(pee een a tnaimmamamamamenamn aa eae i i Leeman ——— . m | NI | | 7 ME i el an |) 7 / A i ul) 7 | Hi ii i il) qi | ih i “Tn Hi vit Hi all i Hill AUT i Hi / | all i iil au Hill ii ul a | orl Alt i \" MA i i i i Hi i 7 i UN ti eh, — A a | ae ily Hi iW 4 fl i i ii if ee i i Hi ‘| | | i ii Wit ii Ni i aca ul AW | nH \ we Ni 1 7H Ha WN HHH my ANN Hn ! i \ AW an i, cc AH iH Hil in iit aA Hh i} i Mi i i it j Ve te 1 HTH Na HNN ETAT NAD, | Wu HT HAI lh Hil NA WAI i A i Wh | ai ra alae i UP “ANA ii ai ete NY aly ia a ‘ } WN an Ht iN yi A WW Nil ‘| tf Vy WW I i i i | PTL UtH) Mtn) eM hay Nr a HAE TH WANN Waa heehee A kk Sabha ii TT a i) i a i \ Pt) WAAR HAAN WT Wil HV ALHTALIH l We nia i WA ik Dy i i | aA At i zt i ATTA AATAAATAAT TT An Hy AVAL AVA ATA ANAT Wh lh i) i | a a 1) ‘A a ce HANA WN Hy Mii Wit Hii | IH WA Wit a | i Hi ii il ay } WH HANAHAN i | Hi WAT i | Hi NAN Ht Hi | i a i} Mi Hi i I ) H i) | | \ | Hi i r a a ei / | i | | a i al | HII WAG HAN Hi Hl i Mi HH i HA vA | ln ih i il | Hi | | ev ETA wal Hl Hi il i Hh j | i | nl iil i ill HNN HN i Wh i ah i WY HI “ Wt A WN Hi | HH i} | i} | ih i i ‘a | | HAA Hh a il ce a eo | i f i / | ae | Hit i i H i i HH ft i Fi ‘ im mn tl mn a ACU illic Wi | i vi 7 i oh i il Mt ii i ve ; il i Hh if 1 | HI HI Mi} i Hi Hi i i i | Hil | a fo “| Hi i i i i] b en rrr a ree - _— — SOOO —- eweect.- COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT: Copyright N° Bia ne ate i Aan i¢ cM r we iat ne ‘Noa BOOKS WRITTEN BY CHARLES S. PLUMB A BIoGRAPHICAL DIRECTORY OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL SCIENTISTS. Edited and published at Knoxville, Tenn., 1889; pp. 100; flexible cloth. The supply of this work is exhausted. InDIAN Corn CULTURE Chicago: The Breeders’ Gazette Print, 1895. Cloth; pp. 243; figs. 63. LitTLe SKETCHES oF Famous BEEF CaTTLE Columbus, Ohio: Published by the author, 1904. Cloth; pp. 99. TYPES AND BREEDS oF Farm ANIMALS Boston: Ginn & Co., 1906. Completely revised, 1920. Cloth; pp. 820; figs. 365. A PartiaL INDEX TO ANIMAL HUSBANDRY LITERATURE Columbus, Ohio; Published by the author, 1911. Cloth; pp. 94. BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY St. Paul, Minnesota: The Webb Publishing Co., 1912. Cloth; pp. 393; figs. 217. JUDGING FarM ANIMALS New York: Orange Judd Co., 1916. Cloth; pp. 590; figs. 299. Frontispiece. This group consists of the champion judges in the boys’ and girls’ live stock clubs of Ohio in 1921. They won the championships at the Ohio State University, about 700 being in competition. From such Jads much may be expected in the future, for the boys of to-day are to be the stockmen of to-morrow. aS 1 SIBag OF FARM ANIMALS BY Charles S. Plumb Professor of Animal Husbandry in the College of Agriculture of the Ohio State University. Author of ‘““Types and Breeds of Farm Animals,” “Judging Farm Animals,” ‘‘Beginnings in Animal Husbandry,” etc. Le The Webb Publishing Company St. Paul, Minnesota 1922 COPYRIGHT 1922 : CHARLES 8S. PLUMB Wet ee Made in U.S. A. O59 > OULAGS6237 1 ¥ . th 1 Sa aoe FOREWORD During the past decade the subject of agricultural edu- cation for our secondary schools and colleges has received much attention. Prior to this period a number of general texts on agriculture for schools, elementary in character, pre- pared by men trained in general science or classics, were published. These texts had a limited distribution, partly because of lack of interest in the subject by teachers and pupils, and partly because of the methods of presentation. These authors saw no way of handling the subject, except- ing by a more or less stereotyped style, in which chemistry, or some natural science, furnished the reasoning basis. The establishment of agricultural colleges, equipped with farms, and working laboratories of greenhouses, orchards, gardens, field crops, and stables with their contents of farm animals and utensils, paved the way to a new and interest- ing treatment of agricultural subjects. The introduction of popular short winter courses about 1890, was the first im- portant step in this direction. Simple laboratory exercises in dairying, horticulture, and live-stock judging, appealed to students, and added much to the popularity of the in- struction. As an outgrowth of these has come the great popular movement in America in behalf of agricultural edu- cation. Not only the colleges, but many secondary schools have adopted agricultural courses, and some have been equipped with farms and labera Ties, Where the students are taught the relationship of principles to farm practice. The evolution in agricultural education has been asso- ciated with the development of texts that have covered a wide range of instruction, and which have supplied a vital interest quite lacking in most of the ‘books published prior to the year 1900. In fact, we have a new agricultural litera- 5 6 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS ture, the direct outgrowth of recent methods of education in the agricultural college, as well as the investigations of our experiment stations. To meet what was regarded as a real need in sec- ondary schools and short courses, in 1912 the author pre- pared a book entitled ‘“Beginnings in Animal Husbandry,” the first text of its kind in this field of education, prepared for students below college grade. The reception given this volume by educators was very gratifying to the author. In the passing years, however, much new material has accum- ulated, and courses of study have been introduced that were not generally given in 1912, and for which no provisions were made in “Beginnings in Animal Husbandry.” The author has, therefore, seen fit to prepare a new text, that should more fully meet present needs. It not only discusses the feeding, care, and management of animals with some detail, as applied to horses, cattle, sheep, swine, and poultry, but considers other subjects of present-day importance. These include community breeding, something about wool, boys’ and girls’ live-stock clubs, co-operative live-stock shipping, and culling the poultry flock. It also contains besides these, all the more important matter relative to breeding, the breeds, and judging, as set forth in the first text. “Begin- nings in Animal Husbandry” consisted of 28 chapters, includ- ing 393 pages and 217 illustrations, while the present text contains 44 chapters, 540 pages and 256 illustrations. In conclusion the author would quote the final sentence of the Foreword in “Beginnings in Animal Husbandry”: “It is his earnest hope that such lessons as either teacher or pupil shall find within these pages, may result in a desire for yet wider knowledge of and a more sympathetic interest in, farm animals.” Ohio State University CHARLES 8S. PLUMB Columbus, Ohio June 1, 1922. TABLE OF CONTENTS Tue IMPORTANCE OF FarM ANIMALS Herepity: Its MEANING AND INFLUENCE SELECTION AND Its IMPORTANCE . PEDIGREES AND THEIR VALUE SUGGESTIONS TO YOUNG BREEDERS CoMMUNITY BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS THE COMPOSITION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS Tue Process oF DIGESTION. . FEEDING STANDARDS: THEIR ORIGIN AND ‘Use CALCULATING FEEDING RATIONS ; : CoarsE FEEDS OR ROUGHAGE CONCENTRATED FEEDS . JupGING Farm ANIMALS ANIMAL TYPE AND ITS IMPORTANCE Tue BREEDS oF HorsEsS Tue PoINTs OF THE HORSE JUDGING THE HoRSE FEEDING THE HoRSE THe CARE OF HorRSES . BREEDS oF BEEF CATTLE JUDGING BEEF CATTLE FEEDING BEEF CATTLE ; Some Factors INFLUENCING BEEF PRopucTION BREEDS OF Datry CATTLE JupGcING Datry CATTLE Factors INFLUENCING MILK Propuction FEEDING Datry CATTLE SoMETHING ABouT WooL THE BREEDS OF SHEEP THE JUDGING OF SHEEP FEEDING SHEEP THE CARE OF SHEEP | THE BREEDS OF SWINE JUDGING SWINE FEEDING SWINE THE CARE OF SWINE : Boys’ AnD Grrus’ Live-Stock CLuss CooPERTIVE Live Stock SHIPPING AssocIATIONS TYPES AND BREEDS OF POULTRY JUDGING PoULTRY AND PoULTRY Propucts CULLING THE PouLtTrRy FLocK Eaecs AND INCUBATION ; THE FEEDING OF POULTRY . : Tue Pouttry House AND EQuipMENT APPENDIX : INDEX A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS CHAPTER I THE IMPORTANCE OF FARM ANIMALS The study of domestic animals may be considered both a pleasure and a duty—a pleasure, because of the natural- born interest man feels in all animals; and a duty on account of the service horses, cattle, sheep, and swine play in the Figure 1.—Hereford bull, Avondale, champion-at the 1914 Royal Agricultural Br oO England, exhibited by King George V. Photograph by the author. ; world’s affairs. Between many people, and even nations, and their domestic animals, we find an affectionate, sympa- thetic relationship. The people of Great Britain, the world’s leading stockmen, from the King and Queen to the humblest laborer, show a keen and kindly interest in everything 9 10-° A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS relating to farm live stock. One of the most interesting sights to be seen in Europe is the annual show of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, where live stock is made the leading feature, and where vast throngs of people go to inspect and talk over the animals and watch the judges at their work. The average Britisher is a lover of animals, and expresses a common, inherited sentiment. This dis- position on the part of a people develops. the finer, more sympathetic qualities, and broadens and strengthens char- acter. In the same way, the boy or girl who shows a devo- tion to the animal given to his or her care becomes more sympathetic and broader minded, and is rendered more resourceful and capable. From another point of view, ani- mals play a most important part on account of their uses for food and labor. The study of animals as relating to farm economy and the markets of the world becomes, there- fore, a most important matter. The commercial importance of the live stock industry is so great that only a brief reference can be made to it here. One is unable to comprehend the magnitude of the figures which relate to either numbers or values of farm animals. According to the report of the United States Census, on January 1, 1920, the farm animals in this country made the following showing in numbers. Class of Live Stock Number HOUSES. ee ee lieve bo ie eee 21,848,000 Males: 2. jacks ce ee eee eee sie See ee 5,829,000 Milch cows... . 22.7.4. 5 wos once s ee ea eee 20,892,000 Other cattle? 2.2... 2 ee eee 48,031,000 SHEED. ois ,s)2 had Renee sd ce ees ee 35,435,000 WIE Ss oie ees bo. Ys ae ec 2 ee eee 62,007,000 194,042,000 By these figures we see that we had in 1920 about 195 million animals on our farms, a number far too big to comprehend. The significant thing is simply to realize the vastness of our live-stock industry, and the enormous sum of *Includes beef cattle of various kinds and oxen. IMPORTANCE OF FARM ANIMALS 11 money here invested, besides the value of the animals them- selves. The greatest live-stock producing section of the country includes the states of New York, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. The two states of most importance in numbers of each kind of live stock in the United States in 1920 are as follows: Horses..... POA hESt WAL MCS. boss. Soe oe Seles aes «5 1,386,000 hea Nebraska second, with)... 2....2..... 1,322,000 ‘“ Mules..... Mes ehirsh Wate cori h os ehh das be one 849,000 ‘“ Georeia second, withs. 9.5 )5.65 f OCONOMOWOC. WIS..SEATTLE wasn. Figure 110.—Holstein-Friesian bull calf, Carnation King Sylvia, bought in 1918 for the record price of $106,000 by Carnation Stock Farms. Photograph from the owners. ferent animals. In recent years, however, cattle that showed much more white than black have been in most favor. The heads incline to be a trifle long and narrow; the horns seem- ing small for such a large breed; the body is capacious; the rump is long and often steep; and the thighs are large and in many instances tend to be somewhat thick and beefy. The udder is a notable feature of the breed, tending to be pendant, and with age hanging low rather than being held 276 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS fairly close to the belly. In some cases the udder attains immense size and capacity. There are three recognized types of this breed: (a) The thin-fleshed, wedge-shaped type; (b) Those that carry somewhat more flesh; and (c) Those that are rather broad over the withers and thick in the quarters, and show more beefiness than dairy cattle men usually admire. Many persons approve the medium between the two extremes, if the cow is a satisfactory producer of milk. An animal of beefy form, with a thick pair of thighs, is not to be commended. Among the noted Holstein-Friesian sires one finds extremes in type, some animals possessing conforma- tion that is far from what might be regarded as ideal. The milk of the Holstein-Friesian is about average, or below, in quality, not being noted for butter-fat content. But in production of quantity of milk, this breed leads all others in a marked degree. A large number of cows have produced yields of over 100 pounds of milk in a day, Cascade Johanna Illustrites having the remarkable record of 161.4 pounds in 1 day and 3,546 pounds in 30 days. There are many records of over 25,000 pounds of milk in a year. Most remarkable among these is that of Tilly Alcartra, a California cow that has produced in eight consecutive yearly records a total of 201,138 pounds of milk, a yearly average of 25,142 pounds. The greatest yearly production of milk by a cow of the breed was by Segis Pietertje Prospect, of 37,381 pounds, completed in 1921. Holstein-Friesian milk usually contains a small per cent of fat, 3 per cent being common, and 4 per cent unusual for cows not being in official test. Breeders, however, are steadily improving the breed in this respect, so that no doubt there will be an improvement in the average amount of fat. On account of the large milk yield, however, the butter-fat in one day may amount to a very important total. BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 217 In 1919 the cow Rolo Mercena De Kol produced 51.93 pounds of estimated 80% butter in her milk in a 7-day test, while during 30. days she produced 201.17 pounds. From 1915 to 1921 Duchess Skylark Ormsby held the world’s rec- ord for a year’s production of butter-fat, 1,205 pounds, or 1,506.36 pounds of estimated butter. In 1921 Bella Pontiac, however, completed a record for a year of 1,258.8 fat, equal to 1,587.5 pounds of butter. Upto 1922 there have been official advanced registry (A.R.O.) records made by 50 cows of 1,000 pounds or more of butter-fat in 365 days or Figure 111.—Holstein-Friesian cow, Springbrook Bess Burke 2d, one of the most noted dams and producers of the breed. Photograph from the owners, E. C. Shroeder Farms, Minnesota. less. In May 1921, the President of the Holstein-Friesian Association of America stated* that “the Advanced Registry contains milk and butter records to the number of 125,000, and last year there were added thereto about 17,000 records,”’ which showing is remarkable. Among the noted Holstein-Friesian families are the Bess Burke, Clothilde, De Kol, Johanna, Korndyke, May Echo, Netherland, Ona, Pauline Paul, Pietertye, and Segis. *Hoard’s Dairyman, June 3. 1921, 278 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS Prices for Holstein-Friesian cattle range from ordinary to the highest that have been paid for cattle of any breed. A considerable number of animals sold during the period following the World War for from $10,000 each or more. The bull Carnation King Sylvia, a son of the famous cow May Echo Sylvia, sold in 1918 for $106,000. The distribution of Holstein-Friesian cattle is very wide- spread. In the United States, New York holds first place as a center for the breed, with Wisconsin, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Michigan ranking in numbers of animals in the order given. A large percentage of the cattle of this breed are located in the Middle Atlantic and Central States. The breed is promoted by the Holstein-Friesian Association of America, with about 20,000 members, and by many state and local breed associations. The breed has had a wonder- ful development in the United States, and is constantly growing in favor. The great feeding and producing capacity of the cows, and their quiet disposition, have added much to their popularity, especially among men supplying milk to creameries or the city trade. In recent years, especially during and since the World War, Holstein-Friesians or Friesians as they are termed there, have grown in great favor in Great Britain. Guernsey cattle originated on the island of Guernsey, another of the Channel Islands, and come from much the same ancestry as the Jersey. The people of Guernsey adopted plans for keeping out foreign cattle, similar to those of Jersey. The earlier Guernsey cattle show less careful breeding, however, and, as a whole, have not been selected and improved as much as those on Jersey. Guernsey is a tri- angular, hilly island, of about 15,500 acres in area, and sup- ports a population of perhaps 45,000 people. The climate is balmy and healthful. The people make a specialty of flowers, vegetables, and cattle. The island of Alderney is officially a part of Guernsey, and the cattle on this island BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 279 are the same as the Guernseys, being so regarded by Guern- sey and American breeders. In early days, though not at present, all the cattle from the Channel Islands in England and America were called Alderneys. These cattle were first introduced to America, it is thought, in 1830. The characteristics of Guernsey cattle are very compar- able with the Jersey. The two breeds are certainly closely related in their origin. The Guernseys are somewhat larger, than the Jerseys, standard weights being 1,600 pounds for the mature bulls and 1,100 pounds for the cows. The color Figure 112.—Guernsey bull Langwater Advocate. Photograph from Lang- water Farm, North Easton, Mass. is usually yellow or red fawn, although white spots are very common, some of the most noted animals of the breed show- ing considerable white. The face is somewhat straighter than with the Jersey, and a very light creamy or ‘‘mealy”’ ring of hair extends around the muzzle and about the eyes. A flesh-colored muzzle is preferred by breeders, a dark slate color being decidedly unpopular. Guernseys are often plain of head and rough of shoulder, and lack the beautiful front 280 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS udder development so often found on the Island Jerseys. These cattle are noted for the yellow skin and secretions, the milk being especially high in color. Guernseys are usually of a quiet disposition, and the bulls are perhaps rather less nervous than are Jersey males. The milk of the Guernsey from the standpoint of quality and butter-fat production is unsurpassed. The milk has a natural rich yellow color, and tests 5 per cent or better in butter-fat. The cows make surprisingly high yields of milk, Figure 113.—Guernsey cow, Langwater Phyllis. Owned by F. L. Ames, Langwater Farms, Massachusetts. Photograph from Mr. Ames. and some 10,000 cows officially tested, up to December, 1920, showed an average production of 9,068 pounds, con- taining 454 pounds of fat. Great individual records have been made, the leading one in milk production being that of Murne Cowan of 24,008 pounds for a year, ending in 1915, while Countess Prue secured the lead in butter-fat produc- tion, by producing 1,103.28 pounds during a year ending in 1921. A wonderful two-year record was made by Kath- BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 281 erine’s Trixie, in a yield of 18,945.7 pounds of milk, contain- ing 791.48 pounds of fat. Among the great butter-fat producing Guernseys are Murne Cowan with a yearly record of 1,098 pounds, May Rilma, 1,073 pounds, Nella Jay 4th, 1,019 pounds and Langwater Nancy, 1,012 pounds. The American Guernsey Cattle Club was the first breed association to establish what are known as official tests for milk and butter production, conducted by disinterested experiment station or agricultural college employees. Since the Club began this work, the Guernsey has made a remark- able showing. Some of the largest butter-fat records made by cows of any breed have come from the Guernsey. The prices paid for Guernsey cattle average fairly high, compared with those of other breeds. In 1918 the average price of 1,318 head sold at public auction was $330, while the average of 2,464 head sold in 1920 was $508. On May 13, 1921, at the Eastern Guernsey Breeders’ Association sale 56 head brought an average of $1,087. Some very high prices have been paid for individuals, one two-months-old bull calf, Florham Leader, selling for $25,000. The distribution of the Guernsey is not so extensive as either Jersey or Holstein-Friesian. Wisconsin is the leading state in promoting Guernseys, while the Middle Atlantic states, New England, and the North Central states largely furnish the American support of the breed. The American Guernsey Cattle Club, with headquarters in New Hamp- shire, is the official promoter of the breed, and there are also state and local Guernsey clubs. The Ayrshire is a Scotch breed that originated in the region Robert Burns has made famous, the county of Ayr in southwest Scotland. It has rather a cold, damp climate in winter, but there is good grazing in summer. Except near the sea, the country is more or less hilly. The Ayrshire is a dairy breed, and one of the youngest of the prominent breeds. Cattle were taken to the Ayrshire country from 282 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS various places, for Shorthorn, Highland, Dutch, Guernsey, Devon, and Hereford cattle are said to have been owned by the farmers of that region. From the mingling of color of these breeds we get the red, brown, and white markings that are features of the Ayrshire. At the beginning of the nineteenth century there were cows in southwest Scotland that were famous milkers, and by offering prizes for compe- tition, the Scotch people have still more encouraged large milk production. Ayrshires were first imported to America early in the nineteenth century. Figure 114.—Three beautiful Ayrshire cows owned by Arthur H. Sagendorph of Massachusetts. Photograph from American Agricultur‘st. Characteristics of the Ayrshire. The mature bull should weigh about 1,500 pounds, and the cow about 1,100. The color is red and white or brown and white, with white most abundant in recent years. The head is one of the striking features of the breed, with its rather long, large and erect horns. While a true dairy breed, the Ayrshire inclines to be a trifle fleshy, with more thickness over the withers, along the back, and about the thighs than in case of the Jersey or BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 283 Guernsey. Some of the bulls are too beefy for the best dairy form, but there are many cows that show beautiful dairy type. No other breed has such a uniformly well-developed udder as the Ayrshire, the fore part being much extended, and the rear udder carried well up behind. A big show of Ayrshire cows, without exception, makes a most uniform and attractive exhibit. The milk of the Ayrshire is of standard quality, testing from 314 to 4 per cent fat. It makes excellent cheese, and Figure 115. are Sashiee pall Ear enoch Bonnie Scotland owned by John Sherwin eegenoch Bo by the author. most of the famous cheddar cheese of Scotland is made from Ayrshire milk. Very fine records in milk production have been made, a number of cows producing over 25,000 pounds of milk in a year. The great record of 25,329 pounds of milk in a year was made by Garclaugh May Mischief, while Lily of Willowmoor, one of the great cows of the breed, in five years produced a total of 84,991 pounds of milk, an average of nearly 17,000 pounds a year. A considerable 284 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS number of excellent records in milk fat production have been made, with Lily of Willowmoor holding high rank with 955% pounds to her credit in a year. The distribution of Ayrshire cattle in America is largely in the northeastern states and in Canada, where many excellent herds are found. A few herds are found here and there in the western states, as far as the Pacific slope, but the Ayrshire is not popular in the West. These cattle are hardy and do well in the more northern climates. Brown Swiss cattle originated in Switzerland. In color they are usually a dark brown, with lighter or cream-colored Figure 116.—Brown Swiss cow McAlpine, a noted prize winner owned by E. M. Barton of Illinois. Photograph by the author. hair about the muzzle and along the top of the back. They incline to be heavy of head and neck, and coarse-boned; are likely to be somewhat fleshy, and often have rather meaty thighs. The cows produce a very good grade of milk, and some very excellent records have been made by Brown Swiss cows, College Bravura 2nd having produced 19,460 pounds in a year, containing 798 pounds of fat. While they often impress one as dual-purpose cattle, the association promot- BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 285 ing them has officially declared the Brown Swiss to be a dairy breed. These cattle are not popular in America, and but few herds are found in any part of the country, these being mostly confined to New York and the Middle West. The Dutch Belted breed of cattle was developed in Hol- land. It is of the dairy type, and is noted for its black color, marked off by a white stripe or blanket of varying width which extends entirely around the body between the hips and shoulders. It has not made much of a reputation for milk or butter-fat production, and, so far as public evidence goes, it is one of the poorest dairy breeds. There are very | few herds in America, and they attract more attention from their peculiar markings than for actual merit. . The French Canadian is a breed that has had special development for 200 years or so in Quebec, Canada. These cattle are black or very dark fawn in color, and probably had their origin in France, from the same sources as the Channel Island cattle. This is one of the small breeds, the mature cow weighing about 700 pounds. French Canadian milk tests slightly above 4 per cent in fat. Some large milk records are reported from Canada, but the specimens of the breed to be found in the United States do not seem to be important producers. It is regarded as a very hardy breed. There are few herds in the United States, these being located in the northeastern portion, though especially in New York. The Kerry is an Irish breed that has long been bred in Ireland. It is black in color, though white sometimes occurs about the udder of the cow. It is of small size, and will exist where most breeds would starve, hence it is the poor man’s cow of Ireland. It is strictly a dairy type, and pro- duces an excellent milk, testing about 4 per cent fat. Some of the cows give a large yield of milk, considering their size. Milk records in Ireland supervised by the Department. of Agriculture, show yields in a year up to 8,124 pounds. There are but few Kerries in America. 286 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS The Dexter is another Irish breed, of uncertain ancestry but closely related to the Kerry. These cattle may be black or red in color, and are the smallest breed found in America. Many of the mature bulls and cows stand only 36 to 40 inches high. The cows often produce excellent yields of milk, testing above 4 per cent fat. Cases are on record where cows of this breed weighed around 500 pounds and produced in a year over 8,000 pounds of milk. These dimin- utive cattle may never be popular for general dairying in America, but they will grow in favor for family use. The Devon is red in color, and originated in Devon, southwest England. It is a breed that is found to be either beefy or dual-purpose in form. It is a very old breed, and was brought to America by the early settlers of this country. Devons are not popular, and but few herds exist. It has lost ground in this country while other breeds have gained. Recently, however, the few members of the American Devon Cattle Club have attempted to establish official test- ing of Devons, and to demonstrate that they have cows of real merit in milk and butter-fat production in this dual- purpose breed. This awakening interest is largely among eastern breeders, ina section where dairy production is of much greater interest to cattlemen than is the growing of beef. The Red Polled, as its name shows, is red, and without horns. The breed originated in Suffolk and Norfolk coun- ties in eastern England. Red mulley cattle have been known in America since the early settlement of the country, but the first importation of the breed recorded was in 1873. These cattle are regarded good for both beef and milk production. The cows make a very good grade of milk, but, as a rule, are not heavy producers, although some excellent milk records have been made. The cow Jean DuLuth Beauty produced 20,280 pounds of milk in a year, containing 89114 pounds of fat. Red Polled cattle are most common in the Middle Western states, especially Iowa, Illinois, and Wisconsin. BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 287 SOME COMMON QUESTIONS RELATING TO DAIRY CATTLE ea a WNrKCwoOomOnN [@p) Oe WN . What did the people of Jersey do to protect the purity of their cattle? . What is the difference between Island and American type Jerseys? . How productive is the Jersey in milk and butter-fat? . How large are Holstein-Friesian cattle? . What would be average Holstein-Friesian milk yields, and how do these compare with heavy records made? How adaptable is the Holstein-Friesian breed to American con- ditions? Where is it most abundant? . In what respects do Guernseys and Jere resemble each other? .. How do Guernseys rank in official milk tests? . In what section of the United States are Guernseys most popular? . What is the color of the Ayrshire? . Why is Lily of Willowmoor a noted cow? . Are Brown Swiss dairy or dual-purpose type? . What is the difference between the Kerry and the Dexter? SOME INSTRUCTIVE LABORATORY WORK . A comparative study of two or more dairy herds of different breeds. . Making a township or county map of pure-bred herds. . Getting records of production from different herds. . Studying lines of breeding in one or more herds. . Investigating the use of pure-bred sires in grade herds. . Locating the best bred sire in the community. CHAPTER XXV JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE The following discussion of judging dairy eattle is based on the scale of points in the score card in this chapter. This is general in its character, and is’suited to the dairy cow irrespective of breed. Each of the national breed associa- tions promoting dairy cattle has its official standard for Figure 117.—Holstein-Friesian cow Maplecrest Pontiac Application, a fine example of dairy type. She has a record of 1,075 pounds of butter-fat in 365 days. Photograph from American Agriculturist. each sex, and this may be used to advantage in breed study. The contents of this chapter are in harmony with the principles and practices involved in judging, and so should be a fitting introduction to score card work with the breeds. The size of the dairy animal is not material, unless in the case of a breed that has certain size requirements. Among 288 JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 289 grade animals may be found valuable producers at wide ranges of size. There are large producers in each breed, from the little Dexter, weighing 500 pounds, up to the Holstein, weighing 1,800. For this reason, size is of minor importance, if producing capacity and proper conformation exist. The general form of the dairy cow should be somewhat wedge-shaped, often referred to as the ‘‘triple wedge.”” This shape really means a narrowness in front and heaviness be- Figure 118.—Jersey bull, Fontaines Raleigh. Photograph from the owner, C. I. Hudson of New York. hind. As one looks at a typical dairy cow from one side, the front part seems less deep than that behind. If a stick of ample length were laid along the back, and another were placed in a similar position against the under side of the body, they would meet at a common point in front, if suf- ficiently extended. Thus we see one of the wedge features. If one stands in front and looks towards the rear of the ani- mal, it will be noticed that the thickness through the front quarter at the shoulder is less than that of the hind quarter 10 290 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS at the hips or just below. This view shows a second wedge conformation. The third wedge is seen by standing at the shoulder and looking down over the withers and ribs. From the withers the ribs gradually widen out to form a notice- able wedge in the upper half of the body. Thus we may see the three wedges in the conformation of the dairy cow. The general form of the dairy bull shows much less of the wedge shape than the cow. The best bulls, however, have a certain amount of thinness at the withers, and the body is long and muscular. The depth at the hind quarter is much the same as at the fore quarter, although the males are frequently somewhat high at the rear flanks. While the thighs, from a side view, appear muscular, as is the case with the cow, from the rear they should be thin and widely and highly separated. A beefy appearance of the thigh in this type is most undesirable. Quality in dairy cattle has certain features in common with the beef type, such as fineness of hair and bone and mellowness of skin. ‘The chief difference is in the thickness and length of the coat of hair, which is usually much shorter and thinner on dairy than on beef cattle. The dairy ani- mal, as a rule, has the thinner and more elastic hide of the two. Those cattle that are of Jersey or Guernsey blood have very mellow, most elastic hides, that sometimes resemble a mole skin in their soft, pliable nature. Yellow color in the ears, skin, and horns is regarded as evidence of quality, and indicates the production of milk rich in color. ‘The Guernsey ‘Cattle Club places such a high value on the color of the secre- tions, that 15 points are allowed this feature in their scale of points. . The temperament of the dairy animal should show plenty of nervous force. This does not mean an excitable disposi- tion, but lively rather than phlegmatic. Dairy bulls usually show plenty of nervous force, as compared with beef stock. The cow is constituted to produce milk, a task which requires JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 291 a large amount of vitality and nervous energy. Indications of the temperament are easily seen in the prominence and character of expression of the eye. Some claims have been made that prominence of the spine indicates a large spinal cord and active brain, being a further indication of nervous force. There is very little information on this subject, how- ever, that will justify drawing conclusions. In judging dairy cattle, further than stated, there are certain things of importance to be considered that especially apply to this type, as set forth in the following score card for a cow with the mammary parts well developed: A SCORE CARD FOR DAIRY COWS Stu- Cor- Scale of points Perfect | dent’s | rected score | score score GENERAL APPEARANCE: 19 Points. Size, large, medium, or small ........:... ee tee ee Form, wedge shape from front, side, and top; mus- | REEL ERRNc eee oe uae he a ot oe HBTS 9, igs Cee RCE NE ae es a le Mar FO TEMPERAMENT, active, showing nervous force HEAD AND NECK: 7 Points. Muzz.e, broad; face lean, shapely................ EYEs, prominent, bright; forehead broad.......... EARS, medium size, not coarse................. Neck, somewhat long, not thick, well placed; clean at throat; lithtidewlap ance o thc eo ee es FORE QUARTERS: 9 Points. WHTHERA bhin and lean NY.- Mass -Oregon- Wis. 3527 7.300 Utah ger Colorado=Del.»lowa*Ky.-N.C -NMex.-W. Vir. 1750 Missouri= Tenn. Ala.-Ark.e Miss. : 4 Prepared by the Dalry Divigt sion, Florida. U. S. Department of Agriculture.’ Rieure 132,—Showing the milk S atientn of the average cow in the United States and dairy countries. WHAT DO YOU KNOW ABOUT . The dairy cow as a producer of digestible food? . The relative merits of beef and dairy cows in milk production? . The composition of Jersey and Holstein-Friesian milk? . The effect of the cow’s age on milk production? Decreased milk flow and stage of lactation? Securing high butter-fat records in official testing? The effect of different foods on the flavor of milk? The effect of the milking machine on production? How the fat content of milk is determined? . Cow-testing associations? VISIT SOME DAIRY HERDS AND 11. Note the type of cows being milked. 12, Determine what breeds are in most favor. 13. Learn what per cent of the cows are over eight years old. 14. Study the milk sheets in the stable. 15. Note the rations being fed. 16. If milking machines are used, ascertain with what success. 17. Compare, if possible, some tested with untested herds. SOOO NID Ors GO BO ps e CHAPTER XXVII FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE The most careful study has been given to the feeding of dairy cattle. The experiment stations have done exten- sive work in feeding, and many practical dairymen have used feeding standards and made up carefully balanced rations in efforts to work out their home problems. The feeding standards for dairy cattle cover young and growing animals and those producing milk. There is not much difference in the growth requirements of dairy and beef cattle. Slightly more protein is recommended for the latter, with about equal amounts of carbohydrates. The amount of food given to milk-producing cows depends largely on the yield of milk. The Wolf-Lehmann tables here quoted are from Feeds and Feeding, by Henry and Morrison. I. Wolff-Lehmann feeding standard for growing dairy cattle. Per day for 1,000 Ibs. live weight Age Average Dry Digestible Nutrient Nutritive months liveweight matter protein _carbohy- Fat ratio drates 2- 3 150 lbs. 23 Ibs. 4.0 Ibs. 13.0 lbs. 2.0 Ibs. 1:4.5 3-868 S00) 24 “ 3:0) * 12.8 °°“ LON 1:5.1 6-12 500 “ Pat (ae 2.0 “ 125 O15.“ 1:6.8 12-18 700 “ 26 “ ene 12.5% 0.4 “ 1:7.5 18-24 900 “ 26 “ APS 12.0)“ Oss 1:8.5 II. Modified Wolff-Lehmann standard for dairy cows. For maintenance 1,000 1b. cow . . .0.700 lb. digestible crude protein 7925 total digestible nutrient. To allowance for maintenance add: Digestible crude Total digestible protein nutrients For each lb. of 3.0 % milk 0.047-0.057 0.286 & 3.5 ae 0.049-0.061 0.316 re 4.0 o 0.054-0.065 0.346 eS 4.5 oh 0.057-0.069 0.376 oe 5.0 i 0.060-0.073 0.402 < 5.5 eS 0.064-0.077 0.428 6.0 rN 0.067-0.081 0.454 310 FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 311 Feeding milk to the dairy calf, as practiced in the United States, does not vary greatly in method among intelligent breeders. The calf is usually allowed to stay with the mother in a box stall for 3 or 4 days after it is born, nursing at will. Some persons, however, take the calf away within 24 hours or at once. It is a good plan to allow the calf to nurse the cow until the milk is fit to use, being careful not to overfeed, for the massage and frequent nursing of the calf will help to reduce udder inflammation. The milk for the first 3 or 4 days contains a substance called colostrum, which makes fresh milk more or less sticky, and this material acts as a desirable physic with the new-born calf. After being taken from the mother, the calf must be fed whole milk, preferably from the dam. Calves are fed this new milk for from 1 to 3 weeks, starting with 8 to 10 pounds a day, divided in 3 feeds. Then skim milk is gradually _ substituted for the whole, adding each day a pound until only skimmed milk is fed. The milk for the young calf should be sweet and always be fed in perfectly clean pails under sanitary conditions, at a temperature of about 100 degrees, or as it may come from the separator. Care should be exercised not to overfeed. A good rule to go by is to feed 1 pound of milk for each 8 or 10 pounds of live weight. For example, a Holstein-Friesian calf weighing 100 pounds might be fed 10 or 12 pounds. Skim milk may be profit- ably fed, when cheap or abundant, up to 8 or 10 months of age, when the calf should be weaned. Whole milk is too expensive for calf feeding unless for some special purpose, while the skimmed milk under proper conditions produces a strong-framed, vigorous animal. Feeding roughage to the dairy calf is a very simple mat- ter. If a handful of fine leafy hay or clover be placed in the stall when the calf is 2 or 3 weeks old, it will begin to nibble on it, and its consumption of this roughage will grad- ually increase. This dry coarse feed will distend the stom- 312 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS ach and increase its feeding capacity. The most popular hay fed dairy calves is either clover or alfalfa. A 200-pound calf will consume 2 or 3 pounds of hay a day. Feeding concentrates to the dairy calf begins, as a rule, at 2 to 3 weeks of age. The best plan is to have a small feed box in the manger or stall, in which a handful of some palatable meal may be placed. A mixture of equal parts of corn meal, bran, and oats will be relished. Messrs. Hulce and Nevens, of the Illinois station, reeommend* a mixture of ground corn 10 parts, by weight, oats 50 parts, wheat bran 30 parts, and oil meal 10 parts. One may feed shelled or cracked corn in the milk, if desired. When skim milk is fed, the calf should not be fed oil meal or foods rich in pro- tein, because the nutritive ratio of skim milk is extremely narrow (1:1), so that some food rich in carbohydrates should be used in- stead, and corn serves this purpose very well. The calf should be fed enough grain and roughage along with the milk to keep it gaining from a pound to a pound Figure 133.—Feeding the young dairy calf. . Photo- and a half a day. graph by the author. Raising calves with a milk substitute has not met with general success, unless begun after 2 or 3 months of age. Substitutes for milk have been made and sold on the market, and teas have been made from hay and mixed with concen- trates, but these are not entirely satisfactory. Milk in some quantity for a time is really essential, if the calf is to do well. Hulce and Nevens say: f *Circular 202, Univ. of Ill. Ag. Exp. Station, Feed and Care of the Dairy Calf. fIbid. p. 6. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 313 “Tt is necessary in using a milk supplement other than skim milk to feed a considerable amount of whole milk. The amount of milk required is about a pound daily for every eight pounds of live weight until the animal is four or five weeks old. At that age a milk supple- ment may be substituted gradually for the milk. Such a supplement may be prepared as a gruel mixture made up of equal parts of oil meal, blood meal, hominy and flour. The gruel is made by pouring hot water over the meal while it is stirred vigorously, after which it is allowed to stand before being used. The gruel may be fed at such a rate that the animal receives the equivalent of one fourth pound of dry meal daily at the beginning, the amount being increased about one fourth of a pound daily each week for four weeks. As a rule the use of milk should be continued until the calf is at least 60 days of age. At two months of age the calf will have received about 400 pounds of whole milk in addi- tion to the milk supplement.” Feeding the dairy heifer after weaning calls for securing a consistent, strong growth by the use of as much good roughage as possible and a relatively small amount of grain. There is nothing better for this purpose than legume hay, corn silage, and 2 or 3 pounds of grain a day. In an extended report* on experiments on ‘‘winter rations for dairy heifers,”’ Prof. C. H. Eckles offers some practical sug- gestions from which the following is abstracted. (1) When silage and legume hay is available, a ration of corn silage, alfalfa, clover, cowpea or soy bean hay at will, and 2 pounds daily of grain also, if the calf is under 10months old, is reeommended. Corn may be fed, or a mixture of other grains if the cost is less. From 2 ~ 5 pounds of grain a day should be fed heifers within 3 months of calving. (2) When legume hay is not available but corn silage is, use silage at will with some other dry hay or fodder. Two or 3 pounds of some concentrates should be fed daily, half of which should be rich in protein, such as gluten feed, linseed meal or cottonseed meal, the other half being corn, bran, or any other mixture if cheaper than corn. (3 When legume hay is abundant, but no silage, a ration of alfalfa, clover, cowpea or soy bean hay at will, and 2 pounds of corn daily will make a satisfactory ration. On a ration of legume hay dairy heifers will do fairly well but will not make a normal growth. It is economical as a rule to feed a limited amount of grain in addition. (4) When corn fodder, or Kafir corn or timothy hay is available, but no silage or legume hay, it will be wise to buy legume hay. The suggested ration is half and half legume and timothy hay, with corn fodder at will. For concentrates with this roughage feed a mixture of one part gluten feed, or cottonseed meal, or linseed meal, and two parts corn. If legume hay is not at all available, then more grain must be fed. Feeding the milk-producing cow offers an opportunity to make up many combinations of rations. It must be *Bulletin 158 Missouri Station, October, 1918. 314 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS agreed, however, on the basis of extensive experimental as well as practical feeding, that legume hay and corn silage, with standard grains such as corn and oats and mill prod- ucts like bran, gluten feed, linseed meal and cottonseed meal, furnish the most palatable and satisfactory list of feeds for common use in milk production. It is not necessary to have a great variety in order to secure satisfactory results from the feeding. If one studies the composition of rations of cows that have made high records in official testing, one _ will be impressed with the fact that comparatively simple rations have given very fine returns. Where one buys feed, the market price has an important bearing on the selection, but it must be kept in mind that the cow yielding a generous milk supply should have a ration in which proteid foods play an important part. A common standard for the amount of concentrates to be fed is 1 pound for each 3 or 4 pounds of milk produced. Cows producing rich milk require slightly heavier feeding than those producing poor milk. From 30 to 50 pounds of silage are usually fed daily, according to size of cow and milk yield, with a free use of dry roughage. When on good ~ pasture, no silage or roughage is fed, and oftentimes but little grain will then be eaten. Care should be taken to see that each cow is fed as an individual, and that she has enough to meet all requirements. Many cows are underfed. It is very important to know that of the food eaten 40 per cent is used to support the demands of the body, and 60 per cent goes to milk production. Any reduction in the amount of nutrients necessary will be shown in a falling off in weight of the cow and in a lessened milk supply. Thus it can be easily seen that it is of vital importance to feed enough to the cow. RECOMMENDED RATIONS FOR DAIRY COWS Various factors play an important part in making up rations, two of these being especially so in common practice, 315 FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE pues pue ‘ITM 9@ odR]IS poAtoood Anois sty T “AYISIOATU() LINOSSIPY Wolj sydeisojoyg ‘punod ZI", sem ules Aliep ose19Ae oy J, “uso Jo spunod Z Bj[BJ[V JO Spunod 9g ‘oseIs Jo spunod JT SGM UOTYLI OSeIOAG OUT, “YO P[NOM Ady SB T OF FE Jo uo1j10doid ul poy ‘eyyeyye eseIIS YONU se YPM AlIep UOD Jo Spunod Z UO pdiojJUIM SEM ANOS SIU], “UsOI PUD asDpIS uO pasazuImM sAafia}y—ce] oINALT ‘punod 9/'9 Sem ules oSvI0Ae OUT, ‘Ajvep [eour pessuojjo9 puv usiod jo youd punod [ puv Avy Ayyourly Jo spunod Z “KJISAINIU 1) LANGSSLIAT JD [DIU Paasuojjor pup Koy KyJOUL1Z ‘adD]IS UO padajUIMm SdAafla}J—FET BINS 316 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS namely, availability and cost. The following recommended rations are by well-known American authorities on feeding dairy cattle, and for that reason are here given. Prof. E. 8. Savage of Cornell University writes.* “The Figure 136. — The result of feeding too much wheat bran and poor roughage. This cow was fed a mixture of 6 parts wheat bran, 4 parts corn stover. Millers’ bran disease resulted the cow aborting six weeks before her time. Reproduced from Bulletin 302, Wisconsin Experiment Station. mixture I am suggesting for dairy cows this summer 1s as follows: 300 pounds wheat: bran® <.o5. 2 8... oe eee Cost $3.43 330 Stig MOMMY C..G aul hic FA oe eee ee, oe eee ee S 2 Asse 300 fo giuten feed... uc oen, eaea.: eee ee £2 5 100 ff: * S@tmeal... sco tas of ae oe eee 15 1000 Si gN AMMUCOSE r GSis sok se, Se Se Cost 14.83 100 54 ‘ Sai le es Pa. Se ee Ae The above is for cows on pasture.”’ 7 Prof. A. C. McCandlish, of the Iowa State College,recom- mends the following concentrate rations in a pamphlet on feeding dairy cattle,j it being assumed that corn silage *Holstein-Friesian World, July 9, 1921. tCircular No. 64, Iowa Exp. Station, March, 1920. z FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 317 and some one or another of the legume hays will also be fed. Ration A. 400 lbs. cracked corn, corn-and-cob meal, or hominy feed. 200 “‘ ground oats. 100 “ cottonseed meal. 100 “ linseed meal Ration B. 400 lbs. cracked corn, corn-and-cob meal, or hominy feed. 100 “ ground oats. 100 “ wheat bran. 100 ‘“ cottonseed meal. 100 “ linseed meal. > Ration C. 400 lbs. cracked corn, corn-and-cob meal, or hominy feed. 200 “ ground oats. 100 ‘“ gluten feed. 100 ‘ wheat bran. Among 13 rations recommended by Prof. F. W. Woll* the following are selected: a (1) Hay 20 lbs., oats 3 lbs., corn-and-cob meal 3 lbs., linseed meal 2 Ibs. (2) Hay 10 lbs., corn stalks free, wheat bran 3 lIbs., corn meal 2 lbs., cottonseed meal 2 lbs. (3) Hay free, corn silage 30 lbs., oats 4 Ibs., linseed meal 2 lbs., cottonseed meal 1 lb. (4) Alfalfa hay 20 lbs., oats 4 lbs., corn meal 2 lbs. (5) Corn silage 30 lbs., cottonseed hulls 12 lbs., cottonseed meal 3 lbs., bran 6 lbs. Prof. C. H. Eckles, of Minnesota University, gives the following among ‘‘some good dairy rations:”’ f ~ (1) Corn silage 25 lbs., clover hay 10 lbs., corn 4 lbs., wheat bran 4 lbs. (2) Corn silage 30 lbs., alfalfa or cow pea hay 10 lbs., corn 6 Ibs., wheat bran 2 lbs. (3) Clover hay 20 lbs., corn 4-5 lbs., wheat bran or oats 2-4 Ibs. (4) Clover hay 20 lbs., corn-and-cob meal 6 lbs., gluten or cotton- seed meal 2 lbs. Prof. C. Larsen, of South Dakota State College, recom- mends the following two rations:$§ (1) When corn silage and alfalfa hay or clover hay are fed, then use a mixture of 25 per cent ground corn, 55 per cent ground oats, 20 er cent wheat bran. For large producing cows add two to four pounds inseed meal daily. (2) When cows are fed corn silage and prairie hay, or brome grass hay, or timothy hay for roughage, then the following basic grain ration is recommended. Crouid.oate,..F sa... 45 per cent Wheat bran.........20 per cent Ground barley orspelt 20 “ “ Linseed meal........ ce wae *Productive Feeding of Farm Animals, 1915. +Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, 1911. §Farm Dairying, 1919. 318 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS Among the 15 rations given above, it will be noted are those suited to the far North, the Central West, the Western states, the South, and New England. The feed for dry cows, as a rule, largely consists of silage or roughage. It is important, however, that they be in good condition at calving, in order to meet the drain of milk pro- duction. Farmers who sell milk or butter usually plan to have their cows freshen late in the fall, so that they may be milked during the period of higher prices, and also at a time when they can give more individual attention to live stock. Pasture, therefore, may be about the only feed the cow will recelve on many farms. As the pastures get short, silage or legume hay should be fed, if possible, and enough grain given to put the cow in condition for freshening. In cases where official testing is conducted, dry cows are often fattened to fit them for record-making milk production. Feeding cows on pasture requires careful oversight. When the green stuff is abundant, other feed may be un- necessary. As the grass gets short in July or August, it should be supplemented, if possible, with silage or with some soiling crop, such as corn, sorghum, clover, alfalfa, ete. Further, some grain is desirable when the pastures get short. The cows should be kept up in production as much as pos- sible at this time, and a light grain feed will help. Experi- ments on feeding grain to cows on pasture were conducted at Cornell University for some years, when it appeared that the extra milk yield did not pay for the feed; but there was a secondary result from the feeding of the grain on pasture.* ‘It was found in the Cornell experiments that in the second year the cows that had received grain while on pasture the year before did better than those that received no grain. “Prof. Roberts holds that the benefit of grain on pasture: was an especially marked one in the development of the young stock. This combination of feed showed up in their *Prof. E. 8. Savage in Holstein-Friesian World, July 9, 1921. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 319 greater production, greater size and stretch than those receiving no grain on pasture.” Feeding the dairy bull. Many persons neglect the bull, and feed him very meager rations, so that he often looks thin and poorly fed. The-bull should never be fat and in high condition, but he should look in good muscular form, full of vigor and ambition. He should have plenty of suitable hay and feed of concentrates in which protein is abundant. If he is at the head of a large herd and in service, then he should be fed about the same amount of nutrients as a dairy cow, otherwise less food is needed. From 5 to 10 _ pounds of grain a day may be fed, depending upon the size and work of the animal. Some persons object to silage for Figure 137.—Dairy cows on pasture. Photograph by the author. the bull, thinking that this food makes him sterile, and do not feed it, but in the author’s experience it may be fed satisfactorily if in not too great an amount, as 10 or 12 pounds, for example. Prof. Larsen, however, states* that he has discontinued feeding silage to dairy bulls in service. Some succulent food, however, is desirable, and in summer green food may be fed, and in winter sliced roots in small quantity are recommended. Exercise for health and vigor is a most desirable thing for the dairy bull. At the Ohio State University for *Farm Dairying, 1919, 320 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS some years we have had a strong cable stretched between two high iron posts about 100 feet apart. A strong rope about 10 feet long is fastened at one end in the ring in the nose of the bull, while the other end is tied to an iron ring which slides on the cable. The bull thus fastened is given a fine opportunity for exercise and is yet under control. The University has also exercised a Jersey bull by harness- ing him and hitching to a small wagon, driving him about with reins, and using him for hauling loads of moderate weight. Under most conditions, as a matter of safety to attendants, the bull should be dehorned. Salt for dairy cattle is very necessary, and should be sup- plied with regularity. Some persons at regular intervals throw a quantity of salt in each manger. Many feeders, who study their feeding carefully, sprinkle the necessary amount of salt in the feed at regular times. Others have salt boxes in yards, where the cattle may lick it at will, or throw heaps on the ground where it will be eaten. Accord- ing to our best authorities, a cow weighing 1,000 pounds should be fed from 1 to 3 ounces of salt a day, depending upon the amount of milk produced. Water for the dairy cow. It can be sathiy seen that a cow producing a great amount of milk, say 100 pounds in a day, must require a large amount of water to supply her body needs. The amount of water necessary, however, de- pends largely on the kind of food eaten and the milk yield. If rich pasturage, a soiling feed, silage or roots are eaten, the demand for water will be comparatively light, while, if dry pasture or hay, especially a legume, is the main source of roughage, large amounts of water may be drunk. A warm temperature also adds to the demand for drink. Under fair conditions of production, probably 75 to 100 pounds of water daily will suffice. The Holstein-Friesian cow Mis- souri Chief Josephine at Missouri University, according to Prof. C. H. Eckles, on a seven-day test, averaged in excess FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 321 of 100 pounds of milk each day. She ate about 18 pounds of alfalfa hay, 10 pounds of silage and 14 to 20 pounds of grain, and drank from 216 to 307 pounds of water daily, or approximately from 27 to 38 gallons a day. QUESTIONS LIKE THESE ARE OFTEN ASKED BY DAIRYMEN tt pe WNFe Oo CON OB CON Se ee NO Or > et © © 0 . What is meant by a feeding standard? . How long after birth should a calf be allowed to nurse its dam? What is a good ration for a calf weighing about 200 pounds? Is there a satisfactory substitute for milk for raising calves? What is a good winter ration for a dairy heifer? How much grain should be fed to the producing cow? What per cent of the food goes into milk production? . Will you give a good ration for my dairy cow? I have plenty of silage and legume hay, cracked corn, oats, bran, gluten feed. . Under what conditions should dry cows be fed grain? . Does it pay to feed grain to cows on pasture? . How should a dairy bull be handled and fed? . How much salt should be fed? . What is the relationship of water consumption to milk production? AMONG PEOPLE YOU KNOW KEEPING DAIRY CATTLE . Are balanced rations commonly used? . In what way and how long are the calves fed milk? . What form of roughage is fed the calves? . Can you secure two or three sample rations and exhibit them to your class? . Who feeds grain to cows on pasture? . How are the aged bulls exercised? . When and how are the cows salted? CHAPTER XXVIII SOMETHING ABOUT WOOL Before taking up the study of sheep, it is desirable to first give some consideration to the subject of wool, in order that one may understand its relationship to sheep hus- bandry. The commercial production of wool is a world-wide industry, with some countries giving it much more attention than others. According to.estimates of the United States Department of Agriculture, the wool crop of the world for 1921 amounted to 2,608,445,000 pounds. Australasia, including Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania, is the lead- ing wocl-producing part of the world, being credited with 798 million pounds. South America, more especially Argen- tina and Uruguay, produced in 1921 approximately 460 million pounds, while North America ranked third, producing about 250 million pounds. The only states in this country which in 1920 had over 2,000,000 sheep each of all ages were Texas, California, Idaho, Ohio, Montana, and Oregon in the order given. In past years the United States has under average conditions used in her mills about 550 million pounds of wool, of which about 250 million pounds have been pro- duced in this country. Boston is the great wool market of America, and London of the United Kingdom of Great Britain. A study of the structure of wool is very interesting. This fiber grows, from the skin, and is similar in its origin and composition to other skin tissues, such as nails, horns and feathers. Wool grows from a gland known as the hair- follicle located in the dermis, or middle layer of skin. This follicle secretes a small amount of oil, and minute sebaceous 322 SOMETHING ABOUT WOOL 323 glands in the skin also give off wool fat. The wool fiber is made up of three distinct parts, an outer layer, or epidermis, consisting of flattened cells or scales which lap over each other much like the shingles on a roof; the cortex, which con- sists of cells more or less long from which the fiber gets its form and strength; and the medulla, or pith, at the center. The epidermis of wool differs from that of common hair, because the scales project outward, giving a serrated ap- pearance, while on hair the scales more nearly butt together and give a much smoother surface to the fiber. In the case of wool, the projecting edges of a mass of fibers, when brought together under certain condi- tions, lock or felt. It is this quality of felting which gives wool its special value for cloth making, a property not pos- sessed by ordinary hair. These scales differ in size on different breeds of sheep; but, while very small, may be seen under a common microscope, especially if the fiber is first exposed a moment to boiling water, or to . . . . Fi ion rarieties acid or alkali, which will cause * "6 y-66 Brg eesoe of xecioticn : territory, C—coarse. Reproduced the overlapping edges to open . from ‘Textile Fibers,” by Dr. J. M. atthews. up still more. ‘These scales have a very hard, smooth surface, and are more or less trans- lucent, so that the cortex below may be seen through them. The finer wools, such as Merino, have scales that are often smooth and straight along their edges, while the scales on the larger, coarser wools have serrated, more irregular edges. From the scales of the epidermal layer comes a quality known as lustre in the wool trade, which is highly valued. This is due to the unbroken reflection of light from the scales. When the scales are regular and uniform in their arrange- 324 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS ment, with their edges fitting closely together, the fiber will be smooth and lustrous, a quality especially noticeable in the long, coarse wools, like those of the Cotswold and Lin- coln. The qualities of rigidity or pliability of wool are due to the scales. If they fit over each other loosely, with prominent projecting points, they felt most easily, and will be soft and pliable, while, if they fit close, with little over- lapping, as in hair, they will have little or no felting quality and will be stiff and resistant. The cortex of wool consists of a quantity of more or less long, straight cells, united to give the fiber its round form. From the cortex the fiber derives its tensile strength and elasticity. If the fiber is very fine, the cells of the cortex are more or less uneven in length and grouping, so that it takes on a wavy appearance or what is commonly termed crimp. ‘This property is most marked with Merino wool, where we may find 25 crimps to the inch, while it is least seen in the long wools, where only 2 or 3 crimps usually occur. The degree of crimp adds much to the elasticity and spinning quality of the wool. The medulla, or pith, of wool consists of round cells in the center of the cortex. Sometimes the medulla occupies from one fourth to one third of the diameter of the fiber, and again it may be barely present, or even not at all. Pig- ment, or coloring matter, is frequently found in this part, and is especially present in the medulla and cortex of colored wools. The medulla acts as a tube for transferring nutrition the length of the fiber, and also as a medium for introducing dyes and so artificially coloring the wool. Some features of wool that are important in the trade should receive brief consideration here. The fleece refers to the entire covering of wool on the sheep or the same removed and tied in a bundle in the wool warehouse. The fleece differs in its length and quality according to the part of the animal from which it comes. The SOMETHING ABOUT WOOL 325 best and longest wool on the body is found over the shoulders and ribs. The back and neck wool also rank high. That on the belly is very fair, but short, while that on the thighs is the poorest. The length of fiber varies from one and a half to eight or nine inches for a year’s growth, the former for the fine or short wools, the latter for the coarse or long wools. The fineness of fiber varies greatly, microscopical measure- ments home it to range from about ;55 of an inch with the finest Merino, to gig of an inch with Cots- wold or Lincoln. In the British and some other mar- kets the fineness of wool is indicated by the number of times 560 yards, or “counts,” can be spun from one pound of combed wool. A 70’s count, which repre- sents Merino wool, means that every pound of combed wool may be spun 70 times 560 or 39,200 yards. The density of fleece al- ludes to the thickness of Figure 139.—A fleece of wool. Photo- the wool fibers in a given poppe space on the body, as, for example, a square inch. Naturally the finer the fiber the denser the fleece. In some Merino fleeces as many as 60,000 fibers grow on a square inch of the body. Fineness of fiber and density and weight of fleece are naturally associated. Trueness of fiber refers to its uniform condition from its attachment to the skin to its tip. It must be uniform in diameter, without any swellings or contractions. 326 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS Soundness of fiber means that it will stand a very good tension without showing a weakness at any one place. Such a fiber must come from a healthy animal. Unsoundness of fiber is manifested in two ways. In some cases of sickness or unfavorable conditions of feed or water, the fiber becomes ‘‘tender,”’ and easily breaks when subjected to tension. Another form of unsoundness may occur from sickness, starvation, or change of feed, in the fiber’: contract- ing, forming what has been termed a “break.” This is easily seen by the eye, and it is not uncommon to find cases where a break shows clearly at one point through the fleece. Such a fiber is very defective, and easily breaks on tension. A cotted fleece results when the wool on the sheep gets entangled in its own scales, and thus goes through a natural felting. This condition especially occurs when sheep are not in good health, and are packed close together in pens, so that the wool is placed under pressure. Cotting occurs more commonly with long-wool sheep than other breeds. Kemp is a hard hair, found mostly on the head and thighs, that will not take a dye. It is commonly white, although there is dark colored kemp. A fleece that has much kemp is very inferior. The yolk, or grease, of wool is the oil from the sebaceous glands which naturally works up the fiber toward the tip, where it takes on dust, so that the exterior of the entire fleece appears more or less dark and greasy, according to the kind of sheep. This yolk washes out to some extent in clear water, but in the woolen mills it is removed by a process of “scouring,” that is, being washed in water containing alkali, which removes all the external grease. ‘‘The differ- ence in loss of yolk,” says Professor Hawkesworth,* “is great when you deal with an average clip of Merino, and one of an extra fatty nature. The former will lose about 20 to 25 per cent, and the latter 45 to 60 per cent (exclusive of dirt) when both are thoroughly cleaned.’”’ American Merino wool *Australian Sheep and Wool, Alfred Hawkworth, 1906. SOMETHING ABOUT WOOL 327 of the heavy sort frequently scours out 65 per cent. Wool buyers do not like to purchase fleeces heavily saturated with yolk on account of this loss. The yolk should be evenly distributed through the fleece, and preferably be of a light creamy or white coior. The grading of wool refers to the process of examining each fleece and assigning it a place with other wool of the same kind. After being removed from the sheep on the farm, the fleece in America is usually placed in large burlap sacks, holding from 200 to 400 pounds, according to the kind of fleece, Merino being the heaviest. These sacks are shipped to the wool warehouse, where they are opened by ripping the seam on one side, and the fleeces graded. A man usually stands at a small table, with a number of large baskets on wheels ranged before him. A helper takes the fleeces from the wool sack and places them on the table before the grader, who looks them over rapidly, and then throws each into a basket along with others of the same grade. The contents of each basket is placed in a separate pile with other wool of its kind, where it is left for examination by the buyer. The market classification of wool. Commercial wool is graded into three great classes, namely: (1) Clothing wool, of short, fine staple; (2) Combing wool, somewhat coarser than clothing, and ranging from two to eight inches long, and (3) Carpet and knitting wools, which are coarse and long. Clothing wools are short, being two inches or less in length, and are put through a carding process owing to their shortness. When thus handled the fibers lie interlaced in various directions. These wools are of fine grade, with con- siderable crimp, matting, and felting together. Combing wools usually are two and one half inches long, or more. In these the fibers are combed out parallel with one another preparatory to being spun into yarn. Carpet and knitting wools are of combing length, and are used in making the 328 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS coarser sorts of cloth. To make this subject somewhat clearer, the following is quoted from a well-known authority :* ‘‘According to their length of staple, wool fibers are graded into two classes: tops and noils. The former includes the longer stapled fibers, which are combed and spun into worsted yarns, to be manufac- tured into trouserings, dress-goods, and such fabrics as are not fulled to any extentinthefinishing. The latter class consists of the short-stapled fibers, which are carded and spun into woolen yarns to be used for weft and all classes of goods which are fulled more or less in the finishing- operations, where a felting together of the fiber is desired. On compar- ing worsted and woolen yarns, it will be noticed that the former are fairly even in diameter, and the individual fibers lie more or less parallel to each other, whereas in woolen yarns the diameter is very uneven, and the fibers lie in all manner of directions.” Wools are classified somewhat differently, according to the locality in which they are produced. Domestic wools refer to those of the eastern United States, especially Ohio, Pennsylvania, Michigan, New York, Wisconsin, Missouri, Kentucky, and other states producing similar wools. These are often termed the ‘‘fleece wool states.”’ Territory wools originally referred to all wools produced west of the Missouri river, but at present the territory wool states are Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, Washington, Nevada, Utah, and Colorado. The wools of Oregon, California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas are now classified separately from the territory grades. Domestic wools are commonly classified as follows: Combing wools. Clothing wools. Delaine XX and X fine. Half-blood combing. ; Half-blood clothing Three-eighths combing. Three-eighths clothing. Quarter-blood combing. Quarter-blood clothing. Low quarter-blood combing. Braid. The grade XX comes from superior Merino blood of the wrinkly sort, while the X grade is slighly coarser. Delaine wools should usually be from two and one half to four inches long, are of superior quality, and naturally the product of smooth-bodied Merino sheep. ‘The terms half-blood, three- eighths, and quarter-blood, originally were used to indicate that these grades were from sheep showing such percentages of Merino blood, but this distinction no longer applies, for *The Textile Fibers. J. Merritt Matthews, 1908. SOMETHING ABOUT WOOL 329 now much of our wool will grade within this classification and show no Merino blood. The use of the word “low’’ indicates a somewhat inferior quality of the grade next above it. Braid is the coarsest grade we have, and is the product of long-wool sheep, such as the Cotswold or Lincoln. A scale of points for judging wool has recently been pro- WOOL SCORE CARD Perfect Student’s Standard Grade (Gl\ 0) 0 ee StudemtiseNamene -oysseeee sea QUALITY OR FINENESS: Fine fiber, breed or grade considered. Nota mixture of fine and coarse fibers. Not a wide difference between shoulder and breech. Finer areas large; coarser ones small............ 20 LENGTH: Should be clearly of combing length for the grade; that is fine, 214 inches; 14 blood, 3 inches; %% blood, 3% inches; 4 blood, 4 inches. Lengths more than % inch greater of no additional value except in wool coarser than 4 blood. Fibers that lie together, all the same length. Little variation ever main parts of the fleece. A minimum of short SOUNDNESS: Strong throughout; no weak spots; fibers of uniform thickness from base to tip except for faperine of yearling fleeces: %:...00.2 2s 2 2 sets a0 : ’ - 7 | o: ‘ + itt ae _ | cK zs : Figure 184—The poimis of the hog. Reproduced from “Judging Farm Anmals,” by the author. as the “shields.” This is an inheritance from the wild ancestors, and really served as a shield; for, when fighting, pigs strike with their heads against the shoulders of the opponents. The tusks of the boar can not easily tear through this shield. Yet this thick, heavy covering of hide is very objectionable, and the best show animals do not have it. Symmetry of form is important; if the front part of the body is thick and heavy, and the hind part narrow, the form cer- tainly will not appear symmetrical or well balanced. THE JUDGING OF SWINE 407 Quality in hogs, as in all other animals, is of great impor- tance. This is shown in the condition of the hair, the size of bone, and the development of the head. There should be a plentiful coat of hair that is neither very fine nor very coarse. If too fine, lack of constitutional vigor is indicated; but heavy bristles along the back, tell us surely that a, coarse-grained, low grade of killing hog may be expected. The quality of the hair is an index to the quality of bone. Coarse hair naturally goes with coarse bone. Among ex- perienced swine breeders, a bone of fair size, yet not coarse, is especially desired. The well-fattened hog requires strong bones to support the heavy body weight. A common criti- cism is that pigs are too small of bone and lack support of the body. For this reason, many breed- ers and feeders are look- ing for a hog that has plenty of size and bone, without coarseness. In passing judgment on an- imals of this class, one a Figure 185.—‘‘The quality of the hair is an must be mindful to secure index to the quality of the bone.” Photo- i graph by the author. as much size as possible, consistent with quality. A large head for the body, with coarse thick ears, also indicates inferior quality. Many young hogs are too small and refined for their age, and never mature into animals of enough feeding or breeding capacity. Excess of refinement is, therefore, to be avoided. The condition of the hog relates to its depth and even- ness of covering of flesh and fat. This should be uniform and smooth, no matter what the purpose of the animal. One common defect, more especially of the lard type, is the prevalence of seams, or creases, on the body. ‘These are particularly noticeable about the neck and the fleshy part 408 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS under the jaws, known as the jowl, and along the shoulders and sides. These creases contain more or less hair that is hard to remove after scalding. In the larger hog-killing houses, the hair is removed by automatic scrapers. It can easily be seen that the more creases there are on the body, the more difficult it will be to remove the hair from them. In such cases hand work is necessary to finish the job. These seams are also an indication of uneven fleshing. The head of the hog varies so in size and form, accord- ing to breed, that it seems best to emphasize only certain features that should be common to all breeds and grades. The large, coarse head is an evidence of waste, hence buyers prefer a short type of head, indicating smaller loss in this portion in killing. Even with the long-headed breeds, the degree of refinement is measured by length and coarseness of snout. A narrow face, often seen on a long head, indi- cates a poor feeder and mean disposition. The eyes should always be easily seen, with the whites clearly showing. The eyes of the hog of the lard type tend to become surrounded by excessive fat, so that the sight is very poor. The ears are good indicators of quality. They should be easily car- ried, and not be heavy and coarse where attached to the head. None of the lard-type breeds naturally have coarse ears. The jowl of the hog is the thick, fleshy part of the lower jaw and throat. Sometimes it is very large and round, and is a great mass of fat. Often deep, hairy creases occur here. The jowl can not be studied to advantage unless it is both seen and felt. If the animal keeps its head close to the ground, the jowl can not be thoroughly examined. ‘The jowl in its best form is short, smooth, free of creases, and firm to the touch. The neck of the hog should be reasonably short and broad on top, and blend smoothly into the shoulders. A common fault is a thin neck, fitting roughly in the shoulders which stand out in a prominent manner at the shoulder vein. THE JUDGING OF SWINE 409 The shoulders of the hog vary considerably. The ten- dency is for them to be heavy or coarse, and open on top, the blades not lying back in close. The shoulders are valu- able for meat, and the more they are covered with flesh the better they are. While the breast of the hog does not appear as prominent as with other ani- mals, on account of the low car- rlage of the head, Figure 186.—‘‘The neck of the hog should be reasonably if the shoulders short.” Photograph by the author. are placed right, the breast will be wide and full and the front legs will come down in good form. By means of the hand one can feel the end of the breast bone, which should extend at least beyond the legs. Such a breast develop- ment shows good constitution. The legs should be strong aneate ee soe of ee hog vary consider- & 0 d stand Sle t bs . BOW PEP Bae Pres straight and well apart, a position associated with a wide chest and vigorous constitution. The pasterns of the hog are often found to be very weak and too sloping. At the back of the leg, 410 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS just above the pasterns, are two small toes that are known as dew claws. When the pasterns are too sloping, the dew claws often touch the ground, showing a weakness of leg. In the days when hogs were driven overland to market, it was very important that the legs should be strong, capable of endurance, and weak pasterns were then very objection- able. While we do not drive hogs much to-day, it is still necessary in many localities to do so; and, whether driven or not, the hog should stand up strong on its toes on short pas- terns, as an evidence of ability to carry its weight well. If it can not do so, then the pasterns are weak. The toes of the hog should be close together, and point direct- ly forward. Sometimes, when weak, they will spread apart and do not have a strong position. Such feet are an indication of im- uae 188 leashed ee ee and show a lack of bone and too much forced growth of the young pig. The body of the hog should show depth, width, and com- pactness. The chest should especially show plenty of girth. If the shoulders are wide on top, the chest below may ap- pear narrow, unless the fore flanks are very full. A front view displays the width of chest, while from the side we may note its depth and fullness of flank. The back is one of the most valuable parts; for here the butcher secures the choice chops and roasts. The wider and better the condition of back and loin, the more high- class cuts the butcher will be able to obtain from the car- THE JUDGING OF SWINE 411 cass. In the older and larger fat hogs, the layer of fat over the back is very thick, ranging from two to three inches. Such animals are frequently referred to in the market as “fat backs,” and long strips of the fat are cut from this part and rendered into lard. A wide back is an indication not only of the condition of flesh, but also of the capacity below for the vital organs and the digestive system. Generally, a_long rib and large chest capacity go with width on top. In inspecting the back, as viewed from one side, emphasize a strong carriage, with a slight arching. Young pigs fre- quently have a depression behind the shoulders, which fills up on fattening. A full, strong development at this place is very desirable. The sides of the hog should be fairly deep and smooth, and uniformly so from front to hind flank. This part furnishes the bacon cuts; hence a smooth, uni- form condition of flesh is important. Creases very commonly occur along the upper part of the sides and Tur 189. "The layer ef fat over the give a bad appearance tothe = *° 3uthor. body. Often one may easily insert the fingers in these creases. The lard type does not have a long side, as a rule; neither is it quite flat, as viewed from one side. The form tends to be somewhat oval, especially in hogs with Poland-China, Duroc-Jersey, or Chester White blood, con- - sequently the upper part of the side projects some beyond the lower portion. Emphasis also should be placed on smoothness of fleshing, and quality of skin. 412 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS The belly of the hog should suggest as little waste as pos- sible. A paunchy condition, that is, a round, sleek form, indicates excess offal. A clean, straight line, as viewed Figure 190.—The back should have a strong carriage. from One side, with a slight arching. Photograph by the author. with full flanks, is what is wanted. Where an excess of belly occurs, as in the case of old sows, buyers throw off a certain amount of weight, or, as they say in the market, “‘dock’’ the animals. The hind quarters of the hog include the rump and hams, the most valuable part of the carcass. The hams represent a high-priced and heavy-weighing part, so that a thick, full development is here sought. Standing behind the hog, one should note that the width is carried full, from the hips back to the end of the body. The thighs should be wide- spread on _ the outside, and very thickly muscled between, with the twist extend- ing low down toward the hocks. The tail attachment should not be set Figure 191.—‘‘The sides of the hog shee be fairly low. Great depth deep and smooth.’”’ Photograph by the author. THE JUDGING OF SWINE 413 of hams is of prime importance; for, if lacking here, they will be deficient in the amount of flesh carried. From one side, the rump should be long on top, level rather than steep, and long also from hip to hock. A very steep rump is often seen, with the legs carried under the body, thus furnishing a weak support. The steep rump does not allow a good position of legs. Side or rear view should show a very meaty ham, somewhat bulging in its lower part. Smoothness of covering of ham is important, as wrinkles and uneven condition injure the value in the meat trade. The legs of the hog, as viewed in front, at one side, and from behind, should be short and straight, and not coarse of bone. The front legs some- times nearly touch at the knees, giving what is termed a buck-kneed effect. This usu- ally accompanies the narrow chest. The hind legs frequently aYC Figure 192.—A good leg attitude of the hog. Photo- close together at graph by the author. the hocks with the feet widely spread below the body. Such a position usually goes with a narrow thigh, orham. Pasterns and feet have already been discussed in this chapter, and need not be referred to again, except to emphasize the correct position of these parts as most important in supporting a heavy-weight body. In judging breeding stock of the lard type, the same general features are to be considered, making exceptions for sex character and a leaner condition. The mature male requires a head showing great vigor and masculinity, with 414 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS a strong jaw, prominent tusks, breadth of forehead, a strong neck, and some thickness of shoulder. Most breeders also prefer breeding stock which have very good length, and are not too short and compact. More bone is looked for in the boar than in the sow or fat hog. In fact, breeders rarely criticise a boar for having too heavy bone. As has already been brought out in the discussion of breeds, big-type hogs have a strong arch of back and great length. A big-type boar at 12 months of age, for example, often stands high, is long, strongly arched of back, and appears short of rib for his length. With maturity he fills out, however, so that he really does not seem especially leggy after all. The same Figure 193.—‘'The brood sow should show good size and length, and have a strong, well-supported back.’’ Photograph by the author. may be said for the big type sow at 12 to 18 months of age. Irrespective of type, however, the brood sow should show good size and length, and have a strong, well-supported back. Depth and length are most valued qualities in her case, as these indicate large reproductive capacity. Sows frequently are too light in bone for their weight, and this defect should be noted. The sow should be quiet, yet active, but not nervous and excitable. An irritable sow is almost sure to make a bad mother and one does the wise thing to dispose of that kind, when such disposition is proven. THE JUDGING OF SWINE 415 THE BACON TYPE OF HOG The bacon type of hog is produced in comparatively small numbers in the United States; but, on account of the steadily increasing demand for bacon, no doubt more hogs of this sort will be bred in the future in this country. A score card for the bacon hog gives a very good idea of the special features emphasized in this type. SCORE CARD FOR BACON HOGS. Perfect | Score Scale of points Score | of hog judged GENERAL APPEARANCE: 34 Points. WEIGHT, market hogs should weigh 160-220 Ibs.......... 5 Form, long, smooth; level back; belly neat............. 10 Qvua.ity, hair fine; skin smooth and free of wrinkles; bone strong: but not. coarse: flesh firm... 2. .5....-:.- 5. 10 ConDITION, well covered with firm flesh, especially on baek PIECLTGS hS serey ements at a Sua At i Bie oat ak Meee Nek 6 caved aig and sprightly, walking true, standing up well ; HEAD AND NECK: 8 Points. = SnoutT, medium long; face, broad at eyes............... 2 EYEs, good size, bright; ears, medium size, not coarse. aud not a, ‘wide, muscular, smooth; neck medium ‘long, Dy akebayetiar oobi c/a etaran otouel mate ohare cysts al a akets ee lees 4 FORE QUARTERS: 12 Points. SHOULDERS, smooth, well laid in; breast, full............ 9 Lees, medium long, straight, well placed, not coarse; PaAsterusverect aAnGestralsht=rsscps oe eis ce ao ees wesc 3 BODY: 33 Points. Back, medium width, slight arch neck to tail; loin same width, HULOU Es Hl cece eee eee ear che ee a 11 Riss, well sprung, long; side, long, smooth, medium deep. . 12 CuHEst, full, even with shoulder: flanks full and low...... 7 BELLY, firm, trim, thick, not flabby or shrunken. >. ....<. 3 HIND QUARTERS: 13 Points. Rump, same width as back, long, level................. 4 Hams, full, not flabby; thigh tapering toward hock, without CHE EWin istorii 5 Eo a ate ea 6 Lees, medium long, hocks well set apart, straight, bone EOOUsPAStePRSICleeb. soa. he ales + sbi e asiee 3 Motaluscaren sys sn e ee s s c saeks 100 Judging the bacon hog requires keeping in mind certain important features wherein this type differs from the lard hog. Bacon is the first consideration. This comes from the sides; the side that is longest and smoothest, with fair depth, therefore, is the most valuable. But bacon must not be heavy in fat; hence the condition of the body must show only a moderate amount of flesh. For these reasons, the 416 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS bacon hog shows a comparatively narrow back, but con- siderable length of body. Over the back of the bacon hog, a uniform depth of about one inch of fat is ample, rather than the ordinary thickness of the lard type, for a muscular car- cass with a moderate amount of fat is what is desired. The shoulder of the bacon hog should be smooth, and not heavy like the lard type, but should nicely blend into the body. The thick- pee ness between the Figure 194.—‘‘The shoulder of the bacon hog - should be smooth and not heavy like the lard shoulders is. not type.’ Photograph by the author. great, and a front view shows a relatively narrower neck and chest and longer leg, compared with the lard type. The ham of the bacon hog lacks in thickness, yet should be long on top, and taper off into a lean type, with no great amount of fat. From a side view, the ham cuts away more on its under part; while from behind, the thighs are thin and are usually well split up between, producing rather a Figure 195.—A comparison of hams of bacon and shallow twist and lard type pigs. Photograph by the author. The belly of the bacon hog should show just as little fullness as possible, consistent with being a good feeder. Any evidence of paunchiness or thickness here is objection- able. The lower part of the body line should be smooth and trim, and give evidence of the least amount of offal. A THE JUDGING OF SWINE straight, trim line from front to hind flank is desirable. fat in any portion. The general appearance of the bacon type is that of a narrow, long-bodied, smooth-sided, long-legged hog, not too The excessive length of leg, which often prevails, is to be criticised; otherwise these features of con- formation are very desirable and should be maintained. SPO NSD Sree he —_ 14 AMONG OTHER THINGS, THINK ABOUT Quality as an important feature of the hog. . The occurrence of seams, or creases, and why objectionable. The pasterns, past and present. The five features most highly rated in the scale of points. The “‘shield”’ and its significance. The relation of breast to shoulder and constitution. Where the most important “cuts” are found in the carcass. Differences between breeding stock and that for the butcher. . The meaning of bacon type. . Relation of bacon form to offal. SOME NEIGHBORHOOD INVESTIGATIONS . Place on a township map the locations of market feeders of hogs. . Do feeders breed or purchase the stock fed? . What attention is given to quality by men buying hogs? . Does the lard or the bacon type prevail in your locality? . Bring to class a score-card record of some animal in the home herd. . Organize a local swine-judging contest. CHAPTER XXXV FEEDING SWINE The production of pork is a great industry in America, the United States being the acknowledged leader of the world in this field of live-stock husbandry. This leadership is largely due to the fact that pork is produced more cheaply than any other meat, and the average man can feed and care for pigs with more satisfaction, and better prospects of gain, than in the case of any other farm animal. In the corn belt hogs and corn seem a natural combination, so that in the great Mississippi Valley swine husbandry is highly devel- oped. By the 1920 United States Census there were almost sixty million pigs of different ages in this country. The states having three million or more swine are the following, in relative order: Iowa 7,864,000; Illinois 4,640,000; Mis- souri 3,888,000; Indiana 3,757,000; Nebraska 3,422,000, and Ohio 3,084,000. Three states were in the two million class, namely Minnesota, Georgia, and Texas. The food requirements for swine have been studied more extensively perhaps, than of any other farm animal. This fact is due in part to the ease with which swine may be handled and fed, and records made of growth and fattening. Exact feeding standards, however, are not generally applied in pork production. The following standards, the modified Wolff-Lehmann, as given by Henry and Morrison,* show the actual needs for fattening pigs, and brood sows with pigs. A study of these standards makes clear that, as a pig increases in weight while fattening, there is a steady decline in the body requirements for dry matter, digestible crude protein, and total digestible nutrients, while the nutritive *Feeds and Feeding, 1917. 418 FEEDING SWINE 419 ratio steadily grows wider. Digestion experiments with - breeding swine during growth show also the same decline in the need for dry matter, protein, and total nutrients. In other words, the body requirements of the pig in either growth or fattening call for a gradual lessening of the protein in the ration with an increase of carbohydrates. A DAILY FEEDING STANDARD FOR SWINE PER 1,000 LBS. LIVE WEIGHT. | Digestible | Total Age and condition Dry crude digestible | Nutritive matter protein | nutrients ratio Fattening pigs Pounds Pounds Pounds Weight 30-50 lbs...... 46.2-51.0 | 7.8-8.5 41.0-45.4 | 1:4.0-4.5 ae 100" ......| of 040.8 5.5-6.0 32.9-36.4 | 1:5.0-5.6 Ort 5O 32.4-35.8 4.4-4.9 28.8-31.9 | 1:5.5-6.2 ete 200 5.2. 29.0-32.0 | 3.5-3.9 25.8-28.5 | 1:6.2-7.0 “get 172 | ian 25.5-28.1 3.0-3.4 22.7-25.0 | 1:6.5-7.3 Bee 250-300 “or. 22.4-24.8 2.6-2.9 20.0-22.0 | 1:6.7-7.5 Brood sows with pigs | 20.0-24.0 2.4-2.7 18.0-21.0 | 1:6.0-7.0 Figure 196.—Yorkshire brood sows on an English pasture, owned by Sanders Spencer, Holycraft, St. Ives, England. Photograph by the author. The type of food best suited to the pig is of a concentrated form. The pig has a single stomach, rather limited in capac- ity, and, therefore, it can not consume roughage like the cow or sheep with their compound stomachs and much greater 426 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS relative capacities. It is true that hogs will do well on succu- lent forage crops and pastures, but even then the total - amount eaten’ is comparatively small. The older class of hogs in winter will eat the leafy roughage of alfalfa or clover to some extent, but too much of this should not be fed. The standard grains, and mill products are best suited to the digestive tract of the hog. The preparation of the food for swine has received con- siderable attention. Various experimenters have amply demonstrated that cooking the food for swine injures the digestibility of the proteins, and that better results are ob- tained by feeding raw rather than cooked food. Soaking grain may be advantageous, especially in the case of old corn that is hard and dry. In comparative experiments in feeding soaked whole wheat and dry whole wheat, conducted by the author at the Indiana station, and by Snyder and Burnett at the Nebraska station, a slight advantage came from soaking the grain. The grinding of grain for hogs has been somewhat advantageous. Prof. W. A. Henry, of Wis- consin, fed ground and shelled corn in comparison for ten winters,* and found that on the average itrequired 501 pounds of whole corn and wheat middlings for 100 pounds of gain, and only 471 pounds of corn meal and middlings for an equal gain. Evvard, of lowa, and King, of Indiana station, have found that no special advantage is secured by grinding corn for young pigs, but as they pass beyond 3 or 4 months of age somewhat better gains are made from ground or soaked grain. Corn-and-cob meal is not to be recommended for the pig, but, if fed, the cob should be ground fine. The relationship of age of pigs to digestibility of food and gains in weight has been shown in digestion experiments conducted by Prof. Evvard, of Iowa. He found that a pig weighing 60 pounds digests corn fed in different ways with somewhat more efficiency than one weighing 200 pounds. #Feeds and Feeding, 1917. FEEDING SWINE 421 It has long been known that, as pigs grow older, other things being equal, it requires more grain for 100 pounds of gain in live weight. If we apply the relationship of age to weight, then of a large number of animals fed at different weights, as shown by Henry and Morrison,* the amount of food required for 100 pounds gain in live weight steadily increased from 293 for a pig weighing from 15 to 50 pounds, up to 535 pounds for one weighing from 300 to 350 pounds. It is important, however, to note that, as the pig gained in weight, there was a decrease in the amount of food eaten daily for each 100 pounds of live weight. The average daily gain in live weight increased up to 300 pounds, after which it fell off slightly. The influence of breed in pork production, so far as the relationship of food consumed to gains in weight is con- cerned, is problematical. In experiments reported upon by Prof. G. E. Day, of Canada,{ in which five tests were con- ducted upon six breeds at the Ontario Agricultural College, and in three tests at the Iowa station, no very satisfactory results were secured. ‘‘Why, for instance,’ writes Prof. Day, ‘‘do Berkshires, Yorkshires, Duroc-Jerseys and Poland- Chinas range all the way from the top to the bottom of the list in the different tests; and why would an average of the Ontario tests give a rating of the breeds which is entirely different from an average of the Iowa tests?”’ In the opinion of many practical swine breeders, some breeds produce pork more economically than others, but we have very insufficient evidence to prove that one breed is better than another. Mineral food for swine is of first importance. When we realize that an animal can not live without iron in its blood, and that over 90 per cent of the bony system con- sists of calcium and phosphorus, we must appreciate the importance of these substances in the food. For many years swine growers in the corn belt have been accustomed to placing ashes or soft coal in the pig lots. This was eaten *Feeds and Feeding, 1917 {Productive Swine Husbandry, 1915. 422 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS by the pigs, but why, the farmer did not know. Prof. Henry, of Wisconsin, early in experimental swine feeding demon- strated that the bones of hogs that had been fed corn alone were deficient in ash, and broke much more easily than those of hogs fed corn and mineral matter. Since then other experiments have clearly demonstrated that minerals are an actual necessity in the diet of swine as well as of other farm animals. If hogs are fed on clover or alfalfa, with corn, they will obtain in the legumes considerable mineral matter, but where concentrates are largely relied upon for feeding, Figure 197.—Hogs on alfalfa pasture, Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station. Photograph by the author. especially corn, minerals in some form are a necessity. A mixture of equal parts by weight of ground limestone, fine bone meal, and salt will make a satisfactory mineral for swine. Various kinds of mixtures are used by different feeders, many of whom also use flowers of sulphur, copperas and salt, for medicinal purposes, in addition to the other minerals used. For brood sows Prof. W. W. Smith recom- mends* a combination of 12 parts charcoal, 3 parts air- slacked lime, ground bone or ground rock phosphate, and 1 part common salt. Wood ashes in the same quantity as *Pork Production, 1920. FEEDING SWINE 423 the lime he thinks would improve the combination. But very little salt seems to be needed by swine. Water for swine seems to have an unusual place in the animal economy; for, besides its customary use as a drink, it is used extensively to prepare slop foods, and is also highly esteemed by the hog for bathing purposes. In cold weather hogs do not drink so heavily, excepting through slop feed, but in warm weather they need more water. Commenting on the fact that a new born pig’s body consists of 80 per cent water, while that of a fat hog weighing 400 pounds con- tains 35 per cent, Prof. Evvard says.* “The main point is that all pigs require a lot of water regardless of their own water content and we should aim to give it to them liberally. We should allow more water in summer than in winter, because of the higher temperature. Some of our sows in January drank around four pounds of water per head daily, whereas in April they daily drank 24 pounds. The water consumption per pound of dry matter ranged from 1.3 pound in cold winter up to 7.6 pounds in warm springtime.” Pigs greatly relish a bath in warm weather, and will throw themselves down in any wet place, and wallow. They do not cool off as freely as other animals by the radiation of moisture from the pores of the skin, and so obtain relief in a wallow. Some of the more progressive swine growers sup- ply drinking water to the stock through fountains attached to barrels holding water, and also provide shallow con- crete-lined bathing pools. The feeding of the brood sow prior to farrowing calls for a ration fairly rich in protein. For fall farrowing, a legume pasture, or rape forage, and corn make an excellent diet. If for spring farrowing, then during the winter it is advisable to feed a little leafy alfalfa or clover hay and a mixture of 10 parts corn, 5 parts middlings and 1 part tankage or meat meal. Prof. Smith statest that a mature sow in breeding condition can be maintained, as a rule, by a little less than one and one fourth pounds of average grain daily for each 100 pounds of live weight. The brood sow should be brought to *Pamphlet published in 1921 by Hampshire Swine Association. 7Pork Production, 1920. 424 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS farrowing in good condition, but not fat. . About three weeks before farrowing the sow should have her ration changed to a combination of 5 parts each by weight of bran ~ and middlings, and 1 part each of linseed meal and tankage ~ or meat meal. She should also receive some skimmed milk in her ration, if available. After farrowing, this ration may ‘be continued for a few days, until the pigs and the mother get strong on their feet, when the ration may be changed again to allow the use of part corn. If one is not able to make up this ration, one should endeavor to give as nearly DIPPING, Figure 198.—Interior of model Iowa piggery, containing sanitary pens, wallow and dipping tank. Photograph by E. J. Hall. a balanced ration as -possible, not relying too much on corn, but using in part some form of protein food. The feeding of suckling pigs is at first largely of the mother’s milk. When about 2 weeks old the young ones, if given a chance, will begin to drink some slop along with the mother. Then a creep should be provided for them, and a small trough arranged, in which is placed a thin slop of milk, wheat middlings, and oatmeal or sieved ground oats. As the pigs get older they may be fed lightly of shelled corn scattered around, preferably soaked for very young pigs. FEEDING SWINE 425 It is important that these pigs be kept growing, and have plenty of exercise. They may be weaned at 10 to 12 weeks of age, under ordinary conditions. The feeding of young breeding pigs after nursing is over is largely a proposition of making a good growth and strong muscular body. For stock of this kind it is desirable to feed in summer on pasture of legumes or rape, with 1 to 2 pounds of grain for each 100 pounds of live weight. In winter, feed a small amount of legume hay and a mixture similar to that given the brood sow some weeks prior to farrowing. Nothing is more valuable for young growing pigs than skim milk, which should be supplied. Where corn is the main concentrate available for feeding, meat meal or tankage should by all means be purchased, as it does much to balance the ration and also adds to the palatability. In feeding the boar one should keep in mind that he must never be fat, but be muscular, vigorous and healthy. Some green food is desirable in summer, but not too much. If legume or rape forage is available, then a light feed of corn may be given, although a mixture of equal parts of corn and middlings would be better, with 5 per cent tankage added. The boar should have plenty of exercise in a well- fenced lot in which shade and housing is provided, and he should eat his food with keen appetite. The fattening of pigs in the corn belt is usually based on a generous use of corn, along with pasture of some kind in summer and fall. Pigs on legumes, with corn for con- centrates, have essentially a balanced ration, and thrive thereon. Pigs fattened in the dry lot may be fed such con- centrates as are available, according to the section of country. A large per cent of the hogs reaching the Chicago market are fed on corn and tankage, a combination of 10 parts of the former and 1 of the latter being very satisfactory. Skim milk is invaluable in fattening, and supplies much needed protein and ash with such a mineral-deficient carbo- 426 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS hydrate as corn. Wheat middlings is a popular concentrate used in fattening hogs, but Prof. Evvard states* that in the PAAKE 100 LB GAIN 6 CORN 570 LB.C. : ALONE 124 DAYS pa 81 DAYS CORN & —ECYAGy TANKAGE : CORNG EEVGENS . Figure 199—Chart showing result of hog feeding trials at the Purdue University Experiment Station, showing advantage from feeding skimmilk to fattening hogs. Reproduced from ‘“‘The Cow the Mother of Prosperity,’ International Harvester Co. tests at the Iowa sta- tion they have found that it takes about 150 pounds of wheat mid- dlings and _ tankage, when fed on good past- ure, to produce the same amount of gainas 100 pounds of shelled corn and tankage. One of the difficulties with the wheat middlings, especially if of a low grade, is that it does not contain enough net energy units for each one hundred pounds. The adaptability of the hog to consuming a wide range of Figure 200.—Two lots of hogs fed at the Ohio Experiment Station. The two at the left were fed corn alone in dry lot, those at the right corn and tankage. Photograph from Ohio Experiment Station. food stuffs makes the subject of fattening a relatively simple matter.. Over much of the United States corn is *Hampshire Swine Association pamphlet, 1921. FEEDING SWINE 427 the chief concentrate used, but in the Northwest, on the Pacific slope, in Canada, and Europe barley is com- monly used, and is regarded as making the best grade of pork. In the West and Southwest Kafir corn is a satisfactory substitute for corn, while in much of the South peanuts are becoming an important factor in fattening hogs. Peanuts, however, produce a soft pork, and so must be fed with care. Cottonseed meal has been fed to some extent; but, as it contains an ingredient poisonous to hogs, it is unsafe as a hog feed, excepting in very small amounts for periods not Figure 201.—The self-feeder for hogs. Photograph from The Farmer. exceeding 40 days. Meat meal, or tankage, on account of its high per cent of protein and its freedom from carbohy- drates, makes an invaluable material for using with corn, barley, rice, and millstuffs of similar composition. The self-feeder for swine has come into great popularity in recent years. This is a box-like arrangement, with the back vertical, and the front at a slant after the style of a letter V. The food is placed in the wide top, and gradually sifts out at the bottom point into a feed trough. Self- feeders contain two or more compartments, a different 428 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS kind of food being placed in each one. The pig goes to the self-feeder and eats to suit himself. This has been called the “cafeteria” or ‘free choice” system of feeding. Experiments at a number of our stations have shown that pigs fattened by this method gained more rapidly than those hand-fed, and essentially balanced their rations themselves. The labor bill with pigs thus fed is greatly reduced, and there is less waste of feed than there is where corn is scattered over the ground. In experiments conducted by Prof. Evvard at the Iowa station, in comparison with hand-fed under differ- ent conditions, the free-choice-fed pigs had the advantage in gains in weight and cost of production. In experiments conducted by Prof. L. A. Weaver at the Missouri station,* pigs fattened with the self-feeder gained more rapidly than those which had been hand-fed, but with no difference in economy of gain. “It is apparent,” writes Prof. Weaver, “that the advantage which the self-feeder method will have in any specific instance over hand- feeding, in regard to rate of gain, will depend to a large degree upon the ability of the person doing the hand-feeding to feed so that the hogs will consume a maximum amount of feed. In practically all cases, when the self-fed hogs gained more rapidly than those which are hand-fed, they also consumed more feed.” The self-feeder is not generally suited to breeding stock, where it is necessary to assume control over the amount of food eaten in order to prevent fattening. Prof. W. W. Smith, however, regards the use of the self-feeder during the winter, for pregnant sows and gilts, as a safe method.f He recommends to feed in it a good quality of alfalfa or clover hay cut fine or ground and mixed with corn, and the proportion of hay so regulated that the consumption of corn will not exceed the amount necessary to maintain the proper condition’ and. weight. “However,” he says, “great care must be exercised that the consumption of corn ig not excessive. In the hands of a careless feeder, the in- discriminate use of the self-feeder would prove disastrous.” *Self-Feeders for Fattening Swine. Bulletin 144 Mo. Ag. Exp. Station, 1917. 7Pork Production, 1920. — SOOND o PO Noe FEEDING SWINE IN PRODUCTIVE PORK PRODUCTION TAKE NOTE . Where the industry centers. . Of the relative needs of protein and digestible nutrients in gains in weight with fattening pigs. . As to how food should be prepared. Of the amount of food required for 100 pounds gain at different ages. If the Duroc-Jersey will feed more profitably than the Poland China. What part mineral matter plays in growth and development. . How the nursing sow should be fed. . When a pig creep should be used. . Of the part corn plays in fattening market swine. . Of results from using the self-feeder. STUDIES FOR MEMBERS OF PIG CLUBS . How do each of ten farmers prepare their concentrates for their sows and pigs? . To what weight do your neighbors feed their pigs for market? . Make up a statement of mineral foods fed by different farmers. . Note the provisions for watering swine on several farms. . At what age are pigs weaned in your community? . Give five rations in use for fattening swine for market. . Make a self-feeder and report on its construction and cost. . Ascertain if self-feeders are in use about home, and with what SUCCESS, 429 CHAPTER XXXVI THE CARE OF SWINE The care of the sow and pigs at farrowing requires watch- ful attention. The sides of the pen in which the sow farrows should be provided with guards to prevent the mother from lying on her pigs. This guard may consist of a plank or a 2 x 4 piece fastened about 6 inches above the floor, and 8 or 10 inches out from the side of the pen. But very little bed- ding should be placed in the farrowing pen; for, if it is too thick, the small, more or less weak newly born pigs may get tangled in it, and have difficulty in getting abouttheirmother. The dam should not be disturbed while farrowing, and the pen should be as quiet and comfortable as possible, and protected from cold drafts and dampness. Some careful herdsmen remove the pigs from the dam as fast as farrowed, and place them in barrels or baskets partly filled with straw. In cold weather a jug of warm water buried in the straw will keep the little pigs at a comfortable temperature. The young pigs should be allowed to nurse the mother every 2 or 3 hours the first day, and then after 24 hours be left with her for good. If, however, she is nervous and irritable, it may be well to keep the pigs from her 2 or 3 days, allowing them to nurse at intervals. The separation of pigs into different groups, according to sex, age,and condition, is important, if one is to care for them properly. When -the pigs are weaned, the gilts should be separated from the boar pigs, and each group fed and cared for separately. The older gilts should receive attention pre- paratory for sale or placing in the breeding herd, while the mature sows naturally must be fed and cared for by them- selves. The service boar requires a strong pen or paddock, 430 THE CARE OF SWINE 431 where he may be kept under restraint and properly fed. Hogs being fattened for the market naturally receive different feed from the breeding stock, and so must be kept by them- selves. On many farms the careful separation of the animals into groups as indicated may not be possible in all details, but the more carefully this separation is observed, the more success will attend the herd development. - The sanitation of the swine quarters is of first importance. The pens should be kept free from filth and an unnecessary amount of manure, and the floors should be kept reasonably dry. One may keep swine in almost any kind of building, but a dry floor and clean conditions are equally important whatever the kind of house occupied. The drainage about the swine quarters should be away from the buildings and yards, to promote sanitation. Unfortunately there are too many farms where the hogs are obliged to live and wallow in mud and manure, where disease germs abound. Sanitary conditions in the swine building may be improved by the free use of slacked lime sprinkled on the floors of the pens, and by freely whitewashing the walls. . The bedding of swine is customary in the northern sec- tions of the country, especially in winter. The house or shelter should itself be comfortable, so that too much bed- ding will not be used. Wheat straw makes the best bedding; but, if so much is used that the pigs bury themselves in it in cold weather, when they come out to be fed, they are liable to catch cold due to sudden change of temperature. Only a moderate amount of straw, therefore, should be used. In the South very little bedding is needed in winter, while in the warm season no bedding is required in the North. Exercise for swine is regarded asa necessity. The tend- ency in cold weather is for the pigs to huddle close together under the straw and move about in the air as little as possible. In the latter stages of fattening, exercise is not so important, but with the breeding herd it is quite different. If the sows 432 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS are to have strong, vigorous pigs, they must have enough exercise to keep them healthy and strong. Many boars are useless, because from lack of exercise they take on too much flesh and become inactive. On this subject Prof. W. W. Smith well says,* “Fixercise promotes a loose, open condition of the bowels and does much to maintain a healthful functioning of the other organs of elimina- tion, exercise contributes strength and vitality, reduces the chances of disease, costs nothing, and is an indispensable factor in the maintenance of health and breeding thrift.” In winter it is a good plan to drive the pigs about in the lots or near-by yards, scattering some corn and causing them to move about in search of it. When snow is on the ground, it is not so easy to do so; but, if the pigs live in colony houses and come to central feeding troughs, they will be compelled to move about more than they would other- wise and so will secure some exercise. | The care of pigs in hot weather has much to do with their successful development. They should be provided with shade, if possible. A woods-pasture is invaluable as a shelter from the hot sun. Portable pens or cots, that have a free circulation of air across the floor through openings on oppo- site sides, will furnish shade and may be fairly comfortable. A flat-roofed, low, open-sided shed in the pig lot, that costs but little for labor and material, will also furnish shade. A wallow in warm weather gives the hog supreme satis- faction. The unsanitary character of mud wallows is to be strictly condemned, but the use of the modern concrete wallow, in which water may be kept reasonably free of filth, is to be highly commended. | Parasites affecting swine are both internal and external. Hogs are very often infested with round worms which may be as large as a common lead pencil, and are a serious drain on their vitality. The eggs and embryo forms of the para- sites are found in muddy, filthy yards and lots. If one is to have healthy quarters, it will be very important to keep *Pork Production, 1921. THE CARE OF SWINE £33 the yards. really sanitary, and rotate the use of feed lots and pastures, so that they may not become infested. If hogs feed on land that has been continuously used for this purpose, parasites are sure to prevail. One may treat hogs infested with worms as follows, with very satisfactory results. From 3 to 5 grains of santonin and from 5 to 8 grains of calomel, are used for each 100 pounds live weight of pig. The hogs should receive no feed for 10 or 12 hours, after which they are turned to the feed trough in which there is Figure 202.— A woods-pasture and food yard for pigs. Photograph by the author. slightly moistened ground feed, over which the necessary amount of powder has been sprinkled. The hogs should then be kept from other feed for 10 hours or so, in order to give the medicine time to do efficient work. External parasites, such as body lice, often become very abundant. ‘These are easily destroyed by giving the skin a brushing of crude petroleum. If many hogs need treatment, they should be driven through a dipping vat, in which water has been filled nearly to the desired height, on the surface of which should be placed about an inch of the crude oil. It is a good plan to spray the interior of the hog plant occa- 434 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS sionally with crude oil and especially the sleeping quarters. Hog cholera is one of the most common diseases of swine. It is caused by a very minute germ. The symptoms of the disease are general sickness, inflammation and ulceration of stomach and intestines, enlargements of the glands, weak- ness of the legs, causing staggering, stiffness, etc. Pigs may be sick for several weeks or months before they die. A large amount of research work has been given this disease, and swine plague, which is much the same, but without satisfac- tory results. In recent years it has been satis- factorily demon- strated that pigs may be made immune from Cc h O era b y 1n- Figure 203.—Injecting serum into thigh of pig to prevent : ° C cholera. Photograph from Dr. Edgerton, Ohio State Jec tin £ into Veterinarian. healthy animals | a serum prepared from the blood of swine. There are two methods of vaccinating, one, the ‘‘single method,” in which serum alone is injected into young pigs, which makes them immune for 38 months or so. In the other, the ‘‘simultaneous method,” the serum is_ intro- duced and, at the same time in another place, a small amount of blood that has been taken from a hog sick with cholera. This serum is injected under the skin of the inner thigh of a pig, or behind the ear of a large hog. A large percentage of the herds of swine given treatment to prevent cholera THE CARE OF SWINE 435 are made immune. As cholera is highly contagious, great care should be used to prevent any exposure of healthy pigs. It is even unsafe for a person working with healthy pigs to visit a diseased herd, on account of the danger of conveying the disease by means of his shoes. Every farm on which cholera prevails should have a sign at the entrance to the farm, stating that cholera is in the herd. _Tuberculosis among swine is common, especially in herds fed skim milk or buttermilk that has not been pasteurized. This disease is most common, therefore, among pigs fed in dairy districts. When fed in connection with healthy cattle, pastured on forage crops, and given concentrates, tuber- culosis is not a common disease among swine. The best method of preventing it is to feed no milk excepting with the certainty that it comes from a healthy source and to keep a herd of cattle known to be free from this disease. Pigs valued at millions of dollars are condemned at packing houses each year on account of having tuberculosis. The affected pig can not be cured. Removing the tusks of the boar often becomes a neces- sity. A mature boar, with long sharp tusks, is a source of danger, as a person may be seriously injured by them. They are, therefore, usually removed in well managed herds. The following method is recommended by Prof. G. E. Day :* “The boar is first made fast to a post by means of a rope noosed about his upper jaw back of the upper tusks. Then one man takes a crowbar and another a sharp chisel anda hammer. The sharp edge of the crowbar is placed against the tusk near its base, and held firmly in position, and the edge of the cold chisel is placed on the opposite side of the tusk directly across from, and even with, the edge of the crowbar. A sharp blow with the hammer on the cold chisel does the job.” Marking the litters of pigs is very necessary in pure-bred herds. The young pigs may be given ear tags, when 3 or 4 weeks old, as indicated on page 54, but these tags often get torn from the ears of pigs, and the tag is then lost. Numbers may be easily tattooed in the ears of pigs of the white breeds. as is commonly done in England. In the United States *Productive Swine Husbandry, 1915. 436 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS various methods of notching the ear of the pig at 2 or 3 weeks of age are used. With a common punch, such as is used for cutting holes in leather, a shallow notch is cut in the edge of the ear of the pig. The following method is in use at the Ontario Agricultural College, and its application is thus clearly described by Prof. Day.* 307 wn Poe os Ri a Left Figure 204.—A method of number- Figure 205. — Another method of ing pigs by ear marks. “numbering pigs by ear marks. “The accompanying diagram shows the plan of numbering with explanation of its use. For example (Figure 204) all the pigs in the first litter would have a nip taken out of the lower edge of the left ear next to the head, which represents No. 1, No. 2 is indicated by taking a nip out of the lower edge of the left ear half way between the base and the tip; and the pigs in ‘the third litter have a nip taken out of the tip of the left ear, andsoforth. Between 5 and 10 two nicks are necessary. Thus, 6=5 ag 7=5+2,8=5+3,9=5+4. For No. 10 we gotothelowerside of the right ear next to the head. Larger numbers call for various combinations, for example, 11=10+1, 12=10+2, 17=10+5-+2. etc. The nick should not be made deep, or it will disfigure the ear; just a little deeper than the thickness of the skin is sufficient. If the piece is cut out cleanly, the mark will stay as long as the ear lasts.” A private swine herd book should be kept by every breeder of swine. In this he should enter the name and number of each animal, the date of farrowing, name and number of sire and dam, from whom purchased and price, with space for recording name and address of persons to whom sold. In addition to these facts, a diagram of head and ear should be shown against each animal recorded, with the ear notches shown thereon. A card system is especially favored by swine breeders, the main facts as above given being on one side of the card, while the pedigree is given on the reverse side. Space is also available for listing the litters of sows. A feeding platform for swine is often used among feeders *Productive Swine Husbandry, 1915 THE CARE OF SWINE 437 in the corn belt, on which the hogs may feed without wallow- ing in mud. Cement platforms, on which feed troughs are placed, are best, for they furnish a substantial floor, when well made. They are easily made rat-proof, and are free of the holes or cracks so likely to occur with board floors, and are kept clean with little trouble. Shelters and houses for swine vary greatly. There are two types in common use, a centralized building, with a series of pens, a room for feed, etc., and a colony or individual house of a single room. The centralized building should Figure 206.—An Iowa piggery, showing concrete foundation and outside feed- ing platform. Note the large amount of sunlight provided through the roof. Photograph by E. J. Hall. be located where drainage is good, and with feed lots and pastures conveniently connected. This house should be well lighted, so that sunshine will penetrate easily to every part. In an interesting report from 332 farmers in Kansas,* 130 different dimensions of hog houses were reported. The majority of the houses reported on were from 8 to 20 feet wide and from 24 to 60 feet long, the average house being 16 by 40 feet, suitable for 10 farrowing sows. Such a house would have a central four-foot alley, with five 6x8 pens on each side. The windows should be placed so as to secure ‘the greatest amount of sunshine possible within the house. The floor may be earthen, wood, or cement. In 316 Kansas *Hogs in Kansas. Report Kansas State Board of Agriculture, 1919. 438 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS reports on the kinds of floors used, 150 reported earth, 5 earth packed over woven wire, 2 gravel, 59 wood or plank, 70 cement or concrete, 2 boards over cement, 8 part earth and part cement, 8 part board and part cement, 6 part wood and 6 stone. Concrete is easily kept sanitary and rat-proof; but, unless well bedded, is inclined to cause rheumatism and pneumonia. Earth floors are cheap and are liked by hogs, but are easily rooted up, and may be very dusty or unsanitary. A movable wood floor over concrete is expensive but ideal from a health point of .view. A single colony Figure 207.—Hog cots and lots at Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station. Photograph by the author. house should have a strong frame work, a roof that does not leak, and sides that are not drafty in cold weather. It should be placed on runners so that it may be easily hauled to a new location whenever desired. A house 5 feet wide and 7 feet long is of convenient dimensions. A house with a gable roof, or a two-thirds-span roof, or one with roof and sides like the letter A, is the more common. The economy “A” house advocated by Iowa Experiment Station, is very popular. It combines low cost, simple construction, and is easily adjusted for changes of temperature. Its 5’x7’ floor is sufficient for a good-sized sow and litter. THE CARE OF SWINE 439 IN THE CARE OF SWINE . How would you protect the young pigs from being lain on by the sow? . What would you do to provide sanitary quarters? . Why limit the amount of straw bedding in the pens in cold weather? What kind of a wallow should be provided? How destroy external parasites? At what age would you give serum treatment to prevent cholera? What may be done to prevent tuberculosis? . When may the tattoo system of marking be used? . What is the advantage of a concrete feeding platform? 10. Of what should one be mindful in erecting a centralized house? MAKE AN INTERESTING REPORT ON THE FOLLOWING POINTS IN THE CARE OF NEIGHBORS’ PIGS ° 11. Are guard rails used in farrowing pens? 12. Are the pigs kept separate according to sex and age? 13. Is the drainage good about the pens? 14. What winter protection is given? 15. Is treatment for parasites given, if so how? 16. What methods are in use to prevent hog cholera? 17. Do boar owners remove tusks from old animals, and if so now? 18. How are the pigs marked for future identification? 19. Are private herd books in use? 20. What kind of houses are most in use? OONAOTPR jr me - CHAPTER XXXVII BOYS’ AND GIRLS’ LIVE-STOCK CLUBS For many years an important subject of discussion in the agricultural papers, and in farmers’ institutes was, ‘“‘How can we keep our boys and girls on the farm?” Vari- ous answers .were given to the question, but naturally the most logical one was to give them an interest in the business. The real movement in this direction began about 1905 in the South, in the organization of boys’ and girls’ clubs for growing corn under conditions of competition. Dr. 8. A. Knapp at this time was engaged in promoting co-operative work among southern farmers, especially in the gulf states, and he did much to interest the boys and girls in production. This work was championed by the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, and, in his annual report for 1913, Secre- ary of Agriculture Houston wrote as follows. “The present enrollment in this work amounts to 60,000 boys and girls, who are systematically organized into boys’ corn clubs, girls’ canning clubs, potato clubs, sugar beet clubs, vegetable garden clubs, etc. The average yield per acre of all the corn-club members report- ing this year was 74.5 bushels, with a net profit of $25.55 per acre; 426 made 100 bushels or more, and 1,078 made over 60 bushels per acre. The origin of boys’ and girls’ live-stock clubs may be said to date with the year 1910, when 59 boys in Caddo © Parish, Louisiana, organized a pig club,* with the help of Mr. E. W. Jones, the superintendent of the rural schools of the county. This club was organized to do its work after the manner of the corn club, of which it was an outgrowth. The college of agriculture of the Louisiana State University took an active interest in the work, and promoted the organ- ization of other clubs in the state. From this initial effort *The boys’ pig club work. W.F. Ward, U.S. Dept. of Agr. Report, 1915. 440 BOYS’ AND GIRLS’ LIVE STOCK CLUBS 441 has developed a remarkable interest all over the United States in organizing clubs to promote work with pigs, calves, sheep, rabbits, and poultry. In 1917 there were 10,000 young people in poultry clubs in eight states, and 45,000 pig-club members, while in 1920 there were 33,000 members of live-stock clubs in the northern and western states. The object of the live-stock club is to promote an inter- est in farm animals on the part of the boys and girls on the Figure 208.—Shorthorn steer calf, Sunbeam and Ralph Peak of Illinois, who fed and showed him at the International. Photograph by Hildebrand. farm. Mr. W. F. Ward gives nine objects in forming pig clubs.* The ninth one, although given last, may be regarded as the most important. “To instill in the boys while young a love of animals which will re- sult in their taking more interest in farm life, and to furnish them at the same time some work which will in a practical way give an insight into the business side of farm life and incite in them a desire to struggle for and attain success.” There are various other good reasons why boys in partic- ular should interest themselves in these live-stock clubs. *Boys’ Pig Clubs, Farmers’ Bulletin 566, December 31, 1913. 442 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS The competitive side of the work demonstrates the value of good blood in farm animals and its relationship to profit- able production. Thus better breeding will be stimulated. The cost of production will teach the boy how to use the forage crops and concentrates of the farm to best advantage rather than purchase expensive feeds on the market. Boys through live-stock clubs study the breeds and compare them with grades and scrubs, thus becoming judges capable of measuring up values. In this same connection boys become interested in promoting certain breeds, thereby contributing to live-stock improvement. Live-stock clubs of necessity place a premium on proper management, involving breeding, feeding and sanitation, each of which is of vital importance in profitable production. During the late World War, when an appeal was made to the American stockmen to produce more meat, it was estimated that the 45,000 pig-club mem- bers produced about ten million pounds of dressed pork. The organization of live-stock clubs is comparatively simple. In 1915, Mr. W. H. Balis, in charge of Boys’ Pig Clubs in Louisiana, wrote.* “The organization of a pig club consists simply in enrolling each boy and girl of the school who is willing to raise a pig and keep a record of how much the pig is fed, etc. Any teacher may do this and send the names to the parish demonstration agent, or if there is no parish agent, to the Junior Extension Department of the Louisiana State Univer- sity. Before sending the names to the club agent it is very important that the parents give their consent, as very few will be able to carry on the work unless the parents are willing to co-operate.” Boys’ and girls’ live-stock clubs are now generally under the supervision of the extension service of our state agricul- tural colleges, in co-operation with the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture. As a rule, county agricultural agents where such persons hold office, organize the clubs, and see that the work is properly started and supervised. Where there are no county agents, the work may be conducted by local clubs, supervised by volunteer leaders. Teachers in the rural schools, especially those teaching agricultural sub- *Organization of Boys’ Pig Clubs, Circular No. 2, Louisiana State University. BOYS’ AND GIRLS’ LIVE STOCK CLUBS 443 jects, usually take an active interest in pro- moting the clubs. It isrec- ommended that a simple form of organization be adopted by all elubs.-ltis customary to Habe ht ee Pe ee Prof - W. H. Palmer. adopt a consti- tution and by-laws, and the following is offered as a sugges- tion in organizing clubs devoted to live-stock work. A SUGGESTED CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS FOR A BOYS’ AND GIRLS’ LIVE-STOCK CLUB. CONSTITUTION Article I. Name. The name of this organization shall be the. . i boys and Girls Je. 238 84... 5. oe. xe Cl Article II. Object. The object of this club shall be to promote interest in improved live stock, and more especially in.............. to instruct its members in selecting, feeding, and caring for these animals, and to cultivate a love for farm animals and greater interest in country life. : Article III. Membership. Any boy or girl between the age of 10 and 18 years who will agree to secure at least one................ and care for it under the instructions of the club leader, may at any time become a member. Article IV. Officers. The officers shall be a president, vice presi- dent, secretary and treasurer. Article V. Meetings. An annual meeting shall be held on........ and special meetings may be called by the president at such time and place as he deems necessary. Article VI. Elections. The election of officers shall be held at the regular annual meeting, and such election shall be by ballot. Article VII. Amendments. The constitution may be amended by a two-thirds vote of the members present at the annual meeting, or at any special meeting where two weeks’ notice has been given club mem- bers of proposed change in the constitution. BY-LAWS Section 1. Duties and privileges. It shall be the duty of each member to co-operate as far as possible with fellow members in promot- 444 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS ing the special work of the club, and to solicit desirable new members. Each member shall be entitled to one vote in the business meetings of the association. Section 2. Officers. The officers shall be elected to serve one year, or until their successors are elected, and shall perform such services as are ordinarily required by their positions. Section 3. President. The president shall preside at all meetings when present, and serve as the directing head of its activities. Section 4. Vice-President. The vice-president shall perform the duties of the president in his absence. Section 5. Secretary. The secretary shall keep a record of the proceedings of each meeting, and report on the same at the following meeting. The secretary shall act as correspondent in matters relating to the business of the club, and shall keep a roll of the membership. Section 6. Treasurer. The treasurer, to whom duesshall be paid, shall be the custodian of all funds and shall make an annual financial report, or otherwise at the request of the president. Section 7. Order of business. (a) Secretary’s report of previous meeting. (b) Roll call. (c) Reports of committees. (d) Unfinished business. (e) New business. (f) Adjournment of business session. (gz) Social session. The stand- ardization of club work was undertaken by the United States Depart- ment of Agricul- ture in 1915. It was thought de- sirable to or- ganize club members in groups, to be Figure 210,—Edward Bell, of Ohio, and his first prize ealf supervised by in the calf club class, later grand champion in open class at Ohio State Fair, 1920. Photograph from Ohio State local leaders. In University. 1918 an agree- ment was made between the United States Department of Agriculture and the several state club leaders, to provide for standard clubs, and as a result of this conference the fol- lowing organization requirements were adopted. BOYS’ AND GIRLS’ LIVE STOCK CLUBS 445 1. Each club shall have a membership of at least five working on the same project. 2. There shall be a local club leader in charge during the club year. 3. There shall be a local club organization with necessary officers and duties prescribed in a club constitution. 4. There shall be a definite club program of work for the year. 5. There shall be held at least six regular club meetings during the year. The secretary shall be required to keep definite records of these meetings and also of the progress of each member. 6. A local exhibit shall be held annually by the club. 7. There shall be a club demonstration team which must give at least one public demonstration in the home community. 8. At least 60 per cent of the members must complete the farm or home demonstration and file a final report with the county or state club leader. 9. A judging team shall be chosen by competition between the members. 10. An achievement day program shall be held at the completion of the work. 11. The club shall hold a membership in the farm bureau or other county extension organization. j When the first four requirements have been met, a stand- ard club charter is issued. When all the requirements have been met for any one year, a seal of achievement is awarded. A county club committee organized to promote the organ- ization and welfare of the clubs is desirable. Such a com- mittee should consist of one person from each community or township of a county, and should be made up where pos- sible of men and women representing organizations interested in the boys and girls of the county. This general committee will, in co-operation with the county leader, select persons to serve as local community committees. This latter body need not have over five members, preferably representing various community clubs. It will be well also to have on this committee one each of the older boys and girls, especially if they have previously been club members. The commu- nity committee will decide upon the projects for the com- munity, and should meet in conference with the county © leader or other person in charge, to plan the work. The activities of boys’ and girls’ clubs are developed in several directions. What probably appeals to young people 446 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS most is the demonstration work, as seen in feeding and car- ing for animals, the exhibits of live stock, and the judging contests. Social events are also of importance, and an an- nual picnic is popular. Demonstrations of feeding live stock and competitive exhibits of animals are now commonly made by club members all over the United States. These exhibits, especially of cattle, pigs, and chickens, have become large and important parts of the live-stock shows at some of our local and state fairs. At the 1921 lowa State Fair 416 pigs were shown by members of such clubs. Judging contests are very attractive to the boys and girls. In local commun- ity clubs contests are held to determine who the best three or four live-stock judges are, and these are appointed to participate in county club contests. The best team of three represents the county in a state-wide county contest at the college of agriculture. Demonstrations by club members at fairs are becoming popular, and are both interesting and in- structive. Such a demonstration may show the effects of certain feeds in producing meat or growth. One club at the 1921 fair at Sioux City gave a fine demonstration of the com- position of a fleece of wool in scoured fiber, grease, and dirt, and showed how the fleece should be tied for market. Prizes for competition of club members or teams have greatly stimulated interest among the boys and girls. These prizes are widely different.in character and value. As a general policy it is not desirable to offer cash prizes, unless the money is to be used for some specific educational pur- pose. Educational trips, such as visiting stock farms under proper supervision, and scholarships in agricultural schools or colleges, are most commendable. A local tour in the com- munity in which a club is centered, inspecting the stock on farms or the animals in charge of club members, is usually very attractive to all concerned. In 1921, a team of Texas club boys who had won the highest honors in the South judging live stock made a trip to Europe to visit stock farms, BOYS’ AND GIRLS’ LIVE-STOCK CLUBS 447 the prize in this case being their expenses on that trip. A prize greatly valued by large numbers of club members has been the payment of all necessary expenses of a trip to the state fair or to the college of agriculture. Each year at the Ohio State University the club boys and girls have contests in judging covering several days, at the end of which period the five scoring the highest number of points have been awarded special medals. Silver cups and banners are also desirable prizes, especially for competition between clubs. The benefits derived from the work of club members is far greater than might be thought possible. Certainly Figure 211.—The Henry County, Ohio, Pig Club. Photograph from Exten- sion Service, Ohio State University. through these organizations has come a greatly increased interest in farm life, and this has resulted in the keeping of better live stock on many farms. As never before in the history of America, young boys and girls have become part- ners with their parents. During 1920, according to Messrs. C. B. Smith and G. E. Farrell,* 5,000 farmers were led to replace scrub pigs with pure-breds as a result of the pig-club work. Further, this same year 3,000 poultry-club members in the northern and western states introduced 38,000 pure- bred fowls on their home farms, culled 1,200 flocks, and raised 155,000 chickens. Thousands of pure-bred animals, *Yearbook U, 8S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1920, p. 489. 448 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS . write Messrs. Smith and Farrell, have been introduced as a result of the club work with baby beeves, dairy animals, sheep, and swine. Some 33,000 club members are now en- gaged in such work in the northern and western states. Of 174 entries by club members at the Iowa State Fair in the baby beef class, 121 were sold at auction and 2 by private sale. The 123 calves weighed 124,220 pounds and sold at an average price of $18.30 per hundred weight. Jowa State College purchased two of the calves for $650. During the year 1918 an appeal was made to increase our meat stocks. A special appeal was made to urban boys and girls to assist in this work,* because of the ease with which such clubs could be carried on under city conditions. As a result of this work, 26,322 rabbits and 331,072 chicks were raised, and club members reported gathering 133,564 dozens of egos. The total estimated value of the food produced by the 37,723 members of 2,171 clubs raising rabbits and chick- ens was $402,238, a really remarkable showing. One fine feature of the club work is the development of community. spirit and leadership among the boys and girls. Without question they are contributing much to the uplift of rural life which is now taking place. Club work also pro- motes co-operation in the best sense. Where young people thus co-operate, older ones are also influenced in the same direction. This result all comes through well directed, gen- erous leadership. In 1918 there were about 14,000 volunteer leaders who devoted themselves to promoting community welfare through these boys’ and girls’ clubs. Another im- portant result of club membership is that, in assuming per- sonal responsibility for things worth while, the boy or the girl obtains the reward that comes for things well done. To feed and care for an animal, and watch its growth and development, is a most beneficial sort of education. But if one is able to win a prize at the live-stock show, as a re- sult of this feed and care, the reward is even greater *Boys’ and Girls’ Club Work, 1918. Circular 66, U. S. Dept. of Agr _ ete eee wo no =e Ou — (or) SOHO NOohwW Noe BOYS’ AND GIRLS’ LIVE-STOCK CLUBS 449 CAN YOU ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS? . When and where was the first boys’ live-stock club started? How many members of live-stock clubs were there in 1920 in the northern and western states? . What was Mr. Ward’s ninth object in forming pig clubs? . How are boys’ and girls’ clubs organized and supervised? What is the object of a club? What is meant by standardizing club work? . Of whom should the membership of a county club committee consist? . What is the most popular form of club activities? What form of prizes is most desirable? . How did club members help furnish food during the war? SUGGESTIONS TO CLUB MEMBERS . Make a community or similar map, giving locations of club members. . If more than one club is in your township or county, ascertain which seems strongest in membership and the reason? . Ascertain what projects are being carried out in clubs in your vicinity. . Learn if standard clubs are more efficient than any others. . Compare rations fed by different boys and girls feeding the same kind of live stock. . Write a report for publication of what you saw on a club trip, CHAPTER XXXVIII CO-OPERATIVE LIVE-STOCK SHIPPERS’ ASSOCIATIONS The origin of co-operative live-stock shippers’ associa- tions has been generally credited to a community about Litchfield, in Meeker County, in south-central Minnesota, where it was organized in 1908. It has also been reported that this kind of an association was organized in Winnesheik County, Iowa, in 1892.* Wide-spread attention to the sub- ject of co-operative shipping of live stock dates from about 1912, and was based upon the Minnesota work. Prof. W. H. Tomhave, then in Minnesota, who later removed to Pennsyl- vania State College, gave much publicity to this subject. In 1916 the United States Department of Agriculture published Farmer’s Bulletin 718 on “Co-operative Live-Stock Ship- ping Associations,” and this undoubtedly greatly promoted such organizations. : The plan of organizing co-operative shipping associations is comparatively simple. A group of men agree to co-op- erate in the marketing and selling of their live stock. A constitution and by-laws are framed to provide for officials to represent the management. and to look after certain neces- sary details of organization. ‘The constitution may briefly specify the name of the association, its business head- quarters, purpose, and management. It also provides for membership, officers, elections, amendments, and quorum. The by-laws set forth the vital details of business manage- ment. The officers usually consist of a president, vice- president, secretary, treasurer, and a board of directors. The latter, as a rule, appoint a manager whose business it is to look after the marketing of the live stock. The following *Harry R, O’Brien, The Country Gentleman, Noy, 15, 1919, 450 LIVE-STOCK SHIPPERS’ ASSOCIATIONS 451 by-laws, with slight change, are the ones suggested in Farmer’s Bulletin 718, and without doubt these have been widely adopted by most associations. PROPOSED BY-LAWS FOR CO-OPERATIVE SHIPPING ASSOCIATIONS Article I. Delivery for shipping. The shipment of stock in this association shall be made regardless of membership, and the delivery of stock to the manager and the acceptance thereof by him binds the shipper to the rules and by-laws of the association. All who desire to ship stock with the association shall report to the manager the kind of stock, the number of each kind, and the approximate weight of each, when it is ready to be marketed. When a sufficient amount of live stock has been reported to be ready for shipment to make a full car-load, the manager shall order a car for making the shipment, and shall notify each party having stock listed, and state at what time the stock is to be delivered for loading. In case of non-delivery of stock listed for ship- ment, the consignor should be assessed for the loss to the association, and in event of his not paying the same, should be debarred from all future privileges. Article II. Section 1. Duties of the manager. The manager shall be at the yard on the day the shipment is to be made, unless he shall have secured a competent substitute, and shall receive all the stock, and weigh, mark and load the same on the car. He shall have charge of and direct the sale of all shipments, and receive all money therefor, and pay the same to the shippers, less his commission and all other expenses incurred in making the shipments, or when so directed send the money by mail to the shippers. He shall furnish a statement to every shipper, showing net weights, prices received, and expenses of shipment. He shall keep on file a complete statement of ‘settlement, together with returns from the commission firm selling the live stock for the association or from the purchaser of the stock. Ina book kept for that purpose, he shall keep a record showing the number of cars shipped, and the amount of stock in such cars, during the year. He shall also keep an account of all disbursements and receipts for the as- sociation. At the annual meeting he shall furnish a detailed statement of all buisiness done during the year. Section 2. Compensation of manager. The manager shall receive as compensation for his services the amount of .......... cents per hundred pounds of stock sold by him, and no other compensation from the association, except that he shall have the right to charge for any outlay for materials needed in making partitions to separate the stock in the car and for bedding, said amount to be charged to the expense of the shipment for which it was incurred. In by-laws suggested by the Wisconsin University* we have the following on this subject: ‘The manager shall receive as compensation for his services (a) the sum of five cents a 100 pounds for cattle; seven cents a 100 pounds for hogs and ten cents a 100 pounds for sheep. Should there be two or more cars in said shipment, the rate on additional cars shall be three cents a 100 pounds for cattle, three and one-half cents a 100 pounds for hogs, five cents a 100 pounds for sheep, or (B) a flat rate of six or seven cents a 100 pounds on all classes of live stock; or (C) a certain amount on each car *Bulletin 314. Wisconsin Live-Stock Shippers’ Association, August, 1920, 452 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS ($10.00 for the first car and $5.00 for each additional car is conceded to” be fair), or (D) an amount for each day, as $6.00 for the time spent in taking in, loading or accompanying to market a shipment of livestock, and an amount, as $4.00, for time spent in doing office work.” Section 3. Bond of manager. The manager shall furnish a satis- factory bond, which shall be approved by the board of directors. Said bond shall be for the faithful discharge of his duties. Article III. Section I. Sinking fund. There shall be deducted on every 100 pounds of weight of sheep and hogs three cents, and for every 100 pounds of live weight of cattle two cents, and the same shall be placed in the sinking fund, to be used for the paying of losses that may occur to any stock from the time it comes into the hands of the manager until final disposition of same is made. Section 2. Payment for losses. Any shipper whose stock has been damaged by injury while in the hands of the manager shall receive the full amount for the same as though the stock had not been injured, but shall be subject to the same ratio of expense on the shipment. The pay- ment of the damage shall be based on a statement made by the com- mission firm having charge of the shipment, or by the purchaser of the stock, which statement shall show the amount received for the injured animal and the amount in their opinion, it would have brought had it not been injured. This statement shall be the final basis for settlement. No damage shall be paid for an animal which was not in healthy condi- tion when received at the local yards by the manager. Article IV. Section 1. Unhealthy stock. All stock which must be sold subject to inspection, except such as has been injured while in a healthy condition and in charge of the manager or any diseased animal, shall be received at the owner’s risk, and he shall receive such payment therefor as is received by the commission firm less all expenses figured pro rata on the shipment. Ohio Farm Bureau live-stock shipping associations are organized as incorporated companies, although transacting their business much in general as is done by independent local associations. In this method a member of a county farm bureau is allowed one share of stock free of expense, but persons not members of the local bureau, to become stockholders, must pay $30.00. Persons not members of the farm bureau or of the shipping association pay a special sum, as, for example, 10 cents per 100 pounds, on all species of live stock marketed, which money is credited to the operat- ing fund. The sinking fund, which is used to pay operat- ing expenses, and for losses on live stock, is derived from such charges per 100 pounds live weight of cattle, hogs or sheep marketed, as the directors may determine.| The man- agers do all the prorating, while in the independent associa- LIVE-STOCK SHIPPERS’ ASSOCIATIONS 453 tions it is done by commission firms or other salesmen. One great advantage in the Ohio method is that all the companies shipping under the farm bureau federation are assisted in time of trouble with transportation agencies, in securing im- portant legislation, etc., by the state federation officials. Late in 1921 there were about fifty county associations in Ohio working under the farm bureau federation. The manager of a co-operative live-stock shipping asso- ciation is largely responsible for the success of the organiza- tion. He should be strictly honest, have good judgment in business matters, possess a rather intimate knowledge of the live-stock market, and should be a seasoned judge of animals and their market values. Further, in view of the jealousy and friction so likely to occur among a group of people mutually engaged in business, he should be tactful and gracious in his dealings with others, thus harmonizing interests and making friends for the association. It is also an asset to have a manager of attractive personality, some- thing that is too often overlooked. The manager should visit the farms of members of the association, and, whenever desirable, offer suggestions that will result in improving the stock to be sold through the association. It will also be desirable for the manager to make occasional visits to the markets, that he may keep in touch with conditions there. The marking of stock of shipping associations is necessary, for in many cases car loads are made up of shipments from more than one person. Each shipper should have a number or some character by which his stock may be marked and so easily identified. There are several methods of marking. An old European custom is to clip Roman numerals 4 inches or so long in the hair on the rumps of cattle. This marking is easily done with either straight or curved blade scissors. Metal ear tags, on which numbers are stenciled, may be used for cattle, hogs, and sheep; but these are not entirely satis- factory, for the reason that the numbers, being small, can 454 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS not always be easily read. Hogs are commonly marked with paint that is in striking contrast to the color of the animal. Stripes about an inch wide are made across the back with a common paint brush. A combination of different colors, with variations in arrangement and position on the animals, will allow for giving numerous lots of hogs marks by which they may be easily identified. ‘In many associations,” ac- Figure 212.—A method of marketing hogs. Note the marks on the back. Repro- duced from Bulletin 314 of the Wisconsin Experiment Station. cording to Farmer’s Bulletin 718, “hogs are not marked, but those of each shipper are graded by the manager at the shipping point, and a record of sows, boars, and stags, sub- ject to dockage is kept. In this case the hogs are pooled at the market and shrinkage is prorated on the basis of weight. As a matter of protection to the owners, however, the mark- ing of hogs is strongly advocated; because, in case hogs of a certain mark show that they have been ‘stuffed’ before LIVE-STOCK SHIPPERS’ ASSOCIATIONS 455 delivery or that they have shrunk excessively or there is a discrepancy in dockage, proper adjustments can be made.” Sheep are commonly marked with washable paint, rather than ordinary oil paint, which injures the wool, and can not be scoured out. Combinations of colors and marks on top of head or back may be used, such as will allow for identify- ing ownership of many animals. - Uniform grading of shipments of live stock is very desir- able, if possible. It is quite customary for hogs of the same grade, even though shipped by several parties, to be sold together as one lot, and the settlement afterwards prorated. This method reduces extra labor of weighing different lots. The sinking fund of the co-operative shipping associa- tion as set forth in the by-laws is for the purpose of paying for losses incurred while live stock is in the hands of the association. It is in the nature of an insurance fund. A common custom in creating this fund is to deduct two cents per 100 weight on cattle and 3 cents on hogs, sheep, and calves. There are exceptions to this plan, however, as, for example, a certain per cent of the proceeds of shipment may be charged, 2 per cent being a fair amount. The expense of co-operative shipping varies with the local conditions, the distance from the market, and the section of country where transportation takes place. Figures com- piled in Wisconsin* relating to seventy associations show home expenses, including manager’s salary, labor, incidentals, and sinking fund contribution, to amount to $25 per car; the freight expense averaged $38 per car, while the terminal market charges show that for selling, commission, yardage, feed, and bedding, the average expense was $30 per car, or a total of $93. The Wisconsin authorities estimate the ex- pense of marketing a car load of live stock of that state to range from $50 to $150 or from 2% to 71% per cent of the value of the live stock. The 1917 experience of 203 Minne- sota associations showed the cost of central market expenses *Bulletin 314, Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. 456 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS and freight to be $34.15 per car load, and home expenses $16.50, a total per car of $50.65.* Original Live-Stock Shipping Association Member’s Statement oe NO) A ee eee ee Account of Pa eee me AN nr ERS 2 1b) 25 () Nae ee eh aed ee ene 1, ID) : Shrink Market No. Kind Gain Dock weight Price Amount Total Expenses Rate Amount Hogs pes) Sew ele Calvesu- =) | | eS Cattle peepee | eens | Pema ee | Sheep ween | ee ee ee Membership_ ct] Total 2s Inclosed find check No. for balance $ Please ask about anything not understood. Complete statement of each shipment is on file. Manager Figure 213.—Sample of Member’s Statement in a live-stock shipper’s association. The advantages from selling live stock co-operatively are considerable. There is no expense for soliciting business, and the method does away with unnecessary stock buyers in a community, reducing the number to one paid employe. One of the main arguments in favor of co-operative market- ing is the reduced cost of selling due to the fact that one per- son in a community represents the producers in this respect. Estimates from managers of 150 Wisconsin associations have *Farmers’ Co-operation in Minnesota 1913-17. Bulletin 184 Univ. of Minnesota. LIVE-STOCK SHIPPERS’ ASSOCIATIONS 457 placed the savings in shipping from 20 cents to $2.50 per hundred weight, and from $15 to $250 a car. The great majority of estimates lie between $50 and $150 a car, and, on the basis of the lower figure, this estimate would indicate a saving of $1,500,000 a year to the members of the 150 associations.* Mr. G. W. Hurlbert, of Iowa, in reporting on shipping associations in that state,? says it is estimated that in 1918 300 associations in Iowa shipped $75,000,000 worth of live stock. ‘If,’ says Mr. Hurlbert, ‘‘the farmers saved only $0.25 to $0.85 per 100 pounds, the total saving ~ would be around $2,500,000. The total business of all the live-stock shipping associations for 1918 is estimated at $500,000,000. That sum means that a total saving of about $10,000,000 was made by the farmers of the country in - that year by the co-operative shipping of live stock.” Another great advantage in co-operative shipping is the protective side of the sinking fund and reimbursement for animals that die or are injured enroute. Where under old conditions an animal might be nearly an entire loss to the shipper, by the co-operative method he is saved a large amount through the sinking fund. Members of co-operative associations are usually in closer touch with the market, and thus more familiar with comparative values than non-members. They check up on the manager and show an interest in results from the sales of others as well as themselves. A difficulty associated with co-operative marketing is holding the members together and supporting the organiza- tion. Prof. H. E. Erdman writes:§ “Not only do co-operators gain by collective sale, but non- co-operators as well usually obtain higher prices, since competi- tors are spurred on even to the extent, at times, of over- bidding. Here, in fact, is one of the biggest w eaknessess of collective selling as well as of collective buying. It is very difficult to hold an association together for collective dealing when members see that non- members get as good rates as they, with no dues to pay. The real ques- *Bulletin 314 Wisconsin Agr. Exp. Station. tHoards’ Dairyman, December 5, 1919. ye ; §Bulletin 342 Ohio Agr. Exp. Station. Organizations among Ohio Farmers. 458 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS tion, however, is not whether farm prices are higher than before the introduction of collective selling, but rather whether collective selling provides selling service at lower rates than similar services would be performed under competition. The answer is usually yes, provided such selling is efficiently done.” SUBJECTS FOR REVIEW . When the first live-stock shipping association was organized. . Conditions of delivery for shipping. : . The duties of the manager. . The compensation of the manager. Conditions under which losses are paid. How the Ohio federation system differs oe the independent one. Methods of marking live stock for shipping. The expense of co-operative shipping. Financial savings from co-operation. A weakness in the co-operative method. SUGGESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 11. Compare the constitution and by-laws of different associations. 12. Visit one or more local associations and study their work. 13. Which is more satisfactory, settlements for losses through reg- ular dealers or through association management? 14. What forms of marking are most popular locally? 15. Interview ten patrons and ascertain their experiences. 16. Is co-operative shipping growing in favor locally or not? Why? DOWN OUR OO Es fant CHAPTER XXXIX TYPES AND BREEDS OF POULTRY A classification of domestic poultry includes a number of different kinds, each consisting of a group with its types and breeds. The following is a classification commonly used. 1. Fowls and chickens 5. Pheasants. 2. Turkeys. 6. Ducks. 3. Guineas. 7. Geese. 4, Peafowls. 8. Swans. FOWLS The types of domestic fowls may be classified into four groups, namely: 1. Egg-laying. , 3. General-purpose. 2. Meat. 4, Ornamental. For some time poultry students have discussed these types, but more especially three, which from a practical point of view are the only ones of interest to the farmer. These three are the laying, the meat, and the general-purpose fowls. Good examples of each of these types are common all over the country. The other three types are rarely raised on the farm, being the product of the fancier, who oftentimes has his poultry outfit on a town lot. The breeds are also sometimes divided into two classes, sitters and non-sitters, according to whether or not the hens have the desire to sit on and hatch a nest of eggs. The egg-laying type of fowl, according to Prof. H. R. Lewis,* should show a well balanced, deep, nearly rect- angular body, well developed in breast and abdomen. Great *Judging Fowls for egg production. Hints to Poultrymen, vol. 8, No, 2. New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station. 1919. 459 460 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS depth of body is especially desirable, but apparent depth must not be due to loose feathering, which is generally shown by an evidence of loose thigh feathers. Large cap- acity is essential, if a hen is to lay long and heavily. Such capacity is designated by a body that is deeper at the rear end of the keel than at the front end. The underline should be fairly straight and the back should be comparatively horizontal. Prominent breast development and evidence of - a long keel are desirable qualities in a high-producing hen. The general body conformation of a heavy producer con- Figure 214.—The egg-laying type of fowl. Photograph from Poultry Herald. forms very closely to a rectangle with pronounced angles rather than smooth curves. A male shows the same gen- eral characteristics as a female except that the abdomen is not so deep. Fowls of this type vary somewhat in size and weight as well as in flesh-producing capacity. The Leg- horns are small, the hens weighing around 3 pounds, and do not produce much meat on the body, while the Minorcas are larger, the hens weighing about 61% pounds, and may carry a good amount of flesh when in best condition. The fowls TYPES AND BREEDS OF POULTRY 461 of this type are of European ancestry and are usually known among poultry specialistsas the Mediterranean breeds. The meat type of fowl is sald to be comparable to the draft horse, beef cattle, mutton sheep, and the fat hog. It is squarely built, compact, thickly fleshed, wide of back and breast, and heavy of limb. Fowls of this type, when fat, have a carcass thickly covered with meat, and ‘are especially valued for roasting. The hens, as a tule, are of sluggish dis- position and are inferior egg-producers. The meat- Figure 215.—Meat-type of fowl. Photograph from Pouliry Herald. type fowls sometimes weigh 10 to 12 pounds. They are of Asiatic origin, and are represented by the Brah- ma, Cochin, and Lang- shan breeds. The general - purpose type of fowl, as might be supposed, is valued for both egg and meat pro- duction. This type is medium in size, has con- siderable fullness of breast and width of back, and fattens to advantage. In ege production some Figure 216.—General-purpose type. A White general - purpose breeds Plymouth Rock. Photograph from Poultry have Herald. excellent records. 462 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS Standard weights vary, but 7 pounds for the hens and 9 for the cocks are satisfactory. Fowls of the general-purpose type, as a rule, belong to the American breeds, of which the Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, and Rhode Island Red are the most common examples. The breeds and varieties of fowls include a large num- ber of wide difference, ranging from the tiny Bantam to the large and heavy Brahma. The breed characters of form, as applied to head, body, and legs, are rather distinct in each case. The variety charac- teristics are usually shown in color offeathers, though there may be otherspecial features, such as single or | rose comb. The Plymouth Rock, for example, in- cludes six varieties; name- ly, (1) barred, (2) white, (3) buff, (4) silver pencil- ed, (5) partridge, and (6) Columbian. The follow- ing very brief descriptions of some of the leading breeds in America, in- Figure 217 Barred Flymosth Rock sock. clude the more important from Pouliry Herald. representatives of each. The Plymouth Rock originated in America, and is of medium size. The head is surmounted by a single, upright red comb, and the ear lobes and wattles are also red. The neck is broad, breast full and wide, back broad, and body compact. Beak, legs, toes, and skin should be yellow in color. This breed is hardy and matures early, furnishing excellent broilers when eight to twelve weeks old. The hens are moderate layers, the eggs being of a brown color. This is a sitting breed, and the hens make excellent mothers. TYPES AND BREEDS OF POULTRY 463 The mature males weigh 914, and the females 714 pounds. Varieties of this breed differ only in color of feathers. The Wyandotte originated in America, and is of medium size, with a form very similar to the Plymouth Rock. These two breeds look very much alike when fowls of the same color are compared. The Wyandotte, however, should have an outline of form somewhat shorter and deeper in its lines than the Plymouth Rock. This breed has a rose comb in- stead of a single form, and red ear lobes and wattles. . The legs are yellow. Wyandottes are excellent layers, but their eggs are of small size, brown in -color. These fowls are valued for broiling and roasting, for their flesh is of fine grain and quality. The mature males have a standard weight of 814 pounds and the females 61% pounds. Wyandottes are extremely popular. The Rhode Island Red derives its name from the fact that it originated in "fits, prise at Utica, N'Y. Photosaph the state of RhodeIsland. "™ 7owly Success. The American Standard of Perfection, in referring to these fowls, states that “their chief characteristics are: red color, oblong shape, compact form, and smooth surface plum- age.” This is a medium-sized breed, mature males weighing 814, and the females 614 pounds. The comb is either single or rose in form, and of medium size. The shank and feet should be yellow or reddish horn in color. This breed has become quite popular on account 464 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS of its merit as a table fowl and for egg production. The Rhode Island Red, however, is more or less criticized for Figure 219.—White Orpington Photograph from Pouliry Herald. lack of uniformity in plum- age color and_ excessive broodiness during the spring season. The Orpington was first developed in the town of Orpington, England, from which it receives its name. There is no great difference between this breed and the general-purpose American breeds, except that the Orpington is somewhat heavier, and has skin that is white with a tendency to pink tint. and black or flesh- colored legs. The comb may be of the single or rose form. The ear lobes are red. There are three varieties, white, black, and buff. The mature males weigh 10 and the females 8 pounds. The Orpington in recent years has become very popular, ranking high for table use and for egg production. Hens of this variety tend tobe unrea- sonably broody. The Leghorn is a breed of European ori- gin, getting its name Figure 220.—A vigorous White Leghorn cock at Cornell University. Eleven of his daughters averaged 197 eggs each in a year. Photograph from Dr. O. B. Kent. TYPES AND BREEDS OF POULTRY 465 name from Leghorn, Italy. This is distinctly an egg-laying breed. The features of importance are large, single, or rose comb, the single comb on the hens drooping to one side. The head is small, the eye of good size, ear lobes white, comb and wattles red, and beak, legs, and skin yellow. The breast is prominent, though not very wide; the back of medium width and length, the feathers snugly laid to the body, and the tail carried at an angle of about 45 degrees. The Leghorn is very hardy and one of the most active breeds of fowl, rather small of size, and famous for egg production. The females are non - sitters. — There are several varieties of Leg- | horns, of which the white, brown, and buff are most common. Mature males weigh about 4 pounds and females 3. This is one of the most common breeds kept on American farms; in fact, it is almost universally the one that is used especially for egg production on a large scale. The Minorca is an egg-laying, non-sitting breed, originating on Mgire, 221. Minorca | cockerel. the island of Minorca in the Med- “4: iterranean sea. The following is quoted from the American Standard of Perfection: “They are distinguished by long bodies, very large combs, long full wattles, large white ear lobes, dark colored legs, and pinkish-white or flesh-colored skin. The Minorca head iscarried rather high; the back is long and sloping; the tail is spread somewhat and only moderately elevated, being carried at an angle of 40 degrees from the horizontal. Their legs are firm, muscular, and set squarely under the long, powerful-looking bodies.’”’ There are both single and rose comb strains of this breed. Notable egg producers, the Minorcas rank as a close second to the 466 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS Leghorns and, furthermore, they are known as the breed producing the largest egg, which is white in color. The Light Brahma is of Asiatic origin, and has been known in America for many years. It is strictly of the meat type, and is the largest breed of fowls, the mature males weighing 12 pounds and the females 944 pounds. The head is of medium size, with a small pea comb, medium-sized red wattles, and large red ear lobes. The breast is very broad and full, the back wide, the legs, toes, and skin yellow, and the shanks feathered. The neck, tail, and large wing feathers are black, and white striped with black, the other feathers being white. This breed is valued for roasting, but does not rate high in egg production. There is another variety called the Dark Brahma, but neither of these varieties is longer popular, and but few flocks are now kept, although they once were common. The Cochin is also an Asiatic breed, large in size, like the Figure 222.—Light Brahma hen, F Lady V- first at Chicago. Photo: Brahma, a standard weight for ‘ph f Poultry Herald. ; graph from Poultry Hera males being ‘

one i uae Figure 227.—Diagram of the exterior of the fowl. Reproduced from Farmer's Bulletin 806, United States Department of Agriculture. organization known as the American Poultry Association. This devotes much attention to the establishment of stand- 473 474 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS ards of perfection for the various breeds and varieties of fowls, and provides rules and methods for judging fowls. A book published by the association, known as the ‘‘Standard of Perfection,” is the American authority for judges and stu- dents to follow. No poultry showin which the breeds and varieties are exhibited could be properly conducted with- out the judge’s being guided by this standard. No breed of fowls can be regarded as established until officially rec- ognized and described by the American Poultry Association. The parts of the fowl passed on by the judge have certain out- lines, colors, and ° other markings as applied to each breed. The feathers differ in size and form in a striking way, according to their location on the body. ‘The illustration of a male bird on Figure 228.—White Leghorn cockerel showing single page 473 shows, comb points. Photograph from Prof. F. 8S. Jacoby. through a num- bering system, the location of the parts and feathers. The head of the fowl is one of the striking breed features. It is topped with a comb, which is larger on the cocks than on the hens. A very common form is single, upright or lopped, the top being serrated, or separated into points sug- gesting the teeth of a saw. Leghorn and Plymouth Rock varieties have this form. The rose comb is wide and low, consisting of many knobs crowded together, the rear part JUDGING POULTRY AND POULTRY PRODUCTS 475 -tapering more or less to a smooth point. This comb occurs on Wyandottes, Minorcas, and other varieties. The pea comb is very small, and resembles three single combs dwarfed in size and crowded side by side, with the central one somewhat larger than the others. There are also V-shaped and strawberry combs, but these are not common. The ear lobes are usually small, and vary in color from red to white or bluish, according to breed. The wattles are usually red, and on the cock often hang below the bill in a conspicuous manner. The bill does not show the striking differences seen in the comb and wattles. Some breeds, like the Houdan and Polish, have crests, or clusters of feathers, which some- times largely hide the head proper from view and also often affect the sight of the birds. The feathers of the fowl differ in a remark- able way in size, form, and color. Even with varieties of one color, as, for example, white, the shades of this hue are made a subject of discus- sion by poultry experts. This difference also ap- Figure 229.—A rose comb. Figure 230.—Outstretched wing showing - ‘ barred feathers of the Plymouth Rock. plies to other solid colors. Photograph from Prof. F. 8S. Jacoby. In case of Fin having more than one color-marking to the feather, there are barred feathers, as with the Plymouth Rock; penciled feathers, as 476 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS with the Silver Penciled Wyandotte; laced feathers, as with - the Golden Wyandotte; and still other markings, as striped, spangled, edged, etc. The color-markings of some birds are very beautiful. The correct color and form of the feather are of most interest to the fancier; yet the practical poultry- man little interested in this feature has been able to secure his favorite breed through patient breeding, development, and improvement by the so-called fancier. Methods of judging. The breeds and varieties of fowls are ordinarily judged by one of two methods, the score card or by comparison. In recent years utility classes have been exhibited at poultry shows, and this fact has introduced another phase of judging where egg production is an import- tant factor. The score-card method of judging has been generally used at poultry shows for many years. Its use, however, is not so common now as formerly. Poultry judges using the score card put down the number of points or frac- tion of a point cut, and adding these, deduct from 100, which gives the total score. In cutting for defects from 4 to 3 points are recommended for certain deficiencies, and these are specified in the standard for the benefit of official judges. Judging by comparison is becoming common, and is more satisfactory than by score card, for the reasons already given in Chapter XIII. Instructions for judges of poultry include various points. Among these, weight receives considerable attention, and two points are usually deducted for each pound that the fowl falls short of the standard weight. Other things being equal, the one nearest standard weight is awarded the prize. To receive a first prize, a specimen must score 90 or more points, except cocks in parti-colored varieties, which are allowed 88 points as a minimum. When young and old birds are in competition, other things being equal, the older ones are to be awarded the prizes. Ties often result in judging. When - a tie occurs, if it can not be broken by other rules, then the JUDGING POULTRY AND POULTRY PRODUCTS ATT specimen receiving the smallest total sum of cuts for shape shall be awarded the prize. The official score card of the American Poultry Associ- ation is here given: SSeS n alin, (0 taate) 0) ai (a) (6 ~\6)\e: e!.0 a's) 6) «Je, je («| 2 \ecne, (eq'a)'e (oe) a: 0) [6] (2) ea 6) @s| 6 = ‘eis oe je 0) 0 ‘a © « ¢ = © 6) 0 Joe @ @ | (Date, month, days and year show is held) OFFICIAL SCORE CARD OF THE AMERICAN POULTRY ASSOCIATION ELMO Re acre et ce SN, ee SANS So Sun e newe de OUR Tok VRE" Ae Met eM ose” POMS ie! LN Sot hd OE LSELI CP STA Sade Meare es tage | SI pea [Ras ao ee aD EE DIL DINSIOI a 2 9 Sam aaa cg | age le acta nN a ee Pe a Eojieuiaileiiealve! tal ela: s: leis \s) oie 0.10 vel a 0 17e) LE OVES oof Sh» sles hice Ra Cee) SEs gy ITVS EOS ee ERAS eee, ees oe ee ety lee Make et ACRE RE Se date ur Se LESEVGE@ SUEYO| On IGT ip PRB, oe ie ee Wea cra | Tee UR Lae aA ae a ee Smet TAC MDOCS aa tk Ae we Cn Ree lpg Ne ek ene care i Crees eaves cree ina eae Saag ese BA bk Lie ier | Pe ee ee ela Aa cli MGT Mess OUCAUNED Ee ott see eel nae ole nay sonic toe he ne orale es ee ee Ok aR IEA, SR BR Nee the TS 8 ech alters JUDGE MR Cee. tere Bat. CNA eS ka NIE wh deen dacs alum (eae SECRETARY tApplies to crested breeds. *Applies to games and game bantams. This score card is intended for use in connection with the Standard of Perfection, which contains a detailed description of each variety of fowl. 478 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS Disqualification in judging poultry is allowed for various reasons. The occurrence of feathers on the legs of what should be a smooth-legged breed; or of smooth legs when feathers should occur; irregular color of ear lobes and legs or of the plumage; web feet and excessive number of toes or too few toes; incorrect position of the comb, as, for ex- ample, lopping when it should be erect; absence of crest in crested varieties are examples of conditions which jus- tify disqualification. Judging fowls for utility has received special attention at poultry shows since about 1915. In the utility classes the birds are to be brought forward for show when at the height of egg production. This practice is not the case with ordinary exhibition birds, for they are shown just prior to beginning production, when in their finest plumage. Only standard-bred fowls are shown in each class, but in the utility group less consideration is given to plumage and more emphasis is paid to body form and evidence of egg production. A score card for utility judging was drawn up in November, 1919, at a conference of poultry specialists at Vineland, New Jersey, based on a careful study of 1,000 yearling hens in the International Egg-Laying Contest. “In working out a production score card,” writes Professor Harry R. Lewis*, the idea has not been to develop ascore card which should be used in placing premiums at utility shows, but rather to develop numeri- cal values for the various sections of the bird, in order that utility judges and exhibitors may have a common working basis, that is, in order that the exhibitor in picking his birds may have a more or less accurate idea of what the judge is going to look for in determining the relative values which he will give the various sections and qualities. In working out the numerical values for the score card the perfect bird was recognized as 100 per cent, which was allowed to be equivalent to a production of 300 eggs. Numerical values for all sections were then so arranged that each per cent of value is equivalent to three eggs or, put differently, a cut of one point in any one section is equivalent to a cut of three eggs.” The following score card for utility judging is based in principle on much of the work developed at the Cornell University judging school during 1918 and 1919. *Judging fowls for egg production, Hints to Poultrymen—Vol. 8, No. 2, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, 1919. JUDGING POULTRY AND POULTRY PRODUCTS 479 SCORE CARD FOR JUDGING UTILITY HENS AND PULLETS Egg produc- Parts scored Perfection tion value Body type(as seen in coop or on floor).......... 25 points 75 Eiecad and Adunets 20 6 hs Ske | ea 45 Body conformation (as determined by handling) 30 “ 90 tem UANIEY ae oo 5 os, hs se ee bea eee 19° 7 * 30 PE EMM OCS oe hates os nods: bas a Blas ae 15 RR MPPEL TRC, at oe cn ne a see Re eee ate By 28 45 ce 1 LUD EPH 98 012 6 (0) | ee Pe ee £006 300 The following discussion is given as explanatory of the application of the score card in utility judging. BODY TYPE Perfect Score—25 Points, 75 Eggs A bird of good body is usually well-balanced in that the body itself must be deep, showing a nearly rectangular form, well developed in breast and abdomen. Great depth of body is especially desirable, but apparent depth must not be due to loose feathering, which is generally shown by an evidence of loose thigh feathers. Cochin and exhibition game type and feathering are usually associated with poor production. Large capacity is essential if a hen is to lay long and heavily. Such capacity is designated by a body that is deeper at the rear end of the keel than at the front end. The underline should be fairly straight and the back should be comparatively horizontal. Prominent breast development, with evidence of a long keel are desirable qualities in a high-producing hen. The general body conformation of a heavy producer conforms very closely to a rectangle with pronounced angles rather than smooth curves. A male shows the same general characteristics as a female except that the abdomen is not so deep. A small-capacity hen generally stands erect. The body is either very shallow and cut away at the breast and abdomen or, in the case of beefy individuals, the abdomen shows a pronounced sagging at the rear of the keel due to large accumulations of fat. Extremely poor producers frequently show a hump on the back. HEAD AND ADJUNCTS Perfect Score—15 Points, 45 Eggs One of the best indications in picking high layers is the fineness of the head. The head of the heavy producer is fine, showing a lean face, free from wrinkles and overhanging eyebrows. The wattles and ear lobes fit close to the head and are not loose and flabby. ‘The face is clean cut, the eye is full, round and prominent, especially when seen from the front. An eye which gives a clean-cut wide-open appearane is desirable. The eyeball of the heavy producer is generally set in the rear of a large oval socket, showing considerable of the white eye membrance in front of the eyeball. The head of a heavy producer should be well balanced, being moderately deep and broad. The extremely fat, full head of the beefy bird and the long, thin pointed head of the low-vitality birds are both undesirable and should call for heavy cuts in this section. The low- producing bird generally shows a depressed eye with over-hanging 480 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS eyebrows and wrinkled skin at the back of the eye. The extremely long sharp beak is usually possessed by the low producer, while the medium stout, well-curved beak is characteristic of the high producer. BODY CONFORMATION Perfect Score—30 Points, 90 Eggs When taken in the hands, a heavy producer will show, by the sense of touch, great depth of body, especially at the front and rear of the keel bone. The keel must be moderately straight, relatively long and carried well back. The space between the pelvic bones and the keel must be free from excessive accumulations of fat. Birds which are laying heavily can be readily detected by the development of the abdomen. Such birds will show pelvic arches which are widespread and a keel which is forced down away from the pelvic arches so as to give large capacity. The poor producer generally shows a shallow body especially at the front of the keel, a small shrunken abdomen, together with all evidences of small capacity. HANDLING QUALITY Perfect Score—10 Points, 30 Eggs The skin of the heavy-producing hen is thin, soft and pliable, es- pecially the skin on the abdomen must be thin and loose. The skin of the poor producer is generally thick, hard and rather coarse to the touch. The thin velvety skin is almost always associated with heavy ovarian activity. LEGS AND TOES Perfect Score—5 Points, 15 Eggs The shanks of a heavy producer are flat, pliable and smooth scaled. In hens at the end of their laying year, or pullets which have been laying heavily for some time, the shanks will be bleached out. The toes should be straight and the toenails show indication of proper activity. The shanks of the poor producer are usually round, hard and rather coarse scaled. CONDITION ‘Perfect Score—15 Points, 45 Eggs A bird to be capable of highest sustained production must be first of allhealthy. She must show vigor and activity and be well fleshed. Late molting in hens is desirable. Early molting and slow maturing, as shown by the primary feathers, should be cut severely. Late developing and late maturing usually indicate low production. In applying this section to hens, health and molting conditions should be given primary consideration. In applying this section to pullets health and maturity should be given primary consideration. Judging poultry products, such as dressed poultry and eggs, ls becoming more and more necessary. ‘The score card is not specially recommended for this purpose, the compara- tive method being very generally regarded as the most sat- isfactory. Referring to this point, one authority says: JUDGING POULTRY AND POULTRY PRODUCTS 481 “In judging dressed poultry and eggs, the number of qualities or points to be considered is small; slight differences in quality do not make great differences in value, as in high-class birds, and degrees of quality are more readily appreciated. While score cards are sometimes used for judging dressed poultry and eggs, the number of sections into which a card may appropriately be divided is so small that there is little if any advantage in scoring, and if, to develop a system of scoring, many sec- tions are made, the process of judging is complicated when it should remain simple. The points to be considered are so few, and the values so apparent, that judgment of all is practically instantaneous. * * #* The rational method of judging dressed poultry and eggs is to grade them according to market quality and value.” The judging of eggs by score card has been attempted to some extent. An egg show, in which eggs were scored by the students, has been held annually at Purdue University. Two classes of eggs were provided, ‘“‘fancy’’ and ‘“‘commer- cial.” The following score card and explanation of its use are well worth consideration: COMMERCIAL EGG SCORE CARD. MAMIE UNOR. cc vee 0a he we eee bs 1B Yas oie gen OL 192 A SUID IETS reat ek eo WOROR As cae BNGRY NO... 2... CiUASSieoe ee WABTGET ce tates k eine Ozs Features considered aus Cuts Remarks SSI CMR ter ors eres ot ks ASN aka al te chs Ton oN UL ie ee Se SDT 25 ee AP eben te We Pepe tous Sas orto a Uniformity of color........ Sp rea maa] Weta: vee Pe nea wey 7) FA NE Uniformity of size and shape DTD exis ht || eaten oP LG haan ana Dare eee BMC PeRbURE ke ek Fall ded fect Ns Mer Gat ey eR Condition of shells......... AEA Ree earl Mra mane 2, Hace oy. Ebi Varad ie Quality (by testing) (a) Size air cell.:...... 7 Sg cosas OA ee ne CE te aE (b) Opaqueness....... AS) ioe atone diner Ge BIR. ab ER A oa oral pots: oo. a sue ee lasers Be lic genet ye oes be ae eeas es Sse ua BA A ANS, ARICA a cage a geI OP RE A a JUDGE Explanation of Commercial Egg Score Card Size: Extras, 26 to 28 ounces. Firsts, 24 to 26 ounces. One point cut for each ounce over or under required weight in either class. 16 482 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS Shape: 1 point allowed for each egg. Uniformity of color: If white, eggs should be all pure white and of the same shade. If brown, the color may be any shade, but the dozen should be uniformly the same color; 24 point allowed for each egg. Uniformity of size and shape: All eggs must be of same size and shape. 14 point allowed for each egg. Shell texture: Free from wrinkles, spots, cracks, and rough places; 14 point for each egg. Condition of shell: Free from dirt or stain, unwashed. Quality: ‘Test with candles. (a) Air cell very small, about size of a dime, indicating freshness. (b) Egg must appear opaque, the yolk free from dark color, white thick, yolk barely visible. Large air cell, floating yolks or air cells are defects. Eggs must be fresh and sweet. Disqualifications: Cracked, broken, spots, musty rots, and germs or blood rings in any one egg will disqualify the dozen. COULD YOU TELL The purpose and value of the Standard of Perfection? How the combs of fowls differ in form? In what way feathers differ in coloring? The method of making cuts in scoring poultry? How weight and size are graded by the judge? Two conditions that might cause disqualifications? The difference between utility and ordinary exhibition classes? . On what basis the utility score card is constructed? . Some of the features of a perfect head in the utility score? Why the commercial score card is not more used in judging poul- try products? ae oa OR ee j— EASY THINGS TO DO 11. Holding Saturday afternoon poultry judging contests. 12. Collecting an exhibit of one breed for comparison at school. 13. Scoring a number of hens in the utility class. 14. Getting up a prize egg show, and judging by score card. 15. Sorting over and studying a case of eggs loaned by the egg dealer or grocer. CHAPTER XLI CULLING THE POULTRY FLOCK The relationship of form to function with fowls has re- ceived a great deal of attention in recent years. Careful study of egg production by individual fowls, as explained in chapter XL, demonstrates that the most productive layers possess certain characteristics which are associated with the Figure 231.—A culling demonstration by Prof. E. L. Dakan on an Ohio farm. Photograph from Ohio State University. laying habit. If one seeks egg production in a flock, it is very important to make practical application of this knowledge and cull out all birds that do not measure up to the desired standard or that are lacking in vitality. So important has this subject of culling out the undesirables become, that demonstrations on this subject have been held in many communities in the United States east of the Mississippi river, and hundreds of thousands of persons have 483 484 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS profited thereby. In 1921 nearly all the 88 counties of Ohio had special culling demonstrations, 50,000 persons being in at- tendance. During the month of July 599 demonstrations were held in 32 counties, and 64,651 hens were handled, 23 per cent of which were culls. It was estimated by the Poultry Department of the Ohio State University that these culls that were removed from the flock, resulted in a saving of $11,766 to the flock owners. This Ohio experience is simply given as an example of the importance of this work. The following instructions for culling the flock, are based upon an excellent bulletin* prepared by Professor E. L. Dakan, a poultry specialist who has devoted much attention to this subject. Indications of egg-producing capacity may be sought in several directions. In general these indications are shown in three ways: 1. In color changes due to egg production. 2. In body changes in fat and pelvic bones. 3. The period of molting. A discussion of the above indications involves a number of special features which must be considered by themselves. COLOR CHANGES IN HENS DUE TO EGG PRODUCTION A yellow pigment is more or less present in the hen, according to conditions. When not producing eggs, the hen lays up body fat. In the case of yellow-skinned fowls, this fat contains a yellow pigment which colors not only the body fat and skin, but also the legs, beak, eye ring, and to some extent the ear lobe. As soon as a hen begins to pro- duce eggs, this yellow pigment fades from the body and intensifies in the yolk of the egg. So long as a hen produces eggs the pigment is diverted to the yolk, none being deposited in the body, which is now bluish-white or pink in color. When laying is discontinued, the body once more takes on the yellow color. This process of fading follows a certain *Culling the poultry flock. By E. L. Dakan, Bulletin 13, vol. XV, 1919-20, Agricultural Extension Service, Ohio State University CULLING THE POULTRY FLOCK 485 well defined course, always in the following order: first, the vent; second, the eye rings; third, the beak; and last, the shanks. The kind of feed used affects the length of the fading period in the hen, because the yellow pigment is derived from the grain and green feed that the hen eats. The fowl that has had yellow corn and plenty of green feed has a larger supply of yellow pigment stored in her body than the one fed on white corn with no green feed. Further, the greater the amount of yellow pigment stored up in the body, the longer the time required for the fowl to undergo the bleaching process. With these facts in mind it is possi- ble to select the hen that has been the continuous, consistent layer, as well as to determine those which have just begun to lay or have been poor layers. COLOR MARKS The vent is the first part to lose the yellow color after egg production starts. This change is due to the fact that those parts of the body where the blood circulation is great- est fade first. A white or pink vent of a yellow-skinned bird indicates that she is laying. The eye rings, which are in the inner edge of the eye- lids, bleach out a little more slowly than the vent and, there- fore, bleached or white eye rings indicate a longer produc- tion than a bleached vent. The ear lobes on the white-lobed varieties bleach next and indicate a still longer period of production than a white vent and white eye rings. The color of the beak is lost before that of the shanks and thus a white beak indicates that the hen has been producing eggs for a month or six weeks. The color leaves the beak, beginning at its base, and gradually disappears, leaving the front part of the upper beak last. The lower beak bleaches faster than the upper. The lower beak should be used for oberservation when the upper is covered with black or horn, as with Plymouth Rocks and Rhode Island Reds. 486 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS The shank color is the last to be affected, the yellow remaining in this part after it has disappeared elsewhere. For this reason we have here the surest indication of long continued production. It requires from four to five months for the shanks to bleach out after the hen begins to produce eggs. The color leaves the front of the shanks first and gradually fades from the scales on the back side as the length of the laying period increases. Figure 232.—Rear view showing large vent and egg laying form on left, and small vent and meat form on right. Photograph from Dr. O. B. Kent. BODY CHANGES DUE TO EGG PRODUCTION The following discussion of body changes is in the order that is usually followed in culling demonstrations. The vent of a laying hen is large, as is shown in figure 232, and it is also open, moist, and soft, while that of a non- laying fowl is small, close, dry, and puckered. CULLING THE POULTRY FLOCK 487 The comb of a laying hen is large, full, and bright in color, while the comb of a non-laying one is dry and com- paratively hard, often covered with scale, and is pale in color. The abdomen of a laying fowl has a fat covering that is soft and pliable, and feels much like an udder that has been partly milked. The skin is also soft and velvety. The abdomen of a non-laying hen is dry and hard. The pelvic, or pin, bones of a laying hen are straight and flexible, with very little or no fat around them. They are spread far enough to permit the pass- age of the egg. The spread var- ies with the in- dividual and the breed, and no definite measure- ment applies in this regard. In general, how- ever, a laying. hen will show a Figure 233.—A culling demonstration. Body depth is a measure of a hen’s capacity to consume a large spread between paar ity 2 food oo igvaceeh caren d prodiiee fe ie . number of eggs. e one on the left is a deep-bodied, the pin bones of high producer, the one on the right a shallow, round at le ast three bodied scrub. Photograph from Prof. E. L. Dakan. fingers. Practice is necessary to determine just what spread indicates that the hen is laying, keeping in mind the fact that a hen that is laying will show a greater spread of pin bones than one not laying, and that the bones of a non-laying hen are thick, stiff, and blunt, with the ends bent in. The distance from the pelvic to keel bones of a laying hen is an important indication. A laying hen consumes 488 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS more food than one that is not laying. A high egg-producer consumes more feed than a poor egg-producer. In order to consume and digest this feed the intestines of a laying hen are larger than of one not laying. When laying, the ovary and oviduct are greatly enlarged and require more room. To provide this extra space, the body increases in capacity or depth. This is noticeable by the increase in the distance from the pin bones to the end of the keel bone. The increase in size of the body cavity is secured by the dropping down of the keel bone. By measuring the distance from the pin bones to the keel bone an idea can be formed as to whether the hen is in laying condition or not. No definite measure- ment can be given that will fit all individual hens. As a general rule, a hen that measures less than three fingers wide of body depth, is not laying or is a poor layer, because such a hen lacks the capacity for handling a large amount of feed. The hen that shows the greater body depth may, as a rule, be selected as a good layer if in addition to this she exhibits the other marks of egg production. THE MOLT INFLUENCE ON EGG PRODUCTION Most hens stop laying when they begin to molt. Since the molting period covers several weeks, it is advisable to sell the hens that molt early. It is a fact no longer disputed, that a hen, in order to make a high yearly record, must be > a consistent layer. The early molting hen is not a consist- ent layer. She takes all the fall months as a vacation for changing her plumage. The consistent layer molts late and grows her new plumage rapidly. The time of the molt is the best indication of the last year’s performance. The molting period may be a guide in culling all breeds and varieties, but is of special importance with such breeds as the Orpingtons and Minorcas that do not have the yellow skin. The hen that molts early, under normal conditions, will not lay as many winter eggs as the one that molts late. Neither will the early-molting fowl begin egg production CULLING THE POULTRY FLOCK 489 earlier in the spring than the late-molting one. No definite date can be set as to early molting. As a general rule, how- ever, the first hens in the flock to molt should be sold, and the last to molt should be retained for breeding purposes. Hens may be caused to molt early if placed on starvation diet while laying heavily; by irregular feeding; by roosting in a house that is poorly ventilated, or in any way that tends to check egg production suddenly. Care should be taken not to let these undesirable conditions occur, otherwise a lower total egg production is quite likely to follow. If the pullets are hatched early, they will be laying early in the autumn, and thus egg production will be kept up. In an article on culling,* Professor H. C. Knandel of Pennsyl- vania State College touches still another side to the plumage question. He says that during the fall months the condition of the plumage is the most noticeable indica- tion of production that : Figure 234.—A hen in heavy eee con- applies to all breeds. The dition. Photograph from Prof. S. Jacoby. hen whose plumage ap- pears most soiled, whose tail and wing feathers are badly worn, is the hen that has been laying heavily. The early-molting hen during the late fall months appears very much dressed up in her new suit, but has not produced a quantity of eggs sufficient to pay her board bill. Hence the hen that is the good producer is too busy laying eggs to stop to molt, with the result that she does not shed her feathers and get ready to engage in egg production until late in the year. *The Truth about Culling. National Stockman and Farmer, Sept. 3, 1921. 490 = bt oF We Ne Se CO So St Ni A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS IN CULLING THE FLOCK FOR EGG PRODUCTION Why be influenced in your judgment by skin pigment? What is the effect of green food on the egg? Should the vent be yellow or white? large or small? How would you value the color of the beak? What kind of a comb would you seek? How should the fat covering on the abdomen feel? Should the pin bones be spread or close? . What should be the distance from the pin bones to the keel? Would you select an early or late molting hen? Why? What hens should be sold first? © DO A LITTLE CULLING YOURSELF . Compare the general forms of birds you know to be good layers with those that are not. . Feed two hens of the same breed, one corn, the other wheat, and notice the effect in pigment coloring. . Compare the eye rings, ear lobes and beak color of ten hens, of the same breed. . Examine the combs of laying and non-laying hens and note the difference. Select two groups of fowls, one molting, one in full plumage, and measure the distance between pin bones and keel in each group. CHAPTER XLII EGGS AND INCUBATION The egg is an object of much interest, for it is not only the source of the chicken itself, but also a most important source of income to the poultryman. If one is to handle the egg intelligently, one must know something of its com- position, of how the chick is developed within the shell, and of commercial differences and values. The parts of the egg of special interest are five: The shell, composed mostly of lime, and hard enough to enclose and protect the softer interior. Two tough membranes lying next within the shell. These separate at the large end, forming a small air sac, which is easily seen in hard-boiled eggs. The albumen, or, as it is commonly called, the white of the egg. This forms about 57 per cent of the egg and con- sists of much nitrogenous matter of a liquid, sticky, trans- parent character. Boiling hardens, or coagulates, the white into a firm, white structure. The yolk, comprising about 33 per cent of the egg, is a round yellow sac, surrounded by the white. This is used for nourishing the young chick just before and after leaving the shell. The yolk is suspended midway in the white and kept in proper position by two albuminous cords. The blastoderm in the fresh-laid egg is seen as a white speck about one eighth of an inch in diameter on the upper side of the yolk. The blastoderm is the true egg and source of the chick in incubation. The fertile egg is one that will produce a chick under proper conditions of what is called incubation. The infertile or sterile egg can not be hatched, and so has no value in 491 492 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS reproduction, although for food it has equal value with the fertile one. The fertility of the egg can not be determined except by incubation. After the egg has been under the hen for five to seven days, ordinarily one may easily tell whether it is fertile or infertile. If infertile, it will appear clear and show none of the changes subsequently described. The testing or candling of eggs is a simple process of looking through the egg with the aid of special light. One Figure 235.—A home made egg candler. Reproduced from Farmers’ Bulletin No: 1040, United States Department of Agriculture. may take a piece of common cardboard, one side of which is black, in which is cut an oval hole not quite as large as an egg. If the cardboard is held before a lighted lamp in a dark room, blackened side towards one, and an egg is held in the hole, the one that contains a chick will appear dark and opaque except at the larger end, while a sterile egg will be clear and show light. In the trade, where all eggs are examined before a light, this process is known as candling. Black lamp chimneys with holes in them are made for use EGGS AND INCUBATION 493 in a small way; but, in the larger commercial trade, eggs are candled over sets of electric lights arranged for this purpose. The incubation of the egg of the hen occupies a period of 21 days. The following are some of the more important changes that take place during incubation. During the first twenty-four hours the blastoderm enlarges to about a half inch in size, within which the first stages of head and some other parts appear. During the second day the heart begins to beat and the blood to flow. By the end of the third day the veins and arteries are considerably developed, and the young chick turns on its left side. On the fourth day the wing folds, and the folds forming the legs appear. The beak Figure 236.—The egg. Left egg dead germ; center, fertile egg on 7th day; right egg, infertile. Reproduced from Circular 99 of the California Agricultural Experiment Station. begins to form on the eighth day, and shows its horny shape on the twelfth. The entire shell except the air cell is occu- pied by the chick by the twelfth day. The feathers appear first on the eighth day, and by the thirteenth cover the body to the length of one fourth inch. At this time the nails of the feet appear. On the fourteenth day the chick changes its position and extends lengthwise, the beak reaching the inner shell membrane. The air cell has been gradually in- creasing in size, and by this time is much larger. From now on, the chick increases in development to the twenty-first day. The following interesting description of the hatching process is given by Professor Lewis;* * Poultry Laboratory Guide, 1910. 494 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS “When ready to come out, the chick raises its head and pierces the inner shell membrane, and immediately starts breathing the air in the chamber, which causes the pulmonary circulation to become active and the embryonic circulation to cease. The head is next raised into the air chamber, and the chick deals blows upon the shell, which, when often repeated in the same place, result in fracturing it. This process is re- peated until the shell is broken around about one third of the way from the large end. The chick then presses its head against the large end and its feet against the small end, and then by pushing is able to throw off the shell lid and make its exit.” The incubator is a box-like device containing a space in which eggs may be incubated by means of artificial heat. The hatching of eggs by artificial incubation has been in operation for thousands of years, especially in Egypt and Figure 237.—A pair of vigorous day-old chicks. Photograph from Prof. F Jacoby. China. There are various designs of incubators made, rang- ing in size from those which contain but a few eggs up to those with a capacity for thousands. Incubators in use at the present time are heated by hot air from a kerosene lamp or by a hot-water system. The hot-air type is the one in more common use. The eggs, one layer deep, are placed in movable, wire-bottomed trays. The temperature of the incubator is regulated by the automatic action of an instru- ment called a thermostat, which is sensitive to heat changes. This instrument is set so as to reduce or increase automatic- EGGS AND INCUBATION 495 ally the amount of incoming pure air. A thermometer within may be read through the glass front. Incubators should stand level, and a popular location in which to operate them is a dry cellar that will maintain a uniform temperature. The artificial process of incu- bation in the incubator requires one to look carefully after the following features of importance. These are location, temperature, — ventilation, and moisture, and ace 238-—A Standard anew turning and airing the eggs. The from Ohio State University. following discussion of these fact- ors is abstracted from writings by Professor F.S. Jacoby, head of the Poultry Department at the Ohio State University.* The location of the incubator may have a decided influ- ence upon the number of chicks hatched. Heretofore the usual recommendation has been to locate the incubator in a cellar that maintains a more or less uniform temperature. With the improvement of the mechanical parts of the incu- bator, this reason for location is not so important as it used to be. The important point is pure air. The room, whether a cellar or not, should be so arranged that both the heavy gases near the floor and the light odors near the ceiling have a means of being dispelled. If the air in the room is impure, the air in the incubator will be even more so. The uni- formity of temperature in a cellar is a decided help in the operation of the incubator, but it is better to have a room with a variable temperature, if the air is purer thereby. The most satisfactory results are obtained in a room having a cement or dirt floor, with a temperature of 60° to 70° F. Temperature. The normal incubation temperature of hen eggs is 103° F. The position of the thermometer will *Artificial Incubation of Chickens, Bulletin 16, Vol. XV, Agricultural Extension Service, Ohio State University. 496 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS determine the temperature at which the incubator should be operated. The thermometer may be arranged so that the bulb is in contact with the eggs or it may be hung above the eggs so that the bulb does not touch the top of the eggs. These two methods would each require a different reading to produce the correct temperature of the contents of the egg. When the bulb of the thermometer is in contact with one or two eggs and is on a level with the upper one fourth of the egg, the temperature should be 102° the first week, 103° the second week, and 104° the third week. If the thermometer is hung so that the bottom of the bulb rests on the top of the egg, the readings should be 103° the first week, 104° the second week, and 10414° the third week. With the thermometer suspended just.above the eggs so that the ‘tray can be removed without striking the thermometer, the temperature should be 103° the first week, 104° the second week and 105° the third week. The incubator thermometer should be tested at the be- ginning of each season by comparing the readings with those of a certified standard thermometer in warm water at 102°, 103°, 104° and 105° F, and careful note made of all variations. Moisture and ventilation in the incubator are so closely associated that they can not be considered separately. Nearly all incubators have some provision for supplying moisture during incubation. The use of moisture permits greater ventilation during incubation without excessive evap- oration of the egg contents. The amount of ventilation will have a decided influence upon the quality and number of chicks hatched. The greatest amount of oxygen is needed from the 7th to the 20th day of incubation. The air in the incubator should always smell sweet. If it has any per- ceptible odor, there is not sufficient ventilation, and the eggs will not hatch as they should. The safest method of supply- ing moisture is by means of moisture pans located under the egg trays. The question of ventilation is automatically EGGS AND INCUBATION 497 cared for in most incubators. Openings in the bottom, sides, or top permit fresh air to enter and impure air to pass out. If there are openings in the top of the machine, much more moisture must be supplied in the egg chamber, for there will be considerable moisture carried out of the machine with the warm air. If there are no openings in the top of the incubator, the moisture in the eggs will be conserved; but, in order to supply sufficient oxygen to the developing embryos, there must be a system of ventilation that will circulate the air inside the incubator so that the light odors as well as the heavy gases will be dispelled and replaced with a certain amount of fresh air. As a rule, the amount of ventilation should be increased as the hatch progresses. Late hatches require more ventilation than the earlier hatches. The best guide as to the moisture requirement is the egg itself. About two thirds of the egg content should be occupied by the embryo on the nineteenth day. If too much moisture is supplied and too little ventilation allowed, the chicks will hatch with considerable irregularity and will not dry off with a soft, smooth down. If proper ventilation and moisture conditions have prevailed, the chicks will hatch out with uniformity, with a clean, soft down. Turning and airing the eggs. Turning and airing the eggs is necessary for the production of strong, vigorous chicks. ‘The hen on the nest turns the eggs with her feet several times a day. ‘Turning insures an even development of the embryo and prevents any parts from adhering to the inside of the shell. The necessity for turning is apparent from the third to the eighteenth day of incubation; but, in those incubators that have automatic turning devices which permit the eggs to be turned without opening the machine, it may be desirable to turn the eggs from the second to the nineteenth day. There is no advantage in extending the time, if the machine must be opened and the egg tray re- moved in order to turn the eggs. Airing the eggs is a better 498 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS expression than cooling, because it expresses more concisely the real value that accompanies cooling. It is the fresh oxygen that the eggs draw in as they cool that has a strength- ening effect upon the embryo. The usual period for airing is from the fifth to the eighteenth day. The eggs should be turned three times a day—morning, noon, and afternoon. They should be aired once a day, preferably at noon. The length of the airing period will depend upon the develop- ment of the embryo and the temperature of the room in which the eggs are aired. It will vary from two to three minutes for eggs five days incubated early in the season, to forty-five minutes for eighteen-day eggs in the late spring or early summer. Turning by hand is undoubtedly more nearly perfect than any automatic egg turning device, and if done once a day in addition to the other turnings there will be a marked decrease in the number of crippled chicks. Care of incubator after the hatch. Remove all shells and unhatched eggs at the end of the twenty-second day. Chicks hatched after the twenty-second day will be too weak to prove worth raising. The incubator should be thoroughly cleaned and dis- infected after each hatch. Certain communicable diseases may be transmitted to the chicks through the medium of bits of egg shell and droppings, unless the trays are kept in a sanitary condition. Remove the trays and all portable parts from the interior of the machine. Scrub these as well as the inside of the machine with hot soapy water. Then drain and disinfect everything with a two per cent solution of creolin or zenoleum. Replace the trays, close the door of the incubator, light the lamp, and let the machine dry out. The fumes from the disinfectant will penetrate to all parts of the machine. If burlap is used on the nursery tray, use a clean burlap for each hatch. Eggs for incubation should be from vigorous, well-mated fowls, and not from what might be called mongrel stock. EGGS AND INCUBATION 499 These eggs should be kept in a dry, cool atmosphere until placed under the hen or in the incubator. A place having a temperature of from 50 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit is re- garded as best. The eggs should be carefully handled, not being severely shaken nor cracked. It is a good plan to mark on each egg the date laid, and no eggs over 10 days old should be set. In making up settings, it is desirable to use those of uniform size, color, and condition. Hatchings will be likely to be more uniform if the eggs are of much the same age and condition of keep pre- vious to setting. The size and weight of eggs vary more than many suppose. Professor Lewis gives* some interesting figures about the size and weight of eggs of different breeds of fowls. The eggs of seven different breeds showed an average large circum- ference of 6.19 inches, a small cir- cumference of 5.27 inches, and an average weight of 1 pound, 8.05 ounces per dozen. The eggs from the hens were slightly larger and weighed a trifle more than Figure 239.—Leghorn and Min- orca eggs. Note the difference those from the pullets. A dozen in size and weight per dozen. Plymouth Rock eggs weighed 1 Caves pin a pound, 11.2 ounces; the Leghorns ranking second at 1 pound, 10.3 ounces. In a bulletin published by the Ohio State University, 7 it wasshown that, in sorting over a case of eggs, a dozen of the largest ones weighed 30% ounces, the medium-sized 2614 ounces, and the small ones 2134 ounces. On this basis it was figured *Poultry Laboratory Guide, 1910, p. 16. tThe Marketing of Eggs, April, 1911, p. 16. 500 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS that a case of 30 dozens of large eggs would weigh 57 pounds, 3 ounces, while the small ones would weigh but 40 pounds, 12 ounces, an astonishing difference. The Leghorn naturally produces small eggs, and the Minorca large ones, and figures in the bulletin referred to give a weight of 22 ounces for a dozen of the former, and 2714 ounces for the latter. The fact is, that, for the same price, a dozen large eggs furnish more actual nutriment than a dozen small ones. The color of the egg is due to a pigment, or coloring substance developed in the shell during the process of formation in the body of the hen. The color is either white or brown. Leghorn and Minoreas produce white eggs, and Brahmas and Plymouth Rocks, brown ones. Some buy- ers prefer the white color, and others the brown. Eggs of a chalk-white color, with a light yellow yolk, bring the best prices in New York City. This prefer- ee 20 Ss ence is merely a matter of fancy, eel oe Ohio State Uni- because there is no difference in the food value. When fresh laid, the egg has a clear shell of a beautiful dull glaze, but with age and handling it becomes somewhat glossy or polished and often is soiled. The degree of freshness of the egg has much to do with its value on the common market. Prime fresh eggs, such as producers supply to private consumers, bring the highest price. In a commercial way, eggs are gathered from farmers by hucksters or are sold to country grocers by the produc- ers. They are placed in wooden cases holding 30 dozens and are shipped to the city dealers, by whom they are graded and EGGS AND INCUBATION 501 then placed on the market. Often the eggs are very poor, especially during the summer season. Eggs from stolen nests, dirty nests, from held-over stock, etc., find their way into the same case, and form a motley collection. The careful dealer sorts these, candles them, and tries to grade them before plac- ing them on the market. The grades of eggs on the market differ to a considerable extent, and in some _ places more than in others. Large markets like New York or Boston handle the most grades. Pro- fessor Philips gives the follow- : - . : Figure 241.—Sorted vs. un- ing classification as an _ ideal See eaees Piotomanh fiom way to erade egos :* Ohio State University. Extras. Weigh 28-26 ozs. naturally and absolutely clean; fresh and sound. No. 1. Weigh 26-24 ozs., sound, fresh, and reasonably clean. No. 2. Shrunken or stale, washed, small, stained and dirty. No. 3. Checks—cracked, but not leaking. No. 4. Rots. Incubator and decomposed eggs. _ New York quotation on eggs in November, 1921, showed the follow- ing grades and prices. Samomin whites-Extra firste...........0.0.c000f...2e 0s 70c 2S EE, TSS a RR re ek a, a 58%-60e. leh CEG ES Cs aR ee il eee 50-54c. RTT EStS Ot Fe tet Seen es eee 3414-3 5 ve. PR OT INCCONGS. 750 oN earch e eeu oe ss See 30ce. The preservation of eggs during low prices, to sell when they are high, is a common practice. The egg easily spoils under a hot sun or in warm moist weather. Germs of rot develop rapidly in the egg at 55 degrees or higher, con- sequently it is desirable to keep them below this temperature until they can be used. In cold storage, it is preferred that a temperature of 34 degrees be maintained. *Bulletin No. 162, Kansas Experiment Station, p. 251. 502 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS The use of common water glass (sodium silicate) for preserving eggs is now very generally reeommended. Thisisa liquid that sells at a compara- tively low price. The preserving fluid is made by thoroughly mix- ing one quart of the water glass in nine quarts of water that has BS 30 Dozrh been boiled and cooled. Stone Be Sees crocks or barrels make good receptacles for preservation. Figure 242.—A case of eggs. Fhotograph from Ohio State ‘These should be well sealded University. before using, and then kept in a place where the temperature does not rise above 60 degrees. The best eggs for preservation are those laid in April, May, and early June. SPECIAL TOPICS FOR STUDY . Describe the different parts of the egg. . Explain the method of testing eggs. Describe the stage of incubation on the second, eighth, and twelfth days. . Describe the methods by which the chick gets out of the egg. Why is moisture necessary during incubation? . Describe the incubator. How should the egg for incubation be selected and cared for? . Compare eggs for size and weight. . Describe Professor Philips’ ideal of market grades. . Give method for preservation. SOME THINGS YOU MIGHT DO . Boil an egg hard for three minutes, and when cold separate into four parts—shell, membrane, white and yolk. . Test some eggs by candling, either from an egg case or from those being incubated. . Filla small incubator and keep a daily record of its temperature for 21 days. . Go to a grocery and inspect a quantity of eggs, and report on what you saw as to size, shape, color, and condition. . Find market grades and quotations on eggs in at least three markets. Make comparisons. . Bring a sample dozen of your home eggs to school for inspection. _ ‘ SOON MEA wre ee ee ro wm Ff WO WO CHAPTER XLII THE FEEDING OF POULTRY The organs of digestion of the fowl perform their work and have the same influence on the food as do the stomach and intestines of animals. The form of these organs, how- ever, is peculiar to birds. They may be briefly described as ~ follows: The beak, a hard, horny part for breaking, tearing, pull- ing or picking up food. The mouth and tongue, within and back of the beak. The gullet, a tube which extends to The crop, which lies in front and at the base of the neck. Here the food accumulates and is somewhat softened by digestive fluids. The stomach, where food from the crop is mixed with the gastric juice. The gizzard, a tough muscular organ containing small particles of stone. Here the food is ground to a pulp, mixed with digestive fluid, and then moves on to The intestines, where the last stage of digestion takes place. 3 The foods suitable for fowls vary widely in kind and character. In fact, farm poultry will eat almost anything that has any nutritive value. So adaptable are fowls to local conditions, that, as a rule, they are fed the cheapest and most common foods grown in the region in which they are kept. Very naturally, in America corn is most com- monly fed, with wheat or its by-products next in favor. In Japan, rice is the food generally used. The kind of food, however, should vary according to the age and condition of the birds, and the purpose for which they are kept. If for 503 504 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS fattening, then a carbonaceous food is best; but, if for eggs, then that of a protein nature should be used. Protein foods recommended for fowls are meat scraps, fish meal, and milk of various forms. The common grains and cereal by- NOSTRIL—J \e a\s NASAL PASSAGE Ine FACE PHARYNX LAK ass HE A amin TONGUE ee ee RSS EFT WATTLE een: OESOPHAGUS OR GULLET LARYINK OR WIND PIPE SPLEEN GALL BLADDER +-LOCATION OF KIDNEYS OVARY Dy — LARGE INTESTINES OVIDUCT Figure 243.—Anatomical chart of a fowl. Reproduced from Poultry Manual of the G. E. Conkey Co., Cleveland. ;roducts, such as corn, wheat, oats, bran, middlings, etc., supply the necessary carbohydrates. THE FEEDING OF POULTRY — 505 The appetite of fowls for different kinds of food is well worth observing. They eat grain or concentrated feed with great relish, and when in confinement this is the kind most used at regular feeding times. “They are extremely fond of meat, table scraps, tender herbs and grass, and of insects, worms, ete. In fact, no one class of food seems most relished, and poultrymen generally agree that variety in the diet usually gives the best results, from both the health and the producing point of view. The special preparation of feed for fowls naturally de- pends upon conditions. Small particles are usually prefer- able to large ones. Wheat and other small grains are very satisfactory. Large grains like corn are best cracked or broken. Ground or pulverized feeds, singly or in mixture, are known as mashes. Where no water is used, this food is called dry mash; with water, a wet mash. Dry mash is a favorite in some places and not in others. Clover or alfalfa hay is often thrown into the yard, the fowls readily eating the leaves and delicate parts. Young chicks require fine, easily digested food, like oatmeal, cracked wheat, finely- granulated corn, chopped vegetables, etc. Skim milk also is a valuable food for growing chickens. Green food for fowls causes them to respond very rapidly in increased growth or egg production. When on a range of good grass no other green food need be provided, but dur- ing the winter season succulent food is most desirable. Coarse vegetables are often sliced or chopped into small pieces before feeding, although entire cabbages or roots may be hung in the house or fastened to nails on the walls, from which points they will be picked to pieces. In recent years sprouted oats have been used in a small way for feed, espe- cially for young chicks. The common plan is to make a wooden rack-like arrangement, to contain series of shallow pans. The desired amount of oats is put into a vessel and covered with warm water and let stand over night. 506 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS The surplus water is then drained off and the oats are spread over the pans to a depth of one half to three fourths of an inch. The oats should then be placed in a room, preferably a basement or cellar, having a temperature of 60 to 65 de- grees. The oats should be sprinkled daily with tepid water, and, to provide drainage, the bottom of the pans should be perforated with small holes. In about ten days the sprouts will be ready to feed to the chickens, but they should be used sparingly in the first of the feeding. | The amount of food eens above thehead, Heprodtced Romine necessary for fowls de- “Eopey ial pends entirely upon their size, egg production, and kind of food fed. The best plan is to prepare standard mixtures, and feed as much as will be eaten with appetite. Regularity in feeding fowls is essential. On many farms the poultry must forage for themselves, but under proper conditions there should be special grain feeding morning and eve- ning. A dry mash is commonly kept in the house at all times. Other special feeds are also giv- Figure, 5 — Ofte, emrodies sae en early in the morning, about noon, and just before the birds go to roost. Regularity of feeding also brings the fowls into intimate touch with the poultryman, and enables him to handle them and watch their condition to the best advantage. THE FEEDING OF POULTRY 5.07 Frequency of feeding fowls depends upon the age, con- dition, and purpose for which they are kept. Young chicks should be fed four or five times daily. The feeding of mature fowls varies among poultrymen, some feeding twice and others three times a day. If one has time to look after the stock in detail, three feeds a day for fowls in limited yards will give better results than will two. Most good poultrymen use what are called “‘hoppers”’ or ‘“‘self-feeders.”’ The hopper is a box-like arrangement containing more or less feed, from which the fowls can eat freely at any time. Figure 246 —Forced feeding of fowls in England. Photograph by courtesy of Poultry Herald. Scattering grain in cut straw or floor litter is a good plan, for it keeps the fowls busy and ensures slow eating, both of which habits are desirable. Some persons feed a wet mash in the middle of the day, grain being used morning and night. Some prefer one method and some another. The effect of food on the quality of the egg is very notice- able in some cases. Foods of strong odor, such as onions, impart objectionable flavor to eggs. Corn gives an undesir- 508 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS able yellow yolk, while most other grains produce less color. Green food and clover or alfalfa hay also furnish the high color to the egg so commonly seen when these foods are fed. Forced feeding of fowls may be done in two ways, one when the feeder simply gives the birds more feed than they need or would eat under natural conditions; the other being a special artificial feeding process known as cramming, whereby the crop is filled with food by the use of a machine, and the fowl fattened as rapidly as possible. Of course what would be a forced feeding of one fowl might not be of _ another, because of difference in capacity. On this subject of forced feeding Robinson says:* “Forced feeding is almost universal among poultrymen. All regular, good feeding is in a sense forced feeding. Even under natural conditions with opportunity to balance their own rations, full-fed poultry develop faster and better individually,but at the cost of shorter life and reduc- tion of vitality in the offspring. The poultryman’s object is to get as much as possible out of the birds in the shortest possible time; that is, to market as soon as possible those destined primarily forthe table, and to keep laying and breeding poultry only as long as they are highly productive. He forces by feeding, but not (intentionally) to the danger point, just as a careful horseman often drives his horse much faster and farther than the horse would go of its own accord, yet avoids over driving.” The use of mineral foods by fowls is even more important than with farm animals. Growth in proportion is really much greater with the fed fowl than the four-footed animal, while the production of eggs requires a considerable amount of mineral matter. The common supply of food does not always furnish enough of the mineral substances, and espe- cially lime, to meet the needs of the fowl. This lack is par- ticularly true of the laying hen. Consequently some other material must be added, and green ground or broken burned bone, granulated dry bone, and finely broken stone are commonly used to meet this need. Ground or finely broken oyster shells have always been popular for laying hens. As to the exact needs of the body for mineral food, we do not know, but it may be assumed, as based on practice and the result secured with farm animals, that the mineral *Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture. 1911, page 213, THE FEEDING OF POULTRY 509 substances play a part in nutrition. Robinson, however, believes that in ‘good feeding of mixed rations,’’ under range conditions young birds get all the mineral elements they require, and adult birds all they need, except for producing egg shells. He does not think grit is necessary, and since 1902 has fed none to poultry, except in the first feeds of young ducks and geese. Gran- ulated charcoal is fre- quently used, being re- garded as valuable for correcting sour stomach and other forms of indi- Figure 247.—-Cheaply made drinking foun- tains. These are jars filled with water and turned with mouths down in pans of water. Photograph from Ohio State University. gestion. Some poultrymen think charcoal is a blood purifier. Water for fowls should be clean and pure. Drinking fountains in which clean water may always be found are Figure 248,—A feed hopper and covered water pan at left. Photograph from Prof. F. 8. Jacoby. commendable. Fowls are rather frequent drinkers, and should always have plenty of clean water available. In win- 510 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS ter, care should be taken to see that water and not ice or snow is supplied. A flock of fifty hens will use from four to six quarts of water a day in ordinary weather conditions. Feeding rations for fowls naturally vary, some persons preferring one ration and some another. Most of these here given are easily secured or may be readily prepared, as the foods used in the combinations are grown over a wide extent of country. The rations given are quoted from reports, and so differ in total amounts and in statement of weights or parts. The common method, however, is to mix up a quantity of feed, and then use as much as the flock requires. The feeding of young chicks requires very careful atten- tion. The following is the general course of feeding recom- . mended by the poultry department of the Ohio State Uni- versity. Milk should be the first food given. Either fine commercial chick feed or finely cracked corn and wheat should be given in the litter about five times daily, making sure the chicks have to scratch in the litter to get the grain. Plenty of exercise for the chicks is desirable. For the first week bran should be kept available in shallow pans gqll the time, as this is rich in mineral matter, is bulky, and serves as a mild laxative. As the chicks get older the grain feed- ing can gradually be reduced until only morning and even- ing scratch feeds are given. The following course of feed- ing is especially recommended for the various stages of development, using as much of the several mixtures as may be desirable. First week Second to eighth week ScratcH FEED ScratcH FEED 50 lbs. corn finely cracked 60 lbs. corn finely cracked AQi 2 wheat. << 40 lbs. wheat “ 10 “ rolled oats Masu Masa 20 lbs. bran Wheat bran 10 ‘“ middlings Milk all time 10 ‘* corn meal 10 “ ground oats 5 “ meat scraps or tankage* ‘ 1 “ bone meal *Use milk in place of scrap or tankage, if available. THE FEEDING OF POULTRY . 511 Eighth week to maturity ScratcuH FEED Masa 200 lbs. cracked corn 200 lbs. bran 100 “ oats or wheat 100 “ wmiddlings 100 “ corn meal 100 “ ground oats 75 “ meat scrap 5 “ bone meal In addition to the above, it is desirable to feed young chicks sprouted oats, cabbage, mangels, beets or green grass, each of these to be fed in finely prepared form, as may be available. When on the range such food need not be pre- pared. Infertile eggs from the incubator, hard boiled and chopped up, make excellent feed for young chicks and they should always be fed rather than cast aside. Figure 249.—The average amount of grain consumed by a laying hen in a year, producing 142 eggs. Photograph from U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 1040. Rations for egg production used in different sections of the United States, vary more or less, according to material available. The following rations are recommended by vari- ous authorities engaged in research work in feeding fowls. (By United States Department of Agriculture—Farmers’ Bulletin 1067) Ration No. 1 Masu ScratcH MrxtTure 16 lbs. corn meal 1 lb. cracked corn 6144“ meat scrap 1 “ wheat 1 . “bran $i nets 1 “ middlings 512 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS Ration No. 2 2 Ibs. corn or barley meal 2 lbs. cracked corn 1 <*> bran i , eats 1 “ middlings 1 “ wheat or barley 1 “ meat or fish scrap Ration No. 3 3 Ibs. corn meal 2 Ibs. cracked corn 1 “ meat scrap 1 “ oats Ration No. 4 9 lbs. corn meal 2 Ibs. cracked corn 5 ‘“ middlings 1 “ wheat 4 “ bran 1 “ oats 2 “ cottonseed or gluten meal 1 “ barley 2 “ meat scrap 2 per cent bone meal (In Ohio at Ohio State University) Dry Mas ScRATCH 100 lbs. corn meal 100 Ibs. cracked or shelled corn 100 “ wheat middlings 100 ‘ wheat or oats 100 “ bran Green food, grits and oyster 100 “ oats shells 100 “ meat scraps or tankage Feed the grain mixture morning and afternoon in a deep litter of straw. Feed sparingly in the morning, but give the hens all they will eat in the afternoon. Feed the dry mash in a hopper which is open at all times. Keep grit and shell in open hoppers. Feed green food once a day. (In Minnesota, Bulletin 119, Minnesota station, page 153) A mash consisting of equal parts of finely ground corn, oats, or shorts, mixed with about 10 per cent of cooked meat, green cut bone, or beef scraps are mixed together dry. Then thoroughly mix with about one third this bulk of steeped clover leaves or finely cut clover, which has previ- ously been scalded. Another mixture, to be only slightly moistened with water, is the following: 2 parts bran 1 part wheat shorts - 1 part ground corn 1 part ground oats 1 part beef scraps 1-10 part charcoal (In North Carolina, Bulletin 211, North Carolina station, page 54.) In an experiment extending from December to May, dif- ferent rations were fed to pens of 10 hens each. The largest THE FEEDING OF POULTRY 513 production of eggs and the least cost occurred in pens 14 and 15, fed the following: 4 parts corn meal 4 parts wheat bran 2 parts meat meal _ 2 parts bone meal Cottonseed meal was used in three cases. Pens 20 and 22, fed four parts each of corn meal, wheat bran, and cotton- seed meal, did very unequal work, one pen laying 225 eggs and the other 378. (In Kansas, Bulletin 164, Kansas station, page 290.) The following laying ration has been a success in feed- ing White Leghorns and White Plymouth Rocks. Between February 1 and November 1, 1909, one White Plymouth Rock produced 201 eggs and another 196, at a cost for feed of 90 cents each. The Leghorns averaged 166.1 eggs for the same nine months, at a slightly less cost. Following are the rations: GRAIN MasH 10 parts wheat 6 parts wheat shorts 10 parts corn 3 parts bran 5 parts oats 6 parts corn meal 5 parts beef scrap 1 part alfalfa meal Fattening ration for fowls. Fowls to be fattened should be kept in a limited enclosure and given but little exercise, and fed a fattening ration. Specialists place chickens in crates and fatten them rapidly for three or four weeks. Professor Jackson, formerly of the Pennsylvania station, re- porting on fattening in Bulletin No. 107, says: “The common ration of corn meal is “ava as satisfactory as a combination of grains. An excellent mixture is equal parts of Gri ground corn meal, buckwheat, and oats with the hulls removed. A ration of one to two parts corn meal, one part middlings and five per cent meat scrap may be used if it is not possible to secure the other grains. It is important, whatever grains are used, that they-be finely ground. If this ration is mixed with sour milk, no animal food will be needed.” It will be noticed that in all the above rations, corn, wheat, oats, and wheat bran or middlings are the standard foods used. Meat meal or beef scrap, skimmed milk, and clover or alfalfa, are always desirable. In the far West, 17 514 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS Kafir corn or millet seed may be used to advantage. Where barley is commonly grown, this is to be recommended as a feed, and may be used in place of corn, if desired. A REVIEW OF THE POULTRY FEEDING SITUATION . Compare the crop and the gizzard. What kind of diet should be given a fowl? How often should poultry be fed? Explain the meaning of forced feeding, and when it is practiced. Why is mineral matter fed, and under what conditions? . Under what conditions should water be supplied? . Give the best method of feeding young chicks from the second to eighth week. . Give two rations for laying hens used in different states, and the method of feeding. . Name the five most common feeding stuffs used. INTERESTING EXPERIMENTS FOR YOUNG PEOPLE . Carefully examine the crop and digestive organs of a chicken. (a) When taken from a freshly-killed fowl. (b) Freeze a fowl solid in winter, and with a saw cut it in two lengthwise and somewhat on one side, to show the digestive organs in place. 11. Make up two pens of hens, equal in number. Feed one lot a car- bonaceous food, like corn; the other a protein food, such as wheat. Give some green food, oyster shells, and grits. Keep a record of egg production, and after some weeks-report to the school. 12. Make up two pens of hens. Feed alike, except to give one pen oyster shells, and allow none to the other. Keep a record of the number and condition of the eggs, and report. 13. Prepare what you believe to be a good ration of home-grown feeds for growing chickens, and bring a sample to school for inspection and criticism. 14, Report on the rations fed by any two or more poultrymen in the community in which you live, fm f=) CHAPTER XLIV THE POULTRY HOUSE AND EQUIPMENT The need of housing or shelter for fowls varies with the section of the country and the local conditions under which they are kept. While close housing is no longer needed to the extent formerly thought necessary, naturally more pro- tection is required in the colder sections than in the warmer. In winter, in New England, where the ground is usually covered with snow, shelter is a necessity; while in Texas, where snow rarely falls, less protection is required. The forms and styles of poultry houses differ widely, and no one kind is regarded as the best. A collection of photo- graphs or views of one thousand houses will show a very interesting variety of style and construction. Years ago buildings were often made of brick or stone, at great expense, and were very warm and almost air tight in winter. In recent years the construction is less expensive, and fresh air properly supplied is an important feature. Several types of poultry houses, each for a special pur- pose, are more or less in use in this country. These may be placed in the following classes: (a) Laying pen house, (b) fattening house, (c) brooder house, (d) colony house, (e) shelter coop. While plans and details of construction can not be given in the limited space of this volume, some sug- gestions of interest and value will be found in the follow- ing pages that may be well worth careful study. The laying pen house is designed for the purpose of keep- ing fowls in confinement, in groups suitable for the best results. Yards or runs limit the range of the hens. These houses are permanent of location and, as a rule, are of sub- stantial construction. Formerly they were made with tight 515 516 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS walls, had glass windows, and in winter the air within was kept at as comfortable a temperature as possible. Some- times these houses were lathed and plastered. Not much attention was given to ventilation. Houses of this sort are not built as much as formerly; and, if they are, cloth screens on the front or south side replace most of the glass, pure air being regarded as a necessity. In many cases, these houses have open front windows, except in the coldest winter weather, when the cloth screens are dropped. Laying pen houses are of different styles, a common one having a simple single-pitch shed roof, with a height of 6 or 7 feet at the Figure 250.—A large laying house pad. vards: Photograph from Prof. F. S. acoby. south, and 4 or 5 feet at the rear. It is best to have the house of a depth that will allow sunshine to reach as near the back wall as possible. A depth of 14 feet and a width of 12 to 14 feet for each pen is a satisfactory size. One should allow 5 square feet for each bird in such a house. In a house of this sort the floor should be made of concrete in order to make it rat-proof and to keep it dry. This floor may be covered with cut straw or chaff, and be used in cold weather as a scratching shed. The walls should be tight THE POULTRY HOUSE AND EQUIPMENT 517 enough to prevent drafts. The roosts may be placed just above a low platform at the rear or on one side, below which are the nests. In front, plenty of window space should be provided, which should be covered with poultry wire netting, and also have cotton cloth screens, to be dropped during very cold weather. Doors of standard size are usually placed at one or both ends of the house, with wire doors in the parti- tions, to allow passage through the various pens. In houses containing many pens, doors are sometimes provided to give entrance from the pens into the yards. The fattening house is a small structure containing crates in which fowls are fattened, arranged along each side of a passage way. The house is of simple construction, and- has superior ventilation with inferior light, as fowls are best fattened under conditions of subdued light. Fattening crates are in tiers, with feeding trays in front of each, which with other conditions provide for the least amount of labor in caring for the birds. Houses of this kind are not com- mon on American farms, but are used especially by men who make a business of fattening fowls for market. A brooder is a device used in connection with the incu- bator, and is in a sense an artificial mother. The general plan of the brooder is that of a warm box or room, heated either by a small oil stove or a coal stove. The former pro- vides uniform warmth for from 100 to 200 chicks, and the latter for from 200 to 500. Within the brooder is what is called a “hover.” A circular plate or cover of more or less diameter, according to the size of the hover, is placed about ten inches above the floor. From the rim of this plate a cloth curtain extends to the floor. Pieces of cloth are also suspended from different parts of the underside of the cover to the floor. Here and there the cloth is slit so the chicks may freely pass through and find a warm protec- tion among the strips of cloth, comparable to being under the mother’s wing. The small brooder house has but one hover, 518 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS but the large houses, which are heated by coal stoves, may have several. The temperature under the brooder should be kept as nearly 100° F. as possible. A brooder house may be a simple box-like affair of one room 6 by 8 feet in size, with the hover in the back and a door and window in front. On large farms it may be of considerable size, con- taining a series of pens, in the end of each of which is a hover, warm air being supplied by a hot-water heating plant. The floor of the brooder should be covered with fine sand, if at all available. The brooder should have plenty of sunlight; it should be rat-proof; it should be roomy with Figure 251.—A colony house at Ohio State University. Photograph from Prof. F. S. Jacoby. plenty of scratching space; good ventilation should prevail; and the temperature should be easily controlled. The colony house is a small, single-room building con- taining roosts and nests, and located in a yard or field. It is simple and cheap of construction, and is usually portable, so as to be easily moved from place to place. There is no one style of house; and structures are made of all kinds of material, ranging from piano boxes, at a total cost of $3 or $4 up to those made with care by a carpenter, costing $35 THE POULTRY HOUSE AND EQUIPMENT 519 or $40. A fairly good type of colony house has both a door and window in front, the latter being covered with wire screening, and with a curtain to be used for cold weather protection. A small window in one end, for both ventila- tion and light, and a wooden floor are also desirable features. Poultrymen having houses differing widely in style of con- struction and lighting seem to get equally good results from their fowls. Two strong arguments for the colony house are, that a flock of about the right size may be kept in a yard of suitable area; also the house may be shifted from time to time to new and clean soil conditions, thus provid- ing good, permanent sanitation. Colony houses may be hauled into grain fields after the harvest, where the fowls secure uncommonly good forage of grain and insects. Figure 246.—A handy shelter coop and run. Reproduced from ‘Poultry Houses.’’ The shelter coop is usually built for a hen and a brood of chickens. It varies much in construction. Common boxes 2 or 3 feet square, with slat or wire front; empty barrels, with a slat attachment at one end; and shelters of tent or A- shape are frequently seen. ‘These coops should be made so as to enable the chicks to pass freely in and out, to give the hens dry and comfortable shelter, and to protect the chicks at night from rats and other vermin. The location and construction of the poultry house require careful thought, if the most satisfactory results are to be 520 A STUDY OF FARM ANIMALS secured. A few suggestions, therefore, which are rather general in their application, are here given. The site of the poultry building should be where drainage is good and the soil naturally dry. Further, the elevation should be sufficient for a good circulation of air. Under damp conditions throat or lung trouble is very likely to occur. In damp soil of a clayey or loamy nature, intestinal and .other parasites that affect poultry breed more freely than elsewhere. A dry location promotes clean bodies and feet, which mean the production of clean eggs. The size of the poultry house should depend upon the number of fowls one wishes to keep. On most farms large flocks do not give as satisfactory returns as small ones. With a flock of 50, each bird should be allowed 5 square feet of room. With larger flocks not quite so much space per fowl will be required. One can obtain satisfactory returns with 100 fowls of the smaller breeds in a house with 20 by 20 feet of floor space. If fowls are crowded, good results in egg production can not be expected. The width of the poultry house depends upon size of the flock. Under most conditions, a house 14 or 16 feet wide is ample for each pen. One should plan to use standard lengths of timber, so that as little waste as possible will occur in sawing. Poultry houses 20 feet wide are being constructed to-day quite generally by farmers with large flocks, this size being economical in cost of material, and providing a maximum of space for the same. The foundation of the poultry house should be of con- crete or stone, if intended for a permanent laying house. This foundation should be deep enough in the ground not to be affected by the action of frost, and should rise 6 to 12 inches above the surface. The thickness of wall will depend on local conditions, ranging from 6 to 8 inches. Portable colony houses may be built on 4 x 4 runners. Halpin and Ocock, of Wisconsin University, recommend the use of THE POULTRY HOUSE AND EQUIPMENT 521 “two small trees of some durable wood which may be flat- tened off on top and tapered off at both ends so as to make a satisfactory runner.” The walls of the poultry houses are built of wood, brick, concrete, or stone. The most common method is to use 2 x 4 studs nailed to 2 x 6 sills, over which matched siding is nailed horizontally. When well put together, this makes a wall free from drafts and very satisfactory. If rough boards are used, battens or strips should be tacked over any cracks. It is not desirable to place siding over the 15'0" LX4 RAFTERS Figure 252.—Front elevation building plans of the Purdue Brooder Colony House. Reproduced from Extension Bulletin 52, Purdue University. studs on the inside, for in that case rats and mice will find a place for hiding. A wooden wall in winter is most satisfac- tory, as solid concrete or stone may be moist or frosty under some conditions. Concrete or brick walls that are partly hollow are preferable to the solid wall. The roof of the poultry house should be strong, simple, and comparatively inexpensive.