*s a at ee ve oS ; wis ate aah i a I Py (Sue S: fe ii +) Arai Bint ny a ee hn Show i | ¥ been, bh P ‘ Ny ty ofa a4 A hin hs =] A Study Guide IN GENERAL SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY FOR THE SMITHSONIAN SCIENTIFIC SERIES PREPARED BY MOTR IS MEISTER? PhD: SCIENCE SUPERVISOR, NEW YORK CITY SCHOOLS OUTS ETSI AN Bis. TEACHER OF BIOLOGY, JAMES MADISON HIGH SCHOOL Ate NAN DER [OSE RH, MS. TEACHER OF GENERAL SCIENCE, HAAREN HIGH SCHOOL MAY 25 1988 ] f P" Pyrat oe SIGRARIES Bb) ; hy ee pee a a aA ee a tee ge an ee bt . FUR TAS Ve ea 2 2 a Be ie ae ih, € 2% 4 By a Gal: ie ay | ee Ry Sd ae, Fee ah COPYRIGHT 1936 mei | SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION SERIES, INC., “a PRINTED IN U. S. A. FOREWORD The Smithsonian Scientific Series This series of twelve, beautifully printed and illus- trated volumes is a unique and successful effort to bring to the layman the simple story of man’s progress in the sciences. The story is told by specialists who can speak with authority. Their work is recognized by the whole world, as is also the institution by whom they are sponsored. Because the audience to which the different authors have addressed themselves is meant to be the average intel- ligent citizen, the books are admirably suited for boys and girls in secondary schools. ‘Teachers of science have long been searching for adequate supplementary reading for their pupils. There is a great need for material that is vivid enough to hold the attention of adolescents, scientifically accurate so as to command their respect, and sufficiently non-technical to be within their level of comprehension. All of this the Series achieves, in a framework which coincides with the modern courses of study in General Science and Biology. In the words of Dr. Charles Greeley Abbot, world- renowned scientist and Editor of the Series, ‘““These volumes do not represent an attempt to summarize all science, or even all branches of science on which the Smithsonian can speak with authority. They will, however, acquaint the reader with the organization, history, and activities of the scientific institution which has grown up with the nation and fostered the nation’s scientific activities; they will introduce him to the workings and achievements of the scientific method over a large field, and open doors to some branches of science to which he will not find the key elsewhere.” Thus, the Series is quite different from a textbook or an encyclopedia of information. Too often, in school work, we [iii] are disappointed at pupil reactions to the text or to the reference volume. They will not read it; yet they devour the Sunday Science Supplement and the extravagantly writ- ten science magazines. In the Smithsonian Scientific Series, the teacher of science will find a center of pupil interest. The books will be read because they have human appeal. Since they do not attempt to cover all science topics with uniform completeness, they are better adapted to the needs of different science classes and different pupils. Ideas Underlying the Study Ouzline First, the material of the twelve volumes was carefully scrutinized for the contributions it may make to the science education of boys and girls in grades seven to ten, inclusive. For these age groups, the school curriculum includes a course in General Science, followed by another in General Biology. Courses of study in these subjects differ somewhat from each other in different localities; but the trend every- where has been toward an integrated and articulated se- quence of science studies through the grades. This sequence aims to develop an ever-growing understanding of. the science environment in terms of the important generaliza- tions or “‘big ideas”’ of science. | Secondly, a Study Outline was developed to include the important ideas and generalizations usually found in courses in General Science and Biology. For the sake of convenience in use by the teacher and pupil, the two courses have been treated as one. The Units of the Outline are progressively graded in the matter of difficulty and are presented in a teaching sequence which is well-adapted to a variety of con- ditions. The materials of the twelve volumes are organized around the Outline as a framework. Thirdly, the Outline is replete with suggestions for teaching procedures based upon modern educational prac- tice. It is assumed that the pupil learns most effectively when he is getting real experiences. Reading is an experi- ence ; sO is an experiment, a construction project, a field trip, a museum visit, a class report, or a class discussion. All of these are indicated by the Outline. [iv] CONTENTS ee! ie Ponblyin Spaces Oo. de bala Oy. 0 I (Consule Vol "Il, Chapters “1,11, .92{ 13, ea Vole i) -allyiof PanevOne;’ Vol. VII, Chapter 1) moOur. Place inmbhe Universes. wal. od $2 64! I (Consult Vol. I], Chapters 11, 14 and Ap- pendix; Vol. III, Chapters 1, 4; Vol. VII, Chapter 1) bee the, Eareoin lhe Solar Systemyuus5..09< -- 2 (Consult Vol. I], Chapters 11, 14 and Ap- pendix; Vol! hil; Chaptersix,. 45¢Vols) Vi} Chapter 1) Or INMCECOTSE Niu hc acre ee ade Merrd Soak 8 (Cousulé Volivill; Chapters’'r, 2; <3) 43 §, JO, 8.) ©. Movements of Whe Barth, Vee e5 oo 6 (Consult Vol. II, Chapters 12, 13) FE. Changing Seasons and Different Climates... 7 (Consult Vol. II, Chapters 1, 7; Vol. IV, Chapter 3; Vol. VII, Chapter 11) Pupil ata Class ACHUICES 6.08 ils on.d ds 9 pow hanes) Whe Do. La way aay. pkg 3. 9 ee Class IDISCHSSHONSus tsb Uae dine 4, spe a aie 9 Cor Pinpotlt Reworuss | Ge..< is aie spe: fosne | ko Desc West Pxerciscoya. sa. cus haus. «.° II eC TSOFH ES ALMOS PELE! Sie ena, dle ag wo. + > + i ae Ve linvictoewOceat, 982.08 4b Meee! 5. 3 (Consult Vol. II, Chapters 1, 3; Vol. VII, Chapter 1) Vv CONTENTS Be arand Mirescu lui cast te ee oe 2) ee (Consult Vol. III, Part 1, Chapters 1, 2, 3, 5; Vol. IV, Chapters 3; 77 Vol. VChaptes 10; Vol... VII, ‘Chapters: 20;)11; Vek ee Chapter 7) CG. Air and Lavine Things, i. J) See 14 (Consult Vol. V, Chapters 4, 9, 10; Vol. VII, Chapter.3; Vols Vill ly Parts, Chapeas 3; Part.2,,Chapters 2,13, 4;;Vala XxX, Fame 2, Chapter 11; Vol. X1, Part;1, Ghapeer ay D. .Why Our Air Supply Lasts «. sce eee ie (Consult Vol. XI, Part 1, Chapter 1) £. (How Living Things Breathe. 2. ee 15 (Consult Vol. V, Chapter 1, 4; Vol. X, Chapters 2, 4) Fi Hearing, Phroughithe. Air, kis. sine 16 (Consult Vol. Il, Appendix; Vol. V, Chap- ters 2,73, Vol., VIL, Chapter.ro; VolL/ Vie Part 1, Chapter, 3; Vols 1X, Part 1, Chapter j3 Vol», Part2, Chapters 4,6) Pupil and Glass dctivitiess 9 15. 30s 18. me Things oe Wow. sie ac eros ee 18 B: (Pupil (Repects! 3 ..3)..20°s otherats, aa 18 C. SelfaT estyRxerases. Le se Hr aie ee 19 DTT) WY ater on the Eacth oi) wk pases. Vol IX, Part 2, Chapters spss. 63,9; 10, 11) Vill 45 46 48 50 $2 53 55 57 CONTENTS BY Needs or Tuiving, Things? 2. Wa0, 2s (Consult Vol. V, Chapters 4, 10; Vol. VI, Chapters Wo; saying; Vol. VIE, .Part,\1, Chapter aV ol:wX Pastry (Chaptera'; Vol. Mi, Pant) 1Chapters t, 6; Part 6, Chapter 1) C. Living Things in Their Surroundings..... ip ieants ine lhei, Surcoundings . 14247. .> . (Consult Vol. I], Chapter 11; Vol. XI, Part vy, Chapters.1,05,,.6; Part)3,.¢ hapter i jpbant. 7, Chapter jek ant, $4Chapter, 2.) 2. Animals and Their Need for Air and NUE Tae ie oaret Oe WUE OC elo RA ee (Consult, 'V ol. Mi, Part j2: Chapter 4; Vol. V, Chapter 10; Vol. VI, Chapters Kowa: Vol Til Bartt,Cmapeer 1; Part 2. Chapter 4; hart 9. Chapters o, 12) Vola X, Part 2. Chapters2, 3) 3. Animals in Relation to Temperature... (Consult Vol. V, Chapters 5, 10; Vol. ViwGhapters, 33744 65, Lop 1g) kas Vol. Vi Part ..1,).Chaptersysayorn ant 3, Chaptersyon you; t2 Vol LXaBart i, Chapter, 1,5, Vol.X, PartjoChapters 3, 4) Aline Need ror Pieod) (M0 ilo doh a. 0 4 ep, (Consults Vol: VV.) Chapterin: Vol: Y, Chapters 9,10; Vol. V1; Chapters, 20, Pu Volk NOW Part 1; Chapter 1 3*V ol. Mart 2, Chapters 1,3; 44) mice WnewNiced tom shelters yy uk eRwd. ok. - (Consult Vol. V, Chapters 5, 7; Vol. VI, Chapters! 5" S; 17) 2os0Vol PX, Part 1, Chaprers 1 8) Part 2) Chapter 11; Vol. X, i 2, Chapter’ 4; Part 3; Chapters 1, 2/4 | 63 63 64 65 67 68 CONTENTS 6. Laying’ Together}. i laa eee (Consult Vol. V, Chapter 5) . Man’s Relation to Other Living Things... 14 Our Food‘and Living Vhines. 7.2. 2 ue (Consult ‘Vol. LIT, ‘Part 2; Chapter 25 Vol. V, Chapters. 1,2; 3,6, 10; Yok vas Chapters 1% 4;58)) bi, 256 0.,208 Var VII, * Chapter :4.7; ‘Vol. VITI, Part eae Chapter’;'; Part 3) Chapter-os'Val7 re Part 1, Chapters'T, 5,6, 10,7162; Vow X\Part: 2, Chapters 1, °3) 4: Varro, View M1, Part'r, Chapters’ 1,6; Part Cage. ter,2) . Our, Health and: Divine’ Things a3 ee (Consult Vol. V, Chapter 10; Vol. VI, Chapters 4,16, 21;"Vol WV Lil, “Panta Chapters 11, 12; Vol. X, Part’ 2, Chap- ters 3, 6, 9;.Part 3, Chapters, 5) -, Controlling Our. Enemies 5.0 104. ae (Consult Vol. V, Chapters 1, 6) . Ascendancy of Man Over Other Live Things Seas) Bie) OTe ae (Consult Vol. IV, Chapters 1, 3; Vol. VI, Chapters 11, 13, 17; Vol. VII, Chap- ters.4, 10, 11, 12} 13,14,.15, TOeV Ole Part 1, Chapters. 7; \VokiA1 Pace oe Chapter 1) . Generalidk clationships s, .. 3". . 0. cose (Consult; Vol. 111; Part’ 2, Chapters: Vol. V; ‘Chapters’ 5, 7; Vol: V1, ‘Chaprere I, 2) 45 55.6409 22427 VO VITe Gia. fervig;aVol. VATE Part, -Chaptersa. Part: 3 Chapters cop 15 eV oly Xara, Chapter!'7;, Part't; Chapters apgit arm a, Chapters 2, 27a 5 3 Voludtil eP artis, Chapters 1, 3) 69 69 69 14 76 76 78 A. CONTENDS Pupil and. Class aichviises.) sis Lew... ae nines “Polos i.) gaat. o.. ne (Class Discussions tieisif lap et ki. 's. Cup eReperts “mdiain i fee ooo De experiments y yok seuss bit EE. ei MEUITSIONS ver k Soe wd aise SS weve wd Roy Selt Wests bixercises, . oo 2 6 ee Sos oe The Chemical Substances in Living Things. (Consuien Vor tt) Chapter “ar3’* Vol: V- Chapter 4; Vol. VII, Chapter 3; Vol. VIII, Part 1) hapter 3%; Vol. 1X,’ Part 1, Chapter TaVoOls MF Partin, Chapter 2)) Prateprasm <0). ARB ate a in 6 Yih ey, (Consule, Voli | V" \Chapter,; 4; Vol. VII, Chapter 3; Vol. XI, Part 1, Chapter 1) Pieclise: 0 ie wee a alee ON, (Consult Vol. V, Chapters 4, 9; Vol. VII, Chapter .3;, Vol) NI, Part/G, Chapter 1) PoiissMies cama: Oroune say tek Soke ea, os (Consult Vol. V, Chapters 4, 8, 9; Vol. VII, Chapter 34> Vole Vil, Pant 1) Chapter 3; Vokwe Part 1.:Chapter, 2 AV ol oe Part 2, Chapter 2° Parte Chapters Vol, XI, Parte 1, Chapter 1’; Part 4,'Chapter ‘2') » How Linvme Things,Growers oi ey hg. Constle Vol! VINE Part. 2, Chapter); Part 2, emanters agro, 12 7 Vol. UX, Part 4b, Chapters: 7,8; Vol. X, Part 2, Chapters 2, ag Hare.) Chapters 2.463, Vol. XL, Part 1, Chapter, 13:Part 6,:Chapter ,2 ) . How Living Things Respond............ (Consult Vol. V, Chapters 4, 9; Vol. VIII, Pact, Qo hapters Li. Poa Woke hs). Part, ‘2, Chapter? Party3, ‘(Chapters 2) 4,53 Vol: Mt Passe, Chapter 43;Past! 5, (Chapter 1; Part 6, Chapters 2, 3) Xl 93 94 94 98 oe a CONTENTS Pupil and Class Achutties ..:32 eee A. Things To Dow. 22). 20) 3a B.- Class Discussions:¢.. )2.") >. eee C.- Pupil Reports 22020). 2. 1 D. Self-Test Exercises¢i 2 -). ae VAT. Tnght and Heat fromthe Sun)... ee Ay Phe: Sun’s :Heat<).ca/4.% 2... oe eee (Consult Vol.. 1], ‘Chapters\a, 2,34) canes 7, 9) 11,/12,,14,; Appendix; Vol. VRE ehap- ters 1, 2, 9, 93 Vol. XI,, Part :6; (Clapeena Vol, Tl, Chapters 32: ‘9)) Bo Phe Sun’s Might") 004.2. 70222 (Consult Vol. TI, Chapters 3, 5; '6, 77a, mee 13, 14, Appendix; Vol” VIE, *Chapeceia, Vol. XI, Part 6, Chapter 1) C., Where Food Gomes ‘From ? .:.. 7 .aaaeeee (Consult Vol. II, Chapter 10; Vol. V, Chap- ter 4; Vol. VII, Chapter,1; Vol: X10 aeanea Chapters, 1,.6;,Part,2, Chapter, 2;/Pares= Chapter 1) D... How.'Man Flelps; The Plant: ;=eeee (Consult Vol. ['V,. Chapters 1, 2,, 3394 3eeee Vol: Vib, »Chapters 9,11; 12; 5 q) Sige 17) E. Interdependence of Living Things........ (Consult Vol. V, Chapter 6; Vol. X) Banta, Chapters 4, 6, 7; Vol. XI, Part 1, Chapters r, 13,40 ab arty are Chapter: 3’) PO PPlant-Products oo. 4.) che. aa (Consult Vol. XI; Part’1, Chaptersan, 9; Part 3, Chapter 3;°Part'4, Chapterme Ver XII, Chapter 10) Xl 107 109 PEE 113 114 CONTENTS Pipe and Class Actipitiesi eesti Qe. . Pe nos FLOMUIO Cele tee. Soke es is BevG lass PiscusstOns et. tie Me beens sos Veapibikeperts 22. oe a. #8... Bye Sel i Test Exercisessmiy hd ancl Boe od. io meen oad for Living Liings: 2.6. fe ye - A. What is Food for Plants and Animals... . — (Consult Vol. V, Chapter 4; Vol. XI, Part iy Chapters 0,'3,040.6;, Part’, Chapter, 3; Part 4, Chapter" Part 6, Chapter 13 Part 7, Chapter 1) B. Enemies of Animal Food Supply......... (Consult Vol. V, Chapters 1, 6, 9, 10; Vol. KM Part.2, Chapters, 2.19) © Eoune i labits’on Ammals 4.205384. 04. lie Crustaceans and. Mollusks: 2. .....<2.- (Consulé VolyX, Part.2, (Chapters. 1, 2, 2; Part 3, Chapters’ 2.4.5 ) MERSCCESINS 3 WE Phe a ie eee aes (Consult), Vol. V, Chapters ‘1,72. 3;,4, 6, Wo 1s Vol. wh, bast 1, Chapter 2) WE iciak, Oe FP BT) Re ae. (Gonsulé Vol. VIII, Part a; Chapters 1, Sty he O53, VOW XM, Part 2, Chapter 2; Pare ea napichas 7s V Olt xb” bart | 3, Chapter 3) a Repeless and! Amphibians.) . Je /.22.. - (Consult Vol. VI, Chapter 21; Vol. VIII, Parti 2, Chapters 23:3; 4;-Part 3, Chap- ters 9, 12) Seirecs 00 Ue ey ee ee (Consult Vol. [X, Part 1, Chapters 3, 8, Toy) Fw, B23 Voli X, Part!2;:Chapter 4) X1li E27 129 130 | : | | CONTENTS Q:, Mammalsisisietig). ok) Aan See 133 (Consult Vol. IX, Part 1, Chapters 5, 11; Pare oe Chapters 6,10, 113 Vel oe Part:2:; Chapter 3) D.. Food For. Human Baas. 13.)-1¢. Cae 133 (Consult Vol. II, Chapter 10; Vol. IV, Chapter 6; Vol. VI, Chapter 21; Vol. VII, Chapter 17; Vol. VIII) Part 1, Chapter ae Part 2, Chapters: 3; 10,12; VolaX, Part & Chapters 3, 4, 8, Part 3, Chapters 2,4, 5; Vol. XI, Part*1,: Chapter ,7 > Pana, ‘Chap- ters 1, 2;,Part\s, Chapter.3; Part 7) hap ter 1; Part 8, Chapters’ 1,23, epee Chapter 9) Pupil and Class Activitieso\. : 22263 136 A. Things TojDe! dle. 2 eee 136 B. Class Discussions... .2;.,. .2 42 137 C:, Pupil Reports... 0... o.. 2 ey ae i 39 D. Self-Test Exercises ... . -. 2 9. 138 IX. Adaptations by Living Things........... I41 Ac To Air oe ee 141 (Consult Vol. V, Chapters 7, 8, 9, 10; Vol. VITT, Ratt 1, Chapter a; Part 2. Chapters ZEA i Vol. LX. Part Chapters 2 QO, 12. Part. 2, Chapters 10, 11;: Vol.. XT Page. Chapter 1) Be Tow ater: phe oe ess sc 144 (Consult Vol. VI, Chapters 8, 11; Vol. VIII, Part:1, Chapters 1, 2, 3, 7;-Part2, Chaptes 3; Vol. TX, Parti1)) Chapter t25-Paghe Chapters 6, 11; Vol. X, Part 3, Chapters 2, 4,5% Vol XE, Part »:Chapters:1; 23iPane a, Chapter 1; Part 5, Chapter 3) C. To.The Need fer \Faad.. .. .. «late 147 (Consult Vol. V, weer 354, So.005, ee VI, Chapters 7, 8, 10; Vol. VIII, ‘Part :, XIV CONTENTS Chapters.1,, 55) Part) >, Chapters 3\Park 3, Chapters 11, 12; Vol: IX, Part;12,Chapters fb,127F art 2, Chapters 4, .11;.Vob Xi Part 3; Chapter 2; Part, 3, Chapters 2,4, 5) Py Wemetomae meres et a. Fae, 6 Sold hh wae (Consult Vol. V, Chapter 9; Vol. VIII, Past, bapter 3; Vol. XxX. Pact \2, ‘Ghap- fers 3 6; Part 3,,Chapter 53)Vol.-X 1}, Part I, Chapters ti, 4;,Pant,6; Chapters 1, 2 ) A Morkadcat et ae se PNR Lt See Ao OS (Consult Vol. Vi, Chapter, 13; Vol; WIT, Party, Chapter 3; Part 2,.Chapter 4;.Part a4 chapteedo; Vol. 1X, Part 1, Chapter 2; Val. X Bart. 2, Chapter, 3) “Poe Phe Need for Protection? 60: ,2... (Consult Vol. V, Chapter 8; Vol. VI, Chap- fase. ory VoluViLl, Part. 1, Chapter .4; Farts) Chapters o,! £6, 9a Viol. 1X) {Part m Chapters; Part 2, ‘Chapterina: Vol. X, Part, 1, Chapters) 2, 4,'4, 63, Part .a, Chap- Bets 2, 3,6, 7; Vol. XI, Part 1, Chapter 4) sohorueciNeed for Reproduction, ... .... | (Coasult Val., Vs;Chapters 1, 2..8,,9; Vol. WU Part 1, Chapter 4; Vol. LX, Part ‘1, Chapters 7, 8; Vol: X, Part 2; Chapters 2, a. Vol. PY, Chapter’9s Voli XloiPart. 1, Chapter 3) et esa ri: ot beh eale gs kw (Consult Vol. V, Chapter 7; Vol. X, Part 3) mapter’ 2; Vol. XI, Part 'r, ‘Chapter ‘1 ) BY Mee trceeeneen dere ME gn uh oe eS os (Consult Vol. IV, Chapter 1; Vol. V, Chap- feries vor Vi Chapter 207 Vol, Vi, Chap- tcrs/2neny Vol VIL), Part 1, Chapters 3, 5; Mal... Part, 1, Chaptersicty hs 3, !Part. 2, Chapter 11; Vol. IX, Part 1, Chapters 1, es Bart.2;) 208 A’ Things: Toe D0, os er: op 208 B. Self-Test Exercises .7 2... so. eee 208 AIP.) Energy oes 2 9p cee ees 1k ee 211 (Consult Vol. Il, Chapter 7; Vol. Ili, Part 1, Chapters 1, 2; 3,4; Vol. Vil, Chaptecae 1, 72,53; Vel. XII, Ghapters- 2,458) Pupil and Class Activities....... Pebeok 214 AL Things Fol De, 02%... Sea 5a Br aClass Discussions. 8 Oy so: +2) ae 214 C. Pupil Repostsy:. 2. eail) baci. 215 DD: Selt-fest. ixercises 220). 3))) 2.2 a1% XV. Man’s Use and Control of Heat Energy... 219 A. Pleat. Fnercy ‘frombaels). ). '5< See 219 (Consult Vol. II, Chapter 9; Vol. VI, Chap- ter 11, Vol. XI, Part 6, Chapter 1; Vol. XII, Chapters 7, 10) B: . Heat operated) Himemesp 2 )..) . 2 SA ee 220 (Consult Vol. XII, Chapters 2, 7, 8) XVIil C. CONTENTS oinieckatiaiy sy sk rat choi rug ty. weld - fs (Consult Vol. XII, Chapter 9) Pppis Wa CSS ACTH CS ono Nee stale ats me a hinesy haWe J] Yo ik lawn ds 2 - Be @lacsebiscusstons: ). 1}. 3 beeteed Fe. . | XVI. Man’s Use and Control of Light Energy.. 229 A. The Structure And Function of The Eye. . . 229 (Consult Vol. V, Chapter 9; Vol. VIII, Part © (Chapters; (Vel.ja, Parg 2jrChapter .2'; Part 3, Chapters 2, 4, 5) el tows Pictures Are Madew). oo). cand) 2.1 (Consult Vol. III, Part 1, Chapter 1; Vol. XII, Chapters 6, 11) Serene: hic fyey tO Sees cnc eas oon 8s (Consult Vol. II, Chapters 4, 5, 13, 14, Ap- ponde:; Vol. TL), Part io Chapters 2, 9; Vol: IV, Chapter 3; Vol. XII, Chapters 7, 10) Me ans CONOr i ett wa eee oie ks tconsuly Voli) Chapters 1,72) 4,5, 12, Fy, t4, Appendix; Vol. Ill, Part, 2) Chap- tees 2) 2S Vol. VIl Chapter 1; Vol.’ VIL, Pare r"Chapters' 34; Vol. X, Part .1, Chapters, 6,.93. Vol. Xf) Part 6,,Chapter 25 Vol. XII, Chapters 3, 11) Pupil and Class Activittes..2......0.... ee minGs Me DIO) fn Ab Mattie oil I: .. #. B-Class Discussions! ¥. jakogtens.})-. - - PAUP URVINGDOGES 2.0 Keb teen hak oe we « I Piomemiments, 4. eines. ow. Bulseltsitest Tixercisess O.. IMEI d: .. . XVII. Man’s Use and Control of Electrical LEE SESE TSA ea ven 4 229 230 292 CONTENTS A." How Magnets Push and Pull. .oo33eee (Consult Vol. II, Chapters 4, 12; Vol. XII, Chapters I, 2, g) B: ‘Electricity front Chemical Action... -e gee 240 (Consult. Vol. VII, "Chapter, 13" V ok ae Chapters 1, 6) C. Electricity from Moving Magnets........ 240 (Consult Vol. XII, Chapters 1, 2, 6, 7) D. “The Flow of Electricity... .. 22. 242 (Consult Vol. XII, Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4) KE. ‘Electricity for Light And Heat: eee 244 (Consult Vol. XII, Chapters 2, 3, 6) F. Doing The Work cf The World with Elec- tricity)... 42 4. lad de Ce 246 fost Vol. XII, Chapters 2, 4) Papiliand Class Activtites 2: . 2.5 eee 247 A. Phings Do. Does o1 1.107) see 247 B. ClassiDiscussions’ ¥ )\). jah See 248 C: ‘Pupil “Reportsiiins:. 4. 4.5. . 249 DE). Experiments 02. 2 4... 4 2 ))2 5 SOE SCUESIONS 2 has.) (eae ees te Pe | F) Self-Test Exercises, <4... 7: 2... 251 XVIIT. Energy For Communication......... 255 A. he Pelestaphy 2)! 2 ea me (Consult Vol. XII, Chapters 4, 6) B:. The d elephone. <:. St. cot an eee Vol. XII, Chapter 4) C. Radio Veh 3d, i paenameren eer. Cee 258 gene Vol. XI; Chapters 3, 4,5; 8) De ys cn eto ae ee 261 (Consult Vol. II, Appendix; Vol. XII, Chapter 3) xX CONTENTS Pupil and Class Activities... 0.00... 06: 262 Pllc! GAIA. Apo a craruter lh hve Ede & 2s 262 Bw Glass Discussions, o.: gq: 65s cys ces - 262 PUAN CW ONES. ie he a! bo ooops oa’ 263 BST PMICTAIS Yee nN A 263 Barcel est lixcreiges ee 8 y/COn Tiny La) 263 AIX. Energy For Transporiation...........-. 267 A. Early Means of Transportation......... 267 (Consul Volk Wy Chapters’ 3; 4,.7; Vol. WIL Chapters,02) 13, 14, 15, 16, 17,) B. On Land; Railroads and Automobiles.... . 268 (Consult Vol. XII, Chapters 2, 7, 8) Or NV atch StCAINISMIDS,< 0.6.5 01. Pie bok hn as 270 (Consult Vol. VII, Chie: Ey Vol. eX IT, Chapters 7, 8) re limnthehman Airplanes. 2) Makes. eta 2 aula ks 272 (Consult Vol. XII, Chapter 8) Fro) and Glass Actors)... til 4/4. 274 me Phings Poor. 1y. POLES Ces eee 274 BeClass Discussions. 2. 8224 Py VANES 275 Che Eup Reports het) C8 lh os ON ti 2s We Tevemesvonse. see i elie oe, Diris beer cctt er xencises at. 276 XX. Improved Ways of Using Materials...... 279 jae plots, Wiatenigisn Wel he. Cy ee. (Consult Vol. IV, Chapters 2, 3; Vol. VII, Chaptersir1, 13; Vol. XII, Chapter 9) Hey Motatehieree Vt rials i oie alg hel oe 'e “0 oo one 281 (Consult Vol. IV, Chapters 3, 7; Vol. XI, Part 4, Chapter 2) XX1 CONTENTS CG, Mistalls’ ): cvs eth shoe Re ae 281 (Consult Vol. III, Part 1, Chapter 8; Vol. IV, Chapters 2, 5; Vol. VII, Chapters 3, 4, 7; 10, 13, 14,85, 173" Vols AT Chagees 10) D. Writing Materials :s.. 49 .ca'h eee 284 (Consult Vol. XII, Chapter 10) F. Gems-and Precious Stones)... 42). See 284 i. \Natare of (Crystals... ...: .2.) eee 284 (Consult Vol. Ill, Part 2, Chapters 1, 2 ig 8 24 Precious otones ('). ni.c.0 +5 «ee 286 (Consult Vol. III, Part 2, Chapters 4, 5) 3. Well-Known Semi-Precious Stones..... 288 (Consult Vol. III, Part 2, Chapter 4) 4. Uncommon Semi-Precious Stones...... 290 (Consult Vol. III, Part 2, Chapter 4) 5./ Ornamental Stones 3 |... 2045 gee 292 (Consult Vol. III, Part 2, Chapter 4) 6+ How GemscAre’ Cub. 2 hs ae vee, Be (Consult Vol. III, Part 2, Chapters 3, 7) 7 (ATES tt EAIStOLY ) 2. gl 295 (Consult Vol. T1l)"Part 2; "Chapterse, 4, 6, 7) Pupil and Class Activttves ..c05). ». ae 297 Achinasy Po) Dom hase a 24. 2 aan 297 B.. Class Discussions). ...0.. 3)... er 297 C:* PupiltReports'.7.48 Pon 2S 600. ae 298 1D. “Eixchrsions:: hy See 8 ke 299 EB. ,oelt-Pest Exereises 1. -[. 4.02... eee 299 AAI NGonserving Life ithe cis... ee 303 A. Animals That Are Becoming And Have Be- paeme: Extinct’... te aatact Sip aeee ee 303 CONTENTS 1) Seer nimial es Masood. liek Meter t/a. (Consult Vol. V, Chapter 4; Vol. VIII, Party, Chapter/6s Part.3, Chapter 10; Vol. X, Part 2, Chapters 3, 8) Sees Yo es oe Tet Oy te eee, (Consult Vol. VI, Chapter 20; Vol. IX, Part 1, Chapters 1, 4, 7, 11) orate esa ee a OTM a0. oo (Consult Vol. IV, Chapters 3, 5; Vol. Mit haptersa§.|.$,, 0) 12) 139/873) Vol. IX, Chapter 10) Bolmprovine Plant Fite 35 2.0% 2s. oes = (Consale* Vor Xi, Part 1; "Chapter 3 Part 4, Chapter 1; Part 7, Chapters 1, 2) ) improving Domestic Animals. a. a... +. (Consult Vol. V, Chapter 5; Vol. VI, Chap- fem a7, 20: Vol: IX, Chapter 1) fe Conservine Wild Animal Life... yo. |: (Consult Vor"VE Chapters’ 1)?4%* F2':* Vol. mM, Part 2, Chapters ) . Conserving The Health of Human Beings. (Consult Vol. V, Chapter 10; Vol. VI, Chapters 4,/ 16, 21; Vol WElFioPart -3; Chapters 11, 12; Vol. X, Party:2, Ghapters 2oy 85 Ooh aie Chapters 4c Vol. XE, Pare 17 (Chapters,..,>6 ) Pi Pel aad Class ACHUINES oo. casey 2s 6 + - ive Phim: Kop pete le are gee 5 Be Class Discussioiiss...) setar. cao... meAIT. ThesiNatareef Matier sit ok. dels... + A AtomstaneiNMolccwles: 5) ANY icles 3 (Consult Vol. II, Chapters 1, 14; Vol. VII, Chapter 1; Vol. XII, Chapter 3) XXIll 303 304 395 308 308 399 CONTENTS B. Blements and \Compoundsmfarceee eee a1g (Consult Vol. II, Chapters 1, 3, 10, 12, 14; Vol. IIL, Parts1, Chapters; Parti} Giap- ters’.14 02,/.3,\945 1053) VoluWiLLY Ghapterar- Vol. XII, Chapter 10) @. Electrons andProtons . ene eee 320 (Consult Vol. VII, Chapter 1; Vol. XII, Chapter 3) D:’ Matter anduBneroy.. 14. Sen 421 (Consult Vol. II, Chapters 1, 14; Vol. VII, Chapter 1; Vol. XII, Chapter 3) Pupil-and Glass Achotties Jc. 97a 222 Ax \ Class Diseussions: 1% %.. } ANeoeeae dad Sie Cem B.. Pupil Reports, 2.) 28 205 CyySelitMest Exercises. 1. oy ke 323 XXIII. Origin And Evolution Of Living Things 327 A. /T he; Records, in, dhe Rocks..0 0) 77a 27 I.yAge of, The Earth Wc+ > ee ae 327 (Consult Vola. VIE Chapter, 1; Voluise Part 2, Chapter 7; Vol. X, Part 1, Chap- fers 1597) Ze Mossils Be tA, bk ie 2a 8 ene 328 (Consult Vol. VII, Chapters 2, 14; Vol. Vit Part. 3. Chapter 53 Vol. IX§ Ware 2, Chapters Garo. y Ol Nk. Part Chap- fers 21044) 3. Ihe lfmportance of Fossil Study. “2. 590 329 (Consult Vol. VII, Chapter 4; Vol. VIII, Part 3,. Chapter (6; Vol.” 1X, Parka Chapter 4; Part 2, Chapters 4,5) mee Vol. ‘X, Part %¥Chapters2;) 3,7) 4. Life on The Earth During Different Pe- mods.ot' lts haistonye. 2 ¥.5 Ae ee 335 (Consult Vol. III, Part 2, Chapter 4; XX1V 10. CONTENTS Voki Vils@hapters/i1jo2;%4ps5¢5 Vol. X, Part ‘1,’ Chapters'19 29 4/15. 6, 7.) . The Record of Invertebrates in the Gio MUA » Fie a ie A Oa: Be Da (Consult Vol. V, Chapters 2, 3, 10; Vol. VE Chapter 2; Vole XX. (Part ir ''Chap- Fomst gn Op Part 2) Onapter oy Part 3, Chapter 5) . The Record of Early Vertebrates and Bisiiceypiss TAG) 115 Wilsty he Bs (Consult, Vol. V1),, Chapter, n42 ; Vol: WITT Pant 1 Chapters 1; 2,3: Vol. xX, Part 1, Chapter 6) , Lhe Record of Amphibians), 3... .. .« (Consult Vol. VII, Chapter 2; Vol. VIII, Part 1, ‘Chapters/1; 25, Part 2, Chapters moa 4, bart 3, Chapter 25 Vol.x, Part 1, Chapters 2, 6) . The Record of Dinosaurs and Other 1/3100 (ee © Eee Ds ee eer (Consult Vol. VII, Chapter 2; Vol. VIII, Pare 1. Chapter 0; Panebil, Chapters: r, Data, , 6, O11; Vol wre ake ly Chap- ter’7) Se Pie Recon Ofp binds. 2. ron ae ls Sh. (Consult Vol, Vil, Chapter 2; Vol. EX, Pare 1, Chapters Ps.’ 4 Vol Xi Part 1, Chapter 7) he Record of Mianimals.a. «4 2 ae. 0 (Consult Vol. VI, Chapter 5; Vol. VII, Chapter 2, Vol. TX, Pareto; Chapters: 7, 2, one; Voll X, Part 1; Chapter 7 ) . The Record of Plants in the Rocks.... (Consult Vol. V, Chapter 3; Vol. VII, Chapters 5,.2; Vol, MiPart a? Chapter ny Vols xi Rant?s,! Chapter 2) XXV 336 338 539 340 344 345 346 CONTENTS B. The Record:of Mamnin:the Racks... ...-. 348 tr Early Man's “History. 77.2. 348 (Consult Vol. VII, Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 6,.93 Vol. 1X, -Part:2, Chapter ris Vor X, Part 1, Chapter 7) 2. (Old Stone Ase’ ach 22 GS, 350 (Consult Vol. VII, Chapters 2, 4, 5, 6, 78,0, TO; 11, 12, 27) podhedice Ages... 10, 9009" Sa haa 356 (Consult Vol. VII, Chapters 4, 5, 6, 11) actMiddie Storie Age. 0) 4! Do aEF (Consult Vol. VII, Chapters 4, 6, 12) 5. New Stone and Bronze Aces: . . 77 age 57 (Consult Vol. VII, Chapters 13, 14, 16) 6, Development of Man: .-.. 7 eee 358 (Consult Vol.’ VIT, Chapters’ 2, 372s Dy, 05 shOy LI, LA") Pupithand:ClassiActevitves 24 . 30. ee 363 At Vhines: To e205 2S er 363 BC lass Wiscussions 2°. eae ge een 5)" Ce’ Papi ieports,.9 veo ae 2 nn 364 De Seli- Pest Exercises, 07.8, 6. Cae 365 XXIV. Progress And History of Man.. ie 369 A. Evidence on Which the History Is Based.. 369 (Consult Vol. VIL, Chapters 2;.45° aay 125 Vol..X1) Part 7, Chapter 1 } B: {Prebable"Ongin’ ot; Mani. So... ee 370 (Consult Vol. VII, Chapters 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10) Cir Care. Dayellers, .... a5 asi ccc vu 2n> Sano ee 371 (Consult Vol. VII, Chapters 2, 9, 10, 16) LGN Stomeshoe, bah au ay uicpadok ase 271 (Consult Vol. VII, Chapters 6, 7, 8, 10, t1) XXVI1 ee = é CONTENTS Pepe titule mene ee We eS kek tees a75 fGansalt Vol. Vil) Chapters ¥2;'13, 15 ) Beem scone wae 6 ei ey eek eas 376 fatiecw ste paee Wists ks fo es. 376 (Consult Vol. Il, Chapter 8; Vol. VII, Chapters: 0,.1 3, 15, 165 Vol. XI,-Part 4, Chapter 1: Part 7, Chapter 1) 2. Egyptian and Related Cultural History 377 | (Consult Vol. VII, Chapter 15) 3. South and Central American Indians... 378 (Consult Vol. VII, Chapter 17) a lncrans MNortiy.of WLExICO.. 2.5 eeu. ss 379 (Gonsule Vol FV) Chapters 1,3, -5,°9759% Vol. NL, Chapter 27>\Vol. X14, Part: 7, Chapter 2) 5. Important American Indian Tribes..... 381 (Consult, Vol. TV, Chapters’ '2;°3; 4, §, 6; 7) Recah rrromze! TY) 5.2 WONT Se ce ls. 383 (Consult Vol. III, Part 2, Chapter 4; Vol. Wil Chapters 10, 14, 15, 16; Vol. XI, Part my Chapter °7')Part ‘4; Chapter. 1; Part. 7; Chapter 1,2) INAS ilo Rea er 385 (Consult Vol. VII, Chapters 2, 4, 10, 15, 16+ Vol “1, Part 7, Chapter £) Papal ang G1GNS ZICTHOUES oe a a: - 386 A IAGT 2 Sa 8 oO a 386 Brea iscussions) 2 res Frere st: 388 Mer mpemecperts 8 oe ee 390 1 Ai STS SS 2 Cle a ae 391 ROUT Sere eel es aa ee a 395 UNE I MEE EVR FN SPACE A. Our Placein The Universe: —_ COI AH EY PL _ oO iF. 2: 1. 1 is What is meant by the Universe? VII, 4 What exists outside of the Universe? II, 294-295 What does a nebula look like? II, 280 Where are spiral nebulae found? II, 297 How does a star originate? II, 299-301 Why isthe sun called a star? II, 287 What is a double star? II, 291-292 What isa variable star? II, 290 How are variable stars measured? II, 293-294 What is the density of stars like Antares and Betelgeuse? II, 288-289 How does the color of a star indicate its tempera- ture? IT, 289 How long does light take to reach us from the furthest galaxy? II, 6 What other heavenly bodies are there like our sun? Lihit How does the sun compare with other stars? VII, 1 [1] ES: 16. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What was the earth before it assumed its present form? VII,3 What happens when two heavenly bodies come close to each other? III, 3 How does man’s energy compare with the energy of the Universe? VII, 4 . About how many stars are there in our galaxy? Vil. +2 How far away from us are most stars? VII, 1 How many stars lie within 100 light years of the solar system? VII, 1 . What may make a new star contract? VII, 7 . What are the colors of new and old stars? VII, 8 What happens to the density of a star which is forming? VII, 7 What is believed to be a solar system in the mak- ing? VII, 6 The Earth in The Solar System: i, a 3- What is the size of the earth? VII, 1 What is the origin of the earth? VII, 8-9 What are the names of the planets? II, 242 What may be solar systems which are assuming form? VII, 6 How may a solar system form? VII, 8 What was the Yurok conception of the earth? IV, 198 How did the solar system originate? II, 299-300 What is the evidence that some meteors come [2] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY LO. i e. £2. L2. 14. Ke. 16. 7. 18. from heavenly bodies of planetesimal size? III, 60 What is the temperature range on the moon? II, 246 What is the appearance of the moon’s surface? HH 244 How do we know that the moon is uninhabited ? II, 242 Why is life impossible on Mercury? II, 248 What is the temperature on Neptune? II, 249 Why is life possible on Venus? II, 252-253 What is the size of Mars? II, 249-250 What is the temperature on Saturn? II, 249 What is the intensity of the sun’s rays on Jupiter? II, 249 Why is it impossible to see planets of other solar systems? III, 1-2 C. Meteors: Es Why is it difficult to photograph shooting stars? III, 6 What meteor fall proved conclusively that mete- ors fell from the sky? III, 26 How much of the dust in the air is of cosmic origin? III, 61 What is the estimated total weight of meteors which have fallen to the earth up to 1927? III, $7 , What determines the shape of a meteorite? III, ad [3] ‘O° O> ST EN 10. PLE 12. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL How can a meteor’s size be computed? III, 55 What were the early names for meteors? III, 79 What is the oldest meteorite? III, 7-8 How are meteors identified? III, 50 Why do meteorites disintegrate easily? III, 51 What happens to the meteor when it falls? III, i) What is the tentative, accepted source of mete- orsr liT.-98 Who proposed that meteors were shot at us by the moon? III, 84 What type of rock is entirely missing from mete- ors? III, 69 Where has cosmic dust been found? III, 62 What is the cause of the famous dark days in his- tory? III, 63 Why do meteors lose their initial speed and fall at the speed of any falling body? III, 28 What is the speed of a meteor falling in the direc- tion opposite to the earth’s rotation? III, 27-28 What terrestrial stone approximates meteoric stone? III, 68-69 What causes sunglow? III, 83-87 How does a falling meteor appear? III, 4-6 If the earth had been built up by meteor showers, how long would it have taken to form? III, 4 How do we know that meteors strike the earth at rather slow speeds? III, 29-30 When do meteors become visible? III, 2 [4] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 25. 26. a7. 28. 29. 30. KEE 30. 33: 34: 35: 36. 37: 38. 39: 40. Why are some meteors assumed to come from an oxygen-insufhcient atmosphere? III, 65 What is the weight of each type of meteor? III, 67 What are the names of the three divisions of shooting stars? III, 79-81 What is the composition of 90% of meteoric stones? III, 75 What are the meteoric minerals? III, 66-67 How many meteors enter the earth’s atmos- phere? 111, 3,.44 What is a meteorite? III, 4 What isa meteor? III, 1 What was the attitude of ancient peoples toward meteors? III, 37-38 What are some of the great areas where meteors have fallen? III, 42 Why is it difficult to locate the striking point of a meteor? III, 46-47 What did the Greeks report about meteors? III, 6 How far are meteoric disturbances heard or felt ? Ill, 16-17 What is the first satisfactory account of a meteor fall in the United States? III, 13-15 What was the most remarkable meteor shower in the United States? III, 19 Why are the estimated twenty million meteors invisible? III, 4 L5] 50. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What kind of earth rock do stony meteorites re- semble? III, 74 How are alloys interspersed in meteors? III, 70 . What precious stone may be found in meteors? ITI, 69 How many meteors become shooting stars? III, 54 How many shooting stars reach the earth? II], 54 | What alloys of nickel and iron are found in meteors? III, 70 What description of a meteor fall is found in the scriptures? III, 6 . Are falling meteors dangerous to life on the earta? 111) 36-37 . What was the most remarkable meteor found? III, 22-24 What did early wise men say about meteors? III, 25 D. Movements of The Earth: | fe What is the place of the earth in the solar sys- tem? VII, 1 How does the sun rotate? II, 262 How does an eclipse form? II, 265-267 4. What holds the sun, earth, moon and other planets at their respective distances from each other? III, 3 What is the velocity of the earth in space? III, 3 [6] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 6. What possibility exists for the belief that the earth is a meteorite? III, 76-77 What is the speed of a meteor falling in the direc- tion opposite to the earth’s rotation? III, 27-28 E. Changing Seasons and Different Climates: its 10. | ie 12. How may the variations of the sun’s intensity cause climatic changes? II, 4-5 What is the effect of the variations of the solar radiation on the tropics? II, 157 In which latitudes do changes caused by solar radiation variations begin to take place? II, 157 What were the climatic conditions on the earth when dinosaurs were alive? VIII, 214 What is the temperature of the Arctic summer? 1 id oy What may have caused the concentration of civili- zation? VII, 189 When did present European climatic conditions begin? VII, 232 What was the climate of Europe in Solutrean fines “VI 207 What two cultures were in simultaneous existence in Europe at the beginning of the “Great Cold’? VII, 190 What happened to many animals of Europe when the climate changed? VII, 232 What was a big factor in population movement when the climate in Europe changed? VII, 232 What climatic conditions caused changes in the Acheulian Epoch? VII, 188 [7] 13. What weather factor changes do ‘ sun cause? II, 4 ; Activities | | Pupil and Class | mi hings To Do: | 1. Make a chart of meteors which have fallen in or tho. near your state. Use the lists given in III, 109-163 2. Makea list of things to watch for, should you see ameteor fall. III, 98-99 3. Make a meteoric map of the Arizona meteor efater.. 1123 | 4. Construct a model of an eclipse, as follows: Paint | a black spot, the size of a quarter, on a square of clear glass. Cut a hole, slightly larger than the | black spot, in a piece of cardboard. Place a light | behind the glass and cardboard and move the black ball across the opening. The black spot representing the moon eclipses the circle of light, representing the sun. | { B. Class Discussions: | Note: The statements listed below must not be t considered as either true or false. The volume and page references will help the class to assemble the supporting evidence | and furnish the basis for discussion. A | similar plan 1s followed in every unit. ‘1. The earth is of meteoric origin. III, 1-5 2. Theearthisa meteorite. III, 76-78 3. Meteors are cold when they land. III, 34-36 [9] a ee STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL Meteors hit the earth at terrific speeds. III, 27-34 Meteors fall in one piece. III, 42-53 Meteors come from other planets. III, 82-97 Meteoric iron has never been put to use. III, 100-106 The earth is the center of the solar system. VII, I-2 The planets were formed by the collision of the sun with another star. VII, 7-11 Dark days are caused by eclipses of the sun by the moon. II], 62-63 . There is life on the other planets. II, 242-25 I . The Arcticis warm inthe summer. IV, 66-68 C. Pupil Reports: | oe Se ee a oe ee The composition or contents of the Universe. VII, 5-8 Kinds of spiral nebulae. II, 296-300 World Origin—Learn and retell to your class or club the legend of the Cherokees, ‘How The World Was Made.” IV, 218-220 How eclipses take place. I, 265-267 Early beliefs about meteors. III, 1-22 Historic names of meteors. III, 79-81 The composition of meteorites. III, 64-76 Historic meteor falls. III, 27-41 The work of Chladni proving that meteors are not magical objects. III, 25 [10] D. Self-Test Exercises: TEST 1 1. Givea four-letter word meaning “kind of heaven- ly body of which the sun is an example.” II, 5 2. Give a four-letter word meaning “color of the | SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY hottest stars.”’ II, 289 3. Give a three-letter word meaning “heavenly body from which our solar system came.” VII, 8 4. Give a six-letter word meaning “shooting star.” III, 3-4 5. Give a seven-letter word meaning “precious stones sometimes found in meteorites.” III, 69 6. Givea six-letter word meaning “kind of heavenly body of which the earth is an example.” VII, 1 7. Give a six-letter word meaning “rays observed | streaming from the sun during a total eclipse.” ) oe Il, 265 8. Give a eleven-letter word meaning “‘force which holds the planets at their respective distances.” Tit, 3 | g. Give a six-letter word meaning “‘lens-shaped star cluster.” VII, 2 10. Give a twelve-letter word meaning “an instru- ment which tells us what the sun is made of.” II, 257 ANSWERS I. star 6. planet 2. blue 7. corona 3. sun 8. gravitation 4. meteor 9. galaxy 5. diamond 10. spectroscope [11] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL TEST, 14 Match each item in column A with the proper item in column B. A B asun T1287 I. one light year b. hottest kind,of stars HW; .'2) meteer 289 | c. 6trillion miles VII, 1 3. planets billion stars VII, 2 4. 19.8 miles per second e. formed from the sun 5. moist, semi-tropical Vitts world climate {.. shooting star HI, 3 6. epicycles g. eclipse of the sun II, 265. 7. starnearest tothecanem h. speedoftheearth III,3 8. cold, dry climate i. Ageof Dinosaurs VIII, 9. moon 214 j. Solutrean Epoch VII, 10. blue stars 206, 207 II. galaxies ANSWERS a—"7 f—2 b—10 g—9g c—I h—4 d—1rI1 I—S e—3 j—8 [12] UND EI EE EA RES. ATMOSPHERE A. AnInvisible Ocean: (3 How did the atmosphere, troposphere, and stra- tosphere form? VII, 9 How high is the atmosphere? II, 45 What happens to the lighter gases in the atmos- phere? II, 43-44 What is the temperature of air at different levels? Il, 44 . What is the composition of the atmosphere at sea level? II, 44 . How many molecules does the atmosphere con- tain? II, 102-103 How do water molecules in high concentration act in the presence of dust? II, 103 — How does air pressure change with altitude? I], 44 B. Airand Fire: es 2 How did Eskimos kindle a fire? IV, 43 How did Eskimos cook in the igloo? IV, 43 [13] FO: “ol ee) STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL How did ancient people maintain constant fires ? Wil, 173 Did man first learn to kindle fires or to keep fires alive? VII, 172 When did man begin to use fire? VII, 172 Before which epoch had man learned to kindle a fire? VII, 192 How did the Pomas kindle a fire? IV, 185 What is the Eskimo lamp? IV, 43 Why do we assume that some meteors come from an atmosphere lacking in oxygen? III, 65 How does a meteor’s trail of light form? III, 31-32 . When do meteors become visible? III, 2 . What effects of meteoric flights in air are found on a meteor’s surface? III, 50 C. Airand Living Things: i. 2s Define respiration. V, 114 What gives a caterpillar energy to transform it- self into an adult? V, 292 How does an insect get sufficient energy for fly- ing? V,116 . Are insects able to keep their bodily heat? V, 116 What is the evidence that insects release heat energy? V,116 What is the breathing rate of infants? VII, 35 What is the cause of the whale’s “spout”? IX, 367 [14] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 12. . To what circumstance may amphibians owe their origin? VIII, 173 Why is the bat a remarkable mammal? IX, 316 Why are bats able to fly? LX, 317 . Where is there an exchange of gases in an insect’s body? V, 115 What is the purpose of the “knees” of cypress trees? XI, 10 . What is the purpose of stilt roots? XI, 10 . Why do roots die when they receive no air? XI, 28 Can plants drown? What happened to the trees which were flooded in Panama? XI, 9 | Why do large numbers of city trees often die? XI, 9 D. Why Our Air Supply Lasts: 5 a Should plants be removed froma sick-room? XI, 28-29 What is the significance of bubbles coming off a water-plant in the sunshine? XI, 27 How do leaves breathe? XI, 24-25 How do plants supply us with oxygen? XI, 25-27 . How is carbon dioxide removed from the air? XI, 299-300 What is the atmospheric make-up at sea level? Il, 44 E. How Living Things Breathe: LF How does a grasshopper breathe without a nose ? V, 53, £r4-116 [15] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL 2. How do insects get their air if they have no lungs? V, 114 How does a mosquito larva breathe? V, 332-333 How do some fly larvae breathe? V, 326-327 How does an insect breathe? V, 115 What are spiracles? Where are they found? V, I14-115 7. Why can an insect’s spiracles be compared with our nostrils? V, 114 AN BR & 8. Which salamanders have neither gills nor lungs? How can they breathe? What are their habits? VIII, 182-183 g. What special power does the skin of an amphib- ian possess? VIII, 175 10. How do tadpoles breathe? VIII, 197 11. How do fish breathe? IX, 368 12. Why are the gills of fish similar to lungs? VIII, 84 } ; 13. What different types of gills are found among fishes? VIII, 84-85 | 14. Howarea fish’s gills arranged? VIII, 65 15. Why do fish suffocate in warm water? VIII, 86 16. How does a mollusk get fresh water to its gills? X, 258 17. Discuss the breathing problems of land and water snails. X, 295-297 18. How does a mollusk breathe? X, 259 F. Hearing Through the Air: 1. What is the medium for transmitting sound? II, 395 [16] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY What is the velocity of sound? II, 305 How do crickets sing? V, 56-58 4. How do katydids produce their song? V, 33-37, le 12. 2, 14. ig. 16. cy: 18. 19. 39, 41, 43-44, 47-49; 55 > When are cicadas heard? V, 184 Can crustaceans make noises ? What are some ex- amples? X, 192-194 . How does the pistol crab make its sharp reports? X, 192-194 Why do crabs make sounds? X, 197-199 Cana fish hear? VIII, 73-74 What is the purpose of a fish’s ear? VIII, 73-74 Which cicada sex produces music? How is this done? V, 199, 207-212 How do birds inform other birds of danger, food, etc.? LX, 110-113 What birds are able to imitate other birds? IX, 107-109 How do birds differ in their ability to make sounds? IX, 103-105 What is the “syrinx” in birds? How is it used? IX, 103 When do birds sing best? IX, 109-110 How true is the belief that splitting a bird’s tongue will improve its speech? IX, 108-109 What bird roars like a lion? IX, 105 What was the origin of the drum? VII, 258 [17] Pupil and Class Activities A: /DLhangs (fo'De: 0S Using a broomstick and scrap wood, construct a fire drill. In the out-of-doors, on a dry day, kindle a fire using your fire drill. VII, 238 Make a fire drill and start a fire. Use hard wood and dried cedar bark for tinder. VII, 172 With clay or plaster make an Eskimo oil lamp. IV, 44 Capture some katydids and put them into bottles. Listen to their music. Find out how katydids pro- duce their music. Do the same with crickets. Find out where and how water enters the leaves of celery. Place fresh-cut stalks in red or green ink for a few hours. XI, 22-24 Experiments: To find out the effect of lack of air on roots, place a potted geranium plant into a tank of water. Keep another potted geranium on the table, watering the earth as usual. Note the changes that take place, XI, 9-11 Excursion: Visit and study the school’s ventilat- ing system. B. Pupil Reports: 1 2. The atmosphere at different altitudes. II, 43-45 How meteors get their light. III, 30-32, 50, 65 [18] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 3. Primitive methods of starting fires. VII, 172-173 4. How Eskimos get light and heat for their igloos. IV, 43 5. Learn and tell your classmates and fellow club members the legend as to the origin of fire. IV, ad ben tet | 220-222 | 6. How do lungless animals breathe? V, 113-114, : 216, °X) 25'35205-207 7. The different means that insects employ for get- ting and using air for energy production. V, 114- | 116 | C. Self-Test Exercises: | (EES lnk } Match each item in column A with the proper item in column B | A | B a. respiration I. salamander VIII, 182- 183 | by bat 2. gills VIN, 86,87 | c. insect 3. warm water VIII, 86 | d. stomata 4. breathing aperture V, | 332-333 1 _e. cypress trees 5. absorb oxygen XI, 28 f. roots 6. flying mammal IX, 21GG g. animals without gills or 7. exchange of gases V, | lungs 114 | h. fish 8. spiracles V, 114-115 i. reduced air supply 9: knees XI, 10 | j- mosquito larvae 10. leaves XI, 24-25 [19] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL ANSWERS a—"7 f—5 b—6 g—I c—8 h—2 d—t1o i—3 e—9 = List 41 ODIUSTVXZ. Change the letters in this code word as follows: 1. Change O to Cif plants should be kept in sick rooms. If not, change to B. XI, 28-29 2. Change D to R if water plants give off oxygen. If not, change to A. XI, 27 3. Change I to Rif the atmosphere is about 1,000 miles high. If the atmosphere is 150 miles high, change to E. I], 45 | 4. Change U to A if hydrogen can be found somewhere in the air. If not, change to P. II, 43-44 5. Change S to E if the temperature of the air is the same at all levels above the earth. If not, change to T. Il, 44 , 6. Change T to Hif sea mollusks supply fresh sea water to their gills. If not, change to N. X, 258 7. Change V to T if a grasshopper has a nose. If not, change to I. V, 13, 114-116 af 8. Change X to Eif insects use little oxygen when flying. If insects use a great deal of oxygen when flying, change to N: Viare g. Change Z to Rif the breathing rate of young infants [20] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY is slower than that of adults. If infant breathing rate is the same as that of adults, do not change. If the breathing rate of young infants is much faster than that of adults, change toG. VII, 35 Note: When you have made all of the above changes correctly, you will have a word which represents one of the most important functions of life. What is the word? ANSWER: BREATHING [21] io@ i pn RR beh Pa hae yytliettanrt oly AR Pan ; mined avodh ~¥ td Tle shann oat, a this a ‘asl rate wih inion) HAeeNes toute bree 5 ¢ bl wore a mri " vil $1) vecleel rf UNIT III WATER ON THE EARTH A. Water and Living Things: We How much water does a square mile of hard- wood forest consume in a season? II, 224 How does root pressure help a plant to obtain water? XI, 5 . How does water flow through a plant? II, 226- ig What is meant by the transpiration current? XI, 23 . What controls the amount of water a tree re- ceives? XI, 22-23 What causes wilting? XI, 25-26 7. Why do trees shed their leaves in a dry season? LO. bi es XI, 21 How can a leaf get carbon dioxide without losing too much water by evaporation? XI, 299-300 How was it found that light can affect the amount of substance taken in by a plant? XI, 299 How do plants give off water? II, 224 How is evaporation from a leaf controlled? XI, 25 [23] I2. be. 14. ie £6: iy 18. 19. 20. 21. Dye ae 24. 25. 26. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL How do plants control the amount of water vapor given off? II, 226 What are stomata? XI, 300 What controls the opening and closing of stomata? XI, 300 What happens to stomata at night? XI, 300 What is the condition of substances taken in by plant cells? XI, 297 What are the conditions necessary for substances to enter‘a cell PY KT, 29 Why do molecules diffuse or spread through a liquid? XI, 297 Through what must molecules pass in order to enter a plant? XI, 297 What controls the entrance of molecules of salts intoa plant? XI, 297-298 What causes the concentration of some molecules to be higher in a plant cell than in the surround- ing soil water? XI, 298 | How did irrigation cause the death of crops? XI, II What had to be done to make alkali soil capable of growing crops? XI, 11 How is the water supply related to plant move- ments? XI, 312-313 Why is life on land more strenuous than in the sea?) Xj'74 Why does a shallow sea like the Chesapeake Bay have such an abundance of life? X, 34 [24] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 2%. 28. 29. 30. ae $2. 33: 34- 35: 36. 37: 38. 39- 40. 41. 42. What effect did the retreat of the seas have on trilobites and sea scorpions? X, 74 What happens to Daphnia when they reach the surface film of water? X, 121 Which crustaceans have eggs which can with- stand a thorough drying? X, 114-115 How long can the winter eggs of some crustaceans resist drying? X, 120 Where are a lobster’s gills? X, 107 In what kinds of surroundings do fishes live? VIII, 2 . Where is one body of water that has no fish? VIII, 2 Why have not the fishes varied as much as the land animals? VIII, 3-4 What is the reason for the wide distribution of fishes? VIII, 2 What effect have floods upon fishes? VIII, 131- £32 What theories try to account for the widespread distribution of some fishes? VIII, 150-151 What is meant by “vertical distribution” of fishes? VIII, 153 What is meant by “pelagic” fishes? VIII, 153- 154 What are littoral fishes? VIII, 154 How are deep-sea fishes different from other fishes? VIII, 154 What fish hibernates ina mudcocoon? VIII, 4-5, 19-40 [25] 43- 44. 45. 46. 47- 48. 49. GO: ve ce. 53- STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What does the word “amphibians” mean? VIII, 161 Why do salamanders always avoid sunny places ? VIII, 180 In development, tadpoles “race against death’’. What is the meaning of this statement? VIII, 197 Has it ever “rained frogs’? Can you explain this? VIII, 195 Can amphibians live in salt water? VIII, 173 Where may we find salamanders? VIII, 179-180 How do frogs react to salt water? VIII, 195 How do baby grebes which are hatched in a nest over water take care of themselves after birth? IX, 93-94 Why can kangaroo rats live without water? IX, 334 What caused the tremendous fossil deposits in a Colorado lake? X, 80 How did desert Indians get water in the desert? XI, 280 B. The Changing Forms of Water: i. Das 3- What forms of matter exist? XII, 49 Does water-vapor travel? II, 106 Where do fogs form? II, 105 4. What are the different kinds of clouds? II, 104- 105 How do rain particles form? II, 103 . What changes of water take place? XII, 49 [26] el ok a a | SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY | 7. What is the importance of water in crystal forma- | tion? III, 174-175 | 8. What does nature need to form crystals? III, | 174 | g. Whatis formed by meteoric water? III, 174-175 C. Water—The Great Dissolver: How does ammonia dissolve in water? XII, 240 | e . What is the solubility of garnets? III, 245 2 3. What crystal does earth water produce? III, 175 4. What bird loses its bright colors when wet? VI, 251 | 5. What is soil water? XI, 5-6 | 6. What minerals must be dissolved in the soil for | plant use? XI, 8 i 7. How is water used in gem mining? III, 194, | 205-206 D. Water Power: What is a Pelton wheel? XII, 150-151 When are Pelton wheels used? XII, 151 Why are water wheel buckets curved? XII, 151 —_ e YY How is water pressure converted into mechanical energy? XII, 151 | 5. How is the speed of a Pelton wheel controlled? XII, 152 6. How is large quantity low pressure water power harnessed? XII, 151-152 7. What is a Pelton wheel’s efficiency? XII, 151- 152 [27] 10. | i What is a reaction turbine? XII, 152 What type of water turbine is Pou in - United States? XII, 153 | Why are inward flow turbines preferred? XI, B53" pat What is the advantage ee disadvantage of the an : vertical reaction turbine? XII, 153 ae [28] Pupil and Class Activities @. Things To Do: 1b Make a simple Pelton water wheel using curved pieces of tin fastened to a wooden disk. Aim a stream of water from a rubber tube at the blades. XII, 150 Build a water turbine wheel from wood as shown in plate 4.7.)-XL1, 15.2 Make a manometer to measure root pressure. XI, 6 Perform the experiment showing the effect of evaporation from leaves. XI, 23 Grow Mimosa from seeds obtained from a nursery. Tap its leaves and observe its move- ments as described in XI, 72-74 Examine the surfaces of different kinds of leaves for stomata. XI, 300 Find a small sapling. Cut sections of the stem at intervals of an inch. Count the annual rings in each section and tell how old each is. Can you tell the kind of seasons, dry or wet, in which the plant did its growing? Check your results with the Weather Bureau. XI, 15-16 Plant two evening primrose plants and expose one to sun for only 10 hours per day. Expose the [29] Q. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL other for the full length of a day as described in 1 Ee Experiment: To determine the effect of stomata on a leaf, cover the upper side of a rubber-plant leaf with vaseline and the underside of another rubber-plant leaf with vaseline. Pin them up on the bulletin board in your classroom for a few weeks. Note which leaf shrivels up first. Why did it do so? Use a microscope to verify your theory. XI, 24-25 | 10. Excursions: a. Examine the school’s sewage disposal system. b. Examine the school’s water supply system. c. Visit a local water-works. Inspect the water purification plant. B. Pupil Reports: ir 3- The movement of water in narrow channels. II, 227 | The falling of leaves from tropical trees as com- pared with trees of the temperate zones. XI, 21 The Indian canteen for water. IV, 134 C. Self-Test Exercises: TEST I 1. Give a nine-letter word for “‘animals which can live on land and water.” VIII, 161 2. Give an eight-letter word for ‘‘a rat which can live a long time without water.” LX, 334 3. Give two five-letter words for ‘‘the composition of a cloud.” II, 106 [30] a eee ccccccccnc ee ance rac cere caccccc ccna a SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 4. Give a four-letter word for “the material around which drops of rain form.” II, 103 5. Give anine-letter word for “a bird that loses its color Pewhen wet.” VI, 251 6. Give a number for ‘‘the amount of ammonia which can dissolve in 100 lbs. of water at 77°F.” XII, 240 7. Give a six-letter word for “‘the water wheel used for water falling great distances.” XII, 150-151 8. Give a ten-letter word for “the most popular water turbine in the United States.” XII, 153 9g. Give two five-letter words which describe the means of converting water pressure into usable mechanical energy. mi 751 10. Give one five-letter word, one six-letter word and one three-letter word which represent the forms of matter. XII, 49 ANSWERS I. amphibian 6. seventy-one lbs. 2. kangaroo ig ake elton. 3. water-vapor 8. inward flow 4. dust 9g. water wheel 5. touracous 10. solid, liquid, gas TEST, 11 Rewrite the sentences which are not true so that a correct sentence results. I. In one season a hardwood forest consumes 10,000 gallons of water. II, 224 2. Water flows through plants by capillary action. II, 226-227 [31] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL 3. The giving off of water to the air by plants is called osmosis. XI, 23 4. Trees shed their leaves in a dry season to prevent further loss of water. XI, 21 5. Tiny ventilators in leaves are of one constant size and do not permit the control of the intake of carbon dioxide and the release of water and oxygen. XI, 299-300 6. Plants take in carbon dioxide from the air through small openings called stomata. XI, 300 7. Substances cannot be taken in by plant cells unless they are ina solution. XI, 297 8. Salt concentrations are always the same in plant cells as in the surrounding soil. XI, 298 g. There are no fish in the Great Salt Lake. VIII, 2 10. Fish are alike at all depths. VIII, 153 ANSWERS 1. In one season a hardwood forest consumes over a million tons of water. 2)" l'rge 3. Transpiration a. true 5. Stoma openings vary in size in accordance with light and humidity. 6. True 7.) re 8. Salt concentrations are frequently greater in plant cells than in the surrounding soil. D. haem 10. Fish of different types are found at different depths. [32] UNIT TV fib oURFACE. OF ‘THE EARTH A. Examining The Surface of The Earth: 1. How does a geologist measure time? IX, 255- 259 2. How does a paleontologist decide a region’s ancient history? X, 17 3. What are igneous rocks? How did they form? X,9 | 4. What happens to the mud that reaches the ocean | beds? X, 34 | 5. How many miles of sedimentary rock has been formed in the past? X, 8-9 © 6. How many feet of sedimentary rock have been formed since the beginning of the earth? X, 2 7. How are layers of rock made? X, 1-2 8. What is meant by sedimentary rocks? X, 1-2 _g. What suggestion did Charles Darwin make in order to help decide how old the earth is? X, 1-2 10. What rock-forming process is going on today? A 122 11. How long does it take to form an inch layer of mud? X, 2 [33] PZ. rR: ra re: 16. Ig 18. 19. 20. Li 2s 23. 24. ae. 26. ao STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL How are fossils exposed on a piece of rock? X, 61 What name has been given to the first sedimen- tary rocks? X, 41 What changes took place during the Proterozoic Era? X, 44-49 What happened during the Cambrian Period? ae 35-38 What is meant by Pliocene and Pleistocene? X, 81 When did the Alps and Himalaya Mountains form? X, 79 : When were the Andes and the Rocky Mountains born? X, 78 When did the Sierra Nevada Mountains form? X, 76-77 How did the Appalachian Mountains form? X, 72 : When do mountains reach “old age?” X, 3 What process wears down many feet of sedimen- tary rock? X, 3 When did an ice sheet cover Europe and North America? X, 81-82 What happened when the ice of the Ice Age melted? VII, 65 What four glacial stages are found recorded in the Alps? VII, 65-66 How were river terraces formed? VII, 65 What present-day continents had land bridges? VII, 63-64 [34] eee . <-> Bere se aes. SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 28. 29. 30. gam 32. $35 34. 35. 36. 37: 38. 39: What proofs have we that Gibraltar and Africa were joined? VII, 65 Where did the ocean’s salts come from? X, 4 What isloess? X, 11 : What conditions exist in a desert? XI, 253-263 When did vast deposits of diatoms form? X, 80 Why are there so many marsupials in Australia? IX, 283 Which continent first emerged from the sea? X, 7 What has shown us that the level of the ground continually changes? X, 30-31 What has happened to the earth’s surface in the past? X, 8 What is the ancient history of the Badlands of South Dakota? Why are they important to scien- tists? IX, 177-181, 188-191, 201, 204-206 How do fossils indicate old land and water areas? X, 18 Why is Europe best for the study of more recent life? X, 8 . Why is North America best for the study of ex- tremely ancient life? VI, 7-8 . Which states were once covered by very large oceans? X, 37-38 How did the seas form? VII, 65 In what kind of world did the first amphibians live? VIII, 163 B. Change in The Surface of The Earth: Ls Why does the earth’s crust move? VII, 9-10 [35] 5 I) r2: Ey 14. i§: ro. 7. 18. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL How thick is the earth’s crust? VII, 9-10 What happened to the earth’s crust when it formed? VII, 9-10 What is the basis for believing the earth is at least 12 million years old? X, 2 How did the earth’s surface form? VII, 9 When do mountains reach “old age?” X, 3 How long does it take to form an inch layer of mud? X, 2 . What process wears down many feet of sedimen- tary rock? X, 3 How do oceans, lakes and seas form? VII, 9 . What were the surface conditions of Europe dur- ing the Magdalenian Epoch? VII, 214-215 What changes took place during the Proterozoic Era? X, 44-49 What happened during the Cambrian Period? X, 35-38 What species were alive aria the Permian Period? VII, 16 What happens to the mud that reaches the ocean bed? X, 34 What are strata? VII, 8-10 When was the central part of North America covered by a sea from Alaska to the Gulf of Mexico? X, 77 What states were once covered by very large oceans? X, 37-38 What evidence is there of sea level changes? VII, 62 [36] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 19. 20. 2k. 22. 23. DA. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. ar: 3. 33- 34- What has shown us continvous changes of the level of the land? X, 30-31 Why are some animal fossils common to the Brit- ish Isles and Scandinavia also found in the Appa- lachian Mountains? X, 37 What caused the Sahara to become a desert? VII, 294 Why does Southwestern Asia retain so many primitive traits? VII, 301 What proofs are there for a New World connec- tion to Asia? VII, 326 Which country served as a highway between Af- rica and Europe? VII, 227 How did Cro-Magnon Man reach Europe? VII, 198 What happened to land surface elevation during the Glacial Period? VII, 61-62 , What was the effect of the glacier on surface vegetation? VII, 60 What was the effect of the Glacial Period on sea water? VII, 62 How do glaciers form? VII, 57 When did an ice sheet cover Europe and North America? X, 81-82 What was the Ice Age like? X, 81-82 Where are there remains of the glacier today? VII, $7 How much ice is calculated to have formed dur- ing the Ice Age? VII, 62 What is loess? VII, 61 [37] 35: 36. a7: 38. 39: STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What was the effect of the Ice Age on wind and soil? VII, 61 ; What does loess tell us about the past? VII, 61- 62 What kind of land does loess come from? VII, 61-62 What caused the Colorado River to shift its course? XII, 209 How does grass keep land from blowing away? XI, 226-227 [38] et a a oe Pupil and Class Activities my Things To Do: I. 4. - Make a large chart showing the major divisions of geological time as given in X, 15-16 . Copy the geological time clock of the earth on a large chart for your classroom. X, 6 Make clay models of animals alive during the time of Krapina Man. VII, 105 Try to get some of the “core” materials brought up by an oil drill. Examine it for microscopic fossils. Preserve your slides for exhibition. X, 19-25 B. Class Discussions: | i Discuss the conditions of rainfall, heat, and kind of soil one may expect to find in a desert. XI, 2§ 3-263 . Another Ice Age is possible. VII, 56-59 Report: The Formation of Loess. VII, 60-61 How the continents were once connected. VII, 63 ; . Evidences of the land bridge between Asia and North America. VII, 326-328 [39] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL Self-Test Exercises: TEST I Below are 10 statements. Some are true; some are false. On a sheet of paper rewrite each false statement in such a way that it becomes true. In doing this you may change or leave out any of the italicized words but you may not change or leave out any others. 1. Mud that reaches the ocean beds finally becomes igneous rock. X, 8 2. Since the beginning of the earth one thousand feet of sedimentary rock have been formed. X, 2 3. Many feet of sedimentary rock have been worn away by earthworms. X, 3 4. Salts found in the ocean have come from the rocks. x4 5. The earth’s crust is one mile thick. VII, 9-10 6. The ecarth’s crust bends, due to the bee of the air. VII, 9-10 7. The Sahara Desert was never fertile and able to support life. VII, 302 8. That North America once was joined to Asia is shown by the presence in both continents of men with copper colored skin. VII, 326 g. The glaciers that covered large parts of North Amer- ica and Europe changed forests into swamps. VII, 60 10. An ice sheet 4,000 feet thick covered North Amer- ica during the Paleozoic Era. X, 81 ANSWERS 1. sedimentary rock 3. erosion 2. 250,000 4. rocks [40] itis icinnncae Giieenisteimeiscscee SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 5. 60 miles 8. men with copper colored skin . 6. detritus brought down 9g. into tundras by rivers 7. once fertile 10. Pleistocene TEST II Fill in the missing word so that a true statement results. 1. A paleontologist decides the ancient history of a emerge se eh Ry TF 2. Rocks formed by heat action are called yO 3. Mud that reaches the ocean beds becomes . X, 34 4. Rocks formed by the accumulation of layers of debris peewee) 2 be on OX! Beg Pat hicroldest rocksare 2 XG 6. In the Alps Mountains we find stages of glaciers recorded. VII, 65-66 7. The present day continents which had land bridges epee A. VI1,63-64 8. An extremely fine soil formed by glacial action is preemeae oe ey VET Or 9. The continent which first emerged from the sea is Sy ek 10. Soil is prevented from blowing away by - ml, 226-227 ANSWERS I. studying the kind of rocks in which remains are found 2. igneous [41] re ‘e * : ran Sidi a Bepl. 4 oe | i ae STUDY GUIDE IN G , beh ty PAT i . °C 3. rocks | 4. sedimentary rocks 5. igneous | Wl 6. four b ; em 7. Asia, North America, Africa, Europe ‘ 8. loess ye 9. North America . ‘ig | 10. grass : ie oe ” | ‘l) i 7 . | [42] ——————— —= —— UNIT, V LIVING THINGS ON THE EARTH A. Kinds of Living Things: I. PLANTs: 1. Why are plants classified? XI, 148 2. What was Linnaeus’ contribution to science? XI, 142-144 3. What is the practical importance of classifying plants? XI, 157-160 4. How do students of plant classification do their work? XI, 157-160 5. Whatis an herbarium? XI, 149-152 6. How are plants dried and pressed? XI, 365-366 7. How do students use an herbarium? XI, 153-155 8. How is a specimen labelled on an herbarium sheet? XI, 153 9. What do large plant collections teach us? XI, 154-156 10. What makes us realize the natural groupings of plants? XI, 86 11. Into what four great groups are plants put? XI, 86 [43] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL 12. What are diatoms? X, 80-81 13. How many kinds of algae are there? XI, 175 14. What are “calcareous” algae? X, 46-47 15. What kinds of plants live in the sea? XI, 167 16. What is meant by the ‘Sargasso Sea”? XI, 88-89 17. How long do some seaweeds grow? XI, 88 18. What are lichens? How do they live? XI, 92-93 19. How are ferns different from mosses, algae, and fungi? XI, 93 20. What are some relatives of the ferns? XI, 94 21. What are gymnosperms? Give examples. XI, 94-95 22. What is the meaning of “angiosperm?” XI, 95 23. How are gymnosperms different from angio- sperms? XI, 95 24. How many families of flowering plants are there? XI, 96 25. How are monocotyledons different from dicotyle- dons? XI, 95-96 | 26. What kind of plant iscorn? XI, 213-214 27. When did maize reach the old world? XI, 323 28. Name some relatives of corn? XI, 331 29. Why do forest floors remain bare? XI, 32 30. Name some carnivorous plants? XI, 75 31. Give some examples of hydrophytes, xerophytes, halophytes, and mesophytes. Why are these plants so classified? XI, 78-80 32. Howare mushrooms grown? XI, 92 [44] ; NAT The ee SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 33. Discuss some interesting facts about algae. XI, 175-183 34. What are parasites and saprophytes? XI, 89 2. MOoLuusks: 1. How many vertebrate and invertebrate species are known to exist? VII, 20 2. Whatisamollusk? X, 252-263 a ‘How do shells of mollusks help us in classifying — them? X, 254 4. Name the four classes of mollusks. Give an ex- ample of each. X, 255 5. What did the Indians use to make wampum? X, | 275-276 6. What mollusks were used as a basis for trade among North American Indians? X, 283 7. To what animal group do shipworms belong? X, 269-270 8. ‘To what length may a shipworm grow? X, 270 | 9. What isa gastropod? X, 284-287 10. What interests us in gastropods? X, 287 11. What gastropod spins threads like a spider? X, 261-262 | 12. Which gastropods have no shell? X, 291 | 13. What does “cephalopod” mean? X, 327 14. Give some examples of cephalopods. X, 321 15. In what group are the squid and octopus? X, 251-252 | 16. We sometimes read or hear reports of ‘‘sea ser- pents’’ seen at sea. What animals may these have been? X, 348-349 [45] 1 nS, 19. 20. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What is the only cephalopod witha shell? X, 325 What connects the mollusks with the lower verte- brates?’ \X)252 In what respects are mollusks considered the highest invertebrates? X, 251 How do mollusks differ from arthropods? X, 252 3. CRUSTACEANS: is ro. Why is an animal’s structure rather than its way of living used in classification? V, 26 What does “arthropod” mean? Give some com- mon examples? V, 26 What are crustaceans? X, 90-91 How many species of crustaceans are there? X, gI How are crustaceans classified? X, 113-114 What are some common examples of crusta- ceans? X, 90-91 Name the largest and smallest crustaceans? X, 96 How are crustaceans segmented? X, 98-99 How do Crustacea larvae help us in identifying the adults? X, 128-129 Who first began a scientific study of Crustacea? X, 94-95 Why was cyclops given itsname? X, 127 .. What are fish lice? X, 129-130 What are “water fleas?” X, 118 [46] | ae | 5: 16. iy. | 20. 22. 2:3: 24. DG. 26. 27. 28. 20. 30. SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 14. Of what importance are water fleas in ponds and lakes? X,118 What makes the copepod the most beautiful thing innature? X, 126 Why are parasitic copepods so interesting? X, 128-129 What are some relatives of the Crustacea? X, —@9! Hasacraba tail? Explain. X, 102 What interesting habits has the robber crab? X, 174-176 Of what substance are the shells of crabs and lob- sters made? X, 97-98 Name some crabs that hold ‘‘conversations.”’ X, 192-199 Where in the United States can we find a fresh- water shrimp weighing 3 lbs.? X, 173 What are “fairy shrimp?” X, 115-116 How many body regions has a shrimp? X, 100 How did the “glass” shrimp get its name? X, 168 What shrimp does “‘needlework”’ in building its house? X, 219-220 What is the cause of luminescence in the sea? X, 200-201 Why do crustaceans give out light? X, 200-203 How long can the phosphorescent substance in crustaceans last? X, 203-204 What kept twenty-five men of the Greely Arctic Expedition from starvation? X, 236-237 [47] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL 31. What chemical element is present in crustaceans? X, 238 32. Whatconstellation has been named after a crusta- cean? X,92 33. Where can we find the largest fresh-water cray- fish? How long and heavy is it? X, 173 34. What is the giant among crustaceans? Give its measurements? X, 173 | 35. How much maya large lobster weigh? X, 172 36. Towhat group of Crustacea do barnacles belong? X, 138 37. Why did people have difficulty in finding out that barnacles were crustaceans? X, 138-140 38. Whatare rock barnacles? X, 138 39. Inwhat way are male and female barnacles differ- ent? X, 143-144 40. To what groups do pill bugs and sand flies be- long? X,157 41. What important character distinguishes all crus- taceans from insects? X, 100 4. INSECTs: 1. Why is an animal’s structure rather than its way of living used in classification? V, 26 2. What are arthropods? Give some common ex- amples? V, 26 3. Which arthropods have only six legs? V, 28 4. How many species of insects are known today? VII, 20 5. Why do students of insects pay so much attention to wing structure? V, 83-84 [48] 20. ZL, ZZ. 6. SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY What is meant by a segmented animal? Give ex- amples. V, 12 What kind of mouth parts has a house-fly? V, 345-346 How do the fly larvae differ from all other larvae? V, 324-325 Name some flies that “‘bite.”” V, 320-321 Why can not the house-fly ‘“‘bite?”’ V, 322-323 What is the carrier of the germ of African sleep- ing sickness and nagana? V, 348-349 Are all flies harmful? Explain. V, 353 What distinguishes flies and mosquitoes from all other insect groups? V, 315 What distinguishes mosquitoes from other flies? V, 335 Name the three kinds of mosquitoes important to alan. Vy 331 How are malaria larvae distinguished from Culex larvae? V, 340-341 How is a male mosquito distinguished from the female? V, 335-336 What is the reason for the name “‘wigglers”’ given to mosquito larvae? V, 333 What is the difference between the locust and the seventeen-year locust? V, 1-2 Why is the term ‘“‘seventeen-year locust’ no longer used? V, 182 Give some common names of the cicada. What do you call it? V, 184 How many races of cicadas have we? V, 215-217 [49] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL 23. Name some relatives of the cicadas? V, 205 24. What kind of insects visit tubular flowers? XI, 51-52 | 25. What are the cottony masses on apple twigs in {)) Tatesummetr? Wya72 26. What is the light efhiciency of a Cuban firefly? II, 270 27. Why are some insects called “‘social” insects? V, 128 28. Name four kinds of social insects. V, 128 29. Isit correct to call termites “white ants?” Why? V, 128 : 30. Name the kinds of termites in a termite nest. V, 131-135 31. What is the supposed relationship between the roach and the termite? V, 145-146 32. How did the roaches get their many common ~ names? V, 77-79 | 33. Name the kinds of roaches that you know. V, 78-80 34. Name some cricket relatives. V, 58-71 35. Name some katydid relatives. V, 37-55 36. How do locusts differ from katydids? How do they resemble each other? V, 3 37. How does a katydid differ from a grasshopper? V, 32-33 38. Name the chief characteristics of all grass- hoppers. V, 28-29 5. A ISEIe 1. What were the first backboned animals? VIII, 1 [50] | — - eee — x —,. eee ee i a a SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY LO: | 12. eh. 14. fe 1,63 13%. 18. . Whatisafish? VIII, 4-5 . How many fish species have been named so far? VAL, 3 . What is the smallest fish? The largest? VIII, 3 What fossil shark species is still living today? WE 3-14. Why is the shark considered to be the forerunner | of our modern fishes? VIII, 12-13 What characterizes the ganoid fishes? VIII, 21- 25 How are bony fishes classified? VIII, 26-29 What features do our modern bony fishes pos- sess? VIII, 16-17, 25-26 What variety of shapes may fishes have? VIII, Da How are deep-sea fishes different from other fishes? VIII, 154 What fishes possess electric organs? VIII, 82-83 What fish is more dreaded than the shark? VIII, 57°59 How do swordfish behave when attacked? VIII, 55-56 What is meant by “vertical distribution” of fishes? VIII, 153 What are “littoral” fishes? VIII, 154 What is meant by “pelagic” fishes? VIII, 153- 154 Which fishes are thought to have been the an- cestors of the amphibians? VIII, 17-18 [51] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL 19. What outstanding things about the lungfishes seem to connect them with salamanders? VIII, 18-19 ? 6. AMPHIBIANS: Le oP ae LO. Ii. What does the word “‘amphibian” mean? VIII, 161 What are Amphibia? X, 69 Name some common Amphibia? X, 70 What are the ancestors of amphibians? VIII, 2 How are amphibians distinguished from fishes? VIII, 1-2 What characterizes the burrowing amphibians? VIII, 177-179 What salamander is four feet long? Where does itlive? VIII, 182 Which salamander keeps its gills throughout its lites Vill a388 | Describe the life and habits of the mudpuppy. Does it look like a dog? Is it poisonous? VIII, 188-189 What sort of reputation has the hellbender? VIII, 181-182 Can salamanders live in a fire? How.did this be- lief originate? VIII, 179 . What amphibian is frequently called a “lizard?” VIII, 179 What salamander is commonly kept in aquaria at home? VIII, 187 How are frogs and toads classified? VIII, 193 [52] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY iG. 16. Py: What did ancient philosophers believe regarding the origin of frogs? VIII, 195 In what way are bullfrog tadpoles different from frog tadpoles? How long do bullfrogs live? VIII, 203 What truth is there in the belief that toads give you warts? VIII, 201 . Which were the first animals to have voices? VIII, 176 | Which is the biggest frog in the world? How do the natives treat it? VIII, 203 7. REPTILES: FE. Into what four large groups do all reptiles fall? VIII, 211-212 ! . What anatomical features are peculiar to rep- tiles? VIII, 291-295 Where do reptiles belong in relation to the other vertebrates? VIII, 291 Where does the Sphenodon live? Describe a Sphenodon and its habits. VIII, 296-298 How may a lizard be distinguished from a sala- mander? VIII, 321 How is a lizard without legs distinguished from a snake? VIII, 321 How does a lizard’s tongue help us to classify him ?, VIII, 321-322 Which is the largest lizard in the world? VIII, 336 Which living lizard may have given rise to stories about dragons? VIII, 336 [53] 10. ry: 12. 12. 14. ‘1s. 16. ith 18. 19. ZO. ZA. 22. 23) STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What gave the frilled lizard its name? VIII, 327-328 Describe a common American lizard and its habits. VIII, 329-336 Is the name “horned toad” a good one? Why? VI, 263 Is the “horned toad” a toad? How did it get its name? VIII, 331 What is meant by the “glass snake ?”” What mag- ical powers do some people say it has? How true is this? VIII, 334-335 How do snakes range in size and shape? VIII, 339-340 | They say a snake walks on its ribs. Is this true? Why? VIII, 342-343 Which kind of snake is found in greatest numbers in North America? What does this kind eat? VIII, 346 | Which snake has the greatest length? VIII, 352 Which burrowing snakes occur in the United States? How do they act when handled? VIII, 345 Which snakes are called ‘“‘sting snakes’ and “hoop snakes?” VIII, 345 What are some interesting habits of the python? VIL, 352-353 How does the puff adder behave when captured? VIII, 346 What species of poisonous snakes are found in the United States? VIII, 346 [54] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 24. Which snakes are called “pit vipers?’ Why was this name given to them? VIII, 347 25. How many species of rattlesnake are found in the United States? VIII, 348 26. What are some habits of the rattlesnake? VIII, 349-350 27. Why is the copperhead so-called? Where are copperheads found? VIII, 347 28. Which reptile is the living representative of an ancient group active even before dinosaurs, birds or mammals appeared on earth? Why is it al- most extinct now? VI, 261-262 29. How rapidly do alligators grow? How do alli- gators escape from their enemies? VIII, 304 30. How are crocodiles distinguished from alliga- tors? VIII, 299 31. How are turtles classified? VIII, 307 32. What unusual structural features do turtles have? VIII, 306-307 33. How do “leatherback”’ turtles differ from other turtles? How are they able to avoid enemies on land? VIII, 310-311 34. How long can a Galapagos turtle live? VIII, 313-314 35. How can you tell the age of a box turtle? VIII, 318 36. What three classes of vertebrates are cold- blooded? VIII, 161 8. BIRDs: i. What characters are common to all birds? IX, 1 [ss] An -f & 10. it, 12. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What group of animals has the greatest brilliancy of color? IX, 25 What strange forms may feathers take? IX, 24 How many species of bird are there? IX, 143 How are birds classified? IX, 143-166 Name the orders of birds, giving an example of each order. [X, 143-166 What group includes nearly half of the birds known to man? IX, 165-166 How do people study birds? What name is given to the science of bird study? IX, 114-125 How is information about birds obtained? IX, II-12 How does the National Museum get some of its bird specimens? IX, 8 Why do good museums have many duplicates of one kind of bird? IX, 7-8 How are birds prepared for laboratory study? IX, 6-7 What country has the greatest number of bird species for its area? IX, 2 What group of birds is the lowest in the scale of classification? [X, 144-145 . What kind of life do rheas live? [X, 145 What is the “American ostrich?” IX, 145-146 What are some habits of the ostrich? IX, 144- 145 . What is known about cassowaries and emus? IX, 146-147 [56] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 19. 20. PoE 22. What are some of the habits of the loon? IX, 149 What bird excavates a hole in a tree for its nest? IX, 77 Which bird’s speech is even more humanlike than the parrot’s? VI, 259-260 Where was the last passenger pigeon in the world kept before it died? How long did it live in cap- tivity? VI, 250 g. MAMMALS: 1 is 10. How many species of mammal are there in the world? VII, 20; IX, 220 . What are the principles of classification as ap- plied to the horse, monkey, and whale? IX, 251- 254 How did the word “‘mammal”’ originate? IX, 218-219 | What characteristics are possessed by all mam- mals? IX, 242-243 What is meant by the “placental mammals?” IX, 245-246 How are placental mammals classified? Give an example of each group. IX, 246-255 How many species of placental mammals are known today? IX, 311 What is meant by the science of mammalogy? IX, 219 How are mammals collected? [X, 207-217 What effect did the cyclone mouse trap have on our knowledge of small mammals? IX, 238-240 [57] Il. 12. 13: 14. FS. 16. h7. 18. 19. 20. 21. ZZ. oa. 24. oe 26. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL From what kind of ancestors did egg-laying mam- mals come? [X,.269-270 Name some mammals that lay eggs. IX, 244, 269 What interesting characteristics does the duckbill have? IX, 273-297 Why was there some doubt that the duckbill is a mammal? IX, 272 What are the habits and characteristics of the Echidna or spiny anteater? [X, 270-271 What is a marsupial? Give an example. IX, 244-245 . What kind of marsupials exist today? IX, 280 Which marsupial is native to the United States? VI, 218 How does the intelligence of marsupials compare with that of other mammals? VI, 217 What are some of the habits of the kangaroo? LX, 285-287 Why is the “Tasmanian Devil” poorly named? Witory | Which marsupial has developed along the same lines as the mole? [X, 308-310 Which marsupials resemble flying squirrels? IX, 297-298 Which marsupial is the size of a house-mouse? LX; 287 Describe some marsupials and their habits. IX, 280-310 What are some characteristics of the insecti- vores? IX, 313-316 [58] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY a. 28. 29. ao: ae. Cun 33: 34- 35. BG. 37: 38. a0 40. Al. 42. Why are insectivores of great importance to scientists? LX, 315-316 Which is the smallest mammal in the world? VI, 229 What are “‘edentates?”’ Give an example. IX, 250 What interesting structure does the armadillo have? 1X,.363 What are sloths ? How do they live? IX, 362 Isabatabird? Explain. LX, 243 Why are “‘vampire” bats so named? How and what do they eat? IX, 318 What are rodents? How are their teeth kept sharp? IX, 249-250 How are rodents distinguished from other mam- mialst EX, 331 Name some kinds of rodent? IX, 333-335 In what respects are rodents superior to some other kinds of mammal? IX, 331-333 How do rodent species vary in size? IX, 332 To what group do porcupines belong? Name some close relatives of the porcupine and how they differ from each other? IX, 338-339 How extensive is the rat and mouse tribe? IX, 335 What are the principal families of the carni- vores? IX, 322-323 What do we know about the ancestors of the dog? EXp3g2ms22 [59] 43. 44. 45- 46. 47. 48. x ‘He ee ot f a ie ae, Ue #y, ' Vi N STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What do we know about the ancestors of the cat? DX: ‘328 Why is the tiger sometimes called a “snobbish aristocrat?” VI, 79-80 How large is a newborn bear? VI, 99 What is the most important characteristic of the seal family? IX, 323-324 To what family of mammals does the wolverine belong? VI, 226 What evidence is there of the cleverness of the wolverine? Why is it becoming scarce? VI, 226- 227 7 Is the whale a fish? Explain. IX, 243 . Why are whales and porpoises classified as mam- mals? LX, 367 Describe the head of the sperm whale. Describe its teeth. 1X, 371-372 How many kinds of whales are there? How did they get their names? LX, 370-371 . What whale can grunt under water? IX, 374 What animal, related to whales, has a twisted tusk from three to eight feet long? IX, 373-374 . Towhat mammals are seacows related? IX, 365 . What are ungulates? IX, 340-341 What different kinds of ungulates are there? IX, 342-343 In what countries do pigs run about as do our dogs and cats? VI, 162 Where are wart hogs found? Describe their habits. VI, 158 [60] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 60. GL! 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. ak. 72. 73: 74- fice 70: Where did the domestic camel originate? VI, 155 Where is the Dromedary camel found? Where is the Bactrian camel found? VI, 155 Name a relative of the camel in the Western Hemisphere. V1, 156 Where is the reindeer found in large numbers? VI, 185 Which ungulates have hollow horns? Which have solid horns or antlers? IX, 343 Which is the most dangerous of the larger mam- mals? VI, 172 Which quadruped existed in the greatest numbers before 1870? VI, 166 When did man first see a bison? VI, 165-166 Which is probably the rarest animal in captivity? VI, 221 How long can an elephant live? VI, 136 What was the name of the most famous elephant in captivity ? How much did he weigh? How did he die? Where is his skeleton now? VI, 130-132 What are flying-lemurs? IX, 316 What kind of variation exists among the monkeys? IX, 326 What are some of the mischievous things done by the rhesus monkey? VI, 45-46 Where does the rhesus monkey live wild? VI, 45-46 What is meant by “primates”? LX, 324 Name some primates now living. LX, 325-330 [61] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL . What have scientists been learning recently from the apes? IX, 327-329 Why are chimpanzees always kept caged when they grow old? VI, 31-33 Describe a chimpanzee’s table manners. VI, 30- 33 Give an example of a chimpanzee’s intelligence. Wil, 32-33 In what respects is the gorilla far beneath man? “Vi, 28-20 . To which group of animals does man belong? Vid yo Bo Weed: of Living Things: vy. Ja, 3 3- What is meant by “‘being alive’? V, 101 What do roots do for the plants? XI, 3 How did man discover just what fertilizers to use? XI, 296 How successfully can plants grow without soil? XI, 296 What may cause a lack of nitrogen in the soil? XI, 8 | How does a minute quantity of boron affect a tomato plant? XI, 297 What elements in exceedingly small amounts are absolutely necessary for normal plant growth? mL) 207 What happens to a plant that lacks potassium? XI, 296 What happens to a plant that lacks calcium? XI, 296 pee SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY EO: Li, ZO. Zz. 29. 23 24. Dey What happens to a plant that lacks phosphorus ? XI, 296 What happens when plants lack iron? XI, 8 . What element in the soil is necessary if a plant 1s to develop chlorophyll? XI, 290 Name some elements essential to plant growth. XI, 296-298 | What is the matter with a pale plant? XI, 8 . What are the chemical formulas for chlorophyll A and B? XI, 290 . How are mushrooms grown? XI, 92 . What happens to Daphnia when they reach the surface film of the water? X, 121 . Why do fiddler crabs build burrows? X, 171 . Why does a mosquito pupa stay at the surface of the water? V, 334 Has an insect any blood? What is it like? V, III-112 Make a diagram of an insect’s circulatory system. Vaio Describe the alimentary canal in fishes. VIII, 95- OF What kind of blood circulation is found in fishes ? VIII, 97-98 Describe the food of the Bactrian camel. VI, 155 What is the yak’s one great drawback? VI, 174 C. Living Things in Their Surroundings: i: PLANTS IN THEIR SURROUNDINGS: 3 Where do algae usually live? XI, 87 [63] Sey We ae STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL i) Where do mosses live? XI, 93 3. Where do ferns live? XI, 93 4. What are the temperature ranges within which life is possible? II, 244 5. Whatis the science of ecology? XI, 78 6. Into what groups are all plants divided on the basis of environment? XI, 78 7. What causes the distribution of plants? XI, 81- 85 8. Describe a typical plant-collecting trip in the tropics. XI, 363-376 g. Describe conditions above the timberline in Co- lombia. XI, 360-361 10. Describe the temperate zone plants in Colombia. XI, 360 11. Describe the plant life in a subtropical zone in Colombia. XI, 359-360 | 12. Describe the plant life in a tropical zone in Co- lombia. X1, 358-359 13. Why do sea plants have less trouble in living throughout the year than do land plants? XI, 168-169 14. How far down in the ocean can plants live? XI, 169-170 15. What plant is typical of Old World agriculture? Of the New World? XI, 323 2. ANIMALS AND THEIR NEED FOR AIR AND WATER: 1. What can be said about the story that horned toads can live a long time sealed in a block of cement? VI, 263 [64] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 2. At what depth are pearl-bearing mollusks found? | III, 218-219 . | 3. Where does Cyclops live? X, 127-128 | | 4. At what levels in the ocean can copepods live? X, 127 5. How fast cana lobster move? X, 98 6. What is a “wiggler’? How do wigglers get into rain barrels? V, 329-331 | 7. Why does a mosquito pupa stay at the surface of | the water? V, 334 8. In what kinds of surroundings do fishes live? VIII, 2 9g. Explain the reason for the wide distribution of fishes? VIII, 2 10. Have you ever disturbed a frog near a pond? How does it behave? VIII, 202 11. Doany crocodiles live in salt water? VIII, 302 12. What snakes live in the ocean? VIII, 354-355 13. Why is a hippopotamus called a water horse? VI, 146 14. How long can a hippopotamus stay under water ? | VI, 147-148 3. ANIMALS IN RELATION TO TEMPERATURE: 1. List some temperatures which crustaceans can withstand. X, 185-186 2. What crustacean lives in hot springs with a tem- perature of 112° F.? X, 153-154 3. Where are termites found in great numbers? V, 129 [65] LQ; Lie © STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL . Why is yellow fever a tropical disease? V, 340 . Where do mosquitoes live during the winter? V, 338 Name some barriers that affect fish and their dis- tribution. VIII, 149-150 What factors prevent many fish from becoming cosmopolitan? VIII, 149 Why do fishes leave the shallow water in the _ autumn to go to the deep sea? VIII, 128 Where does the tuatara or Sphenodon live? De- scribe a Sphenodon and its habits? VIII, 296- 298 Have we any native crocodiles? Explain. VIII, 392-303 Where are the most dangerous crocodiles found? VIIb:go2 . Why are snakes most plentiful in the tropics? VIII, 339 . Where have snakes never been found? VIII, 339 In what part of the earth are birds most abun- dant? IX, 2 . What country has the greatest number of bird species for its area? IX, 2 Do bears seem to suffer from summer heat? VI, 100 Where do the pygmy hippos live wild? VI, 149 Where do hippos live wild? VI, 149 Where does the musk ox live? VI, 169 Why does the presence of the musk ox in the Arctic surprise people? VI, 169 [66] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 270 Dee 23. DA. Where are giraftes abundant today? VI, 176 Where does the rhesus monkey live wild? VI, 45-46 2 Do any monkeys live wild in the Western Hemis- phere? Explain. VI, 51-53 Where does the gorilla live? VI, 23-28 4. THE NEED FoR Foon: I. ie oe 2. ge In what types of habitats do crustaceans live? X, 89 How deep in the ocean have crustaceans been found? X, 185-186 Why do fiddler crabs build burrows? X, 171 How does a fish parasite live? X, 129-131 . What are the activities of the true fish-lice in our fish tanks? X, 136-137 On what portion of a fish’s body may we find copepod parasites? X, 129-131 Where can we find termites? V, 128-129 Where do the young stages of mosquitoes live? V, 331 Where are most house-flies born? V, 343 . Where are the eggs of an apple tree tent moth found? V, 262-263 Where can we find cocoons of the tent cater- pillar? V, 282 Where is one body of water which has no fish? W.EDL..2 How can one keep horned toads alive? VI, 263 [67] 14. 15. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What causes the usually rare snowy owl to be seen here? VI, 257 Why was the Indian population low in North America and high in South America? IV, 5 5. THE NEED FOR SHELTER: i 10. 12. In what types of habitats may we find mollusks? X, 254-255 In what habitats do snails live? X, 284 Name a bivalve which burrows into hard rocks. X, 269 In what unusual places are crustaceans found? X, 186-187 . What part does seaweed play in spreading crusta- ceans? X, 189 . What type of homes do termites have in the tropics? V, 146-148 Where do cicadas live before we see them? V, 182. How deep are the burrows of cicadas? V, 187-189 What are cicada huts? Why are they built? V, 192-193 Why have birds spread all over the world? IX, 1 Name some out-of-the-way places where birds have been found. [X, 1-2 What kind of home life do young hawks have? IX, 97 . What is the native land of the love birds? VI, 255 Fa. How do birds keep their nests clean? IX, 1o1 [68] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY BS. 16. ry aT What birds foul their own nests? LX, 101 What are a bat’s habits? LX, 317-320 In what kinds of habitat are rodents to be found? IX, 332 How do beavers go about building their homes? VI, 118-120 How large may beaver dams be? IX, 334 Where in Africa is the lion still abundant? Why is this? VI, 70 Why are the true or mountain zebras now not extinct? VI, 213 6. Livinc TOGETHER: — ) Te ae How do social animals live? V, 128 How do the majority of animals live? V, 127-128 Is a termite colony democratic? V, 134 What can we learn about the termite’s way of living? V, 151 Describe the home of a group of termites. V, 128-129 How does the termite queen get her food? V, 149 Why do termites always seem to nibble or lick one another? V, 144 D. Man’s Relation to Other Living Things: 1. Our Foop AND LIVING THINGs: i Ds What is meant by a “parasite”? Describe how one works. V, 19-25 What sort of work is being done by plant stu- dents? XI, 157-160 [69] ow Am pb & | ie F24 O 22% STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What is the work of bacteria? XI, 89 How do some bacteria enrich the soil? XI, 27-28 Are all bacteria harmful? Explain. XI, 28 How much damage is due to smuts? XI, g1 Name some fungus diseases. XI, g1 How much of a menace to the coconut-growing industry is the robber crab? X, 178 What place has the oyster in economics? X, 275 How are mollusks harvested from the sea? III, 219 Are insects to blame for the damage they cause us? How is this explained? V, 152 How are horses and cattle affected by the larvae of the botfly and the ox warble-fly? V, 352 Why are horn flies a menace to cattle? V, 348 Why do stable flies concern us? V, 347-348 Name some enemies of the aphids. V, 173-181 Why is the aphis-lion so useful tous? V, 174-176 How did the roaches get their many common names? V, 77-79 ‘‘People who are not fond of roaches should pro- tect centipedes.”’ Explain. V, 82-83 Why is the mantis said to be our friend? V, 75 Why should a ladybird beetle be protected? V, 173-175 Why do crabs deserve the name of “‘ten-footed earthworms?” X, 244-245 Where in the United States are the best shrimp fisheries? X, 232 [70] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY a8: 24. ae 26. 2 . 28. 29. 20: aE. Bo 33: 34- 35. 26: 37: a3! 39. What chemical element is present in crustaceans? X, 238 What kept twenty-five men of the Greely Arctic Expedition from starvation? X, 234-237 What kind of damage is done by pill-bugs? X, 245 When were lobsters regarded as pests? X, 229 In what way may crustaceans be pests? X, 89 Describe the damages crustaceans do to oysters. X, 245-247 What damage do crayfish do to corn and cotton in the Mississippi delta? X, 244 What damage do crabs cause tomato growers in Florida? X, 244 Why have we difficulty in raising rice in Porto Rico? X, 243-244 What crab destroys rice in Valencia, Spain? X, 243 What effect have crabs on rice plantations in India? X, 241-242 How do ships help spread crustaceans? X, 188 How did the mountain crab get to Germany? X, 188 How are robber crabs captured? X, 175-177 How is the fishing industry dependent upon the spawning seasons? VIII, 125-126 What food habits of crocodiles and alligators make it possible for us to control them? VIII, 305 What is guano? Why is it useful to man? [X, 139 [71] 40. 4l. 42. 43- 44. 45. 46. 47- 48. 49. 50. gi. 52. 53. 54. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL How well do birds get rid of weed seeds? IX, 129 How many seeds of the water primrose did one duck have in its stomach? IX, 129 How many tons of weed seeds are eaten by tree sparrows in lowa ina single winter? IX, 129 How long ago and by what people were falcons trained for hunting? IX, 5 What birds build nests relished by the Chinese forasoup? IX, 77 What birds have been domesticated for many centuries? 1X, 2-3 Who domesticated the turkey? VII, 339 In what manner did man learn how to domesti- cate birds? IX, 4-5 What led to our having parrots and canaries for pets? IX, 4-5 Where was the last passenger pigeon in the world kept before it died? How long did it live in cap- tivity? VI, 250 What parrot attacks and kills living sheep? IX, 160 Why are the mountain parrots or keas being ex- terminated? VI, 252 How should we deal with birds which catch and eat fish? IX, 138-139 What do hawks and owls eat? IX, 140-141 What complaints have been made against the bobolinks and red-winged blackbirds? IX, 129- 130 [72] a4 deh za ecko SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 55: 56. 57: 58. _ bird specimens? LX, 8 59: 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. What birds of prey should be kept in check? IX, 141 How are corn kernels treated to prevent crows from eating them? IX, 131 How did the National Zoological Park come into being? VI, 3-5 How does the National Museum get some of its What kind of work is done by ‘‘economic orni- thologists?” [X, 124-125 Cite some examples which show how bird band- ings give us information of a bird’s travels. IX, 65-67 Why are birds’ stomachs so carefully studied? BX ros Why is the mongoose not allowed to be imported into the United States? VI, 222 Which monkey is trained to climb coconut trees and throw down coconuts? VI, 49 What were the female llamas used for? VI, 156 How do people use reindeer? VI, 185 What evidence is there of the cleverness of the wolverine? Why is it becoming scarce? VI, 226-227 } Why is the African cheetah in such demand in India? VI, 90-91 Why are leopards more dangerous than other “Catsie VIS Why are leopards killed and trapped so fre- quently? VI, 85 [73] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL 2. Our HEALTH AND LIVING THINGs: De 5. 16. How do certain seaweeds aid the science of bac- teriology? XI, 89 Should plants be removed from a sick room? Explain. XI, 28-29 Describe the damage done by some of the trypa- nosomes. V, 349 In what way are gastropods sometimes danger- ous toman? X, 316 What mollusk can killa man? X, 293 Why do the natives of New Guinea dread the bite of Conus, a snail? X, 301-302 | Do octopuses and squids really attack man? X, 346-347 Does the house-fly ever bite people? V, 347-348 Why can 2 fly’s bite cause a serious infection ? y iy W328 What is the most effective method of fly control we have? V, 343 Why are mosquito bites painful? V, 338 What is the only known carrier of the yellow- fever virus? V, 338-339 Why has yellow fever occasionally broken out in northern cities? V, 340 What damage may the “screw worm”’ cause to animals and man? V, 352 What is the carrier of the germs of African sleep- ing sickness and nagana? V, 348-349 What is the worst biting fly? V, 348 [74] — SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY sr 18. 19. 20. 2h: 22. pee 93% How are crabs an aid to sanitation in the tropics? XK, 245 How do sand-fleas help mankind? X, 158 What crab in Jamaica is used to “treat” deaf- ness? X, 239 What two species are the only poisonous lizards now known? VI, 262-263 What lizard in the United States is as deadly as a rattlesnake? How does it inject its poison? VIII, 336 Why are geckos unwelcome visitors in warm countries? What interesting features do geckos have? VIII, 325-326 How dangerous is the cobra? How many people in India die each year from cobra bites? Why is not the cobra wiped out in India? VIII, 351-352 Is it true that a spitting cobra can shoot its poison at one’s eye? VI, 269 . Why is the mamba so feared? VIII, 354. How old must a baby of a poisonous snake be be- fore it can inflict harm upon us? VIII, 343 How poisonous are copperheads? VIII, 348 What rattlesnake is considered the most danger- ous in North America? What gives it its reputa- tion? VIII, 349 How is antivenin used and prepared? VIII, 351 What monkey was used to teach ancient doctors anatomy? VI, 48 What do the Chinese use a rhinoceros’ “horn” for? VI, 207 What is the rhinoceros’ “horn” made of ? VI, 208 [75] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL 3. CONTROLLING OuR ENEMIES: 4. . What isa “hopperdozer ?” How is it used? V, 19 . Describe an effective poison for grasshoppers. V, 19 What methods do we use to kill biting insects ? VO Tea What methods do we use to kill sucking insects? a gate! : . What is the most effective method of fly control ? V, 343 How can we use insects to fight other insects? V, 19-21 ASCENDANCY OF MAN OVER OTHER Te. -Livinc THINGs: What physical land conditions brought about the domestication of animals? VII, 250-251 What one defect has the Eskimo dog? IV, 4 What valuable sense do Eskimo dogs possess? IV, 50 | How are Eskimo dogs handled? IV, 47 In what way were dogs useful to Mesolithic man? VII, 239 How did dogs become domesticated animals ? Vil. 229 What are the first evidences of domestic dogs? VII, 230-238 . What early evidence have we of the use of mounted horses? VII, 323 [76] » tA aS tt ts ag _ SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 9. 10. Il. fae ng. 14. 1S 16. ry. 18. 19. 20. 21. a2 ae 24. When were the horse and donkey introduced into Babylonia? VII, 305-306 What effect did the horse have upon civilization? VII, 306 How did the Egyptians come to use the camel? VII, 300 © What animal changed the course of history? VII, 286-287 Why is the yak a useful animal in Central Asia? VI, 174 What was the ancient Peruvian beast of burden? VI, 156 Is a camel as patient as it is said to be? VI, 154 When did the United States attempt to domesti- cate camels? VI, 154 In what country were camels successfully domesti- cated? VI, 154-155 How long has the camel been in use? VII, 275 How did plow-oxen come into use? VII, 261 What led people to set aside some animals as sacred? VII, 251 How did man come to use animals as beasts of burden? VII, 255-256 What is believed to be the reason for animal drawings on walls of caves and weapons of an- cient man? VII, 52, 202-203 Why was man able to overcome creatures stronger than himself? VII, 170 Why are forest people in Africa, New Guinea, | and the Philippines so backward? XI, 204 [77] ma 26. 27% 28. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL How did Neanderthal Man overcome mam- moths and other powerful animals? VII, 195 How was man able to rise above the level of the animal? VII, 171 Why are the true or mountain zebras not extinct yets Vitro What animal has become one of the chief forces of destruction of plant and animal life? X, 82 5. GENERAL RELATIONSHIPS: 164 What probably caused the formation of our large oil deposits? X, 81 . What living things form iron ore today? XI, 47-48 How do roots damage pavements? XI, 6 Name some important uses to which we put the shells of mollusks. X, 253 What mollusks were used as a basis for trade among North American Indians? X, 283 What artist’s pigment is obtained from squids? X, 76,335 How is Tyrian purple obtained? X, 314-315 What snails are used for dyes and ink? X, 314 What is a pearl? III, 217-218 How do pearls form in a mollusk? III, 218; X, 276-277 What mollusks produce valuable pearls? ITI, 218 Where are cultured pearls produced? III, 219 How is a pearl removed from the mollusk? III, 220 [78] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 14. What gives luster to pearl and mother-of-pearl ? be 16. by. iG 19. 20. 22. 29. 20. III, 218 What different colors may pearls have? III, 219 How may mollusks be forced to make pearls? III, 223-224 How are pearl beds conserved? III, 219-220 Where are pearls found in North and South America? III, 221 Why are termites of economic importance to us? ¥, 129 When do we first discover the damage done by termites? V, 129 Describe some of the damage done by termites. V, 129 What crustacean has injured submarine cables by its boring? X, 219 | How do barnacles injure shipping? X, 142-143 How much damage did the shipworm do in San Francisco Bay in 1919-1920? X, 271 . What ancient people prized cicadas for their song? V, 183 How can you feed red salamanders in captivity? VIII, 184 How can you successfully keep spotted or mar- bled salamanders in captivity? What can you feedthem? VIII, 186 What myths are centered around the turtle and the origin of the earth? VIII, 319 Where do we get our tortoise shells? VIII, 312 What economic value have lizards? VIII, 338 [79] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL . How are pythons fed ina zoo? VI, 266 . Does man hunt animals only for food? Explain. VI, 1-10 . How did bull fights originate? VII, 252 What monkey makes the best pet? VI, 54-55 . What is the commonest monkey pet in this coun- try? VI, 45-46 . What kind of a pet does a pig make? VI, 162 . What is meant by “bear-baiting?”’ VI, 96-97 . Are bears safe pets? VI, 98 . How are lions trained for the circus? VI, 76-77 . What is “‘takia?” How is it used? VI, 157 . What camel relative is raised for its wool? VL acy . Why is a dead llama in Peru and Bolivia worth as much asa live one? VI, 157 [80] Pupil and Class Activities m. Things To Do: Le 2s Make a clay model of a dinosaur. VII, 14 Make collections of mud from different types of streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, bays, or oceans. Examine them for diatoms. Preserve the diatoms as microscope exhibits. XI, 180-183 Make a collection of seaweeds from the ocean. Dry the plants, label them, and hang them up in a corner of your room at school. XI, 167-180, 184-190 Make a collection of lichens for your own mu- seum. XI, 92-93 Collect as many species of lichens as you can from your locality. Study them with a lens or a micro- scope. Learn to identify them. II, 92-93 Make a collection of diatoms. Study them under a microscope. Learn to photograph them with your camera and microscope. X, 80-81 Learn to recognize some common algae found on tree trunks, flower pots, ponds, streams, sea- shores, etc. Try to cultivate some in your school. Lhergs By keeping such foods as bread, oranges, lemons, etc., in a dark place in covered bottles, grow va- rious molds. Examine the filaments and spores under a microscope. XI, 39-40 [81] LO. | ig. 14. bg STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL Make soap models of some common mushrooms found in your locality. II, 93 Make a collection of common mosses. Dry them and mount them in an herbarium. XI, 149-150, 153-155 Collect the common ferns in your locality and learn to recognize them. II, 93-94 Learn to identify twenty gymnosperms growing wild or cultivated in your community. XI, 94-95 Collect such carnivorous plants as sundew, pitcher plant and Venus’ fly-trap. Grow them in aterrarium. XI, 74-76 Construct terraria showing examples of hydro- phytes, xerophytes, halophytes and mesophytes. Take careful notes of the conditions they require for healthy living. XI, 78-80 Organize a wild flower club in your school. Be- ginning early in March, collect one plant in flower of each species; dry them, mount on an herbarium sheet, and label accurately. XI, 96, 149-153, 365-366 Mount your pressed plants as shown in the pic- ture opposite page 153, XI Make a collection of fifty common grasses in your vicinity. Identify them and place them in your herbarium. XI, 238-249 Copy on a large chart the diagram of an ordinary seed plant shown in XI, 2 Make a collection of winter twigs and buds. Iden- tify each twig for your museum. XI], 19 [82] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY PAOE i. ayia 23. 24. ae. 26. sg 28. 29. Open fresh or salt-water mussels and examine the inside of the shells for pearls. X, 276-278 Search the driftwood along the bay or ocean- front for wood riddled by shipworms. Include these specimens in your museum exhibits. X, 271-273 Make a collection of land snails in your locality. Exhibit and label these for your own museum. X, 284-286 Make a mollusk section for your club, home or school museum. Classify your specimens scientif- cally. On your labels state an interesting fact about each specimen. X, 251-356 Get a half shell of the chambered nautilus from some supply house. By using diluted nitric acid dissolve the white and brown covering on the shell, until a pearly sheen is obtained. X, 328 Ask some people who eat snails, for a recipe in preparing and cooking them. Buy some snails and cook them for yourself and friends. X, 284, 312-313 Buy or catch a blue crab. Using the diagram shown in X, 1o1 identify the different parts. Follow directions given in X, 88 and study the iuminescence of certain crustaceans. Hunt for fish-lice in an aquarium. Detach one from a fish and make a drawing of it. Try to photograph it through a low-powered micro- scope. X, 129-137 Buy some shrimp. Prepare and cook some for your friends. X, 232-233 [83] 30. BI 34. 37: 38. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL Make an aquarium for water insects collected in a nearby pond. Make a collection of different kinds of grasshop- pers in your locality. If possible, get in touch with people in other parts of the United States and exchange specimens in order to increase your col- lection. V, 28-29 Make a collection of as many kinds of grasshop- pers as you can, in all stages of development. To kill them painlessly, use a wide-mouthed jar in which is a wad of absorbent cotton sprinkled with a few drops of carbon tetrachloride. Mount the identified insects on pins in cigar-boxes lined with sheet cork or soft corrugated paper. V, 1-25 Make a collection of grasshopper relatives for your museum. Include the roaches. V, 28-84 Try to find (in April) certain holes in the ground from which cicada nymphs emerge. Pour liquid plaster-of-Paris into some of the holes. Dig out the hardened casts of the underground chambers and exhibit them. V, 187-190 Get a number of fish gills and hunt among the gills for parasitic copepods. Draw some of them. Preserve the rest as microscopic mounts. X, 128-137 Make a community tank of tropical fish. VIII, IOI Paint pictures of luminous fish on a dark back- ground. For light organs use luminous paint. Exhibit in a darkened room. VIII, 80-81 Build a terrarium of marsh or swamp plants. Place in it some of the smaller frogs. Feed them with small, live insects. VIII, 205-206 [84] CF Or SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 39- 40. AI. 42. 43. Learn to recognize the poisonous and non-poison- ous snakes in your community. VIII, 339-355 Collect and exhibit some skins shed by snakes. VIII, 343 In your own museum at school, home or camp, build.a.“Live,Snake Section.’’. Have. each,cage properly labelled with an interesting fact or two about each kind of snake you exhibit. VI, 266-271 Organize a bird club. Observe birds as often as possible and make a bird census of your locality. EX, 143 By listening to, and observing the song birds, learn to recognize bird songs and calls even when you can not see the bird. IX, 103-113 B. Class Discussions: |i The factors which today cause the geographical distribution of plants. XI, 80-85 The history of our knowledge of plant life. XI, 133-147 The part played by Linnaeus in advancing the cause of science. XI, 142-144 The kind of activities engaged in by men who study plants. XI, 148-163 Plants do not need oxygen in order to live and grow. II, 224-226 Some interesting things about the group of plants known as algae. X1, 87-89 The uses of algae by man. XI, 184-196 Discuss the products man obtains from grasses. XI, 216-218 [85] 22. 23: 24. Dip. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL The effect of grasses on civilization. XI, 201-215 The value of grasses as land builders. XI, 226-229 The uses of cacti to man. XI, 125-126 . A desert is bare of plant and animal! lise 264-281 What behavior of the termites entitles them to be called social insects. V, 125-151 Some strange tales about octopuses and squids. A, 345-352 . The damage done by barnacles to the shipping in- dustry. X, 142-143 The fight of farmers against crustaceans. X, 241-247 . The variety of homes built or occupied by crusta- ceans. X, 210-228 Luminescence among the crustaceans. X, 200-205 Protective coloration among the crustaceans. X, 205-207 i Toads, if handled, will give you warts. VIII, 201 Keeping animals healthy in a zoo is one of the most difficult jobs in the world. VI, 277-283 Man has been the greatest enemy of the bison. V1, 166-168 Monkeys make excellent pets for the children. VI, 40-41 The chimpanzee is the most intelligent ape. VI, 29-32 Gorillas are very human. VI, 21-29 [86] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 26. one ‘‘Man is the most destructive animal the world has even known.” Dinasaurs were superior to mammals. VII, 16-17 C. Pupil Reports: Le How the National Zoological Park came into being. VI, 2-7 The early forms of life on the earth. VII, 13-14 The work of botanists on a collecting trip. XI, 364-369 Write a report on the Sargasso Sea. Include in it the ‘‘Adventures of a Baby Eel in The Sargasso Sea.” XI, 88-89 Report on the extent of the damage done by plagues of grasshoppers. V, 17-19 Report on various methods used in destroying termites. V, 128-130 How scientists study bird life in the field and in the laboratory. IX, 114-125 How birds are classified. IX, 143-166 How the scientific study of mammals began and grew. [X, 228-241 How mammals are collected by scientists for study. IX, 207-217 How mammals are prepared for museum exhibi- tion. 1X, 218-227 Characteristics of mammals as a group. IX, 242-243 The different kinds of mammals. IX, 243-255 [87] 14. Tie 16. ne 18. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL Some mammals and what makes them interesting. IX, 311-375 Some interesting facts about the marsupials. IX, 280-310 The case against the mongoose. VI, 222-224 How we know that the whale is not a fish. IX, 366-375 The most famous elephant in captivity. VI, 130-133 D. Experiments: i Place germinated mustard seeds on cotton gauze over a jar filled with water. Let the roots grow into the water. Cover the jar with a box, except for an opening in the box which lets in a beam of sunlight. Observe the way the seedling grows. XI, 308 Capture some fireflies at night and make records of the frequency of light flashes. II, 269-270 To find out if toads will give you warts, let ten students handle a toad. Compare the results with ten students who do not handle it. VIII, 201 E. Excursions: bh. Make trips to the seashore and collect seaweeds of all kinds. Dry them in the sun and hang them up attractively in your schoolroom. XI, 88 Make an excursion to the ocean waterfront or to salt-water rivers and inspect the sides of boats, the piles, and rocks. Take home a collection of barnacles from these sources. ‘Take some photo- graphs of these crustaceans. X, 142-143 [88] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 3: LG Le Make an excursion to the ocean-front or bay at low tides. Observe some fiddler crabs and their habits. Put one into the water and see how it be- haves. X, 168-172 Go on a crab-hunting expedition in a boat among the piles of an ocean waterfront. Learn to cook the crabs. X, 101 Visit a fish market regularly. Identify and record the various species of sea life that come to your city. Visit the reptile house at the zoo. VI, 261-276 Visit the bird house in the local zoological park. What orders of birds are represented there? IX, 143-166; VI, 232-260 Speak to the keeper of the bird house in the local zoological park. Ask him about the habits and behavior of unusual birds, such as the ostrich and the rhea. Report to your club or class. IX, 144-145 Visit the lion house at the zoo. VI, 68-93 Visit the small mammal house at the zoo. VI, 221-231 Visit the elephants at the zoo or circus. VI, 126-145 Visit the bear dens at the zoo. VI, 94-106 F. Self-Test Exercises: TEST I The letters of one word in each of the sentences below are jumbled. If you arrange these letters properly you will find that they spell a word which makes the sentence true. [89] A et N STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL . LEANCRABS are crustaceans and not mollusca. X, 138 The only arthropods with six legs are called NESTICS. V, 28 3. Itisnot true that STODA give you warts. VIII, 201 4. Among the longest snakes are the SHOTPNY. VIEL 52 5. One characteristic common to all birds is their possession of RATSEEFH. IX, 1 6. A mammal which lays eggs like a bird is the DINEACH. IX, 269 7. One mammal which carries its babies in a pouch, is the AKROOGNA. IX, 281-282 8. An insect which spends the early period of its life in water, is the QUOTOSIM. V, 331 g. The pigment sepia, used by artists, is obtained fromthe SIDUSO: Xa76, 435 10. Scientists believe that most of our petroleum was made by microscopic plants called SMADOTI. x OF ANSWERS barnacles 6. echidna insects 7. kangaroo toads 8. mosquito pythons g. squids feathers 10. diatoms [90] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY Match each item in column A with the proper item in PES EL column B. A a elant ancl animal classi- \ 1. feation XI) 142) ) b.) aleae X, 80 a c. grass XI, 213 3 d. mushroom XI, 92 4. Ew eetopus X, 321 KE f. barnacles X, 138-140 6. eliiiies and mosquitoes V, "7. 315 h. termites V, 128 8. ene nists VTL, j. mammal IX, 242 10. Is ANSWERS a— b—10 cag | e—II [or] B first backboned animal two wings warm - blooded verte- brate coelenterate crustaceans social insects a plant which grows in the dark Linnaeus corn diatoms cephalopods ise5 o—2 h—6 i—I i738 Bat aie ai As corn Pye ; adh VAS OR Ora A ae pene Ppa Ab ethos way 14 net Asien as sverupleaay ot ) a fe Ty Ry thipor whe " Ane ie | i ’ AL? i it ¥y , : ; ; ims oY teendniy La tietted wasn We) ai Kadk | ee Kon er : he i. m, Ce) rae t ISU ARR a Se OR tA ut | Pas i ob tel Soiree ae: a t eed: Ay) eRe 4 ci i : we i. i ; } bas al ; Tiki diel ts ee aceenneti Ss" : Oe ote hay. “ge. * ¢ . i ey: 4 r) 4 e. (3? i. | . 3 ht fa cy 7 ies :y 7 rove Writ ne! 3 = J ob . A ! pha é ii goiter te i ? , v ic F heel } ye rn fd a7 " Fe : \ , Pye | (ie . i 4 Al ig UNIT. VI THE COMPOSITION OF LIVING THINGS A. The Chemical Substances in Living Things: How are living things different from lifeless things? V, 99 What are living things made of? VII, 25 How much of the body is water? II, 244 What does a bird’s egg consist of ? LX, 79 Why do crabs often eat their discarded shell? X, 106 What causes the hardening of a crab’s shell? X, 105-106 Of what a ey are the skeletons of the differ- ent fishes made? VIII, 61 B. Protoplasm: itd Ze What is meant by “being alive’? V, 101 What substance is possessed by all living things? V; 100-101 What is protoplasm? V, 100 4. What is the living substance of a plant cell? XI, LI What is the appearance of protoplasm? XI, 12 [93] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL GC: Celis: 1 II. 12. I. Die 3- What does a cell contain? VII, 26 What are the functions of acell? VII, 25-26 Where in the plant or animal is energy released? V, 100-108 Through what must molecules pass in order to enter a plant? XI, 297 . What two kinds of chromosomes are found in all cells except sperm and ovum cells? VII, 28 Although daughter cells are always similar through generations, what may happen to certain cells when colonizing takes place? VII, 28 What experiments have been conducted to influ- ence basic cell changes? VII, 33 What is the relationship between the quantity of yolk in eggs incubated inside and outside of an animal’s body? VII, 30 Describe a typical plant cell. XI, 11-12 In what way are tall trees and small herbs alike? bE Gi What is a phagocyte? Of what use are phka- gocytes to a developing insect? V, 301 How is waste matter removed from an insect’s cells and blood? V, 116 Tissues and Organs: What produces wood ina plant? XI, 13-14 How much of a tree trunk is alive? XI, 14 What structures have plants for transporting water from the roots? XI, 227-228 [94] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY How can one tell the age of atree? XI, 15 Why does bark become furrowed? XI, 14 What produces bark ina plant? XI, 13-14 Why does “‘girdling” a tree kill it? XI, 14-15 How do cells reproduce? VII, 27 ore a ee Why is cleavage necessary in all cells? VII, 26 10. What does the endoderm develop into? VII, 30 11. What does the mesoderm develop into? VII, 30 12. What does the ectoderm of the embryo become? VII, 29-30 13. Into what categories do the cells of an embryo divide themselves? VII, 29 14. How are embryos nourished? VII, 30 16. Is it true that an insect’s insides are a soft pulpy pulpy | mass? Explain. V, 116-117 16. What is the creamy pulp inside a pupa? V, 303- 304 17. How does a pupa differ froma larva? V, 250 | 18. Whatis histolysis ? Where and why does it occur ? | V, 259-260 19. How do fish scales grow? VIII, 34-35 20. How do feathers grow? IX, 20 21. Do feathers on a bird grow haphazardly or in definite patterns? IX, 20 | 22. On what part of a bird do we find “contour | feathers?” 1X09 23. What are “powder downs”’ and how are they used? IX, 18-19 L95] 46: STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL How is a fish’s spine constructed? VIII, 62 Have fishes any ribs? What are they used for? VIII, 61-62 Has an insect any blood? What is it like? V, 112-113 , Whats a “canshon? "Vis Where is an insect’s nerve cord? Is there any brain? Describe it. V, 117-119 Can an octopus grow a new arm? Explain. X, 330 Do cast-off limbs on lobsters grow back? Give examples. X, 103 Can a fish that has lost a fin replace it? Explain. VIII, 50 How is an insect able to send its food all over its body? V, 111 . Where is an insect’s heart? Describe it and its position in the body. V, 112 How does blood circulate in an insect? V, 112 What kind of blood circulation is found in fishes ? VIII, 97-98 How is a vertebrate’s food sent to the cells? Compare this with an insect’s method. V, 111 Describe the alimentary canal in fishes. VIII, 95- 97 What kind of eye has a lobster? X, 110 E. How Living Things Grow: I. 2- How are the rings in a tree trunk made? XI, 15 How does a twig grow in thickness. XI, 13-14 [96] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 3- LCE How can trees tell us when ancient civilizations flourished? XI, 16 How can one tell when seasons were rainy or dry by examining a cross-section of a tree trunk? XI, 15-16 When does a twig grow most? XI, 14 How long do roots grow? XI, 6 How do fence wires become embedded in a tree trunk afteratime? XI, 17 During what part of the day do stems grow more rapidly? XI, 305 Which part of a plant grows least in darkness? XI, 301 Which part of a plant grows longest in darkness ? XI, 301 How long may a squid grow? X, 349 How long can shipworms grow? X, 270 What is molting? How is it done? X, 103-105 Why do crustaceans molt? X, 103-104 What is meant by a “‘soft-shell” crab? X, 105 How often do crabs molt? X, 172 Do amphibians molt? VIII, 175 What is the rate of growth among reptiles? VIII, 230-231 How do snakes shed their skins? VIII, 343 How are rattles formed on a rattlesnake? Is it true that the age of a rattlesnake can be told from the number of rattles? VIII, 350-351 [97] i) it) ee STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL How long may box turtles take until they reach maturity? How long can they live? VIII, 318 How does the interior of a bird’s egg get fresh aire EX. 1Se Why do newly-hatched birds weigh much less than the freshly laid egg? IX, 92 F. How Living Things Respond: Ee Dale ioe) | PZ. What stimulates nerve cells to function? V, 119 Are we saying something scientific when we use the word “instinct ?”” Explain, V, 120 What is a “tropism?” How are tropisms related to instincts? V, 121 What evidence is there that gastropods have a keen sense of smell? X, 308-309 How well can snails see? X, 309-310 How are snails able to respond to sound? X, 311-312 Have oysters any brain? Explain. X, 263 What substance causes the octopus to cease cling- ing to a rock when it is hunted by man? X, 352-353 What kind of a nervous system has a lobster? Ki 5O7 Which senses in a lobster are very keen? X, 110 What gives the lobster a keen sense of touch and smell? X, III How does a lobster do his ‘‘seeing”’ in the dark? XN, Tie [98] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY ing. 14. aon 16) 17. 18. 19. Za: at. ZZ « D2. 24. 25. 26. zo What helps a lobster swim right side up? X, III-I12 What isa “hormone ?”’ Have insects any? What activities of an insect might be caused by hor- mones? V, 119 Are insects conscious of what they do? Explain. MN F21 Why can an insect with its head cut off still live for a while? V, 118-119 How does an insect control each segment ? V, 118 Where and how large is the brain of the cater- pillar PV, 285 How does the glass snake escape its enemies? Why may a glass snake sometimes be found with three tail tips? VIII, 335-336 How does the puff adder behave when captured? VIII, 346 Why do geckos drop their tales? Is the tail lost nanever! /Explam:) VIL 226 What is meant by “positively” or “negatively” phototropic? XI, 307-308 What causes a plant to respond to light? XI, 308-309 In plant experiments what is used to lengthen the duration of light? XI, 303 What other factor besides light intensity affects plant growth? XI, 302-303 What does weak light do toa plant? XI, 302 During what part of the growing season is good light most necessary to a plant? XI, 302 [99] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL . What are some of the factors which change the amount of light a plant gets? XI, 301 . How does light affect the shape of leaves in the bluebell plant? XI, 301-302 . Why do leaves turn to the light? XI, 307 . Why do house plants have leaves facing the same — way? XI, 307 . What is the response to light called? XI, 307 . What is the effect of high temperatures, as in des- erts, upon living cells? XI, 259-262 . Why do roots grow downward? XI, 63 . What is meant by geotropism? XI, 63 . What evidence is there to show that the tips of plants send stimuli down to the base? XI, 310 [ 100 | alle Pupil and Class Activities mel dings To. Do; BE. Examine microscopic slides of woody stems and draw what you see. Locate the structures shown inj XL.,1.3 Mark a young leaf with small squares drawn in India ink. After each week observe and measure the rate of growth of the leaf. Report your find- ings to your club. XI, 4 Using India ink, mark a seedling’s root with hort- zontal lines. Place the seed on cotton gauze over a bottle of water containing earth, making sure the root is in the water. Observe the rate of growth every day. Report to your club. XI, 4 Make a diagram of an insect’s circulatory system. VW, 12 Examine a leaf of Elodea under the microscope. Note the movements of the chloroplasts, indicat- ing the streaming of protoplasm. XI, 12 Make a model of a plant cell out of suitable ma- terials. XI, 11-12 With a sharp razor, make thin slices of various plant materials and examine them under the mi- croscope for cell structure. XI, 11-13 B. Class Discussions: 1. Protoplasm is the physical basis of life. V, 11-12 [ror | STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL 2. Stripping bark from a tree does not harm the frees OV Pi ases 3. Changes in living things are dependent upon en- vironment. VII, 20-22 4. A human being’s development is unique. VII, 2 3-36 C. Pupil Reports: 1. Mitosis—the division of cells. VII, 26-28 2. Describe an experiment to discover the effect of red and of blue light ona plant. XI, 313-314 3. Describe an experiment to show the effect of du- ration of light ona plant. XI, 303-304 4. Describe an experiment to show how a root moves away from light. XI, 308 5. Describe an experiment to discover how plants are able to turn toward the light. XI, 308-310 D. Self-Test Exercises: TEST I Complete the following sentences with a word or words that make the sentence correct. 1. The human body is made up of countless Vil ios 2. The human body is 3. The living substance found in all cells is XI, 11 4. Inorder to enter a plant, molecules must pass through wl; 207 5. A plant tissue which produces wood is the Sid) oA Te KA % water. II, 244 [102 | SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 6. The part of a cell which is chiefly engaged in repro- Moemieney se VT, 26, 24 7. Small nerve masses are known as V,118 8. ‘That part of a plant which grows longest in the dark eee sy XT G0 g. A substance which, thrown off by cells in one organ controls the action of another organ, is calleda Neer 19 10. A plant’s response to light is known as DCE 307 ANSWERS ier cells 6. nucleus Th KG 7. ganglia 3. protoplasm 8.) stetm 4. cell membranes 9. hormone 5. cambium 10. phototropism TES fT Match each item in column A with the proper item in column B. A | B a. 70% of humanbody II, 1. a small nerve mass 244 b. protoplasm V, 100 2. able fo regenerate an arm c. annual rings XI, 15 3. roots grow downward d. cell division VII, 27 4. water e. ganglion V, 118 Fem ace Or a thee [103] + i ‘ ay hah Eas goat r% hs } sig tas R c be ey A 7 ¥ Yard ‘ise ei 7 Ear ins - Mi: tg f. cephalopod X, 330 6. tsi crab aR e. molt X, 105 i: chromosomes he " h. phototropism XI, 307 8." living'matter on Aiea i. geotropism XI, 63 g. makes wood j. cambium XI, 13, 14 10. bones 11. leavesturntothelight _ ay ANSWERS a—4. f—2 b—8 e—6 C—5 h—trI d—7 1-3 et j—9 [104] rr ee UNIT VII LIGHT AND HEAT FROM THE SUN A. The Sun’s Heat: L. 2 What is the sun’s temperature? II, 256 What do we know about the effect of different rays of the sun? II, 317 How are the qualities of the rays of the sun studied? II, 316 What kind of bodies radiate heat most efficiently ? Lisarr-312 How much energy does the sun radiate per square yard onthe earth? VII, 3 What is the source of the sun’s energy? VII, 4 7. How do scientists believe solar energy is formed? 10. Il. II, 290 . How does the sun compare with the other stars? wits How long will the sun’s energy last? VII, 4 What effect would a 10% change in the sun’s temperature have on the earth? VII, 5 What possibility exists for the sun causing an- other Ice Age? VII, 56-57 [105 ] T2. 28. 29. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL How much of the sun’s energy does man receive ? VII, 4 How much heat is radiated from the sun? II, 8 What instruments are necessary to measure the sun’s radiations? II, 12-15 What is a coelostat? II, 1-84 How do solar radiation constants taken in differ- ent parts of the world compare? II, 34 What are sun-spots? II, 5 What variations in solar heat take place? II, 17- 65 What is the solar constant of radiation? II, 51 How is solar heat increased? II, 65 What is a bolometer? II, 122 How cold must a body be before it stops radiat- ing? II, 91 | What happens to the wave-length of rays of heated bodies as their temperature rises? II, g1 How much of the solar heat received by the earth is re-radiated into space? II, 10g How is the sun’s heat measured? II, 121-12 5 How does the sun affect the earth’s surface? II, 138 What happens to the solar constant of radiation as sun-spots pass the center of the sun while it rotates? II, 149 How is the temperature of the earth affected by heat changes in the sun? II, 153 What is the average value of the sun’s intensity? II, 160 [106] i Oo SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 30. gil: aD. 33: 34. 35: 36. How can gases be used to absorb sun energy in order to drive engines? II, 207-208 How is the earth maintained at a fairly constant temperature? II, 246-248 With which sun factors are the northern lights associated? II, 259 What may be the cause of sun-spots? II, 264 What electrical phenomena are demonstrated in the rotation of sun-spots? II, 263 What sun-spot variations take place? II, 259- 260 How may the sun’s heat preserve our food some time in the future? XII, 239 What is a calorie? XI, 294 Why does coal give us heat? XI, 294 What is the relationship of coal to Devonian plants? VII, 15 Where do hydrocarbons, gasoline, etc., origi- nate? VII, 5 How is natural gas obtained? XII, 34 How does temperature affect most fishes? VII, 1§2-153 How was the first sun engine built? II, 214-215 What is the efficiency of a sun engine? II, 212- 2g B. The Sun’s Light: A 2 What is light energy? XI, 287-288 What isa light year? VII, 1 [107] 1 12. 4. 14. rs. 16. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What would happen to life on the earth if ozone disappeared from the atmosphere? VII, 5 What happens to the solar constant of radiation as sun-spots pass the center of the sun as it rotates? II, 149 . What are the relative quantities of the different colors in the sun? II, 51 What basis is there for the theory explaining the blue sky? II, 102 What is the relation between transparency of atmosphere and transmission of light of different wavelengths? II, 112 Which colors are lost as they are transmitted through the atmosphere? II, 113-114 What does the atmosphere do to light? II, 116- 117 What causes absorption lines in the sun’s spec- trum? II, 129 How do solar radiation variations affect the color of the sun’s rays? II, 145 How can solar heat be used for cooking? II, 195- 196, 216-217 What are some types of sun reflectors? II, 197, 204-205 | What supplies the energy for turning liquid water of plants into water-vapor? II, 230 What is the importance of ozone in the atmos- phere to life on the earth? II, 238 What are the effects of ultra-violet rays on poul- try? Il, 236-237 [108] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY riz: 18 19. 20. ye What colors are found in the sun? II, 255 What is the sun’s corona? II, 265-269 When is the sun’s corona visible? II, 285 How do glass and atmospheric water transmit sunrays? II, 311-314 How are the qualities of sun rays studied? II, 316 C. Where Food Comes From: 1s 2. What is indispensable to life processes? VII, 4-5 Is sunshine necessary for living things? Explain. Vy ..104 What kind of energy do plants need? XI, 288 4. Which living things manufacture their own food? Il. 2 What is the name of this process? XI, 289 How was it found that light affects the amounts of substances taken in by a plant? XI, 299 Where is light energy stored by plants? XI, 294 Describe the work of leaves. XI, 3 How much light is required by plants for photo- synthesis? XI, 292 What percent of the light energy is used by plants? XI, 294 How much light is wasted by a plant? XI, 293- 294 What may be said about the efficiency of green plants in photosynthesis? XI, 295 Which rays are most effective in photosynthesis ? XL 293 [109 | 13. 14. 165: 16. 7. 18. 19. 20 Pa) Ve DD. 23 24. 25. 26. 27: 28. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What are the chemical formulae for chlorophyll aand b? XI, 290 Which light rays does chlorophyll absorb? XI, 292 What part does chlorophyll play in photosyn- thesis? XI, 289-290 What color light is most important to plant growth? II, 234 Where does the sun do its work in nia i, 230 Which rays of the sun promote the most active plant growth? II, 234 What are the raw materials used by plants in food making? XI, 289 How do plants take in carbon dioxide? II, 224- 22 Why do plant leaves have many small openings instead of one large opening to the air? II, 225 What are stomata? XI, 300 What controls the opening and closing of stomata? XI, 300 What happens to stomata at night? XI, 300 How can a leaf get carbon dioxide without evaporating too much water? XI, 299-300 How does water rise in plants from the roots? Lhigar, What is the most important chemical reaction in the world? XI, 26 Write the chemical formula for photosynthesis. XI, 289 [110] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 29. RO: ele Di, 33: 34. 35. 36: pi: 38. J: 40. Al. Oe What method was used to discover the source of a plant’s food? XI, 296 When did actual experiments on food making in | plants originate? XI, 296 During which part of the day does a plant make food? XI, 300 What ancient ideas explained food making in plants? XI, 295-296 What are carbohydrates? XI, 27 How is sugar made? XI, 26 How much sugar is produced per day by an acre ofcorn? XI, 295 What is the origin of starch, wood, proteins, and fats found in plants? XI, 295-296 Where do plants store their sugar and starch? XI, 29 What kind of plant stores food best? II, 233 How do plants adapt themselves to different light conditions? XI, 290-291 How can pale plants be made greener? XI, 290 Which plants do not need light energy? XI, 288- 289 What causes the appearance of a green scum on the surface of apond? XI, 88 D. How Man Helps The Plant: I. De What is the debt mankind owes to plants? XI, 97 How many important food plants have been added to civilization since prehistoric times? XI, 321 [rrr] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL When did the modern plant arise? VII, 17 4. What was the only kind of farming of Mesolithic Man? VII, 242 . Why was the tending of the crops given over to women? VII, 243 How was soil fertilized in ancient times? VII, 246 How long have the agricultural improvements of the Indus Valley people survived? VII, 314 How was the ground cultivated by Neolithic Man? VII, 258 How did the Iroquois cultivate crops? IV, 80-81 How did the Indians cultivate the soil? IV, 22 How did Indians clear land? IV, 22 What food plants were in use by Indians before the arrival of white men? IV, 71 . What especially prevented the growth of a large Indian population? IV, 24 What is the Eskimo’s main food supply? IV, 44 . What change in food gathering took place at the end of the Magdalenian Epoch? VII, 226 . Where did the sweet potato come from? VII, 328 . What important parts of Indian culture were bor- rowed by the white man? IV, 8 . What did Indians cultivate? IV, 24 How was maize cultivation spread? VII, 324 Where did the Irish potato come from? VII, 328 [) Bars | SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY poe LD as 23: 24. DE. 26. ay. 28. 29. 30. gh: 22. - De What was the main supply of the Indian’s food? IV, 21 What was the Inca’s food? VII, 341 What was the food of the Hupa Indians? IV, 202 What kind of food was necessary before a civil- ization could arise? VII, 243 What were the crops of early Egypt? VII, 297 What plants grow in the Arctic summer? IV, 68 What is a reaper? XII, 303-304 How does a reaper do its work? XII, 304-305 What improvements were added to the reaper? XII, 307 Which two men perfected reapers? XII, 305 What types of power machine are helping agri- culture? XII, 308 What was the effect of the reaper on population? XII, 308 Interdependence of Living Things: How are minerals returned to the soil? XI, 8 What caused the change of primitive giant insects to those we now know? X, 71 Why does the yucca moth pollinate yucca flowers ? XI, 50-51 Why will not yucca seed develop from plants which are not visited by a yucca moth? XI, 50 What proportion of the seeds of the yucca are eaten by the larvae of the moth? XI, 51 . Why are ants absolutely necessary to the life of the corn aphids? V, 172-173 | [113] LO: STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What animals came in with grasses? X, 79 How is the life of the sardine dependent on algae? XI, 191 How did the Proterozoic plants affect the de- velopment of animal life? X, 49 What is symbiosis? XI, 92 F. Plant Products: What are the materials ina broom? XI, 229-230 Name some uses of bamboo? XI, 229 What is a sod house? XI, 230 How was sod used by pioneers? XI, 230 What products do we obtain from maize or corn? XI, 217-218 How are diatom skeletons used today? X, 81 What is the origin of peat? XI, 93 How was coal formed? X, 68 What compressed the decayed plants into coal? x 7! | What may have been the source of the world’s supply of petroleum? XI, 195 . Where is rubber obtained? XII, 315 How is latex tapped? XII, 316 How is rubber extracted from latex? XII, 316- 317. What were the important uses of rubber seventy years ago? XII, 310 . Who perfected the vulcanization of rubber? lL 317 [114] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 16. What interesting substances do plants provide? D7: XI, 104 What plants furnish us with tanning material, rubber, chicle, tobacco, olive oil, and other oils? XI, 103-104 How does man use algae? XI, 184-196 What kind of algae help make dynamite? XI, 87-88 Why is dynamite so easily handled? XI, 194 . What algae are used in silver polish? XI, 194 What plants does man use for drugs? XI, 10o0- IOI . What plants furnish us with dyes? XI, 103 Name some plants which provide us with lumber ? XI, 102-103 What plants furnish fibres for clothes, paper, Rayon, ctc. 2) 1, 101-102 . What plants are a source of beverages? XI, 101 [115] Pupil and Class Activities Ay Ehings To Do: te Make a black-bulb thermometer by applying lampblack to the bulb of an ordinary thermome- fer, LT 245 Construct a hot-box, using a wooden box lined with wool or hair. Place a thermometer inside, and cover the box with glass. Observe the tem- perature in the box after a half hour. II, 110-111 Construct a water-flow pyrheliometer, using glass tubing. Follow the diagram and explanation given in II, 88-89 Make a model of a pyrheliometer following the instructions and descriptions given in II, 44-47 Construct a simple bolometer for measuring solar radiation by using nichrome wire and a galvanometer or coil of wire around a compass. Follow the circuit diagram and description as given in II, 76-77 Turn up some slabs of rocks out-of-doors. Note the color of the plants under the rocks as com- pared with plants exposed to the light. Can you explain this? XI, 290 Cover a green plant with a black screen for a few weeks until it is very pale. Expose it to sunlight and note how soon the plant turns green. XI, 290 [116] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 8. EO: Place a house-plant near a window. Note the movements the leaves make in order to face the source of light. How long does this take? XI, 397 Make a cotton gin following the diagram in XII, 303. Gin some cotton from a cotton boll, or mix ordinary seeds into cotton and then gin to remove the seeds. Grow plants in boxes, the walls of which are col- ored cellophane. Use a different color for each box. Keep a record of the growth which took place under each color. B. Class Discussions: The sun’s energy can be directly harnessed to give man power. II, 196-222 Cool bodies can emit radiations. II, 306-308 The universe is running down. II, 301 The sun is a variable star. II, 287-290 The sun’s heat which evaporates water from plants, will cause plants to die. II, 230-231 How plants store light energy. XI, 287-295 The connection between light, and normal plant growth. XI, 301-306 Natural rubber is best. XII, 315-322 C. Pupil Reports: = 2. 3- Why men study the sun. II, 1-9 How hot is the sun? II, 254-258 A storm in the sun. II, 260-261, 263 [117] 15. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL The early measurement of the sun’s radiation constant. II, 12-29 The instruments used to measure solar radiation. Il, 75-97 The effect of the atmosphere on solar radiation. II, 109-113 A scientist’s day when measuring solar radiation. Phhpot-193 Effect of sun-spots on solar radiation. II, 139- 148 The power value of the sun. II, 194-196 Principles of solar heat engines. II, 19, 222 The transmission of ultra-violet light by different materials....U,.237 Thecheapest form of light. II, 209-270 Some experiments made to find out what makes plants respond to light as they do. XI, 308-314 The relationship of ozone in the atmosphere to the maintenance of life. Il, 314 The fruit crops of the Indians. IV, 77 D. Self-Test Exercises: Est, t 1. Give a four-letter word meaning “that part of a tree which manufactures food.” XI, 22 2. Give a five-letter word meaning “energy needed in food-making.” XI, 26 3. Give a fourteen-letter word meaning “to produce carbohydrates in sunlight.” XI, 26 [118] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 4. Give a six-letter word meaning “‘a gas released by plants in sunlight.” XI, 27 5. Give a thirteen-letter word meaning “sugars and starches.” XI, 27 ANSWERS R. leat 4. oxygen as) light 5. carbohydrates 3. photosynthesis eS & vit Complete the following sentences with a word or words that make the sentence correct. 1. Thesun’s energy may last another _________ years. VII, 4 2. A slight decrease in the sun’s radiation may cause metas It WIT; 99 7) the sums temperature is —___ 14.4 centigrade! ihes6 4. Red, blue and violet light are valuable to the plant in aeroecssion m2 o) fos a XE aes 5. The Irish potato originally came from VII, 328 6. Plants which can grow without light are the . XI, 288-289 7. With the aid of light, green plants produce sugar peerage ING se a XP eG 8. The number of important food plants added to civil- imation since prehistome times is fs XD 307 g. A machine used to cut grain is the XII, 304 [119] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL 1o. An important source of alcohol is XI, 218 ANSWERS I. 15 trillion 6. saprophytes 2. Ice Age 7. carbon dioxide and water 3. 6000 degrees 8. none 4. photosynthesis 9. reaper ¢.. Pern 10. corn Lisa iif The letters of one word in each of the sentences below are jumbled. If you rearrange these letters properly, you will find that they spell a word which makes the sentence true. 1. A valuable substance for polishing silverware is TIMADOS. X, 81 | 2. Sphagnum moss furnishes people with TAPE. XI, 93 3. Tiny openings in leaves through which gasses pass are called AATTOMS. XI, 300 4. Plants which do not need light energy are PASH- SPOTRYE. XI, 288 5. A waste product of photosynthesis is EGONYX. XI, 26-27 ANSWERS 1. diatoms 4. saprophytes 2... ADEA E aad 5. oxygen 3. stomata [120] UNIT VIII FOOD FOR LIVING THINGS A. Whatis Food for Plants and Animals: i: Qe 10. Where do plants get some of their food? V, 106 Through what must molecules pass in order to enter a plant? XI, 297 In what condition must substances be in order to enter a cell? XI, 29 Why do molecules diffuse or spread through a liquid? XI, 297 What controls the entrance of molecules of salts intoa plant? XI, 297-298 What causes the concentration of some molecules to be higher in a plant cell than in the surround- ing soil? XI, 298 What kind of cells in young bark carry food? XI, 12-13 . Why does “girdling”’ a tree result in its death? XI, 14-15 Why do some roots take in more of one mineral than do other roots? XI, 6-7 How does the seed embryo get its nourishment ? XI, 59 [121] | r2. iS. 14. is. 16. ivi 18. 19. 20, ZA DD: 23 an. Bie STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What kinds of food are stored in seeds? XI, 42-43 How do carnivorous plants trap their food? XI, 75-76 How does the Venus’s fly-trap get its animal food? XI, 74 Name some carnivorous plants. XI, 75 How do plant parasites get their food? XI, 30-31 How many important food plants have been added to civilization since prehistoric times? XI, 321 What is said to be the most ancient cultivated plant? XI, 324 Why is corn an ideal food plant? XI, 325-326 What is an enzyme? XI, 29; V, 111 How do enzymes work? XI, 29 Which algae serve as food for sea animals? XI, 190-191 How do algae save the lives of millions of sea animals? XI, 188-189 . In what way are diatoms the chief support of all the animal life of the sea? XI, 87 Why does an abundance of grass mean plenty of. meat? XI, 201 Why are grasses the best plants for grazing ani- mals? XI, 201-203 B. Enemies of Animal Food Supply: i. Describe the damage done by some of the try- panosomes. V, 349 [nao] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY Pas f2. Where ina whale may we find copepod parasites ? Xu 32 On what portion of a fish’s body may we find copepod parasites? X ,129-131 Have copepod parasites any parasites of their own? X, 134-136 What mollusks have copepod parasites? X, 133- 134 What kind of damage is done by pill-bugs? X, 245 | Describe the damage crustaceans do to oysters? X, 245-247 What is meant by a “parasite?” Describe how one works. V, 12-25 What is a hyperparasite? V, 181 What is an insect parasite? V, 179 Do parasites completely exterminate the insect tribe they feed on? Explain. V, 179-180 Do insect parasites attack only harmful insects? V, 180 What means of defense have aphids against their many parasites? V, 173-174 Explain the presence of a door cut into the body of an aphid. V, 178 Name some enemies of the aphids. V, 173-181 What does the Hessian fly larva injure? V, 352 Why are horn flies a menace to cattle? V, 348 How does the tsetse fly feed on blood? V, 350 Do mosquitoes eat only the blood of man? Ex- plain. V, 338 [123] 21. 22. a3. 24. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL Does the female mosquito eat blood only? V, 337-338 How are horses and cattle affected by the larvae of the botfly and the ox warble-fly? V, 352 What damage may the “screw worm”? cause to animals and man? V, 352 How do tent caterpillars eat? What damage do they cause? V, 277 How do tent caterpillars behave when their tree no longer has any leaves? V, 278-279 C. Eating Habits of Animals: 1. CRUSTACEANS AND MOLLUSKS: © Ze 3- 10. fe What can slugs eat? X, 303-304 How does the oyster eat? X, 260-261 How do the mollusk’s gills aid in getting food? X, 259 How do oysters digest their food? X, 262-263 Describe the oyster’s blood and its circulation. X, 263 What kind of jaws has a cephalopod? X, 334 . What do cephalopods eat? X, 333 What evidence of intelligence is shown by an octopus in capturing its food? X, 333 How do copepods make plant food available to all sea life? X, 125 Why can life in the sea not exist without crusta- ceans? X, 89-90 What do ostracods eat? X, 123-124 [124] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY Ba: £2. 14. te 16. EY: 18. What do fiddler crabs eat? X, 171 Describe the stomach of a crab. X, 106-107 Why do crabs often eat their discarded shell? X, 106 How does the robber crab remove a coconut from its husk? X, 177-178 | Where is the heart of acrab? X, 107 What kind of circulation has a crab? X, 107 What are the feeding habits of the mantis shrimp? X, 180-183 2. INSECTS: i 10. How are insects adapted to getting their food? Vi 107 . What is the chief function of all insect mouth parts? V, 109 How are the mouth parts of insects related to their feeding habits? V, 107-109 What chief types of mouth parts do insects have? V, 108-109 Name some insects with sucking, or piercing and sucking mouth parts. V, 108-109 What kind of mouth parts do crickets, beetles, grasshoppers and caterpillars have? V, 108 . Why do caterpillars eat so much? V, 291 When and why does a caterpillar’s stomach serve as food to its owner? V, 293 How do caterpillars digest their food? V, 290 How can you tell when a caterpillar is hungry? V, 290 [125] rt. a ys OF STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL Describe the caterpillar’s alimentary canal? V, 289-290 Compare the alimentary canal of an insect with your own. V, 109-110 Describe the alimentary canal of an insect. V, 109-110 How is an insect able to send its food all over its body? V, 111 Describe the proboscis with which moths and but- terflies get their food? V, 307-308 In what way do the caterpillar and its moth differ in feeding methods? V, 237 | Are insects to blame for the damage they cause us? How is that explained? V, 152 Why do insects visit flowers? XI, 51 Why are ants absolutely necessary to the life of the corn aphids? V, 172-173 Describe the type of food eaten by aphids in gen- eralvV eae Why is the aphis lion so useful to us? V, 174-176 What do adult cicadas eat? How do they eat? V, 200-204 What do the cicada nymphs eat? V, 187 Where is a cicada’s stomach? V, 205-206 What type of mouth parts has a cicada? V, 186 What happens to trees inhabited by adult cicadas? V, 185 “People who are not fond of roaches should pro- tect centipedes.”’ Explain. V, 82-83 [126] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 28. How do moths and butterflies generally get their food? V, 307 29. What cana house-fly eat? V, 346-347 30. Why can the horse-fly “bite?” V, 322-323 : 31. How does the robber fly kill and eat its prey? V, | 324 | 32. Are animals the only living things affected by fly | lanvae? Explain. V, 352 | 33. Name an unusual liquid eaten by some flies. V, | 320 34. What does the male mosquito eat? V, 337-338 | 35. What termites raise their own food? V, 148 36. Why are termites able to eat wood? V, 137 | 37. Howis the mantis able to obtain its food? V, 73- | 75 \ 38. Why should a ladybird beetle be protected? V, 173-175 39. Name some insect enemies of the grasshopper. v3 19-25 40. Describe a typical day of a tent caterpillar. V, 271-274 41. What do tent caterpillars eat? V, 263 42. What happens to the food carried along by the blood in an insect? V, 112-113 43. How does the pupa manage to feed itself and form new tissues? V, 260 so. FISH: i What do fishes eat? VIII, 138-142 [127] 10. | pd 5 STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What truth is there in stories that fishes eat their own young? VIII, 114-115 How does a fish’s mouth affect its eating habits? VIII, §3-57 Why does a fish swallow its food whole? Has a fish a sense of taste? VIII, 75 . What fishes migrate in pursuit of smaller migrat- ing fish? VIII, 129 How is the life of the sardine dependent on algae? XI, 191 What enables microscopic copepods to form the food supply of so many fish? X, 125-126 What constitutes from 63 to 97 percent of the food of whitefish and lake herring? X, 125 . What is meant by “no copepods, no herring?” x, 226 What crustaceans feed more fish and other water forms than any other kind of animals? X, 125- 126 . How does the lamprey get its food? VIII, 5-6 . What important fish is caught with squid bait? Aras 5 . Which crustaceans affect the size of the tuna fish catch?’ X) 163 What do sharks eat? VIII, 140-141 How well can a shark bite? VIII, 59-60 How is the shark sucker adapted to attach itself to sharks? Why does it steal rides? VIII, 46-47 . What crustacean forms most of the food of the chub? X, 151-152 [128] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 18. 19. How do some fish poison other animals? VIII, 50-52 What fish uses its dorsal fin as bait for small fish? VIII, 47 4. REPTILES AND.AMPHIBIANS: rt: 10. What kind of food do salamanders eat in nature ? VIII, 181 . What sort of reputation has the. hellbender? VIII, 181-182 How do amphibians eat? VIII, 175-176 How can you successfully keep spotted or mar- bled salamanders in captivity? What can you feedthem? VIII, 186 . How can you feed red salamanders in captivity ? VIII, 184 How do toads eat? VIII, 201 Which is the most common North American snake? What does it eat? VIII, 346 What do some people believe about milk snakes? Why are the milk snakes found near barns? VIII, 344 What is the real basis for the belief that snakes can charm their prey? VIII, 343-344 What gave the king-snake its name? How does it get its food? VIII, 344 . What do blacksnakes eat? VIII, 344-345 . What lizards catch and eat chicks? VI, 264 . What food habits of crocodiles and alligators led man to reduce their number? VIII, 305 [129] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL 14. Which common lizard is able to change its color? What does it eat? VI, 264-265 5. Brrps: Ne Why are bird’s stomachs so carefully studied? PX 52 How is a bird’s beak adapted for the kind of food (eats ek 126-127 Of what use are long legs and long necks to a heron or flamingo? IX, 127 What kind of food is eaten by the different kinds of birds? [X, 126 . How are hard seeds handled by birds? IX, 127- 128 How well do birds get rid of weed seeds for us? EXMT20 Why do birds eat tiny pieces of sand and gravel? LX, 128 . What kind of wild fruits do birds eat? IX, 130- 131 Name some insect-eating birds? LX, 134-137 . What do “night-flying” birds eat? IX, 134 How do birds react when one kind of insect be- comes unusually numerous? [X, 136-137 . What bird is able to eat clams and oysters, shell . and all? IX, 137 . What birds fly aloft with clams in their bills and then drop them on rocks below? IX, 137 How do some birds get the fish they eat? IX, 137-138 . What birds are fond of snakes? IX, 140 [130] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 16. 17. 18. 19. 2.0. What bird drops turtles on a stone in order to kill them? IX, 140 What bird stuffs its stomach with its own feathers during a meal? IX, 150 What birds (not owls or hawks) will swallow half-grown kittens, muskrats, and gophers? IX, 152 What causes cannibalism among the young peli- cans? LX, 99 Why is one bird called the “grasshopper” spar- row? IX, 107 . What do vultures eat? IX, 142 . What kind of birds are not affected by ptomaines ? IX, 142 . What is the diet of a barn-owl each year? IX, 141-142 How are owl pellets made? [X, 141 . What do hawks and owls eat? IX, 140-141 . Why have hawks and owls sharply-hooked beaks? IX, 127 Is the pouch of the pelican used to carry fish? Explain. LX, 99 How are baby pelicans fed? IX, 99-100 How does the black-headed gull get its crustacean food? X, 164-165 How do neglected albatross babies manage to keep themselves alive? IX, 98-99 How does a mother albatross feed its baby? IX, 98 [131] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL . What bird has a strainer in its beak ? How does it work? LX, 126 . What kind of food enables a bird to stay in cold climates instead of migrating? IX, 128 What birds are very fond of acorns? How are they cracked open? IX, 131-132 . What bird stores acorns in holes it drills in trees ? IX, 132 . What bird drills holes in apple trees and drinks the sap which oozes out? IX, 133 . What is “pigeon’s milk?” IX, 134 . Why do woodpeckers drill holes in trees? IX, 136 . Why are cowbirds so named? IX, 135 . How are different colors in bird feathers pro- duced? IX, 25-34 . What complaints have been made against the bobolinks and red-winged blackbirds? IX, 129- 130 . Why do humming birds visit flowers? Why are their beaks so thin and long? IX, 133 . How should we regard birds which catch and eat fish? LX, 138-139 . What do flickers eat? How are they adapted for getting their food? [X, 136 . How are corn kernels treated to prevent crows from eating them? IX, 131 . What parrot attacks and kills living sheep? IX, 160 Why are the corners of a baby-bird’s mouth soft and light colored? [X, 1o1-102 [132] BA Soin. nity SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 6. MAMMALS: r How many seeds of the water primrose did one duck have in its stomach? IX, 129 How many tons of weed seeds are eaten by tree sparrows in Iowa ina single winter? [X, 129 How are some nut-bearing trees planted? XI, 58 4. What is the food of all mammal babies just after Tee birth? [X, 242 What group of mammals, aside from man, has learned to store up food for later use? IX, 333 What is the food of carnivores? IX, 248 What are insectivores? IX, 247-248 What marsupials are flesh eaters? IX, 298-303 Can a whale swallow a man? Explain your answer. LX, 368-370 How did the killer whale get its name? What are some of its activities? IX, 372 . What do newborn whale babies eat? IX, 242 . What mammal, aside from man, attacks the squid? X, 356 . What forms most of the food of Antarctic whales, penguins, seals, and petrels? X, 165-166 . Why are “vampire” bats so named? How do they eat? IX, 318 What do ungulates eat? IX, 340-341 D. Food for Human Beings: i: Why are plant collecting trips useful to mankind? XI, 376 [133] ro. a 12. gee 14. Le. Lb: v7. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL Why did people hunt for plants in Mexico and South America? XI, 353-354 Where did the American Indian get his plants? VII, 327-328 What did the Sioux Indian eat? IV, 152 . What food plants are used by man? XI, 98-100 How are grasses related to our dairy products, beef, wool, leather, horse power, hogs, and poul- try? XI, 218 What is the estimated value of our annual grass crops such as corn, barley, wheat, oats, and rye? XLV on6-217 How did the Pilgrims escape starvation during their first winter in America? XI, 213 What was the effect of corn on the American Indians, the Incas, Mayas, and Aztecs? XI, 213 Why were the American Indians interested 1 ina corn crop? XI, 323-324 What products do we get from maize or corn? XI, 217-218 Why were the people of the Old World inter- ested in a wheat crop? XI, 323-324 When and where were rice, barley, oats and rye first cultivated? XI, 209-210 What grass furnishes us with sugar? XI, 212 When and where was sugar cane first cultivated? XI,212 What place has the oyster in economics? X, 275 How extensively are snails used for food? X, 312-313 [134] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 18. 19. AOE 25. 22 | 23: 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. Bie 33: What portion of the mollusk do we eat when we have scallops? X, 257 Where are octapuses considered a delicacy? X, 352 What people eat barnacles? X, 237 In what country are barnacles eaten by man? X, 143 Are crayfish ever eaten? X, 234 How extensive is shrimp-fishing in the United Seates |? X23 What is the annual catch of crabs in Chesapeake Bay? X, 229 Mibat use have the natives for robber crabs? X, 17 What is the source of caviar? VIII, 23 Which salamander is eaten extensively by man? VIII, 186 Which lizard is a favorite food in tropical Amer- eae VIL V265 Why are green turtles in the market turned on their backs? VIII, 312 Which turtles are used for food? How large do they become? Why are the green turtles becom- ing more scarce? VIII, 311-312 What poisonous snake is used for food? VIII, 354-355 What disease was prevalent among sailors due to lack of proper food, which could not be carried because of absence of refrigeration? XII, 239 How may the value of the ultra-violet rays be transmitted by foods and medicines? II, 238-239 [135] Pupil and Class Activities A. Things To Do: J Make a list of important food plants and the parts used by man. XI, 104-110 Watch a praying mantis eat a grasshopper. Write a report on how this was done. How is the mantis built to catch its food? XI, 73-76, 107 Using methods described in a book on micro- scopic technique, make slides of the eyes and mouth parts of flies and mosquitoes. V, 322, 330, 334) 346-347 Using Benedict’s or Fehling’s solution, test a large variety of plants eaten by man for simple sugar. Do likewise with garden plants. XI, 26- 29 Make a collection of various plant parasites and saprophytes that grow in the fields and woods. Visit a local cold storage warehouse. Visit a local milk pasteurizing and bottling plant. Visit a local ice refrigeration plant. Visit a local creamery. [136] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY B. Class Discussions: ie The connection between grasses and dairy prod- ucts, meat, wool, leather and horse power. XI, 218-226 The effect of various elements or lack of them upon plant growth. XI, 296-299 Crustaceans used as food and medicine for man. X, 229-240 Primitive man had no ability to improve the plants which he needed for living. XI, 321 Man’s mechanical skill is the best measure of human progress. XI, 319-328 Some theories to account for the present develop- ment of maize. XI, 329-348 C. Pupil Reports: a gr eee ae eee ig Methods used to discover where a plant obtained its food. XI, 296 The extent of the damage done by plagues of grasshoppers. V, 17-19 How insects prepare the food they eat for distri- bution to their cells. V, 109-113 How birds get their food. IX, 126-142 Kinds of food eaten by birds. IX, 126-142 The food of early man. VII, 18, 226, 253 The proper preservation of food. XII, 239-247 [137] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL D. Self-Test Exercises: EST fT Match each item in column A with the proper item in column B. A a. ‘erasshepper parasite V, "1. 19 b. enzyme XI, 29 2. c. piercing mouth parts V, 3. 108, 109 d. sucking mouth parts V, = 4. 108, 109 e. roaches V, 82 5: f. eats wood V, 137 6. g. copepods X, 125 7 h. stomachcontents studied 8. PA, 125 i. 4. How is electric current used in photoengraving? XI, 367 5. What was the name of Volta’s first battery? XII, 2 6. What application of the chemical action of elec- tric current was made in early electrical signal- ing? XII, 79 | | if 1 | | | C. Electricity from Moving Magnets: 1. Who was Michael Faraday? XII, 4-5 2. What observation of Arago led Faraday to his famous experiment? XII, 13 [240] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 3: 4. 1g 18. What relationship of magnetism to electricity was discovered by Henry and Faraday? XII, 1o What is a galvanometer? XII, 7-9 How is electric current obtained from magnets? IIT) on What was Faraday’s first dynamo? XII, 14 When was the electromagnetic field first used for dynamos? XII, 19 What was the earliest type of practical armature winding? XII, 20 Who invented the commutator? XII, 18 Why are electromagnet cores laminated? XII, 19 How did Edison change the dynamo? XII, 143 What determines the number of field poles of an alternator? XII, 40 How are the field magnets of an alternator ex- cited? XII, 30 Who was the first man to see that brushes and a commutator were unnecessary to procure electric current? XT, 31 What are the advantages of the AC dynamo? VII, 37 How is current produced in an alternator? XII, 39-40 What was the first large AC installation? XII, 36 When was the three-phase dynamo invented? XII, 29 [241] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL 19. How are modern high power dynamos wound? XII, 26 20. What is the difference between the AC and DC dynamo? XII, 22 21. What is the difference between radio and electric alternators? XII, 41, 47 22. Why is the alternator simpler than the DC dyna- mo? XII, 40 23. What is the importance of the steam turbine to the electrical industry? XII, 169-170 24. Why is the alternator especially suited to the tur- bine? XII, 29 25. How much of Niagara Falls water is used to generate electric current? XII, 153 26. How is continuous electric service from Niagara Fallsinsured 2?) X11, 154 27. How much electricity is made by steam power? XI, 47 The Flow of Electricity: 1. Who was Michael Faraday? XII, 4-5 2. What did Faraday prove? XII, 11-16 3. Who was Joseph Henry? XII, 5-7 4. What did Henry prove? XII, 11-16 5. What isa galvanometer? XII, 7-9 6. What relationship of magnetism to electricity was discovered by Henry and Faraday? XII, 10 7. Who gave mathematical definition to electromag- netic phenomena? XII, 20 [242] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 8. i 2%. a. 2A: What is believed to be the condition inside a copper wire? XII, 56, 58 How does electric current travel through a wire? XII, 56-57 What is the speed of electrical changes? XII, 57 What were the objections to alternating current in the eighties? XII, 35 What is meant by single-phase, two-phase and three-phase current? XII, 41 . What retarded the use of AC? XII, 32, 35 What AC frequencies are popular in the United States? XII, 40 . When was the first commercial electric distribut- ing plant constructed? XII, 144 . How did Edison distribute his current? XII, 144 . What efficient means of transmission did Edison devise? XII, 143 . What is the reason fora three-wire system? XII, 143-144 . Who standardized the 1:0-volt circuit? XII, 143 . What is the most efficient method of changing AC to DC? XII, 68-70 . What isatransformer? XII, 37-38 . What principles of transformers were discovered by Joseph Henry? XII, 75-77 How does a transformer work? XII, 38 How can electricity be transferred from one cir- cuit to another without any wire connections? XII, 12 [243] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL | 25. What was the earliest example of a transformer? Paul: ne 26. How is voltage controlled by a transformer? XHA49 27. Why is it more efficient to transmit high voltage low current electricity instead of low voltage high current electricity? XII, 37 28. What is the importance of the transformer in the extensive and inexpensive use of electric current ? XII, 35 29. When was the transformer first used to step down AC to the usable level? XII, 27 30. When was the transformer first used for com- mercial current distribution? XII, 27 31. What was the first great installation of trans- former-distributed power? XII, 36 Electricity for Light And Heat: 1. What kind of electric light was in use before Edison’s incandescent lamp? XII, 28 2. What kinds of lamps were used before electric lights? XII, 135 3. What was the earliest practical use of the arc light? XII, 135 4. What kind of electric lighting was popular for street lights for many years? XII, 145, 147-148 5. Whatisa flaming arc? XII, 148 Why did Edison believe that the arc light was not practical for home use? XII, 138 cn 7. On whose experiments was Edison’s lamp based? XII, 35 [244] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 8. IO. i me What was Swan’s process for making carbon lamp filaments? XII, 136 What was the defect of early incandescent | lamps? XII, 135-136 What materials did Edison try for a filament? XII, 138-141 What were the advantages of Edison’s lamp? XII, 140 . What was the life of an early Edisonlamp? XII, 142 . What replaced Edison’s carbonized filaments? XII, 143 . What was the first practical metal filament? XII, 143 . What metal is now used as a filament for electric light lamps? XII, 143 What are the properties of tungsten? XII, 145 Who made tungsten lamps possible? XII, 145- 146 What are the difficulties of working tungsten? XII, 146-147 . Who invented the screw base socket? XII, 142 . Why do modern electric bulbs contain inert gas instead of a vacuum? XII, 147 Compare the efficiency of Edison’s first lamp with the modern lamp? XII, 142 How many incandescent electric lights are in use in the United States? XII, 145 How do gases behave ina vacuum? XII, 49 When will gases conduct electricity? XII, 49 [245] 25. 26. 29. 28. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What use is made of the effect of high voltage on gases? XII, 50 What is electric welding? XII, 27 Who discovered electric welding? XII, 25 Who improved the transformer for lighting and power? XII, 35 F. Doing The Work of The World with Electrictty: i. 10. What kind of electric motor did Henry build? el 72-73 . What is the purpose of supplementary pole pieces on electric motors? XII, 24 What makes a direct current motor work? XiI, 43 How isa DC motor wound? XII, 43-44 Who invented the repulsion motor? XII, 29 What is the principal of the repulsion motor? XII, 29-30 ) What is a synchronous motor? XII, 46 What is a constant speed motor? XII, 45 What is a squirrel cage in an electric motor? XIU, 45 What is the difference between an AC and DC motor? XII, 44-45 [246] Pupil and Class Activities A. Things To Do: | igs Make a working model of Joseph Henry’s first electric motor using copper wire, an iron bar, mercury and two wet cells. See photographs. x 72-75 Using a horseshoe magnet covered with insulated copper wire, pivot a bar magnet and a bell from an old alarm clock in the manner shown in the diagram. Connect ends of wire to a battery and turn current on and off. XII, 73 Using carbons from discarded flashlight cells build simple arc lamps. Connect lamps in series with an electric heater to obtain necessary cur- rent MAD 45 Using a Florence flask and a small electric bulb and a wooden base, reconstruct a model of Edi- son’s first lamps. XII, 141 Connect a coil which is wound around a compass to various weak sources of electricity. Note the movement of the needle in each case. XII, 9 Construct a sensitive galvanometer from copper wire and twelve sewing needles following the dia- gram and instructions. VII, 80-82 Using an iron ring and copper wire make a trans- former according to Michael Faraday’s instruc- tions. XII, 12 [247] 10. LL. 12% STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL Take a dead dry cell apart. Heat the carbon rod until all wax is burned off. Clean and scrape a piece of zinc cut from the cup. Place both in a strong solution of salammoniac. Connect to a bell or small electric flashlight bulb. Discuss the energy changes. Wind two layers of cotton-covered copper wire around a nail. Connect toa dry cell. Placemmeas some small pieces of steel or iron. Wind a coil of wire around a thin cardboard tube. Place a large nail in the tube. Connect the ends of the coil to a battery and switch. Cause the nail to jump up and down by turning the current on and off. Make a model of a simple polyphase dynamo using the photograph shown. XII, 29 Make a large model of a dynamo using two large bar magnets, a thick wire, two metal strips and two metal rings. Follow diagram. XII, 22 Using an old toy electric motor reconstruct it into a Jumbo Edison dynamo using long iron electro- magnets. Follow the photographs. XII, 144 Class Discussions: \be Faraday was the first to discover magnetic induc- tion. XII, 5-16, 72-78 The American telegraph is inferior to the Euro- pean telegraph. XII, 78-89 Morse invented the electric telegraph. XII, 80- 99 The DC motor is superior to the AC motor. XII, 42-46 [248 ] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 10. AC is better than DC for magnets. XII, 37-40 Arago discovered the electromagnet. XII, 9-10 The sun affects the earth’s magnetism. II, 259- 261 Inventions are the work of one man. Consult XII Edison invented the first electric light. XII, 135- 146 Arc lights are the best form of illumination. XII, 133-148 . Whatare the merits of AC and DC? XII, 35-36 Electric wires carry electric current the way a water pipe carries water. XII, 56-58 Elihu Thomson’s main contribution is the con- struction of machines. XII, 25-34 C. Pupil Reports: he The major discoveries of Michael Faraday. XII, 4-16 Early types of telegraph systems. XII, 84-89 The major discoveries of Joseph Henry. XII, 72-78 The work of Hans Christian Oersted. XII, 1-2 . The obstacles which were overcome in setting up the Atlantic cable. XII, 87-98 Visit a neon sign factory. How the different colors of neon signs are made. III, 50-51, 70 The operation of transformers. XII, 38-39 A comparison in the construction of AC and DC dynamos. XII, 40-50 [249] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL D. Experiments: Tr; Suspend a bar magnet. Hold another bar magnet near the first. As the magnet spins keep changing the poles of the magnet in your hand. Pass the poles of a magnet through a sheet of paper and sprinkle iron filings out and around the poles. Tap the paper. Study the outline of the iron filings. XII, 20 Connect a battery, sending key, condenser and galvanometer in the circuit shown on page 98, volume XII. Observe the effect on the galva- nometer as you operate the sending key. XII, 98 Place a compass needle under a thick wire through which a strong DC current is passing. Observe the action of the needle. Vary the strength of the current. Note the effect on the movement of the needle. XII, 7-8 Place a coil in which current is flowing near the pole of an active electromagnet. Observe what the coil does. Place the other side of the coil near the magnet. This movement is the action of a re- pulsion motor. A diagram will be found on page 20) Al. 7 Build a horseshoe electromagnet similar to Joseph Henry’s. See how many pounds your magnet can pick up. XII, 72 Connect a coil of wire to a battery. Note the amount of iron filings which will be attracted. Place an iron core inside the coil and measure the effect again. XII, 10 Using some square iron bars wind two coils of different sizes on the iron core. Apply low volt- [250] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 10. Il. = e cy | F. Self-Test Exercises: age AC to the small coil. Measure the effect on the above coil. Apply low voltage AC to the large coil. Note the effect on current obtained from the small coil. Consult diagram. XII, 38 Connect a coil of wire to a flashlight bulb and place in a jar of water. Bring the pole of a power- ful electromagnet, which is energized by AC, near the coil. You will see the effect of a transformer and of a repulsion motor. XII, 30 Make a galvanometer following Michael Fara- day’s directions. XII, 9 Produce induced current by connecting a coil to 200 turns of fine wire around a compass. Move a magnet near the coil. E. Excursions: Visit a storage battery repair shop. Visit an electric bulb factory. Examine your school’s electric wiring system. Visit your local electric power house to see the dynamos. TEST I Fill in the missing words to make a true statement. like a current is 1. When current flows through a wire, the wire behaves SPXTT 15 2. Induction in long wires was discovered by . XII, 74-76 3. When a magnet moves near a coil of wire, electric Pom 12-15 [251] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL 4. AC voltage can be stepped up or down by using RL Tyeg7-98 5. Most dynamos are driven by the energy obtained from 2h. ee ee taeta Gor 6. The inventor of electric arc welding was RIT, 249-28 7. The electric light bulb does not contain XII, 140 8. ‘Che principal parts of an electric motor are the com- mutator and brushes, the field magnet and XII, 43 g. The earliest means of measuring the Howes of electric CUMGeMe Was oe ee Lg 10. High power alternators have magnetic fields which : Dba Plate ee: ANSWERS I. magnet 6. Thomson 2.'\ Fienry Pe Oi 3. induced 8. armature 4. transformers 9. the galvanometer 5. combustion 10. rotate TES? it The letters in one or two words of each of the following sentences are jumbled. If you re-arrange the letters, you will find that it spells a word which makes the sentence true. 1. The electromagnet was discovered by Davy and ROAGO. XII, 1 2. Magnets attract metals made of LETES AND NIOR. XII, 9 [252] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 3. Opposing sets of magnets are used in very sensitive galvanometers to offset the earth's ASTIGMENM. II, 80 4. The quality of electroplated copper is improved by using TAGLEINE. XII, 136 5. Electricity was first obtained from magnets by DAFRAYA. XII, 4-11 6. Edison dynamos were called BOJUMS. XII, 144, late 42 7. Lhe number of field poles of a dynamo is determined by the DEPES. XII, 40 8. ‘he man who did away with brushes and commuta- tors on dynamos was LESAT. XII, 31 9. Modern electric power transmission is made possible by the use of TORNFARMERSS. XII, 38 10. Electric lights in use before Edison were electric SRAC, XII, 28 ANSWERS 1. Arago 6. jumbos 2. steel and iron 7. speed 3. magnetism SB.) hese 4. gelatine g. transformers 5. Faraday 10. arcs [253] | ‘ en ne — eo CNTY XV ITr ENERGY FOR COMMUNICATION A. The Tetegraph: Ls What means of electrical signalling existed be- fore the telegraph? XII, 79 How did Henry make a telegraph in 1831? XII, 73 Upon whose work is the English telegraph sys- tem based? XII, 79-80 What was the first commercial telegraph? XII, 78-79 What type of system was Morse’s telegraph? XII, 80 What is the difference between Morse’s tele- graph and the popular sounder and key? XII, 81, 85 How did Morse’s telegraph record messages? XII, 81, 84-85 . What was the first long distance telegraph mes- sage in the United States? XII, 81 Between which cities was the first telegraph line operated in the United States? XII, 81 [255] 1): 19. 20: 20. 22. ie 24. Die: STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What was the principle of Morse’s telegraph? AIL, 82 Who invented the relay? XII, 81-82 What is the Wheatstone bridge method of teleg- raphy? XII, 82 What were Edison’s contributions to telegraphy ? XII, 137-138 How does the modern printing telegraph oper- ate? XII, 89 When did the telegraph sounder supersede Morse’s recording telegraph? XII, 86 How is the cost of wire reduced in telegraphy? XII, 86 How does duplex telegraphy operate? XII, 87 How is multiplex telegraphy maintained? XII, 88 What was the effect of the great length of the Atlantic cable? XII, go How does electrostatic capacity accumulate in a cable? XII, 91 How are earth currents induced ina cable? XII, QI When was the first Atlantic cable laid? XII, 93 What caused the first cable to break down? XII, 96 How was electrostatic discharge overcome? XII, 97 What instrument replaced the sounder in cable operations? XII, 98 [256] | ————— = =e = = — SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 26. na 28. 29. | Dae How are earth-induced currents prevented in the cable? XII, 98 Why was the first Atlantic cable slow? XII, 98 How did Edison get his start in the field of elec- tricity? XII, 137 What was Edison’s first practical invention? XII, 137-138 The Telephone: Who invented the telephone? XII,.99 What was Bell working on when a discovered the telephone? XII, ro1 What was Bell’s first telephone? XII, 102 4. How did Bell’s telephone operate? XII, 104- ro. DY: 105 . When did Bell’s telephone attract attention? XII, 108 What was the difference between Gray’s and Bell’s telephones? XII, 106-107 What makes modern long distance telephony pos- sible? XII, 112 Which two men invented the microphone? XII, 109 What is the purpose of the loading coil in the telephone? XII, 111-112 How does the modern telephone operate? XII, IIO-I11 How are we able to telephone to Europe? XII, 113-114 [257] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL 12. How many wires are enclosed in a telephone cable? XII, 111 13. How much telephone wire is in use in the United States’ XE tat 14. Whatis permalloy? XII, 111-112 GC. adie: 1. Who foreshadowed wireless and radio? XII, 78 2. When was radio prophesied? XII, 78 3. Why is induction not suitable for long distance communication? XII, 116 4. Why is it impossible to use telephone instruments directly on a radio wave? XII, 114-115 5. What makes radio possible? XII, 121-122 6. Where can magnetic waves travel? XII, 117 7. Who were the men whose inventions made modern radio possible? XII, 135 8. What was the work of Hertz? XII, 128-129 9. What did Branly and Lodge do for early radio? OE 1279 10. What was Marconi’s wireless? XII, 129-133 11. What is the relation of radio to light waves? XII, 113-114 12. Howis frequency determined? XII, 119-120 13. Howisa radio wave started? XII, 116-117 14. How do radio waves travel around the earth? XII, 117 15. What is the Heavyside Layer? XII, 117 16. What is a discontinuous radio wave? XII 117- 118 [258] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY ry LO. 19. 20. Pa) Di2ie oe 24. a 26. 27. 28. 20): 30. gat 20) 35. 34. 35. Who perfected the modulation of radio waves with speech? XII, 133 What modern transmitter did Marconi perfect ? XII, 134 Who made the crystal oscillator possible? XII, 133 How is the constant frequency of a broadcast station maintained? XII, 127 How isa radio wave transmitted? XII, 118, 121 How is speech combined with a radio wave? XII, 126 What is resonance? XII, 119 What is regeneration? XII, 123-124 How is regeneration accomplished? XII, 124- 127 Who invented the radio tube? XII, 60-61 What is emitted by heated bodies? XII, 57 Why does a hot filament emit electrons? XII, 59 Who discovered the principle of the vacuum tube? XII, 58-59 What is radiated from the hot cathode of a vacuum tube? XII, 51-52 Why is a good vacuum necessary in a radio tube? XII, 61-62 What happens in the space of a radiotube? XII, 59 What laws do vacuum tubes follow? XII, 63 What are the parts of a radio tube? XII, 60 Who studied the laws of vacuum tubes? XII, 59 [259] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL . What limits the number of electrons thrown off by the filament of a radio tube? XII, 63 What causes some radio tubes to glow? XII, 60 . What is the purpose of the grid in a radio tube? XII, 60 . What is the purpose of the plate of a radio tube? XII, 61 . What was the first practical use of the electron? XII, 54 . Who perfected the modern radio tube? XII, 133 . Who perfected the AC radio? XII, 133 . How are very minute currents measured? XII, 123 . What is a dielectric? XII, 118 . Whatisacondenser? XII, 118 . Why do the earth and clouds act as a condenser ? XII, 118 . Who invented the radio frequency amplifier? MIL 133 . Who invented the neutrodyne receiver? XII, n33 . What is an underground aerial? XII, 133 . Who developed radio control? XII, 133 . Who invented the radio direction finder? XII, rs . How does a ship determine its position by a radio beam? XII, 191-192 . How does the quality of radio music compare with the original? XII, 128 [260] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY D. X-Rays: SS ae ee IT. 12. . What things emit invisible rays? II, 302 What is the speed and the wavelength of X-rays? II, 303 Why are X-rays called “X?” XII, 65 What are X-rays relatedto? XII, 65 How are X-rays produced? XII, 66 Which metals are opaque and which are trans- parent to X-rays? XII, 66 How are X-ray effects made visible? XII, 66 How do X-rays behave in a magnetic field? XII, 67 How do cathode rays differ from X-rays? XII, 67 What is the structure of an X-ray tube? XII, 64, 67 What is the operating voltage of modern X-ray tubes? XII, 68 What is the range of rays beyond X-rays? II, 11 [261 ] i 4 YAM te Pupil and Class Activities A. ThingsTo Do: 1. Make a model of Bell’s first telephone. Use two electromagnets and two strips of spring steel. See diagram XII, 102 2. Make a model of Bell’s improved working tele- phone using megaphone, electromagnets and a battery. See pages 103-104. XII 3. Visit an X-ray laboratory. 4. Visit a radio tube factory. 5. Visit your local telephone exchange. B. Class Discussions: , 1. Dr. Lee DeForest invented the radio tube. XII, 58-65 2. Marconi invented all of his apparatus. XII, 128 3. Faraday discovered magnetic induction. XII, 5- 13) 74-78 3 4. The Atlantic cable is simply a telegraph wire under the ocean. XII, 89-99 5. Morse invented the electric telegraph. XII, 72- 89 6. The Bell telephone was the only electric tele- phone. XII, 99-109 p2ba] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY C. Pupil Reports: es MS ae eee The discovery and application of X-rays. XII, 65-68 The rays which exist beyond X-rays. II, 11 The operation of vacuum tubes. XII, 59-61 The discovery of the radio tube. XII, 58-64 The story of Marconi’s wireless telegraph. XII, 129-133 Men who contributed to Marconi’s invention. XII, 128-129 Scientists who made modern radio possible. XII, 133-134 D. Experiments: Ibe Connect the filament of a radio amplifier tube to several dry cells. Connect the plate to the high potential side of an induction coil. Connect the other side of the secondary of the coil to the fila- ment after the filament is hot. Turn on the induc- tion coil. X-rays will be produced in the radio tube. Expose pieces of printing paper or films, covered in lightproof envelopes under the top of the bulb. Develop and fix as in ordinary photog- raphy. Connect a telephone transmitter to batteries and an induction coil. Connect the other side of the coil to a receiver. You may run the telephone re- ceiver as far as your wires will let you. XII, 110 E. Self-Test Exercises: TEST I 1. Give a four-letter word for the inventor of the tele- phone. XII, 99 [263 ] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL 2. Give two six-letter words for the inventors of the microphone. XII, 109 ; 3. Give a seven-letter word which describes the coil used for long distance telephone. XII, 111-112 4. Give a five-letter word which describes the method of transmitting trans-oceanic telephone messages. XII, 113- II4 5. Give anine-letter word which describes the metal used in telephone induction and loading coils. XII, 111-112 6. Give a five-letter word for the inventor of the first practical demonstration of energy transmission across space. XII, 128-129 7. Give a seven-letter word which describes the first practical wireless detector. XII, 129 8. Give a four-letter word which shows the relation of light to radio. XII, 113-114 g. Give a ten-letter word which describes the method of impressing speech upon a radio wave. XII, 133 10. Give a seven-letter word and a ten-letter word which describe the method of controlling the frequency of radio broadcast stations. XII, 133 ANSWERS Teel 6.0 hertz 2. Berlin, Edison 7. ‘coherer 3. loading 8. wave 4. radio 9. modulation 5. permalloy 10. crystal oscillator —— 8 SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY TEST II From the words below, form the names of six men who helped develop the telegraph. LEEKEH VINSON DRIESN STONY FIELD | MORE WHEAT References: XII, 73, 79-80, 82, 92, 98, plate 29, 137, 138 ANSWERS Morse, Henry, Kelvin, Field, Edison, Wheatstone [265] te a pias ay ; : ee Ce iN Lr We “ t as we ie yk 7 r 4 Be fi 4 iy ¢ g hy ; ah aye) UNIT XIX ENERGY FOR TRANSPORTATION A. Early Means of Transportation: E. 10. T4.. How did man learn to travel over water? VII, 239-240 What was the crudest means of water transporta- tion? VII, 241 What were the early water-crafts of man? VII, 2770 What means of boat propulsion were developed? Wil, 297 Why are the Egyptians believed to be the in- ventors of the sail? VII, 298 What type of sea craft finally permitted unlimited sea travel? VII, 277-278 What means of water travel was used by the Sumatrans? VII, 304 How was the Iroquois canoe made? IV, 77-78 . Which tribes built the biggest canoes? IV, 210 What types of boats were used by the Incas? VII, 344 Why are boats still given individual names? VII, 241 [267] re St 4 b 7s Pt oe a fr Oe STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL 12. How did man come to use animals as beasts of burden? VIi, 255-256 13. How did the Incas transport objects? VII, 344 14. How old is the wheel? VII, 256 15. What was the religious implication of the wheel? . VIL, 257 16. What were the earliest uses of the wheeled cart? Vit, 257 17. How old is the horse chariot? VII, 288 18. Did the use of the horse precede the use of the horse and wagon? VII, 286 19. What type of carriage was first used? VII, 256 20. When and how was the horse and chariot intro- duced into Egypt? VII, 300 21. What kind of transportation did the Indus valley people have? VII, 314 22. What means of transportation did the Aryans use? VII, 315 23. How is an Eskimo sled constructed? IV, 45 On Land; Railroads and Automobiles: 1. How old are railways? XII, 192 2. What was the first motive power for railways? XII, 192 3. What was the first practical railroad locomotive built in the United States? XII, 192 4. What was the first modern locomotive? XII, 193 5. What is the difference between English “T”” ae and United States rails? XII, 193 [268 ] 7 ser a te ee SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 6. 10. Il. PZ. ilgg 3 14. ale 16. 7 18. 19. PAO PoE How is safety promoted in coupling cars? XII, 199-200 What was the great aid to the safety of railroad brakes? XII, 33 How was electricity used to control air brakes? XII, 196-197 How do trains take curves at high speed? XII, 193 What was the first gasoline automobile in the United States? XII, 216 What type of action is generally found in a gas engine? XII, 172 What is the order of events in a four-cycle gas engine? XII, 172 What were the earliest commercial gas engines? Meher pa What is a carburetor? XII, 174, 178 What is the difference between an automobile engine and a gas engine? XII, 174-175 How does gas enter the cylinder of a gas engine? Lad dR Ge: What was the Brayton engine? XII, 216 What were the defects of using a horse carriage for the automobile? XII, 220 Who first applied the gas engine to a vehicle? MIL. o's What was the Haynes machine? XII, 220-221 Why is more than one cylinder necessary for an automobile? XII, 176 [269] 22. STUDY GUIDE. IN GENERAL What did Daimler do to the speed and weight of the four-cycle engine? XII,215 . What was the first car with equipment arranged in the present way? XII, 215 How was power transmitted to the rear wheels in early automobiles? XII, 216 How are the rear wheels of a car able to make turns at different speeds? XII, 216 What modern devices did the Duryea automobile possess? XII, 219 . Whatisa “V” type engine? XII, 176-178 Why are “V”’ type engines used? XII, 179 How many cars were produced in the United States in 1930? XII, 224 . What was the secret of Henry Ford’s success? DLE 2974 On Water; Steamships: Ibe When did commercial steamboats begin opera- tion in England? XII, 187 Who was the first man to build steamboats in the United States? XII, 181 How did Fitch’s engine move his steamboat? XII, 181-182, 184 Who built the first rotary steam engine? XII, 182 What kind of engine did Fitch use? XII, 182 What was the mechanical beast? XII, 18: What was Fulton’s particular skill with the steamboat? XII, 187 [270] ee SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 8. LEG Da Pe 22. 24. Why was Fulton’s steamboat a success? XII, 187 What was Robert Fulton’s profession? XII, 186 What was the first large steamboat built for com- merce in the United States? XII, 184-185 What was the first transatlantic steamer? XII, 188 . Who first used the screw propeller? XII, 183 How was the screw propeller proved more ef- ficient than the paddle wheel? XII, 189 What engine in 1870 revolutionized shipping? XII, 189 . Why was steam able to displace sail? XII, 188 . Why is Parson’s steam turbine best adapted to steamships? XII, 171 . What are the speed possibilities of a Parson’s tarbme? x1 170 . What is the efficiency of a Parson’sturbine? XII, 170 . What did some people prophesy for iron ships? XII, 189 . Why does a steel ship float? XII, 190 Dig UE Why was the oared ship a handicap to com- merce? Vil o77 How long did clipper ships take to travel from England to China? XII, 188 What was the disadvantage of clipper ships? XII, 188 What was the largest sailing vessel? XII, 189 [271] 25. 26. vy 28. 29. 30. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL When were sailing vessels in their prime? XII, 188 What modern safety devices are used by steam- ships? XII, 191-192 How does a gyro-compass control the steering of aship? XII, 190-191 What is a gyro-compass? XII, 190 How does a gyro-compass maintain a ship’s direc- tion? XII, 190 How does a ship determine its position in mid- ocean? XII, 191-192 D. Inthe Air; Airplanes: ike 2 AN What isa glider? XII, 225 Who were the early American glider flyers? Dull, 2.25 Who was the first to fly successfully a heavier- than-air ship? XII, 225 How did Langley devise his plane? XII, 225 Did Langley’s plane ever fly? XII, 227 Why did Langley’s full size plane fail to fly? meh 207 What was the first successful mechanically driven, heavier-than-air ship? XII, 225-226 What improvement to flying did the Wrights contribute? XII, 232 What was the power of the first plane of the Wright brothers? XII, 230 What was the first gasoline aeroplane engine? XII, 226 [272] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY it. What was the first successful flight of a heavier- than-air motor driven passenger plane? XII, 228 How is wind resistance reduced? XII, 235-236 How are the characteristics of airships and planes tested? XII, 232-233 Plates 81-85 How are seaplane pontoons tested? XII, 233, 236 . How are small models of planes tested to deter- mine the qualities of the full size plane? XII, 232, 236 . What isa radial engine? XII, 179 . Which was the first radically different aviation motor? XII, 226-227 . What isan autogiro? XII, 238 [273] Pupil and Class Activities A. Things To Do: ie | el Build a model of the Wright brothers’ plane. XII, 228-229 Build rubberband-powered flying models of Langley’s plane. XII, 226 Make a model of a primitive cart using the round wood bottoms of a bushel basket for wheels. VII, 256-257 Construct a model of a Chinese dragon boat from scrap wood. VII, 241 Following the model on page 276 build a Caro- line Islands outrigger sailing canoe. VII, 276 From twigs and skins build a model Indian bull- boat.oVillez76 Make a native Brazilian balsa boat from reeds and grasses found in the fields. XII, 185 Build a model of a Yurok boat. IV, 188 Using the illustration on page 64 make a model of an Eskimo sled. IV Make models of Eskimo kayaks. Use balsa model airplane wood for framework and cover with Japanese tissue. IV, 56 Make a model of an Eskimo umiak (sailboat), from wood and cloth. IV, 57 [274] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY ies 13. 14. 18. 16. Make a model of Fulton’s “Clermont.” XII, 184 Make a model of Fitch’s oar-driven steamboat. XII, 184 Make a model of a clipper ship using the photo- graph on page 188 asa guide. XII Build a wood model of the first steam locomotive train made in the United States. XII, 192 Make a wind tunnel from a large can with both ends, open. Place an electric fan'\at cone) end, suspend suitably sized model planes facing the fan. Make the planes fly by operating the fan. Kil; 232 B. Class Discussions: tk P28 The Wright brothers did not invent the aero- plane. XII, 225-238 Selden invented the automobile. XII, 214-225 c Pupil Reports: I 24 Ae The effect of streamlining on speed. XII, 235 Methods used to determine the airworthiness of airships and aeroplanes. XII, 232-238 The operation of radio beacons for guiding ships atsea. XII, 190-192 Early automobiles. XII, 214-225 D. Excursions: ft. Visit a local electric railroad or railway shop or roundhouse. 2. Visit a local auto assembly plant. 3. Visit a local steam locomotive roundhouse. [275] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL E. Self-Test Exercises: Tho. 4 Match each item in Column A with the proper item in Column B. , A B a. first locomotive inthe 1. automobile engine XII, United States 17a b. earlyinternalcombus- 2. English XII, 193 tion engine c. modern steamships 3. gasoline XII, 174,178 d.”““T” sails | 4. steamboat XII, 181 e. first modern type auto- 5. Tom Thumb XII, 192, mobile Plate 63 f. four-cycle 6. early automobile XII, 176 g. high speed light-weight 7. Brayton XII, 216 automobile engine h. mechanical beast 8. Parson’s turbine XII, LO; r7t i. carburetor 9. Duryea XII, 219 J. one-cylinder 10.- Daimler XH) 3a; ANSWERS a—5 f—1 b—7 g—10 c—8 h—4 d—z2 I—3 e—9 j—6 SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY TEST I] If you correctly re-arrange the letters of the jumbled word, the sentence will be true. 1. The first heavier-than-air machines were DRIEGLS. ATT, 225 2. First to fly non-passenger, heavier-than-air, motor driven plane was LEYLANG. XII, 225-226 3. The modern plane was first successfully developed by mc tskIWTHS. XII, 230 4. The first gasoline airplane engine was the DRIALA type. XII, 226 5. Wind resistance on an airplane is reduced by LOWC- ING. XII, 235-236 6. The characteristics of airships and airplanes are tested in DIWN LUNTENS. XII, 232, plate 81 7. A plane which can rise almost perpendicular to the ground is an GOITRAOU. XII, 238 8. Egyptians are believed to have invented the ALSI. VII, 298 9. The use of the COITHAR preceded the use of sad- dled horses. VII, 286 10. Before the Middle Stone Age, SHORES were used as food and not for transportation. VII, 255-256 ANSWERS 1. gliders 6. wind tunnels 2. Langley 7. autogiro 3. Wrights 8. sail 4. radial g. chariot 5. cowling 10. horses (2771 UNITE XX IMPROVED WAYS OF USING MATERIALS A. Clothing Materials: Me How are skins softened for use as clothing? IV, 55 . How do Eskimos make clothes? IV, 50-53 What did Indians weave into cloth? IV, 23 4. What was the dress of the upper Caspian period? Ty. 12. Vil,.229 How was clothing sewn in Solutrean times? VII, 209 When did needles come into use? VII, 202 Who invented the first sewing machine in the United States? XII, 248-249 What objection was there to Howe’s machine? XII, 252 Who made the first sewing machine? XII, 247 . What were the defects of early sewing machines ? XII, 248-249 What was the first commercially used sewing machine? XII, 248 What is the rotary hook? XII, 259 [279] 1%, | 14. ee 16. ry: 18. 19. 20. ai. 22 23. 24. oa 26. 27: 23. 29. 30. Aas coe STUDY GUIDE. IN GENERAL What improvement was made on the bobbin? XII, 259 Who perfected the four-motion feed for cloth? XII, 259 How did Singer improve the sewing machine? XII, 256 What effect did Eli Whitney’s cotton-gin have on the South? XII, 301 How does the cotton-gin work? XII, 302-303 Who foreshadowed the spinning wheel? XII, 273 How is thread made? XII, 267-268 What is spinning? XII, 265 What was the old way of spinning? XII, 268 How does a modern spinner operate? XII, 274 What were the weaving fibres in different parts of the world? VII, 262 What is the difference between silk and other thread? XII, 267 | When did the weaving of cloth begin? VII, 261 What is weaving? XII, 265 How old is the art of weaving? XII, 265-266 How do we know the type of loom used in olden times? XII, 269 Describe the simplest loom? XII, 266 How is weaving performed? XII, 271 What are the essentials of a loom? XII, 277- 278 Describe the African loom? XII, 276 [280 ] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 33° 39: What happened to the earliest attempt at mechanical weaving? XII, 299 Who invented the fly shuttle? XII, 299 . Who established the first power weaving mill? XII, 300 How are patterns woven? XII, 281-286 . What is a heddle? XII, 272, 279-280 . Why did a drawboy fork become necessary? XII, 287-289 What is Jacquard weaving? XII, 290-298 B. Building Materials: How is an igloo built? IV, 40 2. How is the Kwakiutl house built? IV, 209 3. Name some uses of bamboo? XI, 229 4. How are brooms made? XI, 229-230 5. How did the Chippewas use matting in building? a 6. What was a common Indian building material? IV, 73 | 7. Which people built extensively with stone? VII, 297 8. Which mineral stones are used as building ma- terials? III, 280-282 C. Metals: 1. When did man know nothing of metals? VII, 42 2. How did prehistoric man in Ohio use meteoric iron? III, 104-105 3. How were metal nuggets first used? VII, 24 [281] it: 12. \ hes, STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What kind of metal work was done by Neolithic man? VII, 265 . What use was made of meteoric iron in Mexico ? III, 100-101 How was meteoric iron used in the United States ? III, 100-101 What uses have been made of meteoric iron? III, 100-101 What use was made of meteoric iron in Green- © land? Il1,:100-101 When did the use of metals begin? VII, 167 How did the Mayans use gold and copper? VII, 334 | When did the Hopis become silversmiths? IV, 138 What metals did Indians work before the coming of white man? IV, 21-22 Why was copper the first metal used by man? VII, 266 . How did the eae Age repla the New Stone Age? VII, 267 . Why was not gold a practical metal in the Bronze Age? VII, 266 . What was the true basis of the Bronze Age? VII, 268 How did bronze-making occur? VII, 268 . Where was early metallurgy practiced? VII, 266 What was the form of the earliest bronze instru- ments? VII, 269 [282] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 20. 21. aD. 23. 24. Den 26. 2"7. 28. 29. a0. ei. a2. 33° 34. 35- 26. 37: 38. Why was bronze better than iron for battle axes? VII, 306 What is the lost wax process of casting? VII, 269-270 Why is not all meteor iron usable? III, 104-105 How was iron made in ancient times? XII, 338 When did iron come into use in different parts of the world? VII, 41 How long has iron been in use? VII, 41 Where does most of the iron ore come from? Dol 2:39 What is the effect of the presence of carbon or sulphur in iron? XII, 342 How is iron made today? XII, 338 How does a blast furnace operate? XII, 340- 341 When did the steel age begin? VII, 41 What is the difference between steel and iron? XII, 336-337 Who invented the Bessemer process? XII, 342 When is the Bessemer process impractical? XII, 345 How does an iron converter operate? XII, 342- 344 What are the raw materials and products of the blast furnace? XII, 338-339 What is a reverberatory furnace? XII, 346 What is the open hearth process? XII, 346-347 How is high-grade steel made? XII, 346, 348 [283] 39: 40. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL How is steel shaped? XII, 348 What are the by-products of coke? XII, 338 D. Writing Materials: | Ws When was paper discovered? XII, 312 How was paper made by hand? XII, 313-314 How much paper is consumed in one year in the United States? XII, 309 What materials are used in paper-making? XII, 313 How is paper made by machine? XII, 314 What was the Mayan writing material? VII, 332) 334 What determines the deterioration of paper? XII, 315 . What material did western Indians use to carry the written story of their exploits? IV, 167 E. Gems And Precious Stones: 1. NATURE OF CRYSTALS: wie Sars . What is the difference between minerals and rocks? III, 279-280 What gives a mineral a gem value? III, 170 How many minerals are used as gems? XII, 171 What determines a gem’s beauty? III, 178 How many mineral species are there? III, 170- rt How are natural stones distinguished from syn- thetic stones? III, 177 [284] a SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 10. | eal 2. 1. 4. 5. LO. FF! 18. 19. 20. 21. 22). Be. 24. 25. How did minerals get theirnames? III, 188-189 What is the significance of the “ite” ending in a mineral name? III, 188 What are some shapes and kinds of crystals? BLD a7 2 What determines the shape of a crystal? III, 173 What will happen to almost all minerals if allowed to grow without interference? III, 172 What size can crystals become? III, 172-173 What is the largest crystal? III, 173 What is the smallest number of faces a crystal may have? III, 173 According to which factors do most crystals ar- range their faces? III, 174 Which minerals have more than one crystalline shapes IIT) 174 What is constant in any crystal? III, 172 What spoils crystal transparency? III, 176 What is dispersion in gems? III, 181 How does refraction affect gems? III, 181 What causes variations in shade of color in a crystal? III, 179-180 In which gems is the cause of color still doubtful ? III, 179 What important property of a gem is measured scientifically? VII, 183 What crystal does earth water produce? III, 175 Which minerals form without water? III, 175 [285] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL . How do crystals form naturally? III, 174 How do the different colors of gems form? III, 178-179 . What colors are imparted to gems by different elements? III, 179 What common metals are the basis for different garnets? III, 244 . What is the importance of hardness in gem value? III, 182 . Whatare volcanic pipes? III, 196 . What forms in volcanic pipes? III, 196 . What are the physical properties of a diamond? III, 190 What is a synthetic gem? III, 289 . Which gems are made commercially? III, 289 What is mineral hardness? III, 182 How hard must minerals be to resist wear? III, 182-183 PRECIOUS STONES: i io) What is the name of the gems of the beryl group? lid; 210 : What is the color of beryl? III, 210-211 Where are diamonds found in the United States? III, 199-200 How long has the diamond been known? III, 190 To which minerals is diamond related? III, 191 6. What is the original matrix of diamonds? III, 193-194 [286] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 20. ZI. 2D 2. aA. . Where are diamonds found? III, 191-195 What is the geology of the area where diamonds are found in the United States? III, 207 How are diamonds mined? III, 193 How is the value of a diamond estimated? II], IgI . What are the colors of diamonds? III, 191 . What kind of diamond emits the best colors? III, 191 What is a black diamond? III, 191 Who made the first synthetic diamonds? III, 289 . How big are artificial diamonds? III, 289 . Who considered diamonds as poisonous as arse- mer Lik, 203 What is the crystalline shape of emeralds and beryls? 111, 211 . Where are emeralds found? III, 211 . What is the composition of emeralds and beryls? III, 210 What makes emeralds and beryls valuable? III, 210 What kind of emerald is the rarest gem? III, a2 ‘What is mistaken for emeralds? III, 213-214 In what kind of stone are rubies found ? II], 204- 2.05 What is the relation of spinel to ruby? III, 204 [287] ant 26. a 28. 29. 30. ai. gem 33: STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What minerals are both ruby and sapphire? III, 203 Where are rubies found? III, 204-205 What may cause the color difference between ruby and sapphire? III, 203 Where are sapphires found in the United States ? III, 207 How does the sapphire mineral occur? III, 208 What is a star or cat’s eye sapphire? III, 203 How hard is a sapphire? III, 203 What is the primitive method of mining rubies and sapphires? III, 206 Where are sapphires found? III, 205-206 . WELL-KNOWN SEMI-PRECIOUS STONES: — e CPI AK EY DP LO; What is amber? III, 267 What is the appearance of amber? III, 268 What was the Greek name for amber? III, 267 How long has amber been known? III, 257 When did amber form? III, 268. What fossils are found in amber? III, 268 Where is amber found? III, 268-269 How is amber mined? III, 268-269 How can true amber be detected? III, 267 How is amethyst formed? III, 227 Where is amethyst found? III, 227 . What causes the color of amethyst? III, 226 How is amethyst mined? III, 227 [288] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 14. 15. 16. Ly. 18. 19. 20. . Where is jade obtained? III, 255-256 . What is the difference between Chinese and How are garnets formed? III, 244-245 © Where are garnets found? III, 245-246 Where are garnets found in the United States? III, 245-246 What are the colors of garnets? III, 244 How hard is garnet? III, 244 What is the solubility of garnets? III, 245 In what rock is jade found? III, 255 Mexican jade? III, 255 What is lapis lazuli? III, 260 Where is lapis lazuli found? III, 261 How is lapis lazuli formed III, 260 What is the color of lapis? III, 260 . How is opal formed? III, 232 . Where are gem opals obtained? III, 232-234 . What is the composition of opal? III, 231-232 . What kind of opal is a gem mineral? III, 232 . How is opal formed? III, 232, 234 . What is the color of opal? III, 233 . How hard is opal? III, 232 How valuable is opal? III, 232 . Where are pearls found in North and South America? III, 221 . Where are pearls found in the United States? III, 221 . What is an abalone pearl? III, 222 [289] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL . Howistopaz formed? III, 236 . Where is topaz found? III, 236-237 . Where is topaz found in the United States? III, 237 . Where did topaz get itsname? III, 235 . What are the colors of topaz? III, 236 . How is pink topaz obtained? III, 237 How hard is topaz? III, 235 . Where is tourmaline found? III, 239-240 . How long has tourmaline been known? III, 239 In which colors do tourmalines form? III, 239 For which gem is tourmaline sometimes mis- taken? ITI, 240 . How is turquoise formed? III, 257 . Where is turquoise found? III, 257 . How long has turquoise been used? III, 258 . What is the color of turquoise? III, 257-259 Where is zircon found? III, 253-254 . What is the crystal shape of zircon? III, 253 . What is the color of zircon? III, 253 4. UNCOMMON SEMI-PRECIOUS STONES: I. What is the color of malachite and azurite? III, 276 In what kind of rock is benitoite found? III, 252- 253 Where is benitoite found? III, 252-253 . What is the color of benitoite? III, 252-253 [290] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY So ONT NHN Where is chrysoberyl found? III, 247-248 What is chrysoberyl made of ? III, 247 What is the color of chrysoberyl? III, 247 Where is chrysolite found? III, 249-250 Where is chrysolite found in the United States? MMln250 What is the composition of chrysolite? III, 249 . Why is cyanite not used for gems? III, 275 . Where is euclase found? III, 273 What is a cultured pearl? III, 224 What is phenocite? III, 274 . What is rhodonite? III, 274 Where is rhodonite found? III, 274 . What are the uses of rhodonite? III, 274 Where is sodalite found? III, 262 In what kind of rock is spodumene found? III, Zeit . Where is spodumene found? III, 250-252 . What is spodumene made of? III, 250 . What is the color of spodumene? III, 250 . What is staurolite? III, 278 How and where is staurolite found? III, 278 . Where is titanite found? III, 273 Why is titanite not used in place of diamonds although it is the more brilliant? III, 273 . What is the difference between turquoise and variscite? III, 260 . Where is variscite found? III, 259 [291] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL 29. What is the color of variscite? III, 259 30. What is vesuvianite? III, 274 31. For which gem is vesuvianite sometimes substi- tuted? III, 274 5. ORNAMENTAL STONES: 1. Where does most agate come from? III, 229 2. What common semi-precious stones belong to the class of agates? III, 230 3. How did the stripes of agate form? III, 228 4. What is moss or landscape agate? III, 229 5. What is basalt? III, 287-288 6. What is calcite? III, 276 7. What crystal forms does calcite take? III, 276 8. What is chalcedony? III, 228 g. What are the colors of coral? III, 270-271 10. What is the use of non-gem corundum? III, 204 11. Is all corundum usable for gems? III, 204 12. Where is feldspar found? III, 263 13. Where is feldspar found in the United States? III, 263-264 14. What are the different kinds of feldspars? ILI, 262 15. What is the composition of feldspars? III, 262 16. What are the colors of feldspars? III, 262, 264 17. What is granite? III, 287 18. Where is granite found? III, 286-287 19. Where is hematite found? III, 279 [292] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 20: yi 22 a 24. ONG « Db: PA 29. 29. 30: RE: 2's 33° 34- 35: 36. 37: 38. 39: 40. 41. What is a Herkimer diamond? III, 225 What is jet? III, 270 Where is marble found? III, 281 What is the difference between: foreign and American marble? III, 282-283 What is the difference between limestone and marble? III, 280 What is obsidian? III, 287 How was obsidian used? III, 287 What is. onyx?’ TTL, 228 What is Mexican onyx? III, 282 What is porphyry? Where is it found? III, 287 What are pyrites? III, 278 What is “fool’s gold?” III, 278 How prevalent.is quartz? III, 224 How does quartz occur? III, 224-225 With which metallic ore is quartz associated? III, 225-226 What is the crystalline structure of quartz? III, 224-225 What is the composition of quartz? III, 224 What are the names of quartz gems? III, 225 What gems are made from quartz? III, 227 Where is clear quartz found? III, 225-226 What is the importance of clear quartz? III, 226-227 What kind of rock contains gem quartz? III, ae lh* [293] 42. 43- 44. 45. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What is serpentine? III, 284 Where is serpentine found? III, 284 When is serpentine used as a substitute for jade? Ld. t285 What is sodalite? III, 262 6. How Gems ARE CuT: Te. 12 14. What determines the line of cleavage in miner- als? III, 181 What kind of gem carving is the most artistic? Ill, 314 Which crystals cleave into smooth even sections ? Ei 131 What natural property of crystals is taken into consideration in cutting? III, 180 Which two factors of light are studied in cutting a stone? III, 306-307 Which crystals do not cleave smoothly? III, 181 How is a diamond cut? III, 182 What determines how a stone will be cut? III, 306 Why are most stones cut differently? III, 306 What is the brilliant cut? III, 308-309 What are the names of the parts of the brilliant cut? iL i3Gs What are the perfect proportions of a brilliant cut diamond? III, 309 When is the half brilliant cut used? III, 310 What is the double brilliant cut? III, 310 [294] ay Pe ae els oe ane a Se NE A AGI Nit ceca att ltt, pe tn ea | SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY ioe EG. RT. bo. 19. 20. i Bo. a8. 24. 25. 26. a 28. 29. What is the trap brilliant cut? III, 311 Which stones are brilliant cut? III, 309 What are the cameo and intaglio cut? III, 314 What is the cabochon cut? III, 314 Whatis the rose cut? III, 312 What is the star cut? III, 311-312 What is the step brilliant or mixed cut? III, 313 What is the table cut ? III, 314 What is the trap or step cut? III, 313 Why are cut stones so much smaller than the oriainal ey bh ).207 What is facetting? III, 306 Which cuts are bounded by plane surfaces? III, 308 What are the styles of cutting stones? III, 308 Which cuts are bounded by curved surfaces? III, 308 Which cut is bounded by curved and plane sur- faces? III, 308 7. GEMS IN History: 1 What gems are mentioned in the Bible? III, 316, oe . What stones stood for each tribe of Israel in the Bible 2, IN 316-317 What are the so-called magical properties of gems? III, 183-185 . Who were the early mineralogists? III, 295-296 Which people perfected the working of jade? BEL, 254-255 [295] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What is a gem collector? III, 291 What must a true collector know? III, 292 What is the importance of a mineral collection? bh, 292 What was the first public mineral collection in the United States? III, 290, 295 Where are the great gem collections housed? III, 294 What gem minerals have become commercially and scientifically important? III, 293-294 . What is the Canfield collection? III, 300 . Who was Doctor King? III, 304 What is the Lea collection? III, 297 What is the Roebling collection? III, 297 Who was Professor Shepard? ILI, 301 . What has become of most of the great mineral collections? III, 296 How did Congress enable the National Museum to build up its collections of minerals? III, 295 [296] Pupil and Class Activities A. Things To Do: it i) Make models in soap of the important types of gem cuts. II], 302-314 Polish bright colored stones found in river beds. Make a collection of the rocks and minerals native to your locality. Make a collection of colored glass chips which approximate the colored gem photos shown in DE 210,22 49 1979381949 ,.9 46250, 264) 272, 7 A, 270.280: Make a Peruvian knot-writing record from some old rope. VII, 345 Make a cross-section model of a Bessemer con- verter by consulting the diagram. XII, 343 . Make some glass by melting a small quantity of pulverized limestone and sand in the flame of a blowtorch or blowpipe. XII, 323 Build a Creek log-house from straight twigs. IV, 288 Build models of Swiss lake dwellings using twigs. VII, 264 Make a miniature spinning wheel and use it to spin some thread from cotton. XII, 273 Make an Indian loom from sticks and cord. Weave apiece of cloth. VII, 264; XII, 276 [297] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL 12. Build a model of the earliest known loom from | sticks and cord. Weave a small piece of cloth. XII, 266 ; B. Class Discussions: 1. All jade is genuine. III, 254-256 ope Opals are unlucky stones. ILI, 231-235 3. Quartz has no value other than its use as a build- ing stone. III, 224-230 4. Culture pearls are as good as natural pearls. III, 217-224 5. Emeralds are the most beautiful of the large gems? III, 210-217 6. Since diamonds are pure carbon, they are not worth the values assigned to them. III, 190-203 7. Gems possess magical properties. III, 183-189 8. We could easily do without paper. XII, 312-315 9. The weaving of cloth is a modern art. XII, 265- 300 10. Singer invented the sewing machine. XII, 247- — 264 11. Weaving is a modern process. VII, 261-264 C. Pupil Reports: The cutting of gems. III, 306-315 —_ . Little known gems. III, 247-254, 272-278 Minerals used for decoration. III, 280-288 Sources of diamonds. III, 191-202 History of rubies. III, 203-210 The hardness of gems. III, 182 [298] An BY LP SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY The process of making paper. XII, 312-314 The development of writing. VII, 288-293 co 93 The weaving of intricate patterns. XII, 278-300 10. Inventors and improvers of the sewing machine. XII, 247-264 D. Excursions: 1. Visit your natural history museum to inspect gems and rocks. 2. Visit such local mines as coal, iron, copper and report to your class. 3. Visit a local iron works. Visit a rubber factory. 5. Visit a sewing machine factory or store. Observe the operation of the parts. Visit a local textile weaving mill. Visit a local dyeing and dry cleaning plant. E. Self-Test Exercises: (aE Sart Choose the answer which properly completes the sentence in each question. 1. Eskimos softened skins by (a) rubbing (b) chewing (c) pounding. IV, 55 2. Needles came into use during the (a) Bronze Age (b) Iron Age (c) Old Stone Age. VII, 202 3. The first sewing machine in the United States was in- vented by (a) Hunt (b) Howe (c) Singer. XII, 248-249 4. The main defect of early sewing machines was (a) too expensive (b) difficult to operate (c) continuous work was not possible. XII, 248-249 [299] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL 5. Thread is made by (a) spinning (b) weaving (c) the cotton-gin. XII, 267-268 6. Men began to weave cloth inthe (a) Old Stone Age (b) New Stone Age (c) Middle Stone Age. VII, 261 7. Paper has been known since (a) 5000 B.C. (b) 1422 A.1T). (c) 200 BC. XI ia12 8. Iron came into use (a) in Europe (b) and immedi- ately replaced bronze (c) gradually in different parts of the Old World. VII, 41 9. Most iron ore in the United States comes from (a) Pennsylvania (b) Alabama (c) Mesabi range. XII, 337 10. The use of steel in place of iron was first brought about by the (a) open hearth furnace (b) Bessemer con- verter (c) crucible process. XII, 342-345 ANSWERS I—b 6—b 2—C 7—C 3—a 8—c 4—C 9—c 5—a 10—b PES el Match each item in Column A with the proper item in Column B. A B a. hydrocarbon I. gypsum b. silicates 2. diamond, gold c. sulphates 3. / quartz, d. phosphates 4%, calcite [300] pyrites turquoise emeralds and beryls amber and jet Reference: III, 170-171 ANSWERS ne ere ie \ ae a apres ng wy ye} ality fart Pah: j > Th, 'y ACE ¥ 5 UNIT XXI CONSERVING LIFE A. Animals That Are Becoming And Have Become Extinct: 1. SEA ANIMALS: i. 2 3: Why are so many species wiped out? V, 124 Why are crabs so expensive? X, 230 What methods of crabbing in Chesapeake Bay are rapidly wiping out crabs? X, 230 Why is the robber crab disappearing from many of its former haunts? X, 178 Why have lobsters become a luxury? X, 229 What is happening to the salmon fisheries? VIII, 126 Why are the green turtles becoming scarce? WEP 3 11-349 . Why have the Galapagos turtles almost been wiped out in recent years? VIII, 313 2. BIRDs: | What has happened to our bird population in the past 400 years? IX, 40 [303] 10. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL _ What bird species have already been extermi- nated by man? IX, 11 What led to the extinction of the great auk and the passenger pigeon? IX, 87 What is the estimated annual slaughter of wild ducks in the United States? IX, 39-40 How many wild ducks were sold in 1910 in San Francisco markets? IX, 39 How many wild ducks were sold in New Orleans in 1913 as food? What does this show? IX, 39 _ What hawks and owls should be protected? IX, 141 What happens when we kill off hawks and owls? What conclusions can you reach? IX, 140-142 _ What species of parrot was once native to the United States? VI, 254 What led to the extermination of the Carolina paroquet? VI, 254 3. MaAmMALs: Le Why are marsupials dying out today! [X, 282: 283 ? Why was it once difficult for the National Zoo- logical Park to get a beaver? VI, 117 How is the whale hunted? What does this indi- cate to you? IV, 64 Why are otters so rare today? VI, 116 How are seals hunted? What chances have they for survival? IV, 49-50, 64 How does the Eskimo hunt seals? IV, 47-48 [304] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 7: ie Why do we rarely, if ever, see a West Indian seal?o V1, 125 What has happened to the lion population in Africa? VI, 70 How are tigers captured? How does this affect the tiger population? VI, 81-82 How are the wart hogs captured? VI, 158-159 . Why is the zebra-like quagga now extinct? VI, 212-213 What made the American bison fear man? VI, 163 Why were bison shot? How do you feel about the reasons given? VI, 167 Where was the center of the bison population at one time? VI, 166 About how many bison were there on the Great Plains in 1870? VI, 166 What was the bison population in 1907? VI, 167 What practically wiped out the European bison population by 1925? VI, 173 How and why are elephants captured in India? VI, 137-139 B. Improving Plant Life: is What evidence is there of ancient man’s ability as a plant breeder? XI, 321 What is meant by “‘selection’”’ in plant breeding? XI, 54 What mental qualities do plant and animal breed- ersneed? XI, 320-321 [305 ] LO: LF. Lief 18. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL Why is progress in plant and animal breeding so slow? XI, 320-321 . Why did people cultivate grasses in prehistoric times? XI, 203-205 For how long a time has man cultivated grasses? XI, 204-205 What is said to be the most ancient cultivated plant? XI, 324 What crops did the Incas originate? XI, 3209- 339 What country is said to have first domesticated corn? XI, 329-330 What special type of agriculture developed around Mexico City? VII, 338 What is said to be the crowning achievement of the American Indian? XI, 346 Why did Indians have colored corn? XI, 328 How did the Indian carry on agriculture in a dry region? VII, 328 What were the probable ancestors of corn? XI, 214 What evidence is there of corn’s ancient develop- ment? X1,"927-328 Why is the origin of corn still a mystery? XI, 330-337 Why are scientists unable to determine the ances- tors of corn? XI, 324 What practices caused the corn plants to become so highly specialized and developed? XI, 324 306] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 19. 20. a: 22. 23. 24. By. 26. 27). | 28. 29. RO: sh. Cee Why does corn never grow without man’s aid? XL. e206 How might mutations have produced modern corn? XI, 343 Name some recent mutations which have oc- curred incorn? XI, 344 What chief objections have we to the idea of mutations in the production of corn? XI, 345- 346 Discuss some theories to explain the origin of the ear incorn. XI, 339-340 What part did selection play in producing modern corn? XI, 342-343 What evidence have we of the hybrid nature of eogn?. XI 345 What corn relative hybridizes with corn? XI, 335 How does corn today compare with that grown by ancient Indians? XI, 327 Why is corn considered an ideal food plant? XI, 325-326 Why were the cereal plants so hard to domesti- cater: X1y3a5 When and where were rice, barley, oats and rye first cultivated? XI, 209-210 How are new plants propagated or kept alive? XI, 53-54 How have new varieties of orchids, irises, roses, etc., been originated? XI, 53 [307] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL C. Improving Domestic Animals: i. Why are present-day species successfully carry- ingon? V, 125 What is the probable ancestor of our poultry? VI, 247 What is the origin of the domestic fowl? IX, 3 What results when bison are mated to domestic cattle? VI, 168 Why were scientists interested in zebra-ass hy- brids/ Vi, 202 What hybridization experiments have been made with zebras, horses and asses? VI, 213 D. Conserving Wild Animal Life: x. How did people come to realize that wild ani- mals in this country were being wiped out? VI, 2 How was interest in wild life preservation aroused? VI, 3 What practice almost wiped out the California shrimp? X, 230 What remedied the shrimp situation in Cali- fornia? X, 230 What practice among Andalusian fishermen has maintained the crab population? X, 230-231 Why do Florida fishermen break off the large claws of crabs and then throw the crabs back? a 280 What crab is protected in Florida? X, 230 Name some parks which raise bison? VI, 162 [308 ] »SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 9. 1. When were steps taken to prevent the slaughter of bison? VI, 167 What steps have been taken to protect wild goril- lase> Viy28 E. Conserving The Health of Human Beings: Ue 10. How do certain seaweeds aid the science of bac- teriology? XI, 89 Should plants be removed from a sick room? Explain. XI, 28-29 Describe the damage done by some of the try- panosomes. V, 349 In what way are gastropods sometimes danger- ous toman? X, 316 . What mollusk can killa man? X, 293 Why do natives of New Guinea dread the bite of Conus, a snail? X, 301-302 Do octopuses and squid attack man? X, 346-347 Does the housefly ever bite people? Explain. V, 347-348 Why can a fly’s bite cause a serious infection? V, 323 What is the most effective method of fly control we have? V, 343 . Why are mosquito bites painful? V, 338 . What is the only known carrier of the yellow fever virus? V, 338-339 . Why has yellow fever occasionally broken out in northern cities? V, 340 [309 ] 14. 1s: 1G: iz 18. 19. 20. Pa Pape 23. 24. a5) 26. a7 28. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL. What damage may the “screw worm” cause to animals and man? V, 352 What is the carrier of the germs of African sleep- ing sickness and nagana? V, 348-349 What is the worst biting fly? V, 348 What crab in Jamaica is used to “treat” deaf- ness? X, 239 | How are crabs an aid to sanitation in the tropics ? X, 245 How do sand fleas help mankind? X, 158 What two species are the only poisonous lizards now known? VI, 262-263 What lizard in the United States is as deadly asa rattlesnake ? How does it inject its poison? VIII, 336 How dangerous is the cobra? How many people in India die each year from cobra bites? Why is not the cobra wiped out in India? VIII, 351- (352 Is it true that a spitting cobra can shoot its poison at one’s eye? Explain. VI, 269 : Why is the mamba so feared? VIII, 354 How old must a baby of a poisonous snake be before it can inflict harm upon one? VIII, 343 How poisonous are copperheads? VIII, 348 What rattlesnake is considered the most danger- ous in North America? What gives it its reputa- tion? VIII, 349 How is antivenin used and prepared? VIII, 351 [310] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 29. What monkey was used to teach ancient doctors anatomy? VI, 48 30. What is the rhinoceros’ “horn” made of? VI, 208 31. To what use were rhinoceros’ horns put at one time? VI, 207 32. What do the Chinese use a rhinoceros’ horn for? VI, 207 [311] Pupil and Class Activities A. ThingsTo Do: J Make a representative collection of harmful and beneficial insects in your locality. Consult all of Volume V. Make a collection of plants suffering from fungus diseases. Preserve the plants in alcohol for your museum. XI, 91 To find out whether or not the praying mantis is a useful insect, place some live mantes together with twenty grasshoppers in a screened cage. By daily observations note how soon the grasshop- pers decrease in number. V, 73-76 Write to an agricultural experimental station in your state and ask for pamphlets on corn genetics. Examine these with your biology teacher. XI, 348 B. Class Discussions: i DB —e The gorillas will soon be wiped out. VI, 28 White man owes the American Indian nothing. XI, 346 Hawks and owls are the worst pests with which a farmer has to deal. IX, 141 Horses and cows developed before the grasses appeared on earth. XI, 203 [312] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY C. Self-Test Exercises: Ths Lt 1 Underline the word or phrase which makes the sentence a true statement. 1. The lion population in Africa is (a) increasing (b) decreasing (c) remaining stationary. VI, 70 2. Bison were shot (a) for their tongues (b) for their tails (c) for being nuisances. VI, 167 3. The Carolina paroquet was exterminated because (a) it was toonoisy (b) ithas bright feathers (c) it killed chickens. VI, 254 4. When we kill off hawks and owls (a) chickens in- crease (b) rats and mice increase (c) rats and mice de- crease. IX, 140-142 5. The passenger pigeon was wiped out by (a) hawks (b) diseases (c) man. IX, 87 6. The most ancient cultivated plant is (a) the tomato fee the potato (c) corn. XI, 324. 7. The American Indian’s chief contribution to civiliza- — tion was (a) tobacco (b) corn (c) the art of weaving. XI, 346 8. Florida fishermen break off the large claws of crabs and then throw the crabs back in order to (a) make the crabs suffer (b) let the crabs grow new, large claws (c) feed the fishes to be caught later. X, 230 g. The best way to control house-flies is to (a) swat every fly we see (b) fumigate the house (c) cover manure. V, 343 ‘10. The yellow fever virus is carried by (a) a fly (b) a trypanosome (c) a mosquito. V, 339 [313] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL ANSWERS I—b 6—c 2—a 7—b 3—b 8—b 4—b 9—c 5—c IO0—c TEST Ji Below are ten statements. Some are true and some are false. On your paper re-write each false statement in such a way that it becomes true. In doing this, you may change or leave out any of the italicized words but you may not change or leave out any others. 1. The passenger pigeon [S$ BEING WIPED OUT by man. IX, 87 2. Some hawks and owls SHOULD BE PROTEC- TED: [Xjaai 3. Whales ARE INCREASING IN NUMBER. IV, 64, 65 4. Otters are rare today because THEY CAN NOT GET ENOUGH FOOD. VI, 116 5. The American bison as a species BECAME EX- TAN CW, N15 66, 264 6. Steps have been taken TO EXTERMINATE the gorillas. VI, 28 7. The crowning achievement of the American Indian was his development of THE CANOE. XI, 346 8. CORN was the most ancient of cultivated plants. XI, 324 9. Plant breeders select for propagation only those plants THAT NEED LITTLE ATTENTION. XI, 54 [314] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 10. Grazing animals, like horses and cattle, owe their development TO THE USE OF BARNS. XI, 203 ANSWERS has been wiped out _ e should not be protected are being hunted to death their skins are in great demand by the fur industry was almost wiped out protect corn corn that show the desired characteristics a ee sant ee ee — © to grasses [315] UNIT XXII THE NATURE OF MATTER A. Atoms And Molecules: I. N Nr LR & Why do we assume the earth formed before the decomposition of radio active material? VII, 3 Who laid the groundwork for atomic investiga- tion? VII, 5 What is the structure of anatom? XII, 54-55 What is the composition of atoms? II, 290 What is the composition of all elements? VII, 5 What happens to some atoms as stars cool? Ws What happens to atoms in the sun? II, 5-6 What is the structure of simple elements accord- ing to Moseley? VII, 5 What atomic and molecular conditions exist in the sun? II, 5-6 B. Elements And Compounds: hs Ds What is the composition of the sun? II, 256-258 What are the elements in the sun? VII, 5 3. Why are compounds not possible in the sun? II, 7 [317] Wn 10. Z2Oe STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL How can it be proved that iron is in the sun? ll 256 | What happens to common compounds in the sun? II, 289 What is the composition of the products of the sun’s work in plants? II, 232 What types of compounds are found in minerals? III, 170-171 What elements are valuable gems? III, 170 Which compounds contribute to the largest num- berergems > Lili What is the chemical relationship of synthetic to natural gems? III, 290 : How are artificial diamonds made? III, 289 How many elements occur in metorites? III, 65 How is metoric composition determined? III, 64 What is the comparative composition of stony and iron meteorites? III, 73 What is the average chemical composition of iron meteors? III, 67 What is the average composition of stony iron meteors? III, 67 What is the average composition of stony meteors? IML, 67 What is the composition of 90% of meteoric stone? ILI, 75 What colors do the elements produce in gems? ITI, 179 What is the composition of alabaster? III, 283 [318] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 2 2 Din 23: 24. 265. What is the composition of amethyst? III, 226 What is the composition of malachite and azurite,? Lil; a5 How do malachites and azurites form? III, 275 What is the composition of chrysoberyl ? III, 247 What is the composition of chrysolite? III, 249 What is the composition of coral? III, 271 What is the composition of cyanite? III, 275 What is the composition of euclase? III, 273 What is the composition of emeralds and beryls? LL. 210 What is the composition of feldspars? III, 262 What is the composition of garnet? III, 243 What common metals are the bases of different garnets? III, 244 How is glass made? XII, 325 What is the composition of gypsum? III, 284 . What is the composition of hematite? III, 279 What is the composition of lazuli? III, 260-261 What is the composition of marble? III, 280-281 What alloys of nickel and iron are found in meteors © “Li Fo What makes opal unstable? III, 232 What is the composition of opal? III, 231-232 . What is the composition of Mexican onyx? III, 282 . What is the composition of pyrites? III, 278 What is the composition of pearl? III, 223 [319] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL 44. How are artificial rubies and sapphires made? III, 290 45. What is the composition of sodalite? III, 262 46. What is the composition of spodumene? III, 250 47. What is the composition of topaz? III, 235 48. What is the composition of Thomsonite? III, 275 49. What is the composition of titronite? III, 273 50. What is the composition of tourmaline? III, 239 51. What is the composition of turquoise and varis- ee? ITT 256-257 C. Electrons And Protons: 1. What are electrons and protons? VII, 5 2. Who first demonstrated the existence of particles smaller than atoms? XII, 51 3. How is the existence of electrons demonstrated ? GO Bas 4. Whereare free electrons found? XII, 53-54 5. What is the weight of an electron? XII, 51, 54 6. What prevents the proton and electrons in an — atom from smashing into each other? XII, 55 7. What is Moseley’s law? VII, 5 8. How do distances of electrons from the nuclei in atoms compare with the distance of the sun from the planets? XII, 55 g. What atomic differences determine the spectra of the elements? VII, 6 [320] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY D. Matter And Energy: pao ee . Whatare the forms of matter? XII, 49 What form of matter is the sun? II, 7 Why is the enormous output. of star and sun radiation possible? VII, 7 What laws do spiral nebulae follow? VII, 6 How does the sun get its energy? VII, 4 How does a star form? VII, 7 What is a possible origin of the matter of the stars? II, 297-298 How do electrons affect the activity of matter? KIL, 56 [321] Pupil and Class Activities A. Class Discussions: 1 2. 3- Electrons are real things. XII, 49-56 Edison discovered a phenomenon which helped provide a basis for electron study. XII, 58-59 Electrons are everywhere. XII, 54-55 B. Pupil Reports: 1 How gems get their colors. III, 178-179, 191, 218-219, 239, 247, 252-254, 259, 262, 270-271, 306-307 | The chemical elements found in a leaf. II, 232- 233 How crystals grow. III, 172-177 4. The chemistry of gems. III, 170-171 10. Elements and the colors they impart to gems. Ii, 176 The chemistry of garnets. III, 243-247 The chemistry of turquoise. III, 256-260 Practical applications of atomic structure. XII, 68-71 The building blocks of the sun. II, 290 Professor J. J. Thomson proved the existence of the electron. XII, 51-54 [322] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY C. Self-Test Exercises: hEor I BPRSPPNE ePyYE Change this code word as follows: 1. If atomic investigation is based on the work of Mose- ley, change Bto M. If not, change to W. VII, 5 2. Change J to E if nothing smaller than atoms exist. If something smaller than atoms does exist, change to O. 3. Change K to L if atoms in the sun have the same structure as on the earth. If not, change to S. II, 5-6 4. If all elements have the same basic materials for their structure change 8 to E. If not, change to C. VII, 5 5. Change I to O if molecules exist in their ordinary state in the sun. If not, change to L. II, 5-6 6. Change F toM if radioactive materials were the first fom the earth. If not, change to E. VII, 3 7. Change N to E if the sun is composed of compounds. If compounds do not exist on the sun, change to Y. II, 7, 289 8. If most of the elements of the earth are found in the sun, change Eto S. If not, donot change. VII, 5 g. If iron cannot be proved to be present in the sun, change 2 to X. If iron can be shown to be present in the sun, leave blank. II, 256, Plate 63 10. Change P to L if correct chemical duplicates of gems can be made. If not, change to A. III, 290 11. Change Y to Cif many elements occur in meteorites. If only a few occur change to A. III, 65 [323] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL 12. Change L to W, if an electron has weight. If not, change to T. XII, 51, 54 Note: If all of the above changes were correctly made, you will find the name of a rule upon which atomic research is based. ANSWER Moseley’s Law AEST Match each item in Column A with the proper item in Column B A B a. matter I. arrangement of elec- trons VII, 6 b. gaseous 2. valuable metals I], 170 c. nickel and iron 3. electrons exist XII, 51 d. difference in elements 4. cathode ray tube XII, See ee e. elements 5. elements in sun II, 256, Plate 63 f. star formation 6. sunenergy VII, 4 g. tracing path ofelectrons 7. electrons and protons Vibi¢ h. spectrum analysis 8. form of matter in the sun II, 7 i. atomic disintegration 9g. meteors III, 70 j. Thomson 10. spiral nebulae VII, 6-7 [324] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY ANSWERS [325] a et oe aval tached ads a y Pass ApS). ae: 4 2 ENV Re UNIT XXIII ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF LIVING THINGS A. The Recordin The Rocks: 1. AGE OF THE EARTH: 1. How old isthe earth? VII, 3 2. Howis the earth’s age measured? VII, 3 3. How can we know the approximate age of the earth’s crust? VII, 1o-11 4. What is the yardstick of nature’s time clock? VII, 3 5. Where did the ocean’s salts come from? X, 4 6. What does the percentage of salts in the ocean tell us about the age of the earth? X, 3-4 7. What criticisms have been suggested to show that the consideration of ocean salts is unreliable in estimating the earth’sage? X, 4 8. What is the most scientific way of estimating the earth’s age? X, 5 9. How slowly does uranium disintegrate? X, § 10. How oldis the earth according to studies made of uranium products in the earth? X, 5 [327] 12. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL Has the question of the earth’s age been finally settled? Why? X, 5 How does a geologist measure time? IX, 255-259 How long were the various geological eras? X, 73 Name the various grand divisions of geologic time. X, 7 2. FOssILs: Name the eras of life on the earth. VII, 12 What effect did Darwin’s work have on our ideas of life on the earth? IX, 237 What do we mean by “fossils ?”” X, 10 4. What is the oldest record of a fossil collected by 10. 1 civilized man? LX, 228 Where was the first discovery of an American fossil made? IX, 232 What conditions must be present for a fossil to be formed? VIII, 282-283 How were ancient plants and animals preserved in the rocks? X, 6-7 What does the presence of carbon in rocks mean? X, 43 Just how is a plant fossil made? X, 12 Are fossils being formed exactly as in the past? Give an example. X, 11 How does an animal become petrified? VIII, 279-280 ; [328] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 12. is. 14. £5. 16. ve 18. 19. 20. How do animal remains become embedded in rock? VIII, 281 How were prehistoric footprints made into fossil tracks? VIII, 271 How are fossil molds or imprints formed? X, TI-12 How perfect can fossil impressions be? Give ex- amples. X, 12 Why are fossil so few innumber? VIII, 283-284 Why are the fossil records so incomplete? X, 26- 29 Why are so few seaweed fossils found? X, 12 Why are fossils not found in igneous rocks? X, IO Why are sea plants and animals more often found as fossils than those of the land? X, 11 3. THE IMPORTANCE OF FossIL STUDY: Lp What did people once upon a time think fossils were? IX, 228 How did the ancient Greeks and Romans explain the fossils they found? X, 13 How did some people since the Middle Ages look upon fossils? X, 13-14 How did people in the sixteenth century explain fossils? VIII, 281-282 When did people first begin to understand what fossils really were? IX, 230 Read the interesting story of a professor who thought fossils were not animal remains. VIII, 282 [329] LO: PL ie 13. 14. 1 5. FG: iu 18. 19. 20. 21. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What is the science of paleontology? X, 14-16 What is the work of a paleontologist? X, 16 Who was the father of modern paleontology? IX, 232 Who were some pioneer students in the science of fossils? What did they find out? IX, 230-232 What president of the United States was a great scientist? IX, 233-234 Where do collectors go for fossils? Once found, how are fossils extracted from rocks? VIII, 284- 285 Where in the United States is there a deposit of fossils in almost perfect condition? How was this made possible? IX, 46-47 What caused the tremendous fossil deposits in a Colorado lake? X, 80 When was it first found out that Northwestern United States had many fossils? What hindered exploration there? IX, 235-236 What do museum workers do with specimens re- ceived from collectors? [X, 220-221 What kind of work is done on fossils collected in the field? VIII, 286-290 Explain why there are so few fossils exhibited in the museums ?: VIII, 286 How are fossils “restored?” VIII, 288-289 How can the age of different remains be deter- mined? VII, 39 How does a paleontologist determine the ancient history of aregion? X,17 [330] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY PIT 29. 30. gk 20. 33> How do paleontologists know when mammals arose and when dinosaurs first appeared? X, 15 . Were all present day animals in existence in the distant past? How do we know? X, 15-16 How do fossils indicate old land and water areas? X, 18 What has shown us that the level of the land con- tinually changes? X, 30-31 What happens to the mud that now reaches the ocean beds? X, 34 What happened during the Cambrian period? X, 35-38 . Why are some fossils of western North America the same as those found in China? X, 36 Why are some animal fossils found in the British Isles and Scandinavia also found in the Appa- lachian Mountains? X, 37 What states were once covered by very large oceans? X, 37-38 Why are radically different animal fossils found in Alabama? X, 37 Why is North America best for the study of ex- tremely ancient life? X, 7-8 Why is Europe best for the study of more recent life? X, 8 4. LireE oN THE EarTH DurRING DIFFERENT PERIODS ue oF Its History: What successive forms of life occurred on the earth in the periods and eras of the earth’s his- tory? VII, 19-20 [331] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What took place during the first era on the earth? VII, 12-13 How long was the first period? VII, 12 4. What took place during the second period? VII, 1 0 I 2. we 14. Tig: 16. 17. de What evidences of life during the second period have we found? VII, 13 When were the first fossils formed? VII, 13 What forms of life existed during the Cambrian era? VII, 13 What animals lived during the Ordovician era? Vik In which era did invertebrates arise? VII, 14 How many known species existed during the Devonian period? VII, 15-16 What were animals like during the Eocene period? VII, 18 What happened to life during a Permian period? VII, 15 How many species were alive during the Permian period? VII, 16 What animals were confined to Anon in the Miocene period? VII, 18 Has life since it began on the earth ever been completely wiped from the face of the earth? Explain. VII, 37 When was life on the earth at its lowest ebb? ME ay What estimates have been made of time since the beginning of the Ice Age? VII, 68 [332] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 18. 19. 20. Ph. 2 Die When did the Glacial period take place? VII, 19 What was the weather like during the Ice Age? VII, 58 When did the Ice Age end? VII, 68-69 How much time has elapsed since the last Ice Age? VII, 69-70 How much ice is calculated to have formed dur- ing the Ice Age? VII, 62 What evidence do we have today of the effect of glaciers? VII, 60 What animals survived the Ice Age in Europe? VII, 68 In what kind of rocks are the majority of fossils found? xX, 11 . What is meant by strata? VII, 8-10 . How many feet of sedimentary rock have been formed since the beginning of the earth? X, 2 Where do scientists usually look for the earliest forms of life? X, 40-41 What name has been given to the first sedimen- tary rocks? X, 41 . Where are Archeozoic formations found? X, 41-42 . Why are Archeozoic rocks practically without any kind of fossils? X, 42 . What kind of plant was found in the Archeozoic rocks? X, 43 . What name was given to the oldest known form orlire? X43 [333] 46. 47. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What changes took place during the Proterozoic era? X, 44-49 What evidence is there that the Proterozoic era was cool? X, 45-46 What kind of fossils are found in the Proterozoic rocks? X, 46-49 What evidences of plant life are found in the Proterozoic rocks? X, 47-48 How did the Proterozoic plants affect the de- velopment of animal life? X, 49 What does ‘‘Paleozoic” mean? X, 50 Why do we find more fossils in rocks formed during the Paleozoic era than in earlier eras? X, 50 What kind of animals lived in the Paleozoic era? X, 55 What Paleozoic animal became for a time the world’s dominant animal type? X, 55 Were any vertebrates found in Paleozoic rocks ? Explain. X, 55 What locality is famous for heme fossils whose soft internal structure has been preserved? X, 57-58 What did we learn from the fossils collected by Dr. Walcott of the Smithsonian? X, 58-59 What kind of sedimentary rock is used today for lithographing? X, 59-60 How do we explain the presence of perfect fossils in Burgess shale? X, 60 SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 48. 49. 50. L. 52: 53: 54- 55: 56. 57: on 59- 60. 6%: 62. See 64. 65. 66. What animals were abundant in the Silurian Period? X, 63-64 What plants and animals died out during the Permian Pertod? X, 72 What do Mesozoic and Cenozoic mean? X, 73 What effect did the birth of the Appalachian Mountains have on the surrounding land? X, 73 When did the Triassic Period occur? X, 74 What kind of animals roamed the land during the Jurassic Period? X, 75 What invertebrate animals were dominant in the Age of Reptiles? X, 75 What happened to the ancient Ammonites? X, 75-76 What animals ruled the land during the lower Cretaceous period? X, 77 What caused the formation of large chalk beds? Daas What is meant by the Cenozoic era? X, 78-79 What great changes took place at the beginning of the Cenozoic era? X, 78 What is meant by Oligocene? X, 79 What does amber look like? III, 268 How did amber originate? X, 80 When did amber form? III, 268 What has amber preserved for us? X, 80 What fossils are found in amber? III, 268 In what kinds of rock are emeralds found? III, 79 i ee [335] 67. 68. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What is the difference between minerals and rocks? III, 279-280 What is basalt? III, 287-288 5. THE RECORD OF INVERTEBRATES IN THE ROCKs: i La. 14. What kind of climate occurred in the Eocene Period? X, 79 . What killed many animals in the Miocene Period? X, 79 Have jellyfish ever been perfectly preserved in rocks? Explain. X, 59 How ancient are the oyster and clam? VII, 13 What peculiar type of shell life existed during the Silurian Period? VII, 14 What were the ancestors of our present day squid or cuttlefish? X, 76 How ancient is the octopus? VII, 13 How far back has the ancestry of cephalopods been traced?) X, 420-325 In what way does the cartilaginous skeleton take the place of the cephalopod shell ?- X, 326-327 What caused the greater development of the nervous system of the octopus? X, 321-322 . . How large were the ancestors of our present day chambered nautilus? X, 62-63 What did the ancestor of crustaceans look like? X, 97 Yay do the Chinese treasure fossil crabs? X, 23 Why were insects able to live and reproduce freely in the Carboniferous period? V, 89 [336] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 15. Why did insects before the Carboniferous period leave no fossils? V, 93 16. How many pairs of wings did the first insects have? V, 91-93 17. What two kinds of insects gave rise to all our present day types of insects? X, 71 18. How did ancient roaches compare with present day roaches? V, 89 19. How ancient is the roach family said to be? V, 82 20. How large were roaches in the Coal Measures? X, 70-71 21. What were some of the plant and animal neigh- bors of the roaches many millions of years ago? V, 85-89 22. How large were the Coal Measures dragon flies ? »,, ag 3) 23. What modern insects had giant ancestors with a wing-spread of two feet? V, 93-96 24. What does the fly group teach us about evolu- tion? V, 353 25. Whatis the meaning of the “halters” or balancers behind each wing of a fly or mosquito? V, 319 26. What caused the change from primitive giant in- sects to those we now know? X, 71 27. What did the ancestors of our present day scorpions look like? When did they live? X, 64 | | 28. When did great scorpion-like creatures live on the earth? VII; 14 [337] ———_——— = 29. 30. Ras 22. cRE 34- 35- STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What animal today has an embryo stage which looks very much like a trilobite? What does this indicate? X, 56 What were trilobites once thought to be? X, 56 Who first showed us the trilobites’ relationship to the shrimps and crabs of today? X, 56 Why is a trilobite not considered a primitive crea- turer“ V blivi3 What effect did the retreat of the seas have on trilobites and sea scorpions? X, 74 When did trilobites decline? VII, 14 What happened to the trilobites? X, 55-56 6. THE RECORD OF EARLY VERTEBRATES AND FISHES: ite What is the connecting link between crustaceans and vertebrates? VII, 14 . What were the oldest known vertebrates? X, 64- 65 What were the ancient ostracoderms like? What happened tothem? VIII, 10-12 How long have fishes been on this globe? VIII, IO What fish stands between the lancelet and the shark in development? VIII, 9-10 What does the lancelet teach us about the first fishes? VIII, 8-9 Why is the shark considered to be the forerunner of our modern fishes? VIII, 12-13 What is the evidence that fishes changed little since prehistoric times? VIII, 4 [338] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY . When did fishes first appear on the earth? VII, 14 From what group of fishes did our common bony fishes come? VIII, 25 . How large must the ancient sharks have been? VIET, 3 . Name some Devonian fishes. X, 65 . What ancient fish was larger than a whale? VIII, 14 . When did true fishes flourish? VII, 4 . What is the origin of the lower jaw in fishes? VIII, 65 How does a fish’s skull compare with that of a higher vertebrate? VIII, 64 What part of a fish’s body tells more about its relations than does any other part? VIII, 60 . What fishes have lost some fins? VIII, 42 . How did the flat fishes get both their eyes on top of their heads? VIII, 68-69 Why is a fish so insensible to pain? VIII, 99 HE RECORD OF AMPHIBIANS: . When did animals first acquire lungs? X, 69-70 When did air-breathing land vertebrates first ap- pear? X, 22 From what type of animals did amphibia de- velop? VIII, 161-162 What were the ancestors of amphibians? VIII, 2 What conditions may have led to the develop- ment of amphibians from fishes? VIII, 20-21 [339] mit a La: 14. ie 16. ig. 18. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What did the extinct amphibians look like? VIII, 164 Describe the most perfect amphibian fossil yet found. VIII, 164-165 . Why are complete fossils of amphibian dinosaurs rarely found? VIII, 231 Where was the greatest number of amphibian fossils found? VIII, 165-166 What particular structures are looked for in fos- sil amphibians? VIII, 167-168 What was the size of Devonian amphibians? VCs How large were fossil amphibia during the Great Coal period? X, 70 How big was the largest amphibian fossil ever found? VIII, 163 Describe the best known North American amphibian now extinct. VIII, 168-169 What did fossil frogs look like? How large were they? VIII, 169 What in the life history of frogs and toads shows us their relationship to salamanders? VIII, 195-196 In what ways have cave salamanders been changed? VIII, 189-190 What happens to the eyes of salamanders that live incaves? Describe the eye changes that occur during their lifetime. VIII, 183 8. THE RECORD OF DINOSAURS AND OTHER REPTILES: :. How are the amphibians linked with the reptiles ? Villa [340] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY Zs LO ET. £5: 16. What does the word “dinosaurs” bring to your mind? VIII, 213-214 What was the size and shape of various dino- saurs?) VEE, (17 Describe some flesh-eating dinosaurs. VIII, 219- 226 What was the most ferocious flesh-eating animal the world has ever known? Describe it and its habits. VIII, 224 When did the dinosaur become supreme? VII, 17 When did the Age of Reptiles begin? X, 74 What group of animals ruled the earth during the Jurassic Period? VII, 17 When did reptiles begin to flourish? VII, 17 What forms of life arose during the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous Periods? VII, 16-17 How far back in history do reptiles go? VIII, a2 Why were the ancient reptiles wiped out? X, 77 . What features of the giant dinosaur skeletons en- abled the animal to stand and move about? VIII, 229-230 What can you say about the brain capacity of a dinosaur? VIII, 235-236, 243 How large were the brains of ancient reptiles? X77 What dinosaur had two “brains?” Explain this condition. VIII, 243-244 [341] 19. 20. a. psp ap 2 24. DG 2.6. oo: 28. 29. 30. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL Describe the skin of dinosaurs. How can we de- termine what sort of skin they had? VIII, 217 What was the outstanding discovery in paleon- tology in recent times? VIII, 217-218 Have you ever heard rumors that dinosaurs may still be found living in some parts of the world? What truth is there in the stories? VIII, 213 What kinds of dinosaur fossils are found in our “Dinosaur National Monument?” Why is this place so rich in fossils? VIII, 215-216 What are the South Dakota Badlands famous for? X, 78 What states in our country have rich fossil de- posits of dinosaurs? VIII, 216 What caused all the dinosaurs to perish? VIII, 249-250 How heavy was the Brontosaurus? VIII, 230 What is meant by “ichthyosaurs?” VIII, 251 How did the ichthyosaurs become fitted to sea life? VIII, 251-254 What was the size and shape of ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs? VII, 16 Describe the paddle of the ichthyosaurs. VIII, 254 How did Ichthyosaurus reproduce its kind? State the evidence for your statement. VIII, 252-253 What were the ‘‘mosasaurs?”’ What interesting story is connected with the finding of the first mosasaur? VIII, 256-257 [342] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY AY, a2. S35: 34. 35- 45. 46. What state is famous for its aquatic dinosaur fossils? VIII, 256 How do we know what mosasaurs ate? VIII, 258-259 What were the plesiosaurs? How were they fitted to sea life? VIII, 260-261 What ancient turtle weighed three tons? VIII, 262 What were the pterodactyls? When did they live? VIII, 263 . What was the first vertebrate to fly? VII, 17 . What was the largest flying reptile? VII, 17 Describe the pterodactyls and their habits. VIII, 264-268 How were pterodactyls identified as having been flying reptiles? VIII, 264 . What was the ancestry of our present-day alli- gators and crocodiles? VIII, 299-300 . Describe some ‘‘beaked’’ dinosaurs and _ their habits. VIII, 232-250 . What dinosaurs had more than 2,000 teeth in their mouths? VIII, 238 How is a dinosaur “‘mummy”’ formed by nature? VIII, 239-240 Describe some of the tracks and trails left by din- osaurs. VIII, 269-277 Where and how were the first fossil tracks found in North America? VIII, 269-271 Why are many people misled into thinking cer- tain rocks are fossils? VIII, 280 [343] 47. 48. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL Why did the glass snake lizard lose its legs? VIII, 334 What has happened to the class of reptiles since prehistoric times? VIII, 211-212 g. Tue REcorp oF BirDs: Qh x bo i; 4. What evidence have we that birds came from reptiles? [X, 48-49 Describe the main features of Archaeopteryx, Ichthyornis and Hesperornis. [X, 41-45 What fossil birds had teeth? IX, 43-44 When did toothless birds first appear? IX, 45 What did fossil birds look like? IX, 42-44 Where were the oldest fossils of birds found? What were they like? IX, 41-42 How many fossil bird species have been found? 1S 39 . Why are there so few fossils of birds in spite of their past abundance? IX, 40-41 When did the true birds first appear? X, 79 . When did sea birds arise? VII, 17 . What catastrophe overtook birds in the North- ern Hemisphere during the Pleistocene? IX, 40 Why was the prehistoric bird, Diatryma, famous? IX, 45 . What recent bird stood over ten feet high? IX, 47-48 What bird had an egg with a capacity of two gallons? [X, 47 [344] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY HG 16. ie What bird gave us the idea of the roc of Sin- bad’s adventures? IX, 47 What kind of birds were known to prehistoric men? How do we know this? IX, 3-4 Give some evidence to show that the ostrich came from a flying ancestor. IX, 13 10. THE REcorD oF MAMMALs: us How did the phrase “Age of Mammals” get its hamien, eX. 267 Where are the ancestors of modern animals found? VII, 18 When were modern sea mammals formed? VII, 18 Describe the titanotheres and their habits. [X, I81, 191-192 How was a great titanothere skeleton found and dug up from the Badlands? IX, 181-187 How were the titanotheres wiped out? IX, 194- 195 | Where did mastodons live? VII, 18 Describe three rhinoceroses found in the Dakota Badlands. IX, 199 What animals developed at the same time as did the grasses? X, 79 . What has been the history of mammoths and elephants in North and Central America? IX, 349-358 . When did the ox appear? VII, 18 . When did deer first appear? VII, 18 [345 ] 13. 14. 1g. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Bays Ive Da as i i We 1&3 STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL How did the modern horse develop? IX, 353-361 What were the ancestors of our present day horses like? [X, 193 When did horses first appear? VII, 18 When did camels first appear? VII, 18 Where did the possible ancestors of camels first appear? IX, 199 What was the largest animal that ever lived on land or sea? IX, 368 Where were saber-tooth tigers plentiful in the United States? IX, 200 What happened to the saber-tooth tiger? VII, 18 What is the probable ancestor of our domestic cat? VI, 92 What do we know about the ancestors of the cat ? 1, ue rap . What do we know about the ancestors of the dog? IX, 321-322 When did dogs arise? VII, 18 . When did rodents arise? VII, 18 THE RECORD OF PLANTS IN THE ROCKs: How old are the animal and vegetable king- doms? VII, 3 How long have modern species existed? VII, 20 When did plants begin to flourish? VII, 14 When did the modern plant arise? VII, 17 [346] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 5. lik O Il. 2 13 14. Tig 16. 7. 18. IQ. When did the earliest flowering plants appear? X77 . When did flowering plants assume supremacy ? x, 79 Name some trees which lived in the Cenozoic ra. X, 79 How did the trees in Arizona become petrified? X, 74-75 What evidence have we that the Rocky Moun- tain climate was once milder and damper than today? X, 80 What effect did the Ice Age have on plants and animals? X, 82 What kind of climate existed the world over in the Coal Age? X, 69 What kind of animals lived when ‘‘Coal Mea- sures’’ plants flourished? X, 69-70 When did giant ferns flourish? X, 67-68 How do we know that ferns once were the domi- nant group of plants? XI, 94 How tall were the ancestors of our horsetail plants of today? X, 67 Why was the Carboniferous Period so named? Xe 6's What kind of plants became prominent during the Carboniferous Period? VII, 14 How was coal formed? X, 68 What type of root system did tall plants have in the ‘‘Great Coal” Period? X, 66 [347] 20! 2r. a2 rg 24. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What have fossils of bark in the “Coal Meas- ures” been mistaken for? X, 67 Name some present-day plants, the ancestors of which formed our great coal deposits. V, 87-88 What kind of plants replaced the plants of the Carboniferous Period during the Permian Period Vib. 17 What is the effect of a dry environment upon leaves? Xd 271-979 What were some of the factors that led to the de- velopment of desert plants? XI, 264-270 B. The Record of Manin The Rocks: 1. Earzty Man’s History: ie 10. How are the prehistoric records of man read? VII, 51-52 How do records of man come to light? VII, §3- 54 What kinds of scientists have helped decipher man’s past? VII, 37 | When does early man seem to fade from the pic- ture of the earth? VII, 2 What period saw the dawn of human life? VII, 18 During which period did true man arise? VII, 19 How far back does man’s history go? VII, 32 Why is it impossible to answer the question of man’s original beginning? VII, 32 What are some theories regarding man’s origin? IX, 330 When may man have first appeared? X, 82 [348 ] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY | He 12. EG. 14. 21%. 2D. Why is it so difficult to trace man’s origin from primates? LX, 329-330 What evidences are found of man before the Stone Age? VII, 43 Where were the remains of earliest known man found? VII, 134 How can animals and plants give us information about man’s history? VII, 38 Why have the bones of man and animals re- mained as records? VII, 44 . What animals were alive during the age of the dawnman® VL, 134 What happened to many types of animals which were alive during early man’s days on the earth? VII, 44 .. What part of the body of man and animals is best preserved? VII, 45 What is known about the “dawn man?” VII, 72 . What is another name for the ‘‘dawn man?”’ VII, 134 What evidences have we of man and animals of the Pleistocene Period? VII, 19 Why is the Piltdown Man called Eoanthropus? VII, 140 What deductions may be made from the Piltdown skull? VII, 141 Who was Pithecanthropus erectus? VII, 146-148 What does the skull of Pithecanthropus resem- ble? VII, 149-150 [349] 21. a2: 36. 37: STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL Why is it impossible to place the age of the Rhodesian skull? VII, 162 Where may the Rhodesian skull be placed in his- tory’, VIL, 161 . When did Pithecanthropus erectus live? VII, 149 To which age does the Pithecanthropus belong? VII, 149 . Where was the Rhodesian Man found? VII, 154-158 Why is it difficult to put the Rhodesian skull in its proper historical place? VII, 160 Why would it be possible to judge a gorilla’s pos- ture from its skull without our ever having seen one? VII, 47 . What is the difference in brain case between man, gorilla, chimpanzee and orang outang? VII, 45 . How can skulls give us information regarding in- telligence? VII, 46 . What is the relation of chin development to intel- ligence and historical age? VII, 47 What was the shape of Brinn Man’s skull? VII, 76 What is the general appearance of the Rhodesian skull? VII, 160 2. OLp STONE AGE: Kr. 9 —e When did the Stone Age begin? VII, 42 When did the Mousterian epoch begin in Europe? VII, 191 [350] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 3- TO; iT. 2s What important skull differences are found in the La Ouina man? V.11,41 24 What is the difference in skull vault between Krapina man and modern man? VII, 108 What are the comparative sizes of the brain from chimpanzee toman? VII, 163 How does a skull reveal the posture of the origi- nal man or animal? VII, 46-47 What is the importance of the folds of the brain? VII, 46 What do teeth tell us about the age, culture and intelligence of prehistoric man? VII, 48 What conclusions are drawn from the Heidel- berg skull? VII, 144-145 What do we know of man before Neanderthal mango bit 33 When did the Mousterian culture of the Neanderthal man possibly begin? VII, 166 What animals are found with Neanderthal re- mains? VII, 95 . What animals were alive during the Mousterian period? VII, 124 What animals were found to have lived during the life of the man of La Chappelle-aux-Saints ? Via 16 . To which fossil groups does the fossil man of La Chappelle-aux-Saints belong? VII, 118 . What type of culture did the Neanderthal man have? VII, 67-68 [351] WY: 18. rd. 20: Ai IE Deis ae 24. ae 26. aoe 28. 29. 30. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL Where in the Neanderthal group do the Galilee skulls belong? VII, 128 How do the bones of the Krapina man compare with those of the white man today? VII, 106- 107 What animals were common during the life of Krapina man? VII, 104 To what age did the fossil man of La Chappelle- aux-Saints belong? VII, 113-116 How do the bones of the fossil man of La Chap- pelle-aux-Saints compare with modern human bones? VII, 117 What proof have we that Neanderthal man was not confined to Europe? VII, 126-128 What proof of Mousterian culture was found in Germany? VII, 110-113 How do the teeth of Krapina man compare with those of modern man? VII, 108 What evidences of the Stone Age were found with the bones of the Krapina man? VII, 106 How long did Neanderthal man survive? VII, 81 3 What are the similarities and differences of the Krapina skull and modern skulls? VII, 104 Approximately when did the Stone Age begin? VII, 166 How much culture was in existence at the begin- ning of the Stone Age? VII, 166 What do the teeth of the Heidelberg jawbone resemble) VII, 1434 ).0) [352] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY aks 22. 33> 34. 35: What are the characteristics of the Heidelberg jawbone? VII, 143 How ancient is the fossil jawbone of Heidelberg Man? VII, 142 How were the stone tools of Neanderthal man used? Vil, 193 What were some of the tools made from bone? VII, 194 Why are many of ancient man’s materials not found today? VII, 187 7 When did man first appear on the American con- tinent? VII, 327 . Why is it wrong to say that mankind disappeared from Europe at the end of the Old Stone Age? VII, 234 . What is the difference in stone implements be- tween those of the Mousterian culture and those of the Acheulian culture? VII, 193 . When were bone instruments first found to have beeninuse? VII, 194 . What race superseded the Neanderthal? VII, 198 Before which epoch had man learned to kindle a fire? VII, 192 . Why are we led to believe that ancient man used handles for his tools? VII, 194 . What kind of implements were used by Pre-Chel- lean man? VII, 184 How did Pre-Chellean man appear in Europe? VII, 182 [353] 45- 46. 47- 48. 49. 50. i. 5. 53: 54- 55. 56. 57: 58. 59- 60. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What differences and similarities are there be- tween the Chellean and Pre-Chellean Age? VII, 185 When did the Mousterian culture end? VII, 191 What proof have we that wood was used by Stone Age man? VII, 194 Why are there no wood remains of ancient tools? VII, 194 How did man first use clubs? VII, 194 What kind of life did the Pre-Chellean man lead? VII, 184 What is meant by the Acheulian epoch? VII, 187 | What kind of climate occurred in Europe during the Chellean days? VII, 184 How long did Solutrean culture exist in Europe? Visor What distinguishes the human life of the Solu- trean epoch? VII, 74-75 What part of Europe did Solutrean culture af- fectifta VAL, 267 When did Solutrean culture disappear? VII, 211 What followed the disappearance of the Solu- trean epoch? VII, 212 What developments took place during the Acheu- lian epoch? VII, 189 Did the earlier and later type of cave dweller live at the same time? Explain. VII, 199 What two cultures were in simultaneous existence in Europe at the beginning of the Great Cold? VII, 190 [354] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 75° 70. How long ago did Cro-Magnon man appear in Europe? VII, 166 When did Cro-Magnon man exist? VII, 73 When did Cro-Magnon appear in Europe? VII, 276 Where did the Cro-Magnon race live? VII, 77 What was the appearance of Cro-Magnon man? VII, 75 How much of man’s culture was in existence when Cro-Magnon man appeared? VII, 167 When did the Magdalenian epoch begin? VII, 214 What evidence of Cro-Magnon man is found in mirica!) VIE 79 What evidence is there that Grimaldi man had his origin in Africa? VII, 79-80 What simple modern tool was used extensively by the Magdalenian man? VII, 217 . What caused the great artistic era of Magda- lenian man? VII, 218-219 Which animals were represented on the walls of caves: VITh203 . What was the purpose of Cro-Magnon draw- ings? VII, 220 What evidence is in existence that Cro-Magnon man employed medicine men? VII, 222-223 What is the only source of clay sculpture left by Magdalenian man? VII, 221 What changes took place regarding food-getting by Cro-Magnon man at the end of the Magda- lenian epoch? VII, 226 [355] ff STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL Where were Cro-Magnon people buried? VII, 78 . Why is it that Cro-Magnon people often had a larger brain than that of modern man? VII, 73- i: . What tools did Cro-Magnon man use? VII, 201 . What caused the decline of the Magdalenian man? VII, 225 What group displaced Cro-Magnon? VII, 228- 229 What definite evidence have we of man during the Glacial period? VII, 19 3. THE Ice AGE: -. 2. What is meant by the name, Ice Age? VII, 56 What are some old theories regarding the cause of the Ice Age? VII, 56-57 How much would the temperature of Europe have to drop in order to bring on = Ice Age? VII, 56-57 How long ago did the Ice Age occur? VII, 57 Has there been more than one Ice Age? Ex- plam. VI. 76 Explain how the sun might have been the cause of, theslce Age. VII, 56-57 What must have happened to winters during the Ice Ages, N11 ,.60 What kind of animals lived during the Ice Age? VII, 60-61 What kind of men lived during the Ice Age? VII, 67 [356] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY LQ it. | Oe What kind of life did man lead in the last Glacial period? VII, 68 What kind of man inhabited Europe at the close of the Glacial period? VII, 71 What race other than Cro-Magnon occupied Europe at the close of the Ice Age? VII, 74-76 What type of life persisted in the Spanish Pen- insula while the Glacier was over the rest of Burope? Vis 207 Why is it believed that the Pre-Chellean age falls in the third or second Interglacial period? VII, 182 . What leads us to believe that population was sparce in Pre-Chellean times? VII, 182 . What climatic changes took place during the Old Stone Age and the Middle Stone Age? VII, 43 4. MuIppLe STONE AGE: le What types of man existed after Cro-Magnon man? VII, 74 Where is the Stone Age in existence today? VII, 41 What is the Middle Stone Age? VII, 43 4. What is the difference between the Old Stone Age and the Middle Stone Age? VII, 244-245 How did the Middle Stone Age man live? VII, 234 5. NEw STONE AND BRONZE AGES: Le What animals were known to early Indus River people? VII, 313 [357] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL Why have we practically no traces of Neolithic artistry? VII, 263 What people living in the New Stone Age were found by explorers? VII, 263 What kinds of ancient remains have lasted until today? VII, 264 . What proof do we have that Solutrean man ate horses for food? VII, 253 What are the demarcations of the ages of man? VII, 266 How can Bronze Age remains be easily identi- fed? Vib, 273 How far are we now from the Bronze Age? VII, 275 How long and over which area did the Bronze Age hold sway? VII, 293 DEVELOPMENT OF Man: i What are the periods and eras in the history of man? VII, 19-20 How does a skull reveal the posture of the origi- nal man or animal? VII, 46-47 How can a skull give information regarding in- telligence? VII, 46 Why should it be possible to judge a gorilla’s posture from its skull without our ever having seen a gorilla? VII, 47 What part of Piltdown Man establishes him as a primitive type? VII, 138-139 [358] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 6. 10. Il. | ye W3 14. es), 16. ig 18. 19. What is the difference in tongue muscle projec- tion in the skull in modern man, ape and prehis- toricman? VII, 47-48 How do the bones of Krapina man compare with the white man of today? VII, 106-107 What are the comparative sizes of the brain from chimpanzee to man? VII, 163 What are the similarities and differences of the Krapina skulls and modern skulls? VII, 104 What is the importance of the folds of the brain? VII, 46 What kind of cell changes are the only ones which will change future generations? VII, 32 How thick was the skull of “dawn man?” VII, 136 . What kind of brain did Pithecanthropus erectus have? VII, 148 What do we know about the posture of Pithecan- thropus? VII, 151-152 What is the brain capacity of the ape and Pithe- canthropus? VII, 150 Was Pithecanthropus a tree climber or ground walker? Explain. VII, 152 Why is Pithecanthropus considered a transitional form? VII, 153-154 What is the difference in skull vault between the Krapina, Neanderthal and modern man? VII, 108 What information do lower jawbones give to the anthropologist? VII, 47 [359] 20. Zs A a oe aM. 26, 26. on 28. 29. 30. By) 32. 33° STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL How is the weight of the organs, chest and head carried in man? VII, 49 How is the weight of the upper body carried in animals? VII, 49 How was the erect body balanced? VII, 48 What were the anatomical peculiarities of Nean- derthal man? VII, 131 How do the jawbones of the Neanderthal man, a European man and a young chimpanzee com- pare? 4(See illustration.) Vile Why is it correct to accept reconstruction of skulls made from a few fragments? VII, 49-50 What changes in his anatomy took place as man developed ? VII, 48 How does the shape of the knee affect upright carriage? VII, 49-50 What is the relationship of thighbone size to height? VII, 49-50 What evidence is there that environment caused organic evolution in all forms of living things? Vik os What is the origin of species? VII, 20-21 Why is man not believed to have descended from amonkey? VII, 21-22 What profound changes in the human being have thkeniplaceraV Ly 95 What is the relative weight and length of a new- born baby compared with that of an adult? VII, 34 [360] ne SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 34- 35. 36. 37: 38. 39: 40. Al. 42. 43- 44. 45. 46. 47: 48. What appendages do humans have which are not now necessary? VII, 31 What is the size and weight of the human embryo during the period of gestation? VII, 33 How does an infant’s heart beat? VII, 34 What are the rates of growth of a human being at different stages? VII, 34 What is the weight of the parts of the body in infants and adults? VII, 34 What change takes place in human beings at birth? VI; 33 What changes take place in the heart-beat as a child grows? VII, 34 Why are there no two human beings exactly alike? VIL, 24 What caused the change in stature of Cro- Magnon man? VII, 212 What is the difference between the Cro-Magnon and Caspian man? VII, 228 Where are descendants of Cro-Magnon man found today? VII, 228 | What caused a different culture to develop among the West Coast Indians than among the others? TV AE75 What is the belief of scientists concerning the de- velopment of man? VII, 31-32 How does the Spy skull compare to the skull of Neanderthal and of modern man? VII, 102 What was the external appearance of early man? VII, 168 [361] 49. 50. ae 52. 53: 54. 5° STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What was the structure of early man’s nose, lips and eyebrows? VII, 169 Did erect posture and use of arms of body come before the development of the brain? VII, 169 What is the similarity of ‘“dawn man’s” skull to other human species? VII, 136 How do the jawbones of the chimpanzee, Pilt- down, Heidelberg and modern man compare? VII, 144 What do some believe to be the origin of the operculum? X, 288-289 What does the human embryo teach us about our ancestors? VIII, 1 What is the doctrine of recapitulation? VII, 31 [362] Pupil and Class Activities et hings To Do: 1s Visit your local museum for an interview with the paleontologist. Ask him about his experiences _ while hunting fossils. Try to get him to address your school. X, 16-18 Inquire at your local museum as to where you could collect fossils for your home, club, or school museum. Make trips to those places with your friends. X, 16-18 Visit a bituminous coal mine or sandstone hill to look for fossils. Visit a coal mining district and look in the dump pits for fossils in shale or coal. Try to get the assistance and guidance of an official. X, 66-69 Visit your local museum of natural history. Make pen, pencil, charcoal, or color portraits of dino- saur restorations. Exhibit these in your class- room. VIII, 219-226 Make a trip to the dinosaur section in your local museum. B. Class Discussions: I. Some methods used by scientists to measure the age.ot the earths, V1.2; .4,.8 3X, 1-9 The age of remains found in the ground can be estimated. VII, 38-40 [363] LO. | te Ie STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL Life has been extinguished from the earth in the past. Vit, 5-16 Discuss the way sedimentary rocks form in nature. X, I-3 How nature preserves plants and animals. X, I1-13 The reasons for our having so few fossils of plants and animals that once lived. X, 26-29 The connection between diatoms and the world’s supply of petroleum. XI, 195-196 The formation of coal. X, 66-68 Roaches had ancestors before the human race existed. V, 84-90, 97-98 Prehistoric birds looked very different from mod- ern birds. IX, 41-49 Man is as old as the earth. VII, 2-4 C. Pupil Reports: i The earth before the age of living things. VII, 12-13 How geologists read the story locked up in the rocks. LX, 188-206 How geologists reckon prehistoric time. IX, 255-259 The formation of fossils in nature. VIII, 279-290 Early plants of the earth. VII, 14-15 6. The changes that have taken place in the wings of insects since they first appeared on earth. V, 9I- 96 [364] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 7. Report on the type of plant which existed when insects first appeared on earth. V, 86-89 8. The evolution of fishes. VIII, 8-29 9. The evolution of the amphibia. VIII, 173-176 10. What we know about land dinosaurs. VIII, 213- 250 11. What we know about prehistoric fish lizards. VIII, 251-262 12. What we know about flying reptiles in prehistoric times. VIII, 263-268 13. How mammal fossils are located and removed from the rocks. IX, 171-187 14. The evolution of the horse. [X, 353-361 D. Self-Test Exercises: PES PEt Match each item in column A with the proper item in column B. A B ameaee Of the carth X, 5 1. Carboniferous period b. fossils X, 10 2. prehistoric birds c. paleontology X, 14 3. formed our petroleum d. pterodactyls VIII, 263 4. carbon in rocks eiPaleozoic: X,'50 5. two and a half billion years old f. diatoms XI, 195 6. science dealing with fossils g. evidence of prehistoric 7. the preserved remains plant life X, 43 of prehistoric living things [365 ] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL h. coal formed X, 65 8. physiology i. wingspread of two feet 9. flying reptiles V,95 j. Hesperornis TX, 44-45 10. period in earth’s his- tory 11. prehistoric dragonflies ANSWERS a—5 f—3 by o> c—6 h—1 d—g i—II e—I10 J-—2 TEST II Complete the following sentences so that each makes a true statement. } 1. An element which helps us determine the age of the earth (67ers ee a ke : 2. Remains of ancient plants and animals preserved in the rocks are’calicd FX Oe 3. The majority of fossils are found in the type of rock known agin AP ie X11 4. he first flowering plants on earth appeared during the ——————————— period. X, 77 5. During Miocene period many animals in the Rocky Mountain regironaere killed by.) +» 1 =) ae 6. The largest part of the iron used by the United States was deposited during the Proterozoic Era by BiG) een | 47 [366] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 7, —_________ may have formed the world’s supply of petroleum. XI, 195 8. Our present day types of insects arose from prehis- DiS Se eo ee me, a g. The largest animal that ever lived on land or sea is Binet EX 68 10. An ancient dinosaur that weighed over twenty tons eS eran 00 Pato 11. Prehistoric flying reptiles are known as Witl, 263 12. Scientists have evidence that birds arose from pre- femme es. LX, 48 13. A prehistoric bird which laid eggs each with a capacity of more than two gallons was ________._ IX, 47 14. The most ferocious flesh eating animal the world Masrever known was the VEIT, 204 15. Some states in the United States which once were eeonee oy laroe Oceans, are = XS 89 ANSWERS 1. Uranium 9. blue whale 2. fossils 10. Brontosaurus 3. sedimentary RE. (eteredactyls ‘4. Lower Cretaceous H2.) reptiles 5. volcanoes 13. Aepyornis 6. bacteria and algae 14. Tyrannosaurus 7. diatoms Bee Ihexas;) Oklahoma, 8. cockroaches and dragon- Missouri and Wiscon- flies sin [367] f i pi i ai hi mf, \, Pe . 4, ha A en Py ' BOOT ca a a ae a, a pe or he nr yney's Ki, Ohya ix bres tal cha aynircoah io ye a | py, Vegi oko s ator nt: Yo whey iy , hat hiey ene t a), .4 et ie —— ri eer et 4 een pgm pees ae %, é ” iv eh age te biel qu Toil ‘ain, oa Laaeinuy oer - iw does eames Biel dow oe ORG he sae as ME van Gig’ gh vi wwndaily ti ) yy £. it hn 4 quails Ht | 4 syrie ; rf ti (oR: e: i sneer ers OM dil te Nee ae i 4 resents ) t Ney er atti en out mga: PALER ha. MAE ee os By vin eal aia he ee oO i a, om: —- = _ Par a i ee he TY ve ee \ » UNIT XXIV PROGRESS AND HISTORY OF MAN A. Evidenceon Which The History Is Based: |i What records do we possess of man’s earty his- tory? VII, 38 Who were the men who discovered man’s great accumulations of the past? VII, 53-55 What evidences are found of the cultural prac- tices of ancient people? VII, 49-51 What evidence is there of ancient man’s ability as a plant breeder? XI, 321 How do we use the early discoveries of ancient man? XI, 321 Why are restorations of fleshy bone structures the only correct ones? VII, 198 What do teeth tell us about the age, culture and intelligence of man? VII, 48 How does intelligence develop with time in earth history? VII, 2 What is the difference in tongue-muscle projec- tion in the skulls of modern man, ape and pre- historic man? VII, 47-48 [369] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL How long has man been master of the earth? VII, 20 What are the evidences of Neanderthal exist- ence? VII, 84-85 What caused the extinction of some races? VII, 176 B. Probable Origin of Man: ie a EO. i ie P2. Is man’s history completely solved? VII, 34 When did the first semblance to man arise? VII, 18 | When is human life believed to have begun? Vil, 38 During which period did true man arise? VII, 19 What single factor makes Pithecanthropus dif- ferent from the gibbon or ape? VII, 153 Wiiat is the difference in the brain case of man, gorilla, chimpanzee and orang-outang? VII, 45 What bone structure demonstrates that Pithecan- thropus was amanandnotanape? VII,151 What proportion of the human body is similar to other animals? VII, 31 | What portion of the human body is not found in other animals? VII, 31 Why is it inaccurate to say that man is descended irom apes? VIL, 22 Why was early man like other living creatures in the woods? VII, 171 Why is Neanderthal man not classed as Homo sapiens? VII, 130 [370] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY IF. What is the relationship of the size of the brain case to the intelligence of man and other animals ? VII, 45 14. Which activities are carried on only by man? VII, 20 C. Cave Dwellers: ie What is the earliest known bone instrument? Vis How did early man fasten things? VII, 174-175 When did man begin to use sticks and stones? VII, 166 . When did man become a user of tools? VII, 172 How long has man been master of the world? VII, 20 How did ancient man solve his food problem? AT 220 How many species of man existed in very early times? VII, 167 D. Old Stone Age: I. What was the highest type of cave dwellers? VII, 199 . What were the three basic tools with which man rose over animals? VII, 173 Why did the cave man use beads and paint? VII, 197 What was the purpose other than protection for clothes worn by early man? VII, 175 Who were the first to wear some kind of cover- ing? VII, 192 [371] LO. Pe is Pee 20. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL How did man become a tool user? VII, 172 When was the barb used on spear and hunting weapon heads? VII, 209 Why are human representations without all the fingers found? VII, 204 What may be the significance of the female statu- ettes? VII, 205 To what extent did magic dominate early man? Vile 177 Is there sufficient evidence of cannibalism among the men of the Stone Age? VII, 197 How did the Aurignacians earn their livelihood? VII, 201 What common purpose has the art of the Caspian, Magdalenian and Aurignacian culture? VII, 230-231 Who were the Caspians? VII, 228 How did Pre-Chellean man appear in Europe? VII, 182 What kind of implements were used by Pre- Chellean man? VII, 184 | What was the clothing of Chellean man? VII, 185 When did Mousterian culture appear in Europe? VII, 82 What is the range of Mousterian culture? VII, 130 Which skulls are possible links between modern man and Neanderthal man? VII, 96-102 [372] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 7M What is the comparative size of modern and Neanderthal skulls? VII, 88 . What is the capacity of the Neanderthal skull ? VII, 88 . What is the shape of the Neanderthal skull? VII, 91-92 Why were Neanderthal men buried doubled up and supplied with food and equipment? VII, 197, 224-225 How did Neanderthal man distinguish between the natural and the supernatural? VII, 196 What race superseded the Neanderthal race? VII, 198 | To which fossil group does the fossil man of La Chappelle-aux-Saints belong? VII, 118 . What are the characteristics of Cro-Magnon mans Vib 14..79 . Has the Cro-Magnon race completely vanished today? VII, 226 . Why did the Cro-Magnon man paint himself and the dead with red? VII, 206 . What were the burial customs of Cro-Magnon man? VII, 206 . What evidence is found in Africa of Cro-Mag- non man? VII, 79 . What culture replaced Magdalenian culture? VII, 226 . Why were Magdalenian tools carved? VII, 216 . With which group is Magdalenian culture most closely associated? VII, 212 [373] 96; 37: 38. 39: 48. 49. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What race other than Cro-Magnon occupied Europe at the close of the Ice Age? VII, 74-76 What negroid type race existed in early Europe at the same time as Neanderthal and Cro-Mag- non? VII, 79 What type of artistry developed in Solutrean times? VII, 209 What parallels exist between the Solutrean and Aurignacian groups and the Iroquois and Algon- quin tribes? VII, 210 . What distinguishes the human life of the Solu- trean Epoch? VII, 74-75 . What was the Solutrean attitude toward the deadey Vil, att How do higher cultures affect lower cultures? VII, 200 . What do higher cultures obtain from lower cul- tures? VII, 200 . What were the bad habits of ancient man in the light of modern thought? VII, 178 . Which cultural traces are found in present day Spain? VII, 227-228 . What do many anthropologists believe to be the origin of religion? VII, 225 . When did burial of the dead begin to take place? VII, 189 Why is it difficult to distinguish the exact dividing line between cultures? VII, 187-188 How much of ancient man’s culture do we have? Vis 187 [374] a SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 50. SI. bile What people were still living in the Old Stone Age, 300 years ago? VII, 184 How was the quality of ancient races maintained ? Vil 196 Where does the Australian Bushman belong in tie orderot present'day races? Vili ii 32 . Why is not the Australian Bushman of Neander- thal origin? VII, 132 E. Middle Stone Age: i. 10. 1 How did the people of Crete dress? VII, 310- 210 When did pottery and basket weaving begin? NLL..2:38 What was the effect of the bow and arrow on man? VEL, 237 What was the attitude of Mesolithic man toward is stome axer Vil, 235 How far into the present time has reverence for the axe been transmitted? VII, 236 What was the purpose of cannibalism? VII, 255 What is the history of the ancient Cretes? VII, 309 When did European civilization begin? VII, 309 What were the new inventions of Mesolithic man? VII, 234 What kind of harpoon heads were developed? Vikls 23% How did the Middle Stone Age man live? VII, 234 [375] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL F. New Stone Age: 1. New SToNnE AGE Man: | se Ze 3- When did agriculture begin? XI, 322 Where was agriculture first practised? XI, 322 How was flint mined in Neolithic times? VII, 248 Why are forest people in Africa, New Guinea and the Philippines backward? XI, 204 How do we explain the failure of primitive people of today? XI, 319 What vestiges have we of the early. “medirine man’s bag?” VII, 262 7. What are the homes of the Hottentots? II, 189 8. What brought about the abandonment of human 10. 16: 16. sacrifices? VII, 248 What brought the civilization of ancient Creie to acioser VIT, 312 How were the rulers of Crete chosen? VII, 310- 271 . What was the religion of the Cretes? VII, 310 . What was Sumerian culture? VII, 303-304 What race followed the Sumerians? VII, 304 Why can we not say that all people passed through the same stages of civilization? VII, 249 How did slavery develop? VII, 254 Why were probably the first rulers of men? VII, 177 [376] | SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY ny 18. 19. 20. ZY. 22. What kind of government developed in ancient China? VII, 320 What civilization developed in the environs of the Indus River? VII, 313 What were the industries of the Indus people? Ml hg What was the writing of the Indus valley people? VII, 314 What change in construction did the Persians dring to India? VII, 316 What was the effect of war upon ancient life? VII, 180 2. EGYPTIAN AND RELATED CULTURAL HistTory: Ee Who were the painted pottery people of Baby- lonia? VII, 302 What was the merit of Babylonian art? VII, 307 What was the Babylonian attitude toward con- quered people? VII, 307 Why is it wrong to say that Egypt was the cradle of civilization? VII, 295 . Which is the only other region which can compete with Egypt as to age of civilization? VII, 301 What was the purpose of Egyptian sculpture? VII, 299 Why was mummification practised? VII, 300 Why were the pyramids erected? VII, 299 Why was stone used extensively in Egypt? VII, 297 [377] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL 10. What was the purpose of the common worship of one ruler? VII, 305 11. What were the so-called empires of the Semitic period? VII, 305 12. What does civilization owe to Persia? VII, 308 1. How do present-day Egyptians compare with ancient Egyptians? VII, 296 3. SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICAN INDIANS: 1. What was the origin of the Aztecs? VII, 337 2. What kind of culture was developed by the Aztecs? Vil. 320 3. How did Aztecs record history? VII, 340 4. What was the Aztecs’ religious attitude to sacri- heer Wiis 36 What is the origin of Mexico City? VII, 338 What was the origin of the Incas? VII, 341 How old was the Inca empire? VII, 341 co sy (py Sai Why was the Inca culture lower than other South American cultures? VII, 345 g. What was the religion of the Incas? VII, 346 10. How was Inca literature possible without writ- ing? VII, 346 11. Why did not the Incas achieve a Bronze Age civilization? VII, 342 12. How did the Incas keep records? VII, 344-345 13. What was the clothing of the Incas? VII, 343 14. What was the religious significance of the Inca fuler? Vil igar [378] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY DS 16. hz: 18. 19. 20. 20. D2 Do. 24. 2. 26. Da 28. What was unusual about the Inca government ? VIR 242 When did Mayan culture begin? VII, 335 Why was not the Mayan culture a civilization? Villyig29 What was the essential characteristic of Mayan culture? VII, 336 What rare condition of government is found in Mayan culture? VII, 336 What was the Mayan writing? VII, 332, 334 What kind of Mayan structures are still stand- ing? Vil, 338 How did most of the Mayan population live? VII, 336 How was the key to Mayan language lost? VII, 334 What caused the decline of Mayan culture? VII, $35 Why is it possible to reconstruct the time of Mayan culture? VII, 335 Why did Mayan culture disappear easily? VII, 335 What was the Toltec culture? VII, 337 How long did the Toltec culture last? VII, 337 4. INDIANS NorTH OF MEXxIco: WV: What studies of Indian culture have been under- taken? IV, 8 How many distinct cultures were found among the Indians north of Mexico? IV, 34-35 [379] 12. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL Where have people similar to the American In- dians been found? IV, 2-3 What great Indian family lived in North Amer- ica when white man came? IV, 4 How many Indian families live in North Amer- tat; WV. 2 Into what general types are Indians classed? IV, 3 How was it possible for a million people speak- ing 200 different languages to communicate with each other? IV, 10 What are typical examples of an Indian sign language conversation? IV, 11-13 Why is the Indian race vanishing? IV, 7 Which California tribe is extinct? IV, 179 Which is the most primitive of West Coast tribes? IV, 177 Why is the American Indian culture native to the New World? VII, 349-350 What is the crowning achievement of the Ameri- can Indians? XI, 346 . Where ‘does corn appear. m the fart "ae ene Indians? XI, 346-348 What parts of Indian culture do we still retain? Wil, 350 What religious practises did the Indians observe ? IV, 28-30 What was the prevalence and significance of smoking tobacco? IV, 26-27 How did Indians work stone? IV, 19-20 [380] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 19. 20. Bde DD 23. aE 25. 2.6. a7. 28. 20. Z0. Bil wt. 33° What means of writing did Indians possess? IV, 17-18 How did Indians coin words? IV, 14 Who were the best basket weavers? IV, 182- 184 What was the main material with which Indians worked? IV, 19 : What arts did Indians practise? IV, 23-24 What was the purpose of paint on the Indian’s body? IV, 24 What is the significance of the Indian war bon- net?) TY) 24 What is the significance of the peace pipe? IV, 31-32 What was the effect of white men on the In- dians? IV, 251-252 What developed from the Indian culture? VII, — 329 | What was the importance of the direction of the winds to Indian life? IV, 31-32 What historical record did the Indians keep be- fore the coming of white man? IV, 250 Where in the colonies were Indians treated fairly? IV, 201 What is the history of white man’s relation to the Indians in the colonies? IV, 252-258 What was white man’s attitude toward Indian culture: LV, 7 5. ImpPorRTANT AMERICAN INDIAN TRIBES: ¥. What was the Cherokee alphabet? IV, 18 [381] | STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL Who are the Hopi Indians? IV, 130 Who are the Houda Indians? IV, 210 Who were the Hupa Indians? IV, 199-200 What was the Hupa artistry? IV, 206 How did the Iroquois hunt? IV, 77 What inventions did the Iroquois make? IV, 78-79 How were the Iroquois governed? IV, 84 What was the basis of Iroquois tribal organiza- tion? IV, 81, 84 What was the Iroquois council organization? IV, 94-95 What was the place of women in Iroquois life? IV, 73 How far did Iroquois power extend? IV, 89 . What were the doctrines of Iroquois govern- ment? 1Vi 3s How did the Mohave differ from other tribes ? IV, 176 | _ Who were the Porrios? IV, 180-181 . Why are there so many empty pueblos? IV, 113 . What was the culture of the Sioux Indians? IV, 146-149 . Whoare the Tlingit Indians? IV, 212-213 What was the Yurak culture? IV, 191-196 Which tribes shared the Yurak culture? IV, 198-199 . Whoirarethe:Zunis? LV 2-05 ,,230 What do Eskimos call themselves? IV, 38 [382] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY a 24. De 26: ar 28. What does the word Eskimo mean? IV, 38 How are Eskimo children educated? IV, 63 What laws do Eskimos observe? IV, 61 What is the Eskimo standard of value? IV, 55- 56 What is the Eskimo religion? IV, 58 What happened to Eskimo culture? IV, 39 G. Age of Bronze: I. 192 jg In what important ways were New and Old World agricultural methods different? XI, 323 What practises lifted ancient man to a civilized state? (ull oF What is the relation between grasses and the civilization of man? XI, 203-204 Why is the world indebted to the American In- dian? XI, 346 In what modern science is corn a valuable tool? XI, 348 . What amazing kind of work was carried on in the Bronze Age? VII, 283-284 What artistic work developed in the Bronze Age? VII, 280-281 . How were the Bronze Age people dressed? VII, Zip 2-273 How were early measurements made? VII, 280 . When did the potter’s wheel appear? VII, 273 . When did true porcelain originate? VII, 274 When did jewelry develop? VII, 281 How did money originate? VII, 278-279 [383] PLOY Daly Te 22 = 28. 2a: STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL What were early kinds of money? VII, 279-280 What did some primitive people do to their stone battle-axes when they first saw bronze ones? VIbv o7i.a92 What protection against bronze arms was de- veloped’ Vil ago How did picture writing begin? VII, 290 How were sounds first written? VII, 290 . Why is writing a fundamental achievement? VII, 289 When did the knowledge of writing begin? VII, 167 What part of man’s history is recorded in writ- ing? VII, 167 What enabled the people of Crete to rapidly de- velop a Bronze Age civilization? VII, 309 . Why is the alphabet the best system of writing? VII, 291 What race inhabited China before the Chinese ? VII, 318 . What culture did the conquerors of early China possess? VII, 318 . When was the Chinese Empire established? APT, 325 What changes caused the overthrow of Chinese Feudalism? VII, 324 When did the great thinkers and philosophers of China begin their work? VII, 324 Where did Chinese obtain their Bronze culture? VII, 320 [384] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 30. 31. 22. When does the historical period of China begin? VII, 321 What happened to many small Chinese cities? Vib aet What mystical properties were attributed by the ancients to ruby and sapphire? III, 209-210 . What changes in warfare did the Bronze Age bring about? VII, 285 How were the Indo-Europeans able to conquer? VII, 288 How is food supply related to the development of art and science? XI, 319 . Where did the Bronze Age last the longest? VII, 284-285 When did the Aryan invasion of India take place? VII, 314-315 ae Age of Tron: E. i) What is the real measure of man’s progress in civilization? XI, 319 When was iron adopted in Egypt? VII, 300 What town developments took place in the Mid- dle Ages? VII, 282 Which activities are only carried on by man? VII, 20 Why is man master of the Earth? VII, 20 Why is this called the Steel Age and another the Copper Age? VII, 39-41 What is the effect of war on present civilization ? VI, 181 [385] Pupil and Class Activities A, Things To Dae Ee N Carve wooden models of early bronze axes. Paint with bronze gilt. VII, 270-271 Sew from rough cloth the garments of a man and woman of the late Bronze Age. VII, 274-275 Make clay copies of Pueblo water jars. Orna- ment them with black ink. IV, 12 Make a chart of the Cherokee alphabet. IV, 16 Using ordinary beads, make some of the Eskimo ornaments shown on page 49. IV Using odd pieces of fur make an Eskimo doll. IV, 51 Using two pieces of wood, and following the drawing on page 52, carve a model of an Eskimo woodpecker toy. IV, 52 Construct a Wichita grass lodge from hay, straw or grass. IV, 161 Using white pine or balsa carve a totem pole. IV, 213 Paint Indian designs on shallow bowls. IV, 232 . Weave an Indian sitting cradle from rafha. IV, 184 Make an Indian dog travois for carrying your equipment on a hike. VII, 255 [386] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY i 2: 4. Tee 16. 7 Make wooden models of earlier digging imple- ments. VII, 258-260 Construct a Tasmian canoe model from bark lashed together in the manner shown in the dia- gram. VII, 240 Make a stone hatchet from a stone and wood. Vili ag5 Make an early stone oil lamp from clay. Fill with animal fat and light a wick which stands in the fat. VII, 220 Carve a set of bone implements using triangular files. VII, 215 . Makea set of Aurignacianimplements. VII, 200 . Makea set of Acheulian fist axes. VII, 189 Make a set of Chelleantools. VII, 186 Make pointed stone eoliths like those of 1,000,- ooo years ago. VII, 183 Chip a stone into an eolith. VII, 171 Make wood copies of the oldest tools known. Vil, 135 Make a set of Mousterian stone tools. VII, 191 Make plaster casts of modern and Neanderthal man’s skull to the same scale in order to compare the structure. VII, 118 Make large drawings of the skeletons of Nean- derthal and modern Australian man to the same seales VII, 115 Make plaster or clay models of prehistoric skulls. VII, 42-55, [387] 28. 29. 30. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL Draw large outline diagrams which show the size of the brain from chimpanzee to modern man. VII, 163 Make models of the development of the jawbone inman. VII, 144 Visit a local museum of Natural History or an Indian Museum. B. Class Discussions: i aes The plow is in universal use today. VII, 258-261 The little Island of Crete affected the civilization of large areas for many years. VII, 308-312 Egypt was the seat of civilization. VII, 294-308 4. Writing is the most important aspect of a civiliza- E@; | ih tion. VII, 288-293 Until the coming of the Bronze Age, man made little progress. VII, 40-44 . The Chinese civilization was developed com- pletely independent of all other cultures. VII, 317-325 | Machines are causing civilization to go backward. XII, 309-352 | Farm machines have lessened the importance of the farmer. XII, 303-308 Aztecs possessed a civilization. VII, 337-340 The Mayans had a great civilization. VII, 329- 336 Civilization originated in the Indus valley. VII, 313-317 Man used horses for drawing carts before he rode horseback. VII, 285-289 [388] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 1g 14. ise 16. ryt 18. 19. PAC 25 DQ a. 24. re. 26. 27. White man has had a constructive influence upon the Indians. IV, 5-8 Gems were known only in modern times. III, 316-319 Indians possessed traces of European culture be- fore the coming of white men. XII, 349-351 White man had nothing to learn from the Indians about good diet and cooking. IV, 25-26 Indians were poor organizers. IV, 71-103 The Plains Indians lived solely a nomadic life. IV, 152-154 The wheel was invented in many places on the earth. VII, 256-257 The Middle Stone Age shows little advance over the Old Stone Age. VII, 234-245 Solutrean tools were superior to other contempo- rary tools. VII, 207-209. It was man’s physical superiority which enabled him to conquer the beasts of the jungle. VII, 168- 172 Little change in the skull of man has taken place in the development of man. VII, 130-131 Negroid and white races were limited to Africa and Europe respectively. VII, 79-82 Cro-Magnon man physically, was the most su- perior man ever to inhabit the earth. VII, 77-79 Cro-Magnon men made drawings on their caves to fulfill a creative urge. VII, 201-206 Cro-Magnon man was more intelligent than modern man. VII, 73-78 [389] 28. 29. 30. ei. 30. STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL Rhodesian Man is related to Neanderthal man. VII, 160-164 All races of man developed from the same stock and became different because of local variations. LV, 1-2 Piltdown Man was really an ape. VII, 135-141 Pithecanthropus erectus was not a man. VII, 145-154 | It is impossible to learn anything from the frag- mentary remains of man. VII, 49-50 C. Pupil Reports: Irs 12. se Man’s three greatest achievements. VII, 173 The hold of “magic” upon ancient man. VII, 177-181 The importance of the harvester and reaper to American development. XII, 303-308 How Indians name things. IV, 14-16 The Cherokee alphabet. IV, 16 The religion of the native Indian. IV, 28-34 The sign language of the Indians. IV, 11-12 A day in an Eskimo’s life. IV, 45-49 A Pueblo village. [V>131 How Cushing studied the customs of the Zuni Indians. [V, 118-128 . The appearance of a cliff dwelling. IV, 102-110 What caused the differences between the culture of Indians on the west and inland. IV, 175-178 Tribes of the west coast. IV, 175-213 [390] SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY 14. Krapina man — an almost modern man. VII, 104-109 15. Thecultures of the Old Stone Age. VII, 53-55 16. The relationship between the balancing of the head on the spine and man’s development. VII, 46-49 17... Uhe erasonlife on the earth. VIIj13-22 18. ‘The evolution of the jawbone. VII, 46 D. Self-Test Exercises: DES 1 f Change the letters in this code word as follows: BJESXWNORIV 1. If no evidence concerning the existence of man 7000 years ago has been found, change B to V. If evidences of _ man more than 100,000 years ago has been found, change fee. VII} 2. 2. If man descended from primates, change J to O. If man descended from previous living things, change to A. VII, 22. 3. Ifthe Pueblo Indians were the Cave Dwellers, change E to S. If the men of La Chappelle-aux-Saints were Cave Dwellers, change to L. IV, 110, VII, 114-118. 4. If Neanderthal man lived in the Old Stone Age, change S to E. If Java man belongs in the Old Stone Age, change to M. VII, 182-192 5. If Middle Stone Age man improved his weapons, change X to O. If Middle Stone Age man did not improve his weapons, do not change. VII, 235. [391] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL 6. If woven clothing was worn in the New Stone Age, change W to L. If only skins were worn, change to A. VII, 261-262. 7. Ifthere are no people at the present time in the Stone Age stage of development, change N to L. If people have recently been found living in the Old Stone Age, change to I. VII, 184. 8. If iron quickly replaced the use of bronze, change O to B. If bronze was superior to early iron, change to T. VII, 306. g. If the brain case of earliest known man and apes are the same, change Rto C. If not, changetoH. VII, 151. 10. If brain cases showed the development of intelli- gence, do not change. If brain cases are not valid evidence, change to O. VII, 131. 11. If the difference between a civilization and a lower type of civilization is the quality and quantity of goods pro- duced, change V to A. If writing is an essential difference, change to C. VII, 345. Note: If the above is correctly done, it will spell the name of an early era in the develop- ment of the earth. ANSWER Paleolithic TESS 41 Match each item in column A with the proper item in column B. A B a. manonearth 1. tools invented. VII, 20 b. grasses 2. Piltdown. VII, 135 a. SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY c. early writing . gyi ijavas( VIL 18 d. growth of intelligence Ac? stone axe. “VIP 235 e. wevererice 5. civilization. XI, 203- 204. f. man, master of earth 6. Cro-Magnon. VII, 198, 199 g. highest type cave man 7. Indus valley people. Ved, Bi Aas h. earliestbone instrument 8. Less than one million years ano, Vil, i. end of Neanderthal 9. Mousterian. VII, 82 j. earliest known man ro. Pleistocene’ VEE 19 ANSWERS a—10 f—I b—5 o—6 C—7 h—z2 d—8 I—9 e—4 are ye es ee In the first group you will find incomplete sentences. ‘The second consists of completion of the first group. Re-write the sentences by matching proper second halves of sentences to make a true statement. a. Therecordofmaninthe 1. during the Ice Age rocks VII, 52-53 small populations of Chellean men were alive. b. Men who study the rec- 2. during the Pleistocene ord of man in the rocks period. Vik, 135 [393] STUDY GUIDE IN GENERAL [394] Early man fades from 3. _ used tools. the earth. VII, 2, 18-19 “Dawn man” VII, 135 4. is called Eoanthropus. Piltdown man VII, 140 ‘5. is read by the markings of the foldsof thebrain. Java man VII, 146,148 6. is called Pithecanthro- pus. . The skull’s stage of . 7. superseded ty eae brain development VII, Magnon man. 46 Neanderthal man was 8. isreadin the strata and VII, 198 accumulations found in strata. Man did not disappear g. are called anthropolo- from Europe but VII, gists. 234 Cro-Magnon, a possibly 10. is not considered to be physically superior man more intelligent than and possessing a larger modern man. brain than modern man Vi, 73-76 ANSWERS | a—s8 f—6 b—9 a c—2 hg d—3 I—I e—4 jJ—10 Rie r ni Site lat by eth |) DEMOS Manesco ine 2 We Uy i ik A cuit Bey, | A iy AT a fut etal | al ’ d y ne | a ' ‘ fh i ih. ae : PAVE LA % re Og Mes: Ak) CS ne a tren Wak tae he PY ata Lh is a ha i Ue ” Ld ~— _ 7. rf - _ a = a oe - j ‘ a hil ee, secure ” i fi “igh & f j { i 7 + AW 4 a ( tdiiny x [ "i ‘ ih bh | i ( \ Me { i " i" € firs tid ; * i - | a ii q * i} 4 { 4 - ’ 4 Ww 4 “a - ) er i ts INDEX A Abalone, capturing men, X, 293 Aberration, chromatic, II, 310 Absorption lines, II, 124 Acheulian culture, VII, 190 Epoch VII, 187-189 Epoch, developments of, VII, 189 Acorns, XI, 116 Adaptations: Air bladder, VIII, 89, 90 Alligators, VIII, 305 Amphibians, VIII, 177-179 Animals, heat retention in, WV MMI, 3 Animals, movement of, V, 106, 107 Ant-eater, spiny, LX, 270- 271 Armadillo, LX, 263 Barnacles, X, 141-142 mat LX, 317 Beavers, VI, 118-121 Beetles, V, 108 Birds, IX, 13-15, 37-38, 80, 100-102, 128, 138-139 Bivalves, X, 261-269 Box turtle, VIII, 318 Breathing without lungs, V, ree Tis LEGy XX. ahs: 295-297 Budding, XI, 58-71 Bulbs, XI, 64, 68 Butterflies, V, 307-308, 318 Camels, VI, 153 [397] Carnivores, 1X, 248 Carnivorous plants, XI, 75- 76 Caterpillar, V, 108, 286- 289, 293 Chameleon, VIII, 324 Cicada, V, 186, 190, 199, 206-212 Copepods, X, 128-133 Crabs, 1X, hG7, 1 £99, , 227, 228, 244-245 Crickets, V, 49, 56-58, 108 Crustaceans, X, 91, 103, 185-186, 205-207 Cypress trees, XI, 10 Dandelions, XI, 55-56 Daphnia, X, 119-121 Desert life, XI, 264, 281 Duck, IX, 126 Feathers, IX, 15 Fins, VIII, 63-64 Fishes, VIII, 5-7, 30-35, 50, 53, 57; 66-69, 82-84, 86- 88, 99, 129, 143, 148; IX, 368 Fish-lice, X, 137 Flowers, XI, 41, 44, 47, 51- 52 Flying squirrel, 1X, 334 Frogs, VIET, 193-194, 195, 208 Gastropods, X, 287-290, 293-307, 315-316 Grasshopper, V, 13, 29-31, 108 Halophytes, XI, 78-79 Hawks, LX, 127 INDEX Heron, IX, 127 Hippopotamus, VI, 147-148 Horned toad, VIII, 331 Housefly, V, 343-346 Ichthyosaurus, VIII, 251- 254 Insects, V, 107-115, 236, 245;.XI, 72-74; VI, 219 Kangaroos, 1X, 284-285 Leaves, XI, 3, 23-25, 32-33, 299-300 Lemmings, IX, 235-236 Lemurs, flying, 1X, 316 Lobster, X, 98, 103, 110- Lr2 Locusts, V, 18 Lung fishes, VIII, 19 Mimosa, XI, 72-74 Mollusks, X, 259 Molone,.V, 184," 294° Viilt, 175’; 2X, 163, 105- 106 Moths, V, 307-308 Octupus, X, 330, 335, 342- 343 Owls, LX, 160 Parasites, V, 19-25, 180; X, I20-1 31 Phototropisms, XI, 307-314 Pigeons, IX, 134 Pitcher plant, XI, 76 Plesiosaurus, VIII, 260-261 Plover, LX, 59, 60 Puff-adder, VIII, 345-346 Rattlesnake, VIII, 341, 350- 351 Rhinoceros, VI, 207-208 Rodents, 1X, 249-250, 331I- 533 Roots, XI, 6-7, 10 Salmon, VIII, 118, 122-123 Sap-sucker, IX, 133 Sea-horse, VIII, 31 Seeds, XI, 55-59 Shark sucker, VIII, 46-47 Snakes, VIII, 41, 340, 342- 343 Spider crab, X, 226 Stickleback, VIII, 110 Symbiosis, XI, 92 Trees, XT, ax Turtles, VIII, 306-307, 309 Walking-stick insect, V, 71 Whale, LX, 253-254 Xerophytes, XI, 78 Yucca, XI, 50-51 Adductor muscles, X, 256-257 Aedes aegypti, V, 338-339 Aepyornis, eggs of, LX, 85 Aerial, underground, XII, 133 Aeroplane, Langley method of production of, XII, 225 Aestivation of lungfishes, VIII, 19 Afterglow of meteorites, III, 32 Agar, XI, 89, 184 Agates, III, 228, 229, 230 Age of reptiles, beginning of, x As is Ages fi man, demarcations of, VII, 266. Agriculture, Indian, IV, 22 Middle sg age women in, VII, 24 ho ie Old World, X1, 323 Origin of, XI, 322 Power machiges for, Aa 308 Survival of Indus valley and, Vib ner Air: Bladder, VIII, 8o- -90 Blanket, II, 110 Compesitien of, II, 44 Formation of, VII, 9 Mass, 115 ta;t ag [398] INDEX Pressure for brakes, XII, 196 Pressure of upper atmo- spheric, II, 43, 45 Pressure of, and sunspots, II, 138 Refraction of, II, 102 State of, II, 43 Temperature at different altitudes, II, 44 Airships, testing characteristics of, XII, 81-85, 232-233 Airworthiness of airships, XII, 232-238 Alabaster, III, 283 Albatross, feeding of baby, 1X, 8 9 Young of, 1X, 98-99 _ Albinism, in birds, 1X, 28-29 Albite, III, 262 Alcohol, diseases caused by, VII, 178-179 Alexanderson, XII, 133 Alexandrite, III, 248 Algae, XI, 87-89, 175-183 Calcareous, X, 46-47 Eozoon, X, 43 Filamentous, XI, 39 Food for sardines, XI, 191 Fossil, X, 46, 58-59; XI, 195 Habitat of, XI, 87 Importance of, XI, 188-189 Kinds of, XI, 175 Reproduction of, XI, 38 In silver polish, XI, 194 Spores of, XI, 72 Use in dynamite of, XI, 87- 88 Uses of, XI, 184-196 Alligators, ancestors of, VIII, 299-300 Food habits of, VIII, 305 Growth of, VIII, 304 Reproduction of, VIII, 303 Use of skin of, VIII, 305 Alloys, meteoric nickel and iron, III, 70 Alphabet, VII, 291 Alps, origin of, X, 79 Alternator, XII, 39-40 Alternating current alternator, MP 2a = KDE 26 Frequency, XII, 40 Objections to, XII, 35 Origin of, XII, 32, 35 Single phase, XII, 41 Two phase, XII, 41 Three phase, XII, 41 Alternator, electric, XII, 41 Field poles of, XII, 40 Radio, XII, 40, 47 Turbine drive for, XII, 39- 40 Atmosphere, altitude of, Il, 45 Altricial young, IX, 92 Amber, ITI, 267-269 Appearance of, III, 268 Formation of, III, 268 Fossils in, III, 268 Greek, III, 267 Origin. of, AIT, 257. 268; X, 80 Tests for, III, 267 American continent, origin of man on, VII, 327 American Indian plants, VII, 327-328 Amethyst, III, 226-227 Ammonia, heat absorption by, Ae 2a : Properties of, XII, 24 Solubility of, XII, 240 Ammonites, ancient, X, 75-76 Amphibia, X, 69 Ancestors of, VIII, 161-162 Burrowing, VIII, 177-179 Characteristics of, VIII, 1-2 [399] INDEX Development of, VIII, 20- er Eggs of, VIII, 174 Evolution of, VIII, 173-176 Examples of, X, 70 Extinct, VIII, 164 Food of, VIII, 175-176 Fossils of, VIII, 164-165 Molting of, VIII, 175 Origin of, VIII, 173 Prehistoric habitat of, VIII, 163 Relationship to reptiles of, VITE, 2 Size of Devonian, VII, 15 Size of largest fossil of, VIII, 163 Skin of, VIII, 175 Structure of fossil of, VIII, 167-168 Voices of, VIII, 176 Amphibious, meaning of, VIII, 161 Andes Mountains, origin of, X, 78 Anemones, used by crabs, X, 227-228 Angiosperms, VII, 17; XI, 95 Animals, ancestors of modern, VII, 18 Carriage of body of, VII, 49 “Coal Measures’’, X, 69-70 Devonian period, VII, 15- 16 Disappearance of early, VII, 47 Domestication of, VII, 255- 256 Domestic, conditions devel- oping, VII, 250-251 During life of lat Neander- thal, VII, 116 Effect of Ice Age on, X, 82 Eocene period, VII, 18 Heat retention in warm- blooded, VIII, 38 Hunted as pets, V1, 1, 10 Jurassic, X, 75 Life of majority of, V, 127- 128 Life of social, V, 128 Movement during the glacier in Europe, VII, 232 Of Cretaceous period, X, 77 Of the time of La Chap- pelle-aux-Saints, VII, 116 Of the time of Krapina, VII, 104 Of the Miocene period, VII, 18 Of the Mousterian period, VI tra Of the Neanderthal times, VIl, 95 Origin of, VII, 93 Origin of sacred, VII, 251 Paleozoic, X, 55 Permian, VII, 15, 16 Petrification of, VIII, 279- 280 Power of movement in, V, 106-107 Prehistoric representation of, VII, 52, 202-203 Remains, preservation of, VII, 45 : Silurian, X, 63-64 Anopheles, V, 330-340 Anteater, spiny, 1X, 270-271 Antivenin, VIII, 351 Antlers, LX, 343 Ants, white, V, 128 Ape, Barbary, VI, 48 Brain capacity of, VII, 150 Study of, LX, 327-329 Aphids, eggs of, V, 167 Enemies of, V, 173-181 [400] INDEX Food of, V, 172 Generations of, V, 155-156 Offspring of female, V, 163 Parents of summer, V, 162 Parasitism of, V, 178 Protection of, V, 173-174 Reproduction of corn, V, 172-173 Sexual generation of, V, 166-168 Aphis lion, V, 174-176 Usefulness of, V, 174-176 Aphis, wooly, V, 172 Appalachian Mountains, X, 73 Formation of, X, 72 Appendages, unnecessary, VII, at Arago, XII, 3-4, 13 Arc, flaming, XII, 148 Lamp, XII, 145 Ereht, XII, 28, 135, 145, 147, 198 Light, Edison, XII, 138 Arcelin, VII, 53 Archaeopteryx, VII, 17; IX, 41-45 Archaeozoic, X, 41 Plants, X, 43 Rocks, X, 41-42 Archelon, weight of, VIII, 262 Architecture, Cretan, VII, 310 Origin of, VII, 264 Arctic summer, temperature of; DV 67 Argon in lamps, XII, 147 Aristotle, student of Crustacea, X, 94-95 Armadillo, 1X, 363 Armature, early, XII, 20 Arnold, XII, 133 Artemia, X, 114-115 Arthropod, example of, V, 26 Six-legged, V, 28 Aryans, brick making of, VII, 28 Invasion of India, VII, 314- 315 Asia, southwest, retention of primitive traits in, VII, 301 Aster family, XI, 129-130 Astronomical mirror, cleaning of, T1,'95 Atmosphere, composition at sea level, II, 44 Formation of, VII, 9 Atomic gradation, law of, VII, 5 Differences, spectrum con- trolled by, VII, 6 Atoms, annihilation of, VII, 4,7 Composition of, II, 290 In cooling stars, VII, 7 Structure of, XII, 55 Of sun, II, 5-6 Aurignacians, VII, 201 Culture of, VII, 206 Shelter of, VII, 217-218 Australian Bushman, origin of, MILT, aio Autogiro, XII, 238 Automobile, Duryea, XII, 219 Early transmission of, XII, 216 Engine, XII, 174-175 First Us Sy-easoline, XII, 216 Haynes, XII, 220-221 Multi-cylinder, XII, 176 U. + Ss production, of, 6tl, 224 Avocet, American, IX, 74 Axe, reverence for, VII, 236 Axolotl, VIII, 186-187 [401] INDEX Azilian epoch, VII, 43, 52 Aztecs, attitude toward sacri- fice, VII, 339 Culture of, VII, 339 Origin of, VII, 337 Records in history of, VII, 40 Azurite, III, 275 B Baby, size of newborn, VII, 34 Babylonia, painted pottery, people of, VII, 302 Babylonians, treatment of pris- oners by, VII, 307 Bacteria, beneficial, XI, 28 Legume, XI, 27-28 Reproduction of, XI, 38 Work of, XI, 89 Bactrian camel, VI, 155 Badlands, IX, 177-181, 188- IQI, 201, 204-206 Balance of Nature: Algae, food for sardines, Xl On Animals, life of majority of, V, 127-128 Apiids, s parasitism Ot,” \V, 178 Aphis lion, V, 174-176 Beetle, ladybird, V, 173-175 Birds, food of, 1X, 40, 126- 142 Birds, species exterminated bymany TX) 14 Bison, depleted by man, VI, 163, 166, 1674 16851173 Botfly, V, 352 Copepods, X, 128-137 Grasshoppers, insect enemies of, V, 19-25 Hawks, IX, 140-142 Hyperparasites, V, 181 Insect parasites, V, 179 Mollusks, X, 133-134 Owl, IX, 140-142 Rodents, LX, 140-142 Sea animals and algae, XI, 190-191 Toads, VIII, 197-198 Bamboo, XI, 229, 235 Uses of, XI, 229 Bananas, XI, 114 Barb, uses of, VII, 209 Bark, fossils of, X, 67 Furrowing of, XI, 14 Importance to Indian of, IV, 22-23 Production of, XI, 13-14 Barley, place and time of first cultivation, XI, 209-210 Barnacles, X, 138, 142-143 Adaptions of, X, 141-142 Difficulty of classifying, X, 139-140 Food from, X, 237 Free swimming stage of, X, 140-141 Injury to shipping by, X, 142-143 Rock, X, 138 Sex differences in, X, 143- 144 Barracuda, VIII, 57-59 Barriers affecting distribution of fishes, VIII, 149-150 Basket, origin of, VII, 238 Basket makers, Indian, IV, 182-184 Basalt, III, 287-288 Bat} DX, (223, 356 Flying adaptions of, IX, 317 Habits of, 1X, 317-320 Vampire, 1X, 318 Beans, germination of, XI, 60- 61 [402] INDEX Bear baiting, VI, 96-97 Bears, VI, 94-106 As pets, VI, 98 In summer, VI, 100 Size of baby, VI, 99 Beasts of burden, origin of, VII, 255-256 Beaver dams, IX, 334 Beavers, home-building of, VI, 118-121 For National Zoological Bare Vi ni? Beehive, V, 128 Beetles, blister, V, 22-25 Lady, V, 175, 230 May, V, 230 Mouth parts of, V, 108 Value of ladybird, V, 173- w75 Wings of, V, 318 Bell, XII, 99 Early telephone, XII, 102 Original invention of, XII, IOI Telephone, XII, 103-104 Telephone, operation of, XII, 104, 105 Ben Day screen, XII, 374 Benitoite, III, 352-353 Berliner, XII, 109-110 Beryls, III, 210 Color of, III, 210-211 Composition of, III, 210 Crystalline shape of, III, 201 Bessemer, XII, 342 Converter, XII, 343 Betelgeuse, density of, II, 288- 289 Beverages, source in plants, XI, 101 Bibliography of desert plants, XI, 284 Of field work, XI, 377 Of grasses, XI, 250 Of maize, XI, 349 Of radiant energy and plants, XI, 315 Of sea plants, XI, 197 Of systematic botany, X1, 164 Biological Survey, IX, 64, 65 Bird calls, 1X, 103-113 Birds, actions of male, 1X, 71, 72 Adaptations for flying, IX, 13-15 Air for embryo of, IX, 80 Altitude of flight of migra- ting, 1X, 56 Banding of, IX, 63-67 Barred, 1X, 34-35 Beaks, 1X, 126-127 Bones, 1X, 14 Characteristics of, 1X, 1 Classification of, LX, 143- 166 Color of, LX, 25 Color patterns in, LX, 32-33 Colors of male, 1X, 36 Communication among, IX, IIO-113 Control of, LX, 136-137 Destruction of, LX, 40 Distances of flight, 1X, 58- Domestication of, 1X, 2-3, 4-5 Ecuador, species of, 1X, 2 Eggs of temperate zone, IX, 86 Embryo, IX, 91-92 Wild food of, IX, 130-131 Birds, fish-eating, IX, 138-139 Food of, IX, 126-142 Food of migrating, LX, 56 Food of night flying, IX, 134 [403 | INDEX Fossil, IX, 41-42 Gravel eaten by, IX, 128 Heel pads of, 1X, 100 Imitation among, IX, 107- 109 Insect-eating, 1X, 134-137 Localities of, LX, 1-2 Mouth of, IX, 1o1-102 Native land of love, VI, 255 Nest soup, 1X, 77 Number of species of, IX, 143 Of prey, IX, 141 Orders of, 1X, 143-166 Origin of, LX, 48-49 Origin of sea, VII, 17 Origin of toothless, 1X, 45 Origin of true, X, 79 Pleistocene, IX, 40 Polygamous, [X, 73 Prehistoric, LX, 41-49 Protective coloration of, 1X, 37-38 Regions of abundance of, Ex 2 Scarcity of fossil, 1X, 40-41 Seafood of, IX, 127-128 Shellfish food of, LX, 137 Skeleton of, LX, 14-15 Snake-eating, 1X, 140 Sounds of, LX, 103-105 Species exterminated by man, LX! 1a Birds, specimens, 1X, 8 Stomachs, contents of, IX, 125 Velocity of flight of, 1X, 57- 58 Weed seed food of, IX, 129 Winter residence of, LX, 128 World distribution of, LX, 1 Birthstones, III, 186 Bison, VI, 165-166 Abundance of American, VI, 166 Center of population of VI, 166 European, danger of extinc- tion of, VI, 173 Mating of domestic cattle with, VI, 168 Population, 1870, VI, 166 Population, 1907, VI, 167 Slaughter of, VI, 163, 167 Steps for protection of, VI, 167 Bivalves, X, 264 Burrowing, X, 269 Feet of, X, 261 Life history of, X, 266-268 Reproduction of, X, 264 Black bulb thermometer, II, 245 Bladderwort, carnivorous habit, AT 75 Blast furnace, XII, 340-341 Raw materials, XII, 338- 339 Products of, XII, 338-339 Blood, as food for insects, V, 320 Neanderthal concept of, VII, 196-197, Boat names, VII, 241 Boats, Inca, VII, 344 Bobbin, sewing machine, XII, 259 Bobolinks, 1X, 129-130 Body, balance of erect, VII, 48 Boiler, fire tube, XII, 157 Bolometer, II, 76-77, 122 Bolton, XII, 360 Bone instruments, origin~ of, VII, 194 [404] INDEX Bones of Krapina man, VII, 106-107 Of La Chappelle-aux-Saints, Wil era Preservation of, VII, 44 Boron, effect of, XI, 297 Botanists, work of, XI, 157- 160 Botany, origin of, XI, 133 Primitive, XI, 133 Botfly, V, 352 Effect on live stock, V, 352 Bow. and arrow, origin of, Vil, 226.236 Fifect of, VII, 237 Bowfin, nest of, VIII, 109-110 Box Turtle, VIII, 315, 318 Hibernation of, VIII, 318 Reproduction of, VIII, 316- 317 Boyce’ Thompson Institute, XI, 303, 306 Brakes, air, XII, 196 Brain cases, comparative sizes oi, V 115163 Differences in, VII, 45 Fish, VIII, 99 Folds of, VII, 46 Intelligence and size of, VII, 45 Pithecanthropus erectus, VII, 148 Sizes of, VII, 163 Primate and man, VII, 45 Brakes, railroad, XII, 33 Branly, XII, 129 Bread mold, spores of, XI, 39-40 Breathing habits of birds, LX, 68-78 Breathing of insects, V, 114 Breathing rate of infants, VII, 35 Breathing without lungs, V, LYS-1 04,” HAG sy X25, 295-297 Breeding, mental qualities needed for plant and ani- mal, XI, 320-321 Reasons for slow progress in plant and animal, XI, 320-321 Territory of bird, 1X, 68-70 Bricks, Aryan, VII, 308 Brightness, apparent, of stars and planets, III, 55 British Thermal Unit, XII, 159 Brontosaurus, VII, 17 Weight of, VIII, 230 Bronze, early process for, VII, 268 Form of instruments of, VII, 269 Lost wax casting process of, VII, 269-270 Superiority of, VII, 267 Bronze Age, arms protection against Vil 272 Artistry of, VII, 280-281 Basis of, VII, 268 Brick development of, VII, 282-283 Changes of, VII, 285 Civilization of, VII, 309 Dress of, VII, 272-273 Effect of axes in, VII, 270 End of, VII, 284-285 Extent of, VII, 293 Origin of, VII, 275 Remains of, VII, 273 Tool hafting, VII, 270 Wall decorations of, VII, 284-285 Work of, VII, 283-284 Brooms, manufacture of, X1, 229-230 [405 ] INDEX Briinn man, skull of, VII, 76 Bryophyta, XI, 93 Budding, XI, 68-71 Bud scales, function of, XI, 20-21 Buffalo, African, VI, 172 Bugs, pill, X, 157 Damage done by, X, 245 Bulbs, XI, 68 Propagation by, XI, 64, 68 Bull boat, VII, 276 Burial, Stone Age, VII, 224- 225 Burin, VII, 202 Bushman, position of Aus- tralian, PV wage Butterflies, food of, V, 307 Proboscis of, V, 307-308 Wings of, V, 318 By-products of coke, XII, 338 Byssus, X, 261-262 Bullfight, origin of, VII, 252 Bumblebee, XI, 47-49 Burgess Pass, fossils from, X, 57-60 C Cable, XII, 93 Electrostatic effects on, XII, QI Induced earth currents in, XII, 91, 98 Recording messages over, XII, 99 Speed of early, XII, 98 Telephone, XII, 111 Cacti, uses of, XI, 125-126 Cady, (ACE! (133 Calcite, III, 276 Crystal forms of, III, 276 Calcium, effect of lack of, XI, 296 Calorie, XI, 294 Cambium, XI, 13-14 Cambrian changes, X, 35-38 Period, X, 35-38 Camels, ancestors of, 1X, 199 Bactrian, Vi,or35 Domesticated in U. S., VI, 154 Dromedary, VI, 155 Duration of use of, VII, 275 Egyptian, VII, 300 Food of Bactrian, VI, 155 In Australia, VI, 154-155 Origin of, VI, 155; VII, 18 Patience of, VI, 154 Relatives in Western Hemi- sphere, VI, 156 “Ship of the desert,’ VI, 153 Water needs of, VI, 153 VII, 18, 275 Camera, original XII, 364 Canaries, LX, 4-5 Canfield, III, 300 Cannibalism, VII, 197 Purpose of, VII, 255 Canoe, Iroquois, IV, 77, 78 Largest Indian, IV, 210 Carapace of turtles, VIII, 309 Carbohydrates, XI, 27 Storage of, XI, 29 Carbon Dioxide in refrigera- tion, XII, 243-244 Intake of, II, 224-225 Carbon filament, Edison, X1i, 136 Swan, XII, 136 Carbon in Iron, XII, 342 Carboniferous period, X, 65 Carburetor, XII, 174, 178 Carnelian, III, 230, 318 Carnivores, adaptions of, 1X, 248 Families of, 1X, 322-323 amateur, [406] INDEX Carnivorous plants, adaptations of, XI, 75-76 Caroline Island outrigger, VII, 276 Carriage, origin of, VII, 256 Caspians, VII, 228 Cassowaries, 1X, 146-147 Cat, ancestors of domestic, VI, Q2, 322 Caterpillars, adaptations of legs of, V, 286 Behavior of starving tent, V, 278-279 Brain of, V, 285 Energy. for metamorphosis, i202 Eyes of, V, 285, 301 Food of tent, V, 277 Food necessities of, V, 291 Mouth parts of, V, 108, 286 Number of eyes of, V, 301 Silk of, V, 287-289 Stomach as food for, V, 293 Cathode radiations, XII, 51, 52 Cathode rays, XII, 67 Gatkins): X11; 116-117 Cattle, hybrids between bison and, VI, 168 Cave dweller, VII, 199 Origin of, VII, 192 Cave man, use of beads and paint by, VII, 197 Caves, cause of dwelling in, VII, 214 Occupation of, VII, 192 Caviar, source of, VIII, 23 Cecropia Moth, V, 228-229 Cell, cleavage, VII, 26 Colonizing of, VII, 28 Composition of, VII, 26 Concentration of molecules in, VII, 298 Determination of differences of the animal in, VII, 25 Effect of high desert tem- perature on living, XI, 259-262 Embryonic division, VII, 29 Experiments influencing basic changes in, VII, 33 Food-carrying in young bark, AV. YQ bg Functions of, VII, 25-26 Membrane, XI, 297 Phint. <1, 11 Properties of, VII, 25 Reproduction of, VII, 27 Stimulation, nerves of, V, 119 Wypical, plant,” XI, 12 Cenotes, VII, 334 Cenozoic era, X, 73, 78-79 Centipedes, V, 82, 83 Value of, V, 82-83 Cephalopods, examples of, X, 321-327 Eyes of, X, 336 Food of, X, 333 Jaws of, X, 334 Luminous, X, 343-345 Origin of, X, 332-335 Shelled, X, 325 Cereal plants, distribution of, XI, 325 Cereals, difficulty of domesti- cation of, XI, 325 Chalcedony, III, 228 Chalk beds, formation of, III, 78 Chambered Nautilus, X, 325 Ancestors of, X, 62-63 Chameleon, VI, 264, 265 Adaptations of, VIII, 324 Peculiarities of, VIII, 324 Tongue of, VIII, 324 Chanute, XII, 225 [407] INDEX Cheetah, African, VI, 90-91 Chellean Age, VII, 185 Climate, VII, 183, 184 Clothing of, VII, 185 Cherokee alphabet, IV, 16, 18 Chesapeake Bay, life of, X, 34 Chimpanzees, intelligence of, VE, 32-33 Old, VI, 31-33 Table manners of, VI, 30- 33 Chin and intelligence, VII, 47 China, bronze culture of, VII, 320 Dragon boats, VII, 241 Early inhabitants of, VII, 317, 318 Extinction of cities of, VII, 321 Government of ancient, VII, 320 Historical period of, VII, 321 Chinampas, floating islands, Vib 336 Chinese empire, origin of, VII, 324 Feudalism, overthrow of, VII, 324 Chippewa houses, IV, 72 Chitin, V, 256 Chlorophyll, XI, 290 Absorption of light rays by,’ XI, 292 Formulae for, XI, 290 Iron needed for, XI, 290 Part in photosynthesis, X], 289-290 Production of, XI, 290 Chlorosis, XI, 8, 9 Chocolate, source of, XI, 123 Chromatic aberration, II, 310 Chromatophores in octopus, X, 342-343 Chromosomes, VII, 25-28 In cell division, VII, 26-27 Phases of, VII, 26 Chrysalis, V, 251 Chrysoberyl, III, 247, 248 Chrysolite, III, 249-250 Chumash Indians, extinction of, IV, 179 Cicada, abdomen, V, 206-207 Burrows of, V, 187-189 Common names of, V, 184 Damage done by, V, 185 Digging adaptations of nymph, V, 190 Food of, V, 200-204 Huts, V, 192-193 Instincts of newborn, V, 224-225 Life history of, V, 186-199 Mouth parts of, V, 186 Number of eggs of, V, 214 Music production, V, 199, 207-212 Nymphs,V, 187-190, 194- 195 Nymphs, food of, V, 187 Relatives of, V, 205 Sex ins ‘Vi 16914 Short period of freedom of, V5.585 Song of, V, 183, 184 Stomach of, V, 204-206 Underground life of, V, 184 Wholesale death of, V, 214 Citar XT, 2 Circulation of blood in fishes, VIII, 97-98 Cities, origin of early great, VII, 315 Civilization, and agriculture, XT) 279 Concentration of, VII, 189 Development of, XI, 197 [408 ] INDEX Effect of grasses on, XI, 201-215 Food requirements of, VII, 243 Measures of, XI, 319 Oldest, VII, 301 Origin of, VII, 295 Origin of European, VII, 309 Stages of, VII, 249 Clam, origin of, VII, 13 Sand, X, 273-275 Classification, structure in, V, 26 Clay sculpture, Magdalenian, Wits 231 Cleavage in cells, VII, 26 Cliff dwellers, IV, 110 Climate, changes in Rocky Mountain, X, 80 Coal age, X, 69 Effect of variations of sun’s intensity on, II, 4, 5 Formation of present Euro- . pean, VII, 232 Origin of present, VII, 68, X, 81 Original Polar, VII, 68 Relation of population shifts in Europe to, VII, 232 Solutrean, VII, 207 Clipper ships, XII, 188 Cloth feed, sewing machine, XII, 259 Cloth, Indian, IV, 23 Clothes, origin of, VII, 102 Clothing, Caspian, VII, 229 Clothing, Eskimo, IV, 50-53 Clouds, types of, II, 104-105 Clubs, origin of, VII, 194 Coal balls, X, 12-13 Coal, Devonian plants and, VII, 15 Formation of, X, 66-68, 71 Heat efficiency of, XII, 158- 159 Heat from, XI, 294 Cobra, menace of, VIII, 351- 352 Poison of spitting, VI, 269 Cocoons, V, 251, 252, 286 Construction of tent, V, 282-283 Cockroach, American, V, 79 Coherer, XII, 129 Coke, by-products of, XII, 338 Cold production by heat, XII, 239 Coleoptiles, XI, 310, 312 Coleostat, II, 1, 84 Collecting, plant, XI, 363-376 Collotype, XII, 373 Color, cause of difference in ruby and sapphire, III, 203 Changes in crustaceans, X, 205-207 Differences in male and fe- male fish, VIII, 101 Effect of elements in gems, Hi s179 Of amethyst, III, 226 Of benitoite, III, 252, 253 Of chrysoberyl, III, 247 Of diamonds, III, 191 Of fishes, VIII, 34 Of hottest stars, II, 289 Color of jade, III, 254 Of old and new stars, VII, 8 Of Spodumene, III, 250 Production, chemistry in animals of, X, 207-209 Transmission in the atmos- phere, II, 113-114 Colorado River, change of course of, XII, 209 [409 ] INDEX Colored objects, seeing of, II, 99-100 Colpitts, XII, 133 Combustion: In internal combustion en- gine, XII, 171-180 Ofseoal'vand oil, tin er Sy XII, 150 Thermal > values ing) cX11, 159 Commutator, XII, 18 Compass, effect of steel ship on, XII, 190 Effect of sun on Magnetic, 11s 260;:261 Compass, gyroscope, XII, 190 Composite bow, VII, 323 Composites, XI, 130 Compound, gem, III, 171 Mineral, III, 170, 171 Sun’s lack of, II, 7, 289 Compression, origin of, XII, 172 Condenser, XII, 118 Condenser, earth and sky as, XI 178 Condenser, Watt’s XII, 160 Conifers, XI, 94 Conservation, realization of need. for, VI; 2,3 Constellation of Cancer, X, 92 Continents, effect of Ice Age on, VII, 103 Continents, emergence of, X, 7 Control of flies, V, 343 Conus, a dangerous snail, X, 301-302 Coolidge and tungsten, XII, 145, 146 Copepods, adjustment to host of, X, 133 Beauty of, X, 126 In ocean levels, X, 127 Parasites of, X, 134-136 Parasitic, X, 128-137 Copper, earliest use of, VII, 266 Mayan, VII, saa Plating, XII, 136 Copper Age, VII, .39-41 Copperhead snake, habitat of, VIII, 347 } Harmtulness of, VIII, 34 Copra, (Xl, a2 Coral, III, 271 Colors ‘of, ILE, 2705272 Corms, propagation by, XI, 64, 68 Corn, ancestors of, XI, 214 Ancient development of, XI, 327-328 And crows, IX, 131 An ideal food plant, XI, 325-326 Chemical treatment of seed, IX, 131 Colored, XI, 328 Comparison of modern with ancient, XJ, 327 Criticism of mutation theory of production of, XI, 345-346 Designs by Indians of, XI, 346-348 Difficulty ‘of determining ancestor of, XI, 324 Germination of, XI, 60 Hand cultivation as an aid in development of, XI, 324 Hybrid nature of, XI, 345 Hybridizing with related forms, XI, 345 Importance to Indian of, XI; 25353235522 In science, XI, 348 [410] INDEX Most ancient of cultivated cereals, XI, 324 Mutations producing mod- ern, XI, 343 Nature of, XI, 213-214 Need for man’s aid in grow- ing, XI, 326 Origin a mystery, XI, 336, 337 Place of selection in pro- duction of, XI, 342-343 Products, XI, 217-218 Recent mutations of, XI, 344 Relatives of, XI, 331 Smut, XI, 40 Sugar production of, XI, 295 Theories of origin of ear in, XI, 339, 340 Treatment of seeds, IX, 131 Corona, sun’s, IV, 265-260, 285 Corundum, III, 204 Cotton, economic importance of, XI, 123 Cotton Gin, XII, 301 Cowbirds, IX, 135 Neglect of nesting duties by, IX, 89-90 Crabs, circulation in, X, 107 Blue, X, 101 Burrowing of fiddler, X, 171 Capture of robber, X, 175- 177 Conservation of, X, 192-199 Conservation in Andalusia of, X, 230-231 Conservation in Florida of, Mi 230 Damage to rice in India by, X, 240-242 Damage to rice in Porto Rico by, X, 243-244 Damage to rice in Spain by, X, 243 Digging powers of, X, 244, 245 Discarded shells as food for, X, 106 ' Fiddler, in deafness cure, X, 239 Food of, X, 106 Food of fiddler, X, 171 Food of robber, X, 177-178 Fossils of, X, 238 Frequency of molting in, X, 172 Habits of robber, X, 174- 176 Hardening of shells of, X, 105-106 Heart of, X, 107 In sanitation, X, 245 Life history of, X, 168-171 Life span of, X, 172 Materials in shells of, X, 97-98 Menace to coconuts due to robber, X, 178 Menace to tomato crop in Florida, X, 244 Methods of catching, X, 230 Mountain, X, 188 Robber, X, 178 Scarcity of, X, 230 Size of catch of, X, 229 Soft-shell, X, 105 Sounds made by, X, 197, 199 Stomach of, X, 106-107 Stone, X, 230 ‘Paltote X. 102 Crayfish, eyes of, X, 239 [411] Food from, X, 234 INDEX Largest fresh water, X, 173 Menace to corn and cotton, X, 244 Creation, Seneca Myth of, IV, 222-225 Creek log house, IV, 288 Cretaceous period, animals of, 77 Crete, dress of, VII, 310, 311 Cretan architecture, VII, 310 Civilization, extinction of, Vil’ 352 Rulers, choice of, VII, 310, 311 Cretans, ancient, VII, 309 Religion of, VII, 310 Crickets, mouth parts of, V, 108 Relatives of, V, 58-71 Song of, ae 49, 56-58 Crocodiles, American, VIII, 302-303 Ancestors of, VIII, 299, 300 Food habits of, VIII, 305 Habitats of, VIII, 302 Mating of, VIII, 300, 301 © Nile, VIII, 302 Cro-Magnon, VII, 228 Age of, VII, 73 Anatomy of, VII, 73, 74 Appearance in Europe, VII, 76 Appearance of, VII, 75 Burial of, VII, 78, 206 Changes in stature of, VII, 212 Characteristics of, VII, 74 Continuity of, VII, 226 Descendants of, VII, 228 Displacement of, VII, 228, 229 Drawings, VII, 220 In Africa, VII, 79 Increase of animal popula- tion by, VII, 203 Life of; Vil, 77 Medicine men, VII, 222, 223 Migrations of, VII, 198 Origin of, VII, 166 Origin in Europe of, VII, 198 Post—, VII, 74 Tools, VII, 201 Total culture of, VII, 167 Crops, care by women of, VII, 243 Rotation, XI, 28 Cross-pollination, XI, 44 Cross-section of a twig, XI, i233 Crust, formation in meteorites of, TIL, 58 Crustaceans, a food for chub, X, 151-152 Ability to withstand high temperature, X, 185-186 Amputations of limbs in, X, 103 Ancestors of, X, 97 Appendages of, X, 102, 104 As pests, X, 89 Changes of color in, X, 205- 207 Chemical elements in, X, 238 Classification of, X, 113-114 Depth in ocean, X, 185-186 Difference between insects and, X, 100 Duration of phosphorescence in, X, 203-204 Examples of, X, 90-91 Giant among, X, 173 Homes of, X, 210-228 Importance to sea life of, X, 89-90 [412] ia _ INDEX In hot springs, X, 153-154 Largest and smallest species gE A, 96 Larvae used in identifying, X, 128-129 Luminescence of, X, 88, 200-205 Noises of, X, 192-194 Number of species of, X, 91 Production of light in, X, 165, 200-203 Protective coloration among, X, 205-207 Reason for molting in, X, QI Reproduction of, X, 107- 108 Segmentation in, X, 98-99 Spread by seaweeds of, X, 189 Spread by ships of, X, 188 ‘Types of habitats of, X, 89 Unusual habitats of, X, 186-187 Uses of appendages of, X, 102 Young of, X, 108-109 Crystals, cleavage, III, 181 Color variation in, III, 179, 180 Constants of, III, 172 Control of broadcast by, XII, 127 Cutting properties of, III, 180 Determination of shape of, Li. 273 Earth-water formed, III, gs Factors of arrangement of faces of, III, 174 Formation of, III, 174-175 Growth, III, 172 Impairment of transparency of, III, 176 Largest, III, 173 Minimum number of faces of, ELL #73 Needs for natural formation ab AE: 74 Oscillator, XII, 133 Shapes, III, 172 Sizes of, III, 172-173 Smooth cleavage of, III, 181 Uneven cleavage of, III, 181 Zonal development of, III, 176 Culex mosquito, V, 331, 335- 338 Cultivated plant, oldest, XI, 324 Cultural practice, evidences of ancient, VII, 49, 51 Culture, archaic, VII, 328, 329, 341 Assyrian, VII, 306, 307 Conquerors of China, VII, 318 Division of, VII, 187, 188 Neanderthal, VII, 67, 68 North American Indian, IV, 34, 35 Spanish traces of Stone Age, VII, 227,. 228 Studies of Indian, IV, 8 Toltec, VII, 337 Currents, measurements of minute, XII, 123 Cushing, IV, 118-128 Cuttings, XI, 68-71 Cuvier, student of fossils, LX, 230, 231 Cyanite, ITI, 275 Cycads, XI, 95 [413] INDEX Cyclone Mouse Trap, IX, 238, 240 Cyclops, habitat of, X, 127- 128 Reason for name of, X, 127 Cypress trees, knees of, XI, 10 D Daguerreotype, XII, 358 Exposure and development, XII, 358-359 Daimler, XII, 215 Dakota Badlands, X, 78 Dandelions, XI, 65-66 Daphnia, life history of, X, 118-120 Relations with surface film, A 27 Winter eggs of, X, 119-120 Darwin, Charles, X, 1-2 Davy A 4 Dawn man, VII, 72 Age, animals of, VII, 134 Dead, origin of burial of, VII, 189 Deciduous trees in tropics, X1, 2I Decline of Mayan culture, VII, 335 Deer, dehorning of male, VI, 183, 185 Migration of prehistoric, VII, 18, 19 Origin of, VII, 18 DeForest, XII, 60, 61 Density of Antares, II, 288, 289 Deperet, VII, 54 Deserts, conditions in, XI, 253-263 Life of, XI, 264-281 Devonian fishes, X, 65 Diamonds, ancient about, III, 203 beliefs Artificial, III, 289 Best colors, III, 191 Black, III, 191 Colors of, III, 191 Estimating value of, III, IQI Formation of, III, 196 Geology of land bearing, III, 207 History of, III, 190 Matrix of, III, 193-194 Mineral relations of, III, IQI Mining of, III, 193 Physical properties of, III, 190 Size of synthetic, III, 289 Sources of, III, 191-195 Superior colors of, III, 191 Synthetic, III, 289 U., S. sources, of, WI, eo. 200 Diatomaceous earth, XI, 87, 88, 192-196 Diatoms, XI, 180-183; X, 80- 81 Deposits of, X, 80 Sources of petroleum in, XI, 185-186 Use of, X, 81 Diatryma, IX, 45 Dicotyledons, XI, 95-96 Dielectric, XII, 118 Diesel engine, XII, 175 Four-cycle, XII, 175 Two-cycle, XII, 176 Differential, XII, 216 Diffraction grating, II, 310- 311 Diffusion through plant cells, XI, 29 Digestion, V, 110 Dinosaurs, VII; “375 °Viie 219-226 [414] INDEX Amphibious, VIII, 226-228, 230,231 Beaked, VIII, 232-250 Brain { capacity: of, ) VIII, 2S5-230)243 5, 5077 Carnivorous, VIII, 219-226 Covering of, VIII, 217 Climatic conditions during life of, VIII, 214 Definition of, VIII, 213-214 Eggs of, VIII, 217-219 Extinction of, VIII, 240- 250 Land, VIII, 213-215 Mummy of, VIII, 239-240 National monument, VIII, 215-216 Origin of, VII, 17 Rumors of surviving, VIII, 213 Sizes of, VII, 17 Skeletons of, VIII, 229-230 Supremacy of, VII, 17 Tracks of, VIII, 269-277 Dioecious, XI, 45-46 Diplodocus, largest dinosaur, VIII, 226-231, 286 Direct current, XII, 23, 24 Dynamo, XII, 18-24 Motor, XII, 42-44 | Disease-causing fungi, XI, QI Disease, early man’s expla- nation of, VII, 177, 178 Disease germs carried by house flies, V, 347 Diseases of ancient man, VII, 196 Dispersion in gems, ITI, 181 Distribution, causes of plant, XI, 81-85 Dodder, XI, 30, 31-32 Dodo, IX, 159 Dog, ancestors of, IX, 321- 222 Eskimo, IV, 47, 50 Mesolithic man’s use of, VII, 239 Origin of domestic, VII, 230, 238 Rarity of South American, Vitaeon Dogs, domestication of, VII, 239 Donkey, Babylonian, VII, 305 Dorsal fin as bait, VIII, 47 Down feathers, function of, TX. TS Dragon flies, prehistoric, V, 93-96 Size of fossil, X, 70 Draw boy fork, XII, 187, 288, 289 Drugs from plants, XI, 100, IOI, 108 Ducks, annual slaughter of wild, LX, 39, 40 Beak of, 1X, 126 Care of young of, IX, 94- 97 Sale of wild, 1X, 39 Wild, as food for man, IX, 39 Duckbill, LX, 272-277 Breeding habits of, 1X, 279 Food of, 1X, 277-278 Dulse, XI, 185 Dunmore, XII, 123 Duryea, XI, 215 Dust, area of volcanic, II, 35, 40 Cosmic origin of, III, 61 Relationship of rain to II, 103 Dyes from plants, XI, 103, 109 Dynamite, XI, 194 [415] INDEX Dynamo, alternating current, POT exp 29 A. G,danduD, , Sal ee, 40 Edison, XII, 143, 144 Faraday, XII, 14 Field of, XII, 19 Field excitation of, XII, 30 Polyphase, XII, 29 Three-phase, III, 29 Turbine driven, XII, 164, 170 Winding of, XII, 126 E Early man’s fasteners, VII, 174, 175 Earth, age of, VII, 3 Calculation of age of, VII, 3; X, 1-9 Changes in level of, X, 30, 31 Cherokee legend of forma- tion of, IV, 218-220 Constant temperature of, II, 246-248 Crust, age of, VII, 10-11 Movement of, VII, 9, 10 Thickness of, VII, 9, 10 Eras of life on the, VII, 12 Formation of, VII, 3 Origin of, VII, 8, 9 Past changes in surface of, Ds. 48 Place in the solar system of, AL Radioactive matter and for- mation of, VII, 3 Size of, VII, 1 Surface, formation of, VII, 9 Yurak conception of, IV, 198 Eastman, XII, 361-366 Echidna, 1X, 270-271 Eclipses, formation of, II, 265- 267 Ecology, science of, XI, 78 Ectoderm, development of, VI, '20,/30 Ecuador bird species, 1X, 2 Edentates, examples of, IX, 250 Edison, base, XII, 142 Beginnings in electricity by, MAT, 137 Dynamo, XII, 144 Effect, XII, 58, 59 First practical invention of, XII, 137-138 Incandescent lamp, advan- tage of, XII, 140 In telegraphy, XII, 137, 138 Lamp, XII, 141 Efficiency of, XII, 142 Light of, XII, 142 Eel, cause of migration of, VIID 4183 133 Life of, VIII, 119-120 Odyssey of, VIII, 118-121 Spawning of, VIII, 119 Efficiency, survival value of, V,-524 Egg, bird, IX, 79-90 Cell, development of, XI, 42 Cells, VII, 24 Cells, formation of, VII, 27 Of Culex, V, 331 Food in hen, VII, 23 House fly, V, 343 Laying, V, 4, 5 Incubation of bird, 1X, 90 Of plant, XI, 41-42 Of roach, V, 80, 81 Of tent caterpillar, V, 262 Pigments of bird, 1X, 84 [416] : INDEX Protection from sun, IX, 88 Shapes of bird, LX, 79 Egypt, crops of early, VII, 297 Old and new, VII, 296 Origin of use of iron in, VII, 300 Sculpture of, VII, 299 Use of stone in, VII, 297 Egyptian year, VII, 298 Einstein theory of refraction, II, 285 Electric current flow, XII, 56, 57 Distribution, origin of, XII, 144 Motor, A. C., XII, 44, 45 Motor, constant speed, XII, 45 : Motor, D. C. wound, XII, 43-44 Motor, Henry, XII, 72, 73 Motor, repulsion, XII, 29- 30 Motor, synchronous, XII, 46 Power, steam generated, DONT, 7 Refrigerator, XII, 249 Electrical, speed of, changes, OL SH Distribution, Edison, XII, 144 Signalling, early, XII, 79 Electricity, steam power man- ufacturing of, XII, 47 ' Transmission of, XII, 37 Electrolux, XII, 244 Electrolysis, XII, 4 Electromagnet, XII, 3, 4, 15 Cores, XII, 19 Formulae, XII, 20 Electromagnetic waves, XII, 117 Electromagnetism, XII, 1-2 Discovery of, XII, 10 Electrons, VII, 5 Activity of matter caused by, XII, 56 Emission XII, 59 Free, XL,53) 54 In wire, XII, 56, 58 Limitation of emission of, XII, 63 Orbit distances of, XII, 55 Orbits of, XII, 55 Size of, XII, 51 Use of, XII, 54 Weight of, XII, 51, 54 Elements, composition of, VII, 5 Essential, X1, 296, 297 Gem, III, 170 Gem colors from, III, 79 Meteoric, III, 65 Structure of, VII, 5 sun, Vl iss Elephants, VI, 126-145; VII, 18 Indian, how captured, VI, 137-139 Jumbo, VI, 130-132 Length of life of the, VI, 136 North and Central Ameri- can, IX, 349-350 Elevation, efiect of glacier on, Vit oi, 62 Embryo, difference between vertebrate and _ inverte- brate, VII, 25 Evidences in the, VIII, 1 Nourishment of, VII, 30 aize,or, VIL e333 Size of yolk in, VII, 30 Emeralds, III, 210 Cause of value of, III, 210 Composition of, III, 210 [417] INDEX Confusion with Tourmaline, III, 213-214 Crystalline shape of, III, 2 Geology of, III, 211-213 Rarest gem, III, 212 Source of, III, 211 Emus, LX, 146-147 Endocrines, LX, 35 Endoderm, VII, 30 Energy of light, XI, 287-288 For plants, XI, 288 Of Man and Universe, VII, 4 Release of, V, 100-101 Sources of mechanical ener- oy, MAD, SO Sun spots’ effect on radiant, II, 139, 141 Engines, action of gas, XII, 172 Action of four-cycle, XII, 172 Aeroplane, first, XII, 226 Automobile, XII, 174, 175 Auto “V”, XII, 176-178 Brayton, XII, 216 Cooling of, XII, 176 Early commercial gas, XII, 171 Early Wright, XII, 230 Efficiency of sun, II, 212, 213 Fitch’s steam, XII, 182 (Sasi) Xi. 1.748 E75 Gas, Daimler, XII, 215 Radial, XII, 179 Rotating steam, origin of, XII, 182 Sun; Tl, 214, 215 Engraving material, XII, 353, 356 Tools, origin of, VII, 202 Entoloden mortoni, 1X, 191- 200 Environment, organic changes caused by, VII, 21 Enzymes, function of, V, 111; XI 29 Eoanthropus, VII, 140 Eocene climate, X, 79 Sea mammals of, VII, 18 Epiphytes, XI, 79, 114, 115 Eras of life on the earth, VII, | Erosion, X, 3 Eryops, VIII, 168-169 Eskimos, culture of, IV, 39 Dogs, control of, IV, 47 Education of, IV, 63 Food of, IV, 44 Laws of, 1V, Ga Meaning of, IV, 38 Origin ‘of, Vee3 Religion of, IV, 58 Sled, IV, 64 Standard of value of, IV, 55, 56 Summer life of, IV, 40 Winter life of, 1V, 40 Estufa; 1V,; 2ii 2 Euclase;. [LE 272 Europe, formation of present climate in, VII, 232 Recent fossils in, X, 8 Evaporation from leaves, XI, 25 Evolution, causes of, V, 101 Theory of, XI, 145-147 Exhaust gases, XII, 172-174 Existence of electrons, XII, 51, 52 Eyes, of caterpillar, V, 285 Cephalopods, X, 336 Color efficiency of, II, 1o1 Construction of fishes, VIII, 66, 73 [418] INDEX Development of, in fishes, enh 91, 72 } Efficiency of Cuban fire- flies’, II, 269-270 Efficiency of fully developed fishes’, VIII, 72 Fish, VIII, 72 Of lobster, X, 110 Number in caterpillars, V, 301 Of scallops, X, 257, 258 Of simplest fish, VIII, 71, 72 Eyeglass, origin of, XII, 311 F Facetting, III, 306 Falcons, 1X, 5 Fangs in snakes, VIII, 41 Faraday, XII, 4-5, 11-16 Discoveries of, XII, 4-16 Fats, production of, XI, 295, 296 Feathers, IX, 15 Colors of, IX, 25-38 Construction of, 1X, 15-17 Contour of, 1X, 17-18 Forms of, 1X, 24 Growth of, 1X, 20 Kinds of, LX, 15-20 Pigments in, IX, 25-34 Feldspars, III, 262-264 Colors of, III, 262, 264 Female statuettes, significance of, VII, 205 Ferns, XI, 93-94 Characteristics of, XI, 93 Giant, X, 67-68 Relatives of, XI, 94 Spore of, XI, 40, 94 Fertilization in plants, XI, 39- 41, 53 Of yucca, XI, 50 Fertilizers, discovery of, XJ, 296 Fibers from plants, XI, 101, 102, 109 In weaving, VII, 262 Fiddler crabs, X, 168-172 Life history of, X, 168, 171-172 Fins, VIII, 63, 64 Attachment of, VIII, 63, 64 Caudal Vill, °47;48 Flexibility of, VIII, 39, 41 Formation of, VIII, 38-39 Function of, VIII, 38 Function of pectoral, VIII, 42, 43 Function of ventral, VIII, 43-45 ‘Types of, VIII, 39, 41 Fire drill, VII, 172, 238 Firefly, efficiency of eyes of Cuban, II, 270 Fire, legend of origin, VII, 220, 222 Origin of, VII, 172-173 Origin of making, VII, 192 Fish lice, adaptations of, X, 137 life of, X, 136-137 lizards, VIII, 251-262 Fishes, adaptation of, VIII, 53, 57, 143, 148 Alimentary canal of, VIII, 95-97 Ancestors of amphibia, VIII, Tapes Ancestors of bony, VIII, 25 Brain of, VIII, 99 Breathing of, VIII, 86, 87; IX, 368 ‘Cannibalism in, VIII, 114- 115 Classification of bony, VITI, 26-29 [419] INDEX Color of, VIII, 34 Construction of eyes of, VIII, 66-73 Deep sea, VIII, 154 Deep sea, eyes of, VIII, 71 Definition of, VIII, 4-5 Difference in color of male and female, VIII, 101 Distribution of, VIII, 2 Ear of, VIII, 73-74 aes. of Brads upon, VILL, 131-132 Effect of temperature changes on, VIII, 152-153 Efficiency of fully developed eye of, VIII, 72 Eggs, hatching of, VIII, 105 Electric organs of, VIII, 82- 83 Evolution of, VIII, 4, 8, 29 Eyes of, VIII, 72 Features of bony, VIII, 16, 17, 25-26 First verterbrate, VIII, 1 Food of, VIII, 138-142; X, 125-126 Four-eyed, VIII, 70-71 Ganoid, VIII, 21-25, 36 Habitats of, VIII, 2 Hearing of, VIII, 73-74 Largest and smallest, VIII, 3 Littoral, VIII, 154 Loss of fins in, VIII, 42 Luminous, VIII, 80-81 Materials in skeletons of, Number of eggs of, VIII, jos" Origin of, VII, 14; VIII, IO Origin of lower jaw in, VIII, 65 Origin of true, VII, 4 Pelagic, VIII, 153-154 Porcupine, VIII, 36 Production of electricity in, VIII, 82-84 Protection of, VIII, 50-52 Reason for wie disennie tion of, VIII, 2 Regeneration in, VIII, 50 Ribs of, VIII, 61-62 Scales of, VIII, 34 Sense of, VIII, 99 Senses of touch in, VIII, 66-67 Sex glands of, VIII, 102 Shapes of, VIII, 5, 7 Shutting of eyes of, VIII, 66 Skull of, VIII, 64 Species of, VIII, 3 Speed of, VIII, 30 Spine of, VIII, 62 Suffocation of, VIII, 86 Teeth all over body of, Vilieeg7 Teeth of, VIII, 57 Toothless, VIII, 59 Variation of, VIII, 3-4 Vertical distribution of, ALDI. a5 Theories of, VIII, 150-151 Fishing and spawning seasons, VIII, 125-126 VIII, 61 Fist axe, VII, 186, 187 Method of feeding, VIII, Fitch, XII, 181-182, 184 75 Fitch’s steamboat, XII, 181- 182, 184 Flamingo, legs and neck of, VI,, 239; 236 Migrations of, VIII, 129 Movements to deep sea of, VIII, 128 [420] INDEX Flatfishes, eyes of, VIII, 68- 69 Flatworms in mollusks, X, 316 Flaws in minerals, III, 177 Fleas, importance of water, X, 118 Sand, X, 157, 158 Water, X, 118 Flickers, food of, IX, 136 Flies, birthplace of, V, 343 Briong, V,. 320; 321 Characteristics of, V, 315 Horn, V, 348 Stable, V, 347, 348 Wings of, V, 315 Flint chips, advantages of, VII, 193 Flippers, VI, 123 Floods, continental, X, 36 History of, X, 36 Flower, adaptation for repro- duction, XI, 41 Flowering, effect of light upon, XI, 303 Plants, families of, XI, 96 Flowers, colors of, XI, 46, 47 Insect-pollinated, XI, 46 Insects and tubular, XI, 51, 52 Odors of, XI, 47 — Wind pollinated, XI, 44 Flukes, X, 316-320 Fly bite, infection by, V, 322 Effect on cattle of ox war- ble, V,0352 Fly larvae, V, 324-325 Fly, ox warble, V, 352 Robber, V, 324 Shuttle, XII, 299 Tsetse, V, 348-349 Food of, V, 350 Flying squirrels, adaptations al, 1X, 334 Fogs, formation of, II, 105 Food adaptations of snake’s mouth, VIII, 340 Food, arts and sciences rela- tionships to, XI, 319 Barnacles as, X, 143, 237 Carnivores 1X, 248 Crayfish as, X, 234 Digestion of, V, 110 Gathering adaptations, V, 107 Gathering, Magdelenian, VII, 226 Horses as, VII, 253 Iroquois preparation of, IV As Iroquois preservation of, IV, 73 Lizard as, V1, 265 Mollusk supply, V, 265, 266 Octupus as, VI, 268 Of Apaches, IV, 144 Of Eskimos, IV, 44 Of Indians, IV, 70-71 Of man, XI, 104-110 Of Sioux, IV, 152 Origin of modern plant, Wri? a7 Pilgrims, XI, 213 Plants, modern, XI, 321 Plants used by man, XI, 98- I1OO Poisonous snakes for, VIII, 354-355 Preservation of, XII, 239- 247 Problem, ancient man’s, XI, 320 Salamander as, VIII, 186 Snails as, X, 312-313 Foraminifera’s aid to petrole- um industry, X, 23 Ford, XII, 224 Forest floors, XI, 32 Formation of fruit, XI, 42 [421] INDEX Fossils, X, 66-69 In Alabama, X, 37 In amber, III, 258 Assembly of, VIII, 286-290 Burgess shale, X, 60 Common to Europe and Ap- palachian Mts., X, 37 Dentition of birds, LX, 43- 44 Deposits in the Colorado Lake, X, 80 Estimating age of, VII, 39 Excavation of, VIII, 284- 285; LX, 171-187 Exploration of, VIII, 284- 285; LX, 230 Exposed on rock, X, 61 First one found, IX, 228 Footprints, VIII, 271 Formation of, VIII, 279- 290 Formation of plant, X, 12 Hoax, VIII, 282 Imprints, X, 11-12 Indicators of land and water areas, X, 18 Locality for; X, 57-58 Museums, VIII, 286 Natural imitations of, VIII, 280 Oil, X, 19-25 Impressions, perfection of, 2D Place where first found, IX, 232 Plant, X, 43 Present-day formation of, XD Relation of petroleum to, X, 19-24 Restoration of, VIII, 288- 289 Rich deposits of, VIII, 216 Scarcity of, VIII, 283-284 Scarcity of land, X, 11 Source of amphibian, VIII, 165-166 Students of, LX, 230-232 Fowl, origin of domestic, IX, 3 Frequency, alternating current, XII, 40 Determination of radio, XII, 119-120 Friction, XII, 194-195 Frogs, VIII, 193 Adaptations to jumping, VIII, 193-194 Adaptations to temperature changes, VIII, 195 Ancient idea of origin of, VIII, 195 Behavior, VIII, 202 Flying, VIII, 208 Fossils of, VIII, 169 Life history of, VIII, 196- 197 Relations to salamander, VIII, 195-196 Fruit crops, Indian, IV, 77 Fuel, consumption in U. S., II, 194 Diesel ignition of, XII, 175 Gas engine ignition of, XII, 174-177 Internal combustion engine, aga Takia as VI, 157 Fruiting, effect of light upon, XI, 303 Fulton, XII, 186 Steamboat, XII, 187 Fungi, XI, 288-289 Diseases due to, XI, 91 Furnace, products of blast, XII, 338-339 Materials used in_ blast, XII, 338-339 Reverberatory, XII, 346 [422] INDEX G Gaff-topsail catfish, VIII, 113 Galaxy, number of stars in eur VIE tn Galvanometer, XII, 7, 8, 9 Reflecting, XII, 98 Ultra-sensitive, II, 80 Gametophyte, XI, 268 Ganglion, V, 118 Ganoid fishes, VIII, 36 Garden pea, germination of, XI, 60 Garnets, III, 243-246 Metal basis of, III, 244 Solubility of, III, 245 Gas engine, action of, XII, 172 FParliest, XII, 171 Efficiency of, XII, 179-180 Four-cycle, XII, 172 Gas expansion engines, II, 207-208 Gas, natural, XII, 34 Pressure engine, II, 207-208 Refrigerator, XII, 248 Gases, behavior in vacuum, XII, 49 Conductivity of, XII, 49 Effect of high voltage upon, ATI, 50 Laws of, XII, 239-240 Gasoline intake, XII, 172 Gastropods, X, 284-287 Eggs of, X, 306-307 Feet of, X, 293-294 Dangerous to man, X, 316 Moisture conservation in, X, 289-290 Sense of smell of, X, 308- 309 Shells of, X, 287-288 Smoke screens of, X, 315- 316 Thread-spinning, X, 290 Without shells, X, 291 Geckos, VIII, 326 Gem, brilliant cut, III, 308- 309 Collector, III, 291 Determination of beauty of, PN. .1978 Determination of cutting, III, 306 Diamond cut, III, 182 Elements, III, 170 Parts of / brilliant. ,.cut ‘of, III, 308 Proportions of, III, 309 Gems, attribution of mystical properties to, III, 200- 210 Beryl group of, III, 210 Biblical, III, 316, 319 Cabochon cut, II], 314 Cameo, III, 314 Carving, artistic, II], 314 Chemistry of synthetic, III, 290 Choice by ancient man of, III, 306 Color formation in, III, 178-179 Color from elements in, III, 179 Commercial manufacturing of, III, 289 Compounds of, III, 171 Curved surface bounding cut, III, 308 ' Cuts bounded by plane sur- faces, in, TEI, 308 Cuts of, ITI, 308 Dispersion in, III, 181 Double brilliant, III, 310 Effects of elements on colors of, III, 244 Half brilliant cut, III, 310 Hardness, III, 182 [423] INDEX Intaglio cut, III, 314 Light factors in cutting, III, 306-307 Magical properties of, III, 183-185 Mineral, III, 170 Minerals, commercially and scientifically | important, III, 294 National Museum collection of, III, 295 Refraction in, III, 181 Rose cut, III, 312 Scientific property measure- ment of, III, 183 Size of cut, III, 307 Star cut, JIT, 311-912 Step cut, III, 313 Synthetic, III, 289 Table cut, III, 314 Trap brilliant cut, III, 311 Trap cut, III, 313 Undetermined color causes in some, III, 179 Genetics, corn, XI, 348 Genus, defined, V, 27 Geological eras, length of, X, Ixud 3 Time charts, X, 15, 60 Time clock, X, 6 Geologist, 1X, 255-259 Geology of diamond-bearing land, III, 207 Geotropism, XI, 63 Germ cells, V, 103 Germ cells, servants of, V, 104 Germination, XI, 59-62 Stages of, XI, 59 Gestation, period of chick, VII, 23-24 Gila monster, VIII, 336 Gill rakers, VIII, 87-88 Gills, VIII, 65-84 Parasites on, X, 128-137 Straining action of, VIII, 65-66 Types of, VIII, 84-85 Giraffes, VI, 176 Girdling of trees, XI, 14-15 Glacial era, climatic conditions of, VII, 188 Effect on animal life by, Vit, 223 Glacial period, VII, 19 Man’s life of last, VII, 68 Glacial stages in the Alps, VII, 65-66 Glacier, VII, 57 Effect on elevation, VII, 61-62 Effect on land surface, VII, 60-62 Effect on sea water, VII, 62 Effect on vegetation, VII, 60 Formation of, VII, 57 Present day, VII, 57 Spanish peninsula, VII, 227 Glass, age of, XII, 322 Composition of, XII, 323 Efficiency for astronomical mirrors, II, 97 Optical, XE seas Glass, transmission of light through, II, 314 Uses of, XIT, 311 Glider, XII, 225 Flyers, early, XII, 225 Gold, Bronze Age, VII, 266 Fool's, LIT, 29% Mayan, VII, 334 Goodyear, XII, 317 Gorilla, VI, 23, 28 Inferior to man, VI, 28-29 Posture of, VII, 47 Steps taken to protect, VI, 28 Grafting, XI, 68-71 — INDEX Granite, III, 287 Sources of, III, 286-287 Grass, XI, 226, 227 Crops, value of, XI, 216, 217 Effect of abundant, XI, 201 In development of civiliza- tion, XI, 346 Products, XI, 216-218 Grasses, XI, 238-249 As land builders, XI, 226- 229 Cultivated in prehistoric times, XI, 203-205 How long cultivated by man, XI, 204-205 Relation to beef, XI, 218 Relation to dairy products, I 278 Relation to hogs of, XI, 218 Relation to horse power, XI, 218 Relation to leather of, XI, 218 Relation to poultry of, XI, 218 Relation to wool of, XI, 218 Reproduction of, XI, 238- 241 Sugar source in, XI, 212 Grasshoppers, _ characteristics of, V, 28-29 Difference between katydids and, V, 32-33 Ears of, V, 29-31 Eggs of, V, 6-8 Hatching of eggs, of, V, 8-9 Insect enemies of, V, 19-25 Kinds of, V, 28-29 Mouth parts of, V, 108 Plagues of, V, 17-19 Poison for, V, 19 Relatives of, V, 28-84 Sex differences of, V, 3 Spiracles of, V, 13 Gravitation, III, 2-3 Between heavenly bodies, Wien Gravity’s effect on meteors, ni: 2 : Grazing animals, best food for, XI, 201-203 Great Auk, IX, 87 Great Cold, culture during, VII, 190 Great Salt Lake, VIII, 2 Grebe, IX, 93-94, 150 Greely, Arctic expedition and shrimp, X, 236-237 Green turtles, VIII, 311-312 Grid, XII, 60 Grimaldi Man, origin of, VII, 80-81 Growth, light and plant, XI, 302 Twigs, XI, 14 Guano, IX, 139 Guinea fowl, eggs of, IX, 82 Gull, food of black headed, IX, 737 5D) LO4- 165 Gymnosperms, examples of, XI, 94-95 Gypsum, III, 284 H Hadrosaurs, dentition of, VIII, 238 Haliotis, X, 293 Halophytes, XI, 78, 79 Hammond, XII, 133 Harpoon, origin of, VII, 235 Hawks, food habits of, IX, 140, 141 Home life of, 1X, 97 Hooked beak, 1X, 127 Relation to rodents, IX, 140-142 [425] INDEX Worth protecting, 1X, 141 Hazeltine, All, 133 Health: Aedes, V, 338-339 Alcohol, diseases caused by, VII, 178-179 Anopheles, V, 330, 340 Antivenin, VIII, 351 Blood, food for insects, V, 320 Control of flies, V, 343 Copperhead snakes, VIII, 348 Crabs in sanitation, X, 245 Cro-Magnan medicine men, VII, 222-223 Culex mosquito, V, 331, 335-338 Disease, early man’s explan- ation of, VII, 177-178 Disease germs carried by houseflies, V, 347 Disease, Indian treatment at; LV; 605779; 100 Diseases of prehistoric man, VII, 176, 196 Disease and _ ultra-violet light, II, 233-241 Drugs from plants, XI, 100-101, 108 Flies, birthplace of, V, 343 Food preservation, XII, 242-243 Housefly, V, sas Infection from fly’s bite, V, 322 Indians, IV, 27-28 Irradiation in medicine, II, 238-239 Liver fluke, X, 316-318 Mollusks and flatworms, X, 316 Mosquito, bite of, V, 338 Mosquito and man, V, 331 Phagocyte, V, 301 Plants in sick room, XI, 28-29 Psittacosis, IX, 160 Rattlesnakes,” VILE egaee 348-351 Rickets, II, 235-241 Seaweeds in_ bacteriology, XI, 89 Sleeping sickness, V, 348- 349 Stegomyia, V, 338 Sweat houses of Indians, IV, 26, 182% vee Trypanosomes, damage by, V, 349 Tsetse fly, V, 348 Tuberculosis, II, 235-241 Use of X-Rays, XII, 65-68 Ultra-violet light and dis- ease, II, 233-241 X-Rays, use of, XII, 65-68 Yellow fever, V, 338-340 Heart-beat of infants, VII, 34 Heat energy, conversion of, ATE 55 Latent, XII, 240 Production of cold, XII, 239 Heaviside layer, XII, 117 Heddenite, III, 251 Heddle, XIL, 272, 270-260 Heidelberg jawbone, VII, 143 Heliotropism, XI, 32 Hellbender, reputation of, VIII, 181-182 Hematite, III, 279 Hen, domestication of, VII, 308 Henry, Joseph, XII, 5-7 Henry, discoveries of, XII, 72-78 Henry, electric motor of, XII, 72073 [426] INDEX Herbarium, XI, 149-152 Labels, XI, 153 Use of, XI, 153-155 Heredity, VII, 23 Herkimer diamond, III, 225 Hermit crab, X, 221, 222 Herons, great blue, 1X, 152 Legs and neck of, 1X, 127 Herrings, XII, 225 Food of, X, 125 Hertz, XII, 128-129 Hesperornis, IX, 41, 45 Heterotis, nest of, VIII, 110 Hiawatha of Longfellow, IV, 17, 86 High cylinder temperature, importance of, XII, 166 Himalaya Mountains, origin, of, X, 79 Hippopotamus, VI, 149 Pigmy, VI, 149 Tusks of, VI, 150 Under water stay of, VI, 147-148 Weight of baby, VI, 147 Histolysis in insects, V, 259- 260 History, written records of, Mal 167 Hogs, relation of grasses to, M216 Wart, capture of, VI, 158- 159 Honeybees near orchards, XI, 52 Wings of, V, 318 Honeydew, V, 155 Honeymouse, 1X, 287 Hopi Indians, IV, 130 Silversmiths, IV, 138 Hopperdozer, V, 19 Hormones, causing migrations, IX, 54-55 In insects, V, 119 Hornbill, VI, 256 Horn flies, menace of, V, 348 Horned toad, VI, 263 Protective coloration of, VIII, 331 Horns, hollow, IX, 343 Horse, Babylonian, VII, 305, 306 Chariot, origin of, VII, 288 Development of modern, IX, 353-361 Effect on civilization of, VII, 306 Evolution of, LX, 353-361 Introduction into Egypt of, VII, 300 Origin of use of saddled, VIR Solutrean source of food in, Vil253 Transportation, VII, 286 Horsefly, bite of, V, 322-323 Horseless carriage, defect of, XT, 220 Horsepower, XII, 159 Horseshoe crab, X, 156 Horse tails, XI, 94 Ancestors of, X, 67 Hottentots, homes of, II, 189 Houda Indians, IV, 210 House Kwatintl Indian, IV, 209 Housefly, bite of, V, 347, 348 Breeding places of, V, 343 Dangers of, V, 347 Disease germs carried by, V, 347 Food of, V, 346-347 Mouth parts of, V, 345, 346 Life history of, V, 342-345 Howe Sewing Machine, XII, 252 Human, dawn of, VII, 18, 19, [427] INDEX 32,' 38; IX, 320,°3507 X, 82 Egg, size of, VII, 23 Embryo, size of, VII, 23 Life, origin of, VII, 38 Sacrifice, abandonment of, VII, 248 Humidity, II, 103 Humming birds, food of, IX, 133 Nest of, LX, 74, 75 Hupa, artistry, IV, 206 Indians, IV, 199, 200 Indians, food of, IV, 202 Hurricane, West Indies, II, 106 Hussey, XII, 305 Hybrids, between bison and domestic cattle, VI, 168 Between zebra and ass, Vip213 Hybridization, experiments in, V¥P-'213 Hydrocarbons, source of, VII, 5 Hydrophytes, XI, 78 Hyena, VI, 113 Hyla, tree toads, VIII, 205- 207 Hyperparasite, V, 181 if Ice Age, animal survival of, VII, 68 Animals, VII, 60, 61 Cause of, VII, 56, 57 Characteristics of, X, 81-82 Close of, VII, 68 Definition of, VII, 56 Drop in temperature needed in next, VII, 56-57 Effects of, X, 81, 82 Effect on continents of, VII, 63 Effect on plants and ani- mals, X, 82 Effect on soil of, VII, 61 Effect on wind of, VII, 61 End of, VII, 65 Man, VII, 67 Number of, VII, 56 Origin of, VII, 57 People of Europe during, VIL, 74276 Quantity of ice during, VII, 62 Sun’s cause of, VII, 56, 57 Weather of, VII, 59, 61 Winters, VII, 60 Ice as a mineral, III, 175 Iceland spar, III, 277 Ice sheet over Europe and North America, X, 81, 82 Icthyornis, 1X, 41-45 Ichthyosaurs, VIII, 251 Adaptations of, VIII, 251- 254 Paddle of, VIII, 254 Reproduction of, VIII, 252- 253 Size of, VII, 16 Igloo, IV, 40-42 Igneous rocks, absence of fos- sils in, X, 9 Iguanidae, VIII, 329-336 Imperial valley, soil conserva- tion of, X, 210-213 Inca, architecture, VII, 343- 344 Civilization of, VII, 342 Clothing, VII, 343 Constructions of, VII, 344 Culture, place of, VII, 345 Empire, origin of, VII, 341 Food of, VII, 341 Government of, VII, 342 Literature, VII, 346 [428] PS INDEX Origin of, VII, 341 Originators of maize, XI, 329-330 Records of, VII, 346 Religion of, VII, 346 Religious significance of, VII, 341 Incandescent lamps, early, Soll. 13'5: 136 In use, XII, 145 Incubation, IX, 87, 88 Incubation of bird’s eggs, IX, 90 Incubation, help by male, IX, 89 Incubation of patches, IX, 88 Incubation, temperature of, IX, 88 Indians, achievements of Am- erican, XI, 346 Agriculture, IV, 24 Arts of, LV, 23-24; XI], 346- 348 Culture, developments from, VI1,:329 Culture of New World, VII, 349, 350 Culture retention of, VII, S51 Culture, white man’s uses af, IV, $s Culture, white man’s atti- tude to, IV, 7 Culture of west coast, IV, 175 Food of, IV, 21 Historical record of, IV, 250 History of white man’s treatment of, IV, 252- 258 Importance of bark to, IV, 2233 Importance of corn to, XI, 204, 323, 324 Languages of, IV, 10 Life of, IV, 31, 32 Loom, XII, 276 Migrations of, IV, 5 Migrations, origin of, IV, 3 North American families of, IV; 3 Origin of, IV, 1, 2 Origin of American, IV, 2, 3 Population, North and South America, IV, 5 Preparation ot food, IV, 177 Religious practices of, IV, 28-30 Sign language of, IV, 11-13 Stone work, IV, 20 Tipi, 1V, 158 Tlingit, [V, 213 Treatment by colonials of, IV, 201 Types of, IV, 3 Use of paint by, IV, 24 Vanishing race, IV, 7 War bonnet, significance of, IV, 24 White man’s effect upon, IV, 251-252 Word coining of, IV, 14 World’s debt to, XI, 346 Writing of, IV, 17, 18 Induced current, XII, 21 Induction for signalling, XII, 116 Indus, animals of, VII, 313 Civilization of, VII, 313 Industry of people of, VII, 313 Valley people, writing of, VII, 314 INDEX Inertia, effect on brakes, XII, 196 Infant, changes in heartbeat of, VII, 34 Infanticide, VII, 179 Infection due to fly bite, V, 323 Insects, air for, V, 114-116 Ancestors of, X, 71 Blood of, V, 111-112 - Blood circulation in, V, 112 Breathing of, V, 114 Carboniferous, V, 89 Castes among, V, 134 Changes in wings of, V, 91- 96 Circulatory system of, V, Tii-i%2 Consciousness in, V, 121 Control of segments in, V, 118 Damage done by, V, 152 Eating stages of, V, 236 Effect of decapitation on, V, 118-119 Egg and sperm of, V, 122- 123 Energy of flying, V, 116 Evolution of, X, 71 Food adaptations of, V, 107 Food distribution in, V, 112-113 Four kinds of social, V, 128 Halters of, V, 319 Heartiot,,V, 112 Heat energy of, V, 116 Maturing of, V, 184 Metamorphosis of, V, 245 Methods used to kill suck- ing, y, 154 Mouth parts of, V, 108-109 Nerve cord of, V, 117-119 Number of species of, VII, 20 Parasites of, V, 179 Removal of wastes from cells of, V, 116 Reproducing stage of, V, 235, 236 Segmented animals, V, 12 Song of, V, 49 Starvation of larva, V, 292- 293 Sucking and piercing mouth of, V, 108-109 Tubular flowers visited by, XI, 51-52 Wings of early, V, 91-93 Insectivores, IX, 247-248. 313-316 Instinct, V, 120 Instrument, VII, 184 Interference, II, 310 Internal combustion engines, complication of, XII, 176 Efficiency of, XII, 158 Invertebrates, number of species of, VII, 20 Iodine from kelp, XI, 186, 187 Ionization, XII, 59-60 Irises, origin of new varieties of." Rlas¢ Iron, ancient manufacturing. of A Tiaes Composition, XII, 336, 337 Converter, XII, 342, 344 Geology of, X, 45 Impurities, XII, 342 Introduction in different parts of world of, VII, 41 Lack of, XI, 8 Manufacturing of, XII, 338 Open Hearth process, XII, 346, 347 Ore, formation of, X, 47-48 [430] INDEX Origin of Egyptian use of, VII, 300 Origin of use of, VII, 41 Ships, XII, 189 Source of, XII, 337 Spectrum, II, 285 mums; £1,256 Usability of meteoric, III, 104-105 Uses of meteoric, III, 100- IOI, 104, 105 Iroquois, IV, 4 Agriculture crops, IV, 80 Council organization, IV, 94, 95 Dwelling, IV, 73 Government, doctrines of, IV, 88 Government of, IV, 84 Hunting of, IV, 77 Inventions of, IV, 78, 79 Long house, IV, 88 Power, IV, 84 Tribal organization, IV, 81-84 Irradiation, in medicine, II, 238, 239 Irrigation, XI, 11 Death of some crops-by, XI, yk Used by Indians, VII, 328 Islands, chinampas or floating, VII, 338 Itacolumite, III, 194 J Jade, III, 255-256 Chinese, III, 258 Mexican, III, 255 Working of, III, 254 Jadeite, ITI, 254 ava? VIE) ai34 Jawbone of Heidelberg man VII, 142 Jawbones, VII, 95, 144 Lower, VII, 47 Jays, IV, 132 Food of, LX, 131-132 Jefferson, 1X, 233-234 Jellyfish, fossils of, X, 59 Jet Tika 70 Jewelry, origin of, VII, 281 Jumbo elephant, VI, 130-133 June bugs, V, 230 Jupiter, solar rays intensity on, IT, 249 Jurassic animals, X, 75 b] K Kangaroos, adaptations of, 1X, 284, 285 Babies, LX, 280, 281 Habits of, LX, 285-287 Pouch of, VI, 219 Rats, IX, 334 Kansas, fossils in, VIII, 256 Karak plank house, 1V, 188 Katydid, difference between grasshopper and, V, 32-33 Difference between locust ani. '258 . Anatomical development of, VII, 48 Animal life of, VII, 21-22 Animal structures in, VII, 31 Appearance of early, VII, 168 Ascendency above animal level, VII, 171 Basic tools of, Vil, 173 Before knowledge of metals, WE ao [435] Birds known to prehistoric, LX, 354. Embryo-cell division in, VII, 29 Carriage of body of, VII, 49 Changes in, VII, 35 Change at birth of, VII, 33- Conquest of stronger crea- tures by, VII, 170 Descentpoh | Vil ary 225/32 Development of, VII, 31-32 Diseases of ancient, VII, 196 Early culture, VII, 44 Effect of magic on, VII, 177 Embryo of, VII, 31 End of old stone age, VII, 234 Enemy of plants and ani- mals.) X.,.82 Erastof, VAL, fie: 20 First rulers of, VII, 177 Glacial period, VII, 19 Habits of ancient, VII, 178 History of, information about, from plants and animals, VII, 38 Solution of problems about, VII, 34 Homo sapiens, mammal, VIL. 12 Individual differences, VII, 24 | Mastery of earth by, VII, 20 Non-animal structures of, Wit sr Origin of, VII, 18 Period of the dawn of, VII, 19 Plant breeding of early, XI, 321 Pleistocene period, VII, 19 INDEX Pre-Neanderthal, VII, 133 Pre-stone age, VII, 43 Primitive treatment of dis- eased, VII, 178 Purpose of clothes of early, VIE wz7s Rates of growth of, VII, 34 Reproduction of, VII, 35 Skull of Dawn, VII, 136 Structure of early, VII, 169 Weight of, VII, 34 Mandibles, V, 107 Manometer, XI, 6 Mantis, food of, V, 73-75 Shrimp, X, 179 Shrimp, food of, X, 180-183 Value of, V, 75 Maples, germination of, XI, 61-62 Marble, American, III, 280- 283 Foreign, III, 282, 283 Marconi, beam _ transmitter, Rit irae Wireless, XII, 129-133 Mars, solar radiation on, II, 249 Marsh grass and land, XI, 227-228 Marsupials, 1X, 280-310, 244- 245 Abundance of Australian, IX, 283 Flesh-eating, 1X, 298-303 Habits of, 1X, 280-310 Intelligence of, VI, 217 Kinds of, 1X, 280 Mole, 1X, 308-310 Pouch of, 1X, 280-282 Reasons for scarcity oi, 1X, 282-283 Materials of man, VII, 187 Mastodon, VII, 18; IX, 176- 177, 349-351 Matrix, diamond, III, 193-194 Matter, electrons causing ac- tivity of, XII, 56 Forms of, XII, 49 In sun, form of, II, 7 Origin of star, II, 297, 298 Maxwell, XII, 20 May Beetles, V, 230 Mayan architecture, VII, 331 Building, VII, 333 Calendar, VII, 334 Culture of, VII, 329 Culture, disappearance of, VII, 335 Culture, origin of, VII, 335 Culture, reconstruction of, VII, 335 Government, VII, 336 Language loss, key to, VII, 334 Population, life of, VII, 336 Rooms, size of, VII, 331- 332 Stone, VII, 331 Writing of, VII, 332, 334 Maximum efficiency of steam engine, XII, 158, 159 Mayet, VII, 54. McCormick, XII, 305 Measurements, early, VII, 280 Mechanical beast, XII, 181 Mechanical energy, U. S. pro- duction, XII, 150 Medicine bag, early, VII, 262 Megalobatrachus, VIII, 182 Melanism in birds, LX, 29 Mercury arc, Cooper Hewitt, Ki, yo Mercury, life on, II, 248 Mercury steam engine, XII, 47, 48, 158, 159 Merit of Babylonian Art, VII, 307 [436] INDEX Mesoderm, development of, VII, 30 Mesozoic, X, 73 Metals, early Indian use of, IV, 21 Magnetic, XII, 9 Man before knowledge of, VII, 42 Neolithic, VII, 265 Nugget of, early use of, Vil, 34 Origin of use of, VII, 167 Metallurgy, origin of, VII, 266 Mesolithic inventions, VII, 234 Mesophytes, XI, 78 Metamorphosis, V, 226-231 In man, V, 305 Meteor, III, 4-6 Meteoric minerals, III, 66-67 Meteorites, afterglow of, III, 4, 32, 51 Composition of iron III, 73 Composition of stony, III, #33 75 Oldest known, III, 7, 8 Shape of, III, 57 Meteors, III, 1 Alloy composition, III, 70 Alloys of nickel and iron in, hi 70 And earth formation, ITI, 4 Area of disturbances, III, 16-17 Areas of fall of, III, 42 Attitude of ancients to, III, 37-38 Composition of, III, 64, 68- 69, 75 Cosmic dust from, ITI, 62 [437] Danger to life of, III, 36, 37 Dark days, cause of, III, 63 Early beliefs of wise men on, III, 25 Early names of, III, 79 Elements in, III, 65 Effect of friction on, III, 57 Fall of, III, 15 Famous U. S. shower of, TEE Sag First Ui. 52) account "or * fall of, III, 13-15 Gravitation on, III, 2 Greek reports of, III, 6 Identification of, III, 50 In atmosphere, III, 3, 54 Invisibility of, III, 4 Tron and nickel in, III, 70 Location of striking point of, III, 46-47 Most famous, III, 22-24 Number becoming shooting stars, III, 54 Opposite to earth rotation, III, 27, 28 Origin in planetesimal bodies, III, 60 Precious stone in, III, 69 Rate of fall of, III, 27, 28 Reaching the earth, III, 54 Relation to earth rock, ITI, 74 Rate of striking, III, 29, 30 Rock not found in, III, 69 Size, computation of, ITI, 55 Source of, III, 84, 98 Source of light in, III, 31, 32, 50, 65 Source in oxygen insufh- ciency, III, 65 Scriptures’ description of fall of, III, 6 Speed of, ITI, 27 INDEX Speed of impact on earth, LLL,.29;.30 Speed of motion of, III, 3 Surface of, III, 50 Total weight of all, III, 56- 57 Types, III, 79, 81 Variations in speed of, III, 27 Visibility of, III, 2 Weight of, III, 67 Mexican onyx, III, 282 Mexico City, origin of, VII, 3 Mice, rate of reproduction of, IX, 336-338 Microphone, Berlin, XII, 109 Edison, XII, 109 Middle Ages, town develop- ments of, VII, 282 Middle Stone Age, VII, 43 Climate of, VII, 43 Life of, VII, 234 Migration, IX, 55-57 Distances covered in, IX, 58-62 Destructions of, IX, 58-60 Of fresh water fishes, VIII, TTO, 124 Prehistoric, 1X, 53-54 Of birds, 1X, 63-67 Of Indians, IV, 5 Superstitions about, IX, 50- 53 Sense of direction in, IX, 62-63 Of Solutreans, VII, 210 Theories about, LX, 50-55 Time of day of, LX, 55 Mimosa, behavior of, XI, 72- 74 Mineral, collections, III, 290, 294, 295 Compounds, III, 170 Definition of, III, 279, 280 Formation without water of some, III, 175 Gem, III, 170 Gem uses of, XII, 171 Hardness, III, 182 Meaning of “ite” endings of, III, 188 Of more than one shape, LON etm Origin of names of, III, 188, 189 Number of species of, III, 170, 170 Return to soil of, XI, 8 Ruby and sapphire in one, RIT; 203 Wear-resistence of, III, 182-183 Mineralogists, early, III, 295- 296 Miocene, death of animals in the, X, 79 Mirrors, II, 308 Mitosis, VII, 26-28 Moa, IX, 47-48 Egg of, [X, 47 Model plane tests, XII, 232, 236 Mohave, IV, 176 Molds, XI, 39-40 Molecules: In ain, tt, 162 In cells, XI, 297-298 En, sun es. a7 Mollusks, X, 251-356 Adaptations of, X, 259 Age attained by, X, 255 As basis for trade, X, 283 Breathing of, X, 259 Eggs of, X, 305, 260 Eyes of, X, 257-258 Fertility of, X, 264-266 Food from, X, 257 [438 ] INDEX Four classes of, X, 255 Gills of, X, 258 Habitats of, X, 254-255 Harvesting of, III, 219 How they differ from ar- thropods, X, 252 Intermediate hosts for flat worms, X, 316 Life span of, X, 255 Meaning of, X, 252-253 Opac chiasma in; X' 252 Parasites of, X, 133-134 Pearl-bearing, III, 218, 219 Position among _inverte- brates, X, 251-252 Shell, X, 253-254 Shells used in classifying, X, 254 Silurian, VII, 14 Sourse of dyes, X, 314, 315 Uses of shells of, X, 253 Molting, X, 103, 105 How performed, X, 103- 105 Of amphibians, VIII, 175 Of caterpillars, V, 274 Of cicada, V, 184 Molts, crab, X, 105, 106 Money, early, VII, 279-280 Origin of, VII, 278-279 Mongoose, VI, 222-224 Monitor of Komodo, VIII, 336 Monkeys, VI, 40-67 In Western Hemisphere, VI, 51-53 Rhesus, VI, 45-46 Trained to pick coconuts, VI, 49 Variation among, IX, 326 Wooly, VI, 54-55 Monocotyledons, XI, 95-96 Moon, life on, II, 242 Surface of, II, 244 Temperature on, II, 246 Moonstone, III, 230, 265 Morphologist, work of plant, XI, 157-158 Morse, original XII, 81, 85 Relay, XII, 81, 82 Moseley, VII, 5 Moseley’s Law, VII, 5 Mosquito, bite of, V, 338 Differences between male and female, V, 335-336 Difference between other flies and, V, 335 Food of, V, 338 Food of female, V, 337-338 Food of male, V, 337-338 Habitat of young stages of, V, 331 Important to man, V, 331 Larvae, V, 333 Larvae, breathing of, V, 332-333 Larvae of malaria and Culex, V, 340-341 Life during winter, V, 338 Life history of, V, 335-336, 340-341 Life history of Culex, V, 331-335 Pupa of, V, 334 Skin—piercing, V, 335-336 Wiggler, V, 329-331 Mosasaurs, VIII, 256-257 Food of, VIII, 258-259 Mosses, XI, 93 Club, VIII, 87-88 Spores of, XI, 40 Moth, Cecropia, V, 228 Cocoons of apple-tree tent, V> 282 Eggs of apple-tree tent, V, 262-263 Eggs of tent, V, 311-312 telegraph, [439] INDEX Emergence from cocoon, V, 305-306 Food of, V, 307 Luna, V, 228, 230 Ovary, V, 311 Proboscis of, V, 307-308 Promethea, V, 228 Storage of sperm cell by, V, 311 Mother, function of, VII, 23 Mountain-top plants, XI, 305- 306 Mountains, old age of, X, 3 Mouse, IX, 335 Mousterian culture, VII, 190 Culture, end of, VII, 191 Evidence of, VII, 110-113 Origin of, VII, 82, 166 Range of, VII, 130 Epoch, origin of, VII, 191 Mouth parts of insects, V, 322, 330, 334, 346, 347 Mud, fate of ocean, X, 34 Formation, X, 2 Formation of inch layer of, x, 2 In ocean beds, X, 34 Mudpuppy, VIII, 188 _ Habits of, VIII, 188-189 Mummification, development of, VII, 300 Practice of, VII, 300 Mushrooms, X1, 92-93 Growing of, XI, 92 Musk ox, VI, 169 Mutations: Corn origin theory of, XI, 345-346 Corn mutations, XI, 343, 344 Murex, source of dye, X, 314 Murres, eggs of, 1X, 79 Museums, collections of birds in, 1X, 7-8 Muscles, adductor, X, 256, 257 Mussels, X, 276-278 Attachment of, X, 261 Mycelium of fungus, XI, 92 Mryiasis, V, 352 Mynah, crested, VI, 259-260 N Nagana, V, 348-349 Narwhal, IX, 373-374 National Zoological Park, ori- gin of, VI, 3-5 Nautilus, Chambered, X, 345 Neanderthal, anatomy of, VII, He Blood concept of the, VII, 196, 197 Buildings, VII, 264, 265 Burial of men, VII, 197 Classification of, VII, 130 Clothing, VII, 192 Evidences of man, VII, 84, 85 Outside of Europe, VII, 126-128 Stone tools, VII, 193 Sagittal sutures, VII, 87 Shape of skull, VII, 91, 92 Suppression of, VII, 198 Source of, VII, 81 Winter life, VII, 195 Nebulae, II, 280 Spiral, 11, 2907 Nectar in plants, XI, 47, 51- 52 Necturus maculosus, VIII, 188 Needle, origin of, VII, 202 Negroid race in Europe, VII, 79 Neolithic artistry, VII, 263 Flint mining, VII, 248 Shelter, VII, 236 [440] INDEX Neon light, colors of, XII, 50, 51, 70 Neptune, temperature on, II, 249 Nervous system: Brain cases, ape, man and Pithecanthropus, VII, 45, 46, 148, 163, 169 Caterpillars, V, 285 Chimpanzee intelligence, V1" 32-33 Chin and intelligence, VII, 47 Dinosaurs, VIII, 235-236, AS De 77 Fishes, VIII, 99 Gastropods, X, 308-309 Insects, VII, 117-119 Lobsters, X, 107 Oyster, X, 263 Snakes, VIII, 342 Stimulation of nerve cells, V, 119 Nests, birds’, 1X, 68, 79 Cleaning of birds’, 1X, 1o1 Fouling of birds’, 1X, 101 Simplest kinds of, LX, 73 Types of, LX, 73-78 Newcomen steam engine, XII, 159, 160 , New Stone Age, people, VII, 263 Remains of, VII, 264 Newton, II, 74 Newts, in aquaria, VIII, 187 Niagara Falls, electric power, XII, 154 Niepce, Sainte-Victor de, XII, 360 Nitrogen fixation, XI, 27-29 Lack of, XI, 8 In lamps, XII, 147 North America, fossils of, VI, 7-8 Northern lights, II, 259 Nuclei, comparison of human and chick, VII, 23 Nymph, V, 185 Nymphs, of cicadas, V, 223, 225 O Oared ships, disadvantages of, Vil, 277 Oars, vision of bending of, IJ, 115 Oats, origin of cultivation of, ML 209) 210 Place and time of first cul- tivation, XI, 209-210 Obsidian, III, 287 Ocean shells, origin of, X, 4 Oceans, once covering some states, X, 37, 38 Formation of, VII, 9 Octopus, X, 345-352 As a mollusk, X, 251, 252 As food for man, X, 352 Chromatophores of, X, 342, 343 Eggs of, X, 341, 342 Food capture by, X, 333 Ink sac of, X, 335 Movement of, X, 328-329 Origin of, VII, 13 Regeneration of arms in an, X, 330 Sex in, X, 337-339 Shell of, XI, 325 Swimming mechanism of, X 3330 Use of fleabane in hunting the, X, 352-354 Oersted, XII, 1, 2 Offspring and parents, V, 103 Oil deposits, formation of our, X, 81 Flash point of, XII, 175 [441] INDEX Heat efficiency of, XII, 158, 159 Old Stone Age, climate of, VEL): 43 Mass migrations of, VII, 198 Oligocene, X, 79 Oynx, III, 228 Mexican, III, 282 Opals, III, 232-234 Operculum, origin of, X, 288- 289 Opossum, VI, 218 Orang-utan, VI, 33-36 Orbits, moon, earth, sun, planets, III, 3 Orchard trees, pollination of, XI, 52-53 Orchids, origin of new varie- ties, XI, 53 Ordovician era, VII, 13 Origin of insect wings, V, 9I1- 92 Orionids, meteors, III, 32 Ornithology, IX, 5-8, 11-12, II4-115 Economic, IX, 124-125 Osmosis, XI, 297-298 Osprey, nest of, 1X, 75 Ostrich, IX, 144-145 American, LX, 145-146 Evolution of, 1X, 13 Habits of, LX, 144-145 Ostracoda, food of, X, 123- 124 Reproduction of, X, 124 Otters, causes for their rarity, VI, 116 Otto, XII, 215 Ovary of moth, V, 311 Oviparous fishes, VIII, 104 Ovipositor, V, 199-200, 212- 214 Owl, diet of a barn, IX, 141- 142 Food habits of, LX, 140-141 Hooked beak of, IX, 127 Nocturnal habits of, IX, 160 Relation to rodents, IX, 140-142 Snowy, VI, 257 Worth protecting, 1X, 141 Ox, migrations of prehistoric, Vilwt8) 16 Origin of, VII, 18 Ox warble fly, V, 352 Oxen, origin of use of plow, VII, 261 Oxides, definition of, III, 170 Oxygen, released by plants, MI 27 Oyster, blood circulation, X, 263 Brain of, X, 263 Control of, X, 265-266 Damaged by crustaceans, X, 245-247 Economics of, X, 275 Eggs of, X, 264-265 Food digestion in, X, 262- 263 . Food of, X, 260-261 Origin of, VII, 13 Value in economics, X, 275 Ozone, importance of, II, 314 Quantity in atmosphere, VII, 5 Ozone and life, I], 314 1 Painted terrapin, VIII, 314- 315 Pauite Lodge, IV, 173 Paleontology, X, 14, 16, 17 Father of, LX, 232 Paleontologist, X, 16-18 [442] INDEX Paleozoic, X, 50 Animal, X, 55 Era, animals of, X, 55 Era, fossils of, X, 50 Rocks, fossils of, X, 55 Paper, composition of, XII, 313 Hand process, XII, 313-314 Manufacturing of, XII, 312-314 Origin of, XII, 312 U. S. consumption of, XII, 309 Papyrus, XI, 112 Parakeet, Carolina, extermina- tion of, VI, 254 Parasites, attacks of insect, V, 180 Defined, XI, 89 Extermination of insect host by, V, 179-180 Fish habitat of copepod, X, 129-131 Life of a fish, X, 129-131 Work of, V, 19-25 Parks, bison-raising, VI, 167 Paroquet, Carolina, extermina- tion of, VI, 254 Parrots, IX, 4-5 Food of mountain, 1X, 160 Reason for killing moun- tainty’ Vip 252 Parson’s steam turbine, XII, 171 Efficiency of, XII, 170 Pressure equalization of, Perley 170 Parthenogenesis, V, 104, 162 Passamaquoddy birch - bark house, IV, 73 Passeriformes, IX, 165-166 Pasteur, work of, XI, 90 Peace pipe, significance of, IV, 31, 32 Pearl MTa19-218 2971) 2239's X, 276-278 Abalone, Et, 222 Baroque, III, 222 Colors of, III, 219 Conservation of beds of, III, 219, 220 Cultured, III, 224 Formation in mollusk, III, 28, 12231204.) Xe 276s 277 Luster of, III, 218 Luster of mother of, III, 218 Mollusk - producing, III, 218 Mother of, III, 220 Cause of luster in, III, 218 North and South American sources of, III, 221 Production of cultured, IIT, 219 Removal from mollusk of, IIT, 220 Peat, origin of, XI, 93 Pebble flints, VII, 193 Pelicans, cannibalistic, 1X, 99 Care of young, IX, 99-100 Feeding of baby, IX, 90- TOO Pouch of, IX, 99 Pellets, composition of, LX, I4I Pelton wheel, XII, 150-151 Control of, XII, 152 Efficiency of, XII, 151-152 Penguins, IX, 148 People, backward (New Guinea, Philippines, Africa), XI, 204 Permalloy, XII, 111, 112 Perseus meteors, III, 32 Persia, civilization’s debt to, VII, 308 [443] INDEX Construction of buildings in, VII, 315,' 376 Perthite, III, 264 Peru, birthplace of maize, XI, 329-330 Peruvian knot writing, VII, Pet, woolly monkey as a, VI, 54-55 Petals, XI, 46 Petroleum, diatoms and, XI, 195-196 Origin of, XI, 195 Relation of fossils to, X, 19-24 Phagocyte, V, 301 Phalangers, flying, IX, 297- 298 Phenocite, III, 274 Philosophers of China, VII, 324 Phosphorus, lack of, XI, 296 Photoengraving, XII, 366-367 Photography, chemistry of, XII, 356-361 Difficulty of shooting star, III, 6 Dry plate, XII, 360 Glass plate, XII, 360 Origin of pratical, XII, 357, Roll film, XII, 363-364 Sensitized paper, XII, 358- 359 Photosynthesis, II, 232 Ancient ideas concerning, XI, 295-296 Chemical formulae of, XI, 289 Efficiency in, XI, 295 Efficient rays for, XI, 293 Experiments upon, XI, 296 Light factor for, XI, 292 Raw materials of, XI, 289 Time of, XI, 300 Use of chlorophyll in, XI, 289, 290 Phototropic, XI, 307-308 Phototropism, XI, 307-314 Phylum, V, 26 Picture writing, origin of, VII, 290 Pictures, colored, XII, 369 Piette, VII, 52 Pigeon, passenger, VI, 250; X, 87 Pigeon’s milk, 1X, 134 Pigments of bird eggs, IX, 84 Pigs, VI; 162 Ancient, VII, 18 As pets, VI, 162 Piltdown Man, VII, 134 Skull, VII, 141 Pioneer gas engine, XII, 171 Pipes, volcanic, III, 196 Pistol crab, X, 192-194 Pitcher plants, XI, 76 Pith) 2) x2: v4 Pithecanthropus erectus, VII, 146-149, 153-154 Age of, VII, 149 Brain capacity of, VII, 150 Differences of, VII, 153 Posture of, VII, 151, 152 Skull of, VII, 149-151 Structure of man in, VII, I51 Placentals, 1X, 311-375 Plane, Langley’s, XII, 227 Planets, invisibility of other solar system, III, 1, 2 Names of, II, 242 Plants, adaptations to light, XI, 290-291 American Indian, VII, 327, 328 Arctic summer, IV, 68 Ascent of sap in, II, 227 [444] INDEX Before insects came, V, 86- 89 Breeding of early man as a breeder of, XI, 321 Carboniferous period, VII, 14 Carnivorous, XI, 75 Climbing of, XI, 34-37 Classification of, XI, 148 Collecting trips for, use of, XI, 376 Collections of, XI, 154-156 Development of desert, XI, 264-270 Distribution, causes of, XI, 81-85 Dormant, XI, 72 Drowned, XI, 9 Drug sources in, XI, 100- IOI Drying and pressing, XI, 365-366 Dyes in, XI, 103 Effect of Ice Age on, X, 82 Efficiency of use of sunlight on, XI, 293-294 Eggs of, XI, 41-42 Energy of, II, 230 Energy storage in, XI, 294 Eocene, X, 79 Factors controlling light for, RE 301 Food of, V, 106 Food storage of, II, 233 Groups of, XI, 86 Grown in fluids, XI, 296 Growth and darkness for, A, 301 Growth, elements needed in, XI, 296-297 Hunting, in Mexico and South America, XI, 353- 354 [445] Importance of classifying, XI, 157-160 Light in experiments on, AT, 303 Light and, XI, 302 Light factors in, XI, 294 Light rays needed in, II, 234 Lumber from, XI, 102-103 Man’s debt to, XI, 97 Movements of, XI, 71, 76, 312-313 Natural groups of, XI, 86 Nutrition: Boron, effect of lack of, on soil, XI, 297 Cell membrane, XI, 297 Cells, molecules in, VII, 298 Chlorophyll, absorption of light rays by, XI, 292 formulae for, XI, 290 function in photosynthesis, XI, 289-290 Elements, essential, XI, 290-297 Irrigation, XI, 11 ‘Nitrogen, fixation, XI, 27-29 lack of, ely 58 Photosynthesis, XI, 289- 296 Plants grown without soil, XI, 296 elements needed in, XI, 296-297 Root-hairs, XI, 5-6 Roots, XI, 3 Water needs of plants, II, 224, 239 Xylem, II, 227-228 Ocean, XI, 169-170 Origin of, VII, 14, 17 INDEX Origin of flowering, X, 77 Pale, XI, 8 Parasites, food of, XI, 30- I Products of, XI, 101-104, 295-296 Propagation, XI, 66-67 Propagation of new, XI, 53-54 Reaction to light of differ- ent wavelengths, XI, 304- 306 Root system of prehistoric, X, 67 Sea, XI, 167-169 Sick room, XI, 28-29 Societies of, XI, 77, 85 Spiny desert, XI, 272-273 Students of, XI, 157, 160 Subtropical, XI, 359-360 Supremacy of flowering, X, 79 Temperate zone, XI, 360 Tropical, XI, 358-359 Plate, XII, 61 Platypus, "1X, 260/270, 272- 279 Pleistocene, meaning of, X, 81 Plesiosaurs, adaptations of, VIII, 260-261 Size ot, Vil 16 Pliocene, meaning of, X, 81 Plover, 1X, 60 Migration of, 1X, 59-60 Pole pieces, supplementary, AIT, 24 Poles, original climate of, VII, 68 Pollen, XI, 41 Grains, overproduction of, XI, 44 Transportation of, XI, 44 Pollination, XI, 43, 51 Methods of, XI, 52, 53 Of Bartlett pears, XI, 52- 53 Of strawberries, XI, 52 Polygamy among birds, IX, 73 Pond scum, XI, 88 Population, effect of climate on shift of; VI; 232 Effect of reaper on, XII, 308 Prevention of growth of In- dian, IV, 24 Porcelain, origin of, VII, 274 Porcupine, IX, 338-339 Fish, VIII, 36 Relatives of, 1X, 338-339 Porpoises, 1X, 367 Porrios, IV, 180-181 Potassium, lack of, XI, 296 Potato, origin of Irish, VII, 328 Origin of sweet, VII, 328 Propagation of, XI, 67 Post-Solutrean Epoch, VII, PAP Pottery, VIII, 238 Poultry, probable ancestor of, VI, 2475 Exo Ultra-violet rays and, II, 236, 237 Powder downs,. LX, 18-19 Power: Heat for, XII, 155, 159 Useof, in U.cSh aie 150 Water, XII, 151, 155 Powhatan’s mantle, IV, 252 Praying Mantis, V, 73-76, 107 Pre-chellean Age, VII, 185 Time of, VII, 182 Pre-chellean Man, appearance of, VII, 182 Life of, VII, 184 [446 ] INDEX Origin in Europe of, VII, 182 Pre-chellean Times, population of) WiLL) 482 Tools of, VII, 184 Precocial young, IX, 91-92 Preservation of animal _ re- mains, VII, 45 Pressure, cylinder, XII, 172 Measurement of upper at- mospheric, II, 43-45 Sun spots and atmospheric, i 738 Primates, LX, 324-330 Primitive people, failure of, KV 319 Printing pictures, use of elec- tricity im; XT) 307 Promethea Moth, V, 228, 229 Propagation by plants, XI, 68- 69 Propulsion of water - craft, Nhs 277 Protective coloration among crustaceans, X, 205-207 Proteins, production of, XI, 295, 296 Proterozoic changes, X, 44-49 Era, X, 44-49 Era, temperature of, X, 45- 40 Plants, X, 49 Rocks, fossils in, X, 46-49 Rocks, plant evidence on, X, 47-48 Weather, X, 45-46 Proto, homo, VII, 152 Protons, VII, 5 Protoplasm, VII, 25 Appearance of, XI, 12 Pseudotriton, VIII, 183-185 Psittacosis, 1X, 160 Pteridophyta, XI, 93, 94 Pterodactyls, VIII, 263, 264- 268 Pueblo, 1V, 131 Pueblos, dress of, 1V, 111 Flouses of, TV; a22{ 13 Houses still in use, IV, 113 Water jars of, IV, 12 Puff-adder, VIII, 345-346 Puftballs, spores of, XI, 40 Pulvinus of insects, XI, 72-74 Pupay V A250 Changes in, V, 255-257 Creamy pulp inside the, V, 303-304 Difference between larva and, V, 250 Interior of, V, 116-117 Self-feeding of, V, 260 Pupae protection, V, 251 Puparium, Vis 344-345 Pupin, XII, 111 Pyrheliometer, II, 44-47 Pyranometer, II, 91 Pyrites, III, 278 Pyramids, VII, 299 Python, feeding of, VI, 266 Habits of, VIII, 352-353 Length of, VIII, 352 Q Quagga, now extinct, VI, 212- 213 Quartz, III, 224-226 Clear, III, 225-226 Gems, III, 225, 227 Optical, III, 226-227 R Race, superceding Neander- thal, VII, 198 Races, extinction of, VII, 176 Quality of ancient, VII, 196 Radiant heat, earth’s retention ore hh riO-11! [447] INDEX Radiation, II, 302, 311, 312 Output, solar and star, VII, Radiations from heated bodies, RIS 69 Radicle, XI, 59 Radio beam, XII, 142 Inventions, XII, 135 Music quality, XII, 128 Principles, XII, 114, 115 Tube, XII, 60, 61 Necessity for good vacuum in, XII, 61-62 Parts of, XII, Go Principles of, XII, 59 Tubes, glow of, XII, 59, 60 Wave, discontinuous, XII, Ty Ao Wave efhiciency, XII, 117 Wave generation, XII, 116- La: Wave, modulation of, XII, 133 Wave, relation of light to, ALT pag, Tas Wave, transmission, XII, 116, 127 Wave, travelling around eare of, NIL TT Radioactive matter, decomposi- tion of, VII, 3 Radula, X, 281, 297-301, 334 Rails, English, XII, 19 UsS./ e103 Railway brakes, XII, 33 Couplings, XII, 199-200 First motor power, XII, 192 Origin of, XII, 192 Turns, XII, 193 Rain, relationship of dust to, II, 103 Particles, formation of, II, 103 Rainfall in deserts, XI, 253 Rana goliath, VIII, 203 Rater bX,0335 And mice, migrations of, IX, 335-338 Kangaroo, IX, 334 Rattlesnakes, Diamond - back, VIII, 349 Fangs of, VIII, 341 Habits of, VIII, 349-350 Rattles, VIII, 350-351 Species, VIII, 348 Rays, beyond X-Rays, II, 11 Rays, emission of, II, 302 Reaper, XII, 303-304, 305; 307 Recapitulation, VII, 31 Records, early historical, VII, 38 Of the past, VII, 170 Rectification, XII, 68-70 Red-winged blackbirds, IX, 129-130 Reflection, II, 308 Refraction, II, 115-116, 308- 309 In Einstein’s ‘Theory, II, 285 | In gems, III, 181 Refrigeration, absorption, XII, 221 Compression, XII, 245, 247, 249 Home, XII, 244 Importance of, XII, 239 By sun’s heat, XII, 239 Refrigerator, temperatures of, XII, 242-243 Regeneration, XII, 123, 124 Regrowth of arms and claws, X, 330 Reindeer, use of, VI, 185 Relay, XII, 81-82 Religion, origin of, Vil, 225 [448] ca ee INDEX Representations, incomplete, VII, 204 Reproduction: Algae, XI, 38 Alligator, VIII, 303 Aphids, V, 161 Apple-tree tent moth, V, 262 Bacteria, XI, 38 Birds, XI, 71-73, 86-92 Bivalves, X, 264-268 Bowfin, VIII, 109-110 Box turtle, VIII, 316-317 Cells, VII, 27 Chicken, VII, 23-24 Cicadas, V, 186-199 Corn aphids, V, 172-176 Cow birds, IX, 89-90 Crabs, X, 168-171 Crocodiles, VIII, 202 Crustaceans, X, 107-108 Culex, V, 331 Daphnia, X, 118-120 Definition of, V, 102 Dinosaurus, VIII, 217-219 Duckbill, IX, 279 peels VLLL,.119, 120 Fiddler crabs, X, 168, 171- 172 Fishes, VIII, 103, 105. Flowers, XI, 41 Germ cells, VII, 103 Grasses, XI, 238-241 Grasshoppers, V, 6-9 Housefly, V, 342-345 Ichthyosaurus, VIII, 252- 253 Kangaroo, 1X, 280, 281 Leatherback turtles, VIII, 310-311 Liver fluke, X, 316-318 Man, Vil, 23, 29,°31,/33- 34, 35 Mice, IX, 336-338 Mollusks, X, 260, 305 Mosquito, V, 331-336, 340- 341 Octopus, X, 341-342 Ostracoda, X, 124 Oyster, X, 264-265 Plants, XI, 39-42 Reptiles, VIII, 294 Robber crab, X, 178 Salamander, VIII, 187 Salmon, VIII, 128 Spotted salamander, VIII, 185-186 ‘Termites, V, 132-135 Reptiles, age of, X, 75 Anatomical features of, VIII, 291-295 Decadence of, VIII, 211- 212 Eggs of, VIII, 294 Extinction of, X, 77 Groups of, VIII, 211-212 Origin of, VII, 17 Prehistoric flying, VIII, 263-268 Rate of growth, VIII, 230- 231 Reptiles, relation to other ver- tebrates, VIII, 291 Reradiation, II, 109 Resonance, XII, 119 Respiration, V, 114 Birds, LX, 68-78 Breathing without lungs, V, E1321 4s VIO, BIS! 295-297 Caterpillar, V, 292 Fishes, VIII, 86-87; IX, 368 Infants, VII, 35 Insects, V, 114, 116 Plants,.14..230 Reverberatory furnace, XII, 346 [449 ] INDEX Rheas, IX, 145 Rhinoceros, Dakota, 1X, 199 Horn of, VI, 208 Uses of horn of, VI, 207 Rhizomes, XI, 64, 65 Rhodesia Man, VII, 154-158 Skull, VII, 161 Skull, age of, VII, 162 Rhodonite, III, 274 Rice, origin of cultivation of, XI, 209-210 Place and time of first culti- vation, XI, 209-210 Rings, growth of tree, XI, 15 Ripple flaking, VII, 208, 216 River terraces, formation of, VII, 65 Roaches, ancestry of, V, 84-90, 97, 98 Ancient, V, 89 Common names of, V, 77- 79 Kinds of, V, 78-80 Length of fossil, X, 70-71 Life of, V, 80-82 Origin of, V, 82 Prehistoric, V, 85-89 Reproduction of, V, 80-82 Survival of, V, 98 Roach, termite relationship, V, 145-146 Robber crab, life history of, Ae L7S Use of, X, 178 Rock, definition of, Til, 279, 280 Formation of, X, 234 Formation of layers of, X, 2 Igneous, X, 9 Name of first sedimentary, etal Rocks, record in the, 1X, 188- 206 Past formation of sedimen- tary, X, 9 Sedimentary, meaning of, X, f-2 Sedimentary, quantity of, X, 2 Rocky Mountains, when formed, X, 78 Rodents, 1X, 331 Rodents, examples of, 1X, 3337335 Habitats of, 1X, 332 Origin of, VII, 118 Specialization among, IX, 3345333 Storage of food by, 1X, 333 Teeth of, IX, 249-250 Variations in, 1X, 332 Roebling, III, 297 Roothairs, XI, 5 Root pressure, XI, 5, 6 Roots, adaptations of, XI, 6-7 And air, XI, 28 And darkness, XI, 301 Damaging pavements, XI, 6 Direction of growth, XI, 32 Effect of lack of air on, XI, Q-II Growth of, XI, 4 Length of, XI, 6 Protection of young, XI, 4, 5 Stilt xs 71o Work of, XI, 3 Roses, origin of new varieties, XT 153 Rotary Hook, XII, 259 Rotogravure, XII, 370-371 Rubber articles, shaping of, XII, 320-321 Artificial, XII, 317 Extraction from latex, XII, 316-317 [450] INDEX Original uses, XII, 310 Source of, XII, 315 Rubies, artificial, III, 290 Cause of color of, III, 203 Geology of, III, 204, 205 Primitive mining of, III, 206 Source of, III, 204, 205 Ruby, relationship of spinel to, ITI, 209 Ruffed grouse, 1X, 112-113 Ruminants, LX, 343 Runners of plants, XI, 65-67 Rye, place and time of first cultivation of, XI, 2009- 210 Rye, origin of cultivation of, XI, 209, 210 S Saber-tooth tigers, VII, 18 Safety railroad brakes, XII, 33 Sahara, cause of desert, VII, 2.94. Sail, importance of, VII, 277- 278 Inventors of, VII, 298 Sailing Vessels, supremacy of, XII, 188 Salamanders, VIII, 179 As food for man, VIII, 186 Breathing of, VIII, 182-183 Cave, VIII, 189-190 In dry season, VIII, 180 Eye of in cave, VIII, 183 Fire legend about, VIII, 179 Food of, VIII, 181 Food of red, VIII, 184 Habitat of, VIII, 179-180 Habits of, VIII, 182-183 Largest in world, VIII, 182 Life history of spotted, VIII, 185-186 Marbled, VIII, 186 Pets, VIII, 181-187 Red, in captivity, VIII, 184 Skin of, VIII, 180 Spotted, VIII, 186 Teeth of, VIII, 181 Salmon, causes of migration of, VIL, 18, 123 Death of, VIII, 123 Growing scarcity of, VIII, 126 Life of, VIII, 124 Migration of, VIII, 122- 123 Pacific Coast, WILT, 121- 124 Recognition of male, VIII, 102 Sense of direction in, VIII, I21 Spawning of, VIII, 123 Salts, origin of ocean, X, 4 Sand-box tree, XI, 56 Sap, flow of, XI, 22-23 Sapphires, artificial, III, 290 Cats’ eyes, III, 203 Cause of color of, III, 203 Geology of, III, 208 Hardness of, III, 203 Primitive mining of, III, 206 Sources of, III, 205, 206 Star, Dhl 203 U. S. sources, III, 207 Sapsucker, 1X, 133 Saprophytes, XI, 89 Sapwood, XI, 14 Sardine, dependence on algae, XI, 191 Sargassum Sea, XI, 88-89 Saturn, temperature of, II, 249 [451] INDEX Savannah, XII, 188 Sawfish, VIII, 55 Sayce, XII, 360 Scales, fish, VIII, 34-35 Purpose of fish, VIII, 34 Scallop, eyes of, X, 257-258 Scaphopods, basis for trade among Indians, X, 283 Scorpions, ancestors of, X, 64 Pre-historic, VII, 14 Screen, Ben Day, XII, 374 Screw propeller, XII, 183 Effciency, XII, 189 Sea animais, algae as food for, XI, 190-191 Sea cows, 1X, 365 Sea-ears, X, 293 Sea horse, VIII, 111-112 Adaptations of, VIII, 31 Sea level, changes in, VII, 62 Sea over North America, X, 77 Sea plane, testing of, XII, 233, 236 Sea serpents, X, 348-349 Seals, methods of hunting, IV, 47-48 West Indian, VI, 125 Seas, effect of retreating, X, 74 Formation, VII, 65 Seasons, effect of sun on, II, 5 Seaweeds, XI, 167-180, 184- 190 Aids in bacteriology, XI, 89 Length of, XI, 88 Texture of, XI, 168-172 Sedimentary rocks, X, 40-41 Formation of, X, 8-9 For lithographing, X, 59-60 Quantity of, X, 2 Seeds, XI, 40-41 Dispersal, XI, 55-59 Dispersal, animal, XI, 57-58 Dispersal, mechanical, XI, 55-56 Dispersal, wind, X1, 56 Embryos, nourishment of, XI, 59 Food storage in, XI, 42-43 Formation of, XI, 42 Rest period of, XI, 54 Structure of, XI, 42 Viability of, XI, 54-55 Selaginella, XI, 94 Selden, XII, 214-225 Selection, meaning of, XI, 54 Self-pollination, XI, 43-44 Semitic empire, VII, 305 Sensitive plants, behavior of, XI, 72-74 Separator, cream, XII, 31 Sepia, formation of, X, 76, S35 Sequoia gigantea, XI, 15 Serpentine, III, 284 Serpents, sea, X, 348-349 Sewing machine, XII, 247-252 Sewing, Solutrean, VII, 209 Sex cells, XI, 39 Sex, determination of, in birds, Vik 28 | Determination of, in insects, V.ur23 Sex glands in fishes, VIII, 102 Sex in plants, XI, 38-39 Sex of birds, VII, 28 Shark, bite of, VIII, 59-60 Bullhead, VIII, 13-14 Food of, VIII, 140-141 Forerunner of modern fish, VIII, 12-13 Size of ancient, VIII, 3 Sucker, adaptations of, VIII, 46-47 Shelter, Chellean, VII, 185 Original people to use, VII, 195 [452] a ee eee A ee er. ee So ee ee ee en ne % a INDEX Origin of, VII, 192 Shepard, III, 301 Shipworms, X, 269-273 Boring of, X, 270 Damage done by, X, 271 Length of, X, 270 Shrew, VI, 229 Shrimp, as food, X, 232-233 Body regions, X, 100 California, conservation of, X, 230 California, depletion of, X, 230 Eggs of mantis, X, 183-184 Fairy, X, 115-116 Fisheries, X, 232 Fishing, X, 233 Food for man, X, 234-237 Glass, X, 168 Skeleton, X, 62-63 Weight of large fresh water, X, 173 Sierra Nevada when formed, X, 76-77 Silk, ATT 267 Silver, light sensitivity of, XII, 356-357 Silversmiths, Hopi, IV, 138 Singer, XII, 247-264 Single cylinder engines, efh- ciency of, XII, 166 Sioux Indians, culture of, IV, 146-149 Skeletons, development of car- tilaginous, X, 326-327 In fishes, VIII, 61 Skidding, XII, 194 Skins, origin of clothing from, ul ee iy a: Skull, capacity of Neanderthal, VII, 88 Heidelberg, VII, 144-145 Historical links between, VII, 96-102 Mountains, Intelligence and, VII, 46 Modern, VII, 102 Neanderthal, VII, 102 Of Dawn Man, VII, 136 Posture relation to, VII, 46- 47 Reconstruction of, VII, 49- 50 Relation of intelligence to, VII, 46 Size of, VII, 88 Spy, VII, 102 Vault of Spy, VII, 108 Sky, blue, II, 102 Slavery, origin of, VII, 254 Solutrean and Aurignacian, VIL 216 Sled, Eskimo, IV, 45 Sleeping sickness, V, 348-349 Sloths, LX, 362 Slugs, bite of, X, 304 Food of, X, 303-304 Silvery trail of, X, 295 Smuts, damage done by, XI, QI Snails, breathing of, X, 295- 297 Edible, X, 284, 312-313 Habitats of, X, 284 Injury to submarine cables due to, X, 219 Land, X, 284-286 Movement of, X, 292 Sense of hearing, X, 3II- 312 Sense of sight, X, 309-310 Vision of, X, 309-310 Snakes, VIII, 339-355 Age when poisonous, VIII, 343 Burrowing, VIII, 345 Countries that have _ no, VIII, 339 [453] INDEX Food from poisonous, VIII, 354-355 Food of black, VIII, 344- 345 Garter, VIII, 346 Glass, VIII, 335-336 Hoop, VIII, 345 In tropics, VIII, 339 King, VIII, 344 Mamba, VIII, 354 Marine, VIII, 354-355 Method of locomotion of, VIII, 342-343 Molting of skins of, VIII, 343 Poisonous, in the U. &., VIII, 346 Range of size and shape, VIII, 339-340 Senses of, VIII, 342 Shed skins of, VIII, 343 Sting of, VIII, 345 Superstitions about milk, VIII, 344 Venom of, VIII, 354 Sodalite, III, 262 Color of, III, 262 Sod house, XI, 230 Sod, pioneer use of, XI, 230 Soil, ancient fertilizing of, VII, 246 Conservation, XII, 210-213 Effect of Ice Age on, VII, 61 Lack of nitrogen in, XI, 8 Plants grown without, XI, 296 Solar, boiler, II, 195-198 Engines, II, 19-22 Heat cooker, II, 195, 196, 21D A219 Heat, increase of, II, 65 Radiation constants, II, 34, 51 Radiation constants, effect of sun spots, II, 149 Radiation, effect due to, II, 144-146 Radiation, effect on, II, 146 Radiation instruments, II, 75-97 Radiation output, VII, 7 System, formation of, VII, 6,8 Origin, II, 299 Originating, VII, 6 Place of earth in, VII, 1 Variations and weather, II, 157, 158 Variations in, II, 17, 65 Solutions, XI, 297 Solutrean, artistry of, VII, 209 Attitude toward the dead, VI, 211 Climate; VII, 207 Culture, VII, 211 Culture, in Europe, VII, 207 Instruments, VII, 207 Epoch, life of, VII, 74, 75 Soma, V, 104, 304 Somatic cells, origin of, V, 104 Song of insects, V, 33-34 Sound, in the fclephases XII, 99-112 Sounder, origin of, XII, 96 Sounds, origin of written, VII, 290 Space charge, XII, 5, 9, 63 Sparrow, broods of song, IX, 86 Grasshopper, IX, 107 Spawning seasons and fishing, VIII, 125-126 [454] ia ae og ke INDEX Species, continuation of, XI, 38 Modern, origin of, VII, 20 Number of insect, VII, 20 Number of invertebrate, Vit 20 Number of mammalian, VII, 20 Of early man, VII, 167 Origin of, VII, 20-21 Permian period, VII, 16 Success of modern, V, 125 Unknown, VII, 20 Spectral shift, II, 293 Spectroscope, II, 311 Spectrum, atomic difference controlling, VII, 6 fron; 11,9 Spectrum of stars, VII, 7 Spectrum rays, increase of, II, 313 Speculum, reflector metal, XII, 169 Sperm cells, VII, 24 Formation of, VII, 27 Storage by female moth, V, erg Sphenodon, VI, 261-262 Ancient lineage of, VI, 261-262 Habits of, VIII, 296-298 Spider crab, protection of, X, 226 Spine of fish, VIII, 61-62 Spinel, relationship to ruby, III, 209 Spines in plants, origin of, XI, 271-273 Spinning, XII, 265, 274 Barly, XI 268; 273 Wheel, XII, 273 Spiracles, V, 13, 114-115 Spiral Nebulae, laws of, VII, 6 Spirochetes, V, 340 Spirogyra, XI, 88 Spontaneous generation, XI, 90 Spores, XI, 39 Function of, XI, 39 Production of, XI, 39 Spodumene, III, 250-252 Squid, X, 345-352 Ancestors of, X, 76 As a mollusk, X, 251-252 Eggs of, X, 340 Length of, X, 349 Shell of, X, 325 Source of sepia, X, 76 Squirrel cage, XII, 45 Starlite LLG 254 Stars, changes in density of new, VII, 7 Color of hottest, II, 289 Colors of old and new, VII, 8 Decrease in size of new, VIIy7 Difficulty of photographing shooting, III, 6 Distance of most, VII, 1 Double, II, 291, 292 Formation of, VII, 7 Matter, origin of, II, 297- 298 Measurement of variable, IT, 293 Origin of, II, 299-301 Radiation, output of, VII, Seen below horizon, II, 116 Spectra of colored, II, 285 Sun, place of among, II, 287 Variable, II, 290 Within 100 light years, VII, La Staurolite, III, 278 Steam, XII, 158 [455] INDEX Steam displacing soil, XII, 188 Steam, dry, XII, 155, 157 Steam gas engine, efficiency of, XII, 180 Steam, energy conversion of, XII, 166 Steam engines, XII, 159 Efficiency of, XII, 158-159 Mercury, XII, 47, 48 Newcomen, XII, 159, 160 Reciprocating, XII, 161, 162 Rotary, XII, 182 Steam power, first installation of, ML ies Steam pressure, temperature effect on, XII, 155 Steam Turbine, Parson's, XII, 70) 171 Steamboat, Fitch, XII, 181, 182, 184 Fulton, XII, 187 Origin of, XII, 187 Steamships, safety device of, AED oTor, (192 Steel Age, VII, 41 Steel composition, XII, 336- 338 Manufacturing of high erade, XII, 346-348 Shaping, XII, 348 Ship, XII, 190 Stegomyia, V, 338 Stegosaurus, VIII, 243-244 Stellite, II, 96 Efficiency of, II, 97 Stems, direction of growth in, » 32 Time of growth of, XI, 13, 305 Stevens, XII, 182 Stevens engine, XII, 182 Stickleback, VIII, 110 Nest of, VIII, 110, 111 Sticks, use of, VII, 166 Stigma, XI, 41 Stomata, XI, 24-25, 300 Control of, XI, 300 Night behavior of, XI, 300 Stone Age, culture at origin of, VII, 166 Use of wood by man of, VII, 194 Present day, VII, 41 Origin of, VII, 42, 166 Recent, VII, 184 Stone axe, attitude toward, VII, 235 : Stone tools, Neanderthal, VII, 193 Stones, distinguishing natural, ly a7 Distinguishing synthetic stones, III, 177 Indians’ use of, IV, 21 Instruments of Acheulian, VII, 193 Use of, VII, 166 Strata, VII, 8, 10 Stratosphere, formation of, Vit Stream lining, XII, 235 Structure, an aid in classifica- tion, V, 26 Accuracy of flesh and bone restorations ef, VII, 198 Sugar, XI, 26-29 Sugar cane, cultivation of, XI, Zi Sugar, production of in corn, XI, 295 Sulphur in iron, XII, 342 Sumerian culture, VII, 303, 304 Sumerians, extinction of, VII, 304 House of, VII, 303 [456] INDEX Summer, temperature of Arc- tic, IV, 67 Sun, atomic and molecular conditions of, II, 5-6 Atoms of, II, 5, 6 Barometer, II, 161 Causing Ice Age, VII, 56- Effect on climate of varia- tions in intensity of, II, 4-5 Effect on compasses, IT, 260-261 Effect of different rays, II, 311 Effect on earth’s surface, Tl, 138 Colors of, II, 74 Comparison with stars, VII, if Composition of, II, 250-258 Earth temperature, II, 153 Effect on magnetism, II, 259, 261 Effect on seasons, II, 5 Effect of variations of radia- tion in the tropics, II, 157 Effect of variations on wea- ther, II, 4, 156 Elements of, VII, 5 Energy, extent of, VII, 4 Energy received, VII, 4 Engine, II, 212-215 Engine, efficiency of, II, 212-213 Forms of matter in the, II, 7 Instrument measuring radia- tion of, II, 12-15 Iron in, II, 256 Lack of compounds in, II, 7 Measurement of tempera- ture of, II, 121-125 Meteorology and the, II, 10 Quantity of heat radiation from the, II, 8 Radiation, VII, 3 Rays, qualities of, II, 316 Reflectors, II, 197, 204, 205 Refrigeration from, XII, 239 Rotation of, II, 262 Seen below horizon, II, 116 Source of energy of, VII, 4, 296 Storms in, II, 260-261, 263 ‘Temperature effect on earth, II, 8, 16-17 Temperature of, II, 254- 258 Star, II, 287 Value of intensity of, II, 160 Sun dews, XI, 75-76 Sunfish, VIII, 108 Nests of, VIII, 108-109 Sun glow, cause of, III, 83, 87 Sunset, cause of, II, 115-116 Sunshine, V, 104 Sun spots, II, 5 Atmospheric pressure and, EL, 135,152 Atmospheric temperature and, II, 144, 145 Cause of, II, 164 Rotation of, II, 263 Variations of, II, 259-260 Superstitions concerning mi- grations, 1X, 6, 51-53 Swallows, barn and cliff, IX, i | Swan, XII, 135 Swifts, 1X, 77 Swordfish, VIII, 55-56 Symbiosis, XI, 92 Syrinx, LX, 103 [457] INDEX T Tadpoles, breathing of, VIII, 197 Bullfrog, VIII, 203 Environment of, VIII, 197 Takia, used as fuel, VI, 157 Talbot, XII, 358, 359 Tasmanian Devil, LX, 298- 303 ‘Tasmanian canoe, VII, 240 Taureg, VII, 228 Taxonomy, XI, 157 Teeth, Heidelberg jawbone’s, Vil. 043 Intelligence and, VII, 48 Tegue, VI, 264 Telegraph, cable, XII, 90 Duplex, XII, 87 English, XII, 79, 80 First commercial, XII, 78, 79 First inter-city use in the U.S. of, XU Sr Jirst long distance message ing. os lL Sa Henry’s, XII, 73 Morse, XII, 80 Multiplex, XII, 88 Principle of Morse, XII, 81 Reception, XII, 81, 84, 85 Wheatstone bridge, XII, 82 Telegraphy and Edison, XII, 137-138 Telegraphy, reducing cost of, XII, 86 Telephone, Bell, XII, 106-107 Gray, XII, 106-107 Long distance, XII, 112 Operation of, XII, 110, 111 Trans-oceanic, XII, 113, 114 Wire in use in U. S., XII, III Telescopes, types of, II, 310 Teletype, XII, 89 Temperate Zone plants, XI, 360 Temperature, altitude’s effect upon, II, 68 Temperature and wave length, LT, of Effect on cells of desert plants, XI, 259-262 Effect on steam pressure, XII, 155 Effect of sun spots on, II, 144-145 Of moon, II, 246 Of Neptune, II, 249 Of Saturn, II, 249 Of Sun, II, 256 Ranges for life, II, 244 Tent caterpillar, V, 271-274 Development of, V, 293-305 Food of, V, 263 Tent, construction of apple tree, V, 269-270 Teredo, destruction by, X, 269-272 ‘Termite, V, 137 Castes, V, 134 Colony, V, 140-141 Damage done by, V, 129 Digestion by, V, 137 Economic importance of, V, I29 Termites, eggs of, V, 151 Fate of swarming, V, 134- 135 Female, V, 133 First brood of, V, 137 Food of, V, 148 Food of young, V, 136-137 Home of, V, 128-129 Homes of tropical, V, 146- 148 Kinds in nest, V, 131-135 Life history of, V, 135-139 [458] INDEX Mode of life of, V, 151 Mound nests of, V, 148 Production of king and queen, V, 139 Queen, V, 133, 149 Relationship to roach, V, 145-146 Reproduction of, V, 132-135 Size of queen, V, 149 Social behavior of, V, 125- 151 Soldier, V, 131-132 Start of colony, V, 135-136 Swarming of, V, 134-135 Treatment of Queen, V, 144 Where found, V, 128-129 Winged, V, 132-133 Workers, V, 131 Terrapin, painted, VIII, 314, 315 Tesla, XII, 31 Thallophyta, XI, 86-93 Thigh bone, relation to height, VII, 49, 50 Thomson, XII, 25 Thomsonite, III, 275 Thorns, XI, 18-19 Origin of, XI, 19, 271-273 Thread, manufacturing, XII, 267, 268 Three wire system, XII, 143- 144 Thunder bird, IV, 211 Tiger, how captured, VI, 81- 82 Personality of, VI, 79-80 Timberline, conditions of, XI, 360-361 Time clock, geological, V, 6 Time, prehistoric, LX, 255- 259 Titanite, III, 273 Titanothere, IX, 181, 191, 192 Extinction of, [X, 194-195 Skeleton of, IX, 181-187 Titronite, III, 273 Tlingit Indians, IV, 213 Toadfish, VIII, 112 Toads, VIII, 201 Enemies of, VIII, 197-198 Food of, VIII, 201 Food of horned, VI, 263 Horned, VI, 263. Midwife, VIII, 202 Warts from, VIII, 201 Tobacco, origin and signifi- cance of, IV, 26, 27 Toltecs, culture of, VII, 337 Houses, VII, 337 Tongue muscle projection, VII, 47, 48 Tool handles, origin of, VII, 194. Tools, bone, VII, 194 Mounted by Mesolithic man, VII, 235 Origin of, VII, 172 Use of handles for, VII, 194 Wood, remains of, VII, 194 Topaz, III, 236-237 Tornado, Tly 113 Tortoise shell, VIII, 312 Tourmaline, III, 239, 240 Trachea, V, 115 Track, curvature of Railroad, XII, 195 Trains, brakes of early, VII, 195 Transformer, XII, 12, 37-39, Tale In distribution of electric current, XII, 35 Faraday’s, X11, 12 Origin, XII, 27, 36 [459] INDEX Transmission by different ma- terials of ultra-violet light, II, 237 Transmission of electric cur- rent, AIT, 37 Transparency, impairment of crystal, III, 176 In crystals, III, 176 Of atmosphere and color, If, 192-117 Transpiration current, XI, 23 Transportation, Aryan, VII, 315 Inca, VII, 344 Indus Valley, VII, 314 Trap, cyclone mouse, 1X, 238- 240 Travois, VII, 255 Treepage eters Tree frogs, habits of, VIII, 205-208 Tree trunk, work of, XI, 3 Fence wires and, XI, 17 Rainy or dry seasons and, XI, 15-16 Water control by, XI, 22- 23 Trees, ancient civilizations and, x1) 16 Cenozoic, X, 79 Death of city, XI, 9 Hibernation of, XI, 21 Origin of petrified, X, 74- 75 Petrified in Arizona, X, 74- Yb Triassic, X, 74-75 Tribal stones in Bible, III, 316, 317 Triceratops, VII, 17 Trilobites, X, 56 Decline of, VII, 14 Relation to shrimp and crabs, X, 56 Triturus viridescens, VIII, 18 Tropics, effect of variations of sun radiations in the, II, 157 Plant collecting in, XI, 363- 376 Tropism, V, 121 Troposphere, formation of, VII, 9 Trypanosomes, damage done by, V, 349 Tsetse fly, V, 348 ‘Tuatara, V1, 261-262 Ancient lineage of, VI, 261- 262 Habits of, VIII, 296-297 Tubers, potato, XI, 67 Tuna, food of, X, 163 Tungsten, XII, 145 Filament, XII, 143-146 ‘Turbine and efficiency of steam engine, XII, 171 Impulse, XII, 168 Inward flow, XII, 153 Reaction, XII, 169 Vertical reaction, XII, 153 Turkey, domestication of, VII, 339 Turquoise, III, 257-259 Turtle shell, VIII, 308-309 Turtles, box, VIII, 316-318 Classification of, VIII, 307 Galapagos, VIII, 313-314 Green, VIII, 311-312 Leatherback, VIII, 310-311 Myths concerning, VIII, 319 Structural features, VIII, 306-307 Weight of ancient, VIII, 262 Twigs, XI, 19 Growth of, XI, 14 [460] INDEX Increase in thickness of, XI, 13-14 Tyrannosaurus Rex, VIII, 224 Tyrian purple, X, 314-315 U Ultra-violet light and disease, II, 233-241 Radiation, effect of solar variations on, II, 146 Ungulates, 1X, 340-362; X, 79 Food of, IX, 340-341 United States, fossil sources in, IX, 235-236 Universe, VII, 4 External to, II, 294-295 Uranium, rate of disintegra- tion of, X, 5 V Vacuum tube, XII, 59-62 Vampire bats, 1X, 318 Rercerte, Lil, 256, 257, 250- 260 Vegetables, origin of, VII, 3 Vegetation, effect of glacier on, VII, 60 Vegetative propogation, XI, 63, 64 Venus, life on, II, 252-253 Venus’ flytrap, adaptations of, Al i74 Verdolite, III, 285 Vertebrates, cold-blooded, WL. 261 Number of species of, VII, 20 Origin of land, X, 22 Use of backbone of, VIII, 1 Vesuvianite, III, 274 Vines, phototropism of, XI, 33-34 Vipers, pit, VIII, 347 Vision, snail’s, X, 309, 310 Viviparous fishes, VIII, 103- 104 Volcanic pipes, III, 196 Volts, 110, XII, 143 Vulcanization, XII, 318 Vultures 1X, 142 Bearded, IX, 140 Food of, LX, 142 W Walcott’s fossils, X, 58, 59 Walking Stick, V, 71 Wampum, source of Indian, X, 275-276 War, effect on ancient life, VII, 180; 181 Effect on present civiliza- tion, VII, 181 Wart hog embryo, VI, 58 Wart hogs, habitat of, VI, 158 Water, ascent in plants of, II, 227 Effect of glacier on sea, Vil Gs Effect on frogs of salt, VIII, 195 Flow pyrheliometer, II, 88, 8 9 Forms of, XII, 49 Horse, VI, 146 In the body, II, 244 Light transmission in atmos- pheric, II, 314 Magmatic, III, 175 Plant’s need of, II, 224 Plants, oxygen from, XI, 27 Power, low pressure, XII, 151-152 Power, Niagara Falls, XII, 36 Pressure, conversion of, ATES 153 Source in desert, XI, 280 [461] INDEX Transportation, early means of} ‘VIT; 240;)241 Transportation, origin of, VII, 239, 240 ‘Transportation, Sumatran, VII, 304 Tube boiler, XII, 157 Turbine, U. S., XII, 153 Vapor, control of, in plants, HH 226 Water vapor, movement of, in atmosphere, II, 106 Wheel buckets, XII, 151 Watercraft, early, VII, 276 Watt condenser, XII, 160 Watt’s engine, operation of, XII, 160 Wavelength and temperature, II, o1 Weather and solar variations, IT, 157-158 Effect of solar variations on, ia £56 Ice Age, VII, 59-61 Proterozoic, X, 45-46 sua and; Tl, 67, 63,455, 159 Weaver bird, nest of, LX, 78 Weaving, XII, 265 Early mechanical, XII, 299 Jacquard, XII, 290-298 Origin, XII, 265, 266 Origin of cloth, VII, 261 Origin of power, XII, 300 Pattern, XII, 281-286 Process, XII, 271 Weed seeds eaten by birds, LX, 129 Weeds, spread of, XI, 58 Welding, electric, XII, 27 Whale, IX, 243, 366-375 Activities of killer, LX, 372 Adaptations of, IX, 253, 254 Copepod parasites in, X, 132 Food for baby, 1X, 242 Head of Sperm, LX, 371- 372 Kinds of, LX, 370-371 Method of hunting, IV, 64 “Spout ,- ike ogg Wheat, 2:1, 323-324 Old World, XI, 323 Wheatstone, XII, 79, 80 Wheel, origin of, VII, 256 Religious association of, WA 57 Wheeled cart, early uses of, WIT, 257 Whitefish, food of, X, 125 Whitney, XII, 301 Wichita Grass Lodge, IV, 161 Wigglers, V, 333 Wilting, XI, 25-26 Wind, effect of Ice Age on, VII, 61 Resistance, XII, 235-236 Tunnel, XII, 232 Wings, structure of insect, V, 83-84 Window, Eskimo, IV, 42 Winter eggs of crustaceans, X, I20 Wire, electrons in a, XII, 56, 58 Wireless, foreshadowing of, XII, 78 Wolverine, cleverness of, VI, 226-227 Relatives of, VI, 226 Women in Iroquois life, IV, 73 Wood cuts, XII, 353-356 Production in trees, XI, 13- 14 Production of, XI, 295, 296 [462 ] SE EET. ed ———— INDEX Woodpeckers, 1X, 77, 136 Woody stem, support of, XI, I2 Worm, screw, V, 352 Worship of ruler, VII, 305 Wright Brothers, XII, 225, 225, 232 Writing achievement, VII, 289 Development of, VII, 288, 293 Origin of, VII, 167 xX Xerophytes, XI, 78 X-ray, behavior in a magnetic field of, XII, 67 Defined, XII, 65 Discovery of, XII, 65-68 Penetration of, XII, 66 Production of, XII, 66 Rays related to, XII, 65 Speed, II, 303 Tube, structure, XII, 64, 67 ‘Tubes, operating voltage of, XII, 68 ‘Tubes, operating effects of, XII, 68 Visualizing effects of, XII, 66 Wavelength, II, 303 Xylem, II, 227, 228 Y¥ Yak; Viv 274 Year, Egyptian, VII, 298 Yeasts, reproduction of, XI, 38, 90 Yellow fever, carrier of, V, 338-339 Cause of, V, 340 Yucca, XI, 50-51 Flower, pollination of, XI, 50-51 Larvae consumption of seeds Of Pek 51 Moth, XI, 50-51 Yumas, dress of, IV, 175 Lodge, IV, 175 Yurak, artistic abilities of, IV, 196, 197 Boat, IV, 188 Culture of, IV, 191-196, 198, 199 Dress of, IV, 191 House, IV, 191, 192 Indians, woodwork of, IV, 197 Z Zebra, hybrids between ass and, Vi, 213 Mountain, VI, 213 Zircon, III, 253-254 Color of, IIT, 253 Zonal, development of crystals, TLE, 176 Zunis, IV, 115, 130 [463] | 4 wl (Hike i eal SB rg Tel . \ % Dee . FVS 5 Hitly Shes ie rs | wie By Jody Beck Jeet to the Star-News , 101, a pioneering astro- ist and former se- y of the Smithsonian ition, died yesterday rr. bbot spent much of if investigating how . Thirty years ago he el ergy would become source of power. atinued his research problem long after d as secretary in ng out more pat- sn he was in his late t before his 100th y last year, he re- 4 patent on a device nverts solar energy | x vea patent, according ; 2 lar at . Charles Greeley Ab- : mt when supplies of — DR. CHARLES G. ABBOT 1928. One of his first acts as | secretary was to set up his office in the tallest tower of the ‘‘castle’’ building. | i “EVEN THOUGH he was an outstanding scientist, it | is the person, one might even say the legend, that we will recall most vividly,’’ Dr. Ripley’s statement con- ts. | | d | _ on eee : oS?) 3 3 ae = Dr. Charles Greeley Abbot, 101,” Former Smithsonian Head, Dies - By Jody Beck Special to the Star-News Dr. Charles Greeley Ab- bot, 101, a pioneering astro- physicist and former se- cretary of the Smithsonian Institution, died yesterday _at Leland Memorial Hospi- - tal. He lived on Beechwood ’ Road in Hyattsville. Dr. Abbot spent much of his life investigating how man could use the sun for energy. Thirty years ago he said that when supplies of coal and oil were depleted, _ solar energy would become a primary source of power. He continued his research - into the problem long after he retired as secretary in 1944, taking out more pat- ents when he was in his late 90s. Just before his 100th birthday last year, he re- ceived a patent on a device that converts solar energy to electricity—making him the oldest inventor ever to receive a patent, according to pore Patent Office. sa Pe eerday: “It is truely amazing that -, aman who was ahead of his _ time 70 years ago could still __ be ahead of his time today, and yet that has been the case with Dr. Abbot. He _ began measuring solar ra- - diation in 1902, built a solar- powered oven in 1922, and in 1972 received a patent on a solar battery. Today the _ energy crisis has us finally looking seriously at a sub- _ ject Dr. Abbot has been _ pioneering throughout the entire 20th century.” _ JOINING the Smithsonian _in 1895 after earning a mas- ters degree in physics from _ the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dr. Abbot elped revolutionize the eld of astrophysics. One of his early experiments es- ‘tablished that the sun’s ra- iation fluctuates in recur- ing cycles. That led to an- er theory—still scoffed by weathermen—that the arth’s weather is tied to ; ‘ ledge of the cycles can ised to forecast weather oa 60 years in ad- DR. CHARLES G. ABBOT’ 1928. One of his first acts as secretary was to set up his office in the tallest tower of : the ‘‘castle’’ building. “EVEN THOUGH he was an outstanding scientist, it” is the person, one might even say the legend, that we will recall most vividly,’’ tinues. ‘Dr. erlin- like in the tower of the Smithsonian castle, fore- casting the weather years hence; Dr. Abbot taking time to tell brides if their. wedding days would be sunny; Dr. Abbot singing sea chanteys at his 100th birthday party; Dr. Abbot ‘standing on top of the tower to watch Samuel Langley’s pre-Wright brothers at- tempt at flight and then being present when the Apollo 11 astronauts brought the first lunar sam- ple to the Smithsonian.” When he retired at 72, Dr. Abbot kept his tower office, where he worked as a re- search associate. Several years ago, he moved to a lower floor in deference to his age. The office has since been closed. BORN ON A FARM near Wilton, N.H., in 1872, Dr. Abbot dropped out of school at 13 to become a carpenter. to piyaice and graduated With high hana Throughout his career, Dr. Abbot invented techni- Cal aides to his research or improved other’s inven- tions. In his first year at the Smithsonian he was an as- sistant to Prof. Samuel P. Langley, who was trying to plot the Fraunhofer lines in the invisible infra-red spec- trum. Dr. Abbot altered the measuring device, the bolo- meter, and the experiment was completed successfully. ALTHOUGH the practical application of solar energy for everyday use was his second area of interest— after the weather theory— he built a device he called a solar cooker in 1922, which heated an oven hot enough to bake a loaf of bread. A solar engine he devel- oped was exhibited at the Great Lakes Exposition in Cleveland in 1933. Another of his inventions generated tant theories—now well accepted—first advanced | by Dr. Abbot was that the photosphere of the sun is not a cloud of liquid parti- cles, but is entirely gaseous. Following the sun to ob-| serve eclipses and measure solar radiation took Dr. Abbot to every continent but Antarctica. There is even a crater named for him on the back side of the moon, an honor from Soviet cosmonauts. “EVERY DAY MYSTER- IES,” a group of scientific stories for young people, and classic volumes on the sun are among the 12 books and more than 175 technical Pavers written by Dr. Ab- t Dr. Abbot was a former president of the Cosmos Club of Washington and a mee He soon returned, complet- — ed high school and then at- tended Phillips Andover Academy for a year. At the urging of friends, he went to Boston and took the en- trance exams for M.I.T. as’ a lark. He began at MI. ae as a chemical en gineering _ , Student, but later switched | — a ties > wer for a 1936 nationwide | C radio broadcast from || the old Smithsonian build- | One of the more impor-| former vice president of the American Astronomical Society. He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1915 and was its oldest member at his death. He belonged to numerous other scientific organiza- tions. He received honorary doctorate degrees from Case School in Cleveland, George Washington Univer- sity and Toronto University. In 1932 he was elected to Sigma Xi. Dr. Abbot leaves his wife, Virginia A. Johnston. His first wife, Lillian B. Moore, died in 1944. Services will be held at 1 p.m. Thursday at George- town Presbyterian Church, 3115 P St. NW, with burial in Fort Lincoln ‘Cemetery. ' Pt Nee ee My ppt Tey, Ae Bee wo TA