STUDY OF FABRICS
HOME ECONOMICS SERIES
STUDY OF FABRICS
* BY
ANNABELL TURNER
INSTRUCTOR IN HOME ECONOMICS, EXTENSION DIVISION, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
ILLUSTRATED
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY NEW YORK LONDON
1918
COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
Printed in the United States of America
PREFACE
THE object of this book is to give the reader a knowledge of the various textile fibers, their proper- ties in regard to warmth and hygiene, their cleansing and laundering possibilities ; and such understanding of the processes of manufacture as will enable her to judge, intelligently, good and bad materials, adul terations, prices, weaves, etc. Upon woman devolves the responsibility of the economical expenditure of the family income ; it is her duty to know that she is receiving the worth of her money, and, yet, most women are dependent upon the word of the clerk, very often far more ignorant than the purchaser. The standard of materials will never be raised to its proper level, until the consumers are intelligent enough to make the demand.
A detailed study is made of each of the common textile fibers used for household purposes — cotton, linen, wool, and silk — taking up the growth, manu- facture, physical, and chemical properties with special emphasis on the practical household tests which may be used in detecting adulterations and judging of the quality. Laundry problems are discussed at some length dealing with the cleansing agents commonly used in the laundry and the principles which should govern a choice of the method best suited to in- dividual conditions. Removal of stains and dry
PREFACE
cleaning are treated in a simple, untechnical way. One chapter deals with the economic side of the clothing problem. Suggestions are given as to the most economical ways of spending the clothing al- lowance, the proportion of the income which should be spent for clothing, and there is some discussion of clothing budgets. Only pre-war prices are given in this book and they can be considered only as a basis of comparison.
ANNABELL TURNER.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. COTTON ... i
II. WOOL ........... 30
III. TESTS FOR WOOLEN MATERIALS .... 51
IV. SILK. . . V 66
V. LINEN 90
VI. LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 104
VII. HYGIENE OF CLOTHING 141
VIII. THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING . . « . 163
INDEX 195
LIST OF ILLUSTKATIONS
|/ PAGE
Girl spinning . . . . .. • • 2
Throwing the shuttle through the warp shed by
hand .- . . . . .. 4
A cotton boll unopened . . <* . . 8 A cotton boll opened . . . • . .10 Types of cotton fibers . . . . . . 13
Cotton, mercerized and stretched, showing in- complete mercerization . . . . .19
Comparison of different varieties of wood , . 31 A pair of hand cards . . . . . .36
Woolen goods as it comes from the loom. Same,
after shrinking. Teasel . . . . 39
A woolen yarn untwisted. A worsted yarn un- twisted . . . * . . . . 41
Poor quality shoddy. Better quality shoddy . 45 Warp and woof threads exposed separately . . 55
Materials before and after boiling in the lye
solution . . * . -•••-... • .57
Materials before and after boiling in the lye
solution . . . < . * ". . . 59 ix
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Materials before and after boiling in the lye
solution 60
Silkworm culture . ..'••• . . . .67 Reel in operation . . v . . . .71 Reeled and waste silk . .' . . . . 71
Weighted silk above, pure silk below, before and
after burning . . . . . . 83
Weighted silks before and after burning . .84
Weighted silks before and after burning . .85
Pure silks before and after burning . . . 86
Chardonnet silk fibers . . . . . 88
Flax in different stages of its preparation for
weaving. . . . . . . . 91
Flax fibers 97
THE
STUDY OF FABRICS
CHAPTER I
COTTON
Evolution of Spinning and Weaving.— The textile art is older than man, for, long before he came upon earth, spiders and caterpillars spun their threads, birds wove their nests, and certain trees fabricated a kind of cloth by closely interweaving the fibers of their inner bark. Man gradually conceived the idea of using this bark for clothing by soaking it in water and beating it with wooden mallets to felt the fibers together. It was then dried and bleached in the sun and colored with vegetable dyes, the method of coloring being to lay a leaf or flower on the dye and, as soon as the surface was covered with the dye, to press it down on the cloth, thus fixing the design. The bark most
l
e OF FABRICS
used for this ' l Tapa cloth, ' ' as it is called, was that of the paper mulberry.
Perhaps the interlacing of the barks sug- gested other possibilities to the people of that day, for they began rudely to weave together reeds, rushes, and twigs to form baskets and
Courtesy of Marshall Field & Co.
GIRL SPINNING
mats, expressing their conception of art and beauty by combinations of color and weave. Beautiful examples of primitive weaving are found in northern South America, Africa, and among the western Indians.
It was with the discovery of spinning yarn that the true textile art began, and although
COTTON 3
there is no authentic information as to the ac- tual time of the origin of spinning, we do know that it dates back before 2,000 B. C. Early nomadic tribes used threads to fasten together the skins which they used as clothing — perhaps wool torn from the sheep in passing bushes and brambles may have suggested it to them.
Until 1,500 A. D. all spinning was done by hand and a spindle, which was at first merely a stick upon which the thread was wound. Later it was discovered that the spindle could be whirled around faster if it had a weight on the end, so a piece of wood was attached to the lower end. This was called the whorl. The need of something to fasten the wool to, brought about the distaff, a stick around which the wool was wrapped and then held in the hand or tucked in the belt.
At the end of the fifteenth, or beginning of the sixteenth, century a one thread machine was invented which enabled the spinner to produce seven times more yarn than by the distaff and spindle. Gradually improvements and new in- ventions followed, so that today most of the spinning has been taken from women's hands and is produced by means of machinery.
4 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
The weaving of the spun yarn came as a natu- ral sequence to the discovery of spinning. Linen cloth of exquisite fineness of thread and
THROWING THE SHUTTLE THROUGH THE WARP SHED BY HAND
COTTON 5
evenness of weave is found in old Egyptian tombs, and the early Greeks and Eomans pro- duced woolen fabrics of great beauty and firm- ness. Manufacture of both, wool and flax ex- isted in Greece in the days of Homer.
The early Egyptian loom was a vertical frame similar in idea to the tapestry loom. Some savage tribes stretched the warp threads be- tween convenient objects on the ground or from horizontal supports and wove back and forth between the warp threads as in darning. Many modifications have come since the early days but the same three steps to the process of weav- ing remain, whether the weaving be done on the crudest of hand looms or upon the most modern machinery: (a) shedding, the lifting of certain warp threads, thereby making a space, or shed, through which the shuttle is passed; (b) pick- ing, passing the shuttle through the threads; and (c) battening, pressing the weft thread against the preceding ones to make the cloth firm and even.
PARTS OF A LOOM
1. Loom.. — An arrangement for spreading a warp and keeping it in order for weaving.
6 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
2. Raddle. — An implement used for spreading the
warp evenly.
3. Beams. — (a) Warp beam, used for winding up the
warp threads.
(b) Cloth beam, used to wind up the fin- ished, woven material.
4. Leash. — Loops through which threads are passed to
give pattern to the weave.
5. Heddle. — A collection of heddles.
6. Shed. — The opening made in the warp for the pas-
sage of the shuttle — produced by the heddle.
7. Shuttle. — A tool used for carrying the weft.
8. Reed. — A comb-like instrument for keeping warp
even and beating the weft together.
9. Tenterhooks. — Contrivances to hold the warp even
on the sides.
Cotton.— The cotton plant belongs to the nat- ural order of Malvaceae, or mallow family, and is known scientifically by the generic name "Gossypram." It is a shrub which reaches a height of from four to six feet, and is indige- nous principally to islands and sea-coast regions of the tropics, although it can be cultivated up to about 37° on either side of the equator. A warm, humid climate and sandy soil are most favorable to its growth.
There are many varieties of the cotton plant, the most important being: (a) Gossypium her-
COTTON 7
baceum, which grows from 4 to 6 feet in height and bears a yellow flower. The seeds are cov- ered with a short gray down and the fiber is short. This variety is found in Egypt, Asia Minor, Arabia, India, and China, (b) Gossy- pium arbareum, which grows to a height of from 15 to 20 feet. The seed is covered with a green- ish fur and is enveloped in a fine silky down, yellowish white in color. It is found in Egypt, Arabia, and China, (c) Gossypium barbadense, which grows from 6 to 15 feet high. The flowers are yellow and the seeds black and smooth, be- ing destitute of the hair that characterizes other cottons. It is a native of the Barbadoes, from which it derives its name. The best quality cottons come from this species — Sea Island and Florida cottons — from which are spun the finest yarns. Long-stapled Egyptian cotton is sup- posed to have come from this stock. The chief cotton countries of the world in order of impor- tance are: United States, India, Egypt and Brazil, West Indies, West Coast of Africa, Asia, Asia Minor, China, and Queensland.
In the southern states cotton is planted with a machine, the seeds being dropped in a con- tinuous stream. When the young plant is about
I
COTTON 9
three inches high it is thinned out with a hoe — about twelve inches being left between plants. The time for planting depends upon the lati- tude, beginning about the middle of March and ending the first half of May.
Ten or eleven weeks after the planting, the shrub is ready to bloom. The flower has five petals, yellow at the base and growing lighter in color at the edges. When the flower drops off, a dark green pod is seen which increases in size and finally discloses a mass of downy white fibers in which are imbedded the dark brown or black seeds. The cotton is picked as soon as ripened and separated from the seeds by a process known as ginning. The seeds are hulled and the kernel put through a hydraulic press which squeezes all the oil from it, leav- ing the meal, which is used as feed for cattle. The refined oil is used as a substitute for olive oil, the residue being used as soap stock.
After the cotton is ginned it is baled and shipped to the mill, the standard size of a cotton bale in the United States being 56 by 24 by 32 inches and weighing about five hundred pounds. The bales are wrapped in bagging and strapped with sheet-iron bands. When the cotton ar-
fe
8
COTTON 11
rives at tho mill the bales are broken and the cotton starts upon its journey, passing through various processes until it is converted into yarn. The first step consists in giving the cotton a thorough cleaning, which is accomplished by a series of machines which pull the wads of cot- ton into shreds, beat out the dirt and any seeds left in, and finally leave the cotton in the form of batten upon the cylinders. From here the cotton goes to the carding machine where it is combed to straighten the fibers and remove any remaining foreign material and also some of the short fibers. Then it goes into the combing machine which casts aside as waste all fibers below a certain length, passing the rest on to the drawing machine where the fibers are laid perfectly straight and parallel and the cotton drawn out as much as possible without break- age. The combing process is omitted unless the cotton is being prepared for especially fine or high grade materials.
Several intermediate steps take place before the fiber is spun into yarn, the principal point of difference being the amount of twist im- parted to the strand. Spinning produces the finished yarn, which is converted into thread by
12 THS STUDY OF FABRICS
uniting two or more yarns firmly by twisting. All sizes of 6-cord threads are made of six strands and 3-cord spool cotton is made of three strands. The ordinary spool of cotton thread contains 200 yards.
Before being woven into cloth, cotton threads are strengthened by coating them with a prepa- ration of starch, flour, paraffin, tallow, etc., to enable them to withstand the friction result- ing from the weaving process without break- ing. After weaving, the material is bleached, starched, and calendered, the object of the last process being to give it a perfectly smooth and even surface and also to impart a luster to the cloth as it passes through. The cloth is calen- dered several times, according to the finish re- quired.
Cotton is dyed either in the yarn or in the cloth, but it has much less affinity for dyestuff s than animal fibers, and, relatively speaking, there are only a few with which it can be dyed without the assistance of a mordant.
Physical Characteristics. — Under the micro- scope the cotton fiber usually presents the ap- pearance of a flat, slightly twisted ribbon with thickened edges. Physically the individual cot-
COTTON 13
ton fiber consists of a single long cell with one end attached directly to the surface of the seed. While it is growing, the fiber is round and cylin-
TYPES OF COTTON FIBERS
1. Glossy, dead, structureless fiber;
2. Thin, transparent, flat, unripe fiber;
3. Half ripe fiber with thin cell wall;
4. Mature, ripe fiber with full twist and thick, well- defined cell wall.
drical, having a central canal running through it, but after the pod has ripened and burst the cell wall collapses, causing the fiber to form into a flat, ribbon-like band. Upon ripening, the
14 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
juices in the inner tube dry up, causing the characteristic spiral twist of ripe cotton. This spiral twist makes cotton valuable for spinning purposes as it causes the fibers to lock around each other more tightly. In diameter the cotton fiber is rather even for the greater part of its length, gradually tapering to a point at its out- growing end. The lengths of different varieties of cotton fibers vary from three-fourths to two and one-half inches, sea-island cotton being the longest.
The hygroscopicity, or power to absorb water without feeling damp, is between six and eight per cent of its weight. Cotton which has been freed from the natural vegetable wax is more hygroscopic, and is known as absorbent cotton.
Linen has the greVtest power of heat conduc- tion and cotton ranks second. Materials made from linen are, therefore, the coolest and cotton materials come next.
Though resistant to the action of moths and insects in general, cotton is liable to undergo fermentation, as is evidenced by the formation of mildew on cotton fabrics stored in warm, damp places.
Chemical Nature of Cotton. — In its chemical
COTTON 15
composition, cotton consists almost entirely of cellulose, on the surface of which is a protect- ing layer of wax which is removed in one boiling out and bleaching process performed previous to the dyeing and printing of the cotton.
Effect of Chemicals on the Fiber. — Organic acids and their salts, such as acetic acid in vine- gar, oxalic in rhubarb, tartrates in grapes, and citrates in lemons, even when moderately con- centrated, do not appear to have any injurious effect upon the cotton fiber unless they are al- lowed to dry on the fabric and are afterwards moistened and ironed dry with a hot iron. The destructive action is not so much of a chemical nature as mechanical, it being caused by the acids crystallizing within the fiber and breaking the cell wall. Dry heat in connection with or- ganic acids is more injurious than moist heat. Very dilute solutions of mineral acids, if cold, have no appreciable effect upon cotton, but if the fiber is impregnated with such a solution and allowed to dry rapidly it becomes tender due to the concentration of the acid induced by the evaporation of water. Heat will cause di- lute mineral acids to attack the fiber much more readily than otherwise. In all dyeing and
16 THE STUDY OF FABEICS
bleaching operations, therefore, where the use of acid may be required, the temperature of the acid baths should not be above 70° F., nor should a solution greater than two per cent be used. Organic acids should be substituted for mineral acids wherever possible, and all of the acid should be removed from the cotton or neu- tralized before drying or there is danger that the material may be ruined.
Action of Alkalies on Cotton. — Alkalies have a very different effect upon the cotton fiber from that of acids. Under ordinary conditions they are harmless. Dilute solutions of either the carbonated or caustic alkalies even at a boiling temperature have little if any injurious effect on the cotton fiber.
Concentrated solutions of caustic alkalies have a peculiar effect upon cotton. If the fab- ric is immersed for two minutes in a strong solution of caustic soda and is then removed at once and washed free of the alkali, it is found to have shrunken greatly and to have become much closer and firmer in texture, the cloth having actually been strengthened by the shrinkage. Long-continued action in concen-
COTTON 17
trated alkaline solutions, however, will gradu- ally destroy the cloth.
Bleaching Agents. — Formerly linens and cot- tons were bleached entirely by slow oxidation due to action of water, air, and sunlight, but various artificial bleaching stuffs have been dis- covered which hasten the process and save both time and labor. A common household bleach, chloride of lime (a "bleaching powder") is a compound of chlorine (a gas) with calcium ox- ide. This powder has the power of destroying colors and stains at once but it also attacks the fibers of the material unless the action is neu- tralized by rinsing the cloth in some alkaline solution. Ordinary household ammonia, or hy- posulphate of soda will do this satisfactorily.
The can in which the chloride of lime is kept should not be allowed to stand uncovered, as the chemical will rapidly lose its strength.
Another bleaching agent much used for household purposes is Javelle water, which is similar to "bleaching powder'' except that soda replaces the lime. It is prepared by dissolving 1 Ib. of washing soda in a quart of boiling water, allowing it to cool. Then half a pound of bleaching powder is dissolved in two quarts of
18 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
cold water, allowed to settle, and the clear liquid added to the soda. The whole is strained off, bottled, and kept in a dark place. As in using bleaching powder, rinsing in a neutralizing solu- tion is necessary. Both should be kept in glass bottles having glass or rubber stoppers.
Mercerized Cotton. — The process of merceri- zation is named after John Mercer who discov- ered in 1844 that cotton might be given a high degree of luster and at the same time be strengthened by subjecting it to the chemical action of caustic alkali and a strong tension to prevent contraction.
When the cotton fiber is placed in the caustic solution it undergoes a peculiar physical modi- fication, changing from the flat, twisted, ribbon- like shape to a smooth, rounded, cylindrical fiber with thickened cell wall. The tensile strength is greatly increased, amounting in some cases to from 30% to 50%.
Mercerization imparts a high luster to the cotton fiber, due partly to the fact that the fiber, being cylindrical, reflects the light instead of absorbing it, and to another condition which affects the lustrous appearance, the change in the cell elements. The substance becomes gela-
COTTON 19
tinous and translucent, thereby affecting the optical properties of the fiber and lessening the amount of light absorbed. Ordinarily the proc- ess of mercerization is not continued until every
COTTON, MERCERIZED AND STRETCHED, SHOWING INCOM- PLETE MERCERIZATION
fiber is completely mercerized. The illustra- tion, which is typical, shows part of the fibers still containing a partial twist.
Mercerized cotton is somewhat more reactive towards dyestuffs than other cottons.
20 THE STUDY OF FABEICS
Yarns of ordinary grades of cotton cannot be mercerized successfully, and as the cost of pro- ducing high grade mercerized yarn is about three times that of the same quality of unmer- cerized cotton, the higher cost of the finished product may readily be understood. Long-sta- pled sea-island cotton and Egyptian varieties are usually selected for the manufacture of mer- cerized materials, as they are better able to withstand the tension necessary for the perfec- tion of the process than the short-stapled fibers.
Cotton may be mercerized either in the yarn or in the cloth, although it is usually done in the yarn.
Silk Finish. — Both mercerized and unmercer- ized cottons are often calendered to increase the luster of the material. The cloth is passed be- tween rollers, under heavy pressure, one roller being engraved with obliquely set lines (125- 600 to an inch). The larger number of very fine parallel surfaces reflect the light producing a beautiful silk like luster.
Unmercerized cotton which has been finished this way is no stronger than ordinary, cotton. To distinguish between the mercerized material and goods which has been merely calendered
COTTON 21
place a piece of the material under the lowest power of the microscope and turn it backward and forward. Look for press lines on the fibers.
A Test for Mercerized Cotton. — Wash the samples, rinse well, and when dry compare with a piece of the same which has not been washed. If the luster remains, the material was mercer- ized. The finish put on by sizing material, pres- sure, and calendering is removed by washing.
Experiment.— Select a number of samples of cotton materials which have a lustrous finish and use the test given above to determine which are mercerized and which have simply been treated to make them appear mercerized.
Dyeing. — Dyestuffs are classified in general as acid, basic, substantive, and mordant dyes. The acid dyes may be used to dye animal fibers directly — that is, without the use of a mordant. Basic dyes are used directly on animal fibers and may be used on cotton if tannin is used as a mordant. The substantive dyes will be ab- sorbed by both animal and vegetable fibers, although they are usually used on cotton. The mordant dyes require a metallic mordant for both animal and vegetable fibers.
The word mordant comes from a word mean-
22 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
ing ' ' to bite. " It is a substance which will unite with the fiber and also with the dye to be used.
Silk and wool have both acid and basic prop- erties and, therefore, the acid and basic dyes may be used directly on these fibers. As cotton and linen are inactive chemically, these dyes will not unite with the vegetable fibers unless a mor- dant is used. This accounts for the fact that cotton and linen are more difficult to dye than wool or silk.
Natural dyestuffs are no longer used com- mercially to any extent. The following are used occasionally: Madder for red, logwood with fustic for black, cutch for brown, and indigo for blue. Madder and indigo are now produced artificially instead of being obtained from tkeir natural sources. This has reduced their cost materially.
The usual process of dyeing is, first, to treat the cotton goods with a mordant (various salts of aluminum, chromium, iron, tin, and copper), fixing it on the fiber by means of tannin or an alkali. The mordanted cloth is put into a dye bath and boiled one or more hours until the de- sired shade is obtained. The salts of aluminum are used as mordants for the light shades and
COTTON 23
iron for the dark ones. In general, chromium mordants give fastest dyes. Aniline dyes, made from anilin, a coal-tar product, are largely used at the present time, and if care is taken in their use, prove satisfactory. The commercial dyes which may be purchased for home dyeing are derivatives of coal-tar products and good re- sults may be obtained if the directions are fol- lowed carefully. The colors are more perma- nent than those obtained with the natural dyes. Printing. — Block printing was first used, the design being engraved in relief on blocks of wood. These were dipped in the colored paste and applied to successive portions of the cloth by hand. These blocks are now replaced by en- graved copper rolls, the design being such that it is repeated once or a number of times in each revolution of the cylinder. There is a printing roll for each color of the design. Sometimes both the background and the design are printed on the cloth, but the more common process is for the design only to be printed on the cloth, which may be dyed afterwards. In the paste of the printed design there is some chemical which prevents the portions printed from taking the dye, consequently these remain white or a dif-
24 THE STUDY OF FABEICS
ferent color as the case may be. This is called the " resist" process. Another process is to first dye the cloth and then print on some chemical which, when the calico is steamed, discharges the color. This is called the "discharge" proc- ess. Sometimes this weakens the goods in many places where the color has been discharged. This accounts for the dropping away of dots and also the giving way of white stripes . in printed materials. The color paste contains both the dye and the mordant. After calico has been printed it is steamed to develop and fix the color, washed to clear the whites, usually sized, then pressed and dried by passing over slowly revolving, steam heated drums. In gen- eral the colors in printed materials are not so fast to washing and sun as are those dyed in the piece or yarn.
COMMON COTTON MATERIALS
Gingham. — Cotton dress goods woven of plain dyed yarn, usually in checks, plaids, or stripes
Muslin. — White, firmly woven material suitable for underwear and sheeting
Calico. — Material with a figured design printed on one side
COTTON 25
Cambric. — Fine material used for dresses, usually white, but sometimes printed on one side
Batiste. — Fine dress material, either white or printed
Dimity. — Sheer, fine material, corded lengthwise, usually, but sometimes both ways
Sateen. — Cotton fabric with a glossy surface somewhat resembling satin
Pique. — Heavy fabric, corded either lengthwise or crosswise, used for waists and suitings
Mull. — Thin, white, wiry fabric used as a dress mate- rial
Nainsook. — A soft, white, cotton fabric used for in- fant's clothing, lingerie, dress goods, etc.
Organdie. — A fine, sheer, wiry dress material, either in plain colors or printed designs
Percale. — A firm material used for skirts and dresses, usually printed on one side
Scrim. — An open weave used for curtains
Corduroy. — A cotton material resembling velvet but woven with a ribbed effect
Velveteen. — Cotton velvet which has a loose pile on the surface
Testing for Fastness to Sunlight. — Cover one end of a sample of material with a piece of heavy cardboard and expose the uncovered end to the sunlight for a number of days, examining it in the shade to see if the exposed end has changed in color from that of the covered part. Note the number of days it takes to change the color. Fabrics that are but slightly changed at
26 THE STUDY OF FABEICS
the end of a month are called "fast," "moder- ately fast" colors are those but slightly faded in 14 days, and those which are more or less completely faded in 14 days are called "fleet- ing."
Testing for Fastness to Washing. — Fabrics should withstand the action of soap, the heat, and the mechanical friction necessary for laun- dering. To test the fabric wash it in a soap solution similar to that used in the household, not warmer than 131° F. Repeat several times, and if the color does not fade it is "fast" to washing.
Testing for Crocking. — Many dark colored cottons which have been poorly dyed discolor other garments or the skin. Materials may be tested easily by rubbing them briskly on white unstarched cotton fabric.
Testing for Fastness to Perspiration. — The fabrics which come in contact with the body are often weakened by perspiration unless a good resistant material is used. To test the fabric for resistance, place a sample in a bath of 25% to 40% acetic acid warmed to the temperature of the body, 98.6° F. Dip the sample a number of times and dry without rinsing between clean
COTTON 27
blotting papers. Note whether or not the color is affected.
Testing for Percentage of Shrinkage. — Pour boiling water over a sample and leave it im- mersed over night. Dry at a moderate tem- perature without stretching. Press. Measure before and after treatment. Try samples of lavender, pale blue, pink, green, and brown, to show: (a) Fastness to sunlight, (b) Fast- ness to laundering.
Wearing Qualities Compared with Price. — Cotton, being cheapest, is not adulterated with any of the other fibers, but an inferior grade of material is often made to appear heavier by the addition of dressing. Starch, glue, dextrine, etc., are used, and they may add greatly to the weight of the cloth. The spaces between threads are filled and a good finish is given to the ma- terial, but after washing, the cloth loses both in weight and firmness. This dressing may be detected in thin fabrics by holding them up to the light, then the starch will show between the threads. It may also be detected by rubbing the material in the hands when it is freed from part of the dressing and the firmness of the cloth may be determined. Still another method of
28 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
determining the amount of sizing present is that of washing a sample of the material thoroughly and comparing it with the original.
If material is to give good service, the warp and weft threads must be in good proportion. Materials having some heavy threads, as dimi- ties, or having a much heavier warp than weft are apt to split owing to the unequal tension. Materials which have been on the market for some time may have become weakened by the action of the chemicals which were used in the bleaching or in the sizing.
The strength may be judged by the following test : Place the thumbs together and press them down hard on the material, holding the cloth tight underneath. Consider the amount of strain resisted.
In choosing between two grades of the same type of material, consider the additional wear- ing qualities obtained for a slight additional cost. Often a piece of material costing two or three cents more will wear twice or three times as long as the cheaper material. This is not always true, however, as sometimes a large part of the price is represented in the novelty of weave, design, or color. Obtain three sets of
COTTON 29
samples of different types of cotton materials which illustrate the above, and study them care- fully.
The firmness of the weave and the quality of the fiber are always important factors to con- sider. To judge the quality of fiber, untwist a thread of the cloth and notice the length of the separate fibers. A long fiber indicates strength and, therefore, -good wearing qualities, other things being equal.
Always consider width as well as price in comparing two pieces of material. The wider material will usually cut to better advantage, and may, therefore, be more economical.
In purchasing dotted Swiss be sure to deter- mine whether the dots are embroidered or i
merely printed or pasted on. Printed dots are more likely to fade and those made of paste be- come discolored by ironing and wear off.
CHAPTEB II WOOL
Wool.— The soft, curly covering of sheep and of similar animals, has been used from earliest times, and its production and value are increas- ing steadily. Unfortunately the production is not keeping pace with the increasing demand, as will be explained later.
The great wool producing countries are Aus- tralia, South America, the United States, and South Africa. Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, and Oregon produce the largest part of the wool raised in the United States. Australia is the largest producer of the finest wool, although Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia furnish a fine quality which is a close rival.
The quality of the wool depends upon the breed of the sheep, feed, care, climate, and the part of the animal from which it comes. The best wool in soundness of fiber, softness, and evenness of length comes from the shoulders
30
WOOL 31
and sides of the animal. The various kinds of wool used in commerce are named either from the breed of the sheep or the locality in which the sheep is raised, as : Australian wools, New
COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF WOOL
Zealand wools, Cashmere, Shropshiredown, and Merino wools.
The wool fiber is composed of three parts which may be seen under the microscope :
(a) Epidermis, or outer surface, which is
32 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
composed of overlapping scales, similar to those on a pine cone.
(b) Cortex, which consists of a layer of cel- lular fibrous substance, which gives the fiber its chief strength and elasticity.
(c) Medulla, or marrow of the fiber.
The scales give wool its peculiar felting property, due to the interlocking of the project- ing edges of the scales — the deeper the scales fit into one another, the closer becomes the structure of the material This property is taken advantage of in the manufacture of such materials as broadcloth. It is also this prop- erty which necessitates extra care in the laun- dering of woolen materials to prevent shrink- age which is simply another name for the inter- locking of the scales.
The difference between hair and wool is largely in this layer of horny scales. On hair they are much less marked, and often do not project at all at the edges. The distinction is sometimes made that hair is straight and wool is curly, or that hair is stiff er than wool; but here again the difference is sometimes greater between the extremes of wool or the extremes
WOOL 33
of hairs than between a given wool and a given hair.
The amount of luster which wool has also de- pends on the scales. If the edges of the scales are rough and uneven, the fiber as a whole will not be so smooth and lustrous as a fiber in which the scales are more nearly regular and reflect the light evenly. The fiber from the An- gora goat, which has less prominent scales, has greater luster than the wool from most sheep, but there is also greater variation in different breeds of sheep.
The length of the wool fiber varies from one to eight inches, depending upon its location on the animal and upon the breed. The wool fibers may be roughly classified as long-staple wools or "tops" from which worsteds are or- dinarily made, short-staple wools used in the manufacture of woolens, and the miscellaneous or carpet and blanket wools.
This classification is based on the length, fine- ness, and felting qualities of the staples.
The hygroscopicity of wool, the property of absorbing water without feeling wet, is greater than that of any other textile fiber. It varies
34 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
in different wools from eight to fourteen per cent.
In elasticity it is next to silk. This is the property which makes woolen materials keep their shape better than linen or cotton.
Wool is a poor conductor of both heat and electricity; therefore, it keeps the body evenly warm and prevents rapid cooling. It feels warm to the touch because it does not conduct the heat away from the body. Woolen shirts are worn by men working around furnaces be- cause the wool forms a blanket of air spaces which hold warmed air and moisture, thus pre- venting the extreme heat from reaching the body.
The tensile strength varies so greatly that no definite statement can be made.
Dilute acids have no appreciable effect on wool. Concentrated acids totally destroy it. With organic acids wool is usually reactive, readily absorbing oxalic, tartaric, acetic, and such acids.
Wool is quite sensitive to alkalies, so much so that a 5% solution of potassium or sodium hy- droxide, at a boiling temperature, will, in fif- teen minutes, completely dissolve the fiber.
WOOL 35
The use on wool of a strong soap, which means a soap containing a large amount of free alkali, increases its shrinkage, for it softens the fibers and causes the projecting scales to become more prominent, thereby inducing a greater interlocking of fibers, with the conse- quent thickening of the material and decrease in the size of the garment. Dilute solutions of borax, ammonia, or a neutral soap if used at a low temperature have little, if any, injurious effect. Another point to remember in the laun- dering of wool is to keep the temperature as nearly as possible the same throughout the washing and drying. The alternate expansion and contraction of the scales caused by differ- ent temperatures increases the interlocking and, therefore, the shrinkage.
Wool is the most reactive of all the textile fibers to coloring matter. Consequently it may be dyed easily and the colors are usually "fast."
Shearing in the United States is usually done by experts who begin work in Southern Cali- fornia, Texas and neighboring states about May and work on up through Wyoming, Montana,
36 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
Idaho, Oregon, and then into Canada, in this way being busy most of the year.
Most of the wool on the market comes in the form of fleece wool, the product of one year's growth. The fleeces are rolled in bundles as they come to the mill, and are sorted according to quality and length of fiber, the wool from the shoulders and sides being, usually, the choic- est part of the fleece. After sorting, the wool is washed to remove the grease and dirt ; dried and oiled to render it soft ; burred and carbon- ized to remove seeds, leaves, and burrs; and blended, by which means a more even yarn is produced. After the wool is blended it comes out in a soft, fleecy condition, ready to be carded.
The carding machine finishes the cleaning, separates and straightens the fibers, and deliv- ers the wool in soft strands called slivers.
If the wool is to be used for worsted material it must be further straightened and have the short ends or "noils" removed by a process called combing. This leaves only the good long fibers lying practically parallel to each other.
The combing process is unnecessary in the manufacture of woolen materials as the yarns
A PAIR OF HAND CARDS 37
38 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
are composed of short fibers which cross and are somewhat matted.
The processes of drawing and spinning draw out and twist the long soft rolls until the thread is reduced to the size required.
Before weaving, the warp yarn is sized by a starch preparation to enable the threads to withstand the friction due to the constant weav- ing back and forth of the weft thread. It is then placed on the loom, the warp running lengthwise. The filling thread, or weft, is wound on a bobbin, which is fastened in a shut- tle, allowing the thread to unwind as it is passed back and forth. As fast as the weft passes through between the warp threads, which are separated in different groups to form the pat- tern, it is beaten up tight against the preceding thread, thereby keeping the cloth firm and even.
Dyeing is done either in the yarn or in the piece, the piece-dyed materials being of a single color, while wools dyed in the yarn allow va- rious combinations.
When cloth comes from the loom, it is in an imperfect condition for use; knots tied in the thread are carefully drawn to the surface and clipped off; threads are woven in where any
WOOL 39
have been left out ; repairs are made if neces- sary. This part of the finishing must be done very carefully for worsted materials as the im- perfections will not be covered by a napped surface as in woolen materials. The beauty of
1. WOOLEN GOODS AS IT COMES FROM THE LOOM. 2. SAME, AFTER SHRINKING. 3. TEASEL.
woolen goods lies largely in the finish of the cloth ; and of worsted goods, in the weave, while the object of fulling woolen materials is often to obliterate it entirely. The cloth is pressed over a heated roll to give it a permanent finish and luster before it goes to the retailers.
The finishing of a material such as broad- cloth, where the weave is entirely covered by
40 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
a napped surface, is an interesting process as it shows the severe treatment which is necessary to obtain the highly lustrous finish. This in turn throws light on the high price of good chif- fon broadcloth, as a good quality of wool must be used to withstand the treatment, and the ex- tra labor also adds to the cost.
The cloth as it comes from the loom is loosely woven and much wider than desired when fin- jished. It is then churned in hot soap solutions !to felt or shrink the material. This process is repeated until the desired result is obtained. i Napping, which raises the ends of the fibers
'on the face of the cloth, is done by means of a
i
rwire teasel gig. The teasel, a seed receptacle of a vegetable, is about the shape of a pine cone, and it is interesting to note that no mechanical contrivance has ever been invented to equal it for the purpose. The nap which has been raised by the teasel is sheared or cut to a proper length by a machine which works like a lawn mower. The cloth is pressed, and, if a high luster is desired, it may be necessary to repeat the nap- ping and shearing before it is wound upon cop- per cylinders and steam is forced through it at a high pressure.
A WOOLEN YARN UNTWISTED A WORSTED YARN UNTWISTED
41
42 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
The difference between worsteds and woolens is principally that in the threads or yarns from which worsteds are made the fibers of the wool lie parallel to one another, combed wool being used from which the short fibers have been re- moved; and woolens are made from yarns in which the fibers cross and are matted and inter- mixed. When finished, the effect of worsteds and woolens is materially different. Upon ex- amination it will be found that a worsted thread resembles a wire in evenness, while the woolen thread is uneven and irregular.
A worsted fabric when finished has a clear, bright, well-defined pattern, and seems close and firmly woven; while woolen cloths are softer, they are more elastic, the colors are more blended, the threads are not so easily distin- guishable, and there is a duller effect in general.
Owing to the rapidly changing fashions to- day, dress materials are frequently cast aside when only partially worn. This naturally greatly increases the demand for new fabrics and, therefore, for raw wool.
Statistics from 1909 give approximately 220,- 000,000 Ibs. as the amount of new wool, freed from grease, used in the United States. Later
WOOL 43
figures show that about 250,000,000 Ibs. are used a year at the present time. Estimating the present population as about 90,000,000 the amount of raw wool per capita is less than three pounds. Considering the waste in manufacture (100 Ibs. of raw wool being required for 85 Ibs. of cloth), and also the proportion which must be used for blankets, carpets, rugs, felts, and upholstery, it is apparent that the supply of new wool is not equal to the demand. To make up for this shortage, shoddy and cotton have come into general use.
Shoddy is the term which has come to be ap- plied to all reclaimed .wool which has already served one or more periods of usefulness. The term is unfortunate as it suggests only decep- tion, sham, and fraud. No objection is raised to the use of other waste product, so why should there be in this case? The only just cause for complaint is found in the abuse rather than the use of the so-called shoddy.
The wool is reclaimed from wool rags, tail- ors' clippings, and scraps of various kinds. These are dusted, cleaned, and then torn apart by machines designed especially for that pur- pose. If any cotton is present, the mass is
44 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
treated with dilute acid to decompose the veg- etable matter, leaving only the wool. This is washed, dried, and carded, preparing it for spinning a second time. The quality of the shoddy depends upon the quality and value of the material from which it is made. The best quality is obtained from knitted goods and wor- sted materials, if good wool was used in the first place. To be sure, it is not so strong as it was originally. The strain undergone in the various processes through which it has passed has weakened the fibers to a greater or lesser degree. Yet in many cases it is not "worn out" by any means. The much felted woolen ma- terials give the short inferior fibers. It has been said that, " Anything with two ends may be spun." When we find fibers not more than a fourth of an inch in length we realize the truth of that statement and wish the manufacturers were a little less clever. These short fibers soon become loosened or wear off, leaving the gar- ment "threadbare" as we say.
The better quality may contain good long fibers ready to do good service again. The processes through which it has gone thoroughly sterilize the material, so there is no possible
WOOL
45
POOR QUALITY SHODDY
BETTER QUALITY SHODDY
46 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
danger of contamination. We may not like the idea of wearing clothes made from material which has been used by someone else, but the prejudice is not justified, as the use of these re- claimed materials has clothed many people much more cheaply and warmly than would oth- erwise be possible. In fact, it is the only way in which the insufficient supply of new wool may be pieced out and made to go around. Should this material be wasted, many persons would be unable to afford proper clothing, as it is diffi- cult to estimate what the price of wool would be. To quote from an article in a trade journal: "This is no excuse for dishonesty, false labeling or misrepresentation. Good, honest, sound, and well wearing cloths can be made, are made, and sold on their merits at prices i within the reach of all' and all that is needed is that tli^y may be represented for what they are, in the name of common honesty. "
Because there will always be unscrupulous manufacturers who will misrepresent their goods, there should be pure textile laws requir- ing proper labeling of all materials. A copy of one of the specifications used by the War De- partment in ordering materials for the army
WOOL 47
gives us an idea of textile standards. Until such laws are secured we must learn to judge for ourselves or expect to be cheated occasionally. As a usual thing, when paying a reasonable price for wool materials in a reputable store, good value may be expected. There are excep- tions, however, which will be cited later.
Cotton is also used quite largely in the man- ufacture of woolen and worsted materials to help make up for the shortage in wool. The cot- ton is mixed with the wool in the following ways:
(a) Cotton combed with the wool and spun together.
(b) Cotton covered with wool so that the cotton is not visible.
(c) Cotton used alone as the warp or weft threads, usually the former.
(d) Cotton threads twisted in with the wool.
SPECIFICATIONS OF WAR DEPARTMENT
WAR DEPARTMENT Office of the Quartermaster-General. Specifications for olive drab worsted kersey, 16-ounce
Wool. — For warp and filling: To be American, shorn from live sheep, free from kemp, of not lower
48 THE STUDY OF FABEICS
grade than high half-blood, staple to be of good char- acter, sound, true and well conditioned, possessing in addition all the necessary qualities to produce the hereinafter-described requirements. The admixture of wastes, reworked wools, vegetable fibers, or other impurities is prohibited. (Broken sliver from the combs and drawing frames made at the time this yarn is being manufactured not to be considered waste.)
Color. — To be a mixture of an olive drab shade, as represented by the sealed standard sample. The va- rious colors required to form this mixture may be dyed in the wool, slubbing, or top, as desired, and to be reasonably clean before mixing. The colors must be sufficiently fast to withstand milling, perspiration, and climatic influences, such as sunlight, air, and ex- posure incident to the military service.
Tests. — All deliveries shall be subjected to the fol- lowing official tests, chemical and otherwise :
(a) Boiling for ten minutes in a solution composed of 80 grains of neutral soap to one pint of water.
(b) Boiling for ten minutes in a solution containing 10 grains of dry carbonate of soda to one pint of water.
(c) To stand an exposure to the weather (roof test) for thirty days.
(d) Soak for twenty-four hours in lactic acid, spe- cific gravity, 1.21 U. S. P. Temperature about 70° F.
(e) Soak for twenty-four hours in a solution com- posed of three drams (avoirdupois) of citric acid to two fluid ounces of water. Temperature about 70° F.
To judge results correctly the specimens that have been subjected to the above acid test must be washed
WOOL 49
with soap in warm water. In all these tests no greater changes of color must take place than would be shown under similar tests made on the sealed standard sample.
The regulation size of the above samples shall be six (6) by four (4) inches. In making tests "d" and " e " the samples shall be placed in a tray or vessel of such a character that will allow them to lie flat within, so that they may be completely immersed in their re- spective solutions.
Width. — To be not less than fifty-four (54) nor more than fifty-six (56) inches wide independent of selvages.
Weave. — To be a four harness, two-up and two- down weave, as is the sealed standard sample.
Threads. — Warp to contain not less than 3,780 ends of single spun (combed) warp twist yarn.
Filling. — To contain not less than sixty-two picks of single worsted spun yarn per inch. Should an occa- sional piece (not more than one in ten of each deliv- ery) be found to meet specification requirements in all other respects, but to count not lower than fifty-nine picks, it shall be acceptable.
Weight. — To weigh not less than sixteen ounces per linear yard. Pieces weighing less than sixteen ounces per linear yard shall be rejected, unless when sub- jected to a conditioned or dry-fiber test, the weight thus found with 11 per cent added (for normal re- gain of moisture allowable) will come up to over six- teen ounces. At the discretion of the contracting offi- cer, pieces weighing sixteen ounces and over may be conditioned, and if found to weigh less than fourteen
50 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
and five-tenths ounces when the weight becomes con- stant in the conditioning oven, they shall be rejected.
Strength. — To be capable of sustaining a strain of sixty pounds to the inch warp-way, and fifty-five pounds to the inch filling-way. The strength test to be made on a dynamometer, great care being exercised -to see that the material is placed in the jaws of the same at exactly right angles to the opposite system of threads. Should an occasional piece on delivery (not more than one in ten), practically perfect in all other respects, show not more than three pounds less breaking strain in the warp, and not more than two pounds less breaking strain in the filling, it shall be acceptable.
Finish. — To be well milled, thoroughly cleaned, free from crocking, moderately shorn, and like or equal in all respects of finish to the sealed standard sample.
Adopted October 31, 1906.
C. F. HUMPHREY, Quartermaster-General, U. S. Army.
Note. — Samples of wool (warp and filling) in the clean state, also samples of wools after properly mixed to produce shade (warp and filling), as well as a skein of not less than 120 yards of each yarn (warp and filling) shall be delivered to the contracting officer with the first delivery of goods, and with each 5,000 yards.
By direction of the Quartermaster-General, the articles to be furnished under these specifications shall, in all points not covered by these specifications, be like and equal to the standard sample in all re- spects.
CHAPTER III
TESTS FOR WOOLEN MATERIALS
During the last century industrial conditions have changed materially. In the early days the cloth was manufactured in the home. There was no question of adulteration then. With the introduction of the factory system came keen competition, with the result that a piece of ' * all wool" cloth may be one-half or -three-fourths cotton. The field of textile knowledge has grown remarkably, while the knowledge pos- sessed by women concerning textile fabrics has decreased. The natural result has been that women have come to depend on the salesman for information concerning the material about to be purchased. Various experiences have led to the belief that the salesmen are usually hon- est but often most woefully ignorant. They should be more intelligent concerning the mate- rials offered for sale ; but since they are not it devolves upon the shopper to acquire the knowl-
51
52 THE STUDY OF FABEICS
edge which will make her competent to judge for herself.
"All wool and a yard wide" has come to be synonymous with good quality in the minds of many. That is a misconception, as a material may be "all wool and a yard and a half wide" and a poor material at the same time. The quality of the wool and the weave of the mate- rial are fully as important as the fact of its be- ing all wool. "Pure dye" was thought by a tailor of more than ordinary intelligence to in- dicate purity of the fabrics. He was amazed when shown the adulteration in his "pure dye" materials. These illustrations show that these similar phrases cannot be depended upon as an indication of quality.
To judge of the firmness of the weave, hold the material up to the light. If the light shines through, it indicates a loose and open weave unable to withstand strain. The tensile strength test given below should also be used in this con- nection. The "feel" of the wool, to be ac- quired by practice, tells much in regard to qual- ity. Notice carefully the difference in the "feel" of various qualities of blue serges. Threads should be unraveled and the length of
TESTS FOR WOOLEN MATERIALS 53
the separate fibers noted. Long fibers usually indicate a good quality of wool and extremely short ones indicate shoddy.
Tensile Strength. — The warp yarn in a mate- rial is always more tightly twisted and stronger than the weft or filling yarn. This is necessary because of the greater strain on the warp in wearing. In cheap materials, frequently, there is more difference than is necessary between the strength of the warp and weft yarns. This may be detected by exposing the warp and weft threads separately. When considerable differ- ence is found it is an indication of poor wear- ing quality, as the weft threads will not be able to stand the strain of the warp.
To test the tensile strength, place the thumbs together and press them down hard on the ma- terial, holding the cloth tight underneath. Do the threads separate or break more easily in one direction than the other?
If the threads can be separated by the thumbs in this way,- the material will not give good serv- ice if subjected to hard wear.
It is usually found economical in the end to buy good material. The extra expenditure of $.25 or $.50 a yard will amount to little in the
54 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
cost of a garment, yet it may double or treble its value. In the case of a garment which will be worn only a few times, because of the rapidly changing styles, a cheaper material may serve the purpose fully as well. The use to which the garment is to be put should always be consid- ered when purchasing the material. If service is an important item, remember that pennies saved may mean dollars lost.
Appearance and feeling can no longer be trusted absolutely, but the trained hand and eye may do much in judging of the quality of materials. Woven fabrics made of wool should be soft when gathered up in the hand, and should spring back when the hold is loosened.
Wool should feel warm and springy. There is a great difference in the "feel" of different qualities of wool. The difference is hard to describe, but can easily be detected with prac- tice.
Take a small piece of wool material and ex- pose the warp and weft threads separately. After some practice the cotton can be quite readily detected unless it is covered with wool, as is often the case. Wool threads are more
TESTS FOE WOOLEN MATERIALS 55
curly and elastic than cotton. White wool usu- ally has a creamy tint while cotton is dead white. Cheap shepherd checked materials usually contain some cotton. The warp may be cotton and the weft all or part wool. Such materials clearly show the difference between the appear-
WARP AND WEFT THREADS EXPOSED SEPARATELY
ance of wool and cotton, especially of white wool and cotton.
In a plain colored material the cotton may sometimes be detected by the difference in the way the threads have taken the dye. It is al- most impossible to dye cotton and wool exactly the same color. For this reason cotton is used more often in materials of mixed colors.
56 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
Burning to Detect Cotton. — This is the most useful in determining whether certain threads are wool or cotton. If cotton and wool have been spun together, this test is not reliable, al- though something may be learned if the yarn is unraveled so that the fibers may be burned separately. Cotton burns quickly, leaving a small amount of ash and no perceptible odor. Wool burns slowly, leaving a black ash in the form of a ball at the edge of the flame. The odor of burning wool is that characteristic of burning bones or feathers.
Experiment. — Select a number of materials which it is thought may contain cotton. Burn the warp and weft threads and threads of dif- ferent colors separately. If a thread when burned gives off no odor of burning wool, it may be taken as a strong indication that it is all cot- ton. However, the odor of burning wool does not indicate that the thread is all wool.
Chemical Test for Any Mixed Cotton and Wool Fabric.— Boil a sample for 15 minutes in a 5% solution of potassium hydroxide. If it is all wool, the entire piece will be destroyed ; if it is mixed with cotton, the cotton will be left and the wool destroyed: Should there be a res-
i
Original Residue
54 inches wide — $1.25 per yard
iL*£. k5 ^ ij S.^. 2£^ - ^ ~ ^. -S- ..:£:• S;. ;^T;^- :>r -^' -y-
Original Residue
36 inches wide — 50 cents per yard
MATERIALS BEFORE AND AFTER BOILING IN THE LYE
SOLUTION
57
58 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
idue, it must be thoroughly washed, first in acidulated water (vinegar in water may be used), then in clear water and dried on blotting paper. This residue represents the cotton in the cloth. If mixed with wool in spinning, an open material will be left ; if the warp is made of cotton it alone will remain. The weft will be destroyed.
In place of the potassium hydroxide (KOH.) which is the alkali used in the laboratory, ordi- nary household lye may be used. From one to two level teaspoons of lye to one pint of water should be used. (The lye becomes weakened on exposure to the air.) A small sample of the cloth to be tested should be placed in a granite dish, well covered with the solution and allowed to boil gently to prevent rapid evaporation and consequently strengthening of the solution. The use of a granite dish is emphasized as the alkali will act on some metals, especially alumi- num. Five minutes at the boiling point will be sufficient when using the lye as given above.
The following materials may be tested and results of the tests noted, always considering width and price of sample :
Original Residue
54 inches wide — $1.25 per yard
Original Residue
54 inches* wide — $5 per yard
MATERIALS BEFORE AND AFTER BOILING IN THE LYE SOLUTION
60 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
2 pieces of white flannel,
2 pieces of serge,
2 pieces of shepherd check (black and white),
2 pieces of novelty goods (gray or tan mix- ture),
1 piece of broadcloth or a similar material,
2 pieces of any materials in which you are
especially interested.
MATERIALS BEFORE AND AFTER BOILING IN THE LYE SOLUTION
It will be found helpful to study the sample before using the alkali test, and to form some judgment. After the test compare conclusions.
Test one at a time, but the same solution may be used. Add water to replace what evaporates, and if testing many at one time add some fresh solution.
The relation of cotton to wool is often plainly shown by the form in which the cotton is left.
TESTS FOE WOOLEN MATERIALS 61
If a piece of woven fabric remains we know that either wool was mixed with the cotton in the yarn before weaving or that wool was blown into the cloth mechanically during the felting process and finished over to give the appearance of woolen material. Cheap eiderdowns are often made in this way. Sometimes the warp is cotton and the weft wool. (A sample of shep- herd check showed a cotton warp with every other check filled in by cotton weft, therefore practically one-fourth wool.)
Nitric Acid Test. (Note. — This test may only be used to advantage on white material.) Sep- arately expose the warp and weft threads of a small piece of material. Dip in nitric acid and then rinse thoroughly in running water. Wool assumes a yellow color, while cotton remains white. The yellow color is due to the formation of xanthoproteic acid. If entire cotton threads have been used, this test shows them up very readily.
A piece of cheap white eiderdown treated in this way showed a few wool fibers on the sur- face, while the body of the material and much of the surface remained white.
A high power microscope affords a very sim-
62 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
pie method of distinguishing between wool and cotton. (Any high school doing laboratory work in zoology or physiology should have such microscopes.)
The following indicate the presence of shoddy :
Very short fibers, Fibers of various colors, Lack of uniformity in size and general char- acter of the scales, Structure,
Ends broken and uneven, Scales missing on parts of the fiber.
The adulteration of a worsted cloth is more easily detected than of a woolen, as the entire thread is usually replaced by a similar one of cotton. There are pure wool cloths made of "Virgin wool" and nothing else. The great family of serges, worsted cheviots, and certain white flannels contain only fleece wool. This must be understood to refer to good quality ma- terials demanding a fair price. It still remains a fact, however, that many fabrics used for clothing contain other materials than wool fresh from the sheep shearer, in many cases without
TESTS FOB WOOLEN MATERIALS 63
detriment and in some cases with positive ad- vantage.
If the shoddy is of fairly good quality, and especially if mixed with some good new wool, the resulting fabric may look very well and give good service.
For a garment which must be laundered fre- quently the addition of some cotton will help to prevent shrinkage and perhaps add usefulness to the garment. If it is represented as being part cotton and sold for a reasonable price, no objection can be raised.
Several pieces of imported Viyella flannel, sold as all wool and non-shrinkable, when tested were found to contain 50 per cent of cotton. The cotton made it fairly non-shrinkable, as advertised, and increased its value for men's shirts and ladies' shirtwaists, but it was decep- tive and $.75 a yard was too much to pay for a material 30 inches wide containing so much cotton. The same could be said of the only piece of so-called "all wool" white flannel, suitable for infants' clothes, which was to be had in a high class store. We are not objecting, there- fore, to the use of cotton, but to paying wool
64 THE STUDY OF FABEICS
prices for cotton, and to being sold half cotton as all wool.
Tests for Fastness to Dyes, Crocking, and Fading. — A simple and practical test for crock- ing is to rub the material with a soft white cloth which has been slightly moistened. If any color comes off on the white cloth, the material will crock.
To test fastness to light, the sample to be tested is placed in a suitable frame in such a manner that only a part is exposed. The frame is then placed in such a position that it receives as strong sunlight as possible. A window with southern exposure is a good location in which to hang the frame containing the samples. At the end of one week's exposure the samples are examined, and note is made of those which show any appreciable fading. These are to be classified as not fast. At the end of the second week another examination is made and those samples noted which show an appreciable fad- ing. These are to be classified as fairly fast. At the end of four weeks the samples are once more examined, and the colors fading in this period are noted and classified as fast, The samples
TESTS FOR WOOLEN MATERIALS 65
which show no fading at the end of four weeks are classified as very fast.
The samples may be partly covered with black paper, fastened securely to a piece of wood, and exposed to the light as suggested above.
Test eight samples, varying in color and price, for crocking and fastness to light.
CHAPTEE IV SILK
The silk industry is supposed to have origi- nated in China about 2,700 B. C., the art being known only to the royal family for a long time. But gradually the knowledge spread and it soon became an important industry in China. Later it became known to the people of Japan, and slowly it spread through Central Asia,, Persia, Arabia, Spain, Sicily, and along the African coast. Silk culture was practiced in Italy in the 12th century, and in France the following cen- tury. Most of the silk of commerce is obtained from the cocoons of a certain kind of caterpillar called "Bombyx mori," or mulberry silkworm which feeds (as the name implies) upon leaves of the mulberry tree. There are other varieties of silkworm which cannot be cultivated; these are called wild silkworms. They produce an inferior grade of silk called "tnssah." From this wild silk is manufactured the pongee silks
66
SILK 67
of commerce. Most of the raw silk on the mar- ket is produced in China, Japan, France, and Italy.
.Throughout the succession of changes which take place in the insect, the greatest care has
SILKWORM CULTURE
to be exercised in regard to temperature, quiet, and food. After the moth lays the eggs they are collected and kept cool until time for incubation, which process takes place in heated compart- ments where the temperature is carefully regu- lated. The period of incubation lasts about thirty days and then the worms hatch out as
68 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
tiny little things no larger than the head of a pin. The growth and development of the worm proceeds rapidly. Its food is chopped mulberry leaves. There are four molting stages, at each of which the worm sheds his old skin, and emerges with a new one. This is caused by the body growing faster than the skin. At the molting time the worm ceases eating and re- mains in a torpid state for a couple of days, rests a short time to regain strength, and then begins eating with renewed vigor. After the fourth and last molt the worm is 1% inches long, but, in the few days remaining before it spins its cocoon, it grows to 3 inches in length. As soon as it has attained its full growth, which seldom exceeds 3 inches, it is ready to spin its cocoon. It stops eating, shrinks nearly an inch in length, loses in weight, turns pale in color, and seeks a place to which it can attach the co- coon. The web which it forms is composed of a secretion exuded from two glands in the body, which unite into one common exit tube below the mouth, where also exudes another secretion which cements the two threads together. The double silk fiber is called "fibroin," and the silk glue is called "sericin." This gum which
SILK 69
cements the fibers together hardens upon con- tact with the air.
The worm forces the silk fiber out by contract- ing his body, turning his head from side to side and throwing the fiber around himself in figure eight loops, until layer after layer, the cocoon is gradually completed — a process which re- quires about three days. The cocoon is ovoid in shape and is composed of one continuous thread which is 400 to 1300 yards long. After the cocoon is finished the worm passes from the form of a caterpillar into a chrysalis, from which it rapidly develops into a moth. Unless the chrysalis is killed before the moth has devel- oped, the cocoon will be pierced and the thread broken, so live steam is applied, which kills the chrysalis, and the silk can then be reeled off at any time.
The life cycle lasts about 55 days on the aver- age: (a) 30 to 40 days as larva; (b) 15 to 20 days as chrysalis ; (c) 6 to 12 days as moth. A moth lays about 700 eggs in three days, 30,000 eggs equalling 1 oz.
Silk Reeling'.— Silk reeling is accomplished by soaking the cocoons in warm water to soften the gum and then carefully unwinding the fibers,
70 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
twisting several together, according to the size of thread desired, and winding it into skeins. These skeins are put into canvas bags and soaked over night in warm soapsuds to further soften the gum which has stuck the fibers to- gether. Then they are hung across poles in a steam heated room and dried. Following this the silk is wound upon bobbins and spun into thread.
The waste silk from the reeling is mixed with that from the outer part of the cocoons, known as "floss," and is subsequently spun into what is called spun silk. It is treated as a bundle of fine fibers, like wool or cotton, and is spun by textile machinery that is especially adapted to it.
Silk Dyeing.— Silk is dyed either in the yarn or in the piece. If dyed in the yarn, the gum is removed by soaking in boiling soap and water, then the yarn is washed in cold water. At this point weighting is often put in — tin, iron, or other mineral salts being absorbed by the fiber. Sometimes there is more weighting than silk, for silk has the peculiar property of being able to absorb certain minerals. Because of this they are much used to deceive the buyer into paying a
REEL IN OPERATION
M
REELED AND WASTE SILK 71
72 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
higher price for silk than it is worth, as weight- ing makes silk both weak and tender, and infe- rior grades are apt to be used. Silk will take up 50 to 200% of weighting without arousing much suspicion. The silk is dyed, the luster re- stored, and it is then ready for weaving, after which the material is singed to remove loose fibers, straightened, and sized with starch or glue -to stiffen it.
Since 1624 several attempts have been made to rear silkworms in America. All have met with failure because of climatic or labor condi- tions. In some cases the mulberry trees were injured by early frosts and in all cases the low cost of labor in Europe offered a competition that it has been impossible to meet. It is inter- esting to note that the original Cheney Bros., well-known silk manufacturers, made an at- tempt to raise silkworms in South Manchester, Conn. Some of the mulberry trees, planted at that time, are still standing. Importing the raw material and manufacturing it in the United States has been found to be the best business proposition. There are about 700 establish- ments for the manufacture of silk in the United States. Paterson, N. J., is the silk city of Amer-
SILK
73
ica, having more than 300 mills and employing 40,000 men and women. The manufactured silk that is imported now is confined to the costliest fabrics in broad silks, to fashionable novelties, and to church vestments and specialties not suitable for mechanical weaving.
The following is a table from "Shelter & by Kinne & Cooley:
Clothing' '
COMMON SILK MATERIALS
|
Name |
Usual Width |
Usual Price |
Description |
|
Bengaline |
18 to 22 in. |
$.75 |
Used for dress goods and |
|
trimmings. Effect of |
|||
|
rounded silk cord like |
|||
|
poplin. Made in all silk |
|||
|
or with wool cord of |
|||
|
woof covered with silk |
|||
|
warp. |
|||
|
Brocaded Satin. . |
24 in. |
$1 up |
Beautiful fabrics of Jac- |
|
quard design. Slightly |
|||
|
raised from surface. |
|||
|
Dress goods, trimmings, |
|||
|
and furniture coverings. |
|||
|
Chiffon |
46 in. |
$.75 to |
Used for dress jroods veils |
|
$2 |
millinery, and trim- |
||
|
mings. A thin, gauzy, |
|||
|
light fabric of plain |
|||
|
colors generally. Fin- |
|||
|
ished soft or with dress- |
|||
|
ing. |
|||
|
China Silk |
24 in. |
$1 |
Name used for plain hand- |
|
woven silks of plain |
74
THE STUDY OF FABEICS
|
Name |
Usual Width |
Usual Price |
Description |
|
weave in China. Dis- |
|||
|
tinguished by irregular |
|||
|
threads and softness. |
|||
|
Used for waists, dresses, |
|||
|
underwear. Very du- |
|||
|
rable. |
|||
|
Crepe de Chine. . |
22 in. |
$.75 up |
Used for dress goods. |
|
Plain color or printed. |
|||
|
Smoother surface than |
|||
|
most crepes. Soft and |
|||
|
lustrous. Plain weave. |
|||
|
Effect produced by right |
|||
|
and left twisting of warp |
|||
|
threads. |
|||
|
Foulard |
24 in. |
$.75 up |
Dress goods of printed or |
|
woven design. Name in |
|||
|
French, "handkerchief," |
|||
|
for which originally |
|||
|
used. |
|||
|
Habutai |
27 in. |
$.60 to |
Woven in gum. Boiled and |
|
$2 |
finished after weaving. |
||
|
Moire" |
22 in. |
$2 |
A watered effect produced |
|
by pressing between |
|||
|
stamped rollers on gros- |
|||
|
grain silk. Used for |
|||
|
dresses and trimmings. |
|||
|
Louisine |
20 in. |
$.85 to |
A plain, durable silk, soft, |
|
$1.50 |
glossy texture, slightly |
||
|
twilled in effect. Used |
|||
|
for dress goods and |
|||
|
trimmings. |
|||
|
M aline |
27 in. |
$.25 to |
A soft, thin, gauzy fabric. |
|
$.50 |
Similar to net. |
||
|
Mousseline de Soie |
45 in. |
$.50 up |
A thin, gauzy fabric with |
|
more starch in finish |
|||
|
than soft chiffon. Used |
SILK
75
|
Name |
Usual Width |
Usual Price |
Description |
|
Peau de Soie .... Pongee |
21 in. 27 in. |
$.75 to $1.50 $1 up |
for trimmings and dress goods. A plain, colored, reversible silk in good quality. A heavy, soft-finished silk. Used for dress goods and trimmings. A soft, unbleached, wash- |
|
Plush |
24 in. |
$3 |
able silk, ecru in color. Woven from silk of wild silkworm. Originated in China. Hand woven. Used for dress goods, coats, etc. A long, shaggy fabric of |
|
Rajah |
36 to 54 in. |
$.60 to |
velvet class. Woven and pile cut. Used for dress trimming, furniture cov- ering, draperies, etc. A rough silk, plain weave |
|
Satin . |
21 to 54 in. |
$2 $1 to |
of irregular threads. Not very durable. Used for dresses and coats. A very old weave with |
|
Skinner's Satin. . Taffeta |
36 in. 21 in. up |
$10 $1.25 $.60 to |
much of woof on surface to give smooth finish. Made in all grades and combined with linen and cotton. Used for many purposes, box making, fans. Better qualities for fine gowns. Used for lining. A thin, glossy silk of |
|
$2 |
plain texture. Same on both sides. Plain col- |
76
THE STUDY OF FABRICS
|
Name |
Usual Width |
Usual Price |
Description |
|
Tulle .... |
3 yd wide |
$75 to |
ors. Made also with printed and woven fig- ures. Used for gowns, petticoats, linings. Does not wear well unless good quality and small per cent of weighting. A kind of silk net of open |
|
Velvet . . |
18 to 42 in |
$2.25 $4 to $20 |
mesh. Used for neck- wear, veiling, etc. Used for handsome gowns |
|
and trimmings. Woven and cut to form pile. Made also of cotton or linen in combination. |
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SILK FIBER
Physical.— Under the microscope the silk fi- ber appears as a smooth, structureless filament, regular in diameter and transparent. One strik- ing characteristic of silk is its high luster, which, however, only appears after the silk has been scoured to remove the silk gum. Dyeing and mordanting also affect the luster more or less, especially when silk is heavily weighted,
SILK 77
and, therefore, after dyeing, silk usually goes through a lustering operation in which the hanks are stretched strongly by twisting and at the same time steaming under pressure. . By this process much of the luster is restored.
Eaw silk will absorb as much as 30% of its weight in moisture and still appear dry. This property is called hygroscopicity, and because of it the amount of moisture in the silk has to be determined at the time of sale and allowances have to be made for it. The amount legally permitted is 11%.
Another property of silk is that of being a poor conductor of electricity. It is, therefore, readily electrified by friction. Silk is the strongest fiber known, said to almost equal the tensile strength of iron wire of equal diameter. It is also extremely elastic, raw silk stretching from 15% to 20% its original length in the dry state before breaking. Weighting of silk causes a decrease in both elasticity and strength.
A property which is peculiar in silk is its "scroop" — the crackling sound it makes when rubbed or squeezed. This is the cause of the rustle which characterizes most silk materials,
78 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
although weave influences the degree to a large extent.
Chemical. — As has been mentioned before, the silkworm has two sets of glands, one of which secretes the fibroin or silk fiber, and the other set secretes the sericin or silk glue which coats the fibers and cements them together. Fi- broin composes about % to % of the silk secre- tion, the rest being composed of the sericin. As soon as the two fibroin fluids come into contact with the air they solidify, and coming into con- tact with each other at the moment of discharge, they are coated with the silk glue and firmly cemented together. The sericin is yellow in color and is soluble in hot water, hot soap, and alkaline solution. The silk is worked in a soap solution at a temperature of 203° F., losing from 20% to 30% in weight and becoming soft and glossy. In regard to many of its chemical reactions silk is similar to wool. It can stand a high temperature, 230° F., without decomposi- tion. It readily absorbs dilute acids, and has a strong affinity for tannic acid, which fact is used in dyeing and mordanting. It readily ab- sorbs sugar, which is sometimes utilized in weighting light colored silks. Silk also has such
SILK 79
an affinity for ordinary metallic salts that it is often heavily weighted with them. Common salt, however, destroys the silk fiber. That rot- ting of silks due to the salt present in perspira- tion is frequently noted.
Concentrated acids and strong, hot alkalies destroy silk, and dilute alkalies decrease the lus- ters, although they have less effect on the strength of the fiber than upon wool.
Silk has a great affinity for dyestuffs, absorb- ing coloring matter readily. Authorities dis- agree as to whether this is a physical or chemi- cal process, or a combination of the two.
Weighting of Silk. — The practice of weight- ing silk is probably centuries old, for it has long been known that silk possesses a great affinity for tannin, but it is only within the last 25 years that weighting has been in general use.
The boiling off of the gum reduces the weight of the raw silk from 5 to 30 per cent. Since the price of raw silk is about $5 per pound it is not to be wondered at that ways have been devised to make up this loss. Harmless additions of plain sugar and sugar of lead were used in the beginning but the demand for cheap silks has brought about an exaggerated and injurious
80 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
weighting. The throwster may leave an excess of soap and oils in the silk but most of the loss is made up and weight added in the dyeing proc- ess. Silk is very absorptive, it being possible to weight or load it up to five times its boiled off weight. While this is a great advantage to the manufacturer, it is unfortunate for the con- sumer, since the result is the mechanical weak- ening of the filaments. This may be explained in various ways: first, the stretching of the walls when taking in the metallic weighting weakens the fibers ; second, the salts crystallize when exposed to the sunlight, thus cutting the delicate filaments ; third, oxidation occurs in the course of time, with a consequent weakening of the fibers ; fourth, perspiration causes deterior- ation because chlorine is freed, which causes rotting.
The silk to be weighted is immersed in a se- ries of solutions, with thorough washings be- tween each treatment. The number of immer- sions is determined by the amount of weighting desired. To weight a silk heavily requires many dippings. Compounds of tin, lead, and iron in solution are most commonly used. White and light colored silks are weighted as
SILK 81
well as black and dark colored. This is con- trary to the opinion commonly held, but can be easily demonstrated. "Weighting reduces the strength of the fiber greatly. Strehlenart showed a black silk weighted to the extent of 140 per cent was only one-sixth as strong as pure crude silk. Even a weak solution of com- mon salt has a pronounced deteriorating effect upon silk that has been weighted with metallic compounds. The salt in the perspiration un- doubtedly accounts partially for its disintegrat- ing effect upon silk. The action of sea water also illustrates the effect of a salt solution on weighted silk.
The practice of weighting silks with metallic salts is responsible for the small holes which fre- quently appear in present day silks. It also ac- counts for the splitting which is so common, as well as the fact that it is difficult to find a silk today which has satisfactory wearing qualities. The silkworm has not lost the art of spinning good silk, but the manufacturer has taken ad- vantage of this peculiar quality of silk. While this has made it possible to sell silk fabrics at a much lower price than formerly, it has also produced a condition where it is almost impossi-
82 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
ble to find a silk of the firm taffeta type, at any price, which is free from weighting.
Again, what we need is textile laws requiring proper labelling of material offered for sale. To quote from an article in Harper's Weekly: " There is at present an agitation in the silk trade to bring about the marking of all silk to show its degree of purity, so that the innocent consumer may be able to buy silk with some de- gree of intelligence. It is pointed out that, while there are conditions when the adulteration is not harmful (when the wear is not essential) a law of this kind would greatly increase the standard of quality/'
We will not attempt to decide whether the public or the manufacturer is most to blame for the present condition. However that may be, it should be possible to purchase well-wearing silks, if one is willing to pay the price.
The simplest test for the detection of weight- ing in silk is that of burning the fiber. Pure silk, when held in a flame, burns quickly, melts, and runs together, leaving a small quantity of carbon. If burned long enough at a sufficiently high temperature this residue entirely disap- pears.
SILK 83
Weighted silk, when burned, simply blackens and remains in practically the original form. A longer burning would again decompose the
Original
Residue
Original
Residue
WEIGHTED SILK ABOVE, PURE SILK BELOW, BEFORE AND AFTER BURNING
black carbon but still leave the mineral matter, usually in the form of a grayish or reddish ash; depending on the mineral used,
84
THE STUDY OF FABEICS
Sometimes the threads one way will be weighted while the others are pure, and less often a piece will be found which has a few
Original
Residue
Original Residue
WEIGHTED SILKS BEFORE AND AFTER BURNING
weighted threads woven in a design, while the bulk of the material is pure silk.
The simple burning with a match is a most practical household test. As a general rule,
SILK
85
the less weighting the greater service may be expected from the material. Where the threads one way are weighted, this rule does not hold
Original Residue
Messaline, 21 inches $1.50 per yard
WEIGHTED SILKS BEFORE AND AFTER BURNING
good, because if the threads in one direction give way, the material loses its usefulness.
Burn a number of pieces of silk to discover some which are pure silk, some weighted both ways, some weighted only one way, and if pos- sible some which show weighted threads used in
86 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
a design when the large part is pure silk or vice versa.
Wash silks are often part cotton. Perhaps the most common mixture is a cotton warp and silk weft. By exposing the warp and weft threads separately the difference can often be detected readily. The following test may be used if there is any question.
Before After
Charmeuse Messaline
i
PURE SILKS BEFORE 'AND AFTER BURNING
Treat a sample with concentrated hydro- chloric acid (HC1). Silk will dissolve much more quickly than any other fiber.
Other silks have been found to be adulter- ated with linen, also. This is not common, and may be detected by using the same test and the microscope.
Artificial Silks. — The idea of producing fine threads having the luster of natural silk dates
SILK 87
back as far as 1734 when the French naturalist Reaumur suggested that since silk was what he described as a naturally hardened gum, it should be possible to produce similar filaments by forcing a varnish, such as that used by the Chinese, through minute openings, and drying the threads thus obtained.
In 1855 Andemars of Stockholm took out a patent in which nitrated cellulose, prepared from the inner bark of the mulberry tree, was dissolved in a mixture of alcohol and ether and the solution evaporated with a solution of India rubber. A steel point was dipped into the vis- cid liquid, and the threads adhering to it were drawn out into fine filaments. This did not achieve commercial success.
Real beginning was due to Chardonnet whose first patent was obtained in 1885. Nitrocellu- lose, prepared from cotton or wood pulp, is dis- solved under pressure in a mixture of ether and alcohol, and the viscous solution forced through small openings 1/100 mm. in diameter. The solvent evaporates and leaves the nitrated cellu- lose. Three, four, or more fibers are spun to- gether, and the threads denitrated by immer- sion in a 5% to 20% solution of ammonium
88 THE STUDY OF FABEICS
hydrosulfide, and finally washed, dried, and dyed to any color desired.
Artificial silks are made on a commercial scale by the Chardonnet process in France, Ger-
CHARDONNET SILK FIBERS
many, and Belgium, and on a smaller scale in England and the United States. Their use is limited almost entirely to ribbons, braids, tap- estry, and other fabrics in which strength is not the primary consideration. Compared with
SILK 89
true silk, the artificial silks feel harsher to the touch, are even more brilliant and lack the strength and elasticity of the natural product. The chief drawback to the commercial suc- cess of collodion silk is its behavior with water. When wetted, the fiber loses its original strength to such a degree that it must be handled with great care. Soap solutions and dilute acids have no injurious effects, but alkaline solutions rapidly disintegrate the fiber and finally dis- solve it completely.
CHAPTEE V LINEN
It is difficult to tell just when or where linen was first used, but most historians agree that Egypt probably first discovered the value of the flax plant as a source of linen. The earliest picture writings show that the linen industry was well developed. Genesis 41 : 42 tells us that Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in vestures of fine linen, and there are other references to flax in Egypt. This was about 1715 B. C. The refer- ence to "fine linen " would indicate that the in- dustry had reached a high state of development. Mummy cloths 4,000 years old show linen of quite a fine quality.
From Egypt linen culture spread to Babylon, to Greece, and to Rome. Great encouragement was given to it in Italy, and guilds were later formed to regulate and protect the linen trade. All over Europe during the Middle Ages, and until the invention of power spinning, linen was
90
FLAX IN DIFFERENT STAGES OF ITS PREPARATION FOR WEAVING
92 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
used almost entirely where today cotton is used. Since the industrial revolution, cotton has re- placed linen for many purposes. It can never replace linen for table service and many other purposes, because it lacks luster, smoothness, and the excellent laundering qualities.
Ireland, Belgium, Holland, Germany, Rus- sia, France, parts of the United States, and Canada are raising large quantities of flax at the present time. Russia produces more than half of the world's supply, but Ireland and Bel- gium rank first in quality.
Flax culture must be divided into two branches : culture for fiber, and culture for seed. In the United States flax is raised almost en- tirely for the seed. The relatively small amount of flax manufactured is imported and used largely for coarse fabrics, twine, and thread. / The flax plant requires a temperate climate and a rich soil if it is to be used for fiber, as the growth must be rapid. An even, moist tem- perature and low altitude produce the best grades of fiber.
The seed is sown early in May, and it is grown and ready to pull by the last of June. The plant grows from a foot and a half to three
LINEN 93
feet in height and bears a delicate blue flower. Before the seed is entirely ripe, and when the stalk of the plant has turned yellow about two- thirds of the way down, the flax is harvested. It is pulled instead of being cut, to save all of the available fiber.
Linen is the bast fiber of the flax plant, and to separate it from the rest of the plant is a long and tedious process. The following is the general method of procedure : (1) rippling, (2) retting, (3) drying, (4) braking, (5) scutch- ing, (6) hackling. Rippling removes seeds and leaves by crushing between rollers. Betting is a process of fermentation which loosens the bast fibers from the woody portion by decomposing the resins which unite them. This is accom- plished in one of three ways: (1) by exposing it to the dew, (2) by allowing the fibers to re- main in stagnant water for several days, or (3) by leaving them in slow running water. This last method probably gives the best results. The most successful attempt to shorten the process is by the use of tanks of heated water. In this way the retting may be accomplished in from fifty to sixty hours. After retting, the bundles are set up in the fields and allowed to dry.
94 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
Braking crushes the woody part in a flax brake as a preparatory step to separating it from the fiber. Scutching separates the straw and fiber by the action of several wooden knives, mounted in a wheel, which strike, as the wheel revolves, against a wooden block across which the flax is laid. Hackling combs out the fiber, freeing it from the woody portion, and dividing the fiber into ' ' line ' ' and ' i tow ' ' — ' * line ' ' being the long, smooth fibers, and "tow" being the short, snarled ends used only in cheap linens. Hand hackling usually takes the place of the machine for the better grades of flax. Drawing and spinning are similar to the process as used in the manufacture of cotton. Flax spinning is much more satisfactory if done in a moist at- mosphere. The hand spinner of former days kept a bowl of water at hand, in which she moistened her fingers as she spun.
Weaving linen is rather more difficult than Weaving cotton. The fiber is not so elastic, and breaks when there is a sudden strain instead of stretching as cotton does. Coarser linens, such as Eussian crashes, are still woven on hand looms by peasants in different countries. Fine damask; woven for so long on hand looms? is
LINEN 95
now made almost entirely on power machines.
Bleaching may be done at one or two different times: (1) immediately after retting, or (2) after the cloth is woven. If it be done most carefully it requires a combination of many washings, treatments with bleaching powder, rinsings, grass-bleaching processes requiring not only weeks of time, but proper fields upon which the cloth may be spread and favorable weather to do the grassing. The modern proc- ess in the United States is accomplished al- most entirely by chemicals. It is treated with sodium carbonate, bleaching powder, and di- lute sulphuric acid successively, being thor- oughly washed between these operations. Ire- land, famous for its beautiful linens, uses the first method.
Linen loses from 25 to 30 per cent in bleach- ing, and becomes weaker as it becomes whiter. The loss of tensile strength is much more marked when chemicals are largely used than when the natural agents — sun and air — do the work. This partially explains the great differ- ence in wearing quality between the old home- spun and the modern machine-made linens. After bleaching, the material is washed, dried,
96 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
starched, and ironed to give it a glossy appear- ance. The heavy pressing after the addition of sizing materials not only gives a good finish but also makes it possible to handle the linen in the store without destroying its finished ap- pearance. Sizing, when added in excess, makes a poor grade of cloth look well, but after wash- ing, the material often disappoints the buyer.
Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Linen Fiber.— Good flax fiber, when separated from the stalk, should be from 12 to 20 inches in length, and will vary greatly in fineness. It is stronger than cotton, but lacks elasticity. Un- der the microscope the flax fiber is seen to be a long cylindrical tube with transverse markings or nodes at more or less regular intervals. The fiber is composed of cells consisting almost en- tirely of pure cellulose. The color varies from yellowish-white to brown, and from pearl to steel gray, the best quality being pale yellowish- white. The variation in color is due largely to differences in the process of retting.
The hygroscopicity of linen is low, varying from 5 to 8 per cent, but the absorptive power is unusually high. It is this quality which makes
LINEN 97
linen an especially valuable material for tow- els.
Luster is one of the most prized assets of linen, and is retained as long as the fiber lasts. The process of retting may affect the strength
FLAX FIBERS
and luster to some extent if allowed to continue after the resins are dissolved.
Compared with the other textile fibers linen is the best conductor of heat and electricity. It
98 THE STUDY OF FABEICS
is this property which makes linen feel cool to the touch.
Toward mordants and dyestuffs linen does not react so readily as cotton; therefore, it is more difficult to set dye in linen cloth.
The action of acids and alkalies upon linen is much the same as upon cotton, strong mineral acids destroying the fiber, cold, dilute mineral acids affecting the cloth but little if thoroughly washed out, and organic acids having no effect unless allowed to dry on and are afterwards moistened and ironed. Alkalies, if caustic, de- stroy linen cloth the same as cotton, but dilute washing soda solutions, borax, and soap have no appreciable effect on linen. The same pre- cautions have to be taken in using bleaching powders as with cotton cloth.
COMMON LINEN FABKICS
Crash. — A heavy, loosely woven material made of
coarse yarn. It is much used for toweling and
summer suitings. Damask. — A lustrous, satiny material used for table
linens. Art Linen. — A material having a round, hard twisted
thread. It is much used for embroidering and
drawnwork.
LINEN 99
Handkerchief Linen. — A sheer, fine linen used for handkerchiefs, infant's dresses, waists, and women's clothes.
Huckaback. — A dice-like pattern, very heavy and serv- iceable, used for toweling.
Butcher's Linen. — Coarse, white material used for lin- ings mainly.
Glass Toweling. — A smooth finished checked toweling made in Ireland.
Household Linens. — Because of its smooth- ness of texture, its brilliancy, and its excellent wearing and laundering possibilities, linen is the one fiber best suited for the table and toilet. The very fact that it does not take dyes easily makes it easier to remove stains from linen than from cotton, and the satin smoothness of the cloth keeps it clean longer than other material.
Table Linen. — Ireland, Scotland, and Ger- many supply most of the table linens. Irish linens are the best and most expensive, running from $.75 or $1 a yard to $3. The John Brown linen with the shamrock trade-mark, is one of the well-known brands of dependable quality. The Scotch linens have excellent patterns and run from $.50 to $2 and over for a yard. Ger- man damask, which is very durable owing to its having a closer, harder twisted thread than the
100 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
others, runs from $.50 to $1.50 a yard. French damask is noted for its exquisite designs and effective appearance; the thread is fine and round. There is a wide range in quality, from the most expensive to the cheaper grades.
When buying linens, rub them between the fingers to remove the starch and choose those which are firm and heavy with not too fine a thread. A consideration of the pattern is not only important from the standpoint of design but of wearing quality as well. A large figure with long overshot threads will not wear so well as the one with a smaller design and shorter threads on the surface. The reason for this is obvious, but is often forgotten when purchas- ing table linen.
Bed Linen. — Although most attractive in ap- pearance and most durable, linen is not the most satisfactory material to use for sheets and pil- lowcases, as it is so easily wrinkled and, fur- thermore, feels damp and chill when brought in contact with the body. The high price of linen is also a point against its common use in this way. Linen sheeting ranges in price from ' $1.50 to $2.50 a yard. Hemstitched linen sheets may be purchased for about $7.50 a pair. The
LINEN; :J3,
tubing for pillowcases range^ jn price from $1 to $1.25 a yard, and the ready-made s pillovrc'sises from $1.25 to $2 a pair.
Toweling. — The quality of easily absorbing moisture, which is a characteristic of linen, makes it suitable for use as towels. The checked glass toweling is excellent for drying silver and glassware, while for heavier dishes medium weight crash will give satisfaction.
Hand towels of Irish huckaback give the best satisfaction, being fine and soft and yet firmly woven. The familiar cotton Turkish towel is now duplicated in linen which, after one or two launderings to remove the harshness, is a de- light to use.
Because linen brings a much higher price than cotton, and because cotton may be finished to resemble linen, dishonest dealers frequently deceive the buyer into paying for a product which he does not receive. Sometimes the two fibers are mixed, and again cotton alone is heav- ily starched and given a linen finish which is hard to distinguish from the true fiber.
102, THE STUDY OF FABEICS
.BET WEEN CoTTON AND LlNEN
(Wash materials to remove the dressing before applying the following tests.)
1. Linen feels smooth, cool, and heavy compared with
cotton. Linen also takes greater luster in iron- ing.
2. Untwist a cotton and a linen yarn. Pull them apart
slowly and steadily. The ends of cotton fibers curl ; linen fibers remain stretched and pointed.
3. Tear the material and compare the edges. The torn
edge of linen is more irregular than that of cotton.
4. Apply glycerine or oil, cotton remains opaque and
linen becomes translucent.
5. Burn some of the material. The burnt end of cot-
ton is tufted, and that of linen is rounded.
6. Ink dropped on linen is quickly absorbed and
makes a spot with a regular outline, while on cotton the absorption is slower and the spot has a much more irregular outline. Often ink will be drawn out along the separate cot- ton fibers for some distance. This is due to a difference in the capillary attraction of the two fibers. This test involves somewhat the same principle as the old test of moistening the finger and putting it under the material, but * is much more satisfactory. Note. — No one of the above should be taken as ab-
solute. Try several before making a finai decision.
Manufacturers have become so clever that they are
LINEN 103
able to treat cotton so as to make it look and react very much like linen.
Select the following set of samples and test as suggested above :
3 samples of table linen — varying in price, 3 samples of huck toweling — varying in
price, 2 samples of heavy linen — suitable for
tailored suits, 1 sample of handkerchief linen,
1 sample of linen sheeting,
2 samples of glass toweling, 2 samples of crash.
CHAPTER VI
LAUNDRY PROBLEMS
Someone has said that "The state of civili- zation may be judged by the soap bill of the nation. ' ' That there is some truth in the state- ment we will all admit, I am sure. During the past decade there has been awakened a new interest in the subject of laundering which is a hopeful sign.
We may differ, in our judgment, as to whether ironing is a necessity or a luxury, but there would be no disagreement as to the ne- cessity for washing.
It is not simply to satisfy our sense of the aesthetic that the periodic washing has become an established custom in the home. There is a sanitary reason which a few words of explana- tion may help us to understand more fully.
The skin acts as a heat regulating apparatus through evaporation of the perspiration, and also serves in some measure to eliminate the
104
LAUNDEY PROBLEMS 105
body's waste products. These materials are ab- sorbed by the clothing, and after a time the pores of the cloth become clogged. This condi- tion prevents proper absorption and evapora- tion of moisture from the body, thus increasing warmth of body in summer and making it colder in winter.
The following may be given as the three main reasons for washing:
1. To remove dirt and to open the pores of
the cloth,
2. To dry the cloth and to renew its ab-
sorbing power,
3. To destroy any bacteria present.
In order that we may understand laundry methods it is necessary first to learn something of the nature of the things to be laundered and how these respond to the cleansing agents com- monly used. The purpose is not to discuss methods so much as the underlying principles which, if understood, will aid in the choice of the best method.
We have learned by experience that cotton, wool, and silk must be treated differently if the best results are to be obtained., It may be of
106 THE STUDY OF FABRICS interest, therefore, to determine why this is true. In the previous chapters the physical and chemical properties of the various fibers have been given, but will be repeated briefly to make the application a little more evident.
The vegetable fibers, cotton and linen, are most frequently laundered and, therefore, de- serve first place in this discussion. Their cel- lulose composition being so nearly the same, we find the behavior toward acids and alkalies, the chemicals we are most concerned with in the laundry problems, so nearly identical that they may be considered together. Effect of acids on the vegetable fibers:
1. Strong mineral acids, as sulphuric, ni- tric, and hydrochloric, entirely destroy the fiber in a very short time.
2. Cold dilute mineral acids have little ef- fect if not allowed to dry on. Organic acids, as acetic in vinegar, oxalic in to- matoes, citric in lemons, etc., have no ac- tion unless allowed to dry on. If dried, moistened, and ironed, they will destroy the fibers.
LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 107
Effect of Alkalies on the Vegetable Fibers:
1. A strong solution for a short time in- creases the strength, as is illustrated in the process of mercerization. If submitted to the treatment for a longer time the fi- ber is weakened.
2. Dilute alkalies have little, if any, effect according to present data. As many of the washing compounds, if properly used, come under the above class, the fact is of great interest to the laundress. The more delicate the fiber the greater the care which is necessary in their use.
Effect of Acids on the Animal Fibers:
1. Wool: Strong mineral acids destroy wool, but the destruction is much slower than with cotton. If acid is dilute, there is practically no effect.
2. Silk: Strong acids disintegrate silk. A dilute solution weakens the silk fiber, but the action is less rapid than with cot- ton.
Effect of Alkalies on the Animal Fibers: Strong alkalies, even though cold, have a softening effect on the wool or silk fibers,
108 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
entirely disintegrating them in a short time. A dilute boiling solution will also dissolve the wool. This fact is made use of in the test distinguishing wool from cotton. Dilute alkalies weaken silk and destroy the luster.
Water.— A plentiful supply of water good for laundry purposes is an important factor in suc- cessful laundering. Good drinking water and good water for the laundry may not necessarily be identical. The mineral matter held in so- lution may be of value in the body, but be detri- mental in cleaning processes. A good water for the laundry should be clean, soft, clear, odorless, free from discoloration, free from iron, and from organic matter.
Hard and Soft Water. — Because water is a good solvent, on its way to us through the rocks and soil it often collects soluble substances of an undesirable nature. The characteristic known as hardness is due to the presence of lime salts gathered in this way. When soap is used with hard water, a scum forms on the sur- face which is composed of an insoluble lime soap. This has no cleansing properties, and so
LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 109
simply wastes the soap which has been used. If the available supply of water is hard, the problem of the housekeeper is to find some means of removing the lime or of reducing its ill effects.
Temporary and Permanent Hardness. — Ac- cording to the nature of the lime salts present, water is said to be temporarily or permanently hard. Temporary hardness is caused by the presence of carbonate of lime, and such water may be softened by boiling. The sediment pres- ent in almost any teakettle illustrates this.
Permanently hard water contains sulphate of lime and can only be softened by the use of some chemical. The cheapest and best is an alkali such as washing soda, borax, or ammonia.
Washing soda, which is most effective for or- dinary use, should be used in the following pro- portions unless the water is extremely hard: For each gallon of water use two tablespoons of solution made by dissolving one pound of washing soda in a quart of boiling water.
Borax is especially good for colored goods and wool, and even though more expensive it may be economy to make the extra expenditure in those cases.
110 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
The only satisfactory method of getting rid of iron is to add washing soda to the water and then let the water settle five or six days before using.
Soap.— Soap making, which was formerly a common household process, is at present almost unknown. The lye which was obtained from wood ashes and the waste fat from various sources made a soap containing many impuri- ties and of uncertain quality.
Soap may be made of any fat with caustic alkalies or lye. Chemically, lye is a hydroxid of either potassium or sodium — two closely re- lated substances having similar chemical char- acteristics and producing compounds of similar nature.
When lye is mixed with a fat, it breaks up into the fatty acids and glycerine of which it is com- posed. The lye unites with the fatty acids to form a new compound, called soap, and glycer- ine is left as a by-product. This process is called saponification. As can readily be seen, the nature of the soap formed will depend, first, on the nature of the fats used, whether these are hard or soft, clean or rancid; second, on the kind of alkali used, whether caustic potash or
LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 111
caustic soda; third, on the nature and amount of impurities contained in both fat and alkali ; fourth, on the completeness of the process of sa- ponincation. If the operation of soap making is not properly conducted, the reaction between the fat and alkali is incomplete, and a soap is produced which contains free fat and an undue amount of free alkali. Such soap is greasy, un- duly caustic, and a poor cleansing agent. Resin is often added to cheap soaps, and while a small amount is of value in -that it whitens the clothing, the presence of large quantities should be considered an adulteration.
Home-Made Hard Soap. — Dissolve 6 Ibs. of common washing soda in 4 gallons of warm wa- ter. Slack 6 Ibs. of quicklime in just enough water to crumble it to powder, add the slacked lime to the soda solution, stir the two together, and add 4 gallons of boiling water. Stir it thor- oughly, let it settle, and use the clear solution. To this add 12 Ibs. of clarified grease, stirring in at the same time 4 ozs. of powdered borax. Let it boil until it becomes thick and soapy. Pour it into a box lined with muslin to allow the contents of the box being lifted out conven- iently. Allow it to stand a few days, and then
112 THE STUDY OF FABEICS
cut it into pieces of convenient size. It will be ready for use in about a month.
It is not economy to use cheap and poorly made soaps in the laundry. Try soaps manu- factured by reliable firms, and choose the one which is most satisfactory. A common mistake is to think that one kind of soap will answer for all purposes. In the manufacture of soap, when just sufficient alkali is used completely to sa- ponify the fat present, the product is known as a neutral soap. If an excess of alkali is used, either a medium or strong soap is used, depend- ing on the amount of free alkali left in the soap. The neutral or mild soap should always be used for woolen materials, delicate colors, and frail fabrics. A medium soap is best for durable colored goods, and a strong soap for most of the white materials. Much of the ordinary dirt on clothing is held by a fat of some sort. Soap in solution emulsifies the fat, thereby releasing the dirt. Any free alkali present unites with the fat to form soap which in turn aids in re- moving more of the fat. This shows why it is advisable to use a strong soap when there is much grease present.
Soap Substitutes and Accessories. — Soap is
LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 113
the best cleansing agent for general use in the laundry, but there are other substances which may often be used to good advantage. Turpen- tine, kerosene, gasoline, and paraffin are useful because of their solvent action on fats. In dis- solving the fat much of the dirt is set free. An objectionable odor may remain after using these solvents unless the clothes are thoroughly rinsed.
Most of the washing compounds on the mar- ket contain soap, an alkali, turpentine, par- affin, or fuller's earth. The best powders con- tain large amounts of soap and small amounts of alkali. What has already been said concern- ing the action of alkalies should serve as a guide to the laundress in choosing a washing compound if she desires to use one.
Bleach. — Sodium perborate (percil) is the most valuable household bleaching agent as there is little if any harmful effect on the ma- terial. It is also useful in washing white or light silks, as it prevents yellowing.
Bluing. — After repeated washing, white ma- terials gradually acquire a yellowish tint unless carefully rinsed, and bleached in the fresh air and sunlight. Bluing has come into use to coun-
114 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
teract this. The abuse of bluing is that it may be used to cover up the results of careless work.
Indigo, originally of plant origin, but now manufactured artificially, was formerly the chief source of bluing compounds, but is little used at present.
Prussian blue is the most common source to- day. It is cheap, gives a good color, and is readily soluble. The objection to its use in the laundry is that it is an iron compound which is decomposed by alkalies, yielding iron rust. If clothes are not carefully rinsed until free of all soap and other alkali used in washing, con- tact with the bluing will result in tiny rust spots on the clothes.
Aniline blues give good, clear colors. Some may be used successfully alone, while others re- quire an acid to develop them. Acetic acid or vinegar is preferable to oxalic as the former is volatile and has less action on the fiber. These blues actually dye the material and should, therefore, be used carefully.
Test for Presence of Iron in Bluing. — Pre- pare about a teaspoon of a strong solution of the bluing you wish to test. Add an equal
LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 115
amount of ordinary household ammonia and allow it to stand from 15 to 30 minutes. A red- dish brown precipitate shows the presence of iron.
Most of the liquid blues on the market are of this type. If a satisfactory bluing, free from iron, is not available, the objectionable results of Prussian blue may be overcome by the use of an acid rinse to neutralize the alkali. Two tablespoons of acetic acid or about a third of a cup of vinegar to a pail of water will be suffi- cient under ordinary circumstances. (The amount of alkali present in the rinsing water varies greatly and, therefore, no absolute rule can be given. A smaller amount might often be sufficient.)
Ultramarine blue is also an iron compound but it does not decompose with alkali. It is what is often bought as the ball bluing, and is in- soluble in water. Water, however, causes it to break up into very minute particles which spread through the liquid and give it a blue color. The water must be stirred, and one must be careful in using it that the clothes do not get streaked.
Test four or five different kinds of bluing for
116 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
iron (small samples may undoubtedly be ob- tained from your friends).
To Set Colors.— It is always a safe precau- tion to set the color in most wash fabrics, and it is decidedly worth while for delicate colors. Any substance which will act as a mordant and cause the dye to be more completely impreg- nated in the fiber of the cloth will serve the pur- pose.
Salt acts as a mordant for the substantive dyes which are most commonly used for cotton and linen, and, therefore, may be used to advan- tage in the household to aid in making the col- ors fast. A handful of salt in a dish of cold water, however, is not sufficient. The material or garment must be placed in a strong, hot solution and allowed to stand until the water is cool to obtain the best results. If the material is to be shrunken before making up, the salt may be added to the bath and ' ' two birds killed with one stone."
Because salt is cheap and on hand in every household, it is probably the best for general use. The effect of brine is said not to be last- ing. There are other mordants which may be
LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 117
used with equally good results, possibly better in some cases.
Sugar of lead is good for all colors except pink and blue.
Saltpeter is good for pinks and blues.
Vinegar is said, by good authority, to be best for pinks.
Alum is recommended for greens, mauves, purples, etc.
The following proportions should be used: To one gallon of water add % CUP of mild vine- gar, or 2 cups of salt, or 1 tablespoon of alum, or 1 tablespoon of sugar of lead (which is poison).
Experiments have shown that the best results are obtained when the fabric is treated before each washing, as the color is not permanently set.
The value of rinsing a blue garment in a strong bluing solution to counteract the faded appearance is appreciated by many. Other delicate colors would often profit by a similar treatment in a dye solution of the same color. By having bottles of various colored dye solu- tions at hand, little extra time would be con- sumed.
118 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
To Remove Stains.— The ordinary washing process is sufficient to get rid of most of the dirt in clothing, but some of the spots and stains require special treatment. The best and easiest time to remove such stains is as soon as pos- sible after the misfortune has taken place. As this is not always possible, it is wise to go over the clothes to be laundered to see if any special attention is necessary. Some stains are insolu- ble in water, or soap and water, or may be made so by the action of heat, and thus become per- manently set in the washing.
First, if possible, the nature of the stain should be determined. Second, some substance should be found in which the stain is soluble. With that accomplished, the removal will be a simple process. It is not always possible to find a solvent, and the next resort is something which will form a soluble substance. Should this also fail, the last possibility is the use of a bleaching agent. A bleaching agent should be used only when everything else fails, as it will remove the color and may weaken the fabric if not used with great care.
The various classes of stains will be taken up and methods of removal suggested. If one
LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 119
does not work well in your particular case, try another. Always use some absorbent material under the spot so that the loosened dirt will not simply spread. Use a soft cloth, rubbing gently and softening the outline as much as possible.
When cleaning spots, run a thread around them so as to be able to find them easily after the garment is wet.
Before using any cleaner, try it first on the inside of a seam to see whether it will change the color.
To raise the nap of wool goods place a wet piece of the same material over the spot and iron with a moderately hot iron. The piece will adhere and the nap raise when pulled apart. Needless to say, if the nap is worn off this will accomplish very little.
A round bottle filled with hot water is su- perior to a flatiron for pressing seams in deli- cate goods.
Grease. — Many times it is grease that holds dirt, as has been suggested. Special care is necessary in that case only when the material is such that it cannot be submitted to ordinary laundry processes.
120 THE STUDY OF FABEICS /
Solvents: Alcohol, Ether, Chloroform,
Carbon tetrachloride (carbona), Gasoline, Naphtha soap and water.
Carbon tetrachloride (CC14) is also sold under the commercial name of carbona. They are one and the same thing, but the carbona costs about one-half more. The great advan- tage lies in the fact that this compound is not inflammable as most of the other solvents for grease, so may be safely used around lights and fire. It is too expensive to use when im- mersion of the article is necessary.
Gasoline is the most practical reagent for use when the entire article needs cleaning. It must be used away from the fire to avoid any possibility of serious accidents. Place the gar- ment, well covered with gasoline, in a vessel which may be tightly covered, and allow it to stand several hours, or over night. If the gaso- line is warmed by being placed in a dish of hot water, the dirt will be dissolved more quickly
LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 121
and easily. Especially soiled places may re- quire a little rubbing to aid in loosening the dirt. Rinse in clean gasoline and hang in the open air.
A pure, neutral soap may be used with gaso- line, the same as with water. It is necessary, of course, to rinse the garment thoroughly in clean gasoline after using the soap. A com- mercial cleaner, Putnam's Dry Cleaner, the only commercial compound known by the author to be on the market at the time of this writing, may also be used with good results.
The soiled gasoline should not be thrown away, as the impurities will settle to the bottom and the clear gasoline may be poured from the top.
It is economy to use plenty of gasoline, as the results will be more satisfactory, and with proper care it may be used many times.
Wagon grease, if dried on, should first be softened with lard or oil and then washed in soap and water, or one of the solvents for grease may be used.
For paint and varnish probably the best sol- vents are : turpentine, alcohol, and ammonia.
Meat juice, blood, or mucus may be consid-
122 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
ered together, as all are protein compounds and react to similar treatment. Heat will coagulate these substances, as it would an egg, and for that reason must be avoided.
1. Soak in cold water, then wash with soap and water.
2. Add ammonia or salt to water, then wash with soap and water.
Milk, cream, and cocoa contain fat, protein, and, in some cases, coloring matter.
The same applies to tea and coffee if cream or milk has been added.
Use some fat solvent first, and then wash in cold water. Soaking in borax water after removing the fat may sometimes be necessary. Glycerine will aid in removing tea stains. Soak the spot in glycerine, and then wash.
Fruit Stains. — Fruit stains are held in the material by pectin, a gelatinous substance which makes it possible for fruits to "jell," as we say. This is soluble only in boiling water. Spread the stained surface over a dish. Pour boiling water through it from a height, so as to strike the stained part with force.
Glycerine has been found of some assistance in removing peach stains, and camphor for fruit
LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 123
stains in general. Alcohol in boiling water is also a, good solvent for fruit stains.
In the case of old stains it may be necessary to use a bleaching agent, as Javelle water. This may be used only on white materials, as it will remove the color also.
Iron Rust. — 1. On white, wet the stained part with borax and water or ammonia, and spread it over a bowl of boiling water. Ap- ply a ten per cent solution of hydrochloric acid (muriatic), drop by drop, until the stain brightens. Dip it at once into water. If the stain does not disappear, repeat the process. After removing the stain, rinse well with am- monia to neutralize any acid that may remain.
2. A ten per cent solution of oxalic acid may be used as above. Oxalic acid is not so detrimental to the fabric, but is a deadly poison even in the dilute solution and so should be labeled poison.
3. Wet the stained part with a mixture of salt and lemon juice. Place it in the sunshine. This is a much weaker reagent than the two preceding, and, therefore, will take a longer time, and is often not so effective.
4. The commercial ink eradicators may be
124 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
used in some cases. Kinse thoroughly after using them.
5. Erusticator, a commercial product, may be used satisfactorily in removing rust stains. It is a chlorine compound and acts as a bleach- ing agent. Einse thoroughly after using it. Though there may be others designed for the same purpose, at the present time the author does not know of any.
Ink is often difficult to remove, as it varies so greatly in composition. It is well to experi- ment with a corner of the spot before operat- ing on the whole.
1. If the stain is fresh, soak it in milk. Use more milk as the old becomes discolored.
2. Wet it with cold water. Apply oxalic acid to a stain on white cloth, let it stand a few minutes, and rinse it. Repeat until the stain disappears. Rinse it in water to which borax or ammonia has been added. This will neutral- ize the acid and prevent weakening of the fabric.
3. Commercial ink eradicators are most ef- fective as a rule. The removal is accomplished quickly and with little detriment to the material if they are carefully used.
LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 125
Milk is the only reagent given which will not destroy color.
Iodine or Medicine. — Iodine and many medi- cines are dissolved in alcohol, and, therefore, it is the natural solvent to use in removing the stains. Ammonia, chloroform, and ether may also be used. Ammonia is very good for iodine stains. A dilute solution of caustic soda or caustic lye may also be used.
Grass Stains. — It is the chlorophyll or green coloring matter in plants which is removed with difficulty. Alcohol is perhaps the best solvent. Ammonia and water may be safely used if the colors are not delicate.
Hydrogen peroxide may be used with am- monia and is more effective as it also acts as a mild bleaching agent.
Mildew is a true mold, and, like all plants, re- quires warmth and moisture for its growth. When the heat and moisture necessary are pres- ent in a cloth, mildew grows upon the fibers. During the first stage of its growth the mold may be removed, but in time it destroys the fibers.
1. Soak it in some acid, as lejnon juice, vine-
126 THE STUDY OE FABRICS
gar, or buttermilk and salt and expose it to di- rect sunlight.
2. Wet it with a paste of soft soap and pul- verized chalk. Expose it to sunlight.
3. Javelle water may be tried in cases of ad- vanced growth. Success cannot always be ex- pected.
BLEACHING AGENTS
Javelle water, to be used as a bleaching agent, may be made as follows :
1 Ib. washing soda,
1/2 Ib. bleaching powder (calcium hypochlor- ite),
1 qt. boiling water,
2 qts. cold water.
Dissolve the soda in the boiling water in a granite pan and let it cool.
Dissolve the bleaching powder in the cold wa- ter; let it settle; pour the clear liquid into the soda ; and let it settle. Pour off the clear liquid, bottle it and put it away in a dark place. This gives a 25% solution. Mixed with equal por- tions of water it may be used cautiously to re- move spots. If materials are to remain in the solution for some time, it should be diluted to
LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 127
about a 2% solution. Wash the material thor- oughly in several waters and finally in dilute ammonia water.
To Clean White Shoes. — There are many preparations on the market, such as Albo, Buck "White, Nuway, Bixby's White Shoe Dressing, and Whittemore's White Shoe Dressing, and many of them do good work. Directions for use are given on the bottle or box. Bon Ami is in- expensive and is on hand in many households. It may be used as follows: Brush the shoes to remove any loose dirt, and then apply a suds of Bon Ami and water with a small brush. When the water evaporates, the sur- face is covered with a thin coating of the Bon Ami. It does not, however, have the pasted appearance which many of the preparations give. While covering the dirt, it also partially removes the soiled spots.
To Clean White Kid Gloves. — 1. Art gum, if used frequently for slightly soiled spots, will keep gloves in wearable condition for some time, postponing the necessity for a thorough clean- ing.
2. A paste of gasoline and flour well worked into the gloves is effective. Care must be taken
128 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
to keep the gloves away from fire until the gaso- line has entirely evaporated.
3. Carbon tetrachloride may be used.
Sulphur Dioxide Bleaching. — Javelle water or chlorine in any form cannot be used for silk or wool. For these the fumes of burning sul- phur, or these fumes dissolved in water, must be used.
The garment should be wet or the special spots moistened and hung in some small en- closed space above a piece of burning sulphur. The sulphur candles, to be had at any drug store, are convenient for this use.
A cone of heavy paper may be used as the "smoking room."
To remove small spots, cut a small opening in the apex of the cone and hold the moistened spots above the opening so that they may be acted upon by the fumes.
' ' They that wash on Monday have all the week to dry. They that wash on Tuesday are not so much awry. They that wash on Wednesday are not so much to
blame.
They that wash on Thursday wash for shame. They that wash on Friday, wash in need. And they that wash on Saturday — oh, they're sluts
indeed/' OLP ENGLISH PROVERB.
LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 129
Let us forget if possible our prejudice in favor of Monday and determine whether it is not more sensible and convenient to have the weekly washing done on Tuesday rather than on Monday as has so long been the custom.
First the clothes should be gone over, locat- ing spots and rents which need attention. "A stitch in time saves nine/' is applicable here, as a small hole may be much increased in size during the washing process.
Soaking clothes over night is felt by many to reduce greatly the labor necessary in remov- ing the dirt.
Saturday has many special duties already, and most housekeepers do not want to take the time for these preliminaries. It is not justifi- able to take Sunday for it, and, therefore, Tues- day seems the more logical day for the laundry work.
Before continuing to wash on Monday, there- fore, consider your individual case and be sure you have a better reason than that of custom only.
Many garments worn Sunday would suffice for another day's wearing if the laundress could wait for them until Tuesday.
130 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
Hanging Clothes. — Be sure the clothesline is clean. Clothes should be hung wrong side out, so far as possible, with the threads of the ma- terial straight. Sheets and other large straight pieces should be hung with the hems together and the hemmed ends pinned to the line to pre- vent whipping in the wind. Arrange, so far as possible, to hang garments so that the wind may blow through them. They will dry more quickly and with less injury to the clothes. Make a cheesecloth bag in which to dry dainty small ar- ticles such as doilies, embroidery, and fine hand- kerchiefs. The bag may be hung on the line.
Skirts will sometimes keep their shape better if hung by the waistband instead of the hem. A safe rule to follow is to hang the garment in as nearly the natural shape as possible. It is difficult to iron properly a garment which has been badly hung. It is worth while to shake and straighten articles before hanging them on the line, and also when they are taken down. This will save time in the preparation for iron- ing, and also in the actual ironing.
Much time may be saved by the busy mother in the home if knitted underwear, hosiery, many of the towels, etc. are not ironed. The absorp-
LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 131
tive power is lessened by smoothing with a hot iron, and if they have been boiled and dried in the air and sunshine further disinfection should not be necessary. Sheets properly hung and carefully folded when taken down may be made to look very well if the upper end is simply pressed a little. The housekeeper and home- maker, confronted as she is with innumerable demands upon her time, must choose those tasks she considers most worth while if she is to be an efficient worker. An aluminum sprinkler which may be used in any bottle of convenient size, is a valuable aid in sprinkling clothes. It makes a fine spray and accomplishes the desired end quickly. It may be purchased for ten cents. Warm water is absorbed more quickly than cold, and should always be used when the clothes are to be ironed soon.
To Wash Woolens. — The characteristics of the wool fiber and its reaction to acids and alkalies have already been given, so the reasons for the following precautions should be under- stood. The temperature of the water is not so important as keeping the temperature the same throughout the washing and drying process. It is change of temperature rather than any par-
132 THE STUDY OP FABEICS
ticular temperature which causes the shrink- age. Tepid or lukewarm water is recom- mended, as that is at the temperature which can be most conveniently retained while drying. Never dry woolens close to a fire, as the steam formed will cause the material to shrink.
A neutral soap should be used in the form of a thin solution. Avoid rubbing soap on the fab- ric. Many prefer ammonia or borax to soap, and others use one or the other with soap. Borax or ammonia is especially valuable if the clothes are badly soiled or if the water is hard. Punch and knead the garment to loosen the dirt, but do not rub it. Use as many waters as necessary, being careful to have the tempera- tures as nearly the same as possible. Put it through a wringer which has been loosened, or squeeze the water out with the hands. Avoid twisting it as that also causes shrinkage.
The following method gives good results with little effort. Dissolve a large bar of pure, neu- tral soap in enough water to make 2 qts. of the solution. Keep it in a fruit jar and use it as it is needed. To this amount of soap use a cup of borax, or, for small washings, use eight times as much soap solution as borax. Place the soap
LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 133
solution and borax in a receptacle containing cold soft water. Immerse the clothes and allow them to stand over night or for several hours. Rinse them in clean, cold, soft water and hang them to dry in a cool or cold place.
Recent experiments in the home economics department in the University of Wisconsin have shown that the use of cold water (as taken from the cistern or tap) and drying at room temperature gave the best results. The flannel in this way was kept white and fluffy and shrunk the least.
Knitted underwear and hosiery are kept in the best condition by drying them over frames, which may be bought or made. A thin board cut in the shape of the garment works well. In the case of sweaters, shawls, or such articles as may stretch or shrink out of shape, pin them to a sheet on the floor so that the garment cor- responds to the original measurements.
Blankets should be brushed and shaken to remove all dust before putting them in the suds. Do not attempt more than one pair at a time, as they are clumsy to handle. Work as rapidly as possible. The less time consumed in washing and drying, the better. When almost dry, the
134 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
blankets should be brushed to raise the nap and make them fluffy. This not only improves the appearance but also increases the warmth. The more air spaces enclosed among the fibers, the less conduction of heat there will be> and, there- fore, the greater warmth retained.
To Wash Laces. — Fine, delicate laces should sometimes be dry cleaned rather than submit- ted to water at all. To wash them, use a warm suds of a mild or neutral soap, to which has been added borax or ammonia. Squeeze rather than rub them to loosen the dirt, as rub- bing is injurious to the delicate threads. If the lace is carefully basted to a piece of cheesecloth, less care will be necessary. After rinsing thor- oughly, the lace should be stretched into shape on a smooth, round bottle, or pinned to a soft pad, being careful to see that all the points are held in place. Lace may be stiffened by rins- ing in a mixture of two tablespoons of alcohol to one cup of water. Lace curtains should be brushed to remove all loose dust before placing in the soap solution. If curtain stretchers are not available, good results may be obtained by pinning the curtains out on sheets, if care is taken to have them straight and even.
LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 135
Handkerchiefs. — If any member of the family has a cold, the handkerchiefs should be disin- fected in some way. Boiling for half an hour will do. This may prevent the cold from being passed on to the rest of the family.
Machinery for the Laundry. — In this day of power machinery when men on the farm, and everywhere in fact, are doing all of their hard work with its aid, we still find the majority of women washing by hand as their grandmothers did. "In the good old way," do we say? Not if "we" happen to be the ones who are doing the work. Who is at fault may be a debatable question. Perhaps it is the woman who will not insist that she be given these mechanical aids, and it may be a selfish man who refuses to fur- nish the necessary money. Mr. Allan L. Ben- son, in an article in the October, 1913, number of Good Housekeeping, says women have not machinery because they lack "nerve." If he is correct, may they speedily acquire the necessary "nerve" from somewhere.
There are four types of washing machines which may be described briefly as follows :
1. The "Dolly" consists of a milking stool
136 THE STUDY OP FABRICS
which revolves in the center of a tub of clothes. This agitating of the clothes forces the soap and water through them and thereby removes the dirt. This may tear the clothes.
2. Another machine uses a perforated re- volving cylinder which holds the clothes and an outer one for soap and water. The better ma- chines of this type are arranged to reverse the action automatically or with divisions to pre- vent knotting of the clothes. If well filled with water and not overloaded with clothes, no harm can come to even delicate fabrics.
J. No cylinder is used in this type of ma- cnine, which cleans by oscillation, or rocking the clothes in soap and water. It is very satisfac- tory.
4. The principle involved in suction washers is that of pressure and suction. There is a lever attached to metal cones. These are pushed down against the clothes, then suddenly lifted away from them and out of the water. A suction so caused draws out the dirt which has been loos- ened by the pressing.
The following table gives the prices of the various types:
LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 137
|
Hand |
Water Motor |
Electric Motor |
|
I $10 |
$12.50 to $16.00 |
$50 |
|
2 $12 |
$37.50 |
$75 to $275 |
|
3 . . |
$100 to $125 |
|
|
4 $1 to $3.50 |
$16 |
$85 |
Note. — Most of these prices were obtained from an article by Miss L. Ray Balderston in the October, 1913, Good Housekeeping Maga- zine.
Many of the ordinary hand machines may be connected with a gasoline engine at little ex- pense. A gasoline engine of ~Ly2 horsepower equipped on a truck costs $40.
To use washing machines most efficiently there should be plenty of hot and cold water easily accessible, also a drain in connection with the machine to carry off the dirty water.
Mangles. — A mangle is a device to save hand ironing of the flat pieces. It is a great time and energy saver for the laundress. Mangles are of two types in general : hot and cold. The cold mangle simply presses out the creases without giving a gloss. The sterilizing power of the heat is lost in this case. A simple one which
138 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
may be screwed to a table can be purchased for $6 or $7. A stronger one with a table attached may cost up to $25. The hot mangles may be heated with gas and operated by hand or motor power. These usually consist of a hot steel cyl- inder and a cloth covered cylinder between which the clothes are pressed. The cost varies from $25 to $75.
The electric iron is far more efficient and sat- isfactory to use than any other. If electricity is available, an electric iron should be a part of the laundry equipment.
Before leaving the subject of laundering, a few words concerning the use of power ma- chines on the farm may not be out of place.
It would be so easy on many farms to make use of the gasoline engine in running a washing machine, wringer, and.mangle with just as great saving to the housewife as to the farmer when it pumps water for the stock or grinds the feed. Someone has suggested that the farmer has installed power machinery because it has meant dollars in his pocket. This is not so evident when labor saving machinery is installed in the home. Are there not other things of more im- portance, however, than the dollar which has
LAUNDRY PROBLEMS , 139
assumed such large proportions? The health, comfort, and happiness of the wife and mother surely deserve consideration.
It has been done and, therefore, it can be again. A young Wisconsin farmer told about getting his wife a power washing machine for her Christmas present. He connected it him- self and the total expense was under $25. He also had running water in his home. i i May his tribe increase."
Another solution of the laundry problem on the farm is that of a cooperative laundry in con- nection with the creamery. Fillmore County in Minnesota has such a laundry in operation. To quote from an editorial in the Sioux City, la., Tribune: "The record of this cooperative laun- dry is noteworthy. About 750 farm washings are done each month and the monthly cost to each family averages $1.96. There is probably an actual saving to each family through elimi- nating the expense of a washing plant in each home. But the other benefits far outweigh the money saving. Women and girls of the farm are relieved of a burden that has contributed largely to the dissatisfaction with farm life. They have more time to make the farm home
140 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
attractive for the men and boys, who thus share in the benefit. Social activities of this commu- nity will be stimulated and, in the long run, homes, schools, and churches will show in- creased efficiency through the release of women from the drudgery of the churn and the wash- tub."
CHAPTER VII HYGIENE OF CLOTHING
At the present time much is being said and written about the conservation of health. How to keep well is of far greater importance than how' to get well. There is even some talk of having municipal physicians paid a salary to prevent illness rather than cure those who have become the victim, of disease. It is not, how- ever, only a question of being sick or well, as the terms are ordinarily considered, but of car- ing for the body in such a way as to keep it at the highest point of efficiency. All should be in- terested in those things which will assist in keeping the body in such condition and conserv- ing energy to the point where life will mean the most to others and to oneself. One should not be satisfied with a mere existence or even escape from the doctor's care. Proper clothing is one of the means of attaining this end and is, therefore, worthy of careful consideration,
141
142 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
While age, climatic conditions, and the occupa- tion of the wearer all affect the ultimate work- ing out of the problem, nevertheless there are some general principles which will help in the determination of what is best, considering the conditions of daily life.
One might ask the question, "Why do we wear clothes I ' ' Different answers would natu- rally be expected, as the function of clothing is quite different under different circumstances. To summarize, the functions of clothing may be given (1) as a means of protection; (2) to sat- isfy our sense of modesty; (3) to satisfy our in- stinctive love of adornment; and (4) that we may appear like others, or be in fashion. In cold climates the protection afforded by the clothing worn is of primary importance, while to the naked savage in Africa, whose only cloth- ing is a string of beads, love of adornment heads the list. Adornment and fashion are of first im- portance in the minds of many, and are alone considered when choosing clothing. Fashion should not be ignored, but neither should the extremes of the designer be followed at the ex- pense of proper protection or the sacrifice of the sense of modesty. Compliance with the de-
HYGIENE OF CLOTHING 143
mands of fashion is good up to a certain point. Unless dressed according to the prevailing modes the majority of people are uncomfort- able, become self-conscious, lose their poise, and are unable to do their best work. One should strive to dress in such a way as to be uncon- scious of clothes. That is the condition which will make possible the largest amount of effec- tive work. Someone has said, "To be well dressed is not vanity but sanity, " and it is true when considered from the standpoint of the comfort and poise of the individual.
As mentioned above, age, climate, and occu- pation greatly affect the clothes problem. The infant, because of its proportionately large sur- face area, loses heat much more rapidly than the adult, and, therefore, must be protected by warmer clothing. Wool next to the child is necessary through the second summer. Old per- sons frequently feel the need of wool, because, since they are less active, their circulation be- comes sluggish and it is, therefore, more difficult to keep sufficiently warm. It is impossible to lay down any hard and fast rules, as individuals differ in their requirements, but as a general rule the normal adult does not feel the need
144 THE STUDY OF FABKICS
of woolen undergarments. The warm houses and public buildings of the present time make it seem wiser to wear less in the house and then have a heavy wrap to wear out of doors.
One of the important objects of clothing is to aid in the maintenance of a uniform body temperature. The temperature of the normal, healthy individual is about 98° F. Slight varia- tions may not be serious, but a change of two or three degrees one way or the other is a dan- ger signal. The human organism maintains this constant temperature by either physical or chemical means. The physical means em- ployed are, (1) varying the amount of blood sent to the skin, which regulates the amount of heat lost by conduction, convection, and radi- ation; (2) varying the amount of moisture given off through perspiration, and thereby affecting the loss of heat through evaporation. The chem- ical regulation is so called because it increases the amount of oxidation in the body. When the temperature is lowered, the nerves of the skin cause a constriction of the blood vessels sup- plying the skin, thereby increasing the blood supply of the internal organs. Increased oxi- dation increases the heat given off just as tho
HYGIENE OF CLOTHING 145
addition of fuel to the furnace means more available heat. Proper clothing decreases the necessity for the chemical regulation, saving energy and fuel (or food).
The physical properties of textiles which were given in previous chapters should be reviewed, as those which affect the conduction of heat, absorption, and evaporation of moisture are of importance in considering the hygiene of cloth- ing in general, and especially of underclothing. Wool and silk are poor conductors of heat, and linen and cotton better conductors. Wool feels warm to the touch because it does not take heat away from the body. Linen and cotton feel cool and, therefore, make pleasant clothing for summer. The amount of air enclosed in the meshes of the fabric affects the conduction of heat even more than the nature of the fiber. Still air is a poor conductor of heat, and a cot- ton or linen fabric, if loosely woven or finished with a napped surface, is quite warm. Outing flannel is a good example of the effect of air spaces in increasing the warmth of a cotton fab- ric. Linen absorbs and gives off moisture rap- idly, cotton and silk more slowly, and wool most slowly of all. The hygroscopicity, or the prop-
146 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
erty of absorbing moisture without seeming wet, is high in wool and silk and lower in linen and cotton. Wool may absorb 30% of its weight of moisture without feeling wet.
Loosely woven linen makes an ideal material for summer underwear because it absorbs and gives off moisture very readily, thereby cooling the skin. The high price is prohibitive for most people, so the linen mesh underwear is not much used. A knitted cotton garment does very well, and the lower price makes these garments more popular than the linen. Linen and cotton can be laundered much more easily than wool and silk, which is another point in their favor for use in undergarments.
Wool would make an ideal material for cold weather undergarments because of its low heat conduction, if it did not hold moisture for so long a time and ' ' felt ' ' in washing. Both objec- tions may be partially overcome, especially the latter, by mixing cotton, linen, or silk with the wool. Infants, invalids, and aged people who exercise little and do not perspire freely, need the warmth of the woolen material, and for them the wool and cotton, wool and linen, or wool and silk garments are satisfactory. A light-
HYGIENE OF CLOTHING 147
weight wool garment worn over a thin cotton one is found by some people to be a good com- bination. The cotton takes up the moisture readily and it is then taken up and given off slowly by the wool. This arrangement provides for the absorption of the perspiration and pre- vents the chilling of the body.
The average normal individual is more com- fortable when clothed in cotton undergarments of various weights. Undergarments made of silk have a pleasant "feel" and the heat con- duction is low. The price is prohibitive for most people, however, and it is, therefore, little used in undergarments.
It should be remembered that heavy and warm are not synonymous. A garment may be heavy and still not warm. Two light-weight garments are much warmer than one heavier one because of the layer of air between the two garments.
The requirements for outer and undergar- ments differ somewhat, as the garment worn outside should be such that the wind will not penetrate easily, while a loosely woven under- garment offers greater protection because of the spaces retaining heated airt
148 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
The importance of keeping clean the clothing worn next the skin can hardly be overestimated. The sweat glands of the normal adult secrete about three pints of perspiration daily, and most of this must be taken up by the clothing. When the pores of the cloth become clogged, proper absorption and ventilation are pre- vented, which means that the body remains moist and exposure to a draft causes a chill. Some fabrics are naturally cleaner than others. Linen contains less natural oil than cotton, and, since the fibers are longer, has fewer protrud- ing ends to catch dirt and bacteria. Experi- ments show that about three times as much dirt clings to cotton as to linen, and about twice as many bacteria are collected by the skin when cotton garments are worn. Cotton fabrics, how- ever, may be easily laundered, and the high tem- perature and soap used are satisfactory disin- fectants. Cotton garments may, therefore, be kept in a sanitary condition if changed fre- quently. Wool furnishes an excellent feeding ground for bacteria, especially when soiled, and the difficulty with which it is laundered makes an added objection to its use next the skin. Sleeping between woolen blankets, which can-
HYGIENE OF CLOTHING 149
not be washed frequently, is a most unsanitary practice, as the above statement indicates.
Many girls and women are not sufficiently careful about frequent washing of corsets and shields. Corsets may be easily and thoroughly cleaned by the use of a small brush and plenty of soapsuds. After rinsing in clear water and drying in the sunshine, the garment is as fresh and clean as when new. Shields should be soaked a few hours in tepid suds, prepared with a pure neutral soap and soft water, and rinsed in cold water. Hot water makes the rubber brit- tle, and should always be avoided. A brush may be used here also, but it should not be necessary if the shields are washed frequently. They should then be hung to dry in a cool place, never near the stove or over a register, as the heat will spoil the rubber. Shields may also be kept in good condition for several days if they are washed off each time the garment is re- moved. This may be done by using a cloth dipped in soapy water, and afterward one rinsed in clear water. Thus the shields need not be removed from the garment. They must be removed frequently, however, and washed thoroughly.
150 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
A word concerning the receptacles in which soiled clothes are kept may not be out of place here. A vulcanized or white metal holder is preferable to the more common wicker variety, since they can be kept clean and sanitary with little difficulty. The necessity for this is ob- vious, when it is remembered that large num- bers of bacteria are found in soiled clothes. A washable bag of firm material, if kept perfectly clean, may be found satisfactory.
The Corset. — While it pleases fashion at present to have the waist large and the cloth- ing worn loosely, in a few seasons the tendency may again be toward the small waist and con- sequent tight lacing. In considering the sub- ject of proper clothing, therefore, we cannot omit a discussion of the results of constriction of the waist and chest by the use of a tight cor- set. There may be a difference of opinion as to whether the present modes, allowing greater freedom of movement and a possibility of deep breathing, are the result of education along these lines or whether it is simply a whim of the designer. We trust and believe that the trend at the present time is toward more sen- sible and hygienic dress for women. There are
HYGIENE OF CLOTHING 151
still many women who are ready to follow all the extremes of fashion regardless of whether they are contrary to the laws of health or not. Yet there is an increasing number of women in America who adapt prevailing modes to their own individuality and to their ideas of what makes for health and efficiency.
It is believed by some that all corsets, how- ever worn, are not only unnecessary but harm- ful as well. Others feel that the straight front corset with the large waist and space above the waist to allow of deep breathing, is not harm- ful if worn loosely. Many of the newer corsets are low in the bust, some coming just above the waistline. Women who have never worn cor- sets find this type comfortable. They give per- fect freedom above the waistline and simply hold the abdomen in place and support the clothes at the waist.
The old hourglass type of corset which made the waist as small as possible, by pushing either up or down any flesh or organs which were in the way, should be condemned from every point of view. The downward pressure is especially harmful because it causes displacement of the organs located in that region.
152 THE STUDY OF FABEICS
Dr. T. Sadler, in "The Science of Living or The Art of Keeping Well," says on this sub- ject: "Corsets restrict the breathing; they weaken the abdominal muscles; they displace the internal organs, favoring constipation, and indirectly contributing to the causes of indi- gestion and congestion of the liver and pelvic organs. The corset is indirectly chargeable with the vast amount of the sufferings of womankind usually designated as l female com- plaints.' " The present day corsets, mentioned previously, cannot be charged with the evils spoken of by Dr. Sadler. The pressure in this case is low on the abdomen, where there are few organs, and serves as a support holding the organs in place instead of causing the down- ward pressure. With the possible looseness at the waist and above, there need be little if any interference with the circulation and deep breathing. The front laced corset is found to be more comfortable by those whose work re- quires that they sit most of the day. The pres- sure of the front steel on the nerve center causes discomfort in some cases and many doc- tors recommend the front lace corset because it does away with the steel in the front. Tight
HYGIENE OF CLOTHING 153
garters on any corset are bad because of the downward pressure which should always be avoided for reasons already given.
Corsets are not necessary for the woman with strong muscles unless she has a large ac- cumulation of fat at the abdomen which needs to be kept in place. Unless all garments be suspended from the shoulder, however, which is not always convenient, the discomfort from the bands at the waistline may be much worse than a loose corset giving plenty of breathing space. Hanging all garments from the shoul- ders may cause an undue strain on the back. This again is something which each individual must decide for herself, keeping in mind the general principles of health and hygiene.
Shoes. — Shoes should protect the feet from hard or sharp objects and from heat and cold. It is important that the feet be kept warm and dry, as cold feet are frequently responsible for colds, disturbance of the bowels, and inflam- mation of the pelvic organs. A physician who has had large experience in a children's hospi- tal said that cold feet were the cause of more colic in babies than any other one thing. Cold extremities prevent proper digestion. Wearing
154 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
rubbers is not considered fashionable by some, but a pair of rubbers worn in stormy weather will save much discomfort and possibly several doctor's bills. Rubber is impervious to both per- spiration and air, and, therefore, should only be worn when necessary. The low sandal variety are best under ordinary conditions. The ques- tion of wearing low shoes in cold weather should not be overlooked. The blood vessels are near the surface in the legs and arms, especially at the joints, as ankles and elbows, and conse- quently insufficient covering of these parts means a chilling of the blood. This undue loss of heat in the extremities means a proportion- ate congestion in some internal organ, with a possibility of serious results. It should be re- membered also that such a loss of heat means a loss of energy which might have been stored up for use in time of emergency or expended in ac- complishing something worth while.
The close fitting, extremely pointed-toed shoes with the absurd French heels cannot be too strongly condemned. High heels are espe- cially harmful to young girls who are just developing into womanhood, and mothers should " think twice " before allowing their
HYGIENE OF CLOTHING 155
young daughters to' wear them. The natural shape of the foot should not be lost sight of in selecting shoes. It is unlike the hand in that the large toe, which corresponds with the thumb, is usually longer than the others, and instead of running straight ahead, as so-called "anatomical" shoes are built, slopes slightly outward. The shoe should, therefore, be some- what pointed, slanting from both sides toward the center, although most of the slope should come on the outside, following the natural curves of the foot. The natural lines of the hu- man foot are graceful and beautiful, and if we would only accustom our eyes to its real shape as displayed in properly fitting shoes, we would soon admire nature's work and cease futile at- tempts to improve upon it. Discomfort means lowered efficiency, and it is important, therefore, to have the feet, as well as the other parts of the body, comfortably clothed. Laced shoes can be more readily adjusted, and for that reason some consider them preferable to the buttoned style. If the buttons are properly placed when the shoe is purchased or after being worn for a few days, however, buttoned shoes may be satis- factory for the normal individual. Experience
156 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
with a large variety of materials has shown leather to be the best for general use. For shoe- making purposes it is unsurpassed because it is tough, flexible, porous, and reasonably water- proof, and has a moderate degree of ventilation. It is not ideal because it retains heat and per- spiration to an undesirable degree, has an un- pleasant odor and cannot be kept clean, to say nothing of sterile. The same pair of shoes should not be worn constantly, since they do not become thoroughly aired and dried out during the night. It is more satisfactory and economi- cal to have two pairs of shoes for ordinary wear, and change frequently.
Just a word about the selection and care of stockings. It would be ideal from a hygienic standpoint if white hosiery could be worn all the time, but for obvious reasons this is not con- venient. The dye used in black or colored hose may cause trouble if the skin is bruised and broken. Numerous incidents could be cited of blood poisoning being caused in this way. Sometimes it has meant being laid up a few days, and occasionally even the loss of a limb. How to prevent such a situation is the question which interests us. Something may be told
HYGIENE OF CLOTHING 157
about the permanency of the dye by moistening the handkerchief or any piece of soft white cloth and rubbing the stocking. If the cloth is stained the stockings will crock when worn. Tight or ill fitting shoes frequently cause blisters which result in trouble. If the shoe rubs at the heel and begins to redden the skin, a thin piece of velvet pasted in the shoe, with the napped side next to the stocking, will prevent friction. Stockings which are too short are uncomfort- able and do not wear well because of the con- stant pressure. On the other hand, if they are too large the surplus forms in creases or folds which are also uncomfortable. The "happy medium " of a perfect fit should be arrived at if possible for the sake of comfort and economy. For the person with sensitive feet the right and left hose, which are now manufactured, are ad- visable, but are unnecessary for the normal in- dividual.
One Piece Garments. — From the inside out, one piece garments are best from a hygienic standpoint. They are more comfortable, as all who have tried both will testify. Extra bands and layers of materials are eliminated. Such garments may be worn loose, since they are
158 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
held in place, always looking neat and trim. Union suits are constantly gaining in favor, also combination suits, princess slips, and one piece dresses. Fashion is partially and perhaps largely responsible for the trend in that direc- tion, but however that may be, we trust that the condition may become even more prevalent in spite of changes in fashion.
Long Skirts. — The wearing of long skirts on the street is most deplorable from a sanitary standpoint. Any thoughtful woman can easily realize that quantities of dirt and millions of bacteria are picked up by the skirt as it sweeps over dusty walks and streets. These are natu- rally distributed over the body and the disease producing bacteria may cause trouble.
Collars. — The dressing of the neck has been the subject of much discussion, and there are various opinions held at the present time. There are some points, however, which are gen- erally conceded, and a knowledge of these will help in solving the individual problem. High, tight collars interfere with the circulation and may affect the eyes. Exposure of the throat and chest in cold weather is unwise for the average individual, as it means an undue loss
HYGIENE OP CLOTHING 159
of heat and energy. It is just as unwise, how- ever, to bundle up the neck with heavy furs or mufflers. This excessive covering of the neck and chest causes the skin to perspire freely and become tender so that the least exposure to cold results in congestion, thus increasing the possibility of sore throat, colds, and pneumonia.
Hats. — Large or heavy hats are uncomfort- able, either because of the weight or the diffi- culty with which they are balanced. Nervous- ness and an unnatural position may result be- cause of the effort to balance and maintain the poise. Tight hatbands affect circulation and cause discomfort. Men err on this point more frequently than women but when the mode in vogue calls for the close fitting hat for women, it is well to have this possible danger in mind.
Veils. — Care should be exercised in selecting veils, as those which contain spots or figures are hard on the eyes. If the figures are far enough apart, so that they need not come in front of the eyes, this annoyance may be eliminated*. Washable veils should be purchased so that they may be kept clean. Veils become soiled the same as anything else, anci as they come in
160 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
contact with the mouth and face, it is especially important that they be kept clean.
It hardly seems necessary at this time to refer to the wearing of garments at night which have been worn during the day, but lest there be some who have never thought of the necessity of airing, especially the undergarments, we are mentioning it here. The discussion concerning absorption and evaporation of perspiration ex- plains the reasons for this. The union suit, shoes, and stockings should be placed where they will be thoroughly aired during the night. The dress or waist should be hung either wrong side out, or at least with the inside and shields sufficiently exposed so that they are well aired.
If one is not sufficiently warm without the underclothing at night, a separate suit should be used. Aside from the reasons already sug- gested, the added bodily comfort is an impor- tant fact. For greater warmth sleeping gar- ments of wool or heavy cotton flannel may be worn. They may be purchased ready-made in various styles, or they may also be made at home. One style, more especially for children than adults, is made with a draw string in the bottom giving extra protection for the feet.
HYGIENE OF CLOTHING 161
Large pockets near the bottom of the gown fur- nish a warm, cozy place for the feet on a cold night. Garments are also made with feet using either knitted material or cotton flannel. Those are especially nice for children. The use of sleeping bags for children who are restless at night and "kick the covers off" will save a great deal of worry on the part of the mother. These may be made of a fourth of a blanket folded together the shape of a pillowcase. It can be held together by coat hooks fastening on the shoulders. A sweater or heavy woolen jacket must be worn to keep the arms and shoulders warm. Mittens or sleeves long enough to cover the hands will be needed, as the hands should be kept outside. This is important as it re- moves the temptation of self-abuse.
To quote from "Textiles" by Woolman and McGowan: "When all is said, personal en- vironment and idiosyncrasy must influence an individual's choice of textiles and manner of dress. Wool may be the right material for one case, because it does not permit rapid evapora- tion of moisture ; in other cases, this property is disadvantageous. The value of the study of the hygiene of clothing lies in the ability it gives to
162 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
make an intelligent adjustment of clothing to one's needs, and further, to see the value of dressing according to good sense rather than fashion. Women are flagrant offenders, but not all the efforts of the clothing reformers should be directed at them. As a whole, the clothing for men shows superior good sense to women's, but men's attire is quite deficient in its adjustment to heat regulation, nor can much be said for some of its details, such as stiff, un- ventilated hats and stand-up collars. It may be unusual to defend women's hats, but from a hygienic standpoint they are generally better than the derby and top hat."
CHAPTER VIII THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING
"It is estimated that nearly $15,000,000,000 are spent annually in the United States in household maintenance for the items of food, shelter, and clothing. Omitting the $2,650,000,- 000 that man spends for tobacco and intoxi- cants, it leaves over $12,000,000,000 spent on food, shelter, and clothing. Over this expendi- ture woman has more or less complete control/' This is quoted from the bulletin describing the courses offered in the Home Economics depart- ment of the University of Wisconsin. While the production of food and clothing is largely in the hands of men, the consumption or use of these goods or products is directed by women. Dr. Edward T. Devine of Columbia University says, "To woman has fallen the task of direct- ing how the wealth brought into the house shall be used ; whether much or little shall be made of it, and what kind of wealth shall be brought."
163
164 THE STUDY OF FABEICS
He says also, " There are three ways in which prosperity may be increased : We may choose more wisely what things we shall produce; we may produce more efficiently; we may consume more economically. The wiser choice and the more economic use alike fall within the range of what in economics is called consumption or demand/' After pointing out that the third method has greater immediate possibilities than the other two, and that the first is more im- portant than the second, he adds : " It is the present duty of the economist to insist upon this, to magnify the office of the wealth ex- pender, to accompany her to the very thresh- old of the home that he may point out, with untiring vigilance, its woeful defects, its empti- ness caused not so much by lack of income as the lack of knowledge of how to spend wisely. " Perhaps these quotations from authorities in this line will help to a realization of the respon- sibility which rests on the shoulders of every housekeeper and all other women who are spending unwisely their share of the $12,000,- 000,000. The purpose of this chapter is to give a few suggestions which will help in solving the clothing problem.
THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 165
The majority of thoughtful women should be and are interested in obtaining the information which will make it possible for them to buy most wisely the things needed for themselves and their families. The home is the greatest factor in the happiness of the race, and in it woman's part is supreme. As she becomes more intelli- gent in selection and purchase, the home in- creases in value and attractiveness. Training for economy in consumption should raise the levels of social life. If a person chooses to spend an undue amount on clothes or is waste- ful in buying because of ignorance, there must of necessity be that much less for education, travel, recreation, and other forms of higher life.
Dress has an influence on the wearer as well as on the observer. One loses her self-respect when dressed in ragged or soiled garments. A woman who is over-dressed or inappropriately dressed is uncomfortable herself and wins the respect of others with difficulty. Good nature may be increased or decreased according as the clothes worn are clean, comfortable, and ap- propriate, or the reverse. Perhaps on first thought it may seem an exaggeration to say that
166 THE STUDY OF FABEICS
neat clothing is a factor in virtue, but obser- vation will prove that it is easier "to be good" when one is properly clothed.
Dressing Economically. — There are differ- ences of opinion as to what is the most economi- cal method of dressing, and it is perfectly rea- sonable that it should be so, since what is econ- omy in one case may be an extravagance under different circumstances. There may be individ- ual preferences, also, which deserve considera- tion. Some women prefer a number of inex- pensive ready-made garments to a few high priced ones. In some homes most of the sewing is done in the house, a dressmaker coming each season to assist the mother and daughters with the making of new garments and remodeling old ones. Some ask if the time, energy, nervous strain, and results obtained warrant the use of this method. That depends on the attitude of the workers and the ability of the dress- maker. Some women enjoy sewing if someone plans and directs the work. Many others feel that the saving of time and worry when gar- ments are purchased ready-made balances the additional expense. The business woman, who has little free time, cannot afford to use her
THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 167
leisure in sewing, or even in selecting materials and having the fittings required by the ordinary dressmaker. A woman with a normal figure can find ready-made garments which require little if any fitting. For such a one little time is required for shopping.
Ready-made garments are being made more simply and of a better grade of material than formerly, so that one trained to appreciate good material and good design is able to select satis- factory garments at a reasonable price. Some professional women prefer another plan. They order their gowns at the higher class customs tailors or dressmakers. The best material is purchased and " exclusive " styles are chosen, avoiding extremes so that the garments may be used two or three seasons without alteration. They feel that they thus preserve the dignity and individuality of dress without spending too much time or money on it. Others of this type are satisfied with the best of ready-made gar- ments, and they save the time which would be spent with the tailor. There is also a large num- ber of women who use a combination of several of the methods suggested. Suits, coats, and tail- ored skirts, for example, may be purchased
168 THE STUDF OF FABRICS
ready-made; afternoon and evening dresses may be made by a good dressmaker; and the plain sewing may be done at home. This is only suggestive, the object being to bring to mind the various methods which have proved successful.
Someone has well said: "Economy lies in getting few things, but good ones. It is mani- fest economy to get a suit or coat that will last and look well for two years or more ; also to choose a conservative color and style, so that the suit will not be conspicuously out of style the second season. " This principle, referred to several times before, can hardly be over-em- phasized. Cheap things are never economy if durability is a desired quality. A standard ma- terial, as serge, always gives better value for the money than a material of some new weave. It costs no more to make up good, durable ma- terial than poorer qualities, and since the gar- ments made of cheap, slimsy material must be replaced after a short time, the appar- ent economy in the initial purchase is found to be a wasteful extravagance. The young girl who is earning five or six dollars a week is unwise when she purchases a suit of a
THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 169
striking color and design. In a short time the attractiveness has largely disappeared. If the same amount of money had been put into a serge suit of conservative color and style, it would continue to look well for two or three years. To be sure young girls like bright, showy things and tire of the plain, serviceable materials. It is perfectly natural that they should have this desire, and it should be satisfied in so far as is consistent with the amount which may be spent for clothes. This color can be obtained much more economically, and satisfactorily in the end, by the use of collars, ties, belts, etc. The girl or woman of small means, after thoughtfully considering all sides of the clothes problem, will find a joy and satisfaction in the planning and scheming which will go far toward making the limited allowance buy the articles needed.
When purchasing leather goods, as shoes, gloves, purses, etc., remember that good leather is not cheap, and also that cheap or imitation leathers are not durable. A pair of good, well made shoes will often outwear two pairs of cheap ones. However, shoes are not always dur- able in proportion to the high price. The fine, soft kid are expensive but not durable, so judg-
170 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
ment must be used. It is always economy to have at least two pairs of shoes at a time, since they wear longer if allowed to become thoroughly aired and dried frequently. One pair of gloves at $1.50 or more gives better service than three or four pairs of cheap ones. This does not mean that expensive gloves may not occasion- ally be purchased at a reduced price. To be sure that one is getting a "real" bargain one must either be a good judge of leather, or make the purchase at a reliable store. Good kid may be repeatedly cleaned, while a poor quality often looks bad after a few treatments.
There are people who wear cheap hose as long as possible before mending, and then throw them away. Any thoughtful person can see the extravagance of this practice from every point of view. Buying good stockings is economy of time, when repairs are considered, and of money, because of the greater length of life.
There are two types of hosiery, the seamless, and the full-fashioned. The seamless, as the name implies, is made without a seam, and the full-fashioned has a seam at the back and on the sole or sides of the foot. Most of the seam- less hose are knitted in one circular piece,
THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 171
leaving an opening at the toe to be looped to- gether. The leg, heel, and toe are then shaped by steaming and then drying on boards of the proper form. There are exceptions to this gen- eral rule, as one manufacturer controls patented machines whereby the knitting and shaping are accomplished in one process. The advantage of this type is in the lack of seam which may be uncomfortable; the disadvantage is that they lose their shape in time. The full-fashioned stocking is knitted on machines with the needles arranged in straight lines wrhich automatically drop the requisite number of stiches at various points so that when sewed together it will con- form to the natural shape of the foot. This type of hose fits the ankle snugly, and for that reason is preferred by many critical women. The discomfort of having the seam on the sole of the foot has been obviated in some cases by placing the seams on the sides.
Cotton hosiery varies in price and durability according to the quality of fiber used. The long stapled varieties produce the best and strong- est hose, and it is economy to pay the extra price for this grade. A lisle stocking is one manufactured from lisle thread, which is made
172 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
out of combed Egyptian cotton tightly twisted and run through a gas flame to remove the lint always seen on other yarns made from cotton. This singeing does not injure the yarn, but gives the stocking a firm, wiry feeling. A silky ap- pearance is given to either the cotton or lisle thread by the process of mercerization. Mer- cerization increases the strength of the fiber and also its affinity for dyestuffs. The better grades of cotton are apt to be used when the stocking is to be mercerized, and so for these reasons mercerized hose usually wear better and hold the dye better, than ordinary cotton. Silk hosiery may be made from pure, regled silk or from spun silk. Spun silk is less expensive than the reeled, but it is not durable. Good silk stockings are not cheap and it is necessary to pay at least one dollar for durable reeled silk hose. The life of silk hose may be appre- ciably lengthened by rinsing them innvarm or cold water each night after they have been worn during the day. This may be done easily if run- ning water is available, and will be found worth while.
The selection of color is important, not only from the artistic point of view, but also when
THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 173
the money side is being considered. The woman who is spending only a small amount on her clothes cannot afford to buy vivid, striking, or queer colors which do not harmonize with other things and are so conspicuous that, once seen, they are remembered. Unless one's circum- stances are such that a suit or a dress may be discarded after wearing a few times, novelties in color and style should be avoided. The woman with a small clothing allowance should adopt a color scheme limited to those colors that are becoming and that harmonize. Use a staple color, as navy blue, soft brown, or green as a foundation, with gloves, hats, neckwear, and other accessories in harmony. The economy of this is evident, as fewer garments will serve all occasions. Navy blue is the safest color to choose, as it is becoming to almost everyone and can be purchased in all standard materials. The woman with brown eyes or red hair will find brown, green, or black most becoming, and, therefore, most suitable. White material is usually most economical for summer wear be- cause it may be laundered more frequently and easily than colored materials. The design of a white garment is usually less conspicuous than
174 THE STUDY OF FABEICS
any color and so may be worn for a longer time. The soft ratines and crepes, requiring little if any ironing, have helped to solve the laundry problem and thereby removed the objections to wearing white.
The problem of economy in hats is not so easily solved as some others. Good millinery materials are not cheap, but the artistic skill of the milliner is far more expensive. Therefore, if a woman can make or trim her own hats she will be able to effect a great saving. This re- quires skill not possessed by the average girl or woman. It may be acquired to some extent, but requires time. Exchange of work may be more practical in some cases. A woman with this artistic skill might be very glad to trim a hat in exchange for some sewing or mending. There is a difference of opinion as to whether it is better to get a more expensive hat and wear it two seasons or to get a cheap one every season. If the style is extreme and not likely to be good a second season, it would be much wiser to choose an inexpensive shape with per- haps more expensive trimmings which could be utilized again. Heavy satin ribbon is a durable material for trimming, and while rather expen-
THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 175
sive to begin with, it will stand wear and tear better than most trimmings. Good ostrich plumes in black or white may be used several seasons if given good care. Artificial flowers are not economical usually. Close bunches of small flowers or buds with plenty of foliage stand exposure better than large, loose roses or other flowers. Faded flowers may be recolored quite easily. Any one with a very little skill can freshen up old flowers with water color paints. A simpler method requiring no partic- ular artistic ability is as follows : Mix oil paints with gasoline or benzine until the desired shade is obtained, then immerse flowers in this mix- ture. They must be kept away from fire of any kind until perfectly dry. Cheap felt soon loses its shape and looks badly, while a good felt hat of a conservative shape will look well for several seasons. Black hats are generally most economical, as they go with everything and are most easily freshened and cleaned.
What Is a Bargain? — Is there anything which so delights the heart of a woman as being able to take advantage of a bargain? Everything placed on the counters where a bargain sale is advertised is not necessarily a real bargain.
176 THE STUDY OP FABEICS
The salesmen have discovered that many women do not exercise their judgment when attending such sales and have learned to take advantage of this. The following incident illustrates this fact. A clothing store in Michigan had a slight fire, and some of their goods were mussed and soiled by the water and smoke. To get rid of these damaged goods a fire sale was advertised. The people thronged to get the bargains of- fered, and continued to come after all the sale goods had been sold. The merchant did not like to disappoint the crowds, so had the clerks take new, fresh materials and wipe the floor with them to make them look like the others, and then for their trouble the price was raised a ^ew cents. The crowd eagerly snapped up "the bargains " and went away happy. When attending a sale of any kind, one should look for legitimate reasons for the reduced price. Broken lots and odd sizes must be gotten rid of, even at a sacrifice. Soiled garments do not sell readily at the regular price, and the mer- chant is glad to make a reduction to get rid of such garments. In such a case, if the gar- ment be one which can be laundered and the reduction more than covers the cost of launder-
THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 177
ing, this may be termed a legitimate bargain. The same may be said of mill ends, remnants, samples, and novelties such as belts, bags, and collars. Seasonal sales also furnish an oppor- tunity for economical purchases. For example, the January white goods sales have become an established custom in many stores. Real bar- gains may be found at such times.
Eubber goods and silks, which deteriorate rapidly, are frequently put on sale in order to dispose of them quickly. Sale silks are seldom economical, and unless you are allowed to test a sample and find the silk unweighted, beware. A weighted silk which has been in stock for some time will seldom wear long enough to pay for making up. A young woman bought such a silk and after keeping it a few months took it to the dressmaker. The waist was cut out but never basted together, because when the pleats were laid it split in the creases. Occa- sionally there will be found in the lot an un- weighted silk which is really a bargain. An- other danger encountered in bargain sales is the temptation to buy things that are not needed at the time, and with no prospect of an early future need. A story is told of a woman who
178 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
was fascinated by sales of all kinds. She fre- quently brought home purchases which greatly amused the family. One day, after attending a secondhand sale, she returned with a door- plate on which was engraved the name Thomp- son. When asked what use she expected to make of a doorplate with Thompson on it, she replied that she thought one of her daughters might marry a Mr. Thompson and then she could give it to them. Perhaps this seems al- most unbelievable, and yet women are con- stantly buying things for which they have as little need. Benjamin Franklin said, "Buy what thou hasn't need of, and ere long thou shalt sell thy necessaries.'7 This does not refer to buying staples in quantities. It is wise to put in a supply of .thread, needles, pins, tapes, bias bindings, and such things, that are frequently needed. This will save the inconvenience and loss of time caused by numerous shopping trips when these things happen to be needed. Staple cotton materials, hosiery, undergarments, and such other materials and garments not largely affected by fashion may be purchased in quan- tities out of season when the price has been re- duced. Suits, coats, etc. may be purchased late
THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 179
in the season at about half price. If one is will- ing to wear plain tailored styles, which do not change so radically from season to season, in- stead of the extremes, fads, and novelties, it is possible to dress well on a smaller amount of money. A person of small means should not at- tempt to keep up with all the fads, which soon lose their attractiveness and, therefore, necessi- tate frequent changes, if one is to appear well dressed.
Buying staples in large quantities and buying out of season necessitate an income beyond the amount needed from day to day. Unfortunately those who need most to economize are unable to take advantage of such method of economy.
There are many who, either because the in- come is small or because of a lack of planning, buy on the installment plan. An investigation made in New York city showed that from 20% to 100% more than regular price was paid when the installment plan was used. It is unfortu- nate that those who need to economize most, frequently shop in this way.
Cash and Charge Systems. — There are advan- tages and disadvantages in both the cash and the charge systems. Each individual must de-
180 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
cide which seems wisest and most convenient in her particular case. Having an account gives standing in a store and may insure more courte- ous and careful treatment. It also saves time in shopping and gives an itemized account at the end of the month. On the other hand, it has a tendency to make one more extravagant and less careful in buying. In that case the cash system is far better even with its disadvan- tages. Paying cash is a good habit to acquire. For the woman of ample means there is pro- tection in shopping in the high grade store. The sales people are usually more intelligent, only better grades of materials are carried, and the firms are more nearly reliable, since the merchants wish to keep up their reputation, and will "make good" any purchase which is not as represented. Such stores have sales at stated times and seasons where "legitimate bar- gains ' ' may be found. Frequently stores of this type have a basement where cheaper materials are sold, and sometimes the same articles may be found in the basement at a considerably lower price. For example, an umbrella which cost $5 if purchased upstairs was only $3.48 in the basement. The same was found true in
THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 181
buying raincoats. A saving of from $2 to $3 was possible by making the purchase in the basement. The reason for this is quite evident when the difference in the furnishings, type of clerk, rent,, operating expenses, etc. are con- sidered. If a department is made attractive with velvet carpets and other expensive fur- nishings, and if there are attractive, well dressed clerks to wait upon us, we should keep in mind the fact that all this is paid for by in- creased prices of articles sold under such con- ditions.
Everything in cheap stores is not inferior in quality, but unless one is a good judge it is often difficult to distinguish the good from the poor. Deceptive methods of advertising and selling are used which further confuse the in- experienced shopper. One who is capable of judging materials may get satisfactory fabrics at a lower price than in the high grade store. The less aristocratic store can sell cheaper be- cause rent and operating expenses are lower, and they do not carry the high priced novelties which entail great losses.
A knowledge of sewing is an economical as- set to the woman who has time which may be
182 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
spent in that way. The woman who under- stands the principles of garment making so that she may work to advantage can save many dol- lars in the course of a year. Some dressmakers are not only willing but glad to design, cut, and fit, and leave the finishing to the woman her- self. A high-priced dressmaker can accomplish a good deal in a few days by that method at a considerable saving to the woman employing her.
Undergarments, simple waists, and dresses can be made at home easily, and are often more satisfactory than the ready-made garments, be- cause better grades of materials and trimmings will be used and the style and fit may be better.
Care of Clothing. — Proper care of cl°fhing plays an important part in the clothes problem if one wishes to appear well dressed on a small or even reasonable amount of money. The ap- pearance of the most beautiful garment is greatly impaired if mussed, spotted, or minus a hook, eye, or button. On the other hand, a simple dress of inexpensive material, if in good repair and correctly put on, gives one a well dressed appearance. The careful brushing of clothes which have been worn on the street is
THE ECONOMICS OP CLOTHING 183
a point frequently neglected, but is one which adds much to the appearance and life of the garment. Knowing the best methods of mend- ing various materials is a great advantage. Woolen materials can often be darned with threads of the material, split silk, or hair so that the garment may again be presentable. Muslin undergarments, if neatly repaired, may be kept in a wearable condition for a much longer time. The ribbed top hose may be stretched and then stitched on the machine just where the ribbed part is joined to the lower part. This will prevent the runners, caused by the fas- tening of garters, from being continued below the ribbed portion. When purchased, knitted underwear may be reinforced at the places re- ceiving most strain and wear. The additional strength at these places will help to prevent the appearance of holes. Shoes which are "run down" at the heels give the wearer an untidy appearance. More than that, this lack of proper balance spoils the shape of the entire shoe, and makes it wear out sooner. It does not cost much to have the heels straightened on a pair of shoes, and money spent in this way is often an economical expenditure. It costs but little
184 THE STUDY OF FABEICS
more to have rubber heels put on at this time, and the luxury of rubber heels means added comfort in walking. Many women say that to be neat in appearance is the greatest task of their lives, and it would seem that the time expended in keeping clothes in order and putting them on correctly is greater than all other essentials. Yet all these precautions are well worth the ef- fort.
Clothing Budgets. — A consideration of the proportion of the income which should be spent for clothing, and how that amount may be most wisely used, is of value. Such a study gives us the benefit of the experience of others and makes us think about the garments which will be best suited to our needs. This planning will naturally reduce expenditures, as any one knows that haphazard buying is extravagant. For the person on a salary there is quite an ad- vantage in planning the purchases from month to month and year to year. In this way it is possible to avoid having an undue proportion of purchases come in one month or one year. If this is not considered, a suit, waist, hat, shoes, and gloves may all be needed at the same time without sufficient money to pay for them. The
THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 185
same is true of garments for the year. Coats, suits, furs, etc. should be distributed so that all are not purchased from one year's salary.
Studies of thousands of family and personal clothing budgets show that the amount spent for clothing varies from 12 to 17 per cent of the money received. Circumstances vary the •amount which must be spent. For example, a teacher or a woman in business, who must al- ways be well dressed, must spend more money for clothing than the woman in the home who is most neatly and properly attired for at least part of the day in a simple cotton house dress. The climate also affects the kind and amount of clothing needed. There is a value in keeping one's clothing account from year to year, since it shows what purchases have been made, and a study of it in comparison with other clothing budgets may show how better results could be obtained for the same or a smaller expenditure. A typical family budget and the budget for a business woman are given as illustrations.
Family Budget. — The following is an actual account of a family living in Madison, Wis. The father is a stone hauler and gets $4.50 a day —
186 THE STUDY OP FABRICS
$108 a month, or $1,296 a year. There are three children: a girl of sixteen, a boy of ten, and a girl five years old. The mother does most of the sewing for the children and herself. The older girl works at the telephone office and gets $5 a week, some of which she uses as spending money and to help buy some of her clothes. She saves $10 a month. The family owns the small cottage in which it lives. The amount spent for clothing is about 14% of the total in- come of the father, or $174.30 a year. This is not counting the extra amount that the older girl spends out of her own money. She spends for clothing about $40 a year of the money she earns.
THE FATHER'S BUDGET
Cost Articles Purchase Service a Year
1 suit clothes, $16 ready-made 2 years $8 .00
1 suit clothes, $12 ready-made 2 years 6 .00
2 pairs overalls ready-made 1 year 1 .00
1 hat 1 year 1 .50
1 cap 1 year 1 .00
Gloves and mittens 1 year 1 .50
1 overcoat, $10 bought at sale 2 years 5 .00
1 sweater, $5 2 years 2 .50
2 winter shirts 1 year 1 .50
3 summer shirts 1 year 1.25
2 winter undershirts . . . bought at sale 2 years 1 .00
2 summer undershirts. . bought at sale 1 year .50
Carried forward $30.75
THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 187
Cost
Articles Purchase Service a Year
Brought forward $30.75 2 pairs fleece lined
drawers 1 year
2 pairs summer drawers 1 year
Handkerchiefs 1 year
3 collars 1 year
4 ties 1 year
3 pairs shoes .' . 1 year
6 pairs hose 1 year
Total $44.00
THE MOTHER'S BUDGET
Coat
Articles Purchase Service a Year
2 hats, $6 trimmed at home. . . 1 year $6 .00
1 coat, $10 bought at sale 2 years 5 .00
1 spring suit, $15 bought out of season 2 years 7 . 50
1 wool dress, $4 made at home 2 years 2 . 00
2 wash dresses made at home 2 years 4 .00
3 white waists made at home 2 years 1 . 50
2 white petticoats made at home 2 years 1 .00
1 black petticoat bought at sale 1 year .75
3 aprons made at home 1 year .50
year 1.00
year 5.00
year 1.50
year .30
2 winter union suits year 1 . 20
2 summer union suits. . bought at sale year .60
2 gowns made at home 1 year 1 .00
4 corset covers 1 year 1 .00
2 corsets 1 year 2 .00
2 pairs drawers made at home 1 year .30
Sundries 1 year 1 .00
1 pair gloves
3 pairs shoes odd size
6 pairs hose
6 handkerchiefs bought at sale.
Total $43.15
188 THE STUDY OF FABRICS FOR BOY OF TEN
Cost
Articles Purchase Service a Year
2 caps, $1 1 year $1 .00
1 suit, $8 bought at discount. . 2 years 4 .00
1 suit, $5 bought at discount.. 2 years 2 .50
3 waists, $1 made at home 1 year 1 .00
1 sweater, $5 2 years 2 . 50
8 pairs hose, $2 1 year 2 .00
3 pairs shoes, $9 1 year 9 . 00
2 winter union suits, $1 bought at sale 1 year 1 .00
2 summer union suits,
$ . 50 bought at sale 1 year . 50
1 pair mittens, $ . 50 1 year .50
1 pair trousers, $1 bought at discount.. 1 year 1 .00
Total $25.00
FOR GIRL OF FIVE
Cost
Articles Purchase Service a Year
1 bonnet 1 year $1 .00
1 hat 1 year .75
1 coat made over fromgrown
person's dress. ... 2 years .50
2 wool dresses made over from grown
person's dresses.. . 1 year .50
4 wash dresses made at home 1 year 2 . 00
1 pair mittens ." 1 year .25
3 white aprons made at home 1 year .75
3 white petticoats. .... made at home 1 year .50
2 pairs shoes bought at sale 1 year 1.50
2 pairs slippers bought at sale 1 year 1 .50
2 wool union suits 1 year 1 .00
2 summer union suits. . . bought at sale 1 year . 30
3 pah-s drawers made at home 1 year .45
2underwaists 1 year .25
Carried forward $11.25
THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 189
Articles Purchase
Cost Service a Year
Brought forward $11.25
8 pairs stockings 1 year 1 .20
Handkerchiefs 1 year .20
2 gowns 1 year .50
Total.. ..$13.15
FOR GIRL OF SIXTEEN
Cost Articles Purchase Service a Year
|
2 hats |
trimmed at home. . . bought at discount.. ' i |
L year 2 years I years year year year year year year year year I year L year year ye r yeir yeir year year year year I years |
$6.00 7.50 3.00 4.00 6.00 10.00 3.00 2.00 15.00 .75 2.00 1.00 1.50 3.00 1.00 .90 2.50 1.20 2.00 12.00 1.50 10.00 .$95.85 |
|
1 coat, $15 |
|||
|
1 sweater $6 |
|||
|
1 wool skirt |
made at home made at home |
||
|
1 winter dress |
|||
|
4 wash dresses 4 waists |
made at home. ..... made at home . . . |
||
|
2 white petticoats 1 silk dress, $15 1 black petticoat |
made at home made at home |
||
|
2 winter union suits . . . 2 summer union suits |
|||
|
6 corset covers |
made at home |
||
|
3 corsets |
|||
|
2 gowns |
made at home made at home |
||
|
3 pairs drawers |
|||
|
10 pairs hose |
|||
|
12 handkerchiefs |
|||
|
Gloves |
|||
|
4 pairs shoes . . |
|||
|
Ribbons, etc |
|||
|
Furs, $20 |
« |
||
|
Total. . |
(Father pays only $50 of this amount)
190 THE STUDY OF FABRICS
The family has relatives from whom it often receives clothing that can be made over.
WASHING
The family washing, with the exception of a few shirts and collars, is done by the mother.
Soap, bluing, starch, etc $10 a year
Laundry 2 a year
Total $12 a year
CLOTHING BUDGET FOB A BUSINESS GIRL
(Living at home and assisted by the family in making garments and repairs)
The salary is about $15 a week, and the need is for good, everyday garments. The suits are made by a dressmaker outside of the home ; the coat is ready-made ; and other clothing is made at home as far as possible. Advantage is taken of past-season sales. The long, light-weight coat is serviceable all the year. The coat of the three piece winter suit serves when a short coat is desired. The cost is, on an average, $100 an- nually. This plan of budget making considers the possible service of garments as continuing from year to year.
THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 191
BUDGET FOR BUSINESS GIRL'S CLOTHING FOR THREE YEARS
|
Num- ber |
Total Cost |
Years of Wear |
Average Yearly Cost (Omitting Small Fractions) |
||
|
Suit — 3 piece, for winter: Coat, skirt, waist. Suit- ing material, serge — 16 yds. 36 in. at $1.25-$20 (12yds. 50 in. at $1.50) Lining — Sateen, 4 yds. 36 in. at $ 50 |
$20.00 2 00 |
1 |
|||
|
Interlinings, trimmings, etc |
6 00 |
||||
|
Dressmaker |
20 00 |
$48 00 |
3 |
$16 00 |
|
|
Coats — Covert cloth: Long, light-weight, ready-made |
1 |
20 00 |
3 |
6 66 |
|
|
Sweater |
1 |
3 50 |
3 |
1 17 |
|
|
Dresses — summer (each summer a new one. This lasts over the next sum- mer): Ginghams (in washable colors) 10 yds. 30 in. at $ 25 |
2 50 |
1 |
|||
|
Dressmaker |
5 00 |
7 50 |
1 |
7 50 |
|
|
Batiste, etc.: 10 yds. 36 in. at $.25... . Dressmaker |
2.50 7 00 |
1 |
9 50 |
0 |
4 7^ |
|
Carried forward |
$88.50 |
$36.08 |
From "Textiles" by Woolman and McGowan.
192
THE STUDY OF FABEICS
|
Num- ber |
Total Cost |
Years of Wear |
Average Yearly Cost (Omitting Small Fractions) |
||
|
Brought forward. .... Separate waists (made at home) |
$88.50 |
$36.08 |
|||
|
Cotton |
3 |
||||
|
3yds. 36in.at$.15 Trimming (average for 3) |
.45 15 |
1 80 |
1 |
1 80 |
|
|
Scotch flannel |
1 |
||||
|
3 yds. at $.35 |
1 05 |
1 05 |
1 |
1 05 |
|
|
Silk: 5 yds. at $.75 |
3 75 |
2 |
7.50 |
3 |
2.50 |
|
Dress skirts (made at home) Wool (Panama) .... |
1 |
||||
|
5 yds 36 in at $1 |
5 00 |
5 00 |
2 |
2 50 |
|
|
Cotton |
1 |
||||
|
5yds. (30-36 in.) at $.15 Petticoats: Sateen, 5yds. at $.35.. . Colored cotton, 5 yds. at $ 15 |
.75 1.75 75 |
1 1 |
.75 1.75 .75 |
1 2 1 |
.75 .88 .75 |
|
White cotton 4 yds. at $ 15 |
.60 |
2 |
3.20 |
3 |
1.10 |
|
Embroidery or Lace. . . . Corset covers: 1M yds. at $.15 |
1.00 .20 |
4 |
|||
|
Lace or embroidery .... |
.30 |
2.00 |
1 |
2.00 |
|
|
Nightdresses: 4yds. at $.15 Trimming |
.60 40 |
3 |
3.00 |
2 |
1.50 |
|
Carried forward |
$115.30 |
$50.91 |
THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 193
|
Num- ber |
Total Cost |
Years of Wear |
Average Yearly Cost (Omitting Small Fractions) |
||
|
Brought forward |
$115.30 |
$50.91 |
|||
|
Drawers: 1/4 yds. at $ 15 |
28 |
2 |
|||
|
Trimming (average) . . . |
.30 |
1.16 |
1 |
1.16 |
|
|
Hats: Winter |
1 |
8 00 |
1 |
8.00 |
|
|
Summer |
1 |
5.00 |
1 |
5.00 |
|
|
Gloves : Kid . |
1.25 |
2 |
2.50 |
1 |
2.50 |
|
Silk |
50 |
2 |
1 00 |
1 |
1.00 |
|
Chamoisette Corsets |
.50 |
2 1 or 2 |
1.00 2.00 |
1 1 |
1.00 2.00 |
|
Hosiery, 9 pr. at 3 for $1 . . Shoes, 3 pr. at $4 each .... (or 4 pr. at $3 average) Rubbers, 2 pr. at $ . 75 each Underwear: Cdtton shirts, $.25 Combinations, $1 (heavy) |
9 3 2 4 3 |
3.00 12.00 1.50 1.00 3.00 |
1 1 1 1 2 |
3.00 12.00 1.50 1.00 1.50 |
|
|
Sum left for extras |
$156.46 |
$90.57 9.43 |
|||
|
Total |
$100.00 |
||||
INDEX
Absorbent cotton, 14 Accessories, Soap, 112 Acetic acid, 15 Acid, 15
action on linen, 98
dyes, 21
effect on animal fibers, 107
effect on vegetable fi- bers, 106
hydrochloric, 86 Acid test, Nitric, 61
tannic, 78
Acidulated water, 58 Action of acids, 15, 98
of alkalies, 16, 98 Adulterated silk, 86 Agents, Bleaching, 17 Alcohol, 120 Alkalies, 16
action on linens, 98
effect on animal fibers, 107
effect on vegetable fi- bers, 107
Alkali test, 58, 60 Alum, 117
Ammonia, 17 Aniline dyes, 23
bluing, 114 Animal fibers, Effect of
acids on, 107 effect of alkalies on,
107 Artificial bleaching stuffs,
17
silk, 86 Art linen, 98
Baling cotton, 9 Bargain, What is a, 175 Basic dyes, 21 Bast fiber, 93 Batiste, 25 Batten, Cotton, 11 Battening, 5 Beams, 6 Bed linen, 100 Bengaline, 73 Blanket wools, 33 Bleach, 113 Bleaching agents, 17, 126
linen, 95
sulphur dioxide, 128
195
196
INDEX
Block printing, 23 Blood stains, 121 Bluing, 113
aniline, 114
Indigo, 114
Prussian, 114
test for presence of iron, 114
ultramarine, 115 Boiling in lye solution, Materials before and after, 57, 59, 60 Bombyx mori, 66 Borax, 109 Bottle for pressing seams,
119
Braking flax, 93 Broadcloth, 32, 39 Brocaded satin, 73 Budget, Clothing, 184
business girl, 190
family, 185
Burning to detect cotton, 56
weighting in silk, 82 Butcher's linen, 99
Calendering cloth, 12, 20 Calico, 24 Cambric, 25 Carbona, 120 Carbonated or caustic al- kalies, 16
Carbon tetraehloride, 120
Carding, 11, 36, 37
Care of clothing, 148, 182
Carpet wools, 33
Cash and charge systems, 179
Cashmere, 31
Cellulose, 15
Characteristics of cotton,
Physical, 12 of silk fiber, 76
Chardonnet silk, 87, 88
Charge systems, 179
Chemical characteristics
of silk fiber, 76, 78 nature of cotton, 14 test for cotton and wool, 56
Chemicals, Effect of, on fiber, 14
Cheviots, 62
Chiffon, 73
China silk, 73
Chloride of lime, 17
Chloroform, 120
Citrates, 15
Cleaning cotton, 11 white kid gloves, 127 white shoes, 127
Clothes, Hanging, 130 soiled, 150
Clothing budget, 184, 190
INDEX
197
Clothing, care of, 148,
182
economics of, 163 function of, 142 hygiene of, 141 keeping clean, 148 objects of, 144 Cocoa stains, 122 Coffee stains, 122 Collars, 158 Collodion silk, 89 Colors, To set, 116 selection of, 172 Combing, 11, 37 Common cotton materials,
24
linen fabrics, 98 silk materials, 73 Compared with price, Wearing qualities, 27 Comparison of different
varieties of wool, 31 Conduction of heat and electricity by wool, 34
Corduroy, 25 Corsets, 149, 150 Cortex of wool, 32 Cotton, 1, 6 bleaching, 17 burning to detect, 56 chemical nature of, 14
Cotton,
cleaning, 11 distinguishing between
linen and, 102 fibers, Types of, 13 for undergarments, 146 hygroscopicity of, 146 materials, Common, 24 mercerized, 18, 21
Crash, 98
Cream stains, 122
Crepe de Chine, 74
Damask, 98 French, 100 German, 99 Difference between hair
and wool, 32 Different varieties of wool
compared, 31 Dimity, 25 Discharge process of
printing, 24 Distinguishing between
cotton and linen, 102 Dotted Swiss, 29 Drawing cotton, 11
wool, 38 Dressing economically,
166
Dressing in cotton, 27 Drying flax, 93 woolens, 131
198
INDEX
Dyeing, 12, 21, 35, 38,
70 Dyes, response of linen
to, 98 test for fastness, 64
Economical dressing, 166 Economics of clothing,
163 Effect of, acids on animal
fibers, 107
acids on vegetable fi- bers, 106 acids on wool, 34 alkalies on animal fi- bers, 107 alkalies on vegetable
fibers, 107 alkalies on wool, 34 chemicals on cotton
fiber, 15 Eiderdowns, 61 Elasticity of wool, 34 Electric iron, 138 Electricity, linen conduc- tor of, 97
wool conductor of, 34 Epidermis of wool, 31 Evolution of spinning, 1
of weaving, 1 Experiment on mercer- ized cotton, 21 on wool, 56
Fabrics, Common linen,
98
Fading, Tests for fast- ness to, 64 Family budget, 185
washing, 190 Fashion, Effect on wool
supply, 42
Fastness to dyes, crock- ing, and fading, Tests for, 64 perspiration, 26 sunlight, 25 washing, 26 Felting property of wool,
32
Fermentation, Cotton lia- ble to, 14 Fiber, Bast, 93
effect of acids on vege- table and animal, 106, 107
effect of alkalies on vegetable and ani- mal, 107 effect of chemicals on
cotton, 15 flax, 97
physical and chemical characteristics of silk and linen, 76, 96 test for quality of, 29 types of cotton, 13
INDEX
199
Fibroin, 68, 78 Finishing woolens, 39 Firmness of weave, 52 Flannels, 63 Flax fibers, 97
culture, 92
in different stages of preparation for weaving, 91
spinning, 94 Fleeces, 37 Floss, Silk, 70 Foulard, 74 French damask, 100 Fruit stains, 122 Functions of clothing, 142
Garments, One-piece, 157 ready-made, 167 worn at night, 160
Gasoline, 120
German damask, 99
Gingham, 24
Ginning cotton, 9
Glass toweling, 99
Gloves, What to buy, 169
Glycerine, 122
Gossypium, 6
Grass stains, 125
Grease, 119 wagon, 121
Habutai, 74 Hackling flax, 93 Hair and wool, Differ- ence between, 32 Half ripe cotton fibers, 13 Hand cards, 36 Handkerchief linen, 99
to wash, 135 Hanging clothes, 130 Hardness of water, Tem- porary and perma- nent, 109 Hard soap, 111
water, 108 Hats, 159, 174 Heat conduction, of cot- ton, 14
of linen, 14, 97
of wool, 34 Heddle, 6
Homemade soap, 111 Household linen, 99 Huckaback, 99 Hydrochloric acid, 86 Hygiene of clothing, 141 Hygroscopicity of cotton, 14, 146
silk, 146
wool, 33, 146
Imported silks, 73 Indigo blue, 114 Ink stains, 124
200
INDEX
Insects, Cotton resistant
to, 14 Iodine or medicine stain,
125
Irish linen, 99 Iron, Electric, 138
rust, 123 Iron in bluing, Tests for,
114 Ironing, 130
Javelle water, 17, 126,
128 John Brown linen, 99
Laces, To wash, 134 Laundry, Cooperative, 139
machinery, 135
problems, 104
soaps, 112
Laws, Pure textile, 46, 82 Leash, 6 Leather goods, What to
buy, 169
Length of wool fibers, 33 Lime in soap, 111 Linen, 90
action of acids and al- kalies upon, 98
art, 98
bed, 100
Linen,
bleaching, 17, 95
butcher's, 99
conductor of heat and electricity, 97
distinguishing between cotton and, 102
dyeing, 22
fabrics, Common, 98
fiber, Physical and chemical characteris- tics of, 96, 145
French damask, 100
German damask, 100
handkerchief, 99
heat conduction of, 14
household, 99
Irish, 99
John Brown, 99
luster, 97
response to dyes, 98
Scotch, 99
sizing, 96
table, 99
tests of, 102
toweling, 101
undergarments, 146
weaving, 94 Long-staple wools, 33 Loom, 5 Louisine, 74 Luster of wool, 33 Lye in soap, 110
INDEX
201
Machinery for laundry,
135 Machines, Power, 138
washing, 135 Maline, 74 Mangles, 137 Materials before and aft- er boiling in lye, 57, 59, 60
common silk, 73 Mature cotton fiber, 13 Meal, Cottonseed, 9 Meat juice stains, 121 Medicine stains, 125 Mending, 183 Mercerized cotton, 18, 19
test for, 21 Mildew, 14
removal of, 125 Milk spots, 122
stains, 122
Mineral acids, 15, 16 Miscellaneous wools, 33 Mixed cotton and wool,
chemical test, 56 Moire, 74 Mold, 125 Mordants, 12, 21, 22, 78,
116 reaction of linen
toward, 98
Moths, Cotton resistant to, 14
Mousseline de Sole, 74 Mucus stains, 121 Mulberry silkworm, 66 Mull, 25 Muslin, 24
Nainsook, 25
Naphtha soap, 120
Nap of wool goods, Rais- ing, 119
Napping, 40
Natural dyestuffs, 22
Neutralizing solution, 17
Night, Garments worn at, 160
Noils, 37
Oil, Cotton, 9 One-piece garments, 157 Organic acids and salts,
15, 16
Organdie, 25 Oxalic acid, 15
Paint stains, 121 Parts of loom, 5 Peau de Soie, 75 Percale, 25 Percentage of shrinkage,
Test for, 27 Permanent hardness of
water, 109
202
INDEX
Perspiration, Effect of, on
silk, 80 test for fastness to, 26
Physical characteristics
of cotton, 12 characteristics of silk
fiber, 76
properties of textiles, 145
Picking, 5, 9
Pique, 25
Planting cotton, 7
Plush, 75
Pongee, 66, 75
Power machines, 138
Presence of iron in blu- ing, Test for, 114
Pressing seams with bot- tle, 119
Price, Wearing qualities compared with, 27
Printing, 23
Prussian blue, 114
Pure silks before and after burning, 83, 86
Pure textile laws, 46
Quality of fiber, Test for,
29 of wool, 30
Raddle, 6
Raising nap of wool goods, 119
Rajah, 75
Raw silk, 67
Ready-made garments, 167
Reagent for cleaning, 120
Reasons for washing, 105
Reed, 6
Reeled and waste silk, 71
Reeling, Silk, 69, 71
Removing stains, 118
Resist process of print- ing, 24
Retting flax, 93
Rhubarb, 15
Rinsing colored clothes, 117
Rippling flax, 93
Rubbers, 154
Rust, Iron, 123
Sales, 176
Saltpeter, 117
Salts of organic acids, 15
Salt to set colors, 116
Sateen, 25
Satin, 75
brocaded, 73
Skinner's, 75 Scotch linen, 99 Scrim, 25 Scutching flax, 93 Serges, 63 Sericin, 68, 78
INDEX
203
Set colors, To, 116 Sewing, Knowledge of,
181
Shearing, 35 Shedding, 5
Shepherd checked mate- rials, 55, 61 Shields, 149 Shoddy, 43, 63 Shoes, 153, 169, 183 Shopping, 180 Short-staple wools, 33 Shrinkage of wool, 32
test for percentage of,
27
Shuttle, 4, 6 Silk, 66
adulterated, 86
artificial. 86
Chardonnet, 87, 88
China, 73
dyeing, 22, 70
fiber, Physical and chemical characteris- tics of, 76
finish, 20
floss, 70
hygroscopicity of, 146
imported, 73
manufacture in the United States, 72
materials, 73
pure, 83? 86
Silk,
reeled and waste, 69, 71
wash, 86
weighting, 70, 78, 83 Silkworm, 66, 72 Sizing linen, 96 Skirts, long, 158 Sleeping bags, 161 Slivers, 37 Soap, 110
homemade, 111
laundry, 112
substitutes, 112 Soda, Washing, 109 Softening hard water,
109
Soft water, 108 Soiled clothes, 150 Solutions of acids, 15 Solvents, 120 Sorting wool, 37 Specifications, War De- partment, 47 Spinning cotton, 11
evolution of, 1
flax, 94
wool, 38
Sprinkling clothes, 131 Stains, 17
blood, 121
cocoa, 122
coffee, 122
cream
204
INDEX
Stains,
fruit, 122
grass, 125
grease, 119
ink, 124
iodine, 125
meat juice, 121
medicine, 125
milk, 122
mucus, 121
removing, 118
tea, 122
varnish, 121 Stockings, Selection of,
156, 170
Strengthening threads, 12 Strength of materials, Test for, 28
of wool, Tensile, 34, 53 Substantive dyes, 21 Substitutes for soap, 112 Sugar of lead, 117 Sunlight, Test for fast- ness to, 25 Swiss, Dotted, 29
Table linen, 99 Taffeta, 75 Tannic acid, 78 Tapa cloth, 2 Tartrates, 15 Teasel, 39 Tea stains, 122
Temporary and perma- nent hardness of wa- ter, 109 Tensile strength of wool,
34, 53
Tenterhooks, 6 Tests for crocking, 26,
64
dressing in cottons, 27 fading, 64 fastness to dyes, 64 fastness to perspira- tion, 26
fastness to sunlight, 25 fastness to washing, 26 iron in bluing, 114 linen, 102
mercerized cotton, 21 percentage of shrink- age, 27
quality of fiber, 29 strength of materials,
28
War Department, 48 weighting, 82 woolen materials, 51 Textile laws, 46, 82 Thin fiber, 13 Thread, 11
Throwing the shuttle, 4 Tops, 33 Toweling, 101 Tulle, 76
INDEX
205
Tussah silk, 66
Types of cotton fibers, 13
Ultramarine blue, 115 Union suits, 158
Varieties of wool, Com- parison of, 31 Varnish stains, 121 Vegetable fibers, Effect of
acids on, 106 effect of alkalies on, 107 Veils, 159 Velvet, 76 Velveteen, 25 Vinegar, 15, 58 Virgin wool, 62 Viyella flannel, 63
War Department specifi- cations, 47, 48 Warp and weft, 55, 58 Warp shed, 4 Washing compounds, 113
family, 190
handkerchiefs, 135
hanging clothes, 130
Iace3, 134
reasons for, 105
soda, 109
test for fastness to, 26
when to wash, 129
woolens, 131
Waste in wool manufac- ture, 43 silk, 71 Water, Hard and soft,
108
Wearing qualities com- pared with price, 27 Weaving, 12, 38 evolution of, 1 firmness, 52 flax, 91 linen, 94 Weighting silk, 70, 78,
83
What is a bargain? 175 White gloves, To clean,
127 White shoes, To clean,
127 Wool, 30
as conductor of elec- tricity, 34 blanket, 33 carding, 36, 37 carpet, 33 chemical test, 56 combing, 37 cortex, 32 difference between hair
and, 32 drawing and spinning,
38 dyeing, 22, 35, 38
206
INDEX
Wool,
effect of acids and al- kalies on, 34
elasticity of, 34
epidermis, 31
felting property of, 32
finishing, 39
fleeces, 37
for undergarments, 146
goods, To raise the nap of, 119
hygroscopicity of, 33, 46
length of fibers, 33
long-staple, 33
luster of, 33
medulla, 32
miscellaneous, 33
napping, 40
noils, 37
quality of, 30
Wool,
shearing, 35
shoddy, 43
short-staple, 33
shrinkage of, 32, 35, 40
slivers, 37
sorting, 37
tensile strength of, 34
tops, 33
varieties compared, 31
weaving, 38
Woolen materials, Tests for, 51
yarn, 41
Woolens, To wash, 131 Worsted cheviots, 63
yarn, 41
Yarn, woolen, 41 worsted, 41
HI