. In such case (b) may be the lesser evil. But even ad-
mitting that our present rotations, cutting cycles (and even our silvicul-
tural practice) are transitory, yet, even then, obligatory regulation is
necessary for our public forests, for even the forester cannot be trusted to
cut by rule-of-thumb. This is doubly true where many of our officers
are not technically trained. Broad-gauge regulation does not signify
at once tying to a mean annual growth nor a strict academic sustained
annual yield — concessions must often be made to meet practical demands
— but let us have our regulation down in "black and white," in orderly
and systematic working plans. Such detailed plans are generally non-
existant, and yet are needed. It is open to argument whether even large

220 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

virgin areas of timber, distant from transportation, should be heavily cut
(as they may be) without first having a working plan to show how the
removal of the over-mature timber will merge into the desired forest
management.

There is a striking analogy between the early crude regulation in
the Vosges and the 1905-1918 "regulation" on some of our National
Forests where the yield area unit or working group may correspond to
the area required to supply one or more sawmills. In the Vosges "how-
ever numerous were the sawmills, they touched only a small portion of
the immense stand." The excess of supply over demand unquestion-
ably saved these Vosges forests just as our early logging of only a small
portion of the stand on private forests, because the rest was unmerchant-
able, saved large areas from total destruction. But with a more in-
tensive market these conditions have changed ; everything — even small
trees — are merchantable, so we must look to the future. Until 1919
on our National Forests the great danger was that real mandatory
(obligatory) regulation ^^ was not generally in effect. From 1905 until
about 1918 the administrator has been more powerful than the working
plan expert, because the expert has not formulated a practical plan —
something exceedingly cUfficult because of changing conditions, unstabil-
ized and unforeseen local demands, and economic factors which dictate
the export of all good grades of lumber to far distant regions. Even
with obligatory regulation recognized as a necessity there is danger
in making sales for 8 to 10 years. With long-term sales and sales for
enormous amounts to one company, as have been planned and made in
a few instances, the tendency is to sell immense tracts and thus to bind
the local forester to an economic lumberman's policy for years to come.
Because of the frailty of human foresight, these contracts which bind
the Forest Service to a long continued economic exploitation are prob-
ably unwise. This means that an administration in 1910 may blindly
bind the administration in 1930 to a policy of overcutting a locality
in the West. The administrator of 1925 may want to build a privately-
owned railroad as a separate enterprise and sell in small amounts.
This he could not do because perhaps ten or fifteen townships in ques-
tion had been sold to a great lumber corporation on a 20-year sale;
once the investment is made can further sales be refused without hard-
ship on the operator even if his plant has been amortised in the mean-
time? Shall a local forest industry be wiped out? I believe such a
situation is almost unique in the history of our Government. These
big sales are justified by the necessity of selling overmature timber which

15 Since this was written it is understood that the Forest Service has begun the study
of regulation in earnest and that long-term sales are to be largely confined to Alaska.
It is hoped that the change in policy will be effective — but the lesson holds good.

ABUSES LED TO LEGISLATION 221

is wasting — something commendable in itself — but they bind the
future administrations of our Government to a policy which may not be
wise at that time. Suppose the timber were required for local use by
small isolated communities whose development was not foreseen when
the long-term sale was made. The lumber company could not store the
timber until needed. It must be exported where the demand for a
large output is keen. It would be better to develop Government or
private transportation as a separate business and then sell to small mills
for short periods. The details of long-term sales have been wisely worked
out but the broad-gauge policy is at fault. Would the present Forest
Service administrator wilHngly sell the Kaibab Forest to one company
to secure development? I believe not, because the sentiment has changed
within the past year. How do large sales affect regulation? It means
that to justify the very large cut, required for big sales, which removes
one-half to two-thirds or more of the stand, the working groups are ex-
tended to take in as much growing stock as is needed to yield the annual
cut of the large sale. Under such conditions the real regulation for the
benefit of the future local community may be impossible. There must be
smaller working groups, smaller sales, and permanent road and railroad
transportation, because the long-term sales such as have been sanctioned
by the Secretary of Agriculture are merely compromises between destruc-
tive lumbering and forestry. There is no need to make such compro-
mises, and these sales should be abandoned. The intensive, energetic,
and serious campaign for real regulation, which began in the fall of 1919
on all National Forests, based on silviculture, local economic require-
ments, and yield should result in excellent management plans — needed
but not 7jet in effect.

Abuses Led to Legislation. — Anyone who doubts the folly of the
present forest destruction in the United States, by the private owner
who treats his forest as a mine instead of an annual crop, should read
and study the forest history of overcutting in France. The campaigns
against the use of forest capital for income did not always succeed; it
took a national need for timber to make regulation possible and to stop
abuse and overcutting. It was a succession of ups and downs for forest
conservation, and much of the overcutting was in royal forests under
trained foresters. The great conservationist Colbert showed clearly by
his appointment of a special forest commission that he did not trust
the foresters in charge because he had found that the tendency had been
to overcut. Let us examine a few instances of the early vicissitudes of
forest control. In 1596 an attempt was made to prescribe the amount
of timber to be sold annually in royal forests. The plan was never
followed and in 1612 was formally suppressed. In 1614 new restrictive
rules were made especially for the Normandy forests but abuse and

222 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

overcutting continued. In 1661 royal forests were closed to cutting as
a "reformation against forest abuse" and in 1662 Colbert started a
reconnaissance and stocktaking. Colbert's^^ code of 1669, which above
all was " an organic law and one of policing," was the first step that really
counted because it became part of the recognized law of the country,
and though it was evaded and was modified from time to time, it re-
mained a bulwark against forest profligacy. In 1668 definite arrange-
ments were made for working plans, which included a check and a map
of the boundaries, estimates of timber, descriptions of the soil, species,
merchantable sizes, local needs, rotations, and special data on timber
suitable for ships. But certain abuses continued even after 1669; poor
location of sales, high stumps, waste and failure to reserve sufficient
standards.

The Policy of "Reserves". — In French forest management the "re-
serve" refers to the growing stock or timber capital held in excess of the
stock which would normally be provided by the working plan. The need
of reserving a nest egg of timber in communal forests (in excess of the
normal growing stock), a policy continued to the present day, is clear
when we look back at past improvidence. It was natural to "lean over
backwards" and to retain excess growing stocks. And during the war
it was fortunate for the allies that these reserves existed, for without
them the war shortage would have been more acute.

HuffeP^ thus summarizes the history of "reserves": "Commenced in
the 16th century they then aimed solely at the general welfare," at the
expense of the clergy and communes and were therefore ineffective.
Reestablished in the 17th century, they aimed at the private and public
interest. But during the 18th century, because of poor execution, the
so-called reserves impoverished more forests than they enriched. In the
19th century the reserves were maintained for the communes and espe-
cially for their finances. They were more effective as the administrative

1^ As a matter of fact the wood famine predicted by Colbert never arrived because he
based his prediction on an increased demand for cord-wood whereas fuel wood has been
replaced by coal, oil and electricity. It is not unlikely that a real world timher famine
will never arrive because an acute shortage will bring pressure and lead to substitutes.
But from the viewpoint of national efficiency and health forests will become more neces-
sary as our civilization and settlement intensifies. It is interesting to compare the
gross and net revenue (cited by Huffel, p. 256, Vol. Ill) before and after the Colbert
reforms. In 1682 the area of the royal forests was 1,303,8.34 arpents (about 1.3 million
acres). In the years 1660-69, the average gross revenue was 447,623 livres, the aver-
age net revenue was 325,699 livres; 1680-89 the average gross revenue was 1,557,363
livres, the average net revenue was 1,110,773 livres.

1' Vol. Ill, pp. 84-85. The history of "fonds de reserve" is from Huffel w^ho is the
best author on French forest economics. The French reserve to-day is usually separate
from the working group being systematically cut over; it is held for emergencies and
cut when required.

THE POLICY OF "RESERVES" 223

control became firmer. The next development in the objective of the
reserves was to stabilize revenue in case of an act of Providence or errors
in management. Contrary to ordinary German usage, the French insist
on carrying more than a "normal " growing stock. This, they argue, will
stand them in good stead if there are windfalls, insect attacks, or wars.
This question of a reserve in publicly owned forests is important, because
we are about to begin the regulation of our National Forests. It is
therefore of interest to examine how and why the policy of reserves was
estabhshed in France. As early as 1549 it was ordered "that a third of
the forests belonging to the communal citizens shall be reserved for growth
in high forest." In 1561 this was extended to include royal forests but
the reserve was reduced from one-third to one-fourth. In 1580 the
order was cancelled by Henry III, but 17 years later, because of con-
tinued forest destruction, the order of 1561 was reestablished and Col-
bert's code of 1669 provided that one-fourth the communal and clerical^^
forests over 25 acres in area, conifers excepted, should be thrown into a
reserve. From 1706 to 1730 the policy of reserves was suppressed in
portions of France, but the principle was firmly established and was em-
bodied in the working plans for communal broadleaf forests which were
almost all completed by 1750. It was found best to have this "quarter
in reserve" separated from the rest of the forest so that an inspector
could determine on the ground whether a bona fide reserve had actually
been made. And to-day these reserves are still considered advisable in
communal forests, as provided by the revised code of 1827, because if the
cutting in the regular working groups, for example, is stopped by having
to clean up heavy windfall, then the reserved portion can be worked dur-
ing the crisis. This furnishes employment for local laborers and safe-
guards the continuance of a revenue from special fellings in the reserve.
Where, as in some instances, the reserve was not separated out on the
ground but merely banked by having an excess growing stock through
cutting only three-fourths the estimated yield called "fonds de reserve
a assiette mobile," the silvicultural results were less satisfactory, but the
reserve supply of fine, large timber strengthened the special industries
which depended on a local supply of high-class logs. Before the war the
long rotations so prevalent in State forests constituted a strong reserve
which war requirements largely reduced. As much as 15 to 18 annual
yields were cut in 1917 1918 in some fir (Jura) forests. Judging by the
experience of France, our public forests in the United States should not
be cut up to their full capacity unless it is locally essential from the view-
point of sound silvics. Under American conditions perhaps the best

18 The A. E. F. bought a part of the forest of Citeaux (Loire-et-Cher) so it is interest-
ing to know that the Citeaux monks protested for over 50 years against the reserve re-
quired by the law of 1669.

224 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

way to obtain a reserve is to use rotations somewhat longer than is
indicated by the culmination of mean annual growth, or frankly to adopt
a physical rotation and grow the large timber that the private owner can
never afford to produce because of the lower financial returns.

Summary of Principles and Methods. — French Government regula-
tion ^^ of cuttmg shows "for a given period ^^ when, how, where, and
how much should be cut in the forest."

With more complicated silviculture, where the number of fellings
must be increased to secure natural regulation, or with windfall or other
accidents, regulation is naturally more difficult and requires modifica-
tion oftener than with clear cutting. With simple coppice, regulation,
once wisely established, will last indefinitely, provided the rotation
remains unchanged.

The management of a forest includes the (a) prehminary work upon
which the working plan is based and (6) the regulation of felling which
is based on the fundamental statistics collected under (a) . French writers
recognize only four essential kinds of yield regulation :

(1) By area, which is simple but entails sacrifices if parts of the forest
are irregular and if too rigidly applied to secure an orderly sequence of
age classes.

(2) By number of trees, usually with a diameter limit system.^^
This gives a variable volume yield and has been abandoned, except for
experimental purposes, with the exception of selection beech coppice
(tallis furete). In India this method, really a crude volume method,
is still extensively used possibly partly because of the fact that coolie
labor is used to collect working plan valuation survey data.

15 The following management terms (French terms and American equivalents) are
used by French writers: Reglement d'exploitation (cutting plan). Proces-verbal
d'amenagement (working plan report). Possibilite (yield, amount forests can furnish
without diminishing revenue). Serie (working group which forms a distinct economic
unit). Rotation (cutting cycle). Revolution (rotation). Affectation periodique
(periodic block, cut over during the period). Produits normaux (product or yield pre-
scribed by permanent working plan). Produits normaux prevus (abnormal regenera-
tion fellings). Produits extraordinaires (cutting of reserve, in communal forest).
Produits principeaux (yield of mature timber, final regeneration fellings). Produits
intermediares (thinnings).

20 Huff el, already cited.

2' Where all trees over a fixed diameter are cut by the so-called diameter limit method
brought to the United States by Gifford Pinchot and first described by Lorenz in France
in 1867, there is great danger of irregular yields and of overcutting virgin stands where
age class normality is rarely found. Huff el says, "such a system can evidently be applied
only to forests very nearly normal. In a fir stand rich in large trees, seedlings, and
saplings, but poor in average sized trees, it would result in a rapid and ill-considered
cutting of all the old timber in a short period of superabundance, which would be fol-
lowed by a period of largely reduced fellings or even by a complete suspension of income."

MANAGEMENT SUBDIVISIONS 225

(3) By volume, which is supple, difficult to calculate, requires short
periods between working plan revisions and frequent inventories and is
somewhat dangerous, since it is apt to lead to overcutting if the growth
is largely overestimated.

(4) By area and volume, a combination of (1) and (3). This is the
modern method of regulation except for coppice stands which can usually
be regulated correctly by area after making suitable allowances for soil
quality (see page 232).

Management Subdivisions. — The great lesson in a study of the
details of European forest management is that in dealing with nature
perfection is impossible. Regeneration is usually not complete; there
are windfall and insect attacks to throw out yield calculations and create
disorder silvically and financially. Until the forester learns this lesson
he cannot create proper pictures of the future forest, especially if he
follows the ideal of natural regeneration, which will usually be the rule
in the United States for some years to come.

In systematizing the cut or in regulating a forest there are two kinds
of management work: (1) ''Preliminary work . . . the study of
physical conditions, growth, and the economics of exploitation. (2)
Essential work . . . the regulation of felhng."

After deciding on the classes of product desired, based on the local
or general industrial requirements (see "Rotation," page 226), and the
system '-^2 ^f silviculture necessary to the objects of the State (see Chapter
V) the first important step in the systematic management of a forest is
to form so-called management ^^ subdivisions, for without these no
yield regulation is possible. Management divisions rest fundamentally
on two bases: (a) silvicultural systems and (b) economic units. A priori,
simple coppice is not mixed with high forest but forms separate sections;
these sections are then formed into working groups "destined to form
distinct economic units with distinct cutting cycles and a sustained
yield." Whether a section is divided into one or more working groups
or whether the working group may comprise one or more sections de-
pends on the size of the section and the economic conditions. Usually
in France the section of high forest in State forests forms more than one
working group and the section of coppice only one. This is immaterial
to our consideration of the subject of French pubHc forest regulation.

22 In France there is always a presumption in favor of the former method of treat-
ment which is the result of centuries of evolution. A change in treatment involves
financial sacrifices and has usually been brought about by a change in market, which
would justify a conversion from coppice to high forest, or an error in the original choice
of treatment through failure to secure natural regeneration.

23 French administrative subdivisions built up from the beat, the forest, the canton,
the inspection and the conservation are not treated in detail (see Chapter X, p. 273).

226 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

From the American viewpoint it is interesting to note that the areas
covered by each working group in France are usually small — 1,000 to
1,300 acres — but it should be emphasized that this is due to the in-
tensive economic conditions. In France a small valley may supply a
lumber-jack village in the mountains with its sale of logs essential to
the continuance of its waterpower sawmill. If this valley is 15 to 20
miles from a railroad, up a steep grade, the cost of obtaining the neces-
sary local supply of lumber from a large producing center would be pro-
hibitive. Without steady work during the winter months, when farm-
ing is impossible, the laborers would have to migrate or give up their
home life. These conditions often explain the small working groups,
which cost more trouble and money to establish, but which hold the
local population. For parts of New England it is the ideal which public
forests should strive to imitate, but it must be admitted that the more
working groups there are, the more difficult and complicated is the log-
ging, since the sales must be smaller.

According to the teaching at Nancy "the solid base of the whole
management structure, the indispensable criterion of its precision, the
incessant guide of administration, the necessary means of the control of
operations and of the results obtained" is the compartment sub-division.
Under intensive conditions this is usually between 15 and 40 acres in
area and, unless soil quality varies greatly, the compartments in one
forest do not vary greatly in area. An important exception is where
the regulation is by area and where to obtain a nearly equal annual cut
it is necessary to increase the size of compartments, where the poorer
soil gives a smaller yield per acre. The main criticism of compart-
ment boundaries, as found in French State forests, is that they are some-
times too artificial. The soil, exposure, logging roads, ridges, valleys,
canals, and railroads should all govern the shape and boundary of the
compartment, but usually the boundaries in hilly country should be per-
pendicular to the logging road to facilitate logging. The so-called
"etoile," so common in level forest subdivisions, is more important from
the scenic or shooting viewpoint than from the standpoint of logging.

Rotations and Cutting Cycles. — The rotations are based on the object
of the owner and are determined by technical, silvicultural, economic,
or financial considerations as limited by silvicultural possibilities. Ac-
cording to Fernow a rotation is "the time through which the crop is
allowed to grow normally until cut and reproduced."

The viewpoint in India as expressed by D'Arcy ^^ is contrary to the
European conception of rotation, except in selection forests in France:
"the exploitable age of a forest crop is the age at which the individual

2« D'Arcy, W. E. Preparation of Forest Plans in India. Calcutta, 1898, 3d edition.

ROTATIONS AND CUTTING CYCLES 227

trees furnish the kind of produce most wanted." Endres says '^ that
"by rotation period or rotation is meant that time which elapses under
normal conditions between the planting and the utilization of a stand.
In the case of the working group the rotation is the average time of grow-
ing merchantable material which is the fundamental consideration in
working plan calculations." Variations from the normal may be due
to unusual silvicultural, financial, or economic conditions. Rotation
is not to be confused with cutting-cycles ^^ in selection forests, which
is the period elapsing between cuts on the same area. Obviously in
selection forests the length of the cutting cycle has an important in-
fluence on the amount removed, and the frequency of cut also has a

25 Endres, pp. 220-221.

26 There are strong arguments in favor of a long cutting period. The longer the
time between cuts the more time will be allowed for eradicating damage caused by log-
ging. When it is necessary to cut a amall amount per acre over a large area it neces-
sarily increases the cost of logging. Some argue that the cutting cycle should not be
less than the time which it will take the tree to pass from one diameter class to the follow-
ing. On the other hand well-known writers, like M. Gazin, argue that the cutting cycle
should be very short — 5 or 6 years — in order to secure the yield without opening up
the stand too much and without the necessity for heavy cuttings. If, for example, the
growth per cent is 4, a cutting cycle of 5 years means removing an amount equal to 20
per cent of the original volume; with a 10-year cutting cycle 40 per cent must be re-
moved; and with 15 years, 60 per cent, which is certainly too much from a cultural
point of view. A short cutting cycle, moreover, enables the removal of dead and
dying trees which otherwise would lose a great deal in value. As a general rule, the
more intensive the treatment the shorter the cutting cycle. With the recognized
tendency to coniferous forests, intensive treatment becomes more and more necessary
if the spruce, fir, or pine is to be favored in the cutting. Moreover, recent yield in-
vestigations show that the growth of coniferous stands is much more than had been
supposed. Schaeffer, a specialist in fir forests, advocates neither the very short nor
the very long cutting cycle, but has called attention to the possibility of cutting over
the same ground twice during one cycle. This double cut idea is only advocated, how-
ever, for the rich compartments, since one cut per cycle would be sufficient for the
areas where conditions of growth are less favorable. He says: "The cutting cycle of
16 years, usually followed under average conditions in the Savoie Alps, can be con-
tinued with 8 years between the cut. In calculating the yield with conservatism it
will result in certain compartments realizing every 16 years 30 per cent or more of the
stand. This volume cannot be secured at one time without endangering the future of
the stand." Two cuts, therefore, would be justified during the course of the formal
felling cycle. However, it should be recognized that in exceptionally rich forests it
would be possible to reduce the cutting cycle to 12 years and the interval between the
two cuts to 6 years. On the other hand, in certain stands where the time necessary for
trees to pass from one diameter class to another is 40 years, 20 years would be a
better felling cycle, but instead of fixing the length of the cutting cycle arbitrarily
Schaeffer advocates the determination of the number of years which it takes a tree to
pass from one diameter class to another, and adopts this figure, provided during this
cutting cycle each compartment will be cut over twice, but after the first cutting no
new stocktaking need be made. (De la Duree de la Rotation dans les Futaies Jar-
dinees. A. Schaeffer, 1907. B. de S. F. de F. — C. et B.)

228 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

direct l^earing on the amount that is lost through decay; consequently
there is a tendency with intensive management to short cutting cycles of
from 5 to 10 years. With extensive management longer cutting cycles
are unavoidable. In Oregon (western yellow pine) a cutting cycle of
50 to 60 years has been tentatively adopted, obviously far too long when
the market is established. In France, under most intensive conditions,
the cutting cycle is 5 to 8 years; under less intensive conditions 9 to 18
years, and rarely more than this. The cutting cycle is usually a sub-
multiple of the rotation; with a cutting cycle of 5 years it is presumed
that 5 per cent of the stand will be cut every 5 years, with a cutting
cycle of 10 years 10 per cent would be cut every 10 years, and with a
cutting cycle of 20 years 20 per cent must be cut every 20 years. This
has an important effect on practical logging, especially in the United
States where a considerable cut is usually essential to justify logging
investments. Short cutting cycles which are best for the cultural needs
of the stand are only possible under intensive conditions.

The tendency is to have too narrow an idea of what length of rotation
means. For example, if 5-year-old transplants are used in a plantation,
after clear cutting, which is allowed to grow 100 years, the rotation in
this case would be 100 years rather than 105 years, since the age of the
transplants at the time used would be omitted in the calculation. On
the other hand it is recognized that the length of the rotation is shortened
by the use of well-formed transplants simply because the stand matures
sooner. Frequent and early thinnings are of the utmost importance in
affecting the length of a rotation. With thinnings the stand will become
mature earlier than if left unthinned. It must be borne in mind that
while the forest as a whole may be managed according to specified rota-
tions yet individual stands may be cut before or after the age fixed by
the rotation because of accidents, market conditions, or numerous other
considerations. Still another point worthy of emphasis is that it is
usually sufficient if the rotation can be established to the nearest decade ;
it is splitting hairs to figure to the exact year when computing the
rotation.

According to one writer: ^^ "It has often not been appreciated that the
rotation actually employed is not that corresponding to the age of the
smallest trees felled, but of the number of years in the felling cycles in
excess of this." In India economic conditions necessitate an annual
felling area, an average tree best suited to the objects of the manage-
ment, sufficiently heavy fellings to insure regeneration, and, of less
importance, a felling cycle which shall be a sub-multiple of the rota-
tion.

27 Blascheck, A. D. "The True Selection System." Indian Forester, 1913, pp.
427-430.

ROTATIONS AND CUTTING CYCLES 229

One of the chief difficulties in computing rotations, and especially
financial rotations, is that the forester must use present statistics or the
trend of present statistics for calculations which pretend to answer
management problems on the basis of unknown or roughly approxi-
mated conditions a half century or a century hence — obviously im-
possible to fathom. But the proper regulation viewpoint is that the
problem should be solved for the present on the basis of the best avail-
able data on the assumption that when the working plan is systemati-
cally revised these calculations will be recomputed and brought up to
date. The fact that a revised and altered answer to the rotation prob-
lem will be certain is no reason for not doing our best with available
statistics. As a matter of policy it is safe to estimate future conditions
based on the trend of economic conditions, rather than to follow blindly
present stumpage prices, present cost values, present current interest
rates, and market requirements for forest products. The best regulation
imphes some attempt to fathom the future. We know from past history
that forest conditions change; therefore to follow blindly present condi-
tions we arrive at the least accurate predictions. There is a middle
ground between following to-day's data on the one hand and on the
other of making unwarranted guesses at the future. Moreover, we must
realize that our calculations are at best approximations and therefore
the minutia may often be omitted with profit and propriety.

Efficient thinnings not only enable the forest to grow timber of a
specified size in fewer years, but they increase seed production and
promote earher seed crops, they decrease the date of the culmination
of mean annual growth, and, as Endres puts it, "The greatest benefit
is felt where the highest soil rent is maintained. It is recalled that
large, early yields produce large soil rent and vice versa ... a stand
that has been thinned up to the nth. year will have higher value than
one that has not been thinned."

In intensive regulation, as for example in parts of New England, the
forester must, in theory, distinguish between the rotation for a particular
stand and the rotation for a working group which is composed of a number
of stands of varying quality, but in the West, in northern Arizona for
example, a rough general average rotation for even an entire region
will usually be a sufficiently close approximation for conditions preva-
lent while National Forests are being organized. Even in a selection
forest such as Chamonix (see p. 252) the French prescribe one technical
rotation for Norway spruce and larch based on a rough proportion of
the length of time it takes to grow the two species weighted according
to the aggregate volume present. This rightly emphasized the futility
of minute mathematical calculations for the solution of a problem which
demands only an approximate answer.

230 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

No strictly financial rotations -^ have been established on public
forests in France. The nearest approach to a high forest financial
rotation is with maritime pine and Scotch pine, but even here the usual
pubHc forest rotations are 10 to 30 years more than would probably be
indicated by soil rent calculations. Even coppice rotations are usually
10 to 20 years longer than soil rent rotation, but are sometimes calcu-
lated on the best gross money returns.

Technical rotations in the United States are of more than mere histori-
cal interest. Here a technical rotation, especially under conditions
existing in the West, might be the final rotation chosen. Take the case
of a watershed which is most suitable for producing railroad ties, because
railroad ties alone could be floated down a drivable stream as on the
Carson National Forest, Arizona. Here a technical rotation based on the
length of time it took to grow ties of given dimensions is clearly indicated.
The exact length, in this instance, would depend on the most suitable
period for growing the quality of tie which yielded the largest net return
on the investment, not taking into consideration compound interest
charges (according to C. F. Korstian) unless the data for financial calcu-
lations were available.

In French Government selection forests technical rotations are usually
chosen which will produce the kind of material most in demand by the
public, so as to support local industries of value to the economic life of
the locality. This kind of rotation, under the economic conditions
existing in the Vosges, Jura, or Alps has been severely criticized by
German foresters because of the financial losses usually involved. The
German viewpoint as expressed by Endres -^ is:

"Were we to apply the technical rotations to even aged high forests, producing
mainly large timber, great financial losses would take place. However, the policy of
bringing about a mixture of species in order to meet market requirements or demands
is apparently correct . . . it is in keeping with sound forestry because it also
maintains soil fertihty. . . . The technical rotation may also be used by the State
for social and political reasons . . . but the technical rotation can only be recog-
nized when production costs . . . are of no consequence to the owner."

Undoubtedly there are some economic rotations on French State
coppice forests where the objective is to get the maximum quantity of
wood. The silvicultural rotation idea, based on the limitation of the
species to reproduce or to resist decay, is always present but is never
the chief factor — which is always physical — namely, the product
most necessary for local or general French industry.^" Rotations may

2^ No references have been found in French working plans based on maximum soil
rent or maximum forest rent. For statistical data on rotations see page 54.

29 Endres, pp. 243-244.

^ The rotation in France is ordinarily based on the length of time it takes a tree to
grow to exploitable size; or, in other words, it is purely a technical rotation. For

REGULATION OF CUT 231

be temporary where it is clearly recognized that the rotation adopted
is a temporary expedient (see p. 191).

The Normal Forest. — The normal forest with its normal distribution
of age classes, normal increment, and normal growing stock is not used
by the French Government in its regulation. Where the normal forest
is used in working plans it is the empirically normal stand based on
selected average local stand tables which show the volume in cubic
meters and the number of trees by age classes. Schaeffer, in his de-
velopment of working plans for selection fir stands in Savoie and Haute-
Savoie, used this empirical normal stand as a basis of comparison,
especially for marking the fellings prescribed by the working plan (see
p. 256).

Regulation of Cut. — The regulation of the cut comprises two dis-
tinct operations: (1) The final fellings, regulated by area or volume or
both, which naturally constitute the chief return. These are regulated
by the working plan in general terms while much depends on the progress
of regulation and accidents: "A more complete regulation is necessary
for administration; year by year there must be prescribed the place,
the kind, and the quantity of the fellings to make." (2) Intermediate
fellings or thinnings, which are not regulated by volume but by area.
This form of regulation is also applied to the cork-oak bark collections
and to the resin crops from maritime pine.

The essential regulation of French public forests may be classified as
follows : ^^

example, in a slow growing forest, like Risoul, the rotation is 180 years, while in La
Grande Cote, where the growth is much better, the rotation is reduced 30 years to L50
years. In the forest of La Joux, notwithstanding the rapid growth, the rotation is 150
years, because in this State forest very large wood was desired (Bois de Marines).
The low returns from long technical rotations may be somewhat increased by the
higher prices secured from large-sized timber.

31 Masson's method, like Von Mantel's, which consists in di\'iding the total growing
stock of the forest by half the length of the rotation, is well known. In appljang this
method there is realized each year a fraction of the stand represented by 2/R. This per
cent of realization is not a function of the rotation. It will be 2 per cent for a rotation
of 100 years, 1.43 per cent for 140 years, 1.12 per cent for 180 years, and 1 per cent for
200 years. It is necessary to have a normal stand or the cut is too high for an im-
poverished forest and too low for a rich, well-stocked forest. In order to obviate this
error Schaeffer worked out a correction figure based on a knowledge of the stand per acre.
(No. 3, 1905, B. de S. F. de F. — C. et B.)

The Masson formula was used extensively in the Vosges in the middle of the last
century and gave fairly accurate results, simply because the fir rotation was usually
140 years, and by the formula the yield was thus 1 .4 per cent which happened to agree
exactly with the average site of the Baden yield tables for silver fir. This method is
no longer in use (see Appendix K (2)), because the fundamental assumptions, on
which the formula is based, are in error.

232

GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

Method of regulating the cut

System of cutting

Pure area

Pure area

Pure area

Pure area

Diameter limit by single trees

Area and thickness of bark

Area and age

Method of 1883

Area — volume allotment by periods

(rt) Coppice (clear cut) page 232.
(b) Resin crops, page 232.
((■) Intermediate fellings, page 233.
(f/) Selection high forest (solely for pro-
tection), page 233.
(e) Coppice (selection), page 233.
(J) Cork bark, page 233.
ig) Coppice-under-standards, page 234.
(h) Selection high forest, page 234.
(i) Even-aged high forest, page 239.

Pure Area. — The underlying principle is to divide the area to be cut
over into a number of equal cutting areas corresponding to the number
of years in the rotation.

(a) Coppice {clear cut). — If there are wide variations in soil quality,
which would necessarily mean a variation in yield per acre, then the
fixed area to be cut over each year can be increased or decreased so as
to equahze the cut.

Illustration. — If a coppice forest of 250 acres had a 20-year rotation
with three-fifths the area producing 10 cords at the end of 20 years and
two-fifths the area only producing 5 cords, then the area cut over would
be 10 acres per year for 15 years, and 20 acres per year for 5 years when
the poorer soil came to be logged. Certain principles govern the designa-
tion of the cutting areas on the ground. If the forest is small, say 30
acres, it is better with a 30-year rotation to divide into fifteen or ten
cutting areas, making a cut of 2 acres every other year, or 3 acres every
three years. If possible similar types should be grouped into one cutting
unit unless this interferes with the logging plan. Obviously it is poor
policy to divide the coppice without seeing to its practicability as a
logging unit. Broilliard favors rectangular cutting areas, say 1,500 by
600 feet. It is better to follow contours or logging roads in establishing
coupe boundaries on hilly ground than to adhere rigidly to rectangles.
The coppice cutting order should be against the prevailing storm direc-
tion and it should be numbered in the order of cutting. When coppice
rotations are lengthened or shortened the redivision of the cutting areas
is usually an interesting puzzle which can be solved only after careful
study on the ground.

(6) Resin crops. — Both the final and intermediate yields are regu-
lated by working over equal areas each year. No attempt is made
to get a more exact yield by taking into account the soil productivity.
For a detailed description of the system of working and an illustration
of yield regulation see pages 191 and 192, Chapter VIII. The final
yield of these maritime pine forests is also regulated by cutting equal

DIAMETER LIMIT BY SINGLE TREES 233

areas each year. This is simple and works well, because regeneration
immediately after clear cutting is practically certain.

(c) Intermediate fellings. — These are regulated by cleaning, freeing,
or thinning an equal area each year. It was found that where the
volume to be removed by intermediate fellings, especially thinnings,
was limited the forest suffered silviculturally, consequently no limitation
of volume is considered advisable.

(d) Selection high forests, usually maintained in the high mountains
solely for protection purposes, are, however, cut over periodically on a
cutting cycle of 12 to 20 years so as to remove the dead and dying trees
which would otherwise be lost. With a protection working group of
120 years and a 12-year cutting cycle 10 acres would be cut over each
year. At high altitudes where logging is difficult and expensive it is
often considered more practicable to combine several years' operations,
so under the conditions enumerated it would probably be better to cut
30 to 50 acres every 3 to 5 years rather than to log 10 acres, for the few
trees it would yield, each year. There is no Hmitation of volume since
the restriction of cut is secured by the silvicultural rule of cutting only
dead, dying, and deteriorating trees.

Diameter Limit by Single Trees. — The basis for this method is to cut
all trees which have attained a certain diameter. This system, now
largely abandoned, was first used in the Vosges in the middle ages where
there was an excess of raw material and where only trees of a certain size
and number were wanted at the local sawmills.

(e) Coppice (selection). — The selection coppice forests of beech are
found chiefly in the Pyrenees. When applied to high forest virgin stands
where age class normality is rarely found, there would be grave danger
of overcutting, for as Huffel says, ''Such a system can evidently only
be applied to forests very nearly normal." No illustration of the method
is necessary.

(/) Cork bark. — The cork-oak bark yield ^^ is regulated by computing
the number of trees which bear bark thick enough to be merchantable.
In other words, there is the diameter limit idea applied to single trees
but it is gauged by the thickness of the bark (not by the total diameter
of the tree), and by the area to be harvested. (See also page 396.)

Illustration. — The forest of I'Esterel is divided into two divisions
each with three working groups. It takes 12 years for the cork to reach
a thickness of 0.9 inch, the merchantable size, and it is collected on
a cutting cycle of 2 years. The yield is obtained by dividing the number
of trees (with salable bark on a working group) by 2 and multiplying by
the average yield per tree.

^ For further details see Chapter III, French Forests and Forestry, by T. S. Woolsey,
Jr. ■ John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1917.

234 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

Area and Age. — The regulation of (g) coppice-under-standards is
based on clear cutting the coppice and felling the ripe or deteriorating
standards (and thinning the IR standards where necessary) each time
the coppice is clear cut. Therefore the cutting cycle is equal to the
coppice rotation. The coppice cut is regulated by felling an equal area
each year (see (a) page 232); the standards are cut when they reach
maturity — say four coppice rotations — and sooner if they show signs
of disease. In addition some of the immature standards are also re-
moved at the time of the coppice felHng. An approximately equal
annual cut in standards is obtained, since an approximately equal
number of fresh standards are reserved when the coppice is cut. The
natural loss of standards while they are growing to maturity is fairly
uniform. Great freedom is allowed in leaving thrifty trees for added
growth and in removing those at a standstill. Occasionally the amount
of the cut in standards is gauged by applying an empirical growth per
cent to the growing stock represented by the overwood or standards
and then cutting just the amount of the growth. Since the standards
are selected and reserved from the coppice stand the number secured is
in theory fairly uniform and there is no danger in cutting on a growth
per cent basis unless the new supply of IR standards falls short (see
pp. 94-98).

Method of 1883. — This method originated in France and will therefore
be discussed in considerable detail, especially as Schaeffer has developed
several refinements which have never been understood in the United
States, and since this method could be applied to selection forests of
spruce and fir in New England and elsewhere. This so-called method ^^
of 1883 as applied to (h) selection forests of tolerant species is as follows:

After the inventory, by diameter classes, determine the rotation and
the corresponding size of tree, then classify the stock in three classes:

(1) Old wood, trees more than two-thirds the exploitable diameter;

(2) average wood, less than two-thirds and more than one-third; (3)
young wood, less than one-third (usually not calipered). Where there
is a normal, or nearly normal, proportion of old and average wood the
cut ^^ equals the volume of the old wood divided by a third of the rotation

33 Based on the original official instructions issued by the Secretary of Agriculture and
on the Chamonix Working Plan, by A. S. Schaeffer.

34 The student should compare this method with the Hufnagl "diameter class method"
described by Recknagle, pp. 100-105. The Hufnagl method (Variation 1) is: "Annual

cut = Volume of trees or of diameter classes - years and over, plus increment thereof

• r „

m - years. . . .

Recknagle gives an interesting example of (Variation 2) where the trees have been
grouped by 3-inch classes with the basis data (for each class) of volume per tree, average
number of trees per acre, and years required to grow from one class to the next (and

METHOD OF 1883 235

plus the growth on the old wood class while it is being cut. But in many
former working plans the growth of the old wood class was not com-
puted ; the result was therefore a slightly more conservative yield.

The method was designated for selection high forests of tolerant
species, where the regeneration could be secured in at least one-third
the rotation, and where a sustained yield was important. It is based
on the conception that a selection forest, normally constituted, is just
like an even-aged forest (where, on equal areas, stands of all ages, up
to the rotation age, are found), except that the various aged trees are
intermingled. In the latter case an equal cut is secured by cutting each
year areas of the same size and productivity. But in the selection
forest the cutting must remove only ripe trees here and there over the
entire area without any comparison of surface. Therefore in this case
volume must be substituted for surface.

The method is based on the assumption that the volume of the old
wood is five-eighths and the volume of the average wood three-eighths
the total merchantable volume, presuming that the young wood is un-
merchantable. According to the French Secretary of Agriculture the
data furnished by research on the mean annual rate of growth of high
forests shows that this relationship is approximately as 5 is to 3. There-
fore, whenever in a selection forest the volume of the old wood and the
average wood is as 5 is to 3 it can be taken for granted that these two
groups are similar to the first two periodic blocks of a high forest. To
demonstrate that the volume covering the first two periodic blocks of a
regular high forest (divided into three periodic blocks) is about as
5 is to 3, which represents their average age respectively, it suffices to
note that the trees of the second periodic block are the average wood,
which has arrived at a state where the annual growth is very uniform
and just about equal to the average of the stand and at a period when
it is safe to figure the future growth as equal to the past average. Sup-
pose a high forest with a 150-year rotation were divided into three
periods of 50 years each. The average age of the first (old wood) and
second (average wood) periodic blocks will be 125 and 75 years and
will be separated by a length of time equal to a period of 50 years.
In admitting that the future growth will be equal to the average growth,
the volume of the 125-year wood will be equal to that of the 75-year
old wood increased by an amount equal to 50 times the annual growth.

"average age of the average tree in each diameter class")- For each class the cut

,,. , . , ^, Number of trees per acre „, ,. ^ , , • i i * n

IS = Volume of class X ^ : 7 — ^ , The summation of the yield for all

Years to grow to next class

classes is the cut per acre which can then be increased or decreased according to the

surplus or deficit in the growing stock. According to Recknagle's example the surplus

is reduced in one cutting cycle (which is made equal to the number of years to grow to

the highest diameter class for the preceding class).

236 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

Then if we designate the volume of the 75-year-old wood as 3 the 125-
year-old volume will be

3
S -\- yzX 50 = 3 + 2 or 5. This assumption of an equal mean annual

growth of course is not exact, but according to French reasoning it is
sufficiently accurate for an approximate formula which is being continu-
ally revised at working plan revisions, when the standing timber is re-
calipered. According to the original circular:

"One can object to this method of classification (see definition, page 234) because
the diameters are not exactly proportional to the ages, that they are not equal for the
same species, or same age, inasmuch as the trees of a selection forest are very far from
growing under the same conditions. But it is to be supposed that with a large number
of trees ... a sufficient compensation will take place in order to even off the
inaccuracies and render them negligible. Moreover, it is not essential, nor possible,
to arrive at exact mathematical results. . . ."

The language and the argument of the original French instructions are
instructive in considering the method and in applying it. As originally
promulgated, so as to be conservative, no increase was made in the cut
for the growth which took place on the old wood while it was being
harvested. But within recent years it is customary to figure growth.

The method is simple when the proportion of the old wood to the
young wood is as 5 to 3 or nearly so (see definition of method, page 234)
but this normal ratio is not usually found. Instead there is (1) an
excess of old wood, (2) an excess of average wood. In either (1) or
(2) an approximately normal ratio is secured by transferring diameter
classes from the old wood to the average wood or vice versa if it is safe
silviculturally to hold over some of the older trees or if, where the average
wood is too great, the large average wood sizes can be cut without too
great a sacrifice.

An important feature of the application of this method by the best
French working plan officers is that they compare the actual growing
stock, on the basis of number of trees per acre of different sizes, with
an empirical "normal" stand (an adjusted average for the region).
This is an essential and important part of the method as best applied
but is not mentioned in the official instructions. Fig. 19 illustrates
the method used, where the actual forest is progressing toward an em-
pirically normal state. At the first stocktaking the stand was open;
there was an improvement of the stand at the second measurement,
and the curve of the third stocktaking is approaching the normal by
a wave movement already referred to on page 215,

A rough area check can be applied, if desired, by considering that
the area cut over should be proportional to the volume removed. The
original instructions stipulated that (1) the length of the felling period

METHOD OF 1883 237

be a submultiple of a third of the rotation; (2) the number of compart-
ments be about equal to the years in the period; (3) the local forester
be free to allot the amount of the cut in each compartment according
to local requirements at the time of cutting; (4) the yield be revised at
the end of each felling period.

Disadvantages. — (1) To be exact the number of years in each class
should be varied in accordance with the number of years of growth
actually consumed. (2) Unless there is some other check on the nor-
mality of the old wood and average wood besides the proportion of 5
to 3 it is insufficient because an acre might contain 5 board feet of old
wood and 3 board feet of average wood without being normally consti-
tuted. There must be some conception of total volume. (3) Trees
must be taUied down to one-third the rotation (exploitable size).

The advantages are: (1) The yield is in accordance with the condition
of the stand. (2) The tendency is to work toward normal diameter
classes. (3) A sustained yield is secured and the growing stock is being
continually built up. (4) The method has worked fairly well in practice.

Illustration.^^ — The merchantable size is 24 inches corresponding to
a rotation of 180 years. The old wood is 17 inches and over, the average
wood 9 to 16 inches inclusive, and the young wood 1 to 8 inches.

A sample inventory is shown on the following page.

(A) According to the inventory the normal proportion exists, the
average wood totaling 3,000 M and the old wood 5,000 M — therefore

the cut is ' = 83 M per year or if the old wood were growing at the

, , o . 5,000 X 0.02 X 60 ^ , , , , , , , ,

rate of 2 per cent per year — or 3 M would be added

making the cut 86 M.

(B) Suppose the volume of the old wood = 6,200 M and the volume
of the average wood = 1,800 M. Here the old wood exceeds the normal
proportion so the old wood diameter classes should be examined to see
if they can be transferred to the average wood group and held over a
period equal to 60 years — one-third the rotation. If there is no objec-
tion to this transfer the trees in the 17 and 18-inch diameter classes,

35 An exact adaptation of an official French illustration of the method and as illus-
trated by the Chamonix Working Plan, by A. Schaeffer. American units have been
substituted. The art of French regulation under such an expert as Schaeffer rests
chiefly on a thorough, intimate knowledge of the local conditions rather than on the
organization of methods that differ fundamentally from what has already been accepted.
Schaeffer knew the selection conifer forests of the Savoie region so well that he could
probably estimate ocularly the growth per cent on any forest within one-half of 1 per
cent by simply making a reconnaissance on foot. Such insight into the growth of a
forest is similar to the knowledge of stands per section obtained in the West by seeing
what the timber on sections of land (640 acres) looks like, and then learning what they
cut out under given methods of logging.

238

GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

which we will presume totals 800 M, will be deducted from the old wood.

Thus 6,200 M _ 800 M = 5,400 M, ^^^ = 90 M per year, plus
growth.

(C) Suppose the volume of the old wood equals 3,300 M and the
volume of the average wood equals 4,700 M. Here the average wood is
in excess of the normal ratio, so it is determined where one or more of
the largest average wood diameter classes can be transferred to the
old wood for immediate cutting. If it were found that the 16-inch
diameter class, which we will presume totals 600 M, can be added to the
old wood, the volume will be 3,300 M plus 600 M which equals 3,900

M and the cut ' ' • equals 65 M, plus growth.

Young wood

Average wood

Old wood

Total

Total

Total

D.B. H.,

Number

volume,

D. B. H.,

Number

volume.

D.B. H.,

Number

volume,

inches

trees

board
feet

inches

trees

board
feet

inches

rees

board
feet

1

2

3

4

5
6

Not calipered nor

computed

7

8

9

10

11

Completely

12

calipered

13

■ and

14

computed

15

16

1
J

17

18
19
20
21
22

Completely
calipered

and
computed

23

Totals.. .

3,000 M

5,000 M

After studying the application of this method of 1883 for 25 years,
Schaeffer ^^ decided that the results were very satisfactory; it has

36 Possibilite des Futaies Jardinees, A. Schaeffer, pp. 321-326. Revue des E. et F.,
1908.

AREA (VOLUME) ALLOTMENT BY PERIODS 239

enriched poor stands and in some eases has resulted in an excessive
growing stock. But the excess of the timber capital is in accordance
with the government policy of conservation. From the viewpoint of
good silviculture, Schaeffer has formulated a rule for selection fir-spruce
stands of always cutting at least two-thirds the actual increment each
year. Otherwise the stand cannot be maintained in good condition
because if less than two-thirds the increment is removed it means that
some diseased or decrepit trees must be held over a cutting cycle. Such
a rule has wide application to similar stands in the United States when
a wave of forest saving shall finally lead us away from the current forest
destruction. To practice too intensive economy in a stand means an
increase in defective timber.

Area (Volume) Allotment by Periods. — This method, called by French
writers the ^^ "combined method," is as follows when applied to an
(see i page 232) even aged high forest : The method is applied throughout
France to the rich oak-beech high forests which are so noteworthy in
the so-called Parisian zone of the Plains (see p. 30) where the regenera-
tion is by the shelterwood system over a regeneration period of 20 to
30 years. Formerly great stress was laid on the necessity for an orderly
sequence of fellings. Lately the tendency is to break away from any
preconceived order of felling and instead to base the order and sequence
of fellings on the conditions actually existing in the various compart-
ments.^^ But protection against dangerous winds and the maintenance
of protection belts of old timber is always sought after. In the spruce-
fir forests great difficulty has been experienced in regularizing fellings
(see p. 75).

"After having fixed the length of the rotation, it is divided into equal periods, which
should be long enough to permit the regeneration of a complete forest canton (during
a period)."

The period adopted is usually 20 to 30 years and rarely 40 years.
The next step is to determine what compartments are to be cut during
each period.

^^ See Huffel, Vol. Ill, "Methode combinee." To give an accurate picture of how
the French apply this method, the text has been followed as closely as possible.

38 Where the shelterwood system was applied to fir-spruce stands it had been cus-
tomary to divide the forests into four fixed periodic blocks corresponding to four periods,
equal to one-fourth the rotation. This led, according to Huff el, to "excessive cutting
of large timber on half the area (blocks I, IV, and sometimes III), absolutely deplor-
able felling of average-sized timber on most of the forest (blocks I, IV, and often II),
and during (the operations) the maintenance of overmature timber in the second
periodic block no less deplorable. ... In the first period the revenue was too
much, in the second about correct, in the third a deficiency, and in the fourth very
deficient. . . . The " precomtages " invented in the last case to correct this de-
ficiency rendered the yield calculation incoherent and illogical, without remedying the
evil very much."

240 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

"Each periodic block must be formed of a single contiguous area, naturally de-
limited, separated and distinguished in a permanent way from the bordering blocks
so as to form a topographic mass in the forest. . . . The yield of chief fellings is
calculated by volume, as in Cottas method. The immediate fellings (thinnings) have
no fixed yield; it is enough to indicate the annual area they run over during the period.
. . . The (exact) location of the principal fellings is not determined (in advance);
they take place according to the needs of regeneration, at any point within the periodic
block to be reahzed in turn."

At the end of each period the yield is recalculated for the periodic
block which will then be cut over. In theory the areas of periodic
blocks should be equal, but owing to varying soil quality they may vary
considerably.

As already stated the period must be long enough so that regeneration
can be secured, because "during a period of fixed length an entire periodic
block of determined area will be cut." It is considered better to pre-
scribe the cutting of 125 acres in 20 years rather than 250 acres in 40
years, because in the latter case it leads to irregularity and confusion.
For example, with a rotation of 144 years, there would be a choice of
(a) eight periods of 18 years, and with oak and a mild climate (a) would
be preferred to the (6) or (c) alternatives which follow; (6) six periods
of 24 years; (c) four periods of 36 years. The compartments are arranged
in the order in which they require cutting, and they put in the first
period all compartments most in need of cutting, in the order of
urgency.

If there is a lot of old overmature timber declining in vigor the French
use the " precomptage, where they then subtract their volume from the
yield of the normal maximum fellings , . . and by the same amount
decrease the cut of the block when its turn comes to be cut."

This is too artificial and often results in confusion. It is really borrow-
ing from the future cuts to make a heavy present cut so as to get rid of
overmature stands in need of regeneration.

The main disadvantages of this method if applied too rigidly is that
it is impossible to fix the order of cutting in advance even for one period,
because the schemes are soon disarranged by nature, and contiguous
blocks are impossible. If an ironclad order of cutting is maintained
heavy sacrifices must be made, because stands are cut before or after
they should be cut silvically. If there are subtractions and transfers,
i.e., "precomptage," then the whole scheme of future management
becomes disarranged (see p. 75). Variations in the commonly accepted
periodic block method have been suggested by Huffel and others.
Changeable periodic blocks which are not formed of contiguous compart-
ments are advocated in preference to the fixed periodic block of the
older working plans. This means that there is only one periodic block —
the first — which at the end of each period is always being revised. A

THE GURNAUD METHOD 241

similar scheme is where the forest is divided into a number of compart-
ments equal to the number of years of the rotation. Then the period
is based on the time it takes to get regeneration with a margin of a few
years for safety. The compartments, equal in number to the years of
the period, and most in need of cutting, are grouped into the periodic
block to be cut during the period, and the yield is the total volume in
this compartment divided by the years of the period.

The Gurnaud Method.^^ — The Gurnaud method of yield regulation
bases the cut upon the actual growth of the different size classes subject
(a) to the condition of the stand and (&) to the judgment of the forester
since, according to Jobez, "the interpretation of these figures (the
growth) is entirely a personal matter and according to each individual
case."

The growth is secured by adding the present growing stock to the
cut for the last cutting cycle; this total is subtracted from the original
stand to give the apparent growth. To obtain the real growth the
volume of the trees under the minimum size calipered, which grew into
the merchantable size classes, is subtracted from the apparent growth.
This last step is a new idea in American forest technique; it may be
going to an extreme of refinement, and might be questioned. The
growth per cent is then figured by dividing the original volume into the
real growth. The method demands great technical skill and sound
judgment in its application; any method can be made to serve under
such circumstances but the Gurnaud formula is especially exacting in
this respect. The method was designed for selection forests and where
a forest had .the normal growing stock it could be readily applied as
could any other formula method.

The advantages of the method are: (1) It necessitates a frequent and
detailed study of the stand by size classes, and allows the forester to use
his judgment. (2) The growth is based on the increment of the whole
stand and allows for the volume of trees which were too small to be
calipered but which grew into merchantable size classes during the
cutting period. This avoids the calculations of growth based on the
increase in size of individual trees. (3) The trained forester realizes
that growth and yield figures are, at best, an approximation.*" There-
fore, the best way to avoid errors is to have frequent stocktaking.

The disadvantages are: (1) It is not a real method of regulating the
yield because correct results depend on the art of forestry rather than
on definite clear-cut principles. (2) Instead of dividing the real growth
by the original volume to get the growth per cent Gurnaud should
have taken the mean of the first and second inventories. This error,

35 Based on the discussion by Huffel, Vol. Ill, Economic Forestiere.

40 Accroissement d'un Massif Jardine, S. F. de F. C. et B., No. 5, March, 1908, A. S.

242

GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

which could easily be corrected, tends to make the growth per cent
appear too high. (3) The method as originally designed requires fre-
quent and accurate stocktaking and therefore is expensive and tedious.
(4) The accuracy of the growth calculations depends on accurate
inventories which might easily be in error by 5 to 10 per cent. There-
fore if both the (a) first and (6) second inventories were (a) 10 per
cent too much and (6) 10 per cent too little an error of 20 per cent
would result in the yield. (5) Too much is left to the opinion and judg-
ment of the forester. (6) Huff el advances another objection with which
the writer is not wholly in sympathy, namely, that it is dangerous to
examine too minutely the growth of trees of different sizes and ages
because the stand should be regarded as a whole. The tendency to-day
in the opinion of the writer is to use more judgment in treating selection
stands and if possible to get rid of tree classes which show they are
declining in vigor or annual growth. On the other hand the method
would not work well with abnormal stands.

Illustration. — Suppose a selection fir forest of 1,000 acres were
divided into ten equal cutting areas, and that every 10 years, beginning
in 1910, all trees over 12 inches in diameter were calipered and estimated
by 2-inch diameter classes. Gurnaud would first calculate the growth
for each cutting area as follows:

Area of cutting 100 acres

Trees

Feet, board measure

Stand in 1920

2,000
100

2,100
1,960

140

1,000,000

Cut 1910-1920 ...

50,000

Total

1,050,000

Stand in 1910

980,000

Apparent growth

70,000

To arrive at the true growth a deduction must be made for the 140

trees which grew into the merchantable size class: 140, 11-inch trees X 100

board feet, or 14,000 feet board measure; true growth for 10 years,

56,000 feet board measure; true growth for 1 year, 5,600 board feet.

5,600

.57 -|- per cent or better if the mean of the two inventories
5,600

980,000

were to be taken 1 ,000,000 + 980,000 = .56+ per cent. The stand

2
per acre would be 10,000 feet and the growth per acre per year 56
board feet. When it comes to an analysis of the stand separately for
each size class the process is somewhat more complicated; those inter-
ested in a further study of the method should study La Methode du

GENERAL 243

Controle, P. Jacquin, Besangon, 1886, or La Methode du Controle,
published in 1890 by the Exposition Universelle of 1889/^

WORKING PLANS

General. — The working plan, or management plan, is merely the
means of enforcing systematic, obligatory, mandatory regulation. It is
"The plan or plans under which a given forest property is to be continu-
ously managed." In France the government working plans in use to-day
are the revised plans, good for only 15 to 30 years. In theory the work-
ing plan revisions have to be made at the end of each period, but in
Savoie, where the yield will be greatly increased after 20 years, it may
be necessary to make revisions oftener. They are simple, concise, and
must be followed by the local officer in charge. There is no differentia-
tion into planting, protection, grazing, improvement, administration, or
felling plans, such as have been attempted in the United States on our
National Forests. The French working plan is essentially a timber
felling plan for one or more small economic units (or working groups)
of a distinct local forest.

The ideal working plan should control and order the felhngs; but in
addition there is a certain suppleness necessary owing to unforeseen
accidents which may occur even in well-managed forests. To be suc-
cessful, any working plan should be adaptable to local changes, for,
without suppleness, a working plan is a failure and the tendency of any
working plans officer without experience is to be too narrow and to in-
sist on rigid methods appHcable to all forests.

An excellent illustration of the derangement of working plan yields
by windfall is in the forest of Gerardmer. On September 1, 1903, the
inspector reported that in the first, third, fourth, sixth, seventh, and
eighth working groups, which had a prescribed annual yield of 11,971
cubic meters, on account of tremendous windfalls, 46,378 cubic meters,
or the yield for almost four years, had already been cut. In the United
States fire will be the greatest cause of overturning working plans for
years to come.

The main difference between the working plans ^- of State and com-

*i Before leaving the subject of regulation the writer should acknowledge that some
of the ideas — and very fundamental and sound ones — have been absorbed from the
regulation lecture notes of Professor H. H. Chapman of Yale University. Those who
had the privilege of hearing Professor Chapman lecture may judge to what extent his
technique has been followed.

^ The stocktaking of an average forest now costs aoout 1.5 francs per hectare, but
on account of the increased cost of labor this will soon increase to 2 francs per hectare.
No detailed system of cost keeping is kept for different phases of a working plan, but
the'total cost per hectare, including office work, boundaries, and compartment bounda-
ries, is about 3 francs per hectare (23 cents per acre). (1912 cost data.)

244 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

munal forests is that in communal forests the cut has to be divided up
so that each village will not have too far to go. In other words, this
is a potent reason for small sales. For example, in the forest of Dingy
St. Clair, the annual cut has to be divided up so that there will be one
sale near each village. The forest is on each side of a valley and it
would be too costly to have one or two central sales, since the transport
of the wood would have to be across the valley. This is an inconvenience
to the working plans officer since it complicates the sales problem.

Before attempting a new working plan it has been the French custom
to have a frank discussion of the essential problems with the local force
before the working plans officer makes his final decision. At this con-
ference it is entirely feasible for the local officers in charge to emphasize
exceptions from the general rule. Once formulated the plan must be
accepted by a commune.

Each ranger in charge of a district is furnished with a digest of the
working plan.*^ The main points covered in this digest are the order,
location and area of fellings during the period. The exact data in-
cluded are rotation, yield and what should be charged against the annual
felling budget; volume felHngs with the canton, compartment, area, total
volume, and estimated amount to be cut designated for each separate
felling; area fellings with year, canton, compartment, and area of felling
classified by compartment. Under remarks is included the method of
treatment, such as selection fellings, special instructions regarding the
fellings, cultural rules given separately for volume and area cuttings.
The data are precisely presented, and cover rather more than a double
page.

In past years the inventory frequently included only trees of consider-
able size. To-day it usually includes trees down as small as 0.20 meter
(7.9 inches) in diameter by 5-centimeter (2-inch) classes. In other
words, all trees were measured in the valuation survey down to the
estimated diameter which would be reached in one-third the years of the
rotation. The general feeling is that this very complete inventory is
exceedingly valuable for the sake of future comparisons.

Schaeffer ^* has originated new methods of working plan description.
In describing the fertility of the soil he argues that "figures are better
than epithets." Recognizing the inaccuracy of describing soil quality,
Schaeffer has established this simple rule:

« The working plans in France are rarely typewritten but are copied by hand. Copy-
ing costs 75 centimes per double foolscap page and one franc for tables, an ordinary
map 5 francs per copy. Four copies must be made of each working plan — one copy
for Paris, one for the conservator, one for the inspector, and one for the local ranger.

« A. Schaeffer, S. F. de F. C. et B., No. 5. March. 1910, "Coefficients de Fertilite
des Sols."

GENERAL

245

"To obtain the coefficient of fertility of any stand in a selection (fir) forest, normally
stocked (that is to say, complete and carrying trees of all ages properly spaced), divide
the figure 40 by the average number of rings in the last centimeter of growth."

This rule is explained by the following table:

Number of rings in the
last centimeter (average)

Growth per cent

Soil Tertility (key)

Equivalent

2.0

5.64

20

Excellent

2.1

5.64

19

Excellent

2.2

5.64

18

Very good

2.4

5.64

17

Very good

2.5

5.64

16

Very good

2.6

5.64

15

Good

2.8

5.64

14

Good

3.0

3.76

13

Good

3.3

3.76

12

Quite good

3.6

3.76

11

Quite good

4.0

2.83

10

Quite good

4.5

2.83

9

Passable

5.0

2.26

8

Passable

6.0

1.88

7

Passable

7.0

1.61

6

Mediocre

8.0

1.41

5

Mediocre

10.0

1.13

4

Poor

13.0

0.87

3

Poor

20.0

0.57

2

Very poor

40.0

0.28

1

Very poor

Another innovation in working plan description is the wide use of
graphics which allow a comparison between the forest at different
stages of its development and with average or normal conditions. An
example of the latest forest description follows (see also p. 532) :

246

GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

I

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<B 0> &

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S ^

OSS
008

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inJ

9^0

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fS

yyCj

-^

r"

^

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CT

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\

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nft

09

THE WORKING PLAN REPORT 247

The Working Plan Report. — According to tlie Dictionnaire des Forets,
by Rousset et Boner, page 68, the working plan report follows the outline
given below:

Part I. — General data. — 1, Name. 2, Total area, area wooded, openings and
clearings. 3, Boundaries. 4, Rights and servitudes. 5, Topography and drainage.
6, Soil. 7, Chmate. 8, Nature and condition of stand. 9, Kind of treatment. 10,
Wood products, principal and secondary; their volume and value in money during the
next ten years. 11, Routes, roads and method of logging. 12, Nurseries. 13, Market.
14, Grazing, pasturage, agriculture.

Part II. — Chapter 1 . — Digest and critical review of treatment and, if there has
been any, of the working plan in force.

Chapter 2. — Basis of the proposed management. 1, Division of the forest into
sections and justification of this division. 2, Division of each section into working
groups and justification. 3, Choice and justification of the method of cutting to apply
to each working group. 4, Table (A) of the working groups by sections.

Part III. — Special studies of each working group. 1, High forest section. (1)
Division into compartments with description of compartments in table (B). (2) De-
termination of the normal age for cutting and consequently normal rotation; division
of this rotation into periods ; division of the working groups into periodic blocks ; general
system of normal cutting with table (C) . (3) Preparatory rotation. (4) Chief transi-
tion rotation. (5) General scheme of felling with table (E). (7) Yield with table
(F). (8) Allotting the cut with table (G). (9) Application of the yield; cultural rules.

2. Coppice section. (1) Division into compartments with description of compart-
ments. (2) Determination of the exploitable age for the coppice, decision as to the
length of rotation; division of this rotation into periods, where (furete) coppice is con-
cerned. (3) Establishment of the general scheme of cutting; quarter in reserve in the
public (institution) and communal wood with table (H). (4) Standards. (5) Im-
provement cuttings; gleanings; freeing of seedlings.

Part IV. — Works and betterments. (1) Preparation of the general map and the
compartment map. (2) Subdivisions of management; the boundaries. (3) Survey
and marking of the boundary. (4) Artificial reforestation and nurseries. (5) Drainage.
(6) Roads.

Part V. — Comparative examination of the annual production and accessory prod-
ucts in material and money, now and after management.

Maps. — Part of the working plan is a general map on tracing cloth, showing grad-
ient, water courses, routes, roads, ranger stations, sawmills or nurseries, boundaries of
working groups, cantons, periodic blocks, compartments, and coupes. If the scale
of the map will not allow all the necessary details, there should also be a map by work-
ing groups.

Appendix.*^ — Should include tables, stand tables, and stem analyses used in fixing
the yield. The outline for the revision follows :

Part I. — Preliminary data. — (1) Name. (2) Area. (3) Department and dis-
trict. (4) Conservation, inspection, canton. (.5) Altitudes. (6) Species by per cent.

Part II. — Management in force. — (1) Digest of the management in force; system
and method of felling applied to the forest; division in sections and working groups.
(2) Digest of the general and special scheme of felling. (3) Aim of management and

« The outline for the revision of a working plan should be compared with the above
and with the outline actually followed in the revised working plan (1910) for the com-
munal forest of Thiez given in the Appendix, page 517.

248 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

results obtained by the reproduction cuttings, selection, preparatory in coppice, im-
provement.

Part III. — Revisions. — Chapter 1. — General considerations. Modifications to
make in the general fundamentals of management, to the division in sections and work-
ing groups, to the rotation, etc. Table (A) of new sections and working groups.

Chapter 2. — Special studies in each new working group.

High Forest Section. — (1) Composition of the working group compared with the
former working plan. (2) Compartments. (3) General scheme of felling, normal and
provisionary. (4) Special scheme of feUing. (5) Determination of the yield. (6)
Location of fellings for the period. (7) Allotment of the yield; cultural rules.

Coppice Section. — (1) Composition of the working groups compared with the former
working plan. (2) Description of stands. (3) Determination of the exploitable age
for coppice; fixing the rotation; division of the rotation into periods; selection coppice.

(4) General scheme of felling; quarter in reserve; yield. (5) Special scheme of felling
with table (H). (6) Standards. (7) Improvement cuttings; cleanings; freeing of
seedlings.

Part IV. — Betterments. — Betterments prescribed by the working plan. Better-
ments accomplished (remarks on the methods employed, results obtained). Better-
ments remaining to be done. Estimate of the expense.

Part V. — Comparative review by working groups of the annual products, principal
and secondary, in material and money realized before and after the revision.

Federal Forests (Digest). — Complete data replanting, etc. (1) Species seeded,
amount per hectare, methods. (2) Species planted, kind and number per hectare,
methods. (3) Results. (4) Care and expense of upkeep, weeding and replacements.

(5) Total cost. (6) Necessary data to get better results in future.

Sample Plots in all Federal forests when natural seeding with thinnings close one-
half hectare area in young stand, chosen by chief ranger, checked by inspector, marked
and boundary stones laid, take inventory after each cutting to determine exploitability
and revenue.

Communal. — One-fourth in reserve when area more than 10 hectares, "and not
entirely stocked with conifers on one-fourth area."

Chamonix Working Plan. — The best picture of a modern French
working plan revision is obtained by the study of a working plan in
actual use; the Chamonix working plan ^^ has therefore been studied at
length. It is for a communal forest where there is need for a sustained
annual yield, and where, because of its importance as a tourist center,
the forest cover must be maintained. A selection system is considered
imperative on account of steep slopes, the danger from windfall and
avalanches, as well as the necessity of taking every precaution to guard
against erosion.

There follows a complete resume of the plan with an explanation of
the methods employed. It is divided into five parts with an appendix
following Part V, By way of introduction the author, M. Schaeffer,
states that the original working plan contains complete statistics, but
that a number of points require modification and correction. Part I,

^6 Proces verbal de revision d'Amenagement, par A. Schaeffer, 1910. This plan
costs about 20 cents per acre excluding office work.

CHAMONIX WORKING PLAN

249

preliminary data, includes a very detailed review of area changes (Art. 2)/^
the present area being 4,733 acres; brief allusions to, (Art. 3) boundaries;
(Art. 4) rights and servitudes; (Art. 5) topography; (Art. 6) soil; (Art. 7)
climate; (Art. 8) composition and condition of stand; the per cent of
each species is calculated on the basis of the volume of all trees calipered,
namely, 5 inches and over; the per cent given in even hundreds was
found to be: spruce 78 per cent; larch 20 per cent; fir, Scotch pine, and
cembric pine (with alder, birch, and service tree) 2 per cent; (Art. 11)
roads, paths, means of logging; besides some 22.5 miles of new trails
many of thfe old paths which had faulty alignment had been recon-
structed; (Art. 14) pasturage, gathering needles. The practice of
gathering the dry needles, the moss, and even the humus, has led in some
cases to the impoverishment of the stand and the commune is, therefore,
urged to put a stop to it at once in view of the aesthetic value of the
stands bordering this great tourist center.

Part II. — Management in Force. — The fourteen working groups are
listed in numerical order and by name with the area of each as for example :
first working group, " Argentiere-Nord," 508 acres. The working groups
vary in size considerably, one with 23 acres, six with from 99 to 247
acres, three with 249 to 494, and four with from 496 to 581 ; M. Schaeffer
believes a working group in the mountains should not be more than
1,000 acres. Then follows the felling scheme for the period dating from
March 9, 1892. This table is headed as follows:

Working group

Method of calculating
the yield

First, working group
of Argentiere-Nord.

First lot:
A, B, C, etc.

Transfer of trees
from 5 inches up
in the "average
wood."

" Art. I is "name" (see official outline for working plans given on page 247 for the
list of other project headings not included in the revision). According to W. B. Greeley:
". . . it is probable that the greatest pubhc encouragement to the private owner
to keep his timberland productive has been the stimulus and example of the pubhcly
owned forests. These are scattered through practically every section of the country.
In every forest region, the private owner has seen good forestry practice demonstrated
for scores of years on State or communal holdings. He knows the forest officers in his
locality and consults them on the methods applicable to his own woodland. The
widely distributed public forests have not only set the standards of good management
but have made the local silviculture a part of farm lore of the region. The rural popu-
lation of France knows how to grow trees just as it knows how to grow potatoes or
care for its vineyards. . . . And, by a law passed in 1913, the expert services of
the State are offered at cost to owners of timberland who wish to cut their holdings on
a conservative basis corresponding to the requirements of the "regime forestier" and to
obtain the special forms of protection against trespass now accorded to public holdings
by the forest code. This law is of too recent origin to have yet demonstrated its value."

250

GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

Under the topic, "Application of the working plan," there are given
by working groups the data below :

Compartments
cut over

Material

to be

cut,

cu. m.

Material cut

No. of
working
group

Subtracted from yield

Not
sub-
tracted,
cu. m.

Grand
total,
cu. m.

Main
cut,
cu. m.

Emer-
gency,
cu. m.

Wind-
fall
dead-
wood,
cu. m.

Total,
cu. m.

Remarks

1

2

etc.

Totals . .

A, B, C, D,

E, F, G, H,

I, K, M,

1,720
26,100

1,509
20,215

13
579

307
8,363

1,829

29,157

1,061

1,829
30,218

Results obtained. — While admitting that an exact comparison for the
whole forest is not possible, yet notwithstanding the overcut M. Schaeffer
feels that the forest has been enriched by the management during the
past period. For those areas which can be compared he gives the results
in tabular form :

Former
volume
by new
volume
tables,
cu. m.

Present
volume,
cu. m.

Volume

cut,
cu. m.

Growth

Working group

Total,
cu. m.

Per

hectare,
cu. m.

Remarks

1

etc.
Totals

21,648
114,. 509

26,547
230,778

1,609
19,2.30

6,508
75,499

1.84

2.92

This comparison, systematized as it is, cannot help but be an accurate
guide in determining the yield and consequently it is all the more sur-
prising that the calculation is omitted from so many plans. Changes
in lines between working groups often make an exact comparison by
groups impossible, but the figure for the whole forest is well worth the
cost of the calculation. M. Schaeffer makes it a rule to multiply the
former growing stock figures by the volumes of the latest volume table
if the original table is not still in use.

The systematic comparison of financial results is equally interesting ; it
is by years, and has been given in full so as to illustrate the fluctuations
which must be looked for owing to windfalls and unforeseen damage to grow-
ing stock or to unusual communal demands :

CHAMONIX WORKING PLAN

251

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oo(MTfHt^co --I oo rt (M (M ;::; Jo CQ

2 a

CO CO -H (M lo Tt< co'^^'co Qo'lo i>-'~.--rcrorcD (N rjH~,-rr-r

i§|||||gggi§§55ssssss

H <d

252

GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

ACCESSORY YIELD (non ligneux) in Francs

Years

Extension

of exploi-
tation

^'arious

concessions

sold

(springs,

crossing

privileges,

stone, sand,

etc.)

Minor

products

delivered

in the forest

Grazing
in forest

Hunting

Trespass

Totals

Value of
dav's labor
of free use
permittees

Value

Price of
location

Civil

damages

1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909

Totals

Average
annually.

60
3

12,771.35
638.5

25,716.50
1,286.00

7,039.73
352.00

150.00

7.5

8,760.70

438.00

54,498.28
2,725.00

It is rather surprising to see the price per cubic meter for the windfall
(5.4) greater than the price for the regular cut (5.2) ; this is explained by
the cost of logging scattered timber as contrasted with the clean cutting
of a considerable windfall even though it were thrown on the market quite
unexpectedly.

Part III. — Revision. Chapter 1, General Considerations. — The neces-
sity for varying the management boundaries is here taken up; these are,
of course, merely worldng plan lines.

Rotation. — In the words of M. Schaeffer, "The rotations are actually
fixed at 180 years for the spruce and pines and at 240 years for the
larch. The notion of a distinct rotation for each species is a theoretical
consideration which does not possess much weight practically ... as
a simplification we propose to adopt a single average rotation of 200
years." This policy seems to be so well adapted to practical conditions
in the United States that it has been quoted in part verbatim.

Chapter II. — Special Study of Each Working Group. — (Art. 1)

CHAMONIX WORKING PLAN 253

Composition of the working groups as compared with former plan.
(Art. 2) ''Compartments."

The feature of the working plan is the conciseness with which statistical
data are presented. Those who are familiar with the detailed compart-
ment descriptions given in German working plans will be particularly
interested in the graphic representation of the growing stock. This is
of great importance because in reality it is the key to the marking.
The weak link is the determination of the normal growing stock which
is taken to be the same for all situations and stands, but to be exact
would be practically impossible without undue expense.

The stand descriptions are exact and are not by any means perfunc-
tory: For example, "Despite the avalanche of February 17, 1904, which
knocked down 3,116 trees and poles in the middle of the growing com-
partment, the stand has recovered and is approaching a normal growing
stock." As one glances through the pages care for exact details is
evident: "Avalanche area 3.91 hectares; numerous defective stands;
opening of 3.00 hectares; a number of trees dead topped; reproduction
sufficiently abundant " ; these are partial examples of the detail. Possibly
more care could have been taken in describing the reproduction, but I
rather surmise it is often lacking, so no mention is made.

(Art. 3) Regulation of felling. Exact order left to local officers.

(Art. 4) Determination of the yield. The yield is calculated under
the so-called method of 1883 where in the selection forest the volume
of the "old wood" is supposed to be five-eighths and the volume of the
"average wood" three-eighths of the total. If the minimum tree meas-
ured is 8 inches in diameter then the "average wood" includes trees 8
to 14 inches inclusive, the "old wood" all above 14 inches, and the
"young wood" the trees below 8 inches.

In this case the actual total of the "average wood" amounted to
165,797.7 cubic meters and the "old wood" 126,979.3, a total of 292,777
cubic meters. The working plan says :

292 777 X 5

"The normal proportion should be: old wood, '—z = 182,986; average wood,

s
292 777 X 3
'—^ = 109,791. It is far from being attained, but experience has shown that

o

it is necessary to convert it artificially. The principal yield would otherwise be lowered
by the normal volume of 'old wood.' It appears on the other hand from the descrip-
tive summary that a careful thinning is necessary in a large number of compartments;
there the average wood forms regular even-aged stands. It is then necessary to add
to the yield of the principal products an accessory yield comprising the loss which is
unavoidable because of the volume which does not enter into the calculation of the
yield, namely 109,791 cubic meters. We put this loss with great conservation at 0.25

per cent per year, and we will then have for the actual yield (P), P = — -^-- \-

254

GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

^^^ X 109,791 = 2,744 + 274 = 3,018 cubic meters, this result corresponding to 1.03

per cent of the total growing stock and to 1.68 cubic meters per hectare figuring on
the basis of 1,800 hectares actually wooded. This yield is considered so conservative
that it is expected the actual growing stock will be increased."

Reference should be made to the growth figures, pages 256 to 260.

(Art. 5) Allotting the yield. The annual cut is allotted by convenient
districts, 10 in number, so that the wood will be convenient to the differ-
ent hamlets or small sawmills. In other words, it would impose a hard-
ship on some of the villagers if the cut were made in one locahty alone.
This compHcates the management, but much the same problem may be
looked for in the United States on National Forests where a number of
small local mills must be supplied with stumpage or else they will have
to shut down and move elsewhere.

(Art. 6) Marking the cutting areas during the second period (1910-
1929). The order of cutting is often disarranged by windfalls, etc., but
it is carefully worked out by the working plans officer by working groups.
The form used is :

Canton

Compartment

Area

Volume
inven
toried

Per cent
to be
realized

Estimated
yield

Remarks

L.E.Grand Chantey. . .

70

12.69

1,549

25

388

In the first working group the per cent to be cut varies from 10 to 25
per cent of the standing timber. The total amount inventoried was
43,360 cubic meters, and the cut estimated at 872.

(Art. 7) Cultural Rules. (A) Fellings by volume.

"A large number of compartments have not been cut over for quite a long time,
therefore, the overmature and rotting trees, and those crooked or dry topped, are abun-
dant. In certain divisions they even form most of the stand. We estimate that their
removal would almost equal the yield during a period at the very least ... on the
steep slopes so frequent in the forest, every day there are trees damaged by falling stones
or by the logging. But it must be observed that while on the one hand one must often
remove diseased trees, yet on the other there are compartments where poles and young
high forest need immediate thinnings. It will then be the thinning of these young
stands which will complete the yield and we believe it necessary to insist on this point.
One can but admit that to get a considerable volume by marking stands of small size
on steep slopes is hard work. The officer in charge of marking must guard against the
tendency of the markers to designate large trees ... he will also have to fight
against the difficulties of the ground. This rule should be applied specially in the com-
partments (enumerated) on areas where the regeneration is difficult (compartments
. . . especially) continue the existing thinnings and in the little openings caused by
the removal of several overmature trees at once start reforestation by groups. . . .
In the old compartments (unmanaged) the stand should be kept as fully stocked as

CHAMONIX WORKING PLAN 255

possible. Be careful to take the necessary steps to get rid of all stems which might
start an insect attack. There is another group of divisions which require attention;
there are those which are situated in the valley near the group of hotels and really
form a park. (Compartments . . .) usually stocked with an old spruce stand on
the decline and for the most part in a critical condition. The soil packed by the walkers,
free to grazing and litter gathering they are in a terrible condition for reproduction and
the future of the stands is absolutely compromised. . . One can without great
inconvenience let the old oaks stand until the last stages of decay, but not so with
the spruce which when they decHne . . . collect insects. . . . These stands
must be closely watched and not allowed to wait until the last phase of decay. Several
measures seem necessary; closure to common entry and litter gathering, successive
fencing areas to start the regeneration."

In the park behind the Casino the existing reproduction should be
opened up so as to form Httle patches of advance growth.

(B) FeUing by area. It will consist in topping the broadleaved trees
to favor the conifers, but birch in good condition should be preserved
where it is of aesthetic value.

(Art. 8) Deduction. All trees 8 inches and over are counted against
the yield.

Part IV. — Betterments. — The following improvements are taken
up. Map, compartment numbers; boundary pillars; restocking; re-
generation has been retarded by grass and weeds so M. Schaeffer recom-
mends the grubbing out of horizontal seed spots 3 by 3^ feet in size, since
they have given excellent results. They should be not only in the open-
ings but also in the sodded ravines.

"When the slope is steep the sod which is removed should be placed on the lower
side to form a bench. On the bare soil sow broadcast several larch seed. We have
not seen any failures, and the experiment thus far may be considered as decisive. It
should be seen, however, that the seeding is not too thick because usually the natural
regeneration will complete it . . . and an excess density is to be feared since with
the larch it is a cause of damping off."

The little benches have also proved of value in stopping small snow-
slides.

Works to prevent avalanches. The plan of campaign recommended
is: (1) Don't bother with those areas which are almost impossible to
correct. (2) Where work will avail the Reforestation Branch will
build dry masonry walls on a small scale, and plant denuded areas to
larch and cembric pine. (3) The small ravines which are eroding should
be handled by the local force by building small benches. The finances
are then discussed and the commune assured of State assistance.

Part V. — Financial Summary and Forecast. — From 1890 to 1909 the
average annual revenue is given as S2,078 and the cost of administration
$768, leaving $1,310 net. For the next 10 years the gross revenue is
estimated at $5,196, the expenses at $725, and the net revenue at $4,471

256

GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

or more than triple that of the past period. The rise is due chiefly to
increases in stumpage. Counting 4,450 acres of forest this is $1 net
per acre per year for a mountain forest. It will be double or triple this
figure owing to the increase in stumpage since the war."*^

The Appendix. — The Appendix is especially interesting and instruc-
tive. To start with there is a tabular and graphic comparison of the
old and new volume tables. These are based on diameter alone and
the same volume table figures are used for spruce and larch, but a separate
table for the pine. Next comes a list of all trees calipered by compart-
ments. The species are listed separately as follows:

COMPARTMENT 14

Number of trees

Volumes,

D. B. H.

Spruce

Larch

Total

20
25
etc.

5,948
2,986

121

88

6,069
3,074

1,213.8
1,229.6

On each page in the first column before the d. b. h. figures is given
the volume in cubic meters (to the nearest tenth only) for each diameter
classified. Separate records are given for each of the 137 compart-
ments, for each working group total, and for the entire forest. After
giving his theoretical normal hectare of selection forest, 400 trees 8 to
24 inches in diameter, totaling 343 cubic feet, the growing stock (for
the entire forest) for 1889 is graphically compared with the present stock
and with the normal stand. These curves show at a glance that the
forest is still understocked especially in the larger diameters. But it
also illustrates the progress made during the past ten years in conserv-
ing a depleted stand. A point in policy which M. Schaeffer has estab-
hshed is that it is not safe to hold over more than one-third the annual
increment because of the continual need of cleaning out overmature
material in a selection forest and of making thinnings. The curves are
reproduced below; in the original working plan, they are supplemented
by a table giving for the normal hectare the number and volume of
trees by 2-inch diameter classes 8 inches to 24 inches.

The Pressler borings are given in full, tabulated by 2-inch diameter
classes. There are not many, but they are carefully selected under
average conditions. For 8-inch trees there are 39; for 10, 48; for 12, 46;
for 20, but 22. The readings are the number of years it takes the tree
in each class to grow 2 inches. These are then averaged for each diam-
^ During the war 700 cubic meters sold for 70,000 francs!

CHAMONIX WORKING PLAN

257

eter class and the growth per cent calculated for the corresponding classes
by the growth per cent formula. The results were then evened off as

S 100,000

for the entire forent

20 30

Diameter in inches

Fig. 20 (a).

.Actual results

-Actual results, evened off by curve

Diameter in inches

Fig. 20 (b).

follows, the irregularity in the larger diameters being due to insufficient
data:

258

GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

1??

Ill

il

1 1

'

/

/

-'

/

/

''

'/

y

>

,•'

^

y

.,•"■

'

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^

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atunioA

Cvl .-I

m ,r,

t=ll -

:i

s

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J^lllll

;S -S S ^ ^ -3 ^

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.fe

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m

w"^

§ s

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^

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gati

i

^%tl

-

m

f§

■S

2

-§

b

CI

6

1 s
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s

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i

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Selection forest, poor in
old wood, but grow-
ing fast. The former
openings are now oc-
cupied by coniferous
saplings which domi-
nate the birch and
alder

CHAMONIX WORKING PLAN 259

M. Schaeffer's argument based on these figures is given in full since
it illustrates the judgment — or, if you like, guesswork — which enters
into the final yield analysis and answer.

"The 312 trees (bored) together take 6,742 years to pass from one (2-inch) diameter

class to another or an average of ' , = 21.6. If one glances at the preceding table

(see curve) it is evident that for the diameter classes between 8 and 28 inches the time
it takes to pass is about constant. . . . One can conclude also that the length of
the period fixed at 20 years by the working plan of 1890 should be considered as a
minimum and that the rotation of 200 years adopted in the present study is not too
high when it takes the average seedling 194 years to pass from a diameter of 6 inches
to 24 (21.6 X 9 = 194). This conception of the average length of time (to pass from
one class to another) establishes, in a way, an index of the forest. For the forest of
Houches, where situated in a valley . . . the average time was 19.4 (Chamonix
21.6). This difference of two years shows that the forest of Chamonix is less favorably
situated than its neighbor, and it might be said this inferiority amounts to 10 per cent.
The rotation of the forest of Houches has been fixed at 180 years; that of Chamonix,
therefore, ought to be normally 200 (as it is).

"In evening off this growth per cent graphically (see curve; . . . several inter-
esting deductions can be made. To start with it is noticeable that in the lower classes
where the measurements were numerous, the evened off curve follows the actual curve.
It might be stated also that beginning with 24-inch diameters the growth per cent
falls normally below 1 per cent. This merits the conclusion that the reservation of
trees of higher diameters should be the exception. If the evened off growth per cent
is multiphed by the total volume (on the entire forest) as given in the recent stock-
taking, the probable production of the forest as it stands is obtained: 2.54 X 30,437

-f 2. X 43,951, etc. (for each class), with the following total = — ' „ = 4.511 cubic
meters. The average per cent would then be ' >.-- = 1.54 per cent. If it is possible

to conclude that 1.54 is the maximum growth per cent under actual conditions, and

given the yield reduced to 1.03 per cent then 0.51 per cent (of the growth) or about

one-third will be saved each year.

"There are other methods of valuing the probable production of the Chamonix

forest. Taking for granted that the figure of 1,800 hectares represents the area actually

292 777
forested, it might be argued that the average stand is ' „ = 160 cubic meters

roughly. By referring to the table (of average production for Savoie) ... it
appears that when it takes 22 years (to pass from one diameter class to another) and
the stand per hectare is 160 cubic meters then the growth is 2.5 cubic meters per hec-
tare; the total growth then is 1,800 X 2.5 = 4,500 cu. m., a figure which exactly agrees
with that obtained (by multiplying the volume by the growth per cent). It is, more-
over, confirmed by the comparison of the compartments calipered twice; those 20
years ago had a volume of 218,980 cubic meters (calculated by the present volume
table) and to-day 278,360. Since about 26,000 cubic meters (by same volume table)
was cut, the production has been 278,360 + 26,000 - 218,980 = 85,380 or 4,269 per
year, a figure which is also in accord with the preceding when it is considered it applies

to only about 1,700 hectares (i.e., l:^^i><J^ = 4^519).

"Finally if we use the formula of the whole yield, that is to say, if we take count of
the growth of 'old wood' and a third of that of the 'average wood' (remembering that

260 GOVERNMENT REGULATION AND WORKING PLANS

in view of the transfer the rate of growth of the 'old wood' is about 1 per cent, and
that of the 'average wood' 2.1 per cent) we will have

182,986 + 1^?^?|><^«X^, ,,

P (yield) = 200 ^ W)^ ^^^'"^^^ = ^'^^^'

T

a figure which is also near the others (already given above). This similarity, it is
interesting to note, allows one to conclude that the production of the forest of
Chamonix is in the neighborhood of 4,500 cubic meters and that in fixing the yield at
3,018 cubic meters there will be an annual saving of about 1,500 meters. This economy,
which is really an enrichment of the stand, is fully justified and is in perfect accord
with the wishes of the officials."

The American professor of management could easily pick flaws in
this working plan. To start with, he might argue that the same normal
stand should not hold for all soils, species, mixtures, and altitudes;
that Pressler's method is not exact; that the decrease in the number
of trees is not fully known, and so on. But what impresses me most is
the simplicity of the plan, its evident practicability, its freedom from
ponderous descriptions which are replaced by tables and curves showing
at a glance what the administrator must know. No two plans are
exactly alike. Where there is a "Chief of Management" stationed in a
district, they have no cut-and-dried air. Some of the methods are far
too intensive for the United States, but it is believed the review contains
suggestions which may be of value to the profession. There is practi-
cally no difference in the important details between an original plan and
a careful revision. As a matter of fact, the methods could be followed
very closely in a forest where intensive management had to be applied
such as on a small estate. It is no wonder that M. Schaeffer is recog-
nized as the foremost working plan expert in France.

CHAPTER X
FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION ^

Brief Summary op Legislation (p. 261). General, Corsica, Maures and I'Esterel,
Frontier Forests, Fishing and Shooting, Dunes and Landes, Mountain Landes, Clearing
of Private Timber, References to Legislation.

Administrative Organization and Education (p. 268). Early Organization, Re-
organization of 1882, Salaries, Modern Organization, MUitary Rank, Education.

Protection (p. 275). Introduction, Damage from Logging, Servitudes and Use
of Minor Products, Excessive Pruning, Damage by Birds, Insect Damage, Damage by
Game, Damage from Grazing, Fungous Damage, Windfall Damage, Damage by Frost,
Damage by Sunscald and Drought, Snow Damage, Intensive Fire Damage, The Fire
Problem in the Forest of I'Esterel (Var), Fire Insurance in France.

Betterments (p. 290). Forest Houses, Roads and Trails, Boundaries, Maps.

Sale of Timber (p. 293). General Sales Procedure, Estimate and Appraisal, Cutting
and Logging Rules, Example of a Long-term Sale, Stumpage Prices.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF LEGISLATION

GeneraL — It is rather surprising to find a forest code and ordinance
still in force, except for minor modifications, that was passed in 1827.
Since that time there have been numerous special laws for Corsica'^
on account of the less intensive conditions and long-term logging con-
tracts; for the Maures and I'Esterel, between Toulon and Cannes, on
account of the dangerous fires; for frontier forests; for Algeria,^ Indo-
China, Tunisia,^ and other colonies. There are also special laws for
fishing and shooting, dunes and Landes, eroded slopes in the mountains,
military organization of the Forest Service, pensions, taxes, public works,
water (including log driving), and rural poHce.

There are many who believe that the Forest Code of 1827 is out of
date and therefore should be replaced by a new law more suited to
changed conditions. On the other hand it is strict, it is well under-
stood, and a change would be strongly opposed by many foresters be-
cause of the disastrous effects of too lenient forest laws and the impossi-
bility of passing a law as drawn up by the Forest Service owing to the
probability of amendments by the legislative assembly. Those who
wish to obtain an idea of the essential details covered by the code are
referred to the translation of the Algerian Code of 1908 which follows

1 Major R. Y. Stuart kindly reviewed this chapter.

2 See Appendix of French Forests and Forestry (Tunisia, Algeria, and Corsica).
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

261

262 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION

closely, in part word for word, the French Code of 1827. The main
difference is that the Algerian Code is more supple and less repressive.

Corsica. — Since 1840 the Waters and Forest Service was given the
right to make sales for periods up to 20 years after suitable public auction.
This law provided that the transport improvements should revert to the
State when the sale expired; that the State should have an option to
purchase sawmills within 1.2 miles of the forest. The object of this law
was to develop forests hitherto inaccessible under ordinary sales. The
law of 1854 abolished grazing servitudes in Corsica but as a matter of
fact even to-day grazing is practically unrestricted.

Maures and I'Est^rel. — Owing to the excessive fire damage a special
fire-protective scheme was legislated in 1870 and revised in 1893. The
provisions of this law are discussed in this chapter under "Protection."

Frontier Forests.^ — Trespass committed on a bordering State can
be judged in France under French law if the State in question has passed
a reciprocity law to the same effect.

Fishing and Shooting. — Important and detailed laws have been
enacted to govern the administration of fishing and shooting. It is inter-
esting to note that the law of 1908 contains a list of the useful and
harmful birds.

Dunes and Landes. — The decree of April 29, 1862, placed the fixation,
maintenance, conservation, and exploitation of the dunes under the
Ministry of Finance (Director of Forests), but the Ministers of State,
Finances, Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works were all charged
with the execution of the decree. The decree of December 14, 1810,
provided for the fixation and forestation of the dunes. In the first place
a map was required showing State, communal and private lands with a
plan as to the best methods to follow. Where owners were unable to
carry out the measures prescril^ed it was arranged that the work should
be undertaken by the State and managed until the cost of the work was
completely paid for with interest (since April 7, 1900, calculated at 4
per cent). The measures included: Forbidding the removal of weeds
or plants from dune areas without special authorization, patrol and
police force, and the State was given the right to remove brush from
private land. The ordinance of February 5, 1817, provided that the
work should be directed by the "Fonts et Chaussees" under the Minis-
try of the Interior, with the provision that when the trees reached a
certain age, to be determined later, they would be under the Waters
and Forests Service. The ordinance of January 31, 1839, sanctioned
the auction of resine on 18,632 acres of wooded dunes; both thinnings
and final cuttings were mentioned and natural regeneration was to be

3 The basis for these data and what follows is: Code de la Legislation Forestiere, A.
Puton et Ch. Guyot, Paris.

CLEARING OF PRIVATE TIMBER 263

provided for. The ordinances of July 15, 1810, and May 2, 1810, pro-
vided protective measures for the dunes in the Department of the
Pas-de-Calais, no ditches or removal of sand within 200 fathoms of
high water, no removal of grass or weeds, no grazing without special
authorization.

The law of June 10, 1857, provided for the drainage and sowing of
communal lands at the expense of the communes, or if they were unable
at the expense of the State, with reimbursement from the proceeds
with principal and interest.

Mountain Lands. — The law of July 28, 1860, which provided for the
restoration of the eroded mountains, was superseded by the law of April
4, 1882. Before a reforestation area boundary is decided upon there is
an open hearing in each of the communes interested, a meeting of the
municipal councils, a recommendation of the Arrondissement Council,
General Council, and Special Commission. The period of inquiry is
30 days and if a decision is made to set aside the area for reforestation
then a law is passed setting aside the land required as shown by the
approved reports, maps, and plans of forest officers. The work is carried
out by the Waters and Forest Service at the expense of the State. The
ownership of this land is governed as follows:

Where institution, communal, or private land is being damaged by
grazing it can be reserved from use after inquiry and consideration
similar to that required before reforestation, but if, after 10 years, it is
still necessary to reserve it, pubHc expropriation is necessary. The
annual loss during the first 10 years of reservation is paid for from the
municipal treasury. Work can be undertaken at the expense of the
State to hasten restoration, and trespass will be prosecuted as if on a
forest.

Clearing of Private Timber. — The restrictions against clearing private
forest land, even if for purposes of cultivation, are so stringent that the
analysis of the law by Guyot is given in full. It is generally referred to
as the law of June 18, 1859, put into effect December 19, of the same
year.*

Art 219 (Law of June 18, 1859). - No private owner has a right to grub up or to
clear his timber without notifying the sous-pr6fecture at least 4 months m advance,
during which time the administration may inform the owner of its opposition to the
clearing. The declaration of the owner states choice of residence in the canton m
which the timber is located.

Before signifying opposition, and at least 8 days after advice is given to the party
concerned, the inspecteur or the "sous-inspecteur," or one of the "gardes generaux
of the circonscription, proceeds with the examination of the condition and location
of the timber and makes out a detailed "proces-verbal" of which the party is given
notice with the request that any objections be submitted.
4 Translated by R. C. Hall.

264 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION

The prefet, "en conseil de prefecture," gives his opinion on this opposition.

The forest agent of the department is notified of this opinion as well as the owner,
and it is transmitted to the Minister of Finances who makes an administrative decision,
after having consulted the financial section of the "conseil d'etat."

If, within six months following the notification of opposition, the decision of the
minister is not given and transmitted to the owner of the timber, the clearing may take
place.

Original Art. 219. — For 20 years from the date of promulgation of the present
law, private owners have no right to grub up or to clear their timber, unless they notify
the sous-prefet at least 6 months in advance, during which time the administration
may inform the owner of its opposition to the clearing. Within the 6 months from
this notification, the prefet has to decide the case subject to approval of the Minister
of Finances. If within the 6 months following the notification of the opposition, the
decision of the minister has not been given and transmitted the owner, then the clearing
of timber may take place.

Ordonnance of Aiigust 1, 1827, for the execution of the "Code Forestier."

REGULATIONS REGARDING THE CLEARING OF TIMBER

Art. 192. (Decree Nov. 22, 1859.) — The declarations prescribed in Art. 219 of
the "Code Forestier" must indicate the name, the location, and the area of the timber
which private owners desire to clear; furthermore they must mention the choice of a
residence in the canton in which the timber is located; these declarations will be made
in duplicate and deposited at the prefecture where they will be put on record. They
will be signed by the sous-prefet who will give back one of the copies to the owner mak-
ing out the declaration, and will immediately transmit the other to the "agent forestier
superieur de I'arrondissement."

Art. 193. (Decree of Nov. 22, 1859.) — Before proceeding with the investigation
of the conditions and location of timber, and at least 8 months in advance, one of the
agents designated by Article 219 of the "Code Forestier" will have to send the
party concerned, at the residence selected by this party, a notice stating the day on
which the said investigation will take place and inviting the party to assist or to be
represented.

Art. 194. (Decree of Nov. 22, 1859.) — The proces-verbal established by the for-
estry agent will mention all data and information^ which may be of such a nature as to
cause objection to the clearing on account of one of the reasons enumerated in Article
220 of the "Code Forestier"; furthermore, if the timber in question is located in part
of the frontier zone, where the clearing cannot take place without authorization, this
fact will simply be mentioned in the proces-verbal.

Art. 195. (Decree of Nov. 22, 1859.) — The proces-verbal will be transmitted with
all papers to the conservateur who, before reporting his opposition, will have a copy of
it sent to the party concerned, inviting him to present his objections.

Art. 196. (Decree of Nov. 22, 1859.) — If the conservateur thinks that the timber
must not be cleared, he will transmit his opposition to the owner and he will immediately
refer the case to the prefet, transmitting him all his papers with his objections. In a
contrary case, the conservateur will refer without delay to the directeur g6n6ral des
forets, who will report on the matter to the Minister of Finances.

Art. 197. (Decree of Nov. 22, 1859.) — Within a month's time, the prefet, at the
prefecture meeting, will give his opinion regarding the opposition with full details.

Within 8 days following this opinion, the prefet will have it transmitted to the
owner of the timber and to the conservateur and, if there is no conservateur in the

REGULATIONS REGARDING THE CLEARING OF TIMBER 265

department, to the "agent forestier sup6rieur" who wiU decide the case after having
consulted the financial section of the "conseil d'etat." The ministerial decision will
be transmitted to the owner within 6 months from the date of notification of the oppo-
sition.

Art. 220. (Law of June 18, 1859.) — Opposition to the clearing can only be formu-
lated for the timber preservation of which is recognized as being necessary :

(1) For the maintenance of soil on mountains or slopes.

(2) As a protection against soil erosion and silting up of creeks, rivers and torrents.

(3) For the existence of springs and water courses.

(4) For the protection of dunes and coasts against erosion by the sea and invasion of

sand.

(5) As a protection of territory in that part of the frontier zone which shall be deter-

mined by regulation of public administration.

(6) For public health.

The previous Article 220 is now the new Article 221.

Art. 221. (Law of June 18, 1859.) — In case of violation of Art. 219 the owner is
fined the sum of $96.50 minimum and .$289.50 maximum per hectare {2\ acres) of
cleared timber. Furthermore, he is compelled, if so ordered by the Minister of Finances,
to replant places cleared with timber trees within a period which cannot exceed three
years. "Code Forestier," 91, 159, 160, 165, 198, 199, 219, 223.

Original Art. 221 . — In case of failure of the owner to do the planting or the sowing
within the time prescribed by the judgment, the work will be done at his expense by
the forestry administration upon authorization previously given by the prefet who will
settle the voucher covering this work and will have it executed against the owner.

Ordonnance of August 1, 1827. Art. 198. (Decree of Nov. 22, 18.59.) — When
mayors and ad joints shall have made out proces-verbaux stating that clearing work
has been effectuated in violation of Title 15 of the Forestry Code, they will be obliged,
independently of the delivery they must make of them to our "procureurs," to send a
certified copy to the local forestry agent.

Art. 199. (Decree of Nov. 22, 1859.) — The conservateur will report to the directeur
general des forets on the condemnations pronounced in the case provided for in Par. 1
of Article 221 of the Forestry Code, and will give his advice on the necessity of replant-
ing the places with timber trees. The ministerial decision which will order replant-
ing, will be transmitted to the party concerned through administrative channels.

Art. 222. (Law of June 18, 1859.) — In case of failure of the owner to do the planting
or sowing within the time prescribed by the ministerial decision, the work will be done
at his expense by the forestry administration upon authorization previously given by
the prefet who will settle the voucher covering this work and will have it executed against
the owner. "Code Forestier," 15, 41, 140, 221.

New Article 222 (Forestry Code) is only a reproduction of Article 221 of the same
code, except for the substitution of the words "ministerial decision" for the word
"judgment," as a consequence of the change brought by the law of June 18, 1859, to
the wording of former Article 220.

Art. 223. (Law of June 18, 1859.) — The disposition contained in the preceding four
articles may be applied to the sowing and planting made for replacement of cleared
timber pursuant to the ministerial decision. "Code Forestier," 219 s., 224.

Article 223 (Forestry Code) modified by the Law of June 18, 1859, reads hke the
old Article 222 of the same code, in which the word "judgment" has been replaced by
the expression "ministerial decision" in order that this disposition may agree with the
new wording of Article 221.

266 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION

Art. 224. (Law of June 18, 1859.) — There are excepted from the regulations of
Art. 219:

(1) Young timber during the 20 years following its sowing or planting, except in

case provided for in the preceding article.

(2) Parks or fenced gardens, or gardens adjoining houses.

(3) Open timber of less than 10 hectares area (24.7 acres) when not part of another

forest, the whole of which aggregates an area of 10 hectares, or when not lo-
cated on the top or on the slopes of a mountain. Forestry Code 219, 223.

New Article 224 (Forestry Code) corresponds to the old Article 223. It only modi-
fies it by: (1) Substituting the figure of 10 hectares for 4 hectares for the area of timber
which may be cleared without fulfilling formalities determined by Article 219 (Forestry
Code). (2) Substituting the expression "fenced gardens or gardens adjoining houses"
for the words "fenced gardens and gardens adjoining houses," concerning trees forming
part of parks or gardens exempted by the application of Article 219.

Art. 225. (Law of June 18, 1859.) — Court actions concerning clearings made in
violation with Article 219 are outlawed after lapse of two years from the date when the
clearing took place. — ■ Forestry Code 185, 187, 221.

New Article 225 is the reproduction of previous Article 224.

Art. 226. (Law of June 18, 1859.) — The sowings and plantings of timber on the
top or on the slopes of mountains, on dunes, or in the waste lands will be exempted
from taxes for 30 years. — Forestry Code 194, 195, 219 s.

New Article 226 reproduces the terms of Article 225, except two changes.

Law of March 29, 1897. — Fixing the general budget of expenses and receipts of
exercise, 1897 (Renueil Periodique Dallez, 97.4.33).

Art. 3. Article 116 of the Law of the 3 Frimaire, an VII, regarding the repartition
and the situation of the land-tax is modified as follows: "The revenue taxable on any
cleared soil which shall be afterwards planted or sown with timber will be reduced by
three-fourths during the first 30 years after planting or sowing, whatever may have
been the state of cultivation of the soil prior to the clearing.

1. The ministerial decision which refuses an owner of timber the authorization of
clearing is not limited in its duration; it is final and lasts with all its effects so long as
unmodified or not recalled by the minister who rendered it. — Cr. c, March 15, 1884.
D. P., 84.5.281.

2. The prohibition of clearing pronounced under these conditions has the character
of a true legal servitude burdening directly the timber itself, and as long as this inter-
dict has not been recalled, it keeps all its force in regard to the owner who has made
the declaration requesting clearing as well as toward his assigns "a titre gratuit" or
"a titre on^reux." Then, if the said owner or his assigns thinks proper to provoke a
new investigation in order to be authorized to clear all or part of the timber on which
the ministerial decision has been made, he should not proceed in accordance with the
terms prescribed in Art. 219 (Forestry Code), but should address directly the minister
who has made the decision in order to obtain from him the modification or cancellation
of his decision. — Same decree.

3. Par. 2 of Article 214 (Forestry Code) which excepts from the prohibition of
clearing "the parks or fenced gardens adjoining houses," must be understood in this
sense, that the exception exists only in favor of parks or gardens which are actually
both fenced and adjoining habitations. Riom, June 11, 1883, D. P., 84.5.283.

4. Especially one cannot consider as a park in the meaning of Article 224 (Forestry
Code) a body of timber around a chateau but not fenced; it makes little difference if
this timber combines certain conditions of management for the satisfaction and interest
of the owner. — Same decree.

REGULATIONS REGARDING THE CLEARING OF TIMBER 267

5. And the appellate judge cannot admit the proof of the enclosure of the timber
when the lack of enclosure has not been established by a court which has had authority
to deal with the subject. — Same decree.

6. The Par. 3 of Art. 224 (Forestry Code) freeing from the interdiction of clearing,
timber not fenced, of less than 10 hectares (24.7 acres) area, provided it is not part of
another forest which would make up an area of 10 hectares, does not establish any dis-
tinction between timber belonging to the same owners or to different owners. Riom,
June 11, 1883, D. P., 84.5.282.

7. The accused party has to prove that the timber cleared was of an area less than
10 hectares, and that it was not part of a body of timber of more than 10 hectares area.
— Same decree.

8. And this proof cannot be accepted when the contrary is formally stated by a
"proces-verbal" which must be trusted until shown false. — Same decree.

9. The exemption from all taxes during 30 years, established by Art. 226 (Forestry
Code) in favor of sowings and plantings of timber on the tops or slopes of mountains
is only apphcable to the "land-tax" and not to the registration taxes, especially to
taxes for transfers due to death. — Req. July 7, 1885. D. P., 85.1.453.^

Certain features of land control (or acquisition) for combating drift-
ing sand or erosion deserve emphasis if only to illustrate how demo-
cratic the governmental methods are in France when the interests of
the local inhabitants are concerned:

(1) Where private owners are unwilling to repair damage injurious
to the public interests the use of the land can be taken over by the
State, the work done and the land only returned to the original owners
when they pay the bill with legal interest, or when the costs are earned
by the land itself; or in the mountains the land may be condemned,
the necessary work done by the State when the owner could secure his

6 Speaking of French forest taxation, W. B. Greeley concludes:
". . . When land is planted which has lain fallow for a considerable time, the
law provides that there shall be no increase in the assessed value, or rated income,
of the ground for a like period. Aside from these exemptions, private forests in France
are taxed on their current income, a method which dates back to the Revolutionary
period. Under the law of 1907 a valuation commission periodically classifies the lands
in all forms of culture, commune by commune, in accordance with their relative pro-
ductivity. There may thus be three or four types of forest, as determined by their soil
and timber species and the value of their products. A net yearly income is then ob-
tained for average areas wthin each type. All forest properties shown on the official
survey and plats of the commune are thus classified and a net income based upon the
sample tracts studied is assigned to each. The periodic revenues customary in French
forests, where nearly all properties harvest some products every few years, are, under
this system, reduced to an annual basis which represents the net returns for stumpage
after deducting costs of upkeep, fire protection, forest guards, thinnings, planting
blanks, and other cultural measures. The tax is levied upon this net income and
usually amounts to 8 or 10 per cent, about half of which goes to the central government.
The rest comprises the departmental and communal taxes and levies for local roads.
It is of interest to note that French forest owners are demanding a straight-out yield
tax levied upon forest products when actually cut, the same principle which is generally
regarded as the basis for forest tax reforms in the United States. . . .

268 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION

land by repaying the State with interest; as an alternative the private
owner could secure half his land by trading the other half to the State
to cancel the costs of reparation. Similar methods were applied to
communal lands which were really private lands owned in fee simple
but with the various interests undivided.

(2) Before mountain land can be reserved from use the scheme advo-
cated by Government technical representatives had to be passed upon
by the village, by the commune, by the arrondissement, by the depart-
ment, by a technical and political commission, and by the Secretary of
Agriculture who also had to have a decree by the House of Deputies
before the actual work could be begun.

These details are recited to illustrate the difficulty of securing legisla-
tion in France, even if it aims at benefiting the public, if private inter-
ests are on the defensive. Even during the Great War the requisition
of private timber finally had to be passed upon by a local and a central
commission before the requisition could be placed. And in France
the adverse interests are always represented on the commissions. More-
over these interests have representatives in the House of Deputies who
can embarrass the ruling party if injustice is done.

References to Legislation. — Special features of French forest legisla-
tion are treated in the various studies of this volume; the references are
given in the Index under "Legislation."

ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION AND EDUCATION

Early Organization. — The quality and efficiency of the French
Waters and Forests Service has varied with the history of France. It
is not surprising that, in the early days, there was a great deal of graft
and incompetency. It was the order of the day. At a period when
even the bishops and clergy lent themselves to corrupt methods of ad-
ministration it was no wonder that the Forest Service suffered likewise.
Beginning in 1554 positions in the Forest Service were sold by the King
and from the 17th century employment in the royal forests was heredi-
tary. The first mention of regular "conservations" was in 1791, when
France was divided ® into 28 conservatorships with inspectors, assistant
inspectors, guards, surveyors, and rangers as assistants. In 1817 the
Forest Service was suppressed, but in 1820 it was reestablished. Real
forestry might be said to have started in France December 1, 1824, with
the founding of the Nancy Forest School, the first director being Bernard
Lorentz, who had studied under Hartig in Germany. Such foresters as
Parade, Nanquette, Bagneris, and Broilliard were the result of teaching
by Lorentz.

» See Huffel, Vol. I, pp. 308, 325.

REORGANIZATION 269

Reorganization of 1882. — On August 1, 1882/ the forest department
was reorganized. On that date the departmental estabhshment was
simplified and was reorganized to include general inspectors, conservators,

"> "You will find below the text of a Government order, dated August 1, 1882, which
confirms the new organization of the Forest Department of which the foundations had
been laid by the Minister of Agriculture on the 28th of April preceding. The publica-
tions of M. Tassy, late Conservator of Forests, have made known to you the spirit
and object of this much needed reform.

"It was in fact necessary to put an end to the confusion of functions everj^where
existing in our department; it was necessary to suppress divers grades corresponding to
identical duties as superfluous; and lastly, it was necessary to stop the frequent trans-
fers of forest officers, and to accelerate their chances of promotion to responsible posts.

"Such are the results that we may be permitted to expect from these reforms. The
departmental establishment is simplified. It is composed of general inspectors, of
conservators, of inspectors, of general guards. It would seem useful to define sum-
marily the attributes attaching to these several grades.

"General Inspectors. — They represent the superior administration in their tours
of inspection in the provinces.

"Visiting the different forest regions every year, in frequent contact with the officers
of all grades, and thus becoming acquainted with their capabilities, it is the mission of
the general inspectors to secure unity of action in conformity with plans previously
agreed upon.

"In the intervals between their tours, as members of the administrative council
under the presidency of the director general, they are enabled, from a complete local
knowledge, to offer their opinions on the proposals made by forest officers.

"Conservators. — The conservator's r61e is to transmit orders and to explain their
spirit and object to the ofl^cers placed under his orders. His attributes are not altered,
but the control of operations and works, which he used to exercise in concurrence with
inspectors, now falls on him alone and will necessitate a greater activity on his part.

"The efficacy of this control will besides be facilitated by the early formation of
new forest circles.

"Inspectors. — The inspector of forests has now become the chief executive officer
of the department, and has the initiative and responsibility in all principal forest opera-
tions. He prepares and executes plans and estimates of works. He directs fellings,
whether principal or secondary, and remains responsible for those, the execution of
which is intrusted in certain cases to his subordinates. He issues all executive orders
and conducts all the correspondence. lender the new system he combines the former
duties of an inspector with most of those which hitherto devolved on range oflficers
(chefs de cantonment), that is, sub-inspector, general guard, or general guard 'adjoint.'

"The execution of all those duties has been rendered possible by the Government
order of August 1, last, which increases the number of inspectors from .160 to 240, and
at the same time reduces the areas of their charges to about 30,000 acres.

"The inspector will be assisted in his office work by a clerk, and in his other duties
by a number of subordinates from the secondary forest schools. The latter will serve
under his orders in charge of ranges with the title of general guard, and will be responsible
to him.

"General Guards. — The general guard is an ofl!icer whose duties are essentially active,
who should be as often as possible lodged in a house belonging to the department, and
should keep neither an office nor records. ... In the same spirit it is intended
that in order to reward capable and zealous foresters, promotion to certain posts of

270 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION

inspectors, and forest assistants.^ The general inspectors represented
the administration at Paris and inspected the work throughout France.
In the office they passed upon proposals submitted by forest officers.
The conservator transmitted orders sent him from Paris and explained
their spirit and object to the officers under his charge. The inspectors
were made the chief executive officers and had the initiative and re-
sponsibility for all important forest operations, such as executing plans
and making estimates, supervision of fellings, correspondence, and such
work as is now performed by forest supervisors in the United States.
Under the inspectors the forest assistants performed field work, but were
not responsible for administration. They assisted and supervised
rangers and guards. The organization of 1882 did not last long, for
in 1883 they returned to the system of "cantonments" managed by
forest assistants and assistant inspectors. The general inspectors'
positions which had been done away with in 1887 and replaced by
administrators under the director at Paris were reestablished at the
end of 1911, but the number was reduced to two. A resume of the suc-
cessive organizations is shown in the table which follows:

TABLE 23.— NUMBER OF OFFICERS IN EACH GRADE

General inspectors

Administrators

Conservators

Cnief of personnel

Directors and professors

Inspectors

Assistant inspectors

Forest assistants

Inspector (assistant) in office

Forest assistants, fourth and fifth classes.
Forest assistants (office)

39

189
300
213

41

1

3

244

234

243

65

3
36

5
237

228
179

56

3
37

"5
235
223
202

46

etc

Total supervisory force.
Total subalterns

234
584

287
554

281
463

280
471

Totals.

818

851

744

751

general guard may be open to them, although they may not have undergone the tests
of passing out from the secondary schools.

"For the success of the reform, I rely on the zeal and good will of officers of all grades.
They will find in the new organization better chances of promotion, and will be able
to devote a part of the time hitherto spent in the office to out-door work. To these
advantages I hope that increased pay may soon be added, and in this expectation I am
encouraged by the benevolent intentions of which the Minister of Agriculture has
already given us so many proofs. In any case I can announce that traveling allow-
ances will shortly be better proportioned to the actual expenses incurred by officers."

8 For detailed data and names of officers see the Annuaire des Eaux et Forets, pub-
lished annually by the Revue des Eaux et Forets.

SALARIES

271

No change in 1912 in other grades.^ Reorganization under considera-
tion.

Salaries. — The yearly salary of a French forest officer is low^" and has

9 L' Administration Forestiere et des Transformations. By "P. F.," "R. E. and F.,"
pp._618-620. 1911. These data on organization were checked by Lt. Col. Parde,
Director of the Barres Ranger School.

" During the war they have received per diem allowances to compensate for the high
cost of hving. As a matter of fact these were entirely inadequate and were only $1 to
$2 a day. The amount depended on rank.

On account of the increased cost of hving, the following new salary schedule (retro-
active to July 1, 1919) was approved by Deschanel on March 13, 1920. The salaries
are in dollars at the normal rate of exchange:

Class

General
inspectors

Conservators

Inspectors

Assistant
inspectors

Forest
assistants

Professors
at school
of Nancy

"Agents

compatable"

at school

1
2

3

4

4,250
3,860

3,470

3,470

3,090
2,700

2,700
2,500

2,310

2,120

2,120

1,930

or
1,740

1,530

1,330

1,230

1 clerical c

1,140

students

770

3,090

2,900

luty
2,700

2,500
2,310
2,120

1,740
1,560

1,380

1,200

1,020

880

5

6

As a matter of fact these salaries at the current rate of exchange are about one-third
the amounts hsted in dollars because to-day (May 15, 1920) it takes 15 francs to equal
a dollar.

It is interesting to compare the French salaries with those paid in British India in
1916, which are more than double those paid officers in the U. S. F. S.: Inspector general,
$10,600 per year. Chief conservators, $8,600 per year. Conservators in three grades,
$7,600, $6,800, and $6,000 per year. Deputy conservators and assistant conservators,
$1,520 per year, rising by annual increments of $160 to a maximum salary of $2,800,
when the annual increment becomes $200, until a maximum of $5,000 is reached in the
twentieth year of service. (While drawing pay up to and including $2,160, officers are
styled assistant conservators, and after this deputy conservators.)

The provincial Forest Service, recruited from the native population, includes: Extra
assistant conservators, $1,000 per year, and rising by annual increases of $80 to $2,200
in the sixteenth year of service. Extra deputy conservators, $2,300 per year, and ris-
ing by annual increments of $100 to a maximum of $2,600. By special orders in each
case an extra deputy conservator's pay may be raised to $2,800, $3,200, or $3,400,
respectively.

The subordinate force is paid as follows: Rangers, $200 to $800 per year. Deputy
rangers and foresters, $60 to $160 per year. In Burma the pay ranges from $80 to
$200 per year.

For guards and other subordinates the pay varies, according to the standard of
wages in the various provinces, from $28 to $60 per year.

272 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION

always been considered too low when the nature of his work is compared
with other branches where higher pay is received. The allowances for
travel are on a per diem basis and increase with the higher rank.

General inspector

Conservator

Inspector

Assistant inspector

Forest assistant

National forest school student.

.$2,509.00

2,316.00

1,302.75

916.75

636.90

"231.60

S2,123

1,930

1,206

820

550

•SI, 737. 00

1,090.45

723,75

$1,544.00
993.95

<* Per year during school attendance.

If an agent, such as an inspector or assistant inspector, is attached solely
for office duty he receives the regular pay of his rank. Frequently a
forest assistant or an assistant inspector who is poor at field work may
be given a position similar to that of chief clerk.

The rate of pay per year for the subordinate force (prepos^s) was
(1918):

1. Detailed as clerks:

Special (oflfice assistant) 12 3

Rangers $.328.10 $308.80 $289.50 $270.20

Guards One class of $250.90 with free lodging.

2. In the forest with free lodging:

Special 12 3

Rangers $308.80 $289.50 $270.20 $250.90

Guards 250.90 231.60 212.30 193.00

In addition to this schedule of pay every employee entitled to the
forest honor medal for exceptionally meritorious work receives $9.65
a year extra. While a ranger is at the Barr^s Secondary School he
receives the full salary attached to his rank. All officers and subordinates
receive a pension.

Modern Organization. — The modern organization of the French For-
est Service (the result of the 1888 decree) is as follows:

It is under the Department of Agriculture and is managed by a Direc-
tor General who is a Conseiller d'fitat. The different bureaus at Paris
are under three conservators (corresponding to branch chiefs in the
U. S. F. S.). These bureaus are divided into sections as follows: Per-
sonnel and organization, areas, forest instruction, grazing and game,
management, exploitation, reforestation, betterments, and fish culture.
The two general inspectors are charged with the inspection of the work
in all departments outside Paris.

MODERN ORGANIZATION 273

France proper is divided into thirty-two conservations. This includes
Corsica ^^ which is listed as the thirtieth conservation. These thirty-two
conservations are located at the following points :

(1) Paris (Oise, Seine, Seine-et-Marne, Seine-et-Oise).

(2) Rouen (Calvados, Eure, Eure-et-Loire, Manche, and Seine-Inf^r.).

(3) Dijon (Cote-d'Or).

(4) Nancy (Meurthe-et-M. Meuse p., Vosges p.).

(5) Chambery (Mayenne, Savoie, Haute-Savoie).

(6) Charleville (Ardennes, Aube p., Marne).

(7) Amiens (Aisne, Nord, Oise p., Pas-de-Calais, Somme).

(8) Troyes (Aube, Cote-d'Or p., Marne (Haute) p., Yonne).

(9) fipinal (Meur-et-M. p., Vosges).

(10) Gap, Alpes (Hautes).

(11) Valence (Ardeche, Drome, Vaucluse).

(12) Besangon (Doubs, Terr, de Belf.).

(13) Lons-le-Saunier (Jura).

(14) Grenoble (Isere, Loire, Rhone).

(15) Alengon (C6tes-du-Nord, Finistere, lUe-et-Vilaine, Morbihan, Orne, Sarthe),

(16) Bar-le-Duc (Ardennes p., Meuse).

(17) Magon (Ain, Saone-et-Loire).

(18) Toulouse (Ariege, Haute-Garonne, Gers p., Tarn-et-Gar) .

(19) Tours (Indre-et-Loire, Loir-et-Cher, Loire-Infer., Loiret, Maine-et-Loire).

(20) Bourges (Cher, Indre, Nievre).

(21) Moulins (Ailier, Creuse, Puy-de-D6me, Haute-Vienne) .

(22) Pau (Gers, Basses-Pyr6n6es, Haute-Pyr6n6es) .

(23) Nice (Alpes-Marit, Var).

(24) Niort (Charente, Charente-Infer., Vendue, Vienne).

(25) Carcassonne (Aude, Pyr6n6es-Or., Tarn).

(26) Aix (Basses- Alpes, Bouches-d.-Rh.).

(27) Mmes (Gard, H6rault, Lozere).

(28) Aurillac (Haute-Loire, Aveyron, Cantal, Correze, Lot).

(29) Bordeaux (Dordogne, Gironde, Landes, Lot-et-Gar).

(30) Ajaccio (Corse).

(31) Chaumont (Haute-Marne).

(32) Vesoul (Haute-Saone).

At the head of each conservation there is a conservator. Each con-
servation is divided into "inspections," comprising a number of forests,
administered by an inspector; each inspection includes two or three
"cantonments" under assistant inspectors or forest assistants (gardes
generaux). The protective force includes rangers and guards; these
employees are usually housed by the State. As compared with the
United States the Forest Service administration in Washington corre-
sponds to the central administration in Paris, but in France there is
less centralization. The districts of the United States Forest Service

11 See Chapter IV, French Forests and Forestry. There are now three new conserva-
tions in the restored provinces (a) Metz (Moselle), (6) Strasbourg (Bas-Rhin), (c) Colmar
(Haut-Rhin). See appendix, page 495.

274 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION

correspond to the conservations in France except that the conservations
are really one-man positions and are consequently very much smaller
than the seven large centralized districts in the United States. On the
forests, the inspector corresponds to the supervisor, and the assistant
inspector to the deputy supervisor or forest examiner, except that the
assistant inspector may be in sole charge of a forest. The garde general
corresponds to the forest assistant in the United States; the ranger and
guard positions are the same except that in France these officers are
in charge of definite areas rather than on special projects, such as large
timber sales, as is often the case in the Western United States. In the
central bureau at Paris the rank does not differ from the rank on the
forests themselves. For example, a conservator or inspector may be in
charge of a bureau or section, respectively, whereas in the United States
a new position has been created, namely, that of assistant forester or
forest inspector, when an officer is given special administrative work
at the central bureau at Washington. In the Service des Eaux et
Forets the responsibility is essentially personal for all lines of work; in
the U. S. Forest Service there is a tendency to divide the work among a
staff of specialists. In France forest operations are largely controlled by
the working plan; at the time of writing there are no real working plans
in operation on U. S. National Forests (see p. 219). There is no position
in France corresponding to that of State Forester in the United States.

Military Rank. — The corresponding military rank held by forest
officers in time of war is as follows:

Forest rank

Military rank

Guard

f Private (first class)
I Corporal

Non-commissioned officer

Lieutenant

Ranger

Forest assistant

Assistant inspector

Captain

Commandant (battalion chief)

The Forest Service uniform is theoretically retained in time of war,
subject to changes made necessary by general changes in color or material
to conform with the Regular Army standard. It is customary to assign
the younger forest officers to line regiments (usually, if not always, to
the infantry) and the older men to executive and administrative work
of various kinds. ^^

Education. — The officers of the French Forest Service are recruited
chiefly from Nancy, the official State forest school established Decem-

12 For a further discussion of administrative organization see French Forests and
Forestry, especially pp. 18-21, 53, 101-105, 123-128.

PROTECTION 275

ber 1, 1824.1^ It is a 2-year course with extensive field work in local
forests followed by a tour of all important regions. The ranger force
is educated at Barres (Loiret) where there is an extensive botanical
garden of exotic species. An excellent forestry course is given at (a)
the Institut Agronomique and at (6) the Ecole Poly technique; students
enter Nancy after two years' study at (a) or (6). Guards are trained at
Nogent-sur-Vernisson (Loire et Cher).

As part of the forestry education and propaganda system there are a
number of important societies ^* and associations which aim at protect-
ing and popularizing French forests. These have been arranged in
alphabetical order:

(1) Acad^mie d'Agriculture de France, of Paris, is interested in all branches of
agriculture and has a silviculture section which speciahzes in all general forestry ques-
tions, such as physiology, development of trees and stands, wood utilization, manage-
ment, reforestation, etc. It is interesting to see forestry made an integral part of
agriculture.

(2) Association Centrale Pour I'Am^nagement des Montagnes, of Bordeaux, special-
izes in restoring mountain areas by improving grazing lands, in creating woodland on
poor ground, and in reforesting mediocre grass land.

(3) Club Alpin Frangais, of Paris, furthers the reforesting of denuded mountains.

(4) Comit6 des Forets, of Paris, a syndicate of forest owners, has to do with the
improvement of private forest property, and especially its administration and exploita-
tion.

(5) Soci4t6 des Agriculteurs de France, of Paris, entirely independent of the Govern-
ment, is active in all branches of the theory or practice of agriculture and silviculture.

(6) Soci6t6 Forestiere Frangais des Amis des Arbres, which has a section at Paris
and affiliated sections in the departments, conducts propaganda for the improvement
and the creation of forests, planting of fruit trees, and betterment of grazing lands.
It also supplies seed and planting stock to its members.

(7) The Soci6t6 Forestiere de Franche-Comte et Belfort, of Besangon, aims to im-
prove technical methods and furthers reforestation on uncultivated land and grass land.

(8) Soci6t6 Gay-Lussac, of Limoges, organizes a congress each year on "Trees
and Water."

(9) The Touring-Club de France, of Paris, has a section of "Land and Forests"
which conducts an active campaign for preserving beautiful forests, reforestation,
reclamation of eroded mountains, and general forest betterments.

PROTECTION

Introduction. — The prevention of damage of all kinds must depend
on the practicability and cost of prevention. Logging operations result
in unavoidable damage and in war-time logging much of the finesse of
European methods had to be waived. But even in France most of the
damage is by fire, although only in the Provenge (chiefly from the
Italian border to Marseilles) and in the Landes and Gascogne is inten-

" See Huffel, Vol. Ill, for further data.

1* This list was obtained for the writer by Captain Fresson.

276 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION

sive fire protection necessary. In these localities the danger of fire is
so great that even costly protection has frequently failed and large
areas have been burned. Owing to the excessive fire damage in the
Maures and I'Esterel (Var) a special fire protective scheme was first
legislated in 1870 and revised in 1893. The main provisions of the law
are : The use of fire in any form is forbidden during July, August, and
September within 656 feet of forest or brush land, except upon special
authorization; at other times charcoal kilns, and other dangerous use of
fire, can only be located at the risk of the owner or contractor. Special
police powers are accorded both private and public forest officers. Owners
of forest or brush land which is not entirely cleared of undergrowth may
be required by neighbors to open cleared fire lines 65 to 164 feet in
width to be built half on each owner's land. Railroads are also required
to clear and maintain fire lines 65 feet from the track; if not completed
the work can be done under the direction of forest officers at the expense
of the railroads. To encourage road building a subsidy of $932 per
mile was granted for suitable roads built within the Maures and I'Esterel
area. (See p. 285 for additional details.)

In 1918 and 1919, however, there were disastrous fires in the Landes
and in the Maures and I'Esterel regions because, owing to the war, the
undergrowth could not be systematically cleared. The Engineer (for-
estry) troops salvaged more than 120,000 cubic meters (about 30,000,000
feet board measure) of fire-killed timber in the Landes alone. The
chief fire preventive measures in France ^^ have been fire notices, look-
out posts connected with telephones, tool depots, fire lines (to fight
from, since the French hold that ''one should never count on a fire line
to stop a fire by itself") 33 to 66 feet wide, and secondary lines 3.3 to
6.6 feet wide, and, finally, cutting of inflammable undergrowth (an
efficient means of fire prevention, but expensive). But unquestionably
the fire prevention and fighting practice in the United States is on a
greater scale and is farther advanced than in Europe; consequently the
opportunity for developing forest-fire technique has been larger. Per-
haps the greatest lesson to be derived from the intensive protection in
France is that with dense and inflammable brush under a pine high forest
no measures are reasonably certain unless the underbrush is kept cleared. ^^
Even intensive fire lines will not prevent or stop dangerous fires if there
is underbrush and high winds during a drought. In France the protec-
tive measures against birds, mammals, fungous diseases, dangers following
windfall, or snow damage have not been so intensively developed as in
other European countries. There are three main reasons for this.

16 Jolyet, pp. 581-586.

IS See also French Forests and Forestry, T. S. Woolsey, Jr., John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
for conclusions in Algerian and Tunisian fire protection.

THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 373

it is there that nearly all springs are concentrated. Forests existing on mountains,
notably on those whose aspect is perpendicular to those of moist winds, cause the pre-
cipitation of the greatest quantity of aqueous vapor which they contain. It is enough
to cast a glance at a hydrographic map to be convinced of this fact. Bare, denuded
mountains have only a very feeble action in this respect; the countries bordering on the
Adriatic as well as on a part of the Mediterranean, which are renowned for their dry-
ness, show this in a very striking manner. Deprived of forests, these mountains lack
the means of coohng the air and drawing to themselves in consequence the vaporous
precipitations it contains. The denuded soil, which the sun penetrates with intense
heat on those parts exposed to the west and the southwest, does not certainly possess
this property."

"A second distinction consists in the enormous diminution in the proportion of
surface flow on wooded mountains, compared with the same slopes when they are
denuded. . . . The water, instead of precipitating itself into the thalweg and caus-
ing thereby sudden and dangerous inundations, penetrates slowly through the covering
and into the soil which it soaks to a great depth. Therefore it is unquestionable, and
we believe an uncontested fact, that mountain forests are favorable generally to the
production of springs."

There is a stronger reason stiU for this being the case when mountain forests grow
in a hot climate where physical evaporation is considerable.

The Influence of Forests on the Infiltration of Waters in the Plains. — The
influence of the surface flow is complete in the case of forests in the plains. There
the feeding of the subterranean sheet will depend only on physiological evaporation
and on the permeability of the soil. Let us first examine the action of forests on this
permeability of the soil.

Forest soil in good condition is naturally light. The roots of trees penetrate deeply
into it, sometimes to a depth of 10 and 13 feet and more; in swelling out they produce
the effect of wedges which divide the soil mechanically. When the trees have been
felled the roots decompose and their place is taken by a network of channels filled with
hygroscopic matter, which directly conducts the water to considerable depth. Along
the roots of trees under foot, especially near the stem between the soil and the bark,
there exist empty spaces which are caused by the swaying of the tree when shaken by
the wind; rain water, which has run along the stem, arrives directly, one might say
instantaneously, by means of these at the soU. Lastly, forest vegetation is favorable
to the division of the soil through the action of earthworms.

In winter, the temperature of the forest soil is appreciably higher than that of the
open ground. It often results from this that during the cold season the rainfall or
melting snow acts upon a frozen surface, which has become impenetrable at the surface, in
such a manner that all the water disappears in surface flow. In the forest, the soil which
is less cold need not necessarily be frozen, and can therefore absorb the fallen water.

According to all the evidence collected, physical evaporation of the water of the soil
is less under trees than on an agricultural soil. The forest covers the ground with a
double protective screen; first the covering of dead leaves, an eminently hygroscopic
substance, and in consequence always cool, which, superimposed immediately on the
ground, opposes evaporation with great energy. Higher up, the crown, often very dense,
offers its maximum density in summer, at a period when evaporation is greatest. The
temperature of the air is also lower under the trees than outside, especially in summer.
This forms a powerful impediment to evaporation. The lowest temperature of the
forest soil in summer acts again in the same way.

Finally, evaporation is much favored in a flat country by the wind, which is con-
tinually renewing the strata of the air, saturated by direct contact with the soil.

374 APPENDIX

An attempt has been made to measiire the comparative importance of evaporation
beneath the trees and outside of them by ascertaining the quantity of hquid lost from
receptacles full of water placed under cover and in the open fields. Under these condi-
tions two to five times, in certain cases eight times, but on an average three times,
more water is evaporated in the open country than under the trees. But these experi-
ments are of Uttle value even when the receptacles of water are replaced by impene-
trable chests full of earth; the conditions under which the experiments are made being
too far removed from natural conditions. '^

It remains for us now to compare the forest with land under cultivation from the
point of view of the quantity of water drawn off from the soil by the vegetation.

To tell the truth, we are absolutely ignorant of the quantity of water necessary to
the production of agricultural or forest crops. One observer, Wollny,^^ undertook in
1879 and 1880 direct measurements of the quantities of water consumed by various
plants (barley, oats, red clover, grass, rye, etc.) which he had sown in especially pre-
pared boxes without drainage. At the beginning of the experiment he had ascertained
the quantity of water contained in the soil of the boxes; by adding to this the same
quantity of water as would be furnished under natural conditions lasting over a similar
period of time, either by rain or by dew, and by removing from the bottom of the boxes
all that filtered through the earth, and which he carefully collected, the amount of
water consumed was obtained. In reality the quantities measured are superior to
this consumption for they include, in addition, that which has been lost by evaporation
from the soil, or by evaporation of the water remaining adherent to leaves and stalks.
The experiments of WoUny were extended over 105 to 155 days of the season of growth.

The consumption of water was on an average 38 million pounds to the acre, the maxi-
mum figure being furnished by the clover which reached 47 miUion. These figures
represent an average consumption per acre per day during the growing season of about
18 to 19 cubic yards.

In 1870 and 1871 an older writer, Risler,^^ discovered that the average daily con-
sumption per acre during the season of growth was 27 cubic yards for Luzern and
fields generally, 23 for oats, 12 for rye, etc., and on an average 17 for cultivated vege-
tables, while it would only be 4.2 cubic yards for the fir tree and 3.1[for the oak. It is
much to be regretted that we have no means of judging of the value of these figures,
as we do not know how they were obtained.

M. Ney, by combining the figures of WoUny and of Risler, calculates ^^ that field
vegetables in general consume 2,093 cubic yards of water per acre during the growing
season.

An Austrian experimenter, V. Hohnel, has directly measured the quantity of aqueous
vapor emitted by the leaves of different trees from June 1 to October 1. During that
period he found that the leaves of the several species emitted the following percentages
of their own weight in aqueous vapor: Birch, 68 per cent; ash, 57; hornbeam, 56; beech,
47; oak, 28; spruce pine, 6; Scotch pine, 6; fir tree, 3.

With these data for basis, M. Ney ^^ calculates that the consumption of water per

32 For the French experiments see M. de Bouville, op. cit., pp. 25 et seq. For those
carried out in Switzerland consult the " Mitteilungen" of the Research Station of Zurich.
For the German observations see the official accounts published by M. Muttrich on the
work of the Research Stations; a resume of the results is to be found reproduced by
M. Welaer in the " Encyclopedie Forestiere de Lorey."

^^ "Forschungen auf dem Gebiete der Agricultur — Physik, Vol. XII, p. 27.

^* The experiments of Risler are only known by the quotations made by Wollny in
the work mentioned previously, and we are ignorant of the methods pursued by this
experimenter.

25 "Der Wald und die Quellen," p. 74.

36 Op. cit., p. 75.

THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 375

acre during the season of growth would be 24,112,000 pounds for beech (5.6 yards
per diem); 18,568,000 pounds for spruce pine (47 yards per diem); 6,424,000 pounds
for Scotch pine (1.6 yards per diem).

It is to be remarked that these quantities do not include the water incorporated in
the tissues of the trees for the purposes of their growth, but only that emitted by evapora-
tion from leaves."

Other figures have been published by Th. Hartig, V. Hohnel and WoUny; they differ
sometimes so much from those quoted above that one is necessarily very sceptical as to
the value of the results obtained. As M. Henry remarks very justly: ^s "If it is easy
to determine, by means of weighing, the evaporation on a sapHng in a pot, or of a square
of young forest trees, of grass or corn; if one can calculate, strictly speaking, according
to those results, without fear of too great discrepancies the evaporation on an acre
covered with grass, with corn, or young forest trees of equal height, ^^ it is far too rash
to apply the results obtained by experiments on an isolated sapling grown in a
pot to a forest comprising many tangled and superimposed stages of growth, whose
leaves giving more or less shade are doing their work with different degrees of
intensity."

In the present condition of science it is not therefore possible to determine by con-
trast in a sufficiently precise manner the difference between the volume of water under
the trees and in the open which goes to feed the subterranean sheets.

In view of the great interest this question presents, and of the diversity of opinions
on the subject, the greatest efforts have been made in an indirect manner to arrive at a
clear idea of the action of clumps of trees on the feeding of the subterranean sheet.

A primary series of researches has been undertaken with a view to determine com-
paratively the quantity of water which filters through a stratum of earth enclosed in
a box without drainage, its surface being covered with different kinds of plants.

It has proved that the bare earth allows more water to pass than that which is
covered with vegetation, dead leaves, moss, etc. This is almost the only definite result
obtained, and even this is controvertible. We do not lay much stress on these experi-
ments which, it would seem, can give us no definite information as to what occurs under
natural conditions.'*''

An attempt has been made to measure directly the quantity of water contained in the
soil under the trees and in the open at different depths.

Experiments undertaken in Germany ^^ and in Russia have brought to hght the
following facts which appear to be properly estabhshed :

The humidity of forest soil is very great at the surface, but diminishes rapidly to a
depth varying in degree which does not go beyond 31.5 inches under plantations of
spruce pine, according to Ebermayer, and which reaches a depth of 10 or 13 feet,
according to Russian experiments. Below this level the amount of water keeps on
increasing with the depth. There exists in the ground, therefore, a dry zone more or

^' The quantity of water remaining annually in the tissues of trees may be estimated
at 2,640 pounds per acre.

3s "Annales de la Science Agronomique," 2nd Series, 4th year, 1898, pp. 20 et seq.

3s It is doubtful if even this is admissible.

*" For the measurements made in Switzerland see Bulletin IV of the "Mitteilungen"
of the Research Station of Zurich; for the Bavarian works, see the various pubhcations
of M. Ebermayer, etc.

" "Einfluss des Waldes," etc., an article by M. Ebermayer which appeared in the
January 1888 number of the "Allgemeine Forst und Jagd Zeitung." A good trans-
lation has been published by M. Reuss in the first volume of the "Annales de la Science
Agronomique," 1889. A complete resume of all the works published up till then is
inserted in the account of the "Congres International de Sylviculture a Paris en 1900,"
pp. 328 et seq. (Communication by^M. Henry to this Congress).

376 APPENDIX

less thick and more or less deep, lying between the humid region of the surface and
the humid region below.

One sees there, in a very clear fashion, the influence of the absorption of water by
roots of plants in the region where they are active, or in that immediately below where
the water can raise itself by capillary action after drying up the superior stratum.^^
This is a general fact for all ground covered with living plants; they present a dry
stratum more or less removed from the surface, according to the depth of the root
system of vegetation above. This depth being greater in the case of forest vegetation
than in others, it is clearly to be seen that at a similar level, within certain limits, the
soil of the forest will be poorer in water than an agricultural soil.^^ It has been con-
cluded from this that the forest absorbed more water by its vegetation than other
species of culture, and thus was harmful to the feeding of phreatic sheets of water.

It must be admitted that there is no evident and necessary connection between the
humidity of the soil in its superficial parts and the alimentation of the subterranean
sheet. Other things being equal, the latter depends not so much on the degree of
dampness of the soil as upon its permeability. A stratum of coarse sand will allow
rain water to filter through rapidly, while a fine clay will keep it stagnant at the sur-
face and give it over to evaporation. And, nevertheless, the sand will be dry, while
the clay will always contain a quantity of hygroscopic water.

An extremely interesting fact, which will perhaps throw some light on the relation
of the wooded condition of the surface with the feeding of phreatic waters, has been
quite recently brought forward. We think we ought to dwell on this with some detail,
borrowing what follows from the last publications of our learned colleague, M. Henry .^''

The Imperial Free Economic Society of St. Petersburg undertook a series of re-
searches into subterranean hydrology in the forests of the steppes of Russia, the director-
ship of which was confided to M. Ototzky, curator of the Mineralogical Museum at
St. Petersburg.

From borings effected in the forest of Chipoff (province of Voronez) and in the Black

^ The depth of the system of our large tree species is much greater than has been
generally supposed. The tempest of February 1, 1902, having torn up by their roots
a multitude of fir trees of all ages in the Vosges, we took advantage of this opportunity
to ascertain the depth to which the roots, thus rendered visible, had penetrated the
Vosges sandstone formation. It varied from 5 to 11.5 feet. If one takes into account
that the extremities of the roots were still remaining in the soil, one can realize that
these trees were deriving nourishment from a stratum which must extend to a depth of
13 and perhaps of 16 feet.

^3 These researches of a very delicate nature only meet with reliable results when
they are conducted simultaneously for a very long period of time under the trees and
in the open. If one observes the soil after heavy rain one sees it saturated at the surface
to a greater or lesser depth. The rain having ceased, the free surface water sinks
down gradually into the soil under the action of its weight, saturating always a deeper
and deeper zone, above which the ground has become dry, until it comes in contact
with the phreatic sheet of water of which it raises the level. It is conceivable that
very varying amounts of water in the soil, at one particular season and depth, have to
be accounted for, according to the proximity and abundance of the latest rainfall,
that is to say, according to fortuitous circumstances which, up till now, observers
do not seem to have taken into account.

^ M. E. Henry, professor of the "Ecole Nationale des Eaux et Forets," was the first
to draw attention to the Russian borings, the results of which, up till then, had been
unnoticed both in France and Germany. He gave an account of these in a series of
articles, one after the other, from 1897 and February, 1898 (Annales de la Science
Agronomique), until 1903. In his article of 1903 M. Henry narrates for the first time
the complete result of his own researches undertaken in the forest of Moudon. The
few pages which M. Ebermayer devotes to the subject in his publication dated 1900
(Einfluss der Walder auf das Gumdwasser) only reproduce, almost word for word,
M. Henry's report of 1898.

THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 377

Forest (province of Cherson), M. Ototzky was led, since 1897, to formulate this theory,
that, all physico-geographical conditions being equal, the level of phreatic waters in the
forests of the region of the steppes is lower than in neighboring open spaces. In support
of these unexpected conclusions M. Ototzky published the results of a series of sound-
ings, of which some it is true are open to objection as proof positive of his theories. ^^

In 1897 M. Ototzky was directed by the Imperial Society to undertake some new
researches, but this time in the Province of St. Petersburg at 60° north latitude in a
region whose rainfall is much greater than that of the steppes, where he had worked in
1895 (23.6 inches annual rainfall instead of 11.8).

He proved again that, under the forests where observations were made, the phreatic
sheet is depressed compared with what it is n neighboring cultivated regions. The
difference of levels is rather shght, and varied from 19.7 to 44.5 inches.

On July 1, 1899, M. Henry, professor at the "Ecole Nationale des Eaux et Forets,"
at his own request, was authorized to undertake at the expense of the "Administration
des Eaux et Forets" some soundings, with a view to verifying and completing the data
furnished by the Russian experimenter.

The forest of Moudon near Luneville (Aleurthe-et- Moselle) was chosen for these re-
searches. It forms a large mass of woodland about 4,942 acres in extent (the altitude
varies from 807 to 873 feet). The soil is composed of strata of sand, gravel, and flint,
originating from the ancient alluvial beds of the Meurthe and the Vezouse, at the con-
fluence of which rivers the forest is situated. The water-bearing strata are met at a
slight depth, their upper level being given at depth of about 6.5 to 16.4 feet. A little
lower, about 23 feet or more, one finds an impermeable clay against which the infiltra-
tions are arrested. These different strata, and especially the last named, appear to be
horizontal.

The rainfall in the forest was 28 inches in 1900 and 35 in 1901. The mean annual
temperature is 9° 4 C. (49° F.) with an average of + 1° 43 C. (345 F.) in winter and 17°
70 C. (64° F.) in summer.

The forest is composed of oak, beech, and hornbeam ; it has been planted with storied
coppice in a rotation of 35 years in the greater part of its extent. Some small parts are
to be found covered with Scotch pine, the result of the replanting of ancient gaps in
the forest.

In the spring of 1900 ten holes of 2 inches in diameter were drilled by the aid of the
Belgian geological borer, and these holes were lined with zinc tubes which had been
pierced with small apertures and furnished at their lower end with a similarly perforated
cone. Thus the earth was prevented from falling in and filling up the bottom of the well.
The numerous small apertures in the metal allowed the water easily to find its own level.

Five holes were bored in bare ground in parcels of ground which had been cleared for
the use of the forest guardians, in the nursery gardens, and in the communal pasturage, but
always on the borders of the forest, the farthest removed being about a hundred meters.
Five others, destined to be compared with the preceding five, were made under the neigh-
boring woodlands, as nearly approaching the same conditions as it was possible to give.

« Evidently it is well to operate only in ground which lies horizontally at the surface,
and which is of a homogeneous character to a great depth, so as to avoid the influence
of an uneven surface, and that of the undulations of the upper levels of deep impermeable
strata, whose projection may be very different from that of the surface. In stratified
ground, with strata alternately more or less permeable, the course of the subterranean
waters depends solely on the way these strata run, and can give us no notion of the
influence of the superficial vegetation. Unfortunately the ground in which M. Ototzky
first undertook his experiments appears to have been far from homogeneous, since he
found there in less than 16 feet of depth, three different well-defined spring levels.
Moreover the projection of the soil seems to have been taken very httle into account,
notably in No. 3 boring in the forest of Chipoff.

378 APPENDIX

There were, therefore, five pairs of borings.

Observations were made once a month from May 4, 1900, to August 24, 1902.

The levehng was done by the pupils of the "Ecole Forestiere" in May, 1900, and May,
1901, in taking for the initial point the altitude of the Station of Marainvilhers which is
about 790.1 feet.

One will find in the following table (page 379) all the measurements taken at Moudon;
none have been omitted (abridged in translation) .

We have been obliged, however, to omit the report of one of the five pairs, of which
one bore was made in the fields of the farm of St. George and the other in the neighbor-
ing coppice (third cutting in the third series of coppices) because the bore made in the
field was destroyed by the plow in March, 1901.

The figures of the table (page 379) give the immediate results of the measurements
effected, without taking into account the difference in the altitude of the orifices of
the borings.

If all the measurements are reduced to the same horizontal level, one finds that
the level of the water under the forest at all seasons is lower than that under bare ground:
By 11.8 inches for the first couple, 7.9 for the second couple, 16.5 for the third couple,
12.2 for the fourth couple.

It is certain that the difference of level is more accentuated than these figures would
indicate, since one knows that in permealjle soils the phreatic sheet follows the varia-
tions of the outline relief of the stratum, although with far less pronounced undulations.

But let us accept the preceding figures as unquestionable minima whose average is
11.8 inches.

We can affirm that, according to the measurements effected each month from May 4,
1900, to August 24, 1902, in eight borings made at random, sometimes under the wood-
lands, sometimes under the bare ground near the forest of Moudon (Meurthe-et-Moselle)
the level of subterranean waters at all seasons is at least 11.8 inches deeper under the
woods than it is outside.

The experiments of M. Henry, carried out regularly for a period of 28 months have
further brought to light the following facts, which are absolutely new.

The oscillations in the level of phreatic waters is less under the woods than in the
open. The infiltration, too, is slower in the forest. The maxima and minima occur
about a month later than those observed outside of the woods.

One sees here that the forest plays the same role of regulator and stabihzer which one
recognizes it to do with regard to the temperature.

Some experiments made quite recently by M. Ototzky, an account of which has been
pubhshed in Russian in the fourth number of 1902 of the Magazine "La Pedologie,"
and of which a French translation by M. A. de Lebedef, attache of the "Ministere de
LTnterieur " at St. Petersburg, is in the press has still further confirmed these facts.

M. Ototzky's experiments were made at the " ficole forestiere" of Staraia Rossa
(province of Novgorod) at 58° N. latitude, near to the Lake of Ihnen. " One is obliged
to conclude," says M. Ototzky at the end of his article, "that the level of subterranean
water is lower in the forest than in the stratum exploited, in summer as well as in winter,
and also that the oscillations are less }^

To sum up, we seem to have gained the information that in the forests of
the plains in temperate or cold climates," whose soil is formed of homogeneous

^^ Quotation borrowed from M. Henry (Revue des Eaux et Forets, 1903, p. 197).

^^ In the tropical region of the globe where the heat is torrid, it is physical evaporation
from the soil which plays the preponderating part, while physiological evaporation does
not increase with the temperature. It may be, therefore, that in this case the level of
the subterranean waters is even higher in the forest. M. Ribbentrop has vouched for
this fact near Madras (Revue des Eaux et Forets, 1901).

THE FOREST AND SPRINGS

379

DEPTH OF THE SUBSOIL WATER (IN FEET) IN THE FOUR COUPLES OF
BORINGS IN THE STATE FOREST OF MOUDON.*

ground

Old
coppice

Bare

nursery

site

Old
coppice

Bare
ground

Old
coppice

Bare
pasture

Scotch
pine

Altitude of station, in feet

Average depth of water level,
in feet

Average depth of water level
corrected for altitude, in
feet

Difference, in feet

Maximum monthly varia-
tions, in feet

802.42
12.11

845.37
9.25

849,31
14.57

14.57
+ 1.38

811.87

8.10
+1.01

* Totals and averages only are given in translation, condensed and rearranged from
results of field work extending over 28 months, May 4, 1900, to August 24, 1902. See
page 22 for a confirmation of these conclusions.

strata lying horizontally and in which in consequence the subterranean sheet is
motionless :

(1) The level of phreatic waters is lower under the forest at aU seasons, than outside
of it.

(2) The depression appears greater in regions where the rainfall is less, than where it
rains a great deal.

(3) The oscillations in the level are considerably reduced and lessened by the presence
of the forest.

Returning now to our subject, can we conclude from the foregoing that forests are
injurious to the feeding of the subterranean sheet of water on level ground in temperate
climates?

This certainly seems probable. The intensity of physiological evaporation may be
the explanation of this curious lowering of the subterranean sheet under the woods.
This will be the lower, that is to say, the less thick (admitting that the impermeable
stratum by which the infiltrated waters are arrested, is horizontal), because the forest
abstracts more water from infiltration in its growth than does the neighboring
ground.

Nevertheless, there is one thing which may cause us to doubt the truth of these con-
clusions. A careful examination of Table 6 shows us that the depression of the sheet
beneath the forest is more marked during the season of repose in vegetation than during
the summer. This fact is verified in the case of all the couples of borings, and for the
whole length of time during which observations were made. One might conclude from
this that it is not the vegetation of the trees that causes the lowering of level.

Are we here perhaps in the presence of a fresh consequence of this fact that, under
the forest, the region drained of water by roots, the dry zone in fact reaches to a lower
level than under cultivated ground?

However this may be, if the fact of the lowering of the level of subterranean waters
under the woods appears certain, its interpretation is less so, and we are left in doubt
as to the definite influence, all things taken into consideration of the woods upon the
feeding of springs in level ground.

This first study was in the press when we received notice (March, 1904) of the official

380 APPENDIX

account of the fourth congress of the International Association of the "Stations de
Recherches Forestieres," which assembled in Austria in September, 1903.^8

At this congress, M. Hartmann, an engineer of the Bavarian State, gave an account
of the results of researches undertaken in collaboration with the Forest Service by the
Royal Hydrotechnical Service with a view to the comparative study of the oscillations
of the level of the subterranean water in wooded ground or in the open.

Observations were taken at two points. The first, Mindelheim, at a height of 2,014
feet, is situated on almost perfectly horizontal ground at the surface (inclination six per
thousand) composed of the alluvial deposits of the Mindel, a direct tributary of the
right bank of the Danube.

The forest is situated in a small piece of isolated ground composed of about 988 acres
in the midst of landed estates, and is composed of oak, Scotch, and spruce pines, of about
9 years of age. The other station, Wendelstein, is in the neighborhood of Niirnberg.

M. Hartmann thinks it can be concluded from his statements « that the forest exerts
no influence on the level of the subterranean sheet. The latter is generally not stagnant
(as has been known for a long time) but takes a more or less rapid course according to
the inclination of the surface of the subsoil, the thickness of the subterranean sheet in
motion, and the degree of permeability of the soil in which it moves. The considerable
differences in the level of subterranean waters observed in Bavaria at points contiguous
to a horizontal and homogeneous soil at the surface, can only be explained by the varia-
tion in the projection of the subsoil stratum, and by the very variable depth and celerity
of the subterranean sheet.

At Mindelheim, in fact, the subterranean sheet is nearer the surface under the woods
than in the open. M. Hartmann thinks that the forest counts for nothing, and that the
reverse might just as equally hold good.

Conclusions. — In the course of this long study on the influence of forests on the
feeding of springs, we have particularly insisted on certain points which, recently
brought to light, have hitherto only been dealt with in original memoranda, and are
therefore inaccessibleto the greater number of readers.

This chapter, now that its end has been reached, leads to one conclusion.

(1) We have seen that the forest has the effect of increasing the abundance and the
frequency of atmospheric precipitations.

This action of the forest, proved by many experiments in France and abroad during
30 years, must be regarded as a well established fact, although certain authors, without
absolutely denying it, have declared it negligible, or else of so slight a nature as not to
be ascertained by ordinary rain gauges, since these instruments are lacking in absolute
accuracy.

The increase of water which the forest obtains, amounts to 23 per cent in an average
of 33 years of observations taken at the "Station de Recherches" of Nancy. It seems
however to increase with the altitude of the place where the forests are situated.

(2) The forest retains a part of the fallen water by its adherence to the crowns and
branches and this returns to the atmosphere by direct evaporation. On the other hand
these same crowns and branches are always colder, and often to a very considerable

^^Vierte Versammlung des internationalen Verbandes forstlicher Versuchsanstaten,
1903. Mariabrun, 1904 (published by the "Station de recherches autrichienne").

^s It seems to us that the conclusions of the Bavarian engineer are somewhat lacking
in precision, at least in the text we have before our eyes. One might conclude, it would
seem, especially from the accounts given by himself, that the two points chosen for the
experiments were not at all suitable for the purpose, the subterranean sheet being far
from immovable, and the subsoil not horizontal. In any case, we find nothing here of a
nature to invalidate the very clear and well balanced results of the measurements taken
at Moudon, as given us by M. Henry.

PHYSICAL, ECONOMIC, AND SOCIAL 381

degree colder, than the surrounding air, and sometimes are the means of condensing
enormous quantities of aqueous vapor, which they introduce to the soil in a liquid
state. Moreover, it is not uncommon, especially in winter time, to see the soil which is
immediately shaded by a tree, receive more water than a neighboring point in the forest
where there is a gap in the shade. For the rest it would seem that the loss of water aris-
ing from its retention by the crowns is inferior to the increase of water obtained by the
presence of the forest itself. This fact has assuredly been established in the case of the
broadleaved plantations in the neighborhood of Nancy; it would seem also certain in
the case of the plantations of Scotch pines and larches, and it is probable even for those
of spruce pine. One can therefore affirm that, in spite of the screen afforded by the
treetops, generally speaking, the forest soil receives more water than does the neigh-
boring soil under cultivation.

(3) The forest causes an enormous diminution in physical evaporation, and prevents
surface flow almost entirely. Moreover in numerous cases where one of these phe-
nomena — and c fortiori when both simultaneously — play a preponderating part, as
often happens in hot countries and on sloping ground, it is unreservedly admitted that
the forest is favorable to the feeding of the subterranean sheet, and in consequence to
that of springs.

(4) So far as our researches have actually progressed, we cannot be sure that the forest
is favorable or unfavorable to the feeding of subterranean waters in level ground or
in cold or temperate climates.

As a matter of fact we are ignorant as to whether its vegetation does not abstract more
water from the soil than do agricultural vegetables, as the lowering in the level of the
phreatic waters observed under the woodlands would seem to indicate. It may be that
such an increase in the communication is compensated by the increase in the watering
of the soil, and the reduction in physical evaporation when these two last factors are
unimportant (as for example at low altitudes and in cold climates). For the rest, the
facts noted are contradictory; cases of springs are quoted which have dried up in conse-
quence of clearings as, on the other hand, superficial dryings up of the soil have been
observed, where replanting has taken place. Doubt is therefore forced upon us in this
special case; the action of the forest on the feeding of the springs remains uncertain, and
it is probably variable according to circumstances which, as yet, remain unelucidated.

(5) Nevertheless it must be observed that springs are only numerous and important
in mountain regions, and there certainly the forests are favorable to them.

In the plains the springs are infrequent, and have a feeble output. We are therefore
justified in repeating, as our fathers declared, that the forest is the mother of the rivers;
the labors of modern science have served only to establish the parentage, universally
and at all times recognized, which connects the spring with the tree which shades it.

APPENDIX B
THE FOREST, FROM A PHYSICAL, ECONOMIC, AND SOCIAL VIEWPOINT i

(By Jacquot)

To-day there is strong sentiment in favor of forests. Newspapers defend. Congress
discusses and prepares laws for them, associations organize for the protection of existing

1 La Foret, A. Jacquot, pp. 287-305. Digest and part translation made with a view to
preserving Jacquot's picturesque language. According to scientific research Jacquot
exaggerates, but it must be borne in mind that he is presenting the subject of forest
influences from a popular viewpoint.

382 APPENDIX

stands as well as for the forestation of uncultivated lands. The Touring Club of France
should be cited as a special example. Numerous governments are instituting Arbor
Days. In solemnly planting trees with their own hands, the kings of Spain, Italy and
England, and high government officials in the United States are merely imitating an
example given by our societies or by the ancestral custom, observed in certain com-
munes of Alsace, of planting at least one tree at the birth of each child. There also,
newly married couples plant two fir trees on the day of their marriage. . . . The
tree which grows in humanity which is increasing. The instinctive cultivation and
religious admiration of primitive peoples for the trees is based on science and reason.

Physical Role of Forests. — Humidity. — Forests increase the degree of humidity
in the air. Not only are the arid zones sheltered by forests . . . but furthermore,
in the majority of cases, the presence of a vegetative mantle on the mountains is of
importance in the yield of crops and favors life and populations. Here the forestation,
true talisman of life, becomes a work of safety, and a question to be or not to be. All
floods have their rise on the bare ground created by the destructive felling of timber
which protects it. In these regions the forest disappears even though it is indispensable
to agricultural crops, the foundation of human life. It is on account of aridity alone,
and not for any other reason, that there have been terrible famines in Russia, in India,
and in China. Deforestation dries up a country. Without water there can be no life,
without humidity the ground will become as dead as the moon, and forests are necessary
in order to have water. Since their deforestation . . . Columbia, the Islands of
Maurice, of Reunion, and of Ascension, Sicily, Asia Minor and all other denuded regions
have experienced terrible droughts. These droughts immediately stopped in localities
where tree growth has been reestablished. In Porto Rico and in Jamaica, the phenome-
non is doubly verified in recent times. The rains disappear with the trees but return
with them. Above the forests there are light clouds, and after the shower the branches
drip onto the soil. . . . During the night the trees water the heather as if the urns
of the sky were thinking of the earth in order to fill up the divine springs. We have seen
all that and have concluded that the forest is the mother of the waters. But figures will
suffice to give an idea of the strength of the forest: an acre of high forest pumps every
day into the soil 10,000 to 12,000 quarts of reserve water; its evaporation can be placed
at 2,616 cubic yards per year representing a stream 20 inches high or almost three-
fourths the total rainfall falling in France. The quantity of liquid emitted by
the same area of water, mineral substance or vegetable substance are in the proportion
of 1, 3, and 60. The forest is certainly a reservoir of humidity. It is also a regulator.
While running water is often dangerous, its infiltration is desirable for the life of
springs. This infiltration attains its maximum under forest stands. The cover of
trees (doubled by a brush under story) largely reduces evaporation. Under the forest
the soil is better irrigated than on bare soil. On the other hand, the snow falls more
slowly, consequently the absorption of the forested land is perfect. The forest tends
to make the temperature more uniform by reducing the extremes of heat or cold. It
exercises the same action as does the sea at the seashore. On limestone soil, which forms
the major part of our planet, the running water digs out the soil and is then hidden by
these very fissures. Drought is accentuated, increasing the intensity of burning sands,
the bare steppes, and the arid deserts. It is a war of thirst, which menaces the twenti-
eth century. The forest alone by the shelter of its thick layer of humus is capable of
making a successful fight against the bankruptcy of the waters.

Hail. — The trees diminish the storms, lessening electric discharges and rendering
less frequent and less dangerous the fall of hail, which in the deforested regions cuts
and damages the crops. Numerous examples have been established. In eighteen
departments, where the hail is usually the most damaging, fourteen are the least forested
in France.

PHYSICAL, ECONOMIC, AND SOCIAL 383

Frost. — Around the forest, but not in it, one finds the white frosts which are so
common in dry dimates. The upper story protects the lower vegetation hke a tender
blanket. It replaces, after a fashion, artificial shelter.

"Wind. — Without the trees in numberless countries, the violence of the wind lays
low the plants or dries them up. . . . The smallest shrub or the simple hedge of
cypress of the Provence exercises a beneficial protective cover. In Russia, when the
June vegetation of the steppes is in full bloom, the squares enclosed with planted hedges
remain green, and furnish half again as much revenue. In Algeria, they say that nothing
can resist the sirocco. Nevertheless, it has been conquered by the trees. Look at
the delicate plants in the experimental gardens at Algiers and the rich plantations of
the Mitidja. . . .

Springs, Avalanches. — All the world to-day bears witness to the benefit of the
vegetable cover for the maintenance and conservation of springs (see Appendix, p.
361). This is also true of the value of forests in protecting against avalanches.

Floods. — The forest is the sovereign regulator of waterflow. On the denuded slope,
the rain rushes along carrying the material eroded from the loose soil. This mass,
increased by the mixture of debris, and with its increasing speed, communicates a
tremendous live force to these thousands of little streams. It becomes a furious tor-
rent which carries off the slopes, bears rocks along and even fields and houses. Gravel
fills the bed of the rivers and hinders shipping. It covers the plain with blocks of stone
and sterile sand. What would happen, on the other hand, with a wooded slope? A
large proportion of the rain will have been stopped by the foliage and branches to be
given back to the atmosphere. The remainder, broken up by the foHage, strikes the
soil as if it had passed through a sieve. The layer of dead leaves and humus which
carpets the forest floor is a soft sponge with an extraordinary capacity for absorption.
It absorbs five, six, and even nine times its liquid weight before saturation, when it
lets the water seep, drop by drop, to the surface and to the interior of the soil to feed
subterranean streams which result in springs. The small surplus water, which is not
retained, encounters in its flow innumerable obstacles, trunks, roots, moss, herbaceous
flora, dead branches, dead leaves, and the inextricable lacework of roots. The flow is
divided slowly up and does not erode the soil. It arrives at the foot of the slope slowly
and in small quantities. . . . Against the heat of the sun and the drying winds
of the south the branches serve as a screen. In the spring they diminish the damaging
effect of warm rains on the snow and prevent too rapid melting. The regularity of
the run-off is determined by the state and extent of the forests which cover the basin.
Numerous experiments in valleys, some forested and others bare, have proved this.
These comparisons have given rise to the adage: "He who wishes to master the waters,
must first master the forests." Thus to the trees crowning the mountains the soil is
held in place. The slopes are maintained and erosion ceases. Its action can thus be
summarized :

"The presence of forest stops the formation of torrents. Its development extin-
guishes it. Its destruction delivers the soil as a prey to erosion. All the fundamental
laws recognize the absolute necessity of reforestation. In the denuded countries, what
ravages! The torrents attack the mountainsides like a 'pieuvre,' eat them out, dis-
integrate and carry them piecemeal to the plain. High up the rock is bared, lower
down they cause the fields to become barren and covered with debris. The roads
are interrupted. The railway lines cut and the bridges demolished. One sees the
opening up of abysses, the cut of railroad lines, and the engulfment of entire villages.
Each year, in France, the floods cause an average damage of $5,790,000. With the
expense, which has been caused by such floods during the 19th century, all Europe could
have been reforested. These catastrophes have been the result of excessive deforesta-

384 APPENDIX

tion — a veritable social crime. It is the ruination of the mountaineer. . . . More-
over, the man that deforests assassinates the plain. The damage is far reaching. . . .
The waterfall which directs our turbines and produces the power for heat and light
may be done away with and rendered useless by deforestation. If you kill the forest,
you kill the brook which is the friend of mechanics. Thanks to electricity. . . .
water has become (as the ancients said) the most precious of gifts. ... By enor-
mous dams, engineers have hoped to avoid the terrible results of deforestation. . . .
How much inferior is this inert masonry, limited to a single valley, in comparison with
the strength and value of forests, hving, supple, growing forever, which cover the valleys
as they do the plain. . Free accumulator of water, ideal, green, cool, which man removes
and cuts like grain! In every deforested basin, the difference between the low-water
mark and the flood waters is formidable. For example, in the Loire, the Chehff, the
Seybouze, the Vidourle, the Verdon, it is 900, 1,500, 6,600, 1,500, and 2,000,000 times
the ordinary flow. The flow of the Ardeche is usually reduced to 6.5 cubic yards,
whereas it sometimes amounts to 10,500, when it has the size of a Mississippi, or an
Orinoco, or a Danube. The flood that comes with the rapidity of a galloping horse
and throws into the Rhone such a volume of water that the flood level rises 16.4 feet.
If there is no stand of trees to stop the erosion of storm floods, every deluge ravages
slopes all the way to the plain. . . . The damage done by the Garonne means an
annual loss of $1,544,000. This same amount spent only once, but properly applied,
that is to say for reforestation in the Pyrenees, would permit the suppression of every
cause of the damage. . . . One now commences to realize that the forest is a two-
faced army to fight for or against water. The same water which is not stored by the
forest may be transformed to mechanical energy or . . . may suddenly pre-
cipitate itself in a formidable, devastating mass. The impoverishment of the world,
erosion, the transport from the mountain to the sea, the frightful loss of water . . .
the forest alone can stop it. . . . Deprived of their cover of wood or of gra.ss, the
slopes erode, waste away, and fall in ruins. On the forested slopes, on the contrary,
everything remains. The roots fix the humus to the rocks. Everywhere the forested
mountain changes a foolish water into a wise one. It renders the typhoon inoffensive
by dividing up its floods and distributing its monstrous mass in miflions of drops which
flow slowly over the old surface of the earth. We must then recognize that the water
being everything and life being impossible without it, the tree which holds the water
is everything itself. If the forest was held sacred by religion, it should be held stiU
more sacred by reason of its social necessity. To plant a tree is to accomphsh a good
deed, to create a forest is to enrich the country by a conquest which does not cause a
tear or shed a drop of blood.

" Economic Role — Utility of Wood. — From the beginning of the world wood has
been a prime necessity. The prehistoric people lived in the forest and on the forest.
Coal, gas, and electricity have modified the use of wood but without abolishing or
diminishing the demand. Imagine the enormous volume used by the thousands of
trades which must have wood products for the innumerable objects manufactured,
from the great steamship to the little doll. Alone, paper miUs could devour all the
forests of the world and only to assure the printing of 70,000 newspapers of 200 volumes
which are published dafly. For France alone it represents the annual production of
1,235,000 acres of high forest. The coal mines use each year 24,000,000 cubic meters
(about 5 miflion thousand feet board measure) in their galleries, about nine and a half
times the volume of the greatest pyramid in Egypt. Finally the world uses more wood
than it produces. The excess of use over normal increase is about 2,620,000 tons per
year. The deficit is momentarily made up by the destruction of forests. It is an
expedient of which the fallacy is clear. A dearth of timber menaces us. Our country

PHYSICAL, ECONOMIC, AND SOCIAL 385

imports annually from 39.5 to 42.5 million dollars worth. Plant new stands with the
utmost ardor, since the operation is profitable.^ The pineries, for example, yield
5 to 10 per cent. There does not exist any other more advantageous investment.
Forestatipn enriches the planter and makes our country stronger.

*' Social Role — -Climate. — Following excessive deforestation, the local climate be-
comes worse. The prosperity of agriculture, the health of inhabitants, the pubhc
fortune itself, depends upon normal proportion of forest. This per cent is itself an
element to regulate the world's circulation of cloud, rain, snow, flood, and even the
ocean. The denuded zones in the mountains must be restocked in order to re-establish
order in nature, without which all economics are profoundly upset; it is partly due
to the absence of forests that one must attribute the burning climate of the interior of
Asia, Africa, and Australia. The destruction of stands has produced disastrous climatic
changes in Greece, in Russia, ... in Asia Minor, and in certain regions of India.
All history agrees on this point. It shows clearly the disastrous effects of great de-
forestation on climate. Aristotle, Pliny, and Strabon predicted to their contemporaries
the sterility which would follow deforestation . . . which, in lowering the humidity
necessary for vegetation, . . . has brought on something more terrible than any
war, namely, the decadence of the most powerful empires, . . . those great coun-
tries which were the founders of the human race — Mesopotamia, Turkestan, Bactres,
the splendor of the Greek civilization under Alexander the Great, Palestine, Syria,
deprived of forests made the water, the vegetation, and the inhabitants disappear.
Desert and sterile, the jaded country once so populous, deforestation has driven away
life itself. Deforestation has even permitted the sea to recover land once cultivated —
the Pomeranian shore, the Zuyder Zee. At the middle of the seventeenth century, the
Chinese had transformed Tartary into a desert by removing the trees which protected
it. Because of deforestation, the temperature of the winter season is even lower than
it was in Norway. On the plateau of Iran, the temperature passes in several hours
from 60° C. to 7° C. (140° to 44.6° F.). The air is so dry that nothing can withstand
it. We must go back to the old tradition and reahze that it is a scientific fact that the
ancient veneration for trees shown by our fathers is because the forest is completely
indispensable to creation.

" Hygiene. — Under the majority of cases, hygiene is intimately linked with forests.
From the Roman times it has been recognized that the excessive felling of forests exerts
an unfortunate effect upon the physical condition of the country and compromises
the health of the inhal)itants. Swamp fevers follow deforestation everj^where in the
subtropical zones. On the other hand, forestation accompanied by drainage dries up
the marshes and diminishes sickness in fever regions such as the Roman Campagna
certain steppes of Russia, Tuscan Maremme, in the Landes, in Poitou, and in other
places less known. The difference between sickness and health, between prosperity
and extreme misery, coincides with the appearance or disappearance of the arborescent
mantle. Such are the contemporary facts. The Belgians celebrate by an official
fiesta the social role of silviculture, proclaiming that the forests exercise the most healthy
influence on chmate and public hygiene. It is not necessary to have great areas of
forest to manifest its curative strength. A single eucalyptus tree may drain the excess
water from one-quarter of an acre. In Algeria, a hedge several yards in length . . .
may guarantee all the occupants of a house against swamp wet soils so conducive to
malaria. Thousands of examples prove it. The marsh of Bonfarick, one of the un-
healthiest localities in Algeria, has been transformed by planting into one of the health-
iest colonies in France. In 30 years the pineries have made healthy, fertile, and rich

2 This, of course, is an exceptional instance of profitable private forestry. Here worth-
less sand wastes were made to yield a handsome revenue (see p. 183).

386 APPENDIX

the Sologne which exaggerated deforestation had reduced to a state of pestilential fever.
Formerly unsalable, the Landes of Gascogne are now worth 193 million dollars or more.
A region formerly unhealthy because of fever has to-day the name which is doubly
merited of Cote d' Argent; formerly devastated by sickness, the population now hves
in perfect health in what is actually a health resort. Forests are a potent obstacle to
the spread of certain diseases. Not only is the air free from deleterious gas, but there
is no dust or nocturnal dampness, but the acid of forest soil kills the germs of cholera,
typhus, the bacilli of tetanus. . . . The forestation of watersheds gives a guarantee
of purity. Often a sequence of deforestation is a decrease in population. It is some-
thing that has happened in most of the Mediterranean islands, as well as in the Azores
and in the Canaries. When the Venetians ruined the forests of Dalmatia, three-quarters
of the inhabitants were compelled to leave. In France, the thirty departments where
there is the most deforestation have a depopulation seven times as rapid as the fifty-
seven departments where the forests are maintained. Not only does the birth rate
diminish and the mortality increase in the deforested departments, but the inhabitants
still emigrate. They go in search of a living. . . . Forests precede people, deserts
succeed them. . . . Deforestation has transformed Turkestan into a desert, where
it was formerly fertile. Deforestation has destroyed its equable climate, its former
ferility, and, in consequence, its population. . . . Since the planting near Sologne,
the local population has increased 2,250 per cent. The examples are too numerous to
enumerate. A Servian proverb summarizes the problem: 'He who kills a tree kills
a man.'

".Esthetic. — That is, the material side of the forest; but that is not the only
question to consider. ... In the spring the forest is an enchantment for the eyes.
One sees the bare forest clothe itself from branch to branch. . . . Nature is irre-
sistible. Artists feel the seduction of the forest and found colonies in it as at Barbi-
zon. . . . The first homage of man was addressed to the great forests, eternal and
immovable, which cover all parts. . . . The forests, according to Chateaubriand,
were the early temples. This rehgion was that of all the peoples of antiquity: The
forest is sacred. . . It was worshipped by numberless tribes. . . . The

disappearance of the forests on the plateau of Central Asia made it so uninhabitable
that whole tribes and races who occupied it were forced to emigrate. . . . Manon
had in his laws (the most ancient of the world) : ' Defend the forest against destruction.
One finds in any of the old religions, the myth of the sacred tree, the gods assembled
imder its shade. . . . The imagination of the Greeks and of the Romans was peopled
with sylvan deities. . . . Almost always the temples were surrounded by sacred
forests. It was often in the forests that the gods spoke through oracles. ... In
Ceylon, in Spain and Persia, and in Manila, the trees are still worshipped. Saint
Valery, fighting against paganism, turned his anger against the nymphs of the forest
and the fountains. ... We know now that the disappearance of the forest de-
stroys the equilibrium of natural forces and makes for disastrous chmatic changes, sub-
stituting sterility for richness, the desert for abundance, death for hfe. As though crazy,
mountaineers often say: 'After us the deluge,' without realizing that the forest means
water and freshness so necessary for pasturage. . . . The existence of man is
coupled with the existence of the forest, moreover the forest is the index of public
welfare and the richness of a people. It is necessary, then, that each man become
a friend of the trees and that our laws and our hearts protect this arborescent vegeta-
tion without which our civilization would perish. Against the savage violence of the
torrent or the deadly menace of the avalanche we must oppose the serene strength of
our great benefactress — the forest. Child of Nature itself, it shields, with its pro-
tective cover, children of humanity. The present children need it with its hving force

IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 387

which maintains the activity of the entire world under the beneficence and splendor
of its shade.

"As the centuries roll by, let us unite in reflecting on the instinctive sentiment of the
ancients for inviolable forests and the cultivation of the tree."

APPENDIX C

SILVICS OF IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES. LISTS OF TREES, SHRUBS,
AND PLANTS USED IN REFORESTATION IN THE MOUNTAINS

FRENCH SILVICS OF PEDUNCULATE OAK

(Quercus pedunculatay

Size. — Quercus robur.^ Under this name Hooker, De Candolle, and other eminent
authorities include Quercus pedunculata (peduncled oak) and Quercus sessihflora
(English oak), the British representative of the species.

Pedunculate oak is a species which reaches considerable dimensions. During youth,
and up to 40 to 50 years of age, it has an irregular bole but later on the shaft becomes
straight, cylindrical, sometimes with a clear length of 65 feet. This tree may reach a
height of from 131 to 147 feet and even 190 feet in a few instances; thanks to its very
great longevity it reaches large diameters. The Montravail oak, near Saintes (Charente
Inferieure Department), is between 6.6 and 7.6 feet in diameter at breast height; its
main branches have a diameter of 3.3 feet at their base; the total height is 65.6 feet, the
crown width 131.7 feet, and it is estimated to be some 2,000 years old.

Habit. — The crown of pedunculate oak is formed of a few irregularly bent and
twisted main branches; the foliage is very unevenly distributed in tufts with wide and
numerous openings. . . . The foliage is incomplete and less thick than that of
sessile oak.

Leaves. — Pedunculate oak leaves (more so than those of Quercus sessiliflora) dry
up at the end of autumn and drop off immediately, except those of coppice shoots and
suckers which are semi-persistent. Of a light green color, sometimes reddish or yellow-
ish at the beginning of summer, the leaf is moderately shiny or quite dull; it is of a
somewhat sea green (glaucous) hue; frequently it is undulated, more seldom flat. . . .
If green and gathered during September, it has an average weight as compared to sessile
oak leaves as 34 is to 40. (A. Mathieu.) When used dry as agricultural manure 300
to 350 pounds is equal to 100 pounds of straw. Pedunculate oak is . . . much
less suitable than se.ssile oak for pure plantations, since it has a lighter foliage and
yields less litter. This is why coppice-under-standards composed of pure sessile oak
yields a fair stand while the same cannot be said to be true of pure pedunculate oak.

This species seems eminently suitable for coppice-under-standards on clayey, moist
soils and for high forests when mixed with tolerant species; sessile oak, however, should
be preferred to it whenever . . . pure forestation is attempted.

Seed Capacity. — Pedunculate oak bears acorns from 60 to 100 years of age, accord-
ing to whether grown single or in close stand. Sprouts bear acorns as early as 20 years,
and even before; but plentiful seed crops occur only 3 to 4 years and even 8 to 10 years
according to whether the climate is more or less favorable. An absolute failure of
acorns, such as happens with beech between crops, is rare; some few are always to be
found on isolated or border trees.

1 Based on a free translation from French authors.

2 See also Chapter V.

388 APPENDIX

Germination. — The germination of acorns is quick and takes place at a low tem-
perature, from 3 to 4 degrees C. (37 degrees to 39 degrees F.) above zero; they are
difficult to preserve even till spring. A bushel weighs about 40 pounds on an average
and contains approximately from 8,000 to 9,300 seeds.

Rooting. — The tap root of pedunculate oak is developed first; at one year of age
it is often 12 inches in length. Only when about 6 to 8 j^ears old does it produce a few
laterals; but at 60 to 70 years the laterals are dominant and the tap root becomes of
secondary importance and seldom reaches below 3 to 5 feet. Stump and root wood,
with 12-inch stumps, represents 14 per cent to 17 per cent of the total cubic volume.

Shoots and Suckers. — Dormant buds keep alive a long time and retain great
reproductive power to an advanced age; per contra, it means that standards are liable
to have numerous root suckers after the coppice has been felled. Pedunculate oak is
therefore more liable to have epicormic branches than its associate sessile oak.

Adventitious buds are but rarely formed and only in very fertile soils; they produce
poorly attached shoots which wind, snow, and hoarfrost easily cause to break. Stump
shoots root but superficially and do not require deep soil.

Bark. — The bark is smooth, shiny, and silver-gray up to 20 to 30 years . . .
after that age, a brown bark with longitudinal flakes which becomes thicker and
thicker. . . .

Geographical Distribution. — The habitat of pedunculate oak is very extensive.
It is found between east and west longitude 65 degrees, from the Ural Mountains and
the coast of the Caspian Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. Its southern limit is from southern
Spain, at a point in the Sierra Morena, south of Sicily, Italy, Greece, thence through
Minor Asia as far as the Eastern Caucasus. The northern limit starts from Scotland,
goes to 63d latitude in Norway and thence southeastward through St. Petersburg to
Orenburg, in the Ural. It thus extends through about 26 degrees of latitude.

Location. — The pedunculate oak prefers the plains and the valley bottoms, but it
is found in the hills and even reaches as high as 3,280 feet in the Eastern Pyrenees.

Soil. — Pedunculate oak does not show any particular preference as regards the
mineral nature of the soil provided it is sufficiently moist, and deep. Sandy-clay soils,
even if occasionally flooded, suit it especially well; it is a serious error to drain them.

Tolerance. — Pedunculate oak is a hght demanding species. In order to grow, it
requires at least four months of uninterrupted vegetative activity with a mean tempera-
ture of 12.25° C. (54° F.), provided no protracted drought intervenes; in order that
acorns may mature a total temperature varying (south to north) from 28.75° to 20.20° C.
(83.75° to 68.50° F.) is necessary. The maximum temperatures that it can stand are,
in the south, 44° C. (111° F.); in the north, 37° C. (98° F.). When in vegetative ac-
tivity, it is easily affected by cold; young shoots, leaves and flowers will usually die if,
during spring, the thermometer falls below 0° C. (32° F.).

Timber. — It yields primarily building timber. The sapwood is white and clearly
defined; the more active the vegetation the wider is the sapwood. According to the
Nancy Forest School collection the total thickness of sapwood is from 0.63 to 3.0 inches;
the total number of annual rings 36 to 7. The density for timber completely air dried
is from 0.647 (Forest of Haye, Nancy) to 0.906 (Adour oak), with average yearly incre-
ments of 0.186 of an inch.

Uses. — ... The wood is especially prized for ship building.

Fuel Value. — Its fuel value (based on calorific power) averages, as compared with
beech, 91/100, according to G. L. Hartig; 85/100, according to Worneck.

The market value of firewood is below this because pedunculate oak crackles while
burning, requires a strong draught, and the coals do not hold the fire well. There is a
great difference as to quality in this respect. Bark from mature trees, on the other

GENERAL SALES PROCEDURE 293

According to Article 19, forest boundary stones must be of good quality
and for the outside boundary of the forest must be 31 inches high and
8.7 by 7.1 inches square. They extend 14 inches above the ground and
are engraved with letters 3.1 inches high. Boundary pillars of felling
areas are 24 inches high by 7.9 by 5.9 inches square. They extend 7.9 to
9.9 inches above the ground, and have numbers painted in black 2 to
2.4 inches high.

Maps. — Separate maps, issued for each State forest, rarely give

contours but include roads, trails, towns, villages, houses, telephone

lines, ranger stations, fire lines, boundaries of forest, working groups

and compartments, names of border forests, areas of compartments,

alienations, ponds and streams. The usual scale is 1/20,000 or even

larger.^^

SALE OF TIMBER

General Sales Procedure. — There are five main steps necessary
before French timber under forest management can be cut:

(1) The working plan prescribes the area to be cut over in final fell-
ings. Frequently the working plan also indicates, in the order of im-
portance, when stands of timber should be cut, but considerable leeway
is left to the local officer in charge, since a good deal depends upon seed
years, the reproduction, weed growth, windfall, and other unforeseen
accidents.

(2) The trees on the area where the cutting is to be made are care-
fully marked, usually under the supervision of an officer of the rank of
deputy supervisor (assistant inspector) or forest supervisor (inspector).
After the marking in any forest is completed the local inspector makes
a formal report showing the number, size, and volume of the different
species marked, and the approximate value. A tninimutn price is always
established.

(3) Announcement is made when an auction will be held and a detailed
description of the timber to be sold is printed for general distribution.
The data furnished include the location, the estimated products, bound-
aries, method of removal, and assessed road charges, if any.

(4) At the time appointed for the auction the bidders assemble and
each lot or sale is auctioned off by calling the maximum possible price
for the lot first and gradually reducing the price until a bidder calls
"I take it."

(5) After the sale is made and all charges paid in advance, cutting is al-
lowed after certain formalities (see contract clauses) have been completed.

The French sale on the stump is in reality a sale for a lump sum on
the basis of the scale of the standing timber.

The French consider that their method of selling timber standing is
35 For grazing, dune, and reforestation betterments see Chapters VI, VII, and VIII.

294 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION

more economical and suits the timber purchaser better than the Ger-
man method of selling in the log, since he can get the lengths that he
prefers and, as he is in close touch with his local market, his judgment
is hkely to be correct. (See Appendix, page 498.) SeUing the timber
standing after the marking is completed is certainly cheaper, simpler,
and better than to have the exploitation by day labor under State con-
trol. The only disadvantage appears to be the danger of having some-
what more damage done in the woods, since it is often difficult to
supervise a large number of small operations going on at the same time.
For this reason the contract clauses are very specific, particularly where
they provide for damages in case sales methods are departed from (see
also Chapter X, "Protection"). Upon the day and hour announced
for the auction the proper officials assemlile and the presiding officer
explains the conditions of the sale. If the price bid goes below the
estimated value then the bidding is stopped and the lot auctioned at
a later sale. In the auction at Pontarlier (held July 4, 1912), the prices
for State timber were 2.45 per cent above their estimated value and
the communal sales 12 per cent above. If the value of the timber is
estimated at 7,000 francs the bidding will be started at, say 13,000 francs,
the price being gradually decreased until one of the bidders exclaims
"I take it." Where there is competition for timber the shouting often
begins before the price is actually read, and where there is a tie the
bidding is started over again, or the successful bidder may be chosen by
drawing lots. Immediately after the public auction each bidder signs
an agreement to purchase. The sureties are usually looked up and ex-
amined as to solvency prior to the auction. This sale of $115,800 worth
of timber in 102 lots at Pontarlier was conducted in less than an hour's
time. Practically and theoretically this method of sale seems to pos-
sess a great many advantages where the amounts sold are small, where
there is keen competition, and where the utilization is intensive.

Individual contracts, such as are used for large timber sales by the
United States Forest Service, reciting in great detail the special felling
rules for each individual sale, are unnecessary for the small French
sales. The expense of repeating the rules and regulations would prove
too great. Instead there are certain general rules which apply to the
whole of France, with special clauses to cover necessary departures in
each conservation. This is a simple and economical method which
could be well copied to some extent in the United States after our sales
methods are standardized for each locality. For small sales the French
Forest Service has a printed form of contract which only requires the
addition of routine data.

Estimate and Appraisal. — In estimating a fair price for timber the
government allows a 10 per cent contractor's profit under ordinary

ESTIMATE AND APPRAISAL 295

conditions and up to 20 per cent where the risk is greatly increased.
Although the sale is made by estimate and it is considered essential
that very accurate estimates be made of the timber marked for cutting,
based on a tree-to-tree count, yet, as a matter of fact, errors in estimat-
ing occur. This does not necessarily mean a loss to the State, since
bidders usually re-estimate lots they intend to bid on; a low estimate
by the State merely means that the bid is that much higher per cubic
meter or stere and the error in calculating the presumed products is thus
discounted. All the State guarantees is that the number of trees in
the size classes is accurate. Since the demand for timber is greater
than the supply the competition for State and communal sales is suffi-
cient to make the price depend upon competitive bid rather than on the
minimum estimated price based on the costs of logging, transport, and
allowed profits subtracted from the estimate sales price of the product.^^
With the exception of a few large sales in the Pyrenees, timber sales
are in small lots usually with intensive market conditions. The location
of sales has nothing to do with the demands of the purchaser but is
planned in the working plan according to the needs of intermediate
cuttings and regeneration. If the boundaries of sales do not correspond
to compartments the lines are clearly marked with paint. When there
are extensive windfalls or where there are insect attacks special fellings
are authorized. In communal forests special sales are often allowed to
provide mainly for special improvements, such as a school house or
town hall. It is as if the forest were a communal bank, safe-guarding
the reserve capital of the inhabitants.

There are three main methods of selling timber: (1) By the lot on the
stump ; such sales are the rule in France for saw timber sales and for cop-
pice. (2) By unit of product; intermediate fellings are sometimes sold

2^ A sample appraisal follows : Francs

Building material : 60 cubic meters at 45 francs 2,700

13 cubic meters at 35 francs 455

Building material (small size) : 300 cubic meters at 25 francs 7,500

119 cubic meters at 17 francs 2,023

Fire wood: 45 steres at 7 francs 315

297 steres at 5 francs 1,485

Charcoal : 126 steres at 3 francs 378

Total 14,856

From which must be deducted the following:

Contractors' 15 per cent 2,228.40

Felling trees 732.00

Cutting of branches 412.50

Fuel and charcoal at 2 francs per stere 936.00

Special work 450.00

Fuel for local officers 108.00

Special registration fees 25.00

Total 4,891.90

Net value of timber (14,856.00 - 4,891.90) 9,964.10

Less 5 per cent for special costs 499.00

Net total value 9,465.10

296 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION

on the basis of the material cut and stacked, since it is often difficult to
estimate the product accurately in advance. (3) By unit of product after
the timber has been exploited by the State; this method is rarely used.

Before any timber sale is made it is customary to advertise the lots
very widely, and there are strict laws against combinations or agree-
ments to eliminate competition. The method of describing the lot to
be sold differs somewhat in the different conservations, and according to
the material to be disposed of, but as a rule the purchaser is given an
exact and complete description of the product, the conditions he must
work under, and his obligations for road repair or other charges.^^

Orders have been issued to make small sales, because if large only a
few of the larger manufacturing companies can compete. The writer
attended the sale of 102 lots (each a separate small timber sale) at

37 Two examples of the data furnished purchasers are given below:

(1) In the Oloron inspection a sale of timber to be removed in thinning was described
as follows:

Thinning on 4.9-1 hectares, including the felling of stems designated or to be desig-
nated.

Estimated product — 1 cubic meter of building material, 8 cubic meters of small
building material, 80 steres of cordwood, 150 fagots.

Boundaries — Correspond to the compartment.

Logging — - Existing roads.

Estimated prices — 12 francs per cubic meter of building material, 6 francs per
cubic meter of small building material, 1.50 francs per stere of firewood, 2 francs per
100 fagots.

(2) In the Saint Die inspection even more data were given in the booklet describing
a regeneration felling.

Art. 49 — Forest of Moyenmoutier (first working group), Balthazard Canton,
Compartment 13 (Lot No. 1), Beat of, etc.

Regeneration felling, 98 trees and 16 poles, to wit :

Diameters: 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90

64 spruce: 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 5, 10, 9, 8, 7, 3, .3, 1

33 beech: 9, 2, 2, 4, 3, 9, 1, 3,
1 oak: 1

Estimated product — Fir, 261 meters of sawlogs, 39 steres of fuel; beech, 61 steres;
oak and miscellaneous, 3 steres.

Boundaries — North Com.partment 12, east, same, south, second lot, west, comnmnal
forest of Raon-l'Etape.

Sawmill — Use of the Federal sawmill Brisegenoux commencing with the day after
the sale of December 31, 1910.

Francs
Charges — 1 . Maintenance of roads 250

2. Cutting back beech 10

3. Furnishing 16 steres of beech fuel for the forest house at

Balthazard, making and transport being estimated at a
value of 45

Total charges 305

Cleaning — Estimated at 5 steres of first-class fuel.
Number of trees to limb before felling, 23.
Etival railroad station, 6 kilometers.

CUTTING AND LOGGING RULES 297

Pontarlier (Jura) July 4, 1912, composed of dry, diseased, and wind-
fallen trees. At this auction the lot estimates averaged 253 cubic meters
(about 60,000 feet board measure and 30 cords) and $1,099.33, with
average charges for road upkeep, etc., of $41.69. In this case it is noted
that the "charges" amounted to about one-twenty-sixth of the sale
value; in other words, a tax of about J^. per cent to be added to the sale
price; but the bid is, in theory, 4 per cent lower. This method of mak-
ing a charge on the purchaser for the upkeep of roads, for the delivery
of fuel, etc., is somewhat similar to the requirements made on the U. S.
Forest Service purchasers for piling, scattering, or pulling brush on
timber-sale areas; the difference is that in France the "charge" is on
the purchaser, so he bids that much less, while in the United States the
charge is figured in the appraisal. Out of 65 lots on other forests in
the inspection of Pontarlier regular fellings the largest sale made was
for 747 cubic meters — the minimum 89 cubic meters and the average
289 cubic meters. In the inspection of Saint Die the first 50 sales made
on October 2, 1910, averaged 221 cubic meters, with the maximum at 370
and the minimum at 116. The material sold both at Pontarlier and at
Saint Die was almost entirely fir. In the inspection of Oloron, with oak
and beech as the chief species, in sales made in 1911 the average number
of cubic meters in any one sale (there were 11 sales that only included
cordwood) amounted to 157 cubic meters, with a maximum of 732 cubic
meters and a minimum of 6 assigned from those sales where there was
nothing but fuel cordwood. This shows clearly how the pohcy of small
sales is encouraged in France where conditions make this method possible.
Cutting and Logging Rules. — With the sale of timber on the stump it
is essential that the purchaser be given very minute directions how the
exploitation should be conducted. The central office at Paris accord-
ingly issues, from time to time, a printed circular giving clauses and
conditions that govern sales procedure and exploitation. The last
revision was made May 11, 1912, following closely the issue of June 22,
1903, and May 27, 1909. Part III, "Exploitations," of this circular is
of interest, and cutting on any timber sale must conform to these general
conditions unless the local conservation in which the sale is made has
issued ^^ modifications (see p. 298) to the general rules; the essentials
are as follows:

Payments must be made in advance of cutting; partial payments are only allowed on
long-term sales. Before cutting begins the ranger must be shown the payment receipt.

Estimates. — If the purchaser can show an error in the number of trees advertised
he is given a pro-rata reduction.

General conditions. — Timber cannot be piled outside the sales boundaries without
special permission, nor is grazing allowed within the felling area. Sawdust and bark
must be disposed of as directed.

5^ See also the different methods in long-term sales, p. 301.

298 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION

Stumps must be cut with an axe in coppice fellings so that water cannot gather on the
stump to cause rot, and in high forests the stumps must be sawed or chopped level with
the ground. Where the stumps are removed the holes must be filled up.

Surface of the ground. — D6bris must be removed or burned as directed and cord-
wood stacked as the cutting proceeds. Areas occupied by buildings must be leveled
and reforested.

Damage to regeneration and to the stand. — Trees so designated must be topped and
limbed before felling and must be thrown up hill so as to cause the least possible damage.
In coppice stands old stumps and weed growth must be cut level with the ground.
Peeling of timber while standing is not allowed nor can debris or wood be left or piled
on regeneration or against standing timber, nor can standing timber be damaged in
any way.

Penalties. — If reserved trees are damaged or destroyed by the exploitation they
can be replaced by similar trees marked for cutting, or the purchaser may be required
to pay cash at the rate of 3 cents to 9 cents per inch of circumference for standards,
or 3 cents to 11 cents for high forest trees, but the timber so paid for remains the property
of the State or commune.

SeasoJis of cutting. — Cutting must be completed by April 1 and corded by June 1;
logging by April 15, except for trees peeled, which must be cut by July 1 and corded
by July 15. Necessary extensions of time may, for a nominal charge, be granted.

Protection of forest betterments. — Roads must be maintained and kept free from
debris and manufactured products, and all damage to any forest betterment must be
repaired or paid for.

Protection of cutting area. — Buildings or betterments made necessary by the sale
must be built only on approval of the forest officers, and spark arresters are always
required on smokestacks, the purchasers being held responsible for damage.

Logging restrictions. — Hauling must be over designated roads and timber cannot
be skidded on roads, rolled or slid down slopes, nor should logs or squared timbers be
skidded on the felling areas.

Miscellaneous provisions. — Three days before the check of the felling area pur-
chasers must place stakes near all trees felled to facilitate inspection, the "A. F.,"
imprint must show upon all stumps or roots.

Foreign labor. — Only a specified percentage of foreign labor can be employed on
government sales.

In unit of product sales the same rules apply and in addition the product must be
piled by the price classes agreed upon when a joint scale is made; removal is only after
specific authorization. In case wood is removed illegally, double the stumpage price
can be levied and in addition punitive damages assessed. Extensions of time for logging
costs 1.6 per cent the purchase price of the material not logged for each ten days.

Supplemental to these general rules each conservation issues special
clauses or modifies general rules which cannot be applied locally. For
example, in the ninth conservation, which includes the fir and spruce
forests of the Vosges, the use of the saw is authorized for cutting coppice
when the stump measures more than 59 inches in circumference. Con-
tractors are not obliged to top and cut the branches from designated
trees before felling if they are willing to pay all damage for trees injured
in any way. Felling of cordwood may take place at any time during
the year and for any species in the inspection of Saint Die, Fraize, Sen-
ones, and Remiremont, and in these districts the time for the removal

CUTTING AND LOGGING RULES 299

of the wood is extended to May 10, of the second year following the sale.
The right to bark trees is granted in all fellings, but peeling trees stand-
ing is tolerated only under special conditions. Firewood coming from
felled trees must be made up within 48 hours after felling. Sliding logs
can be authorized by the conservator under exceptional circumstances
when it is necessary, but special care must be taken to protect the public
and to assume responsibility in case of accident. The contractor is
held responsible for all damage to unmarked timber. The fuel to be
delivered to forest employees or to communes must be stacked by
June 1 following the sale. Foreign laborers can be employed only up
to a proportion of 20 per cent. When government saw mills are used
special permit is necessary and the contractor must be responsible for
the maintenance of the houses and for all equipment. Payments for
the use of sawmills are made monthly and the contractor cannot claim
any reduction in price because of fire or any other act of Providence.
The contractor who, without special authorization, permits manu-
factured material to remain more than 10 days around the sawmill
will be fined 58 cents a day for each day thereafter.

There is a good deal of similarity in the special clauses issued by
each conservation, so these will not be repeated unless the wording
is of special interest. In the twenty-second (Pau) conservation, which
includes the western Pyrenees, the right to add windfalls or damaged
trees to current sales is reserved, provided the total windfall does not
exceed one-tenth the total original sale. If it does exceed 10 per cent
the contractor can refuse to accept the windfall wholly or in part. In
the high forest fellings it is provided that the trees marked for cutting
can be barked standing. The sliding of the logs is permitted only in
the felling areas designated as ''mountain felling." Proper precautions
to avoid accidents or damage must be taken by the contractor. In
the coppice fellings the beech shoots (see p. 94) shall be cut above the
stump of the last felling. Contractors may bark coppice trees stand-
ing provided they make a circular incision at the foot of each stem at
least 4 inches above the root collar. Special provisions are also made
for delaying the clean-up on the felling areas to suit local conditions.
When sales are made by unit of product the contractor must have the
material ready for scaling within 2 months after the feUing is completed.
The fire wood for forest employees, mayors, schools, etc., will be piled
by steres and by bunches of 50 fagots for scaling by the local ranger
not later than Jun^e 1 of the year following the auction. The reforesta-
tion of areas occupied by huts, workshops, and charcoal pits need not
be carried out unless specially provided for in the auction announce-
ment. This work will be done according to the methods suggested
and at the time fixed by the local ranger and in the presence of the local

300 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION

guard. Not more than 60 per cent of foreign workmen can be used in
the mountain feUing (see p. 302) and not more than 10 per cent for the
other feUings.

In the thirty-second conservation, at Vesoul, the special clauses are
even more minute.

According to Article 2:

"Peeling oak. — Permission to peel is granted in all oak fellings. Peeling standing
is only permitted if a circular incision is first made around each stump 5 inches above
the soil and provided that the felling keeps pace with the peehng. . . ."

According to Article 3 :

"Method of felling. — Fellings shall be made level with the ground except for clumps
of beech stool shoots which must be cut in accordance with the direction of the local
agent. The use of the saw is authorized in high forest fellings for all trees and in cop-
pice fellings for trees measuring more than 59 inches in circumference at breast high.
The local agent can authorize stump extraction in the reserve fellings on condition that
the resulting excavations shall be carefully filled and leveled, that these areas shall be
planted before the first of April . . . with the species suitable for the soil, at
the rate of two per square yard, in accordance with the directions of the forest agents "

According to Article 4:

"Cleaning, extraction of weeds, arrangement of brush. — In the high forest fellings,
the contractor must cut level with the ground not later than the first of November of
the year following the sale ... in accordance with the demand of the local ranger
all trees damaged, bent, or injured by feUing. . . . The branches from peeled oak
may be scattered over the felling area between the stumps in accordance with the
instructions from the local agents. In aU the felling areas, the heather and weeds (if
there are any designated in the marking record) shall be hoed up before the fifteenth
of April of the year following the auction, except in the selection fellings and thimiings."

Special provision is made for the pruning of branches on the trunks
of coppice standards, which must be done before May 15 of each year.
Logs or trees can be dragged only in the interior of felling areas and
not on roads paved or unpaved except with the express permission of
the local ranger. Areas covered with huts or workshops must be leveled
and planted at the expense of the contractor before April 1 of the year
in which the sale is terminated. Not more than 20 per cent of foreign
labor can be employed in the felling areas. Withes will be paid for at
the rate of 58 cents per thousand.

Very detailed directions are given for the classification of fuel to be
delivered to the Federal and communal emploj^ees.

"The fagots must be 4.36 feet in length and 32.5 inches in circumference. . . .
Each fagot must be composed of 10 billets having a minimum diameter of 2 inches;
fagots may be substituted by stacked billets having at least 8 inches circumference
at the small end of beech, or hornbeam at the rate of 3 steres (3.6 steres — 1 cord)
per 100 fagots. . . .

In the twelfth conservation (Besangon), which includes part of the
valuable Jura region, trees can be peeled standing and the contractor

EXAMPLE OF A LONG-TERM SALE 301

"may leave standing parts of the felling area difficult to log" after
designation by a forest officer. Unmerchantable debris is burned if in
regeneration fellings, elsewhere it is scattered. In coppice stands "oak,
beech, ash, and maple seedlings over 2.5 inches in diameter must be pro-
tected." Here, bordering Switzerland, one-third foreign labor is allowed.
Cleanings are Umited as follows:

"Art. 15. — The cleanings specified by Art. 52 (see Appendix) of the general ex-
ploitation rules only pertains to stems at least 8 inches in diameter on the stump; the
products of these operations shall be removed, corded, and stacked without delay at
the designated places; they shall be dehvered to the highest bidders at the price fixed
by the contract, and in the absence of special stipulations at the price of 39 cents per
stere and 58 cents per 100 fagots."

Such minute and specific directions for all details of forest exploitation
can of course be worked out only after years of experience. Specifica-
tions are so well known by local contractors and lumber-jacks that it
is hardly necessary for them to refer to written specifications which are
part of their trade education.

The utilization of timber sales naturally varies with the difficulty of
transportation and with the local demand for by-products. In the Pyre-
nees, on ground difficult to log and with an expensive haul, defective
trees (such as would be logged in a government timber sale in the western
United States) are merely girdled to make room for new growth, but may
be left standing. Logs half or one-third merchantable are often left to
rot. Even in the Landes where, during the war, saw timber stumpage
prices rose to $16 to $30 per thousand feet board measure, the tops were
usually left in the woods, since there was no local cordwood market and
transport was impracticable; the same conditions prevailed during peace
times. In most parts of France every portion of the tree has a market.
For example (according to Captain Kittredge) in the Cote d'Or the market
is intensive:

"The trees over about 10 inches in diameter are cut into shingle logs, full length to
a top diameter of 4 to 6 inches. The stems are hauled off the forest in this form. The
material in the coppice and in the tops from 3 to 6 or 8 inches in diameter is cut usually
into 52-inch lengths and piled for cordwood. The smaller stems and branches from
three-fourths inch to 3 inches in diameter are cut into 26-inch length sand piled. Later
this wood is usually converted into charcoal right on the ground or hauled to a nearby
hardwood distillation plant. The twigs below three-fourths-inch diameter are bound
into bundles with limber twigs and hauled away for local use as kindling."

Example of a Long-term Sale. — The sale of 236,000 cubic meters
(about 66,000,000 feet board measure) extending over a period of 14
years, made by the Inspection at Oloron in 1908, called for deviations
from the regular sales methods of France. It is typical of methods used
in Corsica in similar sales. Even before the timber was marked and more
than two years before the bidding was called for, the local inspector ad-

302 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION

dressed circular letters to possible purchasers in order to interest them
in the details of the proposed sale. He called attention to the necessity
for a personal study of the timber and explained that after the marking a
detailed synopsis of the estimated volume would be furnished them,
showing the proportion between sawlogs and cordwood.^^ After the esti-
mate was made the material to be sold was divided into "lots" and the
amount of beech and fir in cubic meters was listed separately. The stand
in each lot was carefully analyzed as follows :

Situation, altitude, area. — These forests occupy slopes and are on fairly level ground.
The slope facihtates logging. The total area is estimated at 14,209 acres at an altitude
between 1,640 and 4,921 feet.

Sizes of the trees. — Ninety per cent of the trees included in this sale are more than
21.5 inches in diameter and 10 per cent from 12 to 21 inches. In the forest of Laune,
there are very few fir that measure less than 2.5.5 inches in diameter and there are some
as large as 63 inches. The height of the saw timber varies from 30 to 60 feet.

Oivnership. — All of the forests are conmiunal.

Rights of v:aij. — There are no rights of way which must be bought. The roads
belong to the forests and all the bordering ground belongs to the communes.

Logging. — The purchasers can establish such roads as they deem necessary under
the direction and with the approval of the Forest Service. This approval will not be
refused. The alignment of the roads v/ill be indicated by the Forest Service. More-
over, the successful bidder can install necessary railroads but must negotiate with the
communes for the right of way outside the forest.

The sale. — The sale will be made by public auction.

Contract conditions. — The contract will follow the general rules (see p. 297) of the
Forest Administration sul^ject to certain modifications; special clauses will be drawn
up to cover the sale.

Pnce. — The estimated value of the timber is as follows: Lot No. 1, a maximum
of 1.15 francs per cubic meter (about 78 cents per thousand board feet). Ijot No. 2, a
maximum of 1.50 francs per cubic meter (about .SI. 01 per thousand board feet). Lot No.
3, a ma.ximum of 1.25 francs per cubic meter (about 83 cents per thousand board feet).

Cost of logging. — Unfortunately lumber-jacks will have to be imported since there
is no local labor available. It is estimated that the cost of felling will be about 19
cents per tree with an addition of 19 cents per stere for cordwood. Unfortunately
fire wood is not in demand locally, but perhaps small quantities can be sold at 6.50
francs per stere delivered (about $4.50 per cord). Therefore the balance of the wood
will have to be made into charcoal. Probalily sufRcient labor can be imported from
Spain or from the Vosges.

Cost of transportation. — Much of the transport in the forest can be by nmles, oxen,
and cattle. The ox is better for road work and the cattle better for work in the forest
itself. The exact cost of transportation will vary according to the distances, the roads,
difficulties of ground, etc., so no further exact data can be given. A good cow suitable
for logging purposes costs locally from $58 to $68, while a mule costs $77 to $87.

Merchaiitahle material. — Fir is in great demand and brings good prices, since Ray-
onne is only 87 miles from Oloron by railroad. At Oloron the local price is 50 francs

39 In this locality it was estimated that 100 cubic meters of fir would equal 86 cubic
meters of building material and 21 steres of fuel; 100 cubic meters of beech would equal
82 cubic meters of building material and 27 steres of fuel. To reduce round timber to
square timber purchasers were advised to multiply by 0.7854. It is likely that the
policy of making large long-term sales will be abandoned by the French government.

EXAMPLE OF A LONG-TERM SALE 303

per cubic meter au carree ($23 per thousand board feet). The beech, which is gener-
ally used for ties, sells at Oloron or at Mauleon at 48 cents each or 25 francs per cubic
meter for squared timber (SI 1.50 per thousand feet). There is a good export demand
in Spain where the beech is usually sent to Barcelona, the center of the industry. De-
tailed data can be secured at this point.

Profits. — As already explained, the maximum price will probably be 1.15, 1.50, and
1.25 francs for the three lots, or an average of 1.28 francs per cubic meter (85 cents a
thousand feet). The material being about two-fifths fir and three-fifths beech. Con-
sidering 86 per cent of the fir and 82 per cent of the beech as building material, this
means a net cost of 30 cents per cubic meter of saw timber or 38 cents for squared
lumber which would bring at Oloron or Mauleon an average of about $6.76.

These calculations upon which the estimated profit and stumpage
price is based seem simple and primitive compared with the minute calcu-
lations in the United States National Forest appraisals. Nothing is said
of the cost of equipment, interest on the capital used, depreciation of
equipment, nor cost of supervision. Rule-of -thumb methods are followed,
and in the appraisal the contractor's profit was figured at 20 per cent.

This sale was finally made in 1908, and it is interesting to note that the
sale price was 19 cents per cubic meter (about 67 cents per thousand
board feet) instead of the 25 cents (85 cents per thousand) estimated in
the appraisal. According to the special contract conditions the sale, as
finally made, covered 10,089 acres, comprising first-class merchantable
material, but in part defective, damaged, diseased, or dying trees which
were marked for removal for the improvement of the stand. These de-
fective trees were partly girdled and partly felled in the actual operations,
the choice being left to the purchaser. As in small sales in France, all
the marking was completed prior to the formal auction. The sale was
made in one lot, with provision for the division of the proceeds between
the various communes interested, based on the volume of merchantable
material marked in the forests owned by each, prorated according to the
average rate received in each forest. At the auction the minimum pur-
chase price was placed at $37,635 and was decreased by jumps of $193
until a bidder took it. The payment was made as follows :
' Within 10 days of the auction the successful bidder had to pay 10 per
cent of the total purchase price and the remainder in twenty-four equal
installments payable quarterly on March 31, June 30, September 30,
and December 30 of each year, beginning with September 30, 1908, and
ending June 30, 1914, inclusive. A discount of 1^ per cent per year was
provided for if payments were made in advance of their being called for.
The final date for removal of the timber was fixed at December 31, 1922.
The compartments could be cut over in the order desired by the con-
tractor, and more than one compartment could be cut at one time.
Three years were allowed for felling each compartment after cutting once
began. If the imprint of the official marking hatchet shows a tendency
to disappear toward the end of the sale the trees already marked will be

304 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION

re-marked by the Forest Service in collaboration with the contractor or
his representative. Special timber not included in the sale and used for
logging was to be charged for at the sale rate of 19 cents per cubic meter
(67 cents per thousand feet). No claim can be allowed for ground which
proves impracticable to log. Wood used for improvement of the roads or
any other logging purpose must be purchased at the regular price. The
contractor must within 6 months after the expiration of the sale remove
all machinery and furnishings; but houses, workshops, or permanent
betterments will become the property of the communes upon whose
ground they are situated. No allowances were to be made for windfalls
or other damages which may occur during the duration of the sale.
Special charges aggregating $6,214.60 were made for improvements and
roads used by the contractor and he had to deliver about 18 cords of
fuel per year to the local commune. There are certain features of this
sale which should be emphasized:

(1) The stumpage price of 67 cents per thousand is far less than the
stumpage for similar timber in the western United States.

(2) The methods of logging were wasteful; the French policy was that
the timber had been sold and the purchaser could use it or waste it as he
desired. Marked unmerchantable trees could l)e merely girdled.

(3) Permanent improvements, after the sale is completed, become the
property of the commune.

(4) No attempt was made to adjust the stumpage price during the sale
period of 14 years; the price of 67 cents held during the entire period.
The French felt that rise in timber values would mean proportionately
higher operating costs.

(5) The contractor's profit allowed was 20 per cent as contrasted with
10 per cent in ordinary sales.

Stumpage Prices.^" — The stumpage values in France under the
intensive management that exists are of interest to the American forester
because they give a rough indication of the prices that may be secured
in this country after the supply of cheap virgin timber is exhausted. But

« The prices paid for manufactured lumber by the French Woods Service during
1918-19 were approximately as follows:

Species

Class of product

Francs per
cubic meter

Dollars " per
thousand
board feet

Boards, etc

1S0±
160±
140±

79

701

Pine

6H

" Exchange at 5.45 francs to $1.
But to secure offerings at these low prices the product had to be requisitioned for

STUMPAGE PRICES

305

in making the comparison it must be borne in mind that no one can pre-
dict what the future conditions will be, and whether changes in building
methods will materially modify the demand for lumber, wood products,
and timber. Then, too, what will be our cost of production and carrjdng
charges? It is most surprising to find French communes prior to 1912
selling good saw timber in the Pyrenees at 67 cents per thousand hoard feet,

Army use. According to the French Forest Service the correct commercial prices in
March, 1919, were as follows:

Species

Class of product

Francs per cubic
meter

Current dollars <»

per thousand

board feet

Fir-spruce

Poplar

Oak

Beech

Ash

Elm

Boards and dimension
Boards and dimension
Boards and dimension
Boards and dimension
Boards and dimension
Boards and dimension

250-300

225
300-350

250
350-400
200-220

100-132

99

132-154

110
154-176

88-97

" Exchange at 5.45 francs to $1.

These prices are excessive and are due to an acute shortage and to speculation, but
in 1920 were still higher.

The approximate prices a.sked by the American E. F. on the Hquidation of its stocks
in France are as given in the table below. The main reasons for these comparative
low prices, in the face of a large demand and acute shortage, were because of (1) need
for quick sale, (2) difficulty of transportation, and (3) faulty manufacture as judged
by French standards.

Product

Unit

Price at

railroad,

francs per

unit

Approximate equivalent

dollars " per thousand

board feet

Hardwood logs

Spruce and fir logs, poles, and

piles

Spruce and fir boards

Pine logs

Pine lumber

Pine props

Standard-gauge hardwood ties..
Standard-gauge softwood ties...

Hardwood fuel

Softwood fuel

Cubic meter

Cubic meter

Cubic meter

Cubic meter

Cubic meter

Linear meter

Each

Each

Stere

Stere

82

75

160

55

130

0.90

10.40

6.50

25

15

52i

48
70
35
57
0.049per linear foot
57
36

16 per cord
10 per cord

" Exchange at 5.45 francs to $1.

In the final settlement these prices were reduced 10 to 20 per cent (or more for fuel),
but even as they stand they are low even for very large wholesale operations. Until
the market becomes stabilized by steady imports the f)rices will vary, owing to short-
age of supply and to speculation. In France the stumpage price represents a larger
proportion (often one-third to one-half) of the final market price than it does in the
United States.

See also " Private Forestry in France," page 320, for additional data on stumpage prices.

306 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION

simply because the logging and transportation was difficult, when similar
timber in the Vosges and Jura on accessible forests was, in 1912, worth $9
to $12 and more. Such a divergence in price seems extraordinary when
one compares this price of 67 cents in the Pyrenees near a good market
with the $2 to $3 received for accessible timber difficult to log in our
western National Forests. Perhaps the American has solved the prob-
lem of cheap large-scale railroad logging better than the French.

As already emphasized in other chapters, cordwood values of two cen-
turies ago have decreased and saw timber, especially softwoods and oak,
has increased. During the war there was much speculation in timber-
lands, labor was abnormally high, the value of the franc ^^ had deprecia-
ted, and transportation was extremely difficult, there was no real compe-
tition with import timber from foreign markets because it could not be
transported; all tonnage was requisitioned by the Allies solely for war
needs. Then, too, many French merchants wanted to have their capi-
tal in timberlands rather than in currency or loans.

Before reviewing average local prices it is well to emphasize some of the
shortcomings and difficulties of giving average price figures. As in other
countries there are "variables" which affect the price of all classes of
timber — distance from market, cost and difficulty of logging, kind of
cutting (clear cutting or light thinnings), cultural and betterments costs,
other economic difficulties and expenses, species, size, quality, local and
general demand as compared with the local and general supply, and cost
of imported timber. Then, too, abnormal or unusual sales, such as occur
after heavy windfall, bring less than regular sales. Quite frequently a
local shortage, as in Haute-Savoie during the war, leads to unusual values ^^
because in France there are distinct local markets. This is surprising
considering the small size of the country and the comparatively short
hauls necessary to enter the general market. It is partly due to the
effect of permanent forest production which protects and maintains small
local industries and prevents the local market from being exhausted.
Under normal conditions the price of French stumpage is the market price
for the manufactured product less the cost of cutting, logging, transporta-
tion, manufacture, and contractor's profit. In most sales the auction
price must be increased by so-called charges for road repair and damage to
other forest betterments and growing stock, which in the aggregate aver-
ages 5 per cent of the stumpage cost. The French usually chstinguish
three classes of product: (1) Fuel, (2) saw timber, and (3) miscellaneous
products (such as bark). The price of cordwood depends on its size; the

*i With a gold reserve of only 16 per cent the French paper currency is really promis-
sory notes issued by the French Government with no date set for liquidation.

^ Spruce and fir timber on steep rocky slopes, difficult to log sold in 1918 for over
100 francs per cubic meter or over $63 per thousand feet board measure for the stump-
age secured.

STUMPAGE PRICES

307

standard length is now 1 meter (3.4 feet). While diameter classes may-
differ in various parts of France the following is the usual classification:

Class

Size and specification

Usual price

ratio " on

basis of

stere

Quartier

Over 4.7 inches in diameter outside bark at small end.

100

Rondin *

Charbonnette

Fagots

P>om 1.97 inches to 4.7 d.o.b. Round

From 0.98 inches to 1.97 d.o.b. Round

Less than 0.98 inches d.o.b. Small branches

66
33

Charcoal

Made mostly from charbonnette

" Subject to wide variation.

* Sometimes two classes of rondin are distinguished (a) small rondin and (b) large
rondin.

The price of saw timber (bois d'oeuvre) also varies according to the
classification of the product:

Class

Size and specification

Usual price

ratio on basis

cu. m.

Bois de Service or construction

(See footnote 45)

00

(See footnote 45)

50

Bois chauffage

(See preceding table)

15

The minimum diameter of saw timber varies considerably. Oak and
beech is used to 9.8 inches for ties, softwoods to 5.9 for saw timber, and
2.7 to 3.1 inches for mine props.

In the ''log" and lumber market prices are usually for round logs
(grume or au reel) but may also be for:

Squared timber with some wane (au carree) equal cubic volume of round^^ log
X 0.7854.

Squared timber normally without wane or sap (au ^ e deduit) equal cubic volume
of round log X 0.5026.

Squared timber without wane but with some sap (au ^ e deduit) equal cubic vol-
ume of round log X 0.5454.

Squared timber without wane but with all sap {k vive arete) equal cubic volume of
round log X 0.6366.

The ratios between the different methods of commercial sales are as
follows : ^

^2 "Volume grume" is the cubic volume of a round log based on a cylinder with the
diameter equal to the middle circumference of the log; it is also called "au r^el" when
referring to standing timber or stumpage. For further details see Cubage des Bois.
R. Roullean., Paris, 1905.

^* Carnet — Agenda du Forestier, Besangon, 1902, p. 92.

308 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION

From

Au i sans
deduction

Au i sans
deduit

AuJ
deduit

Grume

(logs)

A vive
arete

Meter cube grume (round logs) . . .
Meter cube grume au j sans deduit

Meter cube grume au i deduit

Meter cube grume au J deduit

0.7854

lAiob
1.5625
1.2337

0.5454
0.6944

'o'0851
0.8567

0.5027

0.6400
0.9216

0^7896

'l2732
1.8335
1,9895
1.5708

0.6366
0.8106
1 . 1672
1.2665

In other words 100 cubic meters of logs are equal to 78 cubic meters of
logs squared according to the j rule, or 54 cubic meters by the | rule.
Inspector Montrichard has invented a shde rule by which can be read the
contents of a log (a) grume, (h) au |, (c) au ^, or (d) au I of known
diameter or circumference and length. The principle of a comparison of
log rules by the use of a slide rule has wide application in the United
States.

There are frequent misunderstandings, however, because in one lo-
cality logs are sold round (or " au reel ") while elsewhere the prices quoted
are for squared timber '^au carree," and because of different methods of
measurements (see p. 207). Thus to speak of French stumpage rates in
exact terms it would be necessary to give at least the data enumerated
below; obviously in general averages such minute data are out of the
question: (1) Region (and forest), (2) haul, (3) species, (4) kind of fell-
ing (and area to be cut over), (5) charges, (6) size of trees, (7) per cent
(a) saw timber and (b) cordwood.

The forests of the Vosges, Jura, and Savoie are comparable to the
coniferous forests of Vermont and northern New Hampshire except that
(1) the road system in French forests is already constructed and logging
is therefore that much cheaper, (2) the cutting removes a smaller per-
centage of the stand, and (3) there is a better market and therefore more
competition for the stumpage. To secure an exact line on French stump-
age rates on timber in these fir-spruce forests logs were scaled on timber
sales in 1912, resulting as follows:

(a) In a good stand of silver fir (final felling) 1.1 miles haul to tramway and 10.5
miles from Pontarlier, ten logs averaging 16 inches d. i. b. and 13| feet in length sold
for 28 francs per cubic meter; 6.6 cubic meters sold for $36; the scale of these logs by
the Scribner Decimal C rule amounted to 1,350 board feet or $26 per thousand feet
board measure on the stump. Adding 5 per cent for all charges the rate is $27.30 per
thousand feet board measure.

(b) In the forest of Gerardmer with a wagon haul of 3 to 4 miles to a broad-gauge
station three-fourths spruce and one-fourth fir (intermediate fellings) brought only 18
francs per cubic meter. The sale of a representative mmiber of logs (averaging 6 to
11 inches d. i. b.) by the Scribner Decimal C rule netted $21.40 per thousand; which
increased 5 per cent for charges is $22.47 per thousand feet board measure. In other

STUM PAGE PRICES 309

sales in the same forest the rates (based on an actual scale of the logs) were (1) (average
d. i. b. 4.4 to 15.6 inches) $22.17 per thousand feet board measure or $23.27 with 5 per
cent added for charges; (2) (average d. i. b. 6.4 to 11.5 inches) $19.73 and with 5 per
cent added $20.72.

(c) In the rich fir forest of Noir^mont secondary fellings brought $21.62 per thou-
sand feet, or $22.70 with the 5 per cent added. Here the haul was longer than in
Gerardmer.

(d) In the Jura (forest of Frivelle) small pulpwood on the stump from thinnings
was $3.47 per cord.

(e) In the forest of Risol (Jura) stumpage was about $19.30, or with 5 per cent
added $20.26.

(/) In the forest of Mouthe (Jura) fine timber near the road cut in final fellings
brought $27.50 per thousand feet board measure, or with 5 per cent added $28.87.

(g) In the forest of Chotel (with a 26-mile downhill haul for the lumber) the price
for fir was $24 to $25.20 a thousand. This high price was due to competition between
local mills.

From the foregoing figures it is safe to say that in 1912 the best fir-spruce
stumpage, easy to log, sold for $20 to $25 a thousand feet board measure
or four to five times the then current price in northern New England
which was between $4 and $8 per thousand feet board measure. Since
the war stumpage prices in France have increased to a greater degree than
in the United States.

A comparison of stumpage rates *^ in the various regions, on the basis
of average sales gives a lower price and is less exact but nevertheless of
interest. In the table which follows the ratio between thousand feet
board measure and cubic meters has been varied according to the
estimated size of the timber; this explains why 60 francs per cubic
meter of fir is less than 60 francs per cubic meter of oak and why 55
francs per cubic meter in the Cevennes is more than 55 francs in the
war zone. Maritime pine which takes 4 cubic meters to the thousand
board feet is relatively more expensive (per cubic meter) than fir which
takes 3 cubic meters to the thousand. The same applies to small
Scotch pine.

^« For statistical purposes it is presumed that in mature conifer stands cordwood will
comprise 10 per cent of the yield (under French logging conditions) and in mature hard-
wood forests 20 per cent; the amount of cordwood varies, but to simplify the calculations
the average saw timber rates have been merely increased 10 per cent and 20 per cent;
this provides for the loss in saw timber but allows nothing for the 10 per cent to 20 per
cent of cordwood stumpage received by the purchaser in lieu of that much saw timber.
The normal rate of exchange has been used.

"Boise d'Oeuvre" or timber included: (1) "Bois de service or de construction"
includes (a) "Charpente" or construction timber of considerable size, the exact dimen-
sions varying with the different markets; (6) ties; (c) telegraph poles; mine props.
(2) "Boise d'Industrie ou de Travail " may be (a) "sciages," boards, and scantlings of

310 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION

TABLE 24. — COMPARISON OF PRE-WAR AND WAR STUMPAGE
PRICES" FOR SAW TIMBER PAID BY THE A. E. F.

Regi(

Vosges ....

Jura

Central

Plateau.
Ivandes . . .
C^vennes.
Brittany. .
Allier

C^vennes.
Brittany . .
Allier.*...
War Zone.

Chief of species

Conifer
Spruce.
Fir

Fir

Maritime pine.

^Scotch pine. . .

Broadleaves —

Oak — beech,

Average
pre-war
prices,
francs
per cubic
meter

15

30 to 45

Approximate
dollars per
thousand

14.00

12.75

11.45
9.30

12.70

24 to 36

Average war prices
1918-19

Francs

per cubic

meter

Approximate
dollars per
thousand

34.75

37.00

23.50
24.00
28.00
28.70
25.50

47 to 32

"Based on data collected by the American Delegate, Interallied Timber Executive
Committee, Paris, France.

* Chiefly Haute-Marne, Meuse. In this connection see the stumpage rates given on
p. 320, Chapter XL

It is especially with hardwood logs that the price per cubic meter

varying length, width, and thickness according to local species and market; (6) "Bois de
fente" cooperage stock, etc.

As an illustration of French lumber grades the following "Sciages du Jura"
is given:

French term

Width, inches

Thickness, inches

12.80
11.71
10.65
4.26- 7.48
4.26-12.80
4.26-12.80
8.74-12.80
4.26- 7.48
8.74-12.80
4.26- 7.48

0.98-1.08

0.98-1.08

0.98-1.08

Planches alignes, first class

Planches alignes, second class . . .

0.98-1.08
0.98-1.08

Planches alignes, rejects

Lambris alignes (renf.) first class Recette. . .
Lambris alignes, second class (large etroite) . .
liambris alignes (minces) first class Recette . .

Lambris, second class (large 6troite)

Lambris-rivages (bords non parallelles)

0.98-1.08
0.71
0.71
0.52
0.52

0.42-0.71

Planches brutes

1 08-1.60

Lambris brutes

0 52-0.71

Dauves de long de 2 pi (0.65) a 4 pi (1 .30)

Lettes et liteaux Long 3a 12 pieds

3.1^ 5.32
0.71- 1.60

0.71-0.98
0 71-1.08

Types les plus usit^s: 8/18, 12/8, 12/12, 12/15,
12/18 etc

0.04- 0.07

0.71-1.08

STUMPAGE PRICES

311

varies widely with the size. For example the official price for oak in the
Meuse department in October, 1918, was as follows:

Diameter, breast height, inches

Francs per cubic meter

Approximate dollars
per thousand

7^11

24
36
54

72

21

11-17

26
36
42

17-24

Over 24

These prices are about 30 per cent to 50 per cent over the pre-war rate.
The price of beech is usually about two-thirds that of oak and the
larger the size the more marked is the difference in price.

Before the war cordwood was difficult to dispose of and all the small
material (charbonnette) was made into charcoal before it could be moved
from the forest. During the war the coal shortage doubled and tripled
prices. In the Haute-Marne the averages for all State hardwood-fuel
sales on the stump were as follows :

1914

1917

1918

Class of product

Francs
per

stere

Approx.
dollars
per cord

Francs
per

stere

dollars'
per cord

Francs
per
stere

Approx.
dollars
per cord

Quartier

Rondin

Charbonnette

5.30
3.10
0.35

3.70
2.10
0.24

7.80
5.70
1.20

5.40

4.00
0.83

15.00
11.00
5.00

10.40
7.60
3.50

These prices are typical of average conditions in France; most of the
salable fuel comes from the tops of hardwood trees or from coppice.
Softwood cordwood has but little value in the Landes or in the mountains.
Near the large towns the prices in the above table may be largely ex-
ceeded. The American E. F. settled most of its cordwood purchases
from State or communal forests at 9 francs per stere for quartier, 6 francs
for rondin, and 3 francs for charbonnette. A large purchase in the Cote
d'Or was recommended for settlement at a flat rate of 5.50 francs per
stere ($3.80 per cord). This was about double the 1914 rates.''^

There has been much speculation regarding future French prices.
Unquestionably in the general market prices will fall to the level estab-
lished by the cost of imports and will be below war rates, but much

« It should be noted that the early 1919 exchange rate was 5.80 francs to one dollar;
toward the end of 1919 it was 10 to 113^ francs to the dollar, but all conversions have
been made on the normal value of the franc, 19.3 cents.

312 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION

higher ^"^ than the 1912 price level because the demand for timber will
exceed the supply for years to come. For the next few years the prices
may go even higher because of the depreciation of the franc and because
of unrestrained speculation.

Additional original data on stum page prices during the past century
has been supplied (March 27, 1920) by the Directeur General des Eaux
et Forets, from the official archives at Paris, but M. Dabat states in his
letter of transmittal:

". . . . I must call your attention to the fact that since the price of timber is
not under official control, the figures below have only a relative value . . . they
only indicate .... and are not exact data on the price variations during the long
period examined."

^' According to data furnished by Colonel Sutherland, C.B.E., the average market
price of pitwood, "ex ship Cardiff" has been as follows:

Year

Dollars per ton

Year

Dollars per ton

1910

4.70

1915

8.76

1911

5.31

1916

11.22

1912

5.39

1917

16.79

1913

5.49

1918

15.86

1914

5.56

1919

15.86 to 13.42

The dollar has been figured at the normal rate of $4.87 to 20 shillings. It is
significant that the English coal mines are withholding their orders and are now re-
fusing to pay the high war rates, and on January 1, 1920, report the market " glutted."
A ton is equal to about one cubic meter; it takes 3.6 stacked cubic meters to make
one cord. The relative imports (chiefly from France) from the " board of trade returns
of imports of pitprops and pitwood " in million carloads are as follows:

Year

Million loads

Year

Million loads

1902

2.0

1911

2.9

1903

2.3

1912

2.9

1904

2.3

1913

3.45

1905

2.1

1914

2.5

1906

1915

2.1

1907

2.4

1916

2.0

1908

3.0

1917

1.0

1909

2.6

1918

0.7

1910

2.8

1919

1.5

STUMPAGE PRICES 313

(a) State Forest of Trongais (Allier), oak saw-timber stumpage prices:

Francs per cubic

Approx. dollars per

meter

1,000 board feet

1820

34.00

26.00

1830

36.50

28.00

1840

43.00

33.00

1850

30.00

23.00

1860

51.00

39.00

1870

53.00

40.75

1880

32.00

24.50

1890

42.00

32.25

1900

60.00

46.00

1910

70.00

53.75

1920«

170.00

130.50

Estimated.

(6) State Forest of Ban d'fitival (Vosges) fir saw-timber stumpage
prices:

Year

Francs per cubic
meter

Approx. dollars per
1,000 board feet

1835-1870
1871-1889
1890-1899
1900-1909
1910-1913
1918

10.00
13.50
15.00
20.00
22.00
60.00

7.00
9.50
10.50
14.00
15.50
42.25

(c) state Forest of Gerardmer (Vosges), fir saw-timber stumpage
prices :

Year

Francs per cubic
meter

Approx. dollars per
1,000 board feet

1870-1879
1880-1889
1890-1899
1900-1909
1910-1913
1918

9.50
11.00
11.50
14.00
20.00
60.00

6.75
7.75
8.00
9.75
14.00
42.25

314 FEATURES OF FRENCH NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION

(d) Gerardmer Region (Vosges), hardwood cordwood stumpage
prices :

Year

Francs per stere

Approx. dollars per
cord

1830-1839

5.00

3.50

1840-1849

6.00

4.20

1850-1859

5.50

3.85

1860-1869

5.50

3.85

1870-1889

6.00

4.20

1890-1899

6.00

4.20

1900-1909

5.60

3.92

1918

16.00

11.20

(e) Port of Clamecy (Yonne), coppice cordwood ready to load on canal
boats:

Year

Francs per stere

Approx. dollars per
cord

1817-1827
1837-1847
1857-1867
1877-1887
1897-1907
1913-1918

10.30-14.50
11.00- 8 00
10.00- 9.00
12.00-11.00
10.00-12.50
9.50-25.00

7.21-10.15
7.70- 5.60
7.00- 6.30
8.40- 7.70
7.00- 8.75
6.65-17.50

A study of these figures shows:

(1) There have always been higher saw-timber stumpage prices during
and after great wars; and that investors who placed their money in forests
in 1914 would have been spared the losses due to the depreciation of
French currency.

(2) Stumpage values for saw timber during the past century have about
doubled and since the war have been almost three times the pre-war
value.

(3) Stumpage values for cordwood have remained s^ont the same for
the past 100 years, but during the war they almost tripled owing to the
shortage of coal throughout France.

(4) The prices charged the American E. F. by the French Government
(see p. 310) were much less than the current commercial average rates.
Some of the difference in price is due to the fact that the timber cut by the
American E. F. took fewer cubic meters to the thousand board feet than
that sold the average customer.

CHAPTER XI
PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE

General Discussion (p. 315). Trend of Private Ownership, Areas and Systems of
Management, Legislation Against Deforestation, Forestry as an Investment, Money
Yields from Public Fir Forests (Jura-Doubs), Drawbacks and Advantages to Forest
Investments, Indirect Benefits.

Examples of the Best Private Forestry (,p. 323). Three Notable Forests, The
Grand Domaine of Arc-et-Chateauvillain (Haute-Marne), Forest of Amboise (Indre-
et-Loire), A Fir Forest (Vosges), Conclusions.

GENERAL DISCUSSION

Trend of Private Ownership. — In 1912, when the last statistics were
compiled, seven-tenths of the forest area in France was privately owned
and with the possible exception of the Landes and Gironde this forest
area was largely in small holdings. Out of ten departments, taken at
random, there were 97,710 owners, each with less than 25 acres of forest,
the average holding being 3.2 acres. In the Puy-de-Dome department
101,510 acres were in the hands of 32,684 persons, and around Paris 31,085
owners divided 50,787 acres. In all France it is safe to say that there are
less than 100 families that own more than 5,000 acres each. From the
national and political standpoint this era of small forest holdings is
beneficial. It has been stated that social upheavals will be prevented by
this division of forest and agricultural land. But other things being
equal forests divided into small ownerships benefit a nation but deterio-
rate the stand. The reason is that the peasant cuts spasmodically to
satisfy his needs in the village or farm, to realize on his capital, or to
allow an estate to be settled. The large owner on the contrary can afford
to employ a competent forester and can manage his forest as a permanent
producing business, based on a sustained annual yield. Or, better than
this, the rich landlord may increase his growing stock and improve a de-
teriorated stand.i The kings and nobles formerly owned the best high
forests in France and to-day the best of the private forests are unquestion-
ably in the hands of the old nobility and the new industrial millionaire.

1 The Count de Grancey, the largest private owner in the Cote d'Or, had increased his
coppice rotations and was increasing the number of standards. It was unfortunate that
some of his best stands had to be requisitioned and cut for the A. E. F. fuel supply.

315

316 PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE

But nevertheless many of the great forest properties are disappearing ^
because the higher cost of operation usually reduces the return to less than
3 per cent.

Areas and Systems of Management. — No less than 15,988,857 acres
of forest (out of a total of 24.4 million acres) are in private ownership. Of
this 610,901 acres are unproductive; 4,856,214 acres in coppice; 5,856,947
acres in coppice-under-standards; 106,314 in conversion; and less than
one-third, or 4,558,481 acres, in high forest. In other words more than
two-thirds of the private forests are in coppice or coppice-under-standards,
and in 1912 less than 1 acre in 100,000 was being converted to high forest.
The individual clearly wants his forest to yield returns frequently and he
desires but a small amount of capital tied up in growing stock. Therefore
it is only when local conditions almost force the high forest on the private
owner that he holds this class of stand. In the Landes and Gironde, in
parts of the Sologne, in mining districts where there is a great demand for
props, and in the mountains where coppice will not thrive, he must fall
back on the high forest. In order to still further reduce the capital tied
up in growing stock the private owner invariably chooses shorter rotations
than does the technically trained State forester. It is not infrequent
that private coppice is managed under a 6- to 18-year rotation, whereas
the State forest coppice would be at least 25 to 40 years. For spruce or
fir the public forest rotation would be 120 to 180 years and the private
forest 30 to 120. A similar difference exists in pine stands, although this
difference is less marked with maritime pine than with Scotch pine.

Legislation Against Deforestation. — All through the later forest
history of France the Government has always tried to restrain the private
owner and force him to conserve his property. " The files of the
Chamber of Deputies are full of projects that menace forest property,"
wrote Bonnevoy, the Rhone deputy, in commenting on proposed con-
servation laws. Yet from 1815 to 1870 the State itself sold no less than
871,401 acres 3 of public forest for $59,251,000!

With the necessity for restraining the private owner it is not sur-
prising that there should be a stringent law against the "clearing of
private timber" revised and reenacted in 1859 (see p. 263).

The owner is given an opportunity to present his argument at a
public hearing. It is my impression that the law is leniently apphed
but in notable instances large properties have been held to be essential
forest land and could not be clear cut. Most French laws benefit and
protect the private owner, especially against theft, trespass, and fire.

- The great forest of Eu-et-Aumale was sold in 1912 for $1,883,500 to a company which
was preparing to clear cut. This tlie Government was unwilling to allow and was, there-
fore, planning to purchase it as a State forest.

3 Du Retabhssement de Nos Fordts, par Ch. Broilliard. Besan9on, 1910.

FORESTRY AS AN INVESTMENT

317

Where the owner of land has mismanaged it and allowed erosion or
drifting sand to destroy its value, even then the State must buy the
land before reclaiming it, notwithstanding the resulting common good for
the community. If land is being damaged by overgrazing it can be
reserved from further use, but during a 10-year period the value of the
rental must be paid the owner, and if after that period forestation is
deemed necessary, exappropriation, with payment, is obligatory.

The dunes, as well as the mountain reforestation areas which have
been restocked, are exempt from taxation for a period of 30 years. Other
plantations are exempt for 20 years only and this applies also to the
restocking of blanks which have existed for at least 10 years before the
passage of the law.^ Even during the war, where the power of Army
requisition had been extended to cover standing timber needed by the
Allies as well as by the French people, the rights of the individual were
fully protected. In fact an individual with political power could some-
times evade the requisition. The conclusion is that the property rights
of the individual are practically free from obnoxious State control, and
that in fact every encouragement is given the private owner to practice
forestry.

Forestry as an Investment. — Many writers (even such an eminent
authority as Broilliard) have argued that money in savings banks paying
only 2| to 3 per cent interest ^ had better be invested in producing
forests. In forest valuation it is customary to use low interest rates for
calculations. Certainly one reason why this is done is because usually
if rates of 4 per cent or more are adopted for the basic interest rate the
forest investment shows a decided loss. Yet even here there are notable
exceptions as in the Landes where it was estimated that by sowing sand
wastes, soil formerly worth an average of 77 cents per acre is now selling
at $54 to $93 per acre. We know that it cost some 10.3 million dollars

^ L'Impot sur le revenu des Forets, S. F., XI, 5, pp. 372-375.

5 The interest rates paid by the French Government have varied from a maximum
of 8.6 per cent (in 1816) to a minimum of 3 per cent, the prevailing rate in 1901. Not-
able variations in these rates, due to wars and revolutions, are shown in the following
table (after Huff el) for 100 years:

Year

Per cent

Year

Per cent

Year

Per cent

Year

Per cent

1816

8.60

1832

5.06

1854

7,8H

1870/

4.95

1818

7.52«

1841

3.13*

1855

4.61

1870 !?

7.42

1821

5.79

1845

3.95

1859

4.83 «

1871

6.23

1823

5.58

1847

3.88

1861

4.32

1886

3.75

1828

3.87

1848

5.00^

1863

4.50

1901

3.00

1830

3.92

1868

4.32

1918

6.83

"and 7.45, *and 3.50, ^and 6.64, '^and 4.69, «and 4.00, ■'"Aug., ^Oct.

318 PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE

to reforest 1.6 million acres, or about $6.41 per acre. As a national
investment this has certainly paid. It has created enormous wealth in a
region formerly poverty stricken and unhealthy. But from the stand-
point of the individual to-day the investment is not so attractive, because,
if the sale value is compared with the revenue it is seen that land worth
(with its growing stock) perhaps $54 per acre nets year in and year out
about $2.22, or about 4.1 per cent. According to HuffeP the average
returns from private forests were, in 1892, 1.16 cubic meters (about two-
thirds to three-fourths of this is fuel) worth 67 cents per acre per year
(2.90 cubic meters and 16.80 francs per hectare). If we place a soil and
growing stock value of only $30.88 per acre (400 francs per hectare)
the net return is about 4 per cent. The return is probably less than this.
According to French data the lower the soil values the better the forest
investment but the higher the risk from fire, fungus, insects, and acts
of Divine Providence. This seems logical because the risk in the manage-
ment of maritime pine on Landes sand is unquestionably greater than in
the thrifty coppice of the Cote d'Or on rich well watered soil.

According to Huff el's definition the soil or "fonds" includes everything
that remains in a forest after it is completely clear cut : the unmerchant-
able part of the stumps, roots, seed, humus, dead leaves, boundaries,
roads, management divisions, drainage ditches, fire lines, forest houses,
and all other betterments. Any study of soil values shows the advantage
of reforesting cheap, so-called waste land; proof is abundant in French
forest history — -the Landes Sands (where values increased from 77 cents
to as many dollars per acre), the uncultivated land in Champagne (which
sold at $1.50 to $4.50 until planted to Austrian pine, when soil values
increased to $10 or more, because it could produce $60 per acre from
timber crops on a short rotation) ; similar advantages occurred to foresting
cheap waste soils in the Central Plateau, Sologne, and elsewhere. But
the State had to prove the way. Values are created; for before the for-
estation the value of the soil is the local sale value, while after the pioneer
has created the forest the value is based on what the soil can produce. It
has been made revenue-producing, and the pioneer reaps the profit.

A good illustration may be taken from the sale of stock. Let us as-
sume that a Avire company sells its stock at par, or $100 a share, and pays
8 per cent (in accordance with 1920 rates). The concern prospers, earns
and pays 12 per cent. Capital values have been created by its earning
capacity and the stock sells at $150 a share instead of $100. The same
increase in values occurs when barren soil is made to produce salable
forests.

*ficonomie Forestiere, Vol. I, p. 407. G. Huffel, 1904. Some craters claim
a return of 6 to 7 per cent on timber investments in the Landes. See also Chapter
VIII.

FORESTRY AS AN INVESTMENT

319

French writers are apt to make excessive claims for forest investment
returns, Risler/ director of the Institut Agronomique, claiming 5 to 10
per cent for conifer plantations. For a pine plantation near Selongey
(Cote d'Or) a return of 5.7 per cent was claimed ^ for a 30-year rotation
on soil worth $7.72 an acre (100 francs per hectare). For a larch stand
at Boisy near Geneva, Barbey claimed a return of 6.30 per cent. And it
was said that "a private owner in the Pyrenees spent 10,000 francs on
reforesting uncultivatible slopes worth 20,000; forty-five years later he
left to his children a property worth 270,000 francs." Cases such as this
are numerous where the owner reaped good returns by reforesting ground
which he would have held anyway.

The following returns are cited for plantations of broadleaf species,
such as chestnut:

Soil

Soil cost
per acre

Cost of

plantation

per acre

Return

at end

of rotation

Rotation

Rate of
return,
per cent

Mediocre

$3.86
9.65
19.30

$7.72
9.65
11.58

$ 93
193
386

35
40
50

6 25

Quite good

6.00

Very favorable

5.12

For a fir stand in the Doubs on poor soil an average annual revenue of
$8.96 per acre was secured (116 francs per hectare) but there are no exact
data on the soil and growing stock values. Extraordinary yields a;re
often cited for this region. Mangenot owned 9.1 acres which in 1868
were estimated to have 1,510 trees or 667 cubic meters worth 9,265 francs.
From 1868 to 1890 he cut 498 trees or 604 cubic meters and sold at 9,650
francs; in 1890 he still had 1,600 trees estimated at 660 cubic meters and
worth 9,165 francs. These exact data cited by Schaeffer ^ were equal to
a net annual yield of about $9 per acre per year. The growing stock per
acre was worth in round figures $199 and the soil at least $10, so this return
of $9 per acre was only 4.3 per cent on the invested capital in a favorable
forest region and with rapidly growing fir, spruce, and beech. But it
should be noted that if this property had been held until 1918 and then
clear cut down to a low diameter limit he would have doubled his money
because of the high prices prevailing during 1918 and because the French
currency had depreciated. But this introduces a new feature — a
speculative one — which is present in all forest investments, namely, the
sporadic increase in stumpage values with occasional very high levels.

^ Placements Financiers en Bois. A. Jacquot.

8 In the State forest of Levier the gross returns have been as high as $15.90 per acre,
according to an engineer officer writing in American Forestry (p. 1537), 1919.

9 Quelques Conseils aux Sylviculteurs du Chablais. A. Schaeffer, Annecy, 1894.

320

PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE

Much of this increase may be due to the decrease in the purchasing power
of money in addition to an increasing shortage of supply. In the State
and communal forests under the inspector at Lorient (Morbihan) the
average price per cubic meter for commercial sales ^^ was as follows:

Year

Total sales,
cubic meters

Average price, francs
per cubic meter

Price
per thousand feet
board measure*^

1890

12,749

10.99

$11.31

1900

16,932

13.34

13.73

1910

21,211

14.78

15.22

1912

41,338

8.58

8.83

1913

25,365

11.90

12.25

1914

18,586

10.70

11.02

1915

23,560

14.28

14.70

1916

25,822

14.69

14.86

1917

23,353

23.16

23.84

1918

25.032

29.54

30.41

« This is only approximate since these prices were averages including cordwood. To
reduce to dollars per thousand, the average price figure has been increased 33| per cent
and four cubic meters counted to the thousand board feet.

These original data show how the private owner could have taken ad-
vantage of the prevaiHng high prices in 1917 and 1918 and could have
profitably reduced his growing stock. They also show a steady increase in
price since 1890, with the probability of much higher prices even after
the abnormal war conditions are passed. Under such conditions the new
owner, who has bought at the higher price level, may be influenced to cut
and sell at the new price level.

The forest investment, even after stumpage values increase, is much
the same because the capital values of the land and growing stocks have
increased in the same proportion; but it is during such times that the
incentive to liquidate the investment is greatest.

Money Yield from Public Fir Forests (Jura-Doubs). — It is interesting
to compare the returns from the private forests just reviewed with those
from public forests which are perhaps more conservatively managed.
Table 25 which follows" shows the basic data:

Much can be learned from a study of the following table, for the past
history of four important State and communal fir and spruce forests in
the Jura Mountains can be accurately analyzed, (a) The average ro-
tation is 150 years; in other words it takes 150 years to grow (Jura) fir and
spruce 22.8 inches in diameter breast-high. (6) The average stand (mean

10 The low price in 1912 was due to windfall; the low price in 1914 was due to the un-
settled conditions prevalent during the initial period of the war.

" From original data prepared by Inspecteur Devarennes. Such detailed data on
managed French forests have never before been made public in the United States.

MONEY YIELD FROM PUBLIC FIR FORESTS

321

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322 PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE

per working group) over the whole area of 8,294 acres is over 31,000 board
feet per acre. This was secured by natural regeneration, (c) The
average working group is 1,037 acres (see p. 226). {d) The gross yield
per acre is $11.18 and the net yield about $10.68; this = for mountain
land unquestionably unsuited to agriculture. The average price for
saw timber prior to 1911 was $8.70 per thousand feet board measure on
the stump. The local stumpage prices are now three to five times that
figure, (e) These fir-spruce forests averaged 2.4 per cent in gro^vth and
the prescribed yield was 2.8 per cent of the growing stock — a little more
than the growth so as to reduce the quantity of overmature timber. (/)
In 1908-1911 the capital invested was: Timber growing stock $4,063,902;
empirical soil value (estimated), $153,108; total, $4,217,010.

The gross annual revenue ^^ from timber sales was: $119,125; annual
cost of administration and taxes, $4,147; annual net return, $114,978.

This is about 2.7 per cent net on the invested capital ^^ for the period
prior to 1908-1911, or perhaps 2| per cent on a conservative basis. It
should be noted that this is less than secured by private owners who use
shorter rotations and do not allow excess growing stock to accumulate.

Drawbacks and Advantages to Forest Investments. — Many forest
owners were almost ruined when the demand for charcoal and cordwood
was largely reduced by coal production. It is only too common that
much of the growing stock (conifers) is wiped out by fire, by disease or
by insects. Considerable losses are frequent from windfall and even in
France with a good market 20 to 50 per cent drops in stumpage values
are common when considerable areas of windfall are suddenly placed on
the market. Like farming land forest property is apt to deteriorate un-
less the owner gives it his personal attention and exercises good technique.

Some advantages of owning forest property as a long-term business
investment in pai't compensate for its low financial returns as an invest-
ment in permanent forest production are: (1) Stumpage prices are in-
creasing, especially in countries where the virgin timber is being ex-
hausted. After the virgin timber is cut then stumpage must be based
on the cost of production or import, but even then prices will increase as
the intensity of population increases. (2) With inflated or depreciated
currency forest values increase and forest property can be sold at a profit.
(3) In countries like the United States, where the essential technique of
forest valuation is not widely known, the values placed on unmerchant-
able young timber are usually below the market — hence private owners

1- Compare with the figures for La Joux (2 per cent) given in the Appendix, p. 514.

13 According to Huff el, Vol. II, Page VII of preface: "Exploitations . . . which are
organized with a view to producing saw timber of large size always yield small returns;
they hardly yield 1 or 2 per cent on the invested capital in the case of oak high forest with
long rotations."

GRAND DOMAINE OF ARC-ET-CHATEAUVILLAIN 323

can often acquire cut-over land at very reasonable rates. (4) Where
land values are generally low forest property often acquires, as the coun-
try develops, a greatly enhanced sales price for other uses.

Indirect Benefits. — In France it is especially true that the individual
owns forests for indirect benefits as well as for an investment. The owner-
ship of forests gives the landowner a certain prestige. The average coun-
try estate or chateau loses half its value, or more, unless there is surround-
ing forest. For the rich, the management of a forest property in France
is an occupation which has advantages difficult to find elsewhere. Shoot-
ing, a rich man's pastime, requires a forest. To-day every great family
in France has its country estate with some forest, but within the past 30
years, it should be again emphasized, there has been a decided tendency
to dispose of large estates. The same is true in England. To-day M.
Hirsch and his near relations own more forest and better-managed
forest than any other family in France — notably the forests of Amboise
(Indre-et-Loire) and Dreux (Eure-et-Loire). The forests of the Due de
Penthievre in the Haute-Marne are being improved by A. Gazin, a not-
able private forester. But these are exceptions.

EXAMPLES OF THE BEST PRIVATE FORESTRY

Three Notable Forests. — It was found exceedingly difficult to secure
authoritative data on the management of private forest properties.
Many owners did not possess accurate and complete records while others
hesitated to give freely to a stranger more or less private information on
costs, revenues, and methods of management. But French foresters
were in accord that (a) the Arc-et-Chateauvillain Forest (Haute-Marne)
(b) Amboise Forest (Indre-et-Loire) and (c) the Forest of X (Vosges)
were three examples of the best private forestry in France and represen-
tative of entirely different problems ; (a) is chiefly a poor coppice-under-
standards and mediocre high forest, (b) is a rich coppice-under-standards,
and (c) is a rich stand of silver fir. Some day the writer hopes to secure
private forest data on mountain forests, on Scotch pine, and on the Landes
maritime pine.

The Grand Domaine of Arc-et-Chateauvillain (Haute-Marne). — This
forest property is being conservatively administered and the rotations
lengthened ^^ notwithstanding the small investment returns. The
forest contains some 28,000 acres intact, and the Due de Penthievre is
improving his property, under the able direction of M. Gazin ^^ by (1)
reforesting, (2) by increasing the rotations, (3) by increasing the age

" Un Grand Domaine Forestier, par A. Gazin. Besangon, 1910.
16 The total receipts and expenses for 1911 for the property managed by Gazin were as
follows:

324

PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE

of the reserves in coppice-under-standards, (4) by developing a road
system, (5) by securing a better range force through increasing their
pay.

The property was bought in 1693 by Louis- Alexandre de Bourbon,
Count of Toulouse; his son Louis de Bourbon, Duke of Penthievre, in-
herited it. It was sequestered during the revolution but was restored to

Receipts

Wood

WindfaU. . . .
Rock, etc. . .
Grazing . . . .
Indemnities .
Trespass. . . .

Rights

Hunting. . . .

Francs
119,900.00 Salaries.

Expenses

Farms (net).

1,647

10

1,161

01

76

00

273

80

10.00

700

00

32,000

00

152

20

155,920

11

49,400.00

Totals.

205,320.11

Clothing

Office

Cost of making sales . .
Road maintenance ....

Plantations

Pruning reserves

Private logging

Maintenance of houses.

Stamp (tax)

Lawsuits

Policing game rights. . .

Advertising, etc

Horses and stable
(19/20 to "forests"). •

Insurance

Pensions

Taxes

Stamps for pensions. . .
Totals

Francs

29,199.64

1,140.90

246.48
4,920.90
2,008 . 185
1,049.585

870.50

168.19

2,249.20

6.20

200.00
707.592

1,799.22

22.60

928.75

24,263.86

33.75

69,804.952

These figures simply serve to illustrate the low net returns for large forest estates in
France. The percentage return on the investment cannot be computed but it is cer-
tainly less than 2 per cent. The taxes eat up more than 10 per cent of the gross receipts.

Gazin's budget is divided into six chapters followed by a general summary: (1)
Forests; (2) houses and farms; (3) sawmills; (4) chateaux and parks; (5) hunting
and fishing; (6) pensions; (7) recapitulation. The estimate signed December 18, 1912,
and approved by the Due de Penthievre, is as follows:

Receipts,

Expenses,
francs

Taxes,
francs

1

188,320

3,753

5,913

1,500

32,100

67,405.40

13,348.00

55,500.00

13,815.96

1,000.00

5,245.05

3,051.09

159,365.50
Net, 72,220.50

23,826.25

2

1,018 00

3

4

5

1,756.00

6

Miscellaneous

231,586

26,600.25

The cost of administration totaled 3.40 francs per hectare per year; maintenance
0.98; cost of making sales, 0.60; total of 4.98 francs, excluding taxes (34 cents per acre).
The coppice in 1865 sold for 95,000 francs; in 1866, 152,000; in 1870, 120,000; and in
1913, 16,000 francs, or only about 10 per cent gross receipts. This illustrates the loss to
forest owners in P'rance through the discovery and use of coal.

GRAND DOMAINS OF ARC-ET-CHATEAUYILLAIN 325

the daughter of the duke in 1814 who had married the Duke of Orleans.
It was finally left to a nephew of King Louis Philippe, the Prince of
Joinville. In 1852 it was again confiscated and sold to the Societe
Passy but in 1873 the Prince of Joinville bought it back. At the death
of this Prince on June 16, 1900, his son Pierre d'Orleans, the present
Duke of Penthievre, inherited it. After such changes of ownership it
is not surprising that the forest needed betterments.

The total area of the property amounts to 27,866 acres divided as fol-
lows: Forest (including 212 acres reforested), 26,309 acres; deer park
around chateau, 608 acres; small park, 77 acres; chateau park, 178 acres;
saw mill, etc., 15 acres; farms and meadows, 679 acres. It is situated
in the department of the Haute-Marne almost at the center of the tri-
angle formed by the towns Chaumont, Langres, and Chatillon-sur-Seine.
The mean altitude is 1,148 feet, the lowest elevation 722 and the highest
1,312 feet. The climate is severe and grapes cannot be cultivated ex-
cept on the south exposure of walls. In certain parts of the forest frost
occurs almost every month of the year. The variations in the climate
and the permeability of the limestone soil, coupled with spring and fall
frosts, makes the climate unfavorable for good growth. Considerable
damage is also done by game with which the forest is stocked. The soil
is generally dry and of mediocre quality. The species are principally
oak, beech, and hornbeam. Hornbeam forms 63 per cent of the coppice
stands, while in the coppice-under-standards there is almost twice as
much oak among the standards as there is beech or hornbeam. There
are some 33.5 miles of paved roads on the property maintained in good
condition. An administrator (Gazin) has charge of the property and is
resident at Arc-en-Barrois. The force includes seventeen men divided
into three ranger districts, each guard's beat averaging about 1,850 acres.
It is interesting that all employees are housed and furnished free heat, a
uniform, pension, and medical care. The salary paid rangers and guards
in 1912 was as follows: Rangers, first clasS: $270; second class, $232;
guards, exceptional class, $193; first class, $174; second class, $154; be-
sides they are paid a bonus of 24 cents per day when they are engaged in
manual labor. The pension begins when they are 55 years old and is
one-sixtieth of the salary of each year of service. For example, if a man
has worked 30 years with an average yearly salary of $200 he would re-
tire when he was 55 with an annual pension of $100. It is now planned
to regulate the salary of the guards according to the size of their famihes
— the more children the larger salary. In addition the guards and
rangers receive supplementary pay for killing destructive animals and a
bonus for each head of game killed. The forest is well stocked with game
and during a 10-year period the average annual kill was 10 stags, 30 deer,
87 roebuck, 50 wild boar, and 14 hare. During 1908 the right to hunt

326 PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE

was leased to a club at 23 cents per acre per year. This club charged its
members the following premiums: Club members who shoot on this
forest pay in addition (35 per cent of which goes to the rangers and beaters
and 65 per cent to the guards) : Roe-buck 48 cents per head for the first 50
killed; $1.93 for the following 150; $2.89 for the rest. Stags, $3.86 per
head for the first 10; $5.79 for the 10 following; $7.72 for the third 10;
$9.65 for the fourth 10; $11.58 for the fifth 10; $13.51 for the rest. Deer,
$3.86 per head. In addition the club paid the following rewards for
killing beasts of prey: Fox, $1.16; badgers, $1.35; wild cats, $2.90; martins
and pole cats, $1.16; domestic cats caught in the forest, 58 cents; martins,
fur species, $3.86; weasels, 58 cents; ermine, 97 cents; buzzards, 19 cents.
The pelts were reserved for the use of the club. For the discovery of
poachers the club paid $7.72 for those caught during the day; $15.44 for
poachers caught during the night, and $1.93 for dogs caught in the
forest.

The forest yields truffles in considerable quantity. Practically all
sawlog material is exported and firewood in small amounts is used
locally. Mine props are exported to the northern part of France and
Belgium, the wood and charcoal to Paris. The average prices secured
are as follows: Oak, first quality (20 inches in diameter and better),
$6.76 per cubic meter in the log; second quality (12 inches to 19 inches
in diameter), $4.83; third quality (8 to 11 inches in diameter), $2.32.
Beech logs bring about $2.90 per cubic meter on the average; mine props,
53 cents per stere (0.277 cord) ; firewood, 48 cents per stere; and charcoal
made of branch wood, 5 cents.^^

Management. — The system of coppice-under-standards is applied
to the nineteen working groups of the forest and the rotation averages from
25 to 30 years. The rotation has been lengthened, however, and owing to
the small value of fuel and the increasing value of sawlogs, is now 27 to
32 years. In the past, with the rotation 25 to 30 years and because the
reserves were insufficient, the yield averaged 0.32 cubic meters of sawlogs
per acre and 1 cubic meter of firewood. The price of charcoal has dropped
from 58 cents to 5 cents per stere on the stump (3.6 steres to a cord).
The objection to converting this coppice-under-standards to high forest
is that it would take too long and cost the owner too much. There is so
much game in this forest that the conversion would be difficult, especially
if fir were planted. The number of reserves is to be increased to such an
extent, however, that the coppice-under-standards will resemble an
open high forest. There are also objections to lengthening the rotation:
(1) The necessary decrease in the proportion of oak; (2) the impossibility
of securing the full value of the reserves which become ripe, decayed, or
overmature; (3) the decrease in the growth of the reserves, since the
1^ These prices were prior to 1912.

FOREST OF AMBOISE 327

greatest development comes during the 10 years following the cutting
of the coppice. This last may be in part compensated for by the increase
in value of the coppice felling because of the increasing price for large
mine props.

Growth. — It is the policy to keep an accurate record of the growth of
the reserves in the coppice-under-standards. All these reserves (first-
class standards) are numbered and measured at the time of the coppice
fellings and at all subsequent stocktakings. According to data secured
the oak takes 20 years to grow from one 2-inch class into another and
15 years for the beech; on an average the growth for the oak is 2.5 per
cent and for the beech 3.5 per cent. According to the marking made on
about 1.977 acres in 1907-1908, 23.6 cubic meters were left and 18.4 cubic
meters of reserves cut.

Yield. — For the years 1907 1908 (976 acres were cut over each year)
the final yield from the reserves was 5.2 cubic meters of sawlogs per acre
and 6.8 cubic meters of fuel — 12 in all, while the coppice yielded a cut
of 22 cubic meters of fuel, charcoal, and mine props. For the 2 years
the final yield was $22.13 per acre for the high forest and $7.34 for the
coppice, an average of $1.91 per cubic meter for the high forest systems,
branches included, and but 33 cents per cubic meter for the coppice. This
illustrates very vividly the great advantage of growing saw timber instead
of cordwood. The net yield on the investment is probably 1 .5 to 2.0 per cent.

Forestation. — The first plantations date from 1838 to 1848, when the
Vendue and Essarts farms were forested with Scotch pine and oak, with
avenues of spruce and pine along the boundaries. This planting has been
very profitable. Some of the spruce is now more than 27 inches in
diameter and is growing rapidly. Planting in the blanks has, on the
whole, given excellent results. The popular species used lately, planted
in groups of about 2^ acres according to the nature of the soil, are
spruce, Scotch pine, Corsican pine, Austrian pine, larch, and beech.
Some fir, as well as white pine, Douglas fir, and Japanese larch has been
planted. Since the soil is limestone it is likely that this last species will
give mediocre results.

The House of Orleans deserves a great deal of credit for its conservative
treatment of this forest, and, as Broilliard has said, "The owner who
conserves his forest is continually working for the country; he is essentially
a benefactor. "

Forest of Amboise (Indre-et-Loire). — The forest of Amboise was
bought from the Emperor of Bulgaria by M. Hirsch,i^ then an inspector in

" Through the courtesy of M. Hirsch the writer obtained access to his private forest
records and was enabled to visit the forest with the owner. Unfortunately much of the
best saw timber and cordwood was requisitioned and cut by the A. E. F. during the
Great War.

328 PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE

the "Waters and Forests Service, stationed at Paris. The domain formed
part of the royal forests until 1761, when it was given to the Duke of
Choiseul by Louis XV; in 1784 it was purchased by the Duke of Pen-
thievre. After suffering confiscation at the French Revolution it be-
came the property of Louis XVIII, who gave it to the Duchess of Orleans,
who later became Queen Marie Amelie. When Louis Philippe divided his
possessions the forest of Amboise fell to Princess Louise, the Queen of
Belgium. After the revolution of 1848 some 4,942 acres were con-
fiscated and sold so that at the restoration in 1872 but 10,378 acres
remained. In 1874 the remnant was ceded to the Princess Clementine
and the Duke of Wartenberg; it finally was acquired by the Prince of
Bulgaria and the Duke of Saxe-Cobourg-Gotha.

The forest is situated 15 miles east of Tours, between the Cher and the
Loire rivers. The historic town of Amboise is directly north and Blere
is to the south. The forest contains 10,691 acres and varies from 0.62
to 3 miles in width and is 10 miles long. The soil is a deep clay, often
sandy in character, quite compact, and yet the roots penetrate quite
easily. Usually there is a good humus. The chmate is mild in winter
and quite hot in summer; the snow remains only a few days at a time.
The annual rainfall varies from 20 to 24 inches. The stand is almost pure
oak, half sessile and half pedunculate, with scattering beech, hornbeam,
birch, chestnut, acacia, and aspen, with Scotch pine and maritime pine
which have been introduced artificially. The regeneration of the oak is
very easy because of its aljundant seed crops; its quality is first class.
The conifers have not as yet proved especially successful. There are no
rights or servitudes, the boundaries are well established, and a fairly
complete system of main and secondary roads already exists. The local
force in 1912 comprised a ranger ($232), two head guards ($174), and six
guards and one road guard ($135 each). The force is lodged and has the
privilege of a 2^-acre garden, 2h cords of fuel, and 100 fagot bundles per
year.

Treatment. — The forest is divided into seventeen working groups
varying in size from 376 to 791 acres, with the exception of the section,
''Les Bertherelles " which has only 113 acres. Two working groups,
903 acres, have not been regularly cut since 1883, but 153 acres (Scotch
pine) were burned over in 1893; with the exception of 113 acres under
high forest the remainder is under compound coppice. There are no
blanks of any size and the whole forest is in good condition. The Waters
and Forests Service, which administered the forest from 1851 to 1873,
began a conversion to high forest and this accounts for the high forest on
113 acres. The present owner has accordingly changed three working
groups with 20-year rotations to two working groups with 30-year rota-
tions. In addition he has an extra working group for remnants. He

FOREST OF AMBOISE 329

will gradually realize on the bit of high forest and turn it into coppice-
under-standards.^^

Products. — The products are logs and firewood. The coppice yields
charcoal, fagots, fagot bundles, and bark; the high forests yield sawlogs
and additional fuel.

The shooting rents for $1,737 per year and includes deer, wild boar,
hare, and pheasants. The fishing is worth $193 a year with an additional
$135 average from special sales of fish.

The average revenue for the years 1897 to 1908 was: Wood, $24,358;
shooting, fishing, etc., $2,818, or a total of $27,175; but from this must be
deducted $9,540 for taxes, administration, and patrol, leaving a net
revenue of only $17,636.

An average year (1906) showed the following detailed receipts and
expenses :

RECEIPTS

Sales of wood $25,057 . 19

Hunting $1737.001 i 7«i. or

Rents 28.95/ l,/65.95

Withes 364.45]

Pruning 53 . 90 574 . 84

Wood over quarries 156 . 49

Grass 64.06

Stone 120 . 38 237 03

Seed 52.59J

Cutting penalti

Other penalties

Miscellaneous receipts .

Trespass damages ....

Total

22.58

89.17

6.72

0.60

$27,754.08
$ 3,779.53

EXPENSES

Taxes of all kinds

Force salary $3094 . 27 )

Lodging 266.50 q no «q

Bureau 52.15 ^,oiy.»y

Doctor, etc 106.97)

Cost of advertising sales 965 . 48

Maintenance roads 1020.76]

Houses 295 . 14

Pruning reserves 145 . 21 1,536 . 39

Park and Chateau 54 . 29

Trimming along roads 20 . 99 J

Insurance 14 . 80

Trespass cost 0 . 48

Reforestation 12 . 16 1

Construction of three stalls. . . 25.52 ono ns

Special construction 9.65 | ^uy .ud

Extra guard 161 .73 J

Unforeseen expenses 109.70

Total $10,135 . 33

Revenue (net) 17,531.88

Gross revenue $27 667 . 21 "

"These totals did not balance with the gross receipts in the original tables.

i^ITirsch believes in accurate valuation. He marks three rotation standards with
three red circles and with serial number at d. b. h., 2R standards with two red circles and
serial number, while IR standard (baliveau) with red circle but no number at all. This
work costs onlv $80 a year.

330 PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE

Growth. — From the measurement of selected plots over a period
of 14 years it appears "that the average annual growth on the circum-
ference is 0.0153 per tree and that the volume increases each year
by 0.0233." These figures apply to the trees 15 inches and over in
diameter. There are no figures for trees less than this but the growth
is estimated at 3 per cent. For the conifers the growth per cent was
fixed at 0.025. The amount to cut each year is therefore obtained by
multiplying the volume in each diameter class (above or below 15 inches
in diameter) by the per cents given above. The coppice is worked by
area.

For each of the seventeen groups is given a digest of the growing stock
divided into coppice cuttings. For example : for the third working group
Chanteloup, 754 acres, 24 coupes; Coupe No. 1, area 47 acres; age of
coppice end of 1907, 19 years; volume of oak (reserves), under 15 inches
96.47; over 15 inches, 181.62 cubic meters; volume of conifers, 274.30
The total volumes are then footed and the following calculations made
growth of the oak, below 15 inches, 5,546 cubic meters X 0.03 = 166.38
above 15 inches, 2,439 cubic meters X 0.023 = 56.97; total, 223.35
Growth of the pine, below 15 inches, 2,300 cubic meters X 0.025 = 57.5

This growth would sell as follows: 223 cubic meters at $6, -11,291
branches, 223 steres at 77 cents, $172; pine, 86 steres at 97 cents, $93
total $1,546. $1,546 capitaHzed at 4 per cent equals $38,600.

"The product of the (coppice) felhng area when ripe is estimated at
$45 per acre. The net value per acre of the soil and of the coppice
amounts then to $30. This amount capitalized at 4 per cent represents
a value of $23,558 for the whole working group." A resume of all the
working groups is shown in Table 26 on opposite page.

The "Domain of Rouillardiere," added to the forest of Amboise in
1885, comprises 126 acres. It consists of a magnificent coppice and
compound coppice. As a final valuation the forest is put at:

Amboise

Rouillardiere. .
Jameau ponds
Miscellaneous.

$893,937.40

7,720.00

3,377.50

285.64

$905,320.54

The following deductions can be drawn from the foregoing
data:

(1) The net income for 1906 was $10,135.34 on a capitalization of
$905,320.54. This shows a net yield of only 1.9 per cent, but it should
be recalled that the forest is being built up by the reservation of large
numbers of standards. Hence the real profit is 1.9 per cent plus the

FOREST OF AMBOISE
TABLE 26. — VOLUME OF OAK: IN 1907

331

. No.

Area,
acres

Below 15
inches

Above 15
inches

Reserves

Values,

soil,
coppice

Total in
even figures

1

430

481.89

"5,918.92

298.32

$8,801

$7,739

$16,540

2

473

574.40

"6,706.27
311.50

9,968

9,013

18,981

3

779

5,546.29

2,438.98
« 1,463.09

38,600

23,559

62,159

4

753

3,412.76

2,806.18

26,731

13,351

40,082

5

588

2,555.78

« 651.56

2,344.29

21,906

14,157

36,063

"287.10

6

668

4,807.88

4,013.39
"450.34

38,957

15,224

54,181

7

667

3,988.88

4,580.86

37,297

15,694

52,991

8

763

4,786.16

"577.46

4,378.74

40,530

18,400

58,930

9

547

5,530.93

5,322.78

47,285

14,309

61,594

10

113

4,890.09

1,506.57

25,573

1,737

27,310

11

790

6,900.33

8,116.53

64,462

22,633

89,095

12

710

8,898.92

9,331.18

78,744

16,630

95,374

13

449

4,680.09

3,738.60

37,239

13,390

50,629

14

377

2,509.01

2,212.57

"63.72

20,670

9,026

29,696

15

636

5,087.20

4,061.81

40,356

17,854

58,210

16

640

5,483.62

3,781.61
"79.14

41,177

14,508

55,685

17

485

3,278.76

2,154.95

"278.02

24,279

9,223

33,502

18

579

6,106.56

3,074.43

41,668

13,420

55,088

Total

$894,110

" Conifers.

average yearly value of the increase in growing stock.^^ The owner
estimated his real return at 4 per cent.

(2) In 1906 the expenses (cost of operation) were 37 per cent and
the taxes 13 per cent of the gross revenue; the taxes were 0.14 of 1 per
cent of the appraised book value.

(3) It is of interest to note the receipts for hunting, rents, withes,
pruning, wood cleared at quarries, grass, stone, seed cutting penalties,
miscellaneous receipts, and trespass were about one-ninth the receipts
from timber and coppice sales.

19 The A. E. F. purchased $231,600 (1,200,000 francs) worth of coppice and timber
(18,760 cubic meters and 26,094 steres) from this forest during 1918-1919; the damages
for faulty cutting were $1,930. In addition these high sales values will be partly bal-
anced by largely increased working costs for a number of years. The cut in 1909 was
4,489 cubic meters and 3,321 steres; 1910, 4,204 cubic meters and 2,697 steres; 1911,
2,224 cubic meters and 2,887 steres. Thus the A. E. F. cut about 5 years of timber crops
and 9 years of cordwood. This unquestionably damaged the forest from the standpoint
of permanent management.

332 PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE

(4) To calculate the yield, rule-of-thumb growth per cent figures
were multiplied by the growing stock to obtain the yield of timber; for
the coppice an average per acre yield figure is simply estimated as a
result of past averages.

A Fir Forest (Vosges). — Perhaps the most interesting private fir
forest in France, and certainly the best managed, is the Forest of X,
jointly owned by ten distinguished French foresters. Suffice it to say
that Gazin, manager for the Due de Penthievre forest properties, and
Schaeffer, conservateur des Eaux et Forets, are two of the ten owners.

The forest comprises 155 acres and is situated at an altitude of from
1,540 to 2,100 feet in the lower Vosges Mountains on rather rocky sandy
loam (gres vosien). The principal stand is silver fir, with some Scotch
pine in mixture, and perhaps 1 per cent of beech. The property was
purchased in 1906 for $31,845, but really cost net only $19,300 because
the overmature timber was at once sold for $12,545. The appraised
book value is, however, $23,160 instead of $19,300 because the purchase
price was less than the full value. The stumpage values were 15 francs
per cubic meter (about $10.50 per thousand feet board measure) in 1906,
and 17 to 18 francs, or 15 to 20 per cent more, in 1913.

The stand is cut over every 5 years and is completely calipered. The
marking is under the personal supervision of one of the ten owners who
receives an allowance of $9.65 for his work as director of marking, but
each owner manages his one-tenth of the forest. Thus far the dividends
have been 3 per cent per year. They are now hmited to 4 per cent until
the original growing stock, as it stood after the removal of the over-
matured timber, has been increased 33 per cent by saving some of the
growth each year. Then and then only it is proposed to increase the
dividends to 6 per cent. The cost of the original working plan was
$86.85 and the annual expenses for marking, taxes, etc., have been
$185.63. The annual taxes were $12.74 or 8 cents per acre. The
average annual cut was 833 cubic meters (about 222,000 feet board
measure or 1.4 thousand feet per acre per year).

The aim of management is to get the best financial returns, and the
group selection system is applied with cleanings, freeings, and thinnings
every 5 years. The yield is regulated by the Gurnaud method. With
stocktaking every 5 years as exact data are secured on growth as if the
forest were a sample plot. Thus far the forest has netted 3.25 per cent
on the investment (3 per cent dividend and 0.14 of 1 per cent as surplus
bank balance) hut in addition the volume on the ground has increased
2,390 cubic meters,^^ worth in 1912 $8,072 (41,825 francs). Thus the
actual revenue has been 3| per cent plus an annual increase in capital
of $807, or 3.9 per cent on the book value without compound interest or

2" The figures in proof of this are as follows:

CONCLUSIONS

333

deducting any share of annual expense which the marketing of this
excess reserve might have entailed.

It is safe to say that thus far the real annual revenue has been close
to 7 per cent. But the forester must realize that there may be setbacks
due to windfall, disease, and unforeseen acts of Providence, so the board
of control set 6 per cent as their maximum interest goal. Anything
above this will at present be held as a reserve.

Conclusions. — Writing in 1910, Broilliard, perhaps the most em-
inent French forester of our times, said: "Bad at business and poor
at manufacturing, the State is, nevertheless, the best forest owner,
able to assure good treatment to timber of all species . . . ," and he
argued for more State forest acquisition and especially the purchase
of forests in being rather than land that requires forestation. This is
certainly a good policy for the United States to follow, because a study
of the private forests of France leads us to the following conclusions,
which, at least, have a bearing on what the United States should do :

(1) Private forests, purely as permanent investments, would be largely

Acres

October, 1892

October 31, 1912

Serial number

Cubic meters,
total

Cubic
meters
per acre

Cubic meters,
total

Cubic
meters
per acre

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

24.4

7.8
21.(3

7.2
15.0
12.9
18.0
19.8
17.1
10.9

1,673

735

1,529

606

1,175

1,063

1,606

2,166

1,293

631

68.0
92.4

70.0
83.6
77.2
81.6
88.4
108.0
74.8
57.4

2,695

926

2,214

556

826

535

1,819

2,473

1,864

959

109.4
115.4

100.1
76.4
53.6
40.8
100.0
122.8
106.4
88.0

Totals

154.7

12,477

14,867

Averages

80.0

94.8

Thus the stand has increased 38 cubic meters per hectare or 15 per cent plus per acre.
The average growth per cent for this thrifty fir stand has been 6. In marking the
following rule has been adopted: "In each age class it seems necessary to cut at least 10
per cent of the stand and imprudent to cut more than 25 per cent. The amount to be
marked from the (a) small (6) average, and (c) large diameter classes is always de-
cided before the marking begins. Nothing has ever been published on this forest of X
because the owners prefer to keep the French tax assessors ignorant of the exact returns,
since they feel that taxation should not be increased simply because of their good man-
agement. For the forest student this is perhaps the most valuable demonstration
forest in France.

334 PRIVATE FORESTRY IN FRANCE

done away with unless there were laws against deforestation, or unless
the State subsidized forest property.

(2) The kind of forestry on private land that is forced by mandatory
legislation will not result in real timber production; -^ it will entail a
waste in the use of forest soils.

(3) Private forests maintained solely for revenue cannot afford to
produce the high-grade timber always required by certain industries.

(4) The private forests of France rarely yield over 4 per cent as a
permanent, investment in timber production on the capitalized value of
the soil and growing stock. Exceptions occur when cheap soil, such as
sand wastes, can be cheaply stocked and where in addition taxes may
be reduced by State laws and the owner subsidized. But the risk is
apt to be correspondingly greater.

(5) The risk from windfall, insects, fungus, fire, and changes in the
wood market is considerable. An investment in a private forest cannot
be considered as safe as many bonds that now yield 7 per cent or more
semi-annually.

(6) During eras of high prices the private forest capital or growing
stock is usually greatly reduced because of the opportunities to realize
at a profit. This puts a premium on public ownership because the State
can then supply the demand for raw material from its reserves.

(7) The best managed private forests are usually owned by the rich
or by the nobles and are not maintained alone for the money they return,
but for the dignity, pleasure, or indirect benefits which they yield. The
farm woodlot is an indispensable part of a nation's economic forest
wealth, and in France has been wretchedly managed through lack of
free technical advice and propaganda. The small owner is apt to use
too short rotations and to allow his forest to depreciate in value and
quality.

(8) The ownership by the public should be increased by purchase
from owners who are no longer able to maintain their forests properly,
and in addition the private owner should be assisted financially and
technically and should be given adequate protection from trespass and
fire.

(9) Most of the high-investment returns from forest properties are
really due to speculative increases in local values ; the advantage of these
high prices largely disappears when the property is held as a permanent
investment because the soil values and growing stock values increase
proportionately. The high profits from buying and then selling at higher
prices should not be confused with the business of permanent forest
production.

21 The timber-culture act in the United States certainly never resulted in forests.

CONCLUSIONS 335

It must therefore be concluded that forestry is a poor investment for
an individual, but an exceedingly good one for the nation, because the
nation can take part of its revenue in indirect benefits, ^^ Under a democ-
racy it seems better for the State to acquire cut-over or virgin forest soils
rather than to try to force the private owner to practice the unprofitable
business of permanent forest production if he holds his forest property
solely for its financial returns. But while the temporary owner is realizing
on his investment it is certainly incumbent upon the State to require
that the forest be maintained in a condition that will not menace the lives
and property of others. But professional foresters should avoid vague
generalities; the time has come for details about the forest and about
the forest as an investment. Be frank with the private owner and tell
him what to expect.

22 A water company in the Unitpd States that owns its watersheds would be foolhardy
if it did not practice forestry. Paper companies and other permanent corporations,
with heavy investments in machinery, nmst do all they can to perpetuate their timber
supply. But it is yet to be proved whether they would not be better off buying stumpage
from the State rather than owning all their own timber supply. Recent increases in
pulp stumpage may tend to confuse the issue, namely, permanent forest production, as
an investment.

CHAPTER XII
THE AMERICAN FOREST ENGINEERS IN FRANCE

By W. B. Greeley
Formerly Lieut. -Col. 20th Engineers, A. E. F.

Timber in Modern Warfare (p. 336). The Wood Used by Two Million American
Soldiers, A War of Transportation, Forest Preparedness in France.

The Organization of Forest Engineers (p. 338). American Woodsmen Called to
the Colors, The Man Behind the Sawmills, A Division of Forestry Troops.

The Forestry Section of the Expeditionary Force (p. 340). Its Military Or-
ganization, Geographical Distribution of Forestry Operations, District Managers, The
Headquarters Staff — PJquipping the Sawmills, Strategy in Military Lumbering, Sales
and Traffic Department, The Timberland Department.

Sawmills and Logging Equipment (p. 343). Early Makeshifts, The Heavy Saw-
mill, The Light Sawmill, The Flying Sawmill, Heavy and Light Artillery in Timber War-
fare, The Transport Problem, Value of French Highways, Motor Trucks and Caterpil-
lars, Logging Railways.

The Production of Fuel Wood (p. 347). An Enormous Problem in Itself, Fuel
Wood Cut by the Forest Engineers, The Special Fuel Supply Service.

What the Forest Engineers Accomplished (p. 348). The Beginning and the End,
The Spirit of the Forestry Troops, Winning the War with Lumber.

Cooperation with the Forest Agencies of France (p. 351). French Organiza-
tion of Timber Supplies for the War, Early Negotiations with the French Government,
The Interallied Timber Committee, Forest Acquisition in the War Zone, Scouting France
for Timber, Cutting Requirements Imposed by the French, Restrictions Upon the
Amount of Timber Cut, Meeting French Foresters on Their Own Ground, The French
View of American Operations, French Difficulties in Supplying American Require-
ments, Effectiveness of French Cooperation.

Forest Troops Loaned to French and British Armies (p. 357).

What the American Woodsmen Learned in France (p. 358).

The War a Vindication of French Forestry (p. 358).

Timber in Modem Warfare. — That timber is an essential munition
of war is demonstrated forcibly by the enormous quantities of wood which
were required by the allied armies in almost every phase of military
operations in France. The great military bases behind the lines con-
sumed lumber in vast amounts for camps, hospitals, shops, and ware-
houses. No advance could be undertaken without large supphes of
railroad ties for extending railheads into conquered territory, of bridge
timbers and road plank for throwing forward quickly built roads over
streams and shell-torn ground, and of lumber, logs, and pickets for con-
structing fortifications.

336

FOREST PREPAREDNESS IN FRANCE 337

The Wood Used by Two Million American Soldiers. — To establish the
American Army as a fighting unit in France and carry its operations to the
end of the war required 450,000,000 board feet of round or manufactured
timber and 650,000 cords of fuel wood. This represented a ton and a half
of wood for every American soldier sent overseas. Much of this material
was, of course, used in the construction of depot and supply facilities
and at base camps behind the fighting zone. But even after such
structures had been largely completed, the two million American troops
in France, fighting under the conditions which existed from the beginning
of the St. Mihiel offensive, required some 70,000,000 board feet monthly
of all classes of timber except fuel wood.

Thirty-eight and one-half per cent of this vast quantity of timber was
required in the form of lumber in small dimensions for the construction
of barracks, hospitals, and warehouses and of rough field shelters and
fortifications; 27 per cent was fuel wood; railroad ties came third, with
13^ per cent; about 9 per cent had to be furnished in large timbers for
building docks, barges, trestles, and bridges. The most difficult require-
ment to fill was the need for 39,000 piles, in lengths up to 100 feet, used
chiefly in the docks built by American engineers at various French ports.
Six per cent of the total covered the demands for telephone and telegraph
poles, wire entanglement stakes, and pickets for supporting camouflage
nets.

A War of Transportation. — In the last analysis, the war of 1917 was a
war of transportation. Nothing illustrates this fact better than the means
which had to be employed to obtain the enormous quantities of wood
required by the armies in the field and get them to the points of use.
Owing to the scarcity of ships, less than 1 per cent of the timber used by
the American forces in France was forwarded from the United States.
The difficulties in transporting such bulky material from neutral countries
like Norway and Switzerland were only sHghtly less serious. France
herself was short of manufactured products. Hence over 75 per cent
of the timber required by the American Army had to be cut from French
forests by our own engineer troops.

Forest Preparedness in France. — That France was able to supply
these vast demands was a factor in national preparedness of the utmost
importance to the allied forces, particularly to the American Army,
which was compelled to operate far from home. If France had set
about deliberately, 60 years ago, to supply the armies of the allied
nations with timber during the great war, she could hardly have built
up her forest resources more effectively than her thrift and foresight had
actually done. France contained probably 150 billion board feet of
merchantable timber at the outbreak of the war. The character and
distribution of her forests were almost ideal for the military requirements

338 THE AMERICAN FOREST ENGINEERS IN FRANCE

which actually developed. The region immediately behind and adjoining
the American sector of the front was well forested. The fir and spruce
forests of the Vosges and Jura Mountains furnished ideal timber for the
manufacture of construction lumber as well as the large timbers and long
piling which proved to be a vital necessity. Even lumbermen from
northwestern America took off their hats to some of these upland stands
of silver fir. In the Besan^on District, the American Engineers cut as
much as 65,000 board feet of saw timber to the acre. The largest tree
felled, a silver fir, had a cHameter of 56 inches and contained 5,530 board
feet. The logs cut in these softwood forests of the Eastern Mountains
averaged 6| per thousand feet. The Vosges afforded operations of
special military value because they were within a stone's throw of the
American First and Second Armies and of the supply facilities just
behind them.

A second important forest belt was traversed by the main line of
communications of the American Army, through the Loire River Valley
and across the headwaters of the Seine and Marne. This is chiefly an
agricultural region, but, as in most of France, one is seldom out of sight
of patches of woods. Its oak forests were an unfailing supply of railroad
ties, road plank, and large timbers for the construction of docks and
bridges. Some of its 200 or 240 year old oak timber attains fine dimen-
sions. A 60 inch log, the largest found in France, was cut from an oak
tree near Dijon. At the large operations near ficlaron the oak logs
averaged ten to the thousand board feet. At other hardwood camps
the average was fifteen or seventeen. This region also, with its exten-
sive areas of hardwood coppice, seemed almost to have been designed in
advance as the principal source of fuel for the American troops. In its
many plantations of Scotch pine it also furnished ready to hand material
suitable for the millions of wire entanglement stakes and small poles
required in modern warfare. A third important forest region, the
pineries of southwestern France, afforded another large supply of rail-
road ties, lumber, and piling which proved to be well located for our
great cargo ports at Bordeaux and other large American installations.
The pitch pine of this region resembles the shortleaf pine of the Southern
States. At the better sets it averaged seventeen and one-half logs per
thousand board feet and yielded a fair proportion of 50 and 60 foot piles.
For a war in which timber played such a striking part, France was indeed
well prepared.

THE ORGANIZATION OF FOREST ENGINEERS

American Woodsmen Called to the Colors. — Soon after the advance
guard of the American Expeditionary Force landed in France it was

THE MEN BEHIND THE SAWMILLS 339

foreseen that to supply our troops with timber from French forests would
require a special organization of engineers experienced and equipped for
this work. In fact one of the first requests for help from the United
States by both our French and British Allies was for regiments of trained
lumbermen. The organization of lumberjack units had actually been
begun in May, 1917, and was continued until March, 1918. By May,
1918, forty-eight companies of forest and road engineers, each 250 men
strong, had been sent to France. The core of a 49th Company was
obtained subsequently from the New England Sawmill Units, a private
organization which was sent to Old England in the early summer of
1917 to cut lumber for the British Government. These troops repre-
sented every State in the Union. Practically every forestry agency in
the country, together with many lumber companies and associations,
helped in obtaining the right type of men. The road engineers of the
United States took hold of the organization of the twelve companies of
troops designed for road construction in a similar spirit. The lumber
units were officered largely by picked men of experience in the forest
industries of America, and the road units by road and construction
engineers of exceptional technical ability.

The Men Behind the Sawmills. — The earlier units were made up
entirely from volunteer enlistments. The later units contained a large
proportion of men from the draft, selected for forestry work mainly on
the basis of their former occupations, together with many volunteers
beyond the draft age from among the experienced loggers and sawmill
mechanics of the country. But there was no distinction between vol-
unteer or drafted soldiers among the American forest engineers in France.
These men represented the best of their hardy and resourceful profession
in the United States. They came from her forests and sawmills, trained
in her woodcraft, with all of the physical vigor, the adaptability to life
in the open, and the rough and ready mechanical skill of the American
woodsman.

Special credit is due to the officers and men of the three battalions,
the 41st, 42d, and 43d Engineers, which were organized and equipped
for road construction work in connection with forestry operations.
They came to France keen to take up this task for which they too had
been especially fitted by training and experience. But the necessities
of war dictated otherwise. They landed in France to find the under-
manned Forestry Section struggling to keep up with the timber needs
of an army already twice the size of that originally intended. It was
necessary for these road builders to turn lumberjacks themselves, cutting
fuel wood, piling, or entanglement stakes as occasion demanded and
manning the new sawmills which were installed as fast as they arrived
from the United States. The road companies took hold of this work,

340 THE AMERICAN FOREST ENGINEERS IN FRANCE

to which most of them were unaccustomed, with splendid spirit and in
the end some of their mill crews made off with the laurels of certain pure
lumberjack units, in the records of the operations for production.

To meet the growing requirements of the American Army, Engineer
Service battalions were rapidly added to the forestry and road troops
during the summer and fall of 1918. At the end of hostilities, thirty-six
Service Companies were working with the 20th Engineers. The first
four of them were white troops, organized as the 503d Engineers. They
contained a large proportion of railroad men and other skilled workers
and were soon in the mills and woods and on railroad jobs, on all fours
with the forestry troops. Upon the other Service Companies, com-
posed of colored troops, fell the brunt of cutting the fuel wood which the
quartermaster was calling for by the hundreds of thousands of cords.
But several sawmill crews composed largely or entirely of black soldiers
made exceedingly creditable records.

A Division of Forestry Troops. — By the date of the armistice the
Forestry Section numbered 12,000 engineer troops, organized in the
fourteen Battalions of the 20th Engineers, and 9,000 service troops.
The Section operated from eighty to ninety sawmills during the last
two months of the war and employed some 3,600 draft horses and mules.
In addition to this vast organization about 10,000 service troops from
the Quartermaster Corps were engaged in cutting fuel wood under the
direction of forest engineer officers.

THE FORESTRY SECTION OF THE EXPEDITIONARY FORCE

Its Military Organization. — The Forestry Section grew with the size
of its task through a flexil^le development of the regimental organization
of the Army. Its engineer troops and attached service companies con-
stituted a single regiment, which functioned as a distinct Supply Service
under the Chief Engineer of the Army. Its duty was to keep all branches
of the American Expeditionary Force, from the base ports to the front,
supplied with timber. It was thus one of the far-flung Services of
Supply, "the Army behind the Army," the vast military-industrial
organization of ships, docks, railroads, factories, bakeries, repair shops,
distributing depots, and training camps in France, which did not fight
battles Imt without which no battles could have l^een won.

Geographical Distribution of Forestry Operations. — The Forestry
Section resembled a large lumber corporation. As each battalion of
troops arrived in France it was assigned to operations at points where
the best forests were available and where the production of lumber, rail-
road ties, or piling was most needed to supply the growing require-
ments of the Army. The first districts to be operated were the soft-

DISTRICT MANAGERS 341

wood forests of the Jura, directly behind the American Advance Section
and near the great distributing station at Is-sur-Tille, and the pineries
of the Landes, whose timber was rushed to Bordeaux to build the first
American docks in France. New forestry operations followed in the
Loire River Valley, along the main Hne of communications, furnishing
materials for the large depot at Gievres, for the Air Service Shops at
Romorantin and the Replacement Depot at St. Aignan. A little later
forestry troops were assigned to the fir forests of the Vosges and the oak
forests of the upper Marne, their operations ultimately extending right
up to the American front.

As the war progressed more and more sawmills were installed in the
advance zone, near Nancy, Toul, and the Alsatian frontier, where their
products could be shipped to the advance railheads with a minimum of
time and of vital transport equipment. During the last two months of
the war a flying squadron of small mills was organized to take to the
field with the First Army. This operated under the engineer officers in
charge of preparations for the St. Mihiel and Argonne offensives, supply-
ing the advance engineer dumps from day to day with bridge timbers,
railroad ties, bomb-proofing, fortification lumber — whatever was needed
most urgently at the moment and could not be forwarded in time from
the rear. Thirteen of these advance camps were operated, at times
actually under shell-fire.

The quest for timber also necessitated extending forestry operations
into the northern French Alps and the Central Plateau and many new
sawmills were set up in the Landes and at fresh locations along the main
artery of American traffic through central and northeastern France.

District Managers. — The operating districts were readjusted from
time to time as new battalions and sawmills arrived and were fitted into
the general plan. Each battalion commander was a district manager,
running from two or three up to ten or twelve mills, with his own person-
nel and supply officers, his own shipping organization, his own experts on
mill and logging equipment and his own overhead staff of millwrights and
mechanics. The battalion office received its cutting orders from the
regimental headquarters at Tours and distributed them among its opera-
tions to fit their timber, the other work on hand, and the all-important
problem of obtaining the quickest and shortest transportation of the
material to the points where it was needed. These battalion commanders,
or district managers, represented the stable geographical units in the
forestry organization. Their task was not only to keep their mills
producing the last possible foot of lumber but also to steadily develop the
resources of their territory, to locate more timber, and to master the
intricacies of getting the best possible service from their local French
railroads.

342 THE AMERICAN FOREST ENGINEERS IN FRANCE

The Headquarters Staff — Equipping the Sawmills. — These fourteen
district managers were directed from the central headquarters of the
Forestry Section, which had a staff, or departmental organization,
patterned on industrial lines. One Heutenant-colonel with the regi-
mental adjutant had charge of military administration and personnel,
with their innumerable records. A second group of officers, headed by one
of the most experienced lumbermen from the Northwest, handled the
supply and upkeep of technical equipment — sawmills, logging tools,
horses, motor trucks, steel and rolling stock for logging railroads, etc.
This department supervised the going logging and manufacturing
operations and directed the installation of sawmills and railroads at new
locations. In less than 15 months it equipped and put through ninety-
five sawmill installations, many of which required logging railroads as
well as sidings to connect with existing French lines.

Strategy in Military Lumbering. — High strategy was called for in the
location of the forestry operations. It was not only necessary to scout
for suitable timber and mill sets over practically all France; we had to
keep posted, literally, from one day to the next, on the kind of products
needed by the Army and at what points in its vast field of operations.
Changes in the materials which were needed most critically and in the
points whose requirements were most urgent were innumerable and
necessitated not only an incessant revision of cutting and shipping orders
but also frequent modifications of the plans for locating operations.

Sales and Traffic Department. — A third department at the headquart-
ers of the Forestry Section, under another seasoned lumberman, had
charge of the products manufactured and their shipment. In its hands
rested the important duty of receiving and correlating requisitions for tim-
ber from every branch of the Army, and of determining, under general
instructions from the Chief Engineer or the General Staff, the order in
which they should be suppHed. This was a task of no small difficulty and
responsibility during the summer of 1918 when orders were flying in for
three times what the Forestry Section was able to produce. This de-
partment also worked over and standardized the specifications for the
innumerable forms of timber demanded and fitted them to what our mills
and loggers could cut from French timber under pressure for the utmost
speed in production. It issued the cutting and shipping orders to the
district commanders and put all its energy and resourcefulness into pro-
viding cars or boats and getting the shipments through in time.

Let it be said in passing, that transportation was the neck — a very
small neck — of the bottle. Lack of transport equipment was by all odds
the greatest difficulty which the entire Services of Supply had to over-
come. Every conceivable scheme was employed to keep lumber and
railroad ties moving steadily to the front and other points of use, including

SAWMILLS AND LOGGING EQUIPMENT 343

fleets of motor trucks, barges, and shuttle trains of American cars on fixed
runs whenever they could be obtained. By indefatigable efforts and the
use of many expedients, the Department of Product and Shipment kept
the movement of lumber on current orders within 86 per cent of pro-
duction and the shipment of railroad ties within 72 per cent of the cut.
One officer who handled deliveries from a group of mills in the Landes
moved about 100,000,000 feet of lumber over a single railroad system in a
year's time, a record which would rank high in American lumber traffic
during normal times.

The Timberland Department. — A fourth staff department at forestry
headquarters was responsible for obtaining the standing timber for
exploitation. It organized and conducted a reconnaissance to locate
suitable forests in practically all parts of France, including the Pyrenees
and the southern Alps; passed upon all proposed acquisitions; put desir-
able purchases or condemnations through the estabfished French agen-
cies; and threshed out the terms as to price and cutting requirements.
Officers of this branch represented the Amxerican Army on the inter-
allied committee which correlated and controlled all purchases of forests
for military requirements in the French Zone of the Rear. Through
other officers it also had access to the French Army organization which
controlled the disposal of forests in the Zone of the Advance. Between
September 1, 1917, and the signing of the armistice this department
acquired some 630,000,000 feet of saw, pole, and tie timber and 700,000
cords of fuel wood. Half as much more had been located and cruised
and was in process of acquisition.

SAWMILLS AND LOGGING EQUIPMENT
Early Makeshifts. — At the outset the forest engineers were sadly
handicapped by the delay in the arrival of their sawmills and logging
equipment. Many were the expedients resorted to to make good this
deficiency. The first piles cut in the Landes were hauled to the railroad
by man power, on the running gear of army escort wagons. At another
camp ties were hewn with the most heterogeneous collection of axes
ever assembled and logged out by mule teams outfitted with bridles of
sacking — with 20-penny spikes for bits — and with harness of rope
and wire. Eight stationary French mills were taken over and operated.
These were little, under-powered affairs with very light saws. For a
carriage there was usually a little platform on miniature wheels on which
logs were fed to the saw with the bare hands or by a hand-turned crank.
Bolstered up and made over by the resourceful American mechanics,
five or six thousand feet a day was still all that most of these little plants
could turn out; and they were discarded as rapidly as American equip-
ment arrived.

344 THE AMERICAN FOREST ENGINEERS IN FRANCE

The Heavy Sawmill. — Three types of American sawmills were
employed in France and they proved to be well adapted to the varying
size of her forests and the different grades of timber. The first was a
well-powered permanent steam plant, rated to cut 20,000 feet of lumber
in 10 hours. It carried a circular head-saw with a 3-saw edger and two
cut-offs. It required a substantial installation, with a dutch oven for
the best steaming and cement mounting for the engine, but could be
set up so as to begin cutting lumber, under the pressure of war-time
urgency, in 12 or 14 days. Its ample power and weight and the sub-
stantial character of its parts permitted continuous hard driving at high
speed, the key to production. Operated for two shifts daily, these mills
turned out from 1,000,000 to 1,200,000 board feet per month. Some of
them exceeded 2,000,000 feet in their best months' runs. These sawmills
were utihzed for all of the larger timber purchases, which in France
meant areas of from 10 to 30 million feet. They were also much more
satisfactory for the larger and heavier timber. In fact, for military re-
quirements, in which dollars and cents cut no figure, the "large" mill
was regarded generally as the most effective for compact sets containing
4,000,000 feet or more of timber.

The Light Sawmill. — The second type was a much more portable mill,
adapted to the innumerable small woodlots and chateau forests of France.
It carried a 30-horsepower over-mounted engine and was rated to cut
10,000 board feet of lumber in 10 hours. It could be put up on tim-
ber foundations in 4 days. One of these mills, in fact, was moved 35
kilometers in the Landes, was reset, and began cutting its first log 47
hours after sawing the last log at the old site. These plants manu-
factured the same class and variety of products as the larger mill but
could not withstand the same degree of driving. Many of them, how-
ever, cut steadily 600,000 board feet per month; and one of them made a
month's record of a million feet of hardwood lumber and ties.

The Flying Sawmill. — The third plant was the last word in portable
sawmills — a little bolter rig running a single 36-inch saw and weighing
but 3 tons with all of its equipment. It was rated to cut 5,000 board
feet in 10 hours but could turn out much more than that. Its best work
was done on logs 16 feet and under in diameter and 10 feet or less in
length. It proved an excellent little machine for slabbing railroad ties
or sawing unedged plank such as were used extensively in field fortifi-
cations. This diminutive sawmill could be operated by a 25-horse-
power steam or gas engine of any type but was most effective in com-
bination with a 10-ton caterpillar tractor, both for operation and for its
own transportation. The rig can be taken down in 4 or 5 hours, loaded on
a couple of log wagons, moved by its own power to a new site, and reset
in a similar length of time. The bolter mill and caterpillar made ideal

THE TRANSPORT PROBLEM 345

equipment for the flying squadron of forestry troops working in the
combat zone and for short sets in small timber at any point. It was
often combined with larger plants, for slabbing small logs into ties, or
moved into the woods after the large timber had been logged — to work
up small material.

Heavy and Light Artillery in Timber Warfare. — All told, the Forestry
Section marshalled a battery of 27 large mills, 62 light mills, and 61 of
the little portables. These different types of sawmills proved to be well
adapted to operating requirements in the French forests, with their
wide variety in extent and in the size and quality of their timber. They
also afforded well-balanced equipment for the numerous and varied
demands of military operations. Sawmills, like artillery, must be adapted
to work at different ranges from the trenches. The heavy, or com-
paratively permanent, mills were well fitted for long-time operations near
permanent depots and base ports where continuous hard driving to
produce the maximum quantity of lumber was of the first importance.
The other types proved well adapted to the more temporary operations
in which mobility and speed in setting up were the principal factors.
With this complement of sawmills the Forestry Section kept from 80
to 90 milling operations going continuously, several of which emplayed
two or more machines. A 30 per cent excess of sawmills is none too
great for keeping an army supplied with timber under the strenuous
conditions which existed in France. New mills were being installed
constantly up to the day of the armistice and it was essential that this
be done without stopping production at the established plants.

The Transport Problem, — First and last, the toughest problem in
practical lumbering which the forest engineers had to overcome was the
transportation of logs from woods to sawmill and of pihng, poles, etc.,
from woods to railroad shipping point. Its difficulty was increased by
the many different kinds of ground and topography which were en-
countered. In southern France it was a succession of flat sand plains,
with occasional stretches of sand so loose as to make wheel traction
very difficult. In the hardwood forests on the plains and hills of central
and eastern France, the great obstacle was bottomless clay mud which,
in its frequent state of saturation from weeks of continuous rain, defied
almost any kind of traction put upon it.

In the fir forests of eastern France the logging conditions were more
hke those of the Adirondacks or the White Mountains. There was
much good logging ground, some steep grades, bad patches of rock and
moss, and occasional "sled snows" in wintertime. To find the right
equipment for each job was not easy. The rough and ready mechanical
skill of the American lumberjack was never displayed to better advantage.
Spool skidders and 4 and 8 wheel log wagons were the mainstays, the

346 THE AMERICAN FOREST ENGINEERS IN FRANCE

former for short-distance skidding, up to 300 yards; the latter for hauls,
up to 6 or 8 miles. Big wheels were used successfully on several jobs
for skidding distances intermecUate between those adapted to the spool
skidders and hauls requiring a log wagon. They were employed in
moving out piUng at a number of operations. Drays, or "go-devils,"
were constructed for short-distance work in mud or snow or on rough
ground at many operations; and in several instances the old-fashioned
bob-sled — for long hauls on snow roads — came into its own.

Value of French Highways. — Much of the log transportation was
facilitated greatly by the splendid system of French forest roads and sur-
faced highways. The maintenance of this wonderful network of rural
communication all over France is a phase not only of preparedness for
war but of national efficiency at all times which the United States would
do well to emulate. Logs could often be handled by motor truck to a
central mill site from several small forests within a radius of 10 or 12
miles. Enormous quantities of poles, piles, hewn ties, lumber, and fuel
wood were moved to rail by the same means. Much normal railway
traffic was, under the exigencies of the general transport situation,
handled by fleets of motor trucks and trailers.

Motor Trucks and Caterpillars. — With the motor trucks and iron-
tired tractors, which were used both in the woods and on hard roads, it
was found necessary to have two types of trailers, each of about 5-ton
capacity. The first was a high-speed trailer, with rubber tires and roller
bearings, adapted to fast work on good roads. The second was a slow-
speed trailer, with high wheels and 6-inch iron tires. This machine was
designed for work in the woods primarily, although it was often ad-
vantageous to send a string of trailers from the landings through to the
mill or railroad, without rehandhng their loads but perhaps changing the
type of power when hard roads were reached. One of the most chfficult
transportation jobs required in France was the moving of 90 and 100 foot
piling out of the Vosges Mountains. This was done with gas tractors
and iron-tired trailers, the latter fitted with special built-up bunks for
the purpose.

Caterpillar tractors did wonderful work in hauhng trailers or log
wagons over ground which was impassable to horses and to any other
type of motor equipment. These powerful machines with 8-wheeled log
wagons were the last resort in keeping logs moving through sodden clay
mud when everything else had failed.

Logging Railways. — - The forestry operations in France had to resort to
logging railroads or horse trams in many cases because of lack of horses,
the lack of suitable motor traction, cUfficulties arising from mud, swamps,
or loose sand, and in several cases because of the large quantities of
timber to be moved over distances of 2 to 6 miles. In many operations,

THE SPECIAL FUEL SUPPLY SERVICE 347

in fact, the logging railroad demonstrated its superiority, where topog-
raphy was favorable, even for sets as small as 6,000,000 feet. A difficult
area in the Vosges Mountains was logged by means of a 4,000-foot meter
gauge incHne, with an average grade of 35 per cent, down which carloads
of logs were lowered by donkey engine and cable.

The light railway sectional track, of various gauges 2 feet and under,
used by the Army at the front, was employed in many forestry operations.
It rendered good service in handhng Hght products, like poles and fuel
wood, and was used successfully at several operations for transporting
logs. It was often preferable for small jobs because laying and removal
were so fast. For extended operations, however, the forestry officers
found that 3-foot gauge track laid with 25 or 40 pound steel saved time
and cost in the long run. When our real 3-foot gauge rolling stock
arrived and steel rails were available in sufficient quantities the difficulties
of the forestry operations were materially reduced.

THE PRODUCTION OF FUEL WOOD

An Enormous Problem in Itself. — Supplying the American Army with
fuel wood was a special problem in itself, whose proportions increased
from month to month practically in a fixed ratio to the increase in the
number of American soldiers in France. Considerable supplies of fuel
wood were obtained from French stocks. Cutting the added amounts
needed was not a serious matter during the first winter of American
operations, but became an enormous task during the fall and winter of
1918-19. The monthly production necessary to keep the Army warm
and fed reached the figure of 287,000 cubic meters in December, 1918.

Fuel Wood Cut by the Forest Engineers. — The forest engineers them-
selves cut large quantities of fuel as a by-product in all their operations.
It was obtained not only from mill slabs and edgings and from treetops,
but also from the dense stands of sprouts which covered the ground in
most of the hardwood forests which were operated and which had to be
swamped out in logging the large timber. By April 1, 1919, the Forestry
Section produced 1,195,000 cubic meters of fuel wood. Owing to the
shortage of transport, however, but 50 per cent of this amount could be
moved to the points where it was needed. The supplemental production
of fuel wood was essential and it had to be localized, particularly in the
Advance Section, in the immediate vicinity of the larger bodies of troops.

The Special Fuel Supply Service. — During the first winter this was
done under the direction of the Quartermaster Corps by employing
civilian labor, by details from combat organizations, and by the assign-
ment of a few companies of infantry to this particular duty. The use of
C0Pab9,t troops for this work proved unsatisfactory and led invariably

348 THE AMERICAN FOREST ENGINEERS IN FRANCE

to large damage claims for injuries to the carefully regulated French
forests. The enormous demands in prospect during the summer of 1918
made it necessary, in any event, to organize a special fuel wood service
on a much larger scale. The Quartermaster Corps thereupon assigned
10,600 of its service troops to this duty in the Advance Section. This
project was placed under the direction of a lieutenant-colonel of the
Forestry Section with a supply officer from the Q. M. C. Thirty-three
officers and non-commissioned officers were furnished by the Forestry
Section to locate and acquire the timber needed and supervise its cutting.
The Quartermaster troops included fifteen pack trains, two wagon trains,
and a motor truck company.

This hastily assembled organization conducted thirty-eight fuel wood
camps, all told, in the hardwood coppice forests of northeastern France.
Its operations were distributed through practically all of the divisional
training areas in the Advance Section and six companies were employed
during September and October, 1918, to supply the troops constituting
the First Army. It was a task of no small difficulty to organize and
equip this enormous force of woodcutters. As usual, the question of
transport was the kernel of the problem. Every sort of available equip-
ment which could move fuel wood was utilized — tractors, motor trucks,
40 and 60 centimeter sectional track, lumber wagons, escort wagons,
two-wheeled French carts, and sleds. Chutes made of corrugated iron
were employed at several operations ; and a deal of fuel wood was dragged
or carried out to hard roads by sheer man power. Forty-centimeter sec-
tional track with light cars, moved by mule or man power, proved to
be very serviceable equipment. The fuel wood camps were placed, as
far as possible, right in the troop areas, and much of the wood, once
placed on hard roads, was distributed by the transport equipment of the
division which used the fuel.

In spite of the difficulties encountered, the special fuel supply unit
was thoroughly successful and tided the Army over the shortage of
fuel wood which would otherwise have been acute during the cold months
of 1918-19. A total of 930,000 cubic meters was cut, giving the Army
a comfortable surplus over its requirements and indeed permitting the
turning over of considerable quantities of fuel to the French when the
Advance Section was evacuated.

WHAT THE FOREST ENGINEERS ACCOMPLISHED
The Beginning and the End. — The first log was sawed by American
forestry troops at a little French mill in the Jura Mountains on Novem-
ber 26, 1917. Three days later the first American sawmill in France
began operating in a forest of Scotch pine on the Loire River. Prior
to these dates another camp of forestry troops in the southwestern

WINNING THE WAR WITH LUMBER 349

pineries had begun cutting 50-foot piles which were urgently needed for
the American docks at Bordeaux. Less than one year later, when the
armistice was signed with Germany, the forestry troops were operating
eighty-one American sawmills and cutting 2,000,000 board feet of lum-
ber, ties, piles, and poles every working day, aside from vast quantities
of fuelwood. Within this year's time over 90 per cent of the personnel
of the Forestry Section had landed in France, taken their stations, put
up their sawmills, constructed their railroad connections, and cut 300,-
000,000 board feet of lumber and railroad ties, 38,000 piles, and 2,878.000
poles and entanglement stakes. The cut of fuel wood during the same
period was some 317,000 cords.

The Spirit of the Forestry Troops. — A deal of labor, of Yankee
ingenuity, and of determination to back up the fighting troops of the
American force with the timber which they needed were required in
producing these results. Nor is it possible to describe the pressure
upon all of us during the summer and fall of 1918 when every lumber-
jack in the regiment felt the tenseness of the final grapple and put
everything he had into it. I will never forget the big mill at Eclaron
as I saw it one October night — ■ sparks streaming from its stacks, its
two carriages flashing back and forth, loads of oak logs creaking up to
the mill deck, cars being shunted about, ties loaded into them hot from
the saws, and the sober, earnest faces of the men as they worked under
the electric hghts. They were shipping 5,000 ties daily to the Argonne
offensive. That scene was typical of the eighty or more forestry opera-
tions in France during the great drive.

Winning the War with Lumber. — The daily and monthly mill cuts
afford an excellent index of the spirit which the lumberjack engineers
put into their work. Rated capacities quickly disappeared in the saw-
dust. The 27th Company, at Mouthe, holds the record for the largest
day's cut at any forestry operation. This company produced 177,486
board feet of fir lumber and timbers on a "20,000" mill in 23 hours and
25 minutes. The 37th Company, formerly Company F of the Tenth
Engineers, made the largest 20-hour cut, 163,376 feet, with the same
type of mill and product. The camp of the 26th Company, at la Cluse,
carried off the pennant for a 20-hour run with a ''10,000" mill, knock-
ing out 78,881 feet of fir lumber and timbers. Three other companies,
operating in softwood timber, made daily records with 10,000-foot mills
of from 63,000 to 68,650 feet. Several of the 10,000-foot mills made
daily records, in two shifts, of from 40,000 to 55,539 feet of hardwood
lumber, ties, and timbers.

One of the most remarkable achievements was that of the 19th Com-
pany in the 7th Battalion, which in 10^ hours cut 64,000 board feet of
oak ties with a bolter mill rated to produce 5,000 feet per shift.

350

THE AMERICAN FOREST ENGINEERS IN FRANCE

In the face of the enormous quantities of timber required to carry for-
ward the work of the American Army in ahnost all of its branches,
every possible effort was made to speed up production at the forestry
operations. Practically all of the sawmills were operated day and
night, some of them on three 8-hour shifts. More than double the
rated capacity of the plants was obtained currently at many of the
forestry operations — by continuous hard driving. The following
figures, covering 7 months in 1918, illustrate the rate at which mill
capacity was increased during the critical period of the war and also the
actual output of sawed products as compared with the rated capacity
of the plants.

Month
(1918)

Number of mills

Average rated

capacity per

10 liours,

M ft. b.m.

Average
cut per day,
M ft. b.m.

March . . . .

April

May

June

July

August —
September

25.5
303
402

542
757
797
850

302

560

665

835

1,215

1,550

1,700

The last column contains the actual daily output, including time
lost from breakdowns, shifts in location, and delays incident to the
operating of new mills.

The principal thing which made such a showing possible was the
experience and skill of the men comprising the forestry companies and
the esprit de corps which actuated their work. These qualities in its
personnel were by far the greatest asset of the Forestry Section. The
actual accomplishment of the Forest Engineers as a distinctive unit in
the American Army was summed up in these words from their command-
ing officer, shortly after the armistice was signed:

"Recent reports from the various depots and construction projects
of the American E. F. show that the Army was at the time of conclud-
ing the armistice well supplied with lumber. When ties were called for
in large quantities to support the advances of our troops at St. Mihiel
and in the Argonne they were ready. At practically every dock project
dehveries of piling and lumber were well ahead of the construction. In
other words, the Forestry troops have made good on the work for which
they were brought to France. Notwithstanding the difficulties in
obtaining equipment and transportation, notwithstanding the enormous
increase in the size of the American E. F., and the work which it under-
took over the original estimates, the Army has been given the lumber

COOPERATION WITH FOREST AGENCIES 351

which it needed, and the suspension of hostihties finds us with a sub-
stantial surplus which will be used for the restoration of France."

COOPERATION WITH THE FOREST AGENCIES OF FRANCE

French Organization of Timber Supplies for the War. — When the
advance guard of Forest Engineers reached Paris in 1917, they found
the French Government and Army highly organized for the procurement
of timber for military requirements. Each of the French Army groups
carried a Forestry Service on its staff, with an elaborate organization
extending throughout its entire section of the Army Zone. This service
requisitioned existing stocks of lumber or wood, bought or requisitioned
forests, ran sawmills with German prisoners or French engineer troops,
and operated its own transport system for distributing forest products
to all units in the Army group. This was a purely military organization
which exercised practically absolute control over all forests and forest-
grown materials in the territory designated as the Army Zone.

A distinct organization functioned in the Zone of the Rear, under
the Minister of Munitions. It centered in the Inspector General of
Timber who directed the activities of some twenty "timber centers"
embracing all parts of France outside of the Army Zone. Each timber
center consisted of a group of French engineer or forest officers who
purchased or requisitioned forests, operated sawmills with prisoners of
war or military labor, and largely controlled the disposal of timber
products cut by private agencies. They were authorized by a war-time
decree to requisition 75 per cent of the output of any sawmill at a scale
of prices fixed by the Inspector General and also made contracts for
railroad ties, piling, barracks, and other special products needed by the
armies. This was a civiHan organization, although made up largely of
militarized personnel, responsible to the French Cabinet and obtaining
and distributing its timber in accordance with the programs formulated
by the Minister of War and Minister of Munitions.

The Service of Waters and Forests under the Department of Agri-
culture maintained its customary organization and functions during
the war, although with ranks sadly depleted by the call to arms. It
administered all of the State forests and the great bulk of the communal
forests and forests owned by public institutions. Its guards and rangers
were to be found in practically every forested canton of France; and its
inspectors and conservators represented an exceptionally intelligent and
expert corps of foresters who rendered assistance of the utmost value
to the allied armies in locating suitable supphes of wood. They deter-
mined the maximum quantities of timber that could be cut from State
and communal forests without doing serious violence to their plans of

352 THE AMERICAN FOREST ENGINEERS IN FRANCE

management and placed most of these cuttings at the disposal of the
war-time supply services as preferre-d purchasers.

Early Negotiations with the French Government. — Rather extended
negotiations were necessary before the work of supplying the American
Army with timber was adjusted effectively to these existing forestry
organizations in France. Not alone were the means of obtaining forests
for American operations involved; other questions, such as the advance
of lumber and railroad ties from French stocks for the most immediate
and urgent needs of our Army, the control of American wood purchases
by the French Government, and the loan of American troops and equip-
ment to the Inspector General of Timber, had to be settled. A satis-
factory adjustment of these matters was reached in the latter part of
August, 1917, and reasonably effective cooperation with the various
French agencies then developed.

The Interallied Timber Committee. — A committee which had
existed previously for correlating the forest purchases of the French and
British supply services was expanded into the Interalhed Committee on
War Timber, with French, British, Canachan, Belgian, and American
representatives. This committee functioned under the French In-
spector General of Timber and served as a clearing house for the con-
sideration of all requests from the various armies for the purchase of
forests in the Zone of the Rear and for adjusting conflicting demands.
The purchase of any forest for a particular army had to be passed upon
by this committee before action was taken through the competent French
agencies.

Once the purchase of a particular tract of timber was approved by
the committee and sanctioned by the Inspector General, a direct cession
was obtained from the Waters and Forests Service in the case of State
or communal holdings, the cession specifying the quantity, price, and
cutting requirements. If the tract was privately owned a commission
of French forest experts undertook the estimate and appraisal of the
stumpage and the negotiations for its purchase. If a friendly purchase
could not be effected a request for the requisition of the property was
made to a still different war-time organization, called the Standing
Committee on War Timber. This board was composed of the Inspector
General, representatives of the Department of Agriculture, members of
Parliament, and prominent French lumber manufacturers. It had been
created in the course of the war as a means of developing and controlling
the general policy of the French Government for meeting military
demands for forest products, and was the final court on the condemna-
tion of private forests.

Forest Acquisitions in the War Zone. — At the same time that officers
of the Forestry Section took their places in this somewhat comphcated

CUTTING REQUIREMENTS 353

administrative machinery for the purchase of forests in the Zone of the
Rear, other American officers were stationed at the headquarters of our
Army at Chaumont and established direct connections with the French
Army organizations which controlled timber supplies in the War Zone.
Their procedure for acquiring forests, based upon martial law, was
much more direct and expeditious.

Scouting France for Timber. — Thereafter the acquisition of forests for
operation by our troops, which began to arrive in October, 1917, moved
forward rapidly. The advance guard of foresters and lumbermen who
preceded the troops were employed largely on reconnaissance to locate
suitable operating units. As each battalion of forest engineers arrived,
one or more of its officers took up the same work in their immediate
operating region. Reports on desirable areas came in thick and fast
and their acquisition was pushed through the various stages as rapidly
as possible. Notwithstanding many delays and difficulties and the
inability to carry through requisitions of private forests in some in-
stances, the Forestry Section was able to locate all of its incoming troops
at operating points without loss of time and to keep them continuously
supplied with timber.

Cutting Requirements Imposed by the French. — The French agencies
retained control of the technical requirements to be observed in all
forestry operations and frequently inspected the American cuttings.
The methods of cutting State and communal forests were drafted by
the conservator of the district and fixed in the terms of cession. Officers
of the Forest Service inspected these operations very closely. Cutting
regulations applicable to private forests were usually outlined in the
report of the expert commission in connection with the appraisal of the
timber. These were later embodied and sometimes changed in the
formal contracts made with the owners of the forests by the local timber
centers. Such contracts were almost uniformly delayed until long
after cutting had begun; but a liaison officer, representing the Inspector
General in each region, directed the methods to be followed in cutting
private forests and settled complaints from owners. In the Army Zone
these duties were discharged by an engineer officer representing the
Timber Supply Service of the Army staff.

The requirements of French forestry were rather strictly enforced
in operations on State or communal holdings. In a few instances even,
large, full-crowned fir or spruce trees had to be limbed before felling in
order to reduce the injury to young growth when they were brought to
the ground. In a few cases the terms of cession required cutting out
patches of briars to facilitate the regeneration of the forest or pulhng
up the stumps of species like beech, which the French foresters wished
to get rid of for silvicultural reasons. The piUng of slash was required

354 THE AMERICAN FOREST ENGINEERS IN FRANCE

in"^the pine and fir forests of central and eastern France, but not as a
rule in the hardwood forests where the close utilization of fuel wood left
practically nothing but small twigs. In cutting hardwood coppice
special precautions had to be taken to leave smooth, rounded stumps
which would shed water and prevent decay injurious to the new crop
of sprouts.

Restrictions upon the Amount of Timber Cut. — The most serious
restriction from the standpoint of effective logging was the limitation
on the quantity of timber which could be removed from many forests.
In the southern pineries, following the forestry system of the region,
the timber was cut clean and the requirements imposed were compara-
tively simple. In the hardwood forests and the softwood forests of
the eastern mountains only trees selected and marked by the French
foresters could be cut. These usually comprised from 15 to 40 per
cent of the actual volume of merchantable timber. In the State and
communal forests of the Vosges and Jura, containing many fine areas
of fir and spruce timber, cutting was restricted to a limited number of
"coupes" which were ready for felling under the exact methods of
management applied by the Waters and Forests Service. Blocks of
mature timber would be withheld, for example, because the regeneration
of young trees was not sufficiently advanced.

As the result of constant pressure by the American representatives
in the interally organization, the markings in these forests were often
extended to include from five to ten "annual possibilities," that is, from
five to ten times the quantity permitted to be cut in one year under the
plan prescribed for the management of the forest in question. All the
timber marked, however, was restricted to trees which could be removed
properly from the stand Jjoint of maturity and the generation of the
next crop. As a matter of fact French forestry practice is so conserva-
tive that many of these forests carried an excessive amount of old timber,
and cuttings of this character and extent were not injurious from a
purely technical standpoint. The most extreme illustration of the
strict application of French forestry requirements occurred in a few
large, rich forests where the cutting of but a small fraction of the mer-
chantable timber was allowed, this being restricted mainly to windfalls
or thinnings.

The usual forestry rules were departed from in the case of many
private forests which had been requisitioned or whose owners were
favorable to a heavier cut than would ordinarily be permitted. On a
few large hardwood areas such special concessions allowed the removal
of as much as 80 per cent of the merchantable material.

Meeting French Foresters on Their Own Ground. — The officers who
represented the American Army in the negotiations with the French

FRENCH VIEW OF AMERICAN OPERATIONS 355

foresters were quick to appreciate how little their conceptions of sound
forestry practice had yielded to the urgent demands of the war. We
could but respect this vigorous assertion of the national instinct for forest
conservation in the face of a world-wide emergency, although at times it
appeared to be carried farther than a vigorous and effective prosecution
of the war should permit. The American officers endeavored consist-
ently to meet the French foresters on their own ground, and to under-
stand and work in harmony with their technical requirements. This
was indeed the attitude of the operation commanders and of the rank
and file of the forestry troops to a remarkable degree, considering how
foreign the French forestry viewpoint was to their past experience and
habits of thought as lumbermen. The French foresters thus acquired
a large measure of confidence in the American engineers at work in their
woods, a fact which proved to be of great benefit to the Forestry Section
in the long run.

The French View of American Operations. — As a matter of fact the
French made practically no serious criticisms of the American cuttings
as far as compliance with forestry requirements was concerned. The
common sense and practical understanding of the situation on the part
of the average French forester made many requirements less burden-
some in practice than they threatened to be in the formal contract.
The criticism of the French was cUrected chiefly against the American
methods of utilizing timber, particularly the 7 and 9 gauge circular
saws with which our mills were equipped. Accustomed for centuries
to the closest possible utilization of valuable timber, with human labor
and rate of production wholly secondary considerations, and to the use
of narrow bandsaws of a thinness approached only in light work in
planing-mills or wood-working factories in the United States, the wide
kerf eaten out of the logs by the heavy American circular saws was
anathema to the thrifty French. Nor were they convinced by the
American argument that heavy equipment was necessary to stand up
under the continuous hard driving required to get the maximum pro-
duction from our mills and that the war would be won by volume of
output rather than a minimum of waste.

A related question was that of the class of products cut from large,
high-grade timber. The State foresters could not forget how they had
sought from time immemorial to make the public forests of France supply
the clear, high-grade timbers, in large sizes, needed by her industries.
When an American captain under the pressure of ''rush" orders cut
such logs into ties or scantling, as occasionally happened, the incident
was apt to become a subject for grave discussion by the Inspector General
at his monthly meeting with all the Allied forestry chiefs. The upkeep
of their wonderful system of forest roads and surfaced highways was

356 THE AMERICAN FOREST ENGINEERS IN FRANCE

another thing which the French forester kept close at heart and which
the impatient American was apt to put aside. Thoroughgoing repairs
on all of the roads used in our operations, however, were made by the
forest engineers before they left France.

French Difficulties in Supplying American Requirements. — In
judging the effectiveness of the cooperation of the French with the
American Forestry Section, it must not be forgotten that the war brought
many difficulties and problems to the forest agencies of the country,
and that these were vastly increased by the presence of the American
Army. Not only did France have to supply her own vast military re-
quirements from her limited forest resources as well as the bulk of the
lumber needed by the British, Belgian, and American forces; she had
also to meet the urgent needs of her civilian population and she had to
foresee and provide for the restoration of the sixth of her territory which
the Germans occupied. Moreover, the French are an exceedingly
democratic and individualistic nation. Forest conservation and the
sacredness of property rights are two of their most cherished and deeply
rooted characteristics. The war administration had to hold the political
support of these people during four and a half years of stress and sacrifice.
Any source of dissatisfaction or unrest strengthened the "defaitists,"
who sought an early peace at any terms.

Discontent over the inroads upon French forests was already rife
during the winter of 1917. During 1918 it assumed the proportions of
an organized movement. It became the subject of interpellations on
the floor of Parliament. The opposition of the turpentine workers in
the Landes against what was regarded as a depletion of the forests upon
which their livelihood depended necessitated a change in the spring of
1918 in the methods of purchasing timber in that region. Thereafter
all forest acquisitions in southwestern France had to be passed upon
and approved by a local commission on which the "resiniers" were
represented. During the summer of 1918, when the Germans were at
the very gates of Paris, the whole system of acquiring forests for military
requirements in the Zone of the Rear had to be reorganized, with new
officials representing the "opposition" in Parliament in positions of
control.

Effectiveness of French Cooperation. — In consideration of these
difficulties with which the French Government was confronted, its
cooperation in supplying the American Army with timber must, in all
fairness, be regarded not only as a vital factor in the success of our
military operations but also as effective as the circumstances permitted.
It was inevitable that the French should view the cutting of their forests
for war purposes differently from the Americans; and that their inborn
attitude toward forests and their training in forest conservation should

FOREST TROOPS LOANED 357

find expression in a degree of caution and control which the impatient
Yankee could not understand. The whole French attitude toward the
war was different from our own. Wars come and pass, in every genera-
tion, but forests remain as a vital element in national economy.

Notwithstanding procedure that was often cumbersome and delays
that were often vexatious, notwithstanding restrictions that at times
seemed petty and unnecessary, the American Army, first and last, was
amply supplied with timber from the French forests. At no time were
the operations of the forest engineers seriously handicapped either by
lack of timber or by the requirements which governed its removal. The
slowness and conservatism of the French administrative machinery was
offset largely by the extraordinary ability and personal force of in-
dividual French forest officers. It is to these men who quickly grasped
the requirements of the American Army and the American manner of
doing things and who found a way through nearly every difficulty that
the success in obtaining the standing timber needed for our operations
in France was largely due.

FOREST TROOPS LOANED TO FRENCH AND BRITISH ARMIES

One of the first acts of the American Government after entering the
war was to promise a regiment of lumbermen to the British Army.
Shortly after another regiment was assured tentatively to the French
Army, a promise later confirmed and enlarged by the Commander-in-
Chief of the Expeditionary Force. The enormous increase in the size
of the American forces in France subsequently determined upon, with
their corresponding demands for timber, made it impossible to fulfill
these agreements until after a fair start had been made toward supplying
our own troops with the material essential to their initial operations in
France.

In February, 1918, however, it was possible to assign a battalion of
forest troops to each of the French and British forces. The battalion
loaned to the French arrived and was established at operations selected
by the Inspector General of the French Timber Service in March, 1918.
It functioned as an American unit in all respects except that its forests
were provided by the French Government and its products were furnished
directly to the French Army. This battalion operated for French re-
quirements until February 1, 1919, cutting over 13,000,000 feet of
sawed material, 125,000 pieces of round products, and 46,000 cubic
meters of fuel wood. Its work elicited the warmest praise from the
French Government.

The battalion assigned to the British Army was torpedoed on the
transport Tuscania and was unable to begin lumber manufacture in

358 THE AMERICAN FOREST ENGINEERS IN FRANCE

France until May, 1918. It worked for the British forces until October
of the same year, cutting over 14,000,000 board feet of lumber and
railroad ties and beating all of the Canadian and English units under
the British Director of Forestry in its record of production. With these
operations under its direction, the Forestry Section of the American
Army assumed a truly allied character and was able to render valuable
assistance to our comrades in arms on the far-flung battle line.

WHAT THE AMERICAN WOODSMEN LEARNED IN FRANCE

The American woodsmen in the forest regiments have learned much
from their experience in French forests. The change from new world
to old world methods of cutting and from new to old world viewpoints
toward the forest was very sharp. The average lumberjack arriving in
France was scornful of the restrictions imposed by the French foresters
— of the smooth hardwood stumps which he was required to cut, of the
limited felling which he was permitted to do in many fine stands of timber,
of the sawing of big trees level with the ground, and of the watchfulness
to prevent injury to seedlings and saplings. But as the months in the
French forests passed by most of the American soldiers appreciated the
fundamental common sense behind these forestry rules. Particularly as
they came to know the French country people and to appreciate the
scarcity of wood on their farms and in their fireplaces, they began to
understand the whole thing as a natural outgrowth of French economic
life, on a par with their intensive agriculture. They sensed forestry as
simply another expression of French thrift, of the national genius for
making the most out of their limited resources.

The average American lumberjack left France with a far different
attitude toward her forestry practice than he had upon arrival. How
lasting the effects of this first-hand experience in old world methods will
be is problematical. But certainly many of these thousands of woods-
men have brought back to our own forests a totally new conception of
their economic value and of practical means for conserving it.

THE WAR A VINDICATION OF FRENCH FORESTRY

Let it be emphasized in closing that probably never in the history of
the world has the forest policy of a nation been so clearly vindicated as
was that of France by the war of 1914. Wood was one of the most vital
military necessities, and the allied armies drew the great bulk of their
supplies from the forests of France. More than that, her forests had a
strategic value for defense of the highest importance. For the forest
barriers in northern France and for the abundant supplies of timber
available to the battle lines, the allied world must thank the patience

WAR A VINDICATION OF FRENCH FORESTRY 359

and foresight with which the French nation has built up its forest re-
sources. France could have kept on supplying the vast armies on her
soil for one or two years more, if need be, without cutting seriously into
her forest capital. Without these ample reservoirs of timber, the trans-
port difficulties being what they were, the handicap which the allied
armies would have suffered would have been almost insurmountable.
Apart from its value to her peace-time life and industries, the forest
policy of France has been vindicated as a capital element of national
strength in the greatest crisis of her history.

APPENDIXES

(A) The Forest and Springs (p. 361).

(B) The Forest, From a Physical, P^conomic, and Social Viewpoint (p. 381).

(C) Silvics of Important Forest Species. Lists of Trees, Shrubs, and Plants Used
in Reforestation in the Mountains (p. 387).

(D) Statistics on Public and Private Forests over Five Thousand Acres in Area
(p. 409)

(E) Typical Reforestation Areas in the Mountains (p. 422).

(F) Specifications for Tapping Maritime Pine and for Fixing Shifting Sand Dunes
(p. 429).

(G) State and Communal Timber Sale Regulations (p. 438).

(H) French Forest Literature (in Library, Nancy Forest School) published 1870-
1912, classified as follows: (a) Forestry Proper, etc., (b) Forest Law, (c) Forest Educa-
tion, (d) Engineering (Reboisement), (e) Forest Administration, (/) Miscellaneous, (g)
Botanical and Silvical (p. 448).

(I) German Comment on French Forestry with a Comparison with German Meth-
ods, by Dr. Martin, of Tharandt (p. 469).

(J) The Forests of Alsace-Lorraine (p. 495).

(K) Original Working Plan Data (p. 500). (1) State Forest of Grande-Cote (Jura)
(p. 500); (2) State Forest of Ban d'fitival (Vosges) (p. 508); (3) Communal Forest
of Mont Gloire (Savoie) (p. 511); (4) Communal Forest of Lardies (Basses-Pyrenees)
(p. 512); (5) State Forest of La .Joux (Jura) (p. 512); (6) Communal Forest of Fillinges
(Haute-Savoie) (p. 515); (7) Communal Forest of Burdignin (Haute-Savoie) (p. 516);
(8) State Forest of Parc-et-St. Quentin (Oise) (p. 517); (9) Communal Forest of Thiez
(Haute-Savoie) (p. 517).

(L) Model Insurance Calculations of Damage by Fire (p. 534).

360

APPENDIX A

THE FOREST AND SPRINGS

(By PIuffel)

Springs and Their Origin. — Before approaching the difficult and controversial
question of the influence of forests on the maintenance of springs/ it is necessary to
define exactly what is meant by a "spring," and what is the origin of springs.

" A spring," says Littre " is the water which issues from the ground at the origin of a
stream."

Nowada\'s everyone admits that springs are fed by the percolation of water into
the earth derived from the atmosphere. It has been calculated = that the total flow
of water into the ocean of the principal rivers of the globe represents only about three-
sevenths of the water which fafls into their basins, derived from atmospheric sources.
There is therefore sufficient rainwater alone to feed the water courses, without its
being necessary to seek for other sources of supply, as Descartes has done.

Percolation, or infiltration, is the slow penetration through fissures and through
interstices in the soU, of water derived from rain, from the melting of snows, from the
condensation of atmospheric vapors on the surface of vegetation, and on the super-
ficial parts of the soil.

These waters, after penetrating into the soil, accumulate in certain parts and form
what is called subterranean sheets of water.

In fact the deeper the water penetrates the less subject does it become to evaporation,
and finally it reaches a point where it has passed beyond the region of drainage, and
that tapped by the roots of plants. It is thus, generally speaking, that subterranean
sheets of water are formed below this region, which, at any point where there is a de-
pression in the soil at their level, come out as springs.^

The level of the subterranean sheet of water in permeable soils is more or less deep,
according to whether there have been recent rainfalls or not and whether these have
been abundant or scanty. Evaporation prevents it from establishing itself habitually
at the surface of the soil; the effect of drainage, and the suction'of plant roots will equally
prevent the entire saturation of a more or less substantial stratum of soil, or one more
or less deeply situated, according to the nature of the flora. Thus it will be found that
under a forest, the stratum of soil dried by roots is appreciably deeper than that below
a piece of ground under cultivation.

Other things being equal, the level of "phreatic" ^ waters will be all the lower: if
the soil is more permeable; if the rains have been less abundant or less recent; if evapora-
tion has been greater; if the stratum drained by the roots of plants is deeper.

1 Translated (literally) from ficonomie Forestiere, G. Huffel, Vol. I, pp. 83-124,
Chapter III, "The Forest and Springs."

^Elisee Reclus, "La Terre."

'See the "Traite de Geologic" of M. de Lapparent, 4th edition 1900, Vol. I, p. 195
and following pages.

■* Daubrce ("Les Eaux Souterraines." Vol. I, p. 19) has introduced this term to
designate the sheet of subterranean water the nearest to the surface, because this is
the one which feeds the wells.

361

362 APPENDIX

In order to understand precisely the nature of springs, it is necessary to distinguish
three different types: those in permeable soils, which are called "thalwegs"; those in
stratified soils; and those in soils where fissures abound.

Let us take the case of a surface composed of permeable ground which is perfectly
horizontal; under this the water which filters through wiU form a sheet of which the
surface will be level, and will approach more nearly to the surface of the soil, according
to whether the precipitations have been more abundant or more recent.

This point established, then if the plain happens to be approached by a valley the
latter will produce upon it an effect of drainage so that its level will become lower the
nearer it approaches the valley. If, at the base of this valley there is a stream of water
running, this stream will be fed by the sheet; thus it is that in all valleys composed of
permeable soils, to the right and left of the river bed, similar sheets of water are to be
found, and these will feed it, and do not always originate from the infiltration of its
waters, as has been said.^

If the surface of the soil is uneven the subterranean sheet will have an undulated
surface, reproducing in an attenuated form the unevenness of the ground. One sees
that in such soil the depth of wells will attain its maximum in the ridges, its minimum
in the thalwegs.

It is this fact that has been perfectly verified in the sands of the Sahara, for instance,
and in the plains of permeable soil in the basin of the Seine.

So long as the depressions in the soil do not reach as far down as the sheet of water
formed by infiltrations the latter has no possible outlet. But as soon as it comes in
contact with the bottom of a "thabveg" it overflows in springs of a kind which are
only found in "thalwegs." These springs, which are called "sommes" in Champagne,
are rarely perennial; they go up and down the valleys to the length of many kilometers
according to the oscillations of the subterranean sheet of water. In Picardy, a province
of notably permeable soil, the springs formerly came to light at a very considerable
distance up the river from their present point of emergence, a circumstance which is
generally attributed to the influence of deforestation.^

Let us now consider the case of a stratified soil formed of strata of varying degrees of
permeability. This is a case of most frequent and most simple occurrence. After
having passed through the permeable soil the water will be arrested by strata that are
impermeable, or are so in a lesser degree ; if the surface of contact of the two soils arrives
at a point intersected by a valley there will be along the whole line of intersection a
"spring level," as it is called. If the strata of the soil are inclined in a certain direction
the springs will be more numerous on the slope of the mountain corresponding to that
direction. They will rise at points where the line separating the strata of the soil
takes a turn, or else at points where this line is cut by a "thalweg" or ravine. It is
easy to see that there may be several spring levels along the slopes of the same hill;
it is only necessary for this that the strata become less and less permeable. Faults,
or a thousand other geological accidents, can alter the regular course of springs.

Nothing is more variable than the hydrological course of formations which owe their
permeability entirely to fissures.^ It generally happens that limestone and sandstone
formations which are most cracked at the surface, are quite compact at their bases.
Water cannot form continuous sheets in these; it concentrates therefore in pockets
and fissures; the overflow no longer takes place in regular lines, as in other soils, but at
veritable points of selection. Springs have often a very considerable underground
course; they flow from the waters which have filtered through from vast plateaiis; they

^ The usual direction in the movement of subterranean waters towards a river can
be reversed,' when the latter is in flood. Daubree has shown this very clearly in the
case of the subterranean sheet of water extending along the course of the Rhine in
Alsace. ^ De I^apparent. ' De Lapparent, op. cit., p. 199.

THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 363

are generally fed by a series of intercommunicating reservoirs. Sonaetimes also they
have a considerable and remarkably regular flow. This type of spring is very common
in the Jura; the springs of Cuisance, Luzon, and a great number of others furnish good
examples. The famous fountain of Vaucluse belongs to the same type.

Space will not permit us to concern ourselves here with this last category of springs,
which do not, properly speaking, come under the definition given above, because they
are only waste weirs of a lake or a series of subterranean lakes.

Special Remarks on the Action of Forests on Springs. — Do forests favor the
feeding of springs? Formerly there was no doubt on this subject. Our fathers always
considered forests and springs as co-partners and Buff on wrote, » "The more a country
is cleared the poorer it becomes in water." The Forest Code of 1827 only sanctions
the general belief of the period when it authorizes the forest officials to oppose the
clearing of forests with a view to protecting the existence of the springs.' One must
allow that such an ancient, prevalent, and persistent belief constitutes a strong pre-
sumption in favor of the utilitarian purpose of a forest; common opinion can only be
the result of proved facts.

It is only recently that doubts have been expressed on this point. Cases have been
quoted where reafforestation has reduced the output of the springs. On the other
hand, marshy grounds have been known to lose their superficial water in consequence of
reafforestation, and it was concluded from this fact that the forest acted as a kind of
pump to inhale in bulk, by means of its roots, the free water of the soil and retm-n it
to the air by means of the evaporation of its leaves. It might, however, be objected
to in this last case that it is equally admissible that forests have caused superficial
stagnant water to disappear by favoring their infiltration.

It is an extremely difficult and delicate matter to ascertain by direct observation the
influence of the afforestation or deforestation of a soil on the output of a spring. It
is in fact only by chance in many cases that we are able to recognize exactly the place
whence the waters filter which we find oozing forth at a given point; the natural
reservoirs may be very far removed " from the place where they appear above ground
and be separated from them by valleys, heights, etc. The exact defining of the feed-
ing basin of a spring is sometimes a very complicated problem, enough to embarrass
the most experienced of geological specialists. The direction of the springs, too, is
often altered by works such as the cuttings made for roads or railways, for galleries in
mines, etc., undertaken very far away from the place where these waters become visible.
Certain springs are so superficial that shallow ditches or simple farm drainage can
deflect them. Finally the actual output of a spring depends especially on the rainfall
of the current year, a factor which is always in the preponderance. A certainty could
only exist in the case where reafforestation or clearings practiced on a large scale would
have affected to a permanent and notable degree the output of all the springs of a given
region. It has often been asserted that this was the case, and was taken to prove that
the general level of the waterflow had diminished in many parts, in proportion to the
degree of clearing practiced locally; Ijut it is well to recognize that published observa-
tions are far from being entirely reliable or irrefutable." Whatever may be the diflfi-

«Histoire de I'Acad^mie Royale de France," 1739, "M^moire sur le R6tablissement
et la Conservation des Forets."

9 Art. 220.

1" To quote only one instance: The waters which have filtered through into the green
sand of the basin of the Meuse are found again at Paris at a depth of 1,798 feet (artesian
wells of Crenelle), or at 1,903 feet (wells of Passy), and this may well appear at the
surface of other extremely remote points.

" We should be led away too far if we reproduced here even a small part of the mass
of observations more or less precise on this subject. A great number will be found

364 APPENDIX

culties of experimenting and even of making direct observations on the action of forests
bearing upon the feeding of springs, some hght has necessarily been thrown on this
question from several directions.

The different attempts which have been made have not all proved equally successful;
too great a number, especially those directed toward measuring directly the quantity of
water which passes through soil covered with varied vegetation, seem practically of
very little value. It does not concern us to discuss them here; we would only say that
all measurements and weighing performed in a laboratorj' can do nothing toward
solving the problem.

It can only be solved by practical experiments on a large scale, and in the forests
themselves. To the "Station des recherches Suisse" must be given the honor of having
inaugurated such an experiment, thanks to the initiative of its zealous director, Pro-
fessor Bom-geois.^^

M. Bourgeois has chosen in the Emmenthal a fresh green valley in the hollow of the
northern buttresses of the Alps two httle streams, the Rappengrabli and the Sperbel-
graben,!^ secondary affluents of the Emme, whose upper reservoirs could not be better
adapted to the researches he proposed to undertake. With an area of about 198 to
247 acres each they have the appearance of almost entire circles, very clearly defined
by a ridge in the form of a horseshoe. The general aspect of the thalweg (toward the
southeast) is identical as well as the nature of the soil and the altitude (which varies
from 3,21.5 to 4,035 feet in the case of the Rappengrabli, and from 2,953 to 3,937 feet
for the Sperbelgraben) . The first is almost entirely composed of pasture land and has
only 18 per cent of forest disposed in a thin ribbon along the stream, in the thalweg;
the second (Sperbelgraben) is covered for 91 per cent of its extent with a splendid
irregular growth of fir.

With the conciu"rence of the Federal hydrographical office, a depositary has been
installed upon the two little streams, at the point where they issue from the almost
enclosed basins which constitute their upper valleys, permitting their outflow to be
measured with the utmost exactness. On the other hand rain gauges have been placed

reported among the periodicals on forestry, especially in the "Revue des Eaux et
Forets" (see particularly the volumes for the years 1866, 1867, 1868). A Swiss en-
gineer, R. Lauterburg, quoted by M. Weber in the "Encyclopedic Forestiere de Lorcy,"
asserts that the destruction of forests carried out in the canton of Tessin, principally
during the first half of the 1 9th century, must have reduced by a quarter the minimum
outflow of the Adige at the period of low water. A similar phenomenon has been
reported of the Po. Observations undertaken with the greatest care in Prussia by
M. G. Hagen (quoted by I\L Lehr in the "Handbuch der Forstwissenschaft") seem to
prove conclusively that there has been a reduction in the total flow of nearly all the
rivers which have been observed (for instance the Elbe, Mosefle, Vistula, Pregel, Memel)
in the coarse of the second half of the last century, but nothing proves that this phenome-
non is connected with the deforestation which was taking place at the same time.
M. Henry, a professor at the "ficole National des Eaux et Forets," has also collected a
number of interesting and well-proved facts in a communication made in 1901 to the
"Societe des Sciences de Nancy" under the title "Le Role des Forets dans les Circula-
tions des Eaux." "Le Journal Suisse d'ficonomie Forestiere" (1898) reports some
observations of M. de Rothenbach which prove, in a manner which appears to be con-
clusive, the influence of forests on the abundance of water in the springs which supply
the city of Berne, etc.

12 The premature death of M. Bourgeois on the 8th September, 1901, has removed
one from whom the science of forestry had much to hope. He was under 46
years of age. His work in the Emmenthal is being carried on by his worthy suc-
cessor, Professor Egler; up till the present (July, 1903) no result of it has been
published.

" See Sheet No. 197 of the map of the "fitat-Major Suisse " at 1/25,000. The experi-
ments took place about 21.1 miles east (airline) of Berne in the canton of the same name,
47°1' north latitude and 5°32 (about) east longitude (of Paris).

THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 365

at various altitudes, indicating in an exact manner the quantity of rain which falls
into the two basins."

The observations are made daily, and were begun in 1900.

There wiU, in the future, perhaps be occasion to simplify the depositary employed for
the gauging of the outflow by substituting, for example, self -registering apparatuses for
the intermittent measurements now being effected. ^^

It is also doubtful whether these two little streams exactly give off (in the visible
part of their course) all the water which filters into their basins. It is probable that
it is so; but no one can positively assert that there does not exist some fissure of the
subsoil where masses of water accumulate, by means of which they are lost, and escape
observation. The installation of rain-gauges in a wooded region would also be very
difficult if one wished to collect all the water drawn from the atmosphere by condensa-
tion on the branches, water of which only a part reaches the soil by rolling down the
trunks, etc. This does not prevent the experiences gained in the Emmenthal from
constituting an essay of ih^ greatest interest, in view of the solution of a question as
controverted as it is important. The installation of these instruments will be epoch
making in the science of forestry, and one cannot but be grateful to Professor Bourgeois
for taking the initiative in an experiment which we hope will not remain isolated. It
is with impatient curiosity that we await the result of the measurement in the two little
basins of the Bernese Emmenthal.

In view of the difficulty which the direct study of the influence of forests on the feed-
ing of springs presents, an attempt has been made to simplify the question by examining
how the presence of woodlands modifies the cUfferent factors uponjwhich the abundance
of springs depends.

This abundance is evidently the result (Ij of the quantity of water which comes from
the soil; (2) of the proportion of this water which, having filtered through the ground,
has reached the subterranean sheet, of which the springs are apparently the overflow.
Our study therefore divides itself naturally into two parts. The first concerns that
which is known of the influence of forests on the quantity of water which reaches the
soil. The second is devoted to the influence of forests on the proportion of that water
which filters through to the subterranean sheet. These two elements of the question
will form the subject of the following paragraphs.

Influence of Forests on the Quality of Atmospheric Water which Reaches the Soil. —
Water which reaches the ground is derived from three principal sources:

1. From rains, snows, hail, etc., which, forming on the upper strata of the atmos-
phere, are precipitated on the ground.

2. From the condensation of vapor upon the surface of vegetation, when this is
colder than the air itself; water thus condensed reaches the ground in a solid or in a
liquid condition, in the latter case either in falling through the air or in roUing down
stalks.

"The gauging apparatuses were installed under the direction of "M. rmgenievu" en
chief de Morlot," according to the plans of "M. Tingenieur Epper," employed in the
Federal service. When the outflow is weak it is directly measured by diverting the
waters into a gauged basin and noting the mass of water coUected in a given time;
when the water is plentiful it is made to run through one or two or three channels,
terminating in orifices with rectangular sections where the outflow is calculated accord-
ing to the formula indicated by the French engineer, M. Bazin ("Annales des Fonts et
Chaussees, Vol. XVI, 18S8, and XIX, 1890), by estimating the bulk of the sheet of
water passing on to the waste weir.

1^ Since our first visit to the Emmenthal in 1900 the wish expressed above has been
gratified. In April, 1903, self -registering apparatuses have been installed on the two
streams; at the same time the apparatuses for gauging the snow and rainfall in their
basins have been improved.

366 APPENDIX

3. From condensation taking place on the superficial parts of the soil itself, upon
its covering of dead leaves, where the ground is wooded.

We will begin bj^ discussing this last source of the feeding of the soil by water, not
because it is without importance, but because its relative importance has not yet been
discovered. ^^

In the previous chapter it has been shown in detail, that the presence of forests
increases the rainfall in a very marked degree.

This result has been incontestably obtained, at least in the case (.unique it is true) "
noted at the Research. Station of Nancy. During 33 consecutive years, without any
divergences, it has been proved by observation that, while in the center of the forest of
Haye (17,297 acres of beech, hornbeam, and oak) there is a rainfall of 33.4 inches an-
nually in the open, on a piece of groimd cleared for about 5 acres, while on the other
hand only 31.4 inches fall on the borders of the forest, and 25.6 on a similar piece of
ground some distance off; and it is to be remembered that this difference in the rainfall
occurs in the same ratio, each year at every season, whatever may be the direction of
the winds, and is only shghtly altered without being reversed by the total amount of
rainfall during the year.

The measurements of M. Fautrat, also given above; those of M. de Pons in the forest
of Trongais (Allier) although less rehable because they extend over a smaller period of
years; as well as many others carried out in Germany, Austria, and Russia, in Anglo-
India, etc., lead one to beheve that this phenomenon is common to all countries.

If the summits of wooded masses are more bedewed than the neighboring fields,
does the same hold good for the soil in a forest?

Here, incontrovertible observations are much more rare.

It is not enough in fact, to place a rain gauge under the trees in order to arrive at
even an approximate idea of the quantity of water which reaches the soil of the forest.
As Mathieu already observed 30 years ago, the quantity of water collected will vary
in a singular degree, according as one puts the rain gauge near the trunk sheltered under
the network of big branches, or under a gap in the leafage of the summits, or under the
center of a branch, or at the extremity of this same branch which will drain into it
like a gutter, in emptying into it all the water or all the snow fallen on its surface, and
upon that of the upper branches. M. Boppe ^^ has shown that rain gauges placed under
the same tree, at very short distances from one another collect quantities of water
varying to an unbelievable degree.

Finally a procedure such as this does not take into account the quantity of water
which reaches the soil by running down stalks, and whose proportion may be 15 to 20
per cent, perhaps even more of the annual rainfall, even if this water is derived from
rain, or is directly drawn from the atmosphere by means of condensation on leaves or
on stalks.

It is for this reason that no mention wiU be made here of the results obtained in
France or abroad by means of ordinary rain-gauges placed under trees. The only

i^Giseler, quoted by M. Ney ("Der Wald und die Quellbildung," Metz, 1901)', has
proved by experiment that in a tube of gla.ss maintained at 0° c, and placed in a room
where the temperatm-e remained uniformly equal to — 4, 5 c. a quantity of water was
condensed in one year equal to a i-ainfall of 13.8 inches. It is superfluous to remark
that this ex-periment as well as many others effected in laboratories in the cause of
agronomy have no real value. Things happen entirely differently in nature, than in
the conditions rendered obligatory for the purposes of experiment.

" Since January 1, 1903, new experiments have been undertaken upon our initiative
at different points of the French Vosges, with a view to verifying the generaUty of the
facts observed in the neighborhood of Nancy.

1* " Regenmessungen unter Baumkronen," 11th number of the " Mitteilungen
aus dem forstlichen Versuchewesen Oesterreichs," Vienna, 1896.

THE FOREST AND SPRINGS

367

really reliable data are those obtained by means of the simple and reliable depositary
invented by Mathieu in 1867, which has been retained at the Research Station of Nancy,
during 32 years of observations. Here is the description of it, taken from the inventor
himself: !»'

"La Station des Cinq-Tranchees, situated about 5 miles to the west of the town of
Nancy, at a height of 1,247 feet, is situated in the midst of a large wooded plateau,
'La Haye,' which the limestone strata form of the lower oolith. Two rain-gauges are
placed there; one in the middle of the wood, under a polewood of beeches and horn-
beams, moderately compact, of about 40 years of age in 1866. The other, at a short
distance from the preceding, is in the middle of an open space of about 5 acres, adjoining
the ' Maison Forestiere des Cinq-Tranchees.'

"The quantity of rain water which a gauge receives, when placed in a forest, varies
with the position of the instrument in dense foliage or in openings. The forest rain-
gauge is especially constructed to avoid this source of possible mismeasurement; it is
provided with a receptacle of large dimensions, of which the circular surface is exactly
equal to the projection of the top of one of the poles of the clump.^" The stem of one
of these passes through the center, and is surrounded by a kind of collar; thanks to this
arrangement, the water which runs down the trunk can be collected, be it the result of
prolonged rainfall, or of a dense mist, or the effect of a thaw in producing the melting
of snow, or of hoar frost on the branches."

These observations began in 1867 and were continued until 1898 when an accident
happening to one of the instruments prevented them from being carried on longer.
They embrace, however, a period of 32 years.

The following table gives a resume of the results obtained: ^^

SUMMARY OF MONTHLY AVERAGES OF RAINFALL OUTSIDE AND
INSIDE THE FOREST

Montha

Average rainfall in inches outside
the forest

Average rainfall in inches inside

the forest

Per cent of
rainfall
actually
received

1867-77

1878-88

1889-98

1867-98

1867-77

1878-88

1889-98

1867-98

soil

May-October*. . .
November-April

16.7
14.9

20.2
15.2

19.2
13.8

18.7
14.6

14.8
14.0

17.8
14.9

17.2
13.5

16.6
14 2

96.9

Totals for year-

31.6

35.4

33,0

33.3

28.8

32.7

30.7

30.8

92.4

* The figures for the individual months have been omitted and the data rearranged.

A comparison of the foregoing figures will show us that, for a certain number of
months, especially in winter, the rain-gauge placed imder cover collects the greatest

19 "Meteorologie Comparee Agricole et Forestidre; rapport a M. le sous-secretaire
d'fitat, etc.," of 2.5 February, 1878, p. 4. In this report, pubhshed by the "Imprimeri,
National," Mathieu gives an account of the results of the first eleven years of observa-
tions.

2" This pole was a young hornbeam of about 41 years of age at the beginning of the
experiments, of a regular shape and with well crested top.

21 This table is borrowed from the work by M. de Bouville already quoted: "Observa-
tions de meteorologie . . . de la Station de Recherches de f ficole National des
Eaux et For^ts," Paris, 1901.

368

APPENDIX

quantity of water. A similar fact had already been observed in 1878 and 1890 in the
reports published by Mathieu and M. Bartet ^ on the results obtained in those years by
the "Station de recherches" of Nancy.

This is the more instructive, inasmuch as it is the winter rains which are the most
important from the point of view of the feeding of springs.

The fact is very natm-ally explained by the condensation of aqueous vapor on the
considerable surface presented by the crests of forest trees.^^

At all s<;asons of the year and all hours of the day the trees are, in fact, colder than
the surrounding atmosphere. Nevertheless the difference is greater in summer than
in winter, and during the day rather than at night. It is also greater at the base of the
trunk than among the branches.

Here are some figures on the subject. The Swiss observations give results recorded
on an average of 12 years; those in Bavaria were xmdertaken during two years only:

DIFFERENCES (IN CENTIGRADE DEGREES) BETWEEN THE TEM-
PERATURE OF THE TREES * AND SURROUNDING AIR

Larch (near Interlaken)

Spruce (near Berne)

Beech (near Porrentruy)

Miscellaneous species (Bavaria)

Spring

Summer

Autumn

2.1

3.3

1.0

3.4

4.1

2.2

1.5

3.2

1.5

1.3

1.7

0.7

0.8

1.2

0.4

0.4
0.9
0.3
1.3
1.4

* In the Swiss experiments the temperature of the tree was taken at breast-height,
while in Bavaria it was in the branches of the crown.

These reports suffice to give us the key to the important phenomenon noted above.
Trees with considerably spreading crowns form very excellent condensers of vapor
from atmospheric water which they conduct to the soil in a hquid condition; this process
is naturally more marked at the beginning and end of winter, periods when the atmos-
phere of our latitudes, especially in forests, is very near the point of saturation. I'he
slightest lowering of the temperature is then sufficient to produce condensation.

In conclusion, the results obtained by the observations conducted at Cinq-Tranchees
can be summed up in the following manner: Of a hundred miUimeters (3.94 inches) of
atmospheric water, the instrument placed under shelter of the crest of a young horn-
beam only received in an average year 92 m.m. 4 (3.64 inches); therefore 7 m.m. 6
(0.299 inch) were retained by the crown a balance produced by the amount of condensa-
tion from branches and the top of the trunk.

22 " Meteorologie Comparee, Agricole et Forestiere. . . . Observations faites a
la Station de Recherches de I'Ecole National Forestiere," published by M. E. Bartet,
Paris, 1890 (" Bulletin du Ministere de I'Agriculture").

23 It happens sometimes that a considerable quantity of water is supplied to the
forest soil in a verv short period of time. This occurred in .January, 1882. The east
wind accompanied'by fog had deposited such a quantity of hoar frost on the trees that
a great number of branches were broken by the weight of it. This first took the form of
icicles ten centimeters in length. A twig covered with them, cut off with great care,
weighed 550 grams; relieved of its burden, it only weighed 70 grams ("Bulletin de la
Commission Meteorologique de Meurthe-et-Moselle"). This frost in melting on January
17 was equal to a rainfall of 7. m.m. 4 according to the ram-gauge under the trees at
Cinq-Tranchees. In Januarv, 1879, a branch of birch from the forest of Fontainebleau,
weighed by M. Croizette-Desnoyers, covered with a thick crust of rime, turned the
scales at 700 grams. Weighed again after the frost had melted, the result given was
only 50 grams.

THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 369

The action of the forest besides differs appreciably at different seasons of the year.

In winter the trees are denuded, although at that period they are more than ever
favorable to the condensation of atmospheric vapors. Also once in every three times
almost the gauge under the trees is the fullest, and this one contains on an average
96.9 per cent of the water fallen during the months from November to April — almost all
of it.

The condensation by the tree crests suffices therefore to compensate almost entirely
for the loss due to the adherence of a part of the water fallen upon the trees.

During the summer, on the contrary, the branches covered with foliage intercept the
rain more efficaciously. If one compares the maximum rainfall occurring in the months
from May to October on the open ground, and under the trees, respectively, one finds
that they are equal to the numbers 100 and 88.8.

If the proportions in which the forest soil is watered vary according to the season,
they ought therefore to be somewhat different according to the age and density of the
plantations. In fact, calculating by averages of three successive periods approximately
equal, and no longer by the total period during which observations have been made, it
has been ascertained that under the trees in summer 89.1 per cent, 88 per cent, and
89.4 per cent of the quantity of water precipitated by atmospheric water have been
collected. The portion retained by the crowns of trees increases from 1867 to 1888 at
the same time as does that under cover, owing to the growth of the tree under observa-
tion from 40 to 62 years old. It then diminishes as a result of the gradual lightening of
the foliage coinciding with the decline of the vegetation, which shows itself in the
hornbeam sprouts in the forest of Haye about every 60 to 70 years under ordinary
conditions.

Let us quote a few figures taken from abroad relative to the proportion of rain inter-
cepted by the tree tops.

The absolute quantity of water that adheres to the trees and returns to the atmosphere
by evaporation is regular for the same tree, whatever may be the duration of the rain-
fall, but evaporation is sufficient to absorb the rainfall entirely, especially in summer, if
the rain is of short duration, while it will only absorb a steadily decreasing quantity in
proportion to the increase in the duration of the rainfall.

The loss of water owing to shelter is therefore very variable according to the local
distribution of rains.

The same applies to different species of trees. By placing a great number of rain
gauges under the crown of the same tree at varying distances from the trunk, M. Boppe
has tried to obtain an average of the quantity of water which passes directly through
the tree tops. He has then measured separately the water running down the trunks.
Combining these results with those obtained by himself, M. Ney ^^ has arrived at the
conclusion that the loss due to adherence to the crowns is: 15 per cent of the annual rain-
fall for the beech tree; 20 per cent for Scotch pine; 33 per cent for spruce.

If one considers the water rainfall separately, the only important one for the feeding
of springs, one ascertains according to the same author:

That the crowns of beech trees retain 7 per cent, those of pines 15 per cent, and
those of lower spruce pines 20 per cent. This last figure should be still in relation to the
surplus of rain acquired by the presence of forests, according to French experiments.

The figures given by M. Ney do not take into account the water supplied by the tree
crowns through the process of condensation, and moreover are only based on a small
numlier of measurements.

It remains now to draw conclusions from all the preceding data, relative to the feeding
of springs.25 The question to be resolved is as follows: Is the ground under cover of

24 Op. cit., p. 10. 25 Dq Bouville, op. cit.

370

APPENDIX

the forest better watered than cultivated ground? To understand the matter rightly
it is sufficient to compare the records of the rain gauges installed under the trees at
Cinq-Tranchees with those of the instrument established at Amance-la-Bouzule.

The following table has that object in view by giving the records for the whole period
during which they were kept, and also separately for summer and winter and the entire
year.

A comparison between the quantity of rain water which reaches the ground in an
open agricultural region on the one hand, and on the other that which reaches the ground
in a forest under shelter of the trees. (Summary only is given for the years 1867-1898.)

May-October

November-April

Entire year

Forested

Open

Forested

Open

Forested

Open

Yearly averages in
inches of rainfall*. . . .

16.6

14.3

14.2

11.2

30.8

25.5

* The forest measurements were at Les Cinq-Tranchees and those on agricultural
land at Amance-la-Bouzule.

An examination of the figures demonstrates that the ground of the forest of Haye, at
the center, and under cover of its trees, is always better watered than the neighboring
plains. The difference is particularly marked in winter; it diminishes in summer by
reason of the foliage. In an average year only 82 per cent was collected at Amance-la-
Bouzule of the quantity of rain water collected under the trees at Cinq-Tranchees, the
proportion being 86.4 per cent for the months from May to October, and 78.7 per cent
only for those from September to April.

The conclusions drawn from the French reports, however, call for a few remarks.

The forest rain-gauge indicates the loss resulting to the soil, from the adherence of a
part of the atmospheric waters to the foliage; all that it receives arrives at the soil intact.
It is not the same with the rain gauge installed on a cultivated field. The surface of
this field is covered with a thick carpet of grasses or vegetables which retain a consider-
able portion of the fallen rain water, and allow it to evaporate in the air exactly as do the
leaves of trees. ^^

On the other hand the water condensed by contact with the carpet of vegetation has
not been measured either; it is true it must be a very small quantity comparatively,
because the carpet of vegetation often fails in cultivated fields during autumn and
winter. One may infer that this quantity of water is comparable (somewhat less as far
as one can judge) to that which is condensed by contact with dead leaves on the forest
soil.

It appears, therefore, that these remarks will further strengthen the conclusions favor-
able to the forest, will become, in fact, valuable a fortiori. I'aking into consideration the
actual knowledge to hand, it must be admitted the ground covered by forests in leaf
receives more water from the atmosphere than ground under cultivation; the difference
can be considerable and reach to 20 to 25 per cent of the rainfall in winter, a season which
alone supplies infiltrated waters.

It would appear that the same holds good in the case of pine forests, especially in

26 It has been calculated (M. Ney, "der Wald imd die Quellen," Tubingen, 1894, p. 30)
that the crop of a field of wheat would have a growing surface of 32,370 square yards to
the acre, that of an uncultivated field would have 22,006 square yards, that of a field ot
clover 27,190, of a field of potatoes 24,876. The surface of a well developed forest ot
beech trees of average age would be 39,707 square yards.

THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 371

winter. The fact may be accepted as almost certain in the case of Scotch pine and larch,
and it is probable even of the spruce, the tree of our coimtry whose foliage is the thickest.
Influence of Forests on the Infiltration of Water. — In the preceding paragraph
the influence of conditions on the quantity of water which reaches the soil has been
shown. It remains for us now to examine how forests modify the conditions of the
feeding of springs, in working on the deep infiltration of the water as far as the sub-
terranean sheet, of which springs constitute the overflow.

Of the water reaching the ground, one part runs along the surface and arrives directly
at the water courses in the form of streams. Those waters which run along the sur-
face without penetrating into the soil are called "wild waters" — and "coeflScient in
surface flow," is the term (le nombre) which expresses their relative importance.

A second part returns directly to the atmosphere, in a gaseous condition, as a result
of the phenomenon of physical evaporation.

A third part, after having penetrated the superficial strata of the soil, is extracted
from it by suction of roots which carry it into the body of the plants. This water is
partiaUy utilized in forming vegetable tissues, but the greater part returns to the atmos-
phere in gaseous form by the stomata of leaves, after having brought into the latter
the mineral elements necessary to the growth of the plant. This important phenomenon
is called physiological evaporation; it carries away from the soil considerable quantities
of water which have already penetrated to greater or lesser depths according to the
dimensions of the vegetation. One understands in fact that the zone thus drained
is quite near to the surface in the case of grass or cereals with superficial roots, while
it can be fairly deep in the case of forests whose roots penetrate very far down in
permeable soils.

Lastly, a fourth part having penetrated, thanks to the permeabihty of the soil,
manages to pass through the entire depth of the region where roots can inhale, or from
which, by means of capillary action, it can raise itself into the region where the roots
are active. It penetrates deeper and deeper into the soU until, encountering the obstacle
of an impermeable stratum, it accumulates and founds a subterranean sheet of free
water. It is this sheet which dispenses itself outwards when the conditions stated
in Paragraph I of this chapter have been fulfUled. If the lie of the ground is such
that the water cannot reach the open air, the subterranean sheet is then exploited
by means of wells, and it has been proposed ^^ to call the sheet nearest to the surface a
"phreatic sheet," because it is this one that feeds the wells, their depth being naturally
limited to the level of the upper part of the highest subterranean sheet, and not gener-
ally getting beyond it even when this level sinks.

Before proceeding further, it is necessary to establish an essential distinction between
springs in mountainous regions and those in a country of plains.

In the mountains the surface flow plays such an important part in the question we
are about to consider that we need only concern ourselves with this phenomenon, after
setting aside those of evaporation and permeabihty. The influence of the loss due
to superficial running waters ("wild waters") surpasses all others. This special and
most simple case is the only one upon wliich one can formulate absolutely certain con-
clusions. It is, moreover, much the most important; springs are infinitely more numer-
ous, abundant, and useful in the mountains than in the plains. Springs in the plains
are either fed by waters which have filtered down from the mountains or else they have
virtually no influence on the regular course of waters on account of their feeble outflow.
The rainfall in low regions is, in fact, too feeble, after the levy made on it by agricultural
vegetation generally speaking, to allow remaining a sufficient proportion to feed the
springs. Often indeed the soil of the plains bears crops, ^ which, in order to develop,

" Daubree "Les Eaux Souterraines," Vol. I, p. 19 (Paris, Dunod, pub., 1887).

372 APPENDIX

absorb more water than the local fall produces, the balance being provided by natural
or artificial irrigation by means of the surplus of higher regions.

In the plains, on the contrary, surface flow does not exist, and the feeding of the
subterranean sheet depends upon the permeability of the soil and upon evaporation.

The Influence of Forests on the Infiltration of Water in Mountains. — The pro-
portion of the surface flow increases according to the declivity, and according to
the greater or less rapidity with which rain falls or snow melts on the slopes. It can
become very great. M. Imbeaux,^* in a study on the coiu-se of the Danube, has dis-
covered "during the three exceptional floods of Oct. 27, 1882; Oct., 1886, and Nov.,
1886, that the proportion of surface flow at Mirabeau was from 0.33 to 0.39 and 0.42,
that is to say, more than a third of the rainfall; it fell to 0.27 during lesser floods, and
even to 0.23 and 0.18 for average and small floods, thus demonstrating that the law
of its decrease is parallel with that of the intensity of the rainfall." Of the Danube at
Vienna the Central Hydrographic Office of Vienna has discovered, in applying the
same method, 42.1 per cent for the period from July 28 to Aug. 14, 1897.-^

Other authors (Demontzey and M. Ney) have proved that the proportion of surface
flow can reach 40 to 50 per cent of the rainfall on wooded slopes. Demontzey even
quotes a case where it has reached three-quarters of the water brought by a storm of
rain into the bed of a torrent, extending over more than 1,977 acres.

The action of forests on the reduction of ' ' wild waters " is so well known, so univer-
sally recognized, that to insist upon it has become commonplace. We will only recall
that it results principally from: (a) the fact that, thanks to the obstacle caused by
mountain tops, water reaches the soil with hardly any celerity; (6) that the rainfall,
other things being equal, is more frequent and less violent in forests, and above all the
melting of snows is much less rapid, as this process often lasts a fortnight or even a
month longer in the forest than in open ground; (c) that the obstacle offered to the com-se
of the water by stalks and the roots of trees, and lastly the absorption of a considerable
quantity of water by mosses or dead leaves covering the soil. It has been calculated
that such coverings of dead leaves or moss retain by their hygroscopicity a rainfall of
2.91 inches of depth falling in one day before allowing anything to run off by surface
flow.30

Even when the covering is saturated, it only allows the water to escape drop by
drop, so that the soil is able to imbibe the whole of it, to the great benefit of the sub-
terranean sheet. One may say that the process of surface flow is almost entirely
suppressed on wooded slopes in good conditions where the covering of the soil is left
alone.

We could not better sum up the subject of the action of forests on the feeding of
springs in mountainous districts than by quoting so great an authority as Professor
Henry:" "Wooded mountains attract rain; it is there that precipitations from the
atmosphere attain their maximum; it is there that great reservoirs of water are found;

28 Essai-Programme d'Hydrologie, by Dr. Imbeaux, ingenieur des Ponts et Chaus-
sees. Pubhshed in the Zeitschrift fiir Gewasserkunde, 1898 and 1899. (Quotation
borrowed from M. Henry.)

29 Die Hochwasser — Katastrophe des Jahres, 1897, in Oesterreich. . . . Beit-
rage zur Hydrographie Oesterreichs. Published by the K. K. Hydrographischer
Central Bureau of Vienna, II bulletin, 1898.

aoEbermayer ("Die gesammte Lehre der Walstreu," Berlin, 1876, pp. 177 to 181)
shows that moss can retain in suspension 2.8 times its weight in water. The sphagnums
and species of hypnums such as N. loreum can absorb up to 4.5 kilograms of water by
the square meter of ground where it grows. Dead beech leaves retain about 2.3 times
that of pine or spruce, 1.2 times their weight in water. See also M. Ney's work, "Der
Wald und die Quellen," p. 70 (Tubingen, 1894).

"Communication made to the "Congres International de Sylviculture a Paris en
1900," p. 327 of the " Compte-rendu Official."

THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 373

it is there that nearly all springs are concentrated. Forests existing on mountains,
notably on those whose aspect is perpendicular to those of moist winds, cause the pre-
cipitation of the greatest quantity of aqueous vapor which they contain. It is enough
to cast a glance at a hydrographic map to be convinced of this fact. Bare, denuded
mountains have only a very feeble action in this respect; the countries bordering on the
Adriatic as well as on a part of the Mediterranean, which are renowned for their dry-
ness, show this in a very striking manner. Deprived of forests, these mountains lack
the means of cooUng the air and drawing to themselves in consequence the vaporous
precipitations it contains. The denuded soil, which the sun penetrates with intense
heat on those parts exposed to the west and the southwest, does not certainly possess
this property."

"A second distinction consists in the enormous diminution in the proportion of
surface flow on wooded mountains, compared with the same slopes when they are
denuded. . . . The water, instead of precipitating itself into the thalweg and caus-
ing thereby sudden and dangerous inundations, penetrates slowly through the covering
and into the soil which it soaks to a great depth. Therefore it is unquestionable, and
we believe an uncontested fact, that mountain forests are favorable generally to the
production of springs."

There is a stronger reason still for this being the case when mountain forests grow
in a hot climate where physical evaporation is considerable.

The Influence of Forests on the Infiltration of Waters in the Plains. — The
influence of the surface flow is complete in the case of forests in the plains. There
the feeding of the subterranean sheet will depend only on physiological evaporation
and on the permeability of the soU. Let us first examine the action of forests on this
permeability of the soU.

Forest soil in good condition is natiu-ally light. The roots of trees penetrate deeply
into it, sometimes to a depth of 10 and 13 feet and more; in swelling out they produce
the effect of wedges which divide the soil mechanically. When the trees have been
felled the roots decompose and their place is taken by a network of channels filled with
hygroscopic matter, which directly conducts the water to considerable depth. Along
the roots of trees under foot, especially near the stem between the soil and the bark,
there exist empty spaces which are caused by the swaying of the tree when shaken by
the wind; rain water, which has run along the stem, arrives directly, one might say
instantaneously, by means of these at the soil. Lastly, forest vegetation is favorable
to the division of the soil through the action of earthworms.

In winter, the temperature of the forest soU is appreciably higher than that of the
open ground. It often results from this that during the cold season the rainfaU or
melting snow acts upon a frozen surface, which has become impenetrable at the surface, in
such a manner that all the water disappears in surface flow. In the forest, the soil which
is less cold need not necessarily be frozen, and can therefore absorb the fallen water.

According to all the evidence coUected, physical evaporation of the water of the soil
is less under trees than on an agricultural soil. The forest covers the ground with a
double protective screen; first the covering of dead leaves, an eminently hygroscopic
substance, and in consequence always cool, which, superimposed immediately on the
ground, opposes evaporation with great energy. Higher up, the crown, often very dense,
offers its maximum density in summer, at a period when evaporation is greatest. The
temperature of the air is also lower under the trees than outside, especially in summer.
This forms a powerful impediment to evaporation. The lowest temperature of the
forest soil in summer acts again in the same way.

Fmally, evaporation is much favored in a flat country by the wind, which is con-
tinually renewing the strata of the air, saturated by direct contact with the soil.

374 APPENDIX

An attempt has been made to measure the comparative importance of evaporation
beneath the trees and outside of them by ascertaining the quantity of hquid lost from
receptacles full of water placed under cover and in the open fields. Under these condi-
tions two to five times, in certain cases eight times, but on an average three times,
more water is evaporated in the open country than under the trees. But these experi-
ments are of little value even when the receptacles of water are replaced by impene-
trable chests full of earth; the conditions under which the experiments are made being
too far removed from natural conditions.^^

It remains for us now to compare the forest with land under cultivation from the
point of view of the quantity of water drawn off from the soil by the vegetation.

To tell the truth, we are absolutely ignorant of the quantity of water necessary to
the production of agricultural or forest crops. One observer, Wollny,^^ undertook in
1879 and 1880 direct measurements of the quantities of water consumed by various
plants (barley, oats, red clover, grass, rye, etc.) which he had sown in especially pre-
pared boxes without drainage. At the beginning of the experiment he had ascertained
the quantity of water contained in the soil of the boxes; by adding to this the same
quantity of water as would be furnished under natural conditions lasting over a similar
period of time, either by rain or by dew, and by removing from the bottom of the boxes
all that filtered through the earth, and which he carefully collected, the amount of
water consumed was obtained. In reality the quantities measured are superior to
this consumption for they include, in addition, that which has been lost by evaporation
from the soil, or by evaporation of the water remaining adherent to leaves and stalks.
The experiments of WoUny were extended over 105 to 155 days of the season of growth.

The consumption of water was on an average 38 million pounds to the acre, the maxi-
mum figure being furnished by the clover which reached 47 milhon. These figures
represent an average consumption per acre per day during the growing season of about
18 to 19 cubic yards.

In 1870 and 1871 an older writer, Risler,^* discovered that the average daily con-
sumption per acre during the season of growth was 27 cubic yards for Luzern and
fields generally, 23 for oats, 12 for rye, etc., and on an average 17 for cultivated vege-
tables, while it would only be 4.2 cubic yards for the fir tree and 3.1[for the oak. It is
much to be regretted that we have no means of judging of the value of these figures,
as we do not know how they were obtained.

M. Ney, by combining the figures of Wollny and of Risler, calculates ^^ that field
vegetables in general consume 2,093 cubic yards of water per acre during the growing
season.

An Austrian experimenter, V. Hohnel, has directly measured the quantity of aqueous
vapor emitted by the leaves of different trees from June 1 to October 1. During that
period he found that the leaves of the several species emitted the following percentages
of their own weight in aqueous vapor: Birch, 68 per cent; ash, 57; hornbeam, 56; beech,
47; oak, 28; spruce pine, 6; Scotch pine, 6; fir tree, 3.

With these data for basis, M. Ney ^^ calculates that the consumption of water per

32 For the French experiments see M. de Bouville, op. cit., pp. 25 et seq. For those
carried out in Switzerland consult the " Mitteilungen " of the Research Station of Ziirich.
For the German observations see the official accounts pubhshed by M. Muttrich on the
work of the Research Stations; a resume of the results is to be found reproduced by
M. Weber in the " Encyclopedie Forestiere de Lorey."

35 "Forschungen auf dem Gebiete der Agricultur — Physik, Vol. XII, p. 27.

3* The experiments of Risler are only known by the quotations made by Wollny in
the work mentioned previously, and we are ignorant of the methods pursued by this
experimenter.

35 "Der Wald und die Quellen," p. 74.

36 Op. cit., p. 75.

THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 375

acre during the season of growth would be 24,112,000 pounds for beech (5.6 yards
per diem); 18,568,000 pounds for spruce pine (47 yards per diem); 6,424,000 pounds
for Scotch pine (1.6 yards per diem).

It is to be remarked that these quantities do not include the water incorporated in
the tissues of the trees for the purposes of their growth, but only that emitted by evapora-
tion from leaves. ^^

Other figures have been pubhshed by Th. Hartig, V. Hohnel and WoUny ; they differ
sometimes so much from those quoted above that one is necessarily very sceptical as to
the value of the results obtained. As M. Henry remarks very justly: »« "If it is easy
to determine, by means of weighing, the evaporation on a saphng in a pot, or of a square
of young forest trees, of grass or corn; if one can calculate, strictly speaking, according
to those results, without fear of too great discrepancies the evaporation on an acre
covered with grass, with corn, or young forest trees of equal height,'^ it is far too rash
to apply the results obtained by experiments on an isolated sapling grown in a
pot to a forest comprising many tangled and superimposed stages of growth, whose
leaves giving more or less shade are doing their work with different degrees of
intensity."

In the present condition of science it is not therefore possible to determine by con-
trast in a sufficiently precise manner the difference between the volume of water under
the trees and in the open which goes to feed the subterranean sheets.

In view of the great interest this question presents, and of the diversity of opinions
on the subject, the greatest efforts have been made in an indirect manner to arrive at a
clear idea of the action of clumps of trees on the feeding of the subterranean .sheet.

A primary series of researches has been undertaken with a view to determine com-
paratively the quantity of water which filters through a stratum of earth enclosed in
a box without drainage, its surface being covered with different kinds of plants.

It has proved that the bare earth allows more water to pass than that which is
covered with vegetation, dead leaves, moss, etc. This is almost the only definite result
obtained, and even this is controvertible. We do not lay much stress on these experi-
ments which, it would seem, can give us no definite information as to what occurs under
natural conditions. ■*°

An attempt has been made to measure directly the quantity of water contained in the
soil under the trees and in the open at different depths.

Experiments undertaken in Germany '^^ and in Russia have brought to light the
following facts which appear to be properly established:

The humidity of forest soil is very great at the surface, but diminishes rapidly to a
depth varying in degree which does not go beyond 31.5 inches under plantations of
spruce pine, according to Ebermayer, and which reaches a depth of 10 or 13 feet,
according to Russian experiments. Below this level the amount of water keeps on
increasing with the depth. There exists in the ground, therefore, a dry zone more or

^^ The quantity of water remaining annually in the tissues of trees may be estimated
at 2,640 pounds per acre.

^^ "Annales de la Science Agronomique," 2nd Series, 4th year, 1898, pp. 20 et seq.

^^ It is doubtful if even this is admissible.

*° For the measurements made in Switzerland see Bulletin IV of the " Mitteilungen "
of the Research Station of Zurich; for the Bavarian works, see the various publications
of M. Ebermayer, etc.

" "Einfluss des Waldes," etc., an article by M. Ebermayer which appeared in the
January 1888 number of the "Allgemeine Forst und Jagd Zeitung." A good trans-
lation has been pubhshed by M. Reuss in the first volume of the "Annales de la Science
Agronomique," 1889. A complete resume of all the works published up till then is
inserted in the account of the "Congres International de Sylviculture a Paris en 1900,"
pp. 328 et seq. (Communication byiM. Henry to this Congress).

376 APPENDIX

less thick and more or less deep, lying between the humid region of the surface and
the humid region below.

One sees there, in a very clear fashion, the influence of the absorption of water by
roots of plants in the region where they are active, or in that immediately below where
the water can raise itself by capillary action after drying up the superior stratum. ■'^
This is a general fact for all ground covered with living plants; they present a dry
stratum more or less removed from the surface, according to the depth of the root
system of vegetation above. This depth being greater in the case of forest vegetation
than in others, it is clearly to be seen that at a similar level, within certain limits, the
soil of the forest will be poorer in water than an agricultural soil.^^ It has been con-
cluded from this that the forest absorbed more water by its vegetation than other
species of culture, and thus was harmful to the feeding of phreatic sheets of water.

It must be admitted that there is no evident and necessary connection between the
humidity of the soil in its superficial parts and the alimentation of the subterranean
sheet. Other things being equal, the latter depends not so much on the degree of
dampness of the soil as upon its permeability. A stratum of coarse sand will allow
rain water to filter through rapidly, while a fine clay will keep it stagnant at the sur-
face and give it over to evaporation. And, nevertheless, the sand will be dry, while
the clay will always contain a quantity of hygroscopic water.

An extremely interesting fact, which will perhaps throw some light on the relation
of the wooded condition of the surface with the feeding of phreatic waters, has been
quite recently brought forward. We think we ought to dwell on this with some detail,
borrowing what follows from the last publications of our learned colleague, M. Henry.''*

The Imperial Free Economic Society of St. Petersburg undertook a series of re-
searches into subterranean hydrology in the forests of the steppes of Russia, the director-
ship of which was confided to M. Ototzky, curator of the Mineralogical Museum at
St. Petersburg.

From borings effected in the forest of Chipoff (province of Voronez) and in the Black

^ The depth of the system of our large tree species is much greater than has been
generally supposed. The tempest of February 1, 1902, having torn up by their roots
a multitude of fir trees of all ages in the Vosges, we took advantage of this opportunity
to ascertain the depth to which the roots, thus rendered visible, had penetrated the
Vosges sandstone formation. It varied from 5 to 11.5 feet. If one takes into account
that the extremities of the roots were still remaining in the soil, one can realize that
these trees were deriving nourishment from a stratum which must extend to a depth of
13 and perhaps of 16 feet.

*^ These researches of a very delicate nature only meet with reliable results when
they are conducted simultaneously for a very long period of time under the trees and
in the open. If one observes the soil after heavy rain one sees it saturated at the surface
to a greater or lesser depth. The rain having ceased, the free surface water sinks
down gradually into the soil under the action of its weight, saturating always a deeper
and deeper zone, above which the ground has become dry, until it comes in contact
with the phreatic sheet of water of which it raises the level. It is conceivable that
very varying amounts of water in the soil, at one particular season and depth, have to
be accounted for, according to the proximity and abundance of the latest rainfall,
that is to say, according to fortuitous circumstances which, up till now, observers
do not seem to have taken into account.

** M. E. Henry, professor of the "Ecole Nationale des Eaux et Forets," was the first
to draw attention to the Russian borings, the results of which, up till then, had been
unnoticed both in France and Germany. He gave an account of these in a series of
articles, one after the other, from 1897 and February, 1898 (Annales de la Science
Agronomique), until 1903. In his article of 1903 M. Henry narrates for the first time
the complete result of his own researches undertaken in the forest of Moudon. The
few pages which M. Ebermayer devotes to the subject in his publication dated 1900
(Einfluss der Walder auf das Gumdwasser) only reproduce, almost word for word,
M. Henry's report of 1898.

THE FOREST AND SPRINGS 377

Forest (province of Cherson), M. Ototzky was led, since 1897, to formulate this theory,
that, all physico-geographical conditions being equal, the level of phreatic waters in the
forests of the region of the steppes is lower than in neighboring open spaces. In support
of these unexpected conclusions M. Ototzky published the results of a series of sound-
ings, of which some it is true are open to objection as proof positive of his theories.*^

In 1897 M. Ototzky was directed by the Imperial Society to undertake some new
researches, but this time in the Province of St. Petersburg at 60° north latitude in a
region whose rainfall is much greater than that of the steppes, where he had worked in
1895 (23.6 inches annual rainfall instead of 11.8).

He proved again that, under the forests where observations were made, the phreatic
sheet is depressed compared with what it is n neighboring cultivated regions. The
difference of levels is rather slight, and varied from 19.7 to 44.5 inches.

On July 1, 1899, M. Henry, professor at the "Ecole Nationale des Eaux et Forets,"
at his own request, was authorized to undertake at the expense of the "Administration
des Eaux et Forets" some soundings, with a view to verifying and completing the data
furnished by the Russian experimenter.

The forest of Moudon near Luneville (Meurthe-et- Moselle) was chosen for these re-
searches. It forms a large mass of woodland about 4,942 acres in extent (the altitude
varies from 807 to 873 feet). The soil is composed of strata of sand, gravel, and flint,
originating from the ancient alluvial beds of the Meurthe and the Vezouse, at the con-
fluence of which rivers the forest is situated. The water-bearing strata are met at a
slight depth, their upper level being given at depth of about 6.5 to 16.4 feet. A little
lower, about 23 feet or more, one finds an impermeable clay against which the infiltra-
tions are arrested. These different strata, and especially the last named, appear to be
horizontal.

The rainfall in the forest was 28 inches in 1900 and 35 in 1901. The mean annual
temperature is 9° 4 C. (49° F.) with an average of + 1° 43 C. (345 F.) in winter and 17°
70 C. (64° F.) in summer.

The forest is composed of oak, beech, and hornbeam; it has been planted with storied
coppice in a rotation of 35 years in the greater part of its extent. Some small parts are
to be found covered with Scotch pine, the result of the replanting of ancient gaps in
the forest.

In the spring of 1900 ten holes of 2 inches in diameter were drilled by the aid of the
Belgian geological borer, and these holes were lined with zinc tubes which had been
pierced with small apertures and furnished at their lower end with a similarly perforated
cone. Thus the earth was prevented from falling in and filling up the bottom of the well.
The numerous small apertures in the metal allowed the water easily to find its own level.

Five holes were bored in bare ground in parcels of ground which had been cleared for
the use of the forest guardians, in the nursery gardens, and in the communal pasturage, but
always on the borders of the forest, the farthest removed being about a hundred meters.
Five others, destined to be compared with the preceding five, were made under the neigh-
boring woodlands, as nearly approaching the same conditions as it was possible to give.

J ^^i.d^^.t^y jt ^^ ^ell to operate only in ground which lies horizontally at the surface,
and which is of a homogeneous character to a great depth, so as to avoid the influence
of an uneven surface, and that of the undulations of the upper levels of deep impermealjle
strata whose projection may be very different from that of the surface. In stratified
ground, with strata alternately more or less permeable, the course of the subterranean
waters depends solely on the way these strata run, and can give us no notion of the
influence of the superficial vegetation. Unfortunately the ground in which M. Ototzky
first undertook his experiments appears to have been far from homogeneous, since he
found there in less than 16 feet of depth, three diff'erent well-defined spring levels.
Moreover the projection of the soil seems to have been taken very little into account,
notably m No. 3 boring in the forest of Chipofif.

378 APPENDIX

There were, therefore, five pairs of borings.

Observations were made once a month from May 4, 1900, to August 24, 1902.

The levehng was done by the pupils of the "Ecole Forestiere" in May, 1900, and May,
1901, in taking for the initial point the altitude of the Station of MarainvUliers which is
about 790.1 feet.

One will find in the following table (page 379) all the measurements taken at Moudon;
none have been omitted (abridged in translation).

We have been obliged, however, to omit the report of one of the five pairs, of which
one bore was made in the fields of the farm of St. George and the other in the neighbor-
ing coppice (third cutting in the third series of coppices) because the bore made in the
field was destroyed by the plow in March, 1901.

The figures of the table (page 379) give the immediate results of the measurements
effected, without taking into account the difference in the altitude of the orifices of
the borings.

If all the measurements are reduced to the same horizontal level, one finds that
the level of the water under the forest at all seasons is lower than that under bare ground:
By 11.8 inches for the first couple, 7.9 for the second couple, 16.5 for the third couple,
12.2 for the fourth couple.

It is certain that the difference of level is more accentuated than these figures would
indicate, since one knows that in permeable soils the phreatic sheet follows the varia-
tions of the outline relief of the stratum, although with far less pronoimced undulations.

But let us accept the preceding figures as unquestionable minima whose average is
11.8 inches.

^^'e can affirm that, according to the measurements effected each month from May 4,
1900, to August 24, 1902, in eight borings made at random, sometimes under the wood-
lands, sometimes under the bare ground near the forest of Moudon (Meurthe-et-Moselle)
the level of subterranean waters at all seasons is at least 11.8 inches deeper under the
woods than it is outside.

The experiments of M. Henry, carried out regularly for a period of 28 months have
further brought to light the following facts, which are absolutely new.

The oscillations in the level of phreatic waters is less under the woods than in the
open. The infiltration, too, is slower in the forest. The maxima and minima occur
about a month later than those observed outside of the woods.

One sees here that the forest plays the same role of regulator and stabiHzer which one
recognizes it to do with regard to the temperature.

Some experiments made quite recently by M. Ototzky, an account of which has been
pubhshed in Russian in the fourth number of 1902 of the Magazine "La Pedologie,"
and of which a French translation by M. A. de Lebedef, attache of the "Ministere de
LTnterieur " at St. Petersburg, is in the press has still further confirmed these facts.

M. Ototzky's experiments were made at the "Ecole forestiere" of Staraia Rossa
(province of Novgorod) at 58° N. latitude, near to the Lake of Ihnen. " One is obliged
to conclude," says M. Ototzky at the end of his article, "that the level of subterranean
water is lower in the forest than in the stratum exploited, in summer as well as in winter,
and also that the oscillations are less .^^

To sum up, we seem to have gained the information that in the forests of
the plains in temperate or cold climates,*^ whose soil is formed of homogeneous

^^ Quotation borrowed from M. Henry (Revue des Eaux et Forets, 1903, p. 197).

*'' In the tropical region of the globe where the heat is torrid, it is physical evaporation
from the soil which plays the preponderating part, while physiological evaporation does
not increase with the temperature. It may be, therefore, that in this case the level of
the subterranean waters is even higher in the forest. M. Ribbentrop has vouched for
this fact near Madras (Revue des Eaux et Forets, 1901).

THE FOREST AND SPRINGS

379

DEPTH OF THE SUBSOIL WATER (IN FEET) IN THE FOUR COUPLES OP
BORINGS IN THE STATE FOREST OF MOUDON.*

Bare
ground

Old
coppice

Bare
nursery

site

Old
coppice

Bare
ground

Old
coppice

Bare
pasture

Scotch
pine

Altitude of station, in feet

Average depth of water level,
in feet

Average depth of water level
corrected for altitude, in
feet

799.77
8.50

11.12

802.42
12.11

12.11

+ .99

3.44

802.26
13.32

14.73

5.68

803.8
15.39

15.39
+ .66

3.84

845.37
9.25

13.19

849.31
14.57

14.57
+ 1.38

6.56

811.87
7.09

7.09

10.73

807.08
3.31

8.10
+ 1.01

5.12

Maximum monthly varia-

4.43

* Totals and averages only are given in translation, condensed and rearranged from
results of field work extending over 28 months, May 4, 1900, to August 24, 1902. See
page 22 for a confirmation of these conclusions.

strata lying horizontally and in which in consequence the subterranean sheet is
motionless :

(1) The level of phreatic waters is lower under the forest at all seasons, than outside
of it.

(2) The depression appears greater in regions where the rainfall is less, than where it
rains a great deal.

(3) The oscillations in the level are considerably reduced and lessened by the presence
of the forest.

Returning now to our subject, can we conclude from the foregoing that forests are
injurious to the feeding of the subterranean sheet of water on level ground in temperate
climates?

This certainly seems probable. The intensity of physiological evaporation may be
the explanation of this curious lowering of the subterranean sheet under the woods.
This will be the lower, that is to say, the less thick (admitting that the impermeable
stratum by which the infiltrated waters are arrested, is horizontal), because the forest
abstracts more water from infiltration in its growth than does the neighboring
ground.

Nevertheless, there is one thing which may cause us to doubt the truth of these con-
clusions. A careful examination of Table 6 shows us that the depression of the sheet
beneath the forest is more marked during the season of repose in vegetation than during
the summer. This fact is verified in the case of all the couples of borings, and for the
whole length of time during which observations were made. One might conclude from
this that it is not the vegetation of the trees that causes the lowering of level.

Are we here perhaps in the presence of a fresh consequence of this fact that, under
the forest, the region drained of water by roots, the dry zone in fact reaches to a lower
level than under cultivated ground?

However this may be, if the fact of the lowering of the level of subterranean waters
under the woods appears certain, its interpretation is less so, and we are left in doubt
as to the definite influence, all things taken into consideration of the woods upon the
feeding of springs in level ground.

This first study was in the press when we received notice (March, 1904) of the official

380 APPENDIX

account of the fourth congress of the International Association of the "Stations de
Recherches Forestieres," which assembled in Austria in September, 1903.^*

At this congress, M. Hartmann, an engineer of the Bavarian State, gave an account
of the results of researches undertaken in collaboration with the Forest Service by the
Royal Hydrotechnical Service with a view to the comparative study of the oscillations
of the level of the subterranean water in wooded ground or in the open.

Observations were taken at two points. The first, Mindelheim, at a height of 2,014
feet, is situated on almost perfectly horizontal ground at the surface (inclination six per
thousand) composed of the alluvial deposits of the Mindel, a direct tributary of the
right bank of the Danube.

The forest is situated in a small piece of isolated ground composed of about 988 acres
in the midst of landed estates, and is composed of oak, Scotch, and spruce pines, of about
9 years of age. The other station, Wendelstein, is in the neighborhood of Niirnberg.

M. Hartmann thinks it can be concluded from his statements « that the forest exerts
no influence on the level of the subterranean sheet. The latter is generally not stagnant
(as has been known for a long time) but takes a more or less rapid course according to
the inclination of the surface of the subsoil, the thickness of the subterranean sheet in
motion, and the degree of permeability of the soil in which it moves. The considerable
differences in the level of subterranean waters observed in Bavaria at points contiguous
to a horizontal and homogeneous soil at the surface, can only be explained by the varia-
tion in the projection of the subsoil stratum, and by the very variable depth and celerity
of the subterranean sheet.

At Mindelheim, in fact, the subterranean sheet is nearer the surface under the woods
than in the open. M. Hartmann thinks that the forest counts for nothing, and that the
reverse might just as equally hold good.

Conclusions. — In the course of this long study on the influence of forests on the
feeding of springs, we have particularly insisted on certain points which, recently
brought to light, have hitherto only been dealt with in original memoranda, and are
therefore inaccessible to the greater number of readers.

This chapter, now that its end has been reached, leads to one conclusion.

(1) We have seen that the forest has the effect of increasing the abundance and the
frequency of atmospheric precipitations.

This action of the forest, proved by many experiments in France and abroad during
30 years, must be regarded as a well established fact, although certain authors, without
absolutely denying it, have declared it negligible, or else of so slight a nature as not to
be ascertained by ordinary rain gauges, since these instruments are lacking in absolute
accuracy.

The increase of water which the forest obtains, amounts to 23 per cent in an average
of 33 years of observations taken at the "Station de Recherches" of Nancy. It seems
however to increase with the altitude of the place where the forests are situated.

(2) The forest retains a part of the fallen water by its adherence to the crowns and
branches and this returns to the atmosphere by direct evaporation. On the other hand
these same crowns and branches are always colder, and often to a very considerable

^^ Vierte Versammlung des internationalen Verbandes forsthcher Versuchsanstaten,
1903. Mariabrun, 1904 (published by the "Station de recherches autrichienne").

« It seems to us that the conclusions of the Bavarian engineer are somewhat lacking
in precision, at least in the text we have before our eyes. One might conclude, it would
seem, especially from the accounts given by himself, that the two points chosen for the
experiments were not at all suital)le for the purpose, the subterranean sheet being far
from immovable, and the subsoil not horizontal. In any case, we find nothing here of a
nature to invalidate the very clear and well balanced results of the measurements taken
at Moudon, as given us by M. Henry,

PHYSICAL, ECONOMIC, AND SOCIAL 381

degree colder, than the surrounding air, and sometimes are the means of condensing
enormous quantities of aqueous vapor, which they introduce to the soil in a liquid
state. Moreover, it is not uncommon, especially in winter time, to see the soil which is
immediately shaded by a tree, receive more water than a neighboring point in the forest
where there is a gap in the shade. For the rest it would seem that the loss of water aris-
ing from its retention by the crowns is inferior to the increase of water obtained by the
presence of the forest itself. This fact has assuredly been established in the case of the
broadleaved plantations in the neighborhood of Nancy; it would seem also certain in
the case of the plantations of Scotch pines and larches, and it is probable even for those
of spruce pine. One can therefore affirm that, in spite of the screen afforded by the
treetops, generally speaking, the forest soil receives more water than does the neigh-
boring soil under cultivation.

(3) The forest causes an enormous diminution in physical evaporation, and prevents
surface flow almost entirely. Moreover in numerous cases where one of these phe-
nomena — and a fortiori when both simultaneously — play a preponderating part, as
often happens in hot countries and on sloping ground, it is unreservedly admitted that
the forest is favorable to the feeding of the subterranean sheet, and in consequence to
that of springs.

(4) So far as our researches have actually progressed, we cannot be sure that the forest
is favorable or unfavorable to the feeding of subterranean waters in level ground or
in cold or temperate climates.

As a matter of fact we are ignorant as to whether its vegetation does not abstract more
water from the soil than do agricidtural vegetables, as the lowering in the level of the
phreatic waters observed under the woodlands would seem to indicate. It may be that
such an increase in the communication is compensated by the increase in the watering
of the soil, and the reduction in physical evaporation when these two last factors are
unimportant (as for example at low altitudes and in cold climates). For the rest, the
facts noted are contradictory; cases of springs are quoted which have dried up in conse-
quence of clearings as, on the other hand, superficial dryings up of the soil have been
observed, where replanting has taken place. Doubt is therefore forced upon us in this
special case; the action of the forest on the feeding of the springs remains uncertain, and
it is probably variable according to circumstances which, as yet, remain unelucidated.

(5) Nevertheless it must be observed that springs are only numerous and important
in mountain regions, and there certainly the forests are favorable to them.

In the plains the springs are infrequent, and have a feeble output. We are therefore
justified in repeating, as our fathers declared, that the forest is the mother of the rivers;
the labors of modern science have served only to establish the parentage, universally
and at all times recognized, which connects the spring with the tree which shades it.

APPENDIX B
THE FOREST, FROM A PHYSICAL, ECONOMIC, AND SOCIAL VIEWPOINT i

(By Jacquot)

To-day there is strong sentiment in favor of forests. Newspapers defend, Congress
discusses and prepares laws for them, associations organize for the protection of existing

1 La Foret, A. Jacquot, pp. 287-305. Digest and part translation made with a view to
preservmg Jacquot's picturesque language. According to scientific research Jacquot
exaggerates, but it must be borne in mind that he is presenting the subject of forest
mfluences from a popular viewpoint.

382 APPENDIX

stands as well as for the forestation of uncultivated lands. The Touring Club of France
should be cited as a special example. Numerous governments are instituting Arbor
Days. In solemnly planting trees with their own hands, the kings of Spain, Italy and
England, and high government officials in the United States are merely imitating an
example given by our societies or by the ancestral custom, observed in certain com-
munes of Alsace, of planting at least one tree at the birth of each child. There also,
newly married couples plant two fir trees on the day of their marriage. . . . The
tree which grows in humanity which is increasing. The instinctive cultivation and
religious admiration of primitive peoples for the trees is based on science and reason.

Physical Role of Forests. — Humidity. — Forests increase the degree of himiidity
in the air. Not only are the arid zones sheltered by forests . . . but furthermore,
in the majority of cases, the presence of a vegetative mantle on the mountains is of
importance in the yield of crops and favors hfe and populations. Here the forestation,
true talisman of life, becomes a work of safety, and a question to be or not to be. All
floods have their rise on the bare ground created by the destructive felling of timber
which protects it. In these regions the forest disappears even though it is indispensable
to agricultural crops, the foundation of human life. It is on account of aridity alone,
and not for any other reason, that there have been terrible famines in Russia, in India,
and in China. Deforestation dries up a country. Without water there can be no life,
without humidity the ground will become as dead as the moon, and forests are necessary
in order to have water. Since their deforestation . . . Columbia, the Islands of
Maurice, of Reunion, and of Ascension, Sicily, Asia Minor and all other denuded regions
have experienced terrible droughts. These droughts immediately stopped in localities
where tree growth has been reestablished. In Porto Rico and in Jamaica, the phenome-
non is doubly verified in recent times. The rains disappear with the trees but return
with them. Above the forests there are light clouds, and after the shower the branches
drip onto the soil. . . . During the night the trees water the heather as if the urns
of the sky were thinking of the earth in order to fill up the divine springs. We have seen
all that and have concluded that the forest is the mother of the waters. But figures will
suffice to give an idea of the strength of the forest: an acre of high forest pumps every
day into the soil 10,000 to 12,000 quarts of reserve water; its evaporation can be placed
at 2,616 cubic yards per year representing a stream 20 inches high or almost three-
fourths the total rainfall falhng in France. The quantity of liquid emitted by
the same area of water, mineral substance or vegetable substance are in the proportion
of 1, 3, and 60. The forest is certainly a reservoir of humidity. It is also a regulator.

While running water is often dangerous, its infiltration is desirable for the life of
springs. This infiltration attains its maximum under forest stands. The cover of
trees (doubled by a brush under story) largely reduces evaporation. Under the forest
the soil is better irrigated than on bare soil. On the other hand, the snow falls more
slowly, consequently the absorption of the forested land is perfect. The forest tends
to make the temperature more uniform by reducing the extremes of heat or cold. It
exercises the same action as does the sea at the seashore. On limestone soil, which forms
the major part of our planet, the rmining water digs out the soil and is then hidden by
these very fissures. Drought is accentuated, mcr easing the intensity of burning sands,
the bare steppes, and the arid deserts. It is a war of thirst, which menaces the twenti-
eth century. The forest alone by the shelter of its thick layer of humus is capable of
making a successful fight against the bankruptcy of the waters.

Hail, — The trees diminish the storms, lessening electric discharges and rendering
less frequent and less dangerous the fall of hail, which in the deforested regions cuts
and damages the crops. Numerous examples have been established. In eighteen
departments, where the hail is usually the most damaging, fourteen are the least forested
in France.

PHYSICAL, ECONOMIC, AND SOCIAL 383

Frost. — Around the forest, but not in it, one finds the white frosts which are so
common in dry climates. The upper story protects the lower vegetation like a tender
blanket. It replaces, after a fashion, artificial shelter.

Wind. — Without the trees in nimiberless countries, the violence of the wind lays
low the plants or dries them up. . . . The smallest shrub or the simple hedge of
cjrpress of the Provence exercises a beneficial protective cover. In Russia, when the
June vegetation of the steppes is in full bloom, the squares enclosed with planted hedges
remain green, and furnish half again as much revenue. In Algeria, they say that nothing
can resist the sirocco. Nevertheless, it has been conquered by the trees. Look at
the delicate plants in the experimental gardens at Algiers and the rich plantations of
the Mitidja. . . .

Springs, Avalanches. — All the world to-day bears witness to the benefit of the
vegetable cover for the maintenance and conservation of springs (see Appendix, p.
361). This is also true of the value of forests in protecting against avalanches.

Floods. — The forest is the sovereign regulator of waterflow. On the denuded slope,
the rain rushes along carrying the material eroded from the loose soil. This mass,
increased by the mixture of debris, and with its increasing speed, commimicates a
tremendous live force to these thousands of little streams. It becomes a furious tor-
rent which carries off the slopes, bears rocks along and even fields and houses. Gravel
fills the bed of the rivers and hinders shipping. It covers the plain with blocks of stone
and sterile sand. What would happen, on the other hand, with a wooded slope? A
large proportion of the rain will have been stopped by the foliage and branches to be
given back to the atmosphere. The remainder, broken up by the foliage, strikes the
soil as if it had passed through a sieve. The layer of dead leaves and humus which
carpets the forest floor is a soft sponge with an extraordinary capacity for absorption.
It absorbs five, six, and even nine times its liquid weight before saturation, when it
lets the water seep, drop by drop, to the surface and to the interior of the soil to feed
subterranean streams which result in springs. The small surplus water, which is not
retained, encounters in its flow innumerable obstacles, trunks, roots, moss, herbaceous
flora, dead branches, dead leaves, and the inextricable lacework of roots. The flow is
divided slowly up and does not erode the soil. It arrives at the foot of the slope slowly
and in small quantities. . . . Against the heat of the sun and the drying winds
of the south the branches serve as a screen. In the spring they diminish the damaging
effect of warm rains on the snow and prevent too rapid melting. The regularity of
the run-off is determined by the state and extent of the forests which cover the basin.
Numerous experiments in valleys, some forested -and others bare, have proved this.
These comparisons have given rise to the adage: "He who wishes to master the waters,
must first master the forests." Thus to the trees crowning the mountains the soil is
held in place. The slopes are maintained and erosion ceases. Its action can thus be
summarized :

"The presence of forest stops the formation of torrents. Its development extin-
guishes it. Its destruction delivers the soil as a prey to erosion. All the fundamental
laws recognize the absolute necessity of reforestation. In the denuded countries, what
ravages! The torrents attack the mountainsides like a 'pieuvre,' eat them out, dis-
integrate and carry them piecemeal to the plain. High up the rock is bared, lower
down they cause the fields to become barren and covered with debris. The roads
are interrupted. The railway lines cut and the bridges demolished. One sees the
opening up of abysses, the cut of railroad lines, and the engulf ment of entire villages.
Each year, in France, the floods cause an average damage of $.5,790,000. With the
expense, which has been caused by such floods during the 19th century, all Europe could
have been reforested. These catastrophes have been the result of excessive deforesta-

384 APPENDIX

tion — a veritable social crime. It is the ruination of the mountaineer. . . . More-
over, the man that deforests assassinates the plain. The damage is far reaching. . . .
The waterfall which directs our tiirbines and produces the power for heat and light
may be done away with and rendered useless by deforestation. If you kill the forest,
you kill the brook which is the friend of mechanics. Thanks to electricity. . . .
water has become (as the ancients said) the most precious of gifts. ... By enor-
mous dams, engineers have hoped to avoid the terrible results of deforestation. . . .
How much inferior is this inert masonry, Umited to a single valley, in comparison with
the strength and value of forests, Uving, supple, growing forever, which cover the valleys
as they do the plain. Free accumulator of water, ideal, green, cool, which man removes
and cuts hke grain! In every deforested basin, the difference between the low-water
mark and the flood waters is formidable. For example, in the Loire, the Cheliff, the
Seybouze, the Vidourle, the Verdon, it is 900, 1,.500, 6,600, 1,500, and 2,000,000 times
the ordinary flow. The flow of the Ardeche is usually reduced to 6.5 cubic yards,
whereas it sometimes amounts to 10,500, when it has the size of a Mississippi, or an
Orinoco, or a Danube. The flood that comes with the rapidity of a galloping horse
and throws into the Rhone such a volume of water that the flood level rises 16.4 feet.
If there is no stand of trees to stop the erosion of storm floods, every deluge ravages
slopes all the way to the plain. . . . The damage done by the Garonne means an
annual loss of $1,544,000. This same amount spent only once, but properly applied,
that is to say for reforestation in the Pyrenees, would permit the suppression of every
cause of the damage. . . . One now commences to reahze that the forest is a two-
faced army to fight for or against water. The same water which is not stored by the
forest may be transformed to mechanical energy or . . . may suddenly pre-
cipitate itself in a formidable, devastating mass. The impoverishment of the world,
erosion, the transport from the mountain to the sea, the frightful loss of water . . .
the forest alone can stop it. . . . Deprived of their cover of wood or of grass, the
slopes erode, waste away, and fall in ruins. On the forested slopes, on the contrary,
everything remains. The roots fix the humus to the rocks. Everywhere the forested
mountain changes a foolish water into a wise one. It renders the typhoon inoffensive
by dividing up its floods and distributing its monstrous mass in millions of drops which
flow slowly over the old surface of the earth. We must then recognize that the water
being everything and life being impossible without it, the tree which holds the water
is everything itself. If the forest was held sacred by religion, it should be held still
more sacred by reason of its social necessity. To plant a tree is to accomplish a good
deed, to create a forest is to enrich the country by a conquest which does not cause a
tear or shed a drop of blood.

** Economic Role ^Utility of Wood. — From the beginning of the world wood has
been a prime necessity. The prehistoric people lived in the forest and on the forest.
Coal, gas, and electricity have modified the use of wood but without abolishing or
diminishing the demand. Imagine the enormous volume used by the thousands of
trades which must have wood products for the innumerable objects manufactured,
from the great steamship to the little doll. Alone, paper mills could devour all the
forests of the world and only to assure the printing of 70,000 newspapers of 200 volumes
which are pubhshed daily. For France alone it represents the annual production of
1,235,000 acres of high forest. The coal mines use each year 24,000,000 cubic meters
(about 5 million thousand feet board measure) in their galleries, about nine and a half
times the volume of the greatest pyramid in Egypt. Finally the world uses more wood
than it produces. The excess of use over normal increase is about 2,620,000 tons per
year. The deficit is momentarily made up by the destruction of forests. It is an
expedient of which the fallacy is clear. A dearth of timber menaces us. Our country

PHYSICAL, ECONOMIC, AND SOCIAL 385

imports annually from 39.5 to 42.5 million dollars worth. Plant new stands with the
utmost ardor, since the operation is profitable.^ The pineries, for example, yield
5 to 10 per cent. There does not exist any other more advantageous investment.
Forestation enriches the planter and makes our country stronger.

" Social Role — Climate. — Following excessive deforestation, the local climate be-
comes worse. The prosperity of agriculture, the health of inhabitants, the pubhc
fortune itself, depends upon normal proportion of forest. This per cent is itself an
element to regulate the world's circulation of cloud, rain, snow, flood, and even the
ocean. The denuded zones in the mountains must be restocked in order to re-establish
order in nature, without which all economics are profoundly upset; it is partly due
to the absence of forests that one must attribute the burning climate of the interior of
Asia, Africa, and Australia. The destruction of stands has produced disastrous climatic
changes in Greece, in Russia, ... in Asia Minor, and in certain regions of India.
All history agrees on this point. It shows clearly the disastrous effects of great de-
forestation on climate. Aristotle, Pliny, and Strabon predicted to their contemporaries
the sterility which would follow deforestation . . . which, in lowering the humidity
necessary for vegetation, . . . has brought on something more terrible than any
war, namely, the decadence of the most powerful empires, . . . those great coun-
tries which were the founders of the human race — Mesopotamia, Turkestan, Bactres,
the splendor of the Greek civilization under Alexander the Great, Palestine, Syria,
deprived of forests made the water, the vegetation, and the inhabitants disappear.
Desert and sterile, the jaded country once so populous, deforestation has driven away
life itself. Deforestation has even permitted the sea to recover land once cultivated —
the Pomeranian shore, the Zuyder Zee. At the middle of the seventeenth century, the
Chinese had transformed Tartary into a desert by removing the trees which protected
it. Because of deforestation, the temperature of the winter season is even lower than
it was in Norway. On the plateau of Iran, the temperature passes in several hours
from 60° C. to 7° C. (140° to 44.6° F.). The air is so dry that nothing can withstand
it. We must go back to the old tradition and reaUze that it is a scientific fact that the
ancient veneration for trees shown by oiu- fathers is because the forest is completely
indispensable to creation.

" Hygiene. — Under the majority of cases, hygiene is intimately linked with forests.
From the Roman times it has been recognized that the excessive felling of forests exerts
an unfortunate effect upon the physical condition of the country and compromises
the health of the inhabitants. Swamp fevers follow deforestation everywhere in the
subtropical zones. On the other hand, forestation accompanied by drainage dries up
the marshes and diminishes sickness in fever regions such as the Roman Campagna
certain steppes of Russia, Tuscan Maremme, in the Landes, in Poitou, and in other
places less known. The difference between sickness and health, between prosperity
and extreme misery, coincides with the appearance or disappearance of the arborescent
mantle. Such are the contemporary facts. The Belgians celebrate by an official
fiesta the social role of silviculture, proclaiming that the forests exercise the most healthy
influence on chmate and public hygiene. It is not necessary to have great areas of
forest to manifest its curative strength. A single eucalyptus tree may drain the excess
water from one-quarter of an acre. In Algeria, a hedge several yards in length . . .
may guarantee aU the occupants of a house against swamp wet soils so conducive to
malaria. Thousands of examples prove it. The marsh of Bonfarick, one of the un-
healthiest locaHties in Algeria, has been transformed by planting into one of the health-
iest colonies in France. In 30 years the pineries have made healthy, fertile, and rich

2 This, of course, is an exceptional instance of profitable private forestry. Here worth-
less sand wastes were made to yield a handsome revenue (see p. 183).

386 APPENDIX

the Sologne which exaggerated deforestation had reduced to a state of pestilential fever.
Formerly unsalable, the Landes of Gascogne are now worth 193 million dollars or more.
A region formerly unhealthy because of fever has to-day the name which is doubly
merited of Cote d'Argent; formerly devastated by sickness, the population now lives
in perfect health in what is actually a health resort. Forests are a potent obstacle to
the spread of certain diseases. Not only is the air free from deleterious gas, but there
is no dust or nocturnal dampness, but the acid of forest soil kills the germs of cholera,
typhus, the bacilli of tetanus. . . . The forestation of watersheds gives a guarantee
of purity. Often a sequence of deforestation is a decrease in population. It is some-
thing that has happened in most of the Mediterranean islands, as well as in the Azores
and in the Canaries. When the Venetians ruined the forests of Dalmatia, three-quarters
of the inhabitants were compelled to leave. In France, the thirty departments where
there is the most deforestation have a depopulation seven times as rapid as the fifty-
seven departments where the forests are maintained. Not only does the birth rate
diminish and the mortality increase in the deforested departments, but the inhabitants
still emigrate. They go in search of a hving. . . . Forests precede people, deserts
succeed them. . . . Deforestation has transformed Turkestan into a desert, where
it was formerly fertile. Deforestation has destroyed its equable climate, its former
ferility, and, in consequence, its population. . . . Since the planting near Sologne,
the local population has increased 2,250 per cent. The examples are too numerous to
enumerate. A Servian proverb summarizes the problem: 'He who kills a tree kills
a man.'

' ' .Esthetic. — That is, the material side of the forest ; but that is not the only
question to consider. ... In the spring the forest is an enchantment for the eyes.
One sees the bare forest clothe itself from branch to branch. . . . Nature is irre-
sistible. Artists feel the seduction of the forest and found colonies in it as at Barbi-
zon. . . . The first homage of man was addressed to the great forests, eternal and
immovable, which cover all parts. . . . The forests, according to Chateaubriand,
were the early temples. This religion was that of all the peoples of antiquity: The
forest is sacred. . . It was worshipped by numberless tribes. . . . The

disappearance of the forests on the plateau of Central Asia made it so uninhabitable
that whole tribes and races who occupied it were forced to emigrate. . . . Manon
had in his laws (the most ancient of the world) : ' Defend the forest against destruction.
One finds in any of the old religions, the myth of the sacred tree, the gods assembled
under its shade. . . . The imagination of the Greeks and of the Romans was peopled
with sylvan deities. . . . Almost always the temples were surrounded by sacred
forests. It was often in the forests that the gods spoke through oracles. ... In
Ceylon, in Spain and Persia, and in Manila, the trees are still worshipped. Saint
Valery, fighting against paganism, turned his anger against the nymphs of the forest
and the fountains. ... We know now that the disappearance of the forest de-
stroys the equilibrium of natural forces and makes for disastrous climatic changes, sub-
stituting sterility for richness, the desert for abundance, death for life. As though crazy,
mountaineers often say: 'After us the deluge,' without realizing that the forest means
water and freshness so necessary for pasturage. . . . The existence of man is
coupled with the existence of the forest, moreover the forest is the index of public
welfare and the richness of a people. It is necessary, then, that each man become
a friend of the trees and that our laws and our hearts protect this arborescent vegeta-
tion without which our civilization would perish. Against the savage violence of the
torrent or the deadly menace of the avalanche we must oppose the serene strength of
our great benefactress — the forest. Child of Nature itself, it shields, with its pro-
tective cover, children of humanity. The present children need it with its hving force

IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 387

which maintains the activity of the entire world under the beneficence and splendor
of its shade.

"As the centuries roll by, let us unite in reflecting on the instinctive sentiment of the
ancients for inviolable forests and the cultivation of the tree."

APPENDIX C

SILVICS OF IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES. LISTS OF TREES, SHRUBS,
AND PLANTS USED IN REFORESTATION IN THE MOUNTAINS

FRENCH SILVICS OF PEDUNCULATE OAK

(Quercus pedunculatay

Size. — Quercus robur.^ Under this name Hooker, De CandoUe, and other eminent
authorities include Quercus pedunculata (peduncled oak) and Quercus sessiliflora
(English oak), the British representative of the species.

Pedunculate oak is a species which reaches considerable dimensions. During youth,
and up to 40 to 50 years of age, it has an irregular bole but later on the shaft becomes
straight, cylindrical, sometimes with a clear length of 65 feet. This tree may reach a
height of from 131 to 147 feet and even 190 feet in a few instances; thanks to its very
great longevity it reaches large diameters. The Montravail oak, near Saintes (Charente
Inferieure Department), is between 6.G and 7.6 feet in diameter at breast height; its
main branches have a diameter of 3.3 feet at their base; the total height is 65.6 feet, the
crown width 131.7 feet, and it is estimated to be some 2,000 years old.

Habit. — The crown of pedunculate oak is formed of a few irregularly bent and
twisted main branches; the foliage is very unevenly distributed in tufts with wide and
numerous openings. . . . The fohage is incomplete and less thick than that of
sessile oak.

Leaves. — Pedunculate oak leaves (more so than those of Quercus sessiliflora) dry
up at the end of autumn and drop off immediately, except those of coppice shoots and
suckers which are semi-persistent. Of a light green color, sometimes reddish or yellow-
ish at the beginning of summer, the leaf is moderately shiny or quite dull; it is of a
somewhat sea green (glaucous) hue; frequently it is undulated, more seldom flat. . . .
If green and gathered during September, it has an average weight as compared to sessile
oak leaves as 34 is to 40. (A. Mathieu.) When used dry as agricultural manure 300
to 350 pounds is equal to 100 pounds of straw. Pedunculate oak is . . . much
less suitable than sessile oak for pure plantations, since it has a lighter foliage and
yields less litter. This is why coppice-under-standards composed of pure sessile oak
yields a fair stand while the same cannot be said to be true of pure pedunculate oak.

This species seems eminently suitable for coppice-under-standards on clayey, moist
soils and for high forests when mixed with tolerant species; sessile oak, however, should
be preferred to it whenever . . . pure forestation is attempted.

Seed Capacity. — Pedunculate oak bears acorns from 60 to 100 years of age, accord-
ing to whether grown single or in close stand. Sprouts bear acorns as early as 20 years,
and even before; but plentiful seed crops occur only 3 to 4 years and even 8 to 10 years
according to whether the climate is more or less favorable. An absolute failure of
acorns, such as happens with beech between crops, is rare; some few are always to be
found on isolated or border trees.

1 Based on a free translation from French authors.

2 See also Chapter V.

388 APPENDIX

Germination. — The germination of acorns is quick and takes place at a low tem-
perature, from 3 to 4 degrees C. (37 degrees to 39 degrees F.) above zero; they are
difficult to preserve even till spring. A bushel weighs about 40 pounds on an average
and contains approximately from 8,000 to 9,300 seeds.

Rooting. — The tap root of pedunculate oak is developed first; at one year of age
it is often 12 inches in length. Only when about 6 to 8 years old does it produce a few
laterals; but at 60 to 70 years the laterals are dominant and the tap root becomes of
secondary importance and seldom reaches below 3 to 5 feet. Stump and root wood,
with 12-inch stumps, represents 14 per cent to 17 per cent of the total cubic volume.

Shoots and Suckers. — Dormant buds keep alive a long time and retain great
reproductive power to an advanced age; per contra, it means that standards are liable
to have numerous root suckers after the coppice has been felled. Pedunculate oak is
therefore more liable to have epicormic branches than its associate sessile oak.

Adventitious buds are but rarely formed and only in very fertile soils; they produce
poorly attached shoots which wind, snow, and hoarfrost easily cause to break. Stump
shoots root but superficially and do not require deep soil.

Bark. — The bark is smooth, shiny, and silver-gray up to 20 to 30 years . . .
after that age, a brown bark with longitudinal flakes which becomes thicker and
thicker. . . .

Geographical Distribution. — The habitat of pedunculate oak is very extensive.
It is found between east and west longitude 65 degrees, from the Ural Mountains and
the coast of the Caspian Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. Its southern limit is from southern
Spain, at a point in the Sierra Morena, south of Sicily, Italy, Greece, thence through
Minor Asia as far as the Eastern Caucasus. The northern limit starts from Scotland,
goes to 63d latitude in Norway and thence southeastward through St. Petersburg to
Orenburg, in the Ural. It thus extends through about 26 degrees of latitude.

Location. — The pedunculate oak prefers the plains and the valley bottoms, but it
is found in the hills and even reaches as high as 3,280 feet in the Eastern Pyrenees.

Soil. — Pedunculate oak does not show any particular preference as regards the
mineral nature of the soil provided it is sufficiently moist, and deep. Sandy-clay soils,
even if occasionally flooded, suit it especially well; it is a serious error to drain them.

Tolerance. — Pedunculate oak is a light demanding species. In order to grow, it
requires at least four months of uninterrupted vegetative activity with a mean tempera-
ture of 12.25° C. (54° F.), provided no protracted drought intervenes; in order that
acorns may mature a total temperature varying (south to north) from 28.75° to 20.20° C.
(83.75° to 68.50° F.) is necessary. The maximum temperatures that it can stand are,
in the south, 44° C. (111° F.); in the north, 37° C. (98° F.). When in vegetative ac-
tivity, it is easily affected by cold; young shoots, leaves and flowers will usually die if,
during spring, the thermometer falls below 0° C. (32° F.).

Timber. — It yields primarily building timber. The sapwood is white and clearly
defined; the more active the vegetation the wider is the sapwood. According to the
Nancy Forest School collection the total thickness of sapwood is from 0.63 to 3.0 inches;
the total number of annual rings 36 to 7. The density for timber completely air dried
is from 0.647 (Forest of Haye, Nancy) to 0.906 (Adour oak), with average yearly incre-
ments of 0.186 of an inch.

Uses. — . . . The wood is especially prized for ship building.

Fuel Value. — Its fuel value (based on calorific power) averages, as compared with
beech, 91/100, according to G. L. Hartig; 85/100, according to Worneck.

The market value of firewood is below this because pedunculate oak crackles while
burning, requires a strong draught, and the coals do not hold the fire well. There is a
great difference as to quality in this respect. Bark from mature trees, on the other

IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 389

hand, has a very high calorific power; as compared with beech wood, the ratio is 108
to 100 and it burns slowly, with a short flame to be sure, but producing live embers
that last till entirely burnt out.

Oak charcoal is valued as compared with beech as 91 is to 100.

By-Products. — The bark yields tannin of good quality, inferior, however, to that
of the other species of the same genus. Young pole stands (coppice) between 20 to 30
years of age yield the best tannin.

Silvicultural Characteristics. — (See sessile oak.)

SESSILE OAK
{Quercus sessiliflora)

Climate and Soil. — The sessile oak, as well as the pedunculate oak, is dependent
upon the texture, depth, and fertihty of the soil rather than on its mineral composition.
It prefers loose clay. For some time foresters considered that the sessile oak could be
substituted for the pedunculate oak, or vice versa. Now, they realize that the pedun-
culate oak requires a moister, or, at least, fresher soil; sandy loam, even inundated at
certain seasons of the year, is considered very favorable since it is a species of the plains
or valleys. On the other hand, low wet clays are less favorable to the sessile oak.

It is distributed almost all over France, except in the high mountains and in the hotter
regions bordering the Mediterranean. The pedunculate oak is very abundant in the
southwest where it forms almost pure stands in the Landes and the Adour Basin. The
sessile oak is the dominant species in the center of France and in the hilly country, where
it extends to 3,281 feet of altitude and slightly above. Both the species attain their
maximum development in the temperate zone where they are of characteristic abundance
in the region which corresponds to that cultivated for grapes. Above the oak comes the
fir.

Tolerance. — Both species are hardy when young. They have a light foliage, often
incomplete, as in the case of the pedunculate oak. They resist heat as well as the cold
of winter, but their leaves are very liable to spring frost. The pedunculate oak, which
begins growing later than the sessile oak, is less liable to frost damage. Thej^ are both
good sprouters.

Root System and Seeding. — Both species have long tap roots. The fruit is a heavy
acorn and the seed years are usually frequent in the southwest where it is possible to
collect seed almost every year ; as one advances toward the north, seed are less frequent.
In northern France they come every 10 to 1.5 years.

Growth Longevity. — The growth of these oaks, slow at the start, soon becomes
quite rapid on good soil and continues to an advanced age, for their longevity is very
considerable and exceeds 200 years. The growth in height in a dense stand, as well as
isolated individuals, slows up towards 100 years.

Utilization. — Oak wood must take the first rank for its general quality but its
strength depends more or less on whether the growth is rapid or slow. Generally speak-
ing, the wood of the pedunculate oak is denser than that of sessile oak and is better for
construction purposes. Sessile oak is more highly valued for wood working and for
cabinet work; but the pedunculate oak of Hungary is highly esteemed for that purpose.

By-Products. — The bark is used for tanning purposes. The bark of sessile oak is
generally richer in tannin than is pedunculate oak when it grows in warm situations and
in the open.

Silvicultural Characteristics. — " The chief value of oak for the private owner,"
says Broilliard, " is because it is abundant, because it grows on almost every kind of soil,
because it flourishes whether growing alone or in dense stands, v/hether in high forest

390 APPENDIX

or as coppice and grows to such an old age that almost every tree can reach large di-
mensions."

The oak is well adapted to treatment as simple coppice and furnishes excellent fuel,
besides tannin bark, but its chief value is in dimension timber of large size. Treated as
high forest it flourishes in the plains, but does not reach its maximum value before 200
to 300 years of age. It requires early thinning and, since it impoverishes the soil, it
should not be grown pure, but in mixture with the beech or hornbeam. If these ac-
cessory species are lacking, it is indispensable to preserve undergrowth to protect the
soil from drying out. From this standpoint, grazing in an old high forest does a good
deal of damage. On the whole, the thicker crown of the sessile oak enables its treatment
as a pure stand easier than does the pedunculate. . . . Especially the pedunculate
oak is adaptable to standards in a coppice-under-standards forest. It yields, hov/ever,
a smaller proportion of timber when grown o,s coppice-under-standards than it does as
high forest. When grown in an open stand, it formerly furnished ribs highly valuable
for ship construction. These two oaks, and especially the sessile oak, possess the faculty
of adapting themselves to divers conditions which different methods of treatment pro-
pose. On the driest and thinnest soils, the sessile oak will merely grow into a bush and,
while both species prefer rich soil, they often give satisfactory results on soil of moderate
quahty.

BEECH
(Fagus sylvatica)

Size. — Beech is one of the most widely distributed and important of forest trees;
it attains great size but is smaller than oak or fir, owing to much shorter longevity.
It rarely lives more than from 300 to 400 years and only occasionally grows to 131 feet
in height with a maximum diameter of 6.5 feet.

Habit. — The straight stem is remarkably cylindrical up to a great height and the
bole remains clear to the crown. . . . The clear length is often 66 feet. When
grown in the open or under other species it branches at from 33 to 49 feet. . . . Up
to 10 years of age, the shoots are a dark olive-green; beyond this age, stems and branches
are ashy gray.

Bark. — ... The white coloring of beech bark is not natural, but results from
numerous lichens (Verrucaris Beformis et Epidermis; graphis scripta; Opegraphia
varia, etc.) which coat its surface as early as the 10th year with their ver}^ thin thalli.

Buds. — ... Beech buds are longer, more tapering, and more angular than
those of any other species; they are covered with a large number of stipulate scales
that are brown, dry, hairless, and shiny. . . .

The strongest buds produce normal shoots, the internodes of which are well de-
veloped; but there are many less vigorous ones . . . which only give rise to short-
ened shoots, the leaves of which are not numerous, almost fasciculated, lack buds at
the apex, and produce a single terminal bud. Resulting boughs . . . do not ramify,
lengthen with extreme slowness, and contribute, on account of their great number, to
increase the beech's foliage and cover. After 15 to 20 years boughs of this kind attain
at most 4 J to 6 inches in length with a diameter of from 0.16 to 0.2 inches.
A few of the weakest produce neither shoots nor leaves. . . .

Tolerance. — Beech requires shelter during youth and cannot endure protracted
exposure to the sun; it is very sensitive to spring frosts on account of its tendency to
early growth. . . .

Foliage. — The consequence is that its crown is dense and foliage heavy.

Aspect. — It prefers north and northwest exposures.

Reproduction. — ... Sprouts come more frequently from adventitious buds

IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 391

, . . beech, especially if mixed with other species, is unsuitable for coppice; it
rarely grows suckers.

Leaves. — Leaves are alternate . . . they vary in size according to altitude;
the higher the altitude, the smaller the leaves. At 3,900 feet the leaves are one-half
the size they attain at sea level. An acre of high forest, fully stocked, produces as
early as the 30th year practically equal quantities of litter until the end of the rota-
tion — a yearly average of 3,664 pounds of air-dried leaves (to be reduced 20 per cent
if oven dried). (Ebermayer.) This weight in litter is a good deal greater than that
of the kilndried timber grown on an acre in the same time and under identical condi-
tions. The above quantity of leaves would cover ten times the area they are grown on;
decomposition is fairly slow and the accumulated leaves would form a thick laj^er on
the ground.

Seeding. — Beech produces seeds only at an advanced age, about 60 to 80 years in
closed stands, 40 to 50 when in the open; it bears abundant masts only every 5 to 6
years under the most favorable circumstances, but sometimes only every 15 to 20 years.
In the latter case, between full seed crops partial ones take place. A remarkable fact
about seeding is that, in certain years, there is such a scarcity of beech nuts that one
could not gather a liter full even on a considerable area. Full seed crops are more
common in the plains and on moderately sloping ground than in mountainous districts.
Flower buds are formed as early as August and are easily distinguished from foliage
buds by their more plump shape. The abundance, scarcity, or lack of flower buds in-
dicates almost to a certainty what the next mast crop will be. Consequently, the
effect of spring frosts is not a satisfactory explanation of the irregular seed crops observed
for this species. Obviously, the temperatures during the year when the buds start
have a preponderating influence on bearing capacity.

Beech nuts are very difficult to preserve even until the next spring; therefore it is
better, as a rule, to sow them in the autumn; they keep perfectly in pits, however, if
they are properly established. A kilogram contains about 1,600 seeds.

Germination. — When sown in autumn, beech nuts germinate very early in the
spring, toward the end of April. The tigella extends immediately under the cotyledon,
pushing the latter about 4 inches above the ground. The two cotyledons, folded
irregularly one over the other, develop into two wide, opposite, pulpy, reniform, full
leaves (the upper side of these leaves is green and the under side silky white). This
early germination, coupled with a rapid development of the tigella and cotyledon, and
the tenderness of these rapidly grown tissues, render the young plant very hable to be
affected by temperature variations, especially by spring frosts.

Growth. — During the first years after sowing the plant grows slowly (about 4
inches in height a year) but after 5 years it shoots up. At 40 to 45 years it reaches its
maximum annual growth; but when 100 years old the tree does not increase appreciably
in height.

Each annual ring is from two to three times thicker near the top of the bole and at
the beginning of the main branches than at the base; this fact, which is true to a lesser
degree for all the other species, enables beech to keep its cylindrical shape to a con-
siderable height.

Root System. — During the first few years of growth the tap root grows below the
ground to about the same extent as the stem grows above it. At about 3 years from
two to three oblique laterals, well provided with root hairs, are developed; at about
12 to 15 years they grow rapidly (at the expense of the tap root, which remains in-
active); at 30 years of age the laterals cease growing and are gradually replaced by
superficial, shelving roots, which sometimes protrude out of the ground for some dis-
tance from the base of the tree. In rocky soil these roots frequently interlace with

PROPERTY U!5HAKT

N, C State College

392 APPENDIX

one another. To sum up, the whole root system is of no considerable depth (from 1 to
1.6 feet) but widely extended; the volume of the root wood equals one-fifth the total
contents of the bole and branches.

Geographical Distribution. — The beech extends south and north from Mt. Etna
in Sicily to the sixtieth degree, beyond Christiana in Norway, over a length of about
24° of latitude; east and west; from the Caspian Sea to the Atlantic Coast, over about
65° of longitude. France is included in this area, but the greater part of Spain and the
whole of Algeria is excluded.

Beech becomes a lowland tree only in the northern latitudes, on the North and
Baltic seacoasts. Its hmit of altitudinal distribution naturally increases the farther
south you go; its maximum is not over 850 feet in Norway, but as high as 7,087 feet
on the slopes of Mt. Etna. In France the limit of growth is 4,541 feet in the Vosges,
5,223 feet in the Jura, 5,381 feet on Mont Cenis, 5,462 feet on Mont Ventous, and 5,577
feet in the Pyrenees.

The lower limits of the beech zone are less accurately known; it extends into the vine
region but does not reach the valley bottoms where the soil as a rule precludes beech
forests.

Climate. — Toward the north and in the higher altitudes, cold limits the extension
of beech, which ceases growing when the January mean temperature falls below 5° to
6° C. (41° F. to 42.8° F.) in the plains and 6° to 7° C. (42.8° to 44.6° F.) on slopes.

The southern limits are fixed by an excess of heat and consequent drying out due to
an insufficient rainfall. Thus beech ceases to grow when a maximum of 44° C. (111.2°
F.) or when the sum of the temperatures during the vegetative season exceeds 5,750° C.
And yet, in order that beech may reach the above extreme hmits, it requires from
seven to eight rainy days during the summer months — June to August.

Soil. — Porous, light, and even rocky ground is suitable for beech provided rains
keep the soil fresh; compact, moist and marshy soils are absolutely harmful; this is
why it does not generally grow in the rich alluvial soil of the broad valleys.

The mineral character of the soil seems of no great consequence, since fine forests
are found in sand, sand and rock, granite, porphyry, and pure clay; they seem to
thrive best in the latter.

Yet beech is one of the most exacting species in respect of mineral nutrition; accord-
ing to the averages arrived at by Ebermayer after numerous experiments, a high forest
takes from the soil 476 pounds of mineral elements, 70 of these only for timber and 406
for leaves in order to produce 14,400 pounds of completely air-dried matter (timber
and leaves) ; under the same conditions and to produce an equal solid volume, a forest
would absorb only 139 pounds, in all about 37 for timber and 102 for leaves. The
requirements of beech as regards mineral elements are, therefore, as compared with
those of pine, in the ratio of 3.4 to 1. No doubt, as compared with some other species,
the ratio would not be so great.

Competition with Other Species. — Favored by its thick foliage and its ability to
endure shade, beech . . . has taken the place of such light demanding trees as
oak, pine and birch. This was the case in Denmark, Holland, and other countries
where (as proven by the numerous charcoal pits found there) this tree did not formerly
grow, while pine, judging from the amount of the pine debris, was plentiful. Beech
is nowadays the dominant species of the forests of those countries, while pine has dis-
appeared from them. Julius Caesar found no beech in England where to-day it is
plentiful.

Timber. — Despite morphological analogies, beech yields a timber very different
from that of oak or chestnut. It is white when cut ; it becomes reddish through exposure
to air, and after seasoning becomes a uniform light red, without any well-marked

IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 393

distinction between the sapwood and heartwood. The heart of the old trees . . .
colors a brownish red . . . with rather prominent but moderately close medullary-
rays. It lacks pliancy and easily becomes twisted and cracked; it is liable to rot and
does not polish; when subjected to alternate drying and wetting it does not last long
but is fairly durable under water and when constantly wet.

Beech is not therefore a building timber; but, being easily worked, it is frequently
used by a number of trades, such as wheelrights for felloes, by basket makers, shoe-
makers, joiners, mechanics, turners, etc. It is one of the easiest woods to be thoroughly
treated with preservatives; when so treated it makes good railway ties. Density, one
of the most important properties of beech, depends on several circumstances such as
altitude, latitude, aspect, soil, and whether grown in open or dense stands. It is in
no way proportional to the thickness of the rings which vary from 0.27 to 0.36 of an inch.

Fuel Value. — The most important use of beech is for fuel. The calorific power has
been taken as a unit by the best authorities (G. L. Hartig, Werneck, I. Hartig) not on
account of its having the highest fuel value, for some other species (yoke elm and sorb
tree) exceed it, but because it is the best known and the most frequently used. As a
matter of fact, the fuel value is proportional to and as variable as the density of the
wood. Beech wood burns with a bright clear flame and gives embers which remain
incandescent until completely burnt out. . . . Beech charcoal is highly prized
for domestic purposes and for treating ores.

By-Products. — The kernel of the beech nut contains from 15 to 17 per cent of its
weight in a fat (non-siccative) oil which is edible raw, when extracted, and is quite
suitable for lighting purposes.

A heavy mast is for this reason an important source of profit both for the owners
of the beech plantations and for those who buy the right to gather the fruit. An acre
of 150-year-old beech high forest yields, in years when there is a mast, up to 57 bushels
of beech nuts (Retz forest, according to Fortier) from which 409 pounds of oil may
be extracted.

Silvicultural Characteristics. — The beech is best grown in high forest, and
because of its dense crown and abundant htter it fertiHzes the soil. . . . It is
usually regenerated from seed and the tolerance of the seedhngs makes complete natural
regeneration all the easier. While it can be grown pm-e, it is advantageous to mix it
with species of more rapid growth, since beech exerts a most favorable influence on
their good development. On the other hand, it is necessary to guard against the tend-
ency of the beech to again become dominant instead of remaining in the understory.
. . . Beech can be managed under the selection system and then the trees furnish
less wood than in the high forest. It does not retain its sprouting capacity long enough
to permit advantageous management as simple coppice. Under this form of treat-
ment the stand does not remain fully stocked except on open slopes and provided it is
cut very young. Of all the forest species it is almost the only one which accommodates
itself to treatment as selection coppice (furete). Retained as standards in the coppice-
under-standards system, the beech has such a thick, full crown that it shades out all
vegetation underneath; only short-bole trees are obtained which yield a small amount
of sawlogs of mediocre quaUty. To sum up: The beech is a species that is especially
valuable in shallow sod and where the ground has been impoverished by grazing or by
destructive treatment. . . .

HORNBEAM

(Carpinus betulus)

Climate and Soil. — The hornbeam is a tree of the plains and valleys. In the
mountains, such as the Vosges, Jura of the Central Plateau, it disappears abruptly and
hardly becomes more than a bush. It is foimd throughout the entire part of France

394 APPENDIX

situated north of a line drawn between Grenoble and the mouth of the Gironde. It is
very common in the northern and eastern departments. While it will grow on all kinds
of soil, it shows a marked preference for fresh and deep ground.

Tolerance. — The hornbeam, although it becomes quite hardy, has need of a nurse
tree during its youth, because of its shallow rooting and the consequent danger if the
soil dries out. It demands considerable light but not too much. On dry rocky soil, it
usually succumbs to exceptional drought. On the other hand, in all regards it shows
remarkable resistance to spring frosts. Its root system is weak and shallow. It is
composed of numerous lateral roots, but the tap root soon disappears and the root system,
as a whole, rarely extends deeper than 20 inches. Despite the shallow root system
suckers are rare, but it sprouts from the stump with great facility. In the forest of
Champenoux thickets of this species are so abundant that it is a serious obstacle to the
natural regeneration of oak. The hornbeam begins to bear seed at an early age, at 20
years or before. . . . The fruit of the hornbeam is a small nut which, on account of
its lightness, is easily distributed. It only germinates the second spring after it matures.

Growth Longevity. — Its growth is always slow, being much less than that of the
oak or the beech. Sprouts, on the other hand, are quite rapid in growth for the first
20 or 30 years, when it slows down quite materially. Whatever its origin, whether from
seeds or sprouts, the hornbeam is always a secondary tree. It can live to 100 or 120
years and even exceed 150 years under favoral^le conditions, and when it is silviculturally
desirable to retain it in the stand.

Wood Uses. — It furnishes firewood of the first quality, but it is not used for con-
struction purposes. . . . Notwithstanding its hardness ... it is useful for
the manufacture of miscellaneous utensils. . . . ■

Silvicultural Characteristics. — Hornbeam is only found pure in high forest because
of silvicultural errors. Due to its slow growth it is always dominated by species in
mixtures; as a secondary tree it is quite valuable as soil cover. Treated as coppice it
produces up to quite an advanced age (50 to 60 years) very abundant sprouts which
give good results. In proper situations it sprouts well, even under unfavorable condi-
tions, and it is thus owing to its presence that certain coppice on almost sterile soil
yields a considerable return. Its growth is too slow and its crown too low to enable it
to form with profit a standard in coppice-under-standards. ... It has the same
value as the beech as ground cover, but, of course, does not produce the same bole in
high forest.

HOLM OAK
{Quercus ilex)

Climate and Soil. — This southern species is rare on the Pacific Ocean but very
common on the shores of the Mediterranean from Menton to Ceret, from the sea, as
far inland as Digne, Sisteron, and Montelimart. It even extends as far north as Valina.
It seems to prefer, in France at least, calcareous soils and is abundant along the Medi-
terranean, except in the granite areas on the Maures and Esterel. . . . It is found
in the Alps and in Provence up to an altitude of 2,460 to 2,600 feet, and in the Pyrenees
up to 2,000 feet.

Tolerance. — Holm oak is quite hardy and thrives on the hottest south slopes. Its
evergreen foliage is quite light and it sprouts up to an advanced age.

Root System and Seeding. — It is anchored solidly in the soil and has strong lateral
roots. Is an early seeder; seed years occurring every 8 to 10 years; production con-
tinues abundantly and regularly up to an advanced age.

Growth Longevity. — Its growth is very rapid during youth, but it never reaches
beyond the size of a third-class tree. It lives to be 300 years and more.

IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 395

Wood Uses. — The wood of holm oak is very hard, heavy, and extremely compact.
It is difficult to work and its heavy wood and small size limits its use as construction
wood. It makes excellent fuel.

By-Products. — The bark yields excellent tannin; better than that of oaks that shed
their leaves. The acorns, when they are fresh, have an agreeable taste and make excel-
lent food when they are properly cooked. In several departments they are collected
as an edible food.

Silvicultural Characteristics, — Since it does not reach a large size, it is only
suitable for simple coppice. It is often found in mixture with aleppo pine and with
this species it forms an excellent understory, since it is fire-resistant.

CORK OAK 3

(Quercus suber L.)

The cork oak is an oak with persistent leaves like the holm oak. . . . Both belong
to the southern part of France where the first forms high forests, the second coppice.
The economic importance of cork oak is considerable in the south of France, in Corsica,
and especially in Algeria. Spain and Portugal also furnish cork which competes with
our own in the markets. The botanists distinguish cork oak, properly called Quercus
suber, and the western cork oak, Quercus suber var. occidentalis; the former being found
in the Mediterranean (Algeria, Corsica, Provence, Pyrenees-Orientales), and the second
belonging to the Atlantic flora (Gascogne, where towards the north it is of especial im-
portance, beginning with the point of Leon). From our point of view it does not appear
to be necessary to make this distinction, the two forms having the same requirements,
furnishing the same product — cork — and being treated the same way. Both of them
avoid calcareous soils and are confined to sandy soil. The length of their tap roots
makes it necessary to have deep soils if they are to develop properly. The cork oak,
although an xerophytic species, without doubt requires more moisture than does the
holm oak. In Algeria it is infinitely more common in the province of Constantine,
where the climate is quite rainy, than in Oran where it is very dry; in France it is found
at the Maures and Estcrel hills, which have a sufficient altitude to produce enough rain-
fall, and in Gascogne where the climate is very hot but also quite humid.

Regeneration. — When the cork oak forms pure stands they are always very open
and usually even incomplete. (These pure stands, while common in Algeria, are rarely
met with in the Maures and Esterel and do not exist at all, naturally at least, in the
Gascogne.) On the other hand, the fohage of the tree is quite hght. It therefore
results that everywhere in the forest the soil is sufficiently open to permit the seed to
germinate and develop, since the species is light demanding first of all. When cork oak
is found in mixture with another species the stand becomes denser, but, since this other
species, in France at least, is almost always maritime pine, whose cover is extremely
light, the situation remains about the same from the point of view of regeneration. While
this species exists in every part of the forest, without regeneration fellings it has to be
favored and assisted. Systematic fellings are not made in cork-oak stands, but the fell-
ings tend to realize old cork oak whose production of cork has ceased to be remunerative.

Freeing the Young. — One cannot say that the regeneration of cork oak can be
left to itself. On the contrary it is necessary to give it cultural aid. In those forests
in reality where the soil is sandy and quite open, there exist thickets of evergreen shrubs
in which tree heather often dominates and which is called maquis (similar to the term
chaparral). Numerous species of small heather increase the density still more near the
soU and make it so thick that it is not easy to penetrate. The acorns fall here and there

3 Traite Pratique de Sylviculture, par A. Jolyet. Paris, J. B. Baillere et Fils, 1916.

396 APPENDIX

in this brush and the young oak, overwhelmed by such a thicket, does not receive the
quantity of Hght which one would expect in such open stands. Seeds are often scattered
by the birds, chiefly by the doves; in mixed forests of oak and pine often the oak seed-
lings are found in the neighl^orhood of the pine tree§ because the doves love to perch
on the branches of the pine, which are the largest trees of the stand, and from there let
fall the acorns which they have transported. Often seedlings are so suppressed by the
heather that they cannot develop, remaining poor and stunted and finally often dis-
appearing altogether. It is therefore necessary to take care to search out the oak
seedlings in the midst of the brush and free them.

Cutting Back the Young Poorly Formed. — The seedling which appears to have
suffered from the heather cover to such an extent that its vitality is injured should
be cut level with the ground, and after this operation the heather should be cut for a
distance of 1 to 2 feet around the shoot. The sprouts which develop on this little
stump will have even more vigor than do seedlings. Moreover, if in a stand of cork
oak which has already attained a height of 4^ to 6 feet, but whose growth appears slow,
it is much better to cut them back in order to obtain good sturdy shoots in their place.
These shoots have just about the same value as seedlings. This cutting back, it is true,
has the objection of encouraging the formation of sprouts; the collection of cork oak
being difficult on sprouts, it is better to choose between them when they have attained
the height of about 6 feet and leave the best sprouts and cut the others.

Division of a Forest of Cork Oak into Compartments. — Work such as this
enables the improvement of cork-oak stands to favor whose regeneration there is no
other method applicable. To execute the freeing and cutting back of seedlings syste-
matically the forest should be divided into some fifteen compartments so that each one
can be gone over every year to free the seedlings, cut back the poor sprouts, and thin the
sprouts when they are too numerous. It would be a good plan to have this work
coincide in each compartment with the removal of the mature oak. The cost of this
work is small in comparison with the benefits received and the owner should pay for it
without doubting its advisability.

Precautions to Take against Fire. — The existence of brush is a perpetual danger
of fire. . . . It should l)e remarked, however, that the cork is an excellent insula-
tion and that the violence of the fire is rarely enough, in France at least, to kill the cam-
bium of the oak when they are protected by a sufficient thickness of tissue. The oak
recently peeled, however, is very susceptible to the slightest fire. ... To avoid
fires in any part of the forest becoming veritable disasters, it is therefore necessary to
make sure that the trees recently peeled should not all be grouped in the same range.

In order that the cork of a tree should attain the thickness demanded by commerce
(27 to 29 millimeters), the period varies according to the climate: 12 years in Algeria, and
15 to 28 years in France. Taking for granted that the period of 15 years should be the
one indicated by investigation, the forest should be treated as follows :

Divide it into fifteen compartments and the first year bark all the oak in Compartment
No. 1, the second year all those in Compartment No. 2, etc., and the fifteenth year all
those in Compartment No. 15. In the sixteenth year the oak in Compartment No. 1
will have had 15 years of growth and reached the proper thickness. One can then pro-
ceed with new felling operations on trees of this compartment and continue indefinitely.
But if, by misfortune, fire has broken out in a compartment where the bark has been
removed from all the trees, every one will be destroyed and the compartment will be
ruined without hope even of natural regeneration. Under such circumstances it would
have been better to adopt another combination. The number of years necessary for
the growth of the bark is divided by 3. For example 15/3 = 5; if the forest is divided
then into the number of parts given in this quotient, each compartment would be

IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 397

divided into 5 parts. This being done, one-third of the oak of the first compartment is
barked the first year, choosing the trees here and there over the whole extent of the
compartment. The second and third years the work is continued similarly in Compart-
ments Nos. 2 and 3. The sixteenth and seventeenth to the thirtieth years the second
third of the trees is barked in Compartments Nos. 1 to 15. The thirty-first and thirty-
second to the forty-fifth years the third third is barked in each compartment. In the
forty-sixth year the bark has reached the proper thickness on the trees in Compartment
No. 1 which was peeled the first time. . . . This method appears to be more con-
servative than peeling the trees in the entire compartment at one time. It is nearly the
same idea that is expressed in the treatment of the Corsican pine when the selection
system was adopted because of the fire danger in young even-aged stands which follow
the use of the shelterwood compartment method of regeneration.

SILVER FIR

(Abies pedinata)

Size, — Silver fir is a tree of first-class size; it may, when from 180 to 200 years of
age, reach 131 feet in height and 6.5 feet in diameter breast-high. Its longevity is
very great, and some trees 800 years old have been observed in the Pyrenees. . , .
lA silver fir 207 feet high and 10 feet in diameter has been discovered in a Bohemian
\ virgin forest (Hochstetter) . In France itself ... on the best soils, 131 feet in
jheight is often exceeded. A silver fir in the Gerardmer State Forest is 164 feet high.

Habit. — The straight, slender bole branches regularly. ... At an advanced

e . . . the crown becomes more and more flattened; this is the period when
full seed crops are produced. . . . The loss of the leader or main shoot is more
serious with fir than with any other species. Often this leader cannot grow out again,
particularly if the tree is a veteran. . . .

Root System. — The tree is well rooted. There is a tap root, 3 or more feet deep,
which divides into long, stout laterals. When cut flush with the ground the stump
and root wood is about 16 per cent of the total volume.

Crown. — The foliage of fir is abundant and leaves may be persistent for 8 to 10
years. . . . These leaves and young shoots are readily browsed by cattle and
game.

Bark. — • Silver fir bark . . . is in most cases a characteristic silvery gray color
. . . the thickness increases with age but rarely exceeds 1.18 to 1.57 inches. . . .

Natural Grafting. — Silver fir has a growing bark up to an advanced age. This allows
the bole, Ijranch, or roots to easily grow together when the parts happen to remain in
contact for some time. From this numerous vegetative phenomena arise. One of the
most frequent and interesting phases is when the stump (after the tree has been felled)
. . . continues to increase in diameter, and produces an excrescence which gradually
covers the surface. . . . This growth ... is due to the extensive adhesion
of one or more roots of the tree that has been cut down with those of a neighboring
unfelled fir. The latter . . . acts as a Vt^et nurse for the stump and causes a
continuation of growth.

Seeding. — Seeding is fairly regular and constant, having none of the irregularities
that are so common with certain other species, such as pine, oak, and beech.

The seed is easily distinguished by its irregular, truncated shape, its shiny brownish-
yellow color, and its size which is larger than most other firs. It contains a great deal
of turpentine which gives it a pimgent, hot taste; it is covered by a brownish opaque
husk, some remnants of which always remain, even when cleaned. There are 10,450

398 APPENDIX

fresh seeds, and 14,090 clean seeds to the pound, or 8,063 to the quart. It will not stand
packing nor shipment and keeps only from autumn until the following spring.

Germination. — The germination of seed sown in the spring takes place in 3 to 4
weeks. After the young plant sprouts ... it has from 4 to 8 cotyledons (generally
5). They are twice as long as and broader than ordinary cotyledons. . . .

Seedling. — During the first 2 to 3 years all the vegetative activity concentrates in
the deep-reaching tap root and in stem diameter increase. From about 3 to 4 years the
seedling begins to ramify by producing annually from 1 to 2 lateral branches, first in
one and then in the other direction . . . after the tenth year ramification becomes
normally verticillate, and from that time vegetation is rapid if there is sufficient light.

Tolerance. — Silver fir will bear protracted shade better than any other species.
Under dense cover, saphngs, 3 feet high and 0.79 to 1.18 inches in diameter, are often
found which are no less than 60 to 70 years of age and which, if given space and light,
wiU develop vigorously . . . and become splendid trees. Early vegetative activ-
ity makes young fir liable to suffer acutely from spring frosts; they often lose their
lateral shoots (the first to be developed).

Tunber. — Fir timber is formed only of tracheids and medullary rays and is almost
entirely devoid of resiniferous channels . . . consequently it has no pronounced
odor, and the resin is well disseminated. . . .

The timber is white, though often tinted a very light reddish-brown. . . . There
is no very appreciable difference, especially when dry, between the sapwood and the
heartwood. The sapwood does not possess the quality of the heartwood and is more
subject to rot. On the other hand, the sapwood is easily injected with preservatives,
while the heartwood is very difficult to impregnate, as is the case with other similar
resinous timbers, such as spruce, larch, cedar, and pine.

The annual rings are very clearly defined on account of the great difference in color
and in hardness between the spring and autumn tissues. The lack of homogeneity in
fir timber (formed of cylindrical zones of alternately soft and hard wood) is evident
when it is being cut into firewood. It has a distinct tendency to split in a circular
direction. . . . In fir timber, as in all those of non-homogeneous structure . . .
breaks will occur in the direction of the less resisting tissues, which . . . correspond
to the soft spring rings . . . (ring shake). . . . Its shade-enduring quality
means that rings close together may be followed by wide rings of annual growth —
obviously a defect. . . .

Specific Gravity. — The density of fir wood is extremely variable and seems to
increase with southern latitudes, or as the trees have more space in which to develop
their crowns; on the whole it is superior to that of spruce and varies from 0.381 to
0.640.

The horizontal strength and resiliency of fir timber are considerable and have been
ascertained by numerous tests. ... It was found that fir from the Aude Depart-
ment was superior to any indigenous and exotic timber except the longleaf pine (of
the United States). . . . Fir timber will not last very long if exposed to moisture.

Uses. — The large size, good quality, and abundance of fir timber make it one of the
commonest building materials for planks, boards, beams, laths, etc.; it is even used
for masts. It splits easily and is good for basket making, shingles, and roofing.

Fuel Value. — According to G. L. Hartig the average fuel value of fir as compared
with beech is as 69 is to 100, and is inferior to spruce. It is poor fuel, burning with a
bright flame but crackling a great deal and smoking badly.

It should be pointed out, however, that the branch-wood (Vosges) which is formed
of very thin rings (the density is therefore higher) makes far superior cordwood than
the stump or bole. . . .

i

IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 399

--^•'^JHabitat. — Silver fir does not extend beyond the limits of Europe except to the East,
where it penetrates for some distance (beyond the Sea of Marmora) into Anatolia.
Its somewhat restricted area is in the shape of an irregular ellipse, whose main axis
rests* east and west, reaching from the western P^yxeaees, in the neighborhood of the
I Gulf of Gascony, to beyond Constantinople, over a length of about 32° of longitude;
/ the smaller north and south axis, from Cologne to Mt. Etna, extends over 14° of lati-
Ttude. Ireland, England, Belgium, Holland, Northern Germany, Sweden, and Norway,
/ and the whole of Russia are beyond the northern and eastern natural limits of this
I species . . . also Spain, exclusive of the Pyrenean slopes, Sardinia, southern
ISicily, and Greece. There is a possibility that silver fir may be found in the Caucasus.
In France, it is found only east and south of a zigzag line, which starts from Epinal,
and passes by Bourg, Clermont, Aurillac, Carcassone (to reach along the Pyrenees)
and down to Bayonne.

The distribution of fir within its habitat area is most irregular; eastwards it is scattered

amongst beech and spruce, but, as one goes westward, it becomes more plentiful so that

it reaches its maximum development about the western hmits of the area and forms

pure stands or is the most important species. It may be seen pure (in France) in the

Pyrenees, Upper Corsieres, Cevennes, the Auvergne, Forez and Loire Mountains, the

Dauphine Alps, and principally the Jura and Vosges; (Germany) in the Schwarzwald

_^(Black Forest) and the Franconian Hills.

/ Situation. — Silver fir (Frigoris comes et causa, as Linnaeus put it) is essentially a

/ species of the mountains . . . above the vine and oak but below the spruce.

j" Coming almost into the plains at northern latitudes . . . it reaches between 1,.300

/ and 4,250 feet altitude in the Vosges; 1,500 to 1,960 feet in the Jura; up to 4,900 feet

/ in the Monts-Dore, 5,590 feet in Corsica, 6,390 feet on Mt. Etna group, and 6,397

/ feet in the French Pyrenees on northern exposures.

Soil. — It seeks deep, cool, fertile soils, avoiding compact, marshy or peaty ground.
The mineral nature of the soil is of minor importance, provided its physical require-
ments are met. In the Jura, on hmestone soil, the fir forests are equal if not superior
to the best grown in the Vosges on silica or granite.

Conditions of Vegetation. — There must be a mean August temperature of at
least 15° C. (59° F.), with a maximum of not over 39° C. (102.2° F.); mean January
temperature not below 5° C. (41° F.), nor above 27° C. (80.6° F.), with a vegetative
rest of at least 3 months, and plenty of moisture.

Silvicultural Characteristics. — The fir, like other indigenous conifers, should be
treated as high forest. It forms very dense stands. A fir forest, left to itself, is always
many-storied. ... A thick cover results in retaining the fertility of the soil, as
well as its freshness. ... In addition the fir can be treated in selection stands.
Moreover, in all forests which have been injured by grazing or by excessive exploitation,
the natural regeneration is never lacking, even under a complete canopy. Unless local
climatic conditions prevent it, the fir forms a regular high forest. . . . When it
has stopped its height growth its crown becomes open, exposed, and thin, so the soil,
insufficiently protected by the cover . . . runs wild. . . . This makes natural
regeneration often difficult and sometimes even impossible. . . . The fir forms
excellent pure stands, but it is preferable to mix it with other species, notably beech
or spruce. The mixture depends on the conditions of the altitude. . . . The fir
makes an excellent mixture with broadleaved trees or shrubs which protect the ground.

400 APPENDIX

SCOTCH PINE

{Pinus sylvestris)

Climate and Soil. — Scotch pine is the tree of the plains and sandy hiUs. In France
it is found growing naturally in the Vosges up to an altitude of 3,600 feet, in the Central
Plateau up to 4,900 feet, in the Alps up to 5,600 feet, and in the Pyrenees up to 6,560
feet. It ordinarily prefers southern exposures. Except in the aleppo and maritime
pine areas, Scotch pine has been extensively used in reforestation; both in the plains and
in the mountains its range has been widely extended by artificial means. While it will
grow on compact soils, it much prefers those which are loose and porous.

Tolerance, — Scotch pine has a light, open crown, even up to advanced age; seed-
lings are light demanding and will not develop in very dense stands. It requires plenty
of space to develop its crown. . . . While this species withstands winter and
spring frosts, more than any other tree, it is liable to damage by insects and fungus,
especially when growing outside its natural habitat. The tree also avoids the summits
that are exposed to violent winds; nevertheless it appears to resist the rigour of winter,
but after its crown exceeds the usual depth of snow it may suffer damage. . . .

Root System and Seeding. — The root system varies according to the ground. In
a light, deep soil the tap root develops and is the essential part of the root system up
to 30 or 40 years. After this period the laterals increase in vigor and have a tendency to
replace the tap root. On other soils the tap root stops growth quite early and the later-
als soon replace it.

Scotch pine begins early to bear seed, and isolated trees produce cones with good seed
as early as 15 years. Ordinarily, in stands, it does not bear until about 50 years and
even after. On the whole, some cones are borne every year, but seed is abundant only
every 3 to 5 years.

Growth Longevity. — When adapted to the situation, the Scotch pine is a tree of
large size, which reaches 98 to 131 feet in height, but rarely exceeds 3.2 to 6.5 feet in
diameter breast-high. ... Its growth, quite slow in the North, is infinitely more
rapid in the southern zone. Its longevity is very great. In the plains, where it has
been introduced, it lives a much shorter life.

Wood and Its Uses. — The wood is of first quality in the northern climate and in the
mountains, but becomes of secondary value, as the growth increases, in the milder zones.
In the latter case the proportion of sapwood is considerable as compared with heartwood.
This heartwood, while of good quality, is far less valuable for lumber . . . than
the Scotch pine of Norway and Finland. As fuel it is better than the fir and spruce
and is much sought after by bakers. . . . It is much used for paper pulp.

By-Products. — Scotch pine is not tapped for turpentine, but the stumps, when
distilled, yield tar and charcoal of good quaHty.

Silvicultural Characteristics. — The Scotch pine should be treated as regular high
forest. In pure stands, in suitable localities, the young stand maintains the soil up to
25 or 30 years; afterwards, when the stand becomes more open, natural regeneration
becomes quite difficult under the pure veterans. This explains why, in run-down forests,
one is often obliged to resort to artificial regeneration which, however, is quite easy,
either by plantations or by seeding. Scotch pine grows well with beech, fir, or spruce,
and, thanks to its rapid growth, remains dominant and furnishes an excellent yield.
These mixtures are unfortunately much too rare in France, and, under the circumstances,
it would be valuable to create mixed stands artificially. In the high mountains it is
possible to treat it under the selection system. ... On low-grade soil ... it
is indispensable to retain every kind of vegetation (as a soil cover). Whether it is pure

IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 401

or mixed, Scotch pine is easy to manage. All that is necessary is to give the best trees
plenty of light in order that they may develop their crown with freedom. ... It
is a valuable species for valleys and low mountains.

MARITIME PINE

{Pinus maritima)

Root System. — Maritime pine develops a strong tap root and laterals; this makes
it absolutely wind-firm and suitable for forestation on the so-called "moving sand" of
the Landes. As with silver fir, sometimes roots of felled trees graft with those left
standing, thus furnishing nourishment to stumps.

Seed Capacity. — Seed crops begin early (sometimes at 15 years of age), yield abun-
dantly, and are almost continuous through middle age. . . . The seed is usually
of good quality and retains its germinating power for 3 to 4 years. It sprouts 15 days
after spring sowing and produces hardy plants with eight cotyledons which grow rapidly
when fully exposed to the direct rays of the sun. There are 10,000 seeds to the pound
and 12,080 to the quart.

Habitat. — Maritime pine occupies an area somewhat similar to that covered by
aleppo pine, but is somewhat more restricted and extends farther to the west. It is
found west and east from Portugal to Greece, over 30° of longitude; north and south
from Dalmatia and the Maures and I'Esterel (at Cannes) to Sicily and Algeria, a distance
of some 10° of latitude. Within this area it occupies essentially shore and insular sites,
never reaching far from the sea. In Corsica, however, it ascends to 3,280 feet on hills
facing the sea and to 4,265 feet in Grenada. Its maximum yield is in the west, where,
in Gascony, it forms extensive pure forests. As you proceed eastward the tree becomes
smaller and is more scattered. Its optimum region is the opposite of that of aleppo pine.
There is but little maritime pine in Algeria, it is common in Corsica, on the shore of the
Mediterranean, especially in the Maures and I'Esterel, in the Almeres hills, and along
the foot of the Pyrenees. It is especially dominant from Bayonne to the Sables d'Olonne.
Its habitat has been considerably increased by artificial means. It has been used suc-
cessfully in central France in mixture with the Scotch pine in reclamation work in the
Sologne marshes.

Soil. — Its optimum growth is on sandy soils; it does not thrive on clay. . . . Its
failure to grow on clay soils is explained by the fact that it absorbs too much lime and
does not get enough potash and iron. If this mineral requirement is met it will grow
on almost any soil, except clay, but prefers light, deep, fresh soils; it will, however,
grow on rock soils, such as granite, porphyry, and schist.

Tolerance. — While it will stand cold (even the climate of Lorraine), in central and
western France, it is seriously damaged by severe winters. In 1879 to 1880 whole forests
in the Sologne were frost-killed. North of Paris its growth is slow, since it demands a
mean annual temperature of at least 12° C. (54° F.) with a winter average never below
6° C. (43° F.), but, given suitable climatic conditions, its growth is remarkably active;
it often forms two whorls of branches a year.

Timber. — The sapwood is white; the heartwood varies from light red to more or
less dark red-brown. The grain is coarse and the annual rings wide and very conspicu-
ous. It is quite hard, heavy, and pliant, and yields more resin than any other conifer.
The numerous and large resin ducts, which radiate longitudinally, appear in the heart-
wood a brownish-red on account of being impregnated with resin. Its specific gravity,
when air dried, is from 0.524 to 0.769. It is employed somewhat for ship building,
construction purposes, railway ties, telegraph poles, piling, and mine props. It is
sawed into boards, planks, staves, lath, and boxboards. When used as fuel it gives a

402 APPENDIX

bright, clear flame, but does not hold the fire. It crackles a great deal when burned
and throws out innumerable sparks. Trees that have been tapped last longer in the
ground than untapped timber. The tapping, however, slows up the increment. . . .
Tapped trees have less sapwood than those which have not been tapped, and the wood
is heavier, harder, richer in resin, more durable, and of greater fuel value. The method
of tapping maritime pine is described in detail in Chapter VII.

By-Products. — It yields turpentine paste, spirits of turpentine, colophony, rosin,
pitch, grease used for machine and axle lubricant, lamp black, fire lighters, basket ma-
terial, etc.; the needles are sometimes woven into a sort of cotton wool. A great many
mine props are exported annually.

NORWAY SPRUCE

(Picea excelsa)

The Norway spruce is a tree of very large size, with a straight, cylindrical bole that
may reach up to 131 feet and more in height. Wessely asserts that in the Carpathian
Mountains some trees of this species are 223 feet high and 3.5 feet in diameter at breast
height. Its longevity is from 400 to 500 years.

Habit. — Spruce . . . has slender persistent branches . . . that form a
bushy, pyramidal, narrow, elongated, pointed non-truncated top up to the most ad-
vanced age. ... Of all (European) forest species, spruce probably forms the
densest stands and yields the largest amount of wood. . . . Spruce can be readily
pruned and makes close and impenetrable hedges.

Root System. — Its root system is shallow, without a tap root, but with somewhat
slender laterals; consequently this tree cannot withstand wind pressure. The stump
yields on an average of 16.5 per cent of the total volume when cut flush with the ground;
14.7 per cent for the stump itself, and 1.8 per cent only for roots. (T. Hartig.)

Seed. — Seed crops are more intermittent and irregular than with pine, and, accord-
ing to the locality, are abundant only every 2 or 6 or even 8 years; normally seeding
begins at 30 years of age. If cones are sometimes seen on trees which have not reached
this age (chiefly in plantations), care should be taken not to gather them, for, almost
always, they only yield sterile seeds. The least heat is sufficient to cause the cones to
open and release the seed. . . . The abundance of seeds and the ease with which
they are extracted account for the low price. When fresh, with the wings on, they run
56,360 to the pound and 62,660 to the quart. Spruce seeds retain their germinating
vigor for from 3 to 4 years. If sown in the spring they will germinate after 4 or 5
weeks; they contain a non-siccative oil fat (instead of turpentine) and consequently
have a pleasant taste.

The Seedling. — The seedling . . . usually has nine cotyledons; within a year
it elongates its plumule into a young shoot with one to three very small laterals . . .
by the end of the first year the cotyledons have already dried up and the plant is from
2 to 3 inches in height. ... At 5 years of age it is, under good conditions, from
10 to 12 inches tall.

Tolerance. — With its shallow root system the spruce requires shelter during youth,
so that the surface of the ground, where it is planted, should not become dry; but it
requires light and has not the same vigor that pine has under partial cover; it dies out
rapidly under complete shade. If, in mixed spruce and pine forests, the soil often
reproduces to pine under spruce stands, no other reason need be given, other than the
ability of the pine to endure heavy shade where spruce could not exist. . . . The
tap root stops growing after the first year and produces numerous very slim laterals
that spread in all directions. . . . Spruce bark is reddish-brown in color. . . .

IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 403

Distribution. — Spruce does not extend as far south as does pine, but it reaches
much farther north, and its range is far more extensive. It is irregularly distributed;
its narrowest zone is southwest ward. The region occupied by spruce broadens as
you go through Central Europe in a northeasterly direction, from the Maritime Alps,
a httle below 44°, on the one side, to near the Iceland Sea, not far from Cape North
(69°). In France, there is little spruce west of a line drawn from the Alps to the Vosges;
nor in Belgium, Holland, lower North Germany (up to the Vistula River), Denmark,
and the British Isles. To the south, Spain, Corsica, Sardinia, Italy (except the Lom-
bard Alps and Venetia), Greece, and the greater part of Turkey are all outside the spruce
zone. So it is with southern and eastern Russia where Norway spruce does not extend
beyond Moscow and Archangel (39° longitude). . . . (The Siberian Picea, which
goes farther north, is, as yet, inaccurately delimited).

Habitat. — In the north (in Norway for example), spruce comes to sea level, but, as
regards its upper limit, scarcely reaches higher than 655 feet. ... In the Tyrol
(at 46° 45' north latitude), spruce grows up to 6,807 feet; in the Engadine (at 44° 40'),
up to 6,926 feet; at Mont Ventoux (44°), up to 5,643 feet. As the upper limit extends,
the tree leaves the plains and valley bottoms. . . . The lower limit is about 2,000
feet in the Vosges and Jura Mountains, and 2,600 feet in the Maritime Alps. In
France, therefore, spruce is distinctly a mountain species which reaches up to the Alpine
region and is characteristic of a higher vegetative zone than is the silver fir. . . .

Soil. — Any moist soil, no matter what its geological and mineralogical formation, is
suitable for spruce, provided it is neither too compact nor too porous. A peaty soil,
while not favorable, is not absolutely objectionable. In dry and arid soil spruce can
sometimes live, but it does not prosper. Under such conditions the foliage is yellow
rather than a dark green color (so generally characteristic), the needles short, the cones
plentiful but half grown (one-third or one-fourth the usual size).

Vegetation. — Spruce requires a mean July temperature of at least 10° C. (50° F.),
but not more than 18° 75' C. (66° F.); a mean January temperature not below 12° 5' C.
(54° 5' F.) (Willkomm). It requires, above all, a moist atmosphere, frequent rainfalls,
and heavy dews so that the surface soil may be kept fresh — absolutely necessary for
such a shallow-rooted species.

Timber. — Spruce wood is generally whiter than pine; some spruce from northern
Europe, however, is very light red (like Scotch pine) and is indicative of inferior quality.
This reddish spruce timber comes from trees grown in marshy soils, chiefly of the Siberian
variety. . . . The sapwood has the same value as the heartwood; as a matter of
fact, it is scarcely distinguishable. . . . Spruce boards generally have smaller but
more numerous knots than pine. In most cases, these branch knots are loose. . . .
Density varies according to the growth conditions; for air dried timber the specific
gravity varies from 0.337 to 0.597.

Uses. — Spruce timber is lighter and weaker than pine but serves the same uses.
. . . It is soft, spongy, and of inferior quality at lower elevations because of too
rapid .growth. Near the upper limits of habitat, however, it . . . may be worth
from one-quarter to one-fifth more than pine timber. To sum up: it is a first-rate
building and manufacturing timber. . . . The straight, clear boles make excellent
masts. . . . The regular fiber makes splitting very easy . . . it is prepared
for baskets and for shingles . . . and almost exclusively (under the name of
"sounding wood"), for sounding boards of musical instruments — pianos, viohns, etc.
. . . Match factories also use considerable quantities of spruce wood. Reduced
by machinery to a soft paste or pulp it supplies, besides, the raw material for high
quahty papers and pasteboards.

Fuel Value. — The fuel value of spruce, as compared with beech, is as 70 is to 100.

404

APPENDIX

. . . According to T. Hartig the fuel value of spruce, as compared with other species
under identical vegetative conditions, is as follows :

Spruce

Scotch pine

Beech

Oak

Birch

Alder

5,110
3.600
3,500
3,150
2,890
2,200

By-Products. — Spruce is tapped for rosin by . . . means of long, narrow,
longitudinal incisions or slashes clean through the bark; the large radiating channels
in the liber allow the turpentine to ooze out abundantly. Those slashes need only be
widened from time to time, through the new liber layers, in order to secure the gum
product up to a very old age. This operation is quite profitable and is practiced on
an extensive scale in the North; but it weakens the trees and decreases their size. In
France it is all the more objectionable since in most cases . . . instead of just
gashing the bark, deep cuts are needlessly made into the wood. . . . Turpentine,
colophony, "Burgundian" tar, and lamp black are manufactured. The bark contains
some tannin and is used (in higher Jura, for instance) for curing leather; for this purpose
the bark of trees from 60 to 80 years of age is preferred. In some countries the natives
pulverize the inner liber (freed from its rhytidome) and obtain a kind of flour which,
either pure or mixed with barley flour, is used to make bread. The seed contains
from 20 to 25 per cent of fat, non-siccative oil.

Silvicultural Characteristics. — Like the fir, the spruce should be maintained in a
dense stand. . . . More than any other conifer it can survive in very dense stands
which enable it to return very large yields. It is advantageously managed as high
forest, but when it is very exposed or liable to wind-fall it is better to mix it with beech,
fir, or larch. ... On account of its hardiness it is a good species for natural re-
generation by clear cutting. No other species is so easily transplanted. It is adaptable
to most any soil. . . .

EUROPEAN LARCH
(Larix europea)

Larch is a large-sized tree, with a slender, straight bole 98 to 115 feet in height and up
to 27 inches in diameter. ... In Silesia, a larch has been measured which is 178
feet high and 3.3 feet in diameter, breast-high.

Habit. — The crown is shaped like a narrow, long acute pyramid. . . . The
branches are numerous, tapering, thin and generally pendant; the branches of forest-
grown trees form only one-sixth the total volume (stump wood included).

Root System. — There are several main roots. These penetrate to a considerable
depth at oblique angles, and from these spring a large number of rootlets; the tap root
is obliterated wuthin the first few years. The actual stump and root timber comprises
about 10 per cent or 11 per cent of the total volume.

Leaves. — The first spring leaves of the larch are almost exclusively in bundles;
one month later solitary leaves appear and also the young shoots. . . . The leaves
form a somewhat thin crown that is hght demanding.

Seeding. — When grown in temperate regions the larch may seed early; but seeds
are then sterile and it is only in middle age that fructification is regular. The cones

IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES 405

sometimes open in autumn, but usually during the following spring. They are per-
sistent and, when empty, are brownish-black in color; they are readily distinguishable
from the new reddish-gray cones.

Seed. — Larch seed falls in March; if the ground is then covered with crusted snow
seeds in the hollows where they have been carried by the wind are easily gathered with
a broom. Another way of gathering seed in March is by beating the branches with a
pole and collecting them in sheets at the foot of the tree. Seeds so gathered are better
in quality than those obtained by artificially opening the cones by heat. The suc-
cessful extraction of seeds is difficult if the heat is at all above the normal 15° C. to
17° C. (59° F. to 62.6° F.). The rosin contained in the cones becomes fluid and seals
the scales. Seeds purchased in the market are rarely more than 34 per cent to 45 per cent
good; sometimes much less. An easy test may be made by putting the seeds into water;
those that float are usually sterile. . . . When seeds are fresh they average 58,000
to the pound, 58,300 to a quart. If fresh, germination is rapid — within 3 to 4 weeks.
They may be preserved for 3 to 4 years, but in the latter case the germination is propor-
tionately slower. Seedlings may not sprout until the second or even the third year. In
the lowlands a good plan is to soak the seeds in water for 10 to 15 days before spring
sowing; the softening greatly facilitates and hastens germination.

Seedlings. — Seedlings have five to seven cotyledons (generally six) and immediately
produce a shoot with solitary unindented leaves (leaves of silver fir and pine are indented
at the edges). At first small and slender, the seedling reaches, under favorable condi-
tions, some 4 to 5 inches in height at the end of the first year; its tap root is then from 6
to 10 inches according to the soil. The seedling grows to 2 to 3 feet in height at the end
of 2 or 3 years.

Bark. — The bark is somewhat similar to that of the pines, both on account of its
creviced, scaly surface and because of its structure and method of growth. There are,
however, some differences. . . .

Distribution. — Its habitat coincides with the high mountains of Central Europe
forming a narrow strip westerly and southwesterly, from the Maritime and Dauphine
Alps to the North and South Carpathians, about 20 degrees, from the third to the
twenty-third degree of longitude. Its southern limit is beyond Nice; its northern hmit
does not reach in the Carpathians beyond the fiftieth degree of latitude. This species
thus is confined to the high mountain areas of middle latitudes and does not extend (like
the spruce or silver fir) to the northern plains. Perhaps it would not find there the
sum of the temperature, that is 1,672° C, that it requires during the vegetative period.
Spruce is less exacting, being satisfied with 1,450° C.

Larch grows naturally in France only in the Savoy, Dauphine, and Provence Alps,
where it begins at an altitude of 3,281 feet in the North, 3,940 feet in the South, and
reaches up to 8,200 feet (and with cembric pine, the extreme limits of vegetation, in the
Alpine pastures).

The vegetative requirements are: At least 1° C. (33.8° F.) and at most 8° C. (46.4° F.)
annual temperature with a rest of at least 4 months. Larch prefers well-sheltered coves
at high altitudes but does well on calcary, dolomite, schist, or sandy soils, if they are
sufficiently light, fresh, and deep. Larch will not stand crowding; the forests are
therefore always open, with fine grass which can be regularly cut or grazed. It even
helps to restore the range where impoverished by overgrazing.

Endeavors have been made to grow larch outside its natural habitat. ... It wiU
often grow with remarkable vigor during youth, but shows early signs of premature de-
cline. In these cases its timber is of poor quahty (but very useful ... for hop poles).

Timber. — Larch timber has a very conspicuous and well defined light yellow sap-
wood, containing six to twenty annual rings which form as a rule a very thin layer.

406 APPENDIX

This is especially so with slow-growing veterans. The heart wood is reddish-brown,
veined with rings of darker colored fallwood. . . . WTien completely air dried wood
from mountain-grown trees has a specific gravity of 0.557 to 0.686 — 0.456 to 0.531 if
grown at lower elevations.

Uses. — Larch is the " momitain oak." Its timber is one of the most valuable to be
found in French forests; its complete lignification and its great richness in rosin make it
very durable and the regularity and thinness of the annual rings, as well as their ar-
rangement in alternate soft and hard zones, give it remarkable strength and resiliency.
It does not crack; it is not attacked by insects, and is suitable for . . . mast and
ship building. In Russia it is even used for ship-ribs . . . shingles, staves, and
barrels made of this wood have the advantage of allowing very little evaporation; vine
props and water pipes made of larch wiU last almost indefinitely.

Fuel Value. — As firewood larch crackles and throws sparks, even more so than
other resinous woods. On the other hand it has a fairly high fuel value. Charcoal
obtained from larch, as compared with beech, is of good quality and better than that
from pine or spruce.

Tapping for Resin. — Turpentine is fairly abundant in larch. . . . There are
various methods of tapping for resin; the following is practiced in the Valais by the
Lombardians :

With an auger 1.2 inches in diameter holes are bored 2 feet from the ground. These
holes are incUned upward a httle . . . point to the center of the tree but do not
reach it. . . . The openings are fitted with wooden or bar gutters and a trough
placed underneath. A tree may yield on an average 85 to 100 grams of turpentine a
year for 40 to 60 consecutive years if care is taken to plug thoroughly the holes during
winter; the total quantity may reach 5.5+ pounds (Varchland). ... It seems
that larch trees so tapped . . . are fit only for firewood. . . .

In the southern Tyrol another method is used. In the spring a horizontal (1.1 inches
in diameter) hole is bored at the base of thrifty trees right to the centre; if the tree
stands on a slope the hole is bored into the upper side. The aperture is securely plugged
with a wooden stopper. Turpentine gathers in the hole during the summer and in the
autumn it is scooped out with a specially shaped spoon; then the plug is put back. At
the end of a year another quantity of turpentine is scooped out and so on from year to
year (Hugo Vohl). This method, though infinitely less productive, does not injure
the trees and there is no deterioration in the quality of the timber (Wessely).

Larch turpentine is known as "Venetian Turpentine" . . . it is purer and better
quality than that distilled from pine.

By-Products. — Larch leaves secrete a peculiar resinous substance, which solidifies
in the shape of small whitish grains, and which is prescribed by doctors as an aperient
under the name of "Brian^on Manna." Young bark is used for tanning, and in some
German States larch is extensively cultivated on account of the excellent quality of its
bark; it is used also for brown dyeing.

Silvicultural Characteristics. — In the high mountains where the larch is found
the stands must combat the rigorous climate, the rough soil, steep slopes, and grazing.
Moreover, the management of any forest is always a delicate matter because the least
error may possibly occasion irreparable disasters. Because of its extreme intolerance
the larch does not grow well in more than one story. Rather open stands composed of
trees of the same height is preferable to any other method. To continue such a condition
it is necessary to favor it in every way, not only when young, but even toward the end
of the rotation when regeneration is necessary. If there is sufficient light the natural
seeding is possible in the grass which usually covers the ground in larch forests. At its
lower limits of growth the larch can be advantageously mixed with spruce, mountain

IMPORTANT FOREST SPECIES

407

pine, and Scotch pine. It can even be treated under the selection system adapted to
these other species. In pastures at high elevations, when retained in groups, it protects
the cattle and at the same time furnishes excellent products. . . .

ALEPPO PINE

(Pinus halepensis)

Soil and Climate. — This Mediterranean species is very liable to damage from
winter frosts. . . . It is confined to the limestone soils of the temperate Provence.
It grows satisfactorily on rocky slopes stripped of vegetation and scorched by the sun.

Tolerance. — The seedling is very hardy but intolerant. On account of its drought-
resisting qualities it is a very valuable tree.

Root System and Seeding. — The tap root is the dominant root, but the laterals
are well developed and, unfortunate^, remain shallow. Aleppo pine bears abundant
seed at an early period and it is characterized by the persistence of the open cones, which
remain attached to the branch for an indefinite period.

Growth Longevity. — The aleppo pine has quite a rapid growth, nevertheless it does
not exceed the size of a secondary species. Toward 20 years it forms a tree with a
slender, sweeping bole; when the growth slows up at an advanced age the crown increases
in size and becomes umbrella-shaped like the stone pine {Pinus pinea) .

Wood and Its Uses. — The wood, of mediocre quality, is, nevertheless, used con-
siderably by carpenters, and furnishes quite a good deal of saw timber for packing boxes
and crates. As a fire wood it is valuable for certain kinds of factories.

Silvicultural Characteristics. — Aleppo pine is usually not found pure. Ordinarily it
forms forests where grazing is allowed, in mixture with holm oak and other broadleaf
trees. These are managed as coppice, with the aleppo pine reserved until it reaches
merchantable dimensions. Under these conditions the tree regenerates very early.

TREES, SHRUBS, AND PLANTS USED IN REFORESTATION IN THE
MOUNTAINS

Large-leaved linden (Tilia platyphyllos).
Sycamore maple {Acer pseudo-platanus) .
Tree of heaven {Ailanthus glandulosa) .
Locust {Rohinia pseudacacia) .
Scotch laburnum {Laburnum vulgare).
Sweet cherry {Cerasus avium).
Mahaleb cherry {Cerasus mahaleb).
Whitebeam {Sorbus aria).
Mountain ash {Sorbus aucuparia).
Common ash {Fraxinus excelsior).
Scotch elm {Ulmus montana).
Beech {Fagus sylvatica).
Chestnut {Castanea sativa).
Sessile oak {Quercus robur sessiliflora) .
Holm oak {Quercus ilex).
Hop-hornbeam {Ostrya carpinfolia) .
Silver birch {Belula verrucosa).
Black alder {Alnus glutinosa).
Grey alder {Ahius incana).

Green alder {Alnus viridis).

Willow {Salix).

White poplar {Populus alba).

Aspen poplar {Populus tremula).

Black poplar {Populus nigra).

Upright cypress {Cupressus sempervirens) .

Silver fir {Abies pectinata).

Norway spruce {Picca excelsa).

European larch {Larix europea).

Mount Atlas cedar {Cedrus atlantica).

Scotch pine {Pinus sylvestris).

Corsican pine {Pinus laricio).

Austrian pine {Pinus austriaca).

Pyrenees black pine {Pinus laricio mon-

speliensis) .^
Aleppo pine {Pinus halepensis).
Maritime pine {Pinus pinaster).
Swiss stone pine {Pinus cembra).

* See page 68, Vol. I, Restauration et Conservation des Terrain en Montagues.

^ Salzmann first published this form as Pinus monspeliensis . Later Dunal published
it as Pinus salzmannii, probably not knowing that Salzmann had previously described
and published it as P. monspeliensis. Salzmann's name must, of course, have prece-
dence over Dunal's P. salzmannii, and this fact would prevent the use of the common
name "Salzmann pine."

408 APPENDIX

SHRUBS

Common clematis {Clematis vitalba).
"Tanners' sumac" [Coriaria myrtifolia) .
Rest-harrow {Ononis fruticosa) .

Kidney vetch (the species used was probably A. vulneraria, "sand clover," or "wound-
wort").
Smooth-fruited apricot {Prunus brigantiaca) .
Sea buckthorn {Hippophoe rhamnoides).
Filbert {Corylus avellana).
Common juniper {Juniperus communis).

PERENNIAL HERBACEOUS PLANTS

Alpine poppy {Papaver alpinum).
Yellow pansy {Viola lutea).
Alpine flax {Linum alpinum).
Alpine clover {Trifolium alpinum).

Sainfoin; Holly clover {Onobrychis saliva). (Now known as 0. vickvfolia).
Creeping avens {Geum reptans).
Laserwort {Laserpitiiim gallicum).
Pyrenean valerian {Valeriana pyrenaica).
Alpine plantain {Plantago alpina).

Feather-grass {Stipa calamagrostis) . {L. is antedated by stipa, which is now very gen-
erally recognized.)
Perennial oats {A vena sempervirens).
Common false-oat {Arrhenatherum avenaceiwi).
Sheep's fescue {Fetuca ovina) .
"Fenasse brun" (probably a species of heather).

PUBLIC AND PRIVATE FORESTS

409

APPENDIX D

STATISTICS ON PUBLIC AND PRIVATE FORESTS OVER FIVE
THOUSAND ACRES IN AREA

The following is a summary of State and communal forests over 5,000 acres in extent.
It has been arranged by departments and shows for each forest the arrondissement,
the area in acres, chief species, treatment, and the rotation.

Department

Arrondissement

Name of forest

Area

(acres)

Chief species '

Treat-
ment t

Ain

L'Aisne.

L'Aisne.

L'Aisne.

L'Aisne.

L'AIliSr.

None.

Laon

Laon

Vervins

Montlugon. . . .
Barcelonnette.

Hautes-Alpes

Hautes-Alpes —

Hautes-AIpes

AIpes-Mari times .

L'Ardeche

Ardennes

BrianQon.
Embrun..
Embrun.

None

Privas. . .
Mezieres.

Ardennes.
Ardennes.
L'Ariege..
L'Ariege..
L'Ariege..

Rocroi

Sedan

Foix

Foix

Saint-Giro ns.

L'AriSge .

L'Aube. .
L'Aube..

Saint-Girons.

Bar-sur-Aube.
Bar-sur-Seine.

L'Aude...
L'Aveyror

None

Espalion.

Retz

St.-Gobain-Coucy

St. Michel

Troucais

Meolans, Revel...

Nevache. .
Ceillac . . . .
Guillestre.

31,128
10,376
5,323
7,569

25,785
8,481

6,580
5,723
6,521

Oak, beech, hornbeam,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, beech, Scotch pine,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Fir, spruce, larch,

Scotch pine, cembric

Bourg-Saint-Andeol
Signy-l'Abbaye.

Revin.
Sedan.

I'Ancien Consulat

de Foix
Hares

Clairvaux .
Rumilly..

4,972
7,860

8,463

10,497

7,631

7,173

5,733

6,563

10,502
5,656

Larch, Scotch
mountain pine

Larch, Scotch
mountain pine

Larch, Scotch
mountain pine

Sessile oak, holm oak
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, birch, mis. bd. Ivs.

Oak, beech, hornbeam,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Beech, mis. bd. Ivs.

Beech, fir, mountain

pine
Beech

Oak, beech, hornbeam,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, hornbeam, mis.

bd. Ivs.

C.

Conv.

H.F.

c.u.s.
c.u.s.

c.u.s.

H.F.
H.F.

H.F.
H.F.
H.F.

H.F.
H.F.

Beech, mis. bd. Ivs.

C.
C.U.S.

C.U.S.
C.U.S.
C.U.S.

Conv.

C.U.S.

C.U.S.

H.F.

C.U.S.

H.F.

H.F.

C.U.S.

Conv.

H.F.

C.U.S.

Conv.

C.U.S

Conv.

H.F.

C.U.S.

C.U.S.

150
Unknown
160
35
35

30-33

180

Unknown

80-200

20-25
30-32-:

25-30

Unknown
30
30

120-144
40
140
Unknown

20
Unknown
144
36
Unknown
30
175

162
30
15-18

* Mis. bd. Ivs. :
t C. = coppice;

= Miscellaneous broadleaves.

Conv. = conversion; H.F. = high forest; C.U.S. = coppice-under-standards.

410

APPENDIX

Department

Belfort

Bouches-du-
Rhone

Calvados

Cantal

Charente

Charente-

Inferieure
Cher

Cher...,
Correze .
Corse . . .

Corse.

Corse.

Corse.

Corse.

Corse.
Corse.

Corse.

Corse.

Corse.

Corse.
Corse .
Corse .

Corse.

Corse.

Corse.

Corse .

Corse

Corse

Cote-d'Or.
Cote-d'Or.
Cote-d'Or.

Arrondissement

None.
None.

None

None

.■^ngouleme.

Bo urges
None.. .
Ajaccio.

.\jaccio.
.Ajaccio.
\jaccio.
Corte . . .

Corte.
Calvi.

Calvi.

Calvi,

Calvi.
Corte.
Corte.

Corte.

Corte.

Corte.

Corte.

Sartene.
Sartene.
Beaune.

Ch§,tillon-sur-

Seine
Chatillon-sur-

Seine

Name of forest

d'Allogny

Bastelica. . .
Bocognano.

d'fivisa.
Zicavo . .

Corte....

Marmano. .
Calenzana.

d'Albertacce, Cala-
cuccia, Casamac-
cioli, Corsica,

Lozzi (dite du
Fango)

Fango

Tartagir

Valdoniello

d'Albertacce

soumise d'Asco.

Ghisoni.
Tova....
Vivario . ,

Carbini, Figari, Le-
vie (massif de
Cagna)

Zonza

Barocaggio-

Marghese

Citeaux, . . .

Chatillon.
Chaume. .

Area

(acres)

5,459

8,555
5,743
5,424

5,439

7,445

9,862
6,877

10,954
5,555

6,012
5,221

10,129
6,768
8,626

21,550

Oak, beech, hornbeam,
birch, Scotch pine

Oak, beech, hornbeam

Holm oak, mis. conif.

and bd. Ivs.
Mis. beech

Corsican pine, maritime

pine, holm oak
Beech, corsican pine

Beech, Corsican pine,

Maritime pine
Beech, Corsican pine
Maritime pine, Corsican

pine, holm oak
Holm oak, maritime

pine, Corsican pine

Holm oak, maritime

pine, Corsican pine
Holm oak, maritime

^-ne, Corsican pine
Corsican pine, fir, beech
Corsican pine
Corsican pine, maritime

pine
Holm oak, Corsican

pine, maritime pine
Maritime pine, Corsican

ne, mis. bd. Ivs.
Beech, Corsican

maritime pine
Holm oak, marit

pine, mis. bd. Ivs.

pine,

Maritime pine, Corsican

pine
Maritime pine, Corsican

pine
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

mis. conif. and bd.lvs.
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

mis. bd. Ivs.

Treat-
ment t

H.F.

C.U.S.

H.F.

H.F.

C.U.S.

c.

H.F.

C.U.S.

H.F.

C.U.S.

H.F.

C.

H.F.

C.U.S.

H.F.

H.F.

H.F.

H.F.

H.F.

H.F.

C.U.S.

H.F.

H.F.
H.F.
H.F.

H.F.
H.F.
H.F.

H.F.
C.U.S.

H.F.

H.F.

H.F.

Conv.

C.U.S.

Conv.

C.U.S.

C.U.S.

PUBLIC AND PRIVATE FORESTS

411

Department

Arrondissement

Name of forest

Area

(acres)

Chief species *

Treat-
ment t

Cote-d'Or.
Cote-d'Or.

C6tes-du-Nord .

Creuse

Dordogne

Doubs

Doubs

Drome

Dijon,

Dijon .

None.
None.
None.

Pontarlier.
Die

Drome.
Drome.

L'Eure.
L'Eure.

Les Andelys.
Louviers ....

D'Eure-et-Loir.

FinistSre

Gard

Haute-Garonne

Gers

Gironde

Gironde

Gironde

Gironde

None

None

None

None

Bordeaux .
Bordeaux.
Bordeaux.
Lesparre . .

Gironde

L'Herault

D'llle-et-Vilaine

L'Indre.
L'lndre.

Lesparre

Montpellier .
Rennes

Chateauroux .
Issoudun

D'Indi'e-et-Loire

D'lndre-et^Loire

L'IsSre

L'IsSre

Chinon.

L'ls^re.
Jura....

Loches . . .

Grenoble.

Grenoble.

Grenoble.
Dole

Poligny .

Jura.
Jura.

Poligny .
Poligny .

Landes.
Landes.
Landes.
Landes.
Landes.

Val-Suzon

d'Is-sur-Tille.

Besancon .

Levier

V'ercors . . .

Lus-la-Crox- Haute.

Lyons.
Bord..

Teste

Lege, Garonne. . .

Lacanau

Soulac-Flamand-
Hourtin

Carcans

Puechabon

Chateauroux.
Bonimiers . . . .

Chinon.

Loches

Grande-Chartreuse
Gresse

5,199
7,527

5,078
6,714
8,691

6,576

8,135

14,920
8,649

d'Autrans.
Chaux

Joux

Poligny .

Dax

Dax

Mont-de-Marsan
Mont-de-Marsan
Mont-de-Marsan

Lit-et-Mixe

Vielle-Saint-Girons .

Mimizan

Sainte-Eulalie

Biscarrosse

5,817
10,230
12,353
12,835

7,537
5,019
7,360

12,704
11,021

16,306
5,550

5,550

7,705

6,534
7,344

6,395
8,175
8,123
6,131

Oak, beech, hornbeam

mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, beech, hornbeam

mis. bd. Ivs.

Oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs

Hr, spruce

Beech, fir, spruce, mis,

bd. Ivs.
Beech, fir, Scotch pine

Beech, fir

Oak, beech, hornbeam
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

Scotch pine, mis. bd,

Ivs.
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

mis. conif . and bd. Ivs

Maritime pine
Maritime pine
Maritime pine
Maritime pine

Maritime pine

Holm oak

Oak, beech, hornbeam,
mis. bd. Ivs.

Oak, mis. bd. Ivs.

Oak, hornbeam, mis.
bd. Ivs.

Oak, Scotch pine, mari-
time pine, mis. bd.

Oak, beech, hornbeam,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Beech, fir, spruce, mis.

bd. Ivs.
Beech, fir, mis. bd. Ivs.

Beech, fir, spruce
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Fir, spruce
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Maritime pine
Maritime pine
Maritime pine
Maritime pine
Maritime pine

C.U.S.
C.U.S.

C.U.S.

H.F.

H.F

C.

H.F.

H.F.

H.F.

H.F.

H.F.

Conv.

H.F.
Conv.
C.U.S.

H.F.
H.F.
H.F.
H.F.

H.F.

C.

Conv.

Conv.
C.U.S.
Conv.
H.F.

H.F.

H.F.

C.U.S.

H.F.

C.

H.F.

C.U.S.

H.F.

C.U.S.

H.F.

C.U.S.

H.F.
H.F.
H.F.
H.F.
H.F.

28,30

32

30

150, 180

90, 150

Unknown

180
150
25

60
70
66,67

60
20
120

25-30
Unknown
Unknown

150, 180
150-180

162

30
117

30
Unknown

30-33

Unknown
30

Unknown

75
Unknown

70,75

60

412

APPENDIX

Department

Arrondissement

Name of forest

Area
(acres

Treat-
ment

Russy.

Loir-et-Cher .
Loir-et-Cher.

Blois.
Blois.

Blois

Boulogne.

Oak, beech, hornbeam
Scotch pine, mis. bd
Ivs.

Oak, mis. bd. Ivs.

Oak, beech, hornbeam
Scotch pine, mis. bd

H.F.
H.F.

Loire

Haute-Loire. . .
Loire-Inferieurc

Loiret .
Loiret .

None

None

Paimbceuf .

Orleans....
Montargis.

Gavre

d 'Orleans.
Montargis.

11,0.33
84,618
10,262

Oak, beech, birch, mari-
time pine

Oak, hornbeam, birch
Scotch pine

Oak, beech, hornbeam
Scotch pine

Lot

Lot-et-Garonne.

Lozere

Maine-et-Loire .

La Manche

Marne

None

None

None. . . .

None

None

fipernay .

Marne

Haute-Marne .
Haute-Marne.
Haute-Marne.

Vitre-le-Franfois

Langres

Wassy

Wassy

Traconne

Trois-Fontair
Auberive

Roches and Bet

taincourt
Doulaincourt

6,051
12,384
13,386
5,577
5,352

Oak, beech, hornbeam

mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, beech, hornbeam

mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, beech, hornbeam

mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

mis. bd. Ivs.

Mayenne. . . .
Meurthe-et-

Moselle
Meurthe-et-

Moselle
Meurthe-et-

Moselle
Meurthe-et-

Moselle
Meuse

None,
riey.

Meuse. .
Morbiha
Nievre .

Ni^vre .
Nord...

Luneville. .,
Luneville.. .

Nancy

Bar-Ie-Duc.

Bar-le-Duc.

None

Cosne

Moyeuvre.

iSiieux

Parroy

de Haye...
Beaulieu . .
Lisle

5,216
5,145
6,4.35
15,913

6,467
0,674

Oak, beech, hornbeam,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, beech, fir, Scotch

pine, mis. bd. Ivs.
)ak, beech, mis. bd

Ivs.
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

is. bd. Ivs.
Oak, beech, mis. bd

vs. and conifers
Oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs

Bertranges .

Nevers , .
Avesnes.

de Guerigny.
Mormal

Nord.
Nord.

L'Oise.
L'Oise.
L'Oise,

Hazebrouck . .
Valenciennes .

Compiegne. . .

Compiegne. . .

Senlis

Nieppe

St. Amand.

Laigue

Compiegne .
Chantilly. .

9,795
5,644
22,650

6,215

8,192

9,439
35,650
13,299

Oak,

Oak, beech, hornbeam

mis. bd. Ivs.

leech, hornbeam
bd. ivs.
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, beech, Scotch pine,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs.

nd conifers
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

mis. conifers and bd.

Ivs.

c.u.s.

H.F.
Conv.

C.U.S.
C.U.S.
Conv.
C.U.S.
C.U.S.

Conv.

H.F.

C.U.S.

C.U.S.

C.U.S.

Conv.

C.U.S.

H.F.

H.F.

C.U.S.

C.U.S.

C.U.S.

Conv.

H.F.

C.U.S.
C.V.F.
H.F.
H.F.

30
Unknown
150
30

150
35
30
Unknown
72

PUBLIC AND PRIVATE FORESTS

413

Department

Arrondissement

Name of forest

Area

(acres)

Chief species *

Treat-

mentt

L'Oise..
L'Oise..
L'Orne.
L'Orne
L'Orne.
L'Orne.

Pas-de-Calais . .
Puy-de-D6me.

Basses-Pyrenees
Basses-Pyrenees

Hautes-Pyrenees
Hautes-Pyrenees

Hautes-Pyrenee

Pyrenees-Orien-
tales

Du Rhone

Haute-Saone . . .

Senlis

Senlis

Alengon. . .
Domfront .
Mortagne.
Mortagne.

Boulogne . .

None

Bayonne. .

Mauleon .
Mauleon.
Oloron. .
Oloron . .
Oloron . . ,

Argeles-Gazost .
Argeles-Gazost .

Bagneres-de-

Bigorre
Prades

None.
Lure. .

Saone-et-Loire.

Sarthe

Sarthe

Savoie

Autun

Saint Calais .

Mamers

Albertville . .

Haute-Savoie. .

Seine

Seine-et-Marne .

Seine-et-Marn
Seine-et-Oise.
Seine-et-Oise .

Seine-et-Oise .

Seine-Init'rieure .

None

None

Fontainebleau .

Melun

Corbeil

Rambouillet.

Versailles .

d'Ermenonville.

d'Halatte

Ecouves

Andainea

Belleme

Perche

Boulogne

7,337

Saint-Pee-sur-
Nivelle

Cize

Soule

Arette

Laruns

Sainte-Marie..

Saint-Savin .
Saint-Pie. . . .

5,834

7,794
19,091

14,621
5,612

9,133
6,407

Vallee de Barousse .

Casteil

St. Antoine.

Planoise

Berce

Persiegne

Beaufort . . . .

6,356
13,403
12,513

5,172

Fontainebleau .

Villefermoy . .

Senart

Rambouillet.

Marley

41,659

5,506
6,177
32,316

Dieppe

Oak, hornbeam, Scotch

pine, mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs.

and conifers
Oak, beech, birch,

Scotch pine
Oak, beech, Scotch pine,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, beech, birch,

Scotch pine
Oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs.

H.F.

C.V.F.

Conv.

C.U.S.

H.F.

C.U.S.

Conv.

H.F.

H.F.

C.U.S.

Ped. oak, pyr. oak

Beech

Beech, fir

Beech, fir, mis. bd. Ivs.

Beech, fir

Oak, beech, mis. bd. Ivs.

Beech, fir

Beech, fir, mis. bd.

Oak, beech, fir

Fir, mountain pine,
mis. bd. Ivs.

P.

C.

H.F.

H.F.

H.F.

H.F.

Conv

H.F.

H.F.

C.U.S.

H.F.

H.F.

Un-
known

Beech, fir, spruce, mis

bd. Ivs.
Oak, beech, hornbeam

mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, beech, Scotch pine

maritime pine
Oak, beech, Scotch pine,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Fir, spruce

H.F

H.F.

H.F.

C.V.F.

H.F.

H.F.

Oak, beech, hornbeam
birch, Scotch pine

Oak, hornbeam, mis

bd. Ivs.
Oak, birch, Scotch pine,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

Scotch pine, mis. bd.

Ivs.
Oak, hornbeam, chest-
nut, mis. conifers and

bd. Ivs.
Oak, hornbeam, Scotch

pine, Austrian pine,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Beech, mis. bd. Ivs.

H.F.
H.F.
C.V.F.
C.V.F.

C.V.F.

C.
H.F.

H.F.

C.V.F.

H.F.
H.F.
C.V.F.
H.F.

414

APPENDIX

Arrondissement

Name of forest

Area

(acres)

Chief species *

Treat-
ment t

Seine-Inferieure
Seine-Inferieure

Seine-Inferieure

Seine-Inferieure

Neufchatel .
Rouen

Lyons

Roumare.

11,293
10,025

Trait- Sai nt-Wa n-
driile

Crecy .

Tarn

Tarn

Tarn-et-Garonne

Var

Var

Cast res.
Gaillac.

None

Brignoles

Draguignan.

Saint-Arnans-Soult
Gresigne

5,258
8,053

Rians . .
Bagnols

Var.

Var

Vaucluse.
Vaueluse.

V'endee. . .
Vendee . . .
Vienne. . .

Draguignan.

Toulon

Ax-ignon

Carpentras . .

I'Esterel.

Pierrefeu.
Luberon. ,
Bedoin...

Fontenay-le-

Comte
Sables-d'Olonr

Vouvant

Barre-de-Monts.
Mouliere

5,943
6,630

14,226

6,968
7,967
15,568

5,721
6,395
8,.320

Beech, oak, hornbeam
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

Scotch pine, mis. bd.

Ivs.
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

mis. bd. Ivs., Scotch

pine
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

Scotch pine, mis. bd.

Ivs.
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

Scotch pine, mis. bd.

ivs.
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

Scotch pine, mis. bd.

ivs.
Oak, beech, hornbeam,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, beech
Oak, hornbeam, mis.

bd. Ivs.

White oak, holm oak
Cork oak, maritime

pine
Holm oak, cork oak

aleppo pine, maritime

pine
Cork oak, maritini(

pine
Holm oak, aleppo pine

White oak, beech,
mountain pine

Oak, chestnut, mis. bd

Ivs.
Maritime pine, m.is. bd.

Ivs.
Oak, beech, hornbeain,

maritime pine, mis

bd. Ivs.

H.F.
C.V.F.
C. Conv
H.F.
H.F.

H.F.
C. Conv

C.V.F.
H.F.

C.V.F.

H.F.

C.

H.F.

C.

C.

H.F.

H.F.

C.

H.F.

C.

H.F.

H.F.

C.V.F.

H.F.

H.F.

Cor

Haute-Vienne.
Vosges

None..

iSpinal.

Vosges .
Vosges .

Epinal

Mirecourt .

d'fipinal

Ramber-villers .

Marti nvelle. . . .

Vosges .
Vosges .

Remiremont .
Remiremont .

Bussange.

Vosges .
Vosges .

Saint-Die.
Saint-Die.
Saint-Die .

Gerardmer

Bois-Sauvages.
Senones

5,602
13,679
13,064

7,101

11,809
5,310
10,332

Oak, beech, fir, spruce

Scotch pine
Oak, beech, fir, Scotch

pine
Oak, beech, hornbean:

Scotch pine
Oak, fir, spruce
Oak, fir, spruce

Oak, fir, spruce

Oak, fir

Fir, mis. bd. Ivs.

H.F.

C.V.F.

H.F.

H.F.

H.F.

H.F.
H.F.
H.F.
H.F.
H.F.
H.F.
H.F.

150
150-90

30

120

30
Unknown
30
150-156

20
Unknown

Unknown

25-30
Unknown

25-30
Unknown
Unknown

25-30
144
Unknown

144
30
144
144
160

150

138
Unknown

150

150

150
Unknown

IMPORTANT PRIVATE FORESTS

415

IMPORTANT PRIVATE FORESTS

As of 1912 (statistique des Forets de France) the important private forests of France
(over 5,000 acres or 2,024 hectares in area) are listed below, with statistical data for each
unit:

Department

Arrondissement

Name of forest

Chief i

Treat-
mentt

L'Ain.

Aisne. .
Aillier.
Aillier.

Hautes-AIpes....
Alpes-Maritimes.

Ardeche. .
Ardennes .
Ardennes .

L' Ariege .

L'Aube .
L'Aube.

Bourge. .
Vervins.
Gannat .
Moulins.

Couvandieres, Prince,

Genou, Priay
Nouvion

Montpensier, Charmeil

Vendat
Chapeau, Leyde

None..

None . .
Grasse.

Largentiere .

Mezieres

Sedan

Lagorce (ou bois

d'Ajude)
Mazarin, d'finelle.

Boux, Bas, Bourgogne,

Chesne, Voncq.
Montsegur

Bar-sur-Aube
and Troyes

Bar-sur-Aube
and Troyes

Troyes .

d'Hugemenil.Soulaines
Chant ecoq, Fulvy
Ferrieres, Pute-Bete,
Bouron, Arret, Roth
ere, Beaulieu

Grand-Orient, Larivour

Rumilly, Aumont, Cha
ource, Praslin, Cus
sangy, Perchois, Cha
moin

d'Othe

7,883
9,234
6,311

5,585

6,919

5,251
7,030
5,169

17,223
5,879
6,049

13,191
13,640

Oak, hornbeam,
mis. bd. Ivs.

Oak, beech, mis,
bd. ivs.

Beech, oak, spruce

Oak, beech, horn-
beam, mis. bd,
ivs.

Holm oak, aleppo
pine, maritime
pine

Sessile oak, holm
oak

Oak, hornbeam,
mis. bd. Ivs.

Oak, beech, horn-
beam, mis. co-
nifers and bd.
Ivs.

Oak, hornbeam,
mis. bd. Ivs.

Beech, fir, mis.
bd. Ivs.

Oak, hornbeam,
mis. bd. Iv3.

Oak, hornbeam,
mis. bd. Ivs.

Oak, hornbeam
mis. bd. Ivs.

Oak, hornbeam,
Scotch pine,
mis. bd. Ivs.

C.

c.u.
c.u.

H.F.
C.

C.

c.u.s.
c.

C.U.S.
H.F.

C.

C.U.S.

C.U.S.

H.F.

C.U.S.

C.U.S.
C.U.S.

H.F.

C.U.S.

L'Aude

L'Aveyron. . . .

Belfort

Bouches-du- Rhone

Bouches-du-Rhone

Bouches-du-Rhone
Bouches-du-Rhone

None.

None.
None.
Aix...

Aix.

Vitrolles

Sainte-Victoire.

6,116

24,587

I'Estaque. .
Saint-Paul .

Aleppo pine, holm

oak
Sessile oak, holm

oak, mis. bd

Ivs.
Aleppo pine
Sessile oak, holm

oak

H.F.
C.

H.F.
C.

12-25
30, 35

10-50
18-20

10-20

25

16, 17

20-25

Unknowi

30
70
20-25

20-25
25

50-60
20-25

• Mis. bd. Ivs. = Miscellaneous broadleaves.
t C. = coppice; Conv. = conversion; H.F. =

high forest; C.U.S. = coppice-under-standards.

416

APPENDIX

Department Arrondissement

Name of forest

Area
(acres)

Treat-
ment t

Bouches-du-Rhone
Bouches-du-Rhone

Bouches-du-Rhone
Bouches-du-Rhone

Marseille. . .
Aix and Mar-
seille

Aries

Marseille . . .

I'fitoile...
Regagnas.

Alpilles

Roussargues .

10,625

8,525

5,180
22,832

Cantal

Charente

Charente-Inferi-

eure
Cher

Cher.

Cher.

Cher.
Cher.
Cher.
Cher.

Correze.
Corse. . .

C6tes-du-Nord .

C6tes-du-Nord.

Creuse . .
Dorgne .

Dordogne .

Dorgne. . .
Dorgne . . .

Pont-l'fiveque.

Touques (ou de St.
Gatien)

Aleppo pine
Sessile oak, holm

oak, aleppo pine
Holm oak
Aleppo pine, holi

oak
Oak, beech, fi

mis. conifers

and bd. Ivs,

H.F.

H.F.

C.

C.

H.F.

C.U.S.
H.F.

None

Angouleme.
Rochefort . .

Rochechourart .
Benon

Bourges

Saint-Amand.

Saint-Amand.

Saint-Amand.
Saint-Amand.

Sancerre

Sancerre

None . . .
Sartene .

Chatillon-sur

Seine

Dijon .

None . . . .
Bergerac .

Bergerac .

Bergerac .
Sarlat....

Castelnau, Civray, etc.

I'ficoron, Primelles, Lu
nerette,Thoux, Balay
Effe, Chateauneuf

Parnay, Meillant, Grail-
ly, Fleuret, Poudy
Chailloux, Contres

d'Apremont, Boucard,
Les Bouranis

d'Aubigny, Fournay. . .

d'li

le-Pre.

Boucard, Sens-Beaujeju
Villegenon

7,413
5,931

6,178

22,239

17,792

17,297
8,402
6,445

5,881

Oak, chestnut
Oak, mis. bd. Ivs

Oak, hornbeam
mis. bd. Ivs.

Oak, hornbeam
mis. bd. Ivs.

Oak, hornbeam,
is. bd. Ivs.

Oak, hornbeam,
mis. bd. Ivs.

Oak, hornbeam,
mis. bd. Ivs.

Oak, beech, mis.
bd. Ivs.

Oak, mis. bd. Ivs.

C.
C.

C.U.S.
C.U.S.

C.U.S.

C.U.S.

C.U.S.
C.U.S.
C.U.S.
C.U.S.

50-60
50-60

18

18
50-60

12-30
Unknown

15-20

10

20
18-20

20

Toga

Rochefort, Thoureau.

Marey, Cussey, Mau
champs, et Brun

Lacour-d' Arcenay .

Lorge.

5,046
9,390
6,585
6,425

Holm oak, mari-
time pine

Oak, beech, horn-
beam, mis. bd.
Ivs.

Oak, beech, horn-
beam, mis. bd.
Ivs.

Oak, beech, horn-
beam, mis. co-
nif. and bd. Ivs.

Oak, beech, mis.
conifers and bd.
Ivs.

Oak, beech, mis.
bd. Ivs., Scotch
pine

Unknown
C.U.S.

15-20
15-20

20-25
30

C.U.S.
H.F.

11,614
7,660

Oak, chestnut,
maritime pine

Oak, chestnut,
maritime pine

Oak, chestnut

Oak, chestnut
maritime pine

C.

C.U.S.

H.F.

C. and

C.U.S.

H.F.

C.

C.U.S.

c.

C.U.S.
H.F.

15

Unknown

IMPORTANT PRIVATE FORESTS

417

Department

Arrondissement

Name of forest

Area
(acres)

Chief species*

Treat-
mentf

Drome.
Drome.

D'Eure-et-Loir.

D'Eure-et-Loir.

D'Eure-et-Loir.

Finistere.
Gard

Haute-Garonne

DuGers

Gironde

L'Herault

D'llle-et-Vilaine.

Valence .
Valence .

Bernay..

iSvreux . .

fivreux. .

fivreux.

iSvreux.

Louviers .

Nogent-Ie-Ro-
trou

None.
Alais.

None

None

None

None

Mont fort .

'^^charasson, Larps,
Goulets et I'Allier

Rochas, rUfernet.

Grands, Rigauds, Mont-

pourchier
Muzan

5,078
11,271

Beaumont-le- Roger .

15,528

d't^

d'lvry, Roseux.

d'Acquigny, Mesnil-
Jourdain, Canappe-
ville, Feuguerolles

Champrond

Ferte-Vidame, Saucelle

Oak, beech

Scotch pine
mis. bd. Iv3.

Oak, beech,

Scotch pine,
mis. bd. Ivs.

Oak, beech, fir,
spruce, mis. bd.
Ivs.

Oak, beech,

Scotch pine,
mis. bd. Ivs.

Sessile oak, holm
oak, beech, mis,
bd. Ivs.

Sessile oak, beech,
mis. bd. Ivs.

Oak, beech,
Scotch pine,
mis. bd. Ivs.

Oak, beech, horn-
beam, mis. bd
Ivs.

Oak, beech, horn
beam, mis. coni
fers and bd. Ivs.

Oak, beech, horn-
beam, mis. coni-
fers and bd. Ivs

Oak, beech, horn-
beam, mis. coni-
fers and bd. Ivs

Oak, beech, horn-
beam, mis. coni
fers and bd. Ivs

Oak, beech, horn-
beam, mis. coni-
fers and bd. Ivs,

Oak, beech, horn-
beam, mis. bd.
Ivs.

Oak, beech, horn-
beam, mis. coni-
fers, bd. Ivs.

Oak, beech, horn-
beam, mis. bd.
Ivs.

C.and

C.U.S.

H.F.

C.

C.U.S.

H.F.

C. and

C.U.S.

H.F.

C.

H.F.

C.

C.
H.F.

C.and
C.U.S.

C.U.S.
H.F.

C.and
C.U.S.

Mejannes.
Lens

6,351
5,931

Holm oak, sessile

oak
Holm oak

Kermes-bear-

ing oak, mis,

pine

Paimpont .

Oak, mis. conifers
and bd. Ivs.

C.U.S.
H.F.

10&-150
10-20

10-30
80-120

15-25
60-80

10-25
12-30

15-18
Unknown

3, 25-30

20-25
16-20

18
Unknown

418

APPENDIX

Department

D'lUe-et-Vilaine.

D'llle-et-Vilaine.

L'Indre

L'Indre

D'Indre-et-Loire.

D'lndre-et-Loire .
L'Isdre

Jura

Landes

Loir-et-Cher.

Loir-et-Cher.
Loir-et-Cher.

Loir-et-Cher.
Loire

Loire.

Loire

Haute-Loire

Loire-Inferieure.
Loiret

Lot

Lot-et-Garonne. .

Lozere

Marche

Marne.
Marne.

Arrondissenient

Chateauroux..
Chateauroux .
Tours

Tours ....
Grenoble.

Saint-Marcellin

Saint-Marcellin

None.
None.
Blois..

Blois

Romorantin.

Vendome.
Roanne . . .

Roanne .

Saint-fitienne .

None

None

Orleans

None. . .

None

None....
Mortain.

Sainte-Mene-

hould
Sainte-Mene-

hould

Name of forest

Chevre (ou de la Vallee

Lauconne. .
Gatines . . . .
d'Amboise.

Chateau-la-Valliere.
Vercors

Chambarands.

Marchenoir.
Bruadan ...

Greteval (la

niere)
Bois Noirs . . .

Folleville, Donjon, Qua-
tre-Vents, Concyr,
MaLson-Fort, Bois-
Gibault, Mezieres,
Bois-le-Roi, Bouri,
Villefallier, d'Aunay,
Gachetieres, Cendray
Fully, Francs-Bois

Lande-Pourrie.

Belval..
Princes.

5,357
10,327

10,013
21,004

14,826

7,858
5,683

Oak, beech, horn-
beam, mis. bd.
Ivs.

Oak, beech, chest-
nut, mis. bd
Ivs.

Oak, mis. bd. Ivs.

Oak, mis. bd. Ivs.

Oak, mis. bd. Ivs.
and conifers

Oak, mis. bd. Ivs.

Fir, spruce, Scotch
pine

Oak, beech, chest
nut, mis. coni
fers and bd. Ivs.

Oak, beech, chest
nut, mis. bd
Ivs.

Oak, beech, chest
nut, mis. bd.
Ivs.

Oak, Scotch

pine, mis. bd

Ivs.
Oak, hornbeam

mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, mis. bd

Ivs., Scotch

pine, maritime

pine
Oak, hornbeam,

mis. bd. Ivs.
Beech, fir, Scotch

pine
Oak, beech, mis

bd. Ivs.
Fir, Scotch pine

Oak, Scotch pine,
mis. conife
and bd. Ivs.

Oak, beech, mis.
bd. Ivs.

Oak, beech, horn-
beam

Oak, hornbeam,
beech

Treat
ment t

C.U.S.

C.U.S.

C.U.S.

C.U.S.

H.F.

C.

H.F.

C.

Conv.

H.F.

C.

C.U.S.

c.

C.U.S.

C.U.g

C.U.S.

H.F.

C.U.S.

C.U.S.

H.F.

H.F.

C.U.S.

H.F.

C. and
C.U.S.
H.F.

C.

C.U.S.
C.U.S.

C.U.S.

IMPORTANT PRIVATE FORESTS

419

Departne.it

Arrondissement

Name of forest

Area

(acres)

Chief species *

Treat-
ment t

Rotation

Marne

Sainte-Mene-
hould

7,117

Oak, beech

C.U.S.

20-25

Haute-Marne

Chaumont

£;cot, Champ-Briot,

5,718

Oak, beech, horn-

C.U.S.

25-30

Grandes-Bois, FIo-

beam mis. bd.

H.F.

Unknown

rainville, Bosse, Jard,

Ivs.

Charmoy

Haute-Marne

Chaumont

fitoile, Marchat, Relau-
vaux, Bois Charrue

8,436

Beech, oak, horn-
beam,mis. bd. Ivs.

C.U.S.

20-25

Haute-Marne

Chaumont

d'Arc et de Chateauvil-
Uan

21,181

Oak, beech, horn-
beam, mis. bd.
Ivs. and conifers

C.U.S.

25-30

Wassy

du Val

8,550

C.U.S.

25-30

beam, mis. bd.

Ivs.

Haute-Marne

VVassy

Cirey I'Aillemont,
Bellevaume, Com-
manderie, Grands-
Ordons

6,220

Oak, beech, horn-
beam, mis. bd.
Ivs.

C.U.S.

25-30

Wassy

Der

12,101

Oak, beech, horn-
beam, mis. bd.

C.U.S.

25

Ivs.

Moo

T • 1

Charnie

13 097

Oak, beech, chest-

C U S

18

nut, mis. bd.

Ivs.

Mayenne

M

9 316

Oak, beech, chest-

C U s

18

nut, mis. bd.

Ivs. and conifers

Pail

6,573

C.U.S.

bd. Ivs.

Meurthe-et-Moselle

Luneville

Ban-Lemoine, Grand-
Breheux, Vala, Alem-
combe, Herbaville,
Charaille, Basse-Scie,
Taurupt.Ton, Moj'en-
Sapinot, - Fontaine
Voirhage, P6t-de-Vin,
Folie, Gagere, Trou
Marmod, Grandes et
Petites Moises, Grand
Retour, Voincheres,
Chatillon, Zoinique,
Rupt-de-Laro, Petit et
Grand Rougimont,
Martimont, Guindri-
mont

11,589

Oak, beech, fir,
mis. bd. Ivs.

H.F.

80-100

Ploermel

Pontivv

9,192
6 178

Oak, mis. bd. Ivs
Oak, mis. bd Ivs

c.
c.

Morbihan

18

NiSvre

Remaches Fromage,
Breugnet, Sanclerges,

5,931

c

bd. Ivs.

C.U.S.

18-20

Jacob et Pierre

Ni^vre

18

non

Morillon

beam, mis. bd
Ivs.

NiSvre

c

8-10

non

Gouloux, Beauvernois

Ni^vre

Chateau -Chi

11,144

C.U.S.

18-23

non and Cla

Cuy,Baume,d'Oussy

beam, mis. bd

mecy

Montraute

Ivs.

420

APPENDIX

Department

Arrondissement

Name of forest

Area

(acres)

Treat-
ment t

NiSvre

Nevers and
Cosne

Nevers and
Cosne

Nevers and
Cosne

Nievre

Nievre .

Nievre

Nevers

L'Orne.
L'Orne.

Puy-de-D6me.
Puy-de-D6me.

Pyrenees (Hautes-)
Pyrenees (Hautes-)
Saone-et-Loire.
Saone-et-Loire.

Sarthe

Savoie

Chateau - Chi-
non and Cla-
mecy

Chateau - Chi-
non and Nev-
ers

Chateau - Chi-
non and Nev-
ers

Clamecy

Blin, Dame, Crots,
Mouehes, Vaux,
Mouilles-Verrees

Fours

Clamecy .

Alengon. .
Argentan.

Buremont, Maxilles

Bazoches, Graviers, Ra-
pieres, Ferlees, Chev
riere

Dames, Tremblee,
Grand-Piece, Carre-
des-Courgeonneries,
Minerai, Pare

Tronsay, Saint-Franchj

Beaumont-la-Ferriere.
Reaux, Soueilles,
Tremone

Vaux, Donne, Gros
Buissons, Coteauz

Donzy, vallee de
I'Epeau, Forts, Vaulu-
rins

Perray, Chabet, Mussy,
d'Ye, Loges-Fraillous,
Cordes, Fonds, Nor-
mand

Nolay, Mauboux, Saint-
Benin Folies, Lichy

Ballu, Goult, Montgom-

meries
Silli-en Gouffern

Argentan and
Mortagne

Mortagne.

Riom . .
Thiers.

Bagneres-de-

igorre
Bagneres-de-

Bigorre
Chalon-sur-

Saone
Chalon-sur-

Saone
Mamers and

Mans
Chambery . . .

Saint-Evroult .

de Longny.

Randan

Bois Noirs (ou de Mon-

toncel)
Baronnies

Noston
Chagny, Lessart.

Rombois

Le Sille

3,605
6,548

5,510

8,248

Montague d'Hauterens,
Joigny

6,425
6,771

5,896

6,410

11,713

8,649

5,313

6,672

Oak, beech, horn
beam, mis. bd,
Ivs.

Oak, beech, horn-
beam, mis. bd
Ivs.

Oak, beech, horn
beam, mis. bd
Ivs.

Oak, beech, horn-
beam, mis. bd
Ivs.

Oak, hornbeam
mis. bd. Ivs.

Oak, beech, horn
beam, mis. bd

Oak, hornbeam
mis. bd. Ivs.

Oak, hornbeam,
mis. bd. Ivs.

Oak, beech, horn-
beam, mis. bd.
Ivs.

Oak, hornbeam,
mis. bd. Ivs.

Oak, beech, horn-
beam, mis. bd
Ivs.

Oak, beech, Scotch
ine

Oak, beech, mis,
bd. Ivs. and
conifers

Oak, beech, fir,
Scotch pine,
mis. bd. Ivs.

Oak, beech, mis.
bd. Ivs.

Oak, mis. bd. Ivs

Oak, beech, fir
Scotch pine

Oak, beech, fir

Beech, fir

Oak, hornbeam

is. bd. Ivs.
Oak, hornbeam

mis. bd. Ivs.
Oak, mis. bd. Ivs

and conifers
Oak, beech, mis

bd. Ivs.

C.U.S.

c.u.s.

C.U.S.

c.u.s.
c.u.s.

c.

c.u.s.

H.F.
C.U.S.

C.U.S.

H.F.

C.

C.

H.F.

C.

H.F.

C.U.S.

C.U.S.

c.u.s.
c.

IMPORTANT PRIVATE FORESTS

421

Department

Arrondissement

Name of forest

Area

(acres)

Chief species *

Treat-
ment t

Rotation

Seine-et-Marne....

Coulommiers,
Meaux, and
Melun

Grange, Lechelles Beau-
rose, d'Attilly, d'Ar-
mainvilliers, d'Her-
mieres, Motte, Fau-
vins, Crecy, Croissy,
Guette

28,417

Oak, hornbeam,
mis. bd. Iv3.

C.U.S.

18-25

Seine-et-Marne —

Fontainebleau

Commanderie, Bourron

9,360

Oak, Scotch pine,
mis. bd. Ivs.

C.

C.U.S.

15-20

Seine-et-Marne...

Fontainebleau

Charme, Sucrement

9,143

Oak, Scotch pine,

C.U.S.

15-20

and Melun

Croix-Saint-Jerome,
Fourche, Bois-Rond

mis. bd. Ivs.

H.F.

20-40

Seine-et-Marne...

Fontainebleau
and Melun

Valence, Saint-Martin,
Fresnay, Graville,
I'Argenterie, Garenne,
Champigny

11,367

Oak, hornbeam,
mis. bd. Ivs.

C.U.S.

20-25

Corbeil

6,425

C.U.S.

16-25

Camaldules, Pare,

mis. bd. Ivs.

Gros-Bois, Notre-

Dame, Pontillaut

Seine-et-Oise

Pontoise

Montmorency

5,436

Oak, chestnut,

c.

12

mis. bd. Ivs.

C.U.S.
H.F.

15
Unknown

Seine Inferieure . . .

Dieppe and

d'Eu

22,711

Oak, beech, horn-

C.U.S.

30

Neufchatel

beam, mis. bd.
Ivs.

Conv.
H.F.

120
120

Var

Total-

Cork oak, holm

C.

15-20

guignan Tou-

little value

ing

oak, sessile oak.

C.U.S.

18

lon

499,151

white oak
(chene blanc),
aleppo pine,
maritime pine,
chestnut

H.F.

40-60

L'Yonne

Auxerre

Pomard, Chateau, Char-

6,299

Oak, beech, mis.

C.U.S.

20-25

bonnais, Grand-Val-

bd. Ivs.

lee, d'Arnus

L'Yonne

Merry, Vaux, Bois-Bon-
tin

6,054

Oak, beech, mis.
bd. Ivs.

C.U.S.

17-25

Joigny

L'Yonne

Avallon

Souche-Noire, Vaux

10,554

Oak, beech, horn-

C.U.S.

20-25

lanes, Garenne, Fon-

beam, mis. bd.

teaux, Poruches

Ivs.

6,919

C.U.S.

17 and 25

d'Othe

16,714
9,266

Oak, beech, mis.
bd. Ivs.

Oak, beech, horn-
beam, mis. bd.

C.U.S.
C.U.S.

20-25

Tonnerre

Maulnes, Villon, Bour-
ciere, Commissey

20-25

Ivs.

422 APPENDIX

APPENDIX E
TYPICAL REFORESTATION AREAS IN THE MOUNTAINS

Alps Region (Department of Haute-Savoie, Arc Superieur Forestation Area.) — The
valley of the Arc (which corresponds to the ancient province of Maurienne) has a length
of 79 miles from the Girard Pass to the Royal Bridge. It divides into two parts : the High
Maurienne from the source of the Arc to St. Jean de Maurienne, and from the Lower
Maurienne to the St. Jean at Isere. The average slope is 2.7 per cent . . . the
higher part of the valley of the Arc extends to Modane on the Italian frontier, from
the summit of Gin, 11,529 feet, to Thabon, 10,517 feet. . . . The Arc is fed by
the waters of vast and numerous glaciers which occupy an area of more than 9,884
acres. Important secondary valleys bring to it the waters of other glacial groups.
These are, on the left, the valleys of Avarole and of Ribon, and, on the right, the
valley of Doron de Termignon. . . .

Geological Conditions. — The high Maurienne is almost entirely included in the
Brian^-onnais and Preniont zones. The axis of the zone of Briangonnais is formed by
carboniferous soil which extends from Modane to Saint-Michel. . . . The glacial
deposits and drifts are of common occurrence on the slopes and help feed the torrents
with material.

Climate. — The climate of the Arc Valley is very much like that of the Haute-Alpes.
It is the continental climate rendered severe by the enclosure of the valleys and by the
high altitudes. The rainfall, however, is less frequent and less abundant than in the
rest of the department. . . . During the winter of 1903-1904 the average snow-
fall recorded was from 3.6 feet at St. Jean de Maurienne, 2,195 feet altitude, to a maxi-
mum of 12.6 feet at St. Jean d'Arves, 4,908 feet altitude. The number of days of rain-
fall and the amount of rainfall diminishes as you proceed from the Iscre toward Modane
which has quite a dry climate. This dry chmate is due to the absence of mists and fogs.
In the autumn fog rarely passes Chamberg. Moreover, the intensity of the light is
more considerable in the Maurienne than in the rest of Savoie. . . .

Production. — Vineyards extend to an altitude of about 3,280 feet in the western
part of the region. . . . From Modane to Belleval the dominant crop is almost
exclusively rye. At Modane rye fields are found between 3,280 to 4,590 feet and at
Bramnas they reach 4,920 to 5,250 feet. ... In the valley of the Averole certain
fields extend up to 6,560 feet. . . . The high pasturage is grazed by sheep. . . .
The forests under State control in the Haute- Maurienne have an area of 27,230 acres.
The larch, the cembric pine, and the spruce occupy the best soils, the mountain pine
and Scotch pine being found on the gypsums and the hot slopes. The fir, the beech,
and the elm are in mixture with the other species on the better soils.

Administrative Situation, Area, Population. — The basin of the Arc Superieur
includes 26 communes of the District of St. Jean de Maurienne and a portion of the
communes of Albiez-le-Jeune and Saint-Jean. The total area is 308,216 acres, some
of the communes being the biggest in the department. The population includes 23,980
inhabitants.

State of Soil Erosion. — Little or no grass, arid, steep slopes, burned by the sun, cut
by ravines and torrents — such is the aspect of the Haute-Maurienne entirely on the
right side of the Arc. The erosion, once started in the mountains, increases from day
to day and includes bordering surface soil in good condition. This erosion is due
to the nature of the ground, to the steepness of the slopes, and to the small area of the
forest cover (10 per cent of the basin area), to the excessive grazing and to too abundant
irrigation. Because of this situation avalanches slide without hinderance and continue

REFORESTATION AREAS 423

to work deforestation, removing little villages, farms, herds, and too often menace
life itself. In four winters avalanches have destroyed 700,000 board feet of timber,
cut sixty-seven roads and trails of all kinds, destroyed fourteen houses, killed seventy
sheep, and injured sixty-seven people, of whom eight died. Dangerous torrents, such
as Envers, St. Martin, and St. Julien have eroded the mountains, covered the cultivated
fields with debris and overturned houses. . . . The Arc Superieur area was estab-
lished by the law of July 26, 1892, and includes 7,801 acres, of which 6,422 acres belong
to the State.

Work. — • The work of restoration is about finished in nine of the thirteen working
groups. The torrent of Envers . . . rises in the mountains of Petie-Mont-Denis
(10,269 feet). After leaving the schists of this higher basin it flows into a deep gorge
hedged in by gypsum. The ravines have been corrected, embankments have stopped
the avalanches from destroying the forestation, and drainage canals (by drying the
soil) have been effective in holding the snow and assuring the stability of the slopes.
Cembric pine has been sown at an altitude of 6,560 to 8,200 feet and spruce, larch,
and mountain pine planted between 5,900 to 7,200 feet. The torrent of Saint-Antoine,
communes of Villarodin-Bourget and Modane, flows from the little glacier of Belle-
fenier (10,140 feet). Its upper basin is a vast funnel with very steep slopes formed of
schists. . . . The torrent passes through a steep gorge of eroded gypsum and, cut
by a bank of compact limestone, its floods are very dangerous. The correction has
been effected by means of dams or drainage canals and avalanche walls. Moreover,
at an altitude between 5,900 and 7,550 feet, cembric pine has been sown and there
have been plantations of spruce, larch, and mountain pine. In the working group of
Orelle and of Thyl, the Pousset runs through sand and carboniferous schist. The
deforestation of its basin, the very steep slopes of its bed, the erosion and soaking of
the soil, make its floods frequent and violent between an altitude of 4,920 and 7,870
feet; here an area of 395 acres has been reforested with spruce, larch, and mountain
pine. When the young forest is sufficiently developed the various branches of the
torrent will be improved and it will be possible to gradually take up the other work of
necessary correction. In the working groups of Beaume, Saint-Michel, Saint Martin la
Porte, the Grollaz (see page 168) is bounded entirely by schists and carboniferous sand.
The correction work took place from 1880 to 1892 and from 1895 to 1905, and the foresta-
tion has extended over most of the basin. A complete stand of 124 acres of mountain
pine, spruce, and larch has modified the aspect of the mountain. Lower down in the
gorge, Scotch pine and alder are growing well. During the past few years the pine
in favorable localities has grown more than 2.3 feet per year. The forest already
estabhshed finishes the final working plan. The torrent of St. Martin in the com-
mune of the same name runs from the little pass of Encombres. Two branches eroded
in the gypsum have been corrected by means of dams and drainage canals. The left
slope of the torrent (for the most part carboniferous in character) is an entire area of
moving earth of about 3,700 acres. It is hoped to stop this important slide by drainage
work which so far has given excellent results. Between 3,280 and 4,260 feet of altitude
very complete forestation has been finished. The Scotch pine looks well but the in-
stability of the soil makes the results as yet uncertain. The material eroded by the
torrent is sluiced to the river in a masonry canal. This important work has not as
yet been finished and is not maintained by the Waters and Forests administration.
The Rieu-Sec torrent, communes of St. Martin and St. Julien, flows from the rock of
Beaume to the south extremity of the Encombres, through compact limestones and
from the badly eroded black schists. The characteristic of this torrent is the very
steep slopes of its basin. . . . The dams of enormous blocks of stone constructed
from 1897 to 1900 constitute the absolute correction of the torrent and have suppressed
the lava floods (of stone, mud, water, etc.), which might have formed in its basin.

424 APPENDIX

The forestation of the two slopes and part of the cone have very much improved matters,
but, with such a topography, it is certain that it will always produce dangerous and
sudden floods. The Daret, commune of St. Julien, flows from north to south to a point
southwest of the Rieu-Sec. On the left it is joined by three ravines which originate
in the Croix des Tetes. Its basin is formed by gypsums, limestone, and schists. As
in the case of the Rieu-Sec, the dams have been constructed of blocks of stone each
about 1 cubic yard in volume. Several drainage canals and forestation of spruce, larch,
and mountain pine complete the control work started by the dams. The St. Julien
torrent (seepage 156), communes of St. Julien and Mont Denis, is avast and complex
torrent. Its basin comprises some 4,940 acres and is cut by ravines eroded in the schists,
glacial muds, and marls. All this kind of soil is easily eroded. The floods and lava
flows of St. Julien have been very numerous and have caused tremendous damage. The
diversion canal, cut in the rock, has stopped a vast landslide which threatened the
village of Mont Denis. Dams below and above the source of the damage have fixed
the bed of the torrent and its waters are now conducted to the Arc by a drainage canal.
Forestation of Scotch pine, oak, and ash has been completed in the slide area and plan-
tations of poplar, willow, and alder have been made in the gorge. It appears that
considerable damage has been reduced to the minimum. The torrent of Rieu-Bel,
communes of Albiez-le-Jeune and Villergondran, rises in the commune of Albiez-le-
Jeune at an altitude of 5,085 feet. It runs north for a length of more than 2 miles.
Its circular upper basin is cut by little ravines which reunite in one big torrent below
3,600 feet altitude. The soil comes from the disintegration of schists, usually saturated
with water and shows a tendency to slide. By its floods and rockfall the torrent of
Rieu-Bel menaces the village of Viflergondran. Rough dams have been constructed
to fix the bed of the torrent and drainage canals have been established with a view to
draining the soil. Plantations of spruce and larch, not yet thrifty, completed the work,
which, however, must be continued.

The torrent of Roches Noires, communes of Villergondran and St. Jean de Maurienne,
is cut in the black schists and in the glacial drifts. The steep slopes and the sterility
of the soil have rendered the forestation difficult and uncertain. Everywhere the bed
had to be fixed with wattle work but even then vegetation could not be introduced.
Forestation is more important in this perimeter than in those which have already been
described. The area forested includes some 1,599 acres. The corrective work, which
remains to be finished as soon as possible, is Hmited to the construction of dams at the
base, and the establishment of little accessory dams.

Forestation Area of la Blanche. — The torrent of the Blanche is a tributary of the
left branch of the Durance which rises in the southeast of Seyne at the summit of Roche
Close. It runs from the east to the west to the hamlet of Chardavox, when it turns to
the northwest and follows into the Durance after a course of 19 miles. From the
hamlet of Vierard (commune of Saint-Martin-les-Seyne), or until it joins the Durance,
this stream follows through narrow rocky gorges and is called the torrent of Rabious.
Its drainage area belongs to the sub- Alpine region; it is bounded on the east by a very
high chain of mountains, called la Blanche, whose altitude varies from 7,220 to 8,860
feet. . . . Taking the basin as a whole, the Blanche has no important tributaries,
but several of them, because of the tremendous slopes, are dangerous torrents. The
greatest altitude is that of the Pic de la Blanche (9,075 feet) and the lowest is at the
confluence with the Durance and Rabious (2,149 feet).

Geological Conditions. — The bottom of the Blanche basin is occupied by glacial
deposits from which emerge black marls. ... At the extreme southeast of the
valley there is a great deal of hmestone soil. ... On account of the predominance
of the glacial deposits under the black marls which form soil very susceptible to erosion,
this basin is, on all sides, composed of deep ravines and sharp hills. . . .

REFORESTATION AREAS 425

Climate. — The climate is very cold in the upper valley and cold in the lower parts.
On the summits the snow begins toward the end of October and persists until June. In
the bottom of the valley it generally lies from December to April. Because of its ex-
posure and its altitude the Blanche valley receives more rain than the south part of the
department of Basses-Alpes. Long droughts are rare. Storms are frequent in summer
on account of the nearness to the very high mountains. They have even the character
of veritable waterspouts and are very disastrous to the crops which occupy the lower
slopes and the bottoms of the valleys.

Basins. — The mountains are covered with grazing ground and in many localities are
damaged on account of overgrazing. Every summer the ground is overstocked by
sheep and the easily erodable soil is bared and forms deep ravines. Coniferous stands
cover large areas and have a tendency to seed the neighboring bare ground. The
Scotch pine forms pure stands on south exposures and is associated with fir and spruce
on the moister slopes. On cold exposures these two species are frequently pure or in
mixture with beech. The mountain pine is also found. Beginning with 3,280 feet
altitude, there are stands of larch on the drier ground on north slopes. At very high
altitudes the cembric pine appears. The forests which are not subject to Federal con-
trol are exposed to destructive cutting and to intensive grazing, so that the soil becomes
impoverished and the stands become more and more open. The lower slopes and the
bottoms of the valleys are used for agriculture. Fruit trees are not over-abundant.
The cultivated land yields cereals and potatoes; the natural prairies occupy large areas
and produce a very valuable forage grass.

Administrative Situation, Area, Population. — The Blanche basin extends over
one commune (la Breole) in the district of Barcelonnette and five communes in the dis-
trict of Digne.

State of Soil Damage. — On all sides, but especially on south and west slopes, the
Blanche basin is cut by ravines of a torrential character, all more or less dangerous.
This damage has been caused by excessive grazing by cattle which has been too intensive
on all the uncultivated land. On account of its geologic constitution, the sub-soil,
formed either by black schists or by glacial deposits, is easily eroded after the cover
has been removed by sheep grazing. Besides, because of the very long and steep slopes
and on account of the abundance and frequence of snowfall and the rigor of the climate,
it often happens in spring that in the higher areas avalanches contribute to the destruc-
tion of the slopes. On certain areas the water filters into the soil and produces dangerous
landslides.

Composition and Area. — The Blanche forestation area includes five working
groups according to the law of August 7, 1910. The total area amounts to 6,835 acres,
of which 3,623 actually belong to the State.

Work. — The Seyne working group is composed, for the most part, by the old Seyne
area and some of the Colle, the reforestation of which aimed at preventing the recur-
rence of floods (produced by the overflow of the Blanche river) and at the extinguish-
ment of the torrents of Faut, Chateau, Allevar, Combanniere, and " Terre rouge."
They extend over the west slopes of a high chain of mountains which separate the
Blanche basin from that of Ubaye and are situated at altitudes varying from 4,590 to
8,200 feet. The work of control and reforestation was begun in 1862 and is still in
progress. At the beginning they proceeded simultaneously with sowing and planta-
tions of conifers and broadleaf trees, but it was not long before they found out that the
sowing generally gave poor results. . . . Accordingly plantations became the rule
except in special cases. The species used for the most part were larch, spruce, cembric
pine, mountain pine, Scotch pine, and Austrian pine. The larch was used in mixture
with the cembric pine in the highest zone, at an altitude between 6,560 and 8,200 feet,
on very steep slopes, covered with snow for the greater part of the year, and often

426 APPENDIX

subject to slides; in the zone immediately below, between 5,580 and 6,500 feet, mountain
pine, pure or in mixtiu-e with Scotch pine; below 5,580 feet, there were Scotch pine and
Austrian pine, sometimes mixed with mountain pine. Spruce has been introduced on
south slopes as an understory for the pine. The plans provide for little nurseries estab-
lished all over the area in order to avoid the cost of transport. These plantations have
produced quite variable results. The lower parts of the working group are generally
covered with a good sapling or low pole-stand of larch and pine, but the higher areas,
because of the rigor of the climate, the nature of the soil, and short growing seasons,
have resulted in general failure. WiUows, poplars, alders, etc., have been planted and
layered at the bottoms and on the slopes of ravines in order to fix the soil and decrease
the violence of the water wherever it has been possible. Beginning with the year 1862
the sodding of the soil has also been started either by sowing the seed of "fenasse,"
"luzerne," or "sainfoin," indigenous to the locahty, or by planting tufts of "fettique."
Results have been very satisfactory. The corrective work undertaken simultaneously
with the reforestation and sodding is very important. It consists in the construction of
a large number of dams and of sills in dry stone in the bottoms of the ravines, in order
to help maintain the mountain sides, in order to diminish the steepness of the valley
bottom, and to decrease the speed of the running water. Between these dams fascines
and wattle work barriers have been established. Since 1876, wherever possible, the
ravines and the bottoms of the brooks have been thinned where the stands were too
dense. This work, which aims at stopping the action of the water on the erodable soil,
has given excellent results. The work as a whole has succeeded in almost entirely
stopping the action of the torrents in eroding the Seyne working group, with the ex-
ception of the torrents of Allevar, Chateau, and Faut, which rise in very steep ground
and at high altitudes, and where the growth is very slow, and which do not seem sus-
ceptible of correction for some time yet. The working group of Montclar is formed for
the most part by the old area of Lachaux, the reforestation of which aimed at preserving
the grazing plateau of Lachaux from the danger of floods and avalanches. It extends to
the extreme north of the slope, where the Seyne working group is at an altitude which
varies from 6,400 to 8,200 feet. The reforestation work, which began in 1864, has con-
sisted in sowing and planting larch and cembric pine in the higher areas, and larch,
mountain pine, Scotch and Austrian pine lower down. After sowing forage seed and
planting willow (as nurse trees) the area has been completely restocked to conifers.
Quite a number of sills of dry stone were estabUshed in the chief ravines at the same
time the work of covering the slopes began. The restoration of this working group is
just about completed. The total area reforested is approximately 3,539 acres.

According to my original notes: "At Barcelonnette, there had been a veritable de-
population on account of the damage from erosion. The work of forestation and
erosion prevention was started shortly after 1862, and began in the so-called " terre noir,"
where the damage was the worst. After six years of practice the local inspector re-
ported that a large number of small dams were preferred to a few large expensive dams,
as was formerly the practice. Below 5,900 feet of altitude white alder was generally
preferred along stream beds and green alder at higher altitudes. In this region the
annual rainfall is about 43 inches, but during July, August, and September there are
very few storms. The torrents seem to have started on slopes 30 degrees or steeper.
On slopes up to 20 degrees bad erosion rarely starts in. The main damage at Barcelon-
nette seems to have been caused by grazing an average of 2.4 to 3 sheep per acre whereas
the grazing ground would only support 0.8 to 1.6."

Central Plateau Region (Puy-de-D6me Department, La Sioule Forestation Area).
— La Sioule, which flows into the Allier, rises in the forests of Mont Dore at
the Servieres Lake, which occupies an old crater, at an altitude of 3,937 feet. It flows
with a rapid slope for 7^ miles through narrow and deep gorges with an average descent
of 3.5 per cent. . . . The basin occupies a vast undulating plateau shghtly inclined

REFORESTATION AREAS 427

toithe north and formed, for the most part, by gneiss and mica schists with granite on
about half its drainage area. . . . The upper basin of la Sioule occupies about
25 miles of circumference. . . . The highest altitudes are those of the Puy-de-
Dome, 4,806 feet. The lowest altitude is where the Sioule leaves the department,
1,037 feet.

Climate. — The climate of the region is severe, despite the moderate altitude of the
plateau, and is characterized by rapid changes in temperature. The spring rains are
very abundant and result in sudden floods. During the summer violent storms are
succeeded by prolonged droughts. The winter is long and vigorous and is marked by
heavy falls of snow in the mountain forests.

Basins, — The basin of the Sioule is divided into two regions (the grazing area ex-
tends over about one-fourth of the total area). The natural mountain zone, which
bounds the basin on the southeast and comprises all the volcanic soil from the Domes
chain to Mont Dore. The agricultural area occupies the plains. It extends into the
plateau region and produces fruit, rye, barley, grain, oats, and potatoes. A considerable
proportion (about 20 per cent) of the uncultivated land belongs to the State and is
covered by heather, which is open to sheep grazing. The forest occupies about 10 per
cent of the area and comprises simple oak coppice and pole stands of conifers.

Administrative Situation. — The part of the basin included in the department of
the Puy-de-D6me extends over twenty-one communes of the Clairmont district and
fifty-six communes of the Riom district. The area is about 339,769 acres and the popu-
lation about 72,600.

State of Soil Erosion. — The soil erosion as yet is not very important. Because of
the sohd nature of the rock the surface water flows from the gentle slopes without cut-
ting in. Once in the bottom of the thalweg, it ... is almost unerodable. The
soUdity of the rock facilitates the different correction work; forestation aims almost
entirely at forming a cover.

Composition and Area. — The Sioule area was laid out by Art. 16 of the law of
April 4, 1882. It includes eight working groups, but a total of only 1,453 acres.

Work. — The forestation undertaken under the law of July 18, 1860, had as its first
objective the creation of important forests capable of retaining the soil on the slopes and
of regularizing the general waterflow ... the work has been both by means of
sowing and of plantations. In the case of the Scotch pine the seed has been sown broad-
cast on land covered with a short growth of heather (see page 133). The pedunculate
oak has been sown in seed spots. The species used in plantations have been the fol-
lowing: Scotch pine, spruce, pedunculate oak, beech, and birch. Usually the two
methods of forestation — sowing and planting — have been employed together. The
work has been finished for some time and the stands obtained are now making excellent
growth.

Cevennes Region (Lozere, Ardeche Departments Chassezac Forestation Area).
— The Chassezac is much the most important tributary of the Ardeche. With a total
length of about 47 miles it rises in the Lozere and extends to Alfigere, but it flows in to
the Ardeche River at the Sampzon rock, not far from the confluence with the Beaume.
It flows, to start with, in very narrow but extremely deep gorges, then in a valley of
increasing width. It has a length of 27 miles in the Ardeche department with an average
slope of 2 per cent, and an average width of 148 feet. Its flow per second in the lower
parts of its course is 1.5 cubic yards at low water, 8 cubic yards under average condi-
tions, and 2,500 cubic yards during floods. Bounded on the north by the Cevennes
(which separates it from the Allier basin) and by Mt. Tanargue (which separates it
from the upper Ardeche), this basin reaches at the hamlet of Bez an altitude of 4,072
feet; in the State forest of Tanargue, 4,462 feet; and on the plateau of the Borne work-
ing group (near Tanargue), 4,951 feet.

428 APPENDIX

Administrative Situation. — Entirely in the Largentiere district, it includes a
total area of 100,633 acres with a population of 16,791 inhabitants scattered through
twenty-eight communes.

Destruction of the Soil. — The Chassezac was established by the law of July 18,
1906. It includes 4,774 acres, of which, 1,315 actually belongs to the State.

Work. — There is only one working group, that of Laubresse, exappropriated in 1886.
Others are now being acquired. This working group, situated on the mica scliists at
an altitude varying from 3,280 to 4,167 feet, forms (on the Laubresse plateau) several
isolated cantons covered with superb stands of pine from 18 to 20 years old. In the
purchases in the working circles of Borned, Saint Laurent les Bains, Mont Selgues,
there is also at the same altitude on the same plateau and on the same kind of ground
a very complete thrifty stand of pine from 24 to 28 years old. The total area actually
reforested is 1,594 acres.

Pyrenees Region (Department of Haute-Pyrenees, Gave de Pau Forestation Areas).
— The Gave de Pau is the most important water course in the Hautes-Pyrcnees.
When it flows into the Adour at Peyrehorade, after a length of 109 miles, its volume
has increased fourfold. . . . The highest altitudes vary from 7,487 to 10,673 feet.

Geologic Conditions. — The high basin of the Gave de Pau only includes stable
ground, with the exception of the watershed of Gararie, formed of white limestone,
and the Blanc and Gavieton, which are formed of gravel, marls, and limy marl. The
granite occupies the higher basin of the Gave de Cauterets. . . . The glacial
deposits and detritus are frequently mixed with the original soil on the slopes.

Climate. — The climate of the valley of the Gave de Pau is similar to the general
Pyrenees climate, that is to say it is temperate and humid. In the high areas there
are considerable changes in temperature. The northwest winds, which always bring
rain, give rise to erosion on the slopes. The aspect is without influence on the forma-
tion of avalanches, since they are produced on both north and south slopes of the Cau-
terets valley. Fogs and mists are frequent. The snow and the rain are very abundant,
but the river is chiefly dangerous in spring when the winter snow is not yet melted, or
sometimes in autumn after the first snowfall. Hail storms are quite frequent but their
effect is very localized.

Production. — The basin of the Gave de Pau was formerly more heavily forested
than it is to-day. . . . The forests have been cut so as to give place to pasturage,
which is often mediocre in character. Outside the forests and the grazing ground the
cultivated fields are very limited and only occupy the bottom of the valleys and the
foot of the slopes. They consist of meadows for fattening beef, or are in grain and po-
tatoes used l)y the agricultural or pastoral population of the region.

Administrative Situation. — The upper basin of the Gave de Pau is situated in the
District of the Argeles. Its area is 244,633 acres and its population about 31,000.

State of Soil Erosion. — The causes of erosion are : The steepness of the slopes, the
abundance of erodable deposits, the climate, and the occupation. Too often the forests
are destroyed and the sod broken. Occasionally, in the more inaccessible areas, the
forest cover has been perfectly maintained and there are no avalanches. Overgrazing
results in landslides or erosion.

Composition and Area. — The area includes five working groups, comprising 2,832
acres, of which 917 belong to the State.

Work. — This area included the Peguere slide and the torrent of Lizey. The fixation
of the Peguere slide is worth a special visit. The Lizey torrent, which used to be an
apparently inoffensive brook, quickly changed its character in 1895. From the 22d
to the 27th of April a flood cut the national highway for a distance of 1,970 feet and to
an average depth of 5 feet. . . . The volume of the material deposited has been
estimated at 40,000 cubic yards. All this debris came from slopes covered with glacial

SPECIFICATIONS FOR TAPPING 429

deposits. This danger has now been corrected. The State lands of the Peguere and
Lizey are partly forested. The stands have been fully stocked and the openings filled
in by means of local species, beech, pine, and fir, and to a lesser extent, the larch, spruce,
birch, and alder. The total area forested amounts to 734 acres.

APPENDIX F

SPECIFICATIONS FOR TAPPING MARITIME PINE AND FOR FIXING
SHIFTING SAND DUNES

The rules and specifications governing the tapping in (a) France, (b) British India,
and (c) the United States are given in full.

According to the conditions for sales for the extraction of resin (cahier des charges),
approved May 17, 1912, by the Secretary of Agriculture, the work will be ordered as
follows :

Arts. 1-17 cover the method of sale, terms of payment, and various technical costs.

Beginning with Part III, Exploitation, the instructions are:

Art. 17. — The permit to cut will be delivered by the Waters and Forests agents,
chief of service, on the presentation (a) of certificates showing that the contractor
has furnished his sureties or his security and fulfilled payments called for by Art. 12
of the current cahier des charges; (6) for State woods ... as provided by the
law of July 18, 1907. The Waters and Forests agent will sign these papers. He will
also deliver to the contractor if demanded: (a) A copy of the record of sale which will
be certified to by the secretary at the place of sale; (6) a copy of the advertisement
data with the articles, clauses, and conditions which concern it when this advertise-
ment is a part of the record of sale. All these papers will be stamped.

Art. 18. — The contractor will deliver the permit to the head ranger and inform
him of the day when he expects to commence exploitation. In any case this cannot
be before January 1 of the first year of the cutting period.

Art. 19. — Unless otherwise indicated (see p. 190) or contrary to the special contract
clauses, the extraction of resin must conform to the following provisions:

(A) Tapping without Killing (Gemmage a vie). — The tapping will have either
one or two faces, according to the directions of the Waters and Forests Service. Trees
to be tapped with two faces are only those which have been so designated and indicated
in the record of sale. The faces will be begun above the root collar, but will be raised
vertically, following the grain of the wood. If the period of tapping is for 5 years the
face may be raised 23.6 inches during the first year and 25.6 inches during the follow-
ing years, in such a manner that the total height will not exceed 10.5 feet. If the tap-
ping period is 4 years (now the current practice, but see p. 193 for latest sizes) the face
may be raised 23.6 inches during the first year, 25.6 inches during the second year,
33.5 inches during the third, and 39.4 inches during the fourth, so that the total height
of the face shall not exceed 10.2 feet. In any case the width of the faces must not
exceed 3.5 inches the first year, 3.1 inches the second, 2.7 inches the third, and 2.4
inches beginning with the fourth. The decrease in width must take place gradually
so that the width of the face at the end of a year will equal the width of the face (pre-
scribed) for the beginning of the next year. Their depth must not exceed 0.4 inches
measured with a string stretched from one side of the gash to the other, beginning
at the red part of the bark. The tapping will take place in accordance with the direc-
tions from the Waters and Forests Service; either on four faces (au quart), all faces
being made as far as possible two by two on opposite diameters; or by three faces of

430 APPENDIX

three made by dividing the circumference of the tree into three practically equal parts,
the second having been cut at the right of the first when facing it. Unless specially
provided for in the sale contract, the tapping will be done on four faces. The former
faces will be abandoned no matter what their height. The contractor may, on his
demand, be authorized by the conservator to replace a 5-year tapping period by a
4-year period, adopting for the faces the sizes prescribed for the 4-year period. This
request may be made during the course of exploitation but must be before the face
exceeds the dimensions prescribed for the year corresponding to the chosen period.

(B) Tapping to Death (Gemmage a mort). — If the trees to be tapped to death
form part of the sale or are marked for the contractors, the latter can work them as
they think best. On the other hand, contractors cannot tap trees so as to diminish
their value as sawlogs or firewood. The size of the faces should be such that their whole
area never exceeds the limits of a regular face.

Art. 20. — Any tree worked contrary to the principles described in the preceding
article or the special clauses will be considered as having been mutilated, thus falling
under the penalty of Arts. 192 and 196 of the Forest Code. The contractor will be
liable to the same penalties, if at any time, in order to lead the resin into the cup, he
shall have made at the foot of the trees tapped alive circular incisions sufficiently deep
to damage the wood.

Art. 21. — Tapping operations shall be limited to between March 1 and October 31
of each year, but the contractor may commence to bark the pine to be tapped and to
place the cutters after February 1. He may also collect the scrape up to December 1
of each year of the tapping period, except that the last year (of the period) must be
terminated by November 15. If, by any reason of local conditions, other periods must
be adopted for the aforesaid collection, mention will be made of it in the special sales
clauses.

Art. 22. — The contractor may prune the trees to be tapped alive up to a height of
13.1 feet. Unless stipulations have been made to the contrary, he may dispose of the
products of this operation.

Art. 23. — The felling of trees sold to be tapped to death cannot commence before
July 1 of the year before the final year of the felling period. The contractors who
wish to anticipate the feUing of all or a part of these trees shall ask authorization for it
from the Director-General of Waters and Forests, who will fix the new conditions of
exploitation and, if there are any, for the payment of annuities. In any case this author-
ization will not be necessarj' for trees unfit for tapping that measure less than 6 inches in
diameter at breast height; the contractors will have the privilege of varying them at
any time during the exploitation period on condition that they notify the local agent
when they commence felling. Dead standing trees designated at the time of the mark-
ing shall be felled either in the first month of the period of exploitation or within one
month from the day of the auction, if this took place after the beginning of the exploita-
tion period.

Art. 24. — Trees sold shall be cut with the axe or with the saw as near as possible
to the stamp on the stump without injuring it. In no case and under no pretext may
the imprint of the State marking hatchet be erased from trees tapped alive or, with
equal force, those which are to be tapped to death; these marks must remain intact
through the entire period of exploitation and to this end all necessary precautions shall
be taken from the first cutting of the faces; it shall even be carefully seen to that these
marks are not covered by the resin. Every tree on which the aforesaid marks shall
have disappeared will be considered as not forming a part of the sale and will render
the contractor liable to the application of Arts. 34 and 196 of the Forest Code. The
method of marking will be indicated in the advertisement and in the sale record.

Art. 25. — If, because of unforeseen circumstances, such as patrol paths, fire lines,

SPECIFICATIONS FOR TAPPING 431

working-plan improvements, work for the protection of the coast hne, ahenation, and
resale, or for any other cause of this sort, trees tapped alive, felled, or diverted from
felling an indemnity equal to the average new revenue produced by each tree alive shall
be allowed to the contractor for each year remaining. When, under the same condi-
tions, trees to be tapped to death should be felled or included in compartments out-
side the feUing area, a like indemnity shall be credited him for these trees if the priva-
tion of tapping occurs before the third year of the exploitation period. Under such con-
ditions the contractor shall be bound to exploit them and remove them within the period
which shall be allotted; in default of which the owner of the forest may dispose of the
trees as he likes. These indemnities shall be arranged between the head ranger and the
contractor or his representative after a hearing and approval by the conservator.

Art. 26. — When the plan of sale authorizes or requires feUing by extraction of
stumps, the contractors shall fill up and level the holes made by the uprooted trees as
the cutting proceeds.

Art. 27. — The contractors shall only be required to brand and top trees (before
feUing) marked for exploitation which shall be so designated by the Waters and Forests
Service; the number of such trees and how they are marked shall be indicated in the
advertisements and sale data. The wood resulting from these operations as well as
that from the removal of branches and tops (done at the contractor's option) shall be
immediately removed, and especially before felhng, when they cover either young growth
or seedlings.

Art. 28. — Trees shall be cut in such a way as not to damage those reserved and felled
so far as possible upon areas where there is no reproduction.

Art. 29. — The twigs and branches shall be removed and piled as the cutting proceeds
so as not to hinder access to the felling areas.

Art. 30. — Unless otherwise stipulated in the special clauses of sale, the felling of all
wood shall be terminated by April 15 of the last year of the period, whether the wood
has been tapped or not.

Art. 31. — Every contractor who cannot finish felling or cording according to the
prescribed periods and requires an extension of time shall be bound to make the demand
of the conservator on "stamped" paper at least 20 days before the expiration of the
cutting period. This request shall include information as to the amount of wood re-
maining to be cut or the amount and quality of the wood remaining to be corded, the
causes of the delay in feUing, and the extension which it is necessary to grant. It wiU
be judged on its merits by the conservator. The contractor, simply by making such a
request for an extension of time for felling, obligates himself to pay the costs fixed by
the administration. The extension runs from the day of the expiration of the periods
fixed in the preceding article. When the contractors have not profited by the exten-
sions which they have been granted, they cannot obtain any refund of the indemnity
fixed except by a report of the Waters and Forests agent or head ranger, dated at the
latest on the day of the expiration of the term of exploitation, and showing clearly they
have profited by the benefits of the decision. This report is exempt from stamp and
registry fees. (Law of May 15, 1818, Art. 30.)

Art. 32. — The contractor is forbidden : (a) To pile or aUow branches, chips, sawdust,
bark, etc., to remain (on the ground) except on areas designated by the local Waters and
Forests agent or his representative The contractor may be required to scatter these
remnants if it is considered necessary; (6) to place or pile wood on young growth or
against reserved trees; (c) to place the material of exploitation outside the limits of the
felhng except at depots specially designated by the local Waters and Forests agent or
his representative.

Art. 33. — As cutting proceeds the contractor must remove wood which faUs in the
paths separating the felling areas.

432 APPENDIX

Art. 34. — The roads must be continually kept free in the felling areas so that wagons
can pass at any time.

Art. 35. — The contractor must not injure any reserved trees, whatever their quaUty
or number. Under no circumstances, except as specified in these rules, can the con-
tractor have reserve trees marked, even when he finds the number of trees sold less than
those recorded in the auction estimate sheet. This difference cannot give the contrac-
tor any right to an indemnity. When, during the course of felhng, the trees to be tapped
aUve or reserved trees are burned, die, are overturned or damaged by the wind or by
any other cause over which the administration has no control, the contractor will notify
the local Waters and Forests agent, so that reconnaissance of these trees can be made
without delay. The contractor must, upon demand, fell such trees within 15 days,
except those burned. He will have the right to receive the stocktaking sheet and esti-
mate, which shall be drawn up by the local agent and which, signed by the contractor,
and approved by the contractor, shall be executed without further formality under the
conditions prescribed in Art. 59. The contractor shall be considered as having re-
nounced his preemption right, if within 15 days of the time he was formally notified he
has not returned this paper to the local agent showing his acceptance. Said notification
shall be made in the discretion of this agent either by the intermediary of an employee
or by registered letter but no indemnity, restitution, nor decrease in price shall be
granted the contractor for any loss which he may occasion from trees destined to be
tapped alive.

Art. 36. — Trees to be tapped to death and sold, which die during the course of the
felhng period, must be immediately felled by the contractor and at the latest within 15
days after notification of their death has been made by the local agent. If the trees
tapped to death are not sold, the same procedure shall be followed during the course of
the felling period as has already been described for the trees to be tapped alive and for
the reserves. The contractor cannot claim any indemnity for loss of resin.

^^i_ 37. — When any tree marked for felhng shall lodge on a reserve, the contractor
cannot fell this reserved tree until after the local Waters and Forests agent or his repre-
sentative acknowledge the necessity for the felhng.

Arts. 38-39. — When, despite the observations of the rules relative to the fellings, re-
serves are knocked down or damaged by felling, or knocked down under the conditions
described in the preceding article, the local Waters and Forests agent or his representa-
tive shall proceed in company with the contractor for a reconnaissance of this wood,
and, after an estimate of the damage caused, the contractor shall pay to the owner of
the forest an indemnity equal to the total damage. When reserves are knocked over
or felled the indemnity will not be less than the following minimum:

Stumps less than 7 inches in diameter at —

3.3 feet above the soil S0.03 per inch of diameter

7 to 14 inches 0-06 per inch of diameter

14 to 24 inches 0.08 per inch of diameter

24 to 35 inches 0.10 per inch of diameter

Over 35 inches 0.12 per inch of diameter

This minimum will be equally applicable to reserves damaged, which the local agent
beUeves cannot thrive or remain standing, and the contractor will be bound to fell these
trees within 8 days after notification by the aforesaid agent. . . . Until the pay-
ment of said indemnities the reserves overturned, damaged, or felled will continue to
belong to the owner of the forest; but the contractor will have the right to acquire the
trees overturned or felled according to the method and conditions indicated in Art. 36.
Art. 40. — The Waters and Forests Service will have the right to sell, without wait-
ing for the final inspection of the cutting area, the windfall, wind damaged, burned or

SPECIFICATIONS FOR TAPPING 433

dead trees, as well as reserves overturned, felled, or broken, which the contractor refuses
to take under the conditions specified in Arts. 46 and 39. Under these circumstances
the contractor will be bound to allow the lumberman to bring his workmen and tools
into the felUng area. . . .

^^^ j^l^ — All collection or removal of cones, where the trees are standing or felled, is
strictly forbidden. These products are not part of the sale and their removal will be
prosecuted in accordance with the provisions of Ai-t. 44 of the Forest Code.

^,.; j^2. — The contractors may establish in the interior of the felHng areas workshops
for the manufacture of wood, huts, charcoal pits, forges, distillation outfits, and steam
sawmills only after making a demand (free from stamp rights) of the local Waters and
Forests agent who shall designate in writing the location and areas where leaves, moss,
stones, brush, and sod considered necessary (for construction purposes) shall be removed.
This material shall be granted free of charge, but the holes caused by the trees' removal
shall be immediately filled up and leveled. Charcoal pits shall be surrounded at 4.4
yards from their base by a ditch 4.9 inches wide at the bottom. The ground between
the base of the charcoal pit and the ditch surrounding it shall be entirely cleared. Fire
cannot be lighted before October I and will be put out before March 1 of each year.
The chimneys of steam engines and other similar apparatus must be covered with metal
screens, fine enough to prevent the ejection of sparks. The contractors must, besides,
take all precautions prescribed by the Waters and Forests agent and shall be bound to
conform to the laws and rules in force. Under any circumstances they shall be held
responsible for damage resulting from the use of these machines and apparatus and
from fire which occurs in consequence.

Art. 43. — The contractor shall have the privilege of constructing, in the cutting
area, on areas indicated by the local Waters and Forests agent or his representative,
huts for the lodgement of the resin workers. These huts shall be required to be demol-
ished and the material removed within two months after the period fixed for the com-
pletion of the removal of the timber or of the tapping. In default, or beyond this period,
the houses will become the property of the owner of the forest.

Art. 44. — Existing houses which can be put at the disposal of the contractor will
be suitably maintained during the period of exploitation and rendered in perfect state
of habitation. . . .

Other special rules which bind the contractor are as follows :

He can build new roads where necessary.

He is forbidden to drag wood on carriage roads, to slide or roll wood down steep
slopes or to graze work animals in the forest. The removal of all products must be
finished by November 15 for improvement cuttings and by April 15 for regeneration
fellings.

The other rules are similar to those given under timber-sales clauses, p. 438 of the
Appendix.

RULES FOR TAPPING IN THE NAINI TAL DIVISION AS AT PRESENT

IN FORCE

The following revised tapping rules are circulated for guidance:

2. Attached is a statement showing the areas so far set aside for tapping. Early in
the year the trees in the areas set aside for tapping will be numbered with a serial number
as the numerator and the numbers of the channels as the denominator, e. g., 2674/2
which means that 2,674 is the serial number and 2 the number of pots the tree is to
carry. Each compartment will have a series of its own. The forester or a trusty forest
guard can number the compartments to be light tapped and the range officer those

434 APPENDIX

compartments to be heavy tapped. Heavy tapping will be only carried out in those
areas to be felled for firewood within the next 5 years and only those trees in them will
be heavy tapped that are to come out at the felling, the remaining trees in the coupe
being hght tapped.

NUMBER OF POTS PER TREE

3. Light tapping. — One pot for trees between 3| feet and 4J feet in girth.

Two pots for trees between 4^ feet and 7 feet in girth.
Three pots for trees over 7 feet in girth.

Heavy tapping. — One pot for every foot in girth of bark.

METHOD OF TAPPING: HANGING OF THE POTS

4. Having arranged for pots, tools and lips, the pots will be hung on the trees as
follows: Choose places for the pots at the base of the tree, taking care that when two
or more pots are prescribed that they are equidistant from each other, then cut a channel
4 inches wide by 1 inch deep and about 6 inches long at the base, so as to allow a free
hang to the top, place the lip (a piece of thin iron sheet 5 inches by 1^ inches) in a
curved incision (made by a special chisel with that curve), care being taken that the
lip slopes downward from the tree and underneath toward a side drive in a nail on to
which the pot will be himg.

The channel when first cut should be 4 inches to 6 inches long above the hp. For
the cutting of a channel an ordinary sharp adze is required. When commencing work
for the year on trees already tapped, the old hp will be extracted and inserted at the
head of the previous year's channel, the pot being hung below it as before.

FRESHENING

5. For this a very sharp adze (Basula) is required. As the flow ceases, which, accord-
ing to the time of year, may be after one, two or three weeks, a point on which the
range officer and beat guards must be particularly careful, the channel will require
freshening at the top. This is done by the removal of a thin shaving not more than 2§
inches of the vertical length of the tree. The flow has ceased because of the clogging
of the outlet of the resin ducts, and all that is necessary is to remove those clogged and
to open out other ducts — the ducts more or less ramifying through some 2 inches or so
of outer wood in a vigorous first-class tree.

No hard-and-fast rule can be fixed as to the length of the channel to be cut each
year, as this depends on the extent of the freshening necessary and on the tree itself as a
resin-producer. A maximum of 15 inches, however, is fixed; but the less the better,
as the longer the use of the ladder is postponed the more quickly can work be done.

The cutting of the bark on the sides of the channel is not allowed; simply remove
the old pieces of loose bark by hand and put a piece of bark over the pot itself to pre-
vent foreign matter falling into the resin.

COLLECTION

6. As the pots become full they must be emptied of their resin. Here again no fixed
period can be fixed, but during the season of greatest flow once every fifteen days is
necessary, but otherwise not less than once a month. As a rule, the resin should not be
allowed to reach within ^ inch of the nail hole or the top of the pot, whichever is lowest.

The collection will be made by means of wooden spoons, the resin being put into
kerosene oil tins fixed up with a handle, which will be emptied into other tins at con-
venient centers for transport to Bhowali.

7. Tapping will go on for five successive years between about March 15 and Novem-
ber 15, according to season and then a rest of 10 years, so that during 14 years the
4-inch channel should be closed over by callous formed on the sides.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR TAPPING 435

United States Forest Service — Florida National Forest

SAMPLE TURPENTINE PERMIT

December 11, 1911.
In consideration of the granting to us of this permit to work for turpentine certain
longleaf and slash pine timber on an area to be definitely designated by a forest officer
before cupping begins, located in Sections 14, 24, and 26, T. 2 N., R. 21 W., Talla-
hassee Meridian, within the Florida National Forest, estimated to contain 19,000
cups more or less, we do hereby promise to pay to the First National Bank of Albu-
querque, New Mexico (U. S. Depository), for said permit at the rate of $86 per thousand
cups in two payments of at least one-half of the total amount due, credit being given
for the sums, if any, hitherto deposited with the said First National Bank of Albuquerque
in connection with this permit; and we further promise and agree, should this permit
be granted to us, to work said timber in strict accordance with the following and all
other related regulations governing the National Forests and prescribed by the De-
partment of Agriculture:

1. Timber on valid claims and timber under other contract is exempt from this
permit.

2. No tree will be cupped, chipped, raked, or worked in any manner until the first
payment has been made.

3. No gum or other product of the timber will be removed before the cups on the
area have been counted and recorded. Title to the product of the timber included in
this permit will not pass to the permittee until it has been paid for as herein prescribed.

4. No timber will be cupped except that on the area designated by a forest officer;
and no marked trees or trees under the diameter hmits will be cupped or chipped imder
any consideration.

5. No tree 10 inches or less in diameter will be cupped; not more than one cup will
be placed on trees from 11 to 15 inches inclusive in diameter; not more than two cups
will be placed on trees from 16 inches to 25 inches inclusive in diameter, and not more
than three cups will be placed on any tree. All diameter measurements are to be taken
at a point 2 J feet above the ground.

6. So far as possible, the depth of all streaks will average one-half inch or less, and
in no case will the depth of streaks exceed three-quarters of an inch not including bark.
The width of the streaks will be so regulated that no more than one-half inch of new
wood will be taken from the upper side with each streak and so that the total height
of the faces shall not exceed fifty inches during the hfe of this permit. Bars or strips
of bark no less than 4 inches wide in the narrowest place will be left between faces, and
the edges of faces will be parallel with each other and be placed vertically up the tree.
So far as possible, where more than one face is placed on a tree, one bar between them
will not exceed 6 inches in width. No more than one streak will be placed on any face
during any one week. The chipping will be uniform in depth from shoulder to peak.
Faces not chipped in accordance with these specifications may be marked out and the
cups removed by the forest officer.

7. One of the modern cupping systems will be used, and the cups and aprons or
gutters will be so placed that the shoulders of the first streak will not be more than 12
inches distant from the bottom of the cup and the cups will be placed as near the
ground as possible. No wood will be exposed on any tree by removing the bark below
the gutter or aprons.

8. No unnecessary damage will be done to cupped trees, marked trees, or to trees
below the diameter limit. Trees that are badly damaged during the life of this permit,
when such damage is due to carelessness or negligence on the part of the permittee,

436 APPENDIX

shall be paid for at the rate of $5 per 1,000 feet b. m., full scale, and the forest super-
visor shall decide as to the presence and extent of damage.

9. No cups will be placed later than March 1, 1912, without written permission
from the forest supervisor, and all timber embraced in this permit will be cupped before
said date.

10. Unless extension of time is granted, all timber will be cupped, chipped, dipped,
scraped; the product and all cups, aprons, gutters and nails removed and each cupped
tree thoroughly raked to the satisfaction of the forest officer, on or before and not later
than January 1, 1915.

11. No fires shall be set to the timber, underbrush or grass on the area included in
this permit without the written permission of the forest supervisor, and every effort
will be made by us, our employees, sub-contractors and employees of sub-contractors,
to prevent the burning over of said area from any unauthorized cause; and during the
time that this permit remains in force and effect we and all our employees, sub-contrac-
tors and employees of sub-contractors, without any charge whatsoever to the Forest
Service, will do all in our power both independently and on request of forest officers to
prevent and suppress unauthorized forest fires.

12. All cupped trees will be raked in a workmanlike manner for the space of 2^
feet around each tree before January 1 of each year of the hfe of this permit; and a fire
line not less than 3 feet wide in the narrowest place shall be hoed or plowed around the
area covered by this permit in such a manner as to completely isolate it from adjoining
lands. Natural fire brakes, such as creeks, swamps, roads, etc., may be utilized with
the consent of the forest officer. These fire lines must be made and receive the approval
of the forest officer before any cups are placed the first year or new streaks made at
the beginning of the second and third years.

13. Special-use permits will be obtained for such cabins, shelters, camps, telephone
lines, etc., as may be required on Government land in carrying out the terms of this
permit.

14. The first payment .shall be made before the cups are placed the first year and the
second payment shall be made on or before December 31, 1912.

The decision of the district forester shall be final in the interpretation of the regula-
tions governing this permit.

Work may be suspended by the forest supervisor if the regulations contained in this
permit are disregarded, and the violation of any one of said regulations, if persisted in,
shall be sufficient cause for the district forester to revoke this permit and to cancel all
other permits for other privileges.

"No member of or delegate to Congress, or resident commissioner, after his election
or appointment, and either before or after he has qualified and during his continuance
in office, and no officer, agent, or employee of the Government shall be admitted to any
share or part of this contract or agreement, or to any benefit to arise thereupon. Noth-
ing, however, herein contained shall be construed to extend to any incorporated com-
pany, where such permit or agreement is made for the.general benefit of such incorpora-
tion or company. (Section 3741 R. S. and Sections 114-116, Act of March 4, 1909.) "

No person undergoing a sentence of imprisonment at hard labor can be employed in
carrying out the terms of this permit. (See Executive Order of May 18, 1905.)

Refund of deposits under this permit will be made only at the discretion of the district
forester, except when the amount of such deposits is more than the total amount re-
quired under this permit.

This permit is non-assignable. (See Section 3737, Revised Statutes of the United
States.)

The conditions of this permit are completely set forth herein, and none of its terms
can be varied or modified except with the written consent of the forest supervisor.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR TAPPING 437

No subordinate forest officer has, or wiU be given authority for this purpose. If re-
quired as a guarantee of a faithful performance of the conditions of this permit we
will submit a bond in the sum of $500, which bond, together with all moneys paid or
promised under this contract, upon failure on our part to fulfill all and singular the
conditions and requirements herein set forth, or made a part thereof, shall become the
property of the United States as liquidated damages and not as penalty.

CONTRACT STIPULATIONS

In the dunes of the Gironde and the Landes, the following contract stipulations must
be followed by contractors :

Chapter I. — General Rules. — Fixation and Maintenance of Dunes.

Art 1. — The dunes are fixed according to plans by the director of works, (a) by
sowing with ground cover or (b) by the plantation of maram grass {Psamma arenaria),
and (c) by broadcast sowing or transplanting in the waterholes between the dunes.

SOWING WITH COVER AND TRANSPLANTING

Art. 2. — Contractors shall use per acre of dune: (a) The amounts of maritime pine
seed, genista or gorse, and maram specified in the plans; (6) the number of brush fagots
properly called "bourees" likewise to be determined by the plan (80 to 400 per acre) and
according to the conditions detailed in Art. 9 which follows. The transplanting of the
water-hollows between the dimes shall be at the rate of (except upon contrary stipulation)
3.5 poimds of pine seed and 1.7 pounds of genista or gorse seed per acre.

PLANTATION OF MARAM (gOURBET)

Art 3. — When maram is planted the tufts are placed in quincunx, spaced 1.6 feet
apart; the spacing of the clumps may be, however, on order of the director of works,
reduced to 8 inches or increased to 3.3 feet. The maram shall be planted in conformity
with the rules in Art. 10.

PALISADES, BARRIERS

Art. 4. — Contractors shall use for each 328 linear feet (109 yards) of palisades an
average of 500, 5.2 feet in length, 1.2 inches thick, and between 6.7 and 8.6 inches in
width. The stakes for the woven barriers shall, according to the orders of the local
agents, have a length between 8.2 feet and 29 inches. For each 328 linear feet of barrier
the following stakes and fagots shall be set: 200 stakes 8.2 to 4.9 feet in length, 80 fagots;
200 stakes 4.1 feet in length, 60 fagots; 200 stakes 3.3 feet in length, 40 fagots; 200
stakes 29 inches in length, 20 fagots; per 328 linear feet of simple barrier (cordon), 70
fagots.

EXCAVATIONS

Art. 5. — The fagots for excavations shall be set in holes 16 to 20 inches in circumfer-
ence with a depth of 16 inches, and separated 12 to 16 inches from circumference to
circumference, according to the instructions of the director of works. The height shall
vary from 8 to 24 inches above the soil according to the locality.

LEVELING

Art. 6. — The places to be leveled shall be worked to a depth of 14 inches and the
ground shall be cleared of all vegetation and debris whatsoever which could stop the
movement of the sand. The green maram susceptible of being replanted will be care-
fully taken out, made into bundles, and heeled in; the maram which cannot be used and
debris of all kinds will be placed in the nearest excavations.

438 APPENDIX

THINNING THE MARAM

Art. 7. — The maram, where it is too thick, will be thinned in conformity to the pre-
scriptions of the director of works. The stumps which are removed will be dug out and
deposited where specified by the foreman.

Chapter II. — Places of Extraction. — Nature and Quality of the Material. — Fagots
and Stakes.

Art. 8. — The fagots and stakes will come from the places indicated by the agents in
the State forest and situated at the average distance specified in the plans. Without
special authorization from the supervisor (chef de service) they cannot be removed from
the so-called protection zone. The thinnings will be under the direction of a forest em-
ployee and conducted without interruption, as the work proceeds. When the work is
stopped at any point the boundary of the area thinned shall be regularized so far as
possible by straight lines. If the brush and the stakes cannot be secured in sufficient
quantities, or are completely lacking in the Federal forest, the contractor must procure
them at his expense in private forests, provided, however, that the average distance of
transport shall not exceed the average distance specified in the plans.

Art. 9. — The brush and the stakes shall be used green. The fagots shall not include
cones or branches with a diameter of more than 1.2 inches. Maritime pine, genista or
gorse, shall be used for their manufacture instead of heather, unless specially stipulated
in the plans. The brush fagots must weigh at least 44 pounds from September 1 to
May 31 and 33 pounds from June 1 to August 31 ; those which do not come up to the
proper weight shall be rejected and immediately rebundled. No account shall be made
for the contractor for the fagots which exceed the stated weight. The stakes . . .
4.9 to 8.2 feet shall have a minimum diameter of 2.4 inches at the small end. Those '4.1
feet and less shall not be less than 2 inches in diameter at the small end.

Art. 10. — The maram to be transplanted shall be secured in the areas designated by
the director of works at the average distance indicated in the plans and extraction shall
be made by . . •

APPENDIX G

STATE AND COMMUNAL TIMBER SALE REGULATIONS

The regular contract conditions and clauses were issued by the administration at
Paris, June 22, 1903, and revised May 27, 1909, and again May 11, 1912. The following
translation of Part III — Exploitation, is given in full since it is basic for all timber
sales throughout France unless exceptions are made in the special clauses issued by the
local conservators.

PART III. — EXPLOITATION i

^r^ 17. — Every successful bidder who, before the delivery of the cutting permit,
shall demand a recount because of an alleged deficit in the number of trees indicated
in the record of the trees reserved and marked for cutting binds himself, merely by his
request, to pay at the depository of the collector for the local Canton an indemnity of
10 francs per day's work for each agent and 3 francs per day's work for each guard, if
there is found to be no deficit.

1 Part I describes the routine of the auction; Part II explains payments, charges,
stamp rights, and registry. See page 292.

STATE AND COMMUNAL TIMBER SALE 439

Art. 18. — The permit to cut will be delivered by the agent of Waters and Forests
service, chief of service, on the presentation of certificates showing that the purchaser
has put up his securities or security, furnished his remittances, promissory notes, or cash
and made the payments required under Art. 12 of this circular.

The Waters and Forests agent will sign these papers. He will besides give to the pur-
chaser if he asks for them : (a) A copy of the minutes of his auction, as soon as they have
been verified at the Secretary's office at the place of sale; (5) a copy of the sales circular
and of the special clauses: (c) a copy of the special circular for the articles, clauses, and
conditions which concern him when this bill of sale is added to the auction circular;
(d) a copy of the survey notes and, if there is one, a map of the felhng area. All these
papers shall be vised for stamps.

Art. 19. — The contractor shall send the permit to the ranger in charge and inform
him in advance of the day he plans to start cutting.

Art. 20. — Unless otherwise indicated or supplementary to the special auction clauses
the wood shall be cut :

In the coppice fellings: " a tire et aire " with the axe as close to the ground as possible,
and so that the water cannot remain on the stumps. The roots must remain intact.

In the high forest fellings: level with the ground, with the axe or saw.

Conifers marked for cutting in coppice felling areas may also be sawed down.

Art. 21. — When the sales circular authorizes or prescribes felling with stump ex-
traction, the purchasers must fill up and level the holes made by the uprooted trees as
the cutting proceeds.

Art. 22. — The purchasers shall be bound to limb and top before felling only those
trees marked for cutting which have been previously designated by the Waters and
Forests Service. The number of these trees and how they have been designated shall
be given in the sales circular. The wood resulting from the operations including that
from the preliminary work of hmbing and topping undertaken voluntarily by the suc-
cessful bidders shall be immediately removed, and especially before further felhng,
when it covers young growth or seedlings.

Art. 23. — The trees shall be felled, so far as possible, so as not to damage those
reserved and cut areas where there is no young growth. In felling areas on a rapid slope
the trees shall be feUed, unless otherwise authorized, in the direction of the slope, with
the crown up hill.

Art. 24. — As cutting proceeds, the purchasers in coppice fellings shall be bound,
unless waived in the sales circular, to remove old stumps and to cut level with the
ground the boles bent or broken, the brush, brambles, weeds, shrubs, and injurious
undergrowth.

This cleaning is not obligatory in high forest felhngs unless prescribed in the contract.

Art. 25. — The small branches and limbs shall be removed and piled, as the cutting
proceeds, so as not to obstruct hauling in the felling areas.

Art. 26. — The material resulting from cording the small branches and limbs shall
be stacked or placed in piles as cutting proceeds.

Art. 27. — The cutting of wood shall be finished by April 15 after award.

The wood peeled by virtue of the contract shall be cut before July 1.

The cording of small branches and limbs, including piling or stacking the material
resulting from this cording, shall be finished by June 1 following the award.

As regards the small branches and limbs resulting from wood peeled by virtue of
the contract, this period is extended to July 15 following.

If local conditions necessitate other terms they will be given in the special clauses
of the contract.

Art. 28. — Every purchaser who cannot finish felling or cording during the pre-
scribed period and who requires an extension shall be bound to make the request of

440 APPENDIX

the conservator, on stamped paper at least 20 days before the expiration of the afore-
said period. This request shall explain the area or the amount of timber remaining to
be cut, or else the amount and kind of wood remaining to be corded, the causes of the
delay in the logging, and the extension that it is necessary to have. It will be judged
on its merits by the conservator. The purchaser, solely by his request for an extension
of time for logging, obligates himself to pay the indemnities fixed by the administration.
The extension will run from the day of the expiration in the periods fixed in the pre-
ceding article. In case the purchasers do not make use of the extensions which they
have been granted, they cannot obtain a refund of the charge made, except after a
report from the agent of Waters and Forests local officer in charge, dated at the latest
on the day of the expiration of the felling period, stamped and registered at their ex-
pense and showing unmistakably that they could not profit by the extension.

Art. 29. — The purchaser is forbidden, at least unless the sales circular contains an
explicit authorization, to peel or bark standing any wood in his sale, under the penalties
prescribed by Art. 36 of the Forest Code.

Art. 30. — It is also forbidden: (a) To leave branches, twigs, chips or bark on areas
stocked with seedlings; (6) To place or pile wood on seedlings, live stumps, or against
reserved trees; (c) To notch these trees on the bole or roots or to drive nails; {d) To
pile the products of logging outside the boundaries of the felling area, except on land-
ings specially designated by the local Waters and Forests agent or his representative.

Art. 31. — -The purchasers must remove, as the cutting proceeds, the wood which
falls into the lanes separating felling areas.

Art. 32. — They must always keep the roads open in the felling areas, so that wagons
can pass at any time.

Art. 33. — The purchaser will protect all the reserved trees, whatever their quality
and number. In no case, nor under any pretext whatever, can any reserved tree be
marked for the purchaser, even when it may be found that there are more than recorded
in the marking and sales report. He wUl protect (coppice) standards of every age
class and other reserved trees, even if they may be broken, or overturned by the wind,
or damaged by an act of Providence independent of the logging. He will be bound
to preserve them, as well as their crowns and branches.

Art. 34. — When a tree marked for cutting shall lodge in its fall on a reserved tree,
the purchaser cannot fell this reserve until after the local Waters and Forests agent
or his representative shall have recognized the necessity for felhng.

Art. 35. — Whenever, despite the observance of the felling rules applicable to the
cutting areas, the reserves shall have been overturned by logging, or when the reserves
shall have been knocked down under the conditions anticipated in the preceding article,
the purchaser shall be bound, if the Waters and Forests agent considers it necessary,
to replace these reserves by trees taken from those marked for felling. These trees
shall be chosen by the aforesaid agent and marked with his special marking hatchet.
Under no circumstances can the value of the tree thus designated exceed that of the
trees replaced. If the restitution is not required or if it is effected by trees less valuable
than those reserves overturned or knocked down, the purchaser will pay as damages
the value of these reserves or the difference between their value and that of the trees
marked to replace them, after a check valuation has been made. The valuation of the
reserves can never be less than the following established minimum:

COMPOUND COPPICE FELLING AREAS

Standard of the first rotation, $0.03 per 3.9 inches of circumference.*
Standard of the second rotation, 0.06 per 3.9 inches of circumference.
Standard of the third rotation, 0.09 per 3.9 inches of circumference.

* These figures are for circumferences made 3.3 feet above the ground.

STATE AND COMMUNAL TIMBER SALE 441

HIGH FOREST FELLING AREAS

Saplings 20 inches in circumference — $0.03 per 3.9 inches of circumference.*

Trees 24- 43 inches in circumference — 0.06 per 3.9 inches of circumference.
Trees 47- 75 inches in circumference — 0.08 per 3.9 inches of circumference.
Trees 79-114 inches in circumference — 0.09 per 3.9 inches of circumference.
Trees 118 inches in circumference and over, 0.11 per 3.9 inches of circumference.

* These figures are for circumferences made 3.3 feet above the ground.

When reserves are damaged the same procedure shall be followed as for reserves
overturned or knocked down, if the local agent decides that they cannot thrive if left
standing. If, on the contrary, the local Waters and Forests agent beheves that the
damaged reserves may conveniently be left standing the purchaser will pay the amount
of damage caused the reserve in accordance with the estimate which shall be made by
the aforesaid agent.

A record of these estimates and charges shall be prepared, which shall be signed by
the contractor or his agent, and addressed to the conservator, who, after having checked
and approved it, will see to the collection of the amounts due. This certificate is
exempt from stamp rights and registry. (Art. 80 of the law of May 15, 1818.)

Notwithstanding all replacements or payments made by the purchaser in accordance
with the provisions of this article, the reserves overturned, knocked down, or damaged,
will continue to belong to the owner of the forest.

Art. 36. — After violation of the clauses and conditions of the sale, relative to the
method of feUing and cleaning of the cutting areas, shall be punished in conformity
with Art. 37 of the Forest Code.

Art. 37. — The purchaser can estabhsh within the cutting area, huts, charcoal pits,
or pitch and tar pits, temporary lime kilns, and yards for the sawing and sale of wood
provided the request is made to the local Waters and Forests agent who will designate
in writing the areas to be occupied and these where the leaves, moss, stones, cinders,
and necessary grass be removed. These products will be granted free, but the holes
resulting from their removal must be immediately filled and leveled.

Art. 38. — The purchasers will have the right to install portable sawmills in their
felling areas, for the manufacture of the wood, on areas designated by the local Waters
and Forests agent. They must cover the furnace smokestacks with a metallic screen,
fine enough to prevent any cinders from coming out, and must take every precaution
which is prescribed by the Waters and Forests agent. They are besides bound to
conform to the relating laws and regulations. They will in any event be held responsible
for damages which may result from the use of these machines.

Art. 39. — If it is recognized that the purchasers cannot find a sufficient quantity
of withes among the products which they have purchased, and provided the stand
allows it, they can be granted free on the authorization of the local Waters and Forests
agent in charge. They will be cut on places designated by the local agent or his repre-
sentative by workmen agreed upon by him, and cannot be removed until after having
been counted by the aforesaid agent or his delegate.

PART IV. — LOGGING

Art. 40. — The hauling shall take place along roads designated in the sales report or
sales circular. Nevertheless on the purchaser's request the conservator may, while the
logging is in progress, designate other logging roads or authorize the establishment of
new ones. Merely by his request the purchaser will be bound to pay the indemnity
or to complete the work at his own expense, unless he gives up the privilege.

Art. 41. — Unless otherwise stipulated it is forbidden: (a) To skid timber on wagon

442 APPENDIX

roads; (b) to slide or roll wood down the slopes; (c) to graze work or pack animals or
allow them to pasture in the forests and even to lead them unmuzzled into felling areas
stocked with seedlings or young growth. Logs or squared timbers cannot be skidded
on the surface of felling areas except under unusual circumstances, which the local
Waters and Forests agent will decide upon.

Art. 1^2. — When the purchaser wishes to dispense with the removal of small branches
and other logging debris, he must burn them on areas which will be designated by the
local Waters and Forests agent or his representative unless the sales circular contains
an explicit authorization to scatter them on the felling area.

He must take every necessary precaution that this (brush) burning does not damage
either the new growth or reserved trees, and he will be held responsible for any damage
which may result even when carried out in the presence of and under the supervision
of Waters and Forests officers and employees.

Art. 43. — The sawdust and bark from manufactured wood will be removed, spread
on forest roads, or burned under the conditions specified in the preceding article.

Art. 44- — Unless the special sales clauses specify other periods, the logging must
be completed within one year dating from April 15 following the auction.

Art. 45. — The provisions of Art. 28, relative to feUing delays, are (also) appHcable
to logging delays.

Art. 46. — The provisions of Art. 35 are applicable to the reserves which, despite
the observance of the rules governing the removal of the wood, shall be overturned or
damaged by logging.

Art. 4T- — The purchasers on Federal sales must pay to the communes the special
subsidies, to which they must be entitled, under Art. 14 of the law of May 21, 1836,
and under Art. 11 of the law of August 20, 1881, for extraordinary (exceptional) damage
caused by hauling sales products on roads, classed as parish or rural.

Art. 48. — Unless waived by the Waters and Forests officer in charge the purchasers
must, three days before the date fixed for the check (of the sales area) : Surround with
a conspicuous band all standing trees in the felling areas where reserved trees have been
marked; place visible stakes near the stumps of trees felled in the felling areas where
the trees were marked for cutting. They will see to it that these stakes are protected
up to the date for the check. If the purchasers fail to fulfil the above requirements,
it can be done at their expense in accordance with the provisions of Art. 41 of the
Forest Code.

PART v. — CHECK (OF SALES AREA)

Art. 49. — • Under penalty of the law the purchasers must show the imprint of the
Federal marking hatchet on all wood and trees reserved, and in the felling areas marked
for cutting, on the stumps of trees cut, at the time the felling area is checked over.

Art. 50. — In the felling areas, where the trees were marked for cutting, and when the
stumps are removed in logging, the root bearing the imprint of the marking hatchet
must remain intact in the ground.

Art. 51 . — The purchaser who wishes to obtain, after the stump check, the certificate
mentioned in paragraph 4 of Art. 8, must present to the Waters and Forests agent in
charge receipts showing that he has made the payments required under Arts. 59 and 61.

He must besides prove payment for the products sold on the unit of product basis
when his felling area requires it.

PART VI. — ACCESSORY SALE ON THE UNIT BASIS

Art. 52. — When the sale contract binds the purchaser to make within the boundary
of his felhng area, in addition to the main logging, accessory fellings with the obligation

STATE AND COMMUNAL TIMBER SALE 443

of taking the products of these operations at a fixed price, the purchaser must complete
this logging within the period fixed by the special sales clauses or as shall be indicated
by the local Waters and Forests agent.

Art. 53. — The purchasers cannot, under the penalties given in Arts. 33 and 34 of
the Forest Code, fell or cord wood other than that which has been designated by the
local agent or his representative.

Art. 5Jj.. — He must manufactiu'e the wood into material corresponding to the specifi-
cations established in making the (unit) price and must pile this material by classes.

Art. 55. — The scaling of the products will first be made in a prehminary report which
will be checked jointly by the local Waters and Forests agent and the piu-chaser and
approved by the conservator.

Art. 56. — The purchaser cannot remove the wood, or dispose of it, until he has
obtained a permit, which will be delivered to him by the local Waters and Forests agent
in charge, after the approval of the inventory by the conservator.

In case this rule is violated the purchaser must pay as damages double the value of
the products unduly removed, besides the cost of stamping and registering the record of
proof, and without prejudicing the punitive fines which may be levied. If the amount
and grade of the wood removed have not been estabUshed, the value then shall be fixed
by the officiating conservator.

Art. 57. — The purchasers of national fellings shall pay at the depository of the federal
collector: (a) For an extension of three months the total amount inventoried; (6) for
an extension of 10 days 1 franc, 60 per cent of the total amount inventoried (not yet
logged), the proportional registry charges, and, if there are any, the proportional surety
charges.

The purchasers of communal or pubhc institution felhng areas shall pay for extensions
the amounts indicated above : (a) At the depository of the collector for the commune or
public institution, the total amount inventoried; {h) at the depository of the registry
collector, the proportional registry charges, and, if there are any, the proportional surety
charges.

The extension shall run from the date of the approval of the inventory by the con-
servator.

Art. 58. — All the conditions of the present circular which are not modified by the
provisions of this section are applicable to the accessory sales which form a part of it.

PART VII. —LABOR AND MATERIAL

Art. 59. — The pm-chasers must deduct the amoimt of wood given in the sale circular
from the material felled and fm-nish it to the Waters and Forests employees, communes,
pubhc institutions, and right holders. The employees' wood and, unless otherwise
stipulated, that due the communes, pubhc institutions, and right holders, must be of
good merchantable quality and put up in accordance with local usage. It must be ready
for receipt on the cutting area by the dates given in the sales circular and handed to the
places designated in the advertisement within 15 days counting from the time it is re-
ceived. The local Waters and Forests agent's report accompanied by the acquittance
of the receivers wffL suffice as a release for the purchasers.

Art. 60. — In fellings comprising a sale on the imit basis, when the wood to be de-
livered, in accordance with the preceding article, cannot be wholly secured from the
material sold on this basis, they can complete it from an additional sale on the unit
basis, but the wood thus levied wiU be included when the material is scaled, and will be
paid for by the purchaser.

Art. 61. — The labor and materials levied on the feUing areas shall be completed up
to the values given in the sales circular, under the direction of the local Waters and For-

444 APPENDIX

ests officer in charge by contractors and workmen agreed upon and when he chooses.
The purchasers will pay the contractors and laborers on sight of the certificates which
will be issued by this agent, and which, duly receipted by the assignees, will form a
release. The payment must be made by the purchaser within 15 days counting from the
deUvery of the reported receipt of the labor and materials.

Art. 62. — Nevertheless, so far as communal felling areas are concerned, the sales
circulars can require the immediate payment for all material and labor at the depository
of the communal collector, and the receipts for these payments must then be presented
to the Waters and Forests officer in charge along with the papers enumerated in Art. 18.
The municipal collector will pay the assignees directly upon sight of any order issued by
the mayor upon the production of a receipt showing the material or labor has been
received, signed by the local Waters and Forests agent, and countersigned by the officer
in charge.

Art. 63. — The purchasers are also obliged: (a) To dig, level, replant or sow areas
occupied by their huts or workshops; (6) to repair the lanes or ditches crossing or bound-
ing the feUing areas; (c) to reestablish boundary pillars, enclosures, posts, walls, fences,
etc., damaged or destroyed because of logging or hauling wood.

Art. 6%. — If the purchasers fail to live up to the obligations enumerated in Arts. 59,
61, and 63 of Part VII it will be done at their cost under the direction of the Waters and
Forests Service, in conformity with the provisions of Art. 41 of the Forest Code.

PART VIII. — MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS

Art. 65. — The sales agent which the purchaser may have, in conformity with Art.
31 of the Forest Code, cannot be the kinsman or related by marriage to the guard of
the beat, nor to the local agents. He must be agreed upon by the Waters and Forests
officer in charge and sworn before the justice of the peace.

Art. 66. — The purchasers must: (a) Refrain from working laborers, lumberjacks,
and teamsters Sundays or holidays ; this rule may be waived in virtue of an authorization
given by the Waters and Forests officer in charge. (6) Not employ foreign workmen
except in the proportion which shall be fixed by the special sales clauses.

Each (original) purchaser must besides when working Federal forests, place or cause
to be placed under the regime of the law of April 9, 1898, all lumberjacks working in
the felling areas either when they are doing the logging themselves, or when it is being
done through contractors or when the felling areas may have been resold before ex-
ploitation began.

When repeated violations of the provisions of this article may have been proven
against any purchaser, the Waters and Forests director general may decree his temporary
or permanent exclusion from the auctions of felling areas of State wood, without prejudic-
ing suits which may be brought against him.

Art. 67. — The purchasers as well as their foremen, employees, lumberjacks, work-
men, and teamsters cannot let their dogs run loose in the forests. Dogs guarding huts,
workshops, or yards must always be tied or shut up.

Art. 68. — ■ The purchaser will conform, besides, to the special provisions of the Forest
Code and to the ordinance of August 1, 1827, which concerns him.

Art. 69. — Every violation of the conditions of the sale, for which an exemption is
not given by the present "circular" or the Forest Code, will require the payment of 10
francs by right of civil damage, besides the stamp costs and the cost of registering the
brief of proof, without prejudicing civil punitive suits which may be entered.

Approved May 29, 1909, by the Secretary of Agriculture.

STATE AND COMMUNAL TIMBER SALE 445

SALE OF FELLING AREAS ON THE STUMP BY UNIT OF PRODUCT

CONTRACT CLAUSES

Part 1. — Auction. —

Art. 1. — Sales by unit of product take place under the clauses and conditions of the
general sales circular, except as modified by the provisions which follow.

Art. 2. — The sale includes, without guarantee as to area, number of trees or amount,
aU the timber designated in the felling area at any time during exploitation by Waters
and Forests officers and employees, on condition that the purchaser fells it and works
it up and pays the price based on the valuation survey approved by the Waters and
Forests conservator, in accordance with the rate established by the auction record.

Art. 3. — The ownership of the wood will be conveyed to the purchaser from the date
of approval by the conservator of the valuation survey. Commencing with this date,
the wood counted will be at the risk and danger of the purchaser, without prejudicing
the right of reservation in case of bankruptcy or of delayed payment and of the right of
claiming by means of seizure in case of removal or resale.

Art. 4- — The auction will take place either by decreasing or raising the prices. It
will be on all the various units of product of which the basis and method of appraisal
shall be indicated in the advertisement.

The lowering or raising of the prices will be regulated at so much per cent in accord-
ance with the basis or method of appraisal. Fractions in hundreds will not be permitted.

Art. 5. — The auction by lowering the price will take place in the following manner:
The figure announced by the crier will be successively lowered, in accordance with a
tariff established in advance and advertised in the auction room, until someone an-
nounces the words: " I take it." If several people are bidders simultaneously, the felling
area is drawn by lot, at least unless one of them does not bid a higher price; the competi-
tion is then open between them as indicated in the following article.

Art. 6. — The auction by raising the price will be decided after the extinction of three
tapers lighted in succession. If the duration of the last of the three tapers outlasts
the increases in price, the auction will not be judged until after the extinction of a final
fire without increase in price.

Art. 7. — In conformity with the provisions of the first paragraph of Art. 8 of the
general sales circular, the purchaser will be bound to furnish security and a surety.

These securities will be received subject to the approval of the federal collector in
the case of felling areas of federal wood, and subject to the approval of the mayors and
municipal collectors, administrators, and public institution collectors for the felhng
areas of communal and public institution wood.

In case of the insolvency of securities, proven by bankruptcy or otherwise, all the
amounts due shall become immediately demandable, unless the purchaser produces a
new security acceptable by the collector interested. (Code Civil, Art. 2020.)

Part II. — Exploitation. —

Art. 8. — The cutting permit will be delivered to the purchaser by the local Waters
and Forests officer in charge, on presentation of the certificate showing he has furnished
his securities.

Art. 9. — Under penalties carried by Arts. 33 and 34 of the Civil Code, the purchaser
cannot fell trees other than those which shall have been designated by the local agent
or his representatives.

Art. 10. — All the wood, which shall be considered suitable for building timber or in-
dustrial manufacture by the Waters and Forests officers, shall be left in the log and can-
not be cut off below the point where the local agent or his representative shall have
placed his hammer mark for regulating the cutting into logs.

446 APPENDIX

The advertisement will show the minimum sizes for this wood, if there are any.

Art. 11. — Wood which has not been classed as fit for building timber or manufacture
by the Waters and Forests agents shall be worked into minor construction material
(small logs, split wood, poles, mine props, etc.) or into firewood (fuel, charcoal, fagots,
fagot bundles, etc.) so that the commodities manufactured can enter the classes given in
the sales circular used for the estabhshment of the price.

Art. 12. — The minor construction material will be left separate in the log, or laid out
in Hues of ten each, or piled between stakes according as they are regularly placed by
the purchaser in a class sold by the cubic meter, by the piece, or by the stere.

Art. 13. — ■ Unless otherwise stipulated in the special sales clauses, the firewood and
charcoal will be stacked according to local usage. The piles must always contain even
steres unless there is insufficient material.

Art. llf- — The fagots, bundles of fagots, etc., will be stacked in piles of 10, 20, or 25
or multiples thereof.

Art. 15. — When the bark is sold separately it will be bound in bundles; it will then
be stacked as fagots or bundles of fagots.

Art. 16. — The roots and chips from chopping will be stacked in round piles.

Art. 17. — All the piles will be made according to the commodity class and in each
class by lengths.

Art. 18. — If during the logging the purchaser desires to make a class of commodity
other than those recited in the sales circular, he will make the request in writing of the
conservator, who will fix the bases of price for the new product units and will give
notice to the aforesaid purchaser in writing.

In case this rule is broken the price of the new commodity classes will be fixed officially
by the conservator, without prejudicing the application of Art. 69 of the general
circular.

Art. 19. — At any time during logging the agents can check the wood to make sure
of its quantity and class ; the piles which shall have been broken will be at once restacked
by the purchaser.

Art. 20. — ^ The purchaser will convert and arrange for inclusion in the scaling: (a)
The wood resulting from windfall, windbreak, and from surveying lines, situated within
the felling area. However, he will not be held to this obligation if the value of the
aforesaid wood exceeds by 10 per cent the total amount of the felling area. (6) The
wood from lopping if there is any.

Art. 21. — As the conversion proceeds, wood of all kind, except the trees in the log,
will be (if there is any) collected at the areas indicated by the special sales clauses. In
any case it will be arranged for scaling as directed by the Waters and Forests agents or
their representatives.

Art. 22. — • The purchasers can have the special clauses waived for the conversion of
branches having at the large end a maximum circumference, determined according to
local usages and indicated in the advertisement, on condition that they conform to the
prescriptions of the aforesaid clauses governing the destination for these products.

Art. 23. — The time for felling and converting (including the grouping, piling, or
stacking) will be established by the special sales clauses.

Art. 24- — The withes for the fagot bundles, fagots and bark, resulting from the sale,
will be given to the purchaser free of charge, who will gather them at his expense under
the superintendence of the local guard in the places designated by the range officer. If
the Waters and Forests agents judge that this removal cannot take place, or that it
should be limited to certain species, mention will be made in the sales circular.

Art. 25. — Before the permit for removal is given the workmen cannot help them-
selves, for their own use, to anything except brambles, parasitic plants, or remnants
designated by the local guard. The removal of this wood and the use of any other kind

STATE AND COMMUNAL TIMBER SALE 447

of product will be treated as trespass, and prosecuted in conformity with the provisions
of the Forest Code.

Part III. — Scaling. -

Art. 26. — As soon as the felling area shall have been made ready for receival under
the conditions above determined, a scale report will be drawn up and checked with the
purchaser, who will be duly notified. The report will be signed by the officers and em-
ployees present and by the purchaser or his representative; if he does not want to sign
or if he is absent this will be noted. This certificate will be submitted for the approval
of the conservator. Thus approved it will govern the amount due from the purchaser.
Partial scaling can be authorized by the conservator under exceptional circumstances of
which he will be the sole judge and under the official conditions of poHcy which he shall
determine.

Art. 27. — Eight days before the date fixed for the scahng by the local Waters and
Forests officer the purchaser must furnish this agent an inventory of the products to
scale.

Art. 28. — The wood classed by the Waters and Forests agents as building material
and for manufacture shall be cubed as cylinders having a height equal to the length of
the log and a base equal to the circumference (or diameter of the circumference) or aver-
age diameter at the middle of the log. The allowances on the length, circumference, and
diameter shall conform to the methods of measurement and volumetric tables used
locally and indicated in the advertisement. Circumferences and diameters will be
measured outside the bark for broadleaves and inside the bark for conifers. When the
butt (culee) of the tree is not cut (level with the grass) the point to measure the length
(of the butt log) from will include two-thirds the stump height.

Art. 29. — The minor construction wood kept in the log, as stated in Art. 12, shall be
scaled as wood for building or manufacture.

Art. 30. — All the other products shall be counted in the class to which they naturally
belong according to method of conversion, grouping, and pihng.

Art. 31. — The stacks of wood piled between stacks shall be treated as rectangular
prisms having the same length as the wood, and the width and height of the pile.

Art. 32. — The minor construction material designed for the mines can be partially
peeled according to custom without any increase in value on account of the loss in
volume.

^ Part IV. — Removal of the Wood. —

Art. 33. — The purchaser cannot remove any wood until he has obtained a permit
which will be delivered to him by the local Waters and Forests officer in charge, after
the approval of the scale report by the conservator. In case of violation the purchaser
will be bound to pay as damages twice the value of the wood removed, in accordance
with the price fixed by the auction record. If the amount and quahty of this wood can-
not be regularly proven, its value will be fixed officially by the conservator. The re-
moval of the wood before the approval of the scale report by the conservator will
besides involve the application of Art. 888 of the Penal Code.

Art. 34- — Unless otherwise stipulated in the special sales clauses, the removal must
be completed within a period of one year counting from April 15 following the sale.

Part V. — Price of Sale.'— Cost of Auction. — Registry and Stamp Rights. —
Art. 35. — The purchasers of felling areas of Federal wood will pay at the Federal
collector's depositories: (a) Within a term fixed by the special clauses, which cannot
exceed six months, the main price of the sale regulated by the scale report duly ap-
proved; (fe) within a period of 10 days, 1 franc, 60 per cent of the amount of the sale
so far as the fixed stamp rights and registry of the certificates relating to the sale as for

448

APPENDIX

all other costs, and the proportional rights of registry and of surety on the amount of the
sale increased by the tax of 1 franc, 60 per cent. (Decision of the Minister of Finance,
April 7, 1883.)

The fixed right of the surety certificate will be paid besides within the same period
after the first scahng. The terms will run from the date of the approval by the conserva-
tor of the scale report.

Art. 36. — The purchasers of felling areas of communal and public institution wood
will pay within the terms indicated in the foregoing article, (a) At the communal col-
lector's depository or that of the public institution owner, the principal price regulated
by the scale report duly approved. (6) At the registry collector's depository, the fixed
stamp rights and for the registry of the deeds relating to the sale and for the surety
certificate, the proportional rights of registry and surety on the total sale, and, if there
are any, also the fixed stamp rights and registry of the deeds before or after the sale,
that is to say, for the marking standards report and survey notes.

Art. 37. — The total of the charges of all kinds, for work or materials to be furnished
by the purchaser, and whose valuation in money is given in the advertisement, will be
deducted as a whole from the total of the sale on the scale report; the amount remaining
will form the chief price of the sale.

In case of partial scaling this deduction will be made from the first scale report.

June 18, 1903.

APPENDIX H
FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE (1870-1912)

(a) FORESTRY PROPER, ETC.

Title
Etude sur la production du chene et son eniploi en France
Etude sur la carbonisation des bois (systeme Dromart)
Etude sur les forets du Risoux
Cri d'alarme sur les hais d'industrie, de Chauffage et le char-

bon de terre
Mise en Valeur des sols pauvres au moyen de la culture de

Resineux
Le Mont — Boron
Les bois employes dans I'industrie
De I'influence des forets sur le climat
Etudes sur ramenagement des forets
Service forestier de I'Algerie (Rapport)
Notice sur les bois de la Nouvelle-Caledonie
Notes sur le role economique des associations pastorales

(Pyrenees)
Histoire du chene dans I'antiquite et dans la nature
Histoire de la foret de Fontainebleau
Petit manuel du garde particulier des bois et forets
La greffe a la portee des classes populaires
Manuel de sylviculture

Enquete sur les incendies dans les landes de Gascogne
Des rapports entre les racines et les branches des arbres
Ecorcement des bois par la chaleur
Carbonisation des bois en vases clos
Exposition collective des produits d'economie rurale et

forestiere du royaume de Boheme
Observations sommaires sur le progres rural (region des

Pyrenees)
Experiences foresti^res 1871-1874
La sylviculture au Conseil g^' d'Auxerre (Reboisement)

Author

Place

Date

Bagneris

Paris

1870

Desnoyers Roux

Fontainebleau

1870

Gurnaud

Besanfon

1870

Boutroux

Gien

1870

FiUon

Paris

1870

Guiot

Nice •

1871

Noerdlinger

Paris

1872

Rousseau

Carcassonne

1872

Tassy

Paris

1872

Tassy

Paris

1872

Sebert

Paris

1872

Calvert

Tarbes

1872

Coutace

Paris

1873

Domet

Paris

1873

Dommanget

Paris

1873

Fandrin

Marseille

1873

Bagneris

Nancy

1873

Fare

Paris

1873

Regimbeau

Nimes

1873

du Roscoat

Paris

1873

Vincent

Paris

1873

de Dombrowski

Prague

1873

Calvet

Pau

1873

Le Chauff

Moulins

1874

de Kirwan

Auxerre

1874

FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE

449

Title
Traits sur lea arbres resineux

L'amenagement des forets (2^^ Edit.)
Calepin d'amenag'' de la foret donian'6 des Reelas
Les forets a I'Exposition de Vienne 1873
Notice forestiere sur les landes de Gascogne

Notes sur les associations pastorales dans les Pyrenees

Les bois indigenes et etrangers

Dictionnaire des forets (2^ tirage)

Le reboisement et le regazonnement des Alpes (2*^ Edit.)

Des arbres resineux et de leur utilite particuliere pour le

boisement des frickes
L' Administration des forets au concours regional de Troyes

Les forets et les paturages du Comte de Nice

Les forets du Charollais sous les dues de Bourgogne

Souvenir d'une excursion forestiere dans I'inspection de Loris

Nouvelle methode d 'exploitation des futaies

Le deboisement et le reboisement dans les Alpes (Mon-

tagne d'Aurouse)
Foret domaniale de Chinon, Repeuplements (de 1846-1875)
Considerations et recherches sur I'elagage des essences

forestieres
Memoire sur la carbonisation des bois en foret
Examen des noveaux appareils pour I'ecorcement des bois

sous Taction de la chaleur
De Tecorcage du chene-les ecorces h. tan
Les torrents des Alpes et le paturage (2^ Edit.)
Herbier des fermes plants provenants de la pepinicre d'Arpa-

jon (Caubal)
Le reboisement dans I'Ardeche
Rapport sur I'ecorgage a la vapeur presente au Congres des

tanneurs
Les forets communales en 1877
De I'assechement du sol par les essences forestieres
Du deboisement des campagnes dans les rapports avec dis-

parition des oiseaux' utiles a I'agriculture
Considerations generales sur I'amenag'' des bois
Calepin d'amenag* de la foret communale Urbacke
Compte de la gruerie des baillages d'Autun et de Mont Cenis

pour I'annee 1419
Determination du revenu annuel des forets taillis sous

futaie
Manuel de I'economie alpestre (trad, de I'allemand)
Melanges forestiers (Expos, universelle de 1878)
La foret

Manuel de sylviculture (2d Edit.)
Note sur deux procedes pour activer le developpement des

racines laterales du chene en pepiniere
Rapport sur le reboisement des terrains en pente de Tarron-

dissement de Chaumont
Outils pour semis et plantations
Notice sur I'elagage des arbres
Ecimage des fennes peupliers de la valle I'Ourcq
Notice sur le debit et les emplois du chene romre et du chene

pedoneule
Notice sur les divers emplois du hgtre

Notice sur le debit et les emplois du sapin de I'epicea et du

meleze
Notice sur le debit et les emplois des principales essences de

Pins

Author

Place

Date

Bouguinat

Chalons
S. Saone

1874

Puton

Paris

1874

Crouvizier

Epinal

1874

Mathieu

Paris

1874

Croizette-

Clermont

1874

Desnoyers

Calvet

Paris

1874

Dupont

Paris

1875

Rousset

Paris

1875

Mathieu

Paris

1875

Renault

Mirecourt

1875

Croizette-

Troyes

1875

Desnoyers

Guiot

Paris

1875

Picard

Autun

1876

Le Grix

Paris

1876

Vaulot

Langres

1876

Cardot

Paris

1876

Thomas

Paris

1876

Martimet

Paris

1876

Dromart

Paris

1876

Tissot

Paris

1876

Perrault

Paris

1876

Marchand

Paris

1876

Blackere

Arpajon

1877

Blackere

Paris

1877

Negociants

Tours

1877

tanneurs

Jacquot

Pithiviers

1877

Burger

Paris

1877

Burger

Paris

1877

Houba

Arlon

1877

Crouvizier

Epinal

1877

Picard

Autun

1877

Paris

Schatzmann

Lausanne

1877

Divers

Paris

1878

Muller

Paris

1878

Bagneris

Nancy

1878

Leveret

Paris

1878

Arbeltier de

Chaumont

1878

les Boullage

Proure

Dieppe

1878

Martinet

Paris

1878

Burger

Meaun

1878

Gallat et Cast

Paris

1878

Croizette-

Paris

1878

Desnoyers

Gallot

Paris

1878

Croizette-

Paris

1878

Desnoyers

450

APPENDIX

Title
Notice sur les etais de mines en France
Notice sur I'industrie du Sabotage dans le depart* de la

Lozere
Notice sur le debit des bois de fen, lux mode vente et les

procedes de carbonisation employes en France
Recherces experimentales sur les ecorces k tan du chene

Yeuse
Notice sur I'industrie des ecorces k tan
Notice sur I'emploi du bois dans la fabrication de la pate h

papier
Notice sur le gemmage du Pin maritime

Notice sur le controle et les comptabilite relatif a les gestion

des forets
Meterologie comparee agricole et forestiere
Notice sur les dunes de la Coubre

Cours d'amenagement des forets

Du partage des affectations en un meme nombre de divi-
sions dans les amenagements de futaie

Cahier d'amenag*. — Methode par contenance expose sur
la foret des Eperons

Un peril d'eau I'Algerie — le deboisement

Catalogue des produits et exploitations foresfes de la
Hongrie (Exposition universelle de 1878)

Catalogue des collections exposees par le service des forets
de I'Algerie a I'Exposition de 1878

Catalogue des collections exposees par I'Administration
dee forets

Notice sur le debit et les emplois du chataignier des erables,
du frene, etc.

Le paturage sur les terrains gazonnes et boises

L'art forestier franpais a I'Exposition de 1878

L'art forestier a I'Exposition de 1878

La culture des osiers

Essai pratique du reboisement des montagnes

Le chene-liege en Algerie

Amenagem* des forets-Estimation

Calepin d'amenag* de la foret doman'e de Montagne

Statistique forestiere (texte et atlas)

Bibliographic de I'Exposition forestiere de 1878
Determination du revenu des futaies jardinees
Amenagement des forets — Estimation en fonds et Superficie
Restauration des forets et paturages du sud de la province

d'Algerie
Traite sur les differents Cubages des bois en grume
Proces-verbal d'amenag* de la foret doman'^ de Darney —

Martinvelle
Rapport sur le materiel et les procedes des industries agri-

cules et forestieres
Une exposition forestiere improvisee en Auvergne
Restauration des forets et des paturages du sud de I'Algerie
Vingt annees d'economie alpestre Suisse
Traite pratique de la culture des Pins k grandes dimen-
sions (3d Edit.)
Le traitement des bois en France a I'usage des particuliers
Traite de sylviculture pratique en Sologne
Conference sur le reboisem*' des terrains Vagues
Drainage des forets

Essai des engrais chimiques sur la vegetation forestiere
Culture du chene-li^ge — (Rapport)

Author
Thelu
Grosjean

Larzilliere

Place
Paris
Paris

Paris

Exposit. univer- Alger

selle
Exposit. univer- Paris

Date

1878
1878

1878

de Kirwan
Jolivet

Paris
Paris

1878
1878

Croizette-

Desnoyers
Boppe

Paris
Paris

1878
1878

Mathieu
Vasselot de

Regne
Broilliard
•de Schwartz

Nancy
Paris

Nancy
Paris

1878
1878

1878
1878

Gurnaud

Paris

1878

de Metz-Noblat
Guiot

Paris
Paris

1878
1878

1878
1878

Bruant,

Paris

1878

Lazilliere

Rousset

Nice

1878

de Kirwan

Brusselles

1879

Bouquet de

Paris

1879

la Grye

Coaz

Berne

1879

Tanoriou

Beaune

1879

Zamey

Alger

1879

Fallotte

Carcassonne

1879

Colnenne

Epinal

1879

Adminison des

Paris

1879

forets

de Kirwan

St. Quentin

1879

Puton

Paris

1879

Tallotte

Carcassonne

1879

Reynard

Alger

1880

Zemee

Angers

18S('

Bocquentin

Mirceant

1880

Durand-Claye

Paris

1880

de Kirwan

Bruxelles

1880

Reynard

Alger

18S0

Schwartzmann

Lausanne

1880

Delamarre

Paris

1881

Broilliard

Nancy

1881

Girard

Romorantin

1881

Muel

Epinal

1881

Houba

Besangon

1881

Muel

Epinal

1881

Chasin

Paris

1881

Title
De I'influence des forets sur le climat et I'origine des sources
Projet d'amenag^ des bois de Rochefort
Foret commu'6 de St. Martin Lautasque. — Projet de reglemt

d'exploitation
Calepin d'amenagt de la for6t Commu'^ de Gemaingoutte
A travers la Grande — Bretagne

L'Exposition foresti^re au concours regional d'Amiens
Une exposition foreetiere en Tourraine
Calepin d'amenag* de la foret du Valse Senones
Etude sur I'economie pastorale des H'^^-Alpes
Culture et exploitation des Arbres
Essais de reboist^ dans la Montagne Noire

Note sur le sartage dans Tarrond^ de Rocroi

Traite pratique du boisement et reboisement des mon-

tagnes, landes, etc.
Essai sur les lepeuplements artificiels et la restauration des

vides et clairieres des forets
Rapport sur me nouveau precede de culture du Chene-liege
Petit manuel forestier

Manuel d'economie forestiere (Notions d'amenagement)
De I'influence des forfits sur les pluies, I'alimentation des

sources
Memoire sur I'amenag* de la Commune de Syam
Calepin d'amenag* de la foret Commu'^ de Fraize
Etude sur les causes du deboisement en Algerie et les moyens

d'y remedier
L'impot foncier des forets — determination du revenu

imposable
Note sur I'estimation des saillis en cruissance
Vade-mecum du forestier
Des plantations qui bordent les Loudes
Expose des faits general relatifs a la production forestiere

sous le climat de la France
Notions de sylviculture enseignees k I'Ecole normale desVosges
Cours elementaire de la culture des bois (6® Ed.)

Creation de peuplements artificiels et boisement des ter-
rains nus

Reboisement et amenagement des eaux dans I'Aude

L'art de planter (Arond. de I'allemand)

Etude sur les vices du bois

La question des reboisements et le role des Eucalyptus en
Algerie

Calepin d'amenag* de la foret de Raon I'Etape

Catalogue des collections exposees k rExposit<"i internat'e
d'Amsterdam en 1883. Service des forets de I'Algerie

Les forets

Bois et Forets

Philosophie sur la sylviculture

Sur la regeneration naturelle des futaies

Etude sur I'experimentation forestiere en Allemagne et en
Autriche

Manuel du cultivateur de Pins en Sologne

Achat, analyse et preparation des graines resineuses em-
ployees par I'Administration des forets

Les repeupl's artificiels dans les forets d'Arques et d'Eaux

Considerations sur la production et le traitement des plantes
sur la creation et I'entretien des forets

Recherches experimentales sur la dessiccation artificielle
des bois

Notes sur les boisements artificiels des Vosges. Acclima-
tation du chene rouge d'Amerique

RATURE

451

Author

Place

Date

Maistre

Montpellier

1881

Houba

Liege

1881

Burel

Nice

1881

Crouvizier

Epinal

1881

Boppe

Nancy

1881

Vion

Amiens

1881

Martines

Paris

1881

Crouvizier
Briot

Epinal
Paris

1881
1881

Rousset

Valence

1882

Cormouls-

Mazamet

1882

Hautes

Cornebois

Paris

1882

Levavasseur

Talaise

1882

Chasin

Paris

Vaulot

Langres

Galmiche

Grenoble

Dicky

Itrasbourg

Gurnaud

Besangon

Gurnaud

Epinal

Chitier

Miliana

Devarenne

Andelot

Caquet

Paris

Houba

Berne

Boppe

Nancy

Muel

Nancy

Lorentz et

Paris

Parade

Boppe

Nancy

Cautegril

Nancy

de ManteuEfel

Paris

Marchal

Paris

Naudin

Paris

Crouvizier

Epinal

Crouvizier

Alger

Lesbazeilles

Paris

Robinson

Paris

Guinier

Toulouse

Guinier

Paris

Rensset et

Paris

Bartet

Cannon

Orleans

Thil.

Paris

Prouve

Paris

Parisel

Bruxelles

Marcus

Metz

Gazin

Besancon

452

APPENDIX

Title
De ramenagement des futaies
La sylviculture frangaise
Calepin d'amenag* de la foret de Danipaire
ProcSs-verbal d'amenagt de la foret domaniale de Haye
Notes sur la statistique forestiere de I'ouest de la France
Catalogue raisonne des collections exposees au Concours

regional de Dole 1884
Questions alpestres

Les droits de bandite dans le Comte de Nice
Vade mecum forestier
Guide du forestier — Elements de sylviculture (8^ Ed.)

Le furetage'en Chalais

Notice sur la pepiniere de Royat

Notice sur les reboisements du Puy-de-D6me

Programme general du reboisement du gouvern* general de

I'AIgerie
Du reboisement des proprietes particulieres
Etude sur le resinage

La methode frangaise et la question forestiere
Etude sur les taillis composes
La methode du controle de Gurnaud
3°, Memoire sur I'amenag* des bois de la commune de

Syam
Notice sur la carte forestiere de la region de Nancy
Statistique forestiere du dep*- de I'Allier
Considerations generales sur les forets I'AIgerie
Concours regional de Nancy — Catalogue de I'Exposition

forestiere
Convention Internationale de reboisement
A propos des defrichements et inondations
Foret domaniale de Haye — Proces-verbal de revision de

la possibilite au debut de 1885
Les forets de la France
Les forets lorraines jusqu» en 1789
La sylviculture a I'Ecole primaire
Etude sur les plantations
Les reboisements par I'acacia
La restauration des montagnes

Guide pratique du rebois* a I'usage des particuliers
Reboisements et repeuplements
Situation au 31 decembre 1886 des trav* de reboisement

des environs de Barcelonnette
Etudes calorimetricjues sur la combustion de bois
Notice sur I'emploi de la sciure de bois et I'usage de la

tourbe comme litere dans les ecuries
La sylviculture frangaise et la methode de Controle (Re-

ponse a M. Grand jean)
Les plans d'exploitation de courte duree
Missions f orestieres en Grande Bretagne, Autriche et Baviere
Les produits forestiers a I'Exposition de Budapest 1885
L'Exposition internat'e de 1884 a Edinbourg (Forets)
Estimations concernant la propriete forestiere
Les forets de I'Abbaye de Citeaux
Les pares forestiers

Notes sur les orangeries et les irrigations de Blida
La foret a travers le monde
Extraits du rapport sur le reboisement de la cote de Malze-

ville pres Nancy
Le proprietaire planteur. Manuel pratique des reboise-
ments
Du boisement des sols pauvres
Cours de Technologie forestiere (Nouv. Edit.)

Author

Place

Date

Brenot

Arlon

1884

Gurnaud

Paris

1884

Crouvizier

Epinal

1884

Bagneris

Nancy

1884

Noel

Paris

1884

Direction des

Dole

1884

forets

Briot

Paris

1884

Guiot

Nice

1884

Caquet

Paris

1885

Bouquet de la

Paris

1885

Grye

Puton

Nancy

1885

Bertrand

Moulins

1885

Bertrand

Moulins

1885

Tirman et

Alger

1885

Mathieu

Moureton

Paris

1885

Blanc

Paris

1885

Gurnaud

Besanfon

1885

Burel

Paris

1885

Grandjean

Paris

1885

Gurnaud

Besangon

1885

Henry

Nancy

1885

de Guiny

Moulins

1885

de Guiny

Alger

1885

Direction des

Nancy

1885

forets

Burger

Meaux

1885

Pissot

Paris

1885

Bartet

Nancy 1885-86

Depelchm

Tours

1886

Guyot

Nancy

1886

Caquet

Nevers

1886

Bert

Alger

1886

Caquet

Nevers

1886

Benardeau

Paris

1886

Rousseau

Carcassonne

1886

de Kirwan

Bruxelles

1886

Service du

Barcelonnette

1886

reboisement

Petit

Lyon

1886

Jolivet

Vitry le Fran? ois

1886

Gurnaud

Besangon

1886

Gurnaud

Besangon

1886

Boppe et Reuss

Paris

1886

Boppe

Paris

1886

Reuss

Paris

1886

Puton

Paris

1886

Picard

Autun

1887

Caquet

Nevers

1887

Joly

Paris

1887

Caquet

Nevers

1887

Munich et

Nancy

1887

Bremeau

Cannon

Orleans

1887

Pruvost

Troyes

1887

Boppe

Paris

1887

FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE

453

Title
Resistance des bois k la flexion et k la complexion
Des formations du bois rouge et du bois gras dans le sapin

et I'epicea
Les Landes de Gaacogne
L'art forestier et le controle
Economic forestiere — Principes generaux — le jardinage —

Estimation
Variations et equilibre de I'accroiss* en foret
De I'exploitabilite de la possibilite et de leurs differents

modes
L'amenagement des forSts (V. Edit.)
Les forets de la Meuse et leurs produits
A travers la Tunisie

Le Tarif des douanes et les produits forestiers
Exposition internat'® de Toulouse (Forgts catalogue)

La culture forestiere dans la region du Chablais

Etat des forets de la France — Travaux a faire — Mesures

a prendre
Le Sapin des Vosges — Etude d 'estimation
Statistique forestiere de Meurthe-et-Moselle
Etude sur la constitution normale des futais jardinees
Recherches sur la production ligneuse pendant la phase des

coupes de regeneration St. Memoire
De I'influence des eclaircies sur I'accroissement diametral

des aspins
La restauration des montagnes
Destruction de la larve du hanneton par le pal et la Ceuzine

Des emplois chimiques du bois dans les arts et I'industrie
L'Industrie de la carbonisation des bois en France et la

denaturation des alcools
Traite d'economie forestiere
La dune littorale
Cours d'amenagement professe k I'Ecole forestiere (1885-

1886) 2 cahiers
Les forets de Tarrond* d'Embrun
La sylviculture dans les Vosges
Buffon et la foret communale de Montbard
Les Alpes-Maritimes — Considerations au point de vue

forestier pastoral et agricole
Concours regional d'Autun — Esposito° forestiere
De la situation des forets d'essences melangees dans d'ie de

la Reunion
Influence des eclaircies (p"" st 2d Memoires)
Traite de sylviculture
Considerations diverses k propos de taillis
Premiere etude sur les peuplements reguliers Sapin
Recherches sur le traitement des sapinieres vosgiennes
Etude sur la place de production No 2 foret domaniale de

Haye (St. Memoire)
Causerie sur les bois de la Guyane
Diagrammes et calculs d'accroissement
Influence de la foret et la consistance des peuplements
Influence du deboisem* au point de vue de Taction torren-

tielle dans la Ht^-Ariege
Economic resumee de la foret
Proces-verbal de revision de la possibihte et de I'amenag^

St. Seire — St. Jean — Fontaine p^e periode 1887
Atlas forestier de la France par departements

Statistique forestiere du depart* du Cautal
Les forets de I'Algerie

Author
Sergent
Mer

Place
Paris
Paris

Date
1887
1887

Chambreleut Paris

Gurnaud Besangon

Vaulot Paris

Gurnaud

Paris

de Kirwan

Bruxelles

Tassy

Paris

Larzilliere

St. Mihiel

Baraban

Paris

Puton

Nancy

Ministere de

Foixe

I'agriculture

Gazin

Paris

Tassy

Paris

Puton

Epinal

Huffel

Nancy

Burel

Paris

Bartet

Nancy

de Courson

Paris

Croisette-

Paris

Desnoyers

Petit

Lyon

Petit

Lyon

Puton

Paris

Grandjean

Poitiers

Reuss

Nancy

Gouget

Paris

Claudot

Epinal

Perdrizet

Dijon

Boye

Lille

Adon des forets Autun
Goizet St. Denis

Bartet

Nancy

Boppe

Paris

Suckaux

Paris

Bartet

Paris

Mer

Paris

Bartet

Nancy

Dupre

Melun

Bartet

Nancy

Ebermayer

Nancy

Vautrin

Foixe

Vaulat

Paris

Bartet

Nancy

Benardeau et

Paris

Cuny

Gebhart

Aurillae

Combee

Alger

454

APPENDIX

Title
Statistique des forets de la province d'Oran (Algerie)
Lea forets du depart* de I'Yonne
Statistique forestiere du depart*- du Loiret
Notice sur les forets de la Tunisie
Le Var — Considerations au point de vue forestier
Quelques considerations sur les forets vosgiennes
Mission forestiere en Roumanie

Exposition universelle — Algerie, — Catalogue des collec-
tions de bois exposees
Le Pavilion forestier au Trocadero. Exposition universelle

de 1889
L'inventaire des massifs forestiers (trad* de Fallemand)
Traite forestier pratique
L'art de planter avec succes et economie
Les boisements productifs en toute situation
Guide pratique du reboisement
Moyen d'activer rallongenient des jeunes sapins
Trente jours & la Reunion. — Notes et impressions forestieres
Guide theorique et pratique de cubage des bois
Compte Rendu des observations meteorologiques concern-
ant les onze annees 1878-1888
Les dunes de Belgique

Les dunes mourantes d'Ain Sebue (Algerie)
Mise en valeur des terres incultes du massif central de la

France
La methode du controle k I'Exposition de 1889
Note sur une nouvelle methode forestiere dite du controle

de Gurnaud
L'amenagt des forets communales et du cantonnement

forestier de Montbard
Notice forestiere sur le depart* de I'Aude
Le bois de Saone et Loire
Les forfits de la Roumanie
Congres international forestier de Vienne
Les Forets
Notice sur les plantations de bois resineux dans la foret de

Culonusay (Jura)
De I'influence exercee par I'epoque de I'abatage sur la pro-
duction et le developpement des rejets de souehes
Exposition universelle de 1889 — Materiel et procedes des

exploitations rurales & forestieres
Notice historique sur la foret Commun'^ d'Epinal
Une excursion forestiere dans I'Est
Les hauts plateaux oranais
Les forets et le commerce des bois en France
Un reboisement dans les Indes anglaises
Les forets du Japon
Forestiers et Bftcherons
A travers le Japon

Les forets et le commerce des bois en France
Traite d'economie forestiere. Amenagment
Decadence de la propriete boisee et souffrances des popula-
tions forestieres
Sur les causes de variation de la densite des bois
Note sur I'accroissement et le rendement en matiere et en ar-
gent d'une parcelle peuplee de bois resineux
Recherches sur le convert des arbres de tallies sous futaie
Traitement des bois tallies

Sur quelques experiences effectuees k la pepiniere des

Bellefontaines
De I'influence des sols boises sur les climats
Notice sur les inondations de 1888 a 1891 et sur le deboise-

ment dans le Roussillon

Author
Mathieu
Picard
Domet
Lefebore
Boye
Gazin
Huffel
Goizet

de Kirwan

Fankanser
Gurnaud
Bouquinat
Fillon

Mer

Girod-Genet
Frockst
Bartet

Baraban

Riston

Gebhart

Gurnaud
de Blonay

Place
Alger
Auxerre
Orleans
Tunis
Lille
Epinal
Nancy
Alger

Bruxelles

Neufchatel

Paris

Laignes

Paris

Paris

Paris

Alger

Paris

Paris

Paris

Paris
Paris

Paris
Lausanne

Troyes

Rousseau

Carcassonne

Gaudet

Paris

Huffel

Paris

Boppe

Paris

de Venel

Paris

Gurnaud

Paris

Bartet

Nancy

Divers

Paris

Claudot

Epinal

Cannon

Paris

Mathieu

Alger

Melard

Paris

Ussele

Paris

de Kirwan

Bruxelles

Heiner

ChatellcB

Ussete

Paris

Melard

Paris

Puton

Paris

Boneard

Paris

Mer

Paris

Mongenst

Grenoble

Bartet

Paris

Bertrand

Clermont-

Ferrand

Bartet

Nancy

Loze

Toulouse

de Boixo

Perpignay

FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE

455

Title
Influence des forfits sur la production de la plaine
Histoire de la foret d'Orleans
Guide du forestier (9^ Edit.)

La Sapiniere ideale

Les forets de chene vert

Etude sur la place de production N" 1. (Foret de Cham-,

penoux)
Breviaire du ligueur
Etude sur la sylviculture
Notes sur la duree des traverses en bois (Comply des chem.

de fer. P. L. M.)
Le chene-liege, sa culture, son exploitation
Plantations resineuses de la Champagne
Nature et utilisation des produits forestiers des Pyrenees-Or-

ientales
Les arbres et les peuplenients forestiers
La foret et la disette du fourrage
Du calcul de la possibilite dans les futaies jardinees
Une question de niethode

La question forestiere algerienne devant le Senat
Le Haut-Perche et des forets domaniales
Note sur les forets et le rebois'^ dans les Pyrenees-Orienl^s
Le chene liege, Sa culture. Son exploitation
3^ Memoire sur I'influence des eclaircies
Le traitement des bois en France
Deboisement et rebois^ dans les Basses-Pyrenees
Etude economique sur le rebois* des montagnes
Semer et planter (2^ Edit.)

Les forets & le reboisem* dans les Pyrenees-Orient'^
L'extinction des torrents en France par le reboise-

ment
La methode du controle, son application a une partie de la

foret de Champenoux (p'' p'^)
Estimations et exploitabilitts forestieres
InsufBsance de la production du chene en France
Les forets des Pyrenees

Statistique des forets soumises au regime forestier
Quelques conseils aux sylviculteurs du Chablais
Petit manuel du proprietaire sylviculteur
Chenes-lieges — Notice sur les forets de I'Algerie
Les forets de Cedre

Les forets et le rebois* dans les Pyrenees-Orient'^
Union landaise des proprietaires et fabricants de produits

resineux
Exposition internat'® de Chicago — Commissariat Special de

I'Agriculture
L'art d'etre proprietaire de bois
Culture intensive des forets

Recherches sur la production ligneuse pendant la phase des
coupes de regeneration (Foret domaniale de Haye)
(place d'expces no 1)

Du prix du bois resineux dans le Doules

Influence des forets sur le climat

Le double du Perigord

L'Algerie et la commission senatoriale

De la depreciation des bois de feu

Le commerce des bois en Europe

Traite des plantations d'alignement et d'ornement

Traitement de I'epicea dans les Alpes

Les taillis sous futaie des Vosges

Author

Place

Date

Jeannel

Nice

1892

Domet

Orleans

1892

Bouquet

Paris

1893

de la Grye

Schaeffer

Besancon

1893

de Larminat

Troyes

1893

Claudot

Paris

1893

Trolard Alger

de I'Estrange Chateaumont

Conard Paris

Lamey

Paris

1893

de Faillasson

Sens

1893

Calas

Perpignan

1893

HufTel

Nancy

1893

Grandeau

Paris

1893

de Liocourt

Nancy

1893

Biolley

Besangon

1893

Trolard

Alger

1893

de Tregomain

Nancy

1893

de Boixo

Perpignan

1893

Lamez

Paris

1893

Claudot

Paris

1894

Broilliard

Paris

1894

Benevent

Pau

1894

Demontzey

Lyon

1894

Cannon

Paris

1894

de Boixo

Paris

1894

Demontzey

Paris

1894

Besan?on

Bizot de Jontenz

Gray

1894

Melard

Bruxelles

1894

de Gorsse

Paris

1894

de Gorsse

Paris

1894

Schaeffer

Annecy

1894

Sarce

Le Mans

1894

Charlemagne

Alger

1894

Level

Alger

1894

de Boixo

Paris

1894

Puton

Mont de-

1894

Marsay

Leze, Tetet

Paris

1894

Ringelmann

de Kirwan

Bruxelles

1895

Scarsez de

Bruxelles

1895

Locqueneuille

Claudot

Paris

1895

Brenot

Besancon

1895

Huffel

Besancon

1895

Gurnaud

Besangon

1895

Mathieu

Paris

1895

Claudot

Poitiers

1895

Matkey

Poitiers

1895

Charguerand

Paris

1896

Guinier

St. Jean de
Maurienne

1896

Watier

Paris

1896

456

APPENDIX

Title
Rapport de la Commission chargee de faire des experiences

sur la resistance des bois resineux
Exploitation technique des forets
Exploitation conimerciale des levis
Influence des forets sur les chutes de grele
Influence des forets sur I'humidite du sol
Les retenues d'eau et le reboisement dans le bassin de la

Durance
Les arbres geants du Portugal
Projet d'amenagement et de mise en valeur des forets de

Chenes-liSge
Notice sommaire sur les forets de gastes S*® Eulalie mimi-

zan H.
La foret de la Grande Chartreuse
Notes sur le developpement et la gestion des forets Com-

munales dans le depart* du Card 1800-1895
Statistique forestiere de I'arrond* de Pontarlier
Le foret des Ardennes

Description forestiere du royaume de Prusse
L'evolution forestiere dans le Canton de Neufchatel (Suisse)

Author
Thiery et

Pebibcollot
Vanutbergke
Vanutbergke
Claudot
de Kirwan
Demontzey

Gebhart
Lafond

Margin
Rouis

Place

Paris

Paris

Paris

Nancy

Paris

Aix

Blois

Grenoble
Avignon

Cardot Besangon

Meyrae Charleville

Huffel Paris

Service forestier Neuchi,tel

1896
1896
1896
1896

1896
1896
1896
1896

Description economique et commercials des forets de I'Etat

hongrois (2^ Edit.)
Etudes sur I'economie alpestre
Etude d'archeologie forestiere
Du reboisement et de la fertilisation des forets
Contre les incendies des forets en Algerie
De I'elagage des arbres forestiers
Les merrains et la fabrication des tourmeaux
Influence des forets sur les eaux souterraines
Les Landes et les dunes de Gascogne
Etudes sur la cote et les dunes du Medoc
Methode nouvelle d'exploitation forestiere
Sapinieres

Etudes sur les forets resineuses de la Champagne
Etat des forets resineuses du Roups
Les forets du Canada
For§ts, chasse et peche (Exposit. de Bruxelles)

Forets, chasse et peche — Exposit. intern'^ de Bruxelles

Notes pour la vente et I'achat des forets

L'art de greffer

La surveillance des forets (10^ Edit.)

Les vegetaux producteurs de Caoutchouc a Madagascar
Sur I'abatage des bois en Sologne

Notice sur le quarrimetre

Les fordts et les eaux souterraines dans les regions des plaines

Les vieux arbres de la Normandie

Etude sur I'amenagement des bois de chene dans le canton

de Genfive
Etude sur les landes de Gascogne
Etude sommaire des taillis sous futaie dans le bassin de la

Saone
La foret des brocheres a la ville d'Auxonne
Des funestes effets du deboisement dans les Pyrenees
Les meilleures plantes fourrageres alpestres
Plantation et culture des sols contre les inondations
Notes forestieres — Cubage, estimation, etc.
Utilite de I'introduction du Sapin et de I'epicea dans les

saillis mediocres du Jura

de Bedo

Briot

Weyd

Thezard

Marchand

Crakay

Mouillefert

Ototzky

Grandjean

Buffaut

de Blonay

de Liscourt

Lafond

Brenot

Melard

Ministere de

1 'agriculture
Leze, Tetet

Ringelmann
Galmiche
Ch. Baltet
Bouquet de la

Grue
Girod-Genet
Croizette-

Desnoyers
Demorlaine
Henry
de Kerville
Borel

Dromart
Mathey

Picard

Guenot

Briot

Vadas

Devarenne

Rumacher

Budapest

Paris

Poitiers

Compiegne

Dijon

Bruxelles

Paris

Nancy

Paris

Servigny

Gray

Gray

Reims

Besanfon

Paris

Bruxelles

Bruxelles

Besangon

Troyes

Paris

Fontainebleau

Compeigne
Nancy
Paris
Geneve

Charleville
Besangon

Dijon

Paris

Chambery

Troyes

Chaumont

Besangon

1896

1897
1897
1897
1897
1897

1897
1897
1897

1899
1899

FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE

Title
Coupes d'amelioration coupes intermediaires dans les

futaies et les taillis
De I'utilite des reboisements dans le midi de I'Europe et en

Algeria
Influence de I'espacement des plantes sur la vegetation de

quelques essences resineuses
Regeneration par plantation des coupes de futaie
Les forets a Madagascar

Nouveau moyen de preserver les bois de la vermoulure
Mise en valeur des sols pauvres par le reboisem^
De la possibilite par contenance superficielle substituee k

la possibilite par volume dans les forets traitees en futaie
Les forets de I'Aube

La question des forets en Afrique
Societe moscovite d'economie forestiere

Histoire de la societe forestiere nationale hongroise

Rapport sur les bois du Canton de Geneve

Le regime pastoral

Congres international de sylviculture

Forets, chasse, Peche (Exposit. de 1900)

La prochaine disette des bois d'oeuvre dans I'univers

Les arbres de la Suisse

Du progres en Sylviculture et dans I'utilisation des pro-

duits forestiers
La defense des forets contre I'incendie (dunes et landes

de Gascogne)
La processionnaire du Pin
Un reboisement a bon marche
Influence desavantageuse produite sur I'avenir des peuple-

ments principalement sur ceux de I'epicea
De quelques essences exotiques interessantes pour les

reboisements
Les essences et les travaux de boisem* (Ariege et H^^-Gar-

onne)
Les essences et les travaux de boisem* (Ariege et Ht®-Gar-

onne)
Etude sur les fractures des bois dans les essais de

resistance
Senilisation rapide des bois et des matieres fibreuses par

I'electricite
Gemmage du Pin maritime (Landes et Gascogne)
Gommes, resines d'origine exotique
Observations de phenomenes consecutifs k la plantation

de coniferes
Fixation des dunes

Fixation des dunes (Charente et Vendee)
Notes sur les dunes de Gascogne
Forgt domaniale de Blois. Proces-verbal d'amenagement

Insuffisance de la production des bois d'ceuvre dans le monde

Notice sommaire sur la foret de Fontainebleau

Les forets de I'Algerie

Nomenclature des echantillons de bois de la Cochin chine du

Tonkin a I'Exposition universelle de 1900
Notice sommaire sur les forets domaniales du department

des Vosges
La production agricole et forestiere dans les colonies fran-

gaises

Author
Guinier

Place
Annecy

457

Date

Maistre Clermont

Jolyet Paris

Irouve

Paris

1899

Girod-Genet

Alger

1899

Mer

Paris

1899

Henry

Nancy

1899

de Kirwan

Bruxelles

1899

Arbeltier de la

Troyes

1899

Boullage

Wachi

Tunis

1899

Ministere de

Moscow

1899

I'agriculture

Ministere hon

- Budapest

1899

grois de I'agri

culture

Borel

Geneve

1899

Guyot

Poitiers

1899

Teissier

Paris

1900

de Kirwan

Paris

1900

de Kirwan

Paris

1900

Inspection fed

- Berne

1900

erale

Claudot

Epinal

1900

Delassasseigne

Paris

1900

Calas

Paris

1900

Henry

Paris

1900

Reuss

Vienne

1900

Henry

Nancy

1900

Watier

Paris

1900

Banby

Paris

1900

Chil

Paris

1900

Montpellier

Paris

1900

Violette

Paris

1900

de Cordenioy

Paris

1900

Servier

Paris

1900

Demorlaine

Paris

1900

Lafond

Paris

1900

Bert

Paris

1900

Croizette-

Blois

1900

Desnoyers

Melard

Paris

1900

Reuss

Paris

1900

Lefebre

Alger

1900

Boude

Alger

1900

Mongenot

Paris

1900

Lecomte

Paris

1900

458

APPENDIX

(Trad-

Title
Description generale de la foret de Krasnostauskala.

uit du Russe)
Les forets domaniales en Autriche

Notice sur les forets de la Roumanie

Les forets de la Russie (trad, du Russe)

Le developpement de la sylviculture en Bosnie-Herze-

govine
Catalogue des objets exposes par la direction des forets

de Russie a I'Exposition univereUe de 1900
Catalogue special, Forets de la Hongrie k I'Exposition

univerelle de 1900
Congres international de Sylviculture. C. Rendu.
Catalogue des collections exposees par radminisf"* des

eaux et forets (Exposition de 1900)
Catalogue raisonne, section forestiere russe
Les ameliorations pastorales dans I'Ariege, la Haute-Gar-

onne
Les fruiteres de la H^^ Garonne
Des paturages de montagne
Le paturage en foret
Traite pratique de sylviculture
Traite de Sylviculture (Gayer, traducteur)
Traitement du Sapin
Traitement des Sapinieres
Introduction dans les cultures forestieres d 'essences etrangeres

a la region
Essais de reboisement en Meurthe et Moselle
Introduction des resineux dans les taillis
Restauration des peuplements d'epiceas ayant souffert d'un

etat trop serre
Le domaine forestier colonial de la France sa decadence
Le bois

Le champignon des maisons en Lorraine
Des divers moyens propres k preserver de I'attaque des

insectes les ecorces et les bois
Observations sur les arbres a caoutchouc dans le zone

amazonienne
L'lndustrie des resines
Le Liege
Influence de I'eclaircie des cepees sur le rendement en

matiere et argent dans le traitement des taillis
Sur le role de la foret dans la circulation de I'eau a la sur-
face des continents
De I'influence des forets sur le regime des eaux
Observations meteorologiques 1867-1899

Calepin d'amenag* de la foret des Hospices de Nancy

Du reglement des exploitations dans une petite sapiniere

Excursion forestiere en Morvan

La foret d'Oloron-S^e Marie

Les forets et le regime forestier en Provence

Rapport sur la 3^ reunion de I'association Internationale des

stations de recherches forestieres a Zurich
Le defrichement et la culture des terrains en pente
Quelques notions forestieres a I'usage des ecoles
Petit manuel a I'usage des socifites scolaires pastorales,

forestieres de Franche-Comte
L'Idee forestiere sur le versant septentrional des Pyrenees

Le Traitement des sapinieres base sur la notion d'espace-
ment des tiges

Place
St. Petersbourg

Author
Jachnoff

Ministere de
I'agriculture

Service des
forets

Ministere de
I'agriculture

Petraschek

Ministere de Paris

I'agriculture
Gouvt. Kongrois Budapest

Daubree
Vaney

Jachnoff
Campardon

Paris
Paris

St. Petersbourg
Paris

Bruisson Paris

Cardot Paris

Matkey Besangon
Boppe et Jolyet Paris

de Bocarme Bruges

Huffel Paris

Mer Paris

Jolyet Paris

Claude
Garzin
Mer

Girod-Genet
Frochot
Henry
Mer

Huber

Paris

Besanpon

Paris

Paris
Paris
Nancy
Paris

Paris

Henry

Date
1900

1900

1900

1900

1900

1900

1900

1900
1900

1900
1900

1900
1900
1900
1901
1901
1901
1901
1901

1901
1901
1901

1901
1901
1901
1901

1901

Rabate

Paris

1901

Martignat

Paris

1901

Mer

Paris

1901

Guinier

Besangon

1901

de Drouin et

Paris

1901

de Bouville

Bazaille

Epinal

1901

Broilliard

Besangon

1901

Roy

Nevers

1901

Duchesne

Oloron

1901

Allard

Paris

1901

Huffel

Paris

1901

Rousset

Paris

1901

Rabutte

Vouziers

1902

Cardot

Besanfon

1902

Fabre

Bagneres de
Bigorre

1902

Gazin

Paris

1902

FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE

459

Title

La regeneration naturelle des coupes de futaie

La mise en valeur des terres communales incultes

Amelioration a introduire dans le traitement des taillis

Le bois, le li§ge

Etude sur la penetrabilite des arbres forestiers par les
projectiles des amies k feu

La lutte contre le champignon des maisons

Sechage rapide, imputrescibilite et inflammabilite des bois

Influence de la couverture morte sur I'humidite du sol fores-
tier

Forets et navigabilite en Gascogne

Les forets de plaines et les eaux souterraines (Experiences
faites dans la forSt de Moudon 1900-02)

L'architecture forestiere

Rapport sur le concours forestier entre les instituteurs
organise par la Soots franc^^ des Amis des Arbres

La sylviculture k I'Exposition de 1900

La disparition du chene et I'introduction des resineux dans

les taillis sous futaie — Le Bouleau
Principales essences forestieres
La methode experimental en sylviculture
Le forestier — Experiences et Conseils
Sylviculture
Propagation du chene, Sa substitution dans les futaies de

Mtre
Les plantes h caoutchouc et k gutta
Degats causes aux forets par les balles des fusils de

I'armee
La vrillette

Incendies des forets — evaluation des dommages
Les arbres et les bois

La richesse forestiere, son declin, son relevement
Forets et Industrie des bois
Des divers moyens propres k preserver de I'attaque des

insectes les ecorces et les bois par resorption de leur

reserve amylacee
La liberte du travail et le droit de propriete

Prolongation du delai de vidange et d'exploitation

Exploitation et amenagement des bois

Causerie forestiere

Coupes jardinatoires

De I'eclaircie chez les particuliers

Lianes caoutchoutiferes de I'Etat du Congo

L'arbre (l''^^ Serie)

La houille blanche et I'armature vegetale du sol

Gisements de houille blanche et protection du sol

Les debuts de la fixation des dunes

Promenades, pares jardins paysages

L'amenagement des resineux en montagne

De la possibilite par contenance dans les sapinieres

Foret domaniale des Elieux — 3^ Serie Revision de I'Amen-

agement
Les taillis de I'inspection de Dijon — Sud
A Madagascar, Aper^u sur les forets et leurs produits
Commission d'etudes forestieres — Compte rendu

La greve des bftcherons de la Nievre k la chambre

Author

Place

Date

Prouve

Poitiers

1902

Cardot

Poitiers

1902

Mer

Paris

1902

d'Hubert

Paris

1902

Demorlaine

Paris

1902

Henry

Nancy

1902

Dumesny

Paris

1902

Henry

Nancy

1902

Fabre

Bordeaux

1902

Henry

Nancy

1902

de Liocourt

Nancy

1902

Cardot

Orleans

1902

Bouquet de la

Paris

1902

Grye

Rosemont

Paris

1902

Mouillefert

Paris

1903

Mer

Paris

1903

Morange

Geneve

1903

Fron

Paris

1903

Prouve

Paris

1903

Jumelle

Paris

1903

Georges

Paris

1903

de Fonvert

Paris

1903

Jacquot

Paris

1903

de Kirwan

Nancy

1903

Carimintrand

Paris

1903

Flahault

Paris

1903

Mer

Paris

1903

Journal de la

Nevers

1903

Ni6vre

Journal de la

Nevers

1903

Ni#vre

Mouillefert

Paris

1904

Desjobert

Besangon

1904

Schaeffer

Besangon

1904

Broilliard

Bruxelles

1904

de Vildemann

Bruxelles

1904

Reynard

Clermont-
Terrand

1904

Fabre

Bagneres de
Bigorre

1904

Fabre

Paris

1904

Buffaut

Bordeaux

1904

Guinier

Auncey

1904

d'Alverny

Besancon

1904

Broilliard

Besangon

1904

Cuif

Nancy

1904

Galmiche

Besancon

1904

Girod-Genet

Paris

1904

Gouvt General

Alger

1904

d I'Algerie

Journal de la

Nevers

1904

Nievre

460

APPENDIX

Title Author

Les incendies pastoraux et les associations dites " forestieres" Fabre

dans les Pyrenees-Orient'^^

Economie forestiere Huffel

L'idee forestiere dans Thistoirie Teissier

Projet d'association forestiere de Liscourt

Lettre a un proprietaire de futaie jardinee Galmiche

Influence des eclaircies dans les peuplements reguliers de Cuif

sapin

Les friches de la Rte-Mame Cardot

Les essences forestieres du Soudan propres a la construction Constancia

Le bois Beauverie

Le regime des cours d'eau du depart* de I'Aveyron et la Buffault

question du reboisement

La vegetation spontanee et la salubrite des eaux Fabre

Coup d'oeil d'ensemble sur les forets coloniales de la France Girod-Genet

Prix des bois dans le Maine en 1904 Roulleau

La question forestiere en Soudan Jolyet

La question forestiere en Algerie Demontes

Notice sur les forets de la Kroumirie (Tunisie) Desgreaux

La richesse forestiere du Canada confedere Leymarie

La question forestiere en Espagne Cavaillcs

Les friches de la Ht^-Marne, leur mis een valeur par des Cardot

travaux forestiers

Nos arbres Correvon

Restauration d'une sapiniere Broilliard

Mathematiques et Nature Broilliard

Aide a la gestion des bois particuliers Desjobert

Les insectes dans les forets resineuses des Vosges de Gail

Essai sur le paturage dans les bois Desjobert

Les reboisements facultatifs dans la region sous-pyrenienne Bauby

Le reboisement des terres en friche dans I'arrondissement Parde

de Neufchateau

Analyse et controle des semences forestieres Fron

Les garrigues communales des environs de Carcassonne Rouis

et de Narbonne

Etude sur la question du reboisement dans le Sud-est de Boixo

Pyreneen

De I'elagage des sapins et epiceas Mer

Guide pratique du fonctionnaire se rendant en Indo-Chine Lambert

La question forestiere en France Parde

La deforestation — Peril mondial Duffart

Memoire relatif k un projet de loi sur les forets d'utilite Reynard

publique

Deboisement et decadence Regnault

La Dordogne deboisee Broilliard

Les forets et les pluies Henry

Gironde et Pyrenees Broilliard

La marche envahissante des dunes de Gascogne avant leur Buffant

fixation

La foret de Laroque des Alberes Buffault

Rendement des forfits domaniales de pin maritime dans les de Lapasse

dunes landaises

Soumission volontaire au regime forestier Broilliard

Exposition coloniale de Marseille — Catalogue des collec- Gouvern* G^'

tions du Service forestier algerien de I'Algerie

Repertoire des arbres, arbustes, etc., composant la collection Gouvern* G^'

d'ensemble des ressources forestieres de Madagascar — de I'Algerie

k I'Exposit. Coloniale de Marseille

Projet d'association forestiere (2^ article) de Liscour':

Traite d'exploitation commerciale des bois Mathey

Sylviculture (diverses questions) de Kirwan

Manuel de sylviculture a I'usage des instituteurs Cardot

Forets, paturages, pres-bois Fron

Place
Besancon

Paris

Paris

BesanQon

Besan^on

Paris

Paris
Paris
Paris
Rodey

Paris

Nice

Paris

Paris

Paris

Tunis

Paris

Paris

Paris

Paris

Besangon

Besangon

Besangon

Besanfon

Besangon

Bordeaux

Besancon
Carcassonne

Toulouse

Besangon

Paris

Poitiers

Paris

Besanpon

Paris

Bergerao

Bergerac

Bordeaux

Paris

Bordeaux
Poitiers

Besangon
Alger

Besangon

Paris

Paris

Paris

Paris

Date
1904

1904-07
1905
1905
1905
1905

1905
1905
1905
1905

1905
1905
1905
1905
1905
1905
1905
1905

1906
1906
1906
1906

1906
1906

1906

1906
1906
1906
1906
1906

1906
1906
1906

1906
1906

1906
1906-08
1907
1907
1907

FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE

461

forets en cas d'ir

Title
Aide memoire du forestier — Sylviculture
Quelques mots relatifs k I'assurance de

cendie
Du reboisement dans Tarrond* de Mirecourt
Le reboisement et les conditions economiques en montagne
L'obstacle au reboisement
Deboisement et reboisement
Le reboisement dans la region des Cevennes
La question de I'elagage

Les resources agricoles et forestieres des colonies francaises
Preservation des bois contre la pourriture par le sol, les

champignons les insectes
L'Industrie de la resine en Sologne
La culture des arbres et les idees des anciens sur le role

des forets
La restauration des montagnes et la navigation interieure
Action de la foret sur le sol et le regime des eaux
Embellissons nos bois

Vingt-cinq annees dans le service des amenagements
Foret domaniale d'Amance — Revision de I'Amenagement
Amenagement et amelioration des forets particuiiers
Evolution des methodes d'amenag* appliquees en France

aux forets d'essences feuillues
■ Conferences forestieres 1^ Forets et friches particuli^res —

2° — amenagement
La ville d'Oloron et sa Foret du Eager
La defense des montagnes
Les richesses forestieres de

L'Australie, ses ressources forestieres

Exposition internat'^ de St. Louis — Rapports des groupes

112, 113, lU. Forets
Nouvelles etudes sur I'economie alpestre
L'utilite de I'amenag* des montagnes, etc.
3^ Congres de I'amenagt des montagnes tenu k Bordeaux les

19-20-21 Juillet 1907
Etude sur la condition forestiere de I'Orleanais
Etude sur les deux places de production des forets domaniales

de Haye et d'Amance
Accroissement d'un massif jardine
Conservation des taillis en futaie

Livre vert du syndicat forestier de France

Le reboisement par I'initiative privee

De I'znpot foncier applique aux forets

La foret, son role dans la nature et la societe

Manuel de I'eau

Le deboisement et les inondations

Le probleme de I'infiuence de la foret sur I'inondation

Les plantations de pins dans la Champagne crayeuse

Des essences pour les reboisements

Forets particulieres

La Sologne en 1850 — Souvenirs

Le Haut-Beaujolais

La deforestation de la France

Livre vert du syndicat forestier de France (Notice)

La feuille au le revenu foncier

Le revenu imposable aux forets

L'evaluation du revenu imposable aux forets

Le revenu imposable aux forets

A propos des ameliorations pastorales

Le probleme pastoral et forestier

Author
Demorlaine
Decoppet

de Rozieres

Bauby

Buffault

de Kirwan

Buffault

Mer

Jumelle

Henry

de Larnage
Buffault

Fabre

Fron

Broilliard

Brenot

Cuif

Viardin

Huffel

de Liocourt et

Viardin
Buffault
Descombes
Direct de I'agri-

culture
Buffault
Hugo

Briot

Descombes

Descombes

de Maulde
Cuif

Schaeffer
Societe Foresf^

de Franche-

Comte
de Rozieres
Descombes
Schaeffer
Jacquot
Reclus
Teissier
Teissier
Lapic
Broilliard
Deffert
Martin
Hulin
de Sailly
de Liocourt
Broilliard
Roulleau
Arnoult
Jacquot
Seurre
Descombes

Place
Besangon
Besangon

Mirecourt

Bordeaux

Bordeaux

Paris

Rodey

Besan?on

Marseille

Nancy

Orleans
Rodey

Dijon

Paris

Bruxelles

Morteau

Nancy

Neufchateau

Neufchateau

Neufchateau

Toulouse
Bordeaux
Bordeaux

Bourges
Paris

Paris

Bordeaux

Bordeaux

Orleans
Poitiers

Besangon

Paris

Bordeaux

Besanfon

Besangon

Paris

Lyon

Poitiers

Reims

Besangon

Paris

Paris

Besangon

Besangon

Paris

Besangon

Besangon

Paris

Besangon

Besangon

Bordeaux

Date
1907
1907

1907
1907
1907
1907
1907
1907
1907
1907

1907
1907

1907
1907
1907
1907
1907
1907
1907

1907

1907
1907
1907

1907
1907

1907
1907
1907

1908
1908
1908

462

APPENDIX

Title

Guide pour la creation de Socles foresees Scolaires

Futaie reguliere d'ages gradues et jardinage cultural controle

Le martelage an debut de I'ere Merovingienne

La Conservation en futaies des forets traitees en taillis sous
futaie

Du traitement des bois feuilles

Du traitement des bois feuilles

Considerations sur le traitement des forets en taillis ou
futaie

Les immeubles forestiers et les C'^s d'assurances

Essai en grand du Carbolineum avenarius

Preservation des bois par des precedes simples

Le gemmage du Pin noir dans le N-E de la France

Influence du couvert de la foret sur la temperature du Sol

Amenagement d'une foret coloniale

Les eaux et forets en Lorraine au XVIII^ Siecle

Choses forestieres coloniales frangaises

Les bois et les forets du Perigord

Les atteintes legislatives a la propriete foresti^re — La coupe
rase et la loi des cinq possibilites

Compte-rendu des excursions faites a I'occasion du Congres
de Nancy, dans les forets d'Amance, de Haye, des Elieux

Association centrale pour I'amenagt des montagnes

La V^ etape de I'association pour ramenagemen* des mon-
tagnes

De 1 'exploitation des futaies

A propos du Pin sylvestre — Valeur des graines et plantes

Author
Descombes
Ducamp
Huffel
Huffel

Vaulot
Algan
Gurnaud

Descombes

Henry

Henry

Cuif

Cuif

Jolyet

Boye

Ducamp

Buffault

Roulleau

Cuif

Le choix des semences en culture forestiere

Guide pour la creation de societes forestieres scolaires

PuUulation du lapin en Allemagne Invasion du Taret dans le

port de Marseille
Statuts du syndicat forestier d'Eure & Loire
Guide pratique pour les proprietaires de bois

(b) FOREST LAW

Des forets et le projet de code rural

Dictionnaire General des Forets

Cours d'appel de Nancy — Conclusions pour M. M. Mohr et

Haas, contre M. Haldy
Cours d'appel de Nancy — Conclusions pour M. Haldy, contre

M. M. Mohr et Haas (6 Nov. 1873)
Lachasse et la louveterie

Note presentee au CriCunal de Mirecourt pour Memvire
au Consel de Prefecture<l T'« et Vilaine

La Section des Chanoines de Dombasle, contre La Com-
mune du dit

Questions de droit forestier

Dictionnaire General des forets

Nouveau code du Chasseur

Lettre a M^e Lallement (affaire de I'ancienne prerote
d'Hugier)

De I'Administration et de la Jouissance des forets com-
munales

Manuel de legislation forestiere

De la prescription de la peine en matiere de delits forestiers

Etude sur le projet de loi sur la restauration des montagnes

Code de la Chasse et de la louveterie

Contre les Comma's de Laimpont et de S'' Peran

Conclusions motivees pour Monseig. le Due d'Aumale con-
tre la Commune de Rigniowez (Ardennes)

Place
Bordeaux
Besangon
Poitiers
Besangon

Besangon
Besangon
Paris

Bordeaux

Nancy

Besangon

Besangon

Nancy

Paris

Paris

Besangon

Bordeaux

Le Mans

Besangon

1909
1909

1909
1909
1909
1909
1909
1909
1909
1909
1909
1909

1909

Descombes

Bordeaux

1909

Descombes

Bordeaux

1909

Broilliard

Bruxelles

1910

Hickel

Paris

1910

Guinier

Nancy

1910

de Boixo

Bordeaux

1910

Henry

Nancy

1910

Mathey

Chartres

1910

Roulleau

Paris

1910

Puton

Paris

1870

Rousset

Nice

1871-72

Hisserant

Nancy

1873

Lombard

Nancy

1873

Petitbien

Nancy

1874

1874

Puton

Nancy

1875

Puton

Paris

1875

Rousset

Paris

1875

Yiel

Paris

1875

Meaume

Nancy

1876

Puton

Paris

1876

Puton

Paris

1876

Tassy

Paris

1877

Leblond

Paris

1878

Thibaud,

Nantes

1878

Nicoliere et

Puton

Meaume

Nancy

1880

FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE

463

Title
Contrainte pour Corps en matiere forestiere
Le droit penal forestier

Du jugement des infractions en matiere forestiere
La Chasse

Loi du Harril 1882 — Restauration et Conservation terrains

en montagne
Commentaire de la loi du Harril 1882 sur la Conservation

des terrains en montagnes
Le regime forestier applique au bois des communes et etab-

lissements publics
Code de legislation forestiere
Etude sur la revision du code forestier
Code Forestier (codes annotes)
La Question des forets en Algerie

Du droit de Chasse dans ses rapports avec la propriete
Notice sur le projet de perimetre de I'Arc Superieur
Essai de Commentaire Pratique de la loi du 4 Avril 1882,

Conservation et Restauration des terrains en montagne
Projet de loi sur le code forestier
Les cours d'eau — Hydrologie, legislation
Projet de loi sur la chasse
Des delits et des peines en matiere forestiere au moyen-age

dans le Duche de Bourgogne
Essai sur le regime des Canaux
La reforme du code forestier

Code des cours d'eau non flottables ni navigables
De I'usufruit des prets en droit romain et frangais
Manuel judiciaire de la chasse
La reforme du code forestier

Du poutage de I'affouage dans les bois communaux
Loi sur la peche fiuviale
Code Nouveau de la peche fiuviale
Les confiscations des forets d'emigres dans les Droit de

peche des proprietaires d'etangs
Departements de Vaucluse, du Gard et de I'Ardfiche
Cours de droit forestier enseigne a I'Ecole Secondaire des

Barres
Etude sur I'application de la loi du 4 Avril 1882
Du droit de chasse et du droit de chasser le gibier
Usagers de Dabo
Principes de legislation forestiere

Loi du 19 Avril 1901 sur I'afJouage communal
Conservation des forets et des Paturages dans les Pyrenees —

Le regime pastoral
L'espoir des cours d'eaux non navigables ni flottables
La Pfiche dans les cours d'eaux

Code de legislation forestiere (2^ Edit.)
Commentaire de la Loi forestiere Algerienne
Une question de droit d'usage en foret
Etude historique sur la propriete des dunes de Gasoogne
Deux Questions forestieres — La nationalisation du sol for-
estier — les forets de protection
Le projet du code forestier de I'an IV
Legislation et reglementation de la peche fiuviale
Observations sur la necessite de reformer nos lois forestieres
Guide du forestier — Surveillance des forets (11^ Edit.)

Nouveau regime forestier resultant des lois du 18 juillet et

31 decre 1906
Aide memoire du forestier — Sciences juridiques

Author

Place

Date

Guyot et Puton

Paris

1880

des Chenes

Paris

1882

Meaume

Paris

1882

Girandeau et

Paris

1882

Lelievre

Tassy

Paris

1883

Bouquet de

Paris

1883

la Grue

Puton

Paris

1883

Doumenjou

Paris

1883

Palloz

Paris

1884

Wachi

Oran

1885

Barthelemy

Nancy

1885

Chapelain

Chambery

1886

des Chenes

Paris

1886

Viette

Paris

1888

Lechalas

Paris

1890

Clave

Paris

1891

Picard

Autun

1891

Carpentier

Paris

1892

Prudhomme

Paris

1892

Boule

Paris

1893

Chancerel

Paris

1893

Dumont

Paris

1894

Guyot

Nancy

1894

Germain

Salins

1895

Bertrand

Paris

1896

Martin

Paris

1897

Rouis

Autun

1898

Parde

Les Barres

1900

Moujin

Poitiers

1901

Barthelemy

Nancy

1901

Pfister

Metz

1901

Michel et

Paris

1901

Lelong

Germain

Paris

1901

Guyot

Toulouse

1904

Tisserand

Paris

1904

Del Pere de

Toulouse

1904

Cardaillac

Puton et Guyot

Paris

1904

Guyot

Paris

1904

de Kirwan

Paris

1905

Buffault

Bordeaux

1905

Guyot

Besangon

1905

Weyd

Poitiers

1905

Mersey

Paris

1906

Buffault

Toulouse

1906

Bouquet de la

Paris

1906

Grue

Guibourg

Paris

1907

Deroye

Besancon

464

APPENDIX

Title Author

La soumission volontaire au regime forestier Desjobert

Sur les soumissions facultatives au regime forestier de Kirwan

Code forestier suivi des lois sur la peche la chasse et le Palloz

code rural

Notes sur les propositions des lois liberales pour le reboise- Descombes

ment

La regime administratif et juridique de la peche fiuviale Raux

Place
Besangon
Besanfon
Paris

(c) FOREST EDUCATION

Programme de I'enseigement, de I'Ecole forestiere

Programme des etudes d'amenag^' defutaies d faire par les
elSves de I'Ecole forestiere dans la foret des St. Gobain-
Coucy

Programmes de I'enseignement

Ordre General pour I'execution du reglement de police et de
discipline du 15 Nov. 1876; (I'Ecole Nat^e des Eaux et
Forets)

Reglements et programmes d'enseignenuent de I'Ecole forest-
iere

La sylviculture 4 I'Ecole primaire

Ecole pratique des Barres,*-Programmes et conditions d'ad-
missions pour les proposes k I'Ecole secondaire

Notices sur I'Ecole forestiere et la station de Recherches

Reglements de I'Ecole forestiere (12 Octob. 1889) Personnel-
Administration — Surveillance

Arret du Ministre de I'Agriculture concernant I'Ecole forest-
iere — Personnelle

Ordre general — Organisation de I'Enseignement

Notice sur I'installation de I'Ecole foresf^ de Nancy

L'Enseignement forestier en France (Ecole de Nancy)
■ L'Ecole forestiere de Nancy

Ecole des Barres-Regime, Discipline, etc.

Rapport sur la visite des collections et du fardin de I'Ecole
nat'es des Eaux et Forets

Arretes et reglements concernant I'Ecole N^® des Eaux et
Forets

Arretes et reglements de I'Ecole N'^

Ecole forestiere

Paris

1876

Boppe

Nancy

1876

Ecole forestiere

Paris

1876-82

Puton

Nancy

1883

Direction des

Paris

1887

forets

Caquet

Nevers

1887

Ministere de

Paris

1888

I'agriculture

Ministere de

Paris

1889

I'agriculture

Direction des

Paris

1890

forets

Ecole Forestiere

Paris

1893

Boppe

Nancy

1894

Guyot

Nancy

1896

Guyot

Nancy

1898

Nesmy

Paris

1904

Direction G'e

Paris

1904

Guimer

Paris

1909

Ministere de

Paris

1910

I'agriculture

Ecole Forestiere

Paris

1910

(d) ENGINEERING (REBOISEMENT)

Les torrents des Alpes et le paturage
Etude sur les torrents des Ht''^-Alpe8
Les torrents, leurs lois, leurs

Notes sur I'extinction des torrents

Etude d'un Systeme general de defense contre les torrents

Les torrents des Alpes et le paturage (2d Edit.)

Notice sur les cartes, dessins, niodeles, etc. relatifs aux
travaux de reboisement dans le bassin de la Durance

Etude sur les travaux de reboisement et gazonnement des
montagnes

Monographies de travaux executes dans les Alpes, les Cev-
ennes, et les Pyrenees

Le reboisement des Alpes

Traite pratique du rebois*, et du gazonnement des mon-
tagnes (2° Edit.)

Etude sur la construction des barrages

De I'amenagement des Eaux en Suisse

Marchand

Arbois

1872

Surell

Paris

1872

Costa de

Paris

1874

Bastellica

Tassy

Toulouse

1874

Breton

Paris

1875

Marchand

Paris

1876

Demontzey

Paris

1878

Demontzey

Paris

1878

Administration

Paris

1878

des forets

Clave

Paris

1881

Demontzey

Paris

1882

Vaultrin

Paris

1884

de Salis

Berne

1884

Reglement et conditions d'admission.

FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE

465

Title
Etude sur la restauration et la conservation des mon-

tagnes dans le Dept. de I'lsere
Note sur les Bareges curvilignes
Perimetre de restauration de I'Ulage

Reveil instantane d'un torrent eteint.-Le Signer (AriSge)
La Restauration des terrains en montagne au Pavilion des

forets
Le reboisement des montagnes et I'extinction des torrents
Restauration des montagnes
Note sur la catastrophe de St. Gervais
Questions forestieres et de defenses contre les inondations,

etc.
La correction des torrents en Suisse

Etude sur Grenoble— Les reboiseinents et les transformations
L'Extinction des torrents en France
Rapport d'une mission en Suisse (Torrents)

Travaux de Correction — Torrent du Riculet H*^ Pyrenees
Eboulements, glissements, barrages
Les torrents et les paysages torrentiels
Consolidation des berges par I'erivation d'un torrent
Travaux des defenses contre les avalanches dans la vallee

de Bareges
Correction des mines de Pellafol (Is^re)
Les torrents glaciaires

Les terrains et les paysages torrentiels (Pyrenees)
Restauration et conservation des terrains en montagne.

C. Reude Sommaire des trav. (1860-1900)
Notice historique sur G. G. inondations dans la Savoie
La vallee de Bareges et le Reboisement
La correction des torrents en Savoie
Les debacles glaciaires
Les effets de I'erosion
Une excursion dans la vallee du Veneon (Isere)

Author

Place

Date

Charlemagne

Grenoble

1887

Thiery

Paris

1888

Carriere

Barcelonnette

1888

Vaultrin

Toixe

1889

Demontzey

Paris

1889

Demontzey

Paris

1891

Thiery

Paris

1891

Demontzey

Paris

1892

Nicollet

Grenoble

1892

de Salis

Berne

1892

Heurteloupe

Grenoble

1892

Demontzey

Paris

1894

Thiery et

Paris

1896

Petiscollot

Pellon

Paris

1900

Kuss

Paris

1900

Champsaur

Paris

1900

Moujin

Paris

1900

Campagne

Paris

1900

Bernard

Paris

1900

Kuss

Paris

1900

de Gorsse

Paris

1900

Ministere de

Paris

1900

I'agriculture

Durandard

Paris

1900

Campagne

Pau

1902

Mougin

Besancon

1904

Rabot

Paris

1905

Pinner

Marseille

1908

Hulin

Besancon

1908

(e) FOREST ADMINISTRATION

De I'utilite d'une reorganisation de I'Administration des

forets
La question des forets devant I'assemblee Nationale (Lettre

& M. M. les Deputes)
Reponse au rapport de M. Fare contre la translation de

I'Administration des forets au Ministere de I'Agriculture
Reorganisation du Service forestier, reformes de la loi du

9 Juin 1853 sur les pensions civiles
Douaniers, forestiers, etc., organisation en armes
Essai sur la reorganisation du Service forestier en France
Etude sur la reorganisation de TAdministration foresti^re
Les reformes forestieres

Etude sur la reorganisation de I'Administration des forets

Etudes forestieres

Annexe d I'etude sur la reorganisation de I'Administration

des forets
Reorganisation du Service forestier (4 facs.)
Le Corps des forestiers et le projet de M. M. Tassy et

Lorentz
De vis d'une maison de Garde (Type No. 1)

Reorganisation du Service forestier (M. de Mahyer Meline)
Notes sur le recrutement du corps forestier
La gestion de forets au Ministere des Finances
Le Dernier Directeur General de forets

Mer

Provins

1871

Turot

Bars aube

1872

Turot

Bars aube

1873

Wisst

Paris

1875

Caise

Paris

1875

Caise

Paris

1875

Meaume

Paris

1878

Bouquet de

Troyes

1878

la Grue

Bertin

Lille

1878

Bertin

Lille

1879

Bertin

Lille

1879

Tassy

Paris

1879-80

Deupion

CharleviUe

1882

Administration

Paris

1882

Forestier

Tassy

Paris

1884

Meline

Paris

1884

de Venel

Paris

1884

de Venel

Paris

1884

466

APPENDIX

Title
M. Viette et le budget des forets au 1885
Quelques considerations sur I'organisation de I'Administra-

tion des forets
Rapport sur les modifications introduites dans I'Adminis-

tration forestiere
Une page d'histoire forestiere

L'Oeuvre de M. Viette au ministere de I'Agriculture
Discussion du budget de 1891 — discours prononce par M.

le Comte de Youffroy d'Abbans
Le Service forestier dans le Dept. d'Oran (Aglerie)
Calendrier forestier (Tabl. des pieces a fournir)
Dictionnaire Gal des forets (2^ Edit.)

Guide du chasseur forestier a I'usage des agents et preposes
Historique administratif du Cant' de Cirey-s-Vezouze
Les anoiennes circulaires de I'Administon des eaux et forets
Tournee de Vente d'un Grand Maitre des eaux et forets
Etat des Services des Eleves de I'Ecole forestiere (1825 k

1888)
Les sceaux des forestiers au Moyenage
Societe de Secours mutuels des preposes forestiers du

Doubs
Les gardes communaux-domanialisation
Memoire sur les reformes a spero dans le Service Forestier
Notice historique sur le recrutenient de I'Administration des

forets et sur I'enseig'''', forestier en France

Author
Taillis
Taillis

Welche

Place
Paris
Paris

Poitiers

Date

1885

Suchaux

Vesoul

1888

Suchaux

Vesoul

1889

de Youffroy

Paris

1891

d'Abbans

Mathieu

Alger

1892

Demaret

Alger

1892

Rousset et

Digne

1894

Bauer

Bauer

Paris

1894

Weyd

Nancy

1899

Weyd

Poitiers

1904

Desjobert

Besancon

1905

Weyd

Poitiers

1905

Roman

Paris

1906

Roman

Besangon

1907

Chambeau

Pau

1907

Volmerange

Commercy

1896

Guyot

Nancy

1898

(f) MISCELLANEOUS

La Republique orientale de I'Uraguay a I'Exposition de
Vienne

Republique de Salvador — Notice historique et statistique.
(Exposit. Universelle, 1878)

Republique de Salvador — Catalogue des objets exposes a
I'Exposition universelle 1878

Notice sur les objets exposes de la Republique de Guatemala

Catalogue de la collection exposee par la Chine a I'Exposi-
tion universelle

Catalogue de la section anglais

Queensland Australie — Guide de la Colonie

Le Japon a I'Exposition

Catalogue des produits des colonies frangaises

Catalogue ofEeiel — Liste des recompenses

Catalogue d'echantillons de bois du jardin botanique de

St. Petersbourg envoyes a I'Exposition universelle de

1878
Notices sur les modeles, desseins, etc., relatifs aux Travaux

des Ponts et Chaussees et Mines
Exposition universelle de 1889 — Comites d'admission —

Membres du Jury — Recompenses
Les Expositions de I'Etat au Champ de Mars et aux

Invalides
L'Exposition universelle de 1889
Conferences de I'Exposition universelle de 1889

VaiUant

Montevideo

1873

Vaillant

Paris

1878

Guzman

Paris

1878

Boucard

Paris

1878

Boucard

Shanghai

1878

Exposit. Univelle

Louvre

1878

de 1878

Id.

Louvre

1878

Id.

Paris

1878

Id.

Paris

1878

Id.

Paris

1878

de Loverdo

Paris

1879

Ministere des Paris

Trav* Publics
Id. Paris

de Parville

Paris

Catalogue de la section frangaise a I'Exposition de Vienne -

de Parville Paris

Ministeres des Paris

Commerces, de

I'lndustrie, etc.
de Loverdo Vienne

Rapport general — Rapport du Jury (Exposition universelle

de 1889) 27 volumes
Exposition Univer^He de 1889 — Produits de la chasse,

peche, etc.

Picard

Paris

FRENCH FOREST LITERATURE

467

Title
Exposition Universelle — Groupe de rEconomie sociale
Exposition Univer^elle Agriculture, viticulture, pisciculture,

horticulture
L'horticulture frangaise ^ Chicago et aux Etats-Unis
Vi^ Congres internat^' d'Agriculture

Congres internat^'l de I'Enseignement agricole
Congres internaf^' de Sylviculture (C. rendu sommaire)
Exposition univ^''^ de 1900 — ■ Senegal et Soudan
Exposition univ^"® de 1900 — Notice sur le Congo frangais
Exposition univ^''^ de 1900 — Notice sur la Nouvelle

Caledonie
Exposition univ^^'^ de 1900 — Les etablisst^ frangais de

I'Etude
Exposition univ^"® de 1900 — St. Pierre et Miquelon
Exposition univ^"e de 1900 — La Reunion
Exposition uniyeUe de 1900 — La Cote d'lvoire
Exposition univ''"^ jg 1900 — La Cote des Somalis
Exposition uniyeUe de 1900 — La Guinee frangaise
Exposition uniyeUe de 1900 — La Guadeloupe et dependances
Exposition uniye'Ie de 1900 — I'lndo-Chine
Exposition nouy^''^ de 1900 — Etabliss^s f rangais de I'Oceanie
Exposition uniyel'e de 1900 — Notice sur la Guyane
Exposition uniyelle de 1900 — La Martinique
Exposition uniy^He de 1900 — Notice sur Mayotte et les

Comores
Exposition univ^He de 1900 — Madagascar
Exposition uniyel'e de 1900 — Le Dahomey
Congres internat^' de viticulture (C. Rendu)

Actes de Congres international de botanique

Congres international d'Horticulture

Compte-rendu du Congres international de 1' Alimenta-
tion du betail (Juin 1900)

II°ie Congres apicole (Pces Verle^ des Seances)

Congres interna^'' de surveillance & de securite en matiSre
d'appareils h vapeur

Exposition universelle de 1900 — Congres international de
Sylviculture (compte-rendu^

Apercee sommaire des objets exposes par I'Administration
generale des apanages imperiaux de Russie k I'Exposition
universelle de 1900

Les produits du sol des Colonies frangaises A I'Exposition

Pan-Americaine de Buffalo
L'Alimentation en eaux et I'assainissement des villes £l

I'exposition universelle de 1900
I^r Congres du Sud-Ovvest navigable tenu k Bordeaux

12-14 Juin 1902 (C.-rendu des travaux)
IV^ Congres internat^' de Chimie applique
Congres international de I'Alpinisme

Rapports divers — (Exposition universelle de 1900) 66 vol-
umes
Le second congres du Sud-Quest navigable tenu a Toulouse

en 1903
Exposition universelle de 1900 — Rapport General adminis-

tratif et technique 9 volumes — Preliminaires — Plan de-

finitif
Palais et edifices — Admission Catalogues — Recompenses

Congres — Concours, Services divers, etc.
Conoours internationaux d'Exercices physiques et des

sports
Le Bilau d'un SiScle (Exposit. Universelle)

Author

Place

Date

Say, Lavallee

Paris

1892

Ministeres

Paris

1892

divers

de Vilmorin

Paris

1894

Ministere de

Paris

1900

I'agriculture

de Lagorse

Paris

1900

Daubree

Paris

1900

Exposit. Uniyelle

Paris

1900

Guillemot

Paris

1900

Exposit Uniyelle

Paris

1900

Guy

Caperon

Paris

1900

Garsault

Paris

1900

Mills

Paris

1900

Vigneras

Paris

1900

Famechon

Paris

1900

Guesde

Paris

1900

Nocolas

Paris

1900

Exposit. Uniyelle

Paris

1900

Bassieres

Paris

1900

Exposit. Uniyelle

Paris

1900

Vienne

Paris

1900

Exposit. Uni

yelle

Paris

1900

Exposit. Uni

yelle

Paris

1900

Exposit. de

Paris

1900

1900

Perrot

Paris

1900

Bergmann

Paris

1900

Exposit. Uniyelle

Paris

1900

Caillas

Paris

1900

Exposit. Uni

yelle

Paris

1900

Exposit. Uni

yclle

Paris

1900

Administration

Paris

1900

Generale d

.es

apanages im-

periaux

Mederlin

Paris

1901

Imbeaux

Paris

1902

Moissan

Paris

1902

Moissan

Paris

1902

Moissan

Clermont (Oise) 1902

Picard

Paris

1902-07

Moissan

Poitiers

1903

Exposit. Uniyelle

Paris

1903

Picard

Paris

1903

Exposit. Uniyelle

Paris

1903

Picard

Paris

1903-07

468

APPENDIX

Title
Juest navigable tenu

Bergerac du 6

Le ye Congr^s du S.

au 9 Juillet 1906
Premier et 2^ Congres de ramenagement des montagnes

(Compte-rendu 190.5-06)
Premier Congres international du froid

Author Place

Exposit. Univ^''^ Bergerae

Exposit. Univ^''^ Bordeaux,

Pau
de Loverdo Paris

Date
1906

(g) BOTANICAL AND SILVICAL

Herbier forestier de la France

Pin Sylvestre

Notes sur le pin Cembro

Manuel de botanique forestiere

Etude des differents sols du depart* de la Gironde

Les cendres des essences principales de la foret de la Haye

Notes sur le sorbus latifolia

L'Eucalyptus et les applications industrielles

Flore forestiere (3^ Edit.)

Remarques sur deux Varietes d'epicea

Catalogue des vegetaux ligneux indigenes et exotiques ex-

istant sur le domaine des Barres
Le ChSne vert ou le chene yeuse dans le Gard
L'Eucalyptus, sa culture
Les essences forestieres du Japon
Memoire sur les eucalyptus introduits dans la region Medi-

terraneenne
Les bois industriels, indigenes et exotiques
Notes sur les Eucalyptus geants de I'Australie
Observations sur la nionographie des Pins sylvestres
Les reboisements par I'Acacia
Notes sur les arbres geants du Portugal
Etude sur le pin pinier

Les chenes de I'Amerique Septen'c en Belgique
La vegetation des Gausses
Les Hybrides du Quercus suber
Causerie sur les bois de la Guyane
Arboretum de I'Ecole d'Agriculture de Grignon
Le Pin maritime des Landes et de Gascogne
Le Sapin de Douglas

Revue des travaux de botanique forestiere
Le pin a Suere
Recherches sur la decomposition des matieres organiques

Traite des arbres et des arbrisseaux

Illustrations des chenes de I'Europe et d'Orient

Arboretum National des Barres

Nature et utilisation des produits forestiers des Pyrenees-
Orientales

Sur les formes accidentales du pinus laricio

Sols forestiers et sols agricoles

Le Chene de Juin

Les Sapins sans branches de Chaumont

Poids et composition de la converture morte des forets, etc.

Du reboisement et de la fertilisation des forets

Flore forestiere (4^ Edit.)

Remarques sur le Juniperus Thuriferea et especes voisines
du bassin de la Mediterranee

Nomenclature des principales essences forestieres de la Co-
chin Chine

De GayfEer

Paris

1868-73

de Morogues

Orleans

1873

Tassy

Digne

1873

Flicke

Nancy

1873

Baudrimont

Bordeaux

1874

Henry

Paris

1876

Godron

Montpellier

1876

Martin

Paris

1877

Mathieu

Nancy

1877

Brenot

Paris

1878

Adon des forets

Paris

1878

Begimbeau

N1m.es

1879

Pelagand

Lyon

1880

Dupont

Paris

1880

Naudin

Paris

1883

Grisard

Paris

1883

Joly

Paris

1885

de Morogues

Orleans

1885

Caquet

Nevers

1886

Joly

Paris

1886

Flicke

Nancy

1886

Houba

Hasselt

1887

Ivolas

Montpellier

1889

Frabut

Paris

1889

Dupre

Melun

1889

Mouillefert

Paris

1889

Dupre

Melun

1889

Zeiller

Paris

1890

Henry

Paris

1890

Hickel

Rennes

1890

WoUny Trad

Nancy

1892

Henry

Mouillefert

Paris

1892-98

Kotschy

Vienne

1892-98

Parde

Paris

1892-98

Galas

Perpignan

1893

de Vilmoriz

Paris

1894

Huffel

Nancy

1894

Gilardoni

Nancy

1895

Moreillon

Neufchatel

1896

Henry

Nancy

1896

Thezard

Compiegne

1897

Mathieu

Paris

1897

de Coincy

Paris

1898

Saigon

Le Chene de Juin

Le Pin Laricio de Salzmann

Note sur le Pirus Cordata

Le chene de Juin (notes complimentaires)

Jolyet Nancy

Galas Perpignan

Flicke Paris

Gilardoni Nancy

1900
1900

GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY

469

Title

Arbres forestiers etrangers (notes)

Notes sur les vegetaux ligneux exotiques

Les principaux vegetaux ligneux exotiques au point de vue
forestier

La decomposition de matieres organiques et les formes
d'humus

Notes sur les hybrides du genre "sorbus" dans le Jura
frangais

Influence de la converture morte sur I'humidite du sol for-
estier

L'Epicea de St. Eustache

Acclimatation du chene rouge aux environs de Rouen

Les arbres etrangers du Domaine d'Harcourt

Les cypres chauves Condal (Saone et Loire)

fitude sur I'epicea compare au Sapin

Les saules, determination, description, etc.

Lianes caoutohoutiferes de I'Etat du Congo

Descriptions de Sections transversales de 12 especes des bois
indigenes et exotiques

Classification et monographic des Saules de France et d'Eu-
rope (Texte et Atlas)

Quelques vieux arbres de la contree (Aisne, Marne, Ar-
dennes)

Les peupliers au point de vue cultural pratique

Emploi des essences forestieres indigenes et exotiques pour
le boisement des differents sols

Les vieux arbres interessants des environs d'Autun

Les arbres du pare de Baleine

Remarques sur quelques abies mediterraneans

Les sols forestiers

Essai de Geologie forestiere

La foret aocumulatrice d'azote

Note pour servir a la determination des Arbietinees

Author

Place

Date

de Vilmoriz

Paris

1900

Parde

Paris

1900

Parde

Besangon

1900

Wollny Trad.

Paris

1901

Henry

Flicke

Paris

1901

Henry

Nancy

1902

Guinier

Annecy

1902

Hickel

Elbeuf

1902

Hickel

Rennes

1902

Gillot

Autun

1903

Guinier

Besangon

1903

Guinier

Anncey

1904

Vildermann

Bruxelles

1904

Thil

Paris

1904

Camus

Paris

1904-5

Jadart

Reims

1904

de Kirwan

Autun

1904

Parde

Besangon

1905

Gillot

Autun

1907

Parde

Moulins

1908

Guinier

Paris

1908

Henry

Nancy

1903

Schaefifer

Besangon

1908

Henry

Besangon

1908

Hickel

Paris

1909

APPENDIX I

GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY

Dr. Martin, of Tharandt, with a party of German foresters, made a critical study of
French forest conditions in 1900 and reported upon them in 1906. This technical
critique and appreciation of French methods is of unique value to a student of forestry
in France. It is, therefore, reproduced as a reference, to represent the best German
views on French methods. The 1878 statistics, now out of date, cited by Martin,
have been omitted, as have his generahties on French forest trees.

MANAGEMENT OF THE OAK UNDER THE HIGH FOREST SYSTEM i

Occurrence and Growth. — In order that we might obtain an idea of the oak high
forest we were shown several large forests in the catchment area of the Loire, the forests
of Belleme, Berce, and Blois which serve as representative examples of the French
system of oak culture. The first-mentioned ranges (Reviere) have the character of a
pure oak forest with only here and there a greater or lesser intermixture of beech;
while in the forests of Blois entire stands occur which have been converted from coppice
with standards and coppice stands.

1 Translated for the writer by F. W. Haasis in 1913.

470 APPENDIX

That a proper value may be placed on the following information, which may, in
part, seem remarkable to the German forest owners, it is not out of place to remark
that in the forests mentioned we perhaps did not see mean conditions as would appear
in an average of the whole country. By far the best conditions ^ of site and stand of
the French government forests are there represented. If we would avoid an utter
misconception we must be careful not to regard foreign conditions too favorably, and
not to undervalue our own system of management. Ranges (Reviere) with good condi-
tions of site and stand are, indeed, as a rule, the best adapted to studying critically
principles of management and their application. Parts of ranges which, as far as the
minor resources of the soil and stand are concerned, are to be managed differently
from the predominating stands were also found, so that an idea can be gained from
these of other conditions where the poorer stands occur in greater numbers.

The site factors of the forests visited are very favorable for the oak. The soil is a
deep loamy sand, for the most part sufficiently fresh. From analyses conducted in
various stands of the Berce forest the soil contains 0.23 per cent nitrogen, 0.12 per cent
potash, 0.04 per cent lime, 0.045 per cent phosphorus. In the pole forests and mature
stands there is very frequently found a cover of holly {Hex, L.) which, in connection with
the beech which occurs normally as an understory, improves the soil and prevents the
growth of other cover. The elevation above the sea reaches 328 to 656 feet. The
topography is mainly level or gently sloping. The chmate, in accordance with the
geographical location and the altitude, is mild and suitable for the oak. The mean
rainfall is given as 27.6 inches. The greatest part occurs in summer so that extreme
drought is not to be feared. Late and early frosts, which have so disastrous an in-
fluence upon the height growth of the oak and the character of its wood, occur very
infrequently. All these circumstances work together to produce favorable conditions
for the growth of the oak. Optimum site conditions for the oak are here presented.
"Everything concurs to render the chmate humid and essentially favorable for tree
growth," says Boppe, referring to this forest region.

Of the two species of oak the sessile-flowered is of the more common occurrence in
the forest under discussion. Its growth and form are very good. The stands are
characterized in a general view by straight form, clear bole, and high (according to
our estimate); averages 65 feet from the ground, often higher. The crowns are very
narrow; the boles have a form like that of our softwoods (Gymnosperms). If an accu-
rate representation could be made of the proportions of crown and stem diameters a
result would be attained entirely different from that found in the case of the German
oaks. It is corollary to this that the basal area per hectare is very high. In certain
stands, running 180 to 220 years old, which were examined in this connection, a basal
area was determined of 474 to 485 square feet per acre, which is 50 per cent greater
than given for corresponding stands on first-quality sites in the new German yield
tables. 3 The number of trees per hectare in mature stands 180 to 200 years old amounts
to about 200 (80 per acre) which is double the corresponding count in the tables cited;
the mean diameter 20 to 22 inches, the volume of a trunk 125 to 160 cubic feet. The
height of the older stands is mainly between 100 and 120 feet, individual trees being
even higher. It follows from this that the volume, also, of the stands must be very
high. Stands of more than 11,430, 12,860, and 14,290 cubic feet per acre, or about
67,500 feet board measure per acre, with 50 cords per acre in addition, such as can
almost never occur in Germany because of the natural conditions of growth, are here
met with over large, continous areas.

2 Dr. Martin was shown exceptionally favorable conditions. — T. S. W., Jr.

3 Schwappach, Untersuchwngen uber die Zuwachsleistungen von Eichen-Hochwald-
bestanden in Preussen, 1905, S. 56. (Studies on the growth of stands of oak high forest
in Prussia, 1905, p. 56.)

GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 471

The root habit of the oak, which could be very readily and very thoroughly studied
on fresh blowdowns, seemed to us remarkably superficial. The observations which
were made do not warrant the suggestion of an adequate explanation for this. Owing
to the shallow root system, the remarkable height, the growth in fully stocked, dense,
compact stands, the oak in those localities is more resistant to atmospheric influences,
especially to wind, than is the case under other circumstances. A storm which had
occurred the winter before our visit had wrought heavy destruction in the compart-
ments under regeneration. This is no unusual sight. To anticipate, we were often
to see the same thing in the future. The conditions here found are similar to those
presented by the fir in the Vosges. The causes of breakage and damage by storms
are far more often to be found in the conditions of growth than in the species. Under
the conditions described, it is necessary, therefore, in the management of the oak, to
employ methods which elsewhere are considered necessary only for shallow-rooted
species. The ultimate strength of the crown and the distance from the ground of a
crown which begins too high are of especial significance in their effects.

Establishment of Stands. ^ Natural regeneration is the general practice in estab-
hshing oak stands. The conditions for this are exceptionally favorable. The soil,
after the removal of the encumbering growth of beech and holly, which is incumbent
upon the buyer, is rich in humus, loose, and well adapted to the germination of the
acorn. Yet more favorable is the second factor which is necessary for natural repro-
duction, namely seed production. Full seed crops are frequent, at intervals of about
4 to 6 years, with extraordinarily rich production. Between these, on the other hand,
half crops occur, which, however, under the circumstances, are likewise sufficient for a
complete seeding up of the reproduction area. Nowhere can the influence of climate
conditions upon the possibility of reproduction be more definitely recognized than here.
The chief advantage of the full mast is to be found in the ease of supplementing the
preceding seeding. In the 2 to 3 year intervals between seed years the mast (following
the major reproduction) falls, indeed, upon favorable soil. In the remaining gaps the
young growth first established seeds in a new advance growth of its own. Since they
are but little different in age and seldom suffer from frost, the trees so established
close with the reproduction previously established to form a uniform stand, while
with longer intervals between two mast years the soil becomes overgrown with grass.
The seedlings following this are retarded a greater and greater extent, while at the same
time they suffer continually from frost and suppression. From the management
standpoint the frequency of seed years and the favorable climate have the important
effect that there is great freedom allowable as regards the time and manner of forming
the seeding stage.

Natural reproduction is generally effected through three cuttings in a manner similar
to that usual in Germany under G. L. Hartig's system. The first aims to bring about
seeding, the second to strengthen the young growth established, the third the isolation
of the young stand. A preparatory cutting for the benefit of the soil is unnecessary.
The cutting of standards {Hieb aus dem Vollen), which has given such good results in
Hesse, has proved satisfactory in France also. It would seem that a preparatory
cutting would be of value only for stimulating crown development and for effecting a
better distribution of income. This object is better attained, however, by repeated,
vigorous thinnings applied at the proper time, which would in addition result in a
lessening of the long rotation period.

The first of the cuttings mentioned (seed cutting) is as a rule made when a mast
has occurred. However, this first cutting furnishes an example of the fact that, as
we have seen, under the favorable conditions prevailing, it is not necessary to confine
operations too strictly to seed years. A seed cutting had been made in a part of the

472 APPENDIX

stand the year before our visit which was not a seed year, another part was to be so
treated the coming year which gave promise of a rich mast. The marking was of that
type where the trees which are to be left standing are marked at breast height and
at the base with a marking hammer. This had been done some time before, and at
the time of our visit the marking had been completed. Since the number and diameters
of the trees which were to be felled were recorded in printed directions, which served
as a basis for the sale, the marking and measuring had to be done very accurately.
Subsequent variations in the formation of the seeding stage, such as sometimes seem
desirable, are not permitted.

In making the seed cutting about one-third of the volume of the stand is removed.
In good 200-year-old stands this amounts to 10,000 to 11,430 cubic feet per acre. The
cuttings following this one are yet more severe. The seed cuttings which we saw had
7,150 to 8,575 cubic feet per acre of standing timber. In mixed stands the first trees
to be marked for cutting are the beech which are overtopping the oak to a considerable
extent and whose reproduction is at the same time undesirable; next those oaks which
have poorly-formed, one-sided, faulty crowns.

As contrasted with the light-seeded conifers especial value is placed upon uniform
reproduction. A dense reproduction is given preference over a uniform crop of seed.
Any incidental disadvantages to the natural advance growth are not considered. Obser-
vations made on the light requirements of young oak in most German forest regions
prove entirely inapplicable to the sites under consideration. It is astonishing to what
degree they are able, under favorable conditions, to endure a complete cover during
the seeding stage. Reproduction, which for a considerable time continues to thrive
under an almost complete cover, can be seen in stands in which no reproduction cuttings
have been made. Later, when such advance growth has reached a height of 3.3 feet
the thickly crowded young stems begin to die off. But they are stiU abundant even
after that, so that they are depended upon for the stocking of the stand.

The second cutting, la coupe secondaire, is ordinarily made about 3 to 5 years after
the seed cutting. The young growth is given first consideration in deciding upon
the exact time for this. This requires as vigorous and heavy an opening up as the
first cutting was light. After that attention is given to distributing the income. There
is taken out at'this cutting about half the volume of the stand. In mixed stands, what-
ever beech are still present, they are the first to be removed. The last cutting, la
coupe definitive ("the final cutting"), is made when it would be detrimental to the
growth to leave the stand any longer.

The period for natural reproduction (on such soils) is 10 years. However, when it
is necessary to do so, reproduction can be secured in an even shorter time. Great
freedom of management is allowable in this regard because of the favorable conditions
for growth. The causes which under other conditions indicate a delayed reproduction
cutting are here absent. Damage from late and early frosts is not to be feared; and
competition with weed reproduction, which is one of the most universal and important
factors considered in locating cutting operations, can be endured safely by the oak even
from an age of 3, 4, or 5 years and up. The second cutting is not absolutely essential;
it can be made earlier or later, or entirely omitted. The cuttings afforded abundant
evidence that the young growth shows the best development in those places where the
stand had been opened up quickly. In other forest regions also experience indicates
a hastening of the final cut. As a general proposition a gradual reduction of the pro-
tection afforded by the stand through a number of cuttings (in the marking of which
due regard is given to the development of the seedling oaks, the distribution of income,
and the damage caused in felling) is to be preferred to a single felling. In view of the
damage done in felling and bringing out the heavy logs, a longer wait than 10 years is,

GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 473

however, not to be recommended. It can be justified only by circumstances which lie
within the realm of practical management and which in a discussion of general technical
and economic principles can be left out of consideration.

Under the favorable conditions of site in the forests which we are discussing artificial
regeneration of oak stands is not even considered. Cultural operations are undertaken
only to a very limited extent. Under the favorable conditions of site and stand found
in central France the oak behaves just as the beech does in the best German localities
where its reproduction likewise occurs to a sufficient degree without artificial aid.
Wounding the ground is necessary where it has become hardened as is especially hable
on the edges of reproduction (areas). Replanting, likewise, is only occasionally neces-
sary. It will, however, be necessary in small patches, especially where loggers' huts
and skid yards have been located. For that purpose 2-year-old nursery-grown seed-
lings are used. When the weak stems show poor growth they are fastened to sticks.
Under certain conditions — • but as far as we saw, not very frequently — the beech
also is used for the artificial completion of the stand. It is planted as 2-year seedlings.
Such plantings are the rule when cuttings of old oaks are made in pole stands such
as is especially necessary in stands which are in process of conversion from a former
coppice with standards or selection stand. Such cuttings can be very profitable finan-
cially. In one oak pole forest which we were shown there were cut out thirty-nine old
oaks with 675 cubic feet which gave a money return of .$2,641. The marking of such
a cutting is faciUtated by the general custom of a preliminary marking of the trees to
be felled. Everywhere in France there are differences of opinion as to the value of
the oak or beech of the same age. That this mixture has both advantages and dis-
advantages is a matter of common knowledge. This idea is definitely substantiated
by the French forests. Oaks are seen which continue to grow faster in height but
which, because of the influence exerted upon them by the beech, are retarded in the
lateral development of their crowns, and exhibit a much weaker growth than would
be the case otherwise. On the other hand the condition of mixed stands leaves no
room for doubt that the beech, in moderate mixture exercises a very favorable in-
fluence upon the condition of the stand as a whole. The boles grow very clear of knots
and the ground is rich in humus and free of weeds. Under the conditions described,
therefore, where the oak is readily kept in the lead the plan of even-aged mixed stands
is highly to be recommended. The German forest officers who formed part of our
party were of the opinion that in France, where the conditions for the oak are very
favorable, the system deserves more extensive application.

Of other planting in general, the completing of oak stands upon poor soil with
planted or seeded pine is effected in a manner similar to that"" practiced on many
German operations. Following the development of the two species the pine either
persists, reduced to the role of an auxiliary species and is removed early, or it changes
over into the dominant portion of the forest.

The most important question of what kind of a comparison can be made between
the French method of managing oak and the corresponding practice customary in
Germany reduces itself to a question of, in how far, relatively, natural reproduction,
which is there used with such excellent results, can find application under German
conditions. In France natural reproduction is usually regarded as universal. The
handbook of the Paris E.xposition begins with the words: "In France forest silvics
. . . has as a fundamental principle that the forest ought to reproduce itself indefi-
nitely through its natural resources." Artificial estabhshing of stands is undertaken
only in exceptional cases, notably when the object of the management is the reforesta-
tion of mountains, the afforesting of waste lands, to increase the timber for the agri-
culturist, the afforestation of clearings, the introduction of species which do not occur

474 APPENDIX

in the stand, "the introduction of valuable species into the stands whose mixture is
unsatisfactory." Hence, the French forest management is seen to be in that position
to which it is assigned in the newer German literature, especially by Borggreve.^

In the French forests which we visited, natural reproduction was doubtless the
best method of establishing the stand. It demanded a minimum expenditure of money;
the young growth grew in a good close stand; the maintenance of that species best
suited to the site is assured. Even in German practice natural reproduction has,
under corresponding conditions, been looked upon as by far the preferable method
since the time of G. L. Hartig. But the conditions necessary for natural reproduction
of the oak very frequently do not occur in Germany. In the first place its profitable
application is impossible because of the fact that stands do not occur which are adapted
to the establishing of seeding compartments. Near young stands the oak occurs
chiefly as isolated veterans in pure beech. Stands of middle age suitable for repro-
duction are rare in most of the larger forest regions. These are mostly beech stands
into which the oak has been artificially introduced. Next it is to be noted that in
Germany the chmatic conditions are far less favorable than in France, where optimum
sites are found. The system of management applicable, therefore, would seem to be
artificial regeneration of the stand if the oak is to be grown in sufficient quantities.
As having a direct bearing upon the status of the question under consideration there
may be mentioned the excellent stands of oak reproduction on the Oberforesterei (forest)
of Eichelsdorf which were described before the Meeting of German Foresters in Darm-
stadt (1905) by Forstmeister (Supervisor) Trautivein, who has for many years been
manager of that forest. Sowing in strips not too far apart under the protection of the
succeeding beech-rnast is the method used in establishing the stands. In most of the
other southern and central German forest regions also, especially in Spessart, in Nassau,
etc., sowing is the prevaiUng method of reproduction.^ On the other hand, in North
Germany natural reproduction can hardly be considered the common method. Satis-
factory reproduction over large areas, instead of merely in groups, is not really practi-
cable because of the scarcity of mast.

The foregoing discussions apply, in so far as they are of general application, to other
species as well as to the oak. For all, natural reproduction is to be recommended
where suitable conditions of site and stand occur, and where it is desired to grow the
species which occurs on the site. With all, however, a greater or lesser relation exists
to the existent chemico-physical and ecological conditions. In the case of beech G. L.
Hartig's amount of reproduction was diminished by the requirements of the conver-
sion of the beech or the invasion of intolerant species. In the case of spruce it is im-
practicable on many sites because of the danger from storms (windfall). In the case
of pine the trials which have been made of natural reproduction have been very unsatis-
factory in their results. Judging by our observations, it seems that, contrary to the
principles set forth in the Handbook of the Paris Exposition the artificial regeneration
of stands under French management is increasing ^ in amount and importance. It

'^ Die Forstreinertragslehre, 1878, close of the book "Die principaliter — man ver-
steherecht — als Regel verlaugte naturliche Verjungung (which chiefly — it can readily be
understood — as a rule requires natural reproduction," etc.); Die Holzzucht, 2d edition,
p. 117, Die Naturbesamung (Natural seeding).

* Of course, where suitable conditions of stand and site occur (oak seed trees abund-
ant over large areas) natural reproduction with simple artificial aid (Nachhilfe) is still
a very satisfactory method of establishing oak. It is therefore practiced by preference
and with good results by forest owners with broader experience, as the author has had
opportunity of seeing on a trip made some months ago (August, 1906) through the
Forstamt (Forest office) of Rohrbrunn and the Oberforsterei (forest) of Salmiinster.

^ This prediction is certainly erroneous now that labor is so scarce and so costly. —
T. S. W., Jr.

GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 475

is never safe, however, to formulate universal rules for the establishing of stands —
on the contrary account must always be taken of the site factors.

Care of the Stand, and Thinning. — In France due emphasis is laid upon the
retention of the oak. The necessity for their regular and continued examination
becomes more insistent the more beech takes part in the composition of the stand.
In general, this is true to a greater extent in the northern and eastern parts of the
country than in the southern and western. In mixed stands the cleaning axe should
be applied every 4 to 5 years. The disastrous effects of too long an interval are strongly
emphasized in the literature: "In fact a few years of neglect or oversight in this work,
so expensive and tiresome to the force, is sufficient for irrevocably losing all the oak"
(Boppe, Sylviculture). The hornbeam gives little trouble in mixture with the oak
because of its slower growth; the oak is always the faster grower. Wherever this
thrives, however, other faster-growing species come in, namely, birch (Betula, L.),
aspen {Populus, L.), alder {Alnus, Ehrb.), round-leaved willow {Salix caprea, L.), etc.
At first valuable as nurse-trees and auxiliary species in effecting the closing of the stand,
they soon become harmful. With the removal of softwoods (Weichholzer) poorly grown
oaks are likewise disposed of. Because of the dense stands and the favorable site factors
there is less of this work necessary here than in many German forests where the condi-
tions for the growth of the oak as compared with those for its associates are less favor-
able.

As far as thinnings are concerned we are not aware of anything which would indicate
that the methods are in any way different from those at present practiced in most of
the German forest regions. The eclair cie par le haul (thinning in the upper story),
which is considered typical of French management, was seen in pure stands far less
than had been anticipated. As in Germany, it is practiced everywhere in mixed stands.
As to the age for beginning the thinnings, the appearance of epicormic branches (branches
gourmandes) , not only upon the suppressed but also on the dominant trees, is regarded
as an indication of crowding ("the upper story is, on the whole, too crowded"), and
therefore enlargement of the crown space of standing trees which are too much sup-
pressed is indicated. In general the thinnings are repeated less frequently than is con-
sidered necessary in Germany. In the juvenile stage it is considered usual to return
in 8 to 10 years at the most; later, the intervals are longer. "Thinnings are repeated
at intervals of 6 to 12 years during the stages from sapling (gaidis) to large pole {haul
perchis), that is from 12 to 20 years of age up to the size of standards. ... As
far as we have been able to determine the actual practice corresponds to these theories
in the literature (Boppe). In the forests of Belleme and Berce which we visited
the working plans provided for two thinnings within a period of 24 years. This plan
was strictly carried out. Any variation requires the approval of the conservator.

The grade of the thinnings made in the forests under consideration can, in general, be
designated as "moderate." The young stands of oak which we had opportunity of
going through or of looking at were denser than we would consider desirable for the oak.
Later on, the object will be the strengthening of the trees with good crown development
which have been overlooked. "The thinnings should be conducted with the sole object
hardiment (unhesitatingly) of favoring those trees which are judged to be the best,
gradually giving them sufficient room for a free crown development. They begin as
soon as the trees to be preserved have been definitely decided upon" (Boppe). In
accordance with this direction in French silvicultural literature the best trees in the
60-year or older pole-wood stands shown to us, which were to be favored in the thinning,
were marked by white streaks of paint (Fdrbstriche). Even in the older stands the cover
is not to be appreciably interrupted. Therefore the increase in the growing space most
desirable for the individual tree is often considerably too small. ("Care must always

476 APPENDIX

be taken not to break the leaf canopy.") The oaks in the understory should, for the
most part, be widely spaced; there is no particular need of keeping them in the stand
either for their sale value or for the benefit of the soil. "The oak cannot be expected to
constitute both upper and lower stories at the same time." Just that much more pains
is taken to preserve that part of the understory which is suitable for soil protection.
The retaining of such species wiU, of course, be considered aU the more necessary the
milder the climate and the better the soil. For this reason it has been emphatically
directed "to take particular pains to leave all woody undergrowth (suppressed trees,
shrubs, etc.) which is capable of persisting in place of a lower story. This lower story
must never be touched in making cuttings." Only when preparing for reproduction is
the understory to be removed.

In stands where beech occurs in the mixture the thinnings retain the character of
cleanings from the sapling age well up into the higher pole-wood and standard classes.
("During this long period the thinnings must always take the form of liberation cuttings
if the successive crowding out of all the oaks is to be avoided.") In general, however,
the raising of mixed stands of beech and oak of approximately the same age presents no
difficulty if at the time of the regeneration the faster growth of the oak is encouraged.
Owing to the chmatic conditions this proposition is entirely feasible. In the northern
part of the country the conditions are different. It has been established that here the
beech is a faster grower than the oak at all ages. For such stands, therefore, the mixing
of the two species by distinct groups, is directed. ("These difficulties are overcome by
practicing regeneration in compartments in which each species, maintained in a pure
stand . . . receives proper care throughout its entire life.") In France an inten-
tional underwood, through which the needs and requirements of both species can best
be met, is seldom formed. The special cases mentioned of the underplanting of open
spaces in the stand are not, in our estimation, to be looked upon as examples of forming
an underwood. This also is denounced in the hterature. At least Boppe refers to the
Bavarian (Spessart and the Palatinate) system of forming an underwood as a local
peculiarity.

The earlier operations of thinnings can best be understood from the present condition
of neighboring older stands. An examination of these leaves no room for doubt that in
France as in most German States thinnings have not been conducted in strict accordance
with the needs of the management. The formation of stands as described above —
with a volume of 11,430 to 14,290 cubic feet per acre, a clear length of 65 feet and a
diameter of 20 inches — was effected by moderate thinnings.

HIGH FOREST REGULATION ^

As admirably as the management of the French State and administered forests is ex-
hibited in everything which relates to the technical side of the subject (estabhshment and
care of stands, thinnings, felling operations, etc.) the conditions of the forest organiza-
tion and the regulation of revenue will meet with but little favor in the eyes of the Ger-
man visitor. We did not, on the present trip, see any operations from which the methods
of regulating income and the form it should take could be judged. But the principles
of the forest regulation were so evident in the condition of the stands and from the
economic maps that we could get an idea of them even without the working plans of the
general form of those which may be seen for the State forests. The most important
consideration characteristic of the French forest regulation has to do with the local estab-
lishment of the working groups and the choosing of the places where cuttings are to be
made, with which there must at the same time be combined an establishment of the
rotation period.

7 Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt, 1908, pp. 530-47.

GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 477

Local Establishment of Working Groups. — The French State and State-admin-
istered forests are divided into "series" (working groups). These are adjacent areas
with hke markets and requirements for continued management, which frequently corre-
spond to Schutzbezirken (triages) (protection forests). They are somewhat similar to
the Prussian Bloken. "By series or working group is understood a portion of the forest
which is designated to be placed under a special working plan ^ in accordance with the
provisions of which it will form a series of annual cuttings." There is a further division
into sections which correspond somewhat to the German Beiriebsklassen (working units).
"By section is understood a portion of the forest which is distinguished from the rest of
the forest (surplus) by the method of management (taillis, futaie reguliere, futaie jardinee,
etc., coppice, even-aged high forest, selection high forest, etc.)." The working units
are subdivided into "affectations" which are the same as our Periodenfldchen (periodic
blocks). In the forest of Belleme which we visited there had been established eight
periodic blocks of 25 years.

In locating the working units the French aim has been, as far as practicable, to so
place the affectations that they will form an uninterrupted whole, and not be separated
from one another by bodies of other periodic blocks. The idea of consolidating the areas
of periodic blocks has been developed in France probably to a greater extent than in any
other country. That there are efforts to effect this is indicated by L. Tassy, conservateur
de forets (conservator of forests). It is very characteristic of the French system of
management, and we will therefore translate verbatim. The location of age-classes and
felling series is given by Tassy » as follows :

"1. From the viewpoint of the progress of the cuttings in that periodic block.

"2. From the viewpoint of the relative position of the periodic blocks.

"While the progress of the cuttings in each periodic block should be in accordance
with the principles of cutting series, it is at the same time desirable that the felling areas
have a regular form so that they shall present the narrower side to the most violent
winds, so that they may be traversed and bounded by rides but especially that they may
form separate and distinct blocks. I especially recommend that a periodic block" never
be broken up unless there are very especial reasons (motifs majeurs) for it. The continuity
(contaquite) of the several compartments constituting a periodic block is expedient, not
alone for the orderly regulation of cutting series, but also from the standpoint of the
economic results of the working plan."

The regulation of the French State forests is conducted in accordance with the prin-
ciples here set down. The periodic blocks are systematically grouped on the maps and
in the field. It is evident, however, that it is frequently utterly impossible to adhere
strictly to the system of such continuous periodic block without a great sacrifice of growth
and a decided variation from the time of maturity. To avoid serious loss in this latter
regard the management often seems to leave unused younger stands within the periodic
block in the several periodic blocks. On the other hand, however, stands of a later
periodic block will, under certain conditions, be brought to reproduction. In the
high oak forests which we saw there were seed and removal cuttings in periodic blocks
1 and 2.

The importance to the management in all the larger adjacent forests as to whether and
how far the age classes shall be considered in making divisions for the regulation of in-
come is not to be minimized. Such a grouping of periodic blocks as described by Tassy
and actually practiced in France results in too extensive reproduction cuttings and too
great areas of the same age class. Its practice will result in conditions similar to those
formerly frequent in most of the German forests. In virgin forests similar stands are

^ L. Tassy, Etudes sur V amenagement des forets (Studies on the Organization of
Forests), p. .385.

9 Tassy is rather out of date. Dr. Martin should have consulted Huffel.

478 APPENDIX

always formed under like conditions of site. G. L. Hartig " himself noted this tendency.
The areas of natural reproduction which he established have, because of the infrequency
of seed years combined with a lack of systematic distribution, often resulted in extensive
even-aged stands. The first result of increasing artificial regeneration has been a clear-
cut systematic arrangement of stands according to species and age classes.

As is well known, the opposite system to the French plan with its establishing of age
classes, is practiced in the kingdom of Saxony. The formation of short cutting series
has for a long time been a characteristic feature of the Saxon management. Judeich, in
his writings, emphasized its superiority; the establishment of Saxon forest organization
put it into practice. To promote the systematic arrangement of the working groups
there were deliberately made severance cuttings and felhngs which were intended to
make possible the independent management of areas located near one another. In the
boundaries of surveying, and regulating the Austrian State and institution (Fond-)
forests, also the establishing of short cutting series is emphasized.

Which, then, of the two opposed systems is right, or, since both have weaknesses, the
better? In Germany the French system has rarely been developed to such an extent
as the visitor to the French forests finds it. In the main the degree of maturity is given
first consideration in the location of the cutting areas. The strict regard for the maturity
leads to the maintenance of the existing form of the stand . The beginning of maturity,
however, and, to a yet greater extent, the actual time of overmaturity of individual
stands allow of more or less extension. Many stands could, without seriously interfer-
ing with the economic results, be changed one or two periods one side or the other. A
fixed policy, therefore, of separating or combining stands at the time of regeneration is
inapplicable even in German practice.

If we investigate the rules for establishing stands which must, in the direction proposed,
be considered the most weighty the French system does not give a very favorable im-
pression. There are always certain dangers connected with the grouping of even-aged
stands, in coniferous forests at least. Many insects, the Maybug (Maikdfer) in par-
ticular, appear in greater numbers. The increased fire danger is yet more prominent.
The relation of the stands to storms must, however, be regarded as the fundamental
and general basis for deciding the proposed question of retaining the stands. And even
in this respect we can concede no superiority to the French system, at least not when
natural reproduction is relied upon, which, as the Handbook of the Exposition empha-
sizes, is regarded as the rule in France. No other form of silvicultural management is
so destructively visited by storms as large symmetrically arranged reproduction cuttings.
The danger from storms is especially great in the case of old stands, as in the oak and fir
stands of the French State forests in which it is no longer possible to strengthen the trees
through reproduction cuttings, and to accustom them to a subsequent open position. As
a matter ^of fact damage by storm has recently occurred to a very considerable extent in
forests managed in accordance with the French method of regulating forest organization.
The wind-breakage in oak reproduction cuttings under the mild conditions of the Loire
plains has already been mentioned. In the fir stands in the Vosges such severe storm
damage has occurred of late that many forest owners are no longer willing to concede
the fir any superiority over the spruce as far as resistance to wind throw is concerned.

When we come to consider the employment of clear cutting there is rather more to be
said in favor of the French system. If the principal face presented to the prevailing

^^ In the Instruktion of 1819, in which (p. 20) we find: "Since the plan for the artificial
regulation of forests must be so arranged so that the compartments decided upon for
every periodic block shall close on one another as fast as possible, it is necessary
. . . {Da der Plan zur kunftigen Beivirtschaftung des Forstes so eingerichtet werden
musz, dasz die fiir jede Periode zum abtrieb bestimmten Jagen soviet wie moglich sich
einander schlieszen, so musz . . . )."

GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 479

storms were equally well protected in the case of large and small cuttings, differences in
the conduct of the storm which are due to other causes would be apparent. In the case
of a large number of small cuttings there are formed more openings in the stand in which
a storm can attack. However, there are many other serious results of larger cuttings
which become evident by trial. Many insects appear in destructive numbers. The
damage from weeds, frost, and heat is greater the larger the cuttings. For tender species
which grow slowly in the juvenile stage it is an acknowledged principle of management
to avoid large clear cuttings.

The method of managing the Saxon State forests seems much better in this regard.
It has the great advantage that the cuttings are kept small and gradually arranged to-
gether in rows. The young growth has the benefit of the protection from the standing
trees. In relation to market conditions, also, and other factors which must be taken
into consideration in practical management, the method of small cuttings with the
possibility of a change in the manner of utilization is a desideratum. As far as storms
are concerned the superiority claimed for the Saxon method by its advocates is not to
be accepted without qualification. If the direction is known from which destructive
storms are .to be expected in the future it is possible to protect the stand by means
of the methods of felling and making severance cuttings which are peculiar to the Saxon
system. But this cannot be determined. Storm statistics " recently published show
that even easterly storms have frequently done considerable damage. If, in spite of
this fact, future efforts in forest management shall still be directed to protecting against
westerly storms as far as possible, the chance of damage by storms coming from the
opposite direction must also be reckoned with. Openings made in the stand by sever-
ance cuttings and fellings for the strengthening of borders exposed to western winds
would, however, appear hazardous. The undesirable consequences which may be
bound up with a system of severance cuttings are truly pointed out by the advocates
of the Saxon method of managing State forests. Oberforster (Supervisor) August a
few years ago wrote an article on the effect of southeast storms in the Olbernhau Revier
(range) (Erzgebirge) . He made the comment that: "The damage (which the south-
east storms have caused) would not be so great if it were not for the fact that on the
Olbernhau Revier one of the chief objects of the Saxon method of forest management,
the creation of a large number of short cutting series, had been practically attained.
Over large areas cuttings have been made in every division {Abteilung) within a decade;
and as desirable as these are for establishing regeneration areas, for replanting, etc., yet
in this case many reproduction cuttings begun at the eastern side have proved dis-
astrous." The relation that tearing the stand to pieces bears to damage by storms can-
not be more strikingly presented. It is to be added, however, that the damage caused
by storm under the Saxon management will never have such great dimensions as is the
case under the French method of making cuttings. Any careful investigation will
substantiate this. Communications from Saxony have often confessed to damage from
storms. But their effects are on a smaller scale than in the Vosges and other forest
regions with extensive homogeneous areas of veteran forest. The favorable results of
Saxon management are not to be accounted for by the physiological characteristics of
the species — in Saxony the non-storm-resisting spruce predominates — but by the
conditions of growth secured by the forest organization.

If the foregoing arguments are, in the main, susceptible of proof, yet it must not be
forgotten that in this, as in most other forest regions, the extremes are necessarily the
best methods. The proper economic management is often to be found nearer the mean.
The French method of grouping must be unconditionally discarded. But even in regard
to too strict a separation of age classes it is worth while making the observations men-

11 Bargmann, Allgem. Forst- and Jagdzeitung, 1904, p. 84.

480 APPENDIX

tioned. The most essential definite problems of practice have to do with establishing
the imiversal fundamentals through the application of which there will be effected a
greater safety of the system from damage by storms. These rest, first of all, upon the
way in which the forest is divided up for management. In mountainous regions, with
spruce predominating, where the sequence of the cuttings is of the greatest importance,
divisions must be based on the topography. Natural features — not only main ridges
and valleys, but also the secondary ridges where the slopes change their direction — ■
afford the best boundaries for the fixed working division (Wirtschaftsfiguren), and for the
cutting series. In many cases cuttings have to progress away from them in both direc-
tions. In broken [kupiert) topography the extension of uniform working groups will
often be definitely prescribed by the relations of the topographic features. In level
country a good network of rides with their principal direction northeast — southwest or
eastwest has the same effect. A good distribution not only facilitates the breaking up
of larger areas but also constitutes the best framework for similar grouping into manage-
able working areas. The second method of reducing the danger consists of the estab-
lishing of suflficiently broad division fines. Only rides of sufficient width are suitable for
forming belts which shall be sufficient for protecting the stands against storm. It
should be noted in this connection that the extension of these increases the area of un-
productive soil. However, it must be remembered that many of these will be changed
to the character of roads, and some, at least, of the rest used for dragging up and piling
the wood. Broad rides serve, also, as a means of protection, especially for the preven-
tion and fighting of fires. For feeding grounds for game, also, and for the raising of
grass and straw for the use of those who work in the woods, rides are valuable only when
of sufficient breadth.

Silvicultural measures are another instrument of forest organization or regulation
which can be used for placing the stand upon a firm basis. All injuries due to the mani-
festations of inanimate nature will be aggravated by unsymmetrically developed roots
and twigs, as well as by long clear length. Everything which works for a symmetrical
development of the roots and against a long clear length renders the stands more capable
of resisting storms and their consequences. Among these may be mentioned the selec-
tion of good individuals for planting, the restoring of regular spacing, timely decision
upon severer thinnings, and careful closing of the borders of the stand. By the employ-
ment of such measures there will be a far greater certainty of the stands surviving than
there can ever be under the French system of grouping age classes together.

Determination of the Cut, and the Rotation Period. — The most general and
important problem of working plans is the determination of the yield. The basis for
this has an intimate connection with studies of maturity which are always of significance
in choosing the type of management and the direction it shall take. Dependent upon it,
also, is the amount of forest capital which is regarded as normal and which it is desired
to estabhsh. No other subject is of more importance for the condition of the French
State forest policy and the directions it will take.

In the forests of Belleme and Berce the rotation period has been fixed at 200 years.
Eight periodic blocks of 25 years each have been formed. The actual utilization amounts
in the 6,000-acre forest of Belleme to 173,050 to 282,525 cubic feet in all, an average
of 28.6 and 46.0 cubic feet, respectively, per acre. This on good soil and with the
good condition of, the stands, which were about 120 feet high, is a very conservative
cut, far short of the annual increment. The effects of this exceedingly conservative
management applied for long periods are clearly evidenced in the condition of the stands.
The trees are full-boled and of great cubic contents. The thinnings, however, are far
more moderate than is necessary with the conditions of growth which have been de-
scribed (good soil and mild climate with a long vegetative period) .

GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 481

No basis for the rotation period in the forest under discussion has been described by
the advocates of the French State forest policy, at least not definitely enough to be
repeated here. We can get an idea of it only from the condition of the stand and the
information given in the literature. Tassy/^ discusses the determination of the cutting
age {exploilahilite) in the following words: "The volume of the wood which has been
produced, its economic value {utilite), its sale value {valeur venale), and the ratio between
its value and that of the capital from which it comes are the various factors which,
individually or collectively, must be borne in mind if it is desired to make the greatest
profit from the management of the forest. These several factors correspond to four
objects of management: First, management for the greatest volume production; second,
that for the highest technical value; third, that for the greatest money revenue; fourth,
that for the largest interest on the investment." As is everywhere the case, the rotation
periods in the French forest management, as well, are dependent upon the progress of
volume and value increment and the interest paid on the forest capital. The question
of rotation periods in France cannot be understood and discussed further without
entering into discussion of the peculiar conditions whose influence upon the condition
of the forest is nowhere more pronounced than here (a fact which is not brought out
in the foregoing quotation).

(a) VOLUME INCREMENT

This is everjrwhere a fundamental determining factor of the length of the rotation
period. G. L. Hartig's teaching, that upon given areas there is always a maximum
increment which should be produced, may always be accepted as essentially correct.
Even if the value of the product and the interest paid on the capital be taken into
consideration yet the volume increment is still an essential determining factor. If
it be reduced the volume and value of the product from which revenue is obtained will
likewise both suffer a diminution.

The mean increment {accroissement moyen) is looked upon as that which shall decide
the age of maturity under the French system of forest management. "The rotation
period giving the greatest volume production (exploitabilite absolue) is indicated by
the age at which the greatest mean increment is produced." According to that the
proper rotation age occurs in that period when the current increment is faUing off. It
corresponds to that age when the current increment is equal to the mean increment.

We have but little definite information which bears upon the problem of current incre-
ment or upon the principles of mean increment. In the forest region of Belleme and
Berce exact studies were available chiefly for a 200-year-old oak stand with an admix-
ture of a few beeches and a ground cover of young beech, giving its increment and
previous utilization. The number of trees per hectare amounted to 198 (80 per acre),
the volume of wood larger than 28 inches at the small end (Derbholz) 13,875 cubic feet
per acre. The actual utilization is given as 6,200 cubic feet per acre, the total possible
as 20,080 cubic feet per acre. According to this the mean increment amounts to 96
cubic feet per acre. As a matter of fact the actual volume production was greater
because during the 200-year period it is very likely that wood was utilized of which
partial or no accounts were kept.

The current increment in stands more than 200 years old has doubtless heretofore
not been determined because of the faUing off in growth occurring at this time. The
principal cause of this falling off is evidently the abundant flower- and seed-production.
Otherwise the plant foods of the soil are completely utilized by the roots, and the air
space by the crowns; hence any very great reduction in that increment which corre-
sponds to the site is not to be expected. This supposition is substantiated by studies

12 1, c. Deuxieme etude: de V exploitabilite (Second article: on the age of maturity).

482 APPENDIX

made on test trees from time to time during the course of our trip. These indicate
that for a dominant tree with annual rings 0.04 inch in breadth there is an annual
increment of 0.9. According to this the current annual increment at present amounts
to 130 cubic feet per acre and if that proportion holds true for only three-quarters the
volume of the stand — the dominant trees — to (in round numbers) 100 cubic feet
per acre.

This is almost the same as that which is determined from complete volume tables
and yield statistics as the mean annual increment. The two kinds of increment are
seen — contrary to the commonly accepted belief — at the age of 200 years to be at the
point of crossing and agreement.

If the foregoing propositions^cannot, because of the lack of sufficient data, be definitely
proven, yet enough observations have been made to justify the conclusion that the
current annual increment of the oak under the existing conditions of the site and the
indicated character of the stands exhibits a uniform dechne. The faUing off in current
annual increment has taken place very gradually; far more gradually than most yield
tables indicate for German forests, where the oak is much less crowded in the older age

To a yet greater extent is this evident in the case of mean annual increment. This,
in the case above cited, has not changed appreciably for a full century. That sort of
maturity known as exploitabilite absolue gives entirely too indefinite results, in that
account; it may be placed at as early an age as 80 years or as late as 200.

(6) QUALITY INCREMENT

Of greater importance than the volume incfement as a determining factor of the
age of maturity is the value increment. The French management shows conclusively
that in their own forests especial importance is attached to the production of good quality
of product. The less private individuals are inclined to grow heavy timber, the more
does the State find itself confronted with the necessity of producing this economically
indispensable product. The best way to get an idea of the progressive increase in value
is to study the average prices paid for wood where the trees of varying size are valued
separately. The approximate selling price of trees of various girths are as follows:

Trees of 200 cm. circumference (65 cm. diameter), 65 francs per cu. m."

Trees of 100-200 cm. circumference (33-36 cm. diameter), 45 francs per cu. m.

Trees under 100 cm. circumference (under 33 cm. diameter), 30 francs per cu. m.

These classes are too indefinite to afford any precise idea of the value increment.
They show, however, that the increase in value bears a direct relation to the increase
in size. Trees whose diameter increases from 20 to 24 inches increase in value about
40 per cent. With annual rings 0.05 inch in width about 35 years are required to
produce a diameter increment of 3.9 inches. Hence the yearly increase in value can
be placed at a good 1 per cent.

(c) THE INTEREST PAID ON THE GROWING STOCK

It is not really possible to fix the length of the rotation period intelligently without
a study of the economic principles upon which the practice is based. The kernel of

13 According to Schwappach's yield tables :
On first quality site at

the age of 60 80 100 120 140 160 ISO 200

The current annual in- ] Wood more than

crement amounts to . . 10.2 9.2 6.8 5.2 4.6 3.8 3.4 2.8 m.^ 7 cm. in diameter
The mean annual incre- | at the small end

ment 4.6 5.9 6.3 6.2 6.0 5.8 5.5 5 . 3 m.^ ] (Derbholz)

"26-inch trees, $12.55; 13-26-inch trees, $8.70; under 13-inch trees, $5.80.

GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 483

this in its practical bearing is expressed in the questions of whether and how high a
rate of interest should be expected on the forest capital invested. This question is,
indeed, thoroughly discussed in the French literature. Its^treatment is of particular
interest to the German forest owner, who is occupied with the theory of net income.
A very clear discussion of the theoretical and practical problems and objects of the
same is given by Tassy, I. c. He lays special emphasis on the nature of forest capital,
offers explanations of the differences which exist in the relation of revenue to value of
the wood in comparison with other branches of domestic economy, and advances the
following propositions: "The rotation period which gives the greatest interest on the
investment is almost always shorter than that which corresponds to the greatest mean
annual increment. The less valuable the species concerned and the less likelihood there
is of its increasing in technical value and in price as it grows older, the earlier does
this age occur. The lower the rate of interest the more closely does the rotation yield-
ing the greatest interest correspond to the rotation which produces the most valuable
product." As opposed to this idea, however, it should be noted that not the greatest,
but a suitable interest on the forest working capital is demanded by the German advo-
cates of the theory of net returns.

From these three propositions are drawn definite policies for economic management
{I. c). Among these it is of special interest to note that by proper thinning the age
of maturity is advanced while at the same time the production of the stands is increased,
and that the capital, upon which the income is dependent, is diminished by the same.
The increasing value of timbers justifies more intensive utilization. The question of
underwood and the increased length of rotation are justified by that fact. The in-
fluence of the rate of interest is exhibited in the fact that a reduction of it results
in a longer financial rotation in such a way, however, that the rotation period corre-
sponding to the highest mean value increment, and that corresponding to the greatest
net revenue are equal only when the rate of interest is equal to zero.

In spite of the simplicity and clarity of the arguments whose chief points have been
rehearsed, no adequate basis can be derived from the literature cited, for the rotation
period which can be considered correct for a given forest region and given species.
The examples cited rest mainly upon hypothetical suppositions; they give very in-
definite results. The first of these three propositions, namely, that the rotation corre-
sponding to the maximum yield culminates just before the culmination of the mean
annual increment, allows very wide variation. For the maximum mean annual incre-
ment occurs, as has been mentioned under (a) not at any one definite age, but somewhere
within a long period comprising or exceeding an entire century.

More definite inferences as to the rotation period for the French State forests can be
drawn from the actual condition of the forests themselves than from the Hterature.
The oak stands under consideration, in the forests of Belleme and Berce as well as the
stands of fir in the Vosges, can serve as admirable examples from which to deduce more
definite economic principles. Both are typical of the kind of stand to which a consistent
observance of the principles of the greatest net forest revenue or of the greatest mean
value increment will lead; moderate degree of thinning, dense stocking, long rotation
period. The volume and value resulting from this system are of a definite amount.
Restricted to the revenue at maturity the mean value increment of the stands men-
tioned, which consists of 34,255 cubic feet valued at 40 francs ($7.70), amounts to
39,000 -f- 210 = (in round numbers) 180 francs per hectare (|14 per acre) ; this is one
of the highest which has hitherto resulted under management anywhere, or been ex-
tensively described. The figures given above, however, indicate that, in spite of this,
the mean value increment has not yet attained its maximum. Even when the annual
volume increment amounts to only 0.5 per cent, and the annual increase in value like-

484 APPENDIX

wise to only 0.5 per cent the stands, if they remain uncut, increase in value in a larger

39 000
ratio than is indicated by the increase in age. The numerator of the fraction ' ,

which represents the mean annual value increment, at that per cent increases in the
ratio of 100 to 101, while the denomination becomes larger only in the ratio of 210 to 211.
From the standpoint of the greatest net forest revenue the stands under consideration
have been properly managed; if the standard for their management, however, is to be
the greatest mean value increment, they should not be cut yet but should be retained
as capital until the per cent of volume and value increments correspond approximately
to the ratio between the annual increase in age and the present age.

Of course, as soon as it is demanded in forestry that the remaining growing stock shall
yield interest, even at only a moderate per cent, the factors concerned in the economical
production of stands are entirely changed. From the standpoint of the theory of net
profits on the land which this suggestion is equivalent to, it would have been impossible
to grow such stands as the mature oak we are discussing, or even the French fir stands in
the Vosges. Accurate citations as to the time and severity of thinnings, the amount of
growing stock, and the length of the rotation cannot be made without detailed computa-
tions and voluminous material. The opinion presented can, however, readily be proved
as one of general acceptance.

In connection with the determination of the results of applying the theory of net in-
come to oak high forest with long rotation period it should be mentioned that for this
only moderate rates of interest (2.5 to 3 per cent) are to be used. It should be borne in
mind, in addition, that under permanent management, the forest and its contained
growing stock constitute a uniform entity. A part of the growing stock is also embraced
within the younger and the middle-aged stands; hence the rate of interest on the growing
stock may be sufficient even though that of the oldest age classes of a given working
unit have fallen below that required on the entire capital. But even by applying this
conservative supposition the stands under discussion would be unable to satisfy the
demands for payment of interest. In contrast to management for the greatest mean
value increment which would leave those stands to grow for a yet longer period, the
theory of net income from the land requires that they be thinned and opened up earlier
and more heavily. The number of trees per hectare must be reduced to a greater extent
in the course of gradual thinnings so that at the age of 200 years only about half (40
instead of 80 per acre) shall be present. As a result of such management the working
capital will be diminished, the increment of individual trees is increased, and the interest
influenced favorably by both. Under such conditions and with the favorable site
factors present the miscellaneous stock, upon the production of which such importance is
rightly attached in administering the French State forests, could be raised with rotation
periods of 160 to 180 years.

(d) OWNERSHIP OF THE LAND

The conditions of property ownership have hitherto had a great influence in France
in deciding upon the age of maturity and the characteristic form of forest which shall be
regarded as normal and whose establishment shall be sought. Nowhere are the differ-
ences in the character of the forest, according to the ownership of the land, more clearly
emphasized than in France. Even in the literature this is stated definitely, though not
without exaggeration. Tassy says in reference to this: "It is not to be hoped that pri-
vate owners will ever find it to their interests to manage their forests as high forest. For
in such a case not only will the rate of interest on the money fall off considerably, but
which are conditions far more difficult of attainment, the impossibility of predicting
future conditions, immediate needs, the uncertainty of the immediate future, would all

GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 485

have to cease to play a role in human activities." This general conception was discussed
more in detail in the Handbook of the Paris Exposition where it is said: "The private
owner seldom manages broadleaves (Angiosperms) as high forest. They prefer coppice
and coppice with standards with short rotation periods. The conifers (Gymnosperms)
they use as soon as they seem available, without letting them reach that size which
qualifies them as valuable economic species." The actual condition of the forests con-
firms these descriptions in the literature. It is also granted that as a rule the State is
different in the matter of management, that other working systems are chosen, and
that other rotation periods are employed, than is true for the private individuals. In
addition to the Government's high forests, characterized by large capital and long rota-
tion periods, there are the communal coppice with standards stands, characterized by a
small stock of overwood, and the extensive sprout lands of private owners.

The question as to what influence the conditions of ownership exercise upon the condi-
tion and management of forests is of considerable general importance. While perhaps
to a lesser extent than in France, similar differences are found in all countries, even in
the German forest regions. Adjoining the great areas of most of the German State
forests in mountainous regions (Harz Mountains, Thuringian forests, Spessart, etc.),
and on the plains, there are often found poor forests, owned by peasants, upon essentially
similar soil. The causes of these differences are to be found partly in poor management.
By the removal of too much of the forest litter, irregular cutting, deficient superintend-
ence, the demands for a good condition of the forest are by no means met. The destruc-
tion of forests in nearly all countries is directly traceable to private ownership. But
even under good management (which must be assumed if questions of principles are to
be discussed) there are notable differences dependent upon the conditions of ownership. ■
Government forests are always more conservatively managed than those belonging to
private owners.

The recognition that there are differences depending upon the conditions of ownership,
which make themselves felt in the condition of forests and their management, has led to
the assumption that there are in forestry — just as in business in general — two different
systems of management dependent upon the ownership of property, a system for private
owners which leads to short rotation periods and extensive management, and a system
for public owners which is characterized by long rotation periods and large forest capital.
Not merely the advocates of extreme socialism have inscribed upon their banners the
contrast between private and cooperative management, but champions, also, of a more
moderate economic course have had recourse to the double system mentioned, in ex-
plaining the differences in the condition of forests which we are discussing, and in char-
acterizing the resulting problems of future management.

Diverse, however, as are the forest conditions and the objects of organization in
the State and private forests that is no reason for trying to establish different systems
of management. The causes of this diversity must be sought in other conditions.
They are to be found in forest history than which the history of no other branch of eco-
nomics has more far-reaching results. The distance of the forest from the consumer is
another guiding factor. The forests which are in the possession of the State are prefer-
ably the more remote forests, the forests located at the interior of large wooded areas of
mountain and plain. The greater the distance from the market, the longer does the
rotation period become. The financial conditions, also, have an influence upon the rota-
tion period. Those owners, alone, are in a position to manage their forests on a long
rotation (ignoring the interest), who have sufficient means, who are independent of the
immediate realization of income from the capital, and who have a permanent interest
in the condition of the forest. No other owners fulfill these requirements to so great an
extent as the State. Finally, it must be taken into consideration that the State has,

486 APPENDIX

besides its efficiency as a manager, also to take into consideration problems of political
economy, not only in regard to production, but also economic relations. It is desirable
that it should exert a favorable influence in that direction upon all the forests of the
country. But it stands to reason, and is in accord with the status of legislation in all
countries, that this shall be most emphatically done in its own forests.

Even in time to come there will still be differences of the kind mentioned — not merely
in forest management but also in economic life in general. Even in future times the
State forests will, as a rule, be more conservatively managed than most private forests.
It is not an inevitable result of this, however, that under State or communal management
a portion of the cost of production cannot be taken into account — which is the present
point of difference in economic principles. Forest owners (State, community, etc.),
even if they favor communal interests, need not, as the champions of all socialistic
tendencies demanded, renounce the interest on a portion of the capital invested {Pro-
duktionsgrundlagen) . On the contrary, the most general rule applicable to all kinds of
forest ownership demands that in regulating management all costs of production in
labor, capital, and land must be reckoned at their full value. But there could well be
differences in the cost of production depending on the character of the forest ownership,
resulting from variations in the size of the growing stock and the rate of interest charged.
An analogous condition exists in agriculture. Indeed, the inter-relationships of labor,
capital, and land vary according to the character of the ownership even if the objects of
management be identical. The greater conservatism which characterizes State forest
management cannot, however, be regarded as an indication of self-sacrifice on the part
of the treasury department or of a readiness to give up claim to a part of the investment.
The State does not need to give up all claims to the interest on the capital and on the
value of the land in the interests of either present or future generations. The advocates
of management for financial returns may expect, rather, that the woods which the com-
ing political economy needs most urgently will best be paid for on the basis of their cost
of production with which must be included the discounted value of the cost of cultiva-
tion, and the interest on the investment. In that case it is demanded of State manage-
ment, however, that the rotation period shall not be longer than is required, in accordance
with silvicultural principles, for the production of that particular kind of product which
constitutes the object of the management. The French forest management which,
because of its moderate thinnings and long rotation period, is characterized by very
small interest on the investment, is susceptible of radical improvement along just these
lines.

As opposed to the demand for an acceleration of production and a shortening of the
rotation period which must be demanded of the French management of State forests,
intelligent private owners have of late seen fit to change their hitherto extensive manage-
ment to a more intensive system, and to lengthen their rotation periods. This is the
direct result of the market conditions for the various grades of product.

The prices of the smaller products (twigs, bark) have declined because of the competi-
tion by charcoal and other substitutes, while those of the higher grade lumber have risen
not only actually, but relatively, in comparison with other commodities. Furthermore,
as was evident from the great number of the cross sections exhibited at the Paris Exposi-
tion, it has become a matter of common knowledge in France that properly conducted
thinnings and openings exercise a very favorable influence upon the progress of diameter
increment, upon which the rotation period is dependent. Mention is made, also, in the
Handbook of the Paris Exposition of the changes wrought by this in the viewpoint of
private owners, in the following words: "A change is imminent in the conditions which
have hitherto existed (profitableness of the coppice system, and of short rotations). The
rise in wages and the absence of a market for charcoal have reduced the value of coppice

GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 487

stands. Private owners are finding themselves forced to lengthen the rotation periods
in the same. ... At the same time the declining rate of interest and the increase
in the price of wood are leading forest owners, to a greater and greater extent, to increase
the amount of capital invested in forests and to defer the utilization of the stands until a
more advanced age."

As in France, so in many German forest regions, we find factors which determine the
sort of management which shall be practiced by the Government and by others. Even
here many private owners may, in view of the present conditions and future possibilities,
well increase the length of their rotations. Even for private management the rule holds
good that those products must be grown which best meet the requirements of economic
conditions. That this demand frequently is not met, that many private forests are left
unutilized and reverted to waste lands — evident from the poor, careless management
and unsuitable working units ("dwarf management" {Zwergbetriebe)) — is the cause of
the financial position of many forest estates. Very often private owners are not in a
position to maintain their resources in the unavailable form of standing forest capital,
because they need them for very definite purposes; they have to have it in a more
readily available form and for that reason often clean-cut the stands even when the
increment in volume and value would be greater than the interest on the readily avail-
able capital. For leading the way toward better conditions in this regard it is desirable
that renting of forests be facilitated in a manner similar to the measures of the German
Forestry Association {Deutscher Forstverein) .

From what has been said it can be seen that it is desirable at present in France, and
in other countries as well, that the systems of management in private and in State forests
be brought into closer accord. The economic laws and principles upon which manage-
ment depends are restricted neither to State nor to private forests, but are of universal
application. For this reason, also, the claim that there are opposed principles of manage-
ment — a private and a social — is not to be accepted absolutely, in spite of the great
influence upon management of consideration for the community and for the future. As
a matter of fact they are not sustained under the economic conditions which, hypothetic-
ally, they favor.

COPPICE WITH STANDARDS, AND SIMPLE COPPICE is

Coppice with Standards. — Coppice with standards is a system of management
found in almost every part of France. It is most strongly advocated for the communal
forests. According to the statistics cited ^^ the State forests comprise 269,707 hectares
(666,465 acres) of coppice with standards which equals 26 per cent of the entire forest
area; the communal forests 936,305 hectares (2,313,694 acres), 49 per cent. Since the
French forests of coppice with standards comprise only a little overwood, and the sprout
lands are stocked mainly with reserved standards, it is not always possible to draw a
sharp distinction between the two. Both systems belong to the regime du taillis which
is characterized by sprout reproduction as distinct from the regime de la futaie where
reproduction is secured from seeds. Within the same regime further distinctions are
made according to the method of handling {mode de trailment). In the case of coppice
with standards the group system {mode de eclaircies) is looked upon as different from
the selection system (mode de jardinage). Similar distinctions are made within the
regime du taillis:

Le taillis simple, "exploite entierement a blanc etoc ou sans autres reserves que des baliv-

16 "Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt," 1908, pp. 655-65.

1^ In the Handbook of the Exposition of 1900. The figures in the statistique forestiere
of 1870 differ considerably because in the interval extensive changes have occurred.

488 APPENDIX

eaux de I'age qui seront abbattus a la revolution suivante" (coppice "cut entirely, or with-
out other reserves than of an age which will be felled at the next cutting").

Le taillis compose ou taillis sous futaie "dans lequel les haliveaux reserves sont destines d
Tester sur pied pendant au moins trois revolutions" (coppice with standards, in which the
reserved trees are intended to remain standing for at least three rotations). (Definitions
from the official Statistique forestiere, Forest Statistics.)

Since, however, no binding definitions can be applied to the question of reserving
standards in private forests, essential variations occur in practice.

The peculiarity of the coppice with standards system, consisting of the juxtaposition
of isolated uneven-aged seedlings and even-aged sprouts, has persisted much longer and
more definitely in France than in most German forests. Their management has been
extraordinarily conservative for centuries. Even now the visitor to the forests comes
across the old monuments and bounded areas reserved in determining upon the manage-
ment and working limits, which were estabhshed in accordance with the ordinances of
Colbert. The communal forests, likewise, have been under management for more than
two centuries. In Germany, coppice with standards, which was formerly extensively
employed in well settled regions of hardwood forest, has undergone far greater changes.
In many cases it had already developed into irregular transition forms by the 17th and
18th centuries. In the 19th century it lost its original character, even in the case of
well-regulated management, because of the fact that systematic efforts were being made
in the direction of establishing a generous forest capital of overwood. With such a
stand of overwood as most of the German advocates of coppice stands with standards
recommended " — doubtless rightly, considering the increased revenue — the advanced
reproduction of the underwood could not maintain itself vigorous over the entire area;
it was partly destroyed. This is true to a yet greater extent when the overwood is
held over in the form of groups as is frequently looked upon as the rule. Similar condi-
tions exist respecting regeneration, which likewise is conducted mainly in the form of
groups. In a group the growth of the young stuff is in accordance with the laws of
growth characteristic of the high forest.

The following notes on the French system of managing coppice with standards (apart
from stands which were observed from time to time in the course of the railroad ride)
apply, chiefly, only to a small forest of 193 hectares (476 acres), belonging to the hospital
at Blois which we were permitted to inspect very minutely at the point where it ad-
joined a high forest on a similar range under the management of a forest manager.
In spite of its small acreage it was, nevertheless, very well suited for giving a person
an idea of the features which characterize the French system of managing coppice with
standards. The condition of this forest affords excellent data on the history of the
standards, the political measures of the French administration, and the technical
principles of management. Moreover, the revenues from the management for a decade,
which were told us, afford a very good basis for forming an estimate of the economic
value of the system of coppice with standards.

The organization under consideration is of general interest, first with regard to the
technical management, and, secondly, with regard to a review of the system of coppice
with standards from the economic standpoint.

(a) TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF THE TREATMENT OF THE COPPICE WITH STANDARDS

The standard in accordance with which the management of coppice with standards
is regulated is in France, on the whole, very uniformly maintained. The unforeseen

" E. G. Schuberg. Zur Betriebsstatistik im Mittelwald (Statistics of management for
coppice with standards) (citv forest of Durlach, with 250-350 m.' (8,830-12,360 cubic
feet)); Lauprecht, Aus dem Miihlhaiistr MUtdwald (250 m.^) (8,830 cubic feet). (From
the coppice with standards forest of Rltihlhaus.)

GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY

489

difficulties in determining the yield which have led, in Germany, to the proposing of
special formulas have not been prominent in France. The regulation of income and
the extent of the cuttings conformable to condition of the system of management being
employed are upon the area basis. In the forest region under consideration the greater
part (three-quarters) of the forested area was divided into 25 regeneration compartments
of 5.75 hectares (14.2 acres) each. A quarter of the entire area was excluded from
this classification and constituted a reserve to be included in the utilization only in case
of unusual demand. Such exceptional demands always occur, however, some time
within the course of the 25-year periods so that the establishment of such a reserve does
not involve a permanent change of the rotation period.

The establishing of such reserves is a peculiarity of the French communal forests,
which are under the strict supervision of the State. Even Colbert ordered their forma-
tion: "The celebrated ordinance of 1669 commands that a fourth of all woodlands
belonging to the clergy, to ecclesiastical corporations, to the public, etc., be constituted
a reserve. The rest of the area had to be included in the regular cuttings." The
reserves are either permanently located in some definite place, "reserves a assiette fixe,
delimitee et tnarquee sur le terrairi"; or they are shifting reserves, "reserves a assiette
mobile," "of such a sort that instead of cutting each year the area or volume which
expresses the annual yield only three-fourths of this yield is left over for the meeting
of unforeseen necessities."

In the hospital forest at Blois the method of fixed reserves was used; and this seems,
also, to be the general practice. Of 8,775.13 hectares (21,684.10 acres) of communal
forest which were seen here, the arrangement of permanently located reserves was
apphed over 7,550.68 hectares (18,658.40 acres).

The 25-year rotation practiced in the hospital forest of Blois is somewhat below the
average for forests under Government administration. According to the department
of agriculture's statistics the figures for the coppice with standards for the entire country
are as follows : they are managed under a rotation period of —

30 years and up

In Government

forests

In communal

forests

7,071 hectares = 4.1%
24,605 hectares = 2.7%

81,557 hectares = 49.9%
707,803 hectares = 77.5%

75,521 hectares = 46%,

181,949 hectares = 19.

The rotation period for the underwood is, according to this, even longer than is
customary in Germany. Its choice is the result of economic considerations. The aim
of the management, especially in the communal forests, is directed constantly to the
production of better firewood (fagots).

The most important problem of forest adjustment in the coppice with standards is
the regulation of the overwood which constitutes the peculiar characteristic of this
system of management. The overwood is classified by age classes determined on
the basis of the rotation periods in the underwood. They are distinguished: (1)
Baliveaux de I'dge (reserves), which are a rotation period older than the sprouts of the
underwood; (2) Modernes (standards of two rotations), which have been twice reserved;
and (3) Anciens (veterans), which are in the fourth rotation of the underwood.

Eventually there is added to these yet a fourth class, la vieille ecorce (old standards).
According to this the age of maturity for the overwood under a 25-year rotation period
for the underwood would be 100 years; in the case of a 30-year rotation for the under-

490

APPENDIX

wood, 120 years. The system is not followed mechanically, but vigorous trees are,
rather, left standing longer without, however, practicing this to so great an extent as
is customary in many German forests.

As to the number of trees per hectare in the several age classes, tolerably definite
rules were given. The closeness of the stands is astonishing. In the forest at Blois the
numbers in the various age classes, for the annual cut, amounted to: Baliveaux — total,
287; per hectare, 50 (20 per acre). Modernes — total, 81; per hectare, 14 (6 per acre).
Anciens — total, 34; per hectare, 6 (2 per acre).

According to this, very light cuttings are made. The 25- to 30-year-old baliveaux
contain only a very small volume; even the modernes are mainly trees with a content
of less than 35 cubic feet. And the few anciens with about 35 to 70 cubic feet could
have no great influence upon the total volume of wood taken from the entire cutting
area. In the cutting areas which we saw, in which final cuttings had been made not
long since, the entire overwood was estimated at 1,410 to 1,765 cubic feet. It is true
that many advocates of the French system of forest management recommend a larger
amount of overwood capital. But actually the maximum amount retained at the
beginning of the rotation amounts to only 1,145 cubic feet per acre. This is far less
than correspondents testify is the practice in the German management of coppice with
standards.

The hospital forest of Blois does not vary much, in its composition and in the pro-
portion of overwood, from the figures which are cited for the entire country. Accord-
ing to the department of agriculture's statistics the following relative figures per hectare
were obtained for the fiscal year (Wirtschaftsjahr) 1876:

Baliveaux

Modernes

Anciens

Government forest

Communal forest

39 (16 per acre)
64 (26 per acre)

11 (4 per acre)
18 (7 per acre)

2 (1 per acre)
5 (2 per acre)

In individual parts of the country there are, of course, great differences. Individual
conservations (districts) (Dijon, Rouen, Nancy, Amiens, etc.), contain over 100 baliveaux
and over 30 modernes per hectare (40 and 12, respectively, per acre).

The details of the management of the coppice with standards belonging to the State
and administered by the State are worked out in accordance with the fundamental
principles of the system far more systematically than in Germany. Here it is always
looked upon as a difficult sort of management which makes special demands on the
tact and activity of the organizing and executive officers. "Im Mittelwalde der Zu-
kunft," is observed in the papers of the convention of German foresters at Dresden in
1889 "musz die intensivste Bewirtschaftung, reine Baumwirtschaft Amvendung findem,
wenn derselbe den an seine Produklicilat, an seine Geldertr'dge und NachhaUigkeit zu stel-
lenden Aufforderungen entsprechen soil" ("In the coppice with standards of the future
the most intensive management, pure forestry, must find application if the same is to
meet the demands placed upon it, in its productivity, its money revenues, and its per-
manence"). Nevertheless, it will only be very seldom that such a goal will be sought
and attained in the future. It leads to a very large capital of overwood and to the
death or degeneration of the underwood. Such a tendency results in a gradual chang-
ing of the coppice with standards to a regulated selection forest which is a yet better
system of management for attaining the objects proposed. In most German forest
regions this change has already commenced; in Prussia the coppice with standards is
scarcely represented at present. Its distinguishing characteristic, the reserving of

GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY 491

vigorous sprouts, demands an extensive management for the overwood, and hence it
is thus that it is managed in the French State and communal forests.

The predominating species in the French coppice with standards stands is the oak.
It, alone, is recorded in the statistics. In Blois it occupied 95 per cent of the forest
area. The oak, under the favorable conditions of site in central France, is characterized
by good sprouting capacity and abundant seed production. The renovation of over-
wood and underwood is effected, therefore, chiefly by natural regeneration and sprout-
ing in a very satisfactory manner. In most instances, artificial regeneration is to be
considered when large oaks, of which there are only a few per hectare, are rooted out.
The rooting out of trees of a specified size is required of the buyer. When such root-
ing out has taken place the buyer is required to plant such places with oak or deposit
the amount required for this planting. The places on which the wood has been worked
must also be planted up by the buyer. He, moreover, is required to prune the reserved
trees and this must be done to a height of 20 feet from the ground. These regulations
are not mere matters of pen and ink; they are skilfully, carefully, and thoroughly carried
out so that the visitor to the cutting areas receives the most favorable impression of the
system. The impression one receives of the care of the underwood is not so favorable.
Thinnings are not made in the underwood in the Blois forest — and the conditions at
Blois are not exceptional — although, with the long rotation period,[they would be just
as much in order as in the coppice stands for which their importance is demonstrated by
the numerous tree sections at the Paris Exposition. The maintenance, also, of volun-
tary seedlings and the preparation of the poles of the overwood for isolation indicate
timely apphcation of cleanings and thinnings in the underwood. The form of the
purchase, however, makes for difficulties in this respect. The buyer, who has to get
out the timber itseK, has no interest in the small wood resulting from thinnings.

(6) ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF COPPICE WITH STANDARDS

Of most importance for the future of coppice with standards in France is not a well-
developed technique, but its relations to economic conditions. The question as to
whether coppice with standards, which comprises some 3,000,000 hectares (7,413,270
acres) in France, yields profits commensurate with the best utihzation of the land is
of great influence upon its future management and the methods of regulation. The
answer is dependent, on the one hand, upon the volume and value of the material
which it furnishes, and on the other, upon the cost and working methods which are
existent or which would have to be introduced in order to produce this volume and value.

The production of volume in the French coppice with standards stands can be very
well indicated. On the basis of economic results a much more trustworthy judgment
can be found for it than is possible in the case of the high forest. Utilization in the
coppice with standards stands has long been much more uniform. In the forest at
Blois which we visited the income corresponding to the increment amounts annually
to large cuts on the 5.74 hectare (15-acre) cutting areas: In the year 1891, 548; 1892,
554; 1893-1894, 931; 1895, 540; 1896, 547; 1897, 501 ; 1898, 517; 1899, 547 m.^. Accord-
ing to this, the average volume of the annual cut on the 5.74 hectare (15-acre) amounts
to 91 m.3 per hectare (1,300 cubic feet per acre). This is equivalent to a yearly utiliza-
tion of 3.6 m.3 (127 cubic feet) for a 25-year rotation. In the adjacent high forest,
occupying a smiliar site, the annual yield amounts to 3.3 m.' (117 cubic feet). The
volume actually used in the two systems, therefore, differs but slightly; but the coppice
with standards system is in the lead. If the conditions throughout the country are
compared this difference is seen to be even more favorable to the system of coppice with
standards. According to the statistics of the department of soils and commerce (Acker-
und Handelsministerium) there were used per hectare of forest area in the year 1876:

492 APPENDIX

In the State high forest, 2.91 m.^ (41.6 cubic feet per acre); communal, 1.73 m.^ (24.7
cubic feet per acre). In the coppice with standards, 4.26 m.^ (61.0 cubic feet per acre);
communal, 4.00 m.' (57.2 cubic feet per acre). If that kind of figiu-es were to be re-
garded as decisive the coppice with standards would obviously be the more profitable
type of management. But such a conclusion is probably unjustified. Statistics must
not be perverted to overthrow accepted existing facts. In view of the fundamental
principles of increment the production of wood, other things being equal, cannot be
greater in coppice with standards stands than in high forest, but really must be less.
In the large amount of brushwood itself, constituting almost half the entire cutting,
in which is contained much more of the soil nutrients than in the wood more than 2.8
inches in diameter at the small end (Derbholz) or in an abundant seed crop of isolated
trees ofithe overwood, there are two fundamental impulses which, as far as sustained an-
nual increment is concerned, act on the negative side of the balance. Moreover, stock-
ing is seldom as complete in the stands of coppice with standards as in the regulated high
forest. To understand the conflict of the French statistics of income with the actual
inevitable conditions, it must be remembered that in coppice with standards stands,
which are conducted very uniformly as far as rotation period and growing stock are
concerned, the entire increment is used and is used earlier, so that income and increment
are, at least approximately, equal. In the high forest this is not true. In the case of
these, especially in the State forests, utilization has remained very much lower than
increment. Moreover, in France as in other countries, coppice with standards stands
are located preferably on the more favorable sites. High mountains, rugged sites,
stony soils, are no sites for the coppice with standards. In many German States there
have likewise been evident results similar to those in France. The grand duchy of
Baden's statistics show the revenue from stands of coppice with standards as earlier
and greater than that from the high forests. But more recent statistics demonstrate
that the results obtained from the management of the high forest there are really superior
to those from coppice with standards, vmder similar treatment especially when thinnings
are properly conducted, and in spite of the unfavorable sites it occupies. This view is,
indeed, shared even by the exponents of the French system of forest management,
who have at their disposal a comprehensive knowledge of conditions throughout the
country. In Chapter 4, Part 2, of his work, "De V exploitabilite dans ses rapports avec
I'interSt public" (The age of maturity in its bearing upon the public interests), Tassy
summarizes the results obtained with high forest and with coppice with standards.
He arrives at the conclusion that under average conditions of growth the high forest
under good management could yield 6 m.' per hectare (86 cubic feet per acre) — "chiffre
tres modere (a very conservative figure)." The average yield from stands of coppice
with standards is, on the contrary, estim.ated at 4.30 m. (63 cubic feet per acre).

This unfavorable showing of the absolute production of the coppice with standards
cannot be compensated for even by the ratio of increment to capital, or the growth
per cent. Compared with the high forest managed on a very long rotation period
with a proportionately large number of trees per hectare, the system of coppice with
standards does, it is true, present a very favorable appearance in the connection. But
it is easy to deceive one's self in that regard by measurements of single trees. The com-
parative annual increments of the coppice with standards are very unequal. Especially,
after the felling of the imderwood and openings in the overwood, the growth per cents,
of the younger age classes in particular, are very high, far higher than is necessary for
meeting the demands made on the production by the stands. Later, these conditions
are changed. They result more unfavorably than is the case in the high forest where
the decline in increment in the pole and standard ages can be far better met by means
of vigorous thinnings and openings.

GERMAN COMMENT ON FRENCH FORESTRY

493

The work prepared by certain French forest owners for the Paris Exposition affords
information on the increase of vohime which occurs in the course of a rotation period.
It deals fundamentally with stands of coppice with standards with moderately large
growing stock of overwood and four age classes the numbers of whose trees per hectare
stand in the ratio of 8 (baliveaux) to 4 (modernes) to 2 (anciens) to 1 {vieille ecorce). The
effect of the increased volume is that with a 25-year rotation period the volume of the
stands increases in the ratio of 1 to 2; with a 30-year rotation in the ratio of 1 to 2.5.

The system of coppice with standards seems the poorer form of management as
compared with the high forest, more because of the poor quality of the wood produced
than because of its small volume. It does not satisfy the demands which have been
made for the most important technical properties (clean full boles). The reduction in
the number of trees per hectare to about 50 (20 per acre), which occurs at the age of
25 years, has the natural result that the twigs which are present at a height of about
3 to 5 m. (10 to 15 feet) remain and develop. Corresponding to the formation of large,
deep-rooted twigs is the formation of broad annual rings which are laid on for a longer
time until decreased under the influence of the underwood growing up about them
and of the increasing seed production. Branchy tapering trees of unequal height are
the natural result in coppice with standards stands under the conditions of growth
described.

The influence of the type of management on the quality of the wood is clearly shown
by presenting yield statistics. In the forests of Blois the volume and financial returns
in the past decade were as follows :

Yield

Auction prices

Year

m.3

Total francs

Per m.3, francs

1891

M3

8,500

15.65

1892

554

8,100

14.62

1893)

1894/

931

12,200

13.10

1895

540

6,300

11.67

1896

547

7,350

13.44

1897

501

6,150

12.28

1898

517

6,275

12.14

1899

547

7,500

13.71

Total

4,680 *

62,375 t

13.33 t

* 165,276 cubic feet. f $12,048.40. J $0.07 per cubic foot.

The average cubic meter is thus seen to be valued at 13.33 francs, while the adjacent
Government high forest has yielded almost double this price for the average cubic
meter.

Relative figures similar to those given u.? for the forest region which we visited at Blois
exist likewise for the entire country. According to the department of agriculture's
statistics, in the fiscal year 1876: The value of the average cubic meter amounted in
the Government forest to 16.26 francs (9 cents per cubic foot); in the communal forest
to 8.42 francs (5 cents per cubic foot) ; the yield per year and hectare in the Govern-
ment forest to 38.59 francs ($3 per acre); in the communal forest to 22.70 francs ($1.82
per acre).

The chief cause for the difference per cubic meter and in the armual revenue is to be
found in the preponderance of coppice with standards in the communal forests. In

494 APPENDIX

individual parts of the country figures on the conditions of site stand, and market wUl
be found very different. For the conservation of Tours, which forms part of the forests
visited, the yield per hectare was: in the State forest, 40.59 francs ($3.17 per acre) for
coppice with standards; 44.83 francs ($3.50 per acre) for conversion stands; 64.35 francs
($5.13 per acre) for broad leaf (Angiosperms) high forest; in the communal forest, 44.21
francs ($3.45 per acre) for coppice with standards, 63.68 francs ($4.98 per acre) for
high forest.

How little timber the French coppice with standards produces as a whole is evident
from Tassy's summary, where he says of it: "In a normal coppice with standards stand
the overwood constitutes not more than a third of the volume of the annual cut; and
if we grant that in the overwood a half yields timber we are giving it just as much as
possible. So if I place the timber at one-sixth the volume cut I need not be accused of
trying to reduce the ratio." The following estimate, based on this, shows that of 13
million cubic meters (460,000,000 cubic feet) produced by French coppice with standards
stands, only 2\ million cubic meters (88,000,000 cubic feet) can be sold as timber.
In the department of agriculture 's statistics the per cents of timber for the fiscal year
1876 are given as follows: For State coppice with standards, 23 per cent; for communal,
12 per cent; for State high forest, 51 per cent; for communal, 42 per cent.

From what has been said there can be no question that the system of coppice with
standards does not meet the economic demands which must be made of forest manage-
ment in France. It was, as in Germany, of importance in the past. As long as fire-
wood was a prime necessity for the entire population wood was needed in proportionately
small sizes, and since in most forest regions there were insurmountable difficulties in the
way of timber traffic it formed a very good system of management for those woodlands
located near the consumers. Hence we find the following note to the department's
statistics, concerning communal forests: "It must be appreciated that for this kind of
forest ownership, it is a very suitable system. Furnishing the inhabitants, as it does,
with a variety of species and kinds of wood it meets their requirements better than does
the high forest." But the character of the demands made upon the woodlands has
suffered a radical change in the course of the 19th century. In all essential respects
coppice with standards is inferior to the high forest; in its relations to the soil as well
as in its bearings on yield. For maintaining soil fertility coppice with standards is
not an especially commendable silvicultural system. The mere fact that those species
which form the best soil cover do not occur in it is a factor of unfavorable influence.
Likewise the difficulty of amalgamating overwood and underwood into a uniform
canopy. More important yet are its economic shortcomings. It stands in opposition
to the general economic principle that with progressive development of the cultivation
of the land, all management must he more intensively conducted, and at a greater outlay
of labor and capital. The kinds most demanded by the French economic conditions,
loppings and wood for splitting (Schneide- und Spaltholz), are produced only in very
smaU quantities. It is, therefore, to the general economic interests of the country that
the stands of coppice with standards be changed over into high forest as quickly as the
financial condition of the owners permits. This is recognized as the right principle even
in France. As far as the State forests are concerned the change has already been
effected over large areas, and is to a great extent in progress elsewhere. The 1876
statistics give the stands in process of conversion in the State forests as 290,227 hectares
(717,170 acres), the Handbook of 1900 as 124,374 hectares (307,340 acres). For the
communal forests this change can proceed only very gradually because of the financial
sacrifice involved.

FORESTS OF ALSACE-LORRAINE

495

APPENDIX J

THE FORESTS OF ALSACE-LORRAINE i

Area. — The forests of Alsace-Lorraine cover 1,085,520 acres; this is 30.3 per cent
of the total land area, and 47 per cent of the area in agriculture, and corresponds to 0.6
of an acre of forest per inhabitant. Therefore Alsace-Lorraine with 30.3 per cent has
almost twice the proportional forest area that France proper possesses — 18.7 per cent;
and it is even above the average for Eiu-ope which is 28.8 per cent, but below that of the
Vosges Department — 36.9 per cent. Since 1871 the average in acres under forests,
divided according to ownership, has been as follows:

Year

State

Undiv-ided

Communal

Public
institution

Private

1871

330,652
330,930
337,016
337,112
343,119

44,469
42,472
40,273
40,162
40,053

487,574
490,295
491,958
494,184
491,342

1881

1891

1901

1913

5,966

208,069

This makes a grand total of 1,088,549 acres in 1913 but (to check with the correct total
area) from this total must be subtracted 3,029 acres, probably due to incomplete statis-
tics on private forests, which gives a net total of 1,085,520 acres. From these statistics
it is evident that the area of State forests was increased 12,467 acres and the communal
forests 3,768 acres under German management. About half the increase in State forest
area was due to purchases and half to transfers from forests formerly in undivided owner-
ship. It is of interest that there were no less than 1,123 communes owning communal
forests, or about 438 acres average per commune in 1913. A very much larger propor-
tion of the forest area is in public ownership than in France proper as may be seen from
the following table :

Class of ownership

Per cent owned by classes o

owners

Haute-Alsace

Basse-Alsace

Lorraine

State

Per cent
17.85

Per cent
25.73

10.14 *

45.85
0.77
17.51

Per cent
47.62

Undivided

Communes

65.. 38
0.18
16.59

27 57

Public institutions. . . .

0 61

Private . .

24.20

Totals

100

100

100

* The most important forest in undivided ownership is Haguenau, with 35,313 acres.
This is one of the most interesting forests in Alsace-Lorraine.

1 Digested from Les Forets d'Alsace et de Lorraine, par H. Lafosse, Vol. II, Traveaux
et Notices publics par I'Academie d'Agriculture de France, 1919. Based on 1913
statistics collected by the German Forest Service. A literal translation of the subject
headings of the above monograph is as follows: "Area of forests, Methods of treatment
and distribution of species. Free use, Forest administrative organization. Management

496 APPENDIX

Only one-fifth the forest area is in private hands and in Haute-Alsace two-thirds the
forests are in the hands of the communes.

Deforestation is rare; from 1871 to 1912 only 2,923 acres of State forest, 6,642 acres of
communal, and 9,768 acres of private forest (total of 19,333 acres) has been cleared — a
neghgible per cent for a period of over 40 years. Since Alsace-Lorraine was annexed by
Germany a total of 13,919 acres has been reforested, or about 331 acres per year. There
is only about 74,000 acres of barren land, of which at least 49,000 is excellently adapted
for grazing, leaving perhaps 25,000 acres to be restocked. This compares most favor-
ably with France proper, where there is perhaps 15 million acres of unused .soil, at least
two-thirds of which could be forested.

Important Species. — " Besides, in the forests of the recovered territory there are
found the best species (fir, pine, oak, beech) and the production of timber, favored by a
climate suitable for growth, reaches the average figure of 4.1 cubic meters per hectare per
year" (perhaps 250 to 300 board feet per acre per year). According to Lafosse: "The
forests are located for the most part in the Vosges Mountains and on their lower slopes;
the Lorraine plateau is also stocked with forests and they are found in the valley of the
Rhine as islands (of forest), some very important stands, notably Haguenau and Hardt
(Mtilhausen)." The fir and beech (high forests) are found chiefly on the Vosges sands
(gres vosgien) and the granites, while the oak-beech (coppice and coppice-under-
standards) is on the marls and limestone. The area, by species, in the high forests is
as follows: Beech 34| per cent, fir 32^ per cent, pine 18 per cent, oak 12| per cent, and
birch-alder 2| per cent. There are only 586 acres of larch and about one-eighth as
much spruce as fir. Counting all species the broadleaves comprise seven-tenths of the
stand and the conifers three-tenths.

Silvicultural Systems. — The method of treatment for (a) the broadleaves and
(6) the conifers is as follows:

Per cent of total forest area

Broadleaves : Coppice 6

Coppice-under-standards 26

Protection forests A of 1

Under conversion 4§

Selection y% of 1

High forest 30

Total broadleaves 67|

Conifers: Selection 1

High forest 31|

Total conifers 32^

Grand total 100

For all species the high forest systems occupy 64 per cent of the area but comprise 73
per cent in the State forests and 60 per cent in the communal and public institution
forests.

The age cla.sses, both for conifers and broadleaves, are well distributed, but Lafosse (in
keeping with French conservatism) argues that the older stands (over 100 years of age)

of the forests. Exploitation of the timber. Material cut, Money yield of the forests. Wood
prices, Money value of the State forests of Alsace-Lorraine, "Expenditures of the Forest
Service, Wood industries, Movement of the exchange of forest products, Sliooting in
Alsace-Lorraine, Policy of shooting. Damage caused by game." These data have been
summarized and rearranged.

Lafosse is one of the most distinguished French foresters and holds the rank of In-
specteur General des Eaux et Forets, and after the armistice was appointed Directeur
General des Eaux et Forets et de I'Agriculture d'Alsace et de Lorraine.

FORESTS OF ALSACE-LORRAINE 497

are deficient, occupying only 14 per cent of the area. The 47,007 acres under conversion
are a most noteworthy achievement in economy and are really the feature of the German
forest administration, but, according to Lafosse, "The method used was not scientific
and was often brutal," there having been according to French technique, too abrupt
changes.

Administrative Organization. — In 1871 the Germans placed oberforsters (cor-
responding to supervisors) in charge of definite units instead of continuing the French
system of forest organization which provided for inspectors supervising a considerable
area, subdivided and under the immediate charge of assistant inspectors. In addition
to the usual duties the oberforster had charge of logging because the product was sold in
the log instead of as standing timber as in France. In addition all road improvements
were directly under the oberforster as well as the building of ranger stations, and game
control. Under the oberforster were the rangers and guards. Over the oberforster was
the forstmeister, but in 1881 this position was abolished for political reasons.^ Instead,
two or three advisors (or general inspectors) were attached to the office of the ober-
forstmeister, who corresponded to the French conservateur or American district forester.
The entire service was under a director or landforstmeister. There were about 817
officers in the entire organization of whom 740 were local and 77 overhead. The ober-
forster and subordinate force were lodged or given an allowance for quarters. Just how
this organization will be modified by the new French administration it is too early to
predict but it is fairly certain that the number of officers and employees will be largely
reduced (and French officers entirely substituted) ; if sales of timber are again made on
the stumpage basis instead of as manufactured products the present organization wiU
be totally changed.

Working Plans. — Working plans during the German administration were pre-
pared by a commission composed of the oberforstmeister (conservateur) and the ober-
forster of the forest concerned and were approved b}^ the landforstmeister (the ranking
forester of Alsace-Lorraine), on the advice of the technical working plan bureau. The
forests were divided into working groups, sub-working groups, sections, and compart-
ments. The timber was divided into age classes and the soil into quality classes, and the
periods were usually 20 years or less. The yield was given in cubic meters — never by
area or by number of trees. The local officer in charge was bound to the prescribed yield
with a leeway of 10 -per cent for overrun or underrun. It is of interest to read the critique
of these plans by Lafosse:

" The working plans were very rich in many columned tables; the work Vv^as quite com-
plicated. At first glance, the French methods, because of their suppleness and simplicity
— where the last word has not yet been said — seem much better. However there is one
point in the former working plans which shows real progress over the French system.
It is the program of logging roads. The price of timber is closely linked with logging
facilities — an elementary truism which need not be further emphasized. The working
plan should not only prescribe the best rules for cultural treatment, but it must also dis-
close the means of assuring a handy and economical removal of the products. This
principle was applied by the foresters of the former organization."

Even the detailed plan of road work was incorporated in the working plan, the de-
tails being drawn by ^specialists, so that when the working plan was finally approved the
supervisor could go ahead with his program. Automatically the necessary credits were
included in the budget.

2 It is of historical interest to note that the difficult and troublesome questions of free-
use rights in the old "Comte de Dabo (Lorraine)" were not settled by the Germans.
From 1882 to 1908 the value of the free-use privileges nearly doubled. They attempted
settlements but for political reasons "withdrew the projects." No wonder they had
difficulties when it is recalled that there was a "veritable revolt" in 1848 when French
records were burned and foresters shot.

498

APPENDIX

The rotations were much shorter than in France. For oak the rotation was rarely
over 160 years, beech and fir 120, pine 70 to 80, spruce plantations 80 years — "As
we have said before there are no old trees in Alsace-Lorraine." The former method
of clear cutting followed by planting, so generally followed, has "during the last ten
years . . . shown a tendency toward the natural regeneration methods of the French."
With French control unquestionably natural regeneration will largely replace clear cutting
and planting.

Logging. — The German administration did its own logging. " The felled timber
was transported near the roads. The oberforsters hired the lumberjacks and based
their wages on price schedules issued by the conservators. The workmen were super-
vised by the guards and especially by the lumberjack foremen. The latter were really
the ones to direct the logging." The manufactured product was classified according
to species and class of product and was auctioned in small lots so as to fill the small
local requirements; and with small sales there was better competition and hence higher
prices. Sales could not be made by mutual agreement unless the product in question
had first been offered at pubHc auction; nor could timber or cordwood be sold at less
than 10 per cent of the minimum rate (established by the landforstmeister) nor could
more than $2.5 worth be sold, without an auction, to the same purchaser in one fiscal
year. No money could be received by forest officers or employees — it was paid to
the "forstkrass" or "caisses forestieres" corresponding to the American fiscal agent's
office.

Yield Data. — It is of interest to compare the total yield per hectare in Alsace-
Lorraine with border departments:

Class of forest

State

State

Communal

State

State

State

Communal
Communal
Communal

Alsace-Lorraine ...
Alsace-Lorraine. . .

Alsace-Lorraine

Haute-Saone

Vosges

Meurthe-et-Moselle

Haute-Saone

Vosges

Meurthe-et-Moselle

Year

1882
1913

1913
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911
1911

Total yield per hectare,
cubic meters

Per cent saw timber
(bois d'ceuvre)

47.3 (88 per cent
bois fort)*

47 ".51

56 . 8 44 . 1 average

28.0

20.0

41.2 25.6 average

15.6

* It should be noted that according to German usage Derbholz or "bois fort" in-
cludes some wood which the French statistics do not class as saw timber, namely, "quar-
tiers" and "rondins" of the French fuel classes (that is, everything over 2.7 inches at
small end).

From the above table it appears that the communal forests in Alsace-Lorraine have
a lighter yield than the State forests and that the French State forests in three border
departments in 1911 averaged 4 cubic meters per hectare per year as compared with
4.29 for the State forests in Alsace-Lorraine; the relative production of saw timber was
44.1 per cent as against 47.3 per cent for Alsace-Lorraine. The French communal
forests in these departments were very inferior as regards saw timber because of the
high proportion of coppice and coppice-under-standards. Extremely interesting figures
on the cost of logging and gross receipts are given for the communal forests. In 1913
there were 487,967 acres cut over (chiefly thinnings of varying degree) removing 862,352
cubic meters (about 107,785,000 board feet and 44,910 cords). In addition, 45,759
cubic meters of dead leaves were removed for local use as bedding, etc. The

FORESTS OF ALSACE-LORRAINE

499

cost ^ of logging to point of sale was $591,738 and the gross receipts $2,232,480. This
signifies that slmnpage secured almost three-fourths the value of the delivered log or cord
excluding overhead.

The total net receipts from State forests (and State forests held in undivided owner-
ship) was $1,175,764 or $7.78 per acre forested; in 1913 the net total was $1,186,626,
and the net per acre $7.65 or 13 cents less than in 1873. In 1918 the receipts had
almost doubled owing to war inflation. The revenue has been constant except in 1892
and 1902 when there were losses from windfall due to an overstocked market and con-
sequent low prices. There are no rehable data on the returns from private forests.

Stumpage Prices. — Stumpage prices have fluctuated with the economic conditions,
since forestry is a key industry in Alsace-Lorraine. The prices in 1913 and 1919 for the
different classes of product are of interest :

Class of Product

Minimum length,
feet

Minimum

diameter,

inches

Dollars per cubic meter

1913

1919, February

(1) Logs

59.0
59.0

52.5
45.9
32.8

under 32.8
"Rondins"

11.8

8.7
6.7
5.5
4.7
5.5

6.31

5.71
4.76
3.81
3.57
3.10
1.67 (stere)

11 90

(2) Logs

9 52

(3) Logs .

8 33

(4) Logs

4 76

(5) Logs

4 76

(6) Logs

4 29

Cordwood

4.76 (stere)

For 52.5-foot trees, 6.7 inches at small end outside bark, these prices (for class 3) are
equivalent to about $19 a thousand board feet in the log along the roads and $33 in
early 1919. This means about $14 and $24 on the stump for medium-sized trees in 1913
and 1919. It should be noted that the inflation was much greater in France, for just
across the border at St. Die the last auctions of 1918 yielded about $47 per thousand
board feet for good fir on the stump, or almost double the price in Alsace-Lorraine.

Miscellaneous Data. — From 1907 to 1917, 304,895 acres of the State forests
(about five-sixths of the total) were valued by the German service and totaled with the
actual growing stock, $78,735,237, or about $254.37 per acre. Taking five-sixths of the
net revenue of $7.65 per acre this means a return of 2^ per cent on the assessed capital
invested. But Lafosse estimates that France secures State forests with a round total
sale value of 154 million doflars and that the return on this higher valuation has been
only 1.26 per cent — "a low return." For all public forests the "coefficient of exploita-
tion . . . was about 50 per cent " . . . but almost $96,500 was spent annMa%
on road and railroad development. The building of Government forest railroads has
proven especially profitable. For example, the Abreschwiller paid for itself in 6 years
through higher prices for the timber and cordwood. The Germans put 4.7 per cent of
the total money spent each year into planting and sowing; this amounted (for the State
forest area) to $4.87 per acre for sowing labor and $7.65 per acre for planting labor.
The planting stock averaged $3.17 per thousand transplants, which is certainly not a
high cost compared with the costs on National Forests in the United States.

Wood Industries. — The chief wood industries are: Sawmills, furniture, flooring,
wooden shoes, implement handles, shoe trees, vehicle bodies, billiard tables, etc.

In 1907 Alsace-Lorraine imported 50,000 tons (a deficit of about one-twentieth the
total production) of wood products mostly from Austria, Sweden, and the Rhine "Pala-

3 The normal value of the mark 23.8 cents was used in converting marks to dollars.

500 APPENDIX

tinat," so the return of the "lost provinces" to France will not help her timber shortage.
Considering that 30 per cent of the country is forested it is especially surprising to find
that 70,000 steres (about 20,000 cords) of fuel are imported and in addition 7^ million
tons of coal. Granting that Alsace-Lorraine cannot export wood to France, France
must reforest with rapidly growing species her 15 million acres of land which is not now
'producing, and the low production of French private forests must be increased. "The
owners must be persuaded to give up their short rotations (in coppice and coppice-
under-standards) and must be shown the necessity of producing saw timber" — for the
benefit of the public.

Judging from the data now available the German administration of Alsace-Lorraine
public forests has been honest, efficient, and along correct lines. France receives back a
valuable property which has been wisely developed during the 41 years of alienation.

APPENDIX K

ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA

Translations from original French Government working plans give a further insight
into management methods and policy. The original French metric system has been
retained. The following extracts are given:

(1) Digest of Grande Cote (Jura) working plan revision illustrating a working plan
by Devarennes.

(2) Extract from working plan revision of State forest of Ban d'Etival, by Cuif,
showing error in stocktaking in 1898. Masson method of yield calculation used ex-
perimentally as a comparison with the method of 1883 and regulation by number of
trees. This is one of the most interesting forests in France for detailed study by those
interested in forest management.

(3) Forest of Mont Glore. An example of errors in early yield calculation which
resulted in an overcut.

(4) Forest of Hardies (near Oloron, Basses-Pyrenees). Forestry on alluvial land
subject to flooding, and therefore unsuited to agriculture.

(5) Forest of La Joux (Haute-Jura). Yield calculation where there is an excess
growing stock. Graphic of growing stock compared with an empirical normal stand.

(6) Forest of Fillinges (Haute-Savoie) . Recovery of a forest after forest management.

(7) Forest of Burdignin (Haute-Savoie). Example of yield regulation by the method
of 1883.

(8) Forest of Pare et St. Quentin (Oise). Example of yield regulation by periods,
with the provision that the silvical needs of the regeneration fellings (which will be de-
pendent on the seed crops secured) should be subordinate to the sequence of fellings laid
out by the working plan.

(9) Forest of Thiez (Haute-Savoie). Example of a complete working plan by Schaef-
fer, the foremost working plans officer in France.

(1) STATE FOREST OF GRANDE COTE (JURA)
PART I
"All the available statistics concerning the state forest of Grande Cote are given in
detail in the management plan of February 26, 1858, and in the revisions of March 31,
1884, and April 27, 1897. Since this latter date there have been no actual changes in
area. This area given in the revision of 1897 was 381.61 hectares." . . . Minor
additions and substitutions have been made because of roads. . . .

ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 501

PART II. — MANAGEMENT IN FORCE

FORMER MANAGEMENT PLANS

Art. 1. — Digest of the bases of management. — The State forest of Grande
Cote before it became State property belonged to the order of Citeaux, Abbey St. Marie.

It was originally cut under the selection system, while the yield was regulated by the
number of trees in accordance with the former usage. The decree of August 23, 1858,
substituted the shelterwood system. The rotation was placed at 150 years and divided
into 5 periods of 30 years each, corresponding to 5 periodic blocks on the ground.

During the first period 1858-1887, the principal felling areas had to be laid out in the
first periodic block and in certain compartments of the fourth and fifth periodic blocks
with a yield of 2,919 steres or 1,883 m. c.

All the compartments not subjected to the main fellings were run over by biennial
selection fellings to commence with and controlled by volume (310 steres or 200 m. c),
but dating from 1864 (decree of June 25) by area and every four years.

The improvement cuttings were unlimited in volume and the local executive officers
were free to propose them as they saw fit.

At the time of the 1884 revision (approved by decree of June 6, 1885) the rotation
was 160 years dating from 1858 and divided into 4 periods of 40 years each, corre-
sponding to the same number of periodic blocks.

During the last 14 years of the period (1884-1897), the yield of 1,668 m. c. was secured
in the first and fourth periodic blocks.

Timber of 0.60 m. in circumference (7 inches d. b. h.) cut in the first, second, or
fourth periodic blocks (except c.^) was subtracted from the prescribed yield.

Improvement cuttings in places selection in character, elsewhere thinnings and
cleanings were carried out on a cutting cycle of 14 j'ears in the fourth periodic block.

MANAGEMENT ACTUALLY IN FORCE

In 1897 (decree of September 3, 1897) the permanent periodic blocks were suppressed
and the compartments readjusted in two groups.

The first group including the compartments to be cut over under regeneration fellings
by volume, the second comprising the remaining compartments and the object of the
fellings both for improvement and mere extraction by area. These latter fellings
extended also to the first group, but they must not be confounded with the main felhngs.

The yield recruited on the entire area of the forest was fixed at 3,200 m. c. The
volume of all conifers 0.80 m. in circumference (10 inches d. b. h.) and above, no matter
how realized, on the entire forested area was subtracted from the yield.

During a period of 16 years, from 1897 to 1912, they carried out: (1) Regeneration
fellings in the compartments 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13, and 23; (2) improvement cut-
tings and extraction on a cycle of 8 years on the entire surface of the forest.

Art. 2. — Results obtained. — The various fellings have left the forest in the
following condition :

(1) Compartments of the first group, subjected to regeneration fellings (188.69
hectares) .

The compartments 1 and 23 may be considered as entirely regenerated; they com-
prise poles and young standards over a complete young growth with which there is
some old timber which should be cut without delay. On the other hand regeneration
must be continued or secured later on in: compartments 2, 3, 4, and 7 which comprise
full crowned veterans, regular and dense, over advance growth and saplings in groups
usually well started: 500 m. c. per hectare on the average of which 41 per cent is timber
1.8 m. or more in circumference. Also compartments 8, 12, 13 which comprise rather

502

APPENDIX

open veterans over quite dense seedlings: 340 m. c. per hectare on the average of which
35 per cent is ripe timber. Compartments 5 and 9 comprise standards and large poles,
dense, regular, and in very fine condition, over seedling growth.

(2) Remaining compartments cut over by improvement fellings (192.92 hectares).
The compartments 6, 11, 16, 17, 18 which are in the sapling and pole stage, with several
veteran stands regular and dense.

Compartments 10, 14, 15, 19, 22 are mature, in fully stocked stands; dense with a
promising growth of a certain number of poles.

The compartments 20, 21, 23, 24 comprise irregular poles and veterans with a certain
amount of scattering large timber over thick seedling growth and saplings. Generally
speaking the stands are growing well. While continuing to cut the mature timber
there should be no hesitation in thinning the poles so as to increase their growth.

Art. 3. — Application of the yield. — The following table gives (in accordance
with the records at Pontarlier) the volume and the value of wood products realized in
the State forest of Grande Cote during the 15 years from 1897 to 1911.

Years

Fellings

Accidental
products *

Total volume
per year

Value of the

Regeneration

Improvement

products

1897

m.3

m.'

m.3

3,461

1,148

904

978

764

1,133

1,097

1,159

1,215

1,040

966

1,316

765

3,063

1,337

m.3
3,461

2,940
3,176
3,224
3,200
3,319
3,080
3,200
3,200
3,202
3,219
3,302
3,118
3,063
4,086

Francs
51,600

1898

1,792
2,272
2,246
2,436
2,186
1,983
1,025
1,985
2,162
2,022
1,986
2,353

51,150

1899

57,950

1900

66,600

1901

..

65,150

1902

52,700

1903

59,970

1904
1905

1,016

70,250
57,400

1906

53,070

1907
1908

231

60,840
71,730

1909

64,120

1910

57,670

1911

1,992

757

84,760

Total

3,239
216

25,205
1,680

20,346
7,356

48,790
3,252

924,960

Average

61,664

* Note large and varying amounts of "accidental products" — chiefly windfall.
The loss in timber, where a large area is cut over and then left for 40 or 50 years, as in
the western United States, must be very great, m. c. and also m.^ = cubic meters.

From the preceding figures it seems that during the 15 years, the average annual
yield per hectare has been:

3,252

In material

In money

38,161

8.52 cubic meters.

161.58 francs ($12.47 per acre).

Exploitation Balance Sheet. — In the 15 years 1897 to 1911 there should have
been cut 3,200 X 15 or 48,000 m. c; there was actually realized 48,790 or an excess of
790. This excess provided for the windfall of 1911.

In order to include a period sufficiently long, we have compared the inventory of 1883
and the results of stocktaking of 1911, excluding the old compartment, 25 (now 27),
which was not enumerated in 1883.

ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA
The results obtained are shown in the following table:

503

Date
of In-
ven-
tory

Number of trees

Total

Per
hec-
tare

214
203

Volumes

Total

Average

timber

0.80 to 1.20

Interme-
diate
timber
1.40 to 1.60

Exploit-
timber
1.80 and -h

Average

timber

0.80 to 1.20

Interme-
diate
timber
1.40 to 1.60

Exploit-
able
timber
1.80 and +

Per

hec-
tare

1883
1911

50,184
47,851

Per

cent
65
62

20,613
21,168

Per

cent

27

7,159
8,303

9

77,956
77,322

m.3

47,387
42,866

Per
cent
36
32

m.3
50,241
53,695

Per
cent

28

39

m.3
33,466
38,633

Per
cent
26
29

m.'
131,094
135,194

m.3
343
353

-2,333

-1-555

+1.144

-634

-4,521

+3,454

+5,167

+4,100

Composition of the Stands (Number of trees and volume). — The number of
trees 0.80 m. and over in circumference has passed from an average of 214 per hectare
to 203 and the volume from 343 m. c. per hectare to 353 m. c.

The stands have not sensibly changed during the period 1883-1911; they are more-
over very nearly in the condition which is considered normal in the Jura except for a
slight shortage in volume of old timber.

Growth in Volume, — The comparison of the inventories of 1883 and 1911 gives

an excess in 1911 of 4,100 m. c. From 1883 to 1896 25,099 m. c. has been reahzed

making a total of 73,053 m. c. From 1897 to 1911 47,954 m. c. has been cut. The

77,153 ^„^

2,753 m. c; per

total growth for the 28 years would be 77,153 or annually
2,753 m.

hectare and per year

364.86 ha
Growth Per Cent. — Average capital

= 7.55 m. c.

131,094 + 135,194

average stand volume per hectare of

133,144
36,486

2

365 m.

28

133,144 m. c. making an

^ ,, , 7.55 X 100 ^ ,

Growth per cent tt^^ or 2.1 per cent.

3bo

We have not thought it possible to take account of the stock estimates of 1896 because
in comparing it with the inventories of 1883 and on the other hand with the inventory
of 1911 we arrive at results which do not appear to be admissible.

Comparison of the inventories
of 1896 and 1883

Comparison of the inventories
of 1896 and 1911

Volume of the timber
0.80 m. in circum-
ference and over in-
ventoried

Volume of the timber
0.80 m. in circum-
ference and over
realized

1883 = 131,094 m. c.
1896 = 153,793 m. c*
i.e. 22,699 m. c. more

From 1884 to 1896 = 25,377
Total growth in 13 years =

48,076 or per year 3,698
Per hectare and per year
3,698 ,.,,

3g^= 10.13 m.c.

Growth per cent
10.13 X 100 - „
7^^ = 2.6 per cent

1896 = 160,534 m. c.
1911 = 143,062 m. c.
i.e. 17,472 m. c. less

From 1897 to 1911 = 48,790
Total growth in 15 years =
48,790-17,472 = 31,318 m.c.
Per hectare and per year

2,088 . ,_

8j6l = ^-^^
Growth per cent

5.47 X 100 , ,

5q^ =1.4 per cent

Not including the compartment 25 which had not been inventoried in 1883.

504 APPENDIX

We cannot satisfactorily explain how, in a period of 28 years, while the average
volume per hectare remains sensibly the same, the annual growth per hectare could
reach 10.13 m. c. during the first 13 years considered, while it is put at 5.47 m. c. during
the last 15 years, the per cent falling similarly from 2.6 to 1.4; the vegatative conditions
having remained the same and the yield adopted having always been very moderate
(from 1.5 to 2 per cent of the growing stock enumerated). It seems that differences so
marked and so abnormal must be attributed to inaccuracies in the enumerations of 1896
taken as a basis for discussion. Moreover in a forest at quite a high altitude, such as
that we are discussing (average of 1,000 meters), where the climate is severe, it seems
difficult to admit, as the author of the 1897 working plan has done, that the average
annual increment per hectare could be 10 m. c. and continue thus indefinitely. Such
a growth is found actually at Levier and at La Joux but these two forests, situated at a
lower altitude (average of 380 m.) and in a materially milder climate, show stands
which are not comparable to those of the Grande Cote. On the plea of maintaining
the timber capital at as high a rate of production as possible, it does not do to merely
cut the mature timber and to l)elieve, as written in the working plan of 1897 (p. 35),
that a forest, such as Levier, only depreciates its per cent of production by making
sacrifices to mature timber and that the production of the Grande Cote is raised because
it contains average sized trees. It is very laudable to try to obtain the maximum yield
and usually it is absolutely necessary to reaUze the mature timber, but is it not most
important to make sure the forests are perpetuated?

The factors which have an influence on the production of wood are extremely numer-
ous; even if they are more or less known to us, yet we are still in doubt about many
of them, as to what is the actual action and effective part of each in a phenomenon so
complicated as that of the growth of wood and of the life history of a forest stand.

Therefore, putting aside the systematic theories which often may hide the forest as
it is, we feel we will have fulfilled our task, if, adopting the main provisions of the work-
ing plan in force (in order to avoid those disorders which may compromise the benefits
of a revision) and without any preconceived idea, we will succeed in placing the stands
of the Grande Cote in the best possible condition to assure their vigor and to favor their
growth.

PART III. — REVISION

Art. 1. — Discussion of the management in force and the method of treatment
proposed. — The working plan on the whole is good; however, it appears to us to be
defective in the following points :

(1) The area allotted for regeneration is too large; it occupies more than two-fifths
of the forest and consequently it has been impossible to cut it over with real regeneration
fellings.

Furthermore this group must be absolutely distinct and cannot be linked, without
serious drawbacks, to the compartments to be cut over by area; in such a case one is
compelled to practice bastard fellings, clearly without any definite character, after
which the seeding does not take place.

(2) To guide the executive officers in the natural operations, it is indispensable to
indicate the compartments which must be regenerated after those of the first group.

(3) It is necessary to prescribe for the beech in a definite manner; this associate species
is very essential for the regeneration and good growth of fir stands. Its substitution
for the conifers however should be prevented.

(4) For the reasons already explained, the actual yield, which corresponds to a
production of 8.6 m. c. must be reduced.

ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA

505

It will be calculated anew with the 1911 valuations as a basis, and after taking account
of the state of the stands; the annual growth of 7.3 m. c. (which) is a growth per cent
of 2 for the period 1883-1911. Under these conditions the State forest of Grande
Cote will be treated as regular high forest in a single working group with a rotation of
150 years.

The shelterwood system will continue in force, but with the following modification
(see "Regulation," p. 239):

The permanent periodic blocks will remain void but the compartments will be divided
into three groups: (a) Compartments to be regenerated; (b) those compartments
which according to all probability will be ready for regeneration after those of the
first group; (c) the remaining compartments of the forest.

The compartments will continue to be designated from the N. E. to the S. W.; in
the course of time by Arabic numerals. On the map the compartments of the first group
will be shown by blue; those of the second group by yellow; while those of the third
group will not be colored at all.

Art. 2. — Dividing the forest into compartments. — The former division into
compartments has been preserved when it is suitable on the ground: it has only been
modified as to the former compartments 23 and 24, each of which have been cut in two
to form the new compartments 23, 24, 25, 26. In order to establish the special felling
plan the compartments have been divided into three groups. In the first have been
placed compartments 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 12, 13 which contain the most mature timber, whose
regeneration should be carried out during the period for exploitation and which there-
fore will be cut for regeneration. The second group includes compartments 4, 9, 10,
14, 15, 19, 22 which apparently will come in turn to be regenerated after those of the
first group. The third group will be formed of the remaining compartments 1, 6, 11,
16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27; these last two groups will be run over by improve-
ment and extraction fellings. Consequently the following general felling schedule is

First group

Second group

Third group

Compart-
ments

Cantons

Compart-
ments

Cantons

Compart-
ments

Cantons

No.

Area,
hec-
tares

No.

Area,
hec-
tares

No.

Area,
hec-
tares

La Lame

4

8
12
13

25.62
10.38

4.92
20,09
11. .57

6.70
11.35

Creux Vuillaume. . .
CreuxVuiUaume...

Les Vieilles

Les Vieilles

9
5
10
14

15
19
22

5.96
20.69
20.67
17.51
10.62
11.84

9.46

1

6

16

18
20

23
24
25
26

27

21.56

La Lame

9 17

Preaux Rets

Les Vieilles

7 00

Les Vieilles

Les Arpents

Grandes

Creux du Cerf

Les Arpents

Chateau Mergot . . .
Grandes Chaines . .
Grandes Chaines.. .
Creux du Cerf

Au dessus des

Granges

Granges

Paquis de Vaux

20.83
6.49
17.53
22.08
14.77
17.12
12.10
13.13
16.75
16.75

Quart dePlomb

Grandes Chaines

90.63

96.75

193.43

506 APPENDIX

On the other hand, because of the construction of the Frasne-Vallorbe railroad, the
areas of the compartments enumerated below are reduced as follows :

Hectares Hectares Hectares

Compartment 1 = 21.82 - 0.26 = 21.56
Compartment 12 = 6.93 - 0.23 = 6.70
Compartment 17 = 6.66 - 0.17 = 6.49
Compartment 23 = 17.26 - 0.14 = 17.12

REGENERATION FELLINGS

Art. 6. — Special fellings schedule for a period of 32 years, 1913-1944. — The

essential aim of the shelterwood method is to replace a mature stand by young growth
and the cultural difficulties which accompany this reahzation consist in its creation
rather than its development until the merchantable age. In order to attain this result
it is necessary to mark in the first place the regeneration felling; in order to assure its
regular and methodical execution, there have been set aside each year for this operation
a quota of the pre-deter mined yield. This share is fixed at 1,290 m. c.

The compartments of the first group include 41,068 m. c.; this growth is not counted
in order to make allowance for the polewood which can be conserved.

To reaUze on this volume there will be needed ' = 32 or 32 years for the annual

felling; the exploitation plan will then be 32 years (years 1913-1944).

The regeneration fellings will be carried out :

(a) As final fellings in compartments 12, 13 and 8; (6) as secondary fellings, then
as final feUings in compartments 2, 3, 4, and 7. They will be laid out gradually in the
order indicated above conforming to the rules; they will not pass from one compart-
ment to the next one until after it has been entirely cut over.

IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS

They will take place in the compartments of the second and third groups which will
be cut over so far as possible within 10 or 12 years and in the following order: 20, 21,
1, 22 to 27, .5, 6, 11, 9, 10, 14, to 19. The yield will be recruited after deducting the
regeneration felHngs and the chance cuttings; the area of the annual felling area will
depend on the volume remaining to be marked.

Art. 6. — Application of the yield. — In order to realize the yield the local officers
should at the start mark the regeneration felling. The volume of the timber 0.60 m.
(7 inches d. b. h.) and above in circumference cut under this head being known and at
most equal to 1,290 m. c. they will add to it (if there is any) the volume of windfall
and overmature timber sold or marked during the current fiscal year. The total will
be deducted from the ordinary yield and the result of this subtraction will show the
amount to be cut under improvement fellings. All these volumes will be calculated
by the volume table used for the valuation of the forest.

Revision of the Yield. — The yield will be revised for the year 1944 or (if there is
any) for half the period assigned to the felling schedule in 1930.

Cultural Rules. — Generally the regeneration and improvement fellings will be
laid out in accordance with ordinary cultural rules. It seems necessary, however, to
call local officers' attention to the following points:

Regeneration fellings — first group. — These fellings must aim to form a young stand;
seeding of the soil and the substitution within a given period of seedlings, thickets,
saplings, and young polewood for the existing high forest.

ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 507

Where there is not any young growth, the seed feUing should be made at once and
in opening up the stand carefully avoid giving any hold to the dangerous winds. For
this purpose it will be best to start with quite large openings, the areas chosen being
so far as possible amidst vigorous stems with well-developed crowns and long boles,
leaving groups of 4 to 5 trees so as to best resist the wind. The cover should be opened
up by taking short branchy trees, poles (growing) on stumps and those which are with-
out a future. The beech and the weeds which form the bushy under story should be
cut back.

Wherever the soil is covered with grass which prevents the germination of the seed,
the scraping or raking (by strips) of the living cover and the thick layer of needles as
yet undecomposed will assist the growth of seedlings.

In order to so far as possible decrease the considerable damage to existing young
growth caused by too frequent fellings of mature timber and to decrease the windfall,
the secondary fellings will be reduced to one or two at most; then the final felling will
take place. These, once commenced, should extend over the entire compartment even
in the parts not regenerated, for, if after the secondary feUing and the freeing of the
branches, the seeding has not yet taken place it will not come in naturally. Then it
would be preferable to plant after the removal of the mature timber, selecting the most
appropriate species either to improve the so il or to estabhsh a mixture which is always
desirable. Each time the forest is cut over care should be taken to remove ripe timber
because of its size or poor condition. The medium-sized timber and the poles which
are damaged, which cannot develop or which hinder reproduction, must be always
marked in addition to the mature timber. Only reserve the poles and standards in
groups; every tree, which after growing in a crowded stand becomes isolated, is sure
to decrease in value and vigor. These regeneration fellings will always be laid out,
one after the other, and should not pass from a compartment to the next one untU it
has been entirely cut over. At the same time, all the necessary cultural operations
must be carried out: thinnings in the poles, cleanings in the thickets and saplings.

Improvement Cuttings. — (1) Compartments of the second group, 5, 9, 10, 14,
15, 19, 22. The second group includes the compartments which come up for regenera-
tion after those of the first group. After 30 years there should be a stand ready with
as many merchantable trees as possible. In these compartments the thinnings will be
very light, for the stands must be kept dense and the only trees which should be really
logged are those above the merchantable diameter hmit. Thus the promising trees
whatever their diameter will get a start, and only the trees which are dechning in vigor
and those fully mature, which would diminish in value if left standing longer, will be
removed. While avoiding an abnormal reproduction it will be possible to give a Uttle
light to existing young growth.

(2) Compartments of the third group. In these compartments the trees which
have reached an exploitable size can be gradually felled and the future stock will be
opened up so that they can develop with free crowns, but taking good care to keep the
stand as fully stocked as possible. Everything which covers the soil, even the weeds,
should be carefully preserved. No effort will be made to start reproduction; if it comes
in accidentally in any case the poles and young stands will not be sacrificed. On the
other hand there will be no hesitation in cutting out the overmature timber wherever
it may be found, where it is suppressing the advance growth (especially in compart-
ments 1, 20, 21, 23, 24). In the pole stands regular thinnings will be carried out by
freeing the crowns of the best boles. The beech, being valuable from all viewpoints,
must not be eliminated. Only the excess beech stems will be cut, but it must be kept
from taking the place of the conifers.

508 APPENDIX

PART IV. — BETTERMENTS

Only the absolutely essential betterments to be accomplished between 1913 and 1944
are listed :

Management Lettering. — The compartments will be marked by painting letters
on a white background on boundary trees, work which may be estimated at 100 francs.

Logging Roads. — The existing roads are generally in good condition and are suffi-
cient for logging purposes. Their maintenance requires an average yearly expense of
2,000 francs or for 32 years, 64,000 francs.

Cultural Betterments. — First for restocking the blanks which may occur, and for
completing the natural reproduction if that should be necessarj^, it will suffice to esti-
mate the annual planting of 2,000 trees which will mean a labor expense of 15 francs
per thousand, or 30 francs and for 32 years, 960 francs.

Secondly, these plants will be furnished by the nursery already established in the
forest. It has an area of 0.23 of a hectare and its annual maintenance amounts to 120
francs or for 32 years, 3,840 francs.

68 900

Total, 68,900 francs, or an estimated annual cost of ' = 2,153 francs ($416).

oZ

PART V. — COMPARATIVE REVIEW OF THE PRODUCTS TO BE REALIZED
BEFORE AND AFTER THE REVISION OF MANAGEMENT

The Federal forest of Grande Cote has produced:

From 1858-1883, 78,343 m. c, valued at 1,327,441 francs; 7.9 m. c. per hectare and
per year, or 134 francs.

From 1884-1896, 25,377 m. c, valued at 395,033 francs; 5.1 m. c. per hectare and
per year or 82.2 francs.

From 1897-1911, 48,790 m. c, valued at 924,960 francs; 8.5 m. c. per hectare and
per year, or 161.6 francs.

Or for the 54 years, 152,510 m. c, valued at 2,647,434 francs; 7.6 m. c. per hectare
and per year, or 128.7 francs.

This puts the average annual yield at 2,888 m. c, valued at 49,026 francs. In the
future, up to the time the working plan may be revised, the yearly cut will be
3,090 m. c. which should yield about 58,710 francs; in giving an average value of 19
francs per m. c. which has been the average during the past 15 years, the yield will be
a Uttle higher than for the period 1858-1911, but 5 per cent less than that for the period
1897-1911. This reduction is actually essential as has been explained in detail in this
report ; but there is every reason to hope that because of the generally very satisfactory
growth in the forest of Grande Cote, and due to the good results of the management
proposed, the yield will increase during future periods.

Besangon, May 8th, 1912.

Devarennes,
Inspector of Waters and Forests, Chief of Management.

(2) STATE FOREST OF BAN D'ETIVAL

Near 'St. Die, Vosges, 34.01 hectares, 410-540 meters altitude, 9/10 fir, 1/10 beech.

(A) Working group, Corne de Lisse, Masson's Method of Yield Calculation.

During the first cutting period, 1890-1899, the yield was calculated in accordance

2 V
with the formula P = -jr-, where P = yield; V = growing stock; andA''= rotation

in years.

2 X 12 196
This resulted in a yield of — -^rn ^'^ ^^^ ouhk meters, equal to 4.8 cubic meters per

ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA - 509

hectare per year. At the second cutting period, 1 900- 1 909, the stocktaking showed a total

, r^.oo-, u- ^ 1 . .• 1 ^1 f (11,881 + 1,902) -12,196
stand of 11,881 cubic meters, demonstrating an annual growth of ^ — '- ni ^m

o4.Ui X lU

= 4.6 cubic meters per hectare per year. In the words of the author (M. Cuif) : "There
is no reason for modifying the exploitable size: that of 0.60 of a meter is still acknowl-
edged to-day, as giving the maximum utUity. . . . It is still best to fix at 150
years the time necessary for the fir to reach this size. Consequently the total growing
stock taken at the end of 1908, in the Corne de Lisse working group, being 13,560.8
cubic meters, the yield in main products determined by Masson's method is 13,560.8 X

-— = 180.8 which corresponds to an average annual yield per hectare of 5.3 cubic meters."
150

The plan approved November 23, 1889, provided that in applying the selection
system the oldest timber should be chosen as well as the trees declining in vigor, rotting
or dry, and others still in good condition but needed by the owner. Care was taken
to preserve the selection type of forest, but the entire working group, divided into ten
parts, had to be completely cut over by the end of each 10-year period. The volume
of all wood from 0.15 meters up in diameter was subtracted from the prescribed yield,
whether from ordinary felhngs or from windfall. Actually during the 10-year period
1890 to 1899 on the 34.01 hectares, 1,902 cubic meters was cut as against 1630 pre-
scribed, an average per year of 190 as against 160, or 5.6 cubic meters per hectare as
against 4.8 cubic meters.

It is quite likely that the stocktaking made in 1898 was in error for some reason un-
known because the measurements carefully made under the personal direction of M.
Cuif showed, as follows:

Cubic meters

End of 1908 growing season 13,560.8

Cut 1900-1909 1,967.8

Total 15,528.6

Growing stock counted in 1898 11,880.9

Production 3,647.7

3 647 7
or ,^-r-h. — —r?, = 10.7 cubic meters, an inadmissably high rate of growth.

To make doubly sure of accuracy in 1908, M. Cuif adopted the plan, which he recom-
mends for all future stocktaking in this working group, of having each tree measured,
blazed at 1.30 meters above the ground, and at the point measured the guard made a
vertical scratch so at the next measurement the same point could be cahpered. In
reality the area is a sample plot to determine the value or errors in the Masson method
of regulating the growth.

A comparison between the stocktaking of 1888 and 1908 shows that in 1888 the
average was 358.8 cubic meters per hectare as against 398.7 cubic meters in 1908 and
that during the 20 years 3,870 cubic meters were realized as against 3,220 cubic meters
prescribed by the working plan. This enrichment to the extent of 40 cubic meters per
hectare for the 20 years is welcomed because there was insufficient growing stock on a
number of areas. M. Cuif remarks: "Must one think, after what we have seen, that
the calculation of the yield by the Masson method always leads to too small a figure?
No, because such a conclusion would be contrary to a strongly entrenched theory which
admits that the use of the Masson per cent certainly brings a forest to the normal,
provided that the entire stand is promising. To what, then, can be attributed the
results which fail to corroborate this principle? Simply to the special clause in the
recruitment of the yield which prescribes the calculation of the volume of all the wood
cut inclusive of 0.15 in diameter."

510 APPENDIX

During the 20-year period the total production was 7.7 cubic meters per hectare per
year and of this total amount 5.8 was in wood 0.45 and above in diameter and only
1.9 in wood 0.15 to 0.40 inclusive. During this same period the wood cut totaled 5.7
per hectare per year of which 4.3 was from trees above 0.45 in diameter and 1.4 from
trees 0.15 to 0.40 inclusive.

M. Cuif decided to allow the yield to be taken from sound trees 0.45 in diameter if
necessary to supplement the volume of those over 0.60 to make up the yield. The
calculation of the yield for 1909-1910 which by the way varies with each compart-
ment, gives 5.3 per hectare per year as against (a) 5.8 and (b) 7.7, the figures of the
amount produced (o) in 0.45 meters and over, and (b) total for the last 20 years.

The improvement felUngs in the wood 0.15 to 0.40 in diameter are estimated to yield
about 1.4 per hectare per year. It is interesting to note that the average prices for
the period 1889-1898 were 18.34 francs per cubic meter as compared with 23.14 for the
years 1899-1908.

The new regulation of felHng then prescribes the year of felling 1910-1919 inclusive
the number of the cutting area, the area in hectares, and the total amount in cubic
meters. Only wood from trees 0.45 and over are to be counted against the yield.

(B) Naufrogutte working group. Forest of Ban d'Etival. Same as Corne de Lisse
but volume of fir is 19/20 and beech only 1/20. The area is 34.48 hectares. Method
of 1883 Yield Regulation.

The old wood here includes trees 0.45 and over; the average wood 0.25 to 0.40 and
the small wood below 0.25. A comparison of the stocktakings in 1888 and in 1908
(that of 1899 appeared inaccurate) shows that: Total volume in m. c. (1888), 10,794.1;
(1908), 12,363.6; total volume in m. c. cut (1888-1909), 3,404.6. This signifies a pro-
duction of 7.2 per hectare per year as against 4.9 actual cut. This production was 4.7
cubic meters in wood 45 and over, and 2.5 in wood 0.15 to 0.40. The actual cut was
3.6 and over 0.45 and 1.3 in wood 0.15 to 0.40.

The new cut for 1910 to 1919 is put at 1,822 for the 34.48 hectares and windfalls
and dead wood 0.20 and over will be deducted from the yield. The selection felling is
accompanied by an improvement felling to increase the growth of promising trees
and to clean or free young stands.

In the calculation of the yield it is explained that the volume of the large wood (over
0.45) in 1909 was 7,917 c. m. and the average wood (0.25-0.40) 3,984 c. m. making a
total of 11,900 of which five-eighths is 7,438 and three-eighths 4,463 c. m. To counter-
act this excess of large wood Cuif subtracts 479 from the large wood and adds it to
the average wood and proceeds with the calculation of the yield as given below after
obtaining a growth per cent for the large wood based on the differences in volume of
this class of wood in 1888 and 1909 (aUowing however for the passage of trees from
0.40 to the 0.45 class) equal to 0.9 per cent.

7,438 X 0.009 X 50 ^ ^ ^^3 ^ ^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ 5q ^^^^^ (one-third the rotation) 7,438

plus 1,673 or 9,111 equal to ^ = 182.2 cubic meters per year or 5.2 per hectare.

No aUowance is made for the growth of the average wood since that will merely fill
the place left by the removal of the large wood.

It is interesting to note that the cut for 1888-1899 was calculated at 4.5 c. m. and
for 1899 to 1908 at 4.4 c. m. per hectare and per year. Figures which are clearly below
the growth as is also the current figure of 5.2 but a comparison of the curve showmg
the estimated normal number of trees per hectare for each diameter class (based on
aver.ages of a number of (empirically) normally stocked selection stands) shows that
the forest is poor in trees 0.15 to 0.35 in diameter and that consequently the economy
will be welcome.

ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 511

(C) Working group Rein des Boules, Forest of Ban d'Etival altitude of 510 meters,
37.04 forested. Species by volume, fir 69 per cent, beech 31 per cent; selection. Yield
by number of trees.

By the decree of October 15, 1885, approved November 27, 1886, the working group
was divided into ten approximately equal felling areas and an annual yield of 41 trees
at least 0.30 in diameter at 1.30 c. m. (about 16 fir and 25 beech) was established includ-
ing the provision that windfalls 0.30 and over would count as part of the yield. The
41 trees to be cut were based on the estimate that the growth was 4.5 c. m. per hectare
and per year and that the fir of 0.60 meters in diameter contained 3.7 c. m. and the
beech of the same size 4.4. On the basis that four fir would be cut to every six beech
the average volume per tree was taken at 4.12. Owing to windfalls, etc., they cut
38 fir and 12 beech or 50 trees per year during the years 1886 to 1895, but as a matter
of fact the average volume was only 2.8 per tree. During the second cutting cycle
the cut was actually 54.9 trees and over per year (8.9 accidental) with an average volume
of 4 c. m. per tree. Actually during the first 29 years the production was 9.4 cubic
meters per hectare and per year or 8 in wood 0.45 and above and 1.4 in wood 0.15 to
0.40. The working plans officer quotes what is considered an average selection hectare
for the locahty, namely, a total of 434.5 trees cubing 388.2 cubic meters.

In the calculation of the new yield the author, M. Cuif, proceeded as follows: During
the 20 years 1885-1905 the average production was 58 trees — 31 fir and 27 beech.
"The 31 fir and 27 beech have been furnished actually by the trees 0.40 in diameter
whose average number may be valued as follows, taking 771 as existing in 1885 (429
fir and 342 beech), 1,004 in 1896 (392 fir and 612 beech) an average of 412 fir and 463
beech; 412 fir 0.40 in diameter have given each year, 31 fir to be counted against the
yield or 7.5 per cent and 463 beech, 27 beech or 5.8 per cent." Similarly the per cent
passing to the next diameter class is figured, and the following results obtained:

■ Diameter Average per cent of passage

(cm.) to next diameter class

40 6.6

50 7.7

60 8.2

70 . 9.6

80 10

90 12

Finally the writer calculates for each compartment or cutting area the normal number
of trees to cut, and in addition one-quarter the excess over the normal stand also to be
cut, in order to reduce the growing stock, namely, 540 normal cut plus 160 trees as
one-quarter the excess or 700 in all on 37.04 hectares. This is then divided between
beech and fir on the basis of their per cent in each compartment.

One cannot but ask the question: "Why regulate the yield by number of trees if
it has to be checked by a volume computation?" But it must be recalled that these
three working groups are really large scale experiments on yield regulation; the con-
clusions will probably be available by 1921 or 1931.

(3) COMMUNAL FOREST OF MONT GLORE (SAVOIE)

The working plan of 1885 quotes from a report dated 1842 which alludes to this for-
est as "Abused, impoverished in 1835 by a cut every three years of 150 fir trees." In
other words, the yield was by number of trees (and probably the best were unfortunately
selected) instead of by volume. This report spoke of this forest as having 90 hectares
stocked with fir, 90 with beech with a fir under-story, and 145 pure beech coppice, making
a total of 335 hectares of forest. The management prescribed thinnings on one-fifteenth

512 APPENDIX

of the area each year. There were, in addition, regular fellings and cleanings. In 1885,
selection fellings were prescribed because of "the altitude, the rigorous chmate, and the
slowness of regeneration of the important species." The cut was placed at 202 cubic
meters per year, but 5 per cent was reserved for betterments. The diameter limit for the
exploitable tree was 0.6 meter (23.6 inches d. b. h.) on a rotation of 140 years. According
to the working plan now in force, the selection method will be continued and the yield
prescribed at 144 cubic meters. In other words the results of past cuttings show an over-
cut and it is now necessary to economize in order to bring the forest to a better producing
capacity. Before the yearly cut is marked, the forest is reconnoitred in the spring for
windfall and the total amount of windfall is subtracted from the total yield which is then
secured, first, from dry and dying trees and from trees which must be felled to free fir
seedhngs or to estabhsh or start reproduction when it does not exist. The best trees are
favored. Fir over 0.6 meter in diameter are cut, taking the best first. The cutting is
especially conservative along very steep slopes, and where too heavy cutting might
encourage the formation of torrents and thus destroy agricultural land lying below.

The following improvement work is planned: A scenic road, a house for a guard,
numerous plantations, and, according to the working plan, "there is much left to be
done — there is a considerable danger from floods."

(4) COMMUNAL FOREST OF LARDIES (NEAR OLORON, BASSES-PYRENEES)

This communal forest comprises 88.35 hectares at an average altitude of 130 meters.
There is pedunculate oak growing on an alluvial soil with a mild climate. From 1883
to 1905, inclusive, 215 cubic meters were cut, valued at 1,381.10 francs. From 1886 to
1905, inclusive, the improvement cuttings covered 1.8 hectares annually and netted
249.40 francs. The sales from windfall, aggregating 133 cubic meters, netted 530.90
francs and the secondary products 702.2 francs. This gave a total revenue of 348 cubic
meters or 2,865.6 francs. The normal yield was estimated at 309 cubic meters or 2,614.7
francs. In this forest the soil value is very small because it is often flooded; it is esti-
mated at about 50 francs per acre. The local market is for firewood and the timber is
sold at Pau. There is communal grazing by 300 head of cattle, 50 horses, and 200 hogs,
yielding 100 francs per year.

According to the inspector: "The up-keep of a nursery in a small forest is relatively
dear."

This points to the advisability of district nurseries where transport is possible and
where the planting is on a small scale. Here the exploitability is based on economic
factors rather than physical. At 20 years of age, trees are about 5 meters apart. Shortly
after 70 years of age, there is a heavy thinning so as to keep the trees about 10 meters
apart until the final cutting.

The yield of this regular high forest of oak is calculated by volume for the regular
feUings, by dividing the total volume of the area to be cut over by the number of years
in the period and subtracting 25 per cent for reserve. The yield of thinnings is fixed by
area. There were cleanings in 1912, 1920, and 1922. The revenue for the next period is
estimated at 2,805 francs.

(5) STATE FOREST OF LA JOUX (JURA)

Contains 2,644.34 hectares; 700 to 930 altitude; fir, 91 per cent; spruce, 8| per cent;
beech, ^ of 1 per cent. Highest yield in the Jura.

The following figures on the first working group are quoted from the working plan
for the State forest of La Joux, by Inspecteur Brenot, which is dated April 29, 1896.

ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 513

From 1884 to 1895 the increment per hectare and per year has been 11.97; the volume
for the average hectare, 385. The increment per cent, 3.11.

In 1883 the volume analysis of trees 0.30 in diameter and above was: Logs, 206,058
cubic meters; branches, 18 per cent, 37,090 cubic meters; total, 243,148 cubic meters.

This being true it is possible to make the following conclusions from a comparison of
the stocktaking of 1883 and 1908: Volume of trees 0.30 in diameter and above, inven-
tories in 1883, 243,148 cubic meters; in 1908, 325,675 cubic meters; increase, 82,527
cubic meters.

Volume of trees cut from 1884 to 1908: 1884 to 1885, 60,280; 1896 to 1908, 100,731;
total of 161,011 cubic meters.

Total growth from 1883 to 1908 = 82,527 + 161,011 = 243,538 cubic meters or

average per year of 9,741 cubic meters.

, , 243,148 + 325,675 „„. -^^ , •
Average growmg stock — ^ = 284,406 cubic meters.

Average volume per hectare 284,406 _ . .„ , . ,

243 538
Growth per hectare and per year ' _ = 15.2 cubic meters.

D4u.oy X ^0
, ^ , 15.2 X 100 „ ,
Increment per cent jj^ = 3.4 per cent.

It results from the analysis of the preceding stocktakings (the volume per hectare
was 380 cubic meters in 1883 and 500 cubic meters in 1908 (wood 0.30 and over)) that
the growth per hectare and per year estimated at 11.97 cubic meters for the first 12
years of growth is between 3.11 and 3.40 per cent.

These figures prove . . . that we have a working group overstocked with old
wood, where for the past 25 years the material has been increasing in spite of the annual
cut (yield). . . .

In view of this rather abnormal situation, it is felt that in order to prevent a further
accumulation of excess growing stock it is best to base the yield upon the growth per cent
of the working group during the last period of 25 years by multiplying the estimated
growing stock by the mean annual growth per cent.

Material enumerated in 1908 = 301,260; growth per cent from 1883 to 1908 = 3.4;

yield = ?0L??0^4 . 10.242.

Note. — For the comparison the same volume table was used to obtain both volumes,
i.e., in 1883 and 1908.

If we should only cut as in the past, the average annual growth of the working group,
it would be impossible to realize with sufficient rapidity the overmature material and it
is feared the present state of affairs would continue indefinitely. It is therefore felt
to be absolutely necessary . . . during two periods ... to add 10 per cent
of the volume to the yield obtained and to fix (the cut) at 10,242 + 1,024 = 11,266
cubic meters, or, roughly, 11,270 cubic meters equal to 17.585 per hectare and per year
and 3.7 per cent of the total growing stock.

According to Inspecteur Devarennes "the State forest of La Joux ^ is one of the richest
and most productive fir stands in France, and perhaps even of all Europe." The stock-
taking made in 1908-1909 gave the following figures: 642,138 trees from 7.9 to 55.1
inches in diameter (245 trees or 463 cubic meters per hectare or about 42,400 feet
hoard measure per acre, average on 6,531 acres). This is equal to 15.8 cubic meters per
hectare per year (a yield per cent of 5.3) or about 1,200 board feet and 1.6 cords per acre

1 This forest was logged by the Canadians for the French; the cutting started in 1917
before the A. E. F. arrived in France.

514

APPENDIX

per year, worth $12 per acre. The total annual revenue from timber is 406,730 francs
($84,500) and the soil and growing stock are estimated to be worth 20 million francs
($3,860,000). Deducting 50 cents an acre for taxes and administration, this gives a
net of $81,235 or about 2 per cent on the invested capital (see p. 322). A comparison
of the normal (empirical) number of trees and stand per hectare with the actual stock
is given in the graph which follows :

"

~

—

~

"'

~

~

-

l~

*"

nn

\

_

. NJiyiBE!

DF TREES PER

Ji-mal

HECTAR

■-

N

Artiial

\

1

1L>

Mm

L

■(

.•?^ r,r

1

^ m ^

\

^^

s

5* qt;

s

f~

0(30

Sv \

£ ^n

3^30

"^

+ ^N

\

^

\.\

^^^

S. ^^

4- '^^v

■~

"-1

,_

—

—

-

_

0 ZO O.io 0.30 0.35 0.10 0.

5 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0,90 0.95 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.201^35

D.B.H. in Centimeters

X

_.. ^

1 1 M 1 1 M

1 1 1

2

VOLUME PER U

ECTARE

pSD

l^rn

— ^

i,50

^S

•^ ,r

i

S

„45

J"

-.^ S

>s, V

3 10

.'^t

N ^^

a oc

^ J

^> \

-7 r

^^ ^

Son

.■'

1

s

■^

\

7

s

31-''

t

.

s

7

^

u,.0

\

.,

.^

^

.

s

>■ 3

s

olO

'*

^

^

S

'«

._

■—

^

0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.10 0.15 0.50 O.t

0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95

D.B.H. in Centimeters

.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20]

ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA

515

(6) COMMUNAL FOREST OF FILLINGES (HAUTE-SAVOIE)

In the revision of the working plan for the communal forest of Fillinges, there is pre-
sented an excellent example of what recovery a forest can make during a period of 19
years. The inventory in 1891 and 1910 follows:

1891

1910

Age classes

Number
of trees

Volume,
cu. in.

Age classes

Number
of trees

Volume,
cu. in.

Average wood

Old wood

5,337
694

2,117
1,386

Average wood

Old wood

8,527
2,397

4,213

4,785

Totals

6,031

3,503

Totals

10,924

8,998

According to the above table the percentage of volume increase was 157 per cent in
19 years. The growth in this case, of course, was exaggerated because many trees just
below 20 centimeters in diameter passed into the merchantable class which was calipered
in the revision. Taking these figures, however, as correct, it means an average growth
of 8.7 cubic meters per hectare per year for a forest which had been mismanaged in the
past. According to the original working plan:

"The working group has been completely transformed in the course of a period. The
stand formerly very broken, open, often formed of sparse groups of conifers or isolated
trees as it existed in 1891 has given place to a thrifty young selection forest sometimes
even dense, which is rapidly beginning to suppress the broadleaf understory with which
the conifers are still in mixture at certain points. It is to be regretted, however, that the
small yield did not allow cutting over the entire working group by selection fellings
during the period and that consequently several compartments are crowded with over-
mature and deformed trees."

In the second working group, the recovery (for average and old wood) was from 12,265
cubic meters to 27,452 cubic meters in 19 years; 124 per cent. In five compartments of
the first working group, the growth averaged 8.7 cubic meters per hectare per year,
and in 14 compartments of the second working group the same average rate of growth
was maintained, varying from 4 to 11.5 cubic meters per hectare per year. It is interest-
ing to note that the yield was formerly fixed at 157 cubic meters per year for the entire
forest of 166.45 hectares. According to Schaeffer's revision of 1910, the entire forest
was thrown into one working group. He figured the old wood at 16,048 cubic meters

32 802 X 5
and the deficit of old wood was — - — ^ or a total of 20,501, meaning a deficit of

8

4,453 cubic meters. The average wood amounted to 16,754.2, an excess, since

32 802 X 3

— ' — ^ — — = a total of 12,301. Therefore, in accordance with the procedures ex-

o

plained on page 234, trees 0.35 meter in diameter were transferred to the old wood,
thus justifying still further economy of yield. Since the rotation was fixed at 162
years, the yield under this formula would be 16,048, the volume of the old wood
divided by 54, one-third the rotation, would be 297.1 plus 1 per cent of the growth of
the average wood (i.e. 1 per cent of 16,754, or 167.5) making a total estimated cut of
464.6 which equals 1.41 per cent of the volume, or 3.2 cubic meters per hectare per
year. In the working plan, Schaeffer pointed out that the growth, according to
Pressler's formula, would have been 654.16 cubic meters per year. This working plan
is an example of how the French are rehabilitating worn out forests; one-quarter of the

516

APPENDIX

theoretical cut is held in reserve to provide for such emergencies as windfall and other
damages so that the actual cut is prescribed at 348 cubic meters per year, which is
obviously much less than the actual growth. The working plan provides that the
whole area be cut over by improvement fellings every 17 years.

(7) COMMUNAL FOREST OF BURDIGNIN (HAUTE-SAVOIE)

The working plan for the communal forest of Burdignin, written by Schaeffer in 1897,
presents another interesting example of French yield regulation. This forest comprises
67.11 hectares, is situated at an altitude of 1,300 meters and the stand is composed of
spruce, 80 per cent; fir, 18 per cent; beech, 1 per cent; Austrian pine and larch, 1 per
cent. Schaeffer calls it a model of regularity especially as regards the second and third
periodic blocks. The yield was formerly fixed at 136 cubic meters per j'ear. A period
of 18 years was found too short to get satisfactory and complete regeneration in the
first periodic block. The yield from thinnings has been irregular. In 1881 it was 15
cubic meters; in 1882, 22 cubic meters; in 1890, 222 cubic meters; in 1891 and 1894,
but 75 cubic meters. The rotation was 120 years and the diameter hmit was 0.40;
the period was fixed at 20 years in the 1897 working plan. The cut prescribed was 280
cubic meters by volume with the addition of the improvement fellings yield on 5.63
hectares each year. According to Schaeffer, care was to be taken not to open up the
stand too fast and the thinnings had to aim at developing the stand without making
sacrifices to regularize it. Trees without a future were removed, Imt he aimed at
keeping the top cover complete. In the older stands the thinnings were essentially
crown thinnings. (Par le haut.)

The following analysis of the .stand was made in Schaeffer's working plan :

"To determine the yield, it is necessary to first divide the stand enumerated in three
groups or classes (young wood, average wood, and old wood). We consider the coni-
fers 16 inches and over in diameter ' old wood ' and the beech 12 inches and over . . .
the conifers 8 to 14 inches, and the beech 8 to 10 inches 'average wood,' and the trees
6 inches 'small wood.' This division has been made in the following table:

Species

Volu

mes

Young wood

Average wood

Old wood

Totals

Conifers

Beech

405.10

9,205.60
91.80

8,564.70
87.10

18,175.40
178 90

Totals

405.10

9,297.40

8,651.80

18,354.30

"It is evident from this table that the normal proportion of five to three which
should exist between the large wood and the average wood is far from being attained.
To obtain it one must transfer 2,567 cubic meters (or about two-thirds the conifers 14
inches in diameter) from the average wood class to the old wood. We consider this
transfer justified because a 16-inch tree is considered merchantable in this region and
most of the 14-inch stems will reach this size during the period. We, moreover, propose
(to avoid any disaster) not to count the future growth of the old wood . . .
prudence and moderation.

"The volume to be cut during the one-third of the rotation will then be: 8,651.8 +

11 219
2,567 = 11,219 cubic meters in round figures, when the yield will be: ' = 280

cubic meters.

"The thinnings are already ordered (September 18, 1880), by nine year cycles; they
have given good results and we propose to continue them. Since the periodic blocks

ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 517

to be run over by thinnings are three in number, each will continue to form three feUina;

, .,, . 17.02 + 16.79 + 16.86 50.67 , ,
areas whose average area will be: = — -— = 5.63 hectares.

"There are four periodic blocks; one is cut over for regeneration, and the other three
are cut over for thinnings, etc."

(8) STATE FOREST OF PARC-ET-ST. QUENTIN (OISE)
The State forest of Parc-et-St. Quentin has had working plans made in 1869, 1884,
and 1905. As a result of experience a rotation of 120 years was found too short, because
of the large proportion of oak. It was, therefore, increased to 150 years. According to
the most recent working plan, there are two classes of stands: (1) Regeneration
areas over 100 years old; (2) under 100 years old, not under regeneration.

"One observes at once that, after this classification, the group of old wood will be
totally deficient and that there exists a deficiency in the age sequences between the ripe
wood and that which comes next."

According to the 1905 revision (page 47, original working plan):

"The yield of the principal feUing areas wiU be obtained by dividing the volume

of the stand in compartments 7, 8, and 9 (to be regenerated 1904 to 1923) by 20. This

26 739 29
volume amounts to 26,739.29 cubic meters and the yield will be fixed at — ^ or

1,337 cubic meters. During the same period of 20 years the yield of the improvement

. ,,. , .„ 674.27 hectares ^^ ,„ i .

fellmgs by area will cover -r or 67.43 hectares because the cutting cycle is

10 years."

Where there is difficulty in regeneration, the cuttings should be regulated according
to seed crops rather than to the sequence of fellings as developed. According to the plan :

"The density of the seed fellings will be regulated so as to allow for the requirements
of the species — oak and beech — which ^ould be forced into the proper mixture,
(about half and half). The existing understory must be completely removed above
this size and under no pretext whatever should it be allowed to form part of the future
stand. The seed fellings will be followed by secondary and final f(>llings laid out exclu-
sively according to the cultural needs. The improvement cuttings should aim at the
establishment of a high forest with a suitable mixture of species and as full}' stocked as
possible; they will be carried out by the use of regular normal thinnings, the removals
limited to trees already dead or almost wholly so. ... In the young stands the
valuable species will be carefully freed, and in accordance with their needs the soft woods
and species of secondary value will be sacrificed."

(9) COMMUNAL FOREST OF THIEZ (HAUTE-SAVOIE) 2

PART I

Record of Management. — General Data

Art. 1. — Name. — Communal Forest of Thiez.

Art. 2.^ Area. — In 1866 the area of the forest was 152.7669 hectares; it was
reduced to 119.51 hectares by the revised decree of January 31, 1872. A decree dated
June 28, 1889, authorized the sale of 22.08 hectares and put the area under manage-
ment at 97.43 hectares. Finally a new decree. April 11, 1900, reduced the area to
65.14 hectares.

Our recent survey gives an area of 61.54 hectares, divided as follows between the two
cantons which compose the forest :

2 Savoie was formally ceded to France in 1860 and prior to this date communal
forests were badly overcut and mismanaged.

518

APPENDIX

Canton

Area

Blanks*

Forested

La Vuardaz

26.74
34.80

1.70
3.60

25 04

Le Feraj'

31.20

Totals

61.54

5.30

56 24

* Most of the blanks are rocky and consequently could hardly be forested.

The disparity in area of 3.60 hectares (65.14 - 61.54 = 3.60) is due to the inaccurate
data upon which the original area computation was based; it has not been corrected
until now.

Art. 3. — Boundaries. — Except bordering the Commune of Chatillon (Haute-
Savoie) a boundary established when the working plan for that forest was made, the
boundaries were very indefinite. We have made a general survey of the boundary
and have established corners for the two stands in accordance with the map of 1730
which is sufficiently accurate. Every corner and boundary rock marked with a cross
has its numerical order carefully chiseled as given in the working-plan map. These 39
boundary marks are divided as follows: Le Peray, 18 (3 of these coincide with the num-
bers for the communal forest of Chatillon); La Vuardaz, 21; Total, 39.

Art. 4. — Rights and servitudes. — None.

Art. 5. — Topography and drainage. — Occupying the summit of Mt. Orsay
("Orchez" according to the army map) a point at which the range ends which separates
the valleys of Giffre and Arje and dominates their heads, the forest therefore lies on
north and south slopes. The extreme altitudes are 620 meters (lower part of the
Peray Canton) and 1,346 meters (summit of Vuardaz), or an average of 980 meters.
The slopes are often very steep and occasionally precipitous near the summit; within
the forest there are cHffs 100 meters in height.

Art. 6. — Soil. — Despite its small area the forest stands on a number of different
geological formations which can be classed as follows:

Calcaire liasque du Chablais (5^)

Bathonien et Bajocien (7)

Malm (12)

Cretace superieur dit couche rouge (17)

Moraine Alpine (21)

The figures enclosed in parentheses show approximately the area occupied by each
(geologic) soil. Because of this diversity of mineral bases soils of very different character
have resulted. Marls deep and fresh, occasionally actually wet, arid detritus, bare
limestones or only slightly covered with a thin layer of humus are found side by side;
the fertihty itself is extremely variable. One must admit that the poor or mediocre
areas are the rule rather than the exception and that the really rich soils are scarce.

Art. 7. — Climate. — Since the two stands are situated in different valleys it
naturally follows that the climate is also dissimilar. On the one hand the Canton of
Vuardaz, with a northern exposure, is in a rainy valley where the snow lies four months
each year, while the vineyards still flourish just below in the Peray Canton.

Art. 8. — Stand. — The chief species are spruce, fir, Scotch pine, and beech.
Spruce, which is easily the most important, varies a great deal. From the straight,
cylindrical long-boled well-pruned tree 35 meters in height (115 feet!) in the well watered
valley of Vuardaz, which one cannot help but admire, to the branchy unstable stem
which clings to the rock on the Orsay peak. In the Peray Canton it is represented by
sapling stands, dense and regular, but because of the dry soil and climate these do not

ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA

519

appear to have much of a future. The fine quahty of timber at the Vuardaz bridge
makes it a prize for the lumberman ; yet on the moist soils there seems to be a tendency
to early decay. The fir perhaps is a more rapid grower, and notwithstanding that its
wood is less sought after in the region, it is a valuable species because it is easy to re-
generate. The Scotch pine, introduced artificially, when found in the Peray Canton
in mixture with scattering larch, seems well suited to the situation ; but the stock which
has come in naturally, often very defective, has suffered a great deal from caterpillars
and the wood has little value. The beech is quite important in the understory, but
with the exception of a few poles, it is not represented in the young stands; yet, because
of its cultural value, it ought to have a place in the mature stands. Its Utter can alle-
viate the acidity of the humus produced under the spruce and also assists the natural
regeneration of this latter species. The oak is at its extreme elevation and is not im-
portant, except in the rocky areas, where, with the maples (sj'camore, etc.), it serves
to protect the soil. One sees a few hnden, service trees, and hazel, which have some
value. To sum up, the importance of the species is shown by the following figures:
Spruce, 62 per cent; fir, 2 per cent; pine, 11 per cent; oak, 10 per cent; beech, 10 per
cent; miscellaneous, 5 per cent.

Art. 9. — Chief and accessory products. — The following table shows the amount
and value of the products realized during the last 10 years :

YIELD DURING THE LAST 10 YEARS

WOOD PRODUCTS

Regular fellings

E.\traordinary fellings

Windfall,

Years

Coppice

High forest

(Coppice)
Improve-
ment

High forest

Emergency
wood

dead wood
and tres-
pass

Totals

Vol-
ume,
m. c.

Value,
francs

Vol-
ume,
m. c.

Value
francs

Vol-
ume,
m. c.

Value,
francs

Vol-
ume,
m. c.

Value,
francs

Vol-
ume,
•m. c.

Value,
francs

Vol-
ume,
m. c.

Value,
francs

Vol-
ume,
m. c.

Value,
francs

1901...
1902...
1903...
1904....
1905....
1906....
1907....
1908....
1909...
1910....

....

65

30

136
115

1525
2290

2

4
10
4
6
21

20
128

64
174

64

90

30

23
20
29
45
38
1
104
17

375
212
165
250
270
435
300
20
1237
175

32

29

30
169
51
59
1
169
1.32

395
340
229
424
1859
525
573
20
1367
2465

Totals

65

130

251

3815

55

813

328

3439

699

8197

Average annual

6.5

13

25.1

381.5

5.5

81.3

32.8

343.9

69.9

819.7

Price F

ercub

c meter

2

15.20

14.8

10.5

11.7

520

APPENDIX

ACCESSORY PRODUCTS

Years

Extension

of cutting

period

Miscel-
laneous
concessions
(springs,
rights of
way,
stone,
sand, etc.)

Minor

products,

value of

day's labor

Grazing,
value

Hunt,
rental

Trespass,

civic
damages

Totals

1901

4

37.50
37.50
37 50
25.00
62.50
30.00
42.50
35,00
40.00
40.00

4.00

45.50

1902

37.50

1903

3

13.80

40 50

1904

38.80

1905

26
26
26
11

88.50

13.50
93.00
28.00

56.00

82.00

1908

139.00

79.00

1910

51.00

Totals

7

387.50

111

152 30

657.80

Average annual . .

0.7

38.75

11.1

15.23

65.78

Art. 10. — Roads, trails, and means of removal. — There are no regular roads in
the forest (only a few trails traversing the stand), but at the bottom of each canton
there is a mule trail. That part which borders the Canton of Vuardaz joins the national
road No. 202; this enables the hauHng of wood to the Taninges station (narrow gauge),
4.6 kilometers away. The area bordering the Peray Canton almost touches the main
road from the pass of Chatillon to Bonneville via Marignier (P. L. M. station, 4 kilo-
meters).

Art. 11. — Markets. — The fire wood is used locally, while the logs (owing to the
railroads in each valley) have a wide market.

Art. 12. — Grazing, etc. — None.

Art. 13. — Patrol. — The patrol is done by two guards, one belonging to the Tan-
inges ranger district, the other to Cluses. Their residences are at Taninges and Cluses.

PART II

Chapter I. — Statement and Critical Review of Treatment in Force
By a decision of the director, dated June 13, 1873, the forest of Thiez was divided into
two working groups, one coppice, the other high forest. The coppice working group
having been entirely disposed of since 1873 there is nothing to report. The high forest
working group has been cut over during a period of 15 years by improvement cuttings
amounting to 4.34 hectares each year. This period of 15 years ended in 1888. Since
this date the forest has only been cut under emergency fellings except for an improve-
ment felling in 1909 of 8.68 hectares, and in two or three selection cuttings only windfall
or overmature timber was removed. While the regular fellings have been few in number,
the same cannot be said of the trespass cuttings, for almost all the stock of the Peray
Canton has been cut by trespassers. It is essential to regulate the fellings and to deter-
mine a yield based upon an exact estimate of the forest's resources. This is the object
of this work.

Chapter II. — Basis of Proposed Management

A conifer stand with such a small stock can only be treated by the selection system.
We propose to put the entire area into a single working group of selection high forest.

ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA

521

PART III
Special Study of the Working Group

Art. 1. — Compartments. — It has been laid out according to natural boundaries
such as roads or ravines following current usage. Each compartment has been marked
and designated with capital letters. Their area varies from 2.11 hectares to 8.46
hectares, an average of 5.28; this is in keeping with the size of the forest.

The forest description follows: (Sample given on pages 532 and 5.33).

Art. 2. — Exploitability, rotation, periods. — A tree 0.60 meter (23.6 inches d.b.h.)
in diameter is best suited to the sale requirements. A smaller size would not be adapted
to all uses, while a large size would make lumbering too difficult. We shall therefore
adopt 0.60 meter as the exploitable size.

To reach this size a tree requires at least 140 years. If you glance over the curves
inserted in the Appendix (page 528) it is evident that the spruce and fir take on an
average 16 years to pass from one diameter class (2 inches) to another; it follows that
to pass through the diameter classes from 6 inches to 24 inches takes 144 years. In
fixing the rotation at this figure we are overlooking the length of time that a tree takes
to pass from the understory, and recent studies have shown that this method of pro-
cedure is legitimate. It seems logical to choose 16 years as the period since it takes
that length of time to pass from one diameter class to another.

Art, 3. — Regulation of felling. — The compartments A, B, C, D, E, F, G, I, L,
and M only carry a growing stock which can be inventoried. These are the only com-
partments to be cut over by selection cuttings based on volume. The compartments
H and K, stocked solely with young growth, will be run over by improvement cuttings
based on area. On the formal request of the commune (which, while wishing to sell
the principal cuttings, desires to provide for the residents a small right to gather hard-
wood fuel) these shall be filled by improvement cuttings in the compartments C, D,
E, F, G, I, L, and M. The table below gives a resume of these plans:

Canton

Compartment

Area

Extent of selection

Improvement
fellings

La Vuardaz

Le Peray

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I

K
L
M

6.11
5.24

2.17
4.70
2.95
3.46
2.11
6.78
7.74
4.68
7.14
8.46

6.11
5.24
2.17
4.70
2.95
3.46
2.11

7.74

7^14

8.46

2.17
3.00
1.00
2.00
1.00
6.78
7.74
4 68

7.14
8.46

61.54

50.08

43.97

A. -FELLINGS BY VOLUME
Art. 4. — Determination of the yield. — The yield will be calculated in accord-
ance with the method given in the circular of July 17, 1883, which consists in dividing
the wood in three groups in accordance with their size: (1) The young wood whose
diameter is less than one-third the exploitable size. (2) The average wood whose
diameter is included between one-third and two-thirds this size. (3) The old wood
whose diameter is more than two-thirds this size.

522

APPENDIX

If the volume of old wood and that of average wood are to each other as 5 is to 3
it is a normal proportion, and if not it is possible to decrease or even the difference by
approximate transfers. Then the final volume of old wood plus its growth is divided by
one-third the number of years in the rotation. The trees have been calipered by 2-inch
diameter classes, commencing with 8 inches, and the volumes figured with the volume
table made by M. Algan (No. 11 for the fir and spruce and No. 5 for the pine and broad-
leaved trees).

The following table gives the division by groups and diameter classes:

Diametere (d. b. h.),
centimeters

Volume of average wood

Volume of old wood

Spruce and fir

Pine

Total

Spruce and fir

Pine

Total

20 (7.8 inches)

348.4

486.8
523.2
639.9

7.6

356.0
491.0
528.9
642.9

25 . .

4
5
3

2

7
0

30

35

40 (15.7 inches)

895.2

684.8
399.0
249.6
160.0

2.8

898 0

45

684 8

50

399 0

55

249 6

60 (23.6 inches)

160 0

65

72.2
36.0
20.8
18.0

72.2

70

36.0

75

20.8

80 (31.5 inches)

18.0

Totals

1,998.3

20

5

2,018.8

2,535.6

2.8

2,538.4

The normal proportion should be :

Old wood 4,557.2 X 5/8 = 2,848.3 \ . rrn o

Average wood 4,557.2 X 3/8 = 1,708.9 j^'^^^-^-

For the transfer as prescribed by the method the only change which is justified is
by the abundance of overmature timber in the lower diameter classes which means that
the yield would be :

„ 2,848.3

48

59 cubic meters.

But on the other hand in this forest the growth cannot be overlooked (see table
of growth per cent in the Appendix) and we intend to count that of the old wood during
half of the period (conservative estimate of growth at 1 per cent per year). The yield
will thus become:

p ^ 2,848.3 + .^.X 24X2,848.2 ^ ^3^^ ^^ ^^ .^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^

This yield, which corresponds to 1.62 per cent of the calipered material and is 1.6
cubic meters per hectare per year for the forested area, is not too large but fully provides
for the small growing stock (and the consequent necessity for economy).

B. — AREA FELLINGS
The area to be cut over by improvement cuttings being 43.97 hectares, the yield
will be:

p = iMZ = 2.75 hectares.
16

ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA

523

A. — FELLINGS BY VOLUME

Art. 5. — Method of getting the yield. — The principal fellings are all for sale,
and since the commune actually needs all its resources, it also desires that no reserve
should be made, but that the whole yield should be auctioned each year. This request
does not seem to be contrary to the spirit of the law and we believe it is correct. If
the principal yield were entirely reserved each year the commune would ask for an
emergency felling and the result would be the same.

B. -AREA FELLINGS

The improvement cuttings, because of the necessity for special firewood allowances,
win form two distinct felling areas, each located at the nearest hamlet. The cutting
will then be worked in two lots:

The first for special firewood allowances ... in compartments H, I, K, L, and
M (average area 2.18 hectares). The second for special firewood allowances . . .
in the compartments C, D, E, F, and G (average area 0.57 hectare). However, since
this second lot is so small it will only be worked every two years and its area wiU be
1.14 hectares.

A. - FELLINGS BY VOLUME

Art. 6. — Location of fellings for the first period, 1911-1926. — The selection
felhngs will be marked one after another and will cut over the compartments alpha-
betically. No division will be left until it has been entirely cut over.

The following table gives for each compartment the estimated yield. Since the
windfalls which may take place during the period must be counted (against the yield)
it is recommended especially at the start to keep well below the (yield) figures given:

Canton

Compartment

Area

Growing stock

Per cent to cut*

Estimated yield

La Vuardaz

LePeray

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
I
L
M

6.11
5.24

2.17
4.70
2.95
3.46
2.11
7.74
7.14
8.46

741
1,164

254
1,151

464

485
52
63

121
62

22
35
30
25
22
22
40
10
10
10

163
406

76
288
100
107

20
6

12
6

Totals

50.08

4,557

26

1 184-74X16

* In realizing each year 1.62 per cent of the total stand there will be cut during the
period 16 X 1.62 = 26 per cent. This is the average per cent cut. We have varied
it for each compartment in accordance with the cultural requirements.

B. - FELLINGS BY AREA
The table which foUows shows the sequence and size of improvement fellings to mark
each and every year in the first class of fellings and every two years in the second.
The areas are somewhat unequal from one year to another; to assure an approximately
sustained yield so far as practicable it was necessary to allot felling areas universely
proportional to the abundance of broad-leaved trees in each of them, dividing \ip the com-
partments, however, as little (

524

APPENDIX

Year of the felling

Serial No.
of the cut

Compartment

Of parts to
be cut over
each year

Age of broad leaf trees

Canton of Le Peray — {First series of cuttings)

1911

1

1912

2

1913

3

1914

4

1915

5

1916

6

1917

7

1918

s

1919

9

1920

10

1921

11

1922

12

1923

13

1924

14

1925

15

1926

16

Totals.

7.74

6.78
4,68

7.14
8.46

34.80

1.75
2.25
1.90
1.84
2.27
2.45
2.06
1.61
3.07
2.50
1.64
1.96
1.04
1.68
2.28
4.50

34.80

15-30
15-30
15-30
15-30

40
15-30
15-30

10

10
10-15
10-15
1.5-20
15-20
10-20

10

10

At time of
felling

16-31
17-32
18-33
19-34

45
21-36
22-37

18

19
20-25
21-26
27-32
28-33
24-34

24

24

Canton o

/ La Vuardaz —

- {Second series of cuttings)

1911
1913

^1
^1

c

2.17

1 1.08

1.09

J 1.50

1 1.50

20

18

21
21

1915
1917

D

3.00

18

18

23
25

1919
1921

^i

F

2.00

1 1.00
i 1.00

17
15

26
26

1923

7

G

1.00

1.00

15

28

1925

8

E

1.00

1.00

15

30

Totals

9.17

A. -VOLUME FELLINGS

Art. 7. — Application of the yield. — Cultural rules. — The fellings shall be
on the whole entirely selection (in character) favoring (for removal) dry topped trees,
those decayed or overmature of all diameter classes whose removal will fill an important
part of the yield. Next cut trees which have reached or passed the exploitable size
(23.6 inches or 60 c. m. in diameter) and whose retention does not seem to be necessary
in order to maintain the canopy. Do not forget that on the whole the growing stock
is deficient and that all young trees which are sound and vigorous should in theory
be retained; yet at the bottom of compartments A and B where there is a half-grown
high forest, quite regular thinnings must be carried on in order to favor the devel-
opment of the best stems.

B. -AREA FELLINGS
The aim of the improvement cuttings should be the creation of a mixed forest of
conifers and broadleaves. In theory they should be exploited by cutting back (rece-
page) ; this cutting back shall be complete when it concerns the softwoods, but on the

ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA 525

contrary with the hardwoods there should be reserved (1) all the trees with freed crowns
and in good condition ; (2) a certain number of stems chosen from those with the longest
boles on the areas where the conifers are lacking. However, at the time of the regular
fellings one can clean out the saplings where they are too dense by removing the dead
trees or those clearly suppressed, although these last will be conserved, in theory.

Art. 8. — Deduction (from the yield). — The volume of conifers, from 20 cm.
(8 inches) up, cut in any felling whatever in the compartments cahpered shall be counted
against the yield.

PART IV

Betterments

General Map. — Compartment Map. — The topographic map was drawn on a
scale of 23V3 which corresponds to the scale used in the former map of Savoie, then
reduced to 5 oVo in order to obtain the complete map given in the Appendix. Twenty-
meter (66-foot) contours have been used. It is hoped that this map can be reproduced
by the helographique process so that it can be sent to each agent as an example.

Management Divisions. — All compartments are bounded by natural lines, trails,
or canyons; there are no ditches to open up. But in order to avoid all confusion it is
advisable that the compartment letters be marked on the boundary trees. A method
which has given excellent results consists in lightly scraping the bark so as to make a
smooth square which wUl take two coats of white zinc on which the letter can be painted
in red or blue.

Boundary Posts. — As has been seen, the boundary has been marked by posts and
"crossed" rocks while the working plan data were collected, but it would be well to
make this stiU plainer by opening up ditches or paths between the pillars or rocks. If
the commune cannot afford this work along the entire boundary it would be a good
plan to commence ditches on each side of corners pointing to the next ones.

Reforestation. — The removal of overmature material, especially in compartments
B and C, wUl necessitate openings which must be restocked to enrich the soil. The
best method consists in working seed spots about 2 meters apart upon which excess
wild stock can be planted; the cultivation thus given the ground has the effect of mixing
the soil with the acid humus, freely worked in, thus aiding the rooting of the seedling.

Communications. — It is chiefly outside the forest that means of communication
are lacking, especially in the Canton of Vuardaz, but the study for road improvements
below the stand at the hamlet of Bois and ChatiUon is out of our hands.

Improvement Tax on the Sales. — To permit the execution of the improvements
here enumerated as well as those found later on to be useful a tax of 3 per cent should
be levied on all wood sales and allotted for expenditure to the local forest service.

Patrol. — The trespass (timber cutting) which has taken place and which still con-
tinues in the Canton of Peray requires vigorous measures. The isolation of this separate
stand from the rest of the forest by a rocky ridge and the distance from the ranger
station makes patrol difficult; to assure patrol it appears that cooperation will be
necessary between the Canton of Bonneville and Taninges. It will not require too
much work of the two districts to prevent the abuse of this wretched canton. It goes
mthout saying that legal proceedings must always be pressed with the utmost vigor.

526 APPENDIX

PART V

Comparative Review of the Revenue Before and After the (proposed)
Working Plan

The average annual yield of the forest during the last 10 years (1901-1910) is as
follows :

Wood products (70 m. c.) 820 francs; (minor) accessory products, 66 francs = total
of 886 francs. From this must be deducted: (1) cost of guard, 110 francs; (2) adminis-
trative costs, 41 francs; (3) taxes, 102 francs, or 253 francs, leaving a net revenue of 633
francs (equal to 80 cents per acre per year). The receipts to be realized after the appli-
cation of the working plan proposed can, on the other hand, be valued as follows : Princi-
pal felling (74 m. c.) 962 francs; improvement cuttings (20 m. c. at 2 francs), 40 francs;
(minor) accessory products, 66 francs, or a total of 1,068 francs; from which must be
deducted: (1) cost of guard, 122 francs; (2) administrative costs, 50 francs; (3) taxes,
102 francs, or 274 francs costs, leaving a net revenue of 794 francs. This net revenue
would thus be 161 francs more than the former, or a 25 per cent increase (about $1 per
acre per year).

(Signed) A. Schaeffer,
Inspector of Waters and Forests, Chief of Management.

Chambery, November 25, 1910.

ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA

527

VOLUME TABLE

Diameters

Spruce and

Pine,

B. H..

fir,

cubic

Remarks

inches

cubic meters

meters

8

0.2

0.1

H

10

0.4

0.2

12

0.6

0.3

2.

14

0.9

0.5

3

16

1.2

0.7

18

1.6

1.0

7i

20

2.1

1.3

n

22

2.6

1.6

24

3.2

2.0

£s

26

3.8

2.4

o t'

28

4.5

2.8

il

30

5.2

3.2

32

6.0

3.7

o

34

6.8

4.2

o

36

7.7

4.8

1

38

8.6

5.4

s

40

9.6

6.0

Graphical representation of the growing stock.
Upper line indicates normal growing stock.
Lower line indicates actual growing stock.

TABLE SHOWING THE NORMAL
HECTARE (SELECTION FOREST)

D. B. H.,

inches

Number
of trees

Volume

per tree,

0. m.

Volume for
the diameier
class, c. m.

8

114

0.2

22.8

10

73

0.4

29.2

12

55

0.6

33.0

14

44

0.9

39.6

16

35

1.2

42,0

18

27

1.6

43.2

20

21

2.1

44.1

22

17

2.6

44.2

24

14

3.2

44.8

400

342.9

24 22 20 18 16

Diameter Breast High in Inches

* In the original working plan the volumes for (a) the spruce, fir and (b) the pine were graphically shown by
2-inch diameter classes and cubic meters of volume.

528

APPENDIX

RESULTS OF BORINGS WITH PRESSLER'S INCREMENT BORER

Number of years to pass from one diameter class to another

D.B. H.,inche

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

30

19
17
10
11

12

11

8

40

16

14
21

8
21
28
21
10

6

17
16
7
22
25
25
10
14
17

11

17

17

16
5

24

8
9

6

Time in

years to

grow

2 inches

Totals

69

19

56

129

153

45

21

41

6

Averages . .

13.8

9.5

28.0

16.1

17.0

15.0

10.5

13.6

6

The 35 trees take in the aggregate 539 years to pass from one diameter class to an-

539
other or an average of -^ = 15.4; that is to say in 16 years all the stems should pass

through one diameter class (2 inches); the length of the cutting period is therefore
justified. The curve given below brings out this point even clearer:

s :

1 30
t 25
o ^ 20

/

\

/

\

>

h

I § 15
1 "^ 10

S 5

2

/

^

\

^

^

■--«_

n

"^

"~~"

■^

-^

L-

16 18 20 22 24

Diameter Breast High in Inches

ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA
AVERAGE GROWTH PER CENT BY DIAMETER CLASSES

529

D. B. H., inches

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

30

2.86

5.83
3.67
4.00

2.67
5.33

0.53
1.67

2.28
1.43
3.81
1.04
1.43
1.43
2.86
4.75

1.67
2 00
4.16
1.11
0.83
0.83
2.50
1 43
2,00

1.78
1.11

1.14
4.00

0

1
1

61

82
82

2.67

Total

19.22

8.00

2.20

19.03

16.53

4.16

5.14

4

25

2 67

3.84

4.00

1.1

2.38

1.83

1.39

2.57

^

49

2 67

Evened off by c

urve.

\

\

p-^

^,

y

s

\

^

N

—

\

^

y^

N

/

\

^

—

\

/

/^

^

^

^

r

—

^

^

'^

— ,

—

—

1 —

—

—

—

—

—

~

—

—

—

—

—

n —

10 12 14

18 20 22 24 26

530

APPENDIX

The table below gives the per cents evened off by a curve; by applying them to the
volumes of the different diameter classes resulting from the valuation the probable
growth of the forest as it stands is obtained :

D. B. H., inches a

Total volume in cubic
meters

Growth

per cent read from
curve

Growth

in cubic meters

8

356

X

4.75

=

16.9

10

491

X

3.25

16.0

12

529

X

2.75

14.5

14

643

X

2.0

12.9

16

898

X

1.75

15.7

• 18

685

X

1,62

11.1

20

399

X

1.50

6.0

22

255

X

1.32

3.3

24

160

X

1.20

1.9

26

72

X

1.15

0.8

28

36

X

1.10

0.4

30

21

X

1.05

=

0.2

32

18
4,558

X

1.00

0.2
99.9

"This column was not given in the original plan.

99 9
The average yearly growth per cent would equal .— r^

4,ooo

fore evident that in reducing the per cent to be cut to 1.62 a considerable saving will

be made so essential to complete the (deficient) growing stock.

2.19 per cent. It is there-

ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA

531

>

348.4
486.8
523.2
639.9
895.2
684.8
399.0
249.6
160.0
72.2
36.0
20.8
18.0

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i i

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w SSSSSS-"^::.

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1 :

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S 2 S § H 1 § g g? -■ : :

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: 1

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532

APPENDIX
COMPARTMENT DESCRIPTIONS (SAMPLE)

1

Situation —

Canton

1
J

Area

slope, altitude,
aspect

Soil

Species

Age

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Hectare.^

La Vuardaz . .

A

6 11

Slope very

Upper cretaceous red stratum

Spruce, 97 per

Age of

steep, cliffs,

calcaire, marl.

cent

overstory

north expo-

Soil rocky and generally shal-

Beech and

100 years

sure

low. The rock formation

others, 3 per

Altitude

outcrops very frequently

cent

850-1084 m.

Cover of moss and vegetable
litter

LaVuardaz..

B

5.24

Slope very

Upper cretaceous red stratum

Spruce, 99 per

Age of

steep, facing

Soil quite deep and solid but

cent; beech.

overstory

north and

impermeable, therefore some

1 per cent

100 years

northwest

root rot

Altitude

Cover of grass, epilobes

850-1084 m.

La Vuardaz. .

C

2.17

Slope steep

Same geologic base as above

Spruce, 90 per

Age of

to west and

but with marl.

cent; beech

over.story

northwest

Soil dry, rocky, and stony to

and oak, 10

100 years

dominated

the south; rest like B

per cent

also 15-20

by a cliff

year old

Altitude

broad-

892-1045 m.

leaved
trees

LaVuardaz. .

D

4.70

Ridge with

Same as C in re. geology.

Spruce, 90 per

1 to 150

rapid slope

Soil dry, shallow, and rocky

cent; beech

years for

facing north-

toward the cliff to the west;

and broad-

the coni-

west and

on remainder fresh and rich,

leaves, 10

fers

west where it

there is an abundant cover

per cent

15 to 20

is bounded

of shrubs, briars, ferns.

years for

by a cliff

moss, etc.

the broad-

Altitude

leaved

995-1171 m.

trees

Total

18.22

ORIGINAL WORKING PLAN DATA

533

COMPARTMENT DESCRIPTIONS (SAMPLE) — Continued

Description of stand

Stand pet
hectare

Graphic description of stock

Each horizontal square represents
a difference of 2 inches in diameter:
eacli vertical square 10 trees

In the lower part young high forest regular and
in good condition. On the rest of area selec-
tion forest open and poor, composed of short
limby trees. The hardwoods . . . are
hardly represented, only a few beech usually
isolated

Rocky blanks, 0.11 hectares

Stocked area, 6.0 hectares

In the lower part young high forest regular and
in good condition. On rest of area high forest
open with some blanks, more or less damaged
by insects (bostrytches) despite their being
localized understory of beech. The trees are
long-boled but have a strong tendency to be
worm-eaten

Growth declining in vigor

To the S. W. under the cliff coppice invaded by
the conifers which are in places clumps of
saplings, poles and even young high forest.
Elsewhere open and declining in vigor, rav-
aged by bostryches

Growth not vigorous except near the bottom

Rocky blanks, 0. 10 hectares

Stocked area, 2 07 hectares

Selection forest in vigorous condition, good
height, topping in places an understory of
beesh. Toward the cliff coppice quite com-
plete, overtopped by conifers singly and in
groups

Growth active on the east, slowing up on the
west, found a lot of overmature trees

1

--V --

^ ^

T rll

___5^

::::L^v:-: ::::::

::r: :::::: :::::: ::::::

-'

A^

V5±

= = " -§ = """" = ± = "

-pW '

is^::::::::::::::::::::::

___. !__________._._

IMP" hi

^^-H+--^+

Valuation of I9I0
Normal stand

634

APPENDIX

APPENDIX L

MODEL INSURANCE CALCULATIONS OF DAMAGE BY FIRE »

Forest under working plan with an area of 80 hectares, treated in coppice-undei'-
standards with a rotation of 20 years divided into 20 feUing areas with an average area
on the ground of 4 hectares.

1. — Object Insured

(1) The coppice, composed of oak 0.3; beech 0.2; hornbeam 0.4; miscellaneous 0.1;
whose ages vary from 1 to 20 years.

(2) The reserves, but only including the oak, the beech, and the miscellaneous trees
with circumferences between 0.51 meters and 1.10 meters at 1.30 meters above the soil,

(3) (I/Ensouchement) root systems.

(4) Litter.

It is agreed that the rate of interest to be used in calculations shall be 3^ per cent.

II. — Calculations of the Capital to be Insured

(1) Coppice. The net average value of the stand 20 years old is 300 francs per hectare.
The value per hectare capable of giving a revenue of 300 francs every 20 years is given
at the rate of 3^ per cent:

F = 300X rj^ 20 - 1 = (By using the 3d Cotta table)

F = 300 X 1.01 = 303 francs.

From this value per hectare should be deducted the value V per hectare calculated
by the formula :

V = 303 francs (1.033'* — 1), where " = the age of the growing stock or, employing
the first Cotta table,

F ^, or a value of a hectare aged one year 303 X 0.03 = 9 francs

y", or a value of a hectare aged 10 vears 303 X 0.41 = 124 francs

F^o, or a value of a hectare aged 20 years 303 X 0.99 = 300 francs

Total 2,802 francs

In the example just given, each of the 20 felling areas with ages 1 to 20 years have a
surface of 4 hectares. It therefore results that the total value of the coppice, that is to
say, the amount to be insured, wiU be 2,802 X 4 = 11,208 francs, or, in round num-
bers, 11,200 francs.

(2) Reserve. The oak and beech with circumferences between 0.51 and 1.10 meters
are divided into three classes according to the table which follows (resulting from former
stocktaking and valuation) indicates the composition and the average value per hectare:

Circumference class
(meters)

Species and value

Total value,
francs

0.51-0.70

30

0 71-0 90

10 beech and miscellaneous worth 1 franc each. .
10 oaks worth 3 francs each

10
30

0.91-1.10

6 beech and miscellaneous worth 2 francs each.

8 oaks worth 5 francs each

4 beech and miscellaneous worth 3 francs each.

12
40
12

Total

134

See p. 288 for discussion.

MODEL INSURANCE CALCULATIONS 535

The sum of 134 francs being the capital to insure to guarantee the reserves on one hec-
tare, that corresponding to the whole forest will be 134 X 80 = 10,720 francs, or, in
round figures, 19,700 francs.

(3) Roots. The cost of planting 1,000 plants may be estimated according to regional
costs at:

Francs

Piu-chase of 1,000 plants 10

Transport, planting, and accessory expense 14

Total 24

5,000 plants per hectare will be sufficient to reconstitute the forest supposedly
entirely destroyed. It results, therefore, that the expense per hectare will be 24 francs X
5 = 120 francs and that for the 80 hectares of the forest, the capital to be insured in
view of the guarantee will be 120 francs X 80 = 9,600 francs.

(4) Litter. The necessary expense for covering the soil with 1 kilogram of azote
can be valued locally as follows :

Francs

Purchase of manure yielding 1 kilogram of azote 1.50

Transport, spreading, and necessary expense 0.50

Total 2.00

The average weight of the litter per hectare is 40 quintaux capable of furnishing 1
kilogram of azote per quintal or 40 kilograms of azote per hectare. It therefore follows
that the expense per hectare will be 2 francs X 40 = 80 francs and that for the 80 hec-
tares of the forest the capital to be insured wiU be 80 francs X 80 = 6,400 francs.
The total capital to be insured will then be:

Francs

Coppice 11,200

Reserves 10,700

Roots 9,600

Litter 6,400

Total 37,900

III. — Calculations of the Annual Insurance Rate

(1) Charcoal is manufactured.

(2) The forest has no fire lines, divisions, or brooks capable of stopping fire.

These two factors increase the insurance risk each to the extent of 0.05 per cent or a
total of 0.10 per cent, which gives a final figure of 0.50 + 0.10 = 0.60 per cent. Apply-
ing this 0.60 per cent rate to the capital to be insured, it yields an annual rate to be paid
of 37.9 X 0.60 = 22.74 francs.

A fire burns 3 hectares of the forest of which 2 hectares is coppice aged 8 years and
1 is hectare coppice aged 10 years — 16 oaks and 60 beech and miscellaneous of circum-
ferences between 0.51 and 1.10 are destroyed. Half the stumps have been kUledby
the fire. Two-thirds the Utter is destroyed.

IV. — Calculation of the Damage Caused

Francs
(1) Coppice. 2 hectares aged 8 years, worth 2 X 97 francs = 194
1 hectare aged 10 years, worth 1 X 125 francs = 125

Total 319

536

APPENDIX

Salvage and deduct. The cost of cutting back is compensated by the value of the
products saved; therefore there is no salvage: Net = 319 francs.

(2) Reserves. The trees destroyed according to circumferences at 1.30 above the
soil are:

Circumferences

Francs

0.51-0.70

20

0.71-0.90

25 beech and miscellaneous worth 1 franc each . .

6 oaks worth 3 francs each

20 beech and miscellaneous worth 2 francs each .
15 beech and miscellaneous worth 3 francs each .

Total . . .

25

18

0.91-1.10

40
45

148

Salvage to deduct.

Actual value of the trees killed by fire

Net

60

88

(3) Roots. The amount necessary to replace half the roots per hectare is 120 -^ 2.

This replacement being necessary on 3 hectares, there will be due for the damage to the

120
root systems -^ X 3 = 180 francs.

(4) Litter. The amount necessary to replace two-thirds the litter per hectare is

2 X80,

— 5 — francs.

This replacement being necessary on 3 hectares there will be due for damage caused

2 V SO
to the litter ^ X 3 = 160 francs.

The total damage caused will then be:

Francs

Coppice 318

Reserves 88

Roots 180

Litter 160

Total 746

PIWFEHTY LIBRARY
JV. C. SiaU College

INDEX

Administration, costs, 57
Administrative education, 268
Adour, valley of the, 71
Agriculture, cultivable land, 27

staples of, 27
Aleppo and Scotch pine, selection fellings
for, 87

pine, clear cutting, 72
Algerian code of 1908, 261
Algeria, special laws for, 261
Allied cooperation, x
Alpine gorges, work done in, 8
Alps, land forests of the, 36

region, 422

size, 36

zone, 32
Alsace-Lorraine, forests of, 495

valley in. Frontispiece.
Amance, State forest of, 101
Amboise, forest of, 95, 323, 328
American Army, what it required, 337

Forest Engineers in France, 336

operations, French view of, 355

requirements, French difficulties in
supplying, 356

woodsmen called to the colors, 338
Appraisal, a sample, 295

and estimate, 294
Appendixes, 360-536
Aqueducts and tunnels, 162
Arbor day celebrations, 19
Arc-et-Chateau villain forest, 323
Area allotment by periods, 239

and age, 234

and topography, 25

burned over, 204

felling by, 255

in hectares, xxi

pure, 232

size of, to restore, 156
Areas, eroded, per cent, 145
Argon, forest of, 111
Avalanches, erosion, and floods, 23

frequent in the mountains, 158

Avalanches, protection against, 158

works to prevent, 255
Aude, sowing in the, 138

Badre, inspecteur, 76

Bagneris method of tapping, 107

Ball planting, 128

Ban d'Etival, fir stumpage prices, 313

Ban de Puy-Saint Pierre, forest of, 91

Barcelonette (Basses- Alpes), success of

plants, 126
Bark, cork, 233

tannin, 92
Barres Secondary School for Rangers, 124
Basses-Alpes, department of, 36
Beaufort, communal forest of, 109
Beech, 390

and oak forests, well-managed, 14

-oak stands in northeast of France, 98

regeneration, irregularity of, 82

second important species, 41

selection coppice, 94

shelterwood for, 76

tolerant, 76
Benardeau, conservator of forests, 18
Betterments, 290

Biscarrosse, forest of, 7, 172, 189, 191
Bonnevaux, forest of, 87
Boppe, 71, 94, 106

Bremontier, a great engineer, 169, 173, 175
Bridge and Road Service, 176
Briot, conservator. Forest Service, 153
Broadleaves, area occupied by, 40
BroUliard, 23, 97

Calipering, rules for, 212

stands, 211
Carcans, forest of, 188, 191
Caterpillar tractors, 346
Cembric pine and larch, 33, 165
Central Plateau region, 426

zone, 33
Cette-Eygun, forest of, 83
Cevennes region, 427

537

538

INDEX

Chamonix forest, 229, 259

working plan, 248-250
Chapelle d'Huin, forest of, 87
Charcoal, burning, 204
Chevandier, Doctor, 142
Cleaning and freeing young stands, 106

meaning of, 105
Cleanings and thinnings, 71

when to make, 108
Chmate, 26

Climatic and physical features, 25
Code, forest, xv

Colbert, the great conservationist, 221
Combre dune, sowing on the, 138
Commerce, 29
Communal forests, xiv
Compartment subdivision, 226
Conifers, area occupied by, 40
Coniferous stands, planting of, 130
Conservation, French attitude toward, 9

name of, xxi

projects, private forests in, 9
Conservations, France proper divided into

thirty-two, 273
Consumption of lumber, per capita, 16
Contractors, rights of, 299
Conversion, cost of, 103

the best known, 101, 103
Conversions, 54-57, 70, 100
Cooperation, allied, x
Coppice, 54, 57, 70

loss in large area in, 92

managed on short rotation, 92

of sessile oak, 92

selection treatment in, 94, 233

simple, 93

stands, species found in French, 93

systems, 92, 100

under conversion, acres of, 100

when not to cut, 93

with field crops, 94

with short rotation, 218

with standards, 487
Coppice-under-standards, 54, 57, 70, 93

classified, 97

four rules for improvement of, 96

(futaie claire), substitute, 98

inferior to high forest, 94

rotation for, 97

system, 100
Cordwood, how estimated, 208

Cordwood, prices, 306

sold by ton, 208
Corsica, 262

special laws for, 261
Cork bark, 233
Cost of conversion, 103
Costs, restocking blanks, 79
Cover and protection, 129
Crowns, thrifty, well-developed, 86
Cuif, in charge of research at Nancy, 101
Cut, regulation of, 231

systematizing the, 225
Cutting area, marking the, 254

and logging rules, 297

clear, 70, 82

cycles, length of, 227

cycles and rotations, 226

final, 188

period, 87, 227

principles and methods of, 224

regulation of, 215

requirements imposed by the French,
353

saw timber, 201

systematic, beginning of, 218

systems of, 70, 232
Cuttings, improvement, 104, 105, 189

intermediate, 105

transformation, 103, 104

Dabat, M., 312
Damage by birds, 278

by frost, 281

by game, 279

by sunscald and drought, 282

from grazing, 280

from logging, 277

fungous, 280

insect, 278

prevention of, 275

snow, 282

windfall, 280
Dams, costly system of, 154

construction of, 157

log and dry stone, 155

masonry and rubble, 9

principal objects of, 157

technique of, 157

walls, drains, purpose of, 164
Daubree, minister of agriculture, 23, 140
Deforestation, cause of, 18

INDEX

539

Deforestation, dangers of, 17

legislation against, 316

on mountain slopes, 6

obligation of the State, 18
Deforested countries, 17
De Gail, conservateur, 45, 279
De Lapasse, conservateur, xx, 22
Demontzey, 115, 141, 162
Department of Bouches-du-Rhone, 88
Departments, xxi, 47, 50

most heavily and least forested, 52
Devarennes, inspector, 60
Diameter limit by single trees, 233
Dijon hardwood belt, xviii
Dingy St. Clair, forest of, 244
Dinner, authority on forestation, 122, 130
District manager, duties of, 341
Drains, paved, at Bastan, 161
Dr6me, basin of, 36

valley of, 167
Dune commission, 175

httoral, 180, 181

protection, at Lacaneau-Ocean, 171

road, 183

the protective, 180
Dunes, 169

advance of, 172

and Landes, 262

area of French, 177

artificial, 181

artificial barrier, cost, 184

conditions of coast, 177, 179

cost and price data, 183

development of, 173

fixation and maintenance of, 180

high protective, 181

kinds of, causes, 171

maintenance of, 437

maritime, in France, 176

method of combatting, 6

reclamation of, 173
Dunning, valuation surveys by, 212
Durance, the basin of the, 36

Earth movements, causes of, 160
Economic needs and national traits, 1
Education, forestry, 275
Embrunais, larch forests of the, 36
Engineers, the American Forest, in France,

336
Ermenonville, forest of, 78

Erosion and precipitation, 147

avalanches, and floods, 23

corrective measures, 153

form of, 148

in the moimtains, 140

not caused by grazing, 152

preventing further, 166

rocks and soils, 148
Estimates, ocular, 211
Eu-et-Aumale, forest of, 316
Expense and receipts, state forests, 203
Exotics rarely succeed, 44
Experiments recommended, 79

Felling areas, groups divided into, 88

cycles, 191

final, 74, 231

"open" or "light," 74
Fellings, fir selection, 83

group, 70

improvement, 111

intermediate, 113, 189, 233

or thinnings, intermediate, 231

progressive (shelterwood system), 73

secondary, 74

selection, 70
Fence, to prevent damage from game, 75
Field crops, coppice with, 94
Final felling, 74
Fire, chief causes of, 284

damage intensive, 282

insurance calculations of damage by,
534

insurance in France, 288

Imes, 287

preventive, chief, measures in France,
276

problem in forest of I'Esterel, 283

protection necessary, 276
Fir and spruce in mixture, shelterwood for,
82

average figure per acre for, 84

forest, a, 332

forests, money yield from, 320

or spruce, group selection for, 89

selection fellings, 83

shelterwood for, 80

silver, 41, 397

-spruce forests, 60

-spruce stands, rule for, 239

stands in the Jura, studies of, 60

540

INDEX

Flahaut, M., 141

Fishing and shooting, 262

Flood control in the Alps, 7

Floods, avalanches, and erosion, 23

Fontainebleau, forest of, 79

Forest acquisitions in the war zone, 352

acres of. State, communal, private, 34

agencies of France, cooperation with,
351

and land conservation, 6

and sawmill divorced, 14

and springs, 361

area, French possession of, 45

area in private ownership, 315

area, per cent of, 46

area, typical, 34

areas, 49

art and literature, 24

belts, important, 338

code, XV, 11

code of 1827, 261

crop, 218, 226

description, example of the latest, 245,
246

destruction, controlling, xxiv

devastation. State control of, 4

divisions, 29

education, where obtained, 274

engineers, accomplishment of, 348, 350

engineers, organization of, 338

enterprises, use of land for, 9

fires, laws dealing with, 4

growth, receding in the mountains, 141

high, 54-57, 93, 98

houses, 290

influences, 19

investment, 319, 320, 322

labor, wages paid, 13

land in the United States, 45

lands, confiscation of, 8
devastation of, 16

Hterature and art, 24
French, 448

management, 11, 224

name of, xxi

the normal, 231

officers, staff of, 12

ownership, 46

policy in the United States, 220, 221

preparedness in France, 337

private, owners, 45

Forest problems, 15
production, xxiv, 46
property as long-term investment, 322
regions, 25, 29
regulating a, 225
regulation, beginning of, 218
high, 476

reserves, when established, 223
resources, intensive use of, 15
revenue, average, 184
roads, local, 63
selection, formula for management of a,

84
school, Nancy, 101
soil, 67

species, important, 40
species, silvics of important, 387
statistical data, 45
state administration, xvii
system of cutting, 46
systems, high, 71
taxation, French, 267
the, from an economic viewpoint, 381

from a physical viewpoint, 381

from a social viewpoint, 381
troops loaned to French and British

Armies, 357
type of, 99
versus farm crops, 13
Forest of Amance, 20

Amboise, 95

Amboise, how acquired, 327

Amboise, receipts and expenses, 329

Amboise, situation, 328

Argon, 111

Ban d'Etival, 508

Ban de Puy-Saint Pierre, 91

Beaufort, 109

Belle Vaux, 37

Biscarrosse, 172, 189, 191

Bonnevaux, 87

Burdignin, 516

Carcans, 188, 191

Cette-Eygun, 83

Chamonix, 260

Chapelle d'Huin, 87

Dingy St. Claire, 244

Ermenonville, 78

Filhnges, 515

Fontainebleau, 79

Gerardmer, 80, 243

INDEX

541

Forest of Grande Chartreuse, 87

Grande Cote, 500

Huit, 102

La Dole, 32

La Gardiole, 126, 129

La Joux, 32, 60, 512

Lancanau, 188

Lardies, 512

L'Esterel, 233

La Teste, 188, 193

Levier, 62

Malmifait, 77, 112

Manigod, 39

Montargis, conversion in the, 102

Mont-Genevre, 36

Mont Glore, 511

Moudon, 379

Ouhans, 61

Noiremont, 81

Parc-et-St. Quentin, 77, 517

Paridas, 75

Rambouillet, 79

Risol, 81

Risonx, 32

St. Antoine, 91

St. Martin d'Arc, 87

St. Panerace, 89

St. Paul, 165

St. Point, 62

Thiez, 517

Thones-Ville, 109

Tignes, 90

Villarodin-Bourget, 85

Vuillecin, 103

X, 323, 332
Forestation, 182

and drainage practicable, 170
artificial, grazing disastrous to, 173
by communes, 147
by individuals, 147
divisions, 145
examples of, 164
methods, 130
obligatory, 115
optional, 115
practice, French, 138
Forester's golden rule, 66
Forestry a national art, 2

a poor investment for an individual, 335
as a commercial business, 14
as an investment, 317

Forestry education, 275

French, restrictions in cutting, 354

the war a vindication of, 358
in the Landes, 169
operations, geographical distribution,

340
private, its economic basis, 12

on its own merits, 15
real, in France, 268
section of the Expeditionary Force, 340,

358
troops, a division of, 340
troops, spirit of, 349
Forests, action of, on springs, 363
area and topography, 25
communal and institution, 53
control of private, 5
dune, in public hands, 178
educational value of, 1 1
extent of the public, 10
famous recreation, 23
federal, two important, 36
fix, of France, 31
for indirect benefits, 323
for health, recreation, and beauty, 23
French, inroads upon, 356

regulations, 231, 232
frontier, 262
functions of, 11
high, selection, 233
important private, 415
in conservation projects, 9
indirect benefits of, xxiv
influence of, 365, 371, 372
in small holdings, 46
in the Alps, xxiii

Central Plateau, xxiii
Girondine, xxiii
Jura, xxiii
Provengale, xxiii
Pyrenees, xxiii, 38
Vosges, xxiii
legal status of, 2
most worth a visit, xx
mountain, in detail, 34

yield, 35
national, alienations of, 10

of the United States, 220
oak, 69

of Alsace-Lorraine, 495
of France, communal, 11

542

INDEX

Forests, ownership of, 177
painters of, 24
plains, yield, 35
private, 53

bought by the A. E. F., 212

statistics on, 409
protection of, 140
public, statistics on, 409
purpose of, 11
scenic, treatment of, 91
selection, French government, 230

German viewpoint, 230

two schools, 107
special legal status of, 2
State, 52

as storehouses of heavy timber, xv

checkered history of, 10

permanent, 7
tax exemption on, 6
the core of publicly owned, 9

Normandy, 22

role of, 17

value of, 17
three notable, 323
Vosges, 34, 220
France, private forestry in, 315

proper, divided into thirty-two conser-
vations, 273
saved by her forests, xiv
stumpage prices in, 309
French cooperation, effectiveness of, 356
engineers, operations of, 153
forestry, German comment on, 469

impressions of, 1

public phases of, 2
forest literature, 448
forests and forestry, xxvi
forests, boundaries of all, 292
government, early negotiations with,
352

interest rates paid by, 317

selection forests, 230
instructions, 236
Jura mountains, 84
lumber grades, 310
mensuration, 206

national forest administration, 261
officials, ix

planting technique, 127
policy, 65, 114
regulation policy, broad aims of, 215

French sUvics of aleppo pine, 407
beech, 390
cork oak, 395
European larch, 404
holm oak, 394
hornbeam, 393
maritime pine, 401
Norway spruce, 402
pedunculate oak, 387
Scotch pine, 400
sessUe oak, 389
silver fir, 397
silviculture, 90
State forest roads, 291
system of planting, 129
terms and American equivalents, 224
views, an insight into, 17
working plan, 243
Fron, 119

Frost, forest cover prevents, 20
Frosts, spring, 80
Fuel, classification of, 300

supply service, special, 347
Fungus, root, 205

Galmiche, inspecteur, 95
Game, charge for shooting, 326

fence to prevent damage from, 75
Gard and Herault, sowing in the, 137
Garnissage, 162
Gazin, 96

Gerardmer, fir sawtimber stumpage prices,
State forest of, 313

forest of, 80, 243

region, hardwood cordvvood stumpage
prices, 314
German comment on French forestry, 469
Gets, communal forest of, 39
Gironde, maritime pine, 57

sand wastes of the Landes and, 169

zone, 30
Glacial deposits, 149
Gneiss, slopes formed by, 149
Government, administrative departments,
29

regulation and working plans, 206

representative, 29
Grande Chartreuse, forest of, 89
Granites, slopes formed by, 149
Graphics, stand, what they represent, 214,
215

INDEX

543

Grazing betterment, the work of, 144

disastrous to artificial forestation, 173

forbidden, 91

grounds, reservation of, 143

law of 1882, 144

regulation of, 142

trespass, prevent, 203
Ground, when to cultivate, 91
Group selection for larch, 89
Groups, working, 191

working, essential, 215

small working, 226
Gurnaud, 107

method, 241, 242

Hailstorms, 21

Hardwood cordwood, stumpage prices for,
314

fuel production of, 14
Haute-Dauphine, forest of, 37

-Jura, 32

-Loire, stands in the, 137

-Marne, broadleaves, 56

-Savoie, 36
Henry, list of forests by, xxiii
Herault and Gard, departments of the, 144
Hez-Froidemont, State forest of, 58
High forest, 54-57, 93
High forests, selection, 233
Highways, French, value of, 346
Hole-selection method, 88
Hornbeam, 41, 393
Hufifel, 21, 36, 60, 70, 94, 98, 100, 361
Huit, the forest of, 102
Humidity and rainfall, 21

Implements, 69, 127

Improvement cuttings, 104, 105, 189

fellings. 111
Indo-China, special laws for, 261
Industries, development of machinery, 27
Influence of forests, 323, 373
Institutional forests, xvi
Interest rates paid by the French govern-
ment, 317
Intermediate fellings, 113
Inundation of 1840, 142
Inventory, a sample, 237
Isere, basin of, 36

Jacquot, 381

Jolyet, 42, 94, 105, 109
Jura, forests of the, 308
zone, 31

La Blanche forestation area, 424
Lacanau (Gironde) State forest, 188
Lafond, 180

La Gardiole, forest of, 126
Land, areable, 130, 131
barren, 131
bog and swamp, 131
brush and pasture, 131
exempt from taxation, 317
idle, America's problem, 16
in the United States forests, 45
mountain, reserved from use, 268
ownerships of, 173
reclaimed, cost of, 168
Landes and dunes, 262

and Gironde, sand wastes of the, 169
area, 170

drainage of, cost, 170
forestry in the, 169
local conditions, 172
maritime pine, 57
special betterments in the, 183
Lands, forestation of communal, 7

mountain, how governed, 263
Laporte, conservateur, 88
Larch, a light-demanding species, 83
and cembric pine, 33
European, 404

forests of the Briangonnais, 36
group selection for, and other methods,

89
habitat, 41
pure, 90

where sown, 165
La Teste, forest of, 188, 193
Law of 1846, 142
1858, 142
1860, 142
1864, 142
1876, 142
1882, 143
June 10, 1857, 263
June 18, 1859 (Guyot), 262
July 28, 1860, 263
April 4, 1882, 263
August 19, 1893, 283
violations of the, 5

544

INDEX

Laws dealing with forest fires, 4
Leaf litter, 69
L'Esterel, forest of, 233

topography of, 284
Legislation against deforestation, 316

abuses led to, 221

reference to, 268

summary of, 142, 261
Levier, statistics for, 62
Light burning never permitted, 284
Logging and cutting rules, 297

equipment and sawmills, 343

railways, 346
Loire river valley, 12

watershed, 18
Long-term sale, example of, 301
Lozere, Aveyron, and Correze, sowing in

the, 137
Lumbering, strategy in military, 342
Lumber grades, French, 310

manufacture, 15

shortage, handicap of, 16

prices paid for manufactured, 304

transportation of, 342

winning the war with, 349
Lumberjacks as road builders, 339
Lumberjack units, the organization of,
339

Malmifait, forest of, working plan, 105,

112
Management, areas and systems of, 316
divisions, 225
objects of, 186
statistics, 54
subdivisions, 225
Manufactured lumber, prices paid for, 304
Maps issued for each State forest, 293
Maram grass, sand planted to, 178
Maritime pine, clear cutting of, 72
during improvement felling, 194
forests, management of, 186
forests, working plan for, 192
method of sowing, 182
shelterwood for, 78
yield of, 202
Martin, Doctor, of Tharandt, xiii
Mathieu, investigations by, at Nancy, 19
Maures and I'Esterel, 261, 262
Measure, units of, xvii, 207
units of, American, 48

Mensuration in working plans, 206
Meter, legal cubic, 207
Method, hole-selection, 88

rule-of-thumb, 211
Methods used to stop erosion, 165
Military rank, 274
Mill cuts, daily and monthly, 349
Minor products, 277, 278
Montargis, forest of, conservation in the,

102
Mont-de-Marsan inspection, 202, 203
Mont Dore (Puy-de-D6me), 151
Mont-Genevre, forest of, 36
Motor trucks and caterpillars, 346
Moudon, forest of, 379
Mountain floods, efforts to check, 8

lands, 263

pine, where sown, 165
Mountains, control of erosion in, 140

divided into zones, 31

Names of reserves, 95
Nancy forest school, 66, 95
Natural regeneration, 65

vegetation, 148
Noiremont (Jura), fir forest of, 81
Nurseries at high altitudes, 123

fixed local, 122

flying, 122

location of, 122

permanent or central, 122

two sample, 124
Nursery practice, 123

Oak and beech forests, well-managed, 14

-beech stands in northeast of France,
98
shelterwood for, 76

clear cutting, 71

cork, 41, 395

holm, 41, 394

management of, 469

official price for, 311

pedunculate, 40, 387

sessile, 40, 389
coppice of, 92

shelterwood cuttings in, 73

standards, space for, 95

sprouting longevity, 92

volume of, 331
Oaks, the timber, 40

INDEX

545

Officers, thanks of author due to, ix, x
number of, in each grade, 270

Oise, broadleaves, 56

Organization, early, 268
modern, 272
of Forest Engineers, 338

Orne, broadleaves, 56

Owners, private, unwilling to repair dam-
ages, 267

Palisade, how built, 179

Parc-et-St. Quentin, forest of, 77

Parde, L., 78, 79

Parisian plateau, 76

Parisienne zone, 30

Paving channels, 162

Pay for subordinate force, 272

Penal code, 3

Periodic blocks, 240

Physical and climatic features, 25

Pine, aleppo, 41, 407

maritime, 41, 401

maritime, method of sowing, 178

Scotch, 41, 400
Pitwood, average market price of, 312
Plains, zones, 30
Plans, management, 215
Plants, age of, 126
Plantations in holes (or spots), 127
Planting, 116

ball, 128

bush or clump method, 128

choice between sowing and, 115

cultivation and spacing, 125

methods, 167

so-called basket method, 128

the great aim of, 125
Plants used in reforestation, 408
Plateau of Bourgogne, 76

Lorraine, 76
Policy, French, 65

Nancy school, 66
Pontarlier, sale at, 297
Port of Clamecy, 314
Precipitation and erosion, 147
Pressler borings, 256
Pressler's increment borer, boring with,

528
Prevost, Marcel, of the French academy,

XXV

Price for commercial sales, average, 320

Price for oak, official, 311

of pitwood, average market, 312
sawtimber, 307
Prices, stumpage, 304

timber, average local, 306
Private forestry, conclusions, 334
examples of the best, 323
importance of, 13
in France, 315

forests as permanent investments, 333
returns from, 14

owner, restraining the, 316

ownership, trend of, 315
Production, amount of, 202

annual, 46, 47
Products, for military purposes, 28

resinous, yield of, 202
Property rights, infringement of, 5
Protection, 275

against rodents, heat, and wind, 136

and cover, 129

benches, 158
Protective measures, 204
Proven(;'ale zone, 30
Pruning of branches on trunks, 300

excessive, 278

when started, 189
Puy-de-D6me, seed spots in the, 137
Pyrenees-Orientales, species, 55
Pyrenees region, 428

sowing in the, 138

the forests of, 38

zone, 34

Railroads required to open fire lines, 283
Rainfall absorbed, 148

and humidity, 21

annual, 26, 88

where greatest, 141

outside and inside the forest, 367
Rains, damage from, 147
Rambouillet, forest of, 79
Rata ravine at Ubaye (Basses-Alpes), 166
Ravine de Roche Noire, 152
Receipts and expenses, State forests, 203
Reforestation areas, typical, 422

artificial, 114

expense, summary of, 146

methods of, 165

obligatory, 143

plants used in, 387

546

INDEX

Reforestation, policy and summary of,
140

shrubs used in, 387

statistics of, 145

trees used in, 387

typical areas, 168

work, summary of, 146
Regeneration, assisting, cost, 79

by natural means, 114

care of stand after, 105

difficulty in, 77

natural, 65-67

of spruce in Alpine forests, 83

period, 76
Regions, reforestation, 168
Regulation, four essential kinds of, 224

intensive, 229

of cutting, 215
Regulating the cut, method of, 232
Reorganization of 1882, 269
Reserves, history of, 222

names of, 95

policy of, 222
Resin crops, 232

operations, specifications covering,
196

price of crude, 186

sales, clauses specified, 195
examples, 195

value of, 203
Revenue, average forest, 184
Rights of contractors, 299
Risol, forest of, 81
Road and bridge service, 176

dune, 183
Roads and trails, 290

French State forest, 291
Rock drains, 160
Rodents, how killed, 132
Root fungus, 205
Rotation, 252

coppice managed on short, 92

length of, 78, 228

method of 1883, 234
Rotations and cutting cycles, 226

financial, computing, 229, 230

technical, 230
Royal domains, 10
Rule-of-thumb methods, 211
Rules, cultural, 86, 187, 254

for choice of standards, 96

Rules for choice of calipering, 212
reductions, standard, 207

Salaries to forest officers, 271, 325

Sale of felling areas, 445

Sales and traffic department, 342

on the stump, hardwood fuel, 311

procedure, general, 293

ratios between different methods, 307

resin, 195
Sample inventory, 237, 238
Sand dunes, fixing shifting, 177, 429

erosion, kinds of barriers against, 180
Savoie conifers, 54, 55

forests of the, 308
Sawmill capacity and output, 350

the flying, 344
heavy, 344
light, 344
Sawmills, American, operating during the
war, 349

and logging equipment, 343

equipping the, 342

installed during the war, 341

kind of, 201

the man behind the, 339
Sawtimlier, cutting, 201

mmimum diameter of, 307

price of, 307
Schaeffer, A., 38, 106, 214, 260
Schists, mica and Paleozoic, slopes formed

by, 149
Scotch and aleppo pine, selection felling
for, 87

pine and spruce, planting of, 130
shelterwood for, 78
Secondary fellings, 74
Seed, amount of, to sow, 133, 134

control, rules for, 120

cultural value of, 117

dangers to sown or planted, 132

felling, 73

required for test, 118

sown and planted, 117

test, germination, 119

testing, 118, 120

value, average, 117
Seeding, natural, 188
Seeds, length of time to germinate, 116
Seine, department of, 28
Selection fellings, classic, 82

INDEX

547

Selection, for Scotch and aleppo pine,
87

method, 68

system in broadleaf stands, 82
Service des Eaux et Forets, 40
Servitudes and the use of minor products,
i ! 277

Sessile and pedunculate oak, 40
Shelterbelts for the fields, 115
Shelterwood cuttings in oak, 73

for beech, 76
fir, 80

and spruce in mixture, 82
maritime pine, 78
oak and beech, 76
Scotch pine, 78
spruce, 81

systems, 68, 70, 75, 239
Shipbuilding, iron first used for, 70
Shooting and fishing, 262

game, charge for, 326
Shrubs, the best to use, 129

used in reforestation, 408
Silver fir stands, xiii
Silvics of important forest species, 387
Silviculttual operations, 72

systems, 188
Silviculture, poor, 94
Snow damage, 282
Soil conditions, 67, 130

erosion, to prevent, 161

forest, 67

preparations, 68, 79

prepared and unprepared, 132

values, study of, 318
Soils, depth and character of, 68

which disintegrate, 148
Sowing, 116

and planting, choice between, 115

chief species, 135

continuous or broken strips, 132

cost of, 138

field, 132

may be broadcasted, 132

methods, summary of, 135

on unprepared soil, 133

season for, 135

seed-spot method, 129

short-cut methods, 133

stick method of, 167

time of, and amount of seed used in, 136

Sowing, without soil preparation, 133
Species and method to use, 130

calipered by compartments, 256

data, forest areas and, 50

exotic, 43

important, 25, 34, 40

in I'Esterel forest, 285

light-demanding, 81, 107

most important timber, 106

on an ideal plantation, 130

planted to correct erosion, 157

principal, xxi

qualities of, 97

quantity of seed to sow, 134

shade-enduring, 107

tapping other, 194
Specifications, utilization, logging, and

local, 201
Springs, action of forests on, 363

and their origin, 361

French and Russian experiments, 22

in the forest, 22
Spruce a light-demanding species, 81, 86

and fir in mixture, shelterwood for, 82
Scotch pine, planting of, 130

cones, 81

forest, thinned and unthinned, 111

natural regeneration of, 85

Norway, 41, 402

or fir, group selection for, 89

pole stand of, 109

regeneration of, in Alpine forests, 83

selection fellings, 84

shelterwood for, 81

stand in Savoie, study of, by Thiollier, 86

strip fellings, 72

suppressed, 103
Standard of timber analyzed, 302
Standards, 234

rules for choice of, 96

IR, 2R, 3R, 95
Stand graphics, 214, 216, 217
Stands, calipering, 211

ruined through careless selection, 95

the most notable, 33

young, cleaning and freeing, 106
State forest of Amance, 101

Ban d'fitival fir stumpage prices,

313
Gerardmer fir stumpage prices, 313
Trongais oak stumpage prices, 313

548

INDEX

State forest, maps issued for each, 292

relations, 190
State forests, xiv, 52

expense for the management of, 60
Statistical data, forest, 45
Statistics, 176

acres reforested, 145
purchased, 145

analysis of general, 52

for Levier, 62

management, 54

of State and communal forests, 321

on private forests, 409
public forests, 409
St. Antoine, forest of, 91

Martin d'Arc, forest of, 87

Paul, forest of, 165
Stock, transplanted and imtransplanted,

125
Stumpage prices, 304, 309, 310

rates on timber, 308

values, 12
Summary and forecast, financial, 255
Systems, coppice, 92
System, selection, in broadleaf stands, 82

shelterwood, 239

Tables, volume, 208
Tannin bark, 92
Tapping, effect of, 200

frequency of, 200

maritime pine, specifications for, 429

methods contrasted, French and Ameri-
can, 199

operations, 200

other species, 194

period, reduction in length of, 193

rules for, 433

scheme, new, 193

so-called exhaustive, 190

technique of, 199

tools for, French, 196

width and height of faces, 193
Tassey, 92, 269
Taxation, lands exempt from, 317

French forest, 267
Technique of tapping, 199
Temperature, average, 173

difference in, 20

in forests, effect on, 19

of the trees and surrounding air, 368

Testing seed, 118

Thalweg, collecting basin, 151

Thinnings and cleanings, 71

are profitable. 111

by tapping ahve, how conducted, 189

efficient, 229

regular, 189

three main objects, 108
ThioUier, study of spruce stand in Savoie

by, 86
Thones-Ville, communal forest of, 109
Tignes, communal forest of, 90
Timber acquired by timberland depart-
ment, 343

amount of, at beginning of war, 337

analyzed, standard of, 302

average local prices, 306

best, in private hands, 187

committee, the interallied, 352

different sized, xviii

estimating a fair price for, 294

general rules, sale of, 297

how sold, 293

in modern warfare, 336

private clearing of, 263
requisition for, 268

restrictions upon the amount cut, 354

sale of, 293, 303
regulations, 438

scouting France for, 353

shortage of home-grown, 1

supplies, French organization of, 351

stumpage rates on, 308

three main methods of selling, 295

warfare, heavy and light artillery in, 345
Timberland department, timber acquired

by, 343
Tools, barrasquit d'espourga, 196

French turpentine, 196, 197

hapchot (bridon), 198

palette (or palinette), 198

place-crampon (pousse-crampon), 198

rasclet, 198
Topography of I'Esterel forest, 284
Torrent, control of, 168

definition of a, 149

gorges, formation of, 150

how controlled, 156

of St. Julien, corrective measures, 156
Torrents, 164

causes of, 151

INDEX

549

Torrents, damage caused by, 152

losses from, 153

where formed, 150
Trails and roads, 290
Transformation cuttings, 103, 104
Transportation, a war of, 337

equipment, 348
Transport problem, 345
Treatment, method of, xxi
Tree growth, to obtain the real, 241

planting, roadside, 115
Trees for each diameter class, number of,
99

how estimated by the A. E. F., 212, 213

used in reforestation, 407

market for, 301

reserved (standards), 96

time to plant, 126
Trespass, grazing, prevent, 203

regulations against, 204
Trongais, oak saw timber. State forest of,

313
Tunnels and aqueducts, 162
Turpentine, barrel price, 185

permit, sample, 435

tools, French, 197
Type of forest, 99

Ubaye, basin of, 165
Units of measure, 207
American, 48

Valuation of growing stock, 531

surveys, by Dunning, 212
Vegetable cover, 68
Vegetation, natural, 148
Verdon-Superieur area, 163
Villarodin-Bourget, forest of, 85
Volume of average wood, 235
old wood, 235

tables, 208, 209, 210, 212

yield by, 63
Vonne, broadleaves, 57
Vosges, conifers, 54

forests, 34, 220, 308

mountains, 12

zone, 31

Walls, protection, how built, 158
retaining, on a hillside, 159

Walls, snow, to turn snow slides, 160

to prevent avalanches, 159
War of transportation, a, 337

zone, forest acquisitions in the, 352
Water level, lower in forests, 21

power, 28
Waters and Forests Service, xix, 176, 268,

351
Wattle work, 155, 156, 162
purpose of, 164
ravine stabilized by, 163
Weeds, cutting in clearance, 106
Windfall damage, 280

yields by, 80
Wind, shelterbelts against, 20
Winds, prevailing, 26
Wood, amount of, to cut, 11
average volume of, 235
fuel, cut by forest engineers, 347
production of, 347
special service, 348
need of, reduced, 19
old, average, young, 234

volume of, 235
products, specifications of, 201
shortage and high cost, 16
used by two million American soldiers

337
yield during twenty years, 251, 252
Woodsmen, American, in PYance, 358
Working groups, 102

cultural rules for, 187
method of management, 191
protection, 187
small, 226

sustained yield for, 215
Working plan, application of the, 250
Chamonix, 248
data, original, 500
description, new methods of, Schaeffer,

244
discussion of, 244
features of, 253
flaws in, 260
for a maritime pine forest, 192

State forest of Carcans, 72
Malmifait, 105
of the forest of Malmifait, 77
report, outline, 247
scenic, the, 91
Working plans, 215, 243, 253

550

INDEX

Working plans, applicable to the United
States, 219

difference between State and com-
munal forest, 243, 244

Government regulation, 206

mensuration in, 206

Schaeffer's simple rule, 244, 245

theoretical need of, 219

Yield, aUotting the, 254
by volume, 63
determination of, 253
relative, of timber and fuel, 93
regulation, Gurnaud method of, 241

Yields by windfall, 80

Zones, mountains, 31

Wiley Special Subject Catalogues

For convenience a list of the Wiley Special Subject
Catalogues, envelope size, has been printed. These
are arranged in groups — each catalogue having a key
symbol. (See special Subject List Below). To
obtain any of these catalogues, send a postal using
the key symbols of the Catalogues desired.

1 — Agriculture. Animal Husbandry. Dairying. Industrial
Canning and Preserving.

2 — Architecture. Building. Concrete and Masonry.

3 — Business Administration and Management. Law.

Industrial Processes: Canning and Preserving; Oil and Gas
Production; Paint; Printing; Sugar Manufacture; Textile.

CHEMISTRY
4a General; Analytical, Qualitative and Quantitative; Inorganic;

Organic.
4b Electro- and Physical; Food and Water; Industrial; Medical

and Pharmaceutical; Sugar.

CIVIL ENGINEERING

5a Unclassified and Structural Engineering.

5b Materials and Mechanics of Construction, including; Cement
and Concrete; Excavation and Earthwork; Foundations;
Masonry.

Sc Railroads; Surveying.

5d Dams; Hydraulic Engineering; Pumping and Hydraulics; Irri-
gation Engineering; River and Harbor Engineering; Water
Supply.

CIVIL ENGINEERING— CoK/iKMeJ
5e Highways; Municipal Engineering; Sanitary Engineering;
Water Supply. Forestry. Horticulture, Botany and
Landscape Gardening.

6 — Design. Decoration. Drawing: General; Descriptive

Geometry; Kinematics; Mechanical.

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING— PHYSICS

7 — General and Unclassified; Batteries; Central Station Practice;
Distribution and Transmission; Dynamo-Electro Machinery;
Electro-Chemistry and Metallurgy; Measuring Instruments
and Miscellaneous Apparatus.

8 — Astronomy. Meteorology. Explosives. Marine and
Naval Engineering. Military. Miscellaneous Books.

MATHEMATICS
9 — General; Algebra; Analytic and Plane Geometry; Calculus;
Trigonometry; Vector Analysis.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
10a General and Unclassified; Foundry Practice; Shop Practice.
10b Gas Power and Internal Combustion Engines; Heating and

Ventilation; Refrigeration.
10c Machine Design and Mechanism; Power Transmission; Steam

Power and Power Plants; Thermodynamics and Heat Power.
11 — Mechanics.

12 — Medicine. Pharmacy. Medical and Pharmaceutical Chem-
istry. Sanitary Science and Engineering. Bacteriology and
Biology.

MINING ENGINEERING

13 — General; Assaying; Excavation, Earthwork, Tunneling, Etc.;
Explosives; Geology; Metallurgy; Mineralogy; Prospecting;
Ventilation.

14 — Food and Water, Sanitation. Landscape Gardening.
Design and Decoration. Housing, House Painting.